Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism [1 ed.] 9780567429179, 9780567082930

Citation preview

EARLY CHRISTIANITY IN CONTEXT Editor John M.G. Barclay Editorial Board

Loveday Alexander, Troels Engberg-Pedersen, Bart Ehrman, Joel Marcus, John Riches

Published under JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT SUPPLEMENT SERIES

263

Editor Mark Goodacre Editorial Board

Craig Blomberg, Elizabeth A. Castelli, David Catchpole, Kathleen E. Corley, R. Alan Culpepper, James D.G. Dunn, Craig A. Evans, Stephen Fowl, Robert Fowler, George H. Guthrie, Robert Jewett, Robert W. Wall

This page intentionally left blank

Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism

edited by Loren T. Stuckenbruck and Wendy E.S. North

T8vT CLARK INTERNATIONAL A Continuum imprint LONDON

•

NEW YORK

Copyright © 2004 T&T Clark International A Continuum imprint Published by T&T Clark International The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX 15 East 26th Street, Suite 1703, New York, NY 10010 www.tandtclark.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Typeset by CA Typesetting, Sheffield Printed on acid-free paper in Great Britain by The Bath Press, Bath

ISBN 0-567-08363-2 (hardback) 0-567-08293-8 (paperback)

CONTENTS Abbreviations

vii

LOREN T. STUCKENBRUCK AND WENDY NORTH (University of Durham) Introduction

1

Parti MONOTHEISM AND THE RELIGIOUS WORLD OF THE NEW TESTAMENT WILLIAM HORBURY (University of Cambridge)

Jewish and Christian Monotheism in the Herodian Age

LOREN T. STUCKENBRUCK (University of Durham)

'Angels' and 'God': Exploring the Limits of Early Jewish Monotheism

CRISPIN H.T. FLETCHER-LOUIS (University of Nottingham) Alexander the Great's Worship of the High Priest

16 45 71

Part II MONOTHEISM AND THE NEW TESTAMENT JAMES D.G. DUNN (University of Durham) Was Jesus a Monotheist? A Contribution to the Discussion of Christian Monotheism

104

DAVID B. CAPES (Houston Baptist University, Texas) YHWH Texts and Monotheism in Paul's Christology

120

C.T.R. HAYWARD (University of Durham) "The Lord is One': Reflections on the Theme of Unity in John's Gospel from a Jewish Perspective

138

WENDY E.S. NORTH (University of Durham) Monotheism and the Gospel of John: Jesus, Moses, and the Law

155

RICHARD BAUCKHAM (University of St Andrews) Monotheism and Christology in Hebrews 1

167

vi

Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism

J. LIONEL NORTH (University of Durham) Jesus and Worship, God and Sacrifice

186

Part III ASKING QUESTIONS NATHAN MACDONALD (University of St Andrews) The Origin of 'Monotheism'

204

R.W.L. MOBERLY (University of Durham) How Appropriate is 'Monotheism' as a Category for Biblical Interpretation?

216

JAMES F. MCGRATH (Butler University, Indianapolis) AND JERRY TRUEX (Tabor College, Kansas) Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism: A Select Bibliography

235

Index of References Index of Authors

243 259

ABBREVIATIONS AB ABD AGJU ASSR ASTI ATSAT BASOR BOB

BETL Bib Biblnt BIOSCS BNTC BR BWANT СВЕТ CBQ CIS CSC DJD DSD EKKNT EPRO ExpTim FAT FRLANT HTR HUCA ICC IEJ JBL JJS JRCM

Anchor Bible David Noel Freedman (ed.), The Anchor Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992) Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums Archives des Sciences Sociales des Religions Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute Arbeiten zu Text und Sprache im Alten Testament Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Francis Brown, S.R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907) Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium Biblica Biblical Interpretation: A Journal of Contemporary Approaches Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies Black's New Testament Commentaries Biblical Research Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology Catholic Biblical Quarterly Corpus inscriptionum semiticarum James D.G. Dunn, The Christ and the Spirit: Christology (Edinburgh: T.& T.Clark, 1998),! Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Dead Sea Discoveries Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain Expository Times Forschungen zum Alten Testament Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Harvard Theological Review Hebrew Union College Annual International Critical Commentary Israel Exploration Journal Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Jewish Studies C.C. Newman, J.R. Davila and G.S. Lewis (eds.), The Jewish Roots of Christological Monotheism: Papers from the St. Andrews Conference on the Historical Origins of the Worship of Jesus (JSJSup, 63; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999)

Vlll

Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism

JRS JSJ

Journal of Roman Studies Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period, Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the New Testament Journal for the Study of the New Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha, Supplement Series Journal of Semitic Studies Journal of Theological Studies Lectio divina New Century Bible Journal of Theological Studies Novum Testamentum, Supplements Novum Testamentum et orbis antiquus New Testament Studies Orbis biblicus et orientalis Oxford English Dictionary Palestine Exploration Quarterly Papyri Graecae Magicae Princeton Seminary Bulletin Patristische Texte und Studien Revue biblique Society of Biblical Literature SBL Dissertation Series SBL Seminar Papers Scripta Classica Israelica Svensk exegetisk àrsbok Studies in the History of Religions Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity Studia judaica Scottish Journal of Theology Studiorum Novi Testament! Societas Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series Studia Patristica Studia postbiblica Studies on the Text of the Desert of Judah Tyndale Bulletin Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich (eds.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley; 10 vols.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-) G.J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren (eds.), Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Translations of Early Documents Toronto Journal of Theology Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum Tyndale Bulletin Word Biblical Commentary Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

JSJSup JSNT JSNTSup JSOT JSOTSup JSPSup JSS JTS LD NCB JTS NovTSup NTOA NTS OBO OED PEQ PGM PSB PTS RB SBL SBLDS SBLSP SCI SEA SHR SJLA SJ SJT SNTSM SNTSMS SP SPB STDJ ТВ TDNT

TDOT TED TJT TSAJ TynBul WBC WMANT WUNT ZNW

INTRODUCTION Wendy North and Loren T. Stuckenbruck, University of Durham The present volume is a collection of essays that investigate the contours of early Christian beliefs about Jesus in relation to the one God of Israel. These essays address a number of topics that may be grouped under three areas relating to the question of 'monotheism': (1) the religious world of the New Testament; (2) selected New Testament documents; and (3) problems inherent in terminology. In this introduction, we would like to summarize the arguments and identify the contributions made by the collection. Before focusing on the essays themselves, it is appropriate at the outset, without providing a comprehensive history of research, to sketch how they relate to several major areas of scholarly and religious activity: (1) New Testament theology (i.e. the place of Christology in relation to an understanding of God); (2) interfaith (especially Jewish-Christian) dialogue; and (3) the study of Christian origins (i.e. religious- and tradition-historical explanations for the rise of faith in Jesus). By considering these, we hope that, despite the diversity of perspectives reflected in the essays, the reader will recognize among them a large current of common understanding. First, the essays in this book are informed by biblical theological concerns. In particular, it is in New Testament theology where the problem addressed in this book emerges. To the extent that the task of New Testament theology is conceptually and systematically conceived, it is confronted by a logical, indeed 'modernist', tension that has attracted considerable attention. How can the claim to an exclusive belief in 'one God' be reconciled with claims about Jesus? Although some recent interpreters of the New Testament have doubted that its documents as a whole contain unambiguous evidence for a belief in Jesus as an exalted being alongside God,1 many others have been convinced that the position ascribed to Jesus was both distinct and, in essence, unprecedented. Whatever the view, however, few have been willing to dispense with the notion that 'monotheism' in some sense characterized the faith of the earliest Christians. Insofar as it refers to instruction about an exclusive religious devotion to the one God of Israel, 'monotheism' has thus been regarded in many circles as one of the fundamental presuppositions of New Testament theology.2 1. See, e.g., the publications of J.D.G. Dunn and P.M. Casey referred to in n. 8 below. 2. See, e.g., M. Burrows, An Outline of Biblical Theology (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1946), pp. 59-60, who one-sidedly declared that "The New Testament throughout takes monothe-

2

Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism

The authors of the New Testament documents were, undeniably, primarily and most immediately concerned with explaining the significance of the 'Christ-event' (i.e. the life, death and resurrection of Jesus). While this event is conceived not simply as Christ's activity but, more fundamentally, as the activity of the God of Israel, the latter has often - until more recently - not been sufficiently perceived. The New Testament understanding of God is, as in the contemporary Jewish documents of its time, dynamic and relational. One would therefore be mistaken to suppose that any of the New Testament authors began with an a priori or static notion of God and then overlaid it with more novel and creative Christologies. Even if engagement with Christology motivated the composition of the New Testament documents, it is inappropriate to argue that reflections about 'God' are not, in the end, the proper domain of New Testament theologies.3 Indeed, it is perhaps precisely here where the dynamic of New Testament thought may be fruitfully explored. Early Christology was shaped by ideas about God and humanity from a Jewish-Hellenistic environment; and, in terms of Christ's soteriological significance, Christology was necessarily perceived as an outgrowth or extension of God's covenantal relationship with people embodied and exemplified in Israel. So also Christology, in turn, gave shape to what early Christian communities came to think about God. The earliest Christians - and then the authors and compilers of their writings - were revisionists; for many, if not most of them, Christology became a foundation for theological reflection about a God whose activity among humanity was not being primarily or even ultimately defined in relation to Jews alone.4 The 'God of Jesus Christ', creator of the cosmos, was at the same time the God who calls, challenges, and embraces Jews and non-Jews alike. This expansion of this understanding of Israel's God to include, on equal terms, non-Jews within a covenantal framework, made the reconceptualization of God, at the very least, a sociological necessity. But the 'Christian' reconfiguration, though not regarded by insiders as anything but a singular devotion to God, came with time - to some ism for granted'; R. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (trans. K. Grobel; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1951-1955), who regarded 'the message of Jesus' (about God and God's rule) as 'a presupposition for', rather than the content of, 'the theology of the New Testament theology' (p. 3). This understanding is likewise reflected by the more balanced discussions of J. Bassler, 'God in the NT, inABD, II, pp. 1049-55 (esp. 1049: 'always and everywhere the New Testament's most fundamental presupposition') and J.D.G. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 28-31 ('God as Axiom', though this does not seem ultimately to reflect Dunn's position; see n. 6 on pp. 29-30). 3. An indispensable role in theological reflection about 'God' is, of course, played by those who study the biblical documents concerned more directly with the God of Israel, namely, the Hebrew Bible or Jewish scriptures; it is here where the significance of worship devoted to one God is developed in a way that, in turn, lays the foundations for Christology. However, this does not mean that the task of New Testament interpretation does not include, even directly, an attempt to understand Israel's God. 4. To be sure, this function of Christology was not entirely novel; concern with humanity as a whole, that is, beyond Israel, came well within the purview of Jewish apocalyptic and sapiential traditions. However, the early Christian communities, including Gentile adherents, rapidly subsumed such traditions under their respective Christologies, so that the universalizing impact of the gospel could no longer be entertained without reference to Christ.

Introduction

3

extent already attested in the New Testament itself- to be apprehended variously by non-Christian Jews as a violation of conceptual and practical boundaries.5 Thus, as has been generally (though not always sufficiently) recognized, theologians of the New Testament cannot dispense with the question of 'God' without, at the same time, sacrificing or playing down the Jewish matrix within which the life of Jesus and the religious devotion of his followers began to take shape. In other words, Christology cannot stand on its own. On this most contemporary scholars of the New Testament are agreed; despite real definitional problems (see Moberly and MacDonald's essays in this volume), the 'monotheistic' question asserts itself tune and again. This is certainly true if the New Testament writings are being read and interpreted in relation to their historical context. But the importance of reflection on God by New Testament specialists and scholars in contemporary Judaism reaches well beyond its impact on historical study to the basic socio-theological question of religious identity itself. Here, various scholars and confessions will find themselves parting company. For example, how much may Christology be allowed to shape reflection and doctrine about God? Does the 'Christ-event' and its significance mark the beginnings - even in the New Testament - of a trajectory that leads inevitably to a reconceptualization of God as a 'Trinity' of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit;6 does it already express seeds of a 'binitarianism' which centres on the exalted status of Christ as one worthy of worship alongside God;7 or does it, in the earliest stages, function as an additive essentially subordinate to and in service of a religious devotion to the God who called Israel to be God's people?8 These are not 5. Note the absence of any evidence that the Jewish opposition to Paul had anything to do with the exalted nature of Jesus even though this was clearly part of Paul's own thinking. On the other hand, the Johannine literature witnesses to the problem that a 'high' Christology posed for the exclusive devotion to God amongst opposing non-Christian Jews. 6. So, e.g., Ethelbert Stauffer, New Testament Theology (New York: MacMillan, 1955), pp. 233-57. Going a step further and less plausibly, John O'Neill has argued that the notion of Trinity is not essentially new to early Christianity, i.e. it is already present in some expressions of Hellenistic Judaism; cf. "The Trinity and Incarnation as Jewish Doctrines', in idem, Who Did Jesus Think He Was? (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1996), pp. 94-114. 7. Despite the differences between Larry Hurtado and P.M. Casey, the question of accommodating Jesus alongside God lies at the centre of their published studies; for instance, cf. Hurtado, One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press; London: SCM Press, 1988) and Casey, From Jewish Prophet to Gentile God: The Origins and Development of New Testament Christology (Cambridge: James Clarke; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991). While not applying the language of 'binitarianism', N.T. Wright nevertheless argues that in 1 Cor. 8.4-6 Paul was already formulating a 'christological monotheism', i.e. a 'specifically and uniquely Christian' theology that appropriated, but redefined, the Jewish Shema'; cf. 'Monotheism, Christology and Ethics: 1 Corinthians 8', in The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1991), pp. 12036. Further literature devoted to various aspects of this problem will be considered below. 8. This perspective is reflected by those who argue that 'high' Christology did not flower until the latter part of the first century; see James D.G. Dunn, e.g. in Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1980) and The Partings of the Ways between Christianity and Judaism and their Significance for the Character of Christianity (London: SCM Press, 1991), esp. pp. 182-206; and Casey, From Jewish Prophet to Gentile God.

4

Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism

the only alternatives. And yet, as such, they show how contemporary interpreters have chosen to express the 'oneness' or 'uniqueness' of God in the New Testament in different ways. While none of the essays in this volume is addressed directly to antecedents to later trinitarian formulations within the New Testament, the interpretation of New Testament traditions regarding the identity of the exalted Jesus, both within particular documents and in relation to later Christian formulations, is taken up in the essays of Bauckham, Dunn, Hayward, W. North, and L. North. To this extent, the volume contains discussions that impinge on New Testament theology. Second, the present volume reflects an awareness of, indeed interest in, JewishChristian dialogue, a concern that intersects with the questions already outlined above. Although none of the essays is explicitly formulated as a contribution to this area of religious activity, the growing discussions among Christians and Jews about religious identity have added poignancy, or even a sense of urgency, to 'monotheistic' understandings of Jesus in the New Testament. Aware of this context, numerous scholarly publications have, in the wake of the Holocaust and especially during the last thirty years, considered the theme of 'God' in the New Testament. Broadly speaking, these publications have explored the New Testament in order, variously, to assess readings that have led (and continue to lead) to anti-Judaism and even anti-Semitism, on the one hand, and to explore readings that open up common ground for Jews and Christians, on the other.9 Others have sought to recover a 'neglected' dynamic in order to place 'God' nearer to the centre of early Christian concerns.10 To the extent that Christians, as Jews, thought of themselves 9. The secondary literature is voluminous; we note here a few of the more significant, though varied, contributions: R. Ruether, Faith and Fratricide: The Theological Roots of Anti-Semitism (New York: Seabury, 1979); F.-W. Marquardt, Die Gegenwart des Auferstandenen beiseinem Volk Israel: Bin dogmatisches Experiment (Miinchen: Kaiser, 1983) and already in Die Juden im Rdmerbrief(TheologischQ Studien, 107; Zurich: Theologischer Verlag, 1971); E.P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion (London: SCM Press, 1977); P. van Buren, Theology of Jewish-Christian Reality (3 vols.; San Francisco: Harper & Row, 19871988); M. Earth, e.g. in The People o/Go0rja£Tai ('And it shall be that everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.')

Kyrios translates the divine name from the Hebrew tradition. In Joel the promise of deliverance regards a remnant of Israel prior to the Day of the Lord. The phrase Tiag bq av ('everyone who') appears to suggest that even loyal Diaspora Jews would be included in God's promise. Paul takes it as scriptural warrant for the inclusion of believing Gentiles along with faithful Jews. The omission of KQI earai ('and it shall be') from his version of the quotation could be due to textual fluidity or, more likely, to theological concerns. The apostle is convinced that 'the Day' has already dawned and that Jesus' death and resurrection inaugurate the new age. For the Old Testament prophet this vision belongs to the future. 29. Divine wisdom related to God stands in contrast to divine wisdom related to Christ. The latter has to do with the specifics of Christ's death, burial and resurrection. The former (Rom. 11.34; 1 Cor. 3.20) appears connected to God's mysterious plan of the ages. Yet the two are ultimately related in the divine wisdom and mystery.

128

Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism

There are four reasons for concluding that Paul applies this Old Testament YHWH text to Jesus. (1) The Christologicalfocus. Whereas most of Rom. 9-11 is theocentric, the multiple references to Christ and the other christological applications of scripture (Isa. 28.16 and 8.14 in Rom. 9.33 and 10.11; Deut. 30.12,14 in Rom. 10.6-7) in this context demonstrate a christological focus. (2) The Resurrection emphasis. The clear statement of the belief in and confession of the resurrection (10.7, 9) associates the kyrios title with Jesus. As is well known, Paul frequently relates the Lordship of Jesus with the resurrection (e.g. Rom. 1.3-4; 14.8-9; Phil. 2.6-11; cf. Rom. 8.34; Eph. 1.20; Col. 3.1). (3) The Eschatological interest. The verb tense in 10.9,11, and 13 indicates that Paul understands that ultimate vindication (the reversal of shame) and salvation belong to the future. For him the 'Day of the Lord' will be the 'Day of the Lord Jesus Christ'. So it is likely he employs the kyrios title christologically in these ultimate matters. (4) The Christological confession. Romans 10.9 provides decisive evidence that Paul applies this YHWH text to Jesus. Therein he characterizes his gospel and the believers' response with the confession, 'Jesus is Lord'. He then proceeds to quote Joel 2.32, a text containing the kyrios predicate. That Jesus is kyrios in both the confession and the quotation can hardly be doubted. In the Hebrew Bible the phrase 'call upon the name of the Lord' involves cultic activity such as altar building and sacrifice, prayer and petitions, worship and praise.30 YHWH appears to call on his own name in the theophanic experience of Moses on Mt Sinai (Exod. 33.19; 34.5). Elsewhere the phrase distinguishes God's people as those who call upon his name (Isa. 41.25; cf. Jer. 10.25; Ps. 79.6). Carl Davis describes 'calling upon the name of the Lord' as 'a religious act which characterised and even determined God's people'.31 In his JSNTS monograph Davis traces the theological association of Joel 2.32 in pre-Christian, Jewish texts and concludes the phrase refers to cultic activity directed to Israel's one God; there is little evidence it ever applies to any other figure. The only counter evidence he can cite is Josephus who reported that Jews invoked the name of Caesar to liberate them from the tyranny of Florus (War 2.294). Yet he notes Josephus uses dvccKaAeoi) not ETTiKaAew to refer to this plea.32 Paul's use of the phrase 'call upon the name of the Lord' (from Joel 2.32 [LXX 3.5]) in Rom. 10.13 is echoed in 1 Cor. 1.2 where Paul characterizes the universal Christian community as those who 'call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ'. The application of Joel 2.32 to Christ with its attendant cultic associations appears to imply the worship of Jesus by Paul and his churches. The christological appropriation of these texts and the veneration of Christ practised in Paul's churches relate Jesus to God in surprising ways that move beyond a mere functional identity between them.

30. 31. tology 32.

Gen. 12.8; 13.4; 26.25; 1 Kgs 18.24-26; Isa. 12.4-6; Pss. 105.1; 116.4,13,17. C. J. Davis, The Name and Way of the Lord: Old Testament Themes, New Testament Chris(JSNTSup, 19; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), p. 106. Davis, The Name and Way of the Lord, pp. 109-39.

CAPES YHWH Texts and Monotheism in Paul's Christology

129

Every Knee Shall Bow - Romans 14.11 and Philippians 2.10-11 Isaiah 45.23 provides the apostle with a remarkable image from which he fashions his convictions about the significance of Christ. The image, the bowing of every knee and the confession of every tongue, characterizes a strictly monotheistic interest and its concomitant, the disdain for idolatry and polytheism. In Rom. 14.11 Paul offers this passage as support for his belief that all must appear before the judgement seat of God (14.10). He prefaces the quotation with a standard introductory formula, yEypatnrai yap. He writes: Z