Early Land Allotment in the British Isles 9780860540151, 9781407321530

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction: 'Ancient Fields' Since 1961
Part I: Survey
Chapter 1: Pit Alignments: Distribution and Function
Chapter 2: Types and Distributions of Pre-Norman Fields in Cornwall and Scilly
Chapter 3: The Dartmoor Reaves
Chapter 4: Fields and Settlements on Shaugh Moor, Dartmoor
Chapter 5: Pre-Medieval Fields in the Bristol Region
Chapter 6: Early Fields and Land Allotments in Wessex
Chapter 7: Prehistoric Fields and Boundaries on the Berkshire Downs
Chapter 8: Surrey - The Evidence at Present
Chapter 9: Field Systems and Land Allotment in Sussex 3rd Millenium B.C. to 4th Century A.D.
Chapter 10: The Upper Thames Valley
Chapter 11: Relict Landscapes in Essex
Chapter 12: Air Photography and Early Fields in Norfolk
Chapter 13: An Early System of Land Division in South Yorkshire and North Nottinghamshire
Chapter 14: Early Agriculture in Craven, North Yorkshire
Chapter 15: Prehistoric Field and Land Boundary Systems in the North York Moors
Chapter 16: Early Field Survival in North Cumbria
Chapter 17: The Location of Pre-Medieval Fields in Caernarvonshire
Chapter 18: Field Survey in the Blackwaterfoot and Machrie Areas of the Isle of Arran, Bute
Chapter 19: Neolithic Fields: The Irish Evidence
Chapter 20: Early Observations on Early Fields
Part 2: Excavation and Interpretation
Chapter 21: The Somerset Levels: A Concave Landscape
Chapter 22: An Investigation of the Wessex Linear Ditch System
Chapter 23: The Problem of Hedges Enclosing Roman and Earlier Fields
Chapter 24: Roman Fields into Medieval Furlongs?
Chapter 25: The Linking of Prehistoric Settlement to its Farming Landscape in South Western Britain
Chapter 26: Roughground, Lechlade and Mucking, Essex
Chapter 27: Ploughmarks, Roman Roads and Motorways
Chapter 28: Pre-Roman Ard-Marks at Lodge Farm, Alveston, Avon: A Method of Analyses
Bibliography
Subject Index

Citation preview

Early Land Allotment in the British Isles A survey of recent work edited by

H. C. Bowen and P. J. Fowler

British Archaeological Reports 48

1978

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A. ADVISORY EDITORS

Neil Cossons, M.A., F.S.A., F.M.A. C. B. Burgess, B.A., F.S.A. Professor B. W. Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D .� F.S.A. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, B.A., M.A., F.S.A. Professor G. D. B. Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. Frances Lynch, M.A., F.S.A. P. A. Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. P. A. Rahtz, M. A . , F.S.A.

B.A.R. 48, 1978: "Early Land Allotment in the British Isles". © The Individual Authors, 197 8.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540151 paperback ISBN 9781407321530 e-book

DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540151

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page F igures L ist o f c on tr ibu tors Preface Acknow ledge men ts I n troduct ion :

' Anc ien t F ie lds ' s ince 1 961:

Co l l in Bowen

1

PART I S urvey 1 .

P it A l ign men ts :

2 .

Types a nd D istr ibu t ions o f P re-Nor man F ie lds i n Cornwa l l a nd S c il ly :

d istr ibut ion a nd f unct ion :

D . R . Wilson

Char les Tho mas

3

7

3 .

The Dartmoor Reaves :

4 .

F ie lds a nd S et t le men ts o n S haugh Moor, Dart moor : J ohn Co l l is

2 3

5 .

P re- Med ieva l F ields i nt he Br isto l Reg ion :

2 9

6 .

Ear ly F ie lds a nd L and A l lo tmen t i n Wessex :

7 .

Andrew F le m ing

1 7

Peter Fow ler Des mond Bonney

4 9

P reh istor ic F ields a nd Boundar ies o n t he Berksh ire Downs : R ichard Brad ley a nd J u l ian R ichards

5 3

8 .

S urrey :

6 1

9 .

F ie ld S yste ms a nd L and A l lotmen t i n S ussex , 3 rd m il lenn iu m

t he e v idence a t p resen t :

Rosa mond Hanworth

B .C. t o 4 th c en tury A .D.:

P . L . Drewet t

6 7

1 0.

T he Upper Tha mes V a l ley :

Dav id Mi les

8 1

1 1.

Re l ict Landscapes i n E ssex :

1 2.

A ir Photography a nd E ar ly F ie lds i n N orfo lk :

1 3.

An Early S yste m o f L and D iv is ion i n S ou th Yorksh ire a nd N orth Not t ingha msh ire :

Warw ick Rodwe l l

8 9 Derek Edwards

Derr ick R i ley

1 4.

E ar ly Agr icu lture i n C raven , N orth Yorksh ire :

1 5.

P reh istor ic F ie ld a nd L and Boundary S yste ms i n t he N orth Y ork Moors :

1 6.

A lan K ing

D . A . S prat t

E ar ly F ie ld S urv iva l i n N orth Cu mbr ia :

9 9 1 03 1 09

1 15 N . J . H igha m

1 19

Page 1 7.

The L oca t ion o f Pre-Med ieva l F ie lds i n C aernarvonsh ire : 1 27

N icho las J ohnson 1 8.

F ield s urvey i n t he B lackwaterfoot a nd Machr ie a reas o f t he I s le o f Arran , Bu te :

1 33

Roger Mercer

1 9.

N eo l ith ic F ie lds :

t he I r ish Ev idence :

2 0.

Ear ly o bservat ions o n Ear ly F ields :

1 37

S ea mas Cau lf ield

1 45

C . S . B r iggs

PART 2 Excavat ion a nd I n terpretat ion 2 1.

The S o merset L eve ls :

ac oncave l andscape :

J . M. Co les

2 2.

An I nvest iga t ion o f t he Wessex L inear D itch S yste m : H . C . Bowen , J . G . Evans a nd E . Race

2 3.

1 49

The P rob le m o f Hedges e nc los ing Ro man a nd Ear l ier F ie lds :

2 4.

Mark Rob inson

1 55

Ro man f ie lds i n to Med ieva l Furlongs? :

C hr istopher Tay lor

a nd P eter Fow ler 2 5.

1 59

The L ink ing o f P reh istor ic S et t le men t t o i t s Far m ing L andscape i n S ou th- Western B r ita in :

2 6.

Roger Mercer

Rough Ground , L ech lade, a nd Muck ing , E ssex :

1 63

Margaret

J ones 2 7.

1 71

P lough marks, Ro man Roads a nd Motorways :

P eter Fasha m

a nd Rosa mond Hanworth 2 8.

1 47

Pre-Ro man Ard- Marks a t L odge Far m , F a l f ie ld , Avon : method o f a na lys is :

Ann Everton a nd Peter Fow ler

1 75 a 1 79

B ib l iography

1 87

I ndex

2 01

L IST OF F IGURES

Page Fron t isp iece :

Map :

k ey t o t he p apers i n t he v o lu me

F igure 1 .1

Map :

p it a l ignmen ts i n Br ita in

4

2 .1

P lan :

Gw ith ian f i e ld s yste m , Cornwa l l

9

2 .2

P lans :

Trewey Foage a nd Wicca

1 1

2 .3

P lans :

f i elds i n t he I s les o f S c i l ly

1 3

3 .1

D iagra m :

3 .2

Map :

r eaves ' c onstruct ion , Dart moor

3 .3

P lan :

B irch Tor e nc losures

2 1

3 .4

P lan :

Wa ter H i l l e nclosure

2 1

4 .1

Map :

f i e ld s yste m a t Wot ter a nd S haugh Moor , Dartmoor

2 4

4 .2

P lan :

f i e ld s yst em 1 , S haugh Moor

2 6

5 .1

Map :

p re- med ieva l f i e lds i n t he Br isto l r eg ion

3 1

5 .2

P lan :

f i eld s yst em , Cheddar

3 2

5 .3

P lan :

s et t le men t a nd f i elds, Wraxa l l

5 .4

P lans :

7 .1

Map :

7 .2

P lan :

S egsbury a rea

5 5

7 .3

P lan :

Gr i msd itch

5 7

7 .4

Map :

L a mbourn Va l ley

5 8

7 .5

Map :

L a mbourn Va l ley

5 9

7 .6

P lan :

U f f ing ton a nd P erborough a reas

6 0

8 .1

Map :

e ar ly f i e lds i n S urrey

6 3

9 .1

P lan :

I t ford H i l l , S ussex

6 9

9 .2

P lan :

N ew Barn Down

6 9

9 .3

P lan :

l üng ley V a le

7 0

9 .4

Map :

A lfr iston

7 0

9 .5

P lan :

Park B row

7 1

Wh ite R idge a nd S hap ley Tor

f i eld s yste ms i n t he Br isto l r eg ion e arly f i e lds i n Berksh ire

1 8 1 9

3 2 4 7 5 4

9 .6

P lan :

Thundersbarrow

7 3

9 .7

Map :

Bu l lock Down

7 5

9 .8

P lan :

H ighdo le H i l l

7 7

9 .9

P lan : Buck land Bank

7 7

9 .10 9 .11

P lan : C issbury S ect ion : C issbury

7 8 7 8

9 .12

P lan :

Ranscombe

7 9

9 .13

P lan :

N ewhaven

7 9

F igure 1 0.1

Page P lan :

c rop- marks i n Tha mes V a l ley

8 2

1 0.2

P lan :

c rop- marks i n Tha mes V a l ley

8 3

1 0.3

P lan :

e xcava t ion a t Ab ingdon

8 5

1 0.4

Map :

L ong Wit tenha m a rea

8 7

1 1.1

L ocat ion map :

1 1.2

Map :

Deng ie Pen insu la

9 1

1 1.3

Map :

Thurrock a rea

9 2

1 1.4

P lan :

c rop- marks a t O rset t

9 3

1 1.5

Map :

B lackwater v a l ley

9 4

1 1.6

Map :

Che l mer v a l ley

9 5

1 1.7

P lan :

Upper Bra in v a l ley

9 6

1 1.8 1 1.9

Map : Map :

Rod ing v a l ley p ar ishes b etween t he Co lne a nd S tour v a l leys

1 2.1

Map :

e arly f i e lds i n N orfo lk

1 01

1 2.2

P lan :

c rop- marks n ear Gor leston

1 02

E ssex

8 9

9 8 9 8

1 3.1

P lan :

Ranby a rea , N o t ts.

1 04

1 3.2

P lan :

Ross ington a rea , S Yorks.

1 05

1 3.3

P lan :

S u tton C ross, N ot ts.

1 07

1 3.4

P lan :

Barnby Moor, Not ts.

1 08

1 4.1

Map :

S et t le a rea , W Yorks.

10

1 4.2

P lan :

Grass ing ton

1 4.3

P lan : R ibb lehead

13

1 6.1

Map :

1 20

1 6.2

P lan a nd map :

1 6.3

P lan :

Ravenstoneda le Deer Park a rea

1 23

1 6.4

P lan :

Y anwath

1 24

1 6.5

Map :

Lyvennet a rea

1 25

1 6.6

P lan :

Aughertree F el l a rea

1 24

1 7.1

Map :

r e l ief , d ra inage a nd s et t le men t , P en y Gaer, C aerns.

1 28

1 7.2

Map :

s o i ls a nd s et t le men t , P en y Gaer

1 29

1 7.3

P lan :

h u ts a nd f i elds, Tyddyn Maw r

1 31

1 8.1

L ocat ion map :

1 8.2

P lan :

K i lpatr ick Dun

1 35

1 9.1

P lan :

f i e ld s yste m , Behy/Glenu lra , C o. Mayo

1 39

2 1.1

D iagra m :

e ar ly f i e lds i n Cumbr ia C rosby Garret t

Arran 1 976

l and-use p rof i le

11

1 21

1 35

1 47

2 2.1

P lans a nd s ect ions, Kno l l Down , Han ts.

1 50

2 2.2

Mo l luscan h istogra m

1 53

2 3.1

F lora lh istogra m , Far moor ,Oxon.

1 57

2 5.1

P lan :

c u l t ivated s urface, Cam nBrea, Cornwa l l

1 66

2 5.2

P lan :

S tannon Down

1 66

Page

F igure 2 6.1

P lan :

Rough Ground , L echlade, G los.

1 71

2 6.2

P lan :

Muck ing , E ssex

1 73

2 7.1

P lan a nd s ect ion :

2 8.1

P lan :

2 8.2

H istogra m

1 82

2 8.3

H istogra m

1 83

2 8.4

Prof iles o f a rd- marks

1 83

2 8.5

P lan :

1 85

S trat ton Park , Han ts.

e xcavat ion , Lodge Far m , Avon

a rd- marks

1 77 1 80

THE CONTRIBUTORS

D JB onney BA FSA : R oyal C om m iss ion o n H is tor ica l Monu men ts ( Eng land ) R ouge mon t Manor R oao S a l isbury Wi l tsh ire S P1 1LY H C Bowen OBE MA FSA: Roya l Co m m iss ion o nH istor ica l Monu men ts ( Eng land ) Rouge mon t Manor Road S a l isbury Wil tsh ire SP1 1 LY R Brad ley MA: Dept o fH istory Un ivers ity o f Read ing C S Br iggs BA: Roya l Co m m iss ion o n Anc ien t a nd H istor ica l Monumen ts ( Wales ) E d leston House Queen 's Road Aberystwy th Dy fed SY23 2 HP S Cau lf ield MA P hD : Dept o f Archaeo logy Un ivers ity Co l lege Dub l in J M Co les MA PhD FSA : Reader i n Archaeo logy Un ivers ity o f Ca mbr idge J Co l l is MA P hD : Dept o f Preh istory a nd Archaeo logy Un ivers ity o f S hef f ie ld P L Drewet t BSc : F ie ld D irector S ussex Archaeo log ica l F ie ld Un i t I nst itute o f Archaeo logy 3 1-34 Gordon S quare L ondon WC1H O PY D A Edwards : Norfo lk Archaeo log ica l Un it Un ion House Gressenha l l N orfo lk NR20 4 BN J G Evans BSc PhD :

Dept o f Archaeo logy Un ivers ity Co l lege Card if f

A Everton : 4 6 Cape l Road L awrence Weston Br isto l P J Fasha m BA: D irector M3 Archaeo log ica l Rescue Co m m it tee B eaconsf ield House Andover Winchester Han ts S022 G AT A M F le m ing MA: Dept o f Preh istory a nd Archaeo logy Un ivers ity o f S hef f ie ld P J Fow ler MA PhD FSA : Reader i n Archaeo logy Un ivers ity o f Br isto l R Hanworth FSA: Fo l ly H il l Ewhurst C ran le igh S urrey N SH igha m BA Dep t o f Archaeo logy Un ivers ity o f Manchester ND J ohnson MA: Cornwa l l Co m m it tee f or Rescue Archaeo logy 1 0 S trangeways Terrace Truro Cornwa l l

M UJ ones BA FSA: D irector Muck ing Excavat ion Co m m it tee A K ing B Sc MA: Warden I ng leborough Cen tre I ng leton v ia Carn forth North Yorksh ire R J Mercer MA: Dept o f Archaeo logy Un ivers ity o f Ed inburgh D Mi les BA: Ass istan tD irector Ox fordsh ire Archaeo log ica l Un it 4 6 Hy the Br idge S treet O x ford OX1 2 EP E Race BA : Dept o f Archaeo logy Un ivers ity Co l lege Card if f JR ichards : B erksh ire Archaeo log ica l Un it Y eo manry House Cast le H il l Read ing B erks RG1 7 JT DI NR i ley DFC F SA : 3H igh Wray C lose S hef f ie ld S ll 9 JF M Rob inson BSc : O x fordsh ire Archaeo log ica l Un it 4 6 Hy the Br idge S treet Ox ford OX1 2 E2 W J Rodwel l BA DPh il DLC : D irector C omm it tee f or Rescue Archaeo logy i n Avon G loucestersh ire a nd S o merse t 1Mark L ane Br isto l B SI 4XR DA S pra t t DSc : 1 03 Ha l l Dr ive Ack lum Midd lesborough C leve land TS5 7 HX C C Tay lor BA FSA: Roya l C om m iss ion o n Anc ien t a nd H istor ica l Monumen ts ( Eng land ) The L odge Anstey Ha l l Man s L ane Trump ing ton Ca mbr idge CB2 2LE P rofessor A C Tho mas MA MR IA FSA: D irector I nst itu te o f Corn ish S tud ies Trevenson House Poo l Redru th C ornwa l l TR15 3 RE D R Wi lson MA BL it t FSA: Co m m it tee f or Aer ia l Photography Un ivers ity o f Ca mbr idge The Mond Bu ild ing F ree S choo l L ane C a mbr idge CB2 3 RF

/

PREFACE

Ancien t F ields :

at en ta tive a na lys is o f av an ish ing l andscape was wr i t ten

b y Co l l in B owen f or t he t hen y oung R esearch C omm i t tee o n Anc ien t F ie lds a nd p ub l ished b y t he B r i t ish Associa t ion f or t he Advance men t o f S c ience i n 1 961. I ts ee med n o t i nappropr ia te b y 1 976 t o r ev iew t he s i tua t ion , n o t l eas t t o mark t he p assage o f f i f teen y ears s ince t he a ppearance o f ab ook whose d i mun i t ive s i ze b e l ies i t s d eep a nd c on t inu ing i n f luence ( i t s hou ld b e a pparen t a lready t ha t t h is Pre face i s wr i t ten b y o n e o f t he e d i tors o n ly , a nd w i thou t t he a pprova l o f t he o ther ) .

I n c on junct ion w i th wha t h ad b y t hen ma tured i n to t he Anc ien t

Agr icu l ture Research C omm i t tee o f t he C ounci l f or B r i t ish Archaeo logy , a nd a f ter p re l im inary d iscuss ions w i th s o me o f t hose l ike J ohn C o l lis a nd Andrew F le m ing n ow i nvo lved i nt he f i e ld , t he wr i ter a nd C o l l in B owen o rgan ised t hrough t he Depar t men t o f E x tra- Mura l S tud ies , U n ivers i ty o f B r is to l , aS y mp os iu m o n Anc ien t F ields a nd Land A l lo t men t , h e ld a t Burwa l ls , B r is to l , f ro m 3 0 A pr i l t o 2 May 1 976 .

I t was a ddressed a nd/or a t tended b y mos t o f

t hose c urren t ly e ngaged i nf i e ld r esearch o n t he t opic a nd i t was t he u nan i mous w ish t ha t s o me a t l eas t o f t he n ew e v idence a nd i deas p resen ted s hou ld b e p ubl i shed .

Dur ing t he l as t y ear t he s ponsor ing C o mm i t tee h as i nf ac t d isso lved

i t sel f a nd b een r ep laced b y o ther a rrange men ts d evo ted s o le ly t o t he Bu tser Ancien t F ar m P ro jec t ( Reyno lds 1 977) . a lso b eco mes i ts v a le .

Th is p resen t v olume t hus i nadver ten t ly

T he CBA C oun trys ide C omm i t tee h as n ow a ccep ted

i t s ' Anc ien t F ields ' r espons ibi l i ty . The S y mpos ium h eard 3 7 p apers w i th r e markably s us ta ined i n teres t . T hese p apers were r ough ly g rouped i n to s ta te men ts a bou t work o n who le r eg ions o r c oun t ies a nd a bou t i nves t iga tions o f p ar t icu lar s i tes o r p rob le ms . a rrange men t o f t h is b ook f o l lows t hose g enera l l ines .

Fron t isp iece :

The

T he l oca t ion o f t he a reas

K ey t o t he p apers i n t he v o lume a nd o ther c urren t work . Numbers r e la te t o t he e numera t ion o f t he p apers .

Numbers

i n c irc les ( 1 -20 ) i nd ica te r eg iona l/coun ty s urveys ( Par t 1 ) ; n umbers b es ide a d o t ( 2 1-28 ) i nd ica te p apers wh ich a re p r i mar i ly l oca l ised o r s i te s tud ies ( Par t 2 ) .

L ower c ase

l e t ters b y t he mse lves ( a -z ) i nd ica te o ther c urren t work men t ioned i n t he P re face b u t n o t i nc luded i n t h is v o lume .

d iscussed i s s hown i n o ur map o f t he B r i t ish I s les ( Fron t isp iece ) where t he t wo t ypes o f p aper a re d is t ingu ished a nd where , i n a dd i t ion , we i nd ica te s o me o ther r e levan t work n o t r epresen ted i n t h is v o lume , i nc lud ing s o me p apers r ead a t t he S y mpos ium b u t n o t i nc luded h ere ( see b e low ) . We a lso i nclude h ere f our p apers ( 1 , 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 7 ) n o t p resen ted a t Burwa l ls , b u t a r is ing f ro m d iscuss ions t here .

D oub t less t here a re s t i l l om iss ions , s o me impor tan t ,

f ro m o ur a t te mpt t o i nd ica te t he d is tr ibu t ion o f c urren t work .

The e d i tors

wou ld b e g ra te fu l t o r eceive s um mar ies o f t he m wh ich wou ld b e d epos i ted , t oge ther w i th t he o r ig ina ls o f t he p r in ted p apers a nd o ther ma ter ia l , i nc lud ing t a l ly c ards a lready c o mp le ted p r ior t o t he S y mpos iu m , i n a n a rch ive wh ich t he Na t iona l Monu men ts R ecord ( F ield Monu men ts S ect ion ) h as k ind ly a greed t o ma in ta in a t F or tress H ouse , 2 3 S av i le R ow , L ondon W1.

The A ir P hoto-

g raph ic s ec t ion o f t he NMR a dm in is ters a mass ive r ecord o f a ir p ho tographs i nc lud ing impor tan t a nd g row ing c o l lec t ions f ro m c on tr ibu tors h ere a s wel l a s f ro m t he r esu l ts o f i t s o wn v ery e x tens ive s or t ies . I t was d ec ided a t t he S y mpos iu m t o a l low a n i n terva l o f s o me 6 mon ths b e fore p u t t ing t he p apers t oge ther s o t ha t work f ro m t he r es t o f 1 976 c ou ld b e i nc luded . I n t he e ven t mos t o f t he work i s r epor ted a s u p t o t he e nd o f 1 976 , w i th s o me a dd i t ions f ro m e ar ly i n 1 977.

E ach c on tr ibu tor was a sked t o l im i t

h is t ex t t o 1 000 words a nd , a l though we h ave e xc luded a l l p ho tographs , n o l im i t was p u t o n l ine i l lus tra t ions .

As a r esu l t , w e h ave t he b es t a va i lable

c orpus o f p lans a nd maps o f e ar ly f ie lds s o f ar p ub l ished f or Br i ta in .

We

h ave t r ied , b u t w i th l im i ted s uccess , t o s ee t ha t c o mparab le i l lus tra t ions a re a t c ons tan t o r r e la ted s ca les .

Much o f t he v o lume i s , d e l ibera tely , f ac tua l ,

s ince t he s ub jec t i s p oor ly s erved b y ad e fect ive d a ta-base .

The f ew s pecu la-

t ive p apers a re e qua l ly d e l ibera te i nt he h ope o f e ncourag ing n ew work a nd c r i t ica l a ppra isa ls o f e x is t ing e v idence . Areas o r t opics p resen ted a t t he S y mpos iu m b u t n o t i nc luded h ere were : n or th D orse t a nd s ou th S o merse t ( a ir p ho tograph ic e v idence , i np ar t f or thc om ing i n S o merse t Archaeo l N a tur H is t a nd g enera l ly i n aP hD s ub m iss ion , Un ivers i ty o f B r is to l , 1 977 :

R . H . L eech ;

work f or D yfed Archaeo l T rus t : a spec ts o f s e t t le men t p a t tern :

H . B arn ie ; D . B rowne ;

bo n F ron t isp iece ) ; f ) ; g ) ;

D y fed ( curren t

B recknock ( t opograph ica l c en tra l H a mpsh ire r oads ,

f ie lds a nd b oundar ies e xa m ined a s p ar t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l work i n a dvance o f t he M3 mo torway :

P . J . F asha m ;

s a me a reas a s 2 7) ;

E as t M id lands

( ear ly l and a l lo t men t a nd a er ia l a rchaeo logy : J . P icker ing , p ar t o f whose e x tens ive c o l lec t ion o f i nva luable a ir p ho tographs i s ma in ta ined b y NMR a nd who h as s ubsequen t ly c ircu la ted f our d ra f t p apers a r is ing f ro m h is l ong t er m a er ia l s urve i l lance ; n ) ; F enga te , P e terborough ( Neo l i th ic a nd Bronze Age f ie lds ; P ryor 1 976; I ron Age s e t t le men t :

o ) ; Dragonby , L incs . ( chang ing l and-use a round t he J . May ; r ) ; E as t Yorksh ire ( f ie lds a nd d ikes : H . R a mm ,

f or thco m ing i n RCH M E as t R id ing v o lu mes ; A chna ,cree , Argy l l ( Barre t t e t a l 1 976 ;

5 ) ;

r ecen t work a t t he Moss o f

x ) a nd o n B eaker c u l t iva t ion e v idence

a t R os in ish , B enbecu la ( Shepherd 1 976; y ) ; a rd-t ips f ro m G ussage A l l S a in ts , D orse t ( G . Wa inwr igh t , e xcava t ion r epor t f or thcom ing ) ; a nd t he A b ingdon a rd-share ( Fow ler 1 978 ) . O ther work r e levan t t o b u t n o t i nc luded i n t h is v o lu me ( and a lso r epresen ted o n t he Fron t ispiece map b y l ower-case l e t ters ) i s c urren t a nd/or h as r ecen t ly b een p ub l ished , a t l eas t i np ar t .

I n t he I s les o f S c i l ly ( a ) , A shbee ( 1 974 ) i s 1 1

c on t inuing h is work o n S t . Mary 's ; J . G . E vans h as s tar ted a n e xa m ina t ion o f S a mson ; a nd P ro fessor C har les Tho mas a nd t h is e d i tor h ave b een l ook ing a t t he f ie ld s ys te ms b oth t here a nd o n S t . Mar t ins , e spec ia l ly o n Wh i te I s land a bou t wh ich Tho mas ( 1976 ) h as r ecen t ly p ub l ished s o me n ew e v idence , s upp lemen t ing h is S ci l lon ian ma ter ia l h ere ( Paper 2 ) .

N ew e v idence h as a lso r ecen t ly

b een p ub l ished a bou t aR o man s e t t le men t r e la ted t o ' Ce l t ic ' f ie lds a t C ha l ton , H an ts . ( c ) , a ga in s upp le men t ing e v idence p ub l ished e lsewhere ( Cun l i f fe 1 973a a nd b , 1 976 ) .

Curren t work i n t he M idd le Tha mes g rave ls ( e ) , c om ing q u ick ly

a f ter t he a er ia l s urvey o f t he a rchaeo log ica l p o ten t ia l t here ( Ga tes 1 975 ) , i s p roduc ing n ew e v idence o f s e t t le men t a nd l and-use i nt he f irs t mi l lenn ium B . C . ( i n fo ., u npub lished , f ro m R . B rad ley ) . A s im i lar s urvey o f t he a rchaeo logy o f t he Tha mes g rave ls i n NW Wi l tsh ire a nd e as t G louces tersh ire ( d ) h as n ow b een p ub l ished ( Leech 1 977 ) wh i le , a lso o n ag rave l t errace , t he l ongter m e xcava t ion c on t inues o f ac rop mark c o mp lex a t B eck ford n ear T ewkesbury ( h ) , wh ich c er ta in ly i nvo lves s e t t le men t a nd l and a l lo t men t i n t he s econd a nd f irs t mi l lennia B . C . ( Br i tne l l 1 974 ). Aer ia l s urvey i n Essex ( i ) , t o q uo te b u t o ne e xa mp le ( i n fo . f ro m P ro fessor B arn iJ ones ) , h as r ecen t ly a dded e nor mous ly t o t he e x ten t o f e ar ly f i e lds i n t he t ype o f s ys te ma t ic work n ow b e ing u nder taken i n many c oun t ies a s S i tes a nd Monumen ts R ecords a re e s tab l ished .

I n an e ighbour ing c oun ty , B ed ford-

s h ire ( i ) , where t he ' o f f icia l ' p rov is ion f or a rchaeo logy i s a lso we l l-organ ised , b as ic s urvey c on t inues a t d i f feren t l eve ls ( Baker 1 977) a nd l ong t er m e xcav a t ion o f a no ther g ravel c o mp lex , a t Odel l , h as p roduced i n ter a l ia wha t a ppears t o b e ac rook a rd ( Fow ler f or thco m ing ) .

T he f irs t f ru i ts o f a no ther

o f f icia l s urvey , t h is t ime i n N or tha mp tonsh ire ( k ) , h ave r ecen t ly b een p ubl i shed ( RCH M 1 976 ) a nd t he C o mm iss ion 's a rchaeo log ica l work i n t he c oun ty i s n ow we l l-advanced w i th e ar ly h in ts o f n ew ma ter ia l o n e ar ly f ie lds a lready f or thco m ing ( Paper 2 4 ) . To t he wes t i nt he M id lands t he work o f t he Tren t Va l ley Archaeo log ica l R esearch C omm i t tee i s a lso d eve lop ing , r ecen t p ub l ica t ions i nc lud ing i n ter im b u t l eng thy r epor ts o n t he e xcava t ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon s e t t le men t a t C a tho l me w i th i ts t an ta lis ing t opograph ica l r ela t ionsh ip t o e ar l ier s e t t le men t e v idence ( Losko-Brad ley 1 977) , t he e xcava t ions o f n earby F isherw ick ( Sm i th 1 974 ; 1 ) , a nd t he s urvey o f t he s e t t le men t p a t tern i n t he mid-Tren t a rea j us t d ownr iver ( Sm i th 1 977 ; m) .

Al ong-neg lec ted a rea i n t er ms o f r ura l s urvey ,

L inco lnsh ire , i s a lso n ow r ece iv ing a t ten t ion , work i n t he s ou th o f t he n ew c oun ty t ack ling i n ter a l ia t he p rob le ms o f t he F en e dge ( Mahany 1 977 2 9-34 ; p ) a nd c on t inu ing t he d e ta i led work o f many p rev ious workers a lready d ocumen ted b y Ph i l l ips ( 1 970 ) .

Ano ther a rea w i th k nown r e ma ins o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds

( Bowen 1 961 7 4 g ives r e ferences ) , n or th D erbysh ire ( q ) , h as a lso h ad a t ten t ion d rawn t o i t s p oten t ia l , a pparen t ly g rea ter t han h as s o f ar b een a pprec ia ted , e spec ia l ly o n t he C arbon i ferous a nd Magnes ian L i mes tones , t he G r i ts tone h i l ls a nd a long t he Wye v a l ley ( Ma .hany 1 977 1 1 ). The B order C oun try b etween Eng land a nd S co t land s hou ld h ave b een r epresen ted a t t he S y mpos iu m b y G eorge J obey b u t i l lness p reven ted h is a tt endance .

N ever the less h is p a t ien t a nd d is t ingu ished work c on t inues t o b e

p ubl ished w i th awe-insp ir ing r egu lar i ty e lsewhere , Du m fr ies ( t ) n ow p ass ing t hrough i t s d ata-co l lec t ing p hase a s N or thu mbr ia ( u ) , a f ter s o me 2 5 y ears o f s urvey , moves i n to t ha t o f s yn thes is ( Jobey 1 966 , 1 971 , 1 974 , 1 976 ) .

A t t he

s a me t ime , n ew work i n t he Mi ll f ie ld B as in ( v ) i n t he n or th o f N or thumber-

l and i s o pen ing u p o ther l ines o f e nqu iry ( M ike t 1 976 ) .

I n S co t land i t sel f ,

where s o me th ing o f ar ena issance i nf ie ld a rchaeo logy a nd e xcava t ion a ppears t o b e o ccurr ing , c urren t work a nd/or p ubl ica t ion r elevan t t o t h is v o lu me i nc lude t he e xcava t ion a t K i le l lan F ar m , I s lay ( Burgess 1 976 ; w ); t he S co t t ish C omm iss ion 's s urvey o f Argy l l ( x ) ; a nd r enewed i n teres t , w i th d i f feren t q ues t ions , i n t he c lass ic s i tes a nd ma ter ia l o f O rkney a nd S he t land ( s ee g ene ra l ly t he a nnua l D iscovery a nd E xcava t ions i n S co t land , CBA ; z ) . The S y mpos ium was h e ld a t at ime when n o t o n ly was t here a n u psurge i n t he f ie ldwork a nd e xcava t ions o n i t s s ub jec t ma t ter b u t a lso when , a f ter a d is t inc t l ack o f works o f b o th b as ic d a ta a nd o f s yn thes is f or s o me y ears , n ew a nd s ign i f ican t p ub l ica t ions q u i te s udden ly b egan t o a ppear . d eve lop men t h as c on t inued .

Th is w e lco me

On e nv ironmen ta l ma t ters , E vans ( 1 975 ) , Godw in

( 1975 ) a nd P enn ing ton ( 1974 ) h ave p rov ided a modern b as is f ro m wh ich e ar ly a grar ian s tud ies c an n ow p roceed , wh i le t here i s a lso much e nv ironmen ta l d a ta a nd d iscuss ion , p ar t icu lar ly i n ac u l tura l c on tex t , i n E vans , L imbrey a nd C leere ( 1975 ) a nd i n i t s s eque l o n t he L ow land Z one ( L imbrey 1 978 ) . Rackha m ( 1 976 ) a lso d iscusses t rees a nd wood land i n a n thropogen ic a s we l l a s n a tura l t er ms . Wi lson ( 1975 ) a nd S t . J oseph ( 1977 ) b r ing t oge ther much t ha t i s c urren t i nt he a pp l ica t ion o f a er ia l p ho tography t o t he s tudy o f t he l andscape , af ield i n wh ich o ne o f t he p ioneer works h as h app i ly b een r e-issued ( Brad ford 1 974 ) a nd where , f ro m H o l land , n ow c o mes a s uperb s tudy w i thou t p eer i n B r i tish a rchaeo logy ( Brongers 1 976 ) .

F ow ler ( 1975 ) a nd T ay lor ( 1 975 ) r espec t ively

r epresen t , i n s u m mary f or m , d iscuss ions o f s evera l a rchaeo log ica l/his tor ica l l andscape p ro jects a nd o f t he s tudy o f f ie lds t he mse lves .

T he a gr icu l tura l

h is tory o f B r i ta in i n t he f irs t mi l lenn ium A .D . w as s urveyed a f ew y ears a go ( F inberg 1 972 , n ow s upp le men ted f or t he Wes t C oun try i nt he Ro man p er iod b y B ran igan a nd F ow ler 1 976 ) a nd t he c o mpan ion v o lu me a na grar ian p reh is tory i s i n t he p ress ( Piggo t t f or thco m ing ) .

I ti nc ludes e x tens ive b ibl iograph ica l

c overage u p t o i t s c u t-o f f p o in t i n Dece mber 1 975 , f or t he y ear a nd a h al f a f ter wh ich t hese p aragraphs a re a c onsc ious e x tens ion . Much o f a grar ian r e levance was a sse mb led f ro m t he n or th o f E ng land i n C ha l l is a nd H ard ing ( 1 975 ) , a dd ing t o t he ma t ter a sse mbled i n t he g enera l s urveys o f t he i s t mi l lenn iu m B . C . i nb o th C un l i f fe ( 1974 ) a nd Hard ing ( 1974 ) , n ow f ur ther d iscussed i n C o l l is ( 1 977 ) .

F or t he 4 th-2nd mi l lenn ia , B urgess

a nd Mike t ( 1976 ) h ave t aken B r i t ish c ons idera t ions o n as tage f ro m S i mpson ( 1971) wh i le a ma jor s tudy h as b een d Pvo ted t o o ne p ar t icu lar s i te i n i t s a grar ian c on tex t ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 ) . o r t he l a ter i s t mi l lenn iu m A .D . Wi lson ( 1 976 ) a nd S awyer ( 1 976 ) h ave c onven ien t ly a sse mb led many a spec ts o f t he n ew e v idence a nd t h ink ing a bou t t he d eve lop men t o f t he l andscape . l eas t b y

i mp l ica t ion ,

Bo th r a ise , a t

many q ues t ions a bou t t ha t d eve lop men t i n med ieval a nd

l a ter t imes a s a ppra ised i n B aker a nd Bu t l in ( 1973 ) .

Tha t mass ive ( 702 p p )

i fr a ther ambiguous ly t i t led b ook a f forded s o mewha t s l igh t t rea t men t ( 2p p , s u m mar is ing B owen 1 961 ) t o t he s ub jec t ma t ter o f t h is v o lu me , af ac t wh ich was n o t w i thou t s t i mu lus i n o rgan is ing t he S y mpos iu m . T h is b r ie f r ev iew o f c urren t work a nd p ub l ica t ions d oubt less s ugges ts t ha t t he s tudy o f e ar ly f ie lds a nd l and a l lo t men t i s n ow p ass ing t hrough a v igorous p hase o f d eve lop men t ;

b u t b eh ind t he b r ie f , f ac tua l s ta te men ts o f wh ich t h is

v o lume l arge ly c ons is ts l i es a myr iad o f q ues t ions t ha t we a re o n ly b eg inn ing

i v

t o r eal ise e x is t .

Y e t c lear ly , d esp i te a l l t he t e mpta t ions o f s pecu la t ive i n ter-

p reta tion a nd t heore t ica l mode l-bu i ld ing wa i t ing t o e ngage o ur a t ten t ions , t he p r i mary t ask i n a grar ian a rchaeo logy f or t he r es t o f t h is c en tury i s t o c o l lec t a nd o rder t he f acts . The s i tua t ion i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f a l mos t ac en tury a go i nt he s tudy o f Eng l ish med ieva l f ie lds , b e fore o ur s ub jec t ma t ter h ere h ad b een t ru ly r ecogn ised ;

a nd B r i t ish a rchaeo logy h as n ow t o p roduce f ro m s o me-

where i t s Ma i t land a nd i t s G ray .

The t ask i s im mense a nyway ;

modern

l and-use , i nev i tab ly s o d es truct ive o f t he v ery e v idence f ro m wh ich o ur u nders tanding o f t he p re- med ieva l u se o f t ha t l and c ou ld g row , c o mp l ica tes i tb eyond measure b y ac on t inuous p rocess o f r e mov ing t he k nown a nd r evea l ing t he u nknown .

N or c an t he l ong-ter m p o ten t ia l o f ad isc ipl ined f ie ld o f s tudy b e

r ea l ised b y a n e n t ire ly o ppor tun is t a pproach , h owever s tr ik ing s o me i nd iv idua l d iscover ies may b e a nd h owever ' rando m ' t he i nc idence t he a d h oc ' rescue ' work may s ee m . Fur ther more , d e l ibera te , p rob le m-or ien ta ted r esearch t o a dd t o k now ledge a s d is t inc t f ro m d a ta a lone , i s n o t mere ly a ma t ter f or t h is o r t he n ex t g enerat i on :

we mus t c onsc ious ly p rov ide f or t he r esearch n eeds o f t he mid-21s t

c en tury a nd b eyond .

A l though we c anno t a n t ic ipa te t he q ues t ions t hen , we

c an b e s ure s cho lars w i l l n eed n ew e v idence f ro m t he s ur face o f t he g round a nd f ro m t he bur ied f ea tures b enea th .

S o me c r i t ica l a reas , whe ther o r n o t

t hey a re i nc luded h ere , mus t b e r eserved t o h e lp a nswer t he q ues t ions p osed , i mp lied o r n o t a s y e t t hough t o f i nt he f o l low ing p ages .

T he p reserva t ion o f

s o me e ar ly f ield s ys te ms s urv iv ing a s e ar thworks i s ac rucia l p r ior i ty , b u t s o t oo i s t he c onserva t ion b y r es tr ic t ive l and a gree men ts o f s o me o f t he h igh ly e n ig ma t ic e v idence k nown s ince t he 1 930s t o s urv ive , c u l t iva ted a nd f la t tened , i n a nd b enea th t he p loughso i l . The s t ory o f t he p reserva t ion o f t he f ie ld e v idence o f e ar ly f ie lds i n B r i tain i s s o f ar a s ad o ne , c harac ter ised b y i nco mprehens ion a nd i ne f fec tua l c o mp ro mise n o t e n t ire ly t o b e e xp la ined b y t he t ens ion imp lic i t i n as i tua t ion o f c on t inuous , c o mpe t ing l and-uses .

B owen 's ' t en ta t ive a na lys is ' was o f a

' van ish ing l andscape ' wh ich t he g enera t ion h e t augh t h as s een v an ish a l mos t t o t he p o in t o f e x t inc t ion i nt he y ears s ince 1 961.

Ano ther f i f teen y ears a nd ,

u n less s trong a c t ion i s t aken mean t i me , t he p lans i nt h is v o lume w i l l b e t he s ubst i tu te r ea l i ty o ur s uccessors w i l l i nher i t ;

a nd e ven t he t echn iques o f t he

2 1s t c en tury w i l l b e u nab le t o e x trac t e co log ica l d a ta f ro m l ine d raw ings . Augus t 1 977

Un ivers i ty o f Br is to l

Th is v o lu me was d es igned f or t he f or ma t o f a CBA R esearch R epor t a nd h ence t he s l igh t ly awkward p ropor t ions o f s o me o f t he f igures o n t he f o l lowing p ages . T he work o f Andrew B rown i np repar ing many o f t he f igures f or p ubl i ca tion , a nd a g ran t f ro m t he r esearch f und o f t he D epar t men t o f E x tra- Mura l S tud ies , B r is tol Un ivers i ty , f or t h is work , a re a cknow ledged w i th g ra t i tude . Two p apers , o n t he Moss o f A chnacree a nd R os in ish , B enbecu la ( xa nd y o n Fron t isp iece ) , o r ig ina l ly i n t he v o lume a s o f fered t o t he CBA , were om i t ted when p ub l ica t ion was u nder taken b y B r i t ish Archaeo log ica l R epor ts s ince b o th s i tes a re d iscussed i n a no ther r ecen t BAR v o lume ( Burgess a nd M ike t 1 976 ) . The 6 - mon th d e lay i n g o ing t o p ress a f ter c o mple t ion o f e d i t ing h as e nabled s o me b ib l iograph ica l a d jus tmen ts t o b e made u p t o t he e nd o f 1 977 . J anuary 1 978

P . J . F ow ler

AC KNO WLEDGE MENTS

Paper 3 : t he Dar t moor Reave Pro ject ' sf i nanc ia l s ponsors, T he L everhu l me Trust , T he Dar t moor Na t iona l Park C omm it tee o f Devon Coun ty C ounc i l , t he Br it ish A cade my , t he S oc ie ty o f A n t iquar ies, t he Un ivers ity o f S hef f ie ld , a nd M iss E . Gawne .

T he a u thor i s a lso much i ndebted t o M iss

Gawn .e a nd Mr . J . S o mers C ocks f or a dv ice o n d ocu men ts, p lace-names a nd t he p ost-preh istor ic l andscape . Paper 4 :

Wa t ts, B lake a nd Bearne ( Char tered S urveyors) ;

Andrew

F le m ing , M iss S . Vaughan , s tuden ts o f t he Dep t . o f Preh istory , U n iversity o f S hef f ie ld ; t he Dep t . o f t he Env iron men t f or d e fray ing p ar t o f t he c osts; Mrs . H . M i les f or mak ing l oca l a rrange men ts . P aper 5 :

J ohn Wh ite ( West A ir Photography ) f or a ccess t o as uperb

c o l lect ion o f a ir p hotographs ;

Professor Barn iJ ones a nd Graha m T ho mas f or

t he u se o f r ecen t a ir p ho tograph ic r esu lts f ro m t he Fro me a rea ;

R oger

L eech a nd CRAAGS f or s im i lar i n for ma t ion f ro m t he Upper Thames a rea ; C o l l in B owen a nd RCH M ( Eng .) f or i nforma t ion f ro m G loucestersh ire ;

M.

A ston a nd R . I l es, o f t he P lann ing Dep ts . o f r espect ive ly S o merse t a nd Avon C oun ty C ounc i ls, f or i nfor ma t ion f rom t hose t wo c oun t ies ; t he a dvance u se o f h is Gatco mbe p aper ; d if f icu lt p iece o f t yp ing ;

Ke ith G ardner f or

Mrs. V . C a mp f or a p ar t icu larly

A . Brown f or t he l i ne d raw ings h ere a nd i ndeed i n

many c ases t hroughou t t he v o lu me . Paper 1 1: P . J . Drury a nd Mrs. K . R odwe l l f ro m whose work v ar ious a spects o f t h is p aper h ave b een d er ived . Paper 1 2 :

Norfo lk Archaeo log ica l Un i t f or mak ing a va i lable i n forma t ion

w ith in i t s A ir Photograph ic I ndex . Paper 1 5 :

F . A . A berg , R . H . Hayes a nd D r . I . G . S i m mons f or c o m men ts

o n t he d raf to f t h is p aper . Paper 1 6 :

Professor G . D . B . J ones f or p erm iss ion t o i ncorpora te

s evera l a spects o f j o in t r esearch a nd f or g enera l g u idance ;

B . B erry a nd

Mrs . J ane t H igha m f or e ssen t ia l h e lp . Paper 1 9 :

Dr . S tuckenra th o f T he Sm i thson ian I nst itu t ion f or r ad iocarbon

d a tes a nd Dr . B . Wa i les, Un ivers ity o f Pennsy lvan ia , who a rranged f or t he m t o b e s upp l ied . Paper 2 2 :

Avon Va l ley Archaeo log ica l Research Group e spec ia l ly I an

Dampney , T ony L igh t a nd J ef frey C o l l ins ;

Dr . I . F . Sm ith f or e xam in ing

t he p ot tery a nd f l in ts ; t he S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies f or c on tr ibu t ing t o t he c osts o f s or t ing t he mo l luscan e v idence . Paper 2 3 : s amp les ;

Professor G . W. D i mb leby f or a na lysis o f t he Farmoor p o l len

G . H . L ambr ick , d irector o f t he e xcava t ions.

Paper 2 8 :

M5 R esearch C omm it tee .

I NTRODUCT ION ' ANCIENT F IELDS ' S INCE 1 961 H . C . Bowen

The S y mpos ium t ha t p roduced t h is b ook was o n a nc ien t f i e lds a nd l and a l lo t men ts . A d is t inct ion was d rawn b ecause o f t he d i f f icu l ty o f e nco mpass ing a l l e nc losure w i th in t he s i mp le t er m ' f ie ld ' .

I td raws a t ten t ion t o t he f ac t

t ha t t he s cope o f t h is b ook i s w ider t han t ha t o f Ancien t F ie lds ( Bowen 1 961 ). Ancien t F ie lds was i n tended t o b e ap r i mer , n o t a n i nven tory .

I t was

c oncerned w i th p rocesses a nd d e f in i t ions a nd mos t o f t he m , i n my o pin ion , s tand a s a dequa te d escr ip t ions . Bu t i t was s hor t i n i t s s ub jec t ma t ter , p a id r e la tive ly l i t t le a t ten t ion t o t he n or th a nd wes t , was wrong a bou t ' Ce l t ic ' f ie lds i nt he F ens a nd weak , t hough n o t e n t ire ly wrong , i n i t s t rea t men t o f t he l inear d i tches o f Wessex . The d is t inc t ion b e tween ' d i tched ' a nd ' und i tched ' e nc losures i s c ruc ia l . T he ' Ce l t ic ' f ie lds o f t he F ens a re n ow b es t r egarded a s p addocks a nd c loses a round s e t t le men ts .

I nt he C o tswo lds , a n a rea o nce t hough t t o h ave v ir tua l ly

n o ' Cel t ic ' f i elds , i nves t iga t ions b y Drs . Webs ter a nd F ow ler a t Barns ley P ark n ice ly d e mons tra te t he c on tras t b e tween wa l led p addocks a round t he R o man v i l la a nd u n fenced ' Ce l t ic ' f ie lds b eyond ( RCH M 1 976 B arns ley 2 ) . I n Wessex , as ys te m o f d i tched e nclosure ( below p . 1 49 ) a t s o me

t ime s uper-

s eded ' Ce l t ic ' f ie lds i n as urpr is ing ly l arge n umber o f e xa mp les .

One r eason-

a b le i n terpreta t ion i s t ha t t h is r epresen ted a c hange t o p redo m inan t ly s tock f ar m ing i nt hose p ar t icu lar a reas .

H owever t h is may b e , i ti s c lear t ha t t he

n a ture o f d i tches ( and wa l ls , r eaves a nd s o o n ) r equ ires v ery c are fu l c ons idera t ion i n t er ms , p ar t icu lar ly , o f t he ir e f fec t iveness a s b arr iers t o movemen t b y man o r s tock . ' P i t a l ign men ts ' , n o t men t ioned i n Anc ien t F ie lds , c lose ly r e la te t o d i tches . Their k nown i nc idence h as i ncreased t en fo ld i n t he l as t 1 7 y ears a s i s g raph ic a l ly s hown i n f ig 1 .1. e ar thwork f or m .

N one h ave y e t b een k now ing ly f ound t o s urv ive i n

The c on tras t w i th l ynche ts a nd u nd i tched b anks , wh ich c an

b e i rrecoverably o b l i tera ted , i s n ea t ly made .

As a p heno menon t hey r equ ire

c oncen tra ted r esearch t o e s tab l ish v ar ia t ion o f t ype , o r ig ina l f or m (s ) ( and i nf erred p urpose ) a nd a c ons idera t ion o f o r ig ins a nd p oss ib le c u l tura l s ign i f icance . L ike o ther p resu mably p ermanen t b arr iers t hey d e mons tra te t he o bv ious p oss ib i l it ies o f s tock a nd c rop c on tro l a nd p rotec t ion a nd a lso d raw a t ten t ion t o t he n eed o f o pen ings t o a l low move men t t hrough t he m .

As s ugges ted i n Anc ien t

F ields ( p . 3 5 ) , t he a bsence o f ' ga tes ' f ro m f i e ld t o f ie ld c an h e lp t o d e f ine f ar m b oundar ies .

The e ar l ies t p rec ise ly c hanne l led r oads s hou ld o ccas iona l ly

b e t raceab le ( and h ave b een f ound i n Wessex ) f ol lowing a long d i tched b arr iers o r o therw ise mak ing f or g aps .

The d a te o f t he e ar l ies t l and a l lo t men ts i s n ow w e l l a t tes ted i nt he Neol i th ic p er iod i np ar ts o f I re land a nd t he N orth.

I n S Eng land i ti s amp ly c on-

f ir med t ha t ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds e x is t o ver l arge a reas i n , a t l eas t , t he B ronze Age ( Fow ler 1 971 ) .

I ti s a lso c lear t ha t r egu lar ly a rranged , r ough ly r ec tangu lar ,

b locks o f s uch f ie lds , s ure ly r ecogn ised a s l and u n i ts w i th n a mes i nt he ir d ay , e x is ted i n r e la t ive ly e ar ly t imes , s ince t hey a re f ound c rossed b y t he l inear d i tches r e ferred t o a bove .

T hose i n B erksh ire a re c a l led ' cohes ive ' s yste ms

b y Brad ley a nd R ichards ( b e low p . 5 3 )

T here i s o ppor tun i ty h ere f or f ur ther

i nves t iga t ing t he e ar l ies t r ecogn isab le r egu lar l and a l lo t men ts i n t he S ou th a s ' manage men t ' b locks , h owever s ub-d iv ided . Work o f t he f irs t impor tance i n to t he o vera l l p reh is tor ic p arce l l ing o f Dar t moor i s a lso p roceed ing ( Papers 3 a nd 4 ) a nd , i ndeed , t hroughou t t he B r i t ish I s les t he e x ten t a nd e ar ly d a te o f l and a l lo t men t s ee ms t o r equ ire r ad ica l r ev is ion o f v iews o np opu la t ion and o nt he who le f or mer a spec t o f t he c oun try ( g f F ow ler i n L i mbrey 1 978 ) . There i s s t i l l n o e v idence t ha t s tr ip l ynche ts , a s d e f ined i n Anc ien t F ields , o ccur i np re- med ieva l c on tex ts .

T here i s as trong s ugges t ion , h owever , t ha t

r idge-and-furrow ( a lways r ecogn ised a s ap oss ib i li ty where mou ld-board p loughs migh t e x is t ) h as b een f ound i n aR o man ( or e ar lier ) c on tex t a t Rudches ter ( G i l la m , H arr ison a nd N ew man 1 973 8 4-5 ) .

There i s a lso a c lear i nd icat ion

i n SC en tra l Eng land , a s we l l a s t he F ens , o f t he e x is tence , p robab ly i n t he R o man p er iod , o f av ar ie ty o f ' parce ls ' o f c lose-se t p ara l le l l ines , p robab ly d i tches o r e xcep t iona l ly d eep f urrows , wh ich s ugges t s o me s pecia l is t a nd r el a t ive ly sma l l-sca le ( no t ' f ie ld ') f ar m ing a c t iv i ty ( s ee B owen i n Wi lson 1 975 1 12-14 ) . S ix teen y ears a go p lough f urrows o f p reh is tor ic t ype ( ' ard- marks ' ) were o n ly k nown f ro m Gw i th ian , C ornwa l l ( Paper 2 ) .

T hey a re n ow we l l a t tes ted

o nt he C ha lk o f SC en tra l Eng land ( Fow ler a nd E vans 1 967 ) a nd t hereby i nv i te c ons idera t ion o f whe ther t he s ur face o f t he b edrock c ha lk d oes a c tua l ly s ink a f ter t he c essa t ion o f p lough ing a nd t he r egenera t ion o f g rass c over .

The d is-

c overy o f a rd -marks o n G louces tersh ire c lay ( Paper 2 8 ) i s c ha l leng ing a s i s t he ir d iscovery , r ecorded b y F asha m , u nder a H a mpsh ire Ro man r oad , b u t n o t o n n or ma l ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds ( Paper 2 7 ). a bou t p loughs .

There i s f ur ther impor tan t e v idence

T he f irs t wooden p ar t o f ap reh is tor ic p lough t o b e f ound i n

Eng land was d iscovered a t A bingdon j us t b e fore t he Burwa l ls s y mpos iu m . I ti s r e la ted t o t he b ow-ard f am i ly a nd a k in t o t he D onnerup lund s pec i men i l l us tra ted i n Anc ien t F ie lds ( f ig 1 ;

F ow ler 1 978 ).

Much more n eeds t o b e d one i n t he way o f r esearch a nd o f p reservat ion . The c r i ter ia f or p reserva t ion d epends t o al arge d egree o n t he n eed a nd p o tent ia l o f r esearch .

These s ee m t o b e much t he s ame a s o u t l ined i n Anc ien t F ie lds

a l though t he e co log ica l i n for ma t ion t o b e o b ta ined f ro m f ie ld r e ma ins , n otably t he p resence o r o therw ise o f h edges ( Papers 2 2 a nd 2 3 ) i s n ow n o tab ly more t han t here e nv isaged . An ew l ook , h owever , n eeds t o b e t aken a t t he a dequacy o f f i e ld r e ma ins s a fe ly p reserved n ot o n ly f or r esearch b u t a lso t o t each and t o s t i mu la te t hough t a bou t t he d eve lop men t o f o ur o rgan ised c oun trys ide and i t s imp l ica t ions .

2

PART I :

I .

P IT AL IGN MENTS :

S URVEY

D ISTRIBUTION AND FUNCT ION

D . R . Wi lson

P i t a l ignmen ts a re k nown p r inc ipa l ly f ro m a ir p ho tographs , where t hey a ppear , u sua l ly i n t he c o mpany o f o ther c rop- o r s o i l- marks , a s l ines o f c lose ly s paced d o ts .

E xcava t ion h as c on f ir med t ha t e ach o f t he d ots marks

t he s i te o f a n u nder ly ing p i t , b u t h as n o t y e t f u l ly a nswered t he q ues t ions o f d a te a nd f unc t ion .

Ad is tr ibu t ion map o f p i t a l ignmen ts p ub l ished b y RCH M

( 1 960 f ig . 3 ) was b ased o np ho tographs t aken u p t o 1 958 a nd s howed 4 8 e xa mp les . T he c orrespond ing t o ta l 1 6 y ears l a ter i s o ver 4 70 , a nd a n ew map i s c lear ly n eeded . The d is tr ibu t ion map p resen ted h ere ( f ig . 1 .1 ) i s b ased o n t he C a mbr idge U n ivers i ty C o l lec t ion , u s ing p ho tographs t aken u p t o 1 974 .

A l though r esu l ts

o b ta ined i nt he r e markab le s um mers o f 1 975 a nd 1 976 h ave n o t b een i nc luded , i tc an b e s a id t ha t t hey d o n o t a l ter t he g enera l p ic ture .

Add i t iona l i n for ma t ion ,

i nc lud ing s o me more r ecen t d iscover ies , h as b een g enerous ly made a va i lab le b y t he f o l low ing c o l leagues :

Messrs W . A . B aker , H . C . B owen ( RCH M ,

S a l isbury ) , Dr . D . W. H ard ing ( Un ivers i ty o f Durha m ) , Messrs G . S . Maxwe l l ( RCAH M S co t land ) , H . G . R am m ( RCH M , York ) , D . N . R i ley ( Yorksh ire A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ) , a nd C . C . T ay lor ( RCH M , C a mbr idge ) .

N o l ess

v a luab le i n e s tabl ish ing a r e l iab le d is tr ibu t ion were t he ' n i l r e turns ' r ece ived f ro m Messrs P . C lack ( Nor thern Archaeo log ica l S urvey ) , D . A . E dwards ( Nor fo lk A rchaeolog ica l Un i t ) , J . H edges ( Essex C oun ty C ounc i l ) , C . H . H ou lder ( RCAH M Wa les ) , a nd P ro fessor G . D . B . J ones ( f or C umbr ia ). c rop- mark s urveys were a lso c onsu l ted .

Pub l ished

T hese i nc luded B enson a nd M i les

1 974 , G a tes 1 975 , Mc Mas ter 1 971 , RCH M 1 960 , Un ivers i ty o f B ir m ingha m , D epar t men t o f Ex tra- Mura l S tud ies 1 972 , a nd Webs ter a nd H ob ley 1 965 . F ig 1 .1 i s d es igned s pec i f ica l ly t o s how t he d is tr ibu t ion o f p i t a l ign men ts i n r ela t ion t o t ha t o f c rop- marks i n g enera l .

E ach d ot r epresen ts a 1 km

s quare i n wh ich c rop- o r s oi l- marks o f o ne o r more p i t a l ignmen ts h ave b een o bserved .

When a n a l ignmen t l i es i n more t han o ne s quare , i ti s a ss igned t o

t he s quare c on ta in ing t he g rea ter l eng th i e n o a l ignmen t i s p lot ted t w ice .

N o

a t te mp t i s made t o s how t he r e la t ive f requency o f a l ignmen ts w i th in i nd iv idua l s quares .

T he map a lso s hows , i nb roken o u t l ine , t he p r inc ipa l a reas o f c rop-

marks r epresen ted i n t he C ambr idge C o l lec t ion u p t o 1 974 .

T hese a re a l l

a reas i n w h ich o bserved c rop- marks a re s u f f ic ien t ly a bundan t f or t he a pparen t a bsence o f p i t a l ignmen ts t o b e p roper ly r egarded a s s ign i f ican t .

3

F ig 1 .1

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f p i t a l ignmen ts i n B r i ta in ( 1974 )

The ma in c oncen tra t ions o f p i t a l ignmen ts a re i nt he Eng l ish Mid lands a nd o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds .

T hey a lso o ccur more s parse ly u p t he e as t s ide o f

t he c oun try a s f ar a s I nverness .

They a re s ign i f ican t ly a nd n o tab ly a bsen t

f ro m E as t Ang l ia , K en t a nd mos t o f Wessex , where o n ly f our e xa mp les h ave b een r ecorded o n c ha lk s o i ls .

On t he wes t t he d is tr ibu t ion e x tends j us t a cross

t he We lsh b order , b u t c rop- mark i n for ma t ion i s t oo meagre t o d e f ine a l im i t o n t ha t s ide .

Even i n 1 960 i t was h ard ly p laus ib le t o c la im t ha t p i t a l ignmen ts

s ee med ' t o b e c on f ined t o e as tern B r i ta in ' ( RCHM 1 960 2 8 ) :

a t t ha t t ime o ne

i n s ix o f t hose k nown l ay i n t he wes t M id lands ( G los ., S a lop ., S ta f fs .) . Fur ther n or th , C umbr ia a ppears t o b e emp ty o f a l ignmen ts , b u t as ing le e xamp le n ear Dryfesda le i n Dum fr iessh ire ( NY 1 184 ) s hows t ha t t he d is tr ibu t ion i s n o t r es tr icted t o t he e as t . N o t a l l a l ign men ts o f p i ts a re o f t he s a me a ge , a nd t hey may s erve d i f feren t p urposes i n d i f feren t a reas . P eeb les .

I n S co t land , f or e xa mp le , l i nes o f p i ts a t L yne ,

( NT 2 040 ) , h ave b een s hown b y e xcava t ion t o b e long t o t he d e fens ive

s tockade o f a Neo l i th ic f or t ( Burgess 1 975 , .1976 ) .

F our a l ignmen ts a t S tra-

c a thro , Angus ( NO 6 065 ) , when r e-exa m ined i n 1 975-6 , p roved t o f or m t he s ides o f e longa ted r ec tangu lar e nc losures 2 00-300 m l ong ( c f S t J oseph 1 976 ) . A lthough s o me o f t he S co t t ish a l ignmen ts , e g i nt he E sk v a l ley i n Mid lo th ian , a ppear t o b e l and d iv is ions s im i lar t o t hose f ur ther s ou th , mos t a re t oo i so la ted f or r eady i n terpre ta t ion . On t he Yorksh ire Wo lds many a l ignmen ts f or m p ar t o f t he d yke s ys te ms o r a re a ssoc ia ted w i th t he m .

Where a s equence o f c ons truc t ion c an b e i n ferred ,

p i t a l ignmen ts c o m mon ly r epresen t a n e ar ly p hase i n t he d yke 's h is tory , s o me e xa mp les b e ing s ubsequen t ly d ug t hrough t o f or m a c on t inuous d i tch ( i n f H G R amm ) . I nt he Eng l ish M id lands a f ir mer p ic ture c an b e d rawn .

H ere t he p i t a l ign-

men ts a re i n tegra ted w i th f i e ld p a t terns o f t he p re-h is tor ic l andscape a nd mus t , i nb road t er ms , b e o f s im i lar d a te .

T hey d o n o t h ave a ny o bv ious s pec ia l

f unct ion , b u t a ppear i n t he s a me k ind o f p os i t ions a s c on t inuous l ines o f d i tch , whether s epara t ing b locks o f l and , b ound ing i nd iv idua l f i e lds o r d e f in ing l anes t ha t p ass b etween t he f ie lds .

The o ne c on tex t i n wh ich l ines o f p i ts d o n o t

s ee m t o o ccur i s i n t he p er ime ter o f ' enc losures ' ( as d is t inc t f ro m f ie lds ) , e ven when t hese a re embedded i n a more e x tens ive f ie ld-sys te m .

O therw ise

p i ts a nd d i tches s ee m i n terchangeab le , a nd s o me t i mes a l ine o f p i ts i s c ont inued b y ad itch .

I ti s n o t c lear i ft h is imp l ies r e-cu t t ing ( Cons iderab le c are

mus t , h owever , b e t aken i n d is t ingu ish ing p i ts f ro m c on t inuous d i tches o n a ir p ho tographs .

A l i ne o f d i tch w i l l o f ten a ppear t o b e b roken i n to a s er ies o f

d ots i fi tr uns a cross t he ' gra in ' o f t he f ie ld , i e a t r igh t a ng les t o t he mos t r ecen t d irec t ion o f c u lt iva t ion ) . The q ues t ions o f s i t ing , o r ien ta t ion , s ize a nd s pacing mus t awa i t t he r esu l ts o f l oca l a na lyses b e fore a w ider s yn thes is c an b e a t te mp ted . b e a dded o n t he s hape o f p i ts a s s een o n t he p hotograph .

Bu t a word may

T he o u t l ine o f s o me

e xa mp les a ppears i rregu lar o r r agged. ,e ven when c rop- marks a re we l l d e f ined ; b u t t here a re many where p i ts h ave b een d ug w i th much c are a nd p rec is ion e i ther t o ac ircu lar o r t o ar ec tangu lar p lan .

The r ec tangu lar p i ts may b e s o

r egu lar ly c u t a s t o l ook more l ike a d i tch w i th c auseways t han a c ha in o f s ep ara te p i ts .

Any t heory i n tended t o e xp la in why p i ts s hou ld h ave b een p re-

f erred t o d i tches f lf or a ppor t ionmen t o f l abour , mus t t ake a ccoun t o f t he c ons iderab le d egree o f t roub le t ha t was s o me t i mes e xpended o n d igg ing t he m . 5

2 .

TYPES AND D ISTRIBUT IONS OF PRE-NOR MAN F IELDS I N CORN WALL AND S C ILLY C har les T ho mas

The i ncreased n a t iona l i n teres t i n t he a rchaeo logy o f a gr icu l ture h as , s ince 1 946 , c aused a ppropr ia te r e f lec t ions i n t he d eep s ou th-wes t . h as a lways b een .

I n teres t t here

B or lase , i nt he 1 8 th c en tury , was n o t ing ' l i t t le F ie lds a nd

P lo ts ' i n h is work ing j ourna ls , a nd f irs t r epor ted ( as a n a rchaeo log is t ) t he s ub merged wal ls o f S a mson a nd o f o ther a reas i n S c i l ly .

C ec i l C urwen , i n

t he f irs t v o lu me o f An t iqu i ty , d rew a t ten t ion t o t wo k inds o f f ie ld-sys te ms o n B od m in Moor

i n af a mous s urvey ( Curwen 1 927 ) ; a nd C raw ford h i msel f s oon

v is i ted S c i l ly t o s ee t he s ub merged wa l ls ( Craw ford 1 927 ) a nd , s ubsequen t ly , b efore r oad-bu i ld ing , t our ism , a nd improve men t g ran ts b egan t o c hange t he l andscape , t he l arge ly p os t- med ieva l f ie ld-sys te ms o f t he L and 's End ( Crawford 1 936).

T hese g rea t e n thus ias ts a t l eas t i nsp ired t he l oca l s oc ie ty ( Wes t C orn-

wa l l F ie ld C lub — f ro m 1 961 , C ornwa l l Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ) t o t he p oin t where a grar ian a rchaeo logy w ou ld a lways r e ma in a c en tra l f ace t o f b o th e xc avat ion a nd f ie ld-work , n o tab ly i n t he s cope o f t he r ecord p roduced , o n a p ar ish b as is , s ince t he 1 950s , a nd n ow ( s ince 1 975 ) i n tens i f ied i n ac oun ty s i tes a nd monumen ts r eg is ter .

T he c on tras t b e tween p resen t k now ledge o f wha t

m igh t l oose ly b e c a l led ' Ce l t ic f ie lds ' ( l a t iss i me ) t oday — c f t he c o mmen ts i n T ho mas 1 966 9 4-5 w i th Russe l l 's map ( i b ide m f ig 1 2 ) , — a nd t he v ir tua l a bsence implied a s l a te a s P iggo t t 's w e l l-known map ( P iggo t t 1 958 8 ) i nd ica tes t he p rog ress .

Y ears o f work , mos t ly i nt he f or m o f d e ta i led s urvey , l oo m a head ,

b u t t he g u ide lines h ave b een l a id d own . N eo li th ic The p rod ig ious q uan t i ty o f h ards tone imple men ts d rawn f ro m k nown a nd u nl oca ted o u tcrops a nd a xefac tory s i tes i n C ornwa l l ( perhaps a h undred t housand , a nd p robab ly mos t ly t h ird- m i l len ium ) i nc ludes a l arge p ropor t ion t ha t were , p oten tia l ly , s i mp le h oes o r d igg ing-s tones , a longs ide t rue , p o l ished , f e l l ing o r s hap ing a xes .

One c on tex t i s p rov ided b y Mercer 's work a t C am nB rea , a n

i rregu lar ly e nc losed h i l ltop s e t t le men t o f t he p er iod ( Mercer 1 970b , 1 972 ) w i th a r ich o ccupa t ion d ebr is o f t he H embury f ac ies .

The e v idence f or e x ten-

s ive , i ff or m less , c leared a nd c u l t iva ted a reas , t he f inds , t he n a ture o f wh a t a ppears t o h e a' p lough-so i l ' ( wi thou t p re jud ice ) , a nd t he g enera l s e t t ing , l eave l i t t le d oub t t ha t C orn ish p reh is tor ic f i e lds b eg in a t t h is p hase ;

s add le-querns ,

s tone c learance mounds , i mp le men ts o f Group XV I , a nd a s ca t ter o f d o mes t ic r ubbish i nt he c u l t iva ted s o i ls , a dd u p t o mos t o f t he c o mponen ts o f f i e lds .

7

I ti s a t l eas t p oss ible t ha t t he f irs t a gr icu l ture i n t he a rea o f R ough tor , B od m in Moor — a c o mp lex h i l ltop e nc losure , r ecen t ly r e-exa m ined b y t he Ordnance S urvey , a nd s uper f ic ia l ly a s i te i n t he C am nB rea c a tegory , — g oes b ack t o t he t h ird mi l len iu m , e ven i ft he p a l i mpses t o f s ubsequen t p er iods ( c f Curwen 1 927 2 82 ) , h ere a s o n Dar t moor , w i l l h ave o bscured i t .

A ga in , d e-

t a i led d is tr ibu t ions b o th o f s tone a xe f inds a nd s t one a xe s ources s ugges t a t h ird c en tre o f n eo l i th ic a c t iv i ty i n t he L and 's E nd p en insu la , where t he s a me c o m men ts wou ld a pp ly . B ronze Age Desp i te t he v ery c ons iderab le e v idence f or B ronze Age ( here , p robab ly l a te t h ird t o midf irs t mi l len ia B . C .) e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he r e la t ively f ores t-free C orn ish l andscape , s urpr is ing ly f ew s e t t le men ts h ave b een i den ti f ied .

The

wr i ter e xp lored t h is p aradox ( Tho mas 1 969 ) , where t housands o f b arrows a nd h undreds o f b ronze o b jec ts a re ma tched b y a mere h and fu l o f d ated s e t tle men ts . R e levan t t o t h is r epor t i s t he s teady r ea l isa t ion t ha t s i tes , e xcava ted o r n o t , o r ig ina l ly a ss igned o n t he s treng th o f p o t tery , o r o u tward f or m , o r s heer l ike l ih ood , t o ag enera l ised ' La te ' B ronze Age a nd e ven I ron Age a re a lmos t c ert a in ly w i th in a p os t-Beaker , ' Ear ly/M idd le ' B ronze Age c on t inuu m c over ing t he s econd mi l len iu m .

On t h is b as is , a f fec t ing a s i td oes t he ma jor moor land

( gran i te u p land ) b locks o f B od m in Moor a nd t he L and 's End , l inked a pparen t ly b y e as ier c oas ta l s tre tches , a more c ons is ten t p icture emerges .

•

F ig 2 .1 s hows , s che ma t ised , t he e x ten t o f at rue f ie ld-sys te m ( 9 1 T ho mas 1 976) a t Gw i th ian , o n t he n or th c oas t o f wes t C ornwa l l , i n t he midd le o f i ts t hree p hases , marked i n t he o vera l l s tra t igraphy b y l ayer 5 ( o f n ine l evels , f ro m p resen t t ur f t o b edrock ) , a nd d a ted t o r ough ly E ar ly B ronze I , o r al a te Wessex h or izon ( Megaw e t a l 1 961, Tho mas 1 970 , Megaw 1 976 ).

T he l oose

c oncep t o f ( a l mos t c er ta in ly ) h oe a nd/or s pade c u l t iva tion i n t he l oca l n eo li th ic h as , d ur ing t he i n terven ing c en tur ies , c rys ta l l ised i n to a p a t tern o f sma l l f ie lds . The ma in a gen t o f c hange was t he i n troduc t ion o f a n a rd , p resu mab ly d rawn b y d o mes t ic a n i ma ls , e v idenced ( as h ere ) b y v is ib le t races o f c ross-cu l t iva t ion o r s o-ca l led p lough marks ( Fow ler a nd E vans 1 967 ) , a n i nnova t ion wh ich d oubt less r eached C ornwa l l f ro m f ur ther e as t i np os t-Beaker t imes . h ere , t he r ude f ore fa ther o f t he o xgang o r f ur long ;

Ard u se i mplies ,

a nd a s econdary c o mpl i-

c a t ion , t he c o mb ina t ion o f f ixed c rop-grow ing a nd t he b reed ing o f d o mes t ic s tock , l ed i nev i tab ly t o e nc losed , f enced-o f f f ie lds o f ac er ta in s ize . The Gw i th ian f ar m — t he h o mes tead a ppropr ia te t o t h is p hase , l i es , u ne xcava ted , u ph i l l w i th in a c ircu lar d i tched e nc losure , — h as r ough ly q uar tera cre p lo ts ;

t rue l ynche ts , mos t ly n ega t ive , t hough t ha t b e tween p lo ts 1 ( uph i l l

s ide ) a nd 2 i s b oth p os i t ive a nd n ega t ive ; l inear c learance-banks , o r ig ina l ly w i th f aced f oo t ing a nd a bou t a metre w ide ; as tone t errace , a s we l l a s al ynche t , b e tween 4 a nd 1 ;

a sma l l s la te s t i le ( t o f ac i l i ta te a ccess o f a n a rd t ea m ? ) i n

t he b ank b e tween 6 a nd 7 ;

ap lough h ead land b e tween 5 a nd 6 ;

d i tch a round t he I • 1 :W a nd W s ide o f 7 .

a nd a s pade-cu t

T he p ecu l iar p hys ica l c ond i t ions o f i n-

t erca la ted b lown s and a nd b rown s andy s oi ls.p erm i t ted e x tens ive r ecovery o f s tre tches o f ' p lough marks ' ( i nd ica ted b y d ot t ing o n f ig 2 .1 ) , a nd i tw as i n t h is p hase t ha t ab roken t i p o f ag roup X I I a xe-ha m mer , s upposed ly t ipp ing a n a rdp oin t , was f ound a ctua l ly i n t he s ec t ion o f a n a rdfurrow .

8

F ig 2 .1

Gw i th ian , S i tes V , X -X IX :

s che ma t ised p lan o f t he f ield

s ys te m w i th a rd- marks ( ex ten t s hown b y d o ts ) a t t he l evel o f L ayer 5 ( Ear ly/ M idd le B ronze Age ) . A pprox . 1 :1500 .

9

The s ubsequen t p hase ( l ayer 3 ) i nvo lved , a f ter a s and-b low , f ur ther c u l t iv a t ion o f t hese , a nd p erhaps e x tended , p lo ts , b u t w i th a c o mplex o f sma l l h ouses o r h u t-c irc les s uper i mposed o np lo t 5 .

T h is may b e f or tu i tous .

B u t

i ti s n ow p er m iss ible t o s ugges t t ha t f ar ms o f t he Gwi th ian l ayer 5c lass o ccur , s porad ica l ly , o ver much o f C ornwa l l , a nd may n o t h ave b een r ecogn ised a s • s uch .

F ig 2 .2 s hows T rewey F oage , i n t he L and 's End , p ar t ly e xcava ted

( Dud ley 1 942 ) a nd r equ ir ing modern r e-survey ; ( Dud ley 1 958 ).

a nd Wicca , n ot f ar a way

T he s parse , b u t d iagnos t ic , p o t tery f inds , n o l ess t han t he

n a ture o f t he s i tes , make i tc lear t ha t t hese a re n o t L a te B ronze A ge a t a l l , b u t o f t he s a me p er iod a s Gw i th ian l ayer 5 , i fn o t t he p reced ing ( f ie ld-less , Wessex I )l ayer 7 p hase .

And , b y e x trapo la t ion , a t l eas t s o me o f t he u nspec i-

f ied f ie ld-sys te ms c o l lec ted f ro m V iv ien Russe l l 's g rea t s urvey o f t he who le p en insu la ( Russel l 1 971; t h is d is tr ibu t ion .

s ee map , Tho mas 1 966 9 5 f ig 1 2 ) w i ll f ur ther e x tend

More p uzzl ing i s af i e ld-sys te m , a t f irs t g lance s ugges t ive o f s o me med ie va l l ay-ou t o f c rof ts a nd t o f ts , f u l ly e xcava ted a t S tannon o n t he n or th s ide o f B od m in Moor i n a dvance o f c h ina-c lay t i pp ing b y Mercer ( 1970a a nd P aper 2 5 ) . N o t s hown h ere i s i t s n or thern e x tens ion , wh ich h as e nc losures o r c a t t le k raa ls , u nder lin ing i t s mixed-far m ing n a ture .

Mercer d e mons tra ted t ha t h u ts a nd

l inear f ie lds ( as s hown ) were g enu ine ly a ssoc ia ted , a nd t ha t t he f i e lds ( poss ib ly a rd-p loughed ) p roduced a c erea l s upp le men t ( sadd le-querns ) t o b iased

s tock-rear ing e cono my ' .

ah eav i ly-

The p o t tery s o c lose ly ma tched t he l arge

s er ies f ro m Gw i th ian , l ayer 5p hase , a s t o s ugges t t he s a me d a te .

O f e qua l

i n teres t was t he d iscovery t ha t t he S tannon f ie ld-sys te m s ea led a n e ar l ier , d es troyed , b u t a lso c u l t iva ted a rea , t he f inds f ro m wh ich i nd ica te Gw i th ian , l ayers 8 a nd 7 ( l a te B eaker , E ar ly Bronze I )a nd i nc luded ( ungrouped ) a sma l l worn g reens tone a xe a nd a g reens tone a dze o r h oe . C urren t , e x tens ive , f ield-survey o n a reas o f B od m in Moor w i l l s ugges t t ha t b o th t ypes o f s ys te m — t he Gwi th ian/Trewey F oage c hequerboard , a nd t he S tannon s tr ips — a re w idespread , i fu nda ted .

Whe ther ( as o ne s uspects )

e le men ts o f s uch s ys te ms s urv ived i n to o r t hroughou t t he l oca l I ron Age , p reR o man a nd R o man , e xcava t ion w i l l t e l l .

T hough d e ta i led c o m men t i sb eyond

t he s cope o f t h is s hor t p aper , i t mus t b e s tressed t ha t p ara l le l f i e ld-sys te ms ( w i th , i nt he p as t , v ery v arying e s t i ma tes o f a ge ) a re f ound o n t he n ex t ma jor u p land g o ing e as t , Dar t moor . I s les o f S c i l ly The a rchaeo logy o f S c i l ly h as n ow b een s u m mar ised b y Ashbee ( 1 974 ) , w i th f u l l r e ference t o h is own ma jor c on tr ibu t ions . I ti s n o e xaggera t ion t o s ta te t ha t S ci l ly i s p erhaps t he mos t impor tan t p o ten t ia l a rena f or a grar ian a rchaeol ogy i n s ou thern Br i ta in . The a rch ipe lago , s o me 2 5 mi les S SW o f L and 's E nd , i s f in i te i n t ime a nd s pace ; t he f irs t s o l id e v idence o f o ccupa t ion i sp robab ly E ar ly/ M idd le B ronze Age , t he e ra o f t he n umerous ' en trance g raves ' o r meg a l i th ic t o mbs .

S ub mergence , o f t he l and- mass l oca l ly i n r e la t ion t o s ea l eve l ,

a ppears t o h ave p roceeded a t r ough ly o ne f oot a c en tury - p robab ly n o t a t a r egu lar r a te , — a nd t he wr i ter w i l l a rgue i n h is f or thco m ing S tud ies i n a Drowned L andscape t ha t t he p resen t p a t tern o f i s lands emerged a s l a te a s t he 8 th t o 1 2 th c en tur ies A .D .

I n , s ay , 2 000 B . C . ,i ndeed we l l i n to t he R o man

p er iod , mos t o f S c i l ly was o ne l arge i s land , a nd ( t o t ake a s ing le a spect ) t he c o mp lex f auna l e v idence a lone wou ld p oin t t o t h is . 1 0

F ie ld Hut

Wa lls C ircles

Barro w 0

Metres

1 00

C learance

Mound

1 Acre

0

F ig 2 .2

Me tres

1 C1,0

Metres

1 00

( upper ) Trewey F oage , Z ennor ( a f ter Dud ley 1 942 ) , a pprox . 1 :3000;

( l ower ) Wicca ,

Z ennor ( a f ter Dud ley 1 958 ) , a pprox .

1 :2 -000;

a nd , r igh t , S tannon S t Breward ( a f ter Mercer 1 968 ) ,

a pprox . 1 :3000 .

1 1

S ci l ly i s g ran i te , w i th a p ar t ia l man t le o f s o l i f lux ion , a nd a n a ureole a nd i n trus ions o f f ine , w ind- a nd wa ter-borne , mar ine s ands .

S ur face c learance

a b i n i t io i nvo lves r e mova l o f f a ir ly l arge , worn , b ou lders , a s wel l a s s l igh ter g ran i te d ebr is , a nd f i e ld-wa l ls , whe ther n ow o n l and o r b e low h igh w a ter mark ( i nt he i n ter t ida l z one , a lso b e low mar ine s and d epos i ts ) , man i fes t t he mse lves a s b ou lder r ows w i th sma l ler p ack ing .

C rawford ( 1 927) d rew a t ten t ion t o t he

we l l-known s er ies o n t he b road , s ha l low f la ts E o f S a mson , b u t s im i lar s ys te ms , o r r e mnan ts o f s uch , o ccur t hroughou t t he i s lands ( Ashbee

1 974 , e sp c hap 3 ) .

F ig 2 .3 s hows r e ma ins o nt he i s land o f T ean , o ccup ied i n t he R o man a nd p os t-Ro man p er iod , d eser ted , t hen b r ie f ly r e-occup ied c 1 680-1740 .

These

a re l ike ly t o b e o f more t han o ne p er iod , a nd t hose o n t he W s ide , n ow i n tert ida l , a ppear (a s i n wes t C ornwa l l ) t o b e t he r e ma ins o f ' chequerboards ' i n terspersed w i th h u ts .

T hey c ou ld b e , a nd q u i te p robab ly a re , a s e ar ly a s

t he p er iod o f t he mega l i th ic t o mb-bu i lders a nd t heir p o lygona l-cis t-us ing d esc endan ts , ak ind o f B ronze — I ron Age c on t inuum b r ief ly e n l ivened b y s o me l a te i s t mi l len iu m B . C . f or ti f ica t ion-bu i ld ing .

Whe ther n ow b e low h igh wa ter ,

a s h ere , a nd o n S a mson F la ts , S t Mar t in 's F la ts , a nd N ew G r i msby , o r o n l and , a s n otably o n S a mson , B ryher , C hape l D owns ( S t Mar t in 's ) a nd p erhaps s parsely o n S t Mary 's , t hese s ys te ms , s trewn w i th a bandoned s add le-querns a nd a n a bundan t s craper-do m ina ted f l in t i ndus try , i nd ica te a n e x tens ive , a nd r ela t ive ly u nchang ing , l andna m . There a re l oca l v ar ia t ions , d ic ta ted b y t he p ure ly l oca l p hys ica l c harac ter o f S ci l ly , where h igh g round ( 50 t o 1 00 f ta bove OD ) i s a s much r idged a s i n t he f or m o f sma l l p la teaux . One i s s een o n O ld Man , at ida l i s le t SW o f T ean , p hys ica l ly a ssocia ted w i th a r u ined mega l i th ic c a irn ; t he l inear b ou lder-wa l l f ro m wh ich s ide-wa l ls d epend .

A r ecen t d iscovery , f o l lowing t he b urn ing o f

s ur face v ege ta t ion a nd p ea t , i s s hown i n f ig 2 .3 , l ower , o n H ea thy H i l l , t he S E e x tre m i ty o f Bryher . Th is ( Tho mas 1 975 i n d eta i l ) i s l ess a b ou lder-wa l l s ys te m t han o ne o f c o mpac ted c learance-wa l ls , w i th t races o f l ynche t t ing , a nd a t l eas t t wo h u t-c irc les a ppear t o b e i nvo lved .

Aga in , as hor t d is tance

Ei s t he p ro m inen t s ou ther mos t , o r S a mson , H i l l o f B ryher , c rowned w i th u p t o t hree mega l i th ic t o mbs , a nd f or t he mo men t o ne wou ld s ee t he H ea thy H i l l s i te a s o f t h is p hase . By f ar t he mos t impor tan t s i te , o ne o f s uch v i ta l impor tance a s t o c ry o u t f or a rea r a ther t han mere s i te Guard iansh ip s ta tus , i s H a langy P or th , o n t he NN W o f S t Mary 's ;

Ashbee 's f or thco m ing f u l l r epor t ( g i Ashbee

1 974 1 86 f )

w i l l j us t i fy t hese r e marks . H ere , t wo mega l i th ic t o mbs , a Bronze A ge s e t t lemen t , as ubsequen t ly I ron Age ( Ro man ) v i l lage , a nd c e me tery , a re l i nked t o t he Ha langy D own f ie ld-sys te m , i n i t ia l ly o f B ronze Age d a te , b u t s ubsequen t ly u sed a nd p erhaps mod i f ied d ur ing t he l a ter p er iod .

The t erraced a nd l ynche t ted

f ie lds a re , i n min ia ture , o f c lass ic , sma l l-sca le , s ou thern Br i t ish p a t tern , a nd c arry o ur s to r y i n to t imes A .D .

Ashbee 's r ecen t ( 1 977 )

e xc i t ing d e mon-

s tra tion o f a c tua l p lough-cu l t iva t ion i nt he p os t-Ro man p er iod a rgues f or c ont inu i ty o f t hese t rad i t ions . I ron Age The mi l len iu m f ro m , r ough ly , 5 00 B . C . t o A .D . 5 00 s aw , i f n o th ing e lse , ac ons iderab le i ncrease i nt he e xp loi ta t ion o f t he C orn ish l andscape , l ess o n

1 2

1A cre

• •. . . . W

. • •••

0 ' e s

KEY F ie ld Hut

Wa lls

Megalithic 10 0

.....

C irc les ( EIA-RB? ) To mbs

•

20 0

Me tres

Hut

C irc les

E L c i i

f

Gran ite Ou tcrops

Recent

Metres

W alls

25

HW F ig 2 .3

( upper ) T ean , I s les o f S c i l ly , s how ing f ie ld wa l ls a nd o ther f ea tures i n t he i n ter t ida l z one wes t o f t he i s land , 1 :5000 ; ( l ower ) f ie ld s ys te m o n H ea thy H i l l , Bryher , I s les o f S c i l ly , 1 :625 . 1 3

t he h igh moors a nd v a l ley b o t to ms t han o n t he f er t i le , we l l-dra ined , s he lves b e tween 2 00 a nd 5 00 0 .D . ,a nd a l l c lasses o f s e t t le men t a ppear t o b e a ssocia ted w i th f ie ld-sys te ms . Tho mas 1 964 .

S o me t ypes a re i nd ica ted i n T ho mas 1 966 9 4 , f i g 1 1, a nd

Un for tuna te ly , t hese a re p rec ise ly t he t rac ts o f l and t ha t h ave

b een c on t inuous ly e xp lo i ted e ver s ince ( t he r e la t ive a bsence o f d eser ted v i ll ages i n C ornwa l l i s d ue t o t he f ac t t ha t f ew h ave b een t ru ly d eser ted , a nd mos t o f t he o lder f ar ms were p robab ly s i ted i n t he l a te f irs t mi l len iu m A .D .) .

I n

many c ases , n o tab ly w i th t he h undreds o f ' rounds ' o r e nc losed f ar ms tead o f t he l oca l R o man I ron Age , o ne c an s ense , i fn o t d isp lay w i th c onv ic t ion a nd a ccuracy a s af in ished s urvey , t he p resence o f f i eld-sys te ms u nder ly ing l a ter f ie lds .

C lear s igns o f b oth l ynche t t ing a nd t erracing , w i th c learance- mounds ,

h o llow ways , a nd t he a ppur tenances o f s uch s ys te ms , e x is t ;

b u t a ga in ( no tab ly

i n t he L and 's End , o n t he e v idence o f T i the Maps a lone ) t erraces were b eing b u i l t , l ynche ts p roduced b y s teady h orse-p lough ing o f h eavy , d ark g ran i te s o i ls o n imposs ible g rad ien ts , a nd h o l low ways g ouged o u t b y t oboggan-l ike s leds , wel l i n to V ictor ian t imes. An i ns tance i s a f forded b y B odr i f ty ( Dud ley 1 956 ) , where t he o vera l l s i te p lan i s a ccura te e nough , b u t where a mass ive c a mpa ign wou ld b e n eeded t o r ev ea l wh ich p ar ts o f t he f ie ld-sys te m (s ) were B ronze Age , I ron Age l a to s ensu , o r med ieva l a nd r ecen t ( s ince much o f t h is l and i s s t i l l g razed a nd s poradica l ly p loughed ) .

The f i e lds d e f in i te ly a ssoc ia ted w i th e nc losed I ron Age s e t t le men ts

a t P or thmeor a nd G o ldherr ing , b o th i n t he L and 's End ( Tho mas 1 966 9 4 , f ig 1 1 t op l e f t , t op c en tre ) s how , o n marked s lopes , wha t migh t v ery we l l b e c al led ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds o nt he g ran i te a t t h is p hase .

Ad es idera tu m , t hough a t ta inable

w i th s o me d i f f icu l ty , wou ld b e s e lec t ive a nd s teady e xcava t ion o f as im i lar s i te where o ne c ou ld b e c er ta in t ha t n o ma jor p reced ing , o r s ubsequen t , l and-use h ad o ccurred . Pos t-Ro man The l i t t le t ha t c an b e r epor ted f ro m t h is p er iod ( say , A .D . 5 00 t o A .D . 1 100 ) c en tres o n t he t wo f ie lds e xa m ined a t Gw i th ian , s i tes ) O C a nd X IC E ( Fow ler a nd Tho mas 1 962 , w i th f u l l i l lus tra t ions ) .

E v idence o f d a te i s a rgued , l ess

f ro m j ux tapos i t ion t o s i te I , wh ich c overs t h is p hase , t han f ro m t he s pread o f d a ted p o t tery c on ta ined , t hrough manur ing , i n t he p lough-so i ls .

On , a dm i t ted ly ,

t he s pec ia l mi l ieu o f al igh t s andy s oi l , i t was p oss ib le t o d e mons tra te s evera l n ew f ea tures :

e v idence f or p ar ing a nd b urn ing , u nenc losed i so la ted f i e lds

( w i th imp l ica t ions f or s tock c on tro l i n a mixed e cono my ) , a nd a bove a l l t he u se o f af ixed mou ld-board p lough , p resumab ly a p os t-Ro man i n troduc t ion , l ead ing t o av ery n arrow ' narrow r ig-andfurrow '.

Wi thou t v en tur ing i n to p os t-Nor man

t imes , i t may b e s ta ted t ha t r ig-andfurrow o f t h is a t tenua ted k ind h as b een n o ted e lsewhere i n C ornwa l l , o n av ar ie ty o f s o i ls L G n ear Wa tch C ro f t , Land 's End ( unpub l ished ) a nd n eed n o t a lways b e med ieva l o r l a ter . C onc lus ion E ar ly f i e ld-sys te ms i n C ornwa l l , o n g ran i te o r s ed i men tary r ocks , c oas ta l s and-be l ts o r h igh moors , a re n o t a s c lear ly d e f ined o n t he g round o r f ro m t he a ir a s t hey a re o n t he c ha lk d owns .

The c haracter is t ic C orn ish ' hedge ' o r

s tone-faced b ank , p roduc t o f n ecessary i n i t ia l c learance a nd t he n eed t o s hel ter f ro m s a l tladen w inds , h as b een b u i l t c on t inuous ly o ver s o me f ive m i l lenia . 1 4

B u t t he v ery s tabi l i ty s uch h edges h ave a f forded t o f i e ld l ay-ou ts h as p layed a p ar t i n d e ter m in ing c on t inuous u se o f t he s a me f i e lds o ver v ery l ong p er iods , more mod i f ica t ions h av ing t aken p lace i nt he l as t 1 50 y ears t han i n t he p rec ed ing f i f teen c en tur ies . D esp i te t he a rchaeo log ica l d i f f icu l t ies s o c rea ted — r ecognised , o f c ourse , b y C raw ford ( 1 936 ) , t hough n o t a lways b y s ubsequen t g eographers , —i ti s p oss ib le t o s ee t he l i nea men ts o f a grar ian s equences i n C ornwa l l a nd S c i l ly , a nd i ndeed t o p ush t he s tory b ack t o ar espec tab ly d is tan t h or izon . T he c ha l lenge n ow w i l lb e t o i den t i fy , t o r ecord i n d eta i l , a nd d es i rably t o p reserve , k ey s i tes a nd c ruc ia l e le men ts i n a n a ge o f s teady , u ns pectacu lar , b u t s er ious ly a cce lera t ing e ros ion a nd d es truc t ion .

1 5 -

3 .

THE DART MOOR REAVES Andrew F le m ing

A r eave ( t he w ord c o mes f ro m t he O ld Eng l ish w ord r aew , mean ing a r ow) i s ap reh istor ic l and b oundary c ons ist ing o f al ow s tony b ank , u sua l ly c overed b y v ege ta t ion . i n h e igh t . n or ma l

I ti s u sua l ly b e tween lm a nd 2m w ide a nd u p t o 8 0c m

Two t ypes o f p rof i le a re v is ib le i n t he f i e ld ( f ig . 3 .1a , l b) ;

t u mb le-wa l l ' p rof i le ,

f a ir ly r are .

t he

a nd t he o r thosta t ica l ly-faced t ype , wh ich i s

The p rof i le i s s y m me tr ica l a bou t ac en tra l a x is.

I n p ara l le l

s yste ms ( see b e low ) r eaves may b e p laced u pon l ow l ynche ts, o r , o ccas iona l ly , o n e ar l ier embanked b oundar ies ;

i n t hese l a t ter c ases s ha l low d i tches ( l ess

t han 2 0c m d eep) may b e v is ib le .

U sua l ly , h owever , i ti s t he d i tch ( norma l ly

d eeper t han 2 0c m) , a long w i th t he e ar then b ank o f r e la t ive ly c on ica l o r a sy mmetr ica l p rof i le , wh ich p icks o u t t he p ost-preh istor ic b oundar ies o n t he moor ( f ig . 3 .i f ) . O ther a pparen t d i tches o f ten t urn o u t t o b e l ea ts, h o l low-ways o r e rosion-gu l l ies. When a r eave f o l lows t he c on tour , t he e f fect o f s o i l c reep o r p ea tb u i ldup may g ive a l ynche tl ike e f fect ( f ig . 3 .1c , 1 d ) . I ti s e asy t o d ist ingu ish r eaves f ro m l ea ts a nd p ost-preh istor ic b oundar ies ; t he o n ly p ossib le s ources o f c onfus ion a re l i nes o f c ut ter , c aused b y p en g lacia l c ond it ions, a nd c o l lapsed t ur f b anks o f r e la t ive ly r ecen t d a te .

T he

l a t ter , w h ich a re r are i n a ny c ase , t end t o l ook 'n ot q u ite r igh t ' ma in ly b ec ause t here i s n o d if feren t ia l v ege ta t ion e f fect : t he p rof i le i s s tone-free . I n g enera l i ti s d if feren t ia l v ege ta t ion e f fects wh ich l ead t o t he r ecogn it ion o f r eaves f ro m a d istance o r f ro m t he a ir - t here may b e al i ne o f h ea ther i n a g rass-dom ina ted a rea , o r al ine o f b ilberry c lu mps among h eather a nd b racken . Th is may b e ap resence/ absence p heno menon , b u t i ti s more o f ten a c ase o f more g orse i n ag orsey a rea , al i ne o f d enser h ea ther, a nd s o f orth. The d a t ing o f t he r eaves i s a t p resen t d er ived f ro m f i e ld e v idence ;

s o me

2 0 e nc losures o f p reh istor ic t ype a re a t tached t o t he r eaves, f or m ing e i ther D-shaped e nc losures ( F le m ing a nd C o l l is 1 973 , f ig 5 ;

t h is p aper , f ig . 3 .3 ) ;

o r q uadran t e nc losures ( where t hey h ave t wo s tra igh t s ides f ormed b y ap ree x ist ing r eaves j unct ion ( f ig . 3 .3 a nd 4 ) . T here a re a lso D -shaped a nd q uadran t h uts . T he r eaves a re a lways e ar l ier t han t inners ' work ings, l ea ts, med ieva l l ong-houses, a nd b low ing-houses, a nd s o me o f t he m a re o ver la in b y p ea t . On D ar t moor a l l t he l and b e low , s ay 1 300-1500 f ta bove s ea l eve l , w as i nc orpora ted i n to o ne l and b oundary s yste m o r a nother ; t he p reh istor ic l ands cape w as a s f u l ly u sed , o wned a nd d e marca ted a s t ha t o f a ny l a ter p er iod . There a re n o d e monstrab ly i so la ted , s e lf-con ta ined r eave s yste ms .

T he

a rea s hown o n f i g 3 .2 h as b een i nc luded b ecause i ts hows s evera l a t tached e nc losures a nd o ther r e la t ionsh ips i n a n e asi ly a ccess ib le a rea , n ot b ecause i th as a ny u n ity i n p reh istor ic t erms .

1 7

a

F ig 3 .1

P ro f i les o f r eaves a nd s truc tures w i th wh ich t hey may b e c onf used :

aa nd b :

t wo a l terna t ive p ro f i les ;

r eave r unn ing a long a s lope ; a long a s lope ;

e : al ea t ;

c : ap ea t-covered

d : at h in p ara l le l r eave r unning

f : ap os t-preh is tor ic f ield b oundary .

p1 9 o ppos ite F ig 3 .2

One o f t he b es t a reas f or v is i t ing r eaves l i es o n t he e as tc en tra l s ide o f D ar t moor b e tween Wh i te R idge a nd S hap ley T or .

S evera l a t tached e nc losures may b e s een .

O ther

s e t t le men t s i tes a nd c ere mon ia l monumen ts h ave n o t b een i nc luded . g row th .

T he g aps v is ib le a re u sua l ly t he r esu lt o f p ea t A pprox . 1 :26 , 0 00 . 1 8

1 9

S ince August 1 976 i th as b een p oss ib le t o s ee t ha t t he r eaves a s a who le r e la te t o t he l andscape i n al og ica l way , s o t ha t t he t err i tor ies o f d ist inct h uman g roups may b e c lear ly i den t if ied . T he s yste m i s b est u nderstood o n t he s ou thern h a lf o f t he moor , where e ach t err i tory i s b ased o n t he u pper p ar t o f ar iver v a l ley . T here a re s epara te t err itor ies f or t he Meary , P lym, A von a nd t he u pper Dar t b asin : t he v a l leys o f t he Yea im a nd Erme may h ave o ne t err i tory o r t wo . Each t err i tory h as t hree i mpor tan t c haracter ist ics. F irst , i th as a ccess t o z one C , wh ich i s t he h igh moor land a bove 1 300-1500 f t . T h is z one h as f ew r eaves . T h is may b e b ecause t hey a re n ow c overed b y d eep b lanke tb og b u t i ti s more p robab le t ha t t h is was a z one o f c o m mon g raz ing i n p reh istor ic t imes, w ith h i l l-top b arrows, n o t r eaves, p rov id ing r eference p oin ts i n t he l andscape . S econd , t here i s z one B , t he u pper p ar t o f av a l ley , w h ich i s w here t he c ircu lar a nd o vo id e nc losures o ccur i n s uch n umbers. T h is z one may b e s ubd iv ided b y r eaves o f v ary ing t ype .

I n t he P ly rn v a l ley s uch r eaves a re s hor t

a nd r a ther f ug it ive i n c harac ter , b u t i n o ther a reas t he l and i n z one B may b e d iv ided i n to p ara l le l s tr ips o f r ough ly r ec tangu lar a reas.

T he r ange o f v ar ia-

t i on i s n ot y e t f u l ly u nderstood . T h ird , t here i s z one A , t he z one o f p ara l le l r eave s yste ms.

Z one A i s

u sua l ly s i ted b e low z one B , a nd i n most c ases t he l ower p ar t o f e ach p ara l le l s yste m h as b een e ngu lfed b y p ost-preh istor ic f i e ld e nc losures; s pec ia l t echn iques a re r equ ired t o f o l low t hese r eaves i n to t he p resen t d ay i n take . S ke tchmaps o ft he t wo s yste ms wh ich l i e ma in ly o n p resen t-day moor land h ave a lready b een p ub l ished ( Gawne a nd S o mers C ocks 1 968 f i gs 2 a nd 3 ) . I ti s l i ke ly t ha t t he p ara l le l s yste ms i nc luded s o me a rab le l and .

A t p re-

s en t most o f t he a rgu men ts f or t h is b e l ief a re c ircumstan t ia l o nes , b u t e xcav a t ions o n H o lne Moor i n 1 976 r evea led a 2 5c m h igh l ynche t o n a5 ° s lope u nder ly ing a p ara l le l r eave . There w as a lso e v idence , f ro m a d i f ferent s i te o n H o lne Moor , t ha t t wo l arge s tone s labs h ad b een p ropped a ga ins t ar eave , p resu mab ly d ur ing f i e ld c learance ( wh ich a dm it ted ly n eed n ot r e la te t o a rab le u se) . T hus t he p ara l le l r eaves may f oss i l ise a l a te s tage i n t he l i f e o f f ie lds o r ig ina l ly l a id o u t i n p ara l le l s tr ips b u t n o t d emarca ted b y wa l ls. I ti s l i ke ly t ha t s o me o f t he k inks a nd 'd oglegs ' v is ib le i np ara l le l-reave s ys te ms i nd ic a te c er ta in f ea tures o ft he p re-reave l ayou t .

T he p ara l le l s ystems t he m-

s e lves s how e v idence o f s tructura l c o mp lex i ty a nd d ep th , w i th s ome p ara l le l r eaves r unn ing f or r e la t ive ly l ong d istances a nd s o me u s ing t he ma in a x is o f t he s yste m b ut s i mp ly l i nk ing t ransverse r eaves ( s o me t i mes k nown a s

i n-

f i l l ing ' ) . T he o r ig ina l c haracter o f t he r eaves was h igh ly v ar iab le .

Excava t ions

s t i l l p roceed ing o n H o lne Moor h ave s hown t ha t s o me r eaves were b u i lt w ith t wo n ea t f aces a nd c arefu l ly c hosen i n f i l l ing s tones, wh i le o thers w ere s carce ly more t han s tones a nd b ou lders d ragged t o t he f i e ld e dge a nd p os it ioned r ough ly i n l i ne . T here a re s o me c ases where t he s tones a re i n tended a s o r thosta ts , a nd t hey may e ven b e p laced i n n ea t ly-packed s tone-ho les. T he q uest ion o f t he o r ig ina l h e igh t o f t he r eaves, a nd w hether t hey f u lf i l led o ther f unct ions t han t ha t o f l and d iv is ion , must b e l e f t f or a more e x tens ive d iscussion e lsewhere .

2 0

B IRCH

TOR

ENCL OSURES

6 87819

* m e a le 'L es tn°

Sv

F ig 3 .3

A D-shaped e nc losure ( A ) a nd a q uadran t e nc losure ( B ) a t B irch T or ( marked Y o n f ig 3 .2 ).

F ig 3 .4

Approx . 1 :1000 .

A q uadran t e nc losure a t Wa ter H i l l ( marked X o n f ig 3 .2 ). Approx . 1 :1000 . 2 1

4 .

F IELDS AND S ETTLE MENTS

ON S HAUGH MOOR , DART MOOR J ohn C o l l is

The s er ies o f l and b oundar ies o n S haugh Moor ( SX 5 562) w ith i t s r eaves, a nd o r thos ta t ic a nd b anked f i e ld b oundar ies r epresen ts, a ccord ing t o o ur p res en t k now ledge , t he c lass ic s equence o f d eve lop men ts o n Dar tmoor ( f ig 4 .1) . I th as b een p rev ious ly p ub l ished b y Pr ice ( 1973) , i n as urvey b ased ma in ly o n a er ia l p ho tographs w ith s o me g round s urvey . Our more d e ta i led g round s urv ey s hows t he l im i ta t ions o f s uch a n a pproach , a nd when c o mp le ted w i l l c ert a in ly l ead t o ar ad ica l r ein terpre ta t ion , e spec ia l ly o f t he f i e ld c o mp lex n ear Wot ter . S o me o ft he a rea i s t hrea tened b y d ump ing o f c h ina c lay waste , a nd c er ta in p ar ts h ave b een d estroyed s ince o ur p re l im inary s urvey i n 1 974 . T he mapp ing o ft he S haugh Moor f i e ld s ys te m was c arr ied o u tb y s urveyors f ro m Wa t ts, B lake a nd B earne u nder t he d irec t ion o f Mr . Andrew F le m ing a nd t he a u thor , a nd l i kew ise t he s e t t le men ts a round S add lesborough u nder M iss S usan Vaughn ' s s uperv is ion . T he e astern a nd s ou thern p ar ts o u tside t he ma in t hrea tened a rea h ave b een s urveyed b yp ar t ies o f s tuden ts f ro m t he Depar tmen t o f Preh istory i nt he Un ivers ity o fS he f f ie ld . T he e lemen ts

1 .

C ere mon ia l a nd s epu lchra l monu ments

Ca irns , p oss ib le r ing c a irns, a nd a s tone r ow p resu mab ly p reda te t he f i e lds . A l l l i e n or th o f S add lesborough Ma in Reave , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne c a irn w h ich i s i ncorpora ted i n to t he r eave . 2 .

S add lesborough Ma in R eave

T h is r eave i s t runca ted a t i t s e astern e nd b y ac h ina c lay p i t , a nd i s a lso i n p ar t o verwhe l med b yb lanke tb og , b u t f or most o f i t s c ourse i ti s o f n orma l r eave c onstruct ion . Near t he Wot ter-Cadover Br idge r oad i ti s h eav i ly r obbed , b ut i t s l i ne i s c on t inued w est o f t he r oad b y a modern e nc losure wa l l .

On

West D own a bove t he P lym v a l ley t he modern e nc losure wa l l a nd t he r eave d iverge , a nd t he r eave e nds i n t he s teep s lopes a bove t he P lym v a l ley . 3 .

T he p ara l le l r eaves

Two s e ts o f p ara l le r eaves c o me o f ft he S add lesborough Ma in Reave . Those o f West D own h ave y e t t o b e p lanned , a nd we a re h ere o n ly c oncerned w ith t he e astern g roup o n S haugh Moor i t se lf . T hese a re a ga in o f s tandard r eave c onstruct ion , t hough o f s l ighter c onstruct ion t han t he Ma in Reave . Reaves 2a nd 4 f ade away a t t he ir s ou thwestern e nds, u n t i l i n p laces t hey a re l i t t le more t han s carps .

T he who le s yste m s hows a n i n terest ing c hange o f

2 3

t. .,

4

.

S addlesborough

Shaugh Moor

i i. 1 . 1. 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1

. . ...

Ma jor

Bank

M inor

Bank

S tone

Modern Co llard

Wotter

F ig 4 .1

X Ca irn 0 Hut C irc le

Ro w

0

1h a 59 0

T or

' Mr

Pound

E nclosure

Ä

F ie ld s ys te ms a t Wo t ter a nd S haugh Moor . A pprox . 1 :15 ,870 ( 4 in t o 1m i le ).

o r ien ta t ion s ou th o f t he b anked e nc losure ( Enc losure C ) .

T he e astern most ,

Reave 1 , wh ich r uns u p t o C o l lard T or s eems t o h ave a n e ar l ier p hase wh ich g oes f ro m t he T or d own t o t he h ead o f a sma l l s tream - t he t wo b anks wh ich r un p ara l le l t o o ne a no ther c an h ard ly b e c on temporary , n or c an t hey f orm t he t wo s ides o f at rack a s t hey r un f ro m t he s tream u p t o az one o f v ery d ense c ut ter a d jacen t t o t he T or , s o t ha t f ro m n e ither e nd i s t he a rea a ccess ib le. C onstruct iona l ly l a ter t han R eave 4 i s R eave 3w h ich c irc les r ound t he b anked e nc losure a nd t hen r uns p ara l le l w i th t he ma in s yste m . U nusua l ly t he n or thern p ar t o f i t s l eng th c on ta ins many o r thosta ts, b u t i tt oo g radua l ly f ades away a t i t s s ou thwestern e nd . 4 .

F ie ld S yste m 1 ( f ig 4 .2 )

T h is c ons ists o f f our p ara l le l b oundar ies wh ich h ave t he ir o r ig in i n S add lesborough Ma in R eave , a nd r un p ara l le l w i th t he p ara l le l r eaves.

C on-

s truct iona l ly t hey a re s l igh ter t han t he r eaves, a nd f requen t ly c on ta in sma l l o r thosta ts . I n o ther p laces t hey a re l i t t le more t han s carps. T here a re s eve ra l c ross-banks o f s im i lar c onstruct ion , b u t n o c ross b ank t o f orm t he s ou thwestern l im i t o f t he s yste m . T here a re a lso s evera l o ther c ross-banks o f y e t s l igh ter c onstruct ion , s o me 3 0c m w ide a nd 1 0cm h igh wh ich t end t o r un o n a s l igh t ly d if feren t o r ien ta t ion , t hough most o f t hem r espec t t he f i e ld b oundar ies . T he f i e lds c on ta in a n u mber o fb ou lders , a nd t hey a re n ot s u itab le f or p lough c u l t iva t ion , b u t , i ft hey were n ot u sed f or p enn ing s tock , s pade c u l t iva t ion i s ap ossib i l ity . T hey a re p resumab ly c on temporary w ith t he a d jacen t h ut c irc les. 5 .

F ie ld S yste m 2

T h is h as b een h eav i ly r obbed a nd d isturbed b y t he modern r oad .

I tt oo

c ons isted o fp ara l le l b anks a nd s carps w i th c ross b anks, a nd s o me o r thosa t ic s tone , b ut o f r a ther more mass ive c onstruct ion t han F ie ld S ystem 1 .

The

a l ign men t i s s l igh t ly d if feren t f ro m t he r eave s ystem a s we l l , p erhaps imp ly ing ad if feren t d a te .

I ti s i n t i ma te ly c onnec ted w i th e nc losure B a nd h u t S .P . 1 . 2 4

6 .

F ie ld S yste m 3

T hough h ard ly j ust ify ing s uch a d escr ip t ion , t here i s ah in t o f a n o rgan ised l ay-ou t o fb oundar ies r unn ing e ast-west d own t he s lope s ou th a nd west o f e nc losures B a nd C . I tc ons ists o f ma in ly l ow b anks 2 0-30c m w ide , a nd 1 0c m h igh . T hey a re t runca ted b y t he h o l low ways c aused b y t ra f f ic a long t he v a l ley s ide . 7 .

T he Wot ter F ie ld S yste m

T hese h ave n ot y e tb een f u l ly p lanned , b u t a t l east t hree p hases a re i dent i f iab le . O n t he l ower s lopes a d jacen t t o t he c ross r oads t here a re s evera l l ow b road b anks wh ich a t p resen t f orm n o c oheren t p a t tern , a nd h ave f ur ther b een d isturbed b y ag un emp lace men t . T hese a re o ver la in a t o ne p o in t b y a t erracel ike f i e ld b oundary c on ta in ing o r thosta ts, o n wh ich s i ts a l arge , a nd p resu mab ly c on te mporary h u t . T he t h ird p hase , a ssumed t o b e med ieva l , c ons ists o f e roded b anks w ith d i tches, b u t s evera l o f t hese b anks c lear ly f o l low e ar l ier l i nes . T he u pper , e astern , p art o f t he s yste m h as s o f ar o n ly p roduced e v idence o f t wo p hases , t he e ar l ier , p resu mab ly p reh istor ic , w i th l ow s tone b anks, o r o n t he s teeper s lopes s l igh t t erraces f or med b y med ium s ize b locks o f g ran ite . T here a re s evera l c onstruct ion p er iods i n t h is p hase , a nd t he w ho le i s l i nked w i th t he p ara l le l r eaves b y as er ies o fb anks l a id o u t i n a rcs . h as s l igh t d i tches a nd t hese c lear ly c u t t he s i mp le b anks.

T he l a ter p hase

T o t h is p hase p er-

h aps b e longs t he b anked t rack wh ich r uns d iagona l ly u p t he s lope f ro m Wot ter t owards C o l lard T or . A t ay et l a ter d a te b oundary o r thosta ts i nscr ibed w i th l e t ter

w ere e rected o n t he b anks .

T he Wot ter s yste ms r a ise s evera l p rob le ms c o m mon t o Dar tmoor s yste ms. F irst ly t he mat ter o f c hrono logy . We h ave t ended t o w ork o n ar u le o f t humb t ha t s i mp le b anks a re p reh is tor ic , d i tched b anks, a nd e specia l ly wa l ls, a re med ieva l o r p ost- med ieva l . T h is may p rove a n u nwarran ted a ssump t ion , e sp ec ia lly i n ac ase l i ke Wot ter , t hough t he p resence o f t he i nscr ibed s tones d oes d e monstra te t he l ongev ity o fu se o f s o me b oundar ies . S econd ly , t hough b ound ar ies o n t he l ower s lopes e nc lose wha t i s f or Dar tmoor , g ood l and , t he u pper s lopes l i e o n e x tre me ly r ocky a nd b ou lder-strewn g round c er ta in ly u nsu itab le f or c u l t iva t ion , a nd e qua l ly p rov id ing l i t t le p asture f or l i vestock . T he i mp l icat i ons may b e t ha t p ressure o n l and ( e i ther e cono m ic o r s oc ia l) f orbade t he u t i l is a t ion o fb et ter l and f or s uch e nc losures, a nd e qua l ly , wha tever t hese e nc losures w ere u sed f or , i t was p robab ly s o me th ing o f o n ly a f ew d ays d ura t ion e ach y ear , s uch a s a n a nnua l r ound u p .

T he t h ird p rob le m i s t he d is jo in ted n a ture

o f s o me o ft he b oundar ies a nd o ne c an o n ly c onc lude t ha t m issing s tre tches o f b anks w ere c on t inued i n s o me f orm wh ich n o l onger s urv ives, s uch a s h edg ing o r f ences . 8 .

H u ts a nd E nc losures

A d e ta i led c ons idera t ion l i es o u ts ide t he s cope o f t h is p aper . Enc losure Ci s mos tu nusua l f or Dar tmoor , b e ing b anked w i th e ar th a nd s tones e x terna l ly , b u t w i th v er t ica l s tone f ac ing i n terna l ly , p resu mab ly a n a rrange men t t o k eep s tock i n , b u t n ot o u t .

I tc on ta ins t wo a verage s ize h u ts.

I ti s c onstruct iona l ly

e ar l ier t han t he p ara l le l r eave 3 . T here a re t races o f c ross b anks b e tween i ta nd r eave 2 , b u t t hese a re s l igh t , a nd o n ly af ew c en t i me tres h igh . 2 5

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Enc losure B j ust t o t he w est i s a lso u nusua l ,

w i th t wo h u t p la t forms n e ither

o f wh ich s how a ny t race o f s tone wa l l ing o r r obb ing . T he e nc losure b ank i s a lso o f v ery s l ight c haracter , a nd t he who le e nc losure h as a s ub ject ive ly e ar ly a ppearance t o i t .

T o t he n or th o f t hese e nc losures t here i s a sma l l l one h u t

wh ich i s s i ted a t ap o in t wh ich c o m mands a w ide s tretch o f t he moor , a nd i t c ou ld b e c onnected w ith t he s urve i l lance o f s tock . T he e nc losure a nd t wo h u ts w i th in F ie ld S yste m 2 a re h eav i ly r obbed , b u t c on ta in s ubstan t ia l o r thosta ts w h ich g ive t he m a l a te a ppearance . T he g roup o f h u ts a ssoc iated w ith F ie ld S ystem 1 a re a lso s ubstan t ia l, b u t b e t ter p reserved .

T here i s s o me r obb ing o f t he ma in r eave h ere , p erhaps

a ssoc ia ted w ith t he u se o f t he h u ts a nd t he f i e lds, b u t t he c hrono log ica l r e lat i onsh ips a re u nc lear .

F ina l ly t here i st he l arge g roup o f h u ts a nd sma l l e n-

c losures n or th o f S add lesborough . Whe ther t h is c oncen tra t ion i s c on te mporary w ith t he f i e lds a nd s o r epresen ts a f unct iona l a nd e cono m ic d ist inct ion b e tween t he a reas n or th a nd s ou th o ft he r eave c an o n ly b e r eso lved b y e xcava t ion . B ut t here i s s o me e v idence f or r obb ing o f e nc losure wa l ls t o b u i ld n ew o nes, a nd t here i s c lear ly s o me c hrono log ica l d ep th i n t hese s tructures. CONCLUS IONS T h is b r ief s urvey d e monstra tes a n u mber o f p o in ts b oth f or f uture r esearch a nd o n f i e ldwork t echn iques : 1 .

A na lysis o f f i e ld s ys te ms c an o n ly b e d one a dequa te ly f ro m d e ta i led

g round s urvey . 2 . S ome f ie ld b oundar ies a re s o e phe mera l t ha t as ing le p lough ing c an d estroy t he m , a nd e ven o n u np loughed s i tes i n a reas where s tone i s p r i mar i ly emp loyed , s o me b oundar ies h ave d isappeared l eav ing n o t race . A s t hey e x ist a t p resen t , i ti s d if f icu lt t o s ee many o ft he b anks a s p hys ica l b oundar ies f or l i vestock , a nd t hey may b e p r imar i ly f or d e l im it ing t err i tor ies. 3 . N o t a l l t he f i e lds a re n ecessar i ly f or c u lt iva t ion a nd e xcava t ion o f f i e lds w i th p o l len a nd s o i l a na lys is i s a s d espera te ly n eeded a s t he e xcava t ion o f s e t t lemen ts. 4 .

F ie ld s yste ms o n Dar tmoor c er ta in ly s how s o me c hrono log ica l d ep th

when s tud ied i n d e ta i l , b o th i n c onstruct ion s equence ( reave , p ara l le l r eave , f i e ld s ystem) , a nd i n s uper i mposed f i e ld s yste ms a s a t Wot ter . 5 . T he t ypo log ica l s tudy o f f i e ld b oundar ies a nd t he ir a bso lu te d a t ing i s n ow o ne o ft he p r ior it ies o n Dar tmoor . S yste ms c o mparab le w ith Wot ter i n t he ir c o mp lex ity e x ist f or i nstance o n Wigford D own ( SX 5 464) a nd Easdon D own ( SX 7 382) . B oth o ne p er iod l ay-ou ts a re i n e v idence .

p lanned ' s yste ms, a nd

a gg lo mera t ive '

6 . P re l im inary f i e ld wa lk ing s uggests t ha t t he f u l l r ange o f f i e ld t ypes i s s t i ll n o t k nown . F or i nstance t here a re h in ts o f 'l azy b ed ' c u lt iva t ion o f e ar ly d a te o n E asdon Down , b u t a ny s urvey o ft he p reh istor ic s yste ms w i l l o f n ecessi ty h ave t o i nc lude t he h istor ic a s we l l . 7 . E ar l ier p lann ing p erm ission f or c h ina c lay d ump ing o n S haugh Moor t ook n o a ccount o f t he f i e ld s yste ms, b u t p reserva t ion o f t he h u ts w ithou t t he ir f i e lds w i l l o bv ious ly t ota l ly d ivorce t he m f ro m t he ir c ontex t , a nd s uch a p res erva t ion p o licy i s mean ing less. 2 7

5 .

PRE- MED IEVAL F IELDS I N THE BR ISTOL REG ION P .J . F ow ler

F or p resen t p urposes t he 'Br isto l R eg ion ' c ons ists o f f ormer n or th S omerset a nd much o f 'o ld ' G loucestersh ire .

T h is a rea n ow i nc ludes t he

n or thern f r inges o ft he 'n ew ' S o merse t , t he who le o f t he n ew c oun ty o f Avon a nd p ropor t iona te ly more o f t he sma l ler c oun ty o f G loucestersh ire ( f ig .5 .1) . W i ltsh ire i s e xc luded ( VCH . W i lts . 1 957 , 1 973 ; L eech 1 977 ) . T opograph ic a l ly t h is a rea i s d om ina ted b y t hree r anges o f ma in ly l imestone h i l ls : Mend ip a nd t he Fa i land R idge ( Carbon iferous) r unn ing west t o t he s ea , a nd t he C otswo lds ( Oo l it ic) r unn ing n or th e astwards f ro m s ou th o f Ba th . T he a l t it ude r anges f ro m j ust b e low s ea l eve l t o c . 1 000 f ta bove OD o n Mend ip a nd o n t he western C otswo ld e scarpe men t .

Apar t f ro m t he S evern , t he ma jor r iver

i st he Br isto l Avon c ut t ing t hrough t he O o l ite n ear Ba th a nd t he Carbon iferous a t Br isto l . T he v ar ied g eo logy , s o i ls, v ege ta t ion , c l i ma te a nd o ther e nv ironmen ta l f ac tors a re d iscussed a nd r eferenced i n ar ecen t s yn thesis ( Wa lker 1 972) . T he p re- med ieva l f i e lds o f t h is r eg ion h ave n ot b een s yste ma t ica l ly o r c omprehens ively s tud ied. P h i l l ips ( 1931, a a nd b , 1 933 ) , h owever , was mak ing u sefu l r ecords o n F a l land s oon a f ter t he r ecogn it ion o f 'C e lt ic ' f i e lds o n t he C ha lk f ur ther e ast a nd i ndeed o n t he O o l ite o f Ba thamp ton D own ( 49) : n umbers i nb racke ts a f ter s i te n ames r efer t o Append ix 1 ) . Beh ind t hese f i rst c onsc ious a t te mpts t o r ecogn ise a nd s tudy a nc ien t f i e lds a s s uch l ay , a s t here s t i l l d oes , ab ody o f l oca l t opograph ica l l i tera ture i n wh ich s uch f i e lds h ad b een r ecorded b u t n ot r ecogn ised e g : Phe lps 1 836 P 1 V . Ma jor a nd Burrow 's ( 1 926) 'r ecord o f r esearch a nd i nvest iga t ion i n t he f i e ld ' was s t i l l i nc iden ta l ly r ecord ing u nrecogn ised C e l t ic ' f i e lds n ear ly a c entury l a ter e g l ower f ig o n p5 4, c f ( 4 5) h ere .

I nev itab ly t here were a lso s o me wrong i den t if ica t ions e g

B oon 1 951, c f Budge e t a l 1 974 . Th is e ar ly work was c ar tograph ica l ly s yn thes ised , a lbe i t a t a sma l l s ca le , t hree t imes i n 4y ears i n t he 1 950s.

T ra tman ( 1955, f i g 2 0 )s howed 2 0

'r ecords ' o f Ce lt ic ' f i e lds o n a map o f as im i lar a rea t o f ig 5 .1 h ere ; t he O rdnance S urvey ( 1 956) s howed 5 a reas o f 'C e l t ic ' f i e lds w i th in t he a rea o f f i g 5 .1 a nd P iggot t ( 1958 , Map 1 ) s howed t wo g enera l ised a reas west o f Br isto l , o ne o f c . 2 00 s quare m i les u p t he Va le o f Berke ley a nd t he o ther o f c . 7 0 s quare m i les s ou th o ft he B r isto l Avon . F inberg ( 1955) p ub l ished A l len ' sa ir p hotograph o f 'C e l t ic ' f i e lds o n West L it t leton D own ( 9 1) a nd a t l east d ared t o s uggest ( 1959) a n a rab le s yste m a t W ith ing ton ( 1 15) i n C otswo ld c oun try s t i l l s een l arge ly I n t erms o f ag lor if ied R o man s heep r un . Gr i mes ( 1 960 ) p ub l ished h is e xce l len t f i e ld s urvey o f Charmy D own ( 6 1) a nd Wa inwr igh t ( 1 967) s urveyed a nd e xcava ted o n Ba thamp ton Down ( 4 9) .

D e ta i led work i n t he Va le o f Wr ing ton a lso d eve loped i nt he l a ter 1 960s

( 4 1-44) wh i le RCH M ' ss urvey o f t he C otswo lds ( 1976) h as n ow a sse mb led ( a l most) a l l t he r ecords o f a nc ien t f i e lds i n t he 'o ld ' c oun ty o f G loucestersh ire i n o ne p lace .

2 9

T h is p aper n ow a t te mp ts t o d o l i kew ise , b u t much more b r ie f ly , f or t he who le r eg ion .

I ti s i n p ar t ar ecord o f p ersona l f i e ldwork b ut i s more ab ib-

l i ograph ica l r esu me , a n a t temp t t o l i st a l l k nown o bserva t ions o f a nc ien t f i e lds, l arge ly f ro m p ub l ished s ources a nd a ir p hotographs.

I ti s h oped t ha t

t h is w i l l p rov ide t he b asis f or t he s ystema t ic a nd c o mprehensive s tudy o f p remed ieva l f i e lds i nt he Br isto l r eg ion wh ich s t i l l r e ma ins t o b e a t tempted . T he p resen t , o bv ious ly p a tchy , d istr ibu t ion ( f ig . 5 .1) c lass ica l ly i l lustra tes t he s urv iva l u n t i l r ecen t ly , a nd s t i l l i n s o me c ases, o f 'C e lt ic ' f i e lds a t t he f ar e nds o f p ar ishes a nd/or o n ma in ly h igh l and w h ich h as b een marg ina l i n a rab le t erms d ur ing med ieva l a nd u p t o modern t imes.

G ood e xa mp les a re

o n t he F a i land R idge ( 62, 6 3 a nd 7 2 ), o n B leadon H i l l ( 22-25 ) a nd i n Eastl each/A ldswor th ( 1 11-113 , f i g . 5 .4) ) . T he d is tr ibu t ion a lso i l lustra tes t he e f fect o f t he work o f i nd iv idua ls e g Ph i l l ips o n F a l land ( 73 , 7 7) , G r i mes a t Charmy D own ( 6 1) . We s ee t oo t he i mpor tance a s ap reserv ing a gen t o f emp ark men t ( Ash ton Park 8 4, Barnsley Park 1 01, N or ton C our t 5 1) , o f g o lf c ourses ( Ba thamp ton 4 9

Wa ltonin-Gordano 6 5) , o f c o mmon l and ( Durdham

Down 8 8 , M inch inhamp ton C o mmon 9 7) a nd o f r ace c ourses ( Aldswor th 13 , Wraxa l l 7 7 a nd L ansdown 6 0) . Two more r ecen t d eve lop men ts u nder l ine t he e x ten t t o wh ich modern f act ors a f fec t t he p resen t d istr ibu t ion a nd , c onverse ly , wha t p oten t ia l e x ists i n o therw ise 'b lank ' a reas.

I n t he Va le o f Berke ley a t Frocester ( 9 9) , i n l ong-

t erm r esearch , a nd a t L odge Farm ( 94) , i n r escue work , e xcava t ions h ave p roduced b ur ied e v idence o f f i e lds a nd a rd- marks r espect ive ly ; w h i le among J ohn Wh ite ' ss uperb a ir p ho tographs, s evera l t aken i n 1 976 d rough t c ond it ions o f modern f i e lds u nder c rop o n t he g rave l t errace o f t he R . Frome n ear Ya te ( 92) s how a p a t tern f am i l iar f ro m v a l leys i n t he M id lands ( 9 1 a lso 1 8 ) . S uch e xamp les i mp ly a n a s y e t b are ly r ecogn ised l ow land e x ten t o f p re- med ieva l a rab le i n t h is r eg ion t oo . Morpho log ica l ly , we c an s ee t wo ma in t ypes o f f i e ld s yste m , o ne c ons ist ing b as ica l ly o f e longa ted f i e lds w ith c losed e nds, t he o ther o f s quar ish f i e lds ( f ig 5 .4) . Type Ic an b e s epara ted , e ven i n t he p resen t s ta te o f o ur i n forma t ion , i n to a t l east t hree s ubd iv isions : I a :

l ong p ara l le l f i e lds d iv ided b y s tone r ows e n t ire ly o n h igh g round , o f wh ich t he s o le e xamp le i s Cheddar ( 14;

f i g. 5 .2 ).

l b : s im i lar f i e lds w ith d irect R o man a ssoc ia t ions e g a t L ye H o le v i l la ( 4 1) I c : b locks o ft h in p ara l le l f i e lds o ccur ing w i th in 'C e lt ic ' f ie ld s yste ms o f T ype Ha b e low e g t he Swa insw ick D own ( Group ( XD a nd L I ) ) o n C harmy D own ( 6 1) T ype I c an a lso b e s ubd iv ided : Ia : i rregu lar b locks o f c . 5 0m s quare b u t o f ten s o mewha t i rregu lar f i e lds e g C heddar ( 14) , c haracter ist ica l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t rackways a nd s o me t i mes c ircu lar a nd/or l oba te s e t t lemen ts s uper f ic ia l ly o f Roman d a te e g B leadon S ou th H i l l ( 2 1) , B u tco mbe/Wr ing ton ( 42) ,K ewstoke ( 54) , Wraxa l l/Por tbury ( 77 ; f i g 5 .3) , L ong A sh ton ( 84) .

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P lan o f s e t t le men t a nd f ie lds o n t he O ld H orse Race , Wraxa l l ( a f ter P h i l l ips 1 933 w i th a dd i t ions f ro m CRAAGS s urvey 1 975 ) . The b lack r ec tang les a re s i tes o f p robable b u i ld ings .

Approx .

f i b :

sma l l f i e lds o f s im i lar p a t tern e g Brean Down W. ( 20 ;

f ig 5 .3) .

The f i e lds t he mse lves a re d e marca ted b y s tone r ows ( Cheddar 1 5) , s tone wa l ls (Marsh f ie ld 8 9) , s tone b anks ( Long A sh ton 8 4, Bu tco mbe 4 2 , Brean D own W . 2 0) , e ar th b anks o r b au lks ( Barns ley 1 01) , d i tches ( B ishop S ut ton 3 5, F rocester 9 9 , Ya te 9 2) a nd l ynche ts o fu nknown s tructure ( B leadon 2 2-25 , E ast leach 1 06) . ( Append ix 2 ) .

F our p it a l ign men ts h ave a lso b een r ecorded i n t he r eg ion

O ther h in ts o f l and a l lot men t o n as ca le more e x tensive t han

t he p arce l l ing o f i nd iv idua l f i e lds a re o n M inch inhamp ton C o m mon ( 97 ) , a t B agendon ( RCH M 1 976 6 -9) a nd p ossib ly a t Draycot t ( 13) o n t he Mend ips . T he l ong-sought c entur ia t ion t heore t ica l ly t o b e e xpected n ear t he c o lon ia o f G levu m i s n o t a s y e t p hys ica l ly a t tested a l though t en ta t ive ly l oca ted o n d ocumen tary g rounds b y F inberg ( 1 955

1 4, 5 5) .

Another f orm o f l and a l lot men t

g o ing back t o t he R o man p er iod a nd a rguab ly r epresen ted b y S axon e sta tes a nd t he ma in e le men ts o f t he e x ist ing e cc les iast ica l p ar ishes h as b een s ugg ested f or t he Va le o f Wr in .g ton ( Fow ler 1 970 , 1 975) . Da t ing e v idence f or t he f i e lds t he mse lves i s n ot g ood .

T he L odge Farm

a rd- marks ( 94) a re c er ta in ly p re-Ro man a nd c ou ld b e l a te Neo l ith ic.

T he

s tone d iv is ions o f C heddar ( 15 ) a re i n p ar t embedded i n t ur f a nd t h is, t ogether w i th t he ir d ist inct ly

h igh land ' s i tua t ion a nd t he ir s uperf ic ia l s im i lar ity t o

'r eaves t o n Dar tmoor ( above )

,s uggests a m id/ la te 2 nd m il lenn iu m d a te.

S o me o f t he f i e lds o n Ba thamp ton Down ( 49) may b e e ar l ier t han t he m idIst m i l lenn ium h i l lfor t t hough o thers a re c lear ly l a ter t han i t .

Pre-Ro man I ron

Age a ssoc ia t ions a re d if f icu lt t o e stab l ish w ithou t e xcava t ion b u t t hey p robab ly e x isted a t C harmy Down ( 6 1) a nd W. Harp tree ( 16) ;

a nd s o me a t l east o f t he

o ther s yste ms p robab ly b egan i n l a ter p reh istor ic t imes e g Bu tco mbe ( 42) w here a n I ron Age s et t le men t u nder l ies t he 't yp ica l ' R o mano-Br i t ish e ar thw orks.

F ie lds a t , f or e xamp le , L ong A sh ton ( 84) , Barns ley ( 101) , L ye Ho le

( 4 1) , Frocester ( 99) a nd B ishop S u t ton ( 35) were c er ta in ly c u lt iva ted d ur ing R o man t imes a nd many o ther e xa mp les were t oo .

Gardner ( 1977 )

s uggests t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t , o n t he Fa i land R idge , t he a rab le f i e lds might h ave g iven way t o p astora l f arm ing a f ter t he 2 nd c entury A .D . T he Brean D own W. ( 20 ) s yste m migh t we l l b e long t o av ery l a te- o r p ost-Ro man p hase ; t he Barns ley Park ( 101) f i e lds were p robab ly s t i l l b e ing c u lt iva ted i n t he 5 th c entury .

T he r e mnan t o f a C e l t ic ' f i e ld s yste m a t N ew ton S t . t he ( 45) i s

c rossed b y West Wansdyke .

Med ieva l s tr ip c u lt iva t ion imp inges o n e ar l ier

f i e lds a t many p laces e g L ong A sh ton ( 84) , B leadon ( 23) , Butco mbe ( 42) L ox ton ( 2 6) , Tor mar ton ( 9 1) , Barns ley Park ( 101) , b u t f ragmen ts o f t he R o man f i e ld l ay-ou t a t L ye H o le ( 4 1) - a nd p erhaps e lsewhere more w ide ly t han we c urren t ly p erce ive , -s urv ive i n to t he l i v ing l andscape o f 1 976 . N ever the less, most o f t he e ar thwork e v idence f or p re- med ieva l f i e lds i n t he B r isto l r eg ion h as n ow b een b ad ly d amaged o r d estroyed , much o f i t r ecen t ly , y e t r e markab ly t he r eg ion s t i l l p ossesses a f ew o u tstand ing s urv iva ls c ry ing o u t f or p ermanen t p reserva t ion ( Append ix 3 ) .

3 3

APPENDIX 1 RECORDS OF PRE- MEDIEVAL F IELDS I N THE BR ISTOL REG ION

NOTES I .

T he f o l low ing a bbrev ia t ions a re u sed i n a dd i t ion t o t he B ib l iography , b e low p . APP ( i n c o lumn 6 o n ly ) : AR

a n a ir p hotograph h as b een p ub l ished

: Archaeo log ica l R ev iew ( Dep t . o f Ex tra- Mura l S tud ies, Un ivers i ty o f Br isto l)

Arch .J

:T he Archaeo log ica l J ourna l

CRAAGS AP

:a ir p ho tograph b e long ing t o Co m m it tee f or Rescue Archaeo logy i n A von , G loucestersh ire a nd S o merse t .

EKT

T ra t man 1 955, f i g 2 0 , s ee p .

GDBJ AP75

:a ir p hotographs t aken b y Professor G .D . B. J ones ( Manchester Un ivers i ty ) i n 1 975

K SG

: Gardner , K . 1 977 , s ee p . 1 92

OS

: Ordnance S urvey ( record c ards i n A von C .C . S ites a nd Monu men ts Record )

OSRB

: Ordnance S urvey , Map o f Ro man Br i ta in ( 1956)

PJF

:f irst n oted a nd/or f i e ld-checked b y t he a uthor

PP ( i n c o lu mn 6 o n ly )

: ap lan h as b een p ub l ished .

PUBSS

Proc Un iv Br isto l S pe leo l S oc

RCH M

: RCH M 1 976 , ( t he n umber i n b racke ts a f ter 'RCH M ' i s t he n u mber o f t he monu men t i n i t s p ar ish i n t he I nven tory ) : Trans Br isto l G loucestersh ire Archaeo l S oc

TBGAS WAP

2 .

: West A ir Pho tography , Weston-super-Mare ( John Wh ite)

T he e n tr ies a re l i sted p r i mar i ly f ro m s ou th t o n or th a nd s econdar i ly f ro m west t o e ast ( w ith minor e xcep t ions t o k eep t opograph ica l ly a d jacen t s i tes t oge ther i n t he c a ta logue ) . f ro m 1 -117 ;

T he e n tr ies a re n u mbered c onsecut ive ly

t he n u mbers c orrespond w i th t hose o n f ig 5 .1, a nd r un f ro m

l ef t t o r igh t . 3 .

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Abbots L e ig l i 8 52 8 6 A lveston 9 4

Ba theaston 6 1

Bad m in ton 9 3

B ishop S u t ton 3 5

Backwe l l 5 8

B leadon 2 1-25

Banwe l l 2 7

Br isto l 8 8 3 4

Brock ley 5 6

New ton S t . L oe 4 5-47

Burr ing ton 2 8

Nor th S toke 6 0

Butco mbe 4 2

Nor ton Ma lreward 5 1, 5 2

Che lwood 3 6,37

O ld m ixon 2 3

Church i l l 2 9-33

Por tbury 7 4-76, 7 7 , 8 0-82

C lap tonin-Gordano 7 0 , 7 1

Por t ishead 6 8, 6 9

C laverton 4 8 C leeve 5 5

Pr iston 3 8

C levedon 6 2

S t . Ca ther ine 6 1

Cold A sh ton 8 7

T ickenham 6 3

Congresbury 5 0

T i msbury 3 4

S tan ton Wick 3 9

Far mborough 3 8

Swa insw ick 6 1

Hawkesbury 9 3

T or mar ton 9 1

Hut ton 2 4

Wa ltonin-Gordano 6 4-66

Kewstoke 5 3 , 5 4

Weston-in-Gordano 6 7-68

L ong A shton 5 9, 8 3 , 8 4

Weston-super- Mare 4 0

L ox ton 2 6

Wraxa l l 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 7-79

Marksbury 3 8

Wr ing ton 4 1-44, 5 7

Marsh f ie ld 8 9, 9 0

Ya te 9 2

Ne mpnet t Thrubwe l l 4 2 G loucestersh ire A ldswor th 1 10, 1 13

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Bagendon 1 02

M inch inha mpton 9 7

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B ibury 1 14

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Co mp ton Abda le 1 16, 1 17

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6 .

EARLY F IELDS AND LAND ALLOT MENTS I N WESSEX D . J . B onney

O f a l l t he a reas o f Br i ta in i n wh ich t here i s e v idence f or a ncien t f i elds a nd l and a l lo t men ts , Wessex i s w i th l i t t le d oub t t he mos t s tud ied . The e x tens ive a nd o f ten d ense p a t tern o f r e ma ins t ha t h as s urv ived , ma in ly o n t he C ha lk , a nd wh ich i s n ow i n r apid p rocess o f e rad ica t ion b y modern c u l t iva t ion , h as f or l ong a t tracted t he a t ten t ion o f s tuden ts o f e ar ly a gr icu l ture .

Much h as

a lready b een wr i t ten a bou t t he r e ma ins , n o tab ly i n r ecen t y ears , b o th o f a d escr ipt ive a nd o f a n a na ly t ica l n a ture ( RCH M 1 970-75 ; 1 975 4 4-56 a nd i n Wi lson 1 975 1 03-118 ) .

B owen i n F ow ler

H ere i ti s n ecessary o n ly t o s u m-

mar ize t he more impor tan t p oin ts a nd t o s ugges t c er ta in l ines d eserv ing o f f ur ther e nqu iry . I n Wessex t he e v idence f or e ar ly c u l t iva t ion i n t he f or m o f p lough — o r r a ther a rd- marks g oes b ack t o t he mid-four th mi l lenn ium B . C . a nd i n t he f or m o f r e mains o f c erea l c rops p erhaps e ven a l i t t le e ar l ier .

Bu t c u l t iva t ion

s u f f ic ien t ly s tab le a nd p ro trac ted a s t o p roduce f ields , o r r e ma ins c apab le o f s urviv ing f or u s t o r ecogn ize , d oes n o t a t p resen t a ppear t o g o b ack much b eyond t he midd le o f t he B ronze Age .

T he e ar l ies t k nown f ie lds i n Wessex

a re t he s o c a lled ' Cel t ic ' f i e lds , at er m w i th a nachron is t ic c u l tura l a nd c hronol og ica l i mpl ica t ions b u t o ne r e ta ined i n t he a bsence o f a more g enera l ly a cc ep table a l terna t ive .

They t oge ther w i th t he l inear o r ' ranch ' b oundar ies

c o mpr ise t he ma in e v idence f or l and a l lo t men t i n R o man a nd e spec ia l ly p reR o man Wessex . The g enera l a ppearance o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds i s f am i l iar f ro m n umerous p ubl i shed p lans a nd a ir p ho tographs .

I nd iv idua l f i e lds a re n ear ly a lways s tra igh t-

s ided , g eneral ly s quare o r r ec tangu lar i n s hape a nd b e tween 4 -a nd 1 a cre ( 0 .1 a nd 0 .4 h a . )i n a rea . T he l a ter f ie lds , e specia l ly t hose l a id o u t o r mod if ied i nt he R o man p er iod , t end t o ,b e l arger , more e longa ted a nd s o met i mes more g eo me tr ica l ly l a id o u t t han t hose o f p reh is tor ic d a te .

' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds

s urv ive mos t c o m mon ly o n s lopes a nd a re , i n c onsequence , u sua l ly d e f ined b y l ynche ts t he h e igh t o f wh ich v ar ies w i th t he s teepness o f t he i n i t ia l s lope a nd t he d ura t ion a nd i n tens i ty o f c u l t iva t ion .

S o me t i mes , h owever , f i e lds

a re d e f ined b y b anks a nd , more r are ly , b y wa l ls . Ups tand ing r e ma ins o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds s urv ive i n g roups o r b locks wh ich v ary i n e x ten t f ro m o ne o r t wo h ec tares t o many h undred .

L a ter c u l t iva t ion

h as i nvar iab ly c aused much d a mage a nd i t s a b i l i ty t o r e move a l l s ur face t race o f s uch f i e lds h as made i mposs ib le a ny a ccura te p or traya l o f t he ir f u l l o r ig ina l d is tr ibu t ion .

There c an b e l i t t le d oub t h owever

t ha t a t t he ir f u l les t e x ten t

' Cel t ic ' f i elds c overed f ar l arger a reas t han t hose wh ich h ave s urv ived t o b e 4 9

r ecorded i nt he p resen t c en tury , whe ther o r n o t t hey s t i l l s urv ive t oday . S e t t le men ts o f b o th o pen a nd e nc losed t ype , o f ten a pproached b y t racks , o ccur among t he f i e lds ;

mos t o f t he m a ppear t o b e o f I ron Age a nd/or R o man d a te

b u t s ince o n ly v ery f ew h ave b een e xa m ined c are fu l ly b y e xcava t ion i ti s p oss ib le t ha t s o me o f t he m , a t l eas t , h ave t he ir o r ig ins i n t he Bronze A ge . A sma l l n umber o f s et t le men ts a pparen t ly e n t ire ly o f B ronze Age d a te s urv ives i n s pec if ic l oca l i t ies , n o tab ly o nt he Marborough D owns b u t a lso i n C ranborne C hase a nd o nt he P or ton R anges . T ha t t hey s urv ive a t a l l i s p resumably d ue p r i mar i ly t o l i gh t o r n eg l ig ib le a rab le a c t iv i ty s ince t he B ronze Age ;

o ver

l arge a reas where ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds a re we l l d eve loped b u t where B ron ze Age s e t t le men ts a re a t p resen t u nknown i ti s l i kely t ha t s uch s e t t le men ts ( and t hose o f e ar l ier d a te?) h ave b een l eve l led o r masked b y I ron Age a nd R oman c u l t iv a t ion . L inear o r ' ranch ' b oundar ies a re f ound i n s im i lar a reas t o ' Ce l t ic ' f ie lds b u t t he ir o vera l l d is tr ibu t ion i n Wessex i s more r es tr ic ted . They o ccur o ver much o f t he c ha lk lands o f H a mpsh ire a nd W i l tshire b u t o n ly t o av ery l im i ted d egree i nt he a d jacen t p ar t o f D orse t E . o f t he R iver S tour . S uch b oundar ies g enera l ly c o mpr ise a s ing le b ank a nd d i tch 3 m t o 6m a cross o vera l l , t he b ank n o t n ecessar i ly c on f ined t o t he s a me s ide t hroughou t ; o ccas iona l ly t w in b anks w i th a c en tra l d i tch a re f ound . A l though s ubs tan t ia l l eng ths o f t hese b oundar ies s urv ive a s e ar thworks , many o f t he m h ave b een l eve l led , e i ther who l ly o r i n p ar t , b y c u l t iva t ion a nd t he ir c ourses a re o f ten n ow d iscern ible o n ly f ro m t he a ir . B oundar ies v ary g rea t ly i n l eng th b u t o f ten e x tend f or many m i les , s o met imes r e la t ive ly s tra igh t , s o me t i mes f o l low ing a marked ly s inuous c ourse . C er ta in i rregu lar i t ies i n t he ir a l ignmen ts s ugges t t ha t t hey were b u i l t t o a vo id e x is t ing s truc tures o r f ea tures , p erhaps s e t t lemen ts , n ow n o l onger d etectab le o nt he s ur face . I n s o me i ns tances b arrows a ppear t o h ave s erved a s markers f or c hanges i n d irec t ion . B oundar ies o f ten d iv ide o r j o in o thers t o f or m a c omp lex p a t tern , n o t n ecessar i ly a s ing le c ons truc t ion o f o ne d a te a nd p robab ly o f ten t he p roduc t o f al ong p er iod o f u sage a nd o f i n ter m i t ten t c ons truc tion . As we l l a s d iv id ing t he c oun trys ide t he l i near b oundar ies s o met imes e nclose , o r p ar t ia l ly e nc lose , l arge a reas . O ccas iona l ly t hey f or m t he d iv is ion b e tween t wo a d jo in ing b locks o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds o r b e tween ' Ce l t ic ' f i elds a nd a n u ncu l t ipva ted a rea , p resumab ly p as ture . A r ecurr ing f ea ture i s t he way i n wh ich s o me l inear b oundar ies h ave b een l a id o u t w acon for mab ly a cross ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds i mp lying t ha t t he f i e lds a d jo in ing s uch b oundar ies h ad f a l len o u t o f u se b efore o r a s ar esu l t o f t he ir c ons truc t ion . S e t t le men ts , i nc lud ing h i l lfor ts , a re f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th l inear b oundar ies , s ome t i mes where a n umber o f t he m c onverge , more r are ly a longs ide i nd iv idua l b oundar ies . ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds a nd l inear b oundar ies s t i l l p ose many p rob le ms s ome o f wh ich w i l l a l mos t c er ta in ly y ie ld t o f ur ther w ork , b u t o thers , s uch a s t he a rea o f l and ( b o th a rab le a nd n on-arab le ) a ssoc ia ted w i th a p ar t icu lar s e t t lemen t o r t he p rec ise f unc t ion a nd s ta tus o f s o many b oundar ies , migh t we l l p rove i nt rac tab le . T he f ör mer e x ten t o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds c ou ld b e e xplored more t horough ly b y c are fu l i nves t iga t ion ( on t he g round a s we l l a s o n a ir p ho tographs ) o f t he l ower s lopes o f t he c ha lk land r iver v a l leys , i np ar t icu lar sma l l a reas o f was te g round a nd c opses .

I nt he v a l ley o f t he R iver Avon j us t N . o f S a l is-

b ury , f or e xa mp le , ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds s urv ive i n sma l l u nploughed a reas w i th in a s hor t d is tance o f t he f l ood-p la in . 5 0

A c are fu l p rogra m me o f e xcava t ion o f f i e ld l ynche ts c ou ld v ery we l l p rov ide v a luab le i n for ma t ion o nt he ir o r ig in a nd l eng th o f u se , t hough a ny s uch p rogra m me s hou ld b e p ar t o f aw ider i nves t iga t ion o f t he e vo lu t ion a nd h is tory o f s et t le men t i n ac hosen a rea . p rob le m .

S et t le men ts , o r t he ir l ack , a re a f ur ther

T he k nown e x ten t o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds s ugges ts t ha t i n s o me a reas

more s et t le men ts mus t o nce h ave e x is ted t han h ave s o f ar b een f ound .

A er ia l

s urvei l lance a nd i n tens ive f i e ld-wa lk ing a re h elp ing t o r ec ti fy t he i mba lance , b u t i t s eems l ike ly t ha t many s e t t le men ts a nd a l l ied f ea tures e spec ia l ly o f t he B ronze Age a nd e ar l ier , o nce t hey h ad b eco me o bso le te , were p robab ly f la t tened o r masked i n a n t iqu i ty b y a n e x tens ion o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds .

T o wha t e x ten t a nd

i n wha t s ta te t heir r e ma ins s urv ive b enea th t he p os i t ive l ynche ts o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds i s a t p resen t u nknown .

I ti s c once ivab le t ha t v ery e x tens ive a reas o f

e ar l ier l and s ur faces s t i l l s urv ive r e la t ive ly u nda maged b enea th s uch l ynchets a nd t ha t t hey c on ta in v a luab le i n for ma t ion i n t he f or m o f b o th s truc tures a nd a r ti fac ts a s d o many modern , p loughed s ur faces . l enge .

5 1

N ow t ha t r ea l ly i s ac ha l-

7 .

PREH ISTOR IC F IELDS AND BOUNDAR IES ON THE BERKSH IRE DO WNS R ichard B rad ley a nd J u lian R ichards

R esearch i n B erksh ire h as p roceeded i n t hree s tages : b ased u pon a ir p ho tographs ( Rhodes 1 950 ) ;

ap ioneer ing s urvey

a more d eta i led s tudy o f 1 15 km 2

a round t he B ronze Age e nc losure a t R a ms H i l l ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 ) ; a nd work t owards a s i tes a nd monumen ts r ecord u nder taken f or t he B erksh ire Archaeo log ica l C omm i t tee . t he d own land l andscape ;

T h is p aper i s c oncerned w i th t he b eg inn ings o f

a nd R o man d eve lop men ts o f t h is l ayou t w i l l b e p ub-

l i shed b y J i l l G reenaway . F ie lds . The ma jor s ys te ms a re i n t he n or thern a reas o f d own land a nd g enera l ly a vo id t he c lay-w i thf l in ts . T hey r ange i n h eigh t f ro m 1 50 m t o 2 25 m OD a nd s how a p re ference f or t he g en t ler s ou th f acing s lopes .

T hey

s urv ive a s l ynche ts o r s o i l marks , s o me t i mes a ssoc ia ted w i th b urn t s arsens ' T he f ie lds s how t wo l ayou ts . a xes u p t o 2 .5 km i n l eng th .

T he c ohes ive s ys te ms a re b ased u pon s tra igh t T hese a re mos t c o m mon n ear t he Wi l tsh ire

b order a nd i nd iv idua l g roups c an c over u p t o 9 km 2 . The a xes u sua l ly r un p ara l le l t o o ne a no ther a nd i n f i l l ing g ives a p a t tern o f r ec tangu lar u n i ts ( f igs 7 .1 a nd 7 .2 ) .

A s tudy o f t he b as ic s truc ture s ugges ts i n terna l d iv is ion i n to

b locks o f f ro m 1 .125 t o 5 km 2 ( f ig 7 .4a ) .

Th is i s impor tan t s ince s ys te ms

o f t h is s ize c ou ld h ard ly s erve o n ly o ne s e t t le men t .

The e v idence f or a n

o rgan ised l ayou t embrac ing s evera l o f t hese u n i ts h as s ocia l impl ica t ions , t he more s o w i th t he s pec ia l s ta tus o f t he R a ms H i l l e nc losure n earby .

T he

a ggrega te s ys te ms a re sma l ler , u p t o 2 .75 km 2 i n s ize , a nd i nc lude l ess r egu lar p lo ts wh ich s ee m t o h ave d eve loped b y a ccre t ion .

S o me may b e a d-

d i t ions t o more o rder ly a rrange men ts ( f ig 7 .1 ) . D i tches . c ross d ykes .

A t l eas t 5 0 .75 km o f d i tches a re k nown , a s we l l a s o ccas iona l These u sua l ly d e f ine l ong s tr ips o f l and u p t o 1 5 km 2 i n e x ten t

wh ich c an b e s ubd iv ided b y l ess r egu lar e ar thworks ( f igs 7 .1-5 ) .

G r i ms D i tch

r uns f or 1 6.75 km a nd i s s o i rregu lar t ha t i t may h ave b een b u i l t i n s tages ( f ig 7 .3 ).

I tj e s upp le men ted b y o f fsets a nd may h ave f or med t he n or thern

l im i t o f u n i ts b e tween t he d ip s lopes a nd t he c lay . F ie lds a nd b arrows .

R ound b arrows s how t wo r ela t ionsh ips w i th l ynche ts .

They e i ther l ie a t t he o u ter e dges o f t he s ys te ms o r h ave b een i ncorpora ted i n f i e ld b anks .

An u mber were u sed i nt he l ayou t o f a x ia l b locks , t he l a tes t s uch

e xa mp le c on ta in ing a C lass 1 b ronze r azor . t he c ohes ive s ys te ms ( f ig 7 .2 ) .

T he ma in r e la t ionsh ips a re w i th

T he a rea b e tween R a ms H i l l a nd t he L a mbourn

c e me tery was a pparen t ly r espec ted a s p as ture u n t i l t he L a te I ron Age ( f igs 7 .4 a nd 7 .5 ). 5 3

54

KEY •

%

BA RRO WS

POSS IBLE BARROWS CELT IC

F IELDS

D ITCH NO

EVIDENCE

F ig 7 .2

P lan SW o f S egsbury .

D i tches a nd b arrows .

A pprox .

1 :35 ,000 .

L ong a nd r ound b arrows were e i ther i ncorpora ted

i nt hese b oundar ies o r were u sed a s s igh t ing p o in ts i n t he ir o r ig ina l l ayou ts . T h is was p ar t icu lar ly t he c ase w i th Gr i ms D i tch ( f ig 7 .3 ) . D i tches a nd f ie lds .

These d i tches r egu lar ly c u t e le men ts o f t he c ohes ive

s ys te ms a nd more r are ly r espec ted e x is t ing f ie ld b oundar ies ( f igs 7 .2-7 .4 ) . Those s ubd iv id ing t he b as ic u n i ts f o l lowed t he h ead lands more o f ten .

S o me

d i tches w ere p oss ibly r educed i n al a ter p hase o f p lough ing a nd t he s tr ip p ar ishes i nt h is a rea u sua l ly t ook d i f feren t b oundar ies .

Grass land was d e-

l i bera te ly c rea ted a t R a ms H i l l a nd Way land 's Sm i thy i nt he L a te Bronze Age . D i tches a nd e nc losures .

A s er ies o f sma l l s quare o r r ec tangu lar e nc losures

a re j o ined t o t hese d i tches ( f igs 7 .2-7 .4 ) .

The a verage a rea i s 0 .35 h a .

These a re s o met i mes c onnec ted w i th more i rregu lar a rrange men ts o f o f fse ts e nc los ing u p t o 7 .5 h a .

La ter Bronze Age p o t tery h as c o me f ro m o ne s uch

s i te a t S heep Down ( Rhodes 1 950 2 1 ). 5 5

D i tches a nd h i l lfor ts .

T he ma jor h i l lfor ts n ear t he Wi ltsh ire b order l i e

t owards t he e dge o f t he d i tched l and u n i ts , a l though t he ir p hys ica l r e la t ionsh ips a re n ow o bscured .

U f f ing ton a nd L idd ing ton C as t les c ou ld h ave b een b u i l t

a cross s uch b oundar ies a nd o r ig ina l ly p ossessed e n trances i n to b o th a reas , o ne o f wh ich was l a ter b locked ( f igs 7 .1 a nd 7 .5 ) .

R a ms H i l l l ay i n a n u n-

p loughed a rea d e f ined b y s evera l l inear d i tches ( f ig 7 .4 ) , wh i le U f f ing ton was p oss ib ly p receded b y a sma l ler e nc losure j o ined t o t h is z one o f p as ture b y a t rackway ( f ig 7 .6a ) .

These f or ts c ou ld s tar t e ar ly i n t he I ron Age .

F ie lds a nd h i l l-for ts .

A par t f ro m R a ms H i l l a nd t he ' h i l l-s lope f or t ' o f

Hardwe l l C a mp , t he s i tes i n t he mos t s tud ied a rea a re a l l f ound w i th l arge s ys te ms o f c ohes ive a nd a ggrega te f ie lds ( f ig 7 .5 ) . There may b e s o me c hange o f e cono m ic emphas is t o a cco mpany t he c hange i nf or t l oca t ion , a nd S egsbury c er ta in ly i nc ludes p i ts , wh i le R a ms H i l l was a bandoned .

The f ie lds a t tached

t o P erborough C as t le i ncorpora te a c urv ing b oundary r ough ly c oncen tr ic w i th t he f or t d efences ( f ig 7 .6b ). H i l l-for ts a nd s e t t le men ts .

Pre l im inary w ork c lose t o La mbourn s ee ms

t o i nd ica te a s er ies o f e nc losures o r I ron Age s ur face f inds i n t he a reas w i th f ie lds a nd h i l lfor ts .

T he a verage s pac ing o f t hese c o mp lexes i s 2km ( f ig 7 .5b ) .

I n s o me c ases s epara te e nc losures a ppear i n g roups , wh i le a n umber a re i nt egra ted w i th t rackways .

More work i s n eeded o n t heir d a t ing .

S et t le men ts a nd d i tches . T he f a ir ly r egu lar s pacing o f t hese s i tes s ugges ts a n a verage l and u n i t o f 4 km 2 , a f igure n o t u n l ike t he a verage f or t he sma l ler a reas e nc losed b y d i tches .

There may b e s o me r ela t ionsh ip b e tween t hese

t wo p a t terns , a nd The issen p o lygons b ased o nt he s e t t le men ts s how a 4 0% o verl ap w i th t he e ar thworks ( f ig 7 .5b ) .

Th is s ugges ts t ha tp ar ts o f t h is s ys te m s aw

al ong p er iod o f u se e ven i fi t s o vera l l r ig id i ty was n ever ma in ta ined .

Gr i ms

D i tch may e ven h ave b een i n u se i n to t he R o man p er iod ( Peake e t a l 1 935 1 07 ) . Prospec t .

The e v idence h as p o in ted t o mass ive o rgan isa t ion f ro m a t l eas t

t he Midd le Bronze Age a nd s o me o f t he l a ter c hanges o f e cono m ic emphas is . An umber o f b as ic r e la t ionsh ips h ave n ow b een d e f ined w i th r esu l ts wh ich c orresp ond t o t hose a ch ieved e lsewhere i n Wessex .

B y t he R o man p er iod t h is f ra me-

work h ad b een e s tabl ished s o f ir m ly t ha t ma jor s truc tura l a l tera t ions were h ard ly f eas ib le . B erksh ire h as s o me o f t he l arges t f i e ld s ys te ms i n s ou thern E ng land , b u t p rac t ica l ly a l l o f t he m a re n ow u nder t he p lough .

F or t h is r eason t he p resen t

c on tr ibu t ion h as made mos t u se o f a ir p ho tography .

I ti s n ow i n tended t ha t

t h is o u t l ine s hou ld b e more e x tens ive ly r ev iewed o n t he g round .

5 6

D itch F ie lds

•

B arrow

o

P oss ib le B arrow

•

• 0

• o °

S heep Down

• 0 •

0

F ig 7 .3

P lan o f Gr i msdi tch a long t he N e dge o f t he B erksh ire Downs .

Approx .

1 :25 , 0 00 . 5 7

F ie ld

B locks

B arrows

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i n d iame ter a re o f ten

N one h as b een d a ted e ar l ier t han t he b eg inn ing o f

t he 2 nd c en tury AD a nd t h is t ype c on t inued t o b e e rected i n t he 4 th c entury . T hese d a tes a re v ir tua l ly t he s ame f or f arms teads w ith r ectangu lar dwe l l ings , wh ich s urpr is ing ly h ave c ircu lar o u tbu i ld ings , p erhaps g ranary o r p igsty . I t i s wor th n ot ing t ha t t he wr iter h as n ever s een e v idence f or a g ra in s torage p i t n or wou ld o ne e xpect t he m t o b e c u t i nto l oca l l imestone . F ie lds A t l east t hree t ypes o f a nc ien t f i e ld a re t o b e f ound i n t h is s tudy a rea . Most h ave b een p ho tographed b y Professor J . K . S t . J oseph s o r e ference n umbers g iven r e la te t o t he Un ivers ity o f C ambr idge A ir Photograph Co l lect i on ( henceforward UCC.

S tuden ts o f a nc ien t a nd modern Yorksh ire l andscapes

s hou ld r ea l ize t ha t h undreds o f r ecen t ly t aken a ir p hotos, most ly t he work o f D . N . R i ley , a re h oused i nt he Y orks Archaeo l S oc L ibrary , L eeds ). Sma l l g arden ' p lots, e ach e nc losed b y al oose ly t hrown t oge ther s tone b ank , p robab ly t opped b y af ence o r h edge , c o llect ive ly c over t oo e x tens ive a n a rea t o b e o n ly s tock p ounds . Is uggest t ha t s o me a t l east w ere a rab le p lots f or

s eed ' c orn a s o pposed t o 'f l our ' c orn wh ich may we l l h ave b een

k i ln d r ied ( UCC WF25 , s i te d estroyed ) .

L arger a rab le f i e lds u p t o

a cre

a re s quared b u t c an h ave a l eng th t o b read th r a t io o f u p t o 5 :1; t hey a re e nc losed a nd may b e l ynchet ted .

Au n ique v ar ia t ion , d a ted t o t he 4 th c entury AD

o n Smearse t t ( SD 8 05683 ) , h as o ne s er ies r unn ing d irec t ly u ph i l l , a nd a no ther a long t he c on tour where t he l ong n arrow f i e lds measure 1 05 m l ong b y 1 2m w ide . A cre-s ized p as tora lf i e lds, w i th t he ir e x tended d oub le-banked e n trances , a verage a bou t a n a cre a t R ibb lehead ( SD 7 64786 ; f ig 1 4 .3 , E ; UCC WF 2 1) . F ie lds l arger t han 1 0 a cres a re a lso f ound , t he ir r ect i l inear n a ture b e ing l oca l ly more a f ea ture o f g eo log ica l r a ther t han c u ltura l c on tro l . D istr ibu t ion T he l argest b lock o f a rab le 'Ce l t ic ' f i e lds i nt he Penn ines l i es im med ia te ly n or th o f G rass ing ton c over ing a t l east 5 7 h a ( 1 40 a cres , f ig 1 4 .2 ) . On i t s west c on t iguous s e t t le men ts a nd f i e lds o ccur o n L ea Green , i n G ra ss Wood a nd t o t he west o f t he r iver i n t he n ow c leared C hape l H ouse Wood . Nor thwards i n Whar feda le r easonab ly d iscre te c oncen tra t ions o f a nc ien t f i e lds c an b e i den t if ied a round s et t le men t n uc le i a t O utgang H i l l ( SD 9 72670 ; 6 8) , Wassa L a the ( SD 9 89682) o r Sw inebar S car ( SD 9 84695 ; a l l i n C on istone p ar ish .

UCC BET

UCC BLX 5 1) ,

T he d istr ibu t ion e x tends u p L it tonda le

gB lue S car

( SD 9 33712) a nd o n t he s ou thern t erraces o f P enyghen t G i l l ( SD 8 65737 ; 1 4 .1) .

f i g

T he s ou thern v a l ley s ide o f Wens leyda le t oo h as a s pread o f i so la ted

f armsteads f ro m S ta l l ing Busk ( SD 9 25854) e ast t o Penh i l l ( SE 0 31860) .

A n

e x tens ive a rea o f s tone wa l led e nc losures o n A dd lebrough a nd t o t he e ast o f S tony R a ise c a irn ( SD 9 55870 ) i s a ssoc ia ted w i th r ectangu lar R o manoBr it ish h ouses . T he e ar ly f i e ld s yste ms o n t he r eef l imes tones s ou th o f Ma lham Cove a nd G orda le h ave b een l arge ly p loughed o u t e xcep t o n t he s teeper g rad ien ts w here t hey e xe mp l ify c hang ing p lough t echn iques when c o mpared w ith t he a d jacen t 1 12

BA INBR IDGE

L ANCASTER

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I

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r•, / / I

7 7

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r

II

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-- _

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4 › 2 _ 7 g

F ig 1 4 .3

P lan o f e ar ly f i e lds a nd o ther f ea tures a t R ibb lehead . Dashed l ine : modern f i e ld wa l ls ; s o l id l ines : a nc ien t f ie ld wal ls ;

d o t ted a reas :

e xposed l imes tone p ave men t .

med ieva l f orms . O n t he p la teau s urround ing t he t arn t he l arger r ounded e nc losures a re more c lear ly p astora l b u t t he f armsteads a l l h ave af ew ' garden ' p lots, w ith f l in t a nd i ron s ick les h av ing b een e xcava ted . Upper R ibb lesda le e scaped t he med ieva l p lough . Here l and h o ld ings c an b e measured r easonab ly a ccura te ly : o n f ig 1 4 .3 , A -T op C ow Pas ture 8 h ectares, B - I ngham L odge S haw Pasture 2 6 h ec tares, C - Ashes L odge Pasture 1 6 h ectares, D - G auber C ow Pasture 7h ectares ( UCC WF16) a nd E - Gauber L i mek i ln Pasture 1 6 h ec tares. T hough s i tua ted o n l imestone t err aces a l l b u t Bh ave s pr ings o r s tream wa ter . Bh as awe l l-def ined d roveway d own t he v a l leys ide w ith a h o l low way t o t he s outh o n t o u n .enc losed f e l l s ide .

The h o ld ings men t ioned c over a n a l t itude z one o f l i t t le more t han 3 0m .

N orma l ly i n t h is d istr ict b ur ia l mounds o ccur a bove t he s et t le men t z one o n i n ter med ia te s ky l ine l oca t ions o r a round Ma lham o n h i l l tops ; f ound b e tween b oth C - D a nd D - E .

h ere t umu l i a re

T he s i tes d escr ibed a bove a re a l l f ound c lose t o o r a bove t he 3 00 m c ont our a nd may b e t yp ica l . I ti s f or tuna te t ha t t he med ieva l s tr ip l ynche ts o f s o me n e ighbour ing t ownsh ips d o n ot merge a nd t ha t a long t wo p ar ish b ounda r ies i n p ar t icu lar , L ange

-S et t le a t S D 8 25634 a nd C lapham -Austw ick ,

a rab le 'C e lt ic ' f i e lds r un d own t he v a l ley s ide , i n t he c ase o f t he f i rst men t ioned t o 1 81 m ( 600f t ) a bove OD a nd i n t he s econd t o 1 52 m ( 500f t ) a bove OD a t S D 7 60690 ( f ig 1 4 .1, 1 5) . The o vera l l d ens ity o f f armsteads i n t h is s tudy d istr ic t i s 1p er 1 2 s q kms o r 1p er 5 s q m i les, c o mparab le w i th Ang lesey . T he e xcava t ion e v idence s hows t he s tone b u i lt f armsteads t o b e R o mano-Br it ish b u t t he G rassing ton f i e lds ( f ig 1 4 .2) a re c en tred o n al arge t u mu lus wh ich y ie lded a n a l l-over c orded b eaker a nd s econdary B ronze Age ma ter ia l . T he h i ll t op c a irn o n Add leborough h as a c urb o f c up-and-r ing d ecora ted s tones ; s e t t lemen t a reas a t Ma lha m a nd S ta infor th ( f ig 1 4 .1, 1 9) c on ta in sma l l Bronze Age b ur ia l mounds . A t R ibb lehead a l arge l a te Neo l ith ic c a irn l i es t o t he wes t o f t he f i e lds i n Gauber L i mek i lnPasture ( f ig 1 4 .3 ,E ) a nd h as b anks wh ich may o r may n ot b e a n i n tegra l p ar t r unn ing t o t he S E.

T he s i te e xcava ted s ou th o ft he

q uarry a t R ibb lehead p roved t o b e n in th c en tury AD a nd l i t t le d i f feren t f rom t he e ar ly a d jacen t s i tes o n t he s ur face .

T hree o f i t s sma l l p lo ts a re n ow b are

l imes tone p ave men t . T o t he wes t a sma l l b ur ia l mound c on ta ined a l imes tone s lab c is t p ro tec t ing a l one f l in t l ea f-shaped a rrowhead ( K ing 1 977 ) . N o t a l l t he e ar l ier p reh istor ic monu men ts a re t he r esu lt o f i t ineran t t raders f or c lear ly t here was s o me c on t inu ity , w ith c l ima t ic c hange i ncreasing a nd d ecreas ing t he marg ina l ity a tb oth e x tre mes o ft he f armed a l t itude z one .

A

s usp ic ion e x ists t ha t t he Bronze Age c l i ma t ic o p t i ma e ncouraged t he movemen t o fp eop le o f ft he we l l-dra ined l imestones o n t o t he a reas o f d r if t a nd M i l lstone Gr it t o t he s ou th . U n for tuna te ly wh i le t he monument r ecord may b e r easonab ly c o mp le te , l arge a reas o fb are p ave men t e x ist ( f ig 1 4 .3) , d en uded n a tura l ly o ft he ir o rgan ic s o i ls .

F uture w orkers s hou ld a t temp t t o

i so la te e v idence f or p reh istor ic a gr icu lture a round t he e dges o f t he u p land p ea ts .

O ur immed ia te p rob le m i s t o s chedu le a sma l l n umber o f e x tens ive

s i tes i n t he ir e n t ire ty : t oo many h ave a lready b een s acr if iced .

1 14

1 5 .

PREH ISTOR IC F IELD AND LAND BOUNDARY S YSTE MS I N THE NORTH YORK MOORS DA S pra t t

Thanks t o t he w ork o f D r IG S i m mons a nd h is s tuden ts a t Durham U n ivers i ty ( J ones 1 971 , A therden 1 972 ,

S i m mons a nd C und i l l 1 974 ) , w e n ow

h a ve

a r easonably c oheren t p ic ture o f t he v ege ta t iona l , a nd h ence a gr icu l tura l , p reh is tory o f t he N or th Y ork Moors . T he ir work i n a na lys ing t he p o l len f ro m s o me 2 7 p ea t b or ings h as c overed t he n or thern p ar t o f t he moors where t he s oi ls a re d er ived f ro m t he b ou lder c lay t o t he n or th a nd n or th e as t , a nd f ro m t he s i l iceous o o l i t ic r ocks o n t he h igher g round i n t he c en tra l moor land a rea .

I nt hese a reas ,

a gr icu l ture i s n o t d e-

t ectab le u n t i l t he l a ter p ar t o ft he n eo l ith ic p er iod ( 3000-1800 b e) , a nd t ha t f ro m o n ly o ne p ea tb or ing i n t he s er ies . Pastora l is m a nd h un t ing were t he ma jor a c t iv it ies i n t h is p er iod , a nd c on t inued t o b e s o d ur ing t he Bronze Age ( 1800-700 b e) w ith p astora l ism p robab ly c on t inu ing i n t he I ron Age . H owever c erea l p o l len ( bar ley a nd emmer whea t ) a nd a rab le weeds s how i n many o f t he s ect ions a t t he Bronze Age l eve ls, a nd e spec ia l ly o n t he h igher g round , t ha t t here was c ons iderab le a gr icu ltura l a ct iv ity . Agr icu lture i ncreased i n t he I ron Age , a cco mpan ied b y e ven more I n tens ive c learance t ha n i n t he Bronze Age , b u tb y t h is t ime much o ft he h igher g round h ad a pparen t ly b eco me i nf ert i le , a nd e v idence o f I ron A ge a ct iv ity , a s s hown b y d istr ibu t ions o f I ron Age s et t le men ts a nd b eeh ive q uerns, i s ma in ly o n t he p er iphery o f t he N or th York Moors a nd o n t he l ower b ou lder c lay s o i ls .

On t he l imestone s o i ls i n

t he s ou thern p ar t o f t he moors t here i s a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o f s et t le men t f ro m N eo l ith ic t imes o nwards a nd i ti s l i ke ly t ha t a gr icu lture h ere was c ont inuous a nd w idespread f ro m t ha t p er iod t hroughou t p reh istor ic a nd R o man t imes .

We h ave n o d irec t p o l len a na lysis t o s ubstan t ia te t h is, h owever , a nd

n ear ly a l l p reh istor ic f i e ld s yste ms i n t h is a rea h ave b een d estroyed b y t he i n tens ive f arm ing o f t h is f er t i le a rea i n h istor ic t imes. 1 .

PREHISTOR IC F IELDS

F eache m ( 1973 3 37) r igh t ly p o in ts o u t t ha t most o f t he v ery e x tens ive a reas o f p reh istor ic p lots a nd f i e lds wh ich s urv ive i n many p ar ts o f Yorksh ire a re s t i l l v ir tua l ly u nknown a nd q u i te u nrecorded i n a ny d e ta i l '. A lthough E lgee ( 1 930 ) a nd more r ecen t ly H ayes ( 1 963 ) a nd Ru t ter ( 1 960-75 ) h ave worked a ss iduous ly i n s urvey ing a nd mapp ing , much h as s t i l l t o b e a cco mp l ished t o e stab l ish d e ta i led a nd c o mprehens ive k now ledge . I ti s , h owever , p oss ib le a t t he p resen t s tage t o p o in to u t t yp ica l f i e ld a nd b oundary s ystems a nd p rov ide e xamp les o f e ach . A .

I rregu lar f i e ld s ystems a ssoc ia ted w ith c a irn f ie lds A bou t 5 0 c a irn f ie lds a re k nown i n t he N or th York Moors, most o f t he m

s i tua ted o n t he h i l l s purs a nd h i l ls ides a t l ess t han 1 000 f ta bove OD ; 1 15

v ery

f ew a re o n t he t ops o f t he h igh moors wh ich r i se a bou t 1 000f t o r o n t he h igh c en tra l wa tershed a bove 1 200f t .

Many o f t hem a re q u ite sma l l c o l lec t ions o f

s toney c a irns , b u t e ven w i th t hese , c are fu l s urvey h as s hown ( Feache m 1 973 ) p a t terns o f i rregu lar f ie ld wa l ls a nd l y-n che ts a ssocia ted w i th t he c a irns .

T he

v ery l arge c a irn f ie lds , f or e xa mp le a t C rown E nd , Wes terda le ( NZ 6 60070 ) , Danby R igg ( NZ 7 10065) a nd I ron H owe ( SE 5 28950) , e xh ib i ts t o av ary ing d egree a l ayou t b ased o n l ong f ie ld wa l ls, w i th sma l ler wa l ls s paced o u t a t r igh t a ng les t o t he m , g iv ing a v ar ied p a t tern o f sma l l f i e lds . T he ma in p rob le m w ith t he c a irn f ie lds i s t he a bsence o f u nequ ivoca l d a t ing . Because o f t he ir o ccas iona l a ssoc ia t ion w ith r ound b arrows a nd r ing c a irns c on ta in ing c o l lared u rns t hey a re u sua l ly a scr ibed t o t he Bronze Age , b u t t here i s n o i ndependen t d a t ing e v idence .

H owever , f inds d a t ing l a ter t han t he

Bronze Age h ave n ot o ccurred i n t he c a irn f ie lds i n t h is a rea , s o t ha t Bronze Age d a t ing s ee ms t he most p laus ib le .

An e xcep t ion i s a t C rown End , where

t he c a irn f ie ld a rea i s c on t iguous w ith a sma l l r ectangu lar f i e ld , p ronounced l ynche ts a nd a n e nc losure o f I ron Age t ype wh ich h as y ie lded e v idence o f I ron Age smel t ing ( Harbord a nd S pra t t 1 975 ).

A l though t he i rregu lar wa l l ing

a nd c a irn f ie ld may d a te f ro m a n e ar l ier p er iod , t here i s l i t t le d oub t t ha t s e t t lemen t a t C rown E nd c on t inued i n to t he I ron Age . B .

Sma l l r egu lar r ectangu lar f ie lds . N ine f i e ld s yste ms o f t h is t ype a re k nown ( Grea t Ay ton Moor NZ 6 01120 ,

E ston Moor NZ 5 71177 , Waywor th Moor NZ 6 49098 , Crag B ank , K i lda le NZ 6 30098 , E sk le t ts NZ 6 55017 , Crown End , Westerda le NZ 6 68076, S tr tm try Carr NZ 8 08026 , C o ld Ca m S E 5 34816, L ev isham Moor S E 8 21929 , C o ld K irby S E 5 35845) .

The l ast t hree a re o n t he O o l it ic L i mestone i n t he s ou th-

e rn a rea , t he r e ma inder o n t he a c id ic s o i ls i n t he n or th . T here i s ad ist inct ion t o b e d rawn w ith in t h is g enera l c lass .

Two o f t he

r ec tangu lar f i e ld s yste ms, n ame ly Crown End a nd Grea t Ay ton Moor , h ave s toney c a irns a ssoc ia ted w ith t he m , t he l a t ter a q u ite e x tensive c a irn f ie ld . T he f i e lds a t E ston Moor , Crag Bank , E sk let ts, C o ld Cam , C o ld K irby a nd L ev isha m h ave n o s uch a ssoc ia t ion .

T he Grea t Ay ton Moor f ie lds may b e

t hough t t o b e morpho log ica l ly i n ter med ia te b e tween t he c a irn f ie lds a nd t he r ectangu lar f i e lds wh ich a re u sua l ly d evo id o f c a irns. T he C rag Bank s yste m h as b een d a ted t o t he I ron Age b y p ot tery f i nds, a nd t he a d jacen t s et t le men t c on t inued u n t i l t he 2 nd c entury AD . T he C e l t ic ' f i e lds s ee med t o b e t he f armyard a nd wa l led g arden o f t he s e t t le men t , a nd t he ma in a rab le f i e ld l ay o n t he o ther s ide o f t he ma in l ynche t , t o t he n or th . Ro mano-Br i t ish a nd I ron Age p ot tery was f ound i n t he s et t le men t , a nd s add le , b eeh ive a nd f la t r otary q uerns . On ly I ron Age p ot tery was f ound o n t he o ld g round s ur face i n t he ma in a rab le f i e ld , a nd ab ody s herd o f t he s a me p ot tery i n t he s tone wa l l o f t he l ynche t . The s tone wa l l , c arefu l ly b u i lt o f h eavy b ou lders, was n ot s i mp ly a marker , f or i tr e ta ined 2 f t o f f i ne t i lth wh ich h ad a ccu mu la ted a bove i t( C lose e t a l

1 975 ) .

S ince t he work o f Dr J ones ( 1971 ) h as s hown c lear ly t ha t c erea l c u lture was a c on t inuous a ct iv ity i n t he a rea i n t he I ron Age , i ti s s urpr is ing t ha t we d o n ot f i nd more e xa mp les o f r ectangu lar f i e lds.

1 16

We d o n ot k now , h owever ,

t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he moor land h as b een c u l t iva ted i n t he i n terven ing y ears. O ne o ther p oss ib le e xp lana t ion i s t ha t p r im it ive a gr icu lture w ou ld n ot p ers ist f or many y ears c onsecu t ive ly i nt he s ame l oca t ion o n t he moor land , b ecause r ap id e xhaust ion o ft he p oor a c id ic s o i ls wou ld n ecessi ta te a s h i f t ing a gr icu lt ure s o t ha t e asi ly d e tectab le l ynche ts were n ot b u i lt u p .

O n t he o ther h and ,

i ti s p oss ib le t ha t we h ave n ot l earned t o d iscern a l l t he p a t terns o f I ron A ge f ie lds o n t he moors , e spec ia l ly a s l arge a reas a re o bscured b y d eep h ea ther .

F or e xamp le t he f i e ld b oundar ies a ssoc ia ted w ith P ercy R igg I ron

Age s et t lemen t a re sma l l l i near d i tches, b are ly d iscernab le o n t he g round a f ter d iscovery b y a ir p hotography ( C lose 1 972 ) . R o man f i nds a re r are i n t he moor land a reas, a nd t he l arger r ectangu lar f i e lds a ssoc ia ted w ith t he R o mano-Br it ish p er iod h ave n ot b een d iscovered , w ith t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f t he l arge f i e ld t o t he n or th o f t he ma in l ynche t a t Crag B ank . 2 .

PREH ISTOR IC BOUNDAR IES Three t ypes o f l and b oundary f ea ture may r easonab ly b e t hough t t o b e o f

p reh istor ic o r ig in .

O f t hese , t he c ross-r idge d ykes h ave b een c arefu l ly

s tud ied , w hereas k now ledge o ft he o thers i s l arge ly t he r esu lt o f more r ecen t o bserva t ions a nd t hey h ave n o t r ece ived d e ta i led a na lys is. T he e x tens ive s yste ms o f d i tches i n t he s ou th o f t he a rea h ave n ot b een r e l iab ly d a ted a nd a re t herefore om it ted f ro m t he p resen t p aper . A .

Cross-R idge Dykes These c o mpr ise a l i near d i tch a nd b ank , s o me t i mes d oub led , c ross ing

t he n eck o f as pur wh ich u sua l ly c on ta ins a n a rea o f p reh istor ic f ea tures s uch a s c a irns a nd wa l ls . T he c ircu mstan t ia l e v idence t ha t t hey a re c on te mp orary w i th t hese f ea tures r es ides i n t he f act t ha t t hey s epara te t he m f ro m t he emp ty moor land , i n p ar t icu lar a t C rown End a nd Danby R igg . They a re d escr ibed b y Hayes ( 1 963 ) a nd E lgee ( 1930), w ho a lso p rov ides p ho tographs . B .

L inear Wa l l ing

One e xamp le o f al i near wa l l a t tached t o a sma l l , p robab ly B ronze Age , e nc losure h as r ecen t ly b een d iscovered a t Near Moor , O s mo ther ly ( NZ 4 74999) . A n a pprox i ma te ly o va l e nc losure ( 20 m N -S , 1 3 m E -W ) o f i rregu lar v er t ica l a nd t umb led s tone h as a s ubs tan t ia l l i near s tone wa l l e x tend ing i t s e astern wa l l s ou thward f or 3 00 y ards . Dar tmoor

T h is i s p robab ly t he b est a na logy t o t he

r eaves p resen t ly k nown o n t he N or th York Moors.

L ines o f v ery

wea thered , p robab ly p reh istor ic, v er t ica l s tones t raverse t he N or th York Moors i np laces, b u t h ave n o tb een d a ted . G ood e xamp les a re a t H ob-on-theH i l l, G u isborough Moor ( NZ 6 46121) , a nd a t Moorsho l m Moor ( NZ 6 74120) , b oth o fw h ich a re i l lustra ted b y E lgee ( 1930 ) .

T hey may we l l b e e roded

e xamp les o f o f t h is c lass o fb oundary . C .

L inear D itches a ssoc ia ted w i th I ron Age d i tched e nc losures L inear d itches, 1 000 y ards i n t o ta l , i n terconnect t he I ron Age e nc losures

o n L ev isham Moor ( SE 8 30925) , a nd e xt end n or thward a cross t he o pen moor . O n E ston Moor a t NZ 5 73168 , a2 00 y ards l i near d i tch a ssoc ia ted w i th a n e nc losure o f t yp ica l I ron Age k i te s hape h as b een r epor ted a s ac rop mark ( Spra t t 1 975 ). 1 17

Recen t f i e ld o bserva t ions i nd ica te t ha t as im i lar d i tch may p oss ib ly b e a ssoc ia ted w i th a p loughed d own e nc losure o f I ron A ge Type o n Pen H i l l , K epw ick ( SE 4 68904) . Whereas t he L ev isha m Moor c o mp lex i s c lear ly d a ted t o t he l a te I ron Age b y p ot tery , t here i s n o c er ta in d a t ing e v idence f or t he E ston a nd K epw ick s i tes. S U M MARY G ood e xa mp les o f d if feren t t ypes o f p reh istor ic f i e lds a nd b oundar ies c an b e f ound i n t he N or th York Moors, c orrespond ing w i th p a t terns f ound e lsewhere i n Br ita in .

A lthough p a laeobo tan ica l k now ledge o f t he a rea i s we l l

a dvanced i n t he n or thern p ar ts, t here i s n eed t o e x tend , i fp oss ib le , t h is k nowl edge t o t he s ou thern a reas a nd f or a n e x tens ive i nvest iga t ion o f t he f i e ld a rcha eo logy o f t he who le t o f ur ther r ecogn i t ion o ft he f i e ld a nd b oundary p a t terns a nd t o map t he ir d istr ibu t ion . U lt i ma te ly a s yn thes is o f t he e ar ly f arm ing e cono m ics o f t he a rea m igh t b e p oss ib le .

1 18

1 6.

EARLY F IELD SURV IVAL I N NORTH CUMBR IA N . J . H igha m

The a rea c overed i s t yp ica l o f t he P enn ines , w i th l and a dequa te t o a rable u se i n l im i ted , a nd p robab ly d im in ish ing , s upp ly s ince t he R o man p er iod d ue t o e nv ironmen ta l d egenera t ion ( Penn ing ton 1 970

7 2 ) .

S uccess ive r e-use h as

d es troyed mos t u ps tand ing f i e ld r e ma ins b e low 8 00 f t , a nd p as tures d om ina ted b y l a te r ig a nd f urrow c over much o f t he g rade 3 l and b e tween 5 00 f t— 8 00 f t . N ew work h as b rough t a bou t ac ons iderab le e xpans ion o f d a ta f ro m t he a rea o ver 8 00 f t a bove OD a nd a n e xp los ion o f d a ta r e tr ieva l b o th f ro m t he l ow land a rea u nder modern a rable a nd f ro m p as tures d evoid o f r ig a nd f urrow . Arab letype e ar ly f i e ld s urv iva l a bove 8 00 f ti s r are ( eg L owndes 1 963 7 7 ) , w i th t he mos t i l lum ina t ing e xamp les a t C rosby G arre t t ( Jones 1 975 9 6 ) a nd Wa i tby ( H igha m a nd J ones 1 975 4 1) .

Mos t o f t he u p land s ys te ms i nvo lve d ykes ,

l inear f ea tures f or med o f a n e ar th b ank n or ma l ly w i th a d i tch o n t he u ps lope s ide ,

s im i lar t o f ea tures e lsewhere i n t he H igh land z one a nd t raceab le i n s o me

i ns tances f or u p t o 5 km ( H igha m a nd J ones 1 975 4 3 ) .

The Wa i tby d yke s ys te m

i s mu l t i-per iod i n o r ig in , w i th e ach a dap ta t ion r epresen t ing a s uccess ive a bandonmen t o f t he l imes tone f e l ls . a re c lose ly r ela ted .

Unde fended R o man p er iod s e t t le men t s i tes

The f i na l r ecorded p hase o f t he d ykes p os t-da tes t he

a bandonmen t o f a t l eas t p ar t o f a n a rab le f ie ld s ys te m d iv ided u p b y l ynche ts a nd e ar th b anks i n to 2 8 u n i ts v ary ing b e tween 0 .2 a nd 1 . 8h a a nd t o ta l l ing 1 7.5 h a .

I ti s c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he 4 th c en tury d efens ive o ccupa t ion p hase

o n t he Wa i tby C as t le s et t le men t s i te ( Excava t ion 1 976 , u npub l ished ) .

T he

d ykes p robab ly r e la te t o h erd manage men t , p reven t ing s um mer f orag ing o n c rops a nd w in ter g raz ing ( J ones G . R . 1 972 3 56 ) . Wes t o f t he S canda l B eck g orge l i es t he C rosby G arre t t s tone-bu i lt f i e ld s ys te m a nd s et t le men t c o mp lex .

The t err i tory a ssocia ted w i th t hree s e t t le-

men ts i s c lose ly d e f ined b y g eograph ica l f ac tors , e xcep t t o t he n or th .

A

more p rec ise p ic ture o f s i te t err i tory a nd r esource a va i labi l i ty c an t here fore b e a t te mp ted , e ven t hough t he s i tua t ion s ugges ts i t was marg ina l a nd p oss ib ly u nsuccess fu l .

B as ic r esources a re r ead i ly a va i lab le , a nd a q uo ta o f n o more

t han 1 6 h a o f e nc losed a rab le i s a ssoc ia ted w i th e ach o f t he t wo more s ou ther ly s i tes ( r ig a nd f urrow h as o b l i tera ted t he e ar ly f i e ld s ys te m t o t he n or th ) .

The

p as ture a va i lab le w i th in t he f e l l t op d yke i s a pprox i ma te ly 5 0 h a p er s i te , w i th p erhaps 6 h a o f w ood land o nt he s teep g orge s ide . S ou th o f C rosby G arre t t , R avens toneda le D eer P ark h as p reserved f our s et t le men t s i tes , a ssoc ia ted w i th s ubs tan t ia l d ykes t ha t h ave b een p loughed o u t o u ts ide t he p ark wa l l ( RCH M 1 933 2 00 ) , b u t n o r e ma ins o f a rab le e nc losures . E lsewhere , a rab le e nc losures h ave b een r e-de f ined b y a er ia l p ho tography a s 19

F ig 1 6 .1

The l oca t ion o f e ar ly f ie lds i n C umbr ia .

1 20

A pprox . 1 :700 ,000 .

1 21 r esource

s o i l- o r c rop- marks , i np as tures r ever ted t o a rable .

A t Yanwa th Wood n ear

P enr i th ( RCH M 1 933 2 54 ) , a er ia l p ho tography i n w in ter h as s hown t ha t a n u ps tand ing s et t le men t s i te l i es w i th in a p rev ious ly u nknown r ect i l inear f ield s ys te m , n o t v is ib le u nder s u m mer a rab le , w h ich a pparen t ly e x tended a t l eas t t o s i tes 1 km t o t he s ou thwes t a nd wes t .

S im i lar modern p lough ing wou ld a l low

a n i nves t iga t ion o f t he f u l l e x ten t o f t he S tone C arr f ie ld s ys te m ( Hay 1 945 1 26 ) wh ich h as c lear ly b een t runca ted b y e ar ly modern a rab le e nclosure .

O ther

D eer P arks p rov ide u nusua l c ond i t ions f or e xam in ing b ou lder c lay a reas t ha t , o u ts ide t he b ounds o f ap ark , were n or ma l ly s ub ject t o a rable c u l t iva t ion i n t he l a te med ieva l a nd modern p er iods . Fur ther e xa mp les o f f ragmen tary e ar ly f i e ld s urv iva l l i e w i th in t he p arks a t L ow ther , Hu t ton J ohn T ower , Brougha m H a l l a nd C rosby R avenswor th ( RCH M 1 933 8 2 ) .

The l as t p ar ish ,

c o mpr is ing t he h eadwa ters o f t he L yvenne t B eck , h as e x tens ive h igh p as tures ( above 8 00 f t ) where f ragmen tary p as tora l-type f i eld s ys te ms h ave s urv ived t he modern l ey f ar m ing t echn iques .

T he t o ta l a rea , c ircu mscr ibed b y t he

1 150 f t c on tour a s a n u pper l im i t a nd t he 8 00 f ta s t he l ower , b e low wh ich a gr ic u l tura l d es truc t ion p redo m ina tes , i s u nusua l i n t he d ens i ty o f f i e ld s urv iva l o n t he h igher f e l ls , o n ly c o mparab le w i th t he S ta in more a rea ( H igha m a nd J ones 1 975 3 9 ) a nd Augher tree F e l l ( Be l lhouse 1 967 2 6 ).

The l a t ter a rea , o n l and

s ub jec t t o e ros ion , q uarry ing a nd p ea t f or ma t ion , h as p reserved af i eld s ys te m i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th f our s e t t le men t s i tes wh ich , a l though c ircumscr ibed b y t he a rab le i n takes t ha t s urround t he F e l l , s t i l l o ccup ies 1 .4 s q km .

L ess i m-

p ress ive b u t e ssen t ia l ly s im i lar u ps tand ing r e ma ins s urv ive a t B ern ier H i l l , Du f ton , K e igh ly a nd S hap We l ls . Wi th in t he more f er t i le a reas o f t he v a l ley f l oor , c rop- mark p hotography h as r ecorded r ec t i linear f i e ld s ys te ms i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he R o man r oad a t B rougha m ( H igha m a nd J ones 1 975 2 6 ) a nd b e tween P enr i th a nd L ow H eske t t , a long t he R o man r oad i nt he P et ter i l v a l ley .

T he mos t c o mple te s ys te ms ,

h owever , l i e i n t he Nor th C umbr ian p la in , where i nd iv idua l s i tes a re a ssoc ia ted w i th a p a t tern o f r ec t i linear f ie lds , a s a t Thursby a nd S andy Brow ( H igha m a nd J ones 1 975 5 0 ) .

S ou th o f O ld C ar l is le , n arrow s tr ip f ie lds a re c losely a sso-

c ia ted w i th t rackways s ou th o f t he v icus , t he who le v is ib le a s c rop marks o ver 1 1 h a , w i th s tr ips 3 0-100 m l ong b y 2 0-50 m w ide , l ying b etween 2 00 f t a nd 3 00 f ta bove OD . The mos t c o mp le te , i den t i f iab le , e ar ly l andscapes l i e n o t o n t he c lays o f Wig ton o r t he r iver v al leys , b u t o n t he e skers o f t he l owlying a nd marshy n or thwes t p la in . A t H o l me Abbey S ou th , ac u l t ivab le a rea o f 5 ,200 h a c on ta ins 2 2 s e t t le men t s i tes a nd a c o mp lex o f d ykes t ha t b reak u p t he t erra in i n to r ec t i l in ear b locks o f 3 -7 h a ( H igha m a nd J ones 1 975 2 0 ) , p erhaps f u lf i l l ing t he s ame f unc t ion a s t he u p land d ykes b u t w i th t he marshes c orrespond ing t o t he f e l ls . Arab le-type f ie lds ( 9 d ist ingu ishab le t o ta l l ing 4 h a ) l i e a round Tarn s. Th is who le a rea i s s evere ly t hrea tened b y c hanges i n modern a gr icu l tura l t echn iques a nd t he e x tens ion o f a lready s ubs tan t ia l c on i ferous p lan ta t ions , a nd w i thou t a dequa te b iannua l a er ia l o bserva t ion , wh ich i s n o t c urren t ly a va i lab le , much i n for ma t ion w i l l b e i rre tr ievab ly l os t .

More p ar t icu lar t hrea ts a re

a lso p resen t , s uch a s s and q uarrying a t H o l me A bbey , a nd l imes tone q uarry ing a t H ar t ley ( K irkby S tephen ) , b u t t he c on t inu ing p ract ice o f l ey f arm ing , w i th i t s s low r o ta t ion a nd l ong p er iods o f f a l low , r e ma ins t he g rea tes t p rob le m t o a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion , b o th i n a reas where f ie ld s ys te ms s urv ive a s u ps tanding monu men ts , a nd where s ur face f ea tures h ave a lready b een e rased . 1 22

F ig 1 6.3

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PARK WALL

MED IEVAL I NF IELD

EXPOSED

L I MESTONE

SETTLE MENT

WALLS

F IELD

WALLS

R IVERS

1 0 h a 2 K il ome tres

1

F ig 1 6. 5 Map o f t he Lyvenne t a rea .

1 25 .

3 in t o 1 mi le.

1 7 .

THE LOCATION OF PRE- MEDIEVAL F IELDS I N C AERNARVONSH IRE N icho las J ohnson

The S ymposiu m s howed t he g rea t i ncrease t hroughou t t he c oun try o f t he s tudy o f f i e ld s ystems a nd r ura l s et t le men t .

T he c onsequen t i ncrease i n t he

s oph ist ica t ion a nd v ar ie ty o f r esearch h as n ot b een a cco mpan ied b y as im i lar i ncrease i no ur u nderstand ing o f c er ta in f unda men ta l f actors o f r ura l s et t lemen t . Very l i t t le a t te mp t h as b een made t o u nderstand t he e nv ironmen ta l s ign if ic ance o f l oca t ion a nd i t s e f fec to n t he t ype , s hape a nd f unct ion o f r ura l s e t t lemen t .

D esp i te t he l arge amoun t o f ma ter ia l t ha t i s n ow c om ing f orward , t he

e v idence i st oo o f ten t rea ted a s a r tefacts t o b e l oca ted o n a map , i den t if ied , c lassif ied a nd p opped i n to t he a ppropr ia te p lace i n ac u ltura l c on t inum .

T he

WHERE ? a nd HO W? o f l oca t ion i s we l l s tud ied ; t he WHY ? o f l oca t ion i s u sua lly n eg lected a nd i ti s t h is wh ich i s t he s ub ject o f t h is p aper . Iwou ld h azard t ha t o f a l l t he f actors t ha t make u p t he b ir th , l i fe a nd d ea th o f af arm i ti s i t s l oca t ion , a nd t he e nv ironmen ta l s ign if icance o f t ha t l oca t ion , t ha t i s t he most f unda men ta l a nd i mpor tan t i n f luence o n t ha t f arm ' ss uccess a nd c on t inued we l l-be ing . T h is i s e spec ia l ly t rue i n a reas marg ina l t o t he u p lands w here e nv iron men ta l t hresho lds f l uctua te t o ag rea ter e x ten t t han e lsew here .

Af ar m ' ss uccess i s o n ly a s g rea t a s t he p oten t ia l o f i t s l oca t ion .

T he e nv iron men ta l p oten t ia l i n aH igh land Z one p re- med ieva l c on tex t i s o f f undamen ta l impor tance . Examp les a re g iven b e low o f w ork d one i n Caernarvonsh ire ( Johnson 1 976) . T he s ign if icance o f s o i l t ype o n f arm l oca t ion h as b een i so la ted h ere t o d e mons tra te t he i mpor tance o f e nv iron men ta l f actors o n t he s hape , f unct ion , a nd s uccess o f p re- med ieva l f i e lds.

Caernarvonsh ire was c hosen a s as tudy a rea

b ecause t he l arge n u mbers o f h u ts, h o mesteads a nd f i e lds h ave b een we l l d ocu men ted b y t he R oya l C om m iss ion ( RCAH M 1 956 , 1 960 , 1 964) , t he O rdnance S urvey Archaeo logy D iv is ion a nd many f i e ld w orkers ( Gresham 1 963 ; G r if f iths 1 950, 1 951, 1 958 , 1 959 ; H e mp a nd G resham 1 944 ; H ogg 1 966 ; 0 ' Ne i l l 1 936 ;

Sm ith 1 974 ; W i l l iams 1 922 , 1 923a , 1 923b) .

Env ironmen ta l

d a ta w ere a va ilab le f ro m t he S o il S urvey ( Ba l l 1 963 ), O rdnance S urvey maps a nd f ie ld w ork . The s ub ject o f s o i ls a nd l oca t ion i s o f ten c on f ined t o t he p hrase :

L ight ,

we ll-dra ined s o i ls a re s ynony mous w ith p re-Ro man s e t t lemen t a nd h eavy , wet s o i ls w ith p ost-Ro man s e t t le men t . T h is s i mp l if ica t ion , h owever , h as n o t b een t es ted o ver l arge a rea s . At en ta t ive a t te mp t b y G r i mes ( 1 945) h as n ot b een s ubsequen t ly f o lowed u p . I n o rder t o d o t h is t he many s i tes i n Caernarv onsh ire h ave b een s uper i mposed o n t o t he 1 : 10560 Base S heets o f t he S o il

1 27

Enc losed

H omes tead

S OILS A ND S ETTLEMENT

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A s ca le i nd ica t ing

t he p oss ib le v a lue o f t he v ar ious s o i ls t o t he p re- med ieva l f armer was c onst ructed a nd c hecked a ga inst t he p resumed a nd k nown p ast e nv ironmen t o f t he a rea. The r esu l ts o f t he a na lys is w ere c lear a nd n ot =expected . The p res ence, e ven af ter y ears o f s ubsequen t d enudat ion , o f many l arge l ynche ts t hree t o f our metres h igh amongst e x tens ive f i e ld s ystems s ugges ts t hat t he a reas c hosen f or a gr icu l ture w ere v ery p roduc t ive. A l though i tw as e xpected t hat w et s o ils wou ld h ave b een a vo ided , t he d egree t o w h ich t hey a ctua l ly w ere was u nexpected. I ti s p leasan t t o b e a b le t o d emonstra te t hat a n h itherto u np roven a ssump t ion i s i n f act c orrect i n r ea l i ty . 1 56 Enclosed Ho mesteads ( RCAH M 1 964, C lass I V ) w ere s tud ied.

8 0% o f

t he m u nequ ivocab ly l ay o n g ood , w e l l d ra ined s o ils ( Grades 1 , 2 , 3o n f i g 1 7.2 ).

I ft he a pparen t ly e rran t 2 0% o f s i tes l y ing o n p oor ly d ra ined s tony s o ils

a re e xa m ined more c lose ly ( Grades 4 , 5 , 6o n f i g 1 7.2 ), i tb ecomes c lear t hat t hree-quarters o f t he m c an a lso b e p u t i n to t he ' good s o i l ' c ategory. Th is i s d ue ma in ly t o t wo r easons : 1 .

The s o il b oundar ies, i nt he p rocess o f r ound ing o f f b etween s a mp le s ites, s omet i mes i nc lude smal l a reas w ith in a s o il t ype t o wh ich t he a rea d oes n o t b elong.

2 .

The f i elds t hat imp inge o n w et s o ils s how n o e v idence o f h av ing h ad t he s a me f unct ion a s a l l t he o ther f i e lds.

They a ppear t o h ave h ad a

g raz ing f unct ion , a nd a re c haracter ised b y wa l ls a nd n o t c u l t ivat ion l ynchets. F ie lds u sed f or p asture p resumab ly d o n ot h ave t o h ave s uch s tr ict l ocat iona l c ond it ions a s f i elds t hat a re t o b e u sed f or a rab le. I ti s c lear t ha t s o ils t hat a re w et t oday o n t he l ower moun ta in s lopes w ere w et when t he f i e lds w ere i nu se, f or t he b oundar ies t hat e x isted t hen , b etween w et a nd d ry s o ils, s t il l e x ist t oday. They h ave b een f oss il ised b y s ubsequen t c on t inuous f ar m ing. 1 .

These p o in ts a re we l l i l lustrated i n t wo w ays :

Wet s o ils h ave b een s tud iously a vo ided f or a rab le f i elds i n a l l b u t 5 % o f t he s i tes.

On ly 7 o u t o f 1 56 f ar ms a re i nexp l icab ly p art ly o r w ho l ly

s i ted o n w et s o ils. Even t hese s o ils a re n o t b ad ly g leyed a nd t here i s r eason t o s pecu late t ha t t hey a re s o ils o f l apsed p otent ia l , a nd c ou ld w e l l h ave b een more s u i tab le i nt he f i rst f ew c en tur ies BC/AD. 1 7.1 s hows a s amp le a rea o n t he L leyn P en insu la.

F ig

Th is a rea o f u p land ,

as hor t d istance f rom t he h il l-fort o f T re 'r C e ir i i s g ir t b y ar ing o f f ar ms a l l s i tua ted o n t he b et ter d ra ined l ower moun ta in s lopes.

The

f ar ms n ea t ly d iv ide t he s lopes i n to 1 0 b locks t hat a l l h ave c onven ien t a ccess t o l arge s tretches o fu p land p as ture.

There a re r ema ins o f

e arl ier e xp lo itat ion a th igher a l t itudes a nd t he p resu mab ly c on te mpora ry h il l-fort o f Pen y Gaer d om inates t he s ou ther ly s lopes. F ig 1 7.2 s hows t he f i elds a nd Ho mesteads s uper i mposed o n t he g enera l ised s o il map o f t he a rea. I ti s c lear when c o mpar ing f igs 1 7.1 a nd 1 7.2 t hat t he d r ier , more s u i tab le s o i ls ( Grades 1 , 2 , 3 ) l i e o n t he l im ited a reas o f s lop ing g round o n t he l ower marg ins o f t he u p land. These a reas h ave b een a l mos t c omp le tely monopo l ised b y t he f ar m f i e lds, a nd t he d egree o f a greemen t b etween t he f ar m b ound ar ies a nd t he Wet s o il/Dry s o il b oundar ies i s s tr ik ing. h ave b een c hecked i nt he f i e ld w herever p oss ib le. 1 30

T hese r esu l ts

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Where f i e lds a re o n we t s o i ls t he f i e lds a re c haracter ised b y s tone wa l ls a nd s how n o e v idence o f f ormer c u l t iva t ion .

F ig 1 7 .3 i s a

d e ta i led p lan o f t he f i e ld s yste m i mmed ia te ly t o t he w est a nd b e low Pen y Gaer s hown o n f i g 1 7 .1 a nd 1 7 .2 . I ts hows a n E nclosed H o mes tead amongst a pprox i ma te ly 1 4 a cres o f f i e lds a t T yddn Mawr . T he f i e lds a re s urrounded o n t he n or th , n or th west a nd n or th e ast b y s teep , s ha l low , s tony s o i l a nd o n t he s ou th b y v ery p oor ly d ra ined g ley s o i l . N owhere d oes a c u l t iva t ion l ynche t l i e o n w e t s o i l .

F ig 1 7 .3 c lear ly s hows t ha t wa l ls c on te mporary w ith t he

l ynche ts a ct a s we t s o i l/dry s o i l b oundar ies a nd a lso o u t line f i e lds w i th in t he we t a reas . B ecause n o l ynche ts c on t inue i n to t he we t , t he c on te mporary s tone wa l led f i e lds t ha t l i e o n wet s o i l were p roba b ly p astora l i n f unct ion .

F ur ther w ork e lsewhere i nt he c oun try

s uggests t ha t t h is i s t he c o mmon p icture wherever t h is s itua t ion a r ises . I ti s c lear t ha t f i e lds were l oca ted w ith c are .

I ti s s ign if ican t t hat t h is

c are c an b e d e monstra ted u sing l arge ly modern e nv ironmenta l d a ta .

I ti s

a lso c lear t ha t t h is s or t o f a na lys is b r ings a n a dded d i mens ion t o t he u nders tand ing o f t he n a ture o f f i e ld s yste ms . Ac o mprehensive a pproach t o t he s tudy o f f i e ld s yste ms must i nc lude a n a t temp t t o u nderstand t hose p hysica l f actors u pon wh ich a ny f arm i s f undamen ta l ly r e l ian t . T he map l oca t ion o f s hape , t ype a nd d a te o f r ura l s et t le men t i s a dequa te i n format ion f or a S i tes a nd Monu men ts R eg ister . I ti s n ot a dequa te a s ab as is f or u nderstand ing t he l oca t ion a nd f unct ion o f f i e ld s yste ms u n less f i rst p receded b y a n a t te mp t t o e xam ine t he e nv iron men ta l s ign if icance o f t ha t l oca t ion . I ti s r ecogn ised t ha t t h is c o mprehens ive a pproach i s e spec ia l ly r e levan t t o a reas p ossessing marg ina l c ond i t ions f or a gr icu lture .

1 32

1 8 .

HELD SURVEY I N THE BLACKWATERFOOT AND MACHREE AREAS OF THE I SLE OF ARRAN , BUTE R oger Mercer

I n March 1 976 t he wr i ter , t oge ther w i th f our teen u ndergradua tes f ro m t he D epar t men t o f Archaeo logy , U n iversity o f Ed inburgh , u nder took , o n b eha lf o f t he Depar tment o f t he Env ironmen t , a n a rchaeo log ica l f i e ld s urvey o f 9 60 h a o f l and i n SW Arran i n a dvance o fp ro jected f orestry p lan ta t ion .

T he s urvey

e x tended o ver t wo weeks a nd c overed t he f our a reas d ep ic ted o n t he l oca t ion map ( f ig 1 8 .1) .

T he a rea was a lready we ll k nown a s t he l oca t ion o f t wo g roups

o f p reh istor ic monumen ts i n t he c are o ft he Depar tmen t o f t he Env ironmen t . I nt he s ou th o f t he a rea i s t he s o-ca l led 'Dun ' a nd

Cashe l ' e nc losures o f

K i lpa tr ick a nd i n t he n or th , s e t o n as o mewha t i so la ted r ise i n t he v a l ley b ot to m o f t he Machr ie Burn , t he s pec tacu lar c o mp lex o f e ar ly p reh istor ic r i tua l monu men ts - s tone c irc les a nd s tand ing s tones, - a t Machr ie a nd Auchnaga l lon F arm . Apar t f ro m an u mber o f h u t c irc les i n t he v ic in ity o f t he K i lpa tr ick d un ' a nd t wo c hambered t o mbs c lose t o t he Machr ie c o mp lex , l i t t le e lse was k nown o ft he a rea p r ior t o t he s urvey o f 1 976 . The wr i ter d oes n ot p ropose t o d escr ibe h ere i n d e ta i l t he h undred o r s o f ea tures o fh istor ic a nd p reh is tor ic i n terest l oca ted w i th in t he a rea d ur ing t he s urvey .

Ra ther i t wou ld s ee m u sefu l a t t h is j uncture t o s ay s o me th ing o f

t he me thod u sed i n e xecu t ing t he s urvey a nd t o s u mmar ise t he p hases o f l andu se i n t he a rea i nd ica ted b y f ea tures r ecorded . Me thod The a im o f t he s urvey was r estr icted . I t was t o r ecord t he l oca t ion a nd n a ture o f a l l s ites o fp reh istor ic a nd h istor ic i n terest w i th in t he a rea t hrea tene db y p roposed f orestry . A l l u n itary s i tes ( f armsteads, p reh istor ic monumen ts) w ere p lanned i n d e ta i l l e a t 1 : 50 o r 1 :100 s ca le , b u t n o a t temp t was made t o c arry o u t a ny f orm o f a rchaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ion b y e xcava t ion o r s ondage . Probing was emp loyed u pon v ery l im ited b as is t o e stab l ish b ur ied f i e ld wa l l l i nes where t hese c ou ld b e i n ferred f ro m o ther s ur face t races. S yste ma t ic p rob ing t o l oca te a l l f i e ld wa l ls p resen t o n t he s i te wou ld e n ta i l al arge s ca le e xerc ise o f c ons iderab le d ura t ion a nd was n o t p oss ib le w ith in t he p er iod o f w ork i n March 1 976 . A l l v is ib le d isturbances o f t he l andscape s ur faces b y man were r ecorded , a par t f ro m p ea t d ra inage c ut t ings, wh ich were w idespread i n t he a rea a nd wh ich a ppeared t o -r e la te t o t he v ery r ecen t p ast , a nd p ea t h ags a nd c u t t ings wh ich , e qua lly w idespread , a ppeared t o r e la te a ga in t o t he r e la t ive ly r ecen t p ast . A l l t races o f i ndustr ia l, a gr icu ltura l o r o ccupa t iona l a ct iv i ty v is ib le i n t he a rea o ther t han p ea t work ing were r ecorded .

1 33

Each a rea t o b e s urveyed was s ubd iv ided i n to a s er ies o f l oca t ions d e f ined b y e as i ly r ecogn ised n a tura l o r man- made f ea tures . F ie ld wa lk ing t eams o f t wo were d espa tched t o e ach l oca t ion where t hey marked monuments d iscovered o n t he g round b y wh ite marker wands a nd r ecorded b y s ke tch ing f reehand o n t o a6 in t o 1mi le ( 1 :10,560 ) map e x tract . Descr ip t ions o f e ach monumen t were n oted u nder t he h ead ings : Monumen t N o . Descr ip t ion R ecogn it ion f ea tures D i mens ions T he f i e ld wa lkers a lso i nd ica ted whe ther t he monumen t i n q uest ion s hou ld b e i nd iv idua l ly p ho tographed a nd/or d rawn t o al arger s ca le . T he wr iter p ersona l ly i nspected a l l monumen ts o f d ub ious o r d if f icu lt c harac ter w ith in t he a reas a nd i n s ens i t ive l oca t ions wa lked t he g round t o c heck t he f ie ld wa lki ng t ea m f i nd ings . With t he i n it ia l f i e ld wa lk ing c o mp le ted , b ase l i nes were s e t o u t a cross a reas w ith b ase p o in ts s e t i n g ood p o in ts o f v an tage . T hree t hree- men s urvey t ea ms e qu ipped w ith t heodo l ites moved I n to t he a reas, t he n otebooks a nd s ke tch maps o f t he f i e ld wa lk ing t ea ms mak ing i ta n e asy ma t ter t o r e loca te t he w andmarked monu men ts f or a ccura te s urvey ( t o w ith in t o lerances o f 5 -10 m) . O ccas iona lly n ew monumen ts were a dded t o t he r ecord b y t he s urvey t eam a nd s o , where p oss ib le , e ach t hree- man t eam i nc luded o ne me mber o f t he f i e ld wa lk ing t eam f or t ha t l oca t ion .

C onverse ly t wo me mbers o f t he s urvey t eam

where p oss ib le were n ot members o f t he l oca t ion f i e ld wa lk ing t eam a nd i ti s f e l t t ha t t h is p rov is ion may h ave h e lped t o i n troduce a n e le men t o f d oub lec heck ing . T he u se o f t heodo l ites mean t t ha t measuremen ts c ou ld b e t aken w i thou t t he n ecess ity f or p lan p lot t ing a nd s o w ork c ou ld c ont inue i n i nc lemen t wea ther c ond it ions . A t t h is j uncture , i n t h is d escr ip t ion o f me thod , a t ten t ion c ou ld p erhaps b e d irected t o t he i mpor tance o f work t ak ing p lace d ur ing t he mon ths o f March a nd p erhaps Apr i l i n t h is k ind o f a rea. On ly d ur ing t hese months i s v ege tat ion s u f f ic ien t ly l ow , p art icu lar ly i nb racken-covered a reas, t o a l low p rof it ab le f i eld wa lk ing t o t ake p lace. The p ena l ty p a id f or t h is b enef it i s o f c ourse t he p ropens ity t o b ad w ea ther , a nd s urvey e xerc ises o f t h is k ind a re p ecu l iar ly s ens it ive t o b ad wea ther c ond i t ions, b o th o n a ccoun t o f t he n eed f or g ood v is ib i l ity a nd , n o l ess i mpor tan t , t he p hys ica l a nd p sycho log ica l e f fec t o f we t wea ther u pon p a instak ing a ccuracy .

Where p oss ib le a dvantage was t aken o f

wet wea ther c ond it ions t o c arry o u t f i e ld wa lk ing , w ith a ccura te s urvey b e ing r eserved f or f a irer c ond i t ions . H owever f i e ld wa lk ing , o f c ourse , s u f fers g rave ly i fv is ib i l i ty i s s er ious ly i mpa ired . Dur ing t he e n t ire 1 3 work ing d ays o f t he e xerc ise t he f o l low ing work ing t imes were r ecorded : Man H ours TRAIN ING

2 8 ( Survey )

5 6 ( F ie ld wa lk ing ) .

SURVEY

8 00

PLOTT ING/DRA W ING

4 26 ( most ly c arr ied o u t i n t he e ven ings) .

F IELD WALK ING

4 00

( a l l p ar t ic ipan ts h ad a g ood g round ing i n s urvey p rocedures b efore t he c om mencemen t o f t he e xerc ise . )

1 34

B ute

e 3ack Wa s . ,

B lack waterfo

K i l ipatr ick

F ig 1 8 .1

L oca t ion map f or t he 1 976 Arran s urvey .

F ig 1 8 .2

P lan o f K i lpa tr ick D im

Dun . & Cashe l (

K i lo metres

a nd a rea .

1 35

Approx . 1 :5000 .

I fo ne s e ts a s ide t he t ra in ing e le men t t he p er iod o f p roduc t ive work ing o n t he s i te i s r epresen ted b y 1 626 man h ours ( 203 man d ays o f 8h ours w orki ng t ime) .

At wo- man s urvey t ea m w ork ing a 5d ay week wou ld t ake 2 0 w eeks

t o c o mp le te t h is e xerc ise .

T he ma jor d isadvan tage o f t h is l onger t imespan i s

t ha t , u n less work s tar ted i n N ove mber a nd c on t inued t hrough t o A pr i l , i tw ou ld b e d if f icu lt t o c arry o u t a l l t he w ork u nder o p t i mum v egeta t iona l c ond i t ions . An a rea l arger t han t he K i lpa tr ick/Machr ie g roup s urveyed i n March 1 976 w ou ld magn ify t h is p rob lem . Dur ing t he p er iod a t o ta l o f 2 398 .3 a cres ( 9 60 h a ) was wa lked a nd s urveyed ( represen t ing a pprox i ma te ly 1man h our wa lk ing f or 5 a cres a nd 3 a cres p er 1 man h our s urvey ing ) . T he o ne ma jor d isadvan tage t o t he "l arge p ar ty s urvey" c oncept migh tb e s a id t o b e t he i nexper ience o f t he me mbers o f ag roup o f s uch a s ize .

P ro-

c edures f or d oub le c heck ing a nd r ando m i nspect ion o f r esu lts w i l l , i ti s h oped , h ave e l im ina ted a s many e rrors b oth o f f act a nd i n terpre ta t ion a s p oss ib le . C ogna te w ith t h is d isadvan tage h owever i s t he g rea t b enef it o f p roduc ing e lemen tar i ly t ra ined f i e ld workers f or t h is most i mpor tan t a rea o f a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv ity . R esu lts I nb road o u t l ine i tb eca me c lear t ha t f our p r inc ipa l p hases o f l and u t i l isat i on h ad t aken p lace w ith in t he a rea : ( 1 )

An e ar ly p reh istor ic p hase r epresen ted b y C lyde t ype c a irns, r ound c a irns a nd mounds, o ne c a irn c e me tery a nd p ossib ly s o me f ragmen ts o f f i e ld wa l l b ur ied d eep i n t he p ea t c over ing t he a rea .

( 2 )

Al a ter p reh istor ic p hase w h ich a ppears t o r epresen t t he d eve lopmen t o f l arge f arms i n t he a rea c entr ing o n n on-nuc lea ted f ar msteads c o mpr is ing a n u mber o f "h ut-c irc les" a s f arm b u i ld ings. T he s o-ca l led 'Dun ' a t K i lpa tr ick wou ld a ppear a s t he f ocus o f o ne o f t hese f ar msteads ( f ig 1 8.2 ) a nd t he r e ma ins o f t wo o thers i nt he Machr ie a rea w ere e ncoun te red . T hese f armsteads s erve a s t he f ocus f or v ery l arge s tone wa l led e nc losures wh ich may r epresen t a rrangemen ts f or t he i n- a nd o u t-farm a reas o f s tock f armer .

( 3) A t a n u nknown d a te l a ter t han t he a bove a nd p resu mab ly d ur ing t he Med iaeva l p er iod , e x tens ive a reas o f p resen t-day moor land w ere e nc losed a nd c u lt iva ted u s ing r ig a nd f urrow . I n s ome c ases t h is r ig a nd f urrow was l i nked w ith t he c onstruct ion o f c urved "h ead-dykes" o n t he v a l ley s ides . T h is a ct iv ity c an b e f i rm ly p laced e ar l ier t han 1 750 o n d ocumen ta ry e v idence . ( 4 )

F ina l ly i n t he e ar ly 1 9th c entury a p hase o f s heep f arm ing w ith t he c onstruct ion o f o ne , n ow r u ined , s heep f arm b u i lt o n t op o fp rev ious ly e x tan t r ig a nd f urrow was r ecorded .

I n a l l , n ear ly 1 00 f ea tures were r ecorded a nd s urveyed p rov id ing a f i rm b as is f or n egot ia t ion w ith av iew t o p reserva t ion t ak ing p lace . A reas wh ich w i l l b e t hrea tened b y f orestry a ct iv i ty w i l l b e i nvest iga ted b y e xcava t ion d ur ing t he s um mer o f 1 977 . 1 36

1 9.

NEOL ITH IC F IELDS :

THE I R ISH EV IDENCE

S eamas C au lf ie ld

"We w a lked r ound a n e ighbour ing h i l l a nd o n i t s s ide w e w ere s hown many r ude d ykes w h ich h ad b een e xposed w hen c u t t ing o f f t he p eat f ro m t he s urface;

t hey s tretch o ver t he i s land i n s evera l d irec t ions.

F ro m t he s hape a nd a ppearance t hey s t il l r eta in a nd f rom t he i nd ub itab le f act t hat t hey s aw t he l i gh t o f l ater d ays o n ly w hen t he t urf was r e moved t here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t t hese r ugged b oundar ies w ere b u i lt b efore t he g row th o f p eat i n t h is i s land" ( Thomas 1 852 1 22 ).

I n 1 939 O l iver Dav ies p ub l ished a p aper o n an umber o f p re-bog f i e ld wa l ls i n U lster s im ilar t o t he e xamp le q uo ted a bove a nd h e n o ted t he ir o ccurrence i n s ix t own lands ( Dav ies 1 939 ). H e w as i n f luenced b y t he t hen c urren t d at ing o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i elds a nd b ecause o f t h is h e a t te mpted t o d ate t he f orma t ion o f t he p eat t o t he e arly c en tur ies AD i nstead o f emphas is ing t he p reh istor ic c on tex t o f t he w a l ls a s Tho mas h ad d one a l most a c en tury b efore. F ie ld b oundar ies b u il t o n t he m inera l s o i l u nder b lanket b ogs h ave n ow c o me t ob e r ecogn ised a s aw idespread p henomenon a long t he w est c oast o f I re land f o l low ing r esearch w ork b y Dr. M ichael H er ity a nd t he w r iter ( Her ity a nd Eogan 1 977 5 0 ).

D ist inct p reh istor ic f i e ld p at terns s uch a s t he ' Cel t ic '

f i elds o f Br ita in h ave n o tb een i so lated f rom t he f i e ld p at terns i n c urren t u se i nI re land a nd o ne o f t he most s ign if ican t a spec ts o f t he s tudy o f t he p re-bog wa l ls i s t hat i te stab l ishes f i e lds a nd f i eld c omp lexes i n a n u nequ ivoca l ly p reh istor ic c ontex t . Excava t ions a t t hree s i tes i n t he w est o f I reland h ave s hown t ha t n ot o n ly t he f i e ld b oundar ies s urv ive f ro m p reh istor ic t imes b u t t he a ct ua l f i e lds w ith t he ir e v idence o f t i l lage o r o ccupat ion a re p reserved u nd isturbed i n t he f oss il ized l andscape u nder t he b lanket o fb og.

A t o ne o f t hese s i tes

( Glenree ) Her ity h as u ncovered e x tens ive t races o f r idged c u l t iva t ion w ith in s tone w a l led f i e lds, b u t n o e v idence o f h ab itat ion o r o f t he d ate o f o ccupat ion ( Her ity a nd Eogan 1 977 5 0 ). The w r iter h as e xcava ted a t t wo s i tes, Behy/G lenu lra a nd Be lderg B eg o n t he n or th c oast o f Mayo. Th is i s a n a rea w here o ver t h ir ty s i tes w ith p reb og w a l ls h ave b een l ocated i n as earch o f t he t rac ts o f c u taway b og i n t h is r eg ion .

These l a t ter s i tes r ange f ro m s hort l eng ths o f w a l l n o more t han

2 0 m l ong , e xposed i n r ecen t p ea t c ut t ings , t o e x tens ive f i e ld s yste ms s uch a s t ha t a t Behy/Glenu lra ( f ig. 1 9.1). I n a l l c ases t he w a l ls a re b u i l t o f s tone , w ith t he l arger s tones u sua l ly s et u pr igh t a nd sma l ler s tones l a id i nb etween . The c oncen trat ion o f p re-bog f i e ld w a l ls i n N orth Mayo , o ver h a lf t he t o ta l r ecogn ised i n t he e n t ire c oun try , i s p robab ly a b iased c oncen trat ion b ecause t here h as b een a c on t inu ing p rogra mme o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n t h is 1 37

a rea f or many y ears. Th is i s a lso o ne o f t he most e x tens ive t rac ts o fb lanket b og i nI reland a nd a l most t he e n t ire f uel s upp ly o f t he r eg ion c omes f rom t he c ut t ing o f " turf" b y h and.

Aga inst t h is N or th Mayo d id h ave a n i n tens ive o c-

c upa t ion ma in ly i n N eo l ith ic t imes a s c an b e s een i n t he c oncen trat ion o f N eo l ith ic t o mbs i n t he a rea. I f , a s w il l b e a rgued b elow , many o f t he f i eld s yste ms a re N eo l ith ic i n d a te, t he r esearch b ias may n o t b e a s s ign if ican t a s a t f i rst a ppears a nd t he c oncen tra t ion o f f i e ld w a l ls may b e n o more t han a r ef lec t ion o f t he h igh d ens ity o f p opu lat ion i n t he N eo l ith ic p er iod . However, a part f rom t he e v idence t hey p rov ide o f i n tens ive s et t lemen t i np reh istor ic t imes , t here i s l i t t le more c an b e s a id o f t hese s i tes u n t il t hey h ave b een s urv eyed a nd i nvest iga ted more f u l ly.

The t wo s i tes o n t he North Mayo c oas t

w h ich h ave b een e xcava ted h ave p rov ided g ood e v idence o f t he ir f unc t ion a nd d ate a nd h ave r a ised i ssues o f r elevance t o t he s tudy o f f i eld s yste ms i n g enera l. Behy/G lenu lra , Co. Mayo ( OS 6 in S heet N o 6 ;

N at G r id G 0 51 4 06 ).

F ig. 1 9.1 i s ap rel im inary p lan o f t he f i e ld s yste m s urveyed. I ti s a pprox imate ly 1 200 m b y 8 00 m i n e x ten t b u t b ecause a l l t he l ong p ara l le l w a l ls d isa ppear u nder u ncut b og i to bv ious ly e ncompasses a much more e x tens ive a rea t han t he 1 km2 a t p resen t s urveyed.

As e v idence o f t h is, t he w a l l t o t he w est

o f t he e xcavated o va l e nc losure w as t raced b y p rob ing f or a d istance o f 3 00 m u nder t he u ncu tb og , w h ile a t t he s ou thwest e nd o f t he s i te f i e ld w a l ls a re e xp osed i ng u l l ies e roded t hrough t he p eat w h ich i nd icate t hat t he p ara l le l w a l ls a t t he w est c on t inue f or a t l east a no ther 6 00 m.

O ther f i eld w a l ls u nder t he

p eat o ccur t o t he w est a nd n or th w est o f t he a rea s urveyed a t d is tances o f 3 00 m a nd 1 000 m.

On t he e ast a nd s ou th e ast , wa l ls h ave -been f ound a t 5 00 m

a nd 1 200 m. On t he w est t he f i e ld s yste m i sb ounded b y a modern s et t le men t o f s even f armsteads i n Behy v al ley a nd t he p re-bog s et t le men t e x tends e astw ards f ro m t h is o ver t he s hou lder o f ah i l l i n to G lenu lra v a l ley . B ecause t he c u taway b og d oes n o t r each t he 6 00 f tc on tour, i ti s n o t y et k nown t o wha t a lt i tude t he s et t le men t e x tends. T i . Le s yste m i s l a id o u t a s as er ies o f p ara l lel wa l ls 1 50 m t o 2 00 m a part r unn ing f rom t he e dge o f s heer c l if fs i n land f or a d istance o f a t l east 8 00 n t a nd a l most c erta in ly u p t o 1 km. The l ong s tr ips f or med b y t hese wa l ls a re d iv ided b y o f fset c ross w a l ls i n to r ectangu lar f i e lds o f u p t o 7h a i n a rea. On ly i nt he t op c en tre o f t he p lan i s t here e v idence o f sma l ler i rregu lar f i elds. With in t he l arge f i e lds , f our sma l l o va l o r s em i-ova l e nc losures w ere i den t if i ed , i n o ne c ase c on t iguous t o t he f i eld b oundary , i n t he o ther t hree f rees tandi ng w ith in t he f i elds.

I n ac orner o f o ne o f t he l argest f i elds i s l oca ted B ehy

C ourt C a irn e xcavated b y d e Va lera , Her ity a nd 0 N ua l lä.. i n ( de V a lera a nd ON IA l la in 1 964 4 ). 2 50 m t o t he e ast o f t he t o mb i n a 3h a f i e ld i s a n o va l e nclosure e xcava ted b y t he w r iter ( Cau l f ield 1 971 1 9 ). The e x tens ive t rac t o f l arge f i e lds l a id o u t t o ar egu lar p lan s uggests t ha t t he f i e lds w ere d es igned f or a n i ma l h usbandry r a ther t han t i l lage. The s o i l t hroughou t t hese -f ie lds w here i tc an b e e xa m ined s hows t races o f c harcoa l , p robab ly t he r esu l t o f f orest c learance b y f i r ing. The r egu lar ity o f t he f i e ld p at tern i nd ica tes t hat , f i rst ly , n o f orest s urv ived i n t he im med ia te a rea w hen t he f i e lds w ere l a id o u t a nd , s econd ly , t he s yste m w as l a id o ut a s as ing le o perat ion . Th is i mp l ies t ha t t he f orest c learance a nd e nc losure o f t he l and was embarked o nb y as izeab le o rgan ised c om mun ity w ork ing t owards a s ing le o b ject ive.

1 38

F ig 1 9 .1

P rel im inary p lan o f B ehy/G lenu lra f i e ld s ys te m s how ing A :

e xcava ted e nc losure i n G lenu lra ;

B :

C our t C a irn i n

B ehy t own land . A pprox i ma te l im i t o f c u taway b og s haded . A pprox . 1 :12 ,000 .

T he d iv is ion o ft he l ong s tr ips i n to t he l arge f i e lds i s o pen t o an umber o f i n terpre ta t ions.

One i st ha t t he l ong s tr ips r epresen t i nd iv idua l f arms a nd

i n s uppor t o ft h is t he sma l l e nc losures wh ich h ave b een i den t if ied a re r egu lar ly s ca t tered , o ne t o e ach s tr ip . Another i n terpre ta t ion i s t ha t t he f i e lds were l a id o u t t o f ac i l ita te e asier manage men t o f s tock a nd g rass land , i n p ar t icu lar i n o vercom ing p rob le ms o f o verw in ter ing a n i ma ls o n t he l and . Wi th a s l igh t ly warmer c l i ma te t he m i ld w in ter c ond i t ions o f t he west o f I re land w ou ld h ave e nsured a l im ited g row th o f g rass a t a l l t imes b u t t here w ou ld a lways b e p otent i a l p rob lems o f a n i ma ls c ongrega t ing i n s he l tered l oca t ions w ith c onsequen t p oach ing o f l and . T he d iv is ion o ft he c leared a rea i n to f i e lds wou ld a l low f or l and a nd h erd manage men t t o o verco me t h is. T he c h ief a rgue men t a ga inst t he p r iva te f armsteads i n terpre ta t ion i s t ha t i tc lashes w i th t he i dea o f c o m muna l a ct iv ity e v ident i n t he o rgan ised f orest c learance , t he e rect ion o f t he f i e ld b oundar ies a nd t he b u i ld ing a nd u se o f t he mega l ith ic t o mb.

1 39 .

B e lderg Beg , C o . Mayo

( OS 6 in S hee t N o . 5 . Na t Gr id F 9 82 4 10 )

S even km t o t he w est o f B ehy i n Be lderg B eg t own land , a sma l l f i eld s yste m i s p reser ved i n at ongue o fb og wh ich p ene tra tes i n to t he l ower p ar t o f Be lderg v a l ley among t he modern e nc losed f ar ms .

B ecause i ti s b ounded t o t he n orth ,

e ast a nd s ou th b y modern s et t le men t , t he f u l l e x ten t o f t he e nc losed a rea i n p reh istor ic t imes c annot n ow b e e stab l ished b u t i ti s c lear t ha t t he e xcava ted a rea i s c lose t o t he western b oundary o f t he s e t t le men t . f ro m B ehy/G lenu lra i n f our i mpor tant r espec ts .

( 1 ) I ti s i n as he ltered l oca-

t i on f ac ing away f ro m t he p reva i l ing s ou thwes t w inds. f or m a v ery i rregu lar p a t tern .

Be lderg Beg d if fers ( 2 ) The f i e ld wa l ls

( 3 ) T he s i te was r e-occup ied a f ter t he b og h ad

b egun t o g row o ver p ar t o f t he a rea .

( 4 ) T he p ine f orest wh ich g rew i n t he

b ot to m p ea t h ad n ot b een c leared much b eyond t he l im its o f t he s i te d ur ing t he s econd o ccupa t ion . T he B e lderg Beg f i e lds d o n o t d isp lay t he s cope a nd r egu lar i ty o f t he p rev io us s i te a nd t he e n t ire s e t t le men t wou ld f i t i n to t he l argest f ie ld a t B ehy/ G lenu lra .

A t t he west s ide o f t he s i te t here i s e v idence o f ar e-occupa t ion

a f ter t he b og h ad b egun t o g row.

E lsewhere t hroughou t t he s i te t he wa l ls a re

a l l b u i lt o n t he minera l s o i l b u t t h is western wa l l i s b u i l t o n al ayer o f p ea t , n ot u nder i t . T h is wa l l r uns s ou thwards f ro m t he p re-bog o va l e nc losure f or ad istance o f a bou t 7 0 m a nd i n t ha t l eng th i tr ises f ro m b eing o n 5 -10 cm o f p ea t a t t he e nc losure t o o ver 3 0 cm a t i t s s ou thern e nd .

Dr iven i n to t he

p ea t a long t he l i ne o f t h is wa l l were p o in ted s takes, ma in ly o f o ak , p laced a t 1 -2 m i n terva ls a nd c on t inu ing s ou thwards b eyond t he e nd o f t he s tone wa l l f or a t l east a nother 5 0 m.

T he g radua l c hange i n d ep th o f p ea t u nder t he wa l l

i nd ica ted t ha t t he b og was e ncroaching f ro m t he s ou th b u t was r e tarded o ver t he e nc losed a rea e ven u p t o t he p er iod o f t he s econd o ccupa t ion .

T h is means

t ha t i tc annot b e d ec ided o n s tra t igraph ica l g rounds t o wh ich p er iod t he t i l lage p lots a nd r ound h ouse i n t he n or theast c orner o f t he s ite s hou ld b e a ss igned ( Cau lf ie ld 1 971-1974) . D irect a nd i nd irec t e v idence o f t i l lage was f ound a t Be lderg B eg .

A s d ir-

e ct e v idence t here were p lough- marks a nd r idges wh ich were d iscovered i n t he n or th e ast c orner a nd i n p ar t o f wh ich t he p lough- marks a ctua l ly u nder lay t he r idges.

T he r idges a re o n a verage 9 0-100 cm w ide a nd , a par t f ro m b e ing

s o mewha t n arrower t han t hose a t G lenree , a re s im i lar i n f orm . t he t erm

( The u se o f

r idge ' i s p ure ly d escr ip t ive a nd d oes n ot i mp ly a r idge a nd f urrow

r a ther t han l azy b ed i n terpre ta t ion ) . i n t he n u mber o f s add le q uerns a nd t he t i l lage p lots .

I nd irec t e v idence o f c u lt iva t ion i s s een .) bers f ound i n t he r ound h ouse b es ide

A t B e lderg Beg t he i rregu lar ity a nd t he s ize o f t he i dent if ied s et t le men t s uggests t ha t o ne i s h ere d ea l ing w ith a sma l l c o m mun i ty o r maybe e ven a s ing le f armstead .

T here i s , h owever , t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t t he s et t le men t a s

e xposed i s o n ly t he western e x tre m ity o f ag enera l s et t le men t w ith in t he v a l ley . T he e ast s ide o f t he v a l ley ( Be lderg More) h as v ery e x tens ive t races o f p re-bog f i e lds a nd t he r e ma ins o f t hree mega l ith ic t o mbs.

1 40

DATING A rchaeo log ica l e v idence : t he B ehy/G lenu lra f i e ld s yste m wh ich u nder l ies t he b lanket b og i ncorpora tes t wo s tructures wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted .

Behy

C our t Ca irn p roduced Neo l i th ic p o t tery , f l in t a nd c her t s crapers, s tone a xes a nd f l in t j ave l in h eads n or ma l ly f ound i n t o mbs o f t h is t ype . T he o va l e nc losure i n G e lu lra t own land a lso p roduced Neo l ith ic p ot tery , s crapers, s tone a xes a nd a l ea f-shaped a rrowhead . A s hor t l eng th o f wa l l ing r an o n t o t he c o l lapsed f ron t o f t he C our t Ca irn , w h i le p ar t o f t he b ack o f t he C a irn h ad b een r obbed f or wa l l-bu i ld ing . Excavat i on s howed , h owever , t ha t t hese p ost-to mb wa l ls a lso p ost-da ted t he ma in f i e ld wa l ls a nd t here was i n f act s o me e v idence t ha t t he ma in wa l l s yste m h ad a l so b een p ar t ly r obbed i n t he v ic in ity o ft he t o mb . T he c onstruct ion o f t he l ong wa l l j ust t o t he west o f t he e xcava ted e nc losure d id n ot l ead t o a ny s tones f ro m t h is s tructure b e ing r emoved wh ich s uggests c on te mporary u se f or t he e nc losure a nd f ie lds . As n ega t ive e v idence , t he c losest p ost-Neo l ith ic monumen t i n t he v ic in ity i s ap ro montory f or t o ver 2km t o t he n or th west wh ich i s b u i lt o n a1 5 cm l ayer o fp ea t . A t B e lderg Beg , Neo l ith ic p ot tery , f l in ts a nd ap o l ished s tone a xe i nd ica te aNeo l ith ic d a te f or t he f irst s e t t le men t . Apar t f ro m t he s add le q uerns a ss oc ia ted w i th t he r ound h ouse , t here a re n o o ther a rt ifac ts wh ich c an b e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he s econd p er iod o f o ccupa t ion . R ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m B ehy/G lenu lra a nd Be lderg Beg v it ia te a ny s uggest ion t ha t t he Mayo Neo l i th ic w ith i t s f i e ld s yste ms may b e av ery l a te s urv iva l we l l i n to t he 2 nd mi l lenn iu m BC .

T hree d a tes f or t he b asa l p ea t c lose t o t he Behy

t o mb a re : UB - 1 53F

Behy monol i th , 2 4 t o 2 8 cm

3 890 + 10

1 940 b c

UB - 1 55

B ehy mono l i th ,

3 0 t o 3 4 cm

3 630 + 7 0

1 680 b c

UB - 1 58F

Behy mono l i th ,

3 6 t o 3 8 cm

3 930

1 980 b c

1 05

UB - 1 55, a s a mp le wh ich c o mb ined f i ne-par t icu la te a nd h um ic a c id f ract i ons o fb lanket p ea t ,is d escr ibed a s "p oss ib ly l arge ly e rroneous" d ue t o "c ons iderab le move men t o f h um ic s ubstances i np rof i le" ( Sm ith e t a l 1 973 2 23 ) . T here i s as ing le d a te f or c harcoa l f ro m t he G lenu lra e nc losure : S I -1 464

G lenu lra

4 460 + 1 15

2 510 b c

T he e ar ly d a tes f or t he b asa l p ea t s uggest t ha t t he wa l ls o f t he e n t ire Behy/ G lenu lra s et t le men t a re p re-2000 b c a nd t he s ing le d a te f ro m t he o va l e nc losure i s c ons isten t w ith t h is . There a re s even Rad iocarbon d a tes f ro m B e lderg Beg : S I -1 469 S I -1 470

Be lderg Beg 1 Be lderg Beg 2

3 835 + 8 5 4 220 + 9 5

1 885 b e 2 270 b e

S I -1 471

Be lderg Beg 3

3 220 + 8 5

1 270 b e

S I -1 472

Be lderg Beg 4

3 210 + 8 5

1 260 b e

S I -1 473 S I -1 474

Be lderg Beg 5 Be lderg Beg 6

3 170 + 8 5 2 295 + 7 5

1 220 b e 3 45 b e

S I -1 475

Be lderg Beg 7

2 905 + 7 5

9 55 b e

1 41

T he f i rst d a te i s f ro m a n o ak s tump g row ing i n p ea t t o t he e as t o f t he s i te . T he s econd d a te i s f ro m t he o u ter f i ve r ings o f al arge p ine s tump wh ich i s w i th in 1 5 m o f ap re-bog wa l l a t t he s ou th s ide o f t he s i te .

A l l t he l a tera l

r oots o f t h is p ine r un a long t he s ur face o f t he m inera l s o i l a nd s how t ha t t he b og was a lready e stab l ished h ere when t h is t ree was g row ing . T he t ree w as o ver a h undred y ears o ld a t d ea th s o i t mus t h ave s tar ted g row ing i n at h in l ayer o f p ea t a bou t 2 400 b c . T he wa l l o n t he m inera l s o i l c lose b y must t heref ore h ave b een b u i lt a t s o me t ime b efore 2 400 b c . T he n ex t t hree d a tes g roup t oge ther a t 1 270 , 1 260 a nd 1 220 b e . The f i rst t wo o f t hese a re d a tes f ro m p o in ted s takes w h ich were d r iven i n to t he p ea t a long t he l i ne o f t he wa l l b u i lt o n t he p ea t .

T hey t here fore f ix t he s econd

o ccupa t ion t o a t l east a m i l lenn iu m a f ter t he f i rst .

T he f i f th d a te ,

1 220 b e

was f ro m ab lock o f wood w ith in t he r ound h ouse a nd l i nks t h is s tructure w i th t he s econd o ccupa t ion . T he s even th d a te , 9 55 b e was f ro m c harcoa l a ssoc ia ted w ith a s ca t ter o f f l in t s crapers i n t he c en tre o f t he s i te ; a nd t he s ix th d a te , o f 3 45 b e , was f ro m c harcoa l w ith in t he r ound h ouse . T hus t hese f i na l t wo d a tes a re i mposs ib le t o r econc i le w ith e i ther t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l o r t he r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m t he s i te . B ehy/G lenu lra a nd Be lderg Beg h ave y ie lded o n ly N eo l ith ic ma ter ia l , a nd a c a l ibra t ion o f t he r ad iocarbon d a tes p laces t he o ccupa t ion o ft hese s i tes c3 000 BC.

T he s econd o ccupa t ion a t Be lderg B eg d a tes t o t he m idd le o f t he

s econd mi l lenn iu m BC a nd may h ave r esu lted f ro m a n i n terest i nt he r ich s ea m o f c opper o re i n t he c l if f f ace a m i le f ro m t he s i te r a ther

t han a n i n terest

i n e xp lo it ing wha t was b y t hen av ery p oor a gr icu ltura l s o i l o n t he s i te . T he l i ke ly d a te o ft he p re-bog f i e lds i n N or th Mayo T he t wo f i e ld s yste ms a long t he N orth Mayo c oast wh ich h ave b een e xcav a ted h ave b een s hown t o b e o f Neo l ith ic d a te .

T he ma jor i ty o ft he o ther p re-

b og f i e ld s yste ms i n t h is r eg ion a re a lso l i ke ly t o d a te t o t h is p er iod f or t he f o l low ing r easons: ( 1)

T here was a n i n tens ive Neo l ith ic s et t lemen t o f t he r eg ion w h i le , o n t he n ega t ive s ide , t here a re f ew monumen ts o f l a ter p er iods s uch a s B ronze Age t u mu l i o r I ron Age f or ts t hroughou t much o f t he a rea .

( 2 )

T here i s ag enera l a gree men t i n d istr ibu t ion b e tween t he N eo l ith ic C our t Ca irns ( de Va lera a nd Ö N ua l la-i n 1 964 Map 1 ) a nd t he o ccurrence o f t he f i e ld s yste ms .

T h is i s e spec ia l ly marked t o t he west o f B e lderg w here t here

i s al arge g ap i n t o mb d istr ibu t ion u n t i l o ne r eaches a c luster o f t o mbs t o t he n or th o f Carrowmore l ake . As im i lar g ap e x ists i n t he f i e lds ' d is tr ibu t ion w ith a c oncen tra t ion a ga in o ccurr ing i nt hose a reas where t he t o mbs a re f ound , I n a t l east s ix c ases t he p re-bog wa l ls r un c lose b y o r i n to C our t C a irns.

I n

o ther c ases, wa l ls wh ich a re u p t o 5 00 m f ro m a t o mb may b e s im i lar t o t hose o n t he p er iphery o ft he Behy/G lenu lra s e t t le men t a nd may e ventua l ly b e i nt egra ted i n to o ne l arge s et t le men t wh ich i ncorpora tes t he t o mb, j ust a s t he p er iphera l wa l ls a t B ehy/G lenu lra h ave b een .

1 42

R e levance t o t he d a t ing o f l and e nc losure i n B r i ta in The r esu l ts o f t he i n it ia l s tudy o f p re-bog f i eld s yste ms i n N orth Mayo h ave c erta in imp l ica t ions f or t he s tudy o f f i e ld s yste ms i n B r ita in a lso. The e arly r esu l ts i nd icate t hat l and e nclosure o n a n e x tens ive s cale i s ad ef in ite N eo l ith ic p heno menon i nI re land. I n Br ita in , i n c ases w here s omewha t s i mi l ar f ield s yste ms h ave b een i den t if ied , t he p oss ib il ity t hat t hey a re N eo l ith ic i n d ate must b e s er iously c ons idered , i n p ar t icu lar w hen t hey o ccur i n r eg ions o f k nown N eo l ith ic s e t t le men t. Ano ther r esu l t o f t he s tudy o f f i e ld s yste ms l ike Behy/G lenu lra i s t hat i t h as e luc ida ted o ne a spect o f t he g enes is o f t he ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds p roposed b y F ow ler ( 1 971 f ig 3 6 1 76 ). H e h ypothes ized wha t h as s ubsequen t ly b een i dent i f ied a s t he Behy/G lenu lra t ype s tr ip e nc losure d iv ided b y o f fset c rosswa l ls i n to l arge f i e lds a s a n i n it ia l s tage i n t he l ayou t o f ' Celt ic ' f i elds.

The Mayo

s i te h as s hown t hat t h is t heoret ica l i n it ia l s tage o f ' Ce lt ic ' f i eld l ayou t i s i n f act a v iab le f ie ld s yste m i n i t sel f a nd t hat p resumab ly t he b og h ad e ngu l fed t h is s ite b efore t he l ater s ubd iv is ion w h ich c haracter izes t he t yp ica l ' Celt ic ' f i e lds h ad d eve loped. The I r ish e v idence i s o f c ourse o f more i m med ia te r e levance t o t he s tudy i n Br ita in o f a na logous p re-bog s yste ms. There i s , h owever, t he d isadvant age t ha t p eat-cu t t ing f or f ue l i s n o t s o w ide ly p ract ised t here a s i n I re land , y e t t he S co t t ish w est c oast a nd i s lands d o o f fer many p oss ib i l it ies.

A lready

t he p re-bog d ykes o f Achnacree i n Argy l l a re w el l k nown ( Barret t e t a l., 1 977 ) w h i le a n ew d iscovery o f ap re-bog s tone wa l l i n S het land w as t he s ubj ect o f ar ecen t l ecture b y Wh it t ing ton ( 1977 ).

Ano ther c erta in e xa mp le i s

t hat s o e xp l ic it ly d escr ibed i n t he o pen ing q uo tat ion o f t h is p aper —the q uo tat i on r efers t o p re-bog d ykes e xposed , n o t i n I reland b u t o n S ou th Rona ldsay i n Orkney o ver o ne a nd a q uarter c en tur ies a go.

1 43

2 0 .

EARLY OBSERVAT IONS ON EARLY F IELDS C . S . Br iggs

The e xam ina t ion o f e ar ly t opograph ica l a nd a n t iquar ian b ooks a nd manus cr ip ts r eaps a sma l l b u t u sefu l h arvest o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a nd f i nds . O f i n terest t o a gr icu ltura l h istory a re n o tes o n e ar ly v est iges o f p lough ing a nd o fb oth s tone wa l l a nd wooden s take l and d iv is ions b enea th p ea t . Boa te ' ss ur m ise t ha t

c er ta in t ypes o fu neven g round , c h ief ly i n C o .

Mea th a nd f ur ther n or thward ...had b een p lowed i n f ormer t imes '

( 1652

p ar t 14 7 ) , was f o l lowed b y s im i lar o bserva t ions made i n C o . Denega l ( Dub l in 1 685) .

Fen land d ra inage i n S ou th Yorksh ire a t T horne p roduced more

f ea tures o f t he r idge a nd f urrow t ype ( G ibson 1 695, c o l . 7 25) , wh i lst s im i lar r idges i n West mor land s howed t ha t t he 'Mores... . were f ar f ro m b e ing i nc apab le o f i mprove men t '

( i b id c o l 8 09) .

S ign if ican t s igh t ings c on t inued t o b e

made i n t he n ine teen th c en tury , b y B enn i n C o . An tr im ( 186 , 2 20) a nd b y F agan a t B rockagh a nd G lack T own lands , C o . Derry ( Roy I r ish A cad Mss 3 6, 1( 28) , p p 1 0-11;

4 7 , 1 (4) , p2 4) .

R ichard R ichardson ' sr e markab le e ssay o n a n t iqu it ies i nc ludes o ne o f t he f i rst d escr ip t ions o f as tone f ence b enea th p ea t , o n Harden Moor , West R id ing , Yorksh ire ( Hearne 1 768 , 1 45 , s ty led

Hard ing ' ) .

L a ter i n t he e igh teen th

c entury , B ishop P ococke n oted s im i lar s tructures a t T rawmore , D unfanaghy , C o. Donega l ( S tokes 1 891 5 9) .

A wa l l a bou t h a lf a mi le l ong a nd s o i l ' bear ing

e v iden t marks o f t he p lough ' p assed t hrough H o l ly H i l l n ear S trabane ( Na t L ib I re land , Ms J o ly 2 1) ; t he wa l l i nc luded i n t he Revd N e l igan ' s 'S ta t ist ica l S urvey o f K i l mact ige Par ish , ' C o . S l igo , was many p erches l ong ( Shaw Mason 1 816 3 50) .

Ag rea t r ange i n s ize a nd s hape o f f i e ld i s l i sted i n t he O rdnance

S urvey Me mo irs d iscussed b y Dav ies ( 1939 a nd 1 948) . T h is s ource s t i l l c ont a ins many u npub l ished r eferences ; u n l isted f ences ' were a t A ltaghoney ( OS C 7 2 1 4) , Knockone i l ( OS C 8 1 0 9) , Magheramore ( OS C 6 7 0 5) , T eeavan ( C 6 9 0 4 ) a nd Turmee l ( C 6 8 0 8) . -Wood en

f ences a nd e nc losures a re n ot c o m mon ly r ecorded i n t he l i tera ture .

On a moun ta in n ear Cah ir moy le , C o . L i mer ick ( S l ieve luachra?) , b ov id r ema ins a s we l l a s wooden f ences a re i nferred f ro m 0 ' Br ien ' sa ccoun t ( 1858 7 5) The O rdnance S urvey Me mo irs ( I re land ) i nc lude a ccoun ts o f r ows o f wooden s takes a nd c ircu lar a nd o b long e nc losures wh ich were u ncovered d ur ing a gr icu lt ura l i mprove men t a nd p ea t c ut t ing p r ior t o 1 837 i n C o . Derry . A t l east o ne g roup e xh ib ited t he r e ma ins o f h a ir r opes 'f asten ing t he t ops o f t he s takes a nd e x tend ing f ro m o ne t o a nother '

( Ba l ly magu iggan Td O S C9 489 ;

R oy I r ish Acad

Mss 2 9 , V ( 2 ) , p3 0) . By d ocu men t ing a reas wh ich d o n ot e as i ly l end t he mse lves t o a er ia l s urvey o r t o g round i nvest iga t ion , a n t iquar ian s ources s o met i mes p rov ide t he o n ly a va i lab le i nfor ma t ion a bou t t he h istory o f a ggrad ing p ea t l andscapes.

T he

f ew s ys te ma t ica l ly d ocu men ted a reas ( f or e xamp le C o . Derry ) a re s o p ro l if ic i n i n forma t ion a bou t s ub-pea t s et t le men t f ea tures a s t o i n fer t ha t h ere , a t l east , b oth f en land a nd b lanke t p ea t were e ncouraged o r b egan g row ing o n a ccoun t o f f actors a l most e n t ire ly o f man ' s own mak ing ( Moore 1 975) . 1 45

PART 2 : 2 1.

EXCAVAT ION AND I NTERPRETAT ION

THE SOMERSET LEVELS :

A CONCAVE LANDSCAPE

J . M. C o les

The S o merset L evels c ons ist o f al ow-ly ing a rea o f s o me 1 0,000 h a , f i l led w ith p eats o r ig ina l ly u p t o 1 0 m t h ick , b u t n ow s everely t runca ted b y c o m merc ia l c ut t ing.

The p ea ts f or med o ver t he p er iod 4 000 B .C.-A.D. 2 00,

a nd p rov ide a n i n for ma t ive g u ide t o t he e nv ironmen ta l c ond it ions a s t hey d ev eloped t hrough v egetat iona l s uccess ions ( H ibbert 1 975 ).

Many p reh istor ic

s tructures a nd o b jects h ave b een d iscovered i n t he p eats a nd t hey i nd icate t he p resence o f man i n t he a rea o ver t he e n t ire p er iod o f p eat f or mat ion ( Co les 1 977 ).

The r eason f or t h is p resence c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he c lass ic c oncave

l andscape w h ich t he L evels r epresen t. A c oncave l andscape c ons ists o f ag en t le d ownward s lope f ro m l ow h i l ls i n to a t rough wh ich may i nc lude o pen w a ter o r marsh i n i t s d eepest p arts. The i l lustrat ion ( f ig. 2 1.1 ) s hows p art o f s uch a l andscape , t he c oncav ity c o mp leted b y a mirror image o n t he o ther s ide o f t he t rough. The p r inc ip le o f l and u se i n s uch c ircu mstances i s i n a ccordance w ith t wo e le men ts , as upp ly o f w ater a nd a s upp ly o f m inera l n utr ien ts; a nd b a lance o f t hese i s impor tan t .

t he move men t

I n t he L eve ls , t he s upp ly o f w ater h as

n ever b een a p rob le m , b ecause t he d ra inage f rom a v ast a rea e x tend ing f ro m t he Mend ips t o t he Quan tock s e nsures a n o ver-abundance o f w ater, p art icu lar ly d ur ing t he w in ter mon ths.

Unusua l f or a t rad it iona l c oncave l andscape i s t he

a c id ity o f t he marsh lands , t he p roduct o f n atura l p lan t s uccess ion a nd c l i mat i c c ond it ions f ro m c . 2 500 B .C.

The a dd it ion o f m inera l n u tr ien ts t o c o m7

b ine w ith t he a c id ic moss h as a lways b een a v i ta l e le men t i n t he e xp lo itat ion o f t he a rea.

HUNT ING & GATHER ING T IMBER, W OODLAND GRAZ I NG C EREAL

P RODUCT I ON

HOE P LOTS

r c r ,q , c P 3

FODDER P R ODUCT I ON F ISH I N G & GATHER I NG

F OREST

COPP ICED S TANDS

A RABLE F IELDS

P ASTURE

WATER & MARSH

S EASONAL TWO K IL O METRES

F ig 2 1.1

An e xp lan tory p rof i le w i th e xaggera ted v er t ica l s ca le d own i n to t he S o merse t L eve ls t o i l lus tra te a v ar ie ty o f l and-uses i n r e la t ion t o t opography . 1 47

5 0 METRES

&C LEARANCES

' t ? 1 ,

The l andscape i n t h is p art icu lar c ircums tance h as a t rad it iona l p a t tern o fu se, wh ich c an b e r ecogn ised i n many d i f feren t

a reas o f t he L evels.

Th is

u se e x tends f rom t he u pper most p art o f t he l andscape d own a nd i nto t he marsh a nd w aters, a nd e ach p art c on tr ibu tes t o a n a nnua l c yc le o f f ood p roduc t ion a nd c o l lect ion . The u p land w ooded a rea w ere s u itab le f or s porad ic g raz ing , f or s lash a nd b urn a gr icu l ture, f or h un t ing a nd f or c o l lect ing ; t he a rea a lso p rov ided s tands o f t imber f or b u ild ing p urposes. The i n ter med iat e s lopes w ere u sed f or a rab le c u l t ivat ion o f ar estr ic ted n ature, f or g arden p lots, o r p erhaps a s ag enera l f odder meadow ; j acen t .

s et t lemen t i s l ikely t o h ave b een a d-

F arther d own t he s lopes, n ear t he marsh a nd o pen s trea ms a nd

p oo ls, w as a c r it ica l z one, t he b as is f or t he a rea 's i mportance ;

h ere t he

m inera l n u tr ien ts a nd t he moss p ea ts c omb ined t o c reate i dea l c ond it ions f or f odder p roduct ion , o r f or s easona l i n tens ive u se b y a n i ma ls. I n t he marsh a nd i n t he waters, f urther s easona l a ct iv it ies o f f i sh ing , f ow l ing a nd c o l lect ing p rov ided i mportan t c omp le men tary s upp l ies o f f ood. These z ones p rov ide a c o mb inat ion o f e conom ic a ct iv it ies n ot e ncoun tered e lsewhere t han i n ac oncave l andscape. The l owest z ones w ere s elf-regenerat i ng t hrough a nnua l f l ood ing o f l akes, marsh a nd meadow. The h igher z ones w ere s ub ject t o r ap id d ra inage a nd d ry ing o f t he s lopes wh ich l ed t o t he r ed uct ion o f n u tr ien ts t hrough t ransport a nd t herefore t o t he r ap id e xhaust ion o f l and. P lough c u lt iva t ion w as p robab ly a lways a m inor p art o f t he s ubs ist ance p at tern j ust a s i ti s t oday . The l oss h ere was amp ly c ompensa ted b y t he g reat f er t il ity o f t he ' h ang ings ', t hose meadows a t t he b ase o f t he s lopes a nd i n to t he marsh , w here g raz ing c ond it ions w ere u nmatched ;

t he i n ter-

c om mon ing o f c a tt le h ere f ro m w ide a reas a round t he L evels w as a r egu lar f eature u n t i l r ecen t ly. The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he e xp lo itat ion o f t h is l andscape i s a bund an t.

F rom t he f ourth m i l lenn ium , f orest c learances a nd t he e stab l ishmen t

o f C opp ice w ith S tandards o n t he u p land s lopes , a l l ied t o e xp lo itat ion o f t he marsh f or p lan ts a nd a n i ma ls , i nd icate a n awareness o f t he p o ten t ia l o f t he a rea. I n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium , h owever , an atura l d ry ing o f t he l andscape e ncouraged f urther c learances, r egu lar c opp ic ing o f w ood land , a reas o f a rab le c u l t ivat ion o n t he l i gh ter s o i ls o f t he i s lands i n t he marsh , a nd much g rassland e s tab l ished i n t he ' h ang ings ' f or s easona l p asture. T rackways b u i lt a cross t he marsh l i nked t hese a reas t o t he c on te mporary s et t le men ts. The s econd m il lenn ium e v idence s uggests a more c losed l andscape, w ith w et ter c ond it ions, a r educ t ion i n a rab le c u l t iva t ion a nd l ess d ense o ccupat ion o r e xp lo ita t ion .

C ond it ions i n t he l a te s econd a nd e ar ly f i rst m i l lenn ia a l-

l owed a much g reater i mpact , a nd ma jor c learances w ere a ga in i n it iated , w ith e stab l ished c opp ice s tands, a rab le c u l t iva t ion a ga in i n t he l i ghter s o i ls , a nd w idespread p asture i n t he ' h ang ings '.

T h is p robab ly r epresen ts t he

f i rst t ime w hen t rad it iona l s easona l u se o f t he ' h ang ings ' was d eveloped , a nd i t may h ave i nvo lved g raz ing a n i ma ls f rom a w ider c a tch men t a rea. I ti s t e mp t ing t o t h ink t hat t h is ' sum mer land ' i n tercom mon ing s urv ived u n t i l t he 1 7th o r 1 8th c en tur ies AD. A l though p astur ing w as t he ma jor p roduc t o f t he a rea , t he y ie ld o f u p land t imber a nd t he p oten t ia l o f t he marsh lands w ere a lso v i ta l e le men ts i n t he a t tract ion o f t he S o merset L eve ls t o i mag ina t ive a nd amb it ious s et t lers w ho w ere q u ick t o e xp lo it t he c ond it ions o f fered b y t h is l andscape.

A rchaeo log ica l

w ork h as s ucceeded i n r ecover ing much o f t he mater ia l e v idence o f t h is e xp lo itat ion , b u t t he o vera l l p a t terns c an o n ly b e e xp la ined b y ac omb ina t ion o f i n terd isc ip l inary s tud ies ( So merset L evels P apers 1 -3, 1 975-77 ). 1 48

2 2 .

AN I NVEST IGATION OF THE WESSEX L INEAR D ITCH S YSTE M H C Bowen J G Evans

a nd E Race

I n troduct ion ( HCB) The Wessex l i near d itch s yste m i s ac o mp lex o f d itches, o r ig ina l ly w ith b anks, wh ich e x tends a l most c on t inuous ly o ver av ery l arge p ar t o f t he c ha lk a reas o f W i l tsh ire a nd Hampsh ire a nd p ar ts o f B erksh ire .

I n Ha mpsh ire i t

i s p ar t icu lar ly c lear i n t he f i ve most w ester ly c ha lk p ar ishes o f Mar t in , D a merham , Rockbourne , Wh i tsbury a nd Breamore ( Bowen i n F ow ler 1 975 5 4) . T he i n tens ive d eve lop men t o f t he s yste m s tops r ough ly o n t he c oun ty b oundary w i th Dorse tb eyond wh ich , a l though

n ew ' l i near d i tches a re c on t inua l ly b e ing

r evea led b y a er ia l p hotography o n t he D orse t c ha lk , t here i s p os it ive ly n o i m med ia te c ont inua t ion t o t he west . i n t he M idd le Bronze Age .

T he s yste m o r ig ina tes, w i th l i t t le d oubt ,

I t s d i tches f requen t ly c ross

C e lt ic ' f i e lds i n s uch

away a s t o i nd ica te t ha t t hey were , h owever t e mporar i ly , p u t o u t o f u se ( mak ing t hose f ie lds t he s urv iv ing r e l ics o f t he e ar l iest w idespread l and a l lotmen t i n t he a rea ) .

T h is a pp l ies e ven t o t he p resu med e ar l iest e le men ts o f t he

d i tch s ys tem wh ich e x tend o n r ough a l ign men ts f or u p t o 1 0 m i les o r more a nd p rov ide t he f ra me f ro m w h ich o ther e le men ts s pr ing . f unda men ta l f ea tures b e c a l led

Is uggest t ha t s uch

s p ina l l i nears '.

O f t he v ery many p rob lems t o b e r eso lved o ne o f t he most impor tan t i s : n ow were t he

l i nears ' made e f fect ive f or , 2 E , t he c on ta in men t o f d if feren t

k inds o f a n i ma l ? T he impor tance o f o bv ious g aps - ways t hrough - d epends u pon t he a nswer .

Dr J ohn E vans t ook u p t he wr i ter ' sc ha l lenge t o d e ter m ine

t he i ssue a nd a lso t o p rov ide v ita l i n forma t ion o n a d jacen t l and c ond i t ions. H e p roposed t ha t sma l l e xcava t ions b e made i n to s urv iv ing e ar thwork b anks, o n ly , w i th t he p ar t icu lar a im o f i nvest iga t ing t he s na i l r e ma ins a nd t he ir s ign if icance .

I t was a greed t ha t t he f i rst t wo c u ts b e made i n to t he ' sp ina l

l i near ' e x tend ing f ro m j ust W o f Boker ley Dyke ( NGR 0 56180) t o ap o in t N o f t he h i l l-for t o f Wh i tsbury ( NGR 1 29206) a t p o in ts o n K no l l D own , Damerha m , where i tt raverses 'Ce lt ic ' f i e lds . T he a rea i s s hown i n a ir p hotographs i l lustra ted b y Bowen i n F ow ler ( 1975 p l 3 a ) a nd i n Wi lson ( 1975 f ig 7 ) . The v ery sma l l, me tre s quare , e xcava t ions were c arr ied o u t b y JGE a nd HCB w i th f e llow workers f ro m t he Avon Va l ley Archaeo log ica l Research Group ( f ig 2 2 .1) .

I tw i l l b e s een t ha t KD 1 ( SU 0 8891872) was i n to a ' bow ' wh ich

h ad b een b u i lt o u t Nf ro m t he o r ig ina l l i ne ( seen a cross t he c hord s o f or med ) . T h is i s p robab ly t o b e r e la ted t o u nda ted s e t t le men t e nc losures v is ib le o n a ir p hotographs i n t he a rea b eh ind t he ' bow '.

T he s ect ion s hows r a m med c ha lk

r is ing s teep ly t o ap resu med f orward r eve t men t t o t he b ank . I n t he p loughs o i l u nder ly ing t he b ank were 6 v ery sma l l s herds . F our a re i nde term ina te . One i s p robab ly c o mbi mpressed a nd t herefore a Beaker s herd ;

o ne o ther

h as ' sea l ing-wax r ed ' s urfaces r eca l l ing t hose f ound o n Wessex/M idd le Rh ine 1 49

: • •: : : : :

\2

,

5 00 Y ards

0 0

5 D0 F ee t

5 00 Me tre s

l f S0 Me tres

KD 1

KD 2

1 0

2 0

t p

0 1

4 0

5,0 F ee t

0

1 1 5 Me tres

KD 1

KD 2

( 1 ) Hu mus (D M ixed

c halk & e arth

aTight 0

p acked c ha lk

Buried

F ig 2 2 .1

0

®Burnt

1 1

( 5 ) E•rth / f l int & p lough i so i l

( , D I C ha lk & f l int ( 3 ) F lint b ank

p loughso il

Dec i me tres

( 3 1 Hu mus

1 0 iI r e mnant

t urf

2

5F eet

1 0

0

Grit S tI ck b rown , ?p re — lynchet

1

I 1 1 5

Knol l D own , D a merha m , H an ts .: l inear d i tches o ver ' Ce l t ic ' f ie lds . T op , p lans w i th l oca t ion o f r ecen t e xcav a t ions ( r igh t , 1 :5000 ) ;

midd le , p rof i les a cross p hase

2l inear d i tch , t he l owes t a f ter H eywood S u mner 1 913 P lan ) 00 W , s ec t ion GH ; b o t to m , s ec t ions f ro m e xcav a ted s quares KD1 a nd KD2 , 1 :200 . 1 50

B eakers .

T he 3 f l in ts f ound i n t he s a me p loughso i l a re c o mpa t ib le w i th s uch

a n a ssocia t ion . The s econd c u t KD 2 ( SU 0 8991876) E o f t he ' bow ' , s howed ab ank o f e ar thy f l in t a nd c ha lk r ubb le w i th n o s ign if ican t a r tefacts. The S na il Ev idence ( JGE a nd ER ) The o b jec t o f t he work was t o i nvest iga te t hree p rob le ms : ( 1 )

Was t he b ank e ver s ur moun ted b y ah edge?

( 2 )

Wha t was t he i m med ia te p re-boundary e nv iron men t?

( 3 )

Wha t was t he more r e mote p re-boundary e nv iron men t?

I fu sefu l r esu lts were o bta ined f ro m t h is a na lys is, f ur ther work c ou ld b e c onte mp la ted . Two s ect ions were d ug t hrough t he b ank .

One was o n t he f lank o f av a l ley

s ide ( KD 1 ) , t he o ther i n t he v a l ley b ot to m ( KD 2 ) . s equence o f modern t urf , b ank , a nd b ur ied s o i l .

B oth s howed a t r ipar t i te

I n KD 2t he b ur ied s o i l was

t w ice t he t h ickness ( 4 1c m ) o f t ha t i n KD 1 ( 20 cm) .

T h is i s p resu mab ly a

r ef lect ion o f t he v a l ley p os i t ion o f KD 2 , a nd s uggests t ha t t he s o i l i s i n p ar t c o l luv ia l , p robab ly t he r esu lt o f p lough ing . S a mp les were t aken i n e ach s ect ion f ro m t hree l oc i : ( 2 )

( 1 )

T he modern t ur f

The b ase o f t he modern s o i l where i tp ene tra tes t he c ha lk b ank ( 3 ) The

b ur ied s o i l b enea th t he b ank .

1 .O kg ( a ir-dry we igh t ) o f e ach s a mp le was

a na lysed . S ect ion KDi

KD2

S a mp le N o .

L ayer

5

Modern t ur f

4

Base o f t opso i l

3

0 -6

2

6 -12

1

1 2-18

Bur ied s o i l

1 2

Modern t ur f

1 1

Base o f t opso i l

1 0

0 -1

9

1 -11

8

1 1-21

7

2 1-31

6

3 1-41

Bur ied s o i l

The mo l luscan f aunas As u sua l ( Evans 1 972) , t he s pec ies h ave b een p u t i n to t hree b road e co log ic a l g roups, wood land , c a tho l ic, a nd o pen-coun try . Va l Ion ia , Pup i l la , Ver t igo p ygmaea a nd He l ice l la Ca tho l ic s pecies - V itr ina , T r ich ia , Punctu m

Open-coun try f orms -p redo m ina te t hroughou t .

C och l icopa , C epaea a nd

N esov itrea , - — c o mpr ise p ract ica l ly t he r est o f t he f aunas , wh i le wood land f or ms - V itrea , C laus i l ia a nd Aegop ine l la , -a re v ir tua l ly a bsen t .

T he r e-

c ent ly i n troduced s pec ies , C and idu la a nd C ernue l la ( f or mer ly i nc luded i n t he g enus H e l ice l la ) , b e long t o t he o pen-coun try g roup . i gnored a s b e ing a d eep b urrow ing f or m .

1 51

C ec i l io ides c an b e

T he o n ly o ther s pec ies t o b e c ons idered i s P o ma t ias e legans . f or t races o f a nc ien t h edgerows, P . e legans i s ak ey s pec ies.

I n t he s earch

I to ccurs i n a

v ar ie ty o f h ab ita ts, f ro m d ense w ood land t o g rass land a nd , i n t he west o f Br ita in , i n a ct ive d unes, b u t i n e ast a nd c en tra l Eng land i tt hr ives b est i n s crub a nd h edgerows, h ab ita ts where t here i s af a ir amoun t o fb roken g round i n to wh ich t he a n i ma l may b urrow . I n s na i l d iagrams t he s pec ies i s c haract er ist ic o f c learance h or izons ( Evans 1 972 1 33 ) . R esu lts ( f ig 2 2 .2 ) KD 1 . I n s ect ion t he b ur ied s o i l s howed n o t race o f s tra t if ica t ion ; c ha lk p e l le ts were p resen t t hroughou t -ac haracter ist ic o f c u lt iva t ion s o i ls - a nd t here was n o s ur face t ur f l i ne .

T he f auna , h owever , s howed c lear s igns o f

s tra t if ica t ion s uggest ive o f s o me s tab i l isa t ion i n t he i m med ia te p re-ranch b oundary e nv iron men t . G rass land f orms - V a l Ion ia c osta ta , V . e xcentr ica a nd Ver t igo p yg maea , -i ncrease n ot iceab ly t owards t he s ur face , wh i le s pec ies o fb roken g round - Pup i l la , -a nd o f a rab le h ab ita ts - He l ice l la , -d ec line . P o ma t ias e legans i s r epresen ted s o lely b y w orn a p ica l f rag men ts a nd i s most a bundan t a t t he b ase o f t he s o i l .

T he e xamp les o f t h is s pec ies a re p robab ly

r e l ict f ro m a f ormer s crub r eg i me . T he t wo s amp les t aken f ro m t he b ase o f t he modern t ur f a nd t he t urf i t se lf s how a ga in c lear s igns o f s tra t if ica t ion .

Pup i l la , f or e xamp le , s hows a

marked d ec l ine s uggest ive o f s tab i l isa t ion a f ter t he i n i t ia l b are s ur face c rea ted b y t he c onstruct ion o f t he r anch b oundary . V er t igo p ygmaea i ncreases, i nd ic a t ing i ncreased g rass land c over . And t here i s an ea t c o mp lemen tary d ist r ibu t ion o f t he n a t ive H e l ice l la i t a la a nd t he t wo s pec ies , Cand idu la a nd C ernue l la , i n troduced i n to Br ita in b y man i n h istor ica l t imes. T he impor tan t p o in t i s t ha t modern s o i ls p reserve f auna l s tra t if ica t ion wh ich may g o b ack c entur ies o r e ven m i l lenn ia .

Ye t t here i s n o s ign o f aP o ma t ias e legans p eak .

T h is i s a l l t he more i mpress ive when o ne r emembers t ha t P . e legans i s a s pec ies whose s he l l i s p ar t icu lar ly p rone t o p reserva t ion a f ter most o thers h ave d is in tegra ted .

One c an s a fe ly s ay t ha t n o h edgerow e ver s urmoun ted t he

b oundary a t K no l l D own . K ID 2 .

T h is p rof i le s hows a s im i lar p a t tern t o KD 1b u t t here a re o ne o r

t wo d if ferences .

T he s a me g enera l t rend i s s een t hrough t he b ur ied s o i l i n t he

Pup i l la a nd H e l ice l la c urves, s uggest ive o f g rea ter s tab i l ity t owards t he s urf ace , a nd t h is i s b acked u p b y t he s harp r ise i n t he t op c ent i me tre o f Ver t igo p yg maea . T he t wo s pec ies o f Va l Ion ia , h owever , d o n ot s how t h is t rend a lt hough t here i s ag enera l i ncrease u n t i l t he t op c en t i me tre o f V . c osta ta . Another d i f ference i s t he t o ta l a bsence o f Poma t ias e legans f ro m t h is s ect ion , a nd o f c a tho l ic s pec ies f ro m t he b asa l s a mp le . N one o f t hese d i f ferences c an b e s ens ib ly i n terpre ted a t t h is s tage . I n t he t wo t op s amp les, t he s a me t rends a s were s een i n K ID 1a re s tr ik ingl y r ep l ica ted . D iscuss ion a nd g enera l c onc lus ions T he c o mp le te ly o pen-coun try n a ture o f t he f aunas - a par t f ro m t he t race o f P o ma t ias e legans i n K ID 1 , -a rgues f or a l ong h istory o f wood land-free

1 52

l andscape p r ior t o t he c onstruc t ion o f t he b oundary b ank . T he b ur ied s o i l b en ea th t he b ank was a p loughso i l b u t t he f aunas i nd ica ted s tab i l isa t ion t owards t he s urface .

There was, h owever , n o l ong p er iod o f g rass land b e tween t he

a bandonmen t o f c u l t iva t ion a nd t he c onstruct ion o f t he b oundary b ank . N o h edgerow e ver s urmoun ted t he b ank . T he r esu l ts a re s u f f ic ien t ly e ncourag ing t o warran t f ur ther i nvest iga t ions o f 'C e lt ic ' f i e lds a nd b anks o f t he Wessex

1 010

4

1 29 1

E E

l i ce l la / ta lc

t i go p yg maea

M

P up i l la muscoru m

I

V a ( Ion ia c ostata

N os . o f s he l ls

5

C a tho l ic s pec ies

1

P o rno t i as e legans

KD

Wood land s pec ies

S a mp le n u mber

l i near d i tch s ystem b y s na i l a na lys is .

1 11 1

MI

G rass land B roken g round

I

BANK B ur ied s o i l

KD . 2

3

oi

434

2 1 0 -1 88 1 -1 53 20 -

1 2

1 69

1

1 44

: L b I re

ri .

G rass land A rab le

U M I

M I

M I

B roken g round

BANK B ur ied s o i l

1 0

0

9

1 01

8

1 48

G rass land

•

1 43

2 0 -

9 1

A rab le

. 130

1 5

4 0

1 3

6

G rass land

1 0

F ig 2 2 .2

1 ' 0 '

3 b

l b'

b

Kno l l D own , D a merham : 1 53

3 0

0 1 - 1 (7. '

l b'

t 1% O - 1 ( 3

mo l luscan h is togra m .

2 3 .

THE PROBLE M OF HEDGES ENG LOSING RO MAN AND EARL IER F IELDS M

R ob inson

I ti s a l most c er ta in t ha t many o f t he R o man a nd p reh istor ic f i e ld b oundari es wh ich s urv ive were o r ig ina l ly h edged .

S t i l l more may h ave c o mpr ised a

h edge a lone , b u t p rov ing t he p resence o f p re-Saxon h edges i s e x tre me ly d if f ic u l t .

There s ee m t o b e t wo p oss ib le ways .

T he f i rst i nvo lves s how ing t ha t

ah edge wh ich i s s t i l l l i v ing wa s o nce p ar t o f a n o ld f i e ld s yste m ;

t he s econd

i s t o f ind p reserved b io log ica l r e ma ins o f a n a nc ien t h edge o r s pec ies wh ich w ou ld i nd ica te t he p resence o f o ne . Hedgerow d a t ing u s ing t he n u mber o f s hrub s pec ies p resen t ( Hooper 1 971 6 -13 ;

P o l lard e t a l 1 974 7 9-85 ) d oes n o t r each b ack t o t he R o man p er iod ;

h owever , i tc an b e u sed t o e l im ina te r ecen t a nd s o me Med ieva l h edges f ro m c ons idera t ion .

Once a h edge h as b een e stab l ished t o b e o ld , i t wou ld s t i l l b e

v ery d if f icu l t t o p rove t ha t i t was c on te mporary w ith r e ma ins o f a n o ld f i e ld s yste m o n t he s a me l i ne .

S o me o f t he f i e ld b oundar ies c ou ld h ave l asted a

v ery l ong t ime a nd h ad t he h edges a dded t o t he m l a ter . Po l lard ( 1973 3 43-52 ) h as s hown t ha t o n s o me s o i ls i n Hun t ingdon a nd P e terborough p ar t icu lar h erbs i nc lud ing wood a ne mone ( Ane mone n e morosa ), d og ' s mercury (Mercur ia l is p errenn is) a nd s hrubs i nc lud ing h aze l ( Cory lus a ve l lana ) , f i e ld map le ( Acer c ampestre) a nd s p ind le ( Euonymus e uropaeus) a re v ery c om mon i n o ld wood land b ut h ave l i t t le t o n o a b i l ity t o c o lon ise p lan ted h edges e ven i fg row ing i n wood land n earby .

T hey a re , h owever ,

c o m mon i n s o me m ixed s hrub h edges wh ich i s t aken t o i nd ica te t ha t t hey h ave b een d er ived f ro m o ld wood land .

Perhaps i t wou ld b e p oss ib le t o c o mb ine

e v idence f ro m p o l len a na lys is f or t he d a te when c learance o ccurred w ith t he p resence o f h edges d er ived f ro m o ld wood land t o i nd ica te a h edged f i e ld s yste m o f t ha t a ge .

The d if f icu lt ies w ith t h is a pproach a re n u merous.

S evera l o f t he

s hrub s pec ies u sed wou ld a lso o ccur i n s econdary wood land a nd i ti s n ot k nown h ow o ld a nc ient wood land mus t b e b efore t he h erb s pec ies wh ich c haracter ise i te stab l ish t he mse lves .

Wh i lst i ts ee ms t o b e more t han 1 ,000 y ears ( un less

t hey h ave i nvaded f ro m a d jacen t o ld wood land ) , i ti s av ery l ong s tep t o s ay t ha t t hey i nd ica te wood land w h ich h as n ever b een c o mp le te ly c leared f or t he p ast 6 ,000 y ears .

I nd ica tor s pec ies may o n ly a ct a s s uch o ver av ery l im i ted

r ange wh ich c ou ld b e u pse t b y s l igh t c hanges i n c l i ma t ic c ond it ions .

F or

e xa mp le , A ne mone n e morosa i s ag rass land a s we l l a s a wood land p lan t i n F rance a nd i tw i l l o ccur i n g rass land i n t h is c oun try i fi th as a lways b een mown f or h ay o ver a v ery l ong p er iod o f t ime ( Du f fey e t a l 1 974 8 9) .

1 55

Probab ly t he most c onv inc ing p roof o f aR o man o r e ar lier h edge wou ld b e t o f i nd a r ow o f s tumps a nd r oots p reserved a s ar esu l t o f ar i s ing wa ter t ab le a nd t o c arry o u t r ad iocarbon d a t ing o n t hem .

T here wou ld n ot b e many

i nstances where t h is s or t o f p reserva t ion h as o ccurred . Wh i lst t he h edge i t se lf i s u n l ike ly t o b e p reserved , p lan t o r a n i ma l r ema ins wh ich wou ld i nd ica te i t s p resence c ou ld b e f ound i n s tra t i f ied a rchaeol og ica l d epos i ts .

Work u s ing t he s na i l P o ma t ias e legans i s d escr ibed a bove

( Paper 2 2 ). T he p rob le m w ith u s ing t he p resence o f p ar t icu lar s pecies t o i nd ica te a h edge i s t ha t h edgerows a re a man-made h ab ita t s o t he ir f auna a nd f l ora h ave a l l b een d er ived f ro m o ther h ab ita ts , e spec ia lly s crub a nd s crub e dge . Ev idence h as emerged f ro m e xcava t ions a t F armoor , Oxon ., b y t he O xfordsh ire Archaeo log ica l U n it w h ich w ou ld s uggest t hat t he R oman l ands cape t here w as h edged ( Rob inson , 1 978;

L a mbr ick a nd Rob inson , u npub-

l i shed ) . T he s i tes o f I ron Age a nd R o man d a te were at ype wh ich s ee ms u nusua l f or t he f irst t errace g rave ls o f t he T hames. T he I ron A ge s ites c ons isted o f ad i tched b u t c irc le w i th o ne o r more d i tched c o mpounds , i n a l l a bou t 4 0 m a cross p robab ly s e t i n a n o pen l andscape . T he Roman s ite h ad t races o f sma l l r ectangu lar d i tched p addocks o r f i e lds a bout 5 0 m i n w id th a nd n o more t han 1 00 m i n l eng th l a id o u t a ga ins t ap a ir o f p ara l le l d i tches. T here were p i ts c on ta in ing d o mest ic r ubb ish a nd we l ls i n s o me o ft hese e nc losures . T he b ot to ms o f many o f t he I ron A ge a nd R o man f ea tures were wa ter logged a nd t he o rgan ic r e ma ins p reserved i n t he m were s ub jected t o a d e ta i led e xa m ina t ion .

P lan t a nd a n i ma l r ema ins f ro m t here w h ich were r e l-

e van t t o t he d iscuss ion o n h edges a re g iven i n f i g . 2 3 .1. T here was n o e v idence a t a l l wh ich w ou ld s uggest t he p resence o f I ron Age h edges o n t he s i te . T he l eve l o ft ree p o l len was l ow a nd t here w as l i t t le i nd ica t ion f ro m t he o ther p lan t o r i nsect r e ma ins o f s hrubs o r t rees . The l eve l o f t ree p o l len r e ma ined l ow f ro m t he R o man d eposi ts b u t t hey a l l c on ta ined t horny t w igs o f t he s loe/haw thorn ( Prunus s p inosa/Cra taegus) t ype . T hose f ro m wh ich t he wood was i den t if ied a l l c on ta ined many p ieces o fP runus w ood wh i lst t here was o n ly a s ing le p iece f ro m a n I ron Age s amp le . I na dd it ion t here were s evera l o ther i nd ica t ions o ft he p resence o f t rees o r s hrubs i n t he f orm o fb ud s ca les, l ea f a bsc is ion p ads, f ru its a nd b ee t les wh ich d o n o t i nvade s tructura l t imbers b u t a t tack l i v ing o r d ead w ood w ith t he bark i np lace ( H icken 1 963 ;

Munro 1 926) .

S o me o f t he b ee t les p refer t rees o ther t han t he

R osaceae , wh ich a re a lso i nd ica ted b y t he f ew a sh f ru it a nd s ome o f t he w ood . T o s um u p t he r esu l ts f ro m t he R o man s amp les, t here i s p len ty o f e v idence f or b ushes o r t rees, e spec ia l ly s loe b u t a lso s o me o ther s pecies . t he l eve l o f t ree p o l len was l ow .

However ,

Cra taegus a nd Prunus a re i nsec t p o ll ina ted

p lan ts wh ich r e lease l i t t le p o l len t o t he w ind s o t he ir o n ly s urv iv ing r e ma ins t end t o b e wood a nd f ru it . T he r esu l ts s uggest t he p resence o f s o me Prunus d om ina ted s crub i n t he R o man p er iod b u t t ha tt here were f ew o ther t rees w h ich f l owered a nd c ontr ibu ted t o t he p o l len r a in . T h is s crub may h ave b een i nt he f orm o f s loe h edges .

Had s crub d eve loped n a tura l ly o n t he s ite ag rea ter

i nd ica t ion f ro m t he p o l len o f t he p resence o f t rees m igh tb e e xpec ted a s t here wou ld p robab ly h ave b een t rees o ther t han members o f t he f am i ly R osaceae e stab l ish ing t he mse lves .

T here was n o e v idence t ha t t he s ite w as a bandoned 1 56

t o s crub d ur ing t he R o man p er iod ; i ndeed i t was when i t s u se s ee med t he most i n tens ive .

The s yste m o f sma l l f i e lds was l a id o u t a t t h is t ime a nd , i f

t hey were t o c on ta in a n i ma ls , more s ubstan t ia l b oundar ies wou ld h ave b een r equ ired t han t he d itches wh ich were e xcava ted . T he s i te a t Farmoor p roduced , h owever, e v idence f or h edges o f ar a ther d if feren t s or t . Two R o man f ea tures c on ta ined p reserved l eaves o fb ox ( Buxus s emperv irens) .

One o ft he m a lso c on ta ined f ragmen ts o fb ox f ru its .

I ti s most u n l ike ly t ha t i t wa s g row ing w i ld a t Farmoor s ince n a tura l ly i ti s ap lan t o f c ha lk a nd l imestone n ow c on f ined t o av ery f ew l oca l it ies i n Br ita in ( C lapha m e t a l 1 962 3 25) .

Apar t f ro m y ew , i ti s t he o n ly n a t ive e vergreen

h edg ing p lan t ; b u t b ox h edges a re h ard ly s tock-proof . u se o f b ox f or o rna men ta l h edg ing ( XV I.28 ).

P l iny d escr ibes t he

P erhaps g arden migh t b e a more

s u itable t erm t han f i e ld f or s ome o f t he sma l l e nclosures w ith b ox h edges d iv id ing v egetable p lots f ro m h ab itat ion a reas.

F ig . 2 3 .1

E v idence f or t rees a nd s hrubs f ro m I ron Age a nd Ro man d epos its

a t Far moor , Oxon .

I ron Age D epos it

5 90

%T ree a nd S hrub P o l len

1 007

1 009

1 .9

1 100

Ro man 1 159

3 .8

1 060 4 3

1 1.6

1 7

1 046

1 074

-

2 .1 4 .4

Wood F rax inus Prunus

+

+

Q uercus a nd S a l ix S eeds C ra taegus

-

+

-

-

-

-

-

+

F rax inus

-

-

-

-

-

+

-

+

P runus s p inosa

-

-

-

-

-

+

+

+

R osa

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

+

+

B ud S ca les

-

-

-

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

L ea f Absc is ion Pads

-

-

-

-

+

+

+

+

-

+

R osa Pr ick les

-

+

-

-

-

+

+

+

-

-

T horny Tw igs

-

-

-

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

+

-

+

-

+

-

+

+

+

O ther P lan t R e ma ins

C o leop tera Ac a les t urbatus C era mbyc idae S co ly t idae

-

_ 1 -

-

-

1 57

+

P o l len was o n ly l ooked f or i n t he f i ve d epos i ts i nd icated; i n 1 046 a nd 1 074 b u t n ot i den t if ied .

w ood was p resen t

T he s eeds a nd o ther p lan t r e ma ins w ere

a l l f ro m 5 1b s amp les e xcep t ing 1 046 wh ich was a 3 1b s a mp le .

S amp le s izes

f or wood a nd i nsects v ar ied b u t at ota l o f 2 45 1b was e xa m ined f ro m I ron A ge d eposi ts f or t he m a nd 1 26 1b f ro m R o man d epos i ts.

T he d if ferences b etween

t he r esu l ts f ro m t he I ron Age a nd R o man s amp les i s n ot d ue t o p reservat ion : f or e xamp le a s many I ron Age s eeds a s R o man s eeds were r ecovered .

1 58

2 4.

ROMAN F IELDS I NTO MEDIEVAL FURLONGS? C . C . T ay lor a nd P . J . F ow ler

O f a l l t he p rob le ms c oncern ing R o man f i e lds , o ne o f t he mos t i nso lub le h as b een wha t h appened t o t he m a t t he e nd o f t he f or ma l R o man p er iod .

Mos t h is-

t or ians a nd many a rchaeo log is ts h ave s een a c o mple te b reak , a t l eas t i n p hys ic a l t er ms , b etween t he f i e ld s ys te ms o f R o man B r i ta in a nd t he c o m mon o r o pen f i e ld s ys te ms o f much o f med ieva l Eng land .

T h is v iew c an b e we l l u nder-

s tood f or , i n s p i te o f t he v ar ie ty t ha t o ccurs , n o t ype o f R o man f ie ld c o mes v ery c lose t o t he f u l ly d eve loped med ieva l o pen f i eld a rrange men t w i th b locks o f e nd-on o r i n ter locked f ur longs s ub-d iv ided i n to b road r idge-andfurrow . S o me a t te mp ts , t hough n o t v ery s a t is fac tory o nes , h ave b een made t o p rove t ha t b locks o f Ro man c en tur ia ted f ie lds h ave e vo lved i n to med ieva l f ur longs b u t n o r ea l p roo f h as b een f or thco m ing ( F inberg 1 972 2 60-65 ) . One o f u s ( C . C . T .) p o in ted o u t s o me t ime a go t ha t t here was a l i t t le a irp hotograph ic e v idence f or u nda ted d i tches l y ing b enea th , a nd o n t he l ine o f , t he b oundar ies o f med ieva l o penf ie ld f ur longs ( Tay lor 1 975 5 8 ) . H e s ugges ted t ha t t hese d i tches migh t i nd ica te t ha t t he med ieva l f ur longs o r ig ina ted f ro m a n e ar l ier p a t tern o f e nc losed , d i tched f ie lds .

A t t he t ime , h owever , t he e v idence

was v ery l im ited a nd n o t e n t ire ly c onc lus ive . More r ecen t ly n ew i n for ma t ion h as c o me t o l igh t wh ich may g ive s o me s uppor t f or t h is g enera l i dea .

S tud ies i n N or tha mp tonsh ire o f med ieva l r idge-

a nd-furrow o n a ir p ho tographs h ave l ed t o t he d iscovery o f an umber o f o ther e xa mp les o f d i tches u nder ly ing t he b oundar ies o f f ur longs .

These h ave c o me

t o l igh t w hen d i f feren t ia l modern p lough ing r evea led p ar ts o f t he d i tches a s c rop marks u nder t he l a ter h ead lands ( RCH M f or thco m ing , C as t le Ashby 1 a nd Wa lgrave 1 2 ) . O f much more c onsequence i s t ha t t hese e ar ly d i tches h ave b een f ound f or t he f irs t t ime b y e xcava t ion a nd , i n s o me c ases , d a ted . I n 1 974 , a t T eversha m n ear C a mbr idge ( TL 4 94575 ) , ag as p ipel ine c u t o b l ique ly a cross t wo med ieva l h ead lands v is ib le o n t he g round a s b road r idges 2 0 m — 2 5 m a cross a nd 0 .25 m h igh . B enea th e ach , a nd o n t he s a me a l ignmen t , w as a n arrow d i tch o n ly 1 .2 m w ide a nd 0 .2 m d eep , o f U -shaped p rof i le , f i l led w i th c ha lky l oa m .

N o d a t ing e v idence was r ecovered .

T owards t he

e nd o f 1 976 , Ca mbr idgesh ire C oun ty C ounc i l R oad D iv is ion w idened a n arrow l ane a t D ux ford ( TL 4 73463 ).

The l ane , a n e nc losure r oad o f t he e ar ly 1 9th

c en tury , c rossed f our med ieva l h ead lands a t r igh t-ang les a nd t hus t he f oundat i ons o f t he n ew p ar t o f t he r oad e xposed a l l f our h ead lands i n s ec t ion .

Three

o f t hese s ec t ions r evea led sma l l n arrow V -shaped d i tches , 0 .3 m d eep a nd 1 .25 m w ide , c u t i n to much w ea thered c ha lk a nd f i l led w i th a b rown l oa m . F ro m t wo o f t he t hree d i tches c a me a f ew a braded s herds o f p o t tery , c er ta in ly R o man a nd p robab ly o f l a te-3rd t o 4 th c en tury d a te . 1 59

More e x tens ive e v idence h as b een r evea led b y work o ver t he l as t e igh t y ears o n t he b oundar ies o f t he v i l lage a nd f i e lds o f Wharra m P ercy , Yorksh ire ( SE 8 58644 ) .

Al arge n umber o f s ec t ions t hrough t hese b oundar ies h as r e-

v ea led t ha t many o f t he m h ave R o man d i tches b e low t he m , t o s uch a n e x ten t t ha t t he e xcava tors h ave s ugges ted t ha t R o man f ea tures d e ter m ined t he l a ter l ayou t o f p ar ts o f b o th t he med ieva l v i l lage a nd i t s f ur longs ( no tes i n Med ieva l Archaeo l . 1 8 1 974 2 18 ;

1 9 1 975 2 57) .

Th is n ew e v idence , a nd t here may b e o ther ma ter ia l n o t k nown t o t he wr i ter , s ugges ts t ha t t here c ou ld b e ad irec t l ink b e tween l a te R o man f i e lds a nd s o me med ieva l f ur longs .

I n e ssence i t s ee ms p oss ib le t ha t s o me l a te R o man d i tched

f ie lds were e i ther t aken o ver a s g o ing c oncerns b y S axon s et t lers o r were s t i l l v is ib le a s b oundar ies when l a ter S axon f ar mers l a id o u t t heir f i e lds , o f ten , n o d oubt , a f ter much mod i f ica t ion a nd a l tera t ion .

These n ew f i e lds p resumab ly

b eca me f ur longs a nd were s ub-d iv ided i n to s tr ips f or t he r easons a nd i n t he manner s ugges ted b y Baker a nd Bu t l in ( 1973 6 27-56) .

The e v idence n o ted

a bove i s s t i l l s o mewha t i nconc lus ive a nd much more i s n eeded t o p rove t he t heory s ugges ted h ere .

N ever the less a rchaeo log is ts s hou ld n ow b e l ook ing

f or p roo f , n o t n ecessar i ly b y s pec ia l ly c onduc ted e xcava t ions , t hough t h is c ert a in ly may b e d one , b u t b y t he much e as ier , more e x tens ive a nd c heaper me thod o f wa tch ing t he n ow c o m mon p ipe-l ines i n r oad i mprove men ts . C . C . T . Tay lor 's s ugges t ion a bove h as a t l eas t t he mer i t o f moving p ar t o f t he ' Con t inu i ty ' q ues t ion b ack t o a n a rchaeo log ica l ly r eso lvab le ma t ter o f p hys ica l s uccess ion .

Two o ther p ieces o f e v idence wh ich h appened t o b e k nown t o t he

a u thor a re c o mparab le t o t hose f ro m t he E as t M id lands .

They a re men t ioned

t o s uppor t T ay lor 's p lea f or more , a nd d e l ibera te , s earch ing f or a nd o bserv a t ion o f t h is t ype o f e v idence .

A t Ab ingdon , Ox fordsh ire , Mr . D . M i les ,

e xcava t ing a t B ar ton C our t F ar m i n 1 975 ( SU 5 05974 ) , f ound a s ha l low d i tch b e tween 0 .5 m a nd 0 .2 m w ide a nd t raceab le f or a bou t 1 30 m.

I tl ay u nder

a nd o n t he l ine o f as l igh t l ynche t wh ich a ppears t o b e o ne s ide o f ab lock o f r idge-and-furrow .

The d i tch c on ta ined o n ly l a te 4 th c en tury p o t tery ;

o ther 4 th c en tury f ea tures a nd was p oss ib ly c u t i n to b y aS axon h u t .

i tc u t Though

i t s ee ms c lear t ha t t he a rea was n o t c u l t iva ted c on t inuous ly a s af i e ld f ro m l a te R o man t o med ieva l t imes , i ti s l ike ly t ha t t he l a te R o man b oundary a t l eas t i n f luenced t he a rrange men t o f t he med ieva l f ur longs h ere . A t I l ches ter , S o merse t , t he f i e ld im med ia te ly o u ts ide t he SW a ng le o f t he R o man t own wa l ls o n t he NW s ide o f t he F osse Way a s i tl eads o u t t owards E xe ter was e x tens ive ly e xcava ted i n 1 975 b e fore t he c ons truct ion a cross i to f as l ip-road f ro m t he n ew t own b y-pass .

The p r i me o b jec t ive was t he a rea

o f f la t p as ture b e tween t he F osse a nd , s o me 7 5 m wes t , t he f irs t f urrow ( or more p robab ly b oundary d i tch ) o f ab lock o f r idge-andfurrow l y ing a t a n a ng le o f c4 3° t o t he R o man r oad . An e x tens ion o f t he e xcava t ion t o c u t i n to t h is r idge-and-furrow s howed t ha t a n e ar l ier d i tch , o f R o man d a te a nd a pparen t ly o n t he s a me a l ign men t , u nder lay t ha t v is ib le o n t he p resen t s ur face ( CRAAGS 1 975 ) . Un l ike t he o ther e xa mp les , t h is s ee ms t o b e ac ase o f aR o man d i tch b ound ing t he l ong s ide , n o t t he h ead land , o f af ur long , p art icu lar ly s tr ik ing h ere o n af la t a rea w i thou t p hys ica l o r n a tura l c ons tra in ts o n l and a rrange men ts .

1 60

S ince t he S y mpos iu m , s im i lar o bserva t ions o f ap hys ica l r e la t ionsh ip b et ween r idge-and-furrow a nd p re-Saxon l andscape f ea tures h ave a lso b een i l lus tra ted b y F ord ( 1 976 , f i g 2 6.9 ).

H e l i s ts f ive c ases b ased o n a ir p hoto-

g raph ic e v idence f ro m t he m idd le Warwicksh ire Avon a rea where ' enc losures o f R o mano-Br i t ish t ype h ave d e ter m ined t he l ayou t o f f ur longs ' a nd f ive o ther i ns tances w here ' t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween r ing d i tches , b arrow s i tes a nd h eadl ands o f f ur longs i s s uch t ha t c on t inu i ty o f s o me p reh is tor ic f i e ld b oundar ies i n to t he med ieva l p er iod mus t b e g iven s er ious c ons idera t ion ' ( p . 2 94 ) . I n f ac t o f c ourse t here i s l i t t le n ew i n t he o bserva t ion i t se l f .

I n t he t ra-

d i t iona l f i e ld a nd a er ia l s urvey o f e x tan t ' Ce l t ic ' f ie ld s ys te ms s ince C raw ford a nd Curwen i n t he 1 920s , many , many e xa mp les h ave b een n o ted o f f ur longs f i t t ing w i th in t he l ynche ts o f t he p reh is tor ic a nd R o man f i e lds ;

y et , q u i te

p roper ly , t h is v is ib le e v idence h as n ot b een a dduced t o a rgue f or a grar ian c on t inu i ty .

I n mos t s uch c ases , t he s tr ip l ynche ts a nd r idge-and-furrow a re

c lear ly t he o u ter f r inges o f med ieva l c u l t iva t ion mov ing o n t o l and f ur thes t f ro m t he ma in s et t le men ts a nd p resu mab ly a t ar e la t ive ly l a te d a te i n e ach l oca l c on tex t .

The d angers o f ac ircu lar a rgu men t a nd o f mak ing a ssu mp t ions

a re , h owever , b o th p resen t i nt h is i n terpre ta t ion ;

b u t n ever the less t he s uper-

i mpos i t ion o f med ieva l w i th in p re- med ieva l f ie lds i nt hese g enera l ly marg ina l c on tex ts d oes n ot n ecessar i ly p ro mpt q ues t ions a bou t c on t inu i ty — r a ther t he o ppos i te , — a nd t here fore s ounds a warn ing a bou t t he n eed t o t hink c arefu l ly a bou t , a s w e l l a s t o o bserve c lear ly , t hese n ew c rop mark a nd e xcava ted e xamples c om ing t o l igh t i n d i fferen t , g enera l ly l ow land c on tex ts . Now t ha t i tc an b eg in t o b e a pprec ia ted f ro m t he r ap id ly a ccu mu la t ing e v id ence o f a er ia l a nd f i e ld a rchaeo logy j us t h ow i n tens ive ly a nd e x tens ively t he l and was u t i l ised i n R o man a nd i ndeed l a ter p reh is tor ic t imes — we a re n ow d ea l ing w i th a d i f feren t p heno menon f ro m t he l andscape-as-perceived 2 0 y ears a go , — i ti s r ea lly n o t a t a l l s urpr is ing t ha t p os t-Ro man f ie ld a rrange men ts h ad t o t ake a ccoun t o f t he l i t ter o f c u l tura l d ebr is i nher i ted f ro m f or mer l andu sage.

A f ter a l l , we a re s t i l l d oing i t , a lbei t n o t v ery s uccess fu l ly , t oday .

B u t t h is i s r a ther a d i f feren t p oin t f ro m o ur ma in s ugges t ion t ha t a c tua l l and d iv is ions , f i eld b oundar ies , p ers is ted t hrough t he f irs t m i l lenn ium AD t o p rov ide , i n s o me p laces a t l eas t , t he f ra mework o f t he med ieva l f ur long p at tern . Even i ft he s ugges t ion p roves t enab le , i td oes n o t i m med ia te ly a nswer o ther a spec ts o f t he q ues t ion o f a grar ian c on t inu i ty .

T aylor , f or e xa mp le ( above ) ,

o f fers t wo o p t ions t o e xp la in a d irec t l ink i n R o man-Saxon f ie ld a rrange men ts , b oth a ssum ing a n Ang lo-Saxon t ake-over ;

b u t o ther a l terna t ives c o me t o mind ,

n ot l eas t t ha t o f B r i tons c on t inu ing t of ar m t he ir ' anc ien t f i e lds ' we l l i nto t he s o-ca l led Ang lo-Saxon p er iod .

I ti s s t i l l e asy t o a ssu me a n Ang lo-Saxon

i n troduc t ion o f a n ' open f i e ld ' ( c f F ow ler 1 976a ;

S awyer 1 976 1 -7 ) whereas

w e s hou ld b e e xa m in ing c r i t ica l ly o nce a ga in t he i dea t ha t o pen f i e ld a rrangemen ts m igh t h ave e vo lved d ur ing t he e ar ly/ m idd le S axon p er iod g iven t he d i fferen t s oc ia l , e cono m ic a nd c u l tura l c ond i t ions c o mpared t o t he 4 th c en tury A .D .

E ven t o s ay t ha t b egs t he q ues t ion :

t hanks i np ar t icu lar t o t he p ers is ten t

a er ia l s urve i l lance o f Messrs . P icker ing a nd R i ley , t he R o man a rab le l ands cape n eed n o l onger c ons is t e n t ire ly o f sma l l r ec tangu lar f i e lds . I ndeed , o n t he g rave ls o f t he Tha mes ( Benson a nd M i les 1 974 ) , where i n f act a re t he c harac ter is t ic ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds?

Are t he l arge b lank a reas b e tween t he c rop marks 1 61

r ea l ly a l l p as ture? ( 9 1 P aper 1 0 a bove ).

Our p ercep t ion o f R o man a nd l a te

p reh is tor ic f i e lds s hou ld n o more b e c ons tr ic ted b y images o f ' Ce l t ic ' f i e lds t han s hou ld o ur s earch f or t he a rab le o f t he m id a nd l a ter f irs t m i l lenn ium A .D . b e b ounded b y S axons a nd'open ' f ie lds . I t wou ld , a l l t he s a me , b e marve l lous ly i ron ic i f , a f ter a l l t he l earned i nk s pi l t o n t he a pparen t ly c o mp lex q ues t ion o f t he o r ig in o f t he ' open f i eld ', t he a nswer p roved t o b e a n a rchaeo log ica l ly r e la t ive ly s i mp le ma t ter o f d e mons trable p hys ica l c on t inu i ty f ro m f ie lds o f R oman , o r e ven e ar l ier , d a te . P . J . F .

1 62

2 5.

THE L INK ING OF PREH ISTOR IC S ETTLE MENT

TO I TS FAR M ING LANDSCAPE I N SOUTH WESTERN BR ITAIN R oger Mercer

C am nBrea , I l logan , R edru th , Wes t C ornwa l l . B etween 1 970 a nd 1 973 t he e xcava t ion , f unded b y r esearch g ran ts , was c arr ied o u t o n t he N eo l i th ic s i te o n t he s um m i t o f C am nB rea , 2 km s ou th-wes t o f R edru th , C ornwa l l ( Mercer 1 970b , 1 971 , 1 972 a nd 1 973 ) .

Pr ior t o t he

c o m mence men t o f t h is e xa m ina t ion o f t he s i te , t he o n ly e ven r e la t ive ly me thod ic a l work u pon t he h i l l h ad b een t ha t c onduc ted b y T . C . P e ter , al oca l a n t iq uary i n t he 1 890 's who h ad b een a t trac ted t o t he s i te b y t he r a mpar ts o f t he I ron Age h i l l for t t ha t s urround t he who le h i l l top a nd b y as er ies o f t hir teen o r s o h u t c irc les ( so me v ery r u ined ) t ha t a re s e t w i th in t he h i l l for t e nce in te . P e ter 's f irs t e xcava t ions were c onduc ted w i th in t he h u t c irc les a nd i t was f ro m t hese s truc tures t ha t h e r e tr ieved h is f irs t N eo l i th ic f inds o n t he h i l l .

H e

s oon , h owever , b egan t o e xcava te o n t he r ock s trewn s um m i t o f t he h i l l a round t he p resen t d ay c as t le a nd h ere l oca ted v ery much g rea ter c oncen tra t ions o f N eo l ith ic ma ter ial , a l l o f i tb as ica l ly w ithou t r ea l a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t. N ever the less , s uch was t he q ua l i ty o f t he ma ter ia l h e r e tr ieved a nd i ts q uan t i ty t ha t t he s i te p assed i n to t he l i tera ture ( P iggo t t 1 954 3 2 ) a nd t he h u t c irc les w ere a ccep ted a s s truc tures o f Neo l i th ic d a te . Work o nt he s i te b e tween 1 970 a nd 1 973 i n i t ia l ly c oncen tra ted o n t he a rea o f Peter 's d enses t f inds o nt he e as tern s um m i t o f t he h i l l . I nb r ie f ( f or t h is i s n ot t he p roper p lace f or a ny d e ta i led c ons idera t ion o f t he s e t t le men t s i te ) w ork o ver f our s easons r evea led a mass ive e nc los ing wa l l c o mposed o f u nd ressed b ou lders w i th in wh ich a s er ies o f n a tura l t erraces e nhanced b y r ud imen tary s t one c learance h ad b een o ccup ied w i th p os t-s truc tures p resen t o n e ach t errace .

S uch was t he d ens i ty o f o ccupa t ion d ebr is a nd t he f requency o f

p os t a nd s take s truc tures — e ven i f many o f t hese were f a ir ly amorphous , — t ha t t he e xcava tor h as p os tu la ted e lsewhere t ha t av i l lage s e t w i th in a wa l l , wh ich b y i t s s ta ture c an h ard ly b e o ther t han d e fens ive , e x is ted o n t he s umm i t o f Ca m B rea a t ad a te , i nd ica ted b y r ad iocarbon a ssays , b e tween 3 000 a nd 2 700 b c. I nt erms o f s oc ia l p reh is tory t he s i te i s t hus c lear ly o f t he g rea tes t import ance a s t he o n ly wel l-documen ted e nc losed v i l lage o f E ar ly N eo l i th ic d a te i n B r i ta in . On t he b as is o f i t s s ize , t he l abour e n ta i led i n t he b u i ld ing o f t he e nc losing w a l l , a nd t he n u mber o f o ccup iab le t erraces , ap opu la t ion s ize i n t he a rea o f 8 0-120 i s i nd ica ted .

1 63

Y e t b ecause o f t he e x tre me ly e xposed n a ture o f t he s i te , t he a cid a nd a bras ive n a ture o f t he s o i ls a nd t he d er ived n a ture o f many o f t he s oi l c on tex ts , v ir tua l ly n o ma ter ia l s urv ived t o g ive a ny i n for ma t ion a s t o t he e cono my a nd f ar m ing p rac t ice u pon wh ich t h is r e la t ive ly s tab le p opu la t ion b ased i tse l f . P o l lens , mo l lusc r e ma ins , c harcoa ls a nd o ther o rgan ic r e ma ins d id n o t s urv ive i n r ecogn isab le c ond i t ion a nywhere o n t he s i te . E ven t he f requen t g ra in impress ions u pon t he p o t tery a re o f n o a ss is tance t o u s h ere a s e very v esse l r epresen ted o nt he s i te i s a pparen t ly impor ted f ro m a c ons iderab le d is tance ( Dr . I . F . Sm i th , p ers . c o mm .) . I nt hese c ircums tances , d irec t measures h ad t o b e employed t o e ndeavour t o r e tr ieve t races o f t he f ar m ing l andscape i t sel f .

N o s ur face i nd ica t ions o f

t he p resence o f s tone c learance o r wa l l ing w ere a va i lab le ( t he w ho le h i l l l ay b enea th a d ense c over o f g orse a nd b racken ) a nd t he e xercise i n i t s f irs t s tages t ook t he f or m o f s e lec t ing f or e xcava t ion a r e la t ive ly l eve l s tonefree a rea n ear t he s i te o n t he s he l tered s ou thern s lope o f t he h i l l where s ome k ind o f c u l t iva t ion wou ld h ave b een p oss ib le .

I n o rder t o a pprecia te a ny f or m o f a gr i-

c u l tura l i e l arge-sca le , w idespread a nd u n i for m d is turbance o f t he s oi l , i ti s c lear ly n ecessary t o c arry o u t a n e xcava t iona l e xplora t ion o n al arge-sca le s o t ha t p a t terns o f s tone c learance ( i n t he H igh land Z one ) a nd s o i l c hange c an b e o bserved i n c on tex t .

I np rac t ice , t h is d ic ta tes t he u se o f mach inery y e t

a lso r equ ires t he u se o f t echn iques t ha t w i l l n o t d is turb d i f feren t ia l d is tr ibu t ions o f s o i l a nd s tone a s t hey l i e d ispersed u pon t he b edrock h or izon .

I n o rder t o

mee t t hese a pparen t ly p aradox ica l r equ ire men ts , as pec i f ic t echn ique i nt he u se o f t he mach ine was d eve loped . I t was a t t h is p oin t t ha t T . C . P e ter 's r ecorded a c t iv i t ies w i th in t he h u t c irc les l y ing o n t h is g en t le s ou thern s lope o f t he h i l l w i th in t he r a mpar ts -o f t he I ron Age h i l l f or t b eca me s ign i f ican t . I ts ee med w ise t o c o mmence o ur a c t iv i t ies i n t h is a rea b y t he e xa m ina t ion o f t he r e ma ins o f o ne o f t hese s truct ures .

I tb eca me c lear t ha t t he h u ts were , a s h ad b een s uspec ted , o f I ron A ge

d a te p robab ly c on te mporary w i th t he h i l l for t i t sel f : a nd d ecora ted ' Sou th-wes tern B '

s herds o f c ordoned w are

p o t tery were l oca ted i n sma l l q uan ti t ies o n

t he h u t f loors where p ar ts h ad s urv ived P e ter 's a t ten t ions .

H ow w as i tt hen

t ha t P e ter h ad l oca ted s ubs tan t ia l q uan t i t ies o f N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l w i th in t hese s a me s truc tures?

W i th t he r e mova l o f as egmen t o f wa l l o f o ne h u t i tb eca me

c lear t ha t t he h u ts t he mse lves were b u i l t o n t op o f p rev ious ly d is turbed s o i l . The s o i l was a q u i te d is t inc t h or izon o f l igh t-co loured , g r i t ty , l eached ma ter ia l w i th in wh ich l ay a n u mber o f a r te fac ts , i nc lud ing p o t tery a nd l ea f a rrowheads , o f d iagnos t ica l ly N eo l i th ic t ype .

P e ter i n work ing w i th in t he w a l ls o f t he h u t

h ad v ery n a tura l ly c leared t he i n ter ior d own t o t he e as i ly r ecogn isab le n a tura l r abb a nd i n d oing s o h ad i ncorpora ted t he ma ter ia l l y ing w i th in t h is p re-hu t d epos i t a s p ar t o f t he h u t o ccupa t ion l eve l . The e x is tence o f t h is l ayer o f s o i l y ield ing n u mbers o f Neo l i th ic a r te fac ts a nd e x tend ing o ver a f a ir ly w ide a rea — i tl ay b enea th t wo h u ts 3 0 m a par t , — was a mos t e ncourag ing d eve lop men t a nd t he l arge s ca le s tr ipp ing o f t he a rea c o m menced f ro m 'th is s tandpo in t . •

T he mach ine u sed was a J CB 3 C wheeled mechan ica l s hove l a nd t he b ack

a cter w i th t ee th l e f t o n t he 2 f tb ucke t was t he i ns tru men t u sed f or c learance . T he h umus was f irs t s tr ipped a nd d umped t o o ne s ide o f t he f irs t e xplora tory

1 64

c u t t ing — a s tr ip 4 m w ide b y 4 5 m l ong .

Then t he s ubso i l s uper i mposed

u pon t he l eached l ayer was s tr ipped , p laced o n t he o ther s ide o f t he c u t t ing a nd c hecked b y wa lkers f or a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l .

C oncen tra t ions o f s tone

b egan t o b e a pparen t w i th in t h is s ubso i l l ayer , were e as i ly f e l t b y t he d r iver , b y v ir tue o f t he t eeth o n t he b ucke t , a nd a vo ided .

Once t he l igh t-co loured

l eached s o i l h ad b een e xposed o ver t he who le a rea t hen t he mach ine was w i thd rawn a nd t he r e ma in ing c learance a ch ieved b y h and .

The l eached s oi l was

c leared o f f o ver t he who le a rea , p roduc ing many a nd e xc lus ive ly N eo l i thic a r te fac ts ;

a nd t he c oncen tra t ions o f s tone were r evea led l y ing d irec t ly o n t he

n a tura l r abb . n ea th t he m .

Where t hey o ccurred , t he r abb a ppeared t o r ise t o ah u mp b eT he p i les t he mse lves w ere c o mposed o f d if feren t l oca l s tone

t ypes a nd i n o ne i ns tance c on ta ined a s add le q uern .

The p i les a ppeared t o

f o l low n o c lear ly d e f ined p a t tern b u t u biqu i tous ly b etween t he p i les t he g r i t ty l eached s o i l w i th i ts c on ten t o f a r te fac ts was p resen t . The s o i l s ee med much m ixed , a s t hough b y d igg ing o ver , a nd t he g r i ts a t t he t op o f t he l ayer were v ir tua l ly w i thou t a ny s o i l ma tr ix a t a l l , a s t hough wea ther ing h ad l eached t he ma tr ix o u t when t he s ur face o f t he l ayer h ad b een e xposed f or a c ons iderab le p er iod a s ab are s oi l s ur face n o t c overed b y v ege ta t ion . A ll t hese c ons idera t ions l ed t o t he p ropos i t ion t ha t t h is l ayer r epresen ted as ur face o f c u l tiva ted s oi l , p robab ly manured b y midden d ebr is f ro m t he s e t t lemen t s i te , s e t b etween a nd among p i les o f s tone d ispersed i n a n i rregu lar f ash ion a s ar esu l t o f i n i t ia l c learance t o f aci l i ta te wha t was p robab ly h oe o r s pade c u l t iva t ion . Th is e xp loratory e xerc ise was f o l lowed i n t he f o l low ing s eason b y t he c learance o f as quare a rea o f 2 25 s q m . I t was h oped b y t h is means t o e xa m ine t he l ayou t o f t he s tone p i les t o d e ter m ine whe ther a ny a t te mpt h ad b een made t o e nclose s peci f ic c u l t iva t ion a reas .

S im i lar t echn iques o f c learance were

u sed a nd t he s a me u biqu i tous d epos i t o f l eached s oi l was l oca ted r es t ing d irec t ly o n t he r abb a nd c on ta in ing N eo l i th ic a r te fac ts , a l though i n t h is n ew a rea f ar f ewer o f t he m .

A r ough ly h orseshoe-shaped p i le o f s tones was f ound t o r un

a round t hree s ides o f t he e xposed a rea d isappear ing o u t o f t he a rea t o t he s ou th ( f ig 2 5.1 ). I n t he c en tre i ns ide t h is ' boundary p ile ' w as a n a rea o f a bou t 1 00 s q m o f c lear g round a nd l eached s o i l. The e xcavator wou ld c er ta in ly n o t w ish t o d ign i fy t h is k eyho le v iew o f a n o bv ious ly c o mp lex s i tuat ion b y u s ing t he t er m ' f ie ld ', i mp ly ing s ys te mat ic b oundary c onstruct ion , b u t w ou ld p refer t o s peak o f s tone c learance p repara tory t o i rregu lar p atch c u l t iva t ion .

The

q uernstone f ound i n o ne o f t he s tone p iles may i nd icate t he k ind o f c rop b e ing c u l t ivated. The e xcava tor i s a lso a cu te ly c onscious o f t he i nheren t d i f f icu l ty o f s e t t ing o u t t o l ook f or t races o f c u l t iva t ion , i nev i tably e phe mera l i n t he c ircu ms tances , a nd f ind ing t hese t races " by h ook o r b y c rook" .

On ly when s evera l f ac tors —

s tone p i l ing , d i f feren t ia l s o i l d is tr ibu t ion a nd a r te fac tua l e v idence , — c o mbine t oge ther a s a t Cam nB rea d oes h e f ee l c on f iden t e nough o f t he e x is tence o f s o me k ind o f c u l t iva t ion p rocess a t t h is e ar ly d a te .

On t he o ther h and , i f we d o n o t

s e t o u t t o l ook f or t h is k ind o f e v idence , q u i te u napparen t o n t he s ur face , i tw i l l a lways b e i mposs ible t o p lace s i tes l i ke C am nB rea i n t he f ar m ing l andscape wh ich was t he s ine q ua n on o f t he ir i ncep t ion .

1 65

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