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Early and Middle Pleistocene Hominid Behaviour in Northern China
9781841711416, 9781407352008

Author / Uploaded
S. G. Keates

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
List of Tables
List of Figures
Introduction
CHAPTER I: History of Research and Interpretations of the Chinese Palaeolithic
CHAPTER II: The environmental background of northern China and the geological, chronological, palaeoenvironmental, stratigraphic, and spatial contexts of the Nihewan Basin localities
CHAPTER III: Lithic Analysis of the Nihewan assemblages
CHAPTER IV: Lithic contents of Xiaochangliang and Xiaochangliang Dong Yang
CHAPTER V: Lithic contents of Donggutuo
CHAPTER VI: The Xiaochangliang and Donggutuo localities in relation to previous interpretations and their significance in Palaeolithic and ethnographic contexts
CHAPTER VII: A Review of Important Early and Middle Pleistocene Archaeological Localities in Northern China
CHAPTER VIII: Summary and Conclusion
Notes to References
References
Appendix 1: Biographical sources for Chinese Palaeolithic prehistory
Appendix 2: Translations of Chinese locality and place names
Appendix 3: Abbreviations used in tables
Appendix 4: Xiaochangliang and Donggutuo faunae
Appendix 5: Table and figures of Chapters I — VI
Appendix 6: Tables and figures of Chapter VII

Citation preview

Early and Middle Pleistocene Hominid Behaviour in Northern China

S. G. Keates

BAR International Series 863 2000

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 863

Early and Middle Pleistocene Hominid Behaviour in Northern China © S. G. Keates and the Publisher 2000 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711416 paperback ISBN 9781407352008 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711416 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

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T ab le

o f

Con ten t s

A cknow ledgmen t s L i s to fT ab le s L i s t o fF igure s I n t roduc t ion

i i v i x x i i i

C hap te r I H is tory o fR e sea rch a nd I n te rp re ta t ions o ft h eC h ine se P a laeo l i th ic 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4 1 . 5

T he h i s to r ica ld eve lopmen to fa r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch i nC h ina T heo re t ica l o r ien ta t ion s -t r ad i t ion s , i n du s t r ie sa nd f a c ie s T he Mov ius L ine P a laeoeco log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s L i th ic a nd n on l i th ic i n te rp re ta t ions

C hap te r I

2 . 1 2 . 2 2 . 3 2 . 3 .1 2 .3 .2 2 . 3 .3 2 . 3 .4 2 .4 2 . 5 2 .6 2 .6 .1 2 .6 .2 2 . 7 2 . 8 2 . 9 2 . 9 .1 2 . 9 .2

3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 3 3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 6 .1 3 . 6 .2 3 . 6 .3 3 . 6 .4 3 . 7 3 . 7 .1 3 . 7 .2 3 . 7 .3 3 . 8

9 1 0 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 7 1 9 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4

L i th ic Ana lys i so ft h eN ihewan a s semb lage s

I n t roduc t ion Ob jec t ive s o ft h e l i t h ic a na lys is T he X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo s amp le s i ze s P rocu remen ta nd l i t ho logy o fr aw ma te r ia ls a tX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo C o re r educ t ion e xpe r imen t s C la ss if ica t ion o fl i t h ic c a tego r ie s C la s s if ica t ion o fl i t h ic a t t r ibu te s C la ss if i ca t ion o fc o re sa nd c o re c a tego r ie s C la ss if ica t ion o ft o o lc a tego r ie s R e su l t s , d i scu s s ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage s : I n t roduc t ion R e su l t s o ft h e l i t h ic a na lys is o ft h eX iaochang l iang a s semb lage a nd o ft h eX iaochang l iang D ong Y ang a r tefac t s R e su l t s o ft h e l i t h ic a na lys is o ft h e Donggu tuo a s semb lage s t r enche s T i -T 5 D iscuss ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage sa nd o f Dong Y ang S umma ry a nd C onc lus ion

C hap te rI V 4 . 1 4 .2 4 . 3

B ackg round t ot h eE nv ironmen to fn o r the rn C h ina a nd t h eg eo log ica l , c h rono log ica l , p a laeoenv ironmen ta l , s t ra t ig raph ic , a nd s pa t ia l c on tex t s o ft h eN ihewan B a s in l o ca l i t ie s

R eg iona l g eo logy a nd g eog raphy o fC h ina Mode rn c l ima te a nd p a laeoc l ima t ic h i s to ry T he b iogeog raphy o fn o r the rn C h ina : I n t roduc t ion T he mode rn f l o ra o ft h er eg ion L a te P l iocene a nd E a r ly a nd M idd le P le i s tocene f l o ra lr e co rd s T he mode rn f a una o ft h er eg ion L a te P l iocene a nd E a r ly a nd M idd le P le is tocene f a una lr e co rd s I n t roduc t ion t ot h eN ihewan B a s in l o ca l i t ie s T he g eo logy a nd l i t ho s t ra t ig raphy o ft h eN ihewan B a s in T he c h rono log ica lf r amewo rk o ft h eN ihewan l o ca l i t ie s : I n t roduc t ion B io s t ra t ig raph ic s t ud ie s P a laeomagne t ic s t ud ie s T he p a laeoc l ima t ic a nd p a laeoenv i ronmen ta lb ackg round T he p a laeo land scape o ft h eD onggu tuo P la t fo rm : Ah ypo the t ica lr e con s t ruc t ion T he s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex ta nd s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eN ihewan a s semb lage s : I n t roduc t ion X iaochang l iang s i te s t ra t ig raphy a nd s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia ls Donggu tuo s i te s t ra t ig raphy a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s

C hap te rI I

1 4 6 6 7

2 6 2 6 2 7 2 7 2 8 2 8 2 9 2 9 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 3 3 8 4 2

L i th ic c on ten t so fX iaochang l iang a nd X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang . . .

T he X iaochang l iang a s semb lage : I n t roduc t ion No te c once rn ing h amme r s tone s X iaochang l iang c o re s

4 3 4 3 4 3

4 .4 4 .5 4 .6 4 .7 4 .8

X iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake s X iaochang l iang t o o ls Mea su remen t sa nd s t a t is t ic so ft h eX iaochang l iang a s semb lage T he X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang a r tef ac t s

C hap te rV

L i th ic c on ten t s o fD onggu tuo

5 . 1 T he Donggu tuo a s semb lage s : I n t roduc t ion 5 .2 -5 .8 T he t r ench T 1 a s semb lage 5 . 9 -5 .14 T he t r ench T 2 a s semb lage 5 . 15 -5 .20 T he t r ench T 3 a s semb lage 5 . 21-5 .26 T he t r ench T 4a s semb lage 5 . 27 -5 .32 T he t r ench T 5 a s semb lage 5 . 33 Mea su remen t s a nd s t a t is t ic so ft h e Donggu tuo a s semb lage s

C hap te rV I

6 . 1 6 .2 6 . 3 6 .4 6 .5 6 .5 .1 6 . 5 .2 6 . 5 .3 6 .5 .4 6 .6

7 . 1 7 .2 7 .2 .1 7 .2 .2 7 .2 .3 7 . 3 7 . 3 .1 7 . 3 .2 7 .4 7 .5 7 .6

6 3 6 3 6 5 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 9 7 2 7 3 7 5

AR ev iew o fI mpo r tan tE a r ly a nd M idd le P le is tocene A rchaeo log ica lL oca l i t ie si nN o r the rn C h ina

I n t roduc t ion T he L an t ian l o ca l i t ie s : I n t roduc t ion Gongwang l ing C hen j iawo I n te rp re ta t ions o ft h eL an t ian l o ca l i t ie s T he Z houkoud ian l o ca l i t ie s : I n t roduc t ion L oca l i ty 1 3 L oca l i ty 1 K ehe D iscuss ion T he N ihewan l o ca l i t ie si nt h ec on tex to fi mpor tan tE a r ly a nd M idd le P le i s tocene n o r the rn C h ine se l o ca l i t ie s

C hap te rV I I I

4 9 4 9 5 3 5 5 5 7 6 0 6 0

T he X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo l o ca l i t ie s i nr e la t ion t op r ev iou s i n te rp re ta t ion s a nd t h e i rs i gn if icance i nP a laeo l i th ic a nd e t hnog raph ic c on tex t s

I n t roduc t ion C ompa r ison t op rev iou sr e sea r ch a nd i n te rp re ta t ion so ft h eX iaochang l iang l o ca l i ty C ompa r ison t op rev iou sr e sea rch a nd i n te rp re ta t ion so ft h e Donggu tuo l o ca l i ty S umma ry T he s i gn if icance o ft h eN ihewan a s semb lage s i nt h eP a laeo l i th ic a nd e t hnog raph ic c on tex t s : I n t roduc t ion T he d epo s i t iona la nd c h rono log ica lc on tex t s , s pa t ia lp a t te rn ing a nd l i t h ic f r equenc ie s L i th ic t e chno logy a nd h om in id b ehav iour R e sou rce a nd s ub s i s tence t e chno logy i nt h eN ihewan B a s in : I n t roduc t ion T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence : s i te l o ca t ions , e nv i ronmen t , f o s s i l f a una , a nd l i th ic t e chno logy S umma ry a nd C onc lu s ion

C hap te rV I I

4 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 4 8

S umma ry a nd C onc lu s ion

No te st oR ef e rence s R e f e rence s

7 7 7 7 7 7 8 1 8 3 8 3 8 4 8 5 9 8 1 0 1 1 05

1 07 1 09 1 09

A ppend ice s 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

5 . 6 .

B iog raph ica l s ou rce s f o rC h ine se P a laeo l i th ic p reh i s to ry T rans la t ions o fC h inese l o ca l i ty a nd p l ace n ame s Abb rev ia t ions u sed i nt a b le s 4 . 1 X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo f auna l l i s t s 4 .2 T he e nv ironmen ta l c on tex to ft h eX iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo f a unae 4 . 3 T he N ihewan f o ss i l f l o ra i nt h ec on tex to ft h ep re sen te nv i ronmen ta lr ange so fc ompa rab le p l an t s T ab le s a nd f i gure so fC hap te r s I-V I T ab le sa nd f i gu res o fC hap te rV I I 1

1 29 1 36 1 36 1 37 1 37 1 38 1 39 3 18

A cknow ledg men ts

T he f o l low ing p eop le a nd i n s t i tu t ions a r e g r a tef u l ly a cknow ledged f o r t h e i r a s s i s tance / encou ragemen t /d i scu s s ion s : R .R . I n skeep , D ep t . o fE thno logy a nd P r eh is to ry ,U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd , E ng land ; G .G . P ope , D ep t . o f A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino is a tU rbana -Champa ign , U .S .A . ; We i Q i , H uang We iwen , J i a L anpo , I .V .P .P . , A cadem ia S in ica , B e i j ing , P .R .C . ; L iu D ong S hen , I n s t i tu te o fG eo logy ,A cadem ia S in ica , B e i j ing ; A n Z h i sheng , I n s t i tu te o fL oe s s , X ian ; Z hou G uox ing a nd Z hou M ingzhen , B e i j ing N a tu ra l H i s to ry Mu seum ;Z hou ,X ian I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , X ian ; Wang J i an , S hanx i I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , T a iyuan ; t h e p eop le o f Guan t ing , H ebe i p rov ince . My t h ank s a l so t o t h e f o l low ing : B . Wa ld ren , D ona ld B aden -Powe l l Q ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re , U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd ; P h . V . T ob ia s , D ep t . o f Ana tomy & H uman B io logy , U n ive r s i ty o f t h e W i twa t e r s rand , J ohanne sbu rg , S ou th A f r ica ; M .R . P a la c io s -Fe s t , D ep t . o f G eo sc ience s , U n ive r s i ty o f A r izona , T ucson , U .S .A . ; M .K . D u rk in , D ep t . o f G eo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f O x fo rd ; G . L ock , I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd ; R . H an son , B a l fou r L ib ra ry , U n ive r s i ty o f O x fo rd ; I n te r l ib ra ry L oan s , R adcl if e S c ience s L ib ra ry , U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd . T he C omm i t tee f o r G radua te S tud ie s , U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd , 1 990 ; F o r schung s ins t i tu t S enckenbe rg , F rankfu r ta .M . ,t r ave lg r an t , 1 991 ; Meye r s te in R e sea rch Awa rd sf o rA rchaeo log ica lR e sea r ch 1 989 , 1 990 , 1 992 ,U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd ; S t . C ro ss C o l lege T rave l G ran t , U n ive r s i ty o f O xf o rd , 1 990 , 1 991 ; T he H o l t F am i ly F ounda t ion , 1 993 ; Whee le r F und C omm i t tee , S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie s , L ondon , 1 990 , 1 993 . S pec ia l t h ank s t o my f am i ly .

1 1

L is t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5

o f

T ab les

No r thern C h ine se g eo log ica l -b io s t ra t ig raph ic a nd c u l tu ra lc h rono logy C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fp o l len a nd s pec ie so ft h eH e imugou l o e s sp rof i le G eo log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l c l a s s if ica t ion o ft h eN ihewan B a s in l o ca l i t ie s S ed imen ta ry a nd c u l tu ra l s t ra t ig raphy o fD onggu tuo t r enche sT 1-T5 S ed imen ta ry a nd c u l tu ra l s t ra t ig raphy o fD onggu tuo t r ench T 1 S i ze o fe xcava ted a r ea o fD onggu tuo t r enche sT i -T 5a nd d en s i ty o fa r tef ac t s S umma ry r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h em a in a t t r ibu te so ft h eX iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a s semb lage s S umma ry r ep re sen ta t ion o fs upp lemen ta ry a t t r ibu te so ft h eX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lages C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang l i th ic c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang l i th ic s ubca tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te ma te r ia ls a nd t o o ls C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang l i th ic c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang c o re s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang c o r t ica ls u r f ace o fc o re c a tego r ie s M in imum a nd max imum d imen s ions , p l a tform a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs ca r so fX iaochang l iang s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s M in imum a nd max imum d imen s ions ,p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs c a r s o fX iaochang l iang d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,e xcava t ion s e c t ions a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eX iaochang l iang c o re s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe x ten to fc o re r e duc t ion o fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe x ten to fX iaochang l iang c o re r e duc t ion i nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ff l a tp l a tfo rm t a b le so fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie sa nd i nr e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s w i th s t ep f r ac tu re s S t a t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang c o re d imens ions ,p l a tform a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs c a r s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen tc o r t ica ls u r f ace C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen ts c a rp a t te rns Mea su remen t s ,e xcava t ion s e c t ions a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen td imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fs c a r s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake sa nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica l a nd n on -cor t ica lX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa lc o r t ica ls u r f a ce C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa l s c a rp a t te rns S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d imens ion s , s t r ik ing p l a t form a ng les , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa ls ca r s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d i rec t ion o fp e rcu s s ion C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s t r ik ing p la tfo rm mo rpho log ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake p rof i le s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake p rof i le s i nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang who le w a s te f l ake d i s ta lt e rm ina t ion s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion si nr e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen ts hape s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica l X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa lc o r t ica l s u r f a ce C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa ls c a rp a t te rns S ta t i s t ica l a na ly s is o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen td imens ion s a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa ls c a r s Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,e xcava t ion s e c t ions a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eX iaochang l iang w a s te f l akes C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang t o o ls C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake , f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t o o ls C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo l s hape s i v

1 4 1 1 52 1 56 1 65 1 65 1 72 1 73 1 74 1 75 1 75 1 75 1 75 1 76 1 76 1 76 1 79 1 79 1 79 1 79 1 79 1 80 1 80 1 80 1 80 1 8 1 1 81 1 81 1 83 1 83 1 83 1 83 1 84 1 84 1 84 1 84 1 84 1 84 1 85 1 85 1 85 1 85 1 85 1 86 1 86 1 86 1 88 1 88 1 88 1 88 1 88 1 88 1 89 1 91 1 91 1 91

5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9 1 00 1 0 1 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 10 11 12 13

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o ld o r sa l s c a rp a t te rn s 1 91 S t a t i s t ica la na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o ld imen s ion s ,p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa ls c a r s 1 91 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang t oo ld i rec t ions o fp e r cu s s ion 1 92 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lp rof i le s 1 92 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lp rof i le si nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s 1 92 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o ld i s ta lt e rm ina t ion s 1 92 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fw ho le f l ake t o o ld i s ta l t e rm ina t ion si nr e la t ion t or aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s 1 92 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lc a tego r ie s 1 94 C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s 1 94 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lc a tego r ie si nr e la t ion t os hape 1 94 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fu n i la te ra la nd b i la te ra lX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lu se -wea r 1 94 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fu n if a c ia la nd b i f ac ia lX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lu se -wea r 1 95 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o l u s e -wea re dge s hape s 1 95 C ompa ra t ive l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne s sr ange so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lc a tego r ie s 1 95 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on f lake t oo ls 2 00 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f r agmen tt o o l s hape s 2 00 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on f lake t o o ld o r sa ls ca rp a t te rn s 2 00 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s is o fX iaochang l iang t o o lf r agmen td imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa ls ca r s 2 00 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen tt o o l d imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s 2 00 Mea su remen t sa nd r aw ma te r ia l so ft h eX iaochang l iang t o o l s 2 0 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t o o lc a tego r ie s 2 0 1 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on f lake t oo lc a tego r ie s 2 02 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t o o l c a tego r ie si nr e la t ion t os hape 2 02 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fu n i la te ra la nd b i la te ra lX iaochang l iang f l ak ef r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t o o lu se -wea r2 02 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fu n if ac ia l a nd b i f ac ia lX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t o o lu se -wea r 2 02 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on f lake t o o lu se -wea re dge s hape s 2 03 C ompa ra t ive l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne s sr a nge so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on f lake t o o lc a tego r ie s 2 06 S t a t i s t ica la na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake d imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s 2 06 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so fX iaochang l iang t o o l d imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa ls ca r s 2 06 C ompa ra t ive mea su remen t so fX iaochang l iang t oo ls a nd w a s te f l ak e s 2 07 Mea su remen t sa nd r aw ma te r ia l so ft h eD ong Y ang a r te f ac t s 2 07 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie sb yt r ench 2 09 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie sb yl a ye r 2 09 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie sb yt r ench a nd l a ye r 2 10 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie s 2 11 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic s ubca tego r ie s 2 11 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo w a s te ma te r ia l sa nd t o o l s 2 11 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fs e lec ted D onggu tuo w a s te m a te r ia l sa nd t o o l s 2 11 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te m a te r ia l sa nd t o o l s 2 11 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie s 2 12 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo c o re sa nd c o re c a t ego r ie s 2 13 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo c o r ec a tego r ie s 2 13 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo c o r ec a t ego r ie s 2 14 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo T i c o re c a tego r ie s 2 15 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo T i c o r ec a tego r ie s 2 20 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo T i c o r t ica ls u r f a ce o fc o re c a tego r ie s 2 20 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 21 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo c o r t ica ls u r f a ce o fs i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 21 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 2 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe s t ima ted Donggu tuo c o r t ica ls u r f a ce o fd oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 21 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 21 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo c o r t ica ls u r f a ce o f mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 22 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo c o re s 2 22 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe s t ima ted c o r t ica l s u r f a ce o fD onggu tuo c o re s 2 22 M in imum a nd max imum d imen s ion sa nd n umbe ra nd r a nge o fp l a t fo rm a ng le sa nd s c a r so fD onggu tuo T i s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 22 M in imum a nd m ax imum d imens ions a nd n umbe ra nd r a nge o fp l a t fo rm a ng le s a nd s ca r so fD onggu tuo T 1 d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s 2 22 M in imum a nd max imum d imen s ion sa nd n umbe ra nd r ange o fp l a t fo rm a ng le sa nd s ca r so fD onggu tuo T 1 m u l t i -p la t f o rm c o re s 2 23 M in imum a nd m ax imum d imen s ions a nd n umbe ra nd r ange o fp l a t fo rm a ng le sa nd s ca r so fD onggu tuo T i b i po la rc o re s 2 23

14 15 16 17 18 19 1 20 1 2 1 1 22 1 23 1 24 1 25 1 26 1 27 1 28 1 29 1 30 1 31 1 32 1 33 1 34 1 35 1 36 1 37 1 38 1 39 1 40 1 4 1 1 42 1 43 1 44 1 45 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 49 1 50 1 5 1 1 52 1 53 1 54 1 55 1 56 1 57 1 58 1 59 1 60 1 6 1 1 62 1 63 1 64 1 65 1 66 1 67 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 71

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fe x ten to fc o re r e duc t ion o fD onggu tuo c o re c a tego r ies C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fe x ten to fD onggu tuo c o re r e duc t ion i nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o ff l a tc o re p l a t form t a b le so fD onggu tuo c o re c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o ff l a tc o re p l a tform t a b le so fD onggu tuo c o re c a tego r ies i nr e la t ion t or aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o f Donggu tuo c o re c a tego r ie s w i th s t ep f r ac tu re s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica l D onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen tc o r t ica l s u r f ace C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen ts c a rp a t te rns S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen td imens ions a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake sa nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s b yt r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s hape s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa lc o r t ica l s u r f ace C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b yt r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa l s c a rp a t te rns S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fD onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d imen s ions , p l a tform a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake d i rec t ion so fp e rcus s ion C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm mo rpho log ies C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake p rof i le s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake p rof i le s i nr e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion s i nr e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s b yt r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen ts hape s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica l Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r f ace C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa l s c a rp a t te rns S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen td imens ions a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo ls a nd f l ake f r agmen tt oo ls C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s b yt r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o ls C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l s hape s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fc o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo ls C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o ld o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r fa ce C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l d o r sa l s c a rp a t te rns S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o ld imens ions , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fD onggu tuo t o o ld i rec t ions o fp e r cu s s ion C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo t o o l s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm mo rpho log ies C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l p rof i le s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l p rof i le s i nr e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o ld i s ta l t e rm ina t ions C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so f Donggu tuo who le f l ake t oo l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions i nr e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yl a ye ro f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo t o o l c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yl a ye ro f Donggu tuo t o o l c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo t o o ls C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o lc a tego r ie s i nr e la t ion t os hape C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fu n i la te ra la nd b i la te ra lD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l u se -wea r C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fu n if ac ia la nd b i f ac ia l Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l u se -wea r C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l u s e -wea re dge s hapes C ompa ra t ive l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss r ange so f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo ls C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o f Donggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o l s hape s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l Donggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo ls C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o l d o r sa lc o r t ica l s u rf ace v i

2 23 2 24 2 24 2 24 2 25 2 25 2 26 2 26 2 26 2 26 2 26 2 29 2 29 2 29 2 29 2 29 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 31 2 31 2 31 2 35 2 35 2 35 2 35 2 35 2 37 2 37 2 37 2 37 2 37 2 38 2 38 2 38 2 38 2 38 2 39 2 39 2 39 2 40 2 40 2 40 2 41 2 41 2 42 2 43 2 43 2 43 2 43 2 44 2 44 2 49 2 49 2 49 2 49

I 7 2 1 73 I 7 4 1 75 1 76 1 77 1 78 1 79 1 80 I 8 1 1 82 1 83 1 84 1 85 1 86 1 87 1 88 1 89 1 90 1 9 1 I 9 2 1 93 1 94 1 95 I 9 6 1 97 1 98 1 99 2 00 2 0 1 2 02 2 03 2 04 2 05 2 06 2 07 2 08 2 09 2 10 2 11 2 12 2 13 2 14 2 15 2 16 2 17 2 18 2 19 2 20 2 2 1 2 22 2 23 2 24 2 25 2 26 2 27 2 28

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o ld o r sa ls ca rp a t te rn s 2 49 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o ld imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s 2 50 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o lc a tego r ie s 2 50 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yl a ye ro fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o lc a tego r ie s 2 50 C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o l c a tego r ie s 2 51 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o lc a tego r ie si nr e la t ion t os hape 2 52 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fu n i la te ra l a nd b i la te ra lD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o lu se -wea r 2 52 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fu n if a c ia la nd b i f a c ia lD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o l u se -wea r 2 53 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o l u se -wea re dge s hape s 2 53 C ompa ra t ive l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s sr a nge so fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo l c a tego r ie s 2 54 C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo T 2l i t h ic c a tego r ie s 2 59 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so fD onggu tuo s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re d imen s ion s ,p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s 2 61 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so fD onggu tuo d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r ed imen s ion s ,p l a t fo rm a ng le s ,a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s 2 62 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so fD onggu tuo mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re d imen s ion s ,p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s 2 62 C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo T 3 l i t h ic c a tego r ie s 2 69 C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo T 4l i t h ic c a tego r ie s 2 75 C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo T 5 l i t h ic c a tego r ie s 2 83 Max imum s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fD onggu tuo c o re sa nd f l ake s 2 85 S t a t is t ica la na ly s i so f Donggu tuo c o re d imen s ions ,p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s 2 85 Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,t r enche s ,l a ye r sa nd r aw m a te r ia ls o ft h eD onggu tuo c o re s 2 85 Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,t r enche s ,l a ye r sa nd r aw m a te r ia l so ft h eD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s 2 86 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so fD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake d imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s c a r s 2 88 Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s , t r enche s ,l a ye r sa nd r aw m a te r ia l so ft h eD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake s 2 89 S t a t i s t ica la na ly s i so f Donggu tuo t o o l d imen s ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s c a r s 2 96 Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,t r enche s ,l a ye r sa nd r aw m a te r ia l so ft h eD onggu tuo t o o ls 2 96 C ompa ra t ive m ea su remen t so f Donggu tuo t o o ls a nd w a s te f l ake s 2 98 S umma ry r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e ma in a t t r ibu te so ft h eX iaochang l iang a s semb lage a cco rd ing t op r ev iou s a u tho r s 2 99 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eX iaochang l iang l i th ic c a tego r ie s 3 00 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eX iaochang l iang l i t h ic c a tego r ie s 3 00 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eX iaochang l iang r aw m a te r ia l s 3 00 S umma ry r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e ma in a t t r ibu te so ft h eD onggu tuo a s semb lage s a cco rd ing t op rev iou s a u tho r s 3 07 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie sa nd s ubca tego r ie s 3 07 C ompa ra t ive i n t ra t rench f r equenc ie so ft h eD onggu tuo w a s te m a t e r ia l sa nd t o o l s 3 08 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fl i t h ic c a tego r ie so ft h eD onggu tuo T rench 1 ,L eve l Aa s semb lage 3 08 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eD onggu tuo c o re c a tego r ie s 3 08 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eD onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake sa nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s 3 08 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eD onggu tuo t o o lc a tego r ie s 3 09 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm c a tego r ie s 3 11 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eD onggu tuo t o o ls o np ebb le s , f l ake s , a nd c o re s 3 12 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo p ebb le a nd c o re s c rape ru n i la te ra l ,b i la te ra l , a nd mu l t i la te ra lu se -wea r 3 14 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo p ebb le s c rape ru n i la te ra l ,b i la te ra l ,a nd mu l t i la te ra lu se -wea r i nr e la t ion t oe dge s hape 3 14 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo c o r es c rape ru n i la te ra l ,b i la te ra l , a nd mu l t i la te ra l u se -wea r i nr e la t ion t oe dge s hape 3 14 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo f l ake s c rape ru n i la te ra l ,b i la te ra l ,a nd mu l t i la te ra lu se -wea r i nr e la t ion t oe dge s hape 3 15 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo p o in ted t o o lc a tego r ie s 3 16 D i s t r ibu t ion o fs e lec ted E a r ly a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene l o ca l i t ie si nN o r th C h ina b yp rov ince , c oun ty , l o ng i tude ,a nd l a t i tude 3 19 C ompa ra t ive t h ickne ss o fi n d iv idua lf o s s i la nd a r tef ac tl a ye r so ft h eG ongwang l ing 1 966 e xcava t ion s e c t ion 3 22 G ongwang l ing 1 965 f auna l s pec ie sl i s t 3 23 G ongwang l ing f a una ls pec ie sl i s t 3 23 G ongwang l ing c h ronome t r ic d a te s 3 24 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fG ongwang l ing 1 966 l i th ic c a tego r ie si nr e la t ion t ot h e i rs t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion 3 26 C ompa ra t ive s p ec ie sf r equenc ie so ft h eG ongwang l ing a nd t h eC hen j iawo f a una c ompa red t oK ehe , Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3a nd L oca l i ty 1 3 28 C hen j iawo f a una ls pec ie s 3 28 C ompa ra t ive e l emen ta nd m in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls f r equenc ie so ft h eC hen j iawo f a una , 1 964 e xcava t ion 3 29 C hen j iawo c h ronome t r ic d a te s 3 29 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3n umbe ro ff a una l e l emen t sa nd i n d iv idua l s 3 31 S ed imen ta ry s t ra t ig raphy o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1b y l a ye r 3 34 T h ickne s so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1l a ye r s 3 34 v i i

2 29 2 30 2 31 2 32 2 33 2 34 2 35 2 36 2 37 2 38 2 39 2 40 2 4 1 2 42 2 43 2 44

S ed imen ta ry , f o s s i l a nd c u l tu ra ls t ra t ig raphy o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 C ompa ra t ive c u l tu ra ld i v is ion o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1o fe a r ly a u tho r s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1p o l len a nd s po r e s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1f l o ra l z one s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1m amma l ian s pec ie s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1m amma l ian f a una w i th n umbe ro fe l emen t s a nd i n d iv idua l sb yl a ye r C ompa r i son o fp a laeoc l ima t ic r e con s t ruc t ion sa nd o xygen iso tope a ge so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c h ronome t r ic d a te s C ompa ra t ive e s t ima ted f r equenc ie so fl i t h ic c a tego r ie s f r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ,l a ye r s 1 4 , 1 966 e xcava t ion L i th ic m a te r ia l sf r om t h e 1 966 e xcava t ion a tL oca l i ty 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft o o lc a tego r ie sf r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ,l a ye r s 1 4 , 1 966 e xcava t ion C ompa ra t ive e s t ima ted f r equenc ie so fr aw m a te r ia l sf r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ,l a ye r s 1 4 , 1 966 e xcava t ion D i s tance d i s t r ibu t ion o fK ehe l o ca l i t ie si nr e la t ion t oK ehe v i l lage C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fK ehe f a una l s pec ie sw i th n umbe ro ff a una l e l emen t s a nd m in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fs ome K ehe l i t h ic c a tego r ie sb yl o ca l i ty S umma ry l i s to fi mpo r tan tf e a tu re so fE a r ly a nd M idd le P l e is tocene l o ca l i t ie si nn o r the rn C h ina

v i i i

3 35 3 37 3 38 3 39 3 40 3 42 3 46 3 47 3 49 3 49 3 49 3 49 3 73 3 75 3 75 3 85

L is t o f F igures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7

I mpo r tan tC h ine se P a laeo l i th ic l o ca l i t ie s T he d eve lopmen to fP a laeo l i th ic t r ad i t ions i n No r th C h ina T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fL owe rP a laeo l i th ic h and -axe a nd c hopp ing too l c u l tu re s i nt h eO ld Wo r ld T he Mov iu sL ine s how ing t h eg eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o fh andaxe c u l tu re sa nd o ft h ec hoppe r /chopp ing too l c omp lex T he g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o fb amboo a nd o fA cheu lean a s semb lage s C h ina i nr e la t ion t oa d jacen tr eg ions T he n a tu ra lg eog raph ic r eg ion so fC h ina C h ina 's ma jo r moun ta in r a nges a nd r i ve r s T he t h ree a l t i tud ina l s t ep so fC h ina 's t o pog raphy Mon soon c i r cu la t ion o fe a s te rn C h ina S t ra t ig raph ica l l o e s s -pa laeoso l s ec t ion o fH e imugou ,L uochuan . S t ra t ig raph ica ll o e s s -pa laeo so l s ec t ion o fL uochuan Q un 2 2c o re Mode rn v ege ta t ion r e g ions o fC h ina P o l len d i ag ram f o rt h eC ang -9 b o reho le N umbe ra nd t y pe so fp o l len g ra ins i nt h eH e imugou s equence N umbe ra nd t y pe so fp o l len g ra ins i nt h eL iu j iapo s equence T he l o ca t ion o fN ihewan V i l lage i nC h ina a nd n o r thwe s te rn H ebe i p rov ince ; a nd i nr e la t ion t oZ houkoud ian A rchaeo log ica l l o ca l i t ie si nt h eN ihewan B a s in T he X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo l o ca l i t ie si nr e la t ion t oN ihewan v i l lage a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e N ihewan B ed sa nd f a u l t s T he Donggu tuo P l a t form a r ea s how ing t h e l o ca t ion s o fX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo i nr e la t ion t ot h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eL owe ra nd Uppe rN ihewan F o rma t ion s X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo i nr e la t ion t ot h e S angganhe V a l ley L a te T e r t ia ry -Qua te rna ry B a s in s , f a u l t s , a c t ive p l a te a nd b l ock b ounda r ies , v o lcan ic c en t re s , a nd h i s to r ica le a r thquake s T he N ihewan d epo s i t s v i ewed f r om t h eX iaochang l iang p romon to ry w i th p a r to ft h e ma in o u tc rop a nd t h eS angganhe P o s i t ion o ft h eg o rge b e tween t h e ma in o u tc rop a nd t h eX iaochang l iang p romon to ry T he X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang p romon to ry a nd t h es t eep s l ope f r om w h ich f o ss i ls a nd w a s te f l akes w e re r e cove red ; t wo t o o l s w e re f ound f u r the rt ot h ew e s to ft h ep romon to ry G eo log ica l s e c t ion o fX iaochang l iang Dong Y ang t r ench s how ing s ed imen ta ry c on tex ta nd s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o fv e r teb ra te f o ss i ls T he X iaochang l iang p romon to ry a nd t h ep a laeomagne t ic t r ench v i ewed f r om t h e ma in o u tc rop C ros s -sec t ion o ft h eX iaochang l iang p romon to ry w i th s e c t ion s Aa nd B s how ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t s a nd v e r teb ra te f o s s i ls P o l len d i ag ram f o rt h eN angou s e c t ion T he Xu j iapo g u l ly s how ing t h ep o s i t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon a tD onggu tuo T he X iaochang l iang p romon to ry w i th p a r to fs e c t ion A a nd t h eu nexcava ted p a r to fs ec t ion B a nd t h e X ionge r shan r a nge X iaochang l iang s e c t ion B a f te rt h e 1 990 e xcava t ion T he X iaochang l iang p romon to ry w i th s e c t ions A a nd B s how ing t h ep o s i t ion o fe xcava t ion t r enches a nd t h e h o r izon ta ld i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t s a nd s t one b lock s T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fD onggu tuo t r enche s T 1-T5 i nt h eX u j iapo g u l ly T he p os i t ion o fD onggu tuo i nr e la t ion t ot h e S angganhe a nd t h es t ra t ig raph ic a nd p a laeomagne t ic s e c t ions o f Donggu tuo X iaochang l iang d oub le -p la t form c o re . U nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re . U nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re . U nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s . S ec t ion B a nd u nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s . S ec t ions B a nd A a nd u nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . S ec t ions A a nd B X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo ls . B ipo la rf l ake , e nd -u t i l ised . S i de u t i l i sed f l ake -b lade . U nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo ls . S ide & e nd u t i l ised . E nd u t i l ised . E nd d en t icu la te . U nknown s ec t ion X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake s i de d en t icu la te . Unknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake n o tch . U nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen tt oo ls . S ide -u t i l ised q ua r tz f l ake -b lade . S i de u t i l i sed . E nd u t i l i sed . U nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen tt oo ls . S ide d en t icu la te . E nd d en t icu la te . U nknown s ec t ion X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen tp o in tu t i l ised t oo ls . S ec t ion B a nd u nknown s e c t ion X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen tt oo ls . P o in t u t i l ised . S ec t ion A . N o tch . U nknown s e c t ion i x

1 39 1 40 1 42 1 42 1 43 1 44 1 44 1 45 1 45 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 49 1 50 1 51 1 53 1 54 1 55 1 57 1 58 1 59 1 60 1 61 1 62 1 63 1 64 1 66 1 67 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 71 1 71 1 77 1 78 1 78 1 82 1 87 1 90 1 93 1 96 1 97 1 98 1 99 2 03 2 04 2 05

4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9 1 00 1 0 1 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 10 11

X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang t o o l s . S i de d en t icu la te o n c o re . S ide u t i l ised w ho le f l ake Donggu tuo T i s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s Donggu tuo T 1 d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re Donggu tuo T i d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re Donggu tuo T i mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re Donggu tuo T 1 mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re Donggu tuo T 1 q ua r tz c o re D onggu tuo T i b i po la rc o re s Donggu tuo T 1 w a s te f r agmen t s Donggu tuo T i w a s te f r agmen ta nd w a s te f l akes i ng rey c he r t Donggu tuo T i w ho le w a s te f l ake s Donggu tuo T 1 w ho le w a s te f l ake s D onggu tuo T i b i po la rw a s te f l ake Donggu tuo T i w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s D onggu tuo T i s i de u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake s a nd r e touched n on -f lake Donggu tuo T 1 e nd u t i l ised w ho le f l ake s D onggu tuo T i s i de d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake s Donggu tuo T i e nd d en t icu la te a nd n o tch w ho le f l ake s Donggu tuo T i s i de u t i l ised a nd e nd u t i l i sed f l ake f r agmen t s Donggu tuo T i s i de d en t icu la te f l ake f r agmen t s D onggu tuo T i e nd d en t icu la te f l ake f r agmen t Donggu tuo T 1 d en t icu la te p o in t s ,p o in t u t i l ised , a nd n o tch f l ake f r agmen t s Donggu tuo T 2d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re D onggu tuo T 2 mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re Donggu tuo T 2d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re D onggu tuo T 2 w a s te f r agmen t s Donggu tuo 1 2 w ho le w a s te f l ake s Donggu tuo T 2 w ho le w a s te f l ake s Donggu tuo T 2 w ho le w a s te f l ake Donggu tuo T 2 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s Donggu tuo T 2 t oo ls Donggu tuo T 3d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re Donggu tuo T 3 d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re Donggu tuo 1 3 w a s te f r agmen ta nd w ho le w a s te f l ake s Donggu tuo T 3 w ho le w a s te f l ake s D onggu tuo 1 3 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s Donggu tuo 1 3 t o o ls Donggu tuo T 4 mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re a nd w a s te f r agmen t Donggu tuo T 4 w ho le w a s te f l ake s D onggu tuo T 4 who le w a s te f l ake Donggu tuo 1 4 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s Donggu tuo 1 4 w ho le f l ake t o o ls Donggu tuo T 4 f l ake f r agmen tt o o ls Donggu tuo T 4 f l ake f r agmen tt o o ls Donggu tuo T 5 w ho le w a s te f l ake a nd f l ake f r agmen tt oo l Sma l l c o re f r om X iaochang l iang S tone a r tef ac t sf r om X iaochang l iang U nu t i l i sed f l ake sf r om X iaochang l iang U nu t i l i sed f l ake s f r om X iaochang l iang U t i l ised f l ake s f r om X iaochang l iang S ing le -edge s c rape r sf r om X iaochang l iang Mu l t ip le -edge s c rape rf r om X iaochang l iang T oo l c a tego r ie sf r om X iaochang l iang Sma l l c hopp ing too l f r om X iaochang l iang B one f l ake t oo ls f r om X iaochang l iang S ing le -p la tform c o re f r om D onggu tuo Doub le -p la tform c o re f r om D onggu tuo Mu l t i -p la tform c o re s f r om D onggu tuo B ipo la rc o re s f r om Donggu tuo Unu t i l ised f l akes f r om Donggu tuo S i ze c l a ss d i s t r ibu t ion o f Donggu tuo , t r ench T i , l e ve l A , f l ake sa nd f l ake f r agmen t sd eb i tage C hoppe r s f r om Donggu tuo S c rape r s f r om Donggu tuo C he r ta r tef ac t s f r om Donggu tuo t r ench T I , l e ve l A

2 08 2 16 2 17 2 18 2 18 2 19 2 19 2 20 2 27 2 28 2 32 2 33 2 34 2 36 2 45 2 46 2 47 2 48 2 55 2 56 2 57 2 58 2 59 2 60 2 61 2 63 2 64 2 65 2 66 2 67 2 68 2 70 2 70 2 71 2 72 2 73 2 74 2 76 2 77 2 78 2 79 2 80 2 81 2 82 2 84 3 00 3 01 3 02 3 02 3 03 3 03 3 04 3 05 3 06 3 06 3 09 3 09 3 10 3 10 3 11 3 12 3 12 3 13 3 15

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 20 1 2 1 1 22 1 23 1 24 1 25 1 26 1 27 1 28 1 29 1 30 1 31 1 32 1 33 1 34 1 35 1 36 1 37 1 38 1 39 1 40 1 4 1 1 42 1 43 1 44 1 45 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 49 1 50 1 51 1 52 1 53 1 54 1 55 1 56 1 57 1 58 1 59 1 60 1 6 1 1 62 1 63 1 64 1 65 1 66 1 67 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 71 1 72 1 73 1 74

P o in t s f r om Donggu tuo B one t o o ls f r om D onggu tuo I mpo r tan tE a r ly a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene l o ca l i t ie so fn o r the rn C h ina i nr e la t ion t ot h eN ihewan l o ca l i t ie s T he l o ca t ions o fG ongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo G ongwang l ing s t ra t ig raph ic s e c t ion , 1 965 e xcava t ion G ongwang l ing s t ra t ig raph ic s e c t ion , 1 966 e xcava t ion P o l len p rof i le sf r om t h eL an t ian l o ca l i t ie s Gongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo T he Gongwang l ing 1 965 a r tefa c t s T he Gongwang l ing 1 966 a r te fac t s P o in t f r om P ing l iang P o in tf r om n ea rG ongwang l ing T he l o ca t ion o ft h eZ houkoud ian l o ca l i t ie s i nr e la t ion t oB e i j ing a nd Z houkoud ian v i l lage T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h em a in f o ss i l if e rou s l o ca l i t ie s i nt h eZ houkoud ian a r ea S t ra t ig raphy o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 C he r ta r tefac tf r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1e xcava ted a r ea s Ap a r t ly d iag ramma t ic l o ng i tud ina l s e c t ion o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 Two t r ansve r se s e c t ion so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s e c t ion s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s e c t ion s C ros s -co r re la t ion o fs t ra t ig raph ic d e s igna t ions b y s eve ra l w o rke r s C omb ina t ion o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s e c t ions f r om e a s tt ow es t P a lyno log ica l p rof i le f r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ,l a ye r s 4- 1 T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween l o e s sd epo s i t ion ,p a laeoc l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions , a nd t h eb io s t ra t ig raphy o ft h e h om in id a nd a r tef ac ts e d imen t sa tZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1d i sco ida lc o re s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1d i sco ida lc o re s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1d i sco ida lc o res Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c on ica lc o re s /hamme r s tone s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s p ind le shaped b i po la rc o re Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1b i po la rf l ake s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1h a rd -hamme rd i rec tp e rcu s s ion t a bu la rc o re w i th p r epa red s t r ik ing p la t form Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1h a rd -hamme rd i rec tp e rcu s s ion f l ake s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1a nv i l c o re Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1a nv i l f l ake s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1h amme r s tones Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1p o ss ib le h amme r s tone Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1a nv i l Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s i de s c rape r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c oncave a nd c onvex s c rape r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c omp lex s c rape r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c omp lex s c rape r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1d oub le s c rape r , d i sco ida l s c rape r , a nd b eak Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s i ng le e dge s i de s c rape ra nd d oub le e dge s c rape r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1e nd s c rape r Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1a l te rna te e dge s c rape r sa nd d oub le -edge /a l te rna te e dge s c rape r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1p o in t s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1p o in t s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1g r ave r /bu r in a nd a w l Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1f l aked b ou lde r( c hoppe r? ) Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s q ua red c hoppe r Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c hoppe rw i th p repa red h ee l Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c hoppe r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1m u l t ip le -edge ( d isco ida l )c hoppe r Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c hoppe r sw i th u se -wea r Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c hoppe r sw i th u se -wea r Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c hoppe r so rl a rge s c rape r s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1d oub le s ided c hoppe r Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1c hoppe r s C ros s sec t ion o fK ehe s how ing p o s i t ion o fa r tefac t s a nd f o ss i ls K ehe c o re a nd f l ake sf r om l o ca l i t ie s 6 054 , 6 058 , a nd 6 051 K ehe f l ake sf r om l o ca l i t ie s6 055 a nd 6 054 K ehe f l ake sf r om l o ca l i t ie s6 054 a nd 6 057 K ehe c o re s f r om l o ca l i t ie s 6 058 , 6 06 1 , 6 055 , a nd 6 056 x i

3 16 3 17 3 18 3 19 3 20 3 21 3 22 3 25 3 26 3 27 3 27 3 29 3 30 3 30 3 32 3 32 3 33 3 33 3 36 3 36 3 37 3 38 3 39 3 46 3 50 3 51 3 52 3 53 3 53 3 54 3 54 3 55 3 55 3 56 3 57 3 58 3 58 3 59 3 60 3 61 3 62 3 62 3 63 3 63 3 64 3 65 3 66 3 67 3 67 3 68 3 68 3 69 3 70 3 70 3 71 3 72 3 72 3 73 3 74 3 76 3 77 3 78 3 79

1 75 1 76 1 77 1 78 1 79

K ehe c o re s f r om l o ca l i t ie s 6 054 , 6 065 , a nd 6 055 K ehe f l ake -choppe rf r om l o ca l i ty 6 054 K ehe s c rape r , c o re -choppe r s , a nd f l ake -choppe rf r om l o ca l i t ie s 6 058 , 6 054 , 6 056 , a nd 6 055 K ehe s phe r ica l s t one , s c rape r , c o re -choppe r s ,a nd f l ake -choppe rf r om l o ca l i ty 6 054 K ehe p o in t s f r om l o ca l i t ie s 6 054 a nd 6 056

x i i

3 80 3 81 3 82 3 83 3 84

I n troduc t ion

T he s ub s tan t ia l ma jo r i ty o f s t one a r tef ac t a s semb lage s i n t h e F a r E a s t h a s b een r e co rded i n t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o f C h ina . F ew d e ta i led l i th ic a na ly se s h ave , h oweve r , b een c onduc ted . T h is v o lume s e ek s t o m ake ac on t r ibu t ion t owa rd a mo re i n fo rmed u nde r s tand ing o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om C h ina , p r ima r i ly w i th r e f e r ence t o t h e e a r ly P a laeo l i th ic s i te s o f X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo i n t h e N ihewan B a s in , n o r the rn C h ina . I ta t temp t s t o a ch ieve t h is b y i n -dep th l i th ic a t t r ibu te a na lyse so ft h eN ihewan a r tefac t s a nd t h e g eo log ica l , c h rono log ica l , p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l , s t ra t ig raph ic a nd s pa t ia l c on tex t s i nw h ich t h ey w e r e f ound . T he a va i lab le d a ta f o r r e sou rce a nd s ub s is tence t e chno logy a r e a l so e va lua ted , a nd t h e s i gn if icance o f t h e N ihewan s i te s i n t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd e t hnog raph ic c on tex t s i s d i scu s sed . T he h om in id b ehav iou ra l e v idence f r om t h eN ihewan s i te si sc ompa red t os ome o ft h eb e t te r k nown n o r the rn C h ine se E a r ly a nd M idd le P le is tocene l o ca l i t ie sa f te r ar e -exam ina t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls f r om t h el a t te r .

T he r e sea rch o nt h eX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage se vo lved i n 1 989 w hen t h e p r e sen t w r i te r w a s o f e r ed t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o d i rec t ly e xam ine t h e se a r tef a c t a s semb lage s . T he se a s semb lage s w e r e s t ud ied f r om 1 989 t o 1 991 a nd i n 1 993 a tt h eI n s t i tu te o fV e r teb ra te P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan th ropo logy i n B e i j ing . A s ma l l s amp le w a s e xam ined a tt h e B e i j ing N a tu ra l H is to ry Mu seum i n1 990 . F u r the r a r te f ac t s w h ich w e re e xam ined f r om X iaochang l iang w e re r e cove red a t t h is s i te d u r ing a s u rvey i n 1 988 a nd a n e xp lo ra to ry e xcava t ion i n 1 990 . T he l a rge s t p a r t o f t h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage i sn ow d i spe r sed i n an umbe ro fC h ine se mu seums o fu nknown l o ca t ion a nd c ou ld t h u sn o tb ea cce s sed .

T h i s v o lume a l so d i scus se s t h eh i s to r ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l b a ckg round o f d eve lopmen t s i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch i n C h ina i na na t temp tt op lace t h ec u r ren ts t a te o fr e sea rch i n to c on tex t , a nd c on ta ins b i og raph ica l s ou r ce s f o r C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic p reh is to ry .

CHAPTER I H is tory o f R e search a nd I n terpre ta t ions o f t he Ch inese P a laeo l i th ic

1 .1 T he h is tor ica l d eve lopmen t a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n Ch ina

of

D eve lopmen t s a nd d i re c t ion s i n C h ine se a r cha eo log ica l r e sea r ch a nd t h e i nf luence t h e se h ave e xe r t ed o n p r e sen t t h ink ing c anno tb eu nde r s tood w i thou tr e f e r ence t ot h e p r ime i mpo r tance f o r t h e s e a r ch f o r e a r ly h om in id f o s s i l s . T he c a ta ly s to fP a laeo l i th ic r e sea r ch i nC h ina a nd t h e F a r E a s t a s aw ho le s e em s t o h ave i t s r oo t s i n t h e d i s cove ry o f t h e N eande r tha l h om in id i n 1 856 a nd t h e p ub l ica t ion o f D a rw in 's " O r ig in o f S pec ie s" i n 1 859 , a nd mo re d i re c t ly s t em s f r om t h e s ucce s sfu l r e sea r ch e f fo r t s i n J ava ( i s land S ou thea s t A s ia ) o f a Du tch a rmy d oc to r , E ugene Dubo is . Dubo is ( 1888 ) w a s much i nf luenced b y t h e t h eo r e t ica l t h ink ing o n h uman o r ig in so ft h e t ime , i np a r t icu la rb y b o th D a rw in ( 1 871 :200 ) a nd H aecke l ( 1 868 :493 , 4 99 ) w ho s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a nce s to r o f t h e h uman s p ec ie s w a s e s sen t ia l ly a t r op ica l a n ima l , a nd b y Wa l la ce 's ( 1888 i n H oo i je r 1 948 ) o p in ion o f t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o fd i scove r ing t h e r ema in so fh uman a nce s to r si nt h ec ave so fr e g ion s o fe x tan t a pe s .D ubo i s ' ( 1891) r e sea rch i nt h e e a r ly 1 890 's i n t r op ica l I ndone s ia l e dt oh i s r e cove ry o f h om in id f o s s i l s a tT r in i l i n e a s t J ava w h ich h e ( Dubo i s 1 894 :31) c l a s s if ied a s P i thecan thropu s e r ec tu s a nd a s t h e h uman a nce s to r . T h is d i scove ry d i d n o t g o u nno t iced i n t h e c on tempo ra ry i n te l lec tua l c l ima te a s a t te s ted t o b y n ume rou s s c ien t i f ic e f fo r t s t o r e cove r f u r the r e v idence o ff o s s i l h om in id s i n t h e F a r E a s t , i n c lud ing J ava ( e .g . , S e lenka a nd B lanckenho rn 1 911 ) a nd C h ina ( e .g . , A nde r s son 1 9 19 ; B la ck 1 927 ; s e e Append ix 1 ) . T he h ypo the se s t h a t h uman s ( Le idy 1 857 i n A nd rew s 1 949 :17 ; O sbo rn , e . g . , 1 926 , 1 927 ) a nd h uman b ipeda l i sm ( O sbo rn , e . g . , 1 926 , 1 927 ) h ad e vo lved o n t h e C en t ra l A s ia t ic P la teau , a nd t h a t n o r the rn A s ia w a s t h e d i spe r sa l c en t re f o r mamma l s d u r ing t h e T e r t ia ry ( Ma t thew 1 914 :315 )w e re a l so s i gn if ican t . T he se l e d t ot h e s e a r ch f o r e a r ly h om in id s b y t h e C en t ra l A s ia t ic E xped i t ion s i n t h e 1 920 's ( And rew s 1 932 , 1 949 :18 ; R eade r 1 988 :95 ) , a nd i n d i rec t ly e ncou raged D av id son B la ck t oc ondu c t r e sea r ch a t Z houkoud ian ( Spence r 1 990 :119 ) .

A l though Wu a nd L in ( 1985 :1) s e e ap o l i t ica l l i nk i n t h e l a te e me rgence o f C h ine se p a laeoan th ropo logy ( t he " s em if euda l a nd s em ico lon ia l s oc ia l o rde r " ) , a n t iqua r ian i sm w a s s t i l l t h e mean s o f s t udy ing p a s t h uman c u l tu re s i n C h ina a t t h e t ime o f t h e i n i t ia t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l e xcava t ion s ( s ee O lsen 1 987a ; T r igge r 1 990 :42 ) . T he C h ine se c once rn w i th a nc ien t r e l ic s h a s b een t r a ced b ack t o t h e p h i lo sophe r F eng H uz i o f t h e 4 t h c en tu ry B .C . ( O l sen 1 987a ) a nd t h e h i s to r ian Q ien S ima o f t h e 2 nd c en tu ry B .C . ( O l sen 1 987a , T r igge r 1 990 :30 , 4 2 ) . T he f i r s t s y s tema t ic s t udy o f a nc ien t r e l ic s ( i . e . i n sc r ip t ion s ) w a s c onduc t ed b y H s iu O u -yang i n t h e 11 t h c en tu ry A .D . (Wang 1 985 ) . I n te re s ti nr e l ic s w a sr e v ived b yd i scove r ie so fS hang b ronze s a nd o rac le b one sd u r ing t h eS ong D yna s ty ( A .D . 9 60 -1279 ) , a l though n one o f t h e m a te r ia l s w e r e e x cava ted ( T r igge r 1 990 :30 , 4 2 ) . T he a n t iqua r ian t r ad i t ion i s t hough t t o h ave l a s ted u n t i l 1 919 ( O l sen 1 987a ) , a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion sf r om a bou tt h i st ime o nwa rd s w e re e ncou raged b y ag row ing a wa rene s s o f t h e c on t r ibu t ion We s te rn s c ience c ou ld m ake t op reh i s to r ic s t ud ie si nC h ina ( O lsen 1 987a ;a nd s e e Wang 1 985 ) . P a laeo l i th ic r e sea r ch i n C h ina w a s f o unded b y We s t e rn r e sea r che r s i n t h e 1 920 's ( F reeman 1 977 :83 ; T r igge r 1 990 :42 ) , a nd r e su l ted i n d i scove r ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l l o ca l i t ie s i n t h e n o r the rn ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd L icen t 1 924 ; B la ck e ta l . 1 933 ; A nde r s son 1 934 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :386 ; a nd s e eJ i aa nd H uang 1 990 :519 )a nd s ou the rn ( e .g . ,E dga r 1 933 1 934 ; B ow le s 1 933 ; T e i lha rd e ta l . 1 935 ; a nd s e e Mov iu s 1 949 :407 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ) p rov ince s , a l though r e sea r ch b ecame c en t r ed i n t h e N o r th , n o tab ly a tZ houkoud ian ( e .g . , A igne r 1 978a :163 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ; s e e b e low ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r che r s w e r e n o t t r a ined a r chaeo log i s t s , b u t p a laeon to log i s t s a nd g eo log i s t s w ho i n t roduced g eo log ica l a nd f a una l s t ra t ig raphy a s m a jo r d i sc ip l ine s t o a r chaeo logy ( s e e A ppend ix 1 ) . T he e x ten t t o w h ich t h e t r a in ing m ay h ave i nf luenced t h e f o cu s a nd m e thodo logy o fr e sea r ch i sd eba tab le , b u t i t may h ave b een o fs i gn if icance a tt h ei mpo r tan ts i te o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1( s ee b e low ) . T he s i te w h ich g a ined m a jo r a t ten t ion a nd s t i l l r ank s a s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t a nd e x tens ive d ocumen ta t ion o f P le i s tocene h om in id b ehav iou r i n t h e F a r E a s t i s Z houkoud ian ( f o rme r ly : C houkou t ien e t c . ; s e e A ppend ix 2 ) n ea r B e i j ing , p a r t icu la r ly L oca l i ty 1( s ee , e . g . , T e i lha rd 1 941 :57 ; A igne r 1 981 :129 148 ; Z hang 1 985 :154 170 ; F ig . 1 ) . T he m e thodo log ie s e mp loyed i n t h e c ou r se o f i nve s t iga t ion s a t t h i s s i te d u r ing t h e 1 920 's a nd 1 930 's l a id t h e f ounda t ion f o r much o f f u tu re a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ions i n C h ina ( s ee b e low ) . E xp lo ra t ions i nt h e Z houkoud ian a r ea b y A nde r s son i n 1 918 ( Ande r s son 1 919 , 1 934 :95 -96 ; Y oung 1 930 ; B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :6 ; S hap i ro 1 974 :35 ; A igne r 1 981 :100 , 1 50 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :10 ) l e d t o d i scove r ie s o f f o s s i l s a t a " d ragon s ' b one" l o ca l i ty ( Ande r s son 1 934 :97 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :6 ; R eade r 1 988 :94 ) , l a te r k nown a s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 .T he a bundan tf o s s i ls r e cove red h e re i n t h e c ou r se o f Z , danky 's s u rvey s a nd e xcava t ion s i n 1 921 a nd 1 923 ( B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :6 -7 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ) i n c lud ed t wo h om in id t e e th ( Zdan sky 1 927 ; B la ck 1 927 ) w h ich Z dan sky c ho se n o tt or e vea l u n t i l 1 926 ( Reade r 1 988 :94 , 9 9 ; Z dan sky 1 927 ) . A nde r s son 's ( 1 934 :125 ) i d en t if ica t ion i n 1 921 o f q ua r tz f r agmen t s a tt h i sl o ca l i ty a st h ep roduc t so f " p r im i t ive man" ( Ande r s son i nB la ck e ta l . 1 933 :6 ) , w a s n o t e ndo r s ed b y t h e o t he r r e sea r che r s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e i n ve s t iga t ion s ( e .g . , Z dan sky 1 923 ; T e i lha rd a nd Y oung 1 930b :182 ) u n t i l 1 931 w hen a l a ye r w i th q ua r tz f l ake s w a s e xpo sed ( Pe i

A r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s i n t h e F a r E a s t w e r e c a r r ied o u tb y We s te rn r e sea rche r si nt h ec o lon ie so ft h e i r r e spe c t ive c oun t r ie s ,a nd i nC h ina r e sea r ch e f fo r t s w e r e a l so , t h ough t o al e s se re x ten te ncou raged b yc o lon ia lp o l i t ic s ,e spec ia l ly t h e t ime a f te r t h e B oxe r r evo l t ( 1900 ) w h ich w a s m a rk ed b y a n i n c rea se i nf o re ign r e sea r ch ( Buf f e tau t 1 987 :190 ) . G eo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica le xp lo ra t ion sb y We s te rn w o rke r s i n t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ( e .g . , v on R ich thof en 1 877 ) , a nd b eg inn ing i n t h e s e cond d e cade o f t h i s c en tu ry b y C h ine se r e sea r che r s ( no tab ly V .K . T ing ) p r e ceded t h e i n i t ia t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic ( a nd N eo l i th ic ) s t ud ie s i n C h ina ( F r eeman 1 977 :80 -83 ; B u f f e tau t 1 987 :189 ) . F o s s i ls w e re u sua l ly a c qu i r ed i n a po theca r ie s a nd r a re ly c o l lec ted i n t h e f i e ld ( Buf f e tau t 1 987 :189 -190 ) . O ne s uch ' f ind ' w a s as i ng le f o s s i l i sed mo la r o b ta ined b y H abe re r i n 1 900 f r om aB e i j ing s t o re ( Shap i ro 1 974 :34 ) , a nd d e sc r ibed b y S ch lo s se r ( 1 906 :20 ) w ho w a s u nce r ta in a bou tt h eh om in id s t a tus o ft h is a b r ad ed s pec imen . T h i s e n igma t ic s pec imen i s t hough t t o h ave e ncou raged i n ve s t iga t ions f o r f o s s i ls i n t h e B e i j ing a r ea ( von K oen ig swa ld 1 949a ; S hap i ro 1 974 :34 ) .

1

p ub l ica t ion s i s a l so a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r a nd o n ly v e ry r e cen t ly h ave t h e se b ecome mo re a va i lab le , a l though t h e i r u se i sg ene ra l ly l im i ted t o as ma l l c i r c le o fr e sea r che r s ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) .

1 931b :110 ; R eade r 1 988 :94 ; A igne r 1 981 :129 ) 1. T he g eo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l t r a in ing o f t h e r e sea r che r s i n vo lved may h ave p l ayed n o i n s ign if i can t r o le i n t h i s . I n r e t ro spec t ,h ad A nde r s son 's i d en t if i ca t ion b een a cknow ledg ed a nd h ad Z dan sky made k nown t h eh om in id s t a tu so ft h e t e e th a t t h e t ime o f d i scove ry , t h e l a rge sca le e xcava t ion s a t L oca l i ty 1 f r om 1 927 o nwa rd s ( e .g . , B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :7 ) m ay h ave b een i n i t ia ted e a r l ie r , a nd s ub s tan t ia l q uan t i t ie s o f a r te f ac t sw ou ld p o s s ib ly n o th ave b een d epo s i ted i nt h e s po i l h eap s . T he e xcava t ion s u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o f t h e N a t iona l G eo log ica l S u rvey o f C h ina f u nded b y t h e R o ck e f e l le r F ounda t ion p r oduced t h e s t i l l l a rge s t s i ng le s amp le o f H . e r e c tu s f o s s i ls ( S inan thropu sp ek inens i s , o f ten p o r t r ayed a s " Pek ing Man" ; We iden r e ich 1 943 ; P ope 1 982 :92 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :121) , o the r a bundan t n on -hom in id f o s s i l s , a r te f ac t s , a nd e v idence o f f i re u se ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 ; B lack 1 931 ; B reu i l 1 931 ; J i a 1 989b ; A igne r 1 981 :e .g . , 1 07 , 11 , 12 , 1 46 ; Z hang 1 985 :154 168 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 ) . A ma jo r s i gn if icance o f t h e Z houkoud ian d i scove r ie s i st h e i mpe tu s t h ey g ave t o f u r the r Q ua t e rna ry r e sea rch i nC h ina ( Zhang 1 985 ) .T he J apane se o ccupa t ion o f C h ina f r om 1 937 -1945 , a nd p o l i t ica l c hange s i n t h e c oun t ry a f te r 1 945 , h oweve r , p r even ted a l l a r chaeo log ica l r e s ea r ch u n t i l 1 949 w hen t h e C enozo ic R e sea r ch L abo ra to r y r e in i t ia ted i n ve s t iga t ion s a t Z houkoud ian a nd c ondu c t ed r e sea rch i no the rp a r t s o fC h ina ( Mov iu s 1 955 ; C hang 1 977 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ) .

C ommun i s t d oc t r ine a s i mpo sed b y t h e g ove rnmen t f r om 1 949 o nwa rd s a nd t h e Ma rx is t h i s to r ica l a pp roa ch h a s d om ina t ed i n te rp re ta t ion s o f C h ine se p r eh i s to ry w i th a d eempha s i s o n t y po log ica l s t ud ie s ( O l sen 1 987a ; b u t s e e b e low ) . T he v i ew s o f t h e Ma rx is t p reh i s to r ian G uo Mu ruo d u r ing t h e 1 930 's d i d n o t b ecome i n f luen t ia l u n t i l a f te r 1 949 , b ecau se o f t h e u nf avou rab le p o l i t ica l c l ima te ( T r igge r 1 990 :175 ) . S ince t h e c ommun is t r i se t op owe r , a r chaeo logy i nC h ina h a s b een p romo ted a s am ean s t of o s te rn a t iona l ism ( T r igge r 1 990 :176 , 1 77 ) 2,a nd J i a L anpo ( 1980 : i i ; a nd s e e C h ia 1 975 :5 , 1 4 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 4 6 , 5 2 ) , t h e d oyen o f C h ine se a r chaeo logy w r i te s t h a ti ti s" . . .ma in ly t h e l e ade r sh ip o f t h e C ommun is t P a r ty o f C h ina a nd t h e m a s s l i ne t h a t h ave b rough t a bou t t h e p rog re s s i n p a leon to logy a nd o t he r b ranche so fs c ien t if ic e ndeavou ri nt h is c oun t ry ." .D u r ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic , a " c la s s le s s p r is t ine s oc ie ty" ( J ia 1 980 : i ) e x is ted , l a bou r a c t ing a s t h e d r ive b eh ind h uman e vo lu t ion ( Ch ia 1 975 :19 , 4 1 , 4 4 ) . . . ."Labo r s t a r ted w i th t oo l m anuf ac tu r ing .L abo rc r ea ted c u l tu re . A nd , i n as e n se , l a bo r c r ea ted m an ." ( I .V .P .P . 1 980 :2 ; a nd s ee E nge l s 1 966 i nC h ia 1 975 :19 , 3 2 ) . U n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly a r chaeo log i s t s w e r e e xpe c ted t o c omp ly w i th t h e se d o c t r ine s a nd i n ak i nd o f r i tua l i s t ic f o rm q uo t ed Mao , Ma rx o r E nge l s i n t h e i r p ub l ica t ion s ( s ee , e . g . , C h ia 1 975 ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ) . I ti s t h e r e fo r e n o t a lways d e te rm inab le w ha t a r chaeo log i s t s t hough t t h em se lve s , e spec ia l ly d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f t h e C u l tu ra l R evo lu t ion ( 1966 -1969 , b u t t h i s e f f ec tua l ly l a s ted u n t i l a tl e a s t 1 976 ; s ee , e . g . , O lsen 1 987a ) w hen p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch a nd p ub l ica t ion s o f e s tab l i shed s c ien t if ic j ou rna l s w e r e l a rge ly s upp re s sed b y c ommun is t e x t rem i s t s ( T r igge r 1 990 :176 ; v on K oen ig swa ld 1 973c ; C hang 1 977 ; H owe l l 1 977 ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ; b u t s ee O lsen 1 987a ) .

T he p r inc ip le s e s tab l i shed i n a r chaeo log ica l r e s ea r ch c on t inued a f te r We s te rn r e sea r che r sc ea sed t o w o rk i nC h ina , a nd t h el e gacy l e f tb yt h i sc on tac t may b e r e la ted t oC h ina 's c u l tu ra l c on se rva t ism , a nd i t ' s p o l i t ica l , e conom ic , a n d s c ien t if ic i s o la t ion ( S ino Japane se w a r , F ounda t ion o f t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o f C h ina , t h e C u l tu ra l R evo lu t ion ) . D u r ing t h e e a r ly d e cad e s o f t h is c en tu ry w hen a b so lu te m e thod so fd a t ing w e re n o ta va i lab le a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia ls w e r e d a t ed w i th in a l i tho log ic , b i o s t ra t ig raph ic , h om in id m o rpho log ica l , a nd t ypo log ica l f r amewo rk ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd L icen t 1 924 ; B ou le e t a l . 1 927 ; B la ck e t a l . 1 933 ; T e i lha rd 1 941 ; We iden r e ich 1 946 :13 -14 ; A igne r 1 981 :9 , 12 ; P ope 1 982 :33 , 2 2 1 ; a nd s e e T r igge r 1 990 :95 ) . T he c l o se p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic t i e s b e tween t h e S ov ie t U n ion a nd C h ina d u r ing t h e 1 950 's s hou ld a l so b e c on s ide r ed w hen e va lua t ing C h ine se i n te rp re ta t ions o f h uman e vo lu t ion . T he Ma rx is t ma te r ia l is t a pp roach o f S ov ie t a r chaeo logy ( T r igge r 1 990 :207 ) , a nd i t ' s i nf luence i s a ppa ren t i n C h ia 's ( 1975 :e .g . , 1 9 , 4 2 ) r e f e rence t o E nge l s ' w o rk s p ub l i shed i n Mo scow . T he s t rong empha s i so n t ypo logy o ft h e" f o rma l i s t s c hoo lo fR u s s ian a r chaeo logy" ( T r igge r 1 990 :211 , 1 57 158 ) m ay a l so h ave i n f luenced C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic s t ud ie s .

A rchaeo logy p l ay s a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n C h ine se l i f e ( O l sen 1 987a ) . T he C h ine se p ub l ic i s e ncou r aged b y t h e g ove rnmen ta nd b y f i e ld a r chaeo log i s t st ot a ke a n i n te re s t i n t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e i r c oun t ry ( Ch ia 1 975 : i i i , 4 6 , J i a 1 980 : i i i ; F reeman 1 977 :110 ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ) . A r chaeo log ica l d i scove r ie s a r e r e po r ted i n n ew spape r s a nd p opu la rp e r iod ica l s ,a nd mu seums e xh ib i t r e con s t ruc t ion s o f a n ima l a nd h uman e vo lu t ion a nd o f P a laeo l i th ic h om in id a c t iv i t ie s ( Mov iu s 1 955 ; C h ia 1 975 :1-3 , 1 4 , J i a 1 980 : i i i ; v on K oen ig swa ld 1 973c ; F reeman 1 977 :107 ; Wo rm ing ton 1 977 ; H owe l l 1 977 ; O l sen 1 987a ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he i n te re s t o f t h e p ub l ic h a s l e d t o many i mpo r tan t d i scove r ie s b y p ea san t s a nd o t he r l o ca l s ( Ch ia 1 975 : i i i , 4 6 , J i a 1 980 : i i i ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :8 ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ; a nd s e e F reeman 1 977 :79 -80 ) , a nd t h e se d i scove r ie s a r e f r equen t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a nc ien t a nd c on t inu ing C h ine se d emand f o r f o ss i ls u sed f o r med ic ina l p u rpo se s ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :8 ) . H i s to r ica l a nd mode rn a c coun t s o f t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e se s o -ca l led " d ragon b one s , a n t le r s a nd t e e th" l e ave l i t t le r oom f o r d oub t o f t h e v a s t q uan t i t ie s o f f o s s i l s w h ich h ave b een l o s t( e .g . , S ch lo sse r 1 906 :3 ; A igne r 1 981 :57 ; B uf f e tau t 1 987 :17 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :6 ; We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T h is h a s r e su l ted i n t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f f o ss i l l o ca l i t ie s a nd f o s s i ls , a l though t h is i s d eempha s i sed b y J i a

I n d eve lopmen t s o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch i n C h ina i ti s a l so i mpo r tan t t o c on s ide r t h i s c oun t ry 's g eog raph ic i s o la t ion a tt h e e a s te rn p e r iphe ry o f E u ra s ia . T h i s , a nd t h e l o ng -he ld C h ine se c onv ic t ion t h a t t h e i r p r imeva l a n ce s to r s o r ig ina ted i n C h ina w i thou t n on ind igenou s c on t r ibu t ion i s a l so c r i t ica l i n r e ga rd t o u nde r s tand ing w hy n ew d eve lopmen t s i n We s te rn p reh is to r ic s t ud ie s h ave h ad o n ly l i m i ted i mpac t h e re . D iff icu l ty o f a cce s s t o We s te rn

A l though P e i ( 193 l b :110 )f ound " an a ngu la rp i ece" o f f o re ign q ua r tz m a te r ia li nt h eL owe rC ave i n1 929 ,T e i lha rd a nd Y oung ( 1930b :182 )c ommen tt h a tn e i the rt h i sq ua r tz s p ec imen n o rt h o se p rev iou s ly f ound c ou ld b ei d en t if ied a s t h ep roduc to fh om in id m anuf ac tu re ,s i nce t h e se c ou ld n o tb e d i s t ingu i shed f r om n a tu ra l ly b roken p i ece s .

2

Wang ( 1985 )p o in t so u t t h a tt h is p henomenon h a s a

l o ng h i s to ry i nC h ina b eg inn ing a tl e a s ti nt h e X ia D yna s ty ( 2205 -1766 B .C . ) .

2

a nd H uang ( 1990 :8 ) b ecau se o f t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e d i scove r ie sm ade ,s uch a sL an t ian . T he n umbe ro fP a laeo l i th ic l o ca l i t ie sk nown i nC h ina h a s i n t h ep a s td e cade s i n c re a sed ( mo re t h an 16 , L in [ 1 989 ] ; 1 05 , H ong K ong Mu seum o fH i s to ry [ 1 983 :42 ] ; m o re t h an 2 00 , We i Q i [ p e r s . c omm . ] ; a t l e a s t 1 65 p a laeon to log ica l a n d c u l tu ra l l o ca l i t ie s ,J i aa nd H uang [ 1 990 :235 ] ) . H oweve r , t h e e xa c tp rovenance o f many a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s i se i the r n o t k nown o r a mb iguou s , o r s pec imen s r e p r e sen t s u r f a ce c o l lec t ions ( e .g . , A igne r 1 978a :224 , 1 981 :e .g . , 6 6 , 8 2 , 2 28 , 2 31 , 2 35 ; P ope 1 988a :1108 , a nd s e e P ope 1 988b :65 ) . T o s ome e x ten t t h is s i tua t ion c an b e e xp la ined b y p oo r e xcava t ion t e chn ique s , a nd b e cau se d epo s i t iona ry c on tex t s , a r t ef a c t s a nd f o s s i ls a r e i n adequa t e ly r e co rd ed a nd d e s c r ib ed ( e .g . , A igne r 1 978a :165 , b : 130 ; F reeman 1 977 :110 ; P ope 1 982 :163 , 1 83 , 1 985 ; a nd s e e O lsen 1 987a ; b u t s e e J i a a nd H uang [ 1 985a :211 ] w ho c on tend t h a t " . . .No r th C h ina . . . i s c ha ra c te r ized b a h i s to ry o f s ound a r chaeo log ica l f i e ld i n ve s t iga t ion s . . . . . . . ) . Two r e cen te xamp le s a r et h e D onggu tuo a nd X iaochang l iang l o ca l i t ie s i n t h e N ihewan B a s in . T he f r equen t ly b r ie f d e sc r ip t ion s a nd a na lyse s o f a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l sa r ei n adequa te f o r a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft o ta l l i t h ic o r f o s s i l a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty . Mo reove r , t h e a r t e f a c tua l n a tu re o fs ome " a s semb lage s" h a s b een q ue s t ioned ( e .g . , t h e X ihoudu s pec imen s ;K ah lke t o Mü l le rBeck p e r s . c omm . i n A igne r [ 1 978a :194 , 1 981 :184 ] ; A igne r [ 1 978a :194 , 1 981 :184 ] ; We i Q i [ p e r s . c omm . ] ; P ope [ p e r s . c omm . ] ) . A s t udy o f2 8o ft h e 3 2 a r te f a c t s f r om X ihoudu b y t h e p r e sen t a u tho rf ound t h a t 1 8o ft h e se a r e a r te f a c t s , w h i le t h e b a lance a ppea rt ob en a tu ra l ly mod if ied s t one s . C h ine se l i t h ic s t ud ie s f o cu sp r ima r i ly o n t oo l t ypo logy , w h i le w a s te m a te r ia l s a r e u sua l ly t r ea ted a s ma rg ina l ( A igne r 1 981 :277 ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T oo ls a r e i n s ome c a se s c l a s s if ied i n to a mu l t i tude o f c a tego r ie s , f o r i n s tance , t h e D a l i a nd X u j iayao t oo ls ( s ee , Wu a nd Y ou 1 980 ; C h ia e ta t . 1 979 ; F ig . 1 )w h ich g ive s a n i mp re s s ion o fc omp lex i ty w h ich m ay n o t e x i s t ( Kea te s i n p re s s , b , a nd p e r s . o b se rv . ) . I n c on sequence o f t h e se m e thodo log ie s , d i f f icu l t ie s i n e s tab l ish ing amo re c omp rehen s ive c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk o fb o th f o s s i l sa nd a r tef ac t s a nd s t udy ing h om in id b ehav iou r h ave b een n o ted ( A igne r 1 978a :165 , b : 130 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :74 , 2 74 -275 ; P ope 1 983 ) . I ti sf o r t h e se r e a son s t h a t t h e e s tab l i shmen t o fc on tac t s w i th C h ine se p r eh i s to r ians i s i n va luab le a st h ey c an s upp ly d a ta o the rw i se n o to b ta inab le . T he r ei s an o t iceab le t e ndency i nC h ina t oa s c r ibe " o ld" d a t e s t o a r te f a c t s a nd f o s s i l s d e r ived f r om l o ca l i t ie s w i th d oub t fu l s t ra t ig raph ic i n teg r i ty , a nd t wo i mpo r tan t e xamp le s a r e X ihoudu , S hanx i p rov ince a nd Y uanmou , Y unnan p rov ince ( F ig . 1 ) . T he se l o ca l i t ie s a r e t h ough t t o d a t e t o t h e e a r ly E a r ly P le i s tocene o n t h e b a s is o f t h e g eo logy a nd b i o s t ra t ig raphy , a nd p a laeomagne t ic d a t e s ( e .g . , C h ia a nd Wang 1 978 :72 ; L i e ta t . 1 976 ; C heng e ta t . 1 977 ; J i a 1 985 ) . H oweve r , t h ep r ima ry c on tex ta nd e a r ly a ge o fX ihoudu h ave b een d i spu ted b ecau se o fe v idence o f t r an spo r ta t ion ( A igne r 1 978a :194 , 1 981 :184 ; J i a 1 985 ) a nd t h e t ime t r an sg re s s ive c ha rac te ro ft h ef auna ( Pope 1 982 :165 166 , 1 983 , 1 984 :829 , 8 32 , 1 988b :56 ) . T he s t ra t ig raph ica l , f a una l , a nd p a laeomagne t ic e a r ly d a t e i n te rp re ta t ions o f Y uanmou h ave a l so b een c on te s ted ( L iu a nd D ing 1 983 ; P ope 1 983 , 1 988b :55 ) . T aphonom ic s t ud ie s f o rm a v e ry r a r e p a r t o f s i te a na ly se s ( s ee P e i 1 932 , 1 938a ; L ü 1 985 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . A l though P a laeo l i th ic b one a nd a n t le rt o o l t e chno logy c on t inue s t ob e r e cogn i sed ( f o r e xamp le , a t Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 , e . g . ,

C h ia [ 1 959a ] , X iaochang l iang , Y ou e t a t . [ 1 978 ] , a nd a t D ingcun , T ao a nd Wang [ 1 987 ] ; F ig . 1 ) , t h e e v idence f o r t h is i n t h e E a r ly a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene a ppea r s t o b e n on e x i s ten t , o r a t l e a s t v e ry a mb iguou s ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ; a nd s e e B inf o rd a nd H o 1 985 :428 ) . H oweve r , t h ei d en t if ica t ion o ft h e se s pec imen s m ay c on t r ibu te t owa rd s i d en t if y ing t h e p r e sence o f n on -hom in id b one mod if y ing a gen t sa ta r chaeo log ica l s i te s , s uch a sh yena s , a nd t h e e x ten t o ft h e i ra c t iv i t ie s i nr e la t ion t os i te f o rma t ion . S tud ie s o f h om in id s ub s is tence t e chno logy a r e u sua l ly l i m i ted w h ich t o s ome e x ten t may b e ac on sequence o f t h e i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion t h a t t h e a s soc ia t ion o f f o ss i ls w i th t o o l s r e p re sen t s e v iden ce o f h om in id s ub s i s tence a c t iv i ty ( s ee , e . g . , Y ou e ta t . 1 980 ; We i 1 985 ) . R epo r t s o f ten d o n o t r e f e rt ot h en umbe ro fs ke le ta le l emen t sp e rs pec ie s ( e .g . , s e e Y ou e t a t . 1 980 ; We i e t a t . 1 989 ) w h ich make s i t i mpo s s ib le t oa s se s s t h e n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls , a nd t h us t h e r e la t ive a bundance o fa n ima l s f o und a t al o ca l i ty . Mo reove r , f o s s i ls h ave i n an umbe r o f c a se s b een s o ld ( a nd l a te r p r epa r ed a sm ed ic ine ) ( f o r e xamp le , a tD onggu tuo ; We i Q i [ p e r s . c omm . ] ) . T he c u r r en t k now ledge o f t h e r e g ion 's a r chaeo logy i s , h oweve r ,a l so a no u tcome o ff a c to r s w h ich a r ee i the rd i f f icu l t o ri mpo s s ib le t oc on t ro l . I n ac oun t ry t h e s i ze o f C h ina , t h e a loca t ion o f r e sou r ce s i s o f n ece s s i ty r e s t r ic ted , a nd o n ly l im i ted f i nanc ia l r e sou r ce s a r e a va i lab le f o r e xcava t ion a nd p o s t -excava t ion w o rk (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T h i s h a s p o s s ib ly a f f ec ted e xcava t ion m e thodo logy a nd a na lyse so ft h e r e cove red m a te r ia l s .T he v a r iab le q ua l i ty o fa r te f a c ta nd f o ss i l c u ra t ion i st os ome e x ten ti nf luenced b y t h el a ck o fr oom f o r a dequa t e c u ra t ion (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . F o r i n s tance , n ume rou s a r te f a c t s e xcava t ed f r om t h e i mpo r tan t e a r ly L a te P l e i s tocene h om in id l o ca l i ty o fX u j iayao ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 979 ; Wang 1 989 ;F ig . 1 )w e re d i sca rded w i thou t d e ta i led a na ly s i s h av ing b een c onduc t ed (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he e f f e c t s o f n a tu ra l p roce s se s , e spec ia l ly f l ood s a nd s h if t s i n r i ve r c ou r se s ( h i s to r ica l r e co rd s t e s t if y t ot h e r e pea t ed s h if t s o ft h e H uanghe ; s e e , e . g . , Z hang [ 1 986 :115 , F ig . 9 . 2 ] ) h ave p o s s ib ly r e depo s i ted s ome l o ca l i t ie sl o ca t ed o no rn ea rr i ve r s , a nd mu s t b e c on s ide r ed w hen e va lua t ing t h e d epo s i t iona ry c on tex t o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls , s u ch a s X ihoudu a nd K ehe w h ich l i en ea r t h e H uanghe ( F ig . 1 ) . T he c on s ide rab le d ep th o f l o e s s a nd r i ve r d epo s i t s i n t h e H uanghe B a s in p robab ly i mpede s t h e r e cove ry o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s h e r e ( Te i lha rd 1 94 1 :63 ) , a nd i n r e g ion s w i th s im i la r g eo log ica l f e a tu re s . A tt h es ame t ime t h e v e ry e x ten s ive a nd t h ick d epo s i t s o f s ome r e g ion s , e spec ia l ly t h e N ihewan B a s in a r ep l a ce sw i th g ood t oe xce l len tc ond i t ions f o r i n s i tu p r e se rva t ion . H oweve r , b e cau se o f t h e t h ickne ss o f t h e se d epo s i t s a r cha eo log ica l l o ca l i t ie s m ay n o t b e f ound u n le s s t h e se a r e e xpo sed ( Pope 1 988a :1108 ; a nd s e e B a rbou r e ta t . 1 927 ) , a nd p o ten t ia l ly d i s tu rbed , b y n a tu ra l e ro s ion a nd /o r h uman a c t iv i t ie s ( a nd s e e A nde r s son 1 934 :176 -180 , F igs . 7 1-73 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd a n t iqu i ty o f l o ca l i t ie s i n t h e s ou the rn ( s ee , e . g . , A igne r 1 978b :130 , 1 981 :57 ; O lsen a nd M i l le r -An ton io 1 992 ) a nd w e s te rn ( A igne r 1 981 :245 ; Z hou M ingzhen p e r s . c omm . ; O l sen 1 987b ; H uang e t a l . 1 988 ) p rov ince sa r el e s s w e l l k nown b ecau se r e sea r ch h e re h a s b een f a r l e s s e x t en s ive t h an i n t h e n o r the rn r e g ion . A t temp t s t o e xam ine t h e p a laeogeog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f h om in id s a nd t h e n a tu re o fP a laeo l i th ic b ehav iou r a r e a l so c on s t ra ined b y t h eC h ine se d emand f o rd r agon b one s ( s ee a bove ) , e spec ia l ly i ns ou the rn C h ina w he re many o ft h es i te sa r e i n k a r s t c ave s w h ich h ave b een d e s t royed b y t h el o ca lp opu la t ion s i ns e a r ch o f d r agon b one s a nd f e r t i l ise r ( guano ) ( A igne r 1 981 :57 ; a nd

3

s e eJ i a 1 987 ) . R ecen t y ea r s h ave s e en a g row ing a wa r ene s s o f s ome o f t h e se p rob lems b y s ome n a t ive w o rke r s ( s ee , e . g . , Wu a n d O lsen 1 985 ; We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; H uang We iwen p e r s . c omm . ) . O ne l o ca l i ty ( Ban shan i n t h e N ihewan B a s in ) w a s e xcava t ed i n 1 990 b y e mp loy ing a g r id a nd r e co rd ing t h e h o r izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f f o ss i ls a nd a r tef a c t s (We i Q i p e r s . c omm ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he v a l id i ty o f a c h rono typo log ica l a pp roach h a s t o s ome e x ten t b een c a l led i n to q ue s t ion ( J ia 1 980 :58 ; Z hang 1 985 :182 183 ; H uang 1 985 ) . C h ronome t r ic d a t ing m e thods s uch a s p a laeomagne t ic a nd t h e rmo lum ine scence d a t ing ( e .g . , Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; Wang 1 989 ; C hen a nd Z hang 1 991 ; P ope 1 992b :246 -247 ; O lsen 1 987a ) a nd mu l t id isc ip l ina ry s t ud ie s s i nce t h e l a te 1 970 's ( O lsen 1 987a ) , e spec ia l ly t h ec o r re la t ion o ft h e l o e s s p a laeo so l a nd t h e ma r ine o xygen iso tope s e quence s a r e i n c rea s ing ly e mp loyed t o e s tab l ish a mo re r e l iab le c hrono logy o f P le is tocene l o ca l i t ie s ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :e .g . , 3 6 ; Q i 1 989 ; P ope 1 992b :246 -247 ; a nd s e e Wu a nd L in 1 985 ) , a nd h ave a l so b ecome i mpo r tan t f o r p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l r e con s t ruc t ions ( e .g . , L iu e t a l . 1 985 :e .g . , 4 5 ; K uk la 1 987 ; P ope 1 992b :247 ; P o r te r e t a l . 1 992 ) . H oweve r , t h ese t e chn ique s h ave n o t r e so lved t h e a g e o fs ome o ft h e mos t i mpo r tan t l o ca l i t ie s , a nd s pec if ica l ly o f t h o se w i th e v idence o f r e depo s i t ion , i n c lud ing D a l i ( c f . , Wang e ta l . 1 979 ; Wu a nd Wu 1 985 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ; P ope 1 992b :270 ; K ea te s i np re s s , b ) . T he l a s tt wo d ecade s h ave s e en t h e i n i t ia t ion o f C h ine se a n d We s te rn c o -ope ra t ive r e sea r ch a s ar e su l t o f C h ina 's " Op en d oo r " p o l icy . T h is h as m ade s t ud ie s o f l i th ic a nd f a una l c o l lec t ions ( Howe l ls a nd T such i tan i 1 977 ; B info rd a nd H o 1 985 ; B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 ; C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 ; P ope e ta l . 1 990 ) , a nd i n s ome c a se s e xcava t ions ( O lsen 1 987a ; H uang e ta l . 1 988 ; P ope e t a l . 1 990 ; S ch ick e t a l . 1 99 1) p o s s ib le . H oweve r , t h ee xpe r ience o f We s te rn r e sea rche r s h a s d emon s t ra ted t h a t i n mos tc a se so n ly s e lec ted s pec imens , a n d n o t w ho le l i th ic o r f o ss i l a s semb lage s a r e a va i lab le f o r s t udy , mak ing d e ta i led a na lyse s i mposs ib le ( F r eeman 1 977 :108 ; Worm ing ton 1 977 ; A igne r 1 981 :3 ; B info rd a n d S tone 1 986 :455 ; a nd s e e I kawa -Sm i th 1 983 ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . A cce ss t o a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s i s a l so d i ff icu l t b ecau se t h e se a r e f r equen t ly d i sp e r sed i n mu seum s , t h e l o ca t ion o fw h ich i si ns ome c a se s n o t k nown (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . F u r the rmo re , much o f t h e v o lum inous b ody o f C h ine se r e sea rch r epo r t s r ema ins u n t ran s la ted ( pe r s . o b se rv . ; O lsen a nd M i l le r -An ton io 1 992 :129 ) .

1a s semb lage f o r w h ich B reu i l ( 1935 :744 )3 c o ined t h e t e rm " Choukou t ien ian" t o e mpha s ise t h e d i f f e rence s o f t h e se a r tef a c t s t o E u ropean o ne s . D e T e r ra ( 1936 :293 ) i n te rp re ted t h e L oca l i ty 1 a s semb lage a s a n " . . .a typ ica l ' i n du s t ry i n r e ga rd t o i t s t y po log ic r e la t ions w i th E u ropean s t anda rd s" b ecau se o f " . . . the a b sence o f b i f ace s a nd . t h e i n d igenou s " . . .eme rgence o f ac o r e -f lake i n du s t ry o f v e ry p r im i t ive o r ig in ." , a nd B lack e ta l . ( 1933 :133 ) w r i te , " I n av e ry b r oad s ense , t h e C houkou t ien c u l tu re c ou ld b e d ef ined a s a n i n dus t ry o f o l d p a laeo l i th ic t ype , s how ing s ome e x te rna l Mous te r ian a na log ie s ." T he y ounge r a r tef ac t s f r om t h e L a te P le is tocene S hu idonggou s i te i n t h e O rdo s ( N ingx ia ) w e re t h ough t t o r e semb le t h e l a te Mous te r ian /ea r ly A u r igna c ian ( Te i lha rd a nd L icen t 1 924 ; B reu i l 1 927 :e .g . , 1 08 , 10 ; A nde r sson 1 934 :153 ; B o rde s 1 978 ; F ig . 1 ) . I th a s l o ng b e en r e cogn ised t h a t t h e c onse rva t ive a nd u sua l ly a mo rphou s mo rpho logy o f C h ine se a r tef ac t s i mpose s d i f f icu l t ie s i n t ypo log ica l d a t ing ( Te i lha rd 1 941 :68 , F ig . 3 5 ) , a nd i n d ef in ing af o rma l ised l i th ic c l a ss if ica t ion , p a r t icu la r ly w i th r e ga rd t ot oo ls ( e .g . , B lack e ta l . 1 933 :119 ; A igne r 1 981 :3 ; Z hang 1 985 :183 ) . A cco rd ing t o A igne r ( 1981 :3 ) t h e c ompa r ison t oE u ropean a s semb lage s w a s " abandoned i n t h e 1 930 's" ( A igne r 1 981 :3 ) , b u t s ome C h ine se a u tho r s s t i l l f i nd t h is au sefu l me thodo logy ( s ee , e . g . , P e i 1 965 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 985a ; H uang 1 987 ; a nd s ee B ra idwood 1 947 ) . E a r ly w o rke r s i n t roduced t h e i d ea o f a" cu l tu re t y pe" ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :354 ; s ee J i a a nd H uang 1 985b :259 ) , a nd t h e c oncep t o f " . . . th ree d i f f e ren t a nd s ha rp ly s e pa ra ted c u l tura l b l ock s . . . ." o f C h ine se p reh is to ry ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :141 , F ig . 8 2 4) .A cco rd ing t o t h e c u r ren t c oncep t o f C h ine se a r chaeo logy , t h e P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s o f n o r the rn C h ina c ons t i tu te t wo c u l tura l t r ad i t ions ( bu t s e e b e low ) w h ich a r e t hough t t o r e p re sen t d i f f e ren t t e chno log ie s , a nd r e f lec t f r om t h e o l de s t t o t h e y ounge s t ag r adua l c hange ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 972 ; J i a 1 980 :58 -59 ; Z hang 1 990 ) . T h is s e quence o f i n du s t r ie s o r c u l tu re s s eeks t o e xp la in t h e t wo d i f f e ren t t e chno log ica l c omp lexe s i n w h ich e i the r l a rge o r s ma l l a r tef ac t s a r e d i agno s t ic a nd r e p re sen ta t ive o f d i s t inc t a nd i n dependen t ly d eve loped c u l tu re s( bu ts e eb e low ) t h ough t t o r e p re sen t a nce s t ra l -de scendan t r e la t ionsh ip s ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 972 ; J i a 1 980 :59 ) . T he se c u l tu res a r e k nown a s t h e " Kehe a nd L an t ian -S anmenx ia -D ingcun C u l ture T rad i t ion" o r " l a rge t oo l t r ad i t ion" , a nd t h e " Donggu tuo - Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1-X u j iayao -S j a r ra -o sso -go l [ Sa lawu su ] -S h iyu -

O ne o f t h e mo s t c omp rehens ive a nd c r i t ica l a na lyse s o f C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i s A igne r 's ( 1 98 1) monog raph wh ich a l so c on s ide r s t h e p a laeoeco log ica l b ackg round o ft h is r eg ion . A r t ic le s i n Wu a nd O lsen ( 1 985 ) a nd Wu e t a l . ( 1989 ) c on ta in mo re r e cen t d i scuss ion s o n n ew ly d i scove red l o ca l i t ie s a s w e l l a s r e eva lua t ion s o f p rev iou s ly e xcava ted ma te r ia ls . H oweve r , n o s ub s tan t ive c r i t ica l e va lua t ion o f t h e C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic i s y e t a va i lab le ; t h is wo rk s eek s t o make ac on t r ibu t ion t o ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h eP a laeo l i th ic . 1. 2 Theoret ica l o r ientat ions i ndus tr ies a nd f ac ies

s t ud ie s w e re s t rong ly i nf luenced b y E u ropean p e rcep t ion s o f t e chno log ica l a nd f a una l e vo lu t ion , a nd a t temp t s w e re m ade t ou nde r s tand t h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween C h ine se a nd E u ropean a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty ( B reu i l 1 927 ; L icen t a nd T e i lha rd 1 925 :232 -234 ; T e i lha rd 1 941 :60 , 6 3 , 8 6 -89 ; T e i lha rd a n d L icen t 1 924 ; P e i 1 937 , 1 939a c on t ra P e i 1 965 ; B ra idwood 1 947 ) . T he m e thodo logy o f u s ing E u ropean a s semb lage s a s t h e s t anda rd w a s n o t a lways s ucce s sfu l o w ing t o t e chno log ica l a nd t empo ra l d i f f e r ence s b e tween C h ine se a n d E u ropean a s semb lage s ( e .g . , L icen t a nd T e i lha rd 1 925 :e .g . , 2 10 ; B reu i l 1 935 ; P e i 1 937 , 1 939a ; Mov ius 1 944 :76 , 1 02 , 1 06 ; T e i lha rd 1 94 1 :89 ; a nd s e e O lsen 1 987b ) . T h is i s d emons t ra ted b y i n te rp re ta t ions o f t h e Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty

3

t rad it ions ,

4,

C houkou t ien . . . i l s ' ag i td 'une i ndus t r ie d i f f f d ren te d e

t o u tc e la . . . ." ( Breu i l 1 935 :744 ) . 4

T he ma te r ia l e v idence o f t h e C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic h a s t r ad i t iona l ly b een e xam ined i n t e rm s o f c u l tu ra l r e la t ionsh ips . I n t h e e a r ly p e r iod o f r e sea r ch , P a laeo l i th ic

" ...(a )

A n te -Loe s s ic , . . .rep re sen t ing t h eo l d

P a laeo l i th ic ( t he C houkou t ien c u l tu re ) . . . ; ( b ) L oe ss ic , . . .rep re sen t ing t h e u ppe rP a laeo l i th ic , . . . ; ( c ) P o s t L oe s s ic , . . . Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic . . ." .

4

X iaonanha i C u l tu re T rad i t ion" o r " sma l l t oo l t r ad i t ion" ( J ia a nd Huang 1 985b ; J i a 1 980 :58 -59 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 972 ; C h ia a nd We i 1 976 ; We i 1 981 ; Z hou a nd Wang 1 991 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :277 ; P ope 1 982 :169 , 1 988b :68 ; Y i a nd C la rk 1 983 ; F ig s . 1 ,2 ) . I n t h e L a te P a laeo l i th ic a t h i rd t r ad i t ion m ay h ave d eve loped ( J ia a nd H uang 1 985b ) . T he l a rge t o o l t r ad i t ion i s c ha ra c te r i sed ma in ly b y h eavy t r i angu la r p o in t s , c hopp ing too ls , a nd s phe r ica l s t one s , w h i le t h e s ma l l t oo l t r ad i t ion l a ck s l a rge t o o ls s uch a s t h e h eavy p o in t sa nd i st hough to fa sa n i n c rea s ing t e chno log ica l r e f inemen to fs ma l l f l ake t oo l manuf ac tu re w h ich i ss e en a s t h e p recu r so r o f m icro l i th ic t oo ls ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 972 ; J i a 1 980 :59 -60 ; We i 1 981 ; G a i 1 985 , 1 991 ; H uang 1 987 ; J i a a nd Huang 1 985b , 1 990 :238 ) . T he p l ace o f t h e l a rge t o o l t r ad i t ion a ppea r st ob e o f s e condar y i mpo r tance . L a rge t o o ls a r e i n te rp re ted a s s ub -s tanda rd ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 972 ; J i a 1 980 :58 ) , a nd d u r ing t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r e t hough t t o h ave d ec l ined i n f r equency a nd c omp lex i ty b ecau se o f t h e g r ea te r e f f ic iency o f " t a sk -spec if ic" s ma l le r t oo ls ( Zhang 1 985 :184 ) . T he d i scove ry o f n ew ma te r ia ls , s uch a s t h e s phe ro ids a t Xu j iayao ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 979 ) , c l a s s if ied a s a s ma l l t oo l l o ca l i ty , a nd t h e p re sence o f t h e se a r te f a c t s a t D ingcun ,r ep resen ta t ive o ft h el a rge t o o l t r ad i t ion , h a s g i ven c au se t o v i ew t h e se c u l tu re s a s p oss ib ly p a r t ly i n te r d ependen t ( J ia a nd H uang 1 985b ; J i a 1 980 :59 ; We i 1 981 ; a nd s ee b e low ) . O the r , l o ca l t r ad i t ions h ave a l so b e en r e cogn i sed ( J ia a nd Huang 1 985b ; G a i a nd H uang 1 982 i n Q iu 1 985 :196 -197 ) . T he a r tefa c tua l ma te r ia ls f r om s ou the rn C h ina s e em t o b e l e ss amenab le i nt e rm so fc u l tu ra l a f f in i t ie s , a nd a ppea rt ob e v i ewed a sn on -con t inuou sc ompa red t ot h e " . . . l ineage o ft h e P a leo l i th ic c u l tu re s . . . in n o r th C h ina ." ( J ia 1 980 :59 ; s e e a l so J i a a nd Huang 1 985b , F ig . 1 4 .1 ; F ig . 2 ) . T he a s semb lage s o f t h is r eg ion a r e g ene ra l ly i n te rp re ted a s l e s s a dvan c ed c h ie f ly b ecau se t h ey a r e c on s ide r ed u n soph i s t ica ted i n t h e i r mod if ica t ion a nd b ecau se t h ey d o n o t c on ta in t h e r a nge o f a r tefac t sf ound i nt h e No r th , e spec ia l ly w hen c ompa r ed w i th Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 , r e ga rded a s t h e s t anda rd C h ine se a s semb lage ( J ia 1 980 :58 5 ;We i 1 981 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 985b ; Z hang 1 985 :183 , 1 990 ) . T h is n o r th -sou th d i s t inc t ion s e em s t os t em f r om a n h i s to r ica l b i a s i n w h ich t h e c on t r ibu t ion o f t h e s ou the rn r eg ions t o C h ine se c i v i l isa t ion a r e v i ewed a s r a the r n eg l ig ib le ( T r igge r 1 990 :177 ) wh ich may t o s ome e x ten t e xp la in t h e s ma l le r s ca le o f i nve s t iga t ions h e re . H oweve r , t h e r e cen t d i scove ry o f s ome a s semb lage s i n t h e S ou th may c on t rad ic tt h is v i ew ( s ee We i e ta l . 1 984 ; H uang 1 987 ) , e spec ia l ly t h e a r tef ac t s r e cove r ed f r om t h e G uany indong c ave ( Gu izhou p rov ince ) wh ich h a s l e d Z hang ( 1985 :177 , 1 83 ) t oi d en t ify t h e s ma l l f l ake t oo l a s semb lage s o ft h e " Ea r ly S tage G uany indong C u l tu re" ( La te P l e is tocene ; Wang [ 1989 ]) a nd o f L oca l i ty 1 a s r e g iona l v a r ian t s ( n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn ) o f a s ha red L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t r ad i t ion .

a sm a rg ina l , a nd f r equen t ly o b l ique c ons ide ra t ions ( s ee , e .g . , J i a 1 980 :28 ; We i 1 981 ; Z hang 1 985 ; Q iu 1 985 ; b u t s ee You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . R ecen t ly , h oweve r , J i a a nd Huang ( 1985b ) h ave a r gued t h a t r eg iona l p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s may a l so a ccoun t f o r a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty . T he a ppa ren t d i cho tomy b e tween t h e se t r ad i t ion s may t o s ome e x ten tr ef lec t ab i a s i nc o l lec t ing e i the rf l ake o r c o re a r tef ac t s ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) , s t ream s o r t ing , a nd I kawa -Sm i th ( 1978 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e f r equen t c o l lec t ion f r om d e r iv ed c on tex t s may e xp la in t h e a ppa ren t p redom inance o f c hoppe r c hopp ing too ls i n t h e F a r E a s t . T he se c l a ss if ica t ions may a l so b eh i gh ly s imp l if ied i n te rp re ta t ions o f" t he t empo ra l a nd mo rpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty" o f l i th ic a s semb lages ( Pope 1 988b :68 ) , r a the rt h an ar ef lec t ion o f t h e r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f a r tef ac t c a tego r ie s o r o f t h e p r e sumed v i s ib i l i ty o f " cu l tu re s" i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . F u r the rmo re , t h e r e l iance o na nd a ccep tance o ft h e t r ad i t ion mode l may h i nde r d e ta i led e xam ina t ions o f a s semb lage s , i n c lud ing d eb i tage . T he p rob lem o f t h is me thodo logy i s a l so a ppa ren t w hen s ma l lo rl a rge t o o ls a r er e cove red f r om s i te sw h ich h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o e i the r t h e l a rge o r s ma l l t oo l t r ad i t ions a r e s ub sumed i n o ne t r ad i t ion , f o r e xamp le , a tD ingcun (Wang J i an p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ; K ea te s i n p re ss , c ;F ig . 1 ) . T he i d en t if ica t ion o fo the r l o ca l t r ad i t ion s s ugge s t s t ha t t h is f r amewo rk i s t oo g ene ra l a nd s imp l is t ic t o e xp la in t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f a s semb lage s w h ich d o n o t s e em t o ' f i t ' ( a nd s ee O lsen 1 987b ) . C h ine se a r chaeo log is t s r e cogn i se a s e quence o f L owe r , M idd le , a nd Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic i ndus t r ie s b a sed l a rge ly o n l i tho log ic , b io s t ra t ig raph ic , a nd t ypo log ic c r i te r ia ( e .g . , C h ia e ta l . 1 972 ; I .V .P .P . 1 980 :60 ; C hang 1 987 ; J i a 1 985 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 985b ; Z hang 1 985 , 1 989 , 1 990 ; Q iu 1 985 ; T ab le 1 ) , a n a pp roach a dop ted f r om t h e m e thodo log ie s e mp loyed i nt h ee a r ly d ecade so fr e sea r ch ( s ee , e . g . , B lack e t a l . 1 933 :50 -51 ; D e T e r ra 1 936 ) . R ecen t n on -Ch ine se w o rke r s c ons ide r t h e c l a ss if ica t ion o f C h ine se a s semb lage s i n to a s ucce ss ion o f P a laeo l i th ic i n dus t r ie s a s E u rocen t r ic a nd p o ss ib ly i n app rop r ia te f o r n o r the rn ( Y i a nd C la rk 1 983 ; A igne r 1 983 ; Wa tanabe 1 985 ; P ope 1 989a ) a nd s ou the rn ( O lsen a nd M i l le r -An ton io 1 992 :130 ) C h ina . A g eoch rono log ica l t e rm ino logy , i . e . E a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te P le is tocene s eem s ( O lsen a nd M i l le r -An ton io 1 992 :130 ) a t l e a s ta tt h ep re sen ts t a te o fr e sea rch , t ob e mo re a pp rop r ia te . T oo l a s semb lage s a r e i n te rp re ted w i th in a f r amewo rk o f i n d igenous c u l tu ra l a nd h om in id mo rpho log ica lc hange ( e .g . , P e i 1 965 ; C h ia 1 975 :20 -23 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 3 2 , 3 6 -37 , 4 4 , 5 1 , J i a 1 980 :58 -59 ; J i a a nd Huang 1 985b ; Z hang 1 985 ) . T he P a laeo l i th ic r e co rd i s c ha ra c te r i sed b y t h e a ppa ren t ly l i nea r a nd p rog re ss ive e vo lu t ion o fh om in id mo rpho logy 6 ,r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion , i n c rea s ing c omp lex i ty a nd d i ve r s i ty o f l i th ic t e chn ique s , h un t ing t e chn ique s , a nd t h e u se a nd e ven tua l a b i l i ty t o c on t ro l f i re ( Ch ia 1 975 :20 , 3 3 -37 , 4 4 , J i a 1 980 :58 -59 ; Z hang 1 985 :183 -184 , 1 989 :156 -158 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 985a ; I .V .P .P . 1 980 :2 , 4 , 6 0 , 1 00 ) . T he f r equency o f f l ake t oo ls i s b e l ieved t o h ave i n c r ea sed s ub s tan t ia l ly t h rough t h eP a laeo l i th ic c ompa red t oc o re t oo l s ( Ch ia 1 960 ; Z hang 1 985 :183 , 1 989 :157 ; a nd s e e Q iu 1 985 :208 ) , a nd t oo ls a r e t hough t t o h ave b ecome i n c rea s ing ly s t anda rd i sed , s ma l le r , a nd s pec ia l ised ( e .g . , I .V .P .P . 1 980 :4 , 6 0 ; Z hang 1 985 :183 -184 ) . O ne o f t h e c once rn s o f t h is w o rk i s t o

T he c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion mode l empha s ise s s t y l is t ic f e a tu r e s ( v a r ia t ion s i n mo rpho logy a nd manufac tu r ing t e chn ique s ) b a sed o nc u l tu ra l ly c ond i t ioned v a r ia t ion s , w h i le f a c to r s n ow p e r t inen t i n We s te rn a na lyse s s uch a s r aw m a t e r ia l a va i lab i l i ty , p a laeoeco logy , a nd a c t iv i ty f a c ie s a s s ugge s ted b y n on -Ch inese a u tho r s ( A igne r 1 981 :e .g . , 7 4 -77 , 2 35 -237 , 2 77 ; P ope 1 982 :169 , 1 79 -194 , 1 988b :68 , 1 989a ) a r e t r ea ted

6 5 "As

t h e s ou the rn a r t if ac t sa r ef ew i nt y pe sa nd c r ude i n

H om in id e vo lu t ion i st h ough tt oh ave o ccu r red i n

t h ree ma jo rs t age s ( "Aus tra lop i thecus ,H omo e r ec tu sa nd Homo s ap iens" ) ( Ch ia 1 975 :20 ; I .V .P .P . 1 980 :4 , 6 0 , 1 00 ) .

w o rkmansh ip , t h ey h a rd ly f o rm a na dequa te b a s i sf o rd a t ing ."

5

w o r ld l a cked t h e s t imu lus t o a dap t t e chno logy t o t h e i r e conom ic n eed s , a nd i t a s sumes t ha t o n ly s t anda rd i s ed t e chno log ie sp roduc ing s ymme t r ica l ( and d i agno s t ic )a r tef ac t s s uch a s A cheu lean h andaxe s a nd Mou s te r ian p r epa r ed c o r e a r te f ac t sw i th al a rge v a r ie ty o fd ef inab le t ypes w e re a dap t ive

e xam ine r e g iona l a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty i nn o r the rn C h ina . 1 . 3

T he Mov ius L ine

T he Mov iu s L ine ( c o ined b y C oon 1 966 :48 ) d e sc r ibe s a g eog raph ic a nd c u l tu ra lb o rde rb e tween t h eA cheu lean a nd t h e c hoppe r c hopp ing too l c omp lex r eg ions o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a s p e r ce ived b y Mov iu s ( 1943 :376 -378 , 1 944 :10 1 , F ig . 4 4 , 1 949 :408 -411 , Map 4 ; F igs . 3 , 4 ) . Mov iu s ' ( 1 944 :104 -106 , 1 949 :330 , 1 943 :374 -378 ) a na ly se s o fa r te f a c t c o l lec t ions f r om t h e F a r E a s t d u r ing t h e 1 930 's w a s c a r r ied o u t i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e e vo lu t iona ry h i s to ry o f t h e F a r E a s te rn P a laeo l i th ic . W i th in t h is f r amewo rk t h e F a r E a s te rn a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w a s e va lua t ed i n t h e l i gh t o f We s te rn e v idence a nd l e d t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e F a r E a s t w a s l a rge ly l a ck ing i n t h e s t anda rd i sed a r tef ac t s , i n p a r t icu la r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s ( Acheu l ian )k nown f r om mo s tA f r ican ,E u ropean , a nd S ou th A s ian r e g ion s ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e E a r ly S oan , P un jab ) a nd c omp r is ing ma in ly c hoppe r c hopp ing too l s ( Mov iu s 1 943 :376 -378 , 1 944 :101 , 1 03 -104 , 1 949 :408 -411) . T he s uppo sed ly M idd le P le is tocene c hoppe r c hopp ing too l a s semb lage s -t h e Anya th ian o f B urma , t h e S oan o f I nd ia , t h e F ingnoan o f T ha i land , t h e T ampan ian o f Ma laya , t h e P a t j i tan ian o f J ava , a nd t h e C houkou t ien ian o f n o r the rn C h ina -w e re a s se s sed a nd c o r re la ted w i th in a c h rono log ica l a nd t y po log ica l f r amewo rk (Mov ius 1 944 :e .g . , 9 7 -100 , T ab le I I , 1 949 :e .g . , 3 30 -331 , 4 07 -411 , 1 943 :343 -347 ) . C o l labo ra t ive w o rk o n t h e r e la t ive d a t ing o f t h e g eo log ica l ( e .g . , r i ve r t e r ra ce s t ra t ig raphy ) a nd b io s t ra t ig raph ica l c on tex t s o f t h e r e spec t ive r eg ions w a s u nde r taken b y g eo log is t s a nd p a laeon to log is t s ( s ee , e . g . , B a rbou r 1 924 ; B a rbou re ta l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd L icen t 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 ; D e T e r ra 1 936 ; Mov iu s 1 949 ; a nd s e e P e i 1 965 ) . A l though a s sump t ions m ade b y t h e se w o rke r s a nd t h e me thodo log ie s emp loyed ( e .g . , g l ac ia l /p luv ia l s t age s a nd f auna l b ounda ry ma rke r s ) h ave b een c on s ide red p rema tu re ( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :59 w i th r e g a rd t o n o r the rn C h ina ) o r r e jec ted ( Pope 1 983 ) , i t s hou ld b e u nde r s tood t h a tt h ey w e re u sed p r io r t o t h e t ime w hen mo re e xac t d a t ing me thod s ( e .g . , p a laeomagne t ic c h rono logy ) b ecame a va i lab le .

a nd

4 11 7 ;a nd s e eT e i lha rd 1 941 :60 , 8 6 ; v an H eeke ren 1 972 :76 7 7 ; S i evek ing 1 960 ; Wa tanabe 1 985 ; c on tra Mengh in [ 1 937 ] r ega rd ing C h ina ) . T he se c onc lus ions w e re a ccep ted b y s ome o the r c on tempo ra ry a nd l a te r w o rke r s f am i l ia r w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls o f t h e r eg ion ( e .g . , T e i lha rd 1 941 :60 , 8 6 -87 ; C oon 1 962 :48 ; v an H eeke ren 1 972 :76 -77 ; S ievek ing 1 960 ; a nd s e e H a r r ison 1 978 ; P ope a nd K ea te s 1 994 ) . T he t h eo ry i mp l ie s t ha t h om in ids i n t h is p a r t o f t h e

"

I n

S ievek ing

( 1960 :10 1)

p e r ce ived

t h e

I n r e cen t d ecade s t h e r e sea rch p e r spec t ive o n F a r E a s te rn l i th ic t e chno logy h a s c hanged a nd a n umbe r o f w o rke r s ( Mu lvaney 1 970 ; Wh i te 1 977 ; H a r r ison 1 978 ; Y i a nd C la rk 1 983 ; P ope 1 983 , 1 985 , 1 988b :63 -65 ; Z hang 1 985 :184 ) h ave f o und t ha t t h e e a r l ie r c onc lus ions r e qu i re r e eva lua t ion . I th a sa l so b een p o in ted o u t t h a t f l ake a r tef ac t s a r e g ene r a l ly d eempha s ised i n Mov ius ' ( 1944 , 1 949 ) d ocumen ta t ion i n s p i te o f t h e i r a s soc ia t ion w i th c o re a r t ef a c t s ( I kawa -Sm i th 1 978 ; Mu lvaney 1 970 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :184 ) r e jec t s b o th Mov iu s ' ( 1949 :402 )c ha rac te r isa t ion o f C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s a s l a rge ly r e p r e sen ted b y c hoppe r s , b ecau se t h e m a jo r i ty o f t oo ls a r e s ma l l f l ake t oo ls , a nd a l so T e i lha rd 's ( 194 1 :86 ) i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e C h ine se L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a s " . . .mono tonous a nd n on -p rog re ss ive . . ." . T he c l a im t h a t h andaxe s a r e a b sen t i n t h e C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic ( Mov iu s 1 944 :101 , 1 949 :408 ) h a s b een r e jec ted ( Ch ia 1 956 ; Y i a n d C la rk 1 983 ; Z hang 1 985 :184 ; Huang 1 987 , 1 990 ) , a nd i t h a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h is s imp l if ie s a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty ( Huang 1 987 ) . S ome C h ine se w o rke r s r e cogn i se t h e se a r tef ac t s a s e v idence o f a dvanced h om in id b ehav iou r ( Huang 1 987 ; H uang a nd Q i 1 987 ) . Howeve r , h andaxe s a r e e x t reme ly r a re i n C h ina ( Pope 1 982 :179 ; K ea te s 1 994 ; a n d s e e Z hang 1 985 :183 , 1 84 , 1 989 :157 ; H uang 1 987 , 1 990 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ; A n 1 990 ) , a nd n o e v idence o f A cheu lean a s semb lage s h a sb een r e cove red ( Zhang 1 985 :183 , 1 989 :157 ; P ope 1 988b :64 ; a nd s e e P e i 1 965 ; A igne r 1 981) . R ecen t a u tho r sh ave n o ted " . . .the i n fo rma l i ty o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic i n C h ina . . . ." ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 :445 ; C la rk a nd S ch ick p e r s . c omm . i nP ope 1 988b :65 ) .

C u l tu re a sr e f lec ted i nt h el i th ic a s semb lage s w a s r e ga rded a s i n c rea s ing i nc omp lex i ty w e s to ft h e Mov ius l i ne , w h i le t h e F a r E a s te rn r e co rd s ugge s ted a c on se rva t ive a nd " non p rog re s s ive" q ua l i ty w i th i t s a ppa ren t ly u n ifo rm a nd u nspec ia l i sed c o re a r tef ac t s (Mov ius 1 944 :101 , 1 949 :408 ,

7

a dvanced .8

c onse rva t ive a nd " . . .re la t ive ly u nd if f e ren t ia ted p ebb le a n d f l ake c u l tu re s . . ." o f t h e F a r E a s t a s e v idence o f as t ab le p a laeoenv ironmen tt h a t i nh ib i ted a ny t e chno log ica l p rog re s s w i th c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions d u r ing t h e P le is tocene e f f ec t ive ly i s o la t ing t h is r eg ion a nd t hus p reven t ing t h e i n t roduc t ion o f h andaxe t e chno logy f r om t h e " . . .Eu ra f r ican c u l tu re p rov ince ." ( s ee a l so v an H eeke ren a nd K nu th 1 967 :111) . T e i lha rd ( 1941 :60 , 8 7 -88 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i n d ica ted t h a t t h e F a r E a s t w a s " a q u ie t a n d c on se rva t ive c o rne r a m id s t t h e f a s t a dvanc ing h uman w o r ld" a nd a n" i so la ted a nd s e lf -suf f ic ien t a r ea , c l o sed t o a ny m a jo r h uman m ig ra to ry w ave" . Mov ius ( 1944 :101) b e l ieved t h a t t h eq ua l i ty o f r aw ma te r ia l o n ly i n s ign if ican t ly , o r t o s ome e x ten t a ppea r ed t o h ave i n f luenced t e chno logy ( Mov iu s 1 949 :408 ) , n o rt h a t i ta c coun ted f o r t h e l a ck o f h andaxe s i n C h ina (Mov ius 1 944 :101 , 1 949 :408 ) . H e ( Mov iu s 1 978 :352 ) l a te r t h ough t t h a t ma te r ia l " l im i ta t ion s a n d i nf luence s" o n t oo l mo rpho logy w e re s ubs tan t ia l .

1 . 4

P a laeoeco log ica l

i n terpreta t ions

D u r ing t he e a r ly , a nd t o al e sse r e x ten t r e cen t p e r iod s o f P a laeo l i th ic r e sea r ch i n C h ina , r e cons t ruc t ion s o f

o t he rw o rd s , t h ea r chaeo log ica l ,o rp a laeo -

e t hno log ica l , ma te r ia l v e ry d ef in i te ly i n d ica te st h a ta se a r ly a sL owe rP a laeo l i th ic t ime s S ou the rn a nd E a s te rn A s ia a sa who le w a s ar e g ion o fc u l tu ra lr e ta rda t ion .T he refo re , i t s eems v e ry u n l ike ly t h a tt h is v a s ta r ea c ou ld e ve rh ave p layed av i ta l a nd d ynam ic r o le i ne a r ly h uman e vo lu t ion , a l though v e ry p r im i t ive f o rms o fE a r ly Man a ppa ren t ly p e r s is ted t h e re l o ng a f te rt y pe sa t ac ompa rab le s t age o f p hys ica le vo lu t ion h ad b ecome e x t inc te l sewhe re ."

8

Av i ew s t i l l h e ld b y s ome a u tho r s , s ee , e . g . , R enf rew

a nd B ahn ( 1991 :384 ) w ho r e a son t h a t" The i n c rea s ing a bundance a nd p e rf ec t ion o ff o rm o ft h eA cheu lean h andaxe , o ra n i n c rea se i nt h e n umbe ro ft o o l c a tego r ie s , m igh ti mp ly a ne l eva t ion i ni n te l lec tua l -a nd t h e refo re l a nguage c apa c i ty ."

6

p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions w e re t o as i gn if ican t e x ten t g u ided b yt h e t h eo ry o f ag l ac ia l c l ima te a nd w e re g ene ra l ly t h ough tt oh ave b een i nf luenced b y s im i la r c l ima t ic c hange s d u r ing t h e P l e is tocene a s o t he r n on -Ch ine se r e g ion s ( e .g . , L ee 1 922 , 1 933 -34a , b , 1 947 ; P e i 1 939a , b u t s e e P e i 1 965 ; Mov iu s 1 944 : 4 9 , 5 8 , 7 0 , T ab le I I , 1 949 :343 -344 ; a nd s e e B lack e t a t . 1 933 :59 ; A igne r 1 981 :24 -27 ) . E a r ly w o rke r s ( e .g . ,B lack e ta t . 1 933 :49 -52 , F ig . 8 2 ; P e i 1 939a ; Mov ius 1 949 :e .g . , 3 89 -390 ;T e i lha rd 1 941) w e re p r ima r i ly c once rned w i th b u i ld ing a f r amewo rk i n w h ich t h e d eve lopmen t o f f a una l a nd l i th ic e l emen t s c ou ld b e u nde r s tood u t i l is ing t h e p e r ce ived c l ima t ic c hange s a s d edu ced f r om s e d imen ta ry a nd b i o s t ra t ig raph ic v a r ia t ion s a s c h rono log ica l ma rke r s . T he p a laeoenv i ronmen t w a s n o t e x tens ive ly t r ea ted a s a c on t r ibu t ing f a c to r i n h om in id e vo lu t ion a nd a dap ta t ion b y mos t e a r ly w o rke r s a nd c u r ren t C h ine se a r chaeo log is t s . D e T e r ra ( 1936 ) s ugge s ted ac o r re la t ion b e tween t h e e me rgence o fh uman c u l tu re a nd h un t ing a nd t h e a b i l i ty o f h om in id s t o a dap t t o c hang ing e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions i n t h e M idd le P le is tocene , a nd Mov ius ( 1944 :108 ) a r gued t h a t " env i ronmen ta lf a c to r s" c ons t i tu te o ne i mpo r tan t v a r iab le o f e xp la in ing a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty ( a nd s e eS i evek ing 1 960 ) . I n t h e l a s t t wo d e cade s mo re s oph is t ica ted t e chn ique s f o r p a laeoenv i ronmen ta lr e con s t ruc t ion h ave b een u t i l i sed . T he se i n c lude s t ud ie s o f t h e L uochuan l o e ss d epo s i t s ( Shaanx i p rov ince ) a nd t h e c o r re la t ion o f v a r iou s d epo s i t s , s uch a s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 t o t h e o xygen iso tope s e quence ( e .g . , L iu 1 985 ) . P a lyno log ica l d a ta i s , h oweve r , s t i l l l im i ted ( A igne r 1 983 , 1 981 :2 , 1 6 , 2 4 -25 , 3 4 ; L iu 1 988 ) . T he r e su l t s o f p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l r e sea r ch a r e , h oweve r , ma in ly u s ed f o r t h e d a t ing o f l o ca l i t ie s a nd a r e g ene ra l ly p e r ce ived b y o n ly f ew a r chaeo log is t s a s i mpo r tan t f o r d eve lop ing t h eo r ie sf o r r e con s t ruc t ion s o fh om in id a c t iv i t ie s ( A igne r 1 978a :221-222 , 2 24 , 1 981 :e .g . , 2 37 , 2 77 -278 ; P ope 1 988b :64 -65 , 1 989a ) i n c on t ra s t t o many We s te rn s t ud ie s ( s ee , e . g . , P o t t s 1 988 :e .g . , 5 , 1 91-192 ; I s aa c 1 984 i n I s aa c 1 989 :168 -170 ) . A igne r 's ( 1981 :278 ) c ommen t , " Fo r t h e mos t p a r t , w e l a ck a dequa t e d a ta f o r p ro jec t ing mode ls o f l a nd u se a nd s e t t lemen t -exp lo i ta t ion s y s tems ." i s s t i l l r e levan t . F oss i l f l o ra l a nd f a una l e v idence s a r e t h ough t t o s ugge s t p ronounced f l uc tua t ions i n t h e e x ten t o f v ege ta t iona l c ove r ( s teppe e nv i ronmen t s d u r ing c o ld o r ' g lac ia l ' a nd f o re s t h ab i ta t s d u r ing w a rm o r ' i n te rg lac ia l ' p e r iod s ) i n mo s t o f n o r the rn C h ina d u r ing t h e P le is tocene ( e .g . , A igne r 1 981 :269 -270 , 2 74 ; L iu e ta t . 1 985 :87 , 9 1-92 ) . I n c on t ra s t t ot h ep redom inan t ly f o re s t a dap ted f a una o f s ou the rn C h ina ( a nd S ou thea s t A s ia ) , t h e l a rge ly n on t rop ica l n o r the rn C h ine se f a unae i n c lude o pen -adap t ed s pec ie s a nd i n d ica te a mo re o pen P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t a s soc ia ted w i th i n subs tan t ia l f aun is t ic c hange ( Pope 1 982 :189 , 1 983 , 1 988b :56 ) . A igne r ( 1976 , 1 978a :223 -224 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :48 , 2 69 , 2 77 , 2 79 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e h om in id a nd c u l tu ra l d a ta i n d ica te t h a t C h ina w a s a n i s o la ted r eg ion d u r ing t h e P le is tocene o w ing t o g eog raph ica l b a r r ie r s ( i .e . moun ta ins a nd d e se r t s ) . As im i la r h ypo the s is h a s b een p u t f o rwa rd b y Z hou a nd Wang ( 1991 :14 ; a nd s e e Z hang 1 990 ) o n t h e b a s is o f t h e g eo log ica l , f o ss i l , a nd c u l tu ra l r e co rd s , a nd t h ey a rgue t h a tP le is tocene C h ina w a s" . . .a s em i iso la ted r eg ion . . ." whe re h uman e vo lu t ion w a s as l ow a nd s t ab le p roce s s w i th s t rong i nd igenou sc u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s c ompa r ed t o o the rr eg ions .

1 987b ) h ave s ugge s ted t h a t C h ine se a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty may b e e xp la ined b y r eg iona l p a laeoeco log ica l v a r iab i l i ty . T he g ene ra l ly a mo rphou s l i th ic t e chno logy a nd r a r i ty o f h andaxe s i n t h e F a r E a s t m ay r e f lec t as pec if ic r e sponse t o t h e f o re s ted p a laeohab i ta t s , i n vo lv ing a dap ta t iona l s h if t s ( Pope 1 988a :1109 , b :64 -65 ) , e spec ia l ly i n S ou thea s t A s ia ( Pope 1 982 :211 , 1 988b :7 1) . S t anda rd i sed l i th ic t e chno logy m ay h ave b een t h e b ehav iou ra l r e sponse t o o pen e nv ironmen t s ( Pope 1 988b :64 ) . T he u t i l isa t ion o ff i re may h ave c ons t i tu ted a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o fh om in id a dap ta t ion i n C h ina ( J ia 1 985 ) a nd i n t h e F a r E a s t a s a who le ( Pope 1 982 :189 , 1 989a ) . T he u se o f f i re b y t h e f i r s t F a r E a s ter n h om in id s e n te r ing wha t a ppea r s t o h ave b een a f o re s ted e nv i ronmen t may h ave e nab led p a s sage t h rough t h is o t he rw ise i nv ious l a nd scape ( Pope 1 982 :189 , 1 989a ) . T he b u rn ing o f f o re s t s i s c u r ren t ly s e a sona l ly emp loyed b y h un te r s i nS ou thea s tA s ia t op rov ide a ccess t o f o re s t s a nd t o i mp rove t h e v i s ib i l i ty o f p rey a n ima ls a nd a n ima l r e sou rce s ( Pope 1 982 :189 , 1 989a ; S to t t 1 988 ; s e e a l so L ekagu l a nd McNee ly 1 988 :320 , XX I I ) . F i re t e chno logy may a l so h ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n n on l i th ic ( e .g . , b amboo ) t oo l manufa c tu re ( Pope 1 989a ) .C la im sh ave b een made f o r E a r ly P le is tocene f i re u se i n C h ina ( e .g . , a tX ihoudu ; J i a [ 1 985 ] ; a nd s e e a bove ) , b u t t h e e a r l ie s t s ub s tan t ia l e v idence s t i l l a ppea r s t o b e r e p re sen ted a tt h e M idd le P le is tocene c ave o f L oca l i ty 1a tZ houkoud ian ( e .g . , B lack e ta l . 1 933 :113 -114 ; Z hang 1 985 :157 , 1 84 ) . 1 . 5

L i th ic a nd n on l i th ic i n terpretat ions

I n a n a l te rna t ive h ypo the s i s t o Mov iu s ' ( 1944 , 1 949 ) i n te rp re ta t ion t oe xp la in t h e d if e rence s i n t oo l t e chno log ie s e a s ta nd w e s to ft h e Mov iu sL ine , i np a r t icu la r t he g ene ra l ly u n s tanda rd i sed c ha ra c te r o f l i th ic a s semb lage s , an umbe r o f w o rke r s ( Go rman 1 970 , 1 971 ; v an H eeke ren 1 972 :77 , 8 2 ; v an H eeke ren a nd K nu th 1 967 :38 ; H u t te re r 1 976 , 1 977 , b u t s e e H u t te re r 1 985 ; Wh i te 1 977 ; H ayden 1 977a ; H a r r is son 1 978 ; I kawa -Sm i th 1 978 ; B o rde s 1 978 ; P ope 1 983 , 1 985 , 1 988a :1109 -1113 , b :64 -65 , 1 989a ; P ope a nd C ron in 1 984 ; a nd s e eF o rde 1 934 :17 ) h ave s ugge s ted t h a t h om in id s i n t h e F a rE a s t , a nd ma in ly i nt h ef o re s ted S ou thea s t A s ian r eg ion s e mp loyed at e chno logy b a sed p r ima r i ly o n t h e manuf ac tu re o f n on l i th ic ma te r ia l s i n to a v a r ie ty o f t oo ls a nd t h e i r m a in tenance u s ing s t one c o re s a nd f l ake s . S ome w o rke r s ( Bo rde s 1 978 ;H a r r i son 1 978 )h ave s ugge s ted al i nk b e tween t h e a ppa ren t r a r i ty o f t r ac tab le l i th ic ma te r ia ls i n S ou thea s t A s ia a nd a p r ima r i ly n on l i th ic t oo l t e chno logy . T h is a r gumen th a sb een r e jec ted ,a nd i n s tead i th a s b een s ugge s ted ( Pope 1 982 :187 , 1 983 , 1 985 , 1 989a ) t h a t b amboo w a s e xp lo i ted a s ap r ima ry r aw ma te r ia l f o r t oo ls b ecau se o f i t s v e r sa t i l i ty a nd e f f ic iency , a nd b ecau se i ti sa l so d i s t r ibu ted i n t h en o r the r ly r eg ions o ft h eF a rE a s t . T he r e cons t ruc t ion o f a ma in ly f o re s ted p a laeoenv i ronmen t i nS ou thea s tA s ia ( bu ts e eH u t te re r 1 985 )h a sp layed ama jo r r o le i n s ugge s t ing t h a t h om in id o ccupa t ion o f t h is r eg ion r e qu i r ed a r e o r ien ta t ion i n r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e A f r ican -de r ived h om in id s b a sed p r ima r i ly o n p lan t ma te r ia l s ( Pope 1 982 :186 -192 , 1 983 , 1 985 , 1 984 , 1 988a :1109 -1113 , b :63 -65 , 1 989a ) . A l though b amboo i s l e ss c ommon a nd d i ve r se i n n o r the rn C h ina t h an i n t h e mo re f a vou rab le c l ima te s o f s ou the rn C h ina a nd S ou thea s t A s ia ( Sha rma 1 980 ; S h i 1 980 ) , i t 's d i s t r ibu t ion may s ugge s t t h a t t h e a dop t ion o f an on l i th ic t o o l t e chno logy i n t he s ou the rn r e g ion s c on t inued o nce h om in id s h ad s p read t o n o r the rn C h ina ( Pope 1 982 :189 , 1 988a :1109 -1110 , b :65 , 1 989a ) . I t may a l te rna t ive ly b ea n i n d ica t ion t h a t e xp lo i ta t ion w a s l e s s

S ome a u tho r s ( A igne r 1 981 :e .g . , 2 77 -279 ; P ope 1 982 :169 , 1 71 , 1 78 -188 , 1 988b :68 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 985b ; O lsen

7

p ronounced i n t h e No r th . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f c hoppe r s a n d c hopp ing too ls i n t h e F a r E a s t a s d e sc r ibed b y Mov iu s ( 1944 , 1 949 ) c o inc ide s w i th t h e a r ea o f b amboo g row th ( F ig . 5 ) , a nd t h e a ccep tance o f t h e ` Mov ius L ine ' i s a s i gn if ican t f a c to r i n t h e p os tu la t ion o f n on l i th ic t e chno log ica l a dap ta t ion ( Pope 1 984 , 1 988a :1110 , 1 989a ) . T h i sh ypo the t ica l " bamboo l ine" may h ave f l uc tua ted d u r ing t h eP le is tocene i nt h e n o r the rn h a lf o f C h ina i n r e sponse t o c l ima t ic c hange s a f f ec t ing t h e c ompo s i t ion o f l i t h ic a s semb lage s ( Pope 1 989a ) . Howeve r , Mov ius ( 1944 , 1 949 ) p o s tu la ted h i s h ypo the s is a t at ime when f a rl e ss w a s k nown o fl i t h ic v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e F a r E a s t , a nd i tn ow a ppea r s t h a t f l ake t oo ls a r e mo re c ommon i n n o r the rn C h ina t h an c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls ( s ee , e . g . , Z hang 1 985 :184 ) . T he mode l a l so r e qu i re s a r a p id a dap ta t ion t o t h e p a laeoenv ironmen tb y t h ee a r l ie s tF a r E a s te rn h om in id s , a n d o ne i n wh ich n on l i th ic ma te r ia ls , a nd s pec if ica l ly b amboo w e re r e cogn i sed a s ap o ten t ia l r e sou rce f o r t oo l m anuf ac tu re . A l though t h e u se o f n on l i th ic t e chno logy h a s s o f a r n o t b een s ub s tan t ia ted w i th d i rec t e v idence s uch a s b amboo t o o ls , c u t -ma rk a na lyse s o n b one s l e f t b y s t one a nd b amboo b y s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic roscopy ( SE M ) (We s t i n P ope 1 989a ) , a nd l i t h ic u se -wea rs t ud ie s ( S inha a nd G love r 1 984 ) , m ay r e cove ri n d i rec t e v idence o f n on l i th ic t oo l m anuf ac tu re a nd /o ru se .

8

CHAPTER I T he e nv ironmen ta l b ackground o f n or thern Ch ina a nd t he g eo log ica l , c hrono log ica l , p a laeoenv ironmenta l , s t ra t igraph ic , a nd s pa t ia l c ontex ts o f t he N ihewan B as in l o ca l i t ie s

u p l if t ( Ma e t-a t . 1 986 :5 -7 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :10 -11) . T he c on t inu ing t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty i nC h ina o r ig ina te s mo re o r l e ss d i rec t ly f r om t h e I nd ian s ub -con t inen t 's n o r thwa rd d r i f t t owa rd t h e s t a t iona ry A s ian P la te ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :16 ; R en J S . e ta l . 1 987 :186 187 ) . A c t ive v o lcanoe s a r e v e ry r a r e i nC h ina ( Ma e ta l . 1 986 :45 -46 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :17 ) .

2 . 1

Moun ta in s a nd p l a teau s f o rm a l a rge p a r t o f C h ina 's c omp lex t o pog raphy , a nd o n ly 1 6% o ft h e t o ta l l a nd s u r f a ce

R eg iona l g eo logy a nd g eography o f C h ina

T he g eo log ica l h i s to ry o f C h ina i s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e c o l l i s ion o ft h eI nd ian P la te a nd t h e S ou th A s ian P l a te . T h i s c on t inu ing e ven tb egan i nt h e E a r ly E ocene ( Aud ley -Cha r le s e ta l . 1 981 ; R en J S . e ta l . 1 987 :184 , 1 87 ; L eg 16 1 987 ; H u tch ison 1 989 :43 , 4 4 , 6 0 ) . T he a pp rox ima te a ge , m echan i sm s a nd s e quence o f t h e c o l l i s ion a r e b a sed o n s ed imen to log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l d a ta , t h e h i s to ry o f s e a f loo r s p read ing , c oup led w i th t h e h ypo the s i s o f p l a te t e c ton ic s a nd p a laeomagne t ic r e ve r sa l d a ta f r om t h e I nd ian o cean ic f l oo r ( Mo lna r a nd T apponn ie r 1 975 , 1 977 ; H a l lam 1 973 :82 -84 ; A ud ley -Cha r le s e ta l . 1 981 ; T apponn ie r e t a l . 1 982 ; C ha t te r jee 1 987 ; H u tch ison 1 989 :43 -44 , 6 0 , 2 12 , 2 14 , 2 15 ) . F undamen ta l t o t h e d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e I n d ian E u ra s ian s u tu re ( t he z one t hough t t o r e p r e sen t t h e m e rg ing o f t h e I nd ian a nd E u ra s ian b lock s ) a nd c l o su r e o f t h e n ow e x t inc t T e thys O cean i s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd s e quence o f o ph io l i te s , i gneou s r ock s t hough t t o r e p r e sen t p a r t o f t h e o cean ic c ru s t a nd u ppe r man t le o f t h e e a r th t r an s f o rmed b y t h e t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty w h ich a c compan ied t h e c o l l is ion ( Mo lna r a nd T apponn ie r 1 975 , 1 977 ; H a l lam 1 973 :86 ; H u tch i son 1 989 :44 , 2 14 ) . T he c o l l i s ion c au sed a n t ic lockw ise r o ta t ion a nd l a t i tud ina l ( n o r thwa rd ) s h if t o f T ibe t , a nd c l ockw i se r o ta t ion a nd d i sp la cemen t o ft h e S ou th C h ina B lock e a s twa rd a nd o f t h e I n doch ina B lock s ou thea s twa rd ( B low a nd H am i l ton 1 975 ; T apponn ie r e t a l . 1 982 ; T apponn ie r e ta l . 1 990 ; H u tch i son 1 989 :60 -61 , 2 12 2 14 ) . T he o r ig in o fC h ina 's g eomo rpho log ica l s t ruc tu r e s h a s b e en t r a ced t o t h e Me sozo ic Y an shan ( o r Y en shan ) t e c ton ic movemen t , b u t mo re s i gn if ican t ly t o t h e l a te r u p l if t o f t h e Q ingha i -X izang P la teau ( T ibe tP la teau )( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :10 , 1 4 -15 ; R en J S . e ta l . 1 987 :184 -187 ; H u tch ison 1 989 :60 , 2 96 , 2 98 ; F ig . 6 ) . T he c o l l is ion g ene ra ted t h e u p l if t o f t h e H ima layan r a nge s i n s ou the rn T ibe t , t h e Q ingha i -X izang P la teau n o r th o f t h e H ima laya s , t h e S han -Yunnan Ma s s if i n n o r the rn B u rma a nd s ou thwe s te rn C h ina , a nd mo re d i s tan t f e a tu r e s s uch a s t h e S hanx i b lock ( o rp l a teau ,e ncompa s s ing a pp rox ima te ly a l l o f S hanx i p rov ince ) i n n o r the rn C h ina , a nd a l so c au sed s ub s idence r e su l t ing i n t h e f o rma t ion o f b a s in s a nd p la in s , f o r i n s tance , t h e No r th C h ina P l a in ( Tec ton ic Map C omp i l ing T eam 1 974 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :13 -17 ; R en J S . e ta l . 1 987 :182 186 ; Y ang 1 986 ; P ope 1 982 :244 , 1 988b :47 ; H u tch ison 1 989 :60 ; L i 1 99 1 ; F ig . 7 ) . A n u p l if t o f t h e H ima laya s o f u p t o 3 , 000 m b e tween t h e P l iocene a nd P le i s tocene ( abou t 2 .0 -1 .5 m y r ) i n c r e a sed t h e e l eva t ion o f moun ta ins s uch a s t h e Q in l ing shan ( Q in l ing moun ta in s ; c . 3 , 700 m a . s . 1 . ) i n c en t ra l C h ina ( F ig . 8 ) , a nd f o rmed t h e Y unnan -Gu izhou P la teau i n t h e s ou th , al ow land r e g ion u n t i l t h ee nd o ft h eT e r t ia ry ( Ma e ta l . 1 986 :38 , 4 2 -44 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :14 -16 ; F ig . 7 ) . T he m a in i mpa c to n C h ina o f t h e I nd ian -Eu ra s ian c o l l i s ion o ccu r r ed i n i t ' s w e s te rn a nd s ou thwe s te rn a nd c en t ra l a nd e a s te rn r e g ion s ( L iu a nd D ing 1 985 ; R en J S . e ta l . 1 987 :184 186 ) . T he c umu la t ive r e su l t i s ac omp lex s y s tem o fi n te rmon tane b a s in sa nd v a l leys , a nd moun ta in sc au sed b y s t re s sa nd f a u l t ing f r om t h e H ima layan

( 9 .6 m i l l ion km 2) ,l o ca ted i n t h e e a s t e rn r eg ions i s b e low 5 00 m a . s . l . ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :4 , 6 , 1 4 , T ab le 1 ;C re s sey 1 934 :10 , F ig . 2 1) o r 2 5 .2% ( Zhang 1 986 :9 ) . T he t o pog raphy h a s b een l i k ened t o at h r ee s t ep l ike p a t te rn o r " s ta i rca se" a nd o r ig ina te s f r om t h e P l e i s tocene u p l if t o f t h e Q ingha i -X izang P la teau ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :7 , 9 ;Z hang 1 986 :10 ; P ope 1 992b :247 , F ig . 1 ;A igne r 1 981 , F ig . 2 . 2 ) f o rmed b y t h e Q ingha i -T ibe t P la teau i n t h e w e s td e scend ing i n to t h e moun ta in s ( e .g . , t h e T a ihang shan ) , p l a teau s ( e .g . , t h e L oe s s P la teau ) , a nd b a s in s ( e .g . , t h e S i chuan B a s in ) o f t h e i n te r io r , a nd t e rm ina t ing i n t h e l ow p l a ins a nd h i l l s ( e .g . , N o r thea s t P la in ) o f t h e e a s te rn r eg ion ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :7 , 9 ,F ig . 1 ;Z hang 1 986 :10 ; R en J S . e ta l . 1 987 :186 ; P ope 1 992b :247 , F ig . 1 ) . T he c on t inen ta ls he lve so ft h e C h ine se s e a s , t h e H uang H a i ( Ye l low S ea ) , t h e Dong H a i ( Ea s t C h ina S ea ) , a nd t h e N an H a i ( Sou th C h ina S ea ) w i th a w a t e r d ep th o f u sua l ly l e s s t h an 2 00 m ( Zhang 1 986 :5 , 1 0 ; H u tch i son 1 989 :8 ) r e p re sen t af ou r th s t ep a st h e se w e r e i n te rm i t ten t ly d r y l a nd d u r ing t h e P le i s tocene l ow s e a leve l s ( e .g . , P ope 1 992b :247 ; F ig s . 8 , 9 ;a nd s e eb e low ) . T he Q in l ing shan ( a lso k nown a st h e C en t ra l Moun ta in B e l t , s i tua ted a ta bou tt h e3 4 th p a ra l le l )i sg ene ra l ly d ef ined a s t h e b o rde r b e tween n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn C h ina ( C re s sey 1 934 :35 , 4 0 -4 1 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; P ope 1 982 :244 , 1 988b :46 ; L iu 1 988 ; S un 1 989 :25 .3 ) . Moun ta in r a nge s a nd r i ve r s i n C h ina f o l low p r edom inan t ly w e s tea s t c ou r se s b ecau se o ft h en o r th sou th p r e s su re o cca s ioned b y t h e I nd ian A s ian c o l l is ion ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :6 , 7 , 1 0 -15 , F ig . 2 ; Z hang 1 986 :9 ; F ig . 8 ) . Moun ta in s c on s t i tu te s i gn if ican t g eog raph ica lb a r r ie r s , s u ch a s t h e e a s twe s t t r end ing Y in shan r a nge o n t h e s ou the rn b o rde r o f I n ne r Mongo l ia , t h e Q in l ing shan p o s i t ioned a t a n e a s twe s t a ng le , a nd t h e n o r th sou th r unn ing T a ihang shan ( G rea t N av iga to r moun ta in s ) i n n o r thea s t C h ina ( C re s sey 1 934 :5 -6 ; P ope 1 982 :26 ; A igne r 1 981 :269 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :10 , 1 91 , F ig . 1 ;Z hang 1 986 :9 , 1 0 ; F ig . 7 ) . T he Q ingha i -X izang P la teau i st h e s ou r ce o f s e ve ra l m a jo r r i ve r s , i n c lud ing t h e l a rge s tr i ve r so fC h ina , t h eC hang j iang ( Yang tze r i ve r )i nt h e s ou th ,a nd t h eH uanghe ( Ye l low r i ve r ) i nt h e n o r th ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :7 , 2 1 ; F ig . 7 ) . T he m a jo r r i ve r s o fC h ina emp ty i n to t h e D ong H a i a nd H uang H a i ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :7 ; F ig . 8 ) . T he d i r ec t ion o f t h e H uanghe a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s ( e .g . , t h e F enhe ) i s l a rge ly g ove rned b y n o r the rn C h ina 's m a in g eo log ica l s t ruc tu re , t h e S hanx i b l ock ( Tec ton ic Map C omp i l ing T eam 1 974 ; P ope 1 982 :26 , 2 44 , 1 988b :47 ) . T he f o rma t ion o f s eve ra l b a s ins i n t h i s r e g ion o f ma jo r a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l l o ca l i t ie s h a s b een a t t r ibu ted t o t h e e ro s iona l a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e se r i ve r s ( e .g . , B a rbou r 1 927a ;P ope 1 988b :47 ) . T he d i s sec ted L oe s sP l a teau d om ina t e st h e l a nd scape i n l a rge p a r t s o fn o r the rn C h ina ( e .g . , L iu e ta l . 1 985 :1 , 1 2 -17 , F ig . 2 . 1 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :20 , 1 90 -193 ) . L oe s s a nd l o e s s l ike s ed imen t s a r e t h e mo s t w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted Q ua t e rna ry s ed imen t s i n t h e se r e g ion s w i th t h e c o re l o ca ted i n t h e m idd le r e a che s o f t h e H uanghe ( i n S hanx i , S haanx i , a nd

9

G an su p rov inces ) , w he re t h ey a ch ieve at h ickne s so f 1 30 170 m ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :1 , 1 2 , 2 1-22 ; R en M . e t a l . 1 985 :20 , 1 9 1) , a nd n ea r L anzhou o f mo re t h an 3 00 m ( L iu e t a l . 1 986 ) . 2 .2

s ub t rop ica l z one s ( Ren M . e t a t . 1 985 :3 , 1 8 ; Z hang 1 986 :121 ; L iu 1 988 ) e vapo ra t ion i s h ighe r a nd l owe r t h an p rec ip i ta t ion , r e spec t ive ly ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :18 ; Z hang 1 986 :123 ) . F luc tua t ions i n t empe ra tu re a nd p rec ip i ta t ion a r e p ronounced i n n o r the rn C h ina ( Zhang 1 986 :6 -7 , 10 ; L iu 1 988 ) .

Modern c l imate a nd p a laeoc l ima t ic h i s tory

T he o rogen ic t r ansfo rma t ion o f t h e T ibe tan b l ock i n to t h e T ibe tan P la teau a nd t h e r e su l t ing h i gh t o pog raphy e xe r t s a p rofound i nf luence o n t h ea tmo sphe r ic c i rcu la t ion o f t h e F a r E a s t a s i t e f f ec t ive ly b lock s mo is ture d e r iv ing f r om t h e I nd ian O cean f r om e n te r ing w e s te rn C h ina , a nd f r agmen t s s t rong a i r c u r ren t s f r om t h e w e s t ( Fo r t 1 984 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :20 , 2 6 , 2 7 ; Y ang 1 986 ; Z hang 1 986 :10 ) . T he h igh ly s ea sona l C h ine se c l ima te i sg over n ed b y t h e F a r E a s te rn monsoons ( Ren M . e t a t . 1 985 :27 -29 ; Z hang 1 986 :6 -8 ) . T he s ou rce o f t h e monsoon s i s i n t h e s ou the rn I nd ian O cean , a nd t h e mon soon c ur ren t sd e r ive t h e i r mo is tu re f r om t h e A rab ian O cean ( Ko te swa ram 1 974 :81) . T he I n te r t rop ica l C onve rgence Z one i sh i gh ly s i gn if ican t i n t h e s e a sona l d eve lopmen t o f t h e monsoon c l ima te s ( Ve r s tappen 1 975 ) . I n t h is z one t h e r i s ing a i r s ( t he H ad ley c i rcu la t ions ) o f t h e n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn h em i sphe re s c onve rge , a nd t h e p o s i t ion o f t h is z one i s s i gn if ican t ly i n f luenced b y t h e A s ian a nd Au s t ra l ian a n t icyc lone s a nd b y t h ed i spo s i t ion o fl a nd a nd s e a (Wh i tmo re 1 981 ; V e r s tappen 1 975 ; Dobby 1 961 :32 ) . T he monsoona l c l ima te a nd i t ' s l e ng th a nd f o rce a r e s ub jec t t or e g iona l v a r ia t ions o fw h ich t opog raphy i s ama jo r f a c to r ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :27 ; Z hang 1 986 :7 -11 ; Dobby 1 961 :34 ) . T he movemen t o f monsoona l a i r c ur ren t s i s h i gh ly i nf luenced b y t h e a pp rox ima te ly r i gh t -ang led d i s t r ibu t ion o f many h igh moun ta in c ha ins w h ich i n t h e w in te r r e duce t h e s t reng th o ft h e n o r the rn c o ld c u r ren t s t ot h es ou th , a nd i nt h e s umme r a l low w a rm a i r c u r ren t s t o d i s t r ibu te p rec ip i ta t ion o n t h e s ou the rn s i de o f t h e moun ta ins ( Ren M . e t a t . 1 985 :26 ; Z hang 1 986 :10 ) . T he Q ingha i -X izang P la teau a c t s a s ab a r r ie rt ot h ef l ow o ft h ec o ld n o r the rn a i rc u r ren t st ot h e s ou th , a nd o b s t ruc t s t h e f l ow o f t h e s ou thwe s t mon soona l a i r c u r ren t s f r om t h e I nd ian O cean r e ach ing n o r thwe s te rn C h ina , t h e reby b lock ing mo i s tu re a nd c on t r ibu t ing g r ea t ly t o t h e a r id i ty o f n o r thwe s te rn C h ina ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :26 , 2 7 , 3 0 , 3 6 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ) . T he Mongo l ian -S ibe r ian c o ld h i gh p ressu re s y s tem s hape s t h e c o ld a nd r e la t ive ly a r id w in te rs ea son f o rmed b yc on t inen ta l n o r thwe s te rn a i r ( w in te r mon soon ) , wh i le i nt h e s umme rt h ec yc lon ic w ind s y s tem i s r e ve r sed w hen w a rm h um id a nd w e t c ur ren t s f r om t h e s ou th p ene t ra te t o t h e n o r th i n duced b y ma r i t ime s ou thea s te rn a i r ( s umme r monsoon ) ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :26 -29 , 3 3 -35 , 7 1 ; Y ang 1 986 ; Z hang 1 986 :7 , 10 ; Why te 1 968 :213 ; a nd s e e P o r te r e ta l . 1 992 ; F ig . 1 0 ) .

T he ma jo ru p l if tp ha se o ft h e Q ingha i -X izang P la teau a tt h e P l iocene -P le is tocene b ounda ry i st h ough t t o h ave a c ted a s a — t r igge r— ( Ren J S . e t a t . 1 987 :184 ) w h ich g ene ra ted a c hange i na tmosphe r ic c i rcu la t ion ( Yang 1 986 ) a nd i n c r ea sed t h e c l ima t ic e f f ec t s o f t h e monsoon ( L i 1 991 :479 , 4 82 ) c aus ing p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l c hange s ( L i 1 991 :479 , 4 82 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; Y ang 1 986 ; a nd s e eL iu e ta t . 1 985 :92 ) . P a laeomagne t ic d a te sf r om P l iocene a nd P le is tocene s e c t ions i n s ou the rn a nd w e s te rn C h ina s ugges t t h a t E a s t A s ia e xpe r ienced al a t i tud ina l n o r thwa rd s h if t d u r ing t h e se p e r iod s w h ich r e su l ted i n t h e d i sp lacemen t o f t h e t r op ica l a nd s ub t rop ica l r e g ions t ot h e s ou th d u r ing t h e P le is tocene ( Zhu 1 988 ) . T he Q in l ing d i v ide s w ha t o nce a ppea r s t o h ave c ons t i tu ted a r e la t ive ly h omogeneou s c l ima t ic r e g ime i n to n o r the rn t empe ra te a nd s ou the rn s ub t rop ica l t rop ica l z one s g ene ra ted b y u p l if ti nt h eP le is tocene , l im i t ing t h e n o r thwa rd f l ow o f t h e s ou the rn monsoon r a ins ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ) , a nd d u r ing t h e P l e i s tocene i s t h ough t t o h ave b ecome i n crea s ing ly i mpo r tan t i ns hap ing t h e e nv i ronmen t o f C h ina ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; A igne r 1 981 :16 , 2 3 , 2 5 ; P ope 1 982 :100 , 1 01 , 3 13 ; a nd s e e Z hang 1 986 :10 -11) . F o rme r ly , s ome r e sea r che r s ( e .g . , L ee 1 922 , 1 933 -34a , b ,1 947 ; v on W issmann 1 937 ; Mov ius 1 944 :49 , 5 8 , 7 0 , T ab le I V ; S un 1 944 ; C h ing 1 965 ; A igne r 1 981 :24 2 7 , F ig . 1 2 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 978b :163 ; D e rby sh i re 1 987 ) i d en t if ied g l ac ia l in te rg lac ia l P le is tocene p e r iod s i n C h ina , b u t i ti si n c rea s ing ly r e cogn ised t h a t g l ac ia l a r ea s i n C h ina w e re l im i ted i n d i s t r ibu t ion t o h igh a l t i tudes ( e .g . , B a rbou r 1 933 -34 , 1 934 ; Dobby 1 961 :26 ; D e rby sh i re 1 987 ; P ope 1 988b :47 ; Q i 1 989 ; a nd s ee C re ssey 1 934 :37 ) . P a laeoc l ima t ic r e sea rch h a si n c rea s ing ly f o cu sed o n t h e t h ick l o e ss d epo s i t s o f t h e C en t ra l L oess P la teau w h ich p r e se rve p a laeomagne t ica l ly d a ted l i tho s t ra t ig raph ic a nd b i o s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence f r om t h e L a te P l iocene ( c . 2 .4 myrbp ) t o t h e R ecen t ( He l le r a nd L iu 1 982 ; L iu e t a l . 1 985 :5 , 6 2 -86 ; L iu e t a l . 1 986 ; R en M . e t a t . 1 985 :20 ; D e rbysh i re 1 987 ; K uk la 1 987 ) . A d i s t inc t c l ima t ic c hange f r om w a rm h um id t o c o ld a r id c ond i t ions i s r e cogn i sed s t radd l ing t h e Ma tuyama -Gauss b ounda ry a t c . 2 . 4 myr i n n o r the rn C h ina i n t h e f i r s t a ppea rance o f l o e ss i n t h e L uochuan d epos i t s , c en t ra l S haanx i p rov ince , a t mo re t h an 1 30 m d ep th ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :44 ; L iu e t a l . 1 986 ; L ia nd Wang 1 985 ) , a nd i n t h e H ongya s e c t ion o f t h eN ihewan B a s in ( L iu a nd D ing 1 982 ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :45 , F ig . 3 . 9 ) . T he l o e ss d epos i t s a r e u nde r la in b y r e d c l ay , a l so k nown a s t h e " H ippar ion R ed C lay" ( e .g . , L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; L iu e l a l . 1 985 :44 ; L iu e t a l . 1 986 ; L i a nd Wang 1 985 ; F ig . 1 ) . T he s h if t f r om w a rm T e r t ia ry c l ima t ic c ond i t ions t oc o ld c ond i t ions h a s a l so b een i d en t if ied o n t h e b a s is o fp a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s a ts eve ra l l o ca l i t ie s i nn o r the rn C h ina , a l though w o rke r s d i sag ree o n t h e a ge o f t h is e ven t ( e .g . , L iu a nd D ing 1 982 ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :45 , 8 7 , 1 7 1 ; S ong e ta t . 1 985 ) . T he a ppea rance o f Myospa lax o megodon a tt h e b a se o ft h eE a r ly P le is tocene Wucheng L oe ss ( s ee b e low ) i s t hough t t o i n d ica te a c hange f r om a w a rm t o a n a r id a nd s e a sona l ly c o ld c l ima te ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :36 , 7 2 , 6 2 ; K uk la 1 987 ) .

T he ma in t empe ra tu re z one s i n n o r the rn C h ina a r e t h e c o ld t empe ra te , t empe ra te , a nd w a rm tempe ra te z one se x tend ing i n r a nge f r om n o r th t o s ou th ( Zhang 1 986 :6 , T ab le 1 . 3 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ) . T he i r d i s t r ibu t ion i s i nf luenced b y t h e v a ry ing l a t i tud ina l a moun t s o fs o la rr ad ia t ion ( Ren M . e ta t . 1 985 :24 ; Z hang 1 986 :6 , T ab le 1 . 3 , F ig . 1 . 2 ) . P rec ip i ta t ion i n C h ina i s mod if ied l o ca l ly b y v a r ia t ion i n t h e l o ca l t opog raphy , w ind s ys tem s , a nd r emo tene ss f r om t h e e qua to r ( Pf ef fe r 1 974 ; K o teswa ram 1 974 :35 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :10 , 2 2 , 4 2 ; Z hang 1 986 :10 ; T any 1 988 ) . I td ec r ea se s f r om t h e c oa s t t o t h e i n land r eg ion s , a nd i n c rea se s f r om t h e n o r th t o t h e s ou th ( Ren M . e t a t . 1 985 :17 ; Z hang 1 986 :7 -8 , 10 ) . No r th a nd s ou th o f t h e Q in l ing shan a nd t h e H ua ihe ( Hua i r i ve r ) w h ich f o rm t h e d i v is ion o f t h e w a rm t empe ra te a n d

L uochuan i s t h e mos t d e ta i led s t ud ied s e c t ion o f n o r the rn

1 0

C h ina c ove r ing t h e L a te P l iocene a nd P le is tocene , a nd r e p re sen t s at y pe s ec t ion f o r t h e d a t ing a nd c o r re la t ion o f o t he r P l iocene a nd P le is tocene d epos i t s t h roughou t t h is r e g ion ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :40 -48 ; L iu e ta l . 1 986 ) . T he r e sea r ch o f t h e l o e ss d epo s i t s i n vo lves s eve ra l d a ta , i n p a r t icu la r t h e a na lys is o f a l te rna t ing l o e ss ( a eo l ian s a nd ) a nd p a laeo so l ( wea the red l o e s so rb u r ied s o i ls ) i d en t if ied i n t h e m a in l o e ss u n i t s : t h e E a r ly P le i s tocene Wucheng L oe s s , t h e l a te E a r ly P l e is tocene a nd M idd le P le i s tocene L ish i L oe s s , d i v ided i n to t h e L owe r L i sh i L oess a nd t h e U ppe r L i sh i L oe s s , a nd t h e L a te P le is tocene Ma lan L oe ss ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ;L iu e ta l . 1 985 :e .g . , 3 3 -40 ; L iu e ta l . 1 986 ; F ig . 1 ) . A t L uochuan a n a l te rna t ing s e quence o f 1 4 l o ess b ed s c ompo sed o f 1 l o es s l a ye r s i n t h e L ish i L oes s a nd Ma lan L oe ss a nd t h ree w ea the r ing c omp lexes i n t h e Wucheng L oe s s , a nd 1 5 p a laeo so ls i n t h e L ish i L oe ss a nd Ma lan L oes s a nd t h ree w ea the r ing c omp lexe s i n t h e Wucheng L oes s h ave b een i d en t if ied ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :31 , 3 4 , 3 6 -40 , 1 71 , 1 73 , F ig . 3 . 1 A , B ; L iu e t a l . 1 986 ; K uk la 1 987 ; s e e a l so D e rby sh i re 1 987 ; F ig . 1) . T he ma in a s sump t ion o n w h ich t h e c l ima t ic r e con s t ruc t ion r e s t s i s t h a t t h is s ed imen ta ry v a r ia t ion r e p re sen t s e v idence o f f l uc tua t ing p a laeo tempe ra tu re s w i th l o e ss d epo s i ted i n c o ld a nd d r y c l ima te s , a nd p a laeo so l f o rmed i nw a rm a nd h um id p e r iod s ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :31 , 3 6 -40 , 1 26 ; L iu e ta l . 1 986 ) . V a r ia t ions i n g ra in s i ze a nd amoun t s o f v a r ious m ine ra ls a r e t h ough t t o i n d ica te c hange s i n a nnua l mean t empe ra tu re a nd p rec ip i ta t ion ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :168 , 1 70 , F igs . 6 . 6 , 6 . 7 ) . C oa rse g ra in s i ze , ah igh c a lc ium c a rbona te v a lue , a nd l ow v a lues o f i r on o x ide a nd s uscep t ib i l i ty s ugge s t p oo r b i ochem ica l w ea the r ing i n r e la t ive ly c o ld -d ry c l ima t ic c ond i t ions ( l oe ss ) , wh i le t h e r e ve r se h a s b een r e la t ed t o r e la t ive ly w a rm -hum id c ond i t ion s ( pa laeo so l ) ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :171 , F ig . 6 . 7 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; L iu e t a l . 1 986 ; D e rbysh ire 1 987 ) .T he l o e ss a nd p a laeo so l s equence h a s b een c o r re la ted w i th t h e s t ra t ig raph ic ( evo lu t iona ry ) s u cce s s ion a nd r e la t ive a bundance o f f o ss i l r oden t , mo l lusc , s na i l , a nd mamma l ian s pec ie s ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :67 -84 , 1 73 -174 , F igs . 4 . 2 -4 .6 ; K uk la 1 987 ) a nd a l so i nvo lve s c ompa r isons t o c on tempo ra ry s o i ls , s na i ls , a nd mamma ls ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :169 -171 , F igs . 6 .6 , 6 . 7 ; L iu e ta l . 1 986 ) . P edo log ica l s t ud ie s s ugge s t t h a t s o i l mo is tu re r a the r t h an c hang ing t empe ra tu re sa r er e spon s ib le f o r t h e l o e ss -pa laeo so l s e quence ( Kuk la i n p re s s i n Hovan e t a l . 1 989 ) w h ich w ou ld m ean t h a t t h is s ed imen t p a t te rn r ef lec t s a l te rna t ing p a t te rn s o f p rec ip i ta t ion ( Hovan e ta l . 1 989 ; a nd s ee K uk la 1 987 ) .

C h ina ( L iu 1 99 1a , bi n P ope 1 992a ; A n e ta l . 1 991 ; P o r te r e t a l . 1 992 ; Wang a nd F eng 1 992 ; L iu D ong sheng p e r s . c omm . ) . A cco rd ing t o t h is h ypo the s is , l o e s s f o rma t ion o ccu r red d u r ing p e r iod s o f r e duced s umme r mon soon i n c o ld a nd a r id s t eppe e nv ironmen t s a nd s o i l d epo s i t ion d u r ing p e r iod s o f i n c rea sed s umme r monsoon i n t empe ra te h um id f o re s ts t eppe e nv i ronmen t s( Po r te re ta l . 1 992 ) . T he c l ima t ic e f f ec t so ft h eP le is tocene e xpo sed l a rge p a r t s o f t h eC h inese c on t inen ta l s ea s he lve sd ue t ol owe r ed s ea leve l s d u r ing g l ac ia l p e r iod s (Why te 1 974 ; Wh i tmo re 1 988 :13 ; B e rgg ren a nd V an C ouve r ing 1 979 i n P ope 1 988b :54 ) , a nd s i x t o n ine s e a t r ansg re ss ions i d en t if ied o n t h e B oha i c oa s t a r et h ough tt or e f lec tw a rm c l ima t ic p e r iod s( L iu 1 988 ) . A l te rna t ing c oo l a nd w a rm c l ima t ic p ha se s d u r ing t h e P le is tocene a r ei n d ica ted b yp o l len p rof i le s( e .g . , Z hou e ta l . 1 983 ; L iu 1 980 ; L iu e t a l . 1 985 :87 -92 ; T ang a nd H uang 1 985 ; L iu 1 988 ) , a nd f a unae ( e .g . , K ah lke a nd C hou 1 961 ; A igne r 1 981 :121 , 2 70 ; L iu e t a l . 1 985 :36 , 7 2 , 6 2 ; K uk la 1 987 ; s ee b e low ) . L iu ( 1988 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e l o e ss s ed imen ta ry , a nd f o ss i l p o l len a nd f a una l e v idence r e f lec t e x t reme e nv i ronmen ta lf l uc tua t ions i nt h et empe ra te C h ine se f o re s t s c o r re spond ing t o g l ac ia l a nd i n te rg la c ia l p e r iod s . H oweve r , t h eh i gh s pec ie s d i ve r s i ty o f t h e t empe ra te f o re s t s i st hough t t o i n d ica te t h a t C h ina w a s n o t s im i la r ly e xpo sed t o t h e g l ac ia l c l ima te s o f t h e P l e i s tocene a s E u rope w a s ( Ey re 1 963 :92 ; Wang 1 961 :4 ; L iu 1 988 ; Wh i tmo re 1 988 :238 ; a nd s e e A dam s a nd Woodwa rd 1 989 ; Z hang 1 986 :73 ) . T he t o ta l i ty o f t h e p a laeoc l ima t ic d a ta s ugge s t s t h a t c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions w e re l e s s p ronounced i n C h ina c ompa red t o E u rope w he re w ide sp read g l ac ia t ions o ccu r r ed ( Pope 1 988b :56 , 6 9 ) . A s t udy o f f a una l m ig ra t ions i n P le is tocene E a s t A s ia s ugge s t s ap rog re s s ive c hange t owa rd l owe r t empe ra tu re s a nd mo re s ea sona l c l ima te s i n n o r the rn C h ina f r om a bou t 1 . 4 myrbp ( Xu 1 988 ; a nd s ee P ope 1 988a :1106 ) . 2 .3 The b iogeography I ntroduc t ion

1 8

n or thern

Ch ina :

T he a n th ropogen ic mod if ica t ion o f t h e n o r the rn C h ine se e nv ironmen t h a s c on t r ibu ted much t o s hap ing t he p re sen t b i ogeog raph ica l c ha rac te r o f t h is r eg ion ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :4 ; Z hang 1 986 :10 ) . T he r e cen t i n ten s if ica t ion o f a g r icu l tu re a nd l ogg ing h ave s ub s tan t ia l ly c hanged l a rge p a r t s o f t h e l a nd scape , p redom inan t ly i n t h e e a s te rn p la ins a nd h i l l s w i th much o ft h e n a tu ra l f o re s t v ege ta t ion r emoved o rs ub s tan t ia l ly d eg raded c aus ing w ind ,a nd p a r t icu la r ly w a te r e r os ion o ft h es o i l ( C re ssey 1 934 :199 -200 , 2 08 -209 ; Dobby 1 961 :42 , 7 8 ; Wang 1 961 :2 , 5 , 8 ; R en M . e t a l . 1 985 :4 ; C layre 1 984 :114 ; O v ing ton 1 983 ; F o re s t ie r 1 989 ; Z hang 1 986 :6 , 1 0 , 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 7 0 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 ; Wh i tmo re 1 988 :4 ; We s toby 1 987 :270 -271 , 2 80 , 1 989 :125 , 1 29 -130 , 1 76 -178 ; S i lve r town 1 989 ; a nd s e e Why te 1 974 , 1 984b :629 ) . I nn or the rn C h ina p r ima ry f o re s t v ege ta t ion h a s b een c on s ide rab ly r e duced s i nce t h e N eo l i th ic ( Zhang 1 986 :70 ; We s toby 1 987 :270 ; C lay re 1 984 :114 ) . I n 1 949 , a pp rox ima te ly 5% o f C h ina w a s c ove red w i th f o re s t (Wes toby 1 987 :271) . D efo re s ta t ion i st h ough t t o b e l a rge ly r e spons ib le f o r t h e y ea r ly f l ood s a nd e x tens ive s o i l e ro s ion i nt h ed i ssec ted l o e ss r eg ions ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :218 -225 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :20 ) ( on t h e L oe s s P la teau a n a nnua l 3 0 ,000 -

T he c or re la t ion o ft he L uochuan l o e ss -pa laeo so l s e quence t o t h e d eep sea o xygen iso tope r e co rd s o f S hack le ton a nd O pdyke ( 1973 , 1 976 ; L iu e t a l . 1 985 :45 , 1 70 -174 , F igs . 3 . 5 , 6 .7 , 6 . 8 ; Mahe r a nd T hompson 1 992 ; V an C ouve r ing a nd Kuk la 1 988 )i nd ica te ac hange t owa rd c o ld c ond i t ion s a t a bou t 2 . 5 myr ( t he c or r e la t ion h a s b een e x t ended u p t o p a laeoso l S 11 a nd

o f

0s t age 2 2 , t ha t i st o t h e b eg inn ing o f

t h eJ a ram i l lo E ven t a t0 . 970 myr ( e .g . , Q i 1 989 ; Q i 1 990 i n P ope 1 992b , F ig . 2 ) . T h is c oncu r s w i th p a laeoc l ima t ic s t ud ies c onduc ted i n E u rope a nd No r th Ame r ica ( Van C ouve r ing a nd Kuk la 1 988 ) . T he l o e ss s t ud ie s i n d ica te 2 2 p ha se s o f c l ima t ic v a r ia t ion f r om 2 . 4 myr t o t h e p r e sen t r a ng ing f r om w a rm -hum id t o c o ld -d ry ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :1711 74 ) . L oe s sa nd o xygen iso tope r e co rd ss ugge s t t h a t p r io r t o a pp rox ima te ly 0 . 500 my r t h e E as t A s ian e nv i ronmen t e xpe r ienced w e t te r c ond i t ions b ecom ing s t ead i ly m o re a r id t owa rd t h ep re sen tt ime ( Hovan e ta l . 1 989 ) . Mo s t r e cen t ly , i th as b een a r gued t ha t f l uc tua t ing p a laeomonsoona l p ha se s may h ave b een r e spons ib le f o r p a laeoc l ima t ic c hange s i n

2 00 ,000 t ons p e r km 2 o fs o i l i sl o s t ; L iu e ta l . [ 1985 :218 1 ) , a nd a l so f o rt h e f r equen t a nd v e ry d e s t ruc t ive f l oods i n o the r p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :20 ; We s toby 1 987 :271) . S o i l e r os ion a nd f l ood ing a r e f a c to r s w h ich

1

s hou ld b e c on s ide r ed w i th r e ga rd t o t h e p o ten t ia l r ewo rk ing o fa r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s .

( Ren M . e t a t . 1 985 :345 -348 ; Z hang 1 986 :76 ) . I n t h e e a s te rn p a r t o f t h is r e g ion , f o rb g ra ss a nd meadow s t eppe w i th a l a rge v a r ie ty o f g ra s ses g row o n d a rk s o i l ( Zhang 1 986 :71 , 7 6 ; R en M . e ta l . 1 985 :158 , 3 47 -348 , 3 59 -360 ) ; t h e g r a s se s a r e ma in ly f e a the r -g ra s s ( S t ipa b a ica lens i s ) a n d b l ueg ra ss ( F e s tuca o v ina ) ( Zhang 1 986 :71 , 7 6 ) . T h i s v ege ta t ion i s r e p la ced b y n eed le -g ra s s s t eppe i n s em i -a r id c en t ra l I nne r Mongo l ia w i th f e a the r -g ra ss r ep re sen t ing t h e mo s t c ommon s pec ie s ( e .g . , S t ipa g rand i s ) , a nd i n a r id w e s te rn I nne r Mongo l ia b y t h e s pa r se ly v ege ta ted s t eppe d e se r t w he r e t h e mo s t c ommon p l an t s a r e s h rub s ( e .g . , A r teme s ia s phaerocepha la ) a nd h e rb s ( e .g . , C a l l igonum m ongo l icum ) o n b rown s o i l ( Zhang 1 986 :71 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 11 ; R en M . e t a l . 1 985 :158 , 3 46 -347 , 3 65 ) . T he v e ry a r id c l ima t ic c ond i t ions i n l a rge p a r t s o f n o r thwe s te rn C h ina a r e u nf avou rab le t oa ny v ege ta t ion g row th , a nd w he re v ege ta t ion o ccu r s i t i s u sua l ly s t eppe a nd d e ser t s teppe w i th s h rub ( i nc lud ing W in ia r ege l i i ) a nd h e rb s pec ie s ( i nc lud ing E phed r a p r zewa l sk i i )o np redom inan t ly a eo l ian s andy s o i l ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :126 -127 , 3 72 -376 , 3 85 -389 ; Z hang 1 986 :71 , 7 6 ) .

T he r emova l o f v ege ta t ion a nd t h e e f f ec t s o f h un t ing h ave b een i d en t if ied a s ma jo r c ause s w h ich h ave r e s t r ic ted a n d d e s t royed t h e h ab i ta t s o f w i ld a n ima ls , e ndange r ing t h e s u rv iva l o f s eve ra l a n ima l s pec ie s ( e .g . , A l len 1 938 / 1940 :1197 ; Z hang 1 986 :15 -16 , 8 2 , T ab le 6 . 3 ; v an G u l ik 1 967 :33 ; C layre 1 984 :114 ; We s toby 1 989 :129 ; F o re s t ie r 1 989 ; S i lve r town 1 989 ) . Many o f t h e e x tan t r a r e a n ima ls a r et h o se s pec if ica l ly a dap ted t of o re s ted h ab i ta t s , f o r i n s tance , t h eC e rv idae ( Zhang 1 986 :15 -16 ; O h ta ish i a nd G ao 1 990 ) , a nd h uman a c t iv i t ies h ave l e d t o t h e e x t inc t ion o f n ume rou s s p ec ie s i n t h e p a s t ( Zhang 1 986 :15 -16 ; L i 1 957 :22 -23 , 3 8 ) . 2 .3 .1

T he modern f l ora o f t he r eg ion

T he v ege ta t iona l p a t te rn o f C h ina i s d e te rm ined b y t opog raphy , c l ima te , a nd a r ea l d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f s o i l t y pe s ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :123 -124 ; Z hang 1 986 :71-72 ; T any 1 988 ; a nd s e e B u rnham 1 988 :137 ) . T he ma in v ege ta t ion z one s o f n o r the rn C h ina a r e b o rea l , n eed le , a nd d ec iduou s b road leaved f o res t , s t eppe , a nd d e se r t ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :133 -135 ; Z hang 1 986 :71 ; L iu 1 988 ; F ig . 1 2 ) . T he Q in l ing shan f o rms a n i mpo r tan tb o tan ica l d iv ide w he re n o r th o ft h is moun ta in r ange t empe ra te f o re s t s a nd o pen v ege ta t ion o ccu r , w h i le t ot h es ou th e ve rg reen b road leaved f o re s t s g r ow (Why te 1 968 :213 ; Z hang 1 986 :123 ; F ig . 1 2 ) . T he v ege ta t ion o f n o r the rn C h ina i s a l so s ub jec t t o e a s twe s t g r ad ien t s c ha ra c te r i sed b y d ec rea s ing p rec ip i ta t ion a n d d ec iduou s b r oad leaved f o re s t i n t h e c en t ra l r eg ion a nd i n p a r t so ft h e n o r thea s t , s t eppe v ege ta t ion i n I nne r Mongo l ia , a nd d e se r t v ege ta t ion i n t h e n o r thwe s t w he re a n i n c rea s ing n umbe r o f d rough t re s is tan t p l an t s pec ie s o ccu r ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :126 -127 , 1 35 , 3 45 -346 ; Z hang 1 986 :71 , 7 6 ; a nd s e e Wang 1 961 :10 ; L iu 1 988 ; S un a nd C hen 1 991 ; F ig . 1 2 ) . A cco rd ing t oR en M . e ta t . ( 1985 :4 ) o n ly s e conda ry f o r e s t s r ema in , l i m i ted t o t h e moun ta inous r eg ions o f C h ina , a n d Z hang ( 1 986 :71) a rgue s t h a ta lmo s t n o —n a tu ra l" v ege ta t ion t y pe s ' a r e e x tan t . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t i t may b e d i f f icu l t t o i d en t ify t h ec l i max v ege ta t ion o fn o r the rn C h ina .

T he w arm t empe ra te d ec iduou s b r oad leaved f o res t f o rma t ion ( Zhang 1 986 :74 , 11 ; L iu 1 988 ) e x tend s t o t h e s ou th o f t h e n o r the rn s i de o f t h e Q in l ing ( Ren M . e t a l . 1 985 :230 -231 , 2 36 ; Z hang 1 986 :75 , 1 08 ) . T he mo s t c ommon p l an t s i nt h is f o re s t a r e av a r ie ty o f o ak ( e .g . , Q . m ongo l ica ) a nd p i ne ( e .g . , P .d ens if lora )s pec ies , a nd t h e se o ccu rw i th av a r ie ty o f o t he rt a xa ( e .g . , B e tu la s p . ) o n y e l low b rown s o i l ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :199 , 2 36 ; Z hang 1 986 :75 , 11 ; L iu 1 988 ; S un a nd C hen 1 991) . T h is f o rma t ion i sl o ca ted i n ar eg ion w h ich f o r t h e mos t p a r t p r e se rve s o n ly a r emnan t o f t h e n a tu ra l v ege ta t ion ( Zhang 1 986 :74 ; L iu 1 988 ; a nd s ee R en M . e ta t . 1 985 :132 ) , f o r i n s tance , i n p a r t s o f t h e e x ten s ive L oe s s P l a teau w he re s t eppe a nd d ec iduou s s c rub a r e c ommon ( Zhang 1 986 :75 , 7 6 , 11) . S ub t rop ica l m ixed e ve rg reen a n d d ec iduou s b r oad leaved f o re s t a ppea r i n t h e s ou the rnmo s t z one o fn o r the rn C h ina ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :238 -239 ; Z hang 1 986 :75 ; E yre 1 963 :84 ) . 2 .3 .2 L a te P l iocene a nd P le istocene f l ora l r ecords

E ar ly

a nd

M idd le

P a lyno log ica l r e sea r ch i s s t i l l l im i ted i n C h ina ( A igne r 1 978a :164 , 1 981 :2 , 1 6 , 2 4 -25 , 3 4 ; L iu 1 988 ) , a n d r e cons t ruc t ions o f P l iocene a nd P le is tocene v ege ta t ion s r e ly t o as i gn if ican te x ten to n i d en t ify ing t h ee co log ica l r a nge s o f m ed ium , a nd l a rge s ized m amma l ian f a una ( e .g . , A igne r 1 981 :44 , 4 6 , 2 72 -275 ; P ope 1 982 , A ppend ix C ; J i a 1 980 :e .g . , 1 2 , 4 5 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) . I n ar e cen t r e v iew o f t h e f o ss i l p o l len d a ta f r om t empe ra te n o r the rn C h ina , L iu ( 1 988 ) h a s p o in ted o u t t h a t i n te rp re ta t ions o f t h e se d a ta f o r r e cons t ruc t ions o f p a s t v ege ta t iona l p a t te rns a r e c on s t ra ined b y s eve ra l f a c to r s , i n c lud ing , 1 . t h e l im i ted s t ra t ig raph ica l a nd c h rono log ica l r e so lu t ion o f mos t p o l len p rof i le s b e cau se s amp les r e p re sen t v e ry d i scon t inuou s r e co rd s ; 2 . t h e d e r iva t ion o f n ume rou s p o l len c o l lec t ions f r om d epo s i t s w h ich a r e n o t a dvan tageou s t o g ood o r c on t inuou s p r e se rva t ion ( e .g . , l a rge l a cus t r ine b a s ins ) , a nd w he r e p o l len t r anspo r t a nd s ed imen ta t ion p roce s se s a nd t h e r a te o f d epo s i t ion a r ep robab ly n o t c ons tan t ; a nd 3 . t h e p ub l ica t ion o f o n ly s umma ry p o l len d i ag ram s , a nd o n ly p o l len p e r cen tage s , b u t n o tp o l len s ums a r e t h e n orm .

B o rea l f o re s t o ccu r s i n t h e n o r the rnmo s t p a r t o f C h ina ( Zhang 1 986 :71 ; L iu 1 988 ) w i th p i ne ( e .g . , P inu s s y lve s tr i s ) a nd l a r ch ( Lar ix gme l in i i ) r e p resen t ing t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic p l an t s o f t h is c oo l tempe ra te n eed le leaved f o re s t ( Zhang 1 986 :71 , 7 3 ; R en M . e t a l . 1 985 :170 ) . T he s o i l t y pe s o f t h is f o rma t ion a r e s a nd a nd b l ack e a r th a n d l o es sr e la ted s o i l ( Zhang 1 986 :100 , 1 0 1) . I n t h e n o r thea s te rn h i l ls a nd moun ta ins h um id t empe ra te m ixed n eed le , a n d b r oad leaved f o res t s o ccu r o n b rown a nd b l ack e a r th a n d l o es s ic c l ay ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :169 -172 ; Z hang 1 986 :7 1 , 7 4 , 1 03 ; a nd s e e L iu 1 988 ) . T he mo s t c ommon p lan t s o f t h is f o rma t ion a r e r e d p ine ( P . k ora iens i s ) a nd f i r ( A . h o lophy l la ) , a nd o the r s pec ie s i n c lude o ak ( Quer cu s m ongo l ica )a nd l ime ( T i l ia amur ens i s ) ( Zhang 1 986 :73 , 1 03 , 1 04 ; a nd s e eL iu 1 988 ) . T he s ubhum id a nd h eav i ly c u l t iva ted No r th C h ina P la in i n t h e n o r thea s t i s af o re s t s teppe w i th t r ee s , e spec ia l ly w i l low ( e .g . , S a l ix m a t sudana ) a nd p op la r ( e .g . ,P opu lus c anadens is ) o ccu r r ing i nd i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion t o ge the r w i th a v a r ie ty o f s h rub s ( e .g . , V i tex c h inens i s ) o n ma in ly b rown f o res t s o i ls , c amb iso ls , f l uv iso ls , a nd d a rk l o es s ic s o i ls ( Zhang 1 986 :111 , 16 ; R en M . e t a l . 1 985 :208 -2 14 ) .

T he t e n p o l len z one s i d en t if ied i n t h e C ang -9 b o reho le p rof i le i n t h e H ebe i P la in , H ebe i p rov ince , i n c lude o ne P l iocene z one ( z one I )l o ca ted b e low t h e r e d c l ay l a ye r w i th ap a laeomagne t ic d a te o f3 . 06 my r ( Yang e ta l . 1 979 i nL iu

G ra s s land i st h e d om inan t v ege ta t ion t y pe o fI nne r Mongo l ia

1 2

1 988 ; F ig . 1 3 ) . T he p o l len i n t h is z one i n d ica te a ma in ly d ec iduous f o re s tv ege ta t ion i nw h ich t empe ra te h a rdwood sa r e mo s t n ume rou s a nd a s soc ia ted w i th b r oad leaved e ve rg reen s p ec ie s ( L iu 1 988 ) . I n f ou r o f t h e P le is tocene p o l len z one s ( z one s 2 , 4 , 6 , a nd 8 ) t h e d om inance o f p ine p o l len ( e .g . , P i cea s p . > 3 0% ) , t h e a ppa ren t ly mo re n ume rou s r e p re sen ta t ion o fo the rs pec ie s ( e .g . ,A r tem i s ia s p . )c ompa red t o z one 1 , a nd t h e l ow f r equenc ie s o f t empe ra te h a rdwood p o l len s ugge s t f ou r g l ac ia l c on if e rous f o re s t o r w ood land p e r iods ( Yang e ta L 1 979 i nL iu 1 988 ; F ig . 1 3 ) . T he u sua l ly mo re n ume rou s p o l len o f t empe ra te h a rdwood s ( i nc lud ing Q uer cus s p . ) i nt h ef ou ri n te rg lac ia l z one s( z ones 3 ,5 ,7 ,a nd 9 ) a r e t hough t t o r ep re sen t ma in ly d ec iduou s f o re s t w i th t empe ra te h a rdwood s t h e mos t c ommon s pec ie s ( L iu 1 988 ; F ig . 1 3 ) . T he c oa s ta l No r th C h ina P la in B a i3 p o l len p rof i le s how s a n a b rup t c hange f r om c on if e rou s a nd b r oad leaved f o re s t t o as t eppe v ege ta t ion b o th b e fo re a nd a f te r 2 . 4 my r ( L i a nd Wang 1 983 i n L iu e t a l . 1 985 :45 ) . T he E a r ly P l e i s tocene p o l len p rof i le s f r om t h e p e r i lacu s t r ine d epo s i t s i nt h eN ihewan B a s in , H ebe i p rov ince , i n d ica te as u cce s s ive s e quence o f c o ld -we t t o c o ld -d ry ( Zhou e t a l . 1 983 ; L iu 1 980 ; L iu 1 988 ) o r c o ld a nd w a rm ( Luo e t a l . 1 988 ) c on if e rous , s t eppe , a nd c on if e rous v ege ta t ion s ( Luo e t a l . 1 988 ; Z hou e ta t . 1 983 ; L iu 1 980 ; L iu a nd T ang 1 980 i n L iu 1 988 ; L iu 1 988 ; T ang e ta l . 1 981) .

A igne r 1 981 :109 -111 , 2 70 , 1 988 ; Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . Howeve r , t h e p o l len a nd s po re c oun ts f r om t h e se l o ca l i t ie s a r el ow a nd " r a the rp oo r "e v idence ( A igne r 1 981 :25 -26 , 2 42 , 2 70 ) .

I n t h e p o l len p rof i les f r om t h e H e imugou a nd L iu j iapo s e c t ions , S haanx i p rov ince , s t ud ied b y Wang e ta l . ( 1984 i n K uk la 1 987 ) , t h ea rbo rea lf r equenc ie sa r e r e la t ive ly h i ghe r i n t h e p a laeo so ls t h an i n t h e l o e ss ( Kuk la 1 987 ) w h ich i s t h ough t t o i n d ica te t ha t t he p a laeoso ls a r e r ep re sen ta t ive o f h um id , p robab ly w a rm o pen w ood land c ond i t ions (Wang e t a t . 1 984 ) . P o l len s ugge s t ive o f s t eppe v ege ta t ion ( e .g . , g r a s se s ) a r e mo s t n ume rou s i n t h e l o e ss l a ye r s o f b o th p rof i le s ( Kuk la 1 987 ; F igs . 1 4 , 1 5 ) . L iu e ta t . ( 1985 :87 -92 , T ab le 4 . 3 , F ig . 4 . 11) i n te rp re t t h e s ma l l c oun t s o f s po re s a nd p o l len i d en t if ied i n t h ree o f t h e s i x H e imugou P l e i s tocene p o l len z one s a s r ep re sen ta t ive o f s t eppe v ege ta t ion i n c o ld a r id c ond i t ion s . T he h i ghe r s po re s a nd p o l len c oun t s o ft h et h ree o the rz one s a r et hough t t o i n d ica te t empe ra te a nd w e tf o re s ta nd s t eppe e nv i ronmen t s ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :91) . T he c oun to f a r bo rea l ( n . 2 09 ) a nd h e rba ceou s ( n . 2 0 1 )p o l len g ra ins f o rt h e Wucheng L oe ss i sl owe r c ompa red t o t h e s ucceed ing L ish i L oes s ( n . 2 48 a nd n . 2 43 , r e spec t ive ly ; L iu e t a l . 1 985 , T ab le 4 . 3 ; T ab le 2 ) . K uk la ( 1 987 ) p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e r ep re sen ta t ivene s s o f p o l len s amp led f r om l o ess d epo s i t si sd i f f icu l t t o d e te rm ine b ecau se o fp o ss ib le l ong -d is tance t r anspo r to fp o l len w i th t h e a eo l ian s a nd ,a nd b ecau se o f t h e g ene ra l ly l ow p o l len c oun t s o f t h e Wucheng a nd L owe r L ish i d epo s i t s . T he p redom inance o f A r t em i s ia s p . p o l len may b e a t t r ibu ted t o s e lec t ive p r e se rva t ion o f t h e ir t ough s he l ls ( Kuk la 1 987 ; F ig s . 1 4 , 1 5 ) . T he l ow a nd h igh p o l len c oun t s may t hus a l so i n d ica te p oo ra nd g ood p rese rva t ion o f p o l len , r e spec t ive ly , a nd m ay t h e re fo re n o t b e r ep re sen ta t ive o f d if e ren t e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions .

2 .3 .3

T he p o l len d a ta s ugge s tt h a t ma rked d i f f e rence s i n v ege ta t ion i nn o r the rn , i n c lud ing l a rge p a r t s o f n o r thea s te rn C h ina ( bu t n o t i n s ou the rn C h ina ; A igne r 1 981 :269 -270 ) o r t empe ra te C h ina ( L iu 1 988 ) o ccu r red i n r e sponse t o a l te rna t ing c o ld ( g lac ia l ) a nd w a rm ( i n te rg lac ia l ) c l ima t ic c hange s ( A igne r 1 981 :269 -270 ; L iu 1 988 ) . T h is w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p rog re s s ive e x t inc t ion o f T e r t ia ry r e l ic t a nd s ub t rop ica l v ege ta t ion ( L iu 1 988 ) . A cco rd ing t o A igne r ( 1 981 :269 -270 ) t h ep a lyno log ica l ( a nd f o ss i lf auna l ; s e eb e low )d a ta s ugge s t s t h a t o pen g r a s s land w a s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f n o r the rn a nd n o r thea s te rn C h ine se e nv i ronmen t s d u r ing c o ld p e r iod s , w h i le f o re s t v ege ta t ion d om ina ted b y d ec iduou s b r oad leaved s pec ie s w i th s ome o pen g ra s s land o ccu r red d u r ing w a rm p e r iods .T he L uochuan l o e ss r e co rd o ft h el a s t 9 00 ,000 y ea r s r e co rds 1 a l te rna t ing p e r iods o ff o re s ts t eppe t od e se r ts t eppe ( L iu e ta t . 1 985 :174 , F ig . 6 . 8 ) . T he mo re r e cen t ly c o l lec ted p o l len d a ta f r om t empe ra te C h ina i n d ica te t h a t c on if e rou s ( ma in ly s p ruce -f i r )f o re s t s r e p re sen ted t h e g l ac ia l v ege ta t ion , w i th b road leaved d ec iduou sf o re s ti nt h e i n te rg lac ia l l ow land a r ea s ( L iu 1 988 ) . The modern f auna o f t he r eg ion

T e r re s t r ia l v e r teb ra te s i n C h ina c omp r ise a bou t 1 0% o f t h e w o r ld 's t o ta l ( 2 ,091 s pec ie s ) o f wh ich 4 14 a r e mamma l ian s pec ie s ( Zhang 1 986 :78 -79 , T ab le 6 . 2 ) . T he s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e f a una i s a f ec ted b y t h e t o pog raphy , c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s , a nd v ege ta t ion ( A l len 1 938 -1940 :9 -15 ; Z hang 1 986 :79 -84 ; A igne r 1 981 :47 -49 ) , a nd , a sp o in ted o u t a bove , b y h uman a c t iv i t ie s . T he n o r the rn C h ine se o r P a laeoa r c t ic f a una i s d i s t r ibu ted n o r th o f t h e Q in l ing i n t h e No r thea s t a nd N o r th C h ina P la ins , t h e L oe ss P la teau , a nd i n t h e n o r thwe s te rn r eg ion s ( Zhang 1 986 :79 , 8 1 8 2 ; A l len 1 938 -1940 :13 ) . T h is t empe ra te f a una h a s b een c l a s s if ied i n to t h ree ma jo r g roup s a cco rd ing t oe co log ica lc ond i t ion s ( Zhang 1 986 :81 -83 , T ab le 6 .4 , F ig . 6 . 4 ; A l len 1 938 -1940 :9 , 1 0 -15 ) . T he o nce mo re a bundan tf o re s ta nd g r a s s land s pec ie s ,f o r e xamp le d ee r ( e .g . , C ervus e l aphu s ) , b oa r ( Sus s crof a ) , a nd r a bb i t ( Lepus mand shur icus ) h ave d ec l ined i n f r equency ( Zhang 1 986 :82 ) . I n t h e c o ld tempe ra te n o r thea s te rn h i l ls a nd moun ta ins b o th f o re s t a nd t a iga a dap t ed a n ima l s o ccu r , i n c lud ing d e e r ( e .g . , AI c es a l ce s ) , b rown b ea r ( Ur sus a r c to s ) , a nd b adge r ( Me le s m e tes ) ( Zhang 1 986 :82 ) o f w h ich many a r e s im i la r t o n o r the rn a nd c en t ra l E u ropean s pec ie s a c co rd ing t o A l len ( 1938 -1940 :10 , 197 , 117 ) . On t h e s t eppe o f e a s te rn I nne r Mongo l ia , r oden t s ( e .g . , C i te l lus s pp . a nd Manno ta s pp . ) , a nd among t h e h oo f ed h e rb ivo re s t h e Mongo l ian g aze l le ( Procapra g u t turo sa )a r et h e mos t c ommon mamma ls , wh i le e x tens ive b i rd , r ep t i le , a nd a mph ib ian p opu la t ion s a r e n o t c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h is r e g ion ( Zhang 1 986 :82 -83 ; a nd s e e A l len 1 938 -1940 :11-12 , 1 213 ; Nowak a nd P a rad i so 1 991 :1468 , 1 470 ) . T he r a re w i ld h o r se ( Equu s p r zewa l sk j i ) o ccu r s i n t h e g r a s s land s o f I nne r Mongo l ia ( A l len 1 938 1 940 :12 , 1 287 ) , a nd i sc l a s s if ied a s ar e l ic s pec ie s ( Zhang 1 986 :79 ) . T he f a una o f n o r thwe s te rn C h ina , i n c lud ing w e s te rn I nne r Mongo l ia , i sr e p re sen ted b y d e se r t a nd s em i d e se r t s pec ie s w i th h i gh p opu la t ions o f r ep t i le s , a nd f ewe r r oden t s( e .g . ,A l lac taga s p . )a nd h e rb ivo re s ( f o r i n s tance , t h e g o i te red g aze l le [ Ga ze l la s ubgu t turo sa ] a nd t h e w i ld a s s [ Equu s h em ionus ] ; Z hang [ 1986 :83 -84 ] ; A l len [ 1 938 -

T he p a lyno log ica l e v idence o f t h e l a te E a r ly /ea r ly M idd le P l e i s tocene Gongwang l ing a nd t h e e a r ly M idd le P l e is tocene C hen j iawo ( Lan t ian ) l o ca l i t ie ss ugge s t aw a rm g r a s s land a nd b r oad leaved v ege ta t ion ( Academ ia S in ica , I .V .P .P . 1 966 , a nd H sue 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :18 , 2 6 , 2 42 , F ig . 1 0 , 1 988 ) , o pen w ood land ( A igne r 1 981 :270 ) , o r ad e se r t a nd s t eppe e nv i ronmen t ( L iu e ta l . 1 986 ; A n a nd Ho 1 989 ) . T he l a te M idd le P le is tocene Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 f l o ra l d a ta i n d ica te ap redom inan t ly t empe ra te b r oad leaved f o re s t w i th s ome g ra s s land v ege ta t ion ( Va sa r i 1 960 ; H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i n

1 3

1 940 :12 ] ) c ompa red t o t h e s t eppe r eg ion ( Zhang 1 986 :83 8 4 ) .

N ihewan B a s in , w i th t h e a b rup t a ppea rance o f E lepha s s p . , E quus s p . , a nd L ep tobos s p . , i s t h ough t t o m a rk t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e P le is tocene ( e .g . , B a rbou r e t a l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :12 ; We i 1 978 ; Xu a nd Y ou

T he r e indee r( Rang if er t a randus ) i so ne o f t h e c o ld tempe ra te s pec ie s w h ich e x tend s i n r a nge t o t h e Q in l ing ( Zhang 1 986 :80 ) . T he Q in l ing moun ta in r a nge s epa ra te s t h e n o r the rn t empe ra te a nd a r id , mos t ly o pen -dwe l l ing f a una f r om t h e s ou the rn s ub t rop ica l a nd t r op ica l s pec ie s ( a lso k nown a s t h e O r ien ta l f a una ) w he re a g r ea te r v a r ie ty o f s pec ie s a nd a h i ghe r p ropo r t ion o f f o re s t a n ima ls o ccu r ( Zhang 1 986 :79 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 4 , T ab le 6 . 4 , F ig . 6 . 4 ; A l len 1 938 1940 :15 -16 ; a nd s e e L ekagu l a nd McNee ly 1 988 , F ig . 2 0 ) . A s ma l l n umbe r o f n o r the rn C h ine se a n ima ls a r e a l so f ound i n t h e s ou the rn p rov ince s ( e .g . , Macaca m u la t ta ; Z hang 1 986 :80 ) , a nd s ha re a f f in i t ies w i th S ou thea s t A s ian t a xa ( Lekagu l a nd McNee ly 1 988 :XL I I I -XL IV ,2 90 ) . 2 .3 .4 L a te P l iocene a nd P le istocene f auna l r ecords

E ar ly

a nd

1 982 ; A igne r 1 981 :15 16 ) 9 .H oweve r , t h e f i r s t a ppea rance d a tum o f t h e se s pec ie s h a s l im i ted u t i l i ty b ecau se o f b i och rono log ica l v a r ia t ion s ( Mag l io 1 975 :422 -423 ; P ope 1 982 :226 , 2 5 1 , 2 60 -264 , 3 04 -305 ) . B eg inn ing i n t h e l a te E a r ly / ea r ly M idd le P le i s tocene , t h e f a una l r eg ime s o f C h ina g r ew p r og re s s ive ly mo re d i s t inc t d u r ing t h e M idd le a nd L a te P l e is tocene a s t h e Q in l ing c r ea ted a g eog raph ica l a n d c l ima t ic b a r r ie r r e s t r ic t ing e xchange b e tween n o r the rn a n d s ou the rn C h ina ( A igne ra nd L augh l in 1 973 ; P ope 1 982 :222 , 2 51 , 1 988b :46 ; Mag l io 1 975 :445 , 4 47 ; a nd s ee L i 1 962 ) w i th t h e n o r the rn C h inese f a unae b ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly t empe ra te i n c on t ra s t t o t ho se o f t r op ica l s ou the rn C h ina ( Pope 1 982 :222 , 1 988b :69 ) . H oweve r , t h e i n c rea se i n t h e a r ea o f d r y l a nd d ue t o t h e l owe r ing o f C h inese s e a leve l s d u r ing g l ac ia l p e r iod s may h ave p rov ided o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r a n ima l m ig ra t ion a nd e xchange b e tween n o r the rn a n d s ou the rn C h ina , a nd S ou thea s t A s ia ( Pope 1 988c ; Y ang 1 986 :175 ) t h roughou t t h e P le is tocene v i a t h e e a s te rn l ow land c oa s ta l p l a in s a nd t h e No r th C h ina P la in ( Pope 1 988b :46 ; Q i 1 989 i n P ope 1 992b :247 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd 1 956 :66 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :49 , 6 2 ; Y ang 1 986 ; F ig . 9 ) .

Midd le

T he n o r the rn C h inese f o ss i l r e co rd h a s y i e lded e v idence f o r t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d i s t r ibu t ions o f L a te P l iocene a nd P le i s tocene a n ima ls , a nd h a s b een t h e b a s is f o r b r oad a s se s smen t s o f i t s a ge a nd e nv ironmen ta l c on tex t ( e .g . , A igne r 1 981 :e .g . , 1 5 -16 , 2 70 , 2 74 ; P ope 1 982 , A ppend ix B ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ; a nd s e eT e i lha rd a nd L e roy 1 942 :e .g . ,4 -6 , 5 7 ) . S tud ie s o f v e r teb ra te s t ra t ig raphy a r e f r equen t ly c on s t ra ined b y p oo r k now ledge o f s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance ( Pope 1 982 :251 ; Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . T he r a r i ty o f s ma l l mamma l s i n many f o ss i l a s semb lage s ( Pope 1 982 :227 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) may b e af unc t ion o f e xcava t ion me thods i n w h ich t h i s f a una i sn o t r e cove red ( e .g . , P ope 1 982 :227 ; a nd s e eC hap te rI ) . Mo re r e cen t ly , s ma l l f auna ( e .g . , r oden t s ) h a s b een s amp led f r om t h e L uochuan l o ess d epo s i t s ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :67 , 7 5 ) . I th a s b een p o in ted o u t ( Mag l io 1 975 :445 4 47 ; P ope 1 982 :225 -226 , 2 50 -251 , 2 61 , 2 93 , 1 983 , 1 984 ; S avage a nd R usse l l 1 983 :377 ; A igne r 1 981 :79 ) t h a t f a una l t a xonom ie s n eed t o b e r e v i sed . T h is i s , h oweve r , d i f f icu l t b ecau se many c o l lec t ions h ave p oo r p rovenance ( e .g . , t h e N ihewan f a una ; N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea r ch T eam [ 1 974 ] ; P ope [ 1 982 :248 -249 , 2 51 , 2 53 ]) , a r e o f ten w ide ly d i spe r sed i n mu seums a nd o the r i n s t i tu t ions w i th t h e ir l o ca t ion i n s ome c a se s n o t k nown a nd a c ce s s t o t h e se f r equen t ly r e s t r ic ted (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ) , w h i le s ome h ave b een w ho l ly o rp a r t ly s o ld ( e .g . , Donggu tuo ; We i Q i p e r s . c omm ) . A bso lu te d a t ing t e chn ique s a r e i n c rea s ing ly u sed t o c r ea te a mo re s ub s tan t ive c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk ( e .g . , Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; Wang 1 989 ; P ope 1 992b :246 2 47 ) , b u t t h e se t e chn ique s h ave p roduced o n ly a pp rox ima te a ge s f o r s ome o f t h e mo s t s i gn if ican t l o ca l i t ie s ( e .g . , t h e L an t ian l o ca l i t ie s ; e . g . , H an a nd Xu 1 985 ; P ope 1 988b :55 ) , w h ich i st o s ome e x ten t r e la ted t o u nce r ta in t ie s a bou t t h e s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t ( e .g . , A igne r 1 981 :1981 :274 , 2 42 ) . T he f r equen t l a ck o f i mpo r tan t d a ta l im i t r e con s t ruc t ion s o f P le is tocene e nv ironmen t s .

I mpo r tan t P l e i s tocene f o ss i l c o l lec t ions i n c lude t h e f a unae f r om t h eL an t ian l o ca l i t ie s o fG ongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo , t h e N ihewan B a s in , a nd Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 ;A igne r 1 981 :78 -82 ; P ope 1 982 , A ppend ice s Ba nd C ;H an a nd X u 1 985 ; S avage a nd R u sse l l 1 983 :354 , 3 77 ) . T he N ihewan f a una h a s b een s amp led f r om s eve ra l l o ca l i t ie s i nt h e N ihewan B a s in , a nd i sc on s ide r ed t o b e L a te P l iocene o r E a r ly P le is tocene i n a ge , a nd i n c lude s E lepha sn amad icus ( o rE .p lan if rons ? ; Mag l io 1 973 :42 ) a n d H ippar ion s p . ( Ba rbou r e t a l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd L i cen t 1 942 :56 , 6 1 ; We i 1 978 , 1 983 , 1 988 , 1 991 ; We i e ta l . 1 989 ; X u a nd Y ou 1 982 ; You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; L i Y i p e r s . c omm . ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) . T he c h rono s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t i s , h oweve r , i n many c a se s p oo r ly u nde r s tood ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea r ch T eam 1 974 ; P ope 1 982 :248 -249 , 2 51 , 2 53 ) . T h is f a una h a s b een i n te rp re ted a s r ep re sen ta t ive o f a w a rm g r a ss land e nv ironmen t( Ba rbou r 1 927b ; s ee b e low ) .

T he i mm ig ra t ion o f s eve ra l E u ropean a nd A f r ican s pec ie s ( e .g . , E lephas s p . ; Mag l io 1 975 :420 , 4 23 , 4 46 , 4 50 ) s t rong ly s ugges t s t h a t n o r the rn C h ine se f a unae w e re n o t i s o la ted d u r ing t h eP le is tocene ( Pope 1 982 :251 , 3 05 , a nd s e e P ope 1 988b :69 ; c on tra A igne r 1 976 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :223 , 1 981 :48 , 2 69 , 2 77 , 2 79 ) . F auna l a s semb lage s i n n o r the rn C h ina a ppea r t ob e mo re s im i la rt ot ho se o f E u rope a nd s ou thwe s t A s ia t h an t o t ho se o f s ou the rn C h ina a nd S ou theas t A s ia f r om t h e M idd le ( o r E a r ly ) P l e is tocene o nwa rd ( Pope 1 982 :251 , 3 13 ) . T he r e cogn i t ion o f a V i l la f ranch ian f a una i n n o r the rn C h ina , f o r i n s tance , i n t h e

1 4

T he f a una f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l l o ca l i ty o f X ihoudu , S hanx i p rov ince , i st hough t t o i d en t if y a n E a r ly P l e is tocene a s semb lage w i th P robo sc id ippar ion s i nense a n d A r ch id i skodon p lan if rons ( Ch ia a nd Wang 1 978 :71 ; A igne r 1 981 :183 ;J i a 1 985 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) , a nd w i th i t s h i ghe r f r equenc ie s o f e x t inc t g ene ra ( 47% ) a nd s pec ie s ( 1 00% ) c ompa r ed t o t h e N ihewan f a una ( 33 .33% a nd 9 3 .55% , r e spec t ive ly ) , i s t h ough t t o p r eda te t h e N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s ( Ch ia a nd Wang 1 978 :72 ; We i 1 988 ; a nd s e e H an a nd X u 1 985 ; J i a 1 980 :10 , 1 2 , 1 985 ) . I th a s , h oweve r , b een p o in ted o u t ( Pope 1 982 :165 -166 , 1 983 , 1 988b :56 ) t h a t t h e X ihoudu c o l lec t ion a l so i n c lude s M idd le P le is tocene s pec ie s ( e .g . , T rogon ther ium s p . ) , a nd t h a to t he rd a ta a r e a l so i n d ica t ive o f r e depo s i t ion ( A igne r 1 978a :194 , 1 981 :184 ; P ope 1 982 :165 1 66 , 1 983 , 1 988b :56 ; J i a 1 985 ) . T he c h rono log ica l p l a cemen to ft h er e ve r sed p a laeomagne t ic s ed imen t s ( O lduva i N o rma l E ven t ) r ema ins u n re so lved ( s ee J i a L anpo i n P ope

9

As im i la re ven th ad b een p rev iou s ly i d en t if ied ( Haug

1 9 11 :1767 ; H opwood 1 935 :47 ) i nE uropean d epo s i t s i nt h e f i r s ta ppea rance o ft h es o -ca l led V i l laf ranch ian g u ide f o s s i l s E lepha s s p . , E quus s p . , a nd L ep tobos s p .

1 988b :56 ) a nd a y ounge r a ge e s t ima te ( c . 0 . 730 my r ) i s c on s ide r ed t o b e mos t p a r s imon ious ( Pope 1 988b :56 ) . T he p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l s i gn if icance o f t h e s t eppe w i th l im i ted w ood land f a una ( e .g . , o s t r ich a nd d ee r ) ( J ia 1 980 :12 ) t h u s s e em st ob eu nce r ta in .

l o ca ted o n t h en o r the rn s i de o ft he S angganhe , a pp rox ima te ly 3 km f r om t h e N ihewan t ype s e c t ion a t X ia shagou ( f o rme r ly ,H s ia sha -kou ; B a rbou re ta l . 1 927 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :201 ; F ig . 1 7 ) . T he d i scove ry o f f o s s i l ised b one s a n d s he l ls i nt h e v i c in i ty o f N ihewan v i l lage b y t h e m i ss iona ry V icen t i n 1 921 l e d t o ar e conna is sance a nd f u r the r f o ss i l f i nds b y L icen ti n 1 924 a tX ia shagou ( L icen t 1 924 ; B a rbou r e ta t . 1 927 ) . T he se d i scove r ie s e ncou raged e x ten s ive r e sea r ch o ft h ed epo s i t s n ea rN ihewan v i l lage b yL icen t , B a rbou r , a nd T e i lha rd d eC ha rd in a nd p roduced c o l lec t ions o fv e r teb ra te a nd n on -ve r teb ra te f o ss i ls f r om 1 924 t o 1 929 ( Ba rbou r 1 924 , 1 925 ; B a rbou re ta t . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :1-2 ) . A b i f ac ia l ly f l aked c obb le a nd s eve ra l b one f r agmen t s r e cove red f r om i n s i tu V i l laf ranch ian b ed s a t X ia shagou ( Te i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :4 ) w e re i n te rp re ted a s a r te f a c tua l b y B reu i l ( 1935 ) . B reu i l ( 1935 :746 , a nd F ig . 3 ) r e f e r red t o t h ec obb le a s a" c rude h andaxe" , b u to t he r a u tho r s d i scoun ted a l s pec imen s a s n a tu ra l p i ece s ( Te i lha rd 1 935 ; P e i 1 937 , 1 939a ) , o r h igh ly q ue s t ionab le a r tef ac tua l s pec imen s ( Te i lha rd 1 94 1 :55 ; F reeman 1 977 :100 ; s e e a l so T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :4 ; b u t s e e Wang e t a t . 1 988 o n t h e ' b one t o o ls ') .

T he l a te E a r ly /ea r ly M idd le P le is tocene Gongwang l ing f a una ,L an t ian , i s ma rked b yt h ea ppea rance o fH . e r ec tus a nd a l so i n c lude s an umbe r o f o the r s ou the rn e l emen t s , f o r e xamp le ,A i luropoda s p . ( A igne ra nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :241 , 1 988 :1036 ; J i a 1 980 :17 ; P ope 1 982 :315 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) . T he f auna i si n te rp re ted a s r e p re sen ta t ive o f a ma in ly w a rm f o re s t e nv i ronmen t w i th s ome g r a s s land s pec ie s ( A igne r 1 981 :242 ; J i a 1 980 :17 ) , a l though a c co rd ing t o L iu e t a l . ( 1986 ) a nd An a nd H o ( 1989 ) t h e i s sue o f w he the r af o re s t o r o pen f a una i s r e p re sen ted h a s n o t b een r e so lved . T he e a r ly M idd le P le i s tocene C hen j iawo f a una , L an t ian , s ha re s s ome s pec ie s w i th G ongwang l ing ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; Xu a nd Y ou 1 985 ) , b u t h a s a n e xc lu s ive ly n o r the rn c ha rac te r w h ich s eems t o d ocumen t t h e p rog re s s ive e f f ec t ivene s s o f t h e Q in l ing a s a n i s o la t ing m echan i sm ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :240 ; P ope 1 982 :101 , 2 70 , 3 13 ) . T he s pec ie s c ompo s i t ion i s t h ough tt od ocumen t af o re s t -s teppe o r r e la t ive ly o pen f a una ( Chow a nd L i 1 965 i n An a nd H o 1 989 ) . E nv i ronmen ta l r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e L an t ian f a unae i sh ampe red b ecau se o f t h es ma l l n umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls o f mo s tt a xa a nd b ecau se t h e d epo s i t iona ry c on tex t may n o tb ep r ima ry ( A igne r 1 981 :274 , 2 42 , 1 978a :209 ) . T he c ave d epo s i t so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ,n ea rB e i j ing d ocumen t al a te M idd le P le is tocene f a una a n d t h e c on t inua t ion o f s ome N ihewan f o rms ' ( e .g . , E quu s s anmen iens i s ) ( e .g . , H an a nd Xu 1 985 ) . T axa r e p r e sen ted h e re i n c lude t hose t yp ica l o f t h e M idd le P le is tocene ( e .g . , C rocu ta u l t ima ) ( e .g . , Xu a nd You 1 982 ) . T he s pec ie s a r e i n te rp re ted a s af o re s t a nd g r a s s land f a una w i th t h e ma jo r i ty s ugge s t ive o f f o re s t ( A igne r 1 981 :121 , 2 70 , 2 73 , 1 988 :1054 ) , o r s t eppe a dap ta t ion ( Pope 1 982 , Append ix C , F ig . 1 ,1 988b , F ig . 4 ) . An a l te rna t ing s e quence o f g r a s s land a nd f o re s t f a una h a s a l so b een s ugge s ted ( L i a nd J i 1 981 i n A igne r 1 988 :1052 ) .

A l though t h e ma te r ia l s r e cove red f r om t h e N ihewan B a s in i d en t if ied i ta s a n i mpo r tan t a r ea o f p a laeon to log ica l a nd p o ten t ia l ly a r chaeo log ica l s t udy a lmo s t 7 0 y ea r s a go , i n ve s t iga t ion s i nt h is m i l i ta ry z one h ave u n t i l r e cen t ly b een i mpeded ( Pope u npub l . ; s e e a l so B a rbou r 1 927a ) . C h ia a nd Wang ( 1957 ; a nd s ee J i a a nd Huang 1 990 :76 , 2 0 1) r e f e r t o t o o ls d i scove red i nt h eE a r ly P le is tocene b ed o f t h e N ihewan a st h eo lde s tC h ine se a r tef ac t s( con tra P e i [ 1961b ] i n J i a a nd H uang [ 1 990 :202 ] w ho c l a ims t h a t t h e se s pec imen s r e p re sen t e o l i ths ) . A r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch i n t h e N ihewan r e sumed i nt h ee a r ly 1 970 's . As urvey i n1 972 l e dt ot h ef i nd o f as i ng le s t one a r te f ac t ( Ka i a nd We i 1 974 , G a i a nd We i 1 989b ) , a nd t h i sd i scove ry may h ave b een i n s t rumen ta l i nr e e s tab l ish ing r e sea r ch i n t h e N ihewan . F u r the r w o rk i n t h e m id , a nd l a te 1 970 's i d en t if ied a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s a t X u j iayao ( e a r ly L a te P l e is tocene ;C h ia a nd We i 1 976 ; Wang 1 989 ) , Hu tou l iang ( t e rm ina l L a te P le is tocene ; G a i a nd We i 1 977 , 1 989a ; Wang 1 989 ; s ee a l so L icen t 1 924 ) , a nd X iaochang l iang ( You e t a l . 1 978 ) . X iaochang l iang w a s d i scove red a nd p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted i n 1 978 ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) a nd D onggu tuo w a s d i scove red a nd p a r t ia l ly e x cava ted i n1 981 (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ;J i aa nd We i 1 987 ) . T he se s i te s l i e o nt h e s ou th f l ank o ft h eS anggan i nt h ee a s te rn e x t rem i ty o f t h e B a s in i n n o r thwe s te rn H ebe i p rov ince ( F igs . 1 7 , 1 8 ) . A f te r t h e l o ng i n te rva l i n wh ich n on -Ch ine se w o rke r s w e r e u nab le t oe ngage i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i n t h e N ihewan , t h e i n i t ia t ion o f w e s te rn c o -ope ra t ion b egan i n 1 988 w hen

A cco rd ing t o A igne r ( 1981 :270 ) t h e P le is tocene f a una l a s semb lage ss ugge s tt h a tf o re s tf auna w i th f ew g r a s s land a n d s t eppe a n ima ls w a s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f w a rm ( i n te rg lac ia l ) p e r iod s , a nd t h a t o pen a dap ted s pec ie s w e re mo re c ommon d u r ing c o ld ( g lac ia l ) p e r iod s . T he l o e s s f auna , i n c lud ing a v a r ie ty o f r oden t s i st hough t t o i d en t if y p e r iod ic s t eppe a n d s t eppe w ood land e nv i ronmen t sd u r ing t h eP le is tocene ( Kuk la 1 987 ) . H an a nd Xu ( 1985 ) a r gue t h a t t h e mamma l ian f o s s i l r e co rd i n g ene ra l s ugge s t s a s t eppe a nd g r a s s land e nv i ronmen t i n t h e E a r ly P le is tocene , a nd a c hange t owa rd w a rme rt empe ra tu re s a nd w ide sp read f o res t v ege ta t ion i n t h e M idd le P le i s tocene . 2 .4

P ope w i th We i Q i 1° a nd X ie F e i 11 c onduc ted a s u rvey o f t h e e xpo su re s . I n 1 990 t h e S ino -Ame r ican E xped i t ion 1 2 c a r r ied o u t e xp lo ra to ry e xcava t ions a t X iaochang l iang a nd s u rveys i n t h e v i c in i ty w h ich l e d t o t h e d i scove ry o f t h e X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang ( X iaochang l iang E a s t R idge ) l o ca l i ty ( Pope e ta l . 1 990 ) . T he mos t r e cen t e xcava t ion s o f

I ntroduct ion t o t he N ihewan B as in l oca l i t ies

T he N ihewan B a s in ( N ihowan B a s in a nd S angkanho B a s in o f a u tho r s ; B a rbou r 1 924 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :1 ; B a rbou r e ta l . 1 927 ) i s l o ca ted i n Y angyuan , Y ux ian , a n d D a tong c oun t ies o f n o r thwe s te rn H ebe i a nd n o r thea s te rn S hanx i p rov inces , n o r the rn C h ina ( 1 14 ° E x 4 0 ° N ) a pp rox ima te ly 1 50 km n o r thwe s t o f B e i j ing (We i 1 985 , 1 989 , 1 992 ; F ig . 1 6 ) . T he N ihewan l i e s o n t h ee dge o f I n ne r Mongo l ia a nd o ccup ie s t h e g r ea te r p a r t o f t h e S angganhe ( Sanggan r i ve r ) B a s in wh ich i s p a r t o f a n a r chaeo log ica l ly l a rge ly u nexp lo red e x t inc t l a cus t r ine b a s in (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ) . T he n ame i s d e r ived f r om a s ma l l f a rm ing v i l lage

1 0

I n s t i tu te o fV e r teb ra te P a leon to logy a nd

P a leoan th ropo logy , A cadem ia S in ica ,B e i j ing ,h ence fo r th a bb rev ia ted i nt h e t e x ta sI .V .P .P . I n s t i tu te o fA rcheo logy , Y angyuan ,H ebe iP rov ince 1 2

X ian L abo ra to ry o fL oess , X ian i nc on junc t ion w i th

t h eU n ive r s i ty o fI l ino is , U rbana

1 5

X iaochang l iang w e re d i rec ted b yL iY i1 3 f r om 1 990 t o 1 992 ( L i Y i t o P ope p e r s . c omm . ) . R enewed e xcava t ion s a t Donggu tuo w e re c a r r ied o u t i n 1 990 a nd 1 991 b y We i a n d C la rk ( Sch ick e t a t . 1 991) . F u r the r s u rvey s o f X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo w e re c onduc ted b y P ope a nd We i i n 1 991 , a nd b y P ope , We i , S hu t le r , a nd K ea te s i n 1 993 . T he 1 9 P a laeo l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic l o ca l i t ie s w h ich h ave s o f a r b een f o und i n t h e N ihewan B a s in (We i 1 99 1 ; T ab le 3 , F ig . 1 7 ) i n d ica te t h a t t h is a r ea w a s a n i mpo r tan t p l ace o f h om in id a c t iv i ty . T he se i n c lude t h e mos t r e cen t ly d i scove red M idd le o r E a r ly P le is tocene B an shan (We i 1 991 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) , a nd Ma l iang a nd C hen j iawan ( X ie 1 990 ; We i 1 991 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ; S ch ick e t a t . 1 991 ; P ope u npub l . ; p e r s . o bse rv . ) l o ca l i t ie s w he re a r te f ac t s h ave b een r e cove red i na s soc ia t ion w i th v e r teb ra te f o ss i ls ( F ig . 1 7 ) . 2 .5 The g eo logy N ihewan B as in

a nd l i thostrat igraphy

o f t he

T he d epo s i t s o f t h e N ihewan B a s in e x tend o ve r a n a r ea o f a bou t 9 ,000 k m 2 (We i 1 991 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) o r o ve r 2 ,000 km 2 ( Pope p e r s . c omm .) , a nd a r e e xpo sed a l ong b o th s i de s o f t h e e a s t -we s t f l ow ing S anggan ( You e t a t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; You 1 983 ; We i 1 983 , 1 985 , 1 988 , 1 989 ; F ig . 1 8 )1 4 . G eo log is t s i n fo rma l ly d i s t ingu ish b e tween t h ree s ec t ions o f t h ee xpo su re s : A : t h e N ihewan v i l lage s e c t ion o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e S angganhe V a l ley , B : S hang shagou t o t h e n o r thwe s t , a nd C : t h e D onggu tuo P la tfo rm ( a lso k nown a s C hen j iawan P l a t fo rm ; B a rbou r e t a t . [ 1927 ] , S ch ick e t a t . [ 1991] , a nd D a t ianhua P la tfo rm ; We i Q i [ p e r s . c omm . ] ) l o ca ted s ou th o ft h e S anggan (We i 1 978 ; L iu a nd X ia 1 983 , 1 989 ; F ig . 1 8 ) . T he se d epos i t s a r e d i s sec ted b y r i ve r s a nd g o rge s ( e .g . , N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ; p e r s . o bse rv . ) . T h is p a r t o f t h e b a s in i s e nc lo sed o n i t s n o r thwe s te rn s i de b y t h eX ionge r shan , o n i t s e a s te rn s i de b y t h e S h i l ishan , a nd t o t h e s ou th b y t h e N anshan moun ta in r ange s( L iu a nd X ia 1 983 , 1 989 ; F ig . 1 8 . N o te : B ecau se o f i t s m i l i ta ry s t a tu s , ad e ta i led map o f t h e N ihewan B a s in i s n o t a va i lab le f o r u se o u t s ide o f C h ina ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l l o ca l i t ie s o f X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a r e l o ca ted o n t h e Donggu tuo P l a tfo rm ( e .g . , We i 1 985 ; P ope e ta t . 1 990 ; S ch ick e ta l . 1 991 ; F ig . 1 9 ) .

T he N ihewan F o rma t ion i s u nde r la in b y p re -Te r t ia ry ( J u ra s s ic ) a nd v a r iab ly d eve loped b a semen t r ock s ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ) i n c lud ing c he r t s a nd o t he r c r yp toc rys ta l l ine r ock s ( Pope e t a t . 1 990 ) w i th a ma ss ive o u tc rop ( h encefo r th r e f e r red t o a s t h e " ma in o u tc rop" ; s e e C hap te rI I )e xpo sed b e tween X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo o n ap o r t ion o f t h e p a r t ia l ly d own fau l ted Donggu tuo P l a tform ( F ig . 2 2 ; s ee b e low ) . T he se o u tc rops c on ta in t h e r aw m a te r ia ls w h ich w e re s e lec ted f o rt o o l manuf ac tu re ( Pope e ta t . 1 990 ) .

T he N ihewan B a s in i so f t e c ton ic a nd e ro s iona l o r ig in , b u t i t ' s g eo log ica l h i s to ry i s s t i l l i n comp le te ly u nde r s tood ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea r ch T eam 1 974 ; Z hu a nd C hen 1 988 ) . I t s e vo lu t ion i s p e rhap s b e s t u nde r s tood i n t h e c on tex to ft h e g eo log ica l e vo lu t ion o f n o r the rn C h ina . T h is i s p r ima r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c on t inu ing u p l if t o f t h e H ima laya s ( Mo lna r a nd T appon ie r 1 977 ; R en M . e t a t . 1 985 :14 ) w h ich b rough t a bou t t h e u p l if t o f t h e S hanx i B lock ( Tec ton ic Map C omp i l ing T eam 1 974 ) . Y uan e t a t . ( 1991 i n P a lac io s -Fe s t u npub l . ) h ave s ugge s ted t h a t t h e N ihewan r e p re sen t s o ne o f t h e b a s ins o f t h e S hanx i G raben B a s in s ys tem . G eo log ica l c hange s a r e a l so a s soc ia ted w i th t wo t e c ton ic moun ta in c ha ins , t h e Y enshan ( o r Y anshan ) i n n o r thea s te rn H ebe i ,a nd t h e T a ihang shan i n t h e w e s te rn p a r t

T he N ihewan F o rma t ion h a s b een d i v ided i n to a n Uppe r a n d aL owe rF o rma t ion , t oge the rt o ta l l ing amax imum t h ickne s s o f6 20 m ( me t re s ; b a sed o n c o re s amp le s ) a nd 1 4 o r 1 5 b ed s d epend ing o n t h e l o ca t ion w i th in t h e B a s in ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ; Wang 1 985 ; We i 1 988 ; P ope u npub l . ; F ig . 1 9 ) . T he L owe r N ihewan F orma t ion c omp r i se s Membe r s 1 7 a nd Membe r s 8 14 r ep re sen t t h e U ppe r N ihewan F o rma t ion (We i 1 978 ; L iu a nd X ia 1 983 ; P ope u npub l . ) . T he b ed s a r e d epo s i ted i n h o r izon ta l l a ye r s , p a r t icu la r ly v i s ib le a t t h e ma rg in ( Ba rbou r e t a l . 's [ 1 927 :265 ] " e a s t e rn ma rg in" ) o f t h e B a s in (We i 1 988 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e N ihewan e xposures a r e b e tween 1 00 -150 m t h ick a nd a r ei n c l ined a t an o r thwe s te r ly a ng le o f a bou t 8 10 ° ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 985 ; We i 1 988 ) . T he e xpo su re s i n c rea se i nd ep th t owa rd t h e c en t re o ft h eb a s in , t h e S angganhe V a l ley , d ec rea s ing t owa rd i t s m a rg ins ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ; We i

1 3 1 4

o ft h ep rov ince w h ich u nde rwen t u p l if t a ti t s ma rg ins i n t h e L a te P l iocene w i th p a r t ia l e ros ion o f t h e b a sa l r e d c l ay s ed imen t s ( t he Y enshan movemen t ) , c aus ing s t ress a n d s ub sequen tf a u l t ing mos t m a rked ly i n t h e t e rm ina l P l iocene ( Ren M . e ta l . 1 985 :14 ; C hen 1 988b ) . T he se v o lcan ic e ven t s p o ss ib ly a c coun t f o r t h e b asa l t w h ich f o rms p a r t o f t h e b ed rock o f t h e D onggu tuo P la tfo rm . T he b a sa l t i s e xpo sed b e tween X iaochang l iang a nd t h e n ea rby X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang l o ca l i ty a nd b e low t h e w h i te b ed s o f t h e N ihewan F o rma t ion c l o se r t o D onggu tuo ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . E v idence o f v o lcan ic a c t iv i ty i s i n te r ca la ted i n p a laeo lake d epo s i t s o f t h e n e ighbou r ing D a tong B a s in n ea rD a tong w h ich l i e sa pprox ima te ly 1 00 km t o t h e w e s t o f t h e Donggu tuo P la tfo rm a nd i s p a r t o f t h e N ihewan B a s in ( Ba rbour a nd P ien 1 930 ; Y in 1 933 ; F ig . 1 7 ) . T he g eog raph ic l o ca t ion o ft h e N ihewan B a s in i n d ica te s t h a t i te xpe r ienced ar e la t ive ly u ns tab le g eo log ica l h i s to ry . I ti s l o ca ted w i th in a n u p l if ted r e g ion o f L a te T e r t ia ry -Qua te rna ry s ed imen t s t r ave r sed b y t h e S anggan a nd d i s sec ted a nd p a r t ly e nc lo sed b y an umbe r o f m a jo r f au l t s ( Ma e t a t . 1 986 :21 , P la te 1 ) . T he c ou r se o fo ne o f t h e se f a u l t s r uns s ou th o f t h e S anggan a nd t h e N ihewan B a s in a nd i s t i l ted t owa rd t h e B a s in ( Ma e ta t . 1 986 :46 , P la te 1 ; F ig . 2 0 ) . L iu a nd X ia ( 1983 , 1 989 ) h ave f ound s e ve ra l f a u l t s i n t h e N ihewan o f w h ich t h em a jo ro ne r uns a l ong t h e b a se o f t h e X ionge r shan ( F ig . 1 8 ) . T he a r ea o f X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo h a s mo re p r onounced f au l t ing , a nd ama jo r f au l t a l so r uns i n a n o r thea s te rn t o s ou thwe s te rn d i rec t ion a nd o ccu r s i n c l o se p rox im i ty t ot h ese l o ca l i t ie s ( L iu a nd X ia 1 983 , 1 989 ; F ig . 1 8 ) . T h is f a u l ta ppea r s t ob et e rm ina ted b y am ino ro ne a ti t s s ou thwe s te rn e nd a nd i sa l so t r ave r sed b y t h ree m ino r f a u l t s , o ne o fw h ich r uns t h rough t h e Donggu tuo P la tfo rm ( L iu a nd X ia 1 983 , 1 989 ; F ig . 1 8 ) . T h is f au l t i sp o ss ib ly r e spon s ib le f o r t h e d own -f au l t ing o f t h e l a rge s t o u tcrop a nd o f Dong Y ang ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; s e e b e low ) . T he d eep g o rges c l o se t oa nd o n t h e D onggu tuo P la tfo rm may h ave b een c au sed b y f a u l t ing ( L iu a nd X ia 1 983 , 1 989 ; Y ou e t a t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; s e eF ig s . 2 1 , 2 2 ) .

B a rbou re ta l . ( 1927 ) e s t ima te t h e s i ze o ft h e S ou th

S angkanho B a s in a t1 50 -200 km 2 ;i nT e i lha rd a nd P ive teau ( 1930 :2 ) t h eN ihowan B a s in i s2 0 km i nl e ng th a nd 1 5 km i nw id th ; i nB ae ( 1992 ) i ti sa bou t 2 50 km l o ng a nd 4 0 km w ide .

1 6

1 989 ; P ope u npub l . ) , a nd a r e l o ca l ly ' c apped ' b y t h e L a te P le is tocene Ma lan L oe s s w h ich d eve loped f r om a bou t 1 00 ,000 y ea r s a go ( L iu e ta t . 1 985 :44 , F ig . 3 . 4 ) .

l e f ts i de o ft h eS anggan [ w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e r e d c l ay s a nd t o pmo s t l o e ss ] h ave b een d e sc r ibed a s u ncon so l ida ted f l uv io lacus t r ine a nd " t o r ren t ia l" s ed imen t s b y B a rbou r e ta l . [ 1 927 :265 ] ; T e i lha rd a nd L icen t [ 1927 ] i n te rp re t t h e g r ave l l a ye r s o f t h e N ihewan B a s in a s t o r ren t ia l s ed imen t s , w h i le t h o se c on ta in ing L ampro tu la s p . f o ss i ls w e re d epo s i t ed d u r ing e i the rf l uv ia t i le o rl a cus t r ine e p isode s . )

T he c on t inuou s d epo s i t ion o f s ed imen t s s pan s t h e L a te P l iocene a nd /o r E a r ly P le is tocene t o t h e L a te P le is tocene ( e .g . , We i 1 988 , 1 989 ; C hen 1 988a ; s e e b e low ) . No f o rma l a g reemen t o n t h e d iv is ion a nd t e rm ino logy o f t h e g eo logy h a sb een r e ached . F o l low ing B a rbou r ( 1924 , 1 925 , 1 933 -34 ; a nd B a rbou re ta l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :2 ) , a n d b a sed o nr e cen ts t ud ie s o f t h e l i thos t ra t ig raphy o f t h e U ppe r a nd L owe r N ihewan F o rma t ions , t h e N ihewan b ed s h ave b een c l a s s if ied a s l o ca l ly v a ry ing p a laeo lake a nd t r ibu ta ry f l uv ia l f a c ie s( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ; We i 1 978 , 1 988 ; P ope 1 982 :245 , a nd u npub l . ; C hen 1 988b ) o f P le is tocene a ge , o r P l io -P le is tocene a n t iqu i ty i n c lud ing t h e r e d c l ay s o f Membe r 1( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 985 ) . T he p a laeo lake a ppea r s t o h ave f l uc tua ted i ns i ze t h roughou ti t s h i s to ry b a sed o n l i tho log ica l s t ud ie s a nd l o ca l i sed f au l t ing i st hough t t o h ave t e rm ina ted t h e l a ke 's e x i s tence a t a r ound 1 0 ,000 B .P . ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ) . F u r the r s t ud ie s o f t h e d epo s i t sm ay e l uc ida te t h ed i f f e ren th e igh t so ft h e f l uc tua t ing p a laeo lake . T he S anggan a nd i t ' s t r ibu ta ry , t h e Hu l iuhe ( Hu l iu r i ve r )h ave c u t t h rough t h e p a laeo lacu s t r ine d epo s i t s , a nd may b o th h ave e vo lved t h rough f au l t ing ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ) a nd /o r l a ke d e s s ica t ion ( Chen 1 988b ) . ( I n c ompa r ison , H ay 's [ 1 976 :177 -179 ] g eo log ica l s t udy o f t h e O lduva i G o rge p a laeo lake s i te s c onc luded t h a t b e s ide t e c ton ic f a c to r s c l ima t ic c hange s p robab ly a l so a ccoun ted f o rt h ev a r ia t ion i nl a ke s i ze . )

T he h eav i ly w ea the r ed r e d c he r t e xpo sed i n t h e X iaochang l iang a r ea i n a nd b e low Membe r 7 may b e s ugge s t ive o fw a te r -f low a nd i n d ica te t h ea nc ien tp o s i t ion so f f r e sh -wa te r s t reams ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . A f r e sh -wa t e r mo l lu sc ( Lampro tu la s p . )r e cove red f r om t h ec u l tu ra l h o r izon a t X iaochang l iang may d e r ive f r om a n ea rby f r e sh -wa t e r p a laeo s t ream . T he a ppa ren t a b sence o f f r e sh -wa te r mo l lu sc s a tD onggu tuo ( s ee , e . g . , We i 1 985 ; S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) m ay i n d ica te t h a tf r e sh -wa te rs t ream so r r i ve r s d i d n o t o ccu r h e r e , a l though s uch s pec imens may n o th ave b een r e co rded . L acu s t r ine o s t racod s( Non ion s hans iens is a nd S i nocy ther id ea i mpr es sa ) r e cove r ed f r om t h e u ppe r b a sa l r e d b ed s o f t h e H ongyahe ( Red C l if fR ive r )s e c t ion ( d a t ed t o a pp rox ima te ly 1 . 6 -1 .65 my r ) h ave b een i n te rp re ted a s p o ss ib ly m a r ine d e r ived t a xa (Wang a nd Wang 1 988 :62 ; C hen 1 988b ; No te : O ne o f t h e se o s t racod s i s ama r ine f o ram in if e r a cco rd ing t o P a lac io s -Fe s t

[ p e r s .

c omm . 15] ). A s t udy

o f l a cu s t r ine

o s t ra cod s( 24 s amp le s ) f ound i n t h e 1 50 m t h ick p a laeo lake d epo s i t s e c t ion a t D adaopo a bou t 5 km s ou th o f H ua shaoy ing o n t h e e a s te rn b ank o f t h e Hu l iuhe i n t h e v i c in i ty o f i t s c on f luence w i th t h e S anggan a nd n ea r t h e D onggu tuo P la tfo rm ( s ee F ig . 1 8 ) h a s c onc luded t h a t t h e N ihewan l a ke w a s h ype r -sa l ine a nd a l ka l ine t h roughou t i t s h i s to ry ( Pa lac ios -Fe s tu npub l . , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . F o ss i l ised f i sh h ave b een f ound i nt h e H u tou l iang s ec t ion o f t h e L owe r N ihewan F o rma t ion ( L iu a nd Wang 1 974 ) . T he l a rge s t s pec imens o f a mo l lusc ( L imnea s p . ) f ound d i s t r ibu t ed t h roughou t t h e l a ke d epo s i t s o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e S anggan s e emed t ob e mo s tc ommon i n t h e " l a te r h o r izon s" a nd a r ed i s t inc tf r om t ho se o f t h e l owe r h o r izons b ecau se o f t h e ir v e ry t h ick s he l ls a nd p rom inen t r i dge s ( Ba rbou r e t a t . 1 927 :272 ) . B a rbou re ta L ( 1927 )r e a son t h a tt h es ed imen t so f t h e u ppe r h o r izons may b e s ugges t ive o f i n c rea s ing a r id i ty a nd s ub sequen tl a ke e x t inc t ion .T he mo rpho logy o ft h e t h ick s he l led L imnea s p . s pec imens may h ave e vo lved i n r e spon se t oa n i n c rea se i ns a l in i ty p e rhap s a s ar e su l to ft h e d ry ing u p o ft h el a ke ( c f . ,B a rne s e ta t . 1 988 :72 ) . A s a l ine l a ke w ou ld h ave h ad i mp l ica t ions f o r h om in id a nd n on -hom in id s ub s is tence i nt h eB a s in .

T he c l ays o f Membe r 1o f t h e N ihewan F o rma t ion w e r e d epo s i t ed o n p r e -Te r t ia ry me tamo rph ic a nd i gneous r o ck s . T he se r e dc l ay s( t he " Red H ippar ion C lays" ) h ave b een d a t ed t o t h e L a te P l iocene o n a ccoun t o f H ippar ion s p . f o ss i l s f ound i n t h i s d epos i t (We i 1 978 , 1 988 ; s ynonymou s w i th t h e " Baode F o rma t ion" o f n o r the rn C h ina ; Y ang [ 1 986 :173 ] ) ,a nd f o rm p a r to ft h eL owe rN ihewan F o rma t ion (We i 1 978 ; Y ang 1 986 :173 ) . Mo re r e cen t r e sea r ch i n t h e N ihewan h a s f o und n o h ippa r ion f o s s i ls i n t h e r e d c l ay s ( Chen 1 988a ) .R ed c l ays d on o to ccu r i n t h e X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a r ea s ( Pope u npub l . , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . A n e ro s iona lu nconfo rm i ty c aused b yl o ca lf au l t ing ( a lso k nown a s t h e F en H e e ros ion ) a nd a n a u toch thonou s c ong lome ra te s epa ra te Membe r 1f r om t h e f l uv io lacu s t r ine d epo s i t s o f t h e L owe r N ihewan F o rma t ion ( Ba rbou r 1 933 -34 , 1 935 ; N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam 1 974 ; We i 1 988 ; Y ou e t a t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; P ope 1 983 , u npub l . ; s e e b e low ) . T e i lha rd ( 1937b :212 ) c o r re la te s t h e " pe r iod o f l a ke d epo s i t ion" i n n o r the rn C h ina w i th P l iocene a nd E a r ly P le is tocene d epo s i t s ( t he C h ine se " V i l la f ranch ian" ) , w i th a n u nconfo rm i ty a nd p a r t ia ll a ke d i sp lacemen ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e l a t te r p e r iod a nd l a ke e x t inc t ion o ccu r r ing a t t he b a sa l M id -P le is tocene . L iu e ta t . ( 1 986 ) c l a s s ify t h e N ihewan s ed imen t s a s a l luv ia l l o e s s d epo s i t s , a nd V i ta l iano ( i n S ch ick e t a t . 1 991 :16 ) a r gue s t h a t mo s t s ma l le r s and a nd s i l t g ra ins may r ep re sen t w ind d e r ived s ed imen t sj udg ing f r om t h e i r s i ze a nd a ngu la r s hape .

2 .6 The c hrono log ica l f ramework N ihewan l oca l it ies : I ntroduct ion

o f

t he

T he d epo s i t s o f t h e N ihewan F o rma t ion h ave b een d a ted b y b i o s t ra t ig raphy a nd p a laeomagne t ic s t ra t ig raphy . T he u ppe r l a ye r so ft h eF orma t ion i n te r -f inge r w i th t h e D a tong b a sa l t s i nt h eD a tong B a s in a nd h ave b een d a ted r a d iome t r ica l ly w i th t h e t h e rmo lum ine scence m e thod t o t h e l a te M idd le P le is tocene ( 0 .160 a nd 0 .210 myrbp ; i n L iu e t a l . 1 985 , F ig . 3 . 9 ) . Donggu tuo a nd X iaochang l iang a r e t hough t t o b e t ime e qu iva len tl o ca l i t ie s ( J ia 1 985 ; J i a a nd We i 1 987 ; We i 1 988 ; P ope u npub l . ) .

Membe r 7h a s b een i d en t if ied a s t h e c u l tu re -bea r ing d epo s i t wh ich o ccu r s a bou t 7 0 m b e low t h e Ma lan L oe ss a nd t h e c u r ren ts u r f a ce o f Guan t ing v i l lage ( You e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; P ope u npub l . ) . T h is 1 . 3 m t h ick d epo s i t h a s b een t r a ced f o r s eve ra lk i lome t re s a nd i si n te rp re ted a s al a cu s t r ine f l oodp la in a nd t r ibu ta ry s t ream h o r izon b a sed o nt h eo ccu r rence o f w e l l s o r ted c l ay s a nd s ands ( Pope u npub l . ) . ( The d epos i t s o n t h e

I5

D ep t . o fG eosc ience s , U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona ,

T ucson .

1 7

2 .6 .1

B ios tra t igraph ic s tud ies

s e e b e low ) . T he S iwa l ik f a una s ugge s t s t h a t i n A s ia H ippar ion s p . w a sr e p laced b yE quus s p . b e tween a bou t 2 . 5 3 . 5 my r a nd 1m y r ( Hu s sa in a nd B e rno r 1 984 ; E isenmann 1 975 ) . T he p ropo sed L a te P l iocene d a te o f Membe r 1i s b a sed s o le ly o n t h e p r e sence o f H ippar ion s p . (We i 1 978 ) , b u tb ecau se t h i s a n ima l a l so o ccu r s i n d epo s i t s d a t ed t o t h e P le is tocene , t h e L a te P l iocene a ge o f t h e r e d c l ay s n ow a ppea r s t ob e i n conc lu s ive ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . S ome C h ine se r e sea r che r s( e .g . ,C how a nd Z hang 1 974 :11) d a te t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e P l e i s tocene i n C h ina t o c . 3 my r a nd r e cogn ise t h ee a r l ie s t p r e sence o fH ippar ion s p . a s t h e b a sa l P le is tocene .

T he N ihewan h a ss i nce t h el a te 1 920 's b ecome e s tab l i shed a s o ne o f t h e b i o s t ra t ig raph ic t y pe s e c t ion s f o r t h e l a te L a te P l iocene /ea r ly E a r ly P le i s tocene ( V i l la f ranch ian ) o f C h ina ( s ee , e . g . , B a rbou r e t a l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :113 ; T e i lha rd 1 941 :12 14 ; P ope 1 982 :251-264 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) . T he f a una f r om t h e f i r s t i n ve s t iga t ions w a s e xcava t ed f r om 2 5 l o ca l i t ie s w i th in a c i r cumf e r ence o f 2 ,000 y a rd s o f X ia shagou a nd f r om a n u nknown l o ca l i ty n ea r N ihewan v i l lage o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e S anggan ( Ba rbou r e t a l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :1-2 ; F ig . 1 8 ) . T he X ia shagou l o ca l i ty h a s s i nce b een d e s t royed ( d ue t o r a i lway c on s t ruc t ion ; We i Q i a nd P ope p e r s . c omm . ) . T he f a una f r om t h e se l o ca l i t ie s w i th t h e i r a s soc ia t ion o f E lepha s s p . , E quu s s p . , a nd L ep tobos s p . w a s d a ted t o t h e l a te L a t e P l iocene / ea r ly E a r ly P l e i s tocene a nd c on s ide r ed r e p re sen ta t ive o f aC h ine se V i l la f ranch ian a s semb lage ( Ba rbou re ta l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 :113 ; T e i lha rd a nd L e roy 1 942 :e .g . , 4 ,6 ,5 6 -57 ) .

S ome o f t h e o r ig ina l ly d ef ined N ihewan f a una h a s b een f ound c o -a s so c ia t ed w i th a r te f a c t s i n t h e u ppe rmo s t L owe r N ihewan F o rma t ion o f Membe r 7 a t X iaochang l iang ( Pa laeo loxodon s p . , E lepha s s p . , H ippar ion s p . , P robo sc id ippar ion s p . , a nd E quu s s anmenen s i s" ,o f a bou t 1 2 s pec ie s ; Y ou e ta l . [ 1978 , 1 980 ] ; L i Y i [ p e r s . c omm . ] ; P ope [ p e r s . c omm . ] ) , a nd a t Donggu tuo ( Pa laeo loxodon s p . , E .s anmenens i s , a nd B i son s p . , o fa bou tn i ne s pec ie s ; We i e t a l . [ 1 989 ] ; We i [ 1 99 1 ] ; S ch ick e ta l . [ 1 99 1 ] ; s ee A ppend ix 5 . 1 f o r al i s to fs pec ie s ) . A n e xp lo ra to ry e xcava t ion i n 1 990 o ft h ec u l tu ra lh o r izon a tX iaochang l iang r e cove red f o s s i l i sed v e r teb ra t e b one s , i n c lud ing t wo b roken b one s ( ? B os s p . ) f r om s e c t ion A ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he r e cen te xcava t ion sb y L i Y i f ound t e e th a nd b one f r agmen t s o fH yena l i cen t i ,P robo sc id ippar ion s p . , a nd E . s anmenen s i s i n s e c t ion A ( L i Y i a nd P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . Mo re r e cen t f a una l i d en t if ica t ion o f a n ima l t a xa f r om D onggu tuo t r ench T i w a s m ade o n t h e b a s i s o f d en ta l s pec imen s ( n . 2 99 ) a mong w h ich a p r eponde rance o f h o r se ( E . s anmenen s i s ) w a s o b se rved w i th a l owe r c oun t o f r h inoce ro s ( Coe lodon ta s p . ) , e l ephan t ( Pa laeo loxodon s p . ) , c e rv id s ,b ov id s( i nc lud ing b i son ) , c a rn ivo re s ( i nc lud ing u r s id a nd c an id t a xa ) , a nd r oden t s pec imens ( Sch ick e t a l . 1 991 ; We i 1 991 ; A ppend ix 5 . 1) . F o ss i l s o fv e ry s ma l l f auna , s uch a s b i rd s w e r e e i the r n o t r e cove r ed o r n o t r e po r ted i n r e cen t e xcava t ion s ( s ee , e . g . , We i 1 978 , 1 988 ; Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . Sma l l f a una i sv e ry r a re a nd r oden t ( Myospa lax c f . f on tan ier i ) f o s s i ls w e r e r e co rd ed o n ly a tD onggu tuo (We i e t a l . 1 989 ; We i 1 991 ; S ch ick e t a l . 1 991 ; A ppend ix 5 . 1) . D e ta i led a na ly se s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo f o s s i ls , s uch a sd e te rm ina t ion o f t h e m in imum n umbe r o f i n d iv idua l s ( MN I ; s e e , e . g . , Wh i te [ 1 953 ] ) h ave n o t b een c onduc t ed ( s ee , e . g . , We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; We i Q i a nd P ope p e r s . c omm . ) .

A l though t h ee xac tp rovenance a nd c h rono log ica lp o s i t ion o f t h en o r the rn S anggan f o s s i lc o l lec t ion s a r e n o t k nown , e . g . , w he the r o r n o t t h ey d e r ive f r om a s i ng le s ynch ron ic s t ra t ig raph ic l e ve l , r e cen t r e sea r ch b a sed o n r e new ed s amp l ing i n t h is a r ea h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e e xcava t ed s ec t ion sa nd t h em a jo r i ty o f mamma l ian f o s s i ls m ay b e long t o t h e U ppe r N ihewan F o rma t ion ( N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea r ch T eam 1 974 ; P ope 1 982 :248 -249 , 2 51 , 2 53 ) . T h i s may a g r ee w i th B a rbou r ( 1927a :49 ) w ho w r i te s t h a t t h e f a una l s pec imen s " we r e a l l f ound f a i r ly h igh u p i n t h e f o rma t ion" . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se f o s s i ls w a s mo s t d en s e i n d epo s i t s d e sc r ibed a s t h e " i n te rmed ia te s a nd s a nd c l ay s" ( membe r 3 , s pec if i ca l ly i n " t he g r een L imnea s and s" , b u t u sua l ly i nr ed s andy c l ay ;B a rbou re ta l . [ 1 927 :272 , F ig . 2 ] ) . F o s s i l s w e re n o tf ound i nt h e " ba sa l R ed C lay s" ( Ba rbou r e t a l . 1 927 :272 ) . T h i s c onco rd s w i th mo re r e cen t r e se a r ch o f t h eH ippar ion r e dc l ay s( s ee C hen 1 988a ) . T he c o -o ccu r r ence o f E lepha s n amad icu s ( Pa laeo loxodon n amad icu s , We i [ 1 976 , 1 978 ] ; P a laeo loxodon s p . , We i e ta l . [ 1989 ; We i 1 99 1 ] ; ?E lepha sp lan if rons , Mag l io [ 1 973 :42 ] ) , E quus s p . , H ippar ion s p . , P robo sc id ippar ion s p . ( t he s pec ia l i sed f o rm o f h i ppa r ion ) , L ep tobos s p . , a nd P ar acame lu s s p . a ts e ve ra l l o ca l i t ie s i n t h e B a s in h a s b een u sed a s ab i o s t ra t ig raph ic ma rke r o f t h e E a r ly P l e is tocene (We i 1 978 , 1 983 , 1 988 , 1 991 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ; We i e ta L 1 989 ; X u a nd Y ou 1 982 ; Y ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ;L i Y i p e r s .

T he p o s s ib le E a r ly P le i s tocene d a te o f t h e e a r ly N ihewan f a una m ay c o r r e spond w i th t h e b io s t ra t ig r aph ic d a t e s f r om s ome o the rn o r the rn C h ine se l o ca l i t ie s , b u tt h e i n comp le te ly u nde r s tood c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk o f C h ine se v e r teb ra te s l im i t s s t ra t ig r aph ic c o r re la t ions w i th o t he r l o ca l i t ie s ( s ee P ope 1 982 :226 , 2 50 -251 , 2 61 , 1 983 ; a nd s e e a bove ) . T he p re sen t s t a te o f r e sea r ch t h u s p r ec lude s a n u namb iguou s a na ly s is o ft h e N ihewan f a una a nd i n te rp re ta t ions s hou ld b e r e ga rded a sp r e l im ina ry p r io r t o c on t ro l led e xcava t ion s a nd a r e v iew o fs p ec ie s c l a s s if ica t ions . T he b i o s t ra t ig raph ic d a t ing o fX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo b y mo s t a u tho r s i sb a sed o n t h e f o s s i l s r e cove red d u r ing t h e i n i t ia l e xp lo ra t ion s ( s ee B a rbou re ta l . 1 927 ; T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau 1 930 ) a nd d u r ing

c omm . ;H an a nd X u 1 985 )1 6 .T he a ppa ren t ly m ixed n a tu re o f t h e N ihewan f a una may t o s ome e x ten t b e af unc t ion o f l ump ing t a xa f r om s eve ra l s t ra ta i n to o ne a s semb lage ( Pope 1 982 :248 -249 , 2 51-253 , 2 60 ) . B a rbou r ( 1927b :279 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd 1 956 :77 ) c au t ioned a ga ins t c onc lud ing t h a t t h e N ihewan f a una mu s t b e t r ans i t iona l b e cau se o f " . . . the [ t empo ra l ly ] m ixed n a tu re o f t h e N ihowan m amma l ian f a una . . ." a l though n on -Ch ine se f a una l a s semb lage s ( i . e . E u ropean ) s howed n o s uch c on tempo rane i ty o f t a xa . T he a s soc ia t ion o f P robo sc id ippar ion s p . a nd E quu s s p . w a s r e cen t ly c onf i rmed a t X iaochang l iang ( L i Y i p e r s . c omm . ; 1 6

1 7

Two s i ze so ft h is s pec ie sh ave b een r e cogn ised i nt h e N ihewan . T h i s i so fc h rono log ica l ( t hough a sy e t u n re so lved )i mpo r tance a sC h ine se h o r se ss how a n i n c rea se i ns i ze t h rough t h eP le i s tocene ( Pope 1 982 :240 ) .

I nA f r ica P aracame lu s( wh ich a ppea r st ob ea

s ubgenu so fC ame lu ss p . )i sd a ted a t 3mya b efo re t h e a ppea rance o fE quu ss p .( Howe l l e ta l . 1 969 ) .B o th g ene ra may b ec on tempo raneou si nE u ra s ia ( Pope 1 982 :242 ) .

1 8

mo re r e cen t i n ve s t iga t ions ( s ee , e . g . , We i 1 988 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) . H oweve r , t h e s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e l o ca l i t ie so n t h e n o r the rn f l ank o ft h e S anggan ( e .g . , B a rbou r e t a l . 1 927 ) a nd t h o se o f t h e Donggu tuo P l a t fo rm ( Pope u npub l . ) i su nc lea r . O n t he b a s is o f r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f e x t inc t g ene ra a nd s pec ies , t h e E a r ly P le is tocene N ihewan f a una w i th i t s 3 3 .33% a nd 9 3 .55% o f e x t inc t g ene ra a nd s pec ie s i s i n te rp re ted a s y ounge r c ompa red t o t h e E a r ly P le is tocene X ihoudu f a una w i th i t s h i ghe r f r equenc ie s o f 4 7% a nd 1 00% , r e spec t ive ly ( Ch ia a nd Wang 1 978 :71-72 ; a nd s e e H an a nd X u 1 985 ) . T he r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e se f r equenc ie s i s , h oweve r , o pen t o q ue s t ion b ecause o f t h e a ppa ren t ly t ime t r an sg re ss ive n a tu re ( i . e . E a r ly a nd M idd le P le is tocene ) o f t h e X ihoudu f a una ( Pope 1 982 :165 ) . A n umbe ro fs o -ca l led a r cha ic s pec ie s f r om t h e N ihewan ( e .g . , Megan t er eon n i howanens i s ) h ave n o t b een r e co rded a te i the r X iaochang l iang o rD onggu tuo ( Han a nd X u 1 985 ; P ope a nd Howe l l 1 982 ) . H an a nd Xu ( 1985 ) h ave i d en t if ied f i ve s pec ie s w h ich a r e s im i la r i n b o th t h e E a r ly P le is tocene N ihewan a nd t h e l a te M idd le P le is tocene Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1f a unae .

s ugge s t t h a t t h e J a ram i l lo E ven t ( Norma l P o la r i ty s ed imen t s ) s e ems t oo ccu ra tc . 12 m b e low t h e b a se o f t h e Ma lan L oe s s i n t h e H ao j ia ta i s e c t ion n ea r t h e c en t re o f t h e N ihewan b a s in . P a laeomagne t ic d a t ing b y Wang ( 1988 ) a t X iaochang l iang o f5 2 s amp le s f r om a n 8 0 .9 m t h ick s e c t ion d a te s t h e e n t i re d epo s i t t o b e tween l e ss t h an 0 .730 my rbp a nd mo re t h an 1 . 8 my rbp . T he a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r i sp l a ced a t a bou t 7 0 m b e low t h e Ma lan L oes s a nd d a ted t o a pp rox ima te ly 2 .48 my rbp a nd w i th in t h e E a r ly P le is tocene (Wang 1 988 ) . R ecen t d a t ing o f t h e X iaochang l iang S ou th s e c t ion l o ca ted a bou t2 0mw e s to fX iaochang l iang e x t rac ted 2 75 p a laeomagne t ic s amp le s a t0 . 5 mi n te rva ls f r om a6 7 m d eep p rof i le ( F ig . 2 5 ) . P re l im ina ry s t udy o f t h e se s amp le s a t t wo l a bo ra to r ie s ( by Y ue L ep ing* a nd J . H i l lhouset 19) s ugge s t t h a t t h e c u l tu ra l l e ve l a t X iaochang l iang ( F ig . 2 6 ) l i e s b e low t h e B runhe s - Ma tuyama b ounda ry a nd w i th in o r b e low t h e J a ram i l lo s ub -ch rono logy ( Yue a nd H i l lhouse t o P ope p e r s . c omm . ) . P a laeomagne t ic s amp les s e c t ioned a t 1 m i n te rva ls a tt h e C hen j iawan a nd H uo j ia ta i l o ca l i t ie s f i ve k m f r om D onggu tuo h ave b een d a ted t o a bou t 1 myr ( We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; B rown a nd H i l lhou se t oP ope p e r s . c omm . ; S ch ick e ta l . 1 99 1) .

An ew l o ca l i ty c .3 00 m t o t h e s ou thea s t o fX iaochang l iang a nd a bou t 1 0 m l owe r t han t h e c u l tu ra l l a ye r , d e s igna ted a s X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang , w a s d i scove r ed d u r ing as u rvey o f t h e a r ea i n 1 990 ( Pope e t a l . 1 990 ) . O n t h e b a s is o f p re l im ina ry o bse rva t ions , Dong Y ang , w h ich i ss i tua ted o n a s t eep s l op ing p romon to ry , a ppea r s t o b e as ub s tan t ia l f o ss i l l o ca l i ty ( F ig . 2 3 ) . A 6m d eep t r ench c on ta ined t h ree w e l l d ef ined a nd v e ry d en se f o ss i l if e rous l a ye r s i n c a lca reou s s i l t

A n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c h rono log ica l p l acemen t o f X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo i sc omp l ica ted b y d i ve rgen t i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p l acemen t o f p a laeomagne t ic e ven t s i nC h ina . C heng e ta t . ( 1978 ) a nd L iu e ta l . ( 1 985 , F ig . 3 . 9 ) d a te t h e b ounda ry o f t h e Uppe r a n d L owe r N ihewan F o rma t ion a t a pp rox ima te ly 2 .48 myrbp . Y ou e t a t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) p l ace t h e h ighes t s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o fH ippar ion s p . a tc . 2myr a nd a rgue t ha t t h e b a se o fn o rma l ly magne t ised d epo s i t s a bove Membe r 7i s t i me e qu iva len t w i th t h e O lduva i No rma l E ven t a t c . 1 . 85 myr . Wang ( 1 988 ) a nd C hen ( 1988a , b ) d a te t h e H ippar ion i e d c l ay t o b e fo re 3 . 10 my rbp , t h e E a r ly P le is tocene t o 0 . 970 3 . 10 m y rbp , a nd t h e M idd le P le is tocene t o 0 .200 -0 .970 mybp . Y ang ( 1986 :174 ) p l ace s t h e b a sa l P le is tocene a t 1 . 8 my rbp a nd c o r re la te s t h is w i th t h e s t ra t ig raph ic b ounda ry o f t h e U ppe r a nd L owe r -M idd le N ihewan F o rma t ion ( n o te : Y ang [ 1 986 :174 ] p l ace s t h e b a sa l Ma tuyama a t 1 . 8 my rbp , a l though t h is r e ve r sa l o ccu r r ed a t c . 2 .48 myrbp [ s ee Mank inen a nd D a lrymp le 1 979 ] ) . T he r ea son ing f o r t h e p l acemen t s b y L iu e t a l . ( 1985 :44 , 1 74 ) a nd Y ang ( 1986 :174 ) i s t h e c o inc idence o f t h e se b ounda r ie s w i th a n a b rup t c hange i n c on t inen ta l mamma ls a nd o cean ic f o ram in if e ra . T he b a se o f t h e N ihewan F orma t ion i s p l a ced a tc .3 . 10 myr b a sed o n d a t ing a t Hongyannangou (Wang 1 988 ; C hen 1 988b ) . B a sed o n p a lyno log ica l d a ta f r om t h e N ihewan B a s in ( s ee b e low ) , S ong e t a l . ( 1985 ) d a te t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e P le is tocene a t2 . 5 -3 .1 my r , t h a t i s a t t h e a pp rox ima te b ounda ry b e tween t h e H ippar ion r e d c l ay a nd t h e l owe s t l a ye r o f t h e N ihewan F orma t ion . T he l owe r b ounda ry o f t h e Q ua te rna ry ( i . e . t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e r e dc l ay a nd l o e s s ) i st hough t t o d a te t o c .2 .4 myrbp b a s ed o n t h e p a laeomagne t ica l ly d a t ed L a te P l iocene a nd P l e i s tocene L uochuan l o e ss -pa laeo so l d epo s i t s , S haanx i p rov ince ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :24 , 4 4 ) . A t a d ep th o f 1 07 .40 -113 .10 m ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ) w i th t h e

s ed imen t w i th a pp rox ima te ly 5 0 -60 s pec imens p e r 6 0 c m2 s epa ra ted v e r t ica l ly b y 1m i n te rva ls a nd l o o se ly c onso l ida ted o r ange s a nd s ( F ig . 2 4 ) . T he f a una l e l emen t s ( po s t -c ran ia l b one s ,j aw s a nd t e e th ) s how v i r tua l ly n o s i gns o f w ea the r ing o ra b ra s ion ,a nd g naw ma rks s eem t ob ea b sen t ; s ome o f t h e b one s w e r e i n ab roken c ond i t ion . P robo sc id ippar ion s p . , E lepha s s p . , a nd C oe lodon ta s p . w e re i d en t if ied i n t h e f i e ld ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; P ope e t a l . 1 990 ; p e r s . o bse rv . ) . T he Dong Y ang d epos i t s may r ep re sen t a l luv ia l s ed imen t s o f s h if t ing d e l ta ic e nv i ronmen t s i n ap oss ib ly d own -f au l ted a r ea ( Pope u npub l . ) . O the r o ccu r rence s o f f o ss i l ised v e r teb ra te b one s w e r e n o ted n ea r Dong Y ang ( Pope a nd B akken p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he s im i la r i ty o f t h e t h ree Dong Y ang s p e c ie s t o X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo s ugge s t s a s im i la r a ge r a nge f o r t he Dong Y ang f a una , a nd f u r the r r e sea rch h e r e may c on t r ibu te t o i d en t ify ing t h e v a r ie ty o f a n ima ls i nt h e a r ea a tt h e t ime o fh om in id o ccupa t ion . 2 .6 .2

P a laeomagnet ic s tud ies

A l though n o c on sensus h as b een r e a ched o n t h e a ge o f t h e a r tef ac t a nd f o ss i l b ea r ing l a ye r s o f Membe r 7 a t X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo , a l l r e sea r che r s h o ld t h e o p in ion t h a tt h ey a r e o l de r t h an t h e J a ram i l lo E ven t ( Cheng e ta t . 1 978 ;J i a a nd We i 1 987 ; We i 1 988 , 1 989 ; Y ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; L i a nd Wang 1 985 ; We i e ta l . 1 985 ; P ope e ta t . 1 990 ; Wang 1 988 ; C hen 1 988a ; S ch ick e ta l . 1 991 ; C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 )e s tab l ished a tb e tween 0 . 900 -0 .970 my rbp ( s ee Mank inen a nd D a lrymp le 1 979 ) .

X iaochang l iang ) o n t h e ma rg in o ft h eb a s in , 9 6md ep th , 2 57 s amp le s , 2 .48 myr ; 2 .l owe rC hengq iang s ec t ion , u nd i sc lo sed d ep th , 1 00 s amp le s , 2 . 48 myr ; 3 .H ao j ia ta i s e c t ion n ea rB a s in c en t re , 12 m d ep th , 2 57 s amp le s , p o s s ib le J a ram i l lo e ven t( L i a nd Wang 1 985 ) .

T he p a laeomagne t ic r e su l t so fL i a nd Wang ( 1985 ) w h ich a r e b a sed o n6 14 o r ien ted s amp les d e r ived f r om t h ree s e c t ions l8

18

1 .Y angshu izhan o r Nangou s e c t ion ( 1 .5 k m s ou th o f

19 * X ian L abo ra to ry o fL oe ss a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s , X ian ; tU .S . G eo log ica l S u rvey , Men lo P a rk .

H ongyan v i l lage , l e f tb ank o ft h e Hu l iu R ive r , c . 2k m f r om

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l owe r b ounda ry a t 16 .25 m ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :41) a t L uochuan (Wucheng L oe s s ) N o rma l P o la r i ty s amp le s a r e i n te rp re ted a st h eO lduva iE ven t ( c . 1 . 67 -1 .87 myrbp ) . B a s ed o n p re l im ina ry p a laeomagne t ic r e su l t s f r om t h e se s e c t ions t h eB runhe s - Ma tuyama b ounda ry ( t he b a sa l s o i l i sS 7 o r S 8 , a l though t h es t ra t ig raph ic d a tum i sn o t c omp le te ly r e so lved , s i nce t h e f o rme r w a s o b se rved i n t h e H e imugou s ec t ion o f L uochuan a nd t h el a t te ri nL uochuan Qun 2 2c o re ; L iu e ta L [ 1985 , F igs . 3 . 1A , 3 . 4 ] ; a nd s e e Q i [ 1989 :279 , F ig . 1 2 -1 ] ; P ope [ 1992b :247 -248 , F ig . 2 ] , a l though Kuk la [ 1 987 ] p l ace st h eb ounda ry a tL 8 , t h e u ppe r p a r t ) o ccu r s a t ad ep th o f 5 2 .3 m ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :40 -41 , F igs . 3 . 1A , 3 .4 , 6 .8 ; 5 3 .05 m i nL iu a nd D ing 1 984 ) b e low t he b a se o f t h e L a te P le is tocene Ma lan L oe s s . T he J a ram i l lo E ven t w a s r e co rded a t ad ep th b e tween 6 6 .25 -70 .5 m ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :40 -41 , F ig s . 3 . 1A , 3 . 4 ; 6 7 .3 -72 .5 m i n L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ) ( e qu iva len t w i th L 10 -S11 l o e ss a nd s o i l p rof i le s , L 10 a t 0 . 90 myrbp a nd S 11 a t0 . 970 my rbp ) t h roughou t n o r the rn C h ina a cco rd ing t oL iu e ta l . ( 1985 :40 -41 , F igs . 3 . 1A , 3 .4 ; s e e F ig . 1) . T he B runhe s -Ma tuyama b ounda ry c o inc ide s w i th o xygen iso tope s t age 1 9 /20 a nd t h e J a ram i l lo E ven t o ccu r s i ns t age s2 1 a nd 2 2b a sed o n t h e mos t r e cen t f i nd ing s ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :174 , F igs . 3 . 5 , 6 . 8 ; Q i 1 989 , F ig . 1 2 -1 ; P ope 1 992b , F ig . 2 ) . T he c u l tu ra l l a ye r o f X iaochang l iang a nd t ho se o f Donggu tuo may c o r re spond t ot h e l owe r p a r t o f t h eL owe rL ish iL oe ss o n t h eb a s is o fd ep th c o r re la t ion w i th t h e L uochuan s ec t ions . T he e a r l ie s t a ge o f t h e L a te P le is tocene Ma lan L oe s s a t c . 1 00 ,000 y ea r s a go i s c a lcu la ted u s ing a n a s sumed r a te o fs ed imen ta t ion ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :22 , 4 4 , F ig . 3 . 4 ) . T he p a laeomagne t ic H e imugou r e su l t s a g ree w i th t h e rmo lum ine scence a nd u ran ium se r ie s d a te s , a nd a l so w i th t h e b i o s t ra t ig raph ic r e co rd f r om L uochuan . S ed imen ta ry a nd c h rono log ica l c o r re la t ion s b e tween t h eL uochuan s e c t ion a nd t h eN ihewan B a s in ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :44 ) s hou ld b e r e g a rded a s p o ss ib ly i nd ica t ive f o r d e te rm in ing t h e a ge o f t h e N ihewan s ed imen t s u n t i l t h e f o rma t iona l h i s to ry o ft h eN ihewan B a s in h a sb een s t ud ied i n g r ea te r d e ta i l . S t ra t ig raph ic c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e l o e s s p a laeo so l s equence a nd t h e N ihewan B ed s i sc omp l ica ted b y t h ep re l im ina ry n a ture o f i n ve s t iga t ions , a nd b ecau se n e i the r p a laeoso ls n o rl o e ss ( e xcep tf o rt h e Ma lan l o ess ) h ave a s y e t b een i d en t if ied i n t h e l a ke d epo s i t s ( a nd Yue L ep ing p e r s . c omm . ) , a l though t he l a cus t r ine s i l t , c l ays , a nd s and s o f t h e N ihewan may b e p a r t ly l o e s s -de r ived s ed imen t s . T he c onc lus ions r e a ched b y L i a nd Wang ( 1985 ) a nd Wang ( 1988 ) d o n o t c onco rd w i th t hose e s tab l ished i n t h e L uochuan s ec t ion a nd m ay b e a t t r ibu tab le t o l o ca l s ed imen ta ry v a r ia t ions .

l a ndscape w i th s pa r se t r ee g row th , p o ss ib ly t o al a rge e x ten t t h er e su l to fh uman a l te ra t ion . T he a va i lab le e v idence s f o r p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l r e cons t ruc t ions o f t h e N ihewan i n c lude s ed imen ta ry , p o l len a nd s po re , a nd f a una l d a ta . T he a l te rna t ion o f s i l t s , f i ne a nd c oa r se g ra in s a nd s a t t h e X iaochang l iang ( F ig . 2 6 ) a nd Donggu tuo ( Tab le s 4 , 5 ) l o ca l i t ie s , a nd t h e p re sence o f c a lca reou s s a nd h o r izons a t X iaochang l iang ( F ig . 2 6 ) s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t h ese s ed imen t s a r e t h e p roduc t s o f c on t inua l ly a l te rna t ing d epo s i t iona l l a cus t r ine a nd f l uv ia l p a laeoenv i ronmen t s ( Pope u npub l . ) . A t X iaochang l iang c a lca reou s s a nd w a s f o und i n f i ve o r s i x l a ye r s a bove t h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon , i n c lud ing o ne w h ich c ap s t h e a r chaeo log ica ll a ye r( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; F ig . 2 6 ) . C he r t n odu le sf ound b e low t h el o e ss l a ye ra tD onggu tuo ( Sch ick e t a l . 1 991) w e r e p rev ious ly i d en t if ied a s c a lca reou s n odu le s (We ie ta l . 1 985 , 1 989 ) . T he f o rma t ion o fc a lca reou sn odu le s g ene ra l ly o ccu r sd u r ing w a rm c l ima t ic e p isode si nc l ea rw a te r (Wh i t ten a nd B rook s 1 987 :267 ) , a nd t h e se n odu le s c an b e s ugge s t ive o f w e t e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions ( Po t t s 1 988 :193 ) . P a lyno log ica l i nves t iga t ions h ave b een c a r r ied o u t a t a n umbe ro fl a ke d epo s i t s i n t h e N ihewan . S po res a nd p o l len s amp led b y L uo e t a l . ( 1988 ) d e r ive f r om f ou r P l iocene /P le i s tocene o r P le is tocene l o ca l i t ie s ( Danangou , P u lu , H ongyannangou , X iaoduoun , X iaochang l iang ) l o ca t ed w i th in 2 -5 km o f t h e Donggu tuo P la tfo rm w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fX iaochang l iang .I nt h eE a r ly P le is tocene p o l len p rof i le s ( Luo e ta l . 1 988 ) d a ted t o 0 .970 -3 .10 myrbp (Wang 1 988 ; C hen 1 988a , b ) t r ee p o l len a ccoun t f o r 1 . 5% -23% o f t h ep o l len ,a nd p ine ( P icea s p . a nd A b ies s p . ) a ppea r s f o r t h e f i r s t t ime i n t h e N ihewan B ed s , a s soc ia ted w i th a r i se i n h e rbaceou s p l an t s , c omp r is ing b e tween 7 6 .6% -97% o f t h e p o l len ( Luo e t a l . 1 988 ) . T he se p o l len p rof i le s r e p re sen t t h ree p o l len z one s a nd 1 5 -16 a l terna t ing c o ld a nd w a rm c l ima t ic s t age s ( Luo e t a l . 1 988 ) . T he p o l len p rof i le o f Membe r 7a t X iaochang l iang w i th a p o l len c oun t o f 4 27 g ra ins i n c lude sa lmo s t e qua l p ropo r t ions o f t r ee p o l len w i th 5 1% ( i nc lud ing C h ine se f i r a nd p ine ) a nd h e rbaceou s p o l len w i th 4 8% ( i nc lud ing g ra ss ; L uo e t a l . 1 988 ) . T he M idd le P le is tocene ( 0 .970 -0 .200 mybp ; Wang 1 988 ; C hen 1 988a , b ) p o l len p rof i le s s how s im i la r s pec ie s a nd f r equenc ie s o f a rbo rea la nd n on -a rbo rea lp l an t sa nd 3 -4 a l ter na t ing w a rm a nd c o ld c l ima t ic h o r izons ( Luo e ta l . 1 988 ) . E a r ly P le i s tocene s po re -po l len f r om t h e p e r i lacus t r ine d epos i t s a bove t h e r e d c l ay ( o fP l iocene a ge ) a tN angou l o ca ted o n t h e l e f t b ank o f t h e H u l iuhe a nd c . 2 km f r om t h e Donggu tuo P la t form i n c lude ma in ly c on if e rou s s pec ie s ( e .g . , P inus s p . ) w i th a l ow f r equency o f h a rdwood s ( i nc lud ing Q uer cu s s p . ) , a nd s t eppe p l an t s ( e .g . , A r tem is ia s p . ) ( Zhou e t a l . 1 983 ; L iu 1 988 ; F ig . 2 7 ) . T he v ege ta t ion p a t te rn i st hough t t o r e f le c t a l te rna t ing c o ld a nd mo is t , t o c o ld a nd d ry , a nd c o ld a nd mo is t c l ima te s a pp rox ima te ly 4 %10 ° b e low t h e p re sen t d a y t empe ra tu re ( Zhou e t a l . 1 983 ) . T he n umbe r o f g r a in s e xam ined ( e .g . , P inus s p . n .2 5 , C henopod iaceae n .3 )( Zhou e ta l . 1 983 ) i ss ma l l ( F ig . 2 7 ) . Av e ry s im i la r l i s t o f s pec ie s s ucce s s ions o f t h e E a r ly P le is tocene N ihewan F o rma t ion , a nd t h e s ame c l ima t ic a nd v ege ta t iona l p a t te rn h a s b een i d en t if i ed i n t h e Y angyuan B a s in o f t h e N ihewan B a s in ( Tang e ta l . 1 981) .

T he d a te s f r om X iaochang l iang a nd c ompa r ison w i th p re l im ina ry r e su l t so f t h e m agne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty d a ta ( e .g . , P ope e ta l . 1 990 ) a nd f r om C hen j iawan a nd Huo j ia ta i ( e .g . , S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) , a nd c o r r e la t ion w i th t h e p a laeomagne t ic a nd i s o top ic p rof i le s o f t h e L uochuan s ec t ion ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 , F ig . 3 . 9 ) i nd ica te a n a ge o fa bou t 0 .900 -0 .970 my r o r o lde rt han 0 .970 my rf o rX iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo . 2 .7 The p a laeoc l ima t ic a nd p a laeoenv iron menta l b ackground T he N ihewan B a s in i sl o ca ted w i th in t h e s ubhum id w a rm t empe ra te t o s em i -a r id c l ima t ic r eg ion o f n o r the rn C h ina w i th b road leaved d ec iduou s f o re s t a nd s t eppe v ege ta t ion ( Zhang 1 986 :120 ) . T he s umme rc l ima te i sh o t w i th f r equen t a nd h eavy r a infa l l s ,a nd t h e w in te r s a r e c o ld a nd a r id ( Zhang 1 986 :119 ; S un 1 989 :4 .3 ) . I t i s a l a rge ly a g r icu l tu ra l

A tt h eH u tou l iang s ec t ion wh ich i sl o ca ted n ea r N angou t h e s ma l l p o l len a nd s po re s amp les f r om t h e Uppe r N ihewan F o rma t ion i n c lude c on if e rous , s h rub , a nd h e rb s pec ie s ( i nc lud ing P inus s p . , A r tem i s ia s p . , C henopod iaceae , a nd

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C ruc if e rae )( L iu 1 980 ) . T he E a r ly P l e i s tocene p rof i le o f t h e L owe rN ihewan F o rma t ion w i th t h e t o p b i o s t ra t ig raph ica l ly a nd p a laeomagne t ica l ly d a ted t o 2 . 41 myr i s b a sed o n a n a bundan tp o l len a nd s po r es amp le w h ich i sd i v ided i n to t h r ee z one s , Z one sI to I If r om b o t tom t ot o p ( L iu 1 980 ; s e e a l so L iu 1 988 ) . I n Z one Ic on if e rou s t r ee s ( P inus s p . , 4 0 -80% a nd P i cea s p . , 1 8 -45% ; a l so A b ie s s p . , P odocar pu s s p . , C ed rus s p . , T suga s p . , a nd C up re s sa cea e ) a r e mo s t a bundan t w i th u p t o mo re t h an 9 5% o f t h e p o l len , w i th t h e b a lance i n c lud ing b r oad leaved t r ee s ( T i l ia s p . , U /mus s p . , a n d Q uer cu s s p . ) a nd f e rn s ( L iu 1 980 ) . H e rba ceou s s pec ie s ( ma in ly A r t em i s ia s p . , C henopod ium s p . , a nd C ruc if e ra e ; a l so G ram ineae , C ype raceae , C ompo s i tae , R anuncu laceae , a nd o t he r s )a r et h em o s tc ommon c omponen ti nZ one I w i th mo r e t h an 7 0% o f t h e p o l len , a nd mo re b r oad leaved t r ee s ( e .g . , B e tu la s p . , 1 6% , Q uer cu s s p . , 1 5% , U /mus s p . , 1 3% , T i l ia s p . , C e l t i s s p . , A cer s p . , a nd S a l ix s p . ) a r e i d en t if i ed t h an i nZ one I ,w h i le a qua t ic p l an t s a nd f e rn s a r e l e a s t a bundan t ( L iu 1 980 ) . T he Z one I I s amp le i s v e ry s im i la rt oZ one Ie xcep tf o rt h ep re sence o fC up re s saceae a n d h e rba ceou s s pec ie s ( L iu 1 980 ) . T he p r edom inance o f c on if e rou s p o l len i n Z one s Ia nd 1 1 may i n d ica te c o ld c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s( L iu 1 980 ) , w h i le t h eh ighe rf r equency o f h e rbaceou s p l an t s i n Z one I s ugge s t s d r y c ond i t ion s . H oweve r ,L iu ( 1980 )a r gue st h a tf u r the rs t ud ie sa r e n ece s sa ry b e fo r e t h e p o l len o f Z one s Ia nd I l c an b e i n te rp re ted a s r ep re sen t ing e i the rg l a c ia l o r i n te rg lac ia l c ond i t ions , b ecau se o fu nce r ta in t ie sr e ga rd ing t h ec l ima t ic t o le rance o fc on if e rou s v ege ta t ion .T he s e quence o fc on if e rou s -he rbaceou s -con if e rou s v ege ta t ion s ugge s t s c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion s i n t h e N ihewan ( L iu 1 980 ) . S ong e ta l . ( 1985 ) s ugge s tt h a t Z one Ir ep re sen t s t h e f i r s t p e r iod o fc l ima t ic c oo l ing w i th a n a ge o f 2 . 5 -3 .1 myr . T he e nv i ronmen ta l s i gn if icance o f Z one I i s d i spu t ed ( L iu 1 988 ) . T h i s z one i st h ough t b y s ome a u tho r s ( Zhou e t a l . 1 983 ; C ao e ta l . 1 983 i nL iu 1 988 ) t o c o r re spond t o t h e " a lp ine t u nd ra " o f t h e n o r the rn C h ine se moun ta ins , a nd t o r e p r e sen t t h e c o lde s t p e r iod o f t h e g l a c ia l Z one s 1 3 . O the r a u tho r s( L iu a nd T ang 1 980 ;X ia a nd L iu 1 984 i n L iu 1 988 ) a r gue t h a t Z one I r e p r e sen t s as t eppe e nv i ronmen t , a nd b y i mp l ica t ion w a s f o rmed i n r e la t ive ly a r id a nd w a rm c ond i t ion s( L iu 1 988 ) . I ti su nc lea r i ft h e E a r ly P le is tocene N angou a nd H u tou l iang p o l len p rof i le s a r e o f t h e s ame a ge ( L iu 1 988 ) . P o l len c o l le c t ed f r om t h e C henqu iang l o ca l i ty s how c ompa rab le v ege ta t iona l c hange s t o N angou a nd H u tou l iang ( L iu a nd T ang 1 980 i nL iu 1 988 ) . B ecau se o ft h e p re sen tl o ca t ion o fH u tou l iang ( L iu 1 988 ) a nd t h e N ihewan B a s in i n g ene ra l i n t h e v i c in i ty o f b o th f o re s t a nd s t eppe e nv i ronmen t s , i tw ou ld m ake t h e p o l len d a ta s u scep t ib le t o c hange s i n p rec ip i ta t ion , a nd L iu ( 1988 ) a r gue s t h a t a s a t isfac to ry i n te rp re ta t ion c an o n ly b e a ch ieved i fb o th mo re f o ss i lp o l len d a ta a r ec o l lec ted a sw e l l a s mode rn p o l len r a in f r om t h e n o r the rn C h ine se s t eppe sa nd a l p ine t u nd ra . A c ompa r i son b e tween t h e N ihewan f l o ra a nd t h e p r e sen t e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s o f s im i la r p l an t s s how s ar a ng e f r om c o ld a nd t empe ra t e n o r the rn t o t r op ica l w i th a p redom inance o f n o r the rn t empe ra te s pec ie s ( s ee A ppend ix 5 . 3 ) .B ecau se t h ep o l len i d en t if ica t ion sa r ei n many c a se s n o t t o s pec ie s l e ve l , a nd i ns ome c a se s n o t t o g enu s l e ve l , a nd b ecau se o ft h eu sua l ly s ma l ls amp le s ( ar e p re sen ta t ive p o l len s amp le s hou ld c on ta in 2 00 -500 i d en t if iab le g r a in s ) t h is m ay l im i t e co log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions ( s ee , e . g . , B u tze r 1 993 :173 , 1 75 ) . T he N ihewan f o s s i l p o l len h ave n o t b een c ompa r ed t o moder n p o l len r a in r e co rd s ( L iu 1 988 ) , a me thodo logy c on s ide red p r e r equ i s i te t o v a l id i n te rp re ta t ions ( Bu tz e r 1 993 :175 ; L iu 1 988 ) . F u r the rmo re , f o s s i l p o l len a s semb lage sa r es ub jec tt o an umbe r o f mod ify ing p roce s se s

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s i nce t h e t ime o f b u r ia l i n as ed imen t , i n c lud ing p o s s ib le p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance ( e .g . , w ind a nd w a te r t r anspo r t ) , a nd t h e d i f f e r en t ia l p re se rva t ion o f p o l len w h ich r e su l t s i n t h e b u r ia l o f o n ly a v e ry s ma l l p a r t o f a n a s semb lage ( Bu tze r 1 993 :178 , F ig . 1 0 .1) . P ines p roduce a h i ghe r n umbe r o f p o l len c ompa r ed t o mo s t o the r s pec ie s ( Bu tze r 1 993 :180 ) a nd t h is i si mpo r tan t i n v i ew o f t h e h igh f r equency o f t h e se p l an t s i n t h e s amp le s ( s ee a bove ) . T he mo rpho logy o f c e r ta in s pec ie s , i n c lud ing p i ne a nd s p ruce a l low s t h e i rg r a in s t ob e d i spe r sed o ve r l a rge r d i s tance s t h an o t he r s p ec ie s , w h i le t h e p o l len o f s ome p l an t s ( s uch a s p op la r a nd b i r ch ) d e cay a t af a s t r a te a nd a r e a s ar e su l t n o t w e l l r e p r e sen ted ( Bu tze r 1 993 :180 ) . A p o in t o f p a r t icu la r s i gn if i cance t o t h e N ihewan i s t h e d i f f e ren t ia l s u rv iva l o f p o l len i nl a cu s t r ine s ed imen t s w h ich c r ea te s g ap s i n p o l len p ro f i le s( s ee B u tze r 1 993 :181) .T he se f a c to r si n t roduce b i a se s i n to p o l len s amp le s , a nd i ti st h u s d i f f icu l t t o e s t ima te t h e r e p re sen ta t ivene s s o f t h e p o l len f o r r e con s t ruc t ion s o f t h e p a s t v ege ta t ion i n t h e N ihewan B a s in . T he e v idence f r om X iaochang l iang w i th a lmo s t e qua l f r equenc ie s o f t r ee s ( i nc lud ing p i ne )a nd h e rbaceou sp l an t ss e em s t o b e t h e mos t i n fo rma t ive e v iden ce f o r v ege ta t ion a tt h e t ime o f h om in id o ccupa t ion b ecau se o f t h e i r p os i t ion i n t h e s ame h o r izon i n w h ich t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r o ccu r s ( i . e . Membe r 7 ) a nd t h e i rr e la t ive ly h i gh p o l len c oun tb a sed o n t h ea va i lab le d a ta . T he f a una c omp r i se s s l igh t ly h i ghe r f r equenc ie s o f g r a s s land a dap t ed a n ima l s ( e .g . , H ippar ion s p . , E quu s s anmenen s i s ) c ompa r ed t o f o re s t ( Pa laeo loxodon s p . ) , s t eppe ( e .g . , Myo spa lax c f . f on tan ier i ) , w ood land ( Cer vu s s pp . ) , a nd f o re s t a nd s t eppe s pec ie s ( B i son s p . ) b a sed o n f o s s i l a s soc ia t ion sa nd e x tan tc ompa r ison s ( s ee A ppend ix 5 . 1) . T he f a una a l so i n c lude so ne ( Can i ss p . )o r mo re e u ry top ic s pec ie s ( H yaena l i cen t i , a nd p o ss ib ly a l so H yaena s p . ) . H ippar ion s p . i s ag r a ze r a nd a dap t ed t o g r a s s land e nv i ronmen t s ( S imp son 1 951 :185 -188 , 2 08 ; K u r t6n 1 968 :32 ) , a l though t h is a n ima l h a s b een s amp led f r om b o th s t eppe a nd f o re s t f a unae i nn o r the rn C h ina ( Ku r t6n 1 952 :15 -16 ; s e e A ppend ix 5 . 2 ) .T he p a laeomagne t ic a ge o fh i ppa r ion a tX iaochang l iang ( a nd o n c h rono s t ra t ig raph ic g round s a t D onggu tuo ) m ay i n d ica te t h a t i tr e p re sen t s p a r t o f ar e l ic t p opu la t ion ( s ee , e . g . , Mag l io 1 975 :422 ) , p o ss ib ly i n d ica t ing f a vou rab le e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions f o r i t ' s s u rv iva l i n t h i s p a r t o f C h ina . T he c l ima t ic t o le rance o f s ome s pec ie s r a nge s f r om c o ld a nd a r id ( Myo spa lax c f . f on tan ier i o f t h e Myo spa lax s pp . g enu s ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :72 , F ig . 4 . 1 ; K uk la 1 987 ) t o t empe ra t e o r w a rm ( Coe lodon ta a n t iqu i ta t i s ; A igne r 1 981 , A ppend ix 3 ) . T he f o ss i l a s soc ia t ion s m ay i n d ica te a m ixed e nv i ronmen t w i th ma in ly g r a s s land a nd o r s t eppe a n d a d ja cen t w ood land a nd /o r f o re s t h ab i ta t s . H oweve r , t h e e co log ica l r a nge s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a n ima l sa r ed i ff i cu l t t o i n te rp re t b ecau se mo s t o f t h e f o s s i l s h ave n o t b een i d en t if ied t o s pec ie s l e ve l w h ich w ou ld g i ve mo re s p ec if ic d a ta ( s ee A ppend ix 5 . 1) . F u r the rmo re ,m any o f t h es p ec ie sr e p r e sen t g r ega r iou s mamma ls ( e .g . , t h e e qu id s ) . T he se a r e u sua l ly v e ry mob i le a n ima ls a nd c an a dap t t o a w ide v a r ie ty o fe nv i ronmen t s ( Bu tze r 1 993 :198 ) . Mo s to ft h e f a una i n c lude s m ed ium a nd l a rge s i z ed a n ima ls ( Append ix 5 . 1) . T he r a r i ty o f s ma l l s pec ie s s uch a s r oden t s a n d g a s t ropod s , a n ima l s w h ich c an p rov ide mo re d e ta i led i n fo rma t ion o f t h e l o ca l c l ima t ic b a ckg round a nd i t ' s v a r ia t ion s ( s ee , e . g . , B u tze r 1 993 :198 ) l im i t s e nv i ronmen ta l r e con s t ruc t ion s . F u r the rmo re , t h e f a una f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l s i t em ay n o tb er ep re sen ta t ive o f t h e d i ve r s i ty a nd a bundance o fs pec ie s a tt h e t ime o f h om in id o ccupa t ion ( e .g . , G i f f o rd 1 981 :383 -384 ; D incauze 1 987 :289 ) , a nd i n c a se s o f p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance a nd d i f f e ren t ia l

p re se rva t ion " . . .a f o ss i l a s semb lage i s ah igh ly b i a sed a n d i n comp le te r ef lec t ion o f a l i v ing c ommun i ty ." ( Bu tze r 1 993 :178 -181 , F ig . 1 0 .1) . T he m amma l ian f a una f r om t h e n o r the rn S anggan d epo s i t s o f w h ich mos t may o r ig ina te f r om t h e U ppe r N ihewan F o rma t ion ( e .g . , N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea r ch T eam 1 974 ) w a s i n t e rp re ted a s a" wa rm t empe ra te p ra i r ie" f a una i n a n e nv i ronmen t o f r e la t ive ly l ow p r ec ip i ta t ion b a sed o n s ed imen ta ry a na ly s i s ( Ba rbou r 1 927a :53 ) . T he s ed imen t s o f t h eu ppe rh o r izon s ( Ba rbou r e ta l . 1 927 ) a nd p e rhap s o ne o f t h em o l lu sc s pec ie s d e r ived f r om t h e se d epo s i t s m ay i n d ica te i n c r ea s ing a r id i ty o f t h e B a s in . T he v a r ia t ion s i n t h e v ege ta t ion a nd p a laeo lake w a te r leve l s may t o s ome e x ten t b e e xp la ined b y c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion s a nd c hange s i n t h e N ihewan B a s in .

D onggu tuo w h ich s e em s t o i n d ica te a p a laeo land scape o f g ra s s land / s teppe w i th s ome w ood land a nd /o rf o re s td u r ing a? w arm o rc o ld t empe ra te p e r iod o ft ime . 2 .8 T he p a laeo landscape o f t he Donggutuo P latform : A h ypo the t ica l r econs truc t ion

T he p a laeoc l ima t ic r e co rd o fL uochuan w h ich d ocumen t s t h e a l te ra t ion o f L a te P l iocene a nd P l e is tocene p a laeo so l a nd l o e s s s ed imen t s r ep re sen t ing w a rm a nd h um id , a nd c o ld a nd d ry c l ima te s ,r e spec t ive ly ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :e .g . , 3 1 , 3 6 ) m ay t os ome e x ten tb er e levan tt or e con s t ruc t ion so ft h e N ihewan p a la eoenv i ronmen t . H oweve r , c r o s s -co r re la t ion s m ay c u r r en t ly o n ly b e u sefu l t o al im i ted e x ten t b ecau se o f t h e i n adequa te ly u nde r s tood l i tho , a nd b io s t ra t ig raphy o f t h e N ihewan ( a nd s e e P ope u npub l . ) . W i th in t h e a pp rox ima te t ime p e r iod o f h om in id o ccupa t ion t h e c oa r se -g ra in s a ndy l o e s s s ed imen t s o f L uochuan b e tween 1 . 15 a nd 0 . 800 my r a r e t h ough t t o b e r ep re sen ta t ive o f a r id , c o ld c l ima te s a nd a " s teppe -de se r t" ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :62 ) . L iu e t a l . ( 1985 :45 , F ig . 3 . 9 ) c o r re la te t h e 0 . 900 -0 .970 my r a nd 0 . 730 -0 .900 my rL uochuan p a laeo so l a nd l o e s ss e quence t ot h es andy c l ay a nd c a lca reou s c l ay o f t h e H ongya s e c t ion o f t h e N ihewan d epo s i t s , a nd t o o xygen i so tope s t age s 2 0 t o 2 2 . T he s ed imen ta ry s e quence o f L uochuan b e tween 0 . 730 -1 .09 my r r e co rd sc l ima t ic c hange sb e tween ad e se r ts t eppe e nv i ronmen t ( weak ly w ea the r ed l o e s s ) a nd s t eppe t o x e roph i lou s f o r e s t ( pa laeo so l s ) , i n w h ich t h e d e se r t s t eppe i s e spec ia l ly p rom inen t l a s t ing f r om c . 0 . 900 -0 .770 my r ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :174 , T ab le 5 . 14 , F ig . 6 . 8 ) . T he r oden t s ubzone M icro tu sc haoya t sen i -M . h such iap inen s i s o f t h e m idd le t o l a te E a r ly P le i s tocene ( i . e . mo s t o f t h e Wucheng L oe ss a n d t h e e a r ly p a r t o f t h e L owe r L i sh i L oe ss ) i s c o r re la ted w i th t h er e dd i sh c l ay ( Zone B )o fL uochuan a nd t h e N ihewan B ed s ( s en su s t r ic to )a nd i n te rp r e t ed a s r e p re sen ta t ive o f ac o ld a nd a r id s t eppe p a laeoenv i ronmen t ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :24 , 4 4 , 7 2 , F ig s . 4 . 1 , 3 . 4 ) . I n c on t ra s t , g a s t ropod f r equenc ie s f r om H e imugou , L uochuan h ave s hown t h a t Me todon t ia h au sa iens i s , as pec ie s i n d ica t ive o f w a rm a nd w e t g r a s s land p redom ina te s o ve r t h e d r y a nd c o ld " de se r t g r a s s land" C a t ha i ca p u lvera tr ix b e tween 2 . 4 -0 .6 my r ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :72 -77 ,F igs . 4 .2 -4 .6 ) . T he g a s t ropod s amp le c omp r i se s 2 , 178 s pec imen s o f w h ich mo s t d e r ive f r om t h e L a t e P le i s tocene Ma lan l o e s s ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :75 , F ig . 4 . 2 ) , a nd K uk la ( 1987 ) c on s ide r s t h e L i sh i a nd Wucheng L oe s s s amp le s t oo s ma l l f o r v a l id e nv i ronmen ta l r e con s t ruc t ion s . T he L uochuan -N ihewan c o r re la t ion s may i n d ica te e i the r a w a rm ( p a laeo so l ) o r ac o ld ( l oe s s ) c l ima te , a nd c l ima t ic i n te rp re ta t ion s mus t r ema in i n conc lu s ive . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a tb ecau se L uochuan l i e s f u r the r i n land i tm ay h ave h ad a mo re c on t inen ta l c l ima te t h an t h e N ihewan B a s in ( p re sen t ly c . 9 00 km a nd c . 2 80 km f r om t h e s e a , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he p a lyno log ica ld a ta f r om X iaochang l iang i ss ugge s t ive o f ar e la t ive ly mo re w ooded t h an o pen v ege ta t ion . T h is d o e s n o ta g ree w i th t h e f a una l e v idence f r om X iaochang l iang a nd

2 2

A ny i n te rp re ta t ion a s t ow ha t e x ten t t h e p a laeo land scape o f t h e D onggu tuo P l a tf o rm d if e r ed f r om t h e p re sen t l a nd scape c an o n ly b et e n ta t ive u n t i l s u ff ic ien t ly d e ta i led s t ud ie s o f t h e a r ea h ave b een c ondu c t ed . F o r a n u nde r s tand ing o f h om in id u t i l isa t ion o f t h e e nv i ronmen t i ti s , h oweve r , i mpo r tan t t o d eve lop a n h ypo the t ica lr e con s t ruc t ion o ft h ep a laeo land scape a tt h e t ime o fs i te o ccupa t ion . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly r e levan ti n r e ga rd t oX iaochang l iang w h ich i sn ow s e pa ra ted b y ag o rge a nd s t ream f r om t h e l a rge s t r aw ma te r ia l o u tc rop , t h e m a in o u tc rop ( F ig . 2 2 ) . T h i sg o rge m ay h ave d eve loped a s ar e su l t o f f a u l t ing a nd l o ca l i sed e r o s ion . I ti s c once ivab le t h a t a p l a in c onnec ted X iao chang l iang a nd t h e o u tcrop p rev iou s t o t h e f a u l t ing i n w h ich c a se t h is l o ca l i ty w ou ld h ave b e en a d jacen tt ot h is r aw m a t e r ia l s ou r ce . T he h om in id s m ay e ven h ave o ccup ied t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e o u tc rop . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t o n ly t h e ' t op ' o ft h is o u tc rop w a s a va i lab le f o r r aw m a te r ia l e xp lo i ta t ion a t t h e t i me o f h om in id o ccupa t ion a nd t h a t f au l t ing e xpo sed amo re s ub s tan t ia l p a r t o f t h e o u tc rop . T he g u l ly a t Donggu tuo ( F ig . 2 8 ) may h ave f o rmed a f t e r d epo s i t ion o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l l a ye r s , t h a t i s h om in id s o ccup ied w ha t m ay h ave b een a p la in , p o ss ib ly n ea r a s t ream ( s ) o r r i ve r ( s ) l e ad ing t o t h e l a ke ( a nd s e e b e low ) . Donggu tuo i s j o ined t o b o th t h e m a in o u tc rop a nd a s ub s id ia ry r aw m a te r ia ls ou r ce v i a ap l a in , aj ou rney o fa bou t f i ve m inu te s . 2 .9 T he s t ra t igraph ic c on tex t d istr ibu t ion o f t he N ihewan I ntroduc t ion

a nd s pat ia l a sse mb lages :

T he X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo l o ca l i t ie s a r e l o ca ted w i th in ad i s tance o f 1k mo fe ach o the r (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ;J i a 1 985 ; J i aa nd We i 1 987 ) . X iaochang l iang l i e s a bou t 7 00 m t o t h e s ou th o f G uan t ing ( Guan T ing ) v i l lage a nd D onggu tuo a pp rox ima t e ly 1km t o t h e w e s t o f D ad ianpou ( Da T ianpou ) v i l lage ( s ee F ig . 1 9 ) . T he a r cha eo log ica l a s semb lage s o f t h e se l o ca l i t ie s h ave b een f ound e xpo sed i n l a ye r s a t t r ibu ted t o Membe r 7o f t h e N ihewan F o rma t ion ( You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; We i 1 978 , 1 985 , 1 988 ; P ope u npub l . ) . T he a r te f ac t a nd f o s s i l b ea r ing d epo s i t s o f t h e se p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted o pen -a i rs i te sa r ec ompo sed o fg ene ra l ly f i ne -g ra in , f l uv io lacu s t r ine s i l t s , c l ay s , s and s a s w e l l a s g r ave l s d epo s i ted i n p r edom inan t ly l ow -ene rgy e nv i ronmen t s . P re l im ina ry s t ud ie s o f t h e d epo s i t s i n d ica te t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l l o ca l i t ie s a r e s i tua ted n ea r t h e s ho re l ine s o f t h e p a laeo lake a nd e x t inc t s t ream s a nd /o r r i ve r s (We i 1 985 , 1 988 , 1 989 ; P ope u npub l . ) . T he t h ickne s s o f t h e d epo s i t s a t t h e se l o ca l i t ie s ( b o th b e f o re h om in id o ccupa t ion a nd d epo s i t ion o f t h e Ma lan l o e s s ) c anno t a t p re sen t b e a s ce r ta ined , b u t i ts hou ld b e k ep t i n m ind t h a t e ro s ion ( s e e a l so B a rbou re ta l . 1 927 ) , f a u l t ing , a nd s l ump ing may h ave r emoved p a r t o f t h e l a ke a nd s t ream s ed imen t s a nd , w i th t h e se , p o s s ib le a r cha eo log ica l e v idence ( s ee b e low ) . Al a rge s l ump a f te r as ho r t p e r iod o f h eavy r a inf a l l w a s r e cen t ly o b se rved b e tween X iao chang l iang a nd D onggu tuo ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . We i ( 1 988 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e d epo s i t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s [ a nd t h u s h om in id a c t iv i ty ] a tb o th s i te s w a s c on t inuou s . T he a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s a t t h e se

s i te s a r e c o ve red b y l a cu s t r ine s ed imen t s a t X iaochang l iang a nd l a cu s t r ine -f luv ia l s ed imen t sa tD onggu tuo w h ich a ppea r s t o b e r e f e r ab le t o a r i se i n p a laeo lake l e ve l s a t X iaochang l iang , a nd r i se s i n p a la eo lake a nd s t ream a nd /o r r i ve rl e ve l sa tD onggu tuo .

S tone a r t if ac t s w e r e d i scove r ed i n p r ima ry c on tex t i n a s soc ia t ion w i th v e r teb ra te f o s s i l s w i th in 0 . 2 -0 .5 m o f af i ne g r ey s a ndy s i l t l a ye r w h ich o ccu r s a t t h e s ame h e igh t i n s e c t ion s Aa nd B ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; P ope e ta l . 1 990 ; P ope u npub l . ; P ope a nd We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ; F ig . 2 6 ) . T h is s a ndy s i l t l a ye r c on ta in s o cca s iona l s ma l l p ocke t s o f f i ne -coa r se s a nd ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . S ome a u tho r s ( S ch ick e ta l . 1 991 :19 ) w ho c l e an ed a n a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon ( s ic ) a t X iaochang l iang c on c lude t h a t t h e s ed imen t s a r e " . . . s a nd ie r a nd c oa r se r t h an a t D onggu tuo ." ( c on t ra We i 1 988 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion c anno tb ec onf irmed ( s ee a bove ) , a nd t h e mo s t r e cen te xcava t ion s b y L iY i ( p e r s . c omm . ) o f s e c t ion s Aa n d B( s ee b e low ) s how t h ed ep th o ft h is f i ne -g ra in d epo s i t ( p e r s . o b se rv . ; e . g . , s e c t ion B ; s e e F ig . 3 0 ) . T he t h in d i sc re te c u l tu ra l l a ye r i s i n te rp re ted a s ap a laeo su r f a ce ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) .

2 .9 .1 X iaochang l iang s i te s t ra t igraphy a nd s pa t ia l d i str ibu t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia ls X iaochang l iang w a s f i r s t e xcava t ed i n 1 978 a s p a r t o f a p re l im ina ry r e sea r ch p ro jec t b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ; N o te : t h e se p ub l ica t ions a r e i d en t ica l i nc on ten t ) , at e am o f g eo log i s t s . T he e xcava t ion w a s i n i t ia ted a f te r ag eo log ica l s u rvey o ft h e p romon to ry d i scove r ed l i t h ic a r te f a c t s e xpo sed o n t h e s u r f a ce (We i 1 988 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 )r e f e rt o at o ta l o f 8 04 e xcava t ed l i t h ic a r t e f a c t s r e cove r ed f r om s e c t ions A a nd B o f X iaochang l iang . A s u rvey o fX iaochang l iang c ondu c t ed b y P ope , We i Q i , a n d X ie F e i ( J une 1 988 ; P ope u npub l . ) w a s f o l lowed b y g eo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s amp l ing b y t h e S ino Ame r ican E xped i t ion ( J u ly 1 990 ; P ope e ta t . 1 990 ) . Two f u r the r p a r t ia l e xcava t ion s w e re c onduc t ed b y g eo log is t s ( 1990 -1992 )a nd y i e lded a bou t 1 , 000 s t one a r tef a c t s( L iY it o P ope p e r s . c omm . ) , b r ing ing t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f X iaochang l iang s pec imen s t oa bou t 1 , 804 . B a e ( 1992 ) r e f e r s t o e xcava t ion s i n 1 984 a nd 1 990 o f t h r ee l o ca l i t ie s a t X iaochang l iang ( s ic ) . T he ma jo r i ty ( n . 1 , 500 ) o f a bou t 2 , 400 l i t h ic a r tef a c t s d e r ive f r om o ne l o ca l i ty ( Ba e 1 992 ) . T he l a t t e rm ay r e f e r t o X iaochang l iang s e c t ion A o f Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) , b u tt h i s a nd t h e i d en t i ty o f at h i rd l o ca l i ty a r e u nc lea r ( a nd P ope p e r s . c omm . ) . T he s p ec imen s f r om t h e se e xcava t ion s w ou ld i n c rea se t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f l i t h ic a r te f ac t st oa bou t4 ,204 .

I n t h e i n i t ia l e xcava t ion , Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) d ug t e n p i t sa ts e c t ion A , p i t s aia nd k ,o fw h ich f i ve ( a , c ,a nd e g ) w e re s em i -me rged ( F ig . 3 1 ) . O f t h e se s i x p i t s ( a , c ,e ,g , a nd k ) y i e lded a r te f a c t s , i n c lud ing t wo p i t s ( ia nd k ) l o ca t ed o nt h e w e s te rn a nd e a s t e rn m a rg ins o fX iaochang l iang ( You e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; F ig . 3 1 ) . F ou r p i t s ( b , d , f , a nd h ) c on ta ined n oa r tef a c t so fw h ich t wo ( b , d )l i e o n t h e w e s t e rn e dge o ft h e s i te ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; F ig . 3 1 ) . O ne t r ench w a s d ug o n t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t h e s ma l le r s e c t ion B a n d a l so y i e lded a r tef a c t s ( F ig . 3 1 ) . " B lock s" o r" p iece s o f s t one " w e r e f ound i n f ou r p i t s o f s e c t ion A ( You e t a t . 1 978 , 1 980 :7 ) . D a ta o n t h e p r ovenance o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l s i s , h oweve r , s pa r se , s i nce s pec imens w e re n o t s y s tema t ica l ly p lo t ted ; g r id p l o t sd o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een e mp loyed ( s ee Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; F ig . 3 1) . T he m a jo r i ty o f a r te f a c t s d e r ive f r om s e c t ion A , b u t n o i n fo rma t ion i sa va i lab le r e ga rd ing t h e h o r izon ta l d i s t r ibu t ion o fc o re s , f l ake s , a nd t o o ls , o r t h e d en s i ty o f s pec imen s p e r t r ench a nd w h ich p i ece sd e r ive f r om s e c t ion A o r B( s ee Y ou e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 ) ; n one o ft h es pec imen s w e re e i the rm a rked b y s e c t ion o r l a ye r ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he l a ck o f t h is i mpo r tan t i n fo rma t ion m ay b e af unc t ion o f b o th C h ine se e xcava t ion me thodo logy a nd b ecau se n one o f t h e e xcava to r s a r et r a ined a r chaeo log i s t s .F u r the rmo re ,t h es of tn a tu re o ft h e s e d imen t may h ave e ncou raged u n sys tema t ic e xcava t ion .

T he X iaochang l iang s i te ( 1 14 ° 3 9 ' 3 4" E x4 0 ° 1 3 ' 1 3" N ) i s l o ca ted o n ap romon to ry o n w h ich a n a r ea o f a bou t 1 0 m i n t h e n o r th sou th d i rec t ion a nd 1 00 m i n t h e e a s t -we s t d i rec t ion d e s igna ted a sI .V .P .P . s i te 7 8005 A a nd B ( s e c t ion s A a nd B ) w a s e xcava t ed ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; F ig s . 2 6 , 2 9 ) . T he c u l tu ra l ma te r ia ls i n s e c t ion s A a nd B a l e c oncen t r a t ed i n a n a r ea b e tween c . 8 60 a nd 80 m a . s . l . ( me t re sa bove s ea l e ve l ) a nd d i s t r ibu ted i n a n a pp rox ima te ly 3 0c md eep h o r izon ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; P ope u npub l . ; P ope e ta l . 1 990 ; L i Y i p e r s . c omm . ; F ig . 2 6 ) . S ec t ion B i s s i tua ted a bou t 5m t ot h ee a s t o f s e c t ion A a nd w a s e xpo sed o n t h ee a s t e rn p a r to f amound ( You e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; p e r s . o b se rv . ; F i g . 2 6 ) .

R ecen t s u rvey s a nd p a r t ia l e xcava t ion a t t h is l o ca l i ty b y P ope , We i Q i , a nd X ie F e i ( Pope u npub l . ) a nd P ope e ta t . ( 1 990 ) s howed t h a t a r te f a c t s a nd f o s s i ls w e r e mo s t d en se i n t h eu nexcava ted p o r t ion so fs e c t ion A ,p i t s ca nd e ( s ee F ig . 3 1 ) . A r te f ac t s i n t h is s e c t ion w e re a l so f ound e r od ing f r om t h e e xcava ted f l oo r o f t h e c en t ra l p o r t ion ( pa r t s a , c ,e g ) , w h i le p a r t sb ,d ,a nd kp roduced n o ma te r ia ls ( Pope u npub l . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he d en s i ty o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion i n p a r t s o f s e c t ion A s ugge s ted t h a t r e newed e xcava t ion w ou ld y i e ld n ume rous a dd i t iona l s pec imen s , a nd t h is w a s r e cen t ly c onf i rmed w hen t h e s i te w a s r e -excava t ed f r om 1 990 t o 1 992 . I n t h e se mo s t r e cen t e xcava t ion s d i r ec ted b y L i Y i ( p e r s . c omm . ) , t h e a r ea o f s e c t ion A w a s e x tended t o t h e s ou th o f t r enche s aa nd g a nd a l so e n la rged t h e t r ench o f s e c t ion B ( p e r s . o b se rv . ; ar e po r t i si n p repa ra t ion , L i Y i t o P ope p e r s . c omm . ) . A r te f a c t s w e r e f ound a s soc ia t ed w i th f o s s i l i sed mamma l ian b one s , b u t s im i la r t o t h e p r ev iou s e xcava t ion b y Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) , t h e h o r izon ta l a n d v e r t ica l c on tex t s o f t h e f o s s i l s w e re n o t r e co rded ( L i Y i t o P ope a nd K ea te sp e r s . c omm . ) .

T he d epo s i t so ft h eX iaochang l iang l o ca l i ty i n c lude 1 3l a ye r s f r om t h e f i r s t l a ye r a bove t h e b ed rock t o t h e Ma lan l o e s s ( F ig . 2 6 ) . I n v i ew o f w ha t a ppea r s t o r e p r e sen t g o rge f o rma t ion o nt h ee a s ts i de o fX iaochang l iang d ue t o f a u l t ing ( a nd w e s t s i de? ) a nd t h e s t eep s l ope i n f r on t o f s e c t ion B ( F ig . 2 6 , a nd s ee F ig . 2 1) p a r t o f t h e s i te m ay h ave b een d e s t royed b yn a tu ra la genc ie s . F u r the rmo re , ac ompa r i son o f t h e t o pog r aphy a nd d ep th o f s ed imen t s o f s e c t ion s Aa nd B may a l so i n d ica te t h a t e ro s ion ( e v iden t t o day ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ;p e r s . o b se rv . ) s e em s t o h ave b een mo re p r onounced a tAt h an a tBp r io r t o e xcava t ion ( s ee F ig . 2 6 ) . H oweve r , i n fo rma t ion r ega rd ing t h et h ickne s so ft h e d epo s i t a tAp r io r t o e xcava t ion i sn o t a va i lab le ( s ee Y ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . L oe s s o c cu r s b eh ind X iaochang l iang ( t o t h e s ou th ) w h ich may i n d i ca t e t h a t e r o s iona l p roce s se s h ave r emoved t h i s s ed imen t f r om t h e p romon to ry . A r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s w h ich m ay h ave e r oded f r om t h e d epo s i t w e re n o t f o und d u r ing a s u rvey o f t h e a r ea s u r round ing t h e p romon to ry ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) .

I tc anno tb ee s tab l ished f r om t h ee xcava t ion r epo r tb yY ou e t a l . ( 1 978 , 1 980 ) w he the ra ny f o s s i ls w e re f ound i np i tk ,b u t

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i n spec t ion o f t h e a r ea b e tween p i t s k , g a nd i f o und n ume rous v e r teb ra te f o s s i ls i nt h ed epo s i t so ve r ad ep th o f c . 1m ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o bse rv . ) . T he f o s s i ls r e cove red r e cen t ly b y L i Y i ( t o P ope p e r s . c omm . ) w e re d epo s i ted i n a s po i l h eap . T he t o ta l n umbe r o f f o s s i l s pec imens a t X iaochang l iang i s u nknown , a nd c ompa red t o D onggu tuo ( s ee b e low ) f ewe r f o ss i ls w e r e r e cove r ed f r om t h e p romon to ry (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . O ne r h inoce ro t id mand ib le w i th ap o s s ib le c u t -ma rk w a s f ound a s soc ia ted w i th aq ua r tz f l ake w i th n o a ppa ren t e v idence o f u s e -wea r i n t h e c u l tu ra l h o r izon o f s e c t ion A ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . A c he r t f l ake w h ich may b e f i r e -c racked ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) a nd ac l o sed f o s s i l mo l lusc ( Lampro tu la s p . ) a s soc ia ted w i th at o o l ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) w e re f o und i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r o f s e c t ion B . T he o r ien ta t ion o f a r tef ac t s o r f o ss i ls f r om p rev ious e xcava t ion s c anno t b e e s tab l ished ( s ee Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) , b u t b a sed o n r e cen t i n ves t iga t ions ( Pope u npub l . ; P ope e ta t . 1 990 ) n e i the r t h e l i t h ic n o r t h e b one s pec imens s howed a r e cogn isab le p a t te rn o f o r ien ta t ion i n a ny p a r t icu la rd i rec t ion . 2 .9 .2 Donggutuo s i te s t rat igraphy a nd s pat ia l d istr ibut ion o f a rchaeo log ica l mater ia ls As u rvey o ft h eN ihewan d i rec ted b y P e i Wenzhong i n 1 981 l e dt ot h ed i scove ry a nd f i r s t e xcava t ion o f Donggu tuo (We i 1 985 , 1 988 ; J i a a nd We i 1 987 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 991 ; F ig . 1 7 ) . We i ( 1985 , 1 989 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) h a s r e po r ted t h a t t h is e xcava t ion y i e lded 1 , 443 a r tef ac t s , w h i le J i a ( 1985 ) r e f e r s t o mo re t h an 2 , 000 a r tef ac t s . T h is may m ean t h a t o f 2 ,000 a r tef ac t s 1 , 443 h ave b een s t ud ied . R enewed e xcava t ions ( 1982 -1984 ) p roduced mo re t h an 1 0 ,000 s pec imens ( J ia a nd We i 1 987 ) w i th a r tef ac t s r e cove r ed f r om f i ve l a ye r s , A t o E ( We i 1 988 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e D onggu tuo s pec imens w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t ho se r e cove r ed f r om l a ye r A h ave n o t b een c a ta logued , i n c lud ing mo s t f r om t h e l owe s t c u l tu ra l l a ye r , h o r izon E (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . F u r the r e xcava t ions w e r e c onduc ted f r om 1 990 t o 1 992 a nd l e s s t h an 1 00 a r tef ac t s w e re r e cove red d u r ing t h e mo s t r e cen t e xcava t ion a t T i (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . Donggu tuo h a s b een e xcava ted s even t ime s a nd h a s y i e lded t h e l a rge s ts amp le o f a r tef ac t s ( a nd o f f o ss i ls ) o n t h e Donggu tuo P la tfo rm ( We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he t o ta l n umbe r o f t h e Donggu tuo a r tef ac t s i s mo re t h an 1 ,443 o r mo re t h an 1 2 ,000 (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls f r om Donggu tuo ( 1 14 ° 4 0 ' 1" E x4 0 ° 1 3 ' 2 2" N ) ( I .V .P .P . s i te 8 10 12 ) d e r ive f r om p a r t ia l e xcava t ions o f f i ve t r enche s , T 1 -T 5 ( T =t r ench ) s i tua ted w i th in ad i s tance o fa pp rox ima te ly 2 0 t o5 0 m o f e ach o t he r o n e i the rs i de o ft h e n o r the rn p a r to ft h eX u j iapo r a v ine (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; We i e ta l . 1 985 ) . T 1 a nd T 3 l i e o n o ne s i de o f t h e r av ine o ppo s i te T 2 , T 4 , a nd T 5 ; T 4 a nd T 5 a r e t h e mos t n o r the r ly l o ca ted t r enche s( F igs . 2 8 , 3 2 ) . T he s i te i sl o ca ted o ve r 4 5 m b e low t h e D onggu tuo P la tform s u r f a ce a nd t h e l owe s t l e ve l o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon l i e s a bou t 1 20 m a bove t h e S anggan ( J ia a nd We i 1 987 ; S ch ick e t a t . 1 991 ; F ig . 3 3 ) . T he e xcava t ion s w e re c onduc ted a ta n e l eva t ion o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 . 5 m a bove t h e f l oo r o f t h e r a v ine (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) , w h ich s l ope s g en t ly t owa rd T i , T 4 , a nd T 5 ( pe r s . o bse rv . ) . T he t o ta l e xcava ted a r ea c omp r ise s 4 5 m2 ( s qua re me t res )o fw h ich 1 5 m2 w e re d ug a tT 1 , 5m2 a tT 2 , 6m 2 a tT 3 , 1 2 m2 a tT 4 , a nd 7m2 a tT 5 (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; T ab le 6 ) . R ecen t ly , f u r the r e xcava t ion a t T I , t h e l a rge s t t r ench a t Donggu tuo h a s e xpanded t h is a r ea t o 7 5 m2 ( s ee S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) . T h is i n c rea se s t h et o ta l e xcava ted a r ea t o

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1 05 m2 . T he f i r s tc u l tu ra l l a ye rw a se xpo sed a f te r 4 5 m ( o r 4 6 m ) o f s t e r i le d epo s i t sh ad b een r emoved ( J ia a nd We i 1 987 ; We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he t r enche s w e re e xcava ted b y We i Q i ( a g eo log is t ) f o l low ing t h e l im i t s o fs eve ra l g eo log ica l u n i t s o f h o r izon ta l ly v a r iab le t h ickness w i th a t o ta l o f e i gh t l a ye r s c omp r is ing a n a gg rega te t h ickness o f a pp rox ima te ly 4 . 2 m (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; T ab le 4 ) . D ur ing t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion s t h e t o ta l t h ickne s s o f t h e c u l tu ra l h o r izons w as m ea su red a t a bou t 2 . 9 m ( We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; c . 3m i n We i 1 988 ) . B e low t h e s u r f ace t wo s t e r i le l a ye r s o f s i l t a nd c l ay w e r e u ncove red .T he y ounge s ta r chaeo log ica l h o r izon , ' A ' i s as i l t s ed imen t w h ich o ccu r s b enea th t h e c l ay l a ye r . S i l t a nd f i ne s a nd f o rm sh o r izon ' B ' a nd i su nde r la in b y t h e s i l t d epo s i t o f h o r izon ' C ' . L aye r ' D ' i s a s and -g rave l a ccumu la t ion u nde r la in b y ac l ay -s i l t d epo s i t o f t h e l owes t a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r , h o r izon ` E ' . H o r izon ' F ' c ons is t s o f c u l tu ra l ly s t e r i le c l ay -s i l t s e d imen t s (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; T ab le 4 ) . We i ( 1985 , 1 988 , 1 9 89 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) d e scr ibe s h o r izons A C , a nd E o fa l t r enches a sf i ne s ed imen t s w h ich f o rmed i n a l ow -ene rgy , p e r i lacu s t r ine e nv i ronmen t . Du r ing r e new ed e xcava t ion a tt r ench T i 2m o f n on -cu l tu ra l d epo s i t l y ing a bove 4m o fc u l tu ra l s ed imen t s w e re r e co rded ( Sch ick e ta l . 1 991) . T he c l a ss if ica t ion o f s ed imen t s a t T i d if e r s s omewha t f r om t h e o ne p rev ious ly r e co rded b y We i ( 1985 , 1 988 , 1 989 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . T he s ed imen t s o f l a ye r s AC a r e r e f e r r ed t oa s v e ry f i ne s ands a nd s i l ts , u nde r la in b y c ong lome ra t ic s i l ty s and s tone a s soc ia ted w i th p ebb le s a n d c obb le so fl a ye r D( Sch ick e ta t . 1 991 ; T ab le 5 ) . T he d epo s i t o f l a ye r E i sd e sc r ibed a s as andy s i l t s tone ( Sch ick e t a t . 1 99 1) . A cco rd ing t oJ i a a nd We i ( 1987 ) a l l l i t h ic s pec imens w e r e f o und i np r ima ry c on tex t s . T he e x tended e xcava t ions a t T i s how , h oweve r , t h a t t h e s t ra t ig raphy a ppea r s t o b e mo re c omp lex t h an f i r s t t h ough t ( s ee , e . g . , We i 1 985 ) . T he se e xcava t ion s ( s ee S ch ick e t a l . 1 99 1) s how t h a t t h e l i t ho log ica l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e l owe s t a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon so ft h i s t r ench -l a ye r s C , D , a nd E -i n c lude s w e l l r ounded l a rge s i ze g r ave ls , ma in ly o fc obb le a nd b ou lde rs i ze , w i th s ome p ebb le s ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he mo s tr e cen ti n spec t ion o f T i s hows t h a t c obb le a nd b ou lde r s i zed s t one s o ccu r i n l a ye r s A a nd B a t ad i s tance o f a bou t f i ve m e t re s a way f r om t h e o r ig ina l e xcava t ion t r ench ( We i Q i a nd P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o bse rv . ) . T he se d epo s i t s a ppea r t o b e r e p re sen ta t ive o f t r an spo r ted s ed imen t s w h ich i n d ica te s t h a t t h e r e cen t ly r e cove red a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls f r om t h e T i l a ye r s a r e r e depo s i ted ma te r ia ls c oncen t ra ted b y f a s t mov ing s t ream a c t ion ( Pope u npub l . , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . T he l a rge g r ave ls o fl a ye r s A , B , C , D , a nd E a tT i a nd t h e g r ave l o f l a ye r D a t t h e o r ig ina l T i t r ench may r e p re sen t a l luv ia l ly d e r ived ma te r ia ls ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . A l luv ia l d epo s i t su sua l ly c omp r ise s and sa nd g rave ls a nd a r e d epo s i t ed b y r i ve r a c t iv i ty a l ong t h e f l ood p la in (Wh i t ten a nd B rook s 1 987 :22 ) . ( I n t h is r e ga rd i t may b e o f i n te res t t o r e f e r t o B a rbou r e ta l . [ 1 927 :265 ] w ho d e sc r ibe t h e d epo s i t s o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e S anggan a s u ncon so l ida ted a nd p a r t ly " t o r ren t ia l" , p oss ib ly i n d ica t ing t h a t s im i la r g eomo rpho log ica l p roce sse s o pe ra ted i n a n a r ea o f Donggu tuo . ) T he s ou rce m a te r ia l o f t h e p ebb le s , c obb le s , a nd b ou lde r sm ay b e t h e S h i l ishan ( s ee F ig . 1 8 ) . I th a s a l so b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e d epos i t s may i n c lude c o l luv ia l s ed imen t s d e r ived w hen l o e ss - l o ca ted a bove t h e a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t a t Donggu tuo - b ecome s s a tu ra ted ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . C o l luv ia l d epos i t s f o rm w hen ma te r ia l e xpo sed t o w ea the r ing i sd i sp laced b y g r av i ty o ve r as ho r t

d i s tance a nd t h e se c ommon ly o ccu r a t t h e b a se o f s t eep s l ope s ( Wh i t ten a nd B rook s 1 987 :95 , 4 03 ) . A l l t r enche s a t Donggu tuo l i e o n i n c l ined s u r f ace s ( F ig . 2 8 ) . F au l t ing may a l so h ave b een ama jo r f a c to r i n c on t r ibu t ing t o o r c au s ing p o s t -depo s i t iona l c hange . A l though n one o f t h e o the r t r enche s w e r e r e excava ted d u r ing r e cen t i n ve s t iga t ion s , t h e g eomo rpho log ica l s i tua t ion a ppea r s t o b e d i s s im i la r t o t h a t o fT 1 ( S ch ick e ta t . 1 991) . I ts eem s t h a t o n ly f u r the r s t udy o ft h ed epo s i t s o fa l l t r enches s uch a s ac u r ren t s t udy o f t h e s ed imen to logy o ft h eT i l a ye r s ( s ee S ch ick e ta t . 1 991) may c l a r ify t h ec on tex to ft h ea r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls . T he m a jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t s d e r ive f r om t r ench T i a nd mos t s pec imens w e re f ound i nl a ye r A (We i 1 985 , 1 989 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ;J i aa nd We i 1 987 ; T ab le 6 ) . O np re sen t e v idence t h e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly l owe s tt oo l o ccu r si nh o r izon D ( Tab le 4 ) a t T 4 , t h e t r ench f u r thes t r emoved f r om T i ( F ig . 3 2 ) . G r id p lo t s w e r e n o t u sed a nd a n u nknown n umbe r o f l i th ic s pec imen s c anno t b e a t t r ibu ted t o a ny l a ye r (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he f r equency o f a r te f a c t s p e r t r ench r e p re sen t t e n ta t ive f i gu re s , s i nce t h e b u lk o f s pec imens h a s n o t b een c a ta logued . Ac ompa r ison b e tween t h e s i ze o f t h e t r enche s a nd t h ed ens i ty o fa r tefac t s s hows t h a tT i i sb o th t h e l a rge s t t r ench a nd h a s p r oduced mos t s pec imens . T h is i s n o t a n o ve ra l lt r end w h ich i sp a r t icu la r ly e v iden t w i th r e ga rd t o t h e s ma l le s tt r ench , T 2 f o r wh ich mo re s pec imen s w e re r e co rd ed t h an f o rt h el a rge rt r enches ,e spec ia l ly w hen c ompa r ed t o T 4 wh ich i st h e l a rge s t p i t a f te r T i ( Tab le 6 ) . L e s s t h an 1 00 a r tef ac t sw e re r e cove red d u r ing f ou rw eek so ft h e mos t r e cen t e xcava t ion a tT i (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . Mo s to ft h e f o s s i ls a ppea r t o d e r ive f r om T i , l a ye r A w he r e 1 , 525 f a una l a nd d en ta ls pec imen s w e re f ound (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; S ch ick e ta t . 1 991) . As ma l le rq uan t i ty o f f o ss i ls o f u nknown s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance w i th in t h e a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i td e r ive s f r om t r enche s T 2 -T5 (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he b one s ( n . 1 , 226 ) a nd t e e th a r e u sua l ly i n v e ry f r agmen ta ry c ond i t ions (We i Q ip e r s . c omm . ; P ope u npub l . ; S ch ick e ta t . 1 991) . No c on sen sus h a s b een r e a ched o n t h e q ue s t ion w h ich l a ye r (s )o fD onggu tuo may b e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly e qu iva len t t o t h e X iaochang l iang l a ye r . One o f t h e u ppe r a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r so fD onggu tuo ( Ao rB ) i sc on s ide red e qu iva len t t o t h e c u l tu ra ll a ye r o fX iaochang l iang (We i 1 988 ; a nd s e e S ch ick e t a t . 1 991) . C ompa r ison b e tween t h e a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s o f t h e se l o ca l i t ie s h a s l e d We i a nd P ope ( p e r s . c omm . ) t o a r gue t h a t l a ye r D i ss t ra t ig raph ica l ly e qu iva len t w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica l h o r izon a tX iaochang l iang ) .

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l e ss i n tense ly ac o re w a s r e duced . T he e x ten t o f c o re f l ak ing ( who le o r l i m i ted t o t h e p e r iphe ry ) w a s s t ud ied , b ecau se i t c an b eu sed b o th a s am ea sure o fc o re r e duc t ion t e chn ique a nd o f t h e i n ten s i ty o f c o re r educ t ion . T he mo rpho logy o f c o re a nd f l ake s t r ik ing p l a t fo rms c an i n d ica te w he the r o r n o t , a n d t ow ha te x ten t , ac o re w a s p r epa red . T h is a t t r ibu te may a l so p rov ide i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h e i n i t ia l s i ze o f ac o re a nd o f t h e f l ak ing s e quence .

CHAPTER II L i th ic Ana lys is o f t he N ihewan a sse mb lages

3 .1

I n troduc t ion

T h i sc hap te rp resen t s t h e r e su l t s o ft h e l i th ic a na lyse s o f t h e o l de r P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s o f X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo , s t ud ied b y t h e w r i te r a t t h e I n s t i tu te o f V e r teb ra te P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan th ropo logy i n B e i j ing a nd a t t h e B e i j ing N a tu ra l H is to ry Museum . T h is s t udy e xpand so np rev iou sr e sea r ch i np r e sen t ing mo re d e ta i led d a ta o n t h e a r tef ac t s , i n c lud ing a mong o the r e l emen t s , m e t r ica l a na lyse s , i d en t if ica t ion o f r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s , a nd s t a t is t ica l a na lyses . S amp le s o f t h e l i th ic c o l lec t ion s e xcava ted f r om X iaochang l iang a nd X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; P ope e t a l . 1 990 ) a nd f r om Donggu tuo (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; J i a a nd We i 1 987 ) a r e d e sc r ibed i n mo re d e ta i l i n C hap te r s I V a nd V r e spec t ive ly . T he a r tef ac t sf r om t h e se s i te s a r e t a bu la ted a nd i lu s t ra ted i n A ppend ix 4 .

A n a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e s eem ing r a r i ty o f t r a c tab le s t one a nd t h e o ccu r r ence o f i n fo rma l , t oo ls i n S ou theas t A s ia ( Bo rde s 1 978 ; H a r r i son 1 978 ) a nd t h e F a r E a s t a s aw ho le ( Mov ius 1 978 :352 ) h a s b een s ugges ted . C ou ld t h e n a tu re o f t h e r aw m a te r ia ls a t t h e N ihewan s i te s a ccoun t f o r t h e i n forma l i ty? E xped ien tt oo l mak ing a nd u se may i n duce t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e r aw ma te r ia l s ou rce n ea re s t t o a n o ccupa t ion s i te , r a the r t h an u s ing a s ou r ce w i th t h e b e s t s t one . T he s ou rce a nd f r ac tu r ing c ha rac te r i s t ics o f t h e r aw ma te r ia ls a ppa r en t ly u sed f o rt o o l manuf a c tu re a nd t h es i ze o f t h e ma te r ia l sw e re e xam ined t os t udy h ow a nd w ha t k i nds o f s t ones w e r e s e lec t ed b y t h e h om in ids . T he se f e a tu re s w e r e a l so s t ud ied t o e nqu i re i f t h e ma te r ia l s m ay p rov ide a n i n s igh ti n to h om in id u nde r s tand ing o fm a te r ia l t r ac tab i l i ty .

T he a r tef ac t s f r om b o th l o ca l i t ies a r e a na ly sed a nd c l a s s if ied a c co rd ing t o t h e ir t e chno log ica l s t a tus a nd t h e ir v a r iou s a t t r ibu te s , i n c lud ing ad i scu s s ion o fr aw ma te r ia l s ou rce s a nd c ha rac te r is t ic s . T he t e rm ' a s semb lage ' i s u sed h e re i n t h e s ense t h a t t h e a r tef ac t s d e r ive f r om a l o ca l i ty a nd o ne l a ye r ( a t X iaochang l iang ) , o r f r om a n i nd iv idua l t r ench a nd l a ye r ( a t Donggu tuo ) . T he a s semb lage s i n c lude w a s te ma te r ia ls — c o re s , w a s te f r agmen t s , a nd w a s te f l ake s —a s w e l l a s t oo ls , a nd an umbe ro fr e touched p i ece s . 3 .2

I st h e Mov iu s l i ne ar e a l is t ic r e f lec t ion o f t h e k i nds o f t oo ls f o und a t X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo : i s t h e re a p r edom inance o f c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls? O r i s t h e mo re r e cen tc ha ra c te r isa t ion o f ap redom inance o f f l ake t o o ls i n C h ina ( s ee Z hang 1 985 :184 ) mo re a c cu ra te? C ou ld t h e ma te r ia l u s ed a nd /o r t h e c o re r e duc t ion t e chno logy a c coun t f o r t h e g ene ra l ly s ma l l s i ze o f t h e a r te f ac t s? D id h om in ids p ref e r ac e r ta in r a nge o ft oo l d imens ions? I st h ec l a ss if ica t ion o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s i n t h e s o -ca l led C h ine se s ma l l t o o l t r ad i t ion v a l id s t r ic t ly i n t e rm s o f t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft o o ls a nd t h ep re sence o f f l ake t o o ls? F o r t h e se p u rpo se s , t h e d imen s ion s o f a r tef ac t s a nd o f t h e i n d iv idua l l i th ic c a tego r ie s ( l eng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss ) w e r e s t ud ied a nd c ompa red t o e xam ine t h e g ene ra l s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion i n t h e s amp le s . A c ompa ra t ive a na lys is o f t oo l s i ze w a s a l so c onduc ted t oe xam ine i fd i f f e rence si nt o o l s i ze s b e tween t h e s i te s e x is t . T h is may b e i mpo r tan t i n t e rms o f f unc t iona l c ha rac te r is t ic s .

Ob ject ives o f t he l i th ic a na lys is

T he g ene ra l ly u ns tanda rd i sed n a tu re o f t oo ls i n t h e F a r E a s t h a s b een af o ca l p o in t o f d eba te f o r many d ecade s ( s ee , e . g . , Mov ius 1 944 ; T e i lha rd 1 941 ; I kawa -Sm i th 1 978 ; H u t te re r 1 989 ; P ope 1 985 ) . A cco rd ing t o t h e c oncep t o f t h e Mov ius l i ne , s t one t oo ls a r e n o t c omp lex i n t h is r eg ion w i th s upposed ly c ha rac te r is t ic u n iform a nd u nd if f e ren t ia ted c o re a r tef ac t s , i nc on t ra s tt ot h es t anda rd ised i n dus t r ie s w e s to f t h e Mov ius l i ne ( s ee C hap te r I ) . I n t h is c hap te r t h e d eg re e o f i n fo rma l i ty o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage s i se xam ined . D oe s i n forma l i ty mean t h a t t oo ls w e r e manuf ac tu red a nd u s ed i n a n e xped ien t manne r? T o e xam ine t h is a nd o t he rq ue s t ions an umbe ro f a t t r ibu te s w e r e a na lysed . T he s hape o f a r tef a c t s c an i n fo rm o n t h e g ene ra l r a nge o f f o rms a nd t h e i r i n d iv idua l f r equenc ie s . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h is a t t r ibu te c an h e lp d e te rm ine t h e d eg r ee o f s t anda rd isa t ion b a sed o n t h e o ve ra l l s hape o f t h e f l ake s . E xped ien t t e chno logy m ay i n vo lve a s ho r t r e duc t ion s equence a nd al a ck o fp l a tform p repa ra t ion . T he a moun t a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fc o r tex w a ss t ud ied ( on c o re s , w a s te f r agmen t s , a nd f l akes ) t oe xam ine t ow ha te x ten tt h ec o re s w e re r e du ced . T he f l ake p a t te rn o f t h e d o r sa l s u r f ace o f f l ake s c an p rov ide a dd i t iona l d a ta o n t h e d eg re e o f c o re r educ t ion a nd o n t h e s t r ik ing p os i t ion ( s ) . T he n umbe r o f f l ake s ca r s o n c o re s , w a s te f r agmen t s , a nd f l ake s w a se xam ined a st h is c an g i ve a n i n d ica t ion o ft h e n umbe ro ff l ak ing e p isode st od e term ine t h e i n tens i ty o fc o re r educ t ion . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly r e levan tw hen i ti s a na ly sed i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e a moun t o f c o r tex . H oweve r , t h e n umbe r o f s c a r s o n a n i n d iv idua l c o re r e p re sen t s t h e m in imum n umbe r o f r emova ls , a nd t h e s c a r c oun t i st h us o n ly a n a pp rox ima te r ef lec t ion o f t h e d eg r ee o f c o re w o rk ing . I n t h is r e spec t t h e a r ea o f c o r t ica l s u r f ace i s i mpo r tan t , s i nce t h e mo re c o r tex i sp r e se rved o n ac o re , t h e

A n umbe r o f a t t r ibu tes w e r e s e lec t ed t o p rov ide s upp lemen ta ry d a ta o n t h e a s semb lage s . V a r ia t ions i n f l ake c ond i t ions m ay i n fo rm o n t h e p r e sence a nd d eg r ee o f n a tu ra l b r eakage a t as i te , a nd o n w he the r t h e re i s ap a t te rn i n t h e s e lec t ion o fe i the r w ho le o r b roken b l anks f o r t oo ls . F l ake s hape may i n d ica te w he the r o r n o t h om in id s s e lec ted c e r ta in f o rms f o r t h e i r t o o ls w h ich i n t u rn m ay i n fo rm o n t oo l f unc t ion . T he v en t ra l f l ake s u r f ace p a t te rn a nd t h e mo rpho logy o f t h e d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions o f w ho le f l ake s a r e o t he rv a r iab le s w h ich may i n form o n p e r cu ss ion t e chno logy a nd ma te r ia l t r ac tab i l i ty . T he f o rm o f t h e v en t ra l f a ce c an a s s is t i n e va lua t ion s o f t h e t e chno log ica l m e thod o f f l ake r emova l a nd t h e f o rm o f ac o re . A p ica l d i s ta l e nd f l ake s i n d ica te ac omp le ted t e rm ina t ion , i . e . d u r ing t h e p roce s s o f p e r cu ss ion t h e f l ake i s d e tached t h rough t h e l e ng th o f t h e c o re . C rab t ree ( 1 972 :93 ) d ef ine s s t ep f r ac tu re s a s c ha rac te r i s t ic o ff l ake s w h ich b reak o f ft h e c o re a b rup t ly a ta r i gh t a ng le w h ich i s af unc t ion o f t h e d i spe r s ion o f e ne rgy d u r ing p e r cu s s ion . I n av e r t ica l d i s ta l e nd t h ef r ac tu re i sa ta n h o r izon ta l a x is t o t h e l e ng th o f t h e f l ake , a nd i n ac oncave e nd t h ef r ac tu re i sc u rved i nwa rd s ( s ee I s aac 1 977a , F ig . 5 7 ) . H inge f r ac tu re sh ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o t h e f a i lu re o f af l ake t o c a r ry t h rough a c o re , t e rm ina t ing i n ab l un t d i s ta l e nd ( C rab t ree 1 972 :68 ) . T hus , b o th s t epped a nd h i nge t e rm ina ted

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f l ake s s e em t o r e p r e sen t i n comp le te p e r cu s s ion p roduc t s . C o re s t ep f r a c tu r e s a ppea r t o r e p r e sen t a b rup t , a nd p o s s ib ly u n in ten t iona l t e rm ina t ion s w h ich m ay t o s ome e x ten t b e a f unc t ion o f am e chan ica l w eakne s si nt h e ma te r ia l a nd /o r t h e a moun t o ff o r ce a pp l ied d u r ing p e r cu s s ion . F lak ing a ng le s c an i n fo rm a bou tt h ed i r ec t ion o ff l ake r emova l , a nd w he the r o r n o t t h e r e w a s ap r e f e r ence o f s t r ik ing a ng le w h ich m ay p rov ide f u r the ri n fo rma t ion o nt h e m anne r o f c o re r e duc t ion . A ng le s a l so m ay p rov ide i n s igh t s a bou t t h e l im i ta t ions o f a p a r t icu la r r aw m a te r ia l . T he e x ten t o f c o re f l ak ing w a s a l so e xam ined i n r e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia l t o a na ly se w he the r d i f f e r ence si nm a te r ia lm ay h ave c on t r ibu ted t od if e r ence s i n t h e e x ten t o f r e duc t ion . T h i s me thodo logy i s s im i la r t o a s t udy c a r r ied o u t b y T o th ( i n B unn e ta l . 1 980 ) o n t h e c o r e a s semb lage f r om K oob i F o ra ( s i te F xJ j 5 0 ) . A n umbe r o f a t t r ibu te s w e re s t ud ied o n t h e t oo l s , i n c lud ing t h e a r ea a n d e x ten t o f u se -wea r , t h e s hape o f u t i l i sed e dge s , a nd r e touch c ha ra c te r is t ic s . O the r a t t r ibu te s e xam ined w e re : c o lou r , w h ich may b e i mpo r tan t i nr e g a rd t o h om in id s e lec t ion o f r aw ma te r ia l s , t h eq ua l i ty o f am a te r ia l ,a nd may a l so a s s is t i n t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l s ou r ce ( s ) ; a b ra s ion ( r ound ing a nd /o r b a t te r ing ) o f a n a r te f a c t a s ar e su l t o f , f o r e xamp le , f l uv ia l t r an spo r ta t ion o r t o o l u se ; a nd p a t ina t ion , af i lm o r g l o s s t h a tc an d eve lop o nt h es u r f ace o fa na r tef ac t . P a t ina t ion m ay i n d ica te t h a ta na r te f ac th a se r oded o u to f as e c t ion a nd i sn o t f ound i n s i tu ( e .g . , d ue t o s o i l movemen t o r o t he r d epo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance s ) , o r t h a t i t w a s u s ed a s at oo l . A dd i t iona l ly , w ea the r ing may s how i f a n a r te f a c t w a s e xpo sed t o w a te r , w ind , o r s un l igh t . T h is m ay d e s t roy o r m im ic c e r ta in f e a tu re so na na r tef a c ts uch a sf i ne u se -wea r . 3 .3 T he X iaochang l iang a nd Donggutuo s izes

i n c lude t h o se r e cove red f r om 1 990 -1992 . T he r e la t ive ly l a rge s amp le o f a r te f a c t s f r om D onggu tuo p robab ly a low s a b e t te r r e p re sen ta t ivene s s o f l i th ic v a r iab i l i ty w i th r e ga rd t o t h e w ho le D onggu tuo a s semb lage c ompa r ed t o t h e s ma l le r X iaochang l iang s amp le . T he d i sc r epanc ie si nt h e s amp le s i ze s p o ten t ia l ly a f f ec t a nd l im i t t h e v a lue o fc ompa ra t ive i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e a s semb lage s . T h i s i s a l so i mpo r tan t w i th r e g a rd t o t h e s t a t i s t ica l e va lua t ion s o f d imen s ion s , n umbe r o f s ca r s , a nd f l ak ing a ng le s . 3 .4 P rocuremen t a nd l i tho logy o f r aw mater ia ls a t X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo T he p rocu remen to fr aw ma te r ia l sf o r t o o l m anu f ac tu re i sa n i mpo r tan t a s pec t i n a t temp t s t o u nde r s tand h om in id t e chno logy a nd b ehav iou r , f o r i n s tance , i n r e ga rd t o s i te s e lec t ion a nd f unc t ion o f ma te r ia l v a r iab i l i ty . T he r aw m a te r ia l s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a r te f a c t s a r e c he r t , v e in q ua r tz ,q ua r tz i te ,a nd b a sa l to fw h ich c he r ti st h ep redom inan t s t one w i th a c omb ined t o ta l o f 9 8 .4% ( You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ;a nd s e eb e low ) . B a sa l t a nd q ua r tz i te a r te f a c t s w e r e n o t a va i lab le f o r s t udy . A t D onggu tuo , t h e ma in r aw m a te r ia l u sed f o rt h em anuf ac tu re o ft h ea s semb lage sw a sc he r t , w h i le a r t e f a c t s i n o t he r s t one s — b a sa l t , q ua r tz , a nd i n du r a ted s a nd s tone — a r e r a re . C ompa r i son o f t h e se ma te r ia ls w i th t h o se o ccu r r ing i n t h e l o ca l o u tc rop s a nd w i th t h e X iaochang l iang m a te r ia l s s hows t h a t t h e se a ppea r t o d e r ive f r om t h es ame s ou rce , t h e p r ima ry o ne w h ich a ppea r s t o b e t h e m a in o u tc rop ( s ee b e low ) , l o ca ted c l o se t o b o th l o ca l i t ie s .

s a mp le

S ince t h e g eo log ica l s t udy o f t h e N ihewan B a s in i s a t a n e a r ly s t age t h e f o l low ing o b se rva t ion s a r e p re l im ina ry , b u t a r en eve r the le s s i mpo r tan tt og a in s ome u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic f e a tu re s . S u rveys c once rned w i th t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fa l lr ock s ou rce s o n a nd i nt h e v i c in i ty o f t h e D onggu tuo P l a t fo rm w e re c onduc ted i n1 988 ( Pope u npub l . ) a nd i n 1 990 ( Pope e t a l . 1 990 ) . T he se s ou r ce s l i e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly b e low t h e a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s w i th t h e l a rge s t o u t c rop l o ca ted b e tween X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo ( Pope a nd We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ; s e e C hap te r I ) . T h is o u tc rop i s ap rom inen t f e a tu re o f t h e D onggu tuo P l a tfo rm l a nd scape ( F ig s . 2 2 , 2 3 ) a nd i s o n p r e sen t e v idence c ompo sed ma in ly o f v a r ie t ie s o f c he r t . B e cau se o f i t s ma s s ive s i ze , i t s c l o se v i c in i ty t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a nd b ecau se i tc on ta in s ma in ly c he r t , t h e p r ima ry m a te r ia l u sed f o r t h e m anu f a c tu re o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a s semb lage s , t h i s o u tc rop i s r e f e r r ed t oa st h e ma in o u tc rop . Mo s t o r a l l o ft h e c he r t a nd b a sa l ta ppea r st od e r ive f r om t h is s ou r ce . No o the r o u tc rop s o ft h i s s i ze , i n c lud ing t ho se w h ich c on ta in c he r t a r e k nown t oo ccu r i nt h e a r ea (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T h is a nd mos t o t he r , l e s s e x tens ive o u tc rop s a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le f r om t h e X iaochang l iang p romon to ry ( F ig . 2 2 ) . As ma l l c he r to u tc rop o f b rown a nd r e d f i ne -coa r se c he r t i s e xpo sed b e tween D onggu tuo a nd t h e ma in o u t c rop , a nd m ay b e ac on t inua t ion o f t h e l a t te r s t ruc tu re . I ft h is o u tc rop w a s a cce s s ib le d u r ing t h et i me o fs i t eo ccupa t ion i tc ou ld h ave p rov ided ap o ten t ia l s ou r ce o f m a te r ia l f o r D onggu tuo , a nd p o s s ib ly a l so f o r X iaochang l iang .

O ne o f t h e a im s u nde r ly ing t h e s t ud ie s o f t h e a s semb lage s w a s t o e xam ine a sm any o f t h e a r t e f ac t s a sp o s s ib le i n t h e t ime t h a t w a s a va i lab le t o t h e w r i te r . T h i s i s a n i mpo r tan t c on s ide ra t ion b ecau se o ft h ep o ten t ia ls e lec t ion b i a s i n vo lved i n a na ly s ing s ma l l s amp le s , a nd t h us t h e r e p re sen ta t ivene s s o f t h e se s amp le s i n t e rm s o f t o ta l l i th ic v a r iab i l i ty a n d i n te rp re ta t ion so fh om in id b ehav iou r . T he s amp le o ft h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage a na ly sed b y t h is w r i te r i n c lude s 1 50 s t one a r te f ac t s ( a nd s e e b e low a nd C hap te r I V ) . A cce s s t o t h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage ( a t o ta lo fa bou t 1 , 804 o r4 , 204 s pec imen s ; s e e C hap te rI ) w a s l im i ted a nd o n ly as ma l ls amp le w a sa va i lab le f o rs t udy . T he l a rge s t p a r t o f t h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage i s n ow d i spe r sed i n an umbe r o f C h ine se mu seum s o f u nknown l o ca t ion ( We i Q i a nd H uang We iwen p e r s . c omm . ) . A dd i t iona li ns i tu m a te r ia l sf r om X iaochang l iang d e r ive f r om as u rvey b yP ope ( u npub l . )a nd a ne xp lo ra to ry e xcava t ion b y t h e S ino -Ame r ican E xped i t ion ( Pope e ta l . 1 990 ) . A s ma l l n umbe r o f s t one a r te f a c t s mo re r e cen t ly r e cove r ed f r om t h e X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang l o ca l i ty a r e i n c luded i n t h e X iaochang l iang p a r t . T he D onggu tuo s amp le i s t h e l a rge s t o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage ss t ud ied b yt h i sw r i te rc omp r i s ing at o ta l o f 7 40 s pec imen s .T he r ema in ing p a r to ft h ea va i lab le a nd p ub l i shed D onggu tuo c o l lec t ion ( 703 o f at o ta l o f 1 , 443 p ub l i shed a r te fa c t s )c ou ld n o t b e e xam ined i nd e ta i l b ecau se o f l im i ted r e sou r ce s , a l though i tw a s p o ss ib le t o i d en t if y t h e r e la t ive f r equenc ie so fd eb i tage a nd t o o l s ( s ee b e low a nd C hap te r V ) . T he D onggu tuo a r t e f a c t s a na ly sed b y t h is w r i te r d o n o t

I n t h i s s t udy i ti s a s sumed t h a t t h e c he r t o ccu r r ing i n t h e o u tc rop s , e s pe c ia l ly t h e ma in o u tc rop i s i n i t s f e a tu re s r e p r e sen ta t ive o f t h e c he r t r emoved b y h om in id s f o r t oo l m anu f a c tu r e . T h is i s b a sed o n c ompa ra t ive o b se rva t ion s

2 7

b e tween t h e c he r t i n t h e o u tc rop s a nd t h e c he r t i n t h e a s semb lage s . A s mo s t o r a l o f t h e ma te r ia l u sed a t X iaochang l iang a ppea r s t od e r ive f r om t h e ma in o u tcrop , r aw m a te r ia l p rocu remen t w ou ld h ave i n vo lved a v e ry s ho r t t r ave l l ing d i s tance . R ed c he r ti n aw ea the red c ond i t ion o ccu r s o n t h e n o r the rn e dge o f X iaochang l iang a nd a l so a l ong i t s e a s te rn f a ce t owa rd s D ong Y ang o ppo s i te t h e m a in o u tc rop . T h i sc he r td i s in teg ra tes o n c on tac t , b u t may n o t h ave b een i n t h i s c ond i t ion a tt h e t ime o f s i te o ccupa t ion , a nd may h ave p rov ided av e ry c l o se s ou r ce o fs t one . T he m a in a nd t h e s ma l l o u tc rop s c on ta in b locky c he r t w h ich c an b e e a s i ly b roken o u t b y h and . T he s i ze o f t h e e x t ra c ted b l ock s i sd i f f icu l t t o c on t ro l a nd b l ocks v a ry i n m ax imum s i ze b e tween a bou t 1 0 -25 c m b a sed o n a p re l im ina ry e s t ima te . T he se b lock s a r e o f a ngu la r a nd i regu la r s hap e ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . I n a dd i t ion t o b lock s o f c he r t , c he r t c obb les w e re a l so u s ed a t X iaochang l iang , a n d o ne c o re f r om T I w a s m ade o n ac obb le .

a nd a n X ray a na ly se r ( D ig imap ) . T he a na lys is s howed t h a t t h e f i ne r e d c he r t c on s is t s ma in ly o f s i l ica . I ta l so s how s s l igh t w ea the r ing w h ich i s ap roduc t o f t ime , a nd may n o t h ave c ha ra c te r i sed t h is c he r t a tt h e t ime o f s i te o ccupa t ion . T he w ea the r ing p roce s s a ppea r s t o h ave h ad a mo re p ronounced e f f ec t o n t h e r e d c he r t n ea r X iaochang l iang ( s e e a bove ) . S im i la r ly , s i l ica i s t h e c h ief m ine ra l i n t h ree s amp le s o f f i ne b rown c he r t ( o f l i gh t , med ium , a nd d a rk c o lou r s ) , w h i le al e ss f i ne v a r ie ty ( l igh t -med ium b rown ) i s c ompo sed o f m a in ly c a lc ium a nd magne s ium w i th s i l ica te mak ing u p at h i rd o f t h e m ine ra l c omponen t . A f i ne g r ey c he r t w a s i d en t if ied a s a c a lc ium s i l ica te w i th s ome magnes ium ( Du rk in p e r s . c omm . ) . V e in q ua r tz ( h encefo r th a bb rev ia ted a s q ua r tz ) o u tc rops a s ho r t d i s tance t o t h e w e s t o f X iaochang l iang ( L i Y i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he q ua r tz c o re i n t h e D onggu tuo c o l lec t ion ( f rom T 1) i si n i t s m a te r ia l a nd p ink c o r tex i d en t ica l t o ac o r t ica l q ua r tz c o re f r om X u j iayao ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) . O ne b a sa l to u tc rop i s l o ca ted a t t h e s ou the rn e nd o f t h e m a in o u tcrop a nd i s e xposed l owe rd own t h an t h ec he r t . T h is i sa n h omogeneou s s t one b a sed o n i n spec t ion o ft h eo u tc rop w he re i to ccu r s a s a med ium t o d a rk g r ey s t one , a nd t h e b a sa l t o f t h e a r te f ac t s wh ich i sd a rk g r ey t ob l ack w i th s ome s pec imens c on ta in ing m inu te w h i te i n c lu s ions . T he d i f f e rence s i n c o lour a nd t e x tu re m ay b e a t t r ibu tab le t o w ea the r ing o f t h e s t one s i nce s i te o ccupa t ion . S im i la r t o t h e c he r t t h e b locky b a sa l t i so f i regu la r a nd a ngu la r s hape a nd c an e a s i ly b e e x t rac ted f r om t h e o u tc rop .

A n i mpo r tan t c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h e c he r t i s i t ' s s t ruc tu ra l h e te rogene i ty r a ng ing f r om f i ne t o c oa r se -g ra in , i n c lud ing c he r tc ong lome ra tes . T he ma in o u tc rop a ppea r s t ob e ma in ly c ompo sed o f b rown c he r t , a nd o the r c he r t s a r e b l ack , g r ey , w h i te , r e d , a nd p ink ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) . An o u tc rop o f mu l t i c o lou red a nd ' s h iny ' c he r t w a s r e cen t ly f o und n ea r X iaochang l iang ( L i Y i p e r s . c omm . ) . T h ree g r ade s o f c he r t w e r e d i s t ingu ished i n t h is s t udy o n t h e b a s is o f t e x tu re , o f w h ich t wo w e re i d en t if ied f o r X iaochang l iang . T he se c he r t s a r e f o r p re sen t p urpose s i n te rp re ted a s v a r ie t ie s o f t h is ma te r ia l . T he f i ne -g ra in c he r t i s a n h omogeneou s ma te r ia l a nd h a s ad i s t inc t s moo th a nd s h iny t e x ture . T he ma te r ia l o f as ma l l q uan t i ty o f f i ne c he r t a r tef ac t s i ss im i la r t o f l in t i n t h a ti th a s as p l in te ry f r ac tu re . C ompa rab le ma te r ia l w a s a l so i d en t if ied i n t h e ma in o u tc rop , a l though t h is a ppea r s t o b e u ncommon . T he t e x tu re o f t h e f i ne -coa r se -g ra in c he r t i s g r anu la r a nd d oe s n o t p o sse ss a s moo th s u r f ace . T h is c a tego ry a l so i n c lude sc he r ts pec imens wh ich e xh ib i t as ma l l a moun t o f f i ne -g ra in c he r t , b u t a r e p redom inan t ly f i ne c oa r se -g ra in i nt e x tu re . D u r ing as u rvey o f t h e ma in o u tc rop a nd a st h er e su l t o f p e rcu s s ion e xpe r imen t s , i tw a s o b se rved t h a t i n d iv idua l c he r t b l ock s a r e mo re o f ten t h an n o t c ompo sed o ff i ne a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd l e ss f r equen t ly o f c oa r se c he r t . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e se v a r ie t ies , o ne f u r the r c he r t w a s i d en t if ied i n t h e D onggu tuo a s semb lage s a nd i s r e p re sen ted b y o ne a r te f ac t . T h is i s ah igh ly g r anu la r c he r t a nd i sh e re r e f e r red t o a s c oa r se -g ra in o r c oa r se c he r t . T he ma jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t s i n t h e p r e sen t s amp le s a r e i n b rown c he r t s , wh i le a l l o the r c o lou r v a r ie t ies a r e l e ss f r equen t . A na lyses o f t h e c hem ica l p rope r t ie s o f t h e r aw m a te r ia ls t o d e te rm ine i fa l l r aw ma te r ia ls d e r ive f r om t h e ma in o u tc rop h ave n o t b een c a r r ied o u t . O ne a r te f ac t f r om Donggu tuo ( a t o o l f r om T 4 , l a ye rC ) w a sm ade i n af i ne -g ra in c he r t w h ich i n i t s t e x ture a nd c hoco la te b rown c o lou r i s i d en t ica l t o ma te r ia l u sed f o r s ome a r tef a c t s a tt h e Xu j iayao l o ca l i ty i n t h e N ihewan B a s in ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) . R ecen t ly c onduc ted s u rveys o f t h e Donggu tuo P la t fo rm o u tcrop s d i d n o t l o ca te t h is c he r t , n o ra na l aba s te rc o lou red f i ne c he r t( r ep resen ted b y at oo l f r om T 5 , l a ye r C ) . B o th s pec imens a r e t h e o n ly a r tefac t s f r om t h e P la tfo rm l o ca l i t ie s i nt h ese c he r t s o b se rved b y t h e w r i te r .

3 .5

Core r educ t ion e xper imen t s

T he f r a c tu r ing c ha ra c te r is t ic s o f t h e c he r t a nd b a sa l t w e r e e xam ined i nc o re r e duc t ion e xpe r imen t s u s ing t wo b l ock s o f f i ne a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd o ne b lock o f t h e f i ne -g ra in b a sa l ts e lec ted f r om t h e m a in o u tcrop . Two s t one s p ro cu red f r om t h is o u tc rop w e re u sed f o rp e rcus s ion o fw h ich o ne w a s ap ebb le s ized s t one w i th a n e ven s u r f ace a nd t h e o the r a b lock o fc he r t . T he l a t te rw a su sed a f te r i tp roved d i f f icu l t t o d e tach ma te r ia l w i th t h e p ebb le w h ich s eem s t o r e qu i re a r e la t ive ly g r ea ta moun to fs t reng th . T he p ebb le h amme r s tone s howed d i s t inc t , t h ough s ha l low b a t te r ing ma rk s a f te r s ho r t u se ( c . 1 5 m inu te s ) . B o th h amme r s tone s p r oduced c ompa rab le s pec imens , i . e . i regu la r f r agmen t s , c omp le te a s w e l l a sb roken f l ake s , a nd m ic ro -f lakes o f v a r iab le s hape a nd s i ze . T he e xpe r imen t s s howed t h a t t h e v a r iou s c he r t b l ock s ( i nc lud ing t h e h amme r s tone ) h ave a s t rong t e ndency t o d i s in teg ra te d u r ing p e r cus s ion a f te r o n ly a f ew b lows ( a bou t s even ) , a nd t h a tt h e re a ppea r st ob e n o a ppa ren t d if e rence i n f r ac tu r ing q ua l i ty b e tween t h e c he r t s . T he se e xpe r imen t s i n d ica te t h a t t h e c he r t i s d i ff icu l t t o c on t ro l d ue t o i t s f r ang ib i l i ty . T he b a sa l t s howed a s im i la r b ehav iou r , a l though t h is s t one p r oduced f ew v e ry s ma l l f l akes . E a r l ie r e xpe r imen t s b y P ope ( p e r s . c omm . ) a g ree w i th t h e se o bse rva t ion s . T he w r i te r i sn o t a n e xpe r ienced k nappe r , a nd i ts e em s t h a t i n t ima te k now ledge o f m a te r ia l p rope r t ies i s n ece ssa ry t oe xe r ts u f f ic ien tc on t ro ld u r ing k napp ing t oa vo id t h ed i s in teg ra t ion o fc o re s . 3 .6 .1

C lass if icat ion o f l i th ic c ategor ies

I . C o re s : A b ody o f r aw ma te r ia l mod if ied t h rough t h e r emova l o ff l ake s s hown i nt h e f o rm o f n ega t ive s ca r s . T h is c a tego ry a l so i n c lude sc hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls .

A p re l im ina ry s t udy o f t h e m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion w a s c onduc ted o n s ma l l s amp le so fc he r ta nd b a sa l t s e lec ted f r om t h e ma in o u tcrop . T he se s amp le s w e re a na lysed b y M .R . Du rk in ( Dep t . o fG eo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f Oxfo rd ) u s ing h igh p er fo rmance s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic roscopy ( SE M , I S I /40 )

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I .H amme r s tone s : O fp ebb le ,c obb le 2 ° , o ro t he ro r ig in w i th f e a tu re sc ha rac te r i s t ic o f at o o lu sed f o rt h er emova lo ff l ake s o n ac o r e ,e . g . , l o ca l i sed b a t te r ing ma rk s . I I . Wa s te f r agmen t s : A r te f a c t s o f i regu la r mo rpho logy w h ich c anno t b e c l a s s if ied a se i the r c o r e s , f l ake s , o r t oo ls . T h i s c a tego ry i ss im i la rt oK le ind ien s t 's ( 196 1 , 1 962 ) c hunk c a tego ry . I V . F lake s : A : Wa s te o r u nu t i l i sed : F lake s w i th n o r e cogn i sab le s i gn so f mod if ica t ion . B : U t i l i sed : A l te ra t ion o n o ne o r mo re e dge s d e r ive s f r om u se -wea r ,a nd n o tf r om s e conda ry r e touch . C : R e touched : F lake s w i th s e conda ry r e touch mod if i ca t ion , e i the rt os t reng then ,r e gu la r i se ( s hape ) ,o rb l un t o ne o r mo re o ft h ee dge s . D : F lake -b lade s : F lake sw i th t h e l e ng th t w ice a s l o ng a s t h e w id th a nd w i th a pp rox ima te ly p a ra l le ll a te ra le dge s .T he t e rm f l ake -b lade i su sed t od i s t ingu i sh t h e se a r te f ac t s f r om b l ade s p roduced b yL eva l lo i sp r epa red c o re t e chno logy . V . N on -f lake s : T he se a r t e f a c t s a r e n e i the r c o re s , w ho le f l ake s , n o r f l ake f r agmen t s . T hey a r e c hunky , b u t mo re r e gu la rt h an w a s te f r agmen t s ,a nd a r eh e re r e f e r r ed t o a s n on f l ake s . 3 .6 .2

C lass if ica t ion o f l i th ic a t tr ibutes

1 . F l ake s hape : T he f o l low ing s hape c a tego r ie s w e r e c on s ide r ed : a ) q uad r i la t e r a l : b ounded b y f ou r mo re o r l e s s s t ra igh t e dge s , b ) p o in ted o r t r iangu la r : e dge s m ee t ing a t t h ree p o in t s ( o r c o rne r s ) , c )r ound : h av ing o r a pp roach ing a c i rcu la ro u t l ine ,d ) o va l : h av ing o r a pp roa ch ing a n e l l ip t ica l f o rm , e )c r e scen t , f )i regu la r : mo rpho log ie s w h ich d o n o t c onfo rm t oa ny o ft h ea bove , g )c omb ina t ion so fa )t oe )a nd f ) . 2 .C o r tex : O n c o re s a nd w a s te f r agmen t s t h e a b sence o f , o r e s t ima ted a moun t o f c o r t ica l s u r f a ce , a nd o n f l ake s t h e a b sence o f ,o rt h ee s t ima t ed d o r sa l a moun to fc o r t ica l s u r f a ce a r ea ,i sd e sc r ibed i ns e ven p e r cen tage c a tego r ie s : 0% ; 1 10% ; 1 -25% ; 2 6 -40% ; 4 1-60% ;6 1-80% ; 8 1 -100% . 3 . P a t te rn o f f l ak ed s u r f a ce : Whe re d e te rm inab le t h e f o l low ing v a r ia t ion s w e r e r e co rded : a ) u n id i rec t iona l , b ) b id i r ec t iona l , c ) mu l t id i rec t iona l , d ) t r an sve r se , i . e . c ro s sw i se ,e )c r e s t ,i . e .r i dged ,f )s ub rad ia l ,i . e . a lmo s tr a d ia l . 4 .N umbe ro f f l ake s c a r s : T he n umbe r o f s c a r s w a s c oun ted o nc o re sa nd w a s te f r agmen t s . O n f l ake s t h is w a s l im i ted t o t h ed o r sa ls c a rf r equency . 5 . E x ten t o f c o re f l ak ing : C o re s w e r e c l a s s if ied i n to s pec imen s w h ich s how f l ak ing a r ound p a r t o f t h e p e r iphe ry o rt h o se w h ich e xh ib i tr e duc t ion a r ound t h ew ho le p e r iphe ry . 6 . Mo rpho logy o f c o r e a nd f l ake s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s : T he f o l low ing p o s s ib le v a r ia t ions w e re r e co rded : a ) c o r t ica l , b ) p l a in , c )a ta pex , i . e . ap l a t fo rm w i th t wo f a ce t s , d )f a ce ted , i . e . ap l a t fo rm w i th mo re t h an t wo f a ce t s ,e )s ha t te red . 7 .R aw ma te r ia l : S tone m a te r ia ls w e re i d en t if ied a nd r e co rded a cco rd ing t o w he the r a ) t h ey a r e o f c r yp toc ry s ta l ine ( e .g . , c he r t ) , s ed imen ta ry ( e .g . , s a nd s tone ) ,o ri g neou s ( e .g . ,b a sa l t ) r o ck o r ig in ,a nd b )t h es pe c if ic r aw ma te r ia l . 8 .D imen s ions L eng th : T he max imum d imens ion m ea su red f r om t h e s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm t o t h e o ppo s i te e nd o n t h e l o ng i tud ina l a x is . I n t h e c a se o f t h e a b sence o f as t r ik ing p l a t fo rm o r

2 0

i n d ica t ion so ft h e d i r ec t ion o f p e rcu ss ion , s uch a s ab u lb o r l i ne s o fp e r cu s s ion , t h e l o nge s t d imen s ion o f t h e s pe c imen s e rve s a s t h e b a s i s f o r l e ng th d e te rm ina t ion . T he mo s t s a t i sf ac to ry m e thod o f l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s m ea su remen t h a s p r oved t o b e a mea su r ing b oa rd a s i t e nab le sr a p id ,a c cu ra te ,a nd c on s i s ten tr e co rd ing . W id th : T he m ax imum d imen s ion m ea su r ed a t ar i gh t a ng le t ot h e l e ng th . T h ickne s s : T he m ax imum d imens ion m ea su r ed v e r t ica l ly t o t h ee dge . O the ra t t r ibu te s : V a r ia t ion so ff l ake c ond i t ions : a )w ho le , b ) b roken : i )d i s ta l f r agmen t , i )m ed ia l f r agmen t , i i ) p rox ima l f r agmen t ( whe r e it oi ic ou ld b ed e te rm ined ) . P a t te rn o f v en t ra l f l ake s u r f a ce : T he f o l low ing v a r ia t ion s w e r e c on s ide r ed : a )c onvex ( f la t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t ) , b ) s em i d i shed ( c oncave -convex ) ,c )d i shed ( c oncave ) . Mo rpho logy o f d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions : Who le f l ake s w e r e c l a s s if ied a c co rd ing t oa )a p ica l ( po in ted ) , b ) s t epped : i )s t ep v e r t ica l , i )s t ep c oncave , c )h i nge mo rpho logy . C o r e s t ep f r a c tu r e s : C o re s w e r e s t ud ied w i th r e ga rd t o t h e a b sence o rf r equency o f s t ep f r a c tu r e s i n r e la t ion t o m a te r ia l v a r ia t ion . A ng le o f f l ake r emova l : T he a ng le c an b e : a ) e nd s t ruck , b ) s i de s t ruck ,c )t r an sve r sa l . Ag on iome te rw a su sed t o m ea su r e t h ep e rcu s s ion a ng le so nc o re sa nd f l ake s . T oo l s : B e cau s e o ft h e i mpo r tance o f u t i l i sed s pec imen s i n r e ga rd t o f unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion , v a r iab i l i ty a nd f r equen t ly mo re e l abo ra t e m od if ica t ion , t h e se a r t ef a c t s r e qu i r e a mo re c omp rehen s ive d e sc r ip t ion t h an o the r c a tego r ie s ; r e tou ch c l a s s if ica t ion i sp a r t ly b a sed o nB o rde s ( 1981 , F ig . 2 : 1) . T he f o l low ing l i s tr ef lec t s mo rpho log ica ld i f f e r en ce s : a )L oca t ion o f u s e -wea r : 1 ) i )u n if ac ia l , i ) b i f ac ia l ; 2 ) i ) u n i la te ra l , i )b i la te ra l ; 3 )i )c on t inuou s , i ) n on -con t inuou s ; 4 )i )s i de , i )e nd , i i ) ia nd i ,i v ) p o in t . b ) N umbe r o f m od if ied e dge s : i )o ne , i ) t wo , i i ) mu l t i l a te ra l . c ) Mo rpho logy o f mod if ied e dge s a nd a d ja cen t a r ea s : i ) s t ra igh t , i )c oncave , i i ) c onvex , i v ) o b l ique , v ) d en t icu la t e , v i ) c onve rgen t , v i) c omb ina t ions o f i )t ov i ) . d ) R e touch : 1 )i )u n if ac ia l , i ) b i f ac ia l , i i ) u n i la te ra l , i v ) b i la te ra l , v )m a rg ina l , v i ) i n va s ive ; 2 ) i )e ca i l le , i ) s ub p a ra l le l , i i ) p a ra l le l , i v ) s c a la r ( c ove r ing t h e w ho le o f a s u r f a ce ) . C o lou r A b ra s ion : T h r e e d eg r ee s w e re d i s t ingu i shed : a ) l i gh t , b ) mode ra te ,c )h eavy . P a t ina t ion : T he f o l low ing v a r ia t ion s w e r e c on s ide red : A ) D eg ree : i )l i gh t ,i ) mode ra te , i i ) s t rong . B ) D is t r ibu t ion : i ) d o r sa l , i )v en t ra l , i i ) d i s ta l e nd , i v )p rox ima l e nd , v ) w ho l ly c ove red ( t h i s c ou ld h i nde r a n a s se s smen t o f ma te r ia l a nd /o r c o lou rd epend ing o nt h ed eg ree o fp a t ina t ion ) . Wea the r ing :T h r ee d eg ree s o f w ea the r ing w e re d i s t ingu i shed : a )l i gh t , b )m ode ra te , c )h eavy . 3 .6 .3

C la ss if ica t ion o f c ores a nd c ore c a tegor ies

1 .C la s to r ig in : a )C o re s o fp ebb le o rc obb le o r ig in , b ) c o r e s o n b l ock s ( o f n on -cobb le o r n on -pebb le o r ig in ) , c )c o re s o n n odu le s . 2 . Me thod o f c o r e r e duc t ion : a ) D i re c t h a rd -hamme r p e rcu s s ion : An odu le o r b l ock o fr aw m a te r ia l ( e i the r h and h e ld o r s e t o n t h e g r ound f o r s uppo r t ) i s s t ruck w i th a h amme r s tone .b )B ipo la rp e rcu ss ion : At e chn ique i nw h ich a c o r e i sp l a ced o n a n a nv i l a nd s t ruck w i th a h amme r s tone f r om a bove ( s ee , e . g . , C rab t ree 1 972 :42 , 4 0 ; T o th

T he t e rm sp ebb le a nd c obb le f o l low Wen two r th 's

( 1922 )g r ade s y s tem o fe l a s t ic sw he re p ebb le d imen s ion sa r e 4 -64 mm a nd c obb le sm ea su re 6 4 -256 mm . D epend ing o n t h ee x ten to fr educ t ion t h ep a ren tc l a s tm ay ,h oweve r ,n o t a lway sb ei d en t if iab le .

2 9

1 982 :126 ) . 3 . C o re c a tego r ie s : a ) S ing le -p la t fo rm : A c o r e o n w h ich f l ake f a ce t s s how u n id i r ec t iona l r emova l . b ) D oub le p l a tfo rm : S ca r s e xh ib i t p e r cu s s ion f r om t wo d i rec t ion s . c ) Mu l t i -p la t fo rm : S ca r ss how r emova l f r om s e ve ra l d i rec t ion s . d ) B ipo la r : ' C ru shed ' c o re s u r f a ce s d e r ived f r om t h e s imu l taneou s i mpac t o f t h e h amme r s tone o n t h e p l a t fo rm a nd t ot h eo ppo s i te e nd f r om t h e a nv i l . e )U n if ac ia l ly f l ak ed p ebb le o r c obb le c o re s ( ' choppe r s ' ) : F l ak ing i s l im i ted t o o ne f a ce . 0 B if a c ia l ly f l aked p ebb le o r c obb le c o r e s ( ' chopp ing too ls ' ) : Mod if ica t ion i s b i f ac ia l ; e ) a nd f ) a r e c l a s s if ied a sc o re s i ft h ey s how n oe v idence o fu t i l i sa t ion . 3 .6 .4

C lass if ica t ion

s e c t ion A , b u t a lmo s t h a lf o f t h e a r t ef a c t s c anno t b e a t t r ibu ted t o as e c t ion . Wa s te ma te r ia l s ( i .e . c o re s , w a s te f r agmen t s ,a nd w a s te f l ake s ) t o ta l 6 8 .7% o f t h e s amp le ( i .e . n . 1 50 ) . Wa s te f l ake s a r e t h e l a rge s t c a tego ry ( 47 .3% ) , a nd t o o ls , w a s t e f r agmen t s , a nd c o re s w e re n o ted i n d e scend ing o rde ro ff r equency . T he m a jo r i ty o fw a s te f l ake sa nd t o o l s a r e o n f r agmen t s , i . e . o n b r oken f l ake s ( 80 .3% a nd 6 1 .7% , r e spec t ive ly ) . O ne t o o l i so n an on -f lak e . O f t h e t wo c o re c a tego r ie s ,s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o r e s ( 66 .7% ) a r e mo re c ommon t h an d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . H amme r s tone s w e re n o t i d en t if ied i nt h e s amp le . As ma l l n umbe r o f a r te f a c t s e xh ib i t l i gh t a nd m ode ra t e w ea the r ing ( po ss ib ly c au sed b y w a te r a b ra s ion )a nd p a t ina t ion .

o f t oo l c a tegor ies 3 . 7 .1 .b

T he n omenc la tu re i n t h is c l a s s if ica t ion i s b a sed o n t h e p o s i t ion a nd /o rs hape o ft h e a r ea ( s ) w h ich e xh ib i t s u s e -wea r . T he v a r iou sc a tego r ie sd on o tr e f e rt oa ny s pec if ic f unc t iona l c ha rac te r( e .g . ,s c rape r ) , a nd a r ef unc t iona lc l a s se so n ly i nt h e s en se t h a t t h ey r e f e r t o t h e mo rpho logy a nd /o r p o s i t ion o f u t i l i sa t ion ;t h ey a r e n o tc a tego r ica l s t a temen t so ft h e t y pe o f f unc t ion .

T he r aw m a te r ia l s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage a r e c he r ta nd v e in q ua r tz . C he r t i st h e ma in ma te r ia l ( 95 .3% ) o f w h ich f i ne c he r t ( 82 .5% ) i ss ub s tan t ia l ly mo re c ommon t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t o f t h e t wo i d en t if ied v a r ie t ie s . A l l l i th ic c a tego r ie s c on ta in mo r e f i ne c he r t t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t s pec imen s . I n r e la t ive p ropo r t ion t o o t he r c a tego r ie s , mo re w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e i n f i ne c he r t . Mo s t o f t h e f i ne c oa r se c he r t a r te f a c t s a r e t o o ls . S even q ua r tz s pec imen s a r e w a s te f r agmen t s , w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ,a nd t oo ls . T he c he r t a nd b a sa l t s e em t o d e r ive f r om l o ca l o u tc rop s . T he ma in o u tc rop a ppea r st or e p re sen t t h e ma jo r s ou rce o f c he r t b a sed o nc ompa r i son s b e tween t h ec he r t s i nt h e o u tc rop a nd o f t h e a r te f ac t s . C he r tm ay a l so h ave b een e xp lo i ted f r om t h e s ma l l s ou rce s i d en t if ied i n t h e a r ea . O f t h e se t h e w ea the red f i ne c oa r se r e dc he r tw h ich o u t c rop sn ea rt h es i te i st h e c l o se s t t o X iaochang l iang . O ne s ou r ce o f c he r t l i e s c l o se r t o D onggu tuo . C he r t a nd b a sa l t o ccu r i n t h e f o rm o f a ngu la r , i regu la rb l o ck s w h ich a r ee a sy t oe x t rac t b y h and . T he c he r t b l ock s h ave am ax imum s i ze o f a bou t 1 0 -25 c m . T he c he r t h a s as t rong t e ndency t od i s in teg ra te a s d emon s t ra ted b y c o r e r e duc t ion e xpe r imen t s . T he se e xpe r imen t s i n d ica t ed t h a t t h e f i ne c he r t a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd t h e b a sa l t a r e s im i la r i n t h e i r f r ac tu r ing c ha r ac t e r i s t ic s , a nd t h a t t h e i r f r ang ib i l i ty m ake s i td i f f icu l tt oc on t ro l t h e se ma te r ia ls .

1 .U n if ac ia l ly f l aked p ebb le o rc obb le t o o ls ( ' choppe r s ') , a nd 2 . B if a c ia l ly f l aked p ebb le o r c obb le t oo l s ( ' chopp ing t o o l s ') :E v idence o fu t i l isa t ion . 2 . F lake t oo ls : T he c r i te r ium f o r d i s t ingu i sh ing a s i de u t i l i sed f l ake f r om a ne nd u t i l ised f l ake i st h ep o s i t ion o f t h e s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm t o t h e u se -damaged e dge . O n f l ake t oo ls w h ich l a ck ap la tfo rm , i . e . f l ake f r agmen t t oo l s o r t oo l s o n b roken f l ake s , as i de u t i l ised s pec imen s how s u s e -wea r o n t h e l o nge r e dge ( s ) , a nd a n e nd u t i l i sed p i ece i s at o o l w he r e u t i l i sa t ion i s d i s t r ibu ted o n t h e s ho r te r e dge ( s ) . H oweve r , t h is d oe s n o t a pp ly t o d i s ta l , m ed ia l , a nd p rox ima l f r agmen t s . I n t h e se c a se s , t h e l a te ra l a nd e nd e dge s c an b e i d en t if ied ,a nd c l a ss if ica t ion f o r s i de u t i l i sed a nd e nd u t i l ised t oo ls i st h es ame a sf o rw ho le f l ake t o o l s . S ide u t i l i sed : U t i l i sa t ion i sd i s t r ibu ted o no ne o r mo re o f t h e l a te ra le dge s .E nd u t i l ised : U se -wea ri se i the ro n t h e d i s ta l o r p rox ima l e nd ( whe re i d en t if iab le ) , o ro n b o th e nd s . E nd & s i de u t i l ised :B o th t h e l a te ra l a nd e nd e dge s d i sp lay u s e -wea r mod if ica t ion . P o in t u t i l i sed : O ne o r b o th e dge s o f ap o in t s how u t i l isa t ion . No tch : O ne o r m o re c oncav i t ie s e xh ib i t u se -damage . D en t icu la te : Mu l t ip le n o tch ing d e r iv ed f r om u s e -wea r o n t h e 1 . s i de : s i de d en t icu la te , 2 . e nd : e nd d en t icu la te , o n o ne o r mo re e dge s , o r 3 . p o in t : d en t icu la te p o in t , o no ne o rb o th e dge s o f ap o in t .

3 . 7 .1 .c

A r tef a c ts hape s

T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e X iao chang l iang a r te f ac t s a r e i regu la r i n s hape . T he se c omp r i se mo s t c o r e s ( 70% ) a nd a l l w a s te f r agmen t s . Two d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e o f a pp rox ima te ly c y l ind r ica l s hape . A l lw ho le w a s te f l ake sa nd t h e ma jo r i ty o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ( 8 7 .7% ) , w ho le f l ake ( 82 .3% ) a nd f l ake f r agmen t ( 63 .3% ) t o o l s a r e o f i regu la r mo rpho logy . T he mo re n ume rous w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s h ave a s l igh t ly h i ghe rf r equency o fi regu la r q uad r i la te ra l p i ece s c ompa r ed t o t o o ls ,a nd o fi regu la rp o in ted s pec imen s c ompa red t o w ho le f l ake t o o l s . Mo s ti regu la rp o in ted f l ake s a r e t oo l f r agmen t s . Two t oo l s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd q ua r t z a r e o f f l ake -b lade p ropo r t ion s . T he b i po la rf l ake t oo l i so f mo re r e gu la r s hape t h an mo s ta r tef ac t s .

3 .7 R esu lts , d iscuss ion a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f t he X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a sse mb lages : I ntroduc t ion T h i s s e c t ion p re sen t s t h er e su l t so ft h e l i t h ic a na ly se s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage s a nd o f t h e X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang a r te f a c t s .T he s i gn if icance o f t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f t h e se a s semb lage s a r e t h en d i scu s sed a n d i n te rp re ted t ou nde r s tand h ow t h ey m ay a s s is t i ne xp la in ing t h e i n fo rma l i ty o f t h e a r tef ac t s , s uch a st h e m e thod o f c o r e r educ t ion a nd r aw ma te r ia lu se . 3 .7 .1 R esu lts o f t he l i th ic a na lys is o f X iaochang l iang a ssemb lage a nd o f X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang a r tefac ts

R aw m a te r ia ls

3 . 7 .1 .d

C o r tex o fl i t h ic c a tego r ie s

Mo s t o f t h e X iaochang l iang s i ng le -p la tfo rm ( 80% ) a nd d oub le -p la t f o rm ( 80% )c o r e sa r e c o r t ica l w i th t h e amoun t o f c o r tex i n t h e l ow t o m idd le r a nge s . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o re s p r e se rve mo re c o r tex t h an d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . T he o t he r a r te f ac tc a tego r ie sa r e p r edom inan t ly n on -co r t ica l s pec imen s : w a s te f r agmen t s ( 76 .5% ) , w ho le w a s te f l ake s ( 78 .6% ) , w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ( 86% ) , a nd w ho le f l ake t oo ls ( 94 .1 % ) . A l l f r agmen tt o o l sa r en on -co r t ica l .P r ima ry a nd s e conda ry f l ake s

t he t he

3 . 7 .1 .a A r te f ac tp rovenance a nd l i t h ic c a tego r ie s T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e X iaochang l iang a r tef a c t s d e r ive f r om

3 0

o ccu ri nv e ry l ow f r equenc ie s .

a nd t h e f a ce t ed p l a t fo rm o f o ne w a s te f l ake i n d ica te s s ome p repa ra t ion . Wa s te f l ake s ( 64 .3% ) a nd t oo ls ( 52 .9% ) a r e m a in ly e nd s t ru ck s pec imen s . Sma l l f r equenc ie s o f s i de s t ruck a nd t r an sve r sa l a r te f a c t so ccu ri nb o th c a tego r ie s . I tw a s a l so n o ted t h a tb u lb so fp e r cu s s ion , p e rcu s s ion l i ne s , a nd t o af a r l e s se re x ten tp e r cu s s ion r i ng so ccu ro n n ume rou sf l ake s . T he r a nge so fw a s te f l ak ea nd t o o l p l a t fo rm a ng le s s how ab r o ad d i s t r ibu t ion .T he a ve rage p l a t fo rm a ng le so fw a s te f l ake s a n d o f t o o l s h ave d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ions . Wa s te f l ake s h ave n o moda l v a lue , a nd t h u s n o t y p ica l o r p r e f e r r ed a ng le . F lake p l a t fo rm a ng le s a r e u sua l ly w ide a nd t h e r a re a cu te a ng le s ( sma l le rt h an 9 0 ° )o ccu ro n w a s te f l ake s .

3 . 7 .1 .e C o re a nd f l ake s c a rc ha ra c te r is t ic s C o re s c a r s a r e u sua l ly i regu la r . T he e xcep t ion a r e t h e c y l ind r ica l d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s a nd o ne s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e o f i regu la r s hape w h ich s how r e la t ive ly r e gu la r s c a r s . C o re s c a r s a r e b o th s ha l low a nd d eep . T he mo re n ume rou s s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s ( 6 6 .7% ) h ave a s l igh t ly h i ghe r s c a r c oun t t h an d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s , b u t t h e m in imum a n d m ax imum s c a r v a lue s a r e h i ghe r f o r d oub le -p la t f o rm c o r e s t h an f o rs i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s .C o r e sh ave s ma l la ve rage s c a r v a lue s w i th a d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . S ta t is t ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e X iao chang l iang a r te f ac t s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a nd a l w a s te f l ake s a r e , h oweve r , o f l im i ted v a lue g i ven t h e s ma l l s amp le s . T he s t a t is t ica l v a lue s m ay t h u s n o t b e i n d ica t ive o f t h e p opu la t ion f r om w h ich t h es amp le s d e r ive .

3 . 7 .1 .g

S ing le -p la tfo rm c o re sa r es ma l le ra nd l a rge ri nm in imum a nd m ax imum l e ng th ,r e spec t ive ly , c ompa r ed t o d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o re s a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e s im i la ri ns ma l le s ta nd l a rge s tw id th s . D oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r es ma l le ra nd l a rge ri nm in imum a nd max imum t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly , c ompa r ed t o s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s . C o re s a r e s ma l l t o l a rge s p ec imen s ; l e ng th h a s t h e w ide s t s p r ead ( sma l le s t a nd l a rge s t d imens ion s : 1 . 60 c m a nd 1 5 .30 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne s sv a lue sa nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd w id th h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r s ed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . Howeve r , w id th h a s n o mode . T he m ax imum s i ze o f c o re s ( 15 .30 c m ) e xceed s t h a t o f f l ake s ( 7 .40 c m ) .

S ca r p a t te rn s o n w a s te f r agmen t s a r e p r edom inan t ly b i d i r ec t iona l ( 76 .5% ) . T he b a lance c omp r i se s u n id i rec t iona l a nd mu l t id i rec t iona l s pec imen s . T he a ve rage s c a r v a lue s o f t h e se a r te f ac t s a r e s ma l l a nd h ave a s k ewed d i s t r ibu t ion . F lake sh ave m a in ly u n id i rec t iona l s c a rp a t te rn s : w ho le w a s te f l ake s ( 50% ) , w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ( 89 .5% ) , w ho le f l ake t o o l s ( 47% ) , a nd f r agmen t t o o l s ( 70% ) . A l l f l ake c a tego r ie s h ave s ome b i d i rec t iona l s pec imen s . A f ew w ho le w a s te f l ake s a nd w ho le f l ake t o o l s s how a s ub rad ia l d o r sa l f l ak e p a t te rn . Who le w a s te f l ake s , w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s , a nd a l w a s te f l ake s h ave s ma l l d o r sa l s c a r a ve rage v a lue s a n d d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s . T he a ve r age d o r sa l s c a r v a lue s o f w ho le f l ake t oo ls , f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls , a nd f r agmen t t o o ls a r e l ow a nd h ave d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s . T he a ve rage d o r sa l s c a r v a lue s o f a l l t o o ls a r e s ma l l a nd h ave a s ymme t r ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . 3 . 7 .1 .f E x ten t o f c o r e r e du c t ion , p l a tf o rm sa nd a ng le s

a nd c o re

D imen s ion s o fa r tef ac t s

Wa s t ef r agmen t sa r es ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r te f a c t s ; l e ng th h a st h ew ide s ts p r ead ( sma l le s t a nd l a rge s t d imen s ion s : 0 . 90 c m a nd 6 . 50 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t and a rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a tl e ng th a nd t h ickne s sh ave t h e mo s t a n d l e a s td i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s ,r e spec t ive ly .

a nd f l ake Who le w a s te f l ake s a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r t ef a c t s ; l e ng th h a s t h e w ide s t s p r ead ( sma l le s t a nd l a rge s t d imen s ion s : 0 . 45 c m a nd 7 . 40 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spe c t ive ly ) . T he a ve r age l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . Wa s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r t e f a c t s ; l e ng th h a s t h e w ide s t s p read ( sma l le s t a nd l a rge s t d imen s ion s : 0 . 20 c m a nd 5 . 90 cm , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a n d t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . H oweve r , t h e t h ickne s s m ode s a r e mo re d i spe r sed f r om t h e m ean a nd m ed ian t h an t h ew id th mode s . A l l w a s te f l ake s a r e s ma l l t o med ium s i zed a r te f ac t s . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s sh ave t h e mo s ta nd l e a s td i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . H oweve r , t h e t h ickne s s mode s a r e m o re d i spe r sed f r om t h em ean a nd m ed ian t h an t h ew id th mode .

T he m a jo r i ty o fd oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s e xh ib i t w ho le f l ak ing o f t h e p e r iphe ry ( n . 4 ) . S i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s c omp r i se i n e qua lf r equenc ie s w ho l ly a nd p a r t ia l ly w o rk ed s pec imen s ( n . 5e a ch ) . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o r e s s how a s ma l l c o r r e la t ion b e tween w ho le f l ak ing a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd a h i gh c o r re la t ion b e tween p a r t ia l f l ak ing a nd f i ne c he r t . T h i s i si n c on t ra s t t o d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s w he re w ho le f l ak ing i s mo re f r equen t ly a s soc ia ted w i th f i ne c he r t t h an w i th f i ne c oa r se c he r t . T he o n ly d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re w i th p a r t ia l f l ak ing i s i n f i ne c he r t . A l l c o re s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a r e w ho l ly f l aked s pec imen s ,a nd t h e se a r e a lmo s t a s f r equen t a s w ho l ly f l aked f i ne c he r tc o r e s . C o r t ica lp l a t fo rm s w e re n o ted o n ly o n af ew s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s . F la to rr e la t ive ly f l a t p l a t f o rm t a b le s o ccu r o n at h i rd o ft h ec o r e s .T h i sw a sa ch ieved b y t h e d e ta chmen t o fo ne o r mo re f l ake s , a nd o ccu r s s l igh t ly mo re o f ten o n d oub le p l a t fo rm c o re s . T h is mod if ica t ion i s ma in ly a s soc ia ted w i th f i ne c he r tc o re s .L oca l i sed p l a t f o rm p repa ra t ion w a s n o ted o n ar ough ly f l aked p l a t fo rm o f as i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re . T he r a nge o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s t r ik ing a ng le s i s s im i la r , a l though l owe r c ompa r ed t o t h e r a nge o f d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . C o re p l a t fo rm a ng le sa r ew ide .T he a ve rage c o r e a ng le v a lue s h ave a s kewed d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd t h e r a nge o f c o r e a ng le s s how s ab road d i s t r ibu t ion .

Who le f l ake t o o l s a r e s ma l l a r te f ac t s , a nd l e ng th h a s t h e w ide s ts p read ( sma l le s ta nd l a rge s t d imen s ions : 0 . 50 c m a n d 4 . 50 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve r age l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne s sa nd t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion ss how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . T he t oo ls o n f r agmen t s , i . e . o n b roken f l ake s a nd t h e s i ng le n on -f lake a r e a l so t h e s ma l l a r te f ac t s ( sma l le s ta nd l a rge s td imen s ion s : 0 . 30 c m a nd 5 . 50 c m , t h ickne s sa nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T h ickne s s a nd w id th h ave t h e w ide s t s p r ead f o r f r agmen t t o o ls a nd f o r f l ake

Wa s te f l ake ( 85 .7% ) a nd t o o l ( 94 .1 % ) p l a t fo rm s a r e n on c o r t ica la nd ma in ly p l a in . Two f l ake sh ave a ta pex p l a t fo rm s

3 1

f r agmen tt o o ls , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve r age l e ng th , w id th , a n d t h ickne s sa nd t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion so ff r agmen t t oo ls s how t h a t w id th a nd t h ickne ss h ave t h e m o s t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s sa nd t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion s o f f l ake f r agmen t t oo l s s how t h a t w id th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . A l l t o o ls a r e s ma l l a r tef ac t s .T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e m o s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ions , r e spec t ive ly . H oweve r , w i th r e spec t t o t h e moda l v a lue s , l e ng th d i f f e r s l e s s t h an w id th f r om t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s a r e t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed v a lue s , r e spec t ive ly .

w ho le w a s te f l ake i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd o ne n on -co r t ica l f i ne c he r tw ho le f l ake t oo l a ppea r t oh ave b een p rodu ced b y b i po la r p e rcu s s ion . B o th s pe c imen s h ave a n umbe r o f d i s t inc t f e a tu re s : t h e w a s te f l ake s how s o ppos ing s ca r s o n t h ev en t ra l f a ce . T he t o o l h a s as t rong p e rcu s s ion l i ne a nd a c l ef ta s soc ia ted w i th i tn ea rt h ed i s ta le nd o f t h e v en t ra l f a ce , a nd ap rom inen t b u lb o n t h e p rox ima l e nd . O n t h e d o r sa l f a ce i ts how s w ha t a ppea r t ob e o ppo s ing p e r cu ss ion l i ne s u sua l ly f r om t h e d i s ta l t o t h e p rox ima l e nd . Wha t m ay r ep re sen t as l ipped p l a tfo rm i nt h es hape o fa n e c la t 6 r a l lu i re a s soc ia ted w i th ab u lb w a s a l so o b se rved o nt h ed o r sa l . 3 . 7 .1 .k T oo l c a tego r ie s , m a te r ia ls , s hape , u se -wea r f e a tu re s , a nd d imen s ion s Who le f l ake a nd f r agmen t t o o l s e a ch c on ta in s i x c a tego r ie s . Mo s t w ho le f l ake t o o ls a r e e nd u t i l ised s pec imen s ( 4 1 .2% ) , a nd o t he rc a tego r ie s i n d ec r ea s ing o r de r o f f r equency a r e s i de u t i l ised f l ake s , s i de d en t icu la te s ,e nd d en t icu la te s ,o ne s i de & e nd u t i l i sed f l ake ,a nd o ne n o t ch . F ragmen t t oo ls a r e ma in ly s i de u t i l i sed s pec imen s ( 36 .7% ) , a nd p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake s , n o tche s , e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s , s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd o ne e n d d en t icu la te o ccu r i n d ec r ea s ing f r equency . S ide u t i l i sed a nd e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e t h e o n ly w ho le f l ake t oo l c a tego r ie s w i th s pec imen s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . I n c on t ra s t , a l l t oo l f r agmen t c a tego r ie s c on ta in s p ec imen s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f s i de u t i l i sed s pec imens . A l l t oo ls i n q ua r tz a r es i de u t i l i sed p i ece s .

Wa s te f l ake s a r e l a rge r i n t h e i r m ax imum s i ze ( 7 .40 c m ) t h an t o o ls ( 5 .50 c m ) . A l l t o o ls ( i . e . i n c lud ing t h e n on -f lake t o o l ) a nd a l l f l ake t oo ls e xceed t h e m o re n ume rou s w a s te f l ake s i n t h e s ma l le s t d imens ion s , a nd a l l t o o ls a r e s ma l le r t h an w a s te f l ake s i n t h e l a rge s t d imen s ions , e xcep t f o r t h ickne s s w h ich i sg r ea te r f o r a l l t o o l s , b u t s ma l le r f o r a l f l ake t oo ls . Who le f l ake t oo ls a nd w ho le w a s te f l ake s h ave t h e s ame s i ze s i n t h e i r s ma l le s t d imen s ion s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h es l igh t ly l a rge rt h ickne s so ft o o ls , a nd w ho le f l ake t oo l s a r e s ma l le r t h an w ho le w a s te f l ake s i n t h e i r l a rge s ts i ze s . A l l f l ake f r agmen tt o o ls a nd t h e n on -f lake t oo l a r el a rge r t h an t h e mo re n ume rou s w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s i n t h e s ma l le s t s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i n l e ng th . T oo l s a r e s ma l le r i n t h e i r l a rge s t s i ze s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t oo l w id th a nd t h eg rea te rt h ickne s so fa l f r agmen tt o o ls . 3 . 7 .1 .h

As i de u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake i so f i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l s hape a nd o f f l ak e -b lade p ropo r t ion s a nd t wo s i de d en t icu la te s a r e o n i regu la r p o in t ed w ho le f l ake s . F ragmen t t oo ls c on ta in a s i de u t i l i sed f l ake -b lade , a nd a s i de d en t icu la te o f i regu la r q uad r i la t e ra l mo rpho logy . A l l p o in t u t i l ised f l ake s a r e o f i regu la r p o in ted s hape . F ou r i regu la r p o in ted f l ake f r agmen t s s how n ou se -damage o n t h e i rp o in t s .

V en t ra lf a ce f l ake f e a tu re s

Wa s te f l ake s ( 7 1 .4% ) a nd t o o l s ( 64 .7% ) e xh ib i t p r edom inan t ly c onvex v en t ra l f a ce s . T he mo r e n ume rou s t oo ls h ave a f ew mo re s em i -d i shed s pec imen s t h an w a s t e f l ake s , a nd o ne d i shed s pec imen e a ch w a s n o ted i n b o th c a tego r ie s . T he re i s n o s t rong c o r r e la t ion b e tween p rof i le s a nd ma te r ia l s o f w a s te f l ake s . T he c onvex , s em i -d i shed , a n d d i shed p ro f i le so ft h e mo re n ume rou st o o ls a r e u sua l ly i nt h e mo s tf r equen ts t one , i . e . f i ne c he r t . 3 . 7 .1 . i

Mo s t w ho le f l ake ( 90 .6% ) a nd f r agmen t ( 9 1 .3% ) t oo l s e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u se -wea r . B i la te ra l ly u t i l i sed e dge s a m u sua l ly o n f r agmen t s ( on t h e f o u r p o in t u t i l ised s pec imen s ) . Who le f l ake ( 9 1 .8% ) a nd f r agmen t ( 90 .3% ) t oo ls s how ma in ly b i f ac ia l u s e -damage . U se -wea r c onf ined t o t h e d o r sa l w a s o b se rved o n t wo w ho le f l ake t o o ls ( e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s ) a nd o n o ne f r agmen t ( s ide u t i l i sed f l ake ) . O ne w ho le f l ake t o o l h a s v en t ra l u s e -damage ( e nd u t i l i sed f l ake ) . O n w ho le f l ake ( 4 1 .2% )a nd f r agmen t( 40% )t o o l s mo s t u se -wea r e dge s a r e o f c oncave -convex s hape . T he m a jo r i ty o f e nd u t i l i sed a nd s i de u t i l ised f l ake ss how t h i s e dge mo rpho logy . O b l ique a nd d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge s a r e e qua l ly n ume rou s . O b l ique e dge so ccu ro ns i de u t i l ised f l ake s ,o ne e nd u t i l i sed f l ake , a n d t h es i de & e nd u t i l i sed f l ake . A ne nd u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake a n d as i de u t i l i sed f r agmen th ave s t ra igh te dge s . Two s i de u t i l i sed f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a nd a l l p o in t u t i l i sed f r agmen t s h ave o b l ique u se -wea re dge s . D en t icu la te sh ave d en t icu la te -ob l ique u se -damaged e dge s .C oncave e dge u s e -damage o ccu r so n ly o n n o tche s . U se -wea r s c a r s a r e s ma l l a nd e dge s a r e f r equen t ly b l un t . O ne s i de u t i l ised f i ne c he r tw ho le f l ake a nd t h e w ho le f l ake n o t ch h ave a cu te e dge s .

C o re a nd f l ake f r ac tu re s

S tep f r ac tu re s w e r e n o ted o n mo s t c o re s , a l though t h e f r ac tu re s o n t h e se c o re s a r e n o t n ume rou s . T he se f r ac tu re s o ccu r u sua l ly o n d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . F ine -coa r se c he r t s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s e xh ib i t s l igh t ly mo re f r a c tu r e s c ompa red t of i ne c he r ts pec imen s .F ine c he r td oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s h ave mo re f r a c tu re s t h an s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s . T he d oub le -p la t fo rm s pec imen i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t i s t h e o n ly c o re w i thou tf r ac tu re s . Wa s te f l ake sc on ta in mo re s pec imen s w i th s t ep c oncave a nd s t ep v e r t ica ld i s ta le nd s( 57 .2% )t h an w i th a p ica le nd s . T oo l s h ave a lmo s te qua lf r equenc ie so fa p ica l a nd s t ep c oncave a n d s t ep v e r t ica l t e rm ina t ion s a nd f ew h i nge s pec imens , b u t ma in ly a p ica l t oo l s ( 47 .1 % ) . F ine -coa r se c he r t w a s te f l ake s a r e ma in ly s t epped , a nd f i ne c he r t s p ec imen s w i th a p ica l a n d s t epped e nd s a r e e qua l ly n ume rou s . A p ica l t oo l s a r e p redom inan t ly i n f i ne c he r t a nd s t epped t e rm ina t ion s a r e ma rg ina l ly mo re f r equen t i n f i ne c he r t . T he h i nge t oo ls a m e qua l ly n ume rou s i nb o th c he r t s . 3 . 7 .1j

T he g l o s s o n at o o l w i th aV shaped n o tch i sl im i ted t o t h e u t i l i sed a r ea w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t i t d eve loped t h rough u t i l isa t ion . Two t o o ls ( aw ho le f l ake s i de d en t icu la te a nd a p o in tu t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t )h ave p o in t si n c l ined t owa rd t h e u t i l i sed e dge .

B ipo la ra r tef ac t s E nd u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake t o o l sh ave t h ew ide s t s i ze r a nge a n d a r e t h e l a rge s t t o o ls , a nd s i de d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake s a r e

Two s pec imens i n t h e s amp le c omp r is ing o ne p r ima ry

3 2

l a rge r i n t h e i r m ax imum s i ze t h an e nd d en t icu la te s . T he f r agmen t t o o l c a tego r ie s w i th t h e l a rge s t l e ng th a r e s i de u t i l i sed a nd p o in t u t i l ised s p ec imen s , a nd s i de u t i l i sed t oo ls a r e a mong t h e s pec imen s w i th t h e t h inne s t f r agmen t s . S i de d en t icu la t e s a r e s ma l le r i n w id th t h an t h e s i ng le e nd d en t icu la te .T he mo s te x ten s ive t h ickne s sr a nge o ccu r si nt h e p o in t u t i l i sed c a tego ry . T he m ax imum t o o l l e ng th a nd t h ickne ss w a s n o ted f o rt h en on -f lake p o in t u t i l i sed t o o l .

a ng le , a nd w i th a' n ecked ' o rc ons t r ic ted p l a in p l a t fo rm . U se w ea ri sb i f a c ia lo n ac oncave -convex e dge . 3 .7 .2 R esu l ts o f t he l i th ic a na lys is o f D onggu tuo a ssemb lages t renches T i -T 5 3 . 7 .2 .a A r te f a c tp rovenance a nd l i th ic c a t ego r ie s T he a s semb lage ss t ud ied b yt h ew r i te rd e r ive f r om f ou rl a ye r s ( i . e . l a ye r sA -D ) . T he l a rge s ta s semb lage o r ig ina te s f r om T i ( 74 .4% ) , t h e l a rge s t t r ench a t D onggu tuo . O f t h e s ma l le r t r enche s , T 2 c on ta in s mo s t s pec imen s ( 10 .8% ) a nd T 5 t h e l e a s t ( 3 .8% ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f l i th ic c a tego r ie s a nd t h e h i ghe s tf r equency o ft o o l sd e r ive sf r om T i . T he f u l l r e co rd ed r a nge o f c a tego r ie s w a s n o t ed f o r a l l t r enche s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e s i ng le r e touched n on f lake f r om T i . T he s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance o f mo s t a r te f a c t s f r om t r enche s T 2 t o T 5 ( 5 5 .9% ) i s n o t k nown , r ep re sen t ing 1 3 .4% o f t h e D onggu tuo s pec imen s . T he ma jo r i ty o f a r te f a c t s a nd c a tego r ie s d e r ive f r om l a ye r A , t h e h i ghe s t a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon ( 76 .1 % ) . Mo re s pec imens w e r e n o ted f o r l a ye r C t h an f o rl a ye rB , w h i le o n ly as i ng le a r tef ac tw a s r e co rd ed f o r l a ye r D ( a t T 4 ) . F o r r e a son s a l ready p o in ted o u t , t h e s t ra t ig raph ic f r equenc ie s m ay n o t r e p re sen t a n a c cu r a te r e f lec t ion o f a r te f a c t f r equenc ie s , e spec ia l ly w i th r e ga rd t o l a ye r s Ba nd C .

3 . 7 .1 . 1 A r tef ac t sw i th s e conda ry r e touch T he m a jo r i ty o fs pec imen sm od if ied b ys e conda ry r e touch a r e d en t icu la te s a nd p o in t s . T he r e touch f e a tu re s a r e , h oweve r , n o t a lway s c l ea r e nough t o b e c e r ta in t h a t t h ey r e p re sen t s e conda ry r e touch . F o r e xamp le , o n s ome a r te f a c t s u se d amage m ay b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h e a ppa ren t s e cond a ry r e touch ( s ee b e low ) . T he f ew t o o ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch c omp r ise t wo o r p o ss ib ly f i ve t oo l c a tego r ie s . R e touched w ho le f l ake t oo ls ( n . 1o r 3 )a r e o ne s i de d en t icu la te , a nd p o ss ib ly t h e s i ng le n o tch a nd o ne e nd d en t icu la te . F ragmen t t oo ls w i th r e touch ( n . 5o r 7 ) a r e o ne s i de d en t icu la te , f ou r p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen s , a nd p e rhap s o ne e nd d en t icu la te a nd o ne e nd u t i l i sed s pec imen . S e conda ry r e touch mod if ica t ion i s e i the r l im i ted t o t h e d o r sa l f a ce ( n . 5 ) o r i s l e s s c ommon ly d i s t r ibu ted o nt h e v en t ra l ( n . 2 ) o r d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l ( n . 3 ) . T he r e touch c an b e c ha ra c t e r i sed a s s imp le a nd r e la t ive ly i n va s ive mod if ica t ion t h rough t h e r emova l o f o ne t o a bou t f i ve f l ake s .T he w o rn a nd s t ep -f laked e dge o f t h e e nd u t i l i sed f l ake f r agmen t may h ave b een f o rmed s o le ly t h rough u se w ea r o r a l so t h rough r e juvena t ion . O n t h e d en t icu la te s r e touch may h ave b een c ondu c t ed t o t h in t h e e dg e a nd /o r t o c rea te d en t icu la t ion .T he se t o o l s may h ave b een r e juvena ted . O n t h es i de d en t icu la te f l ake f r agmen t r e touch may h ave h ad t h e s o le p u rpo se o ft h inn ing t h ee dge . T he a pex o f t h e p o in t o f t h is t oo l may h ave b roken o f f e i the r a s ar e su l t o f u t i l isa t ion o r o f o ccupa t iona l o r p o s t -depo s i t iona l d amage . On t h ree p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imens r e touch a ppea r s t o h ave b een c ondu c t ed t o i s o la te a p o in t , i n c lud ing o ne s pe c imen w he r e t h i s r e touch m ay r e p re sen t p a r t ia l r e juvena t ion , a n d o ne t o o l o n w h ich t h is m ay a l so b e a s soc ia ted w i th a r educ t ion i n e dge t h ickne s s . T he c hunky p o in t u t i l ised f r agmen t m ay h ave b een r e touched t o r e duce t h e t h ickne s s a nd /o r t o d e c r e a se t h e a ng le o f t h e e dge . T he c oncave u se w ea r a r ea s o n mo s t n o t che s s e em t o h ave d eve loped s o le ly t h rough u t i l isa t ion . T he V shaped a nd s ha rp n o tch o f w h ich o ne e dge i sb eve l led o n t h e s i ng le w ho le f l ake n o tch m ay d e r ive f r om s e conda ry r e touch t o s hape , t h in , o r r e juvena te t h e e dge . I t may a l te rna t ive ly i d en t if y d amage i n cu r red t h rough c o re r e duc t ion o rd u r ing o ra f te rs i te o ccupa t ion . 3 . 7 .1 .m

t he

T he f r equency o f w a s te m a te r ia l s i s h i ghe r b a sed o n a l l a r te f a c t s v i ewed ( 9 1 .9% ) . Wa s te ma te r ia l s c omp r ise t h e m a jo r i ty o fa r te f ac t ss t ud ied i nd e ta i l ( 84 .2% ) . A ta l lt r enche s w a s te m a te r ia l s a r e mo re c ommon t h an t oo ls . T he mos t n ume rou s c a tego ry i nt h is s t udy a r e w a s te f l ake s ( 59 .3% ) . O the rc a tego r ie si nd ec r ea s ing o rde ro ff r equency a r e t o o ls ( n . 17 ) , w a s te f r agmen t s ( n . 14 ) , c o re s ( n . 6 9 ) , a nd o ne n on f l ake . Mo s t w a s te f l ake s a r e w ho le f l ake s ( n . 2 27 ) , w h i le t o o l s a r e u sua l ly o n f r agmen t s ( n . 7 1) . H amme r s tone s w e r e n o ti d en t if ied i nt h ep r e sen ts t udy .

T he X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang a r te f ac t s

T he a r tef a c t sf r om X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang w e re f o und a t a n ew l o ca l i ty n ea r X iaochang l iang . T h ree w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s d e r ive f r om t h e t o p o f t h e mamma l ian f o s s i l d epo s i ta nd t wo t o o l sw e re f ound s epa ra te ly n ea rby i ns i tu i n s i l t sand . T he w a s te f l ake s a r e s ma l l , i regu la r , n on -co r t ica l , a nd u n id i rec t iona l ly f l aked f i ne c he r t a r tef a c t s w i th c onvex p rof i le s a nd a p ica l d i s ta l e nd s . T he l a rge r t o o l i s as i de d en t icu la te c o re t o o l i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , i regu la r , n on c o r t ica l , a nd w i th a m u l t id i rec t iona l s c a r p a t te rn . T he u se d amage o n i t s o b l ique e dg e i sb i f ac ia l . T he f l ake t oo l i s a s i de u t i l ised i r regu la rq uad r i la te ra lf i ne c he r tw ho le f l ake . I ti s n on -co r t ica lw i th b id i rec t iona l s c a r s , as em i -d i shed p rof i le , a s t ep c oncave d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion , e nd s t ruck w i th a s ma l l

3 3

C o re s f r om T i c omp r i se mo re s pec imen s ( 62 .3% ) t h an t h e c omb ined t o ta l s f r om T 2 t oT 5 . T he T 3 t o T 5 s amp le s h ave t h es ma l le s tc o re f r equenc ie s .A l lc o re c a tego r ie s o ccu r a tT i a nd a l l c a tego r ie s a r e mo s t n ume rous h e re . Doub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e t h e mo s t f r equen t c o re c a tego ry ( 49 .3% ) f o l lowed b y s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s , mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s , a nd b ipo la r c o re s . S ing le , a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s w e r e r e co rd ed f o r a l t r enche s .D oub le -p la t fo rm c o re sa r e mo re n ume rou s a ta l l t r enche s e xcep t a t T 4 a nd T 5 w he r e e qua l f r equenc ie s o f s i ng le , a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s o ccu r . Mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re sw e r er e co rded f o rT i ,T 2 ,a nd T 4 , a nd t h e t h ree b ipo la r c o re sd e r ive f r om T i . A l lc o re c a tego r ie sa r e mo s tf r equen ti n l a ye r A . E qua l f r equen c ie s o f s i ng le , a nd d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s , b u t n o mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s , w e r e n o ted i n l a ye r s B a nd C . O ne s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re , ah i ghe r f r equency o f d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s( n . 1 ) t h an t h e c omb ined t o ta ls f r om l a ye r s Ba nd C , a nd f o u r mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s c anno t b e a t t r ibu ted t ot h e i rp a ren tl a ye r ( s ) . T he c omb ined f r equency o f w a s te f r agmen t s f r om T 2 t o T 5 i s s ma l le r t h an f r om T 1 ( 7 8 .9% ) . Mo re w a s te f r agmen t s o ccu r i nl a ye r C ( n . 1 ) t h an i n t h e u nknown l a ye r ( s ) a nd l a ye rB . Who le w a s te f l ake s a r e m a rg ina l ly mo re c ommon ( 5 1 .7% ) t h an w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . Who le w a s te f l ake s a r e mo re f r equen t t h an w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a t T i a nd T 3 . A t T 2 b o th c a tego r ie s a r e e qua l ly n ume rou s , a nd a t T 4 a nd T 5 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e m o re c ommon . T he s ub s tan t ia l

ma jo r i ty o f w ho le w a s te f l ake s ( n . 1 89 ) a nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ( n . 1 77 ) d e r ive f r om l a ye r A . V e ry f ew w ho le w a s te f l ake s d e r ive f r om l a ye r s Ba nd C , a nd m any ( n . 3 4 ) c anno tb ea t t r ibu ted t o al a ye r . T he s ma l le s tn umbe ro fw a s te f l ake f r agmen t s w a s n o ted f o r l a ye r B . S pec imen s f r om t h e u nknown l a ye r ( s )( n . 1 7 )a r em a rg ina l ly mo r en ume rou s t h an t h o se f r om l a ye rC .

1 3 w he re b o th c he r t s a r ee qua l ly c ommon . B a sa l t ( a tT I ,1 2 , T 4 ) i s mo re n ume rou s t h an q ua r tz ( a tT i) .

T oo ls a r e mo s tc ommon a tT 1 ( n . 6 1) a nd l e a s t c ommon a t T 3 a nd T 5 . T he h ighe s t a nd l owe s t f r equen cy o f t o o ls w a s n o ted f o rt h eh i ghe s ta nd l owe s t l a ye r s , i . e . l a ye r s Aa nd D , r e spec t ive ly . T oo l s o n f l ake f r agmen t s ( 60 .7% ) o u tnumbe r t oo ls o n w ho le f l ake s , a nd a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an w ho le f l ake t oo l s a t a l l t r enche s e xcep t f o r T 3 . Mo s t t o o ls a nd mo re f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls ( n . 3 7 ) t h an w ho le f l ake t o o ls ( n . 2 5 ) o ccu r i n l a ye r A . T oo ls a r e mo re c ommon i n t h e u np rovenanced s amp le t h an i nl a ye r sB -D .L aye r Bh a s e qua l f r equenc ie so fw ho le f l ake a nd f l ake f r agmen t t o o l s . L aye r C a nd t h e u nknown l a ye r (s ) c on ta in mo r e f l ake f r agmen t t h an w ho le f l ake t oo ls . O ne t oo l ( on aw ho le f l ak e ) w a s r e co rd ed f o r l a ye r D . A f ew a r te f a c t s s how l i gh t a nd m ode r a t e w ea the r ing ( po s s ib ly c au sed b y w a te r a b ra s ion ) a nd p a t ina t ion . 3 . 7 .2 .b

R aw ma te r ia ls

C he r t i s t h e ma in l i th ic ma te r ia l ( 96 .6% ) w i th f i ne c he r t ( 54 .3% ) mo re c ommon t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd c oa r se c he r t .A r tef ac t si nn on -che r t ma te r ia ls c omp r i se 1 7 i n b a sa l t , s even i nq ua r tz ,a nd o ne i n du ra ted s and s tone s p ec imen . Mo s t b a sa l ta nd q ua r tz s pec imen sa r ew a s te f l ake sa nd t o o ls . C o re s a nd w a s te f r agmen t s a r et h eo n ly c a tego r ie sw h ich h ave mo re s pec imen si nf i ne -coa r se c he r tt h an i nf i ne c he r t . T he ma jo r i ty o f s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o r e s a r e i nc he r t o f w h ich f i ne c he r t s pec imen s p redom ina te ( n . 1 2 ) . Q ua r tz ( a t T i) i s t h eo n ly o the r ma te r ia l , a nd t h eo n ly c o re i n t h i s s t one f r om Donggu tuo . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o re s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t w e r e o n ly r e co rded f o r T i a nd T 2 . T he mo re n ume rou s d oub le p l a t fo rm c o re sa r e a l so ma in ly i n c he r t o f w h ich f i ne -coa r se c he r tc o re s( n . 2 3 )a r e mo re n ume rou s a ta l t r enche s ; t h e T 4 c o re a nd t h e T 5 c o re a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . F ine c he r t d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s w e re n o ted f o r T i a nd T 2 , a nd a t T 3 t h e se a r em a rg ina l ly mo re n ume rou st h an s pe c imen s i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t . T he d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e i n b a sa l t f r om T 2 i s t h e o n ly c o re i n t h is ma te r ia l r e co rd ed a tD onggu tuo . A l l mu l t i -p la t f o rm c o re s a r e i n c he r t o f w h ich f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( n . 6 ) i sm a rg ina l ly mo re c ommon t h an f i ne c he r t ( n . 5 ) . F ine -coa r se c he r ti s mo re f r equen t a tT i , a tT 2 f i ne c he r t i s s l igh t ly mo re n ume rou st h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t ,a nd t h es i ng le T 4 c o re i si n f i ne c he r t . T he t h ree b i po la r c o re s a r e i n f i ne c he r t .

A l l w ho le f l ake t o o l s a r e i n c he r t w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f a s i ng le q ua r tz s pec imen f r om 1 4 . F ine c h e r t i s t h e ma jo r ma te r ia l ( 69 .6% ) a t mo s t t r enche s , b u t a tT 5 f i ne , a nd f i ne c oa r se c he r t a r e e qua l ly c ommon . O ne t o o l ( f rom T 4 , l a ye r C ) i n af i ne , c hoco la te b rown c h e r t a nd o ne t oo l ( f rom 1 5 , l a ye rC ) i na l aba s te rc o lou red f i ne c he r ta r e t h e o n ly a r t e f a c t s i n t h e se c he r t s f r om e i the r D onggu tuo o r X iaochang l iang . T he m a jo r i ty o f f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a r e i n c her t o f w h ich f i ne c he r t s pec imen s a r e mo s t c ommon ( 66 .2% ) a t a l t r enche s . 1 2 i st h eo n ly t r ench w h ich l a ck s f i ne -coa r se c he r t f l ake s . B o th c he r t s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t a t T 5 . B a sa l t s pec imen sw e r ei d en t if ied f o rT 1 ,12 ,a nd T 5 , a nd t h e s i ng le q ua r tz t o o l d e r ive sf r om T i . 3 . 7 .2 .c

A r tef ac ts hape s

T he ma jo r i ty o fc o re s a r e o f i regu la r s h ape ( 97 .9% ) . T h r ee c o re s , i n c lud ing t h e q ua r tz c o r e , a r e o f mo re r egu la r a nd a pp rox ima te ly c y l ind r ica l s hape ( f rom 1 1 , 1 2 , a nd T 3 ) . Mo s tw ho le w a s te f l ake sa r eo fi regu la rs h ape ( 72 .2% )a ta l l t r enche s , i n c lud ing t h e s i ng le T 5 f l ake . I regu la r q uad r i la te ra l f l ake s ( 22% ; a t T I-T4 ) a r e m o re n ume rou s t h an i regu la r p o in ted ( a t 1 1-14 ) a nd o va l ( a t T i) s pec imen s . Wa s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e m a in ly i regu la r s pec imen s ( 83% ) a t a l l t r enche s ,a nd t h e se s pec imen sa r e mo r e c ommon t han i n t h e w ho le w a s te f l ake c a tego ry . A l l 1 4 f l ake s a r e i regu la r . I r regu la r q uad r i la t e ra l f l ake s ( a t T l-T3 , 1 5 ) a r e mo re n ume rou s ( 1 1 .8% ) t h an i regu la r p o in t ed s pec imens ( a t T i , T 2 ) . Mo s t w ho le f l ake t o o l s a r e o f i regu la r mo rpho logy ( 78 .3% ) a ta l l t r enche s , e xcep tf o r1 2a nd 1 4 . O ne t oo l i so n a n i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l f l ake ( f rom T i ) a nd n ine a r e o n i regu la r p o in t s ( a t T i , 1 2 , T 4 ) . F lake f r agmen t t oo l s a r e ma in ly o ni r regu la rf l ake s ( 59 .2% ) a ta l t r enche s , i n c lud ing 1 5 , w he re a l t o o ls a r e i regu la r . I r regu la rp o in ted s pec imen s a r e t h e n ex t mo s t f r equen t t o o l s ( 29 .6% ; a tT i-IS ) . O the r t oo l s a r e o f i regu la r q uad r i la t e r a l ( a t T 1-T4 ) a nd c r e scen t s hape ( a t1 1) . 3 . 7 .2 .d

C o r tex o fl i th ic c a tego r ie s

T he ma jo r i ty o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s a r e c o r t ica l ( 66 .7% ) . T i i s t h e o n ly t r ench w i th b o th c o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l s pec imen s , t h e 1 2 c o re s a nd t h e 1 4 c o re a r e c or t ica l , a nd b o th 1 3 a nd T 5c o re sa r en on -co r t ica l .T he e s t ima ted c o r t ica l s u r f ace o fs i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re sr a nge sf r om 1 60% o f w h ich t h el a rge s tc a tego ry i st h e 1 -25% r a nge ( a t T i , T 2 , 1 4 ) a nd t h e l e a s t n ume rou s t h e 4 1-60% r a nge ( a t T i , 1 2 ) . D oub le p l a t fo rm c o re sa r e ma in ly c o r t ica l ( 6 7 .6% )a ta l l t r enche s . A t T i c o r t ica lc o re s a r e mo s t n ume rou s , a nd a tT 2 c o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica ls pec imen sa r ee qua l ly f r equen t . T he s ma l le r 1 3 , 1 4 , a nd 1 5 s amp le s c on ta in o n ly c o r t ica l c o re s . D oub le p l a tfo rm c o re s h ave t h e s ame c o r t ica l r a nge a s s i ng le p l a tfo rm c o re s . T he m a jo r i ty o f d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s p re se rve b e tween 1 -40% c o r tex ( a t T 1-T3 , T 5 ) . Mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o re s ( a t T i , T 2 , T 4 ) a r e u sua l ly n on -co r t ica l ( 63 .6% ) , a nd t h is i n c lude s t h e o n ly s pec imen f r om T 4 . T he f ou r c o r t ica l mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s p r e se rve 1 40% c o r t ica l s u r f ace a nd t h e 1 -25% r ange i s mo s tn ume rou s ( a t T I , 1 2 ) . Two o f t h e t h ree b i po la r c o r e s a r e c o r t ica l a nd p re se rve 1 1 0% c o r t ica l s u r f a ce . C o r t ica l s p ec imen s c omp r ise 6 2 .3% o f c o re s .T he se c o re s a r e mo re n ume rou s a ta l t r enche s e xcep t f o r 1 5 w i th e qua l f r equenc ie s o f c o r t i ca l a nd n on -co r t ica l c o re s . T he s ma l l s amp le s ( T2 -T5 ) c on t a in p ropo r t iona te ly mo re c o r t ica l c o re s t h an t h e l a rge s t s amp le ( i . e . T i) . T he 1 -

Mo s tw a s te f r agmen t s a r ei nc he r t o f w h ich f i ne coa r se c he r t c ons t i tu te s t h e ma in ma te r ia l ( 59 .6% ) a t a l t r enche s , i n c lud ing t h es i ng le s pec imen f r om 1 4 .B a sa l t( a tT 1) ,q ua r tz ( a t T 2 ) , a nd i n du ra ted s and s tone ( a t T 5 ) r e p r e sen t s i ng le s pec imens . Who le w a s te f l ake s a r e p r edom inan t ly i n c he r t a nd f i ne c he r t i s mo re c ommon ( 54 .2% ) t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t . T he T i a nd T 2 f l ake s c on ta in m o r e f i ne c he r t s pec imen s , a nd t h e s i ng le T 5 f l ake i s a l so i n t h i s s t one . F ine -coa r se c he r ti s mo re f r equen t a t1 3 a nd 1 4 . T he s i ng le c oa r se c he r t s pec imen d e r ive s f r om T i , a nd b a sa l t i s r e p re sen ted a t 1 1 a nd 1 2 . T he ma jo r i ty o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e i n c he r t a nd mo re s pec imen s a r e i nf i ne c he r t ( 59 .9% ) c ompa r ed t o w ho le w a s te f l ake s . F i ne c he r t i s t h e mo s t f r equen t ma te r ia l a ta l l t r enche s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f

3 4

6 0% c o r t ica l s u r f a ce r a nge c omp r i se s m a in ly c o r e s w i th 1 2 5% c o r tex a nd f ew c o re si nt h e 1 60% c a t ego ry .

p i e ce s a r e mo re c ommon t h an b i d i rec t iona l f l ake s a t a l t r enche s . O ne f l ake h a s as ub rad ia lp a t te rn ( a tT i) .

Wa s te f r agmen t s a r e m a in ly n on -co r t ica l ( 54 .4% ) a t a l t r enche s . R e la t ive t o t h e l a rge s t s amp le ( T 1) , c o r t ica l f r agmen t s a r e mo re n ume rou s a tT 2 . E qua l f r equenc ie s o f c o r t ica la nd n on -co r t ica lp i ece sw e r en o t ed f o rt h eT 3s amp le . T he s i ng le T 4 s pec imen i sn on -co r t ica l , a nd T 5 , a pa r t f r om T 1 , i st h eo n ly t r ench w he re n on -co r t ica l f r agmen t s a r e mo re f r equen t t h an c o r t ica l o ne s . T he e s t ima ted c o r t ica l s u r f a ce a r ea o n w a s t e f r agmen t s r a nge s f r om 1 80% o f w h ich mo s t h ave b e tween 1 25% c o r tex . O ne s p e c imen h a s 1 80% c o r tex ( a tT i) .

B id i rec t iona l w ho le f l ake t o o l sa r e mo re f r equen t ( 50% ) t h an u n id i re c t iona l s pec imen s . T he f o rme r a r e mo re n ume rou s a t T 1 a nd T 4 , a nd t h e l a t te r a tT 2 a nd T 3 . B o th p a t te rn s w e r e n o ted i n e qua l f r equenc ie s i n t h e T 5 s amp le . Two t oo ls e xh ib i t ac r e s t p a t te rn ( f rom T i a nd T 4 ) . B id i rec t iona l f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls a r e m o re c ommon ( 50 .7% ) t h an u n id i rec t iona l s pec imen s . T he f o rme r a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an t h e l a t te r a tT i , T 3 , a nd T 4 , i n c on t ra s t t o T 2 . B o th p a t te rn s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t a tT 5 . T he a ve rage d o r sa l s c a r v a lue s o f t h e D onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s , w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s , a nd o fa l w a s te f l ake s a r e s ma l l . T he s c a r v a lue s o f t h e w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a nd o f a l l Donggu tuo w a s t e f l ake s s how s ymme t r ica l d i s t r ibu t ions , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e w ho le w a s te f l ake s . T he a ve r age d o r sa l s ca r v a lue s o f t h e D onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o ls , f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls , a nd o f a l t o o ls a r e s ma l l a nd h ave d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s .

N on -co r t ica l w ho le w a s te f l ake s c omp r i se 6 4 .3% o f s pec imens . C o r t ica l f l ake s p redom ina t e a tT 3 a nd T 4 ; t h e s i ng le T 5 f l ake i sn on -co r t ica l . T he e s t ima ted d o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r f a ce o nw ho le w a s te f l ake sr ange sf r om 1 100% a nd mo s t s pec imens e xh ib i t b e tween 1 40% c o r tex . T he se s pec imen s c on ta in 1 5 p r ima ry f l ake s ( a t T i) . Wa s t e f l ake f r agmen t s c on ta in mo re n on -co r t ica l ( 80 .7% ) t h an c o r t ica l s pec imen s a t a l lt r enche s .T he se f l ake sp re se rve 1 100% d o r sa l c o r tex , a nd mo s ts pec imen sh ave 1 60% c o r tex .T h i sf l ake c a tego ry a l so c on ta in s f o u rp r ima ry f l ake s( a tT i ,T 4 ) .

3 . 7 .2 .f E x ten t o f c o r e r e duc t ion , p l a t fo rm sa nd a ng le s

a nd c o re

a nd

f l ake

C o re s f l aked a r ound t h e p a r t ia l p e r iphe ry a r e mo re c ommon ( n . 3 9 ) t h an w ho l ly w o rk ed c o re s . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o r e s c on ta in t h e h i ghe s t f r equency o fp a r t ia l ly w o rk ed s pe c imen s ( n . 1 6 ) c ompa red t oo t he rc a tego r ie s ,a nd a r e mo s t n ume rou s a tT i . Who l ly f l aked s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s o ccu r a tT i a nd T 3 , a nd p a r t ia l ly f l aked c o r e s a tT i ,T 2 , T 4a nd T 5 .D oub le , a nd mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re sc on ta in a lmos t e qua l f r equenc ie s o f w ho l ly ( n . 1 6 a nd n .6 ,r e spec t ive ly ) a nd p a r t ia l ly ( n . 1 8 a n d n .5 ,r e spec t ive ly ) f l aked s pec imen s . Who l ly f l aked d oub le p l a t fo rm c o re sw e r er e co rded a tT l-T3 .P a r t ia l ly w o rked c o re s o ccu r a t a l t r enche s . Mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s w i th w ho le p e r iphe ra l mod if ica t ion w e r e n o ted f o r T i a nd T 2 , a nd p a r t ia l ly f l aked s pec imen s f o r T i a nd T 4 . A l l b ipo la r c o r e s e xh ib i t w ho le f l ak ing . S i ng le -p la tfo rm s c o re s w i th w ho le f l ak ing a r e e qua l ly f r equen t i n b o th c he r t s a nd i n c lude t h e q ua r t z c o re . S ing le -p la t f o rm s c o r e s w i th p a r t ia l w o rk ing a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne c he r t . Who l ly a nd p a r t ia l ly f l aked d oub le p l a t fo rm c o re s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , e spe c ia l ly p a r t ia l ly w o rked s pec imen s . T he b a sa l t c o r e i s p a r t ia l ly w o rked . Mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re sw i th w ho le f l ak ing a r e m a in ly i n f i ne c he r t , w h i le mo s t p a r t ia l ly w o rk ed s pec imen s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t .

T he m a jo r i ty o f w ho le f l ake t oo ls a r e n on -co r t ica l ( 7 8 .3% ) . T he se p i ece sa r e mo re c ommon t h an c o r t ica ls pec imen sa ta l l t r enche s ,e xcep ta tT 5 ;T 4i n c lude sn oc o r t ica l f l ake s . D o r sa l c o r tex o n w ho le f l ake t oo ls r a nge s f r om 1 80% , a nd mos t h ave b e tween 1 25% c o r tex . O ne s p ec imen ( f rom T 2 ) i s i n t h e 6 1-80% c a tego ry . Mo s t f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a r e n on c o r t ica l( 84 .5% )a ta l l t r enche s , a nd c o r t ica l s pec imen s w e r e n o t o b se rved i n t h e T 3 s amp le . F l ake f r agmen t t oo l d o r sa l c o r tex r a nge s f r om 2 6 -80% . Mo s t s p ec imen s f a l l i n to t h e 2 6 -40% r a nge a nd t h ree f l ake sa r ei nt h e6 1 -80% r a nge ( f rom T i , T 4 ) . 3 . 7 .2 .e C o re a nd f l ake s ca rc ha ra c te r i s t ic s C o re s c a r s a r e g ene ra l ly i regu la r a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . T he a ve rage s c a rv a lue so fs i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s , d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s , mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s , a nd o fa l c o re s a r e s ma l l . T he a ve rage v a lue s h ave d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , a l though t h e v a lue s o fa l c o re s a r es im i la r . T he m in imum a nd m ax imum s c a r v a lue s a r e s ma l le s t f o r s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o re s . T he m in imum v a lue i s s l igh t ly l a rge r f o r m u l t i -p la tfo rm c o r e s t h an f o r d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . T he m ax imum v a lue i s s l igh t ly l a rge r f o r d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s t h an f o r mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o re s .B ipo la rc o re sh ave 2 0s c a r sa nd ar a nge o f 3 1 4 .

T he ma jo r i ty o f c o re s e xh ib i t f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le s ( 62 .3% ) . T he se p l a t fo rm sa r e mo s tf r equen t o n s i ng le p l a t fo rm c o re s a nd mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s ( n . 1 6 a nd n . 6 , r e spec t ive ly ) i n p ropo r t ion t o t h e l a rge s t c o re c a tego ry o f d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . S i ng le -p la tfo rm c o r e s w i th f l a t p l a t fo rm so ccu ra ta l t r enche se xcep ta tT 3 . Doub le -p la t f o rm c o r e s w i th t h is f e a tu r e w e r e n o ted f o r T 1T3 , a nd mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o re s w i th f l a t p l a tfo rm s o ccu r a tT i , T 2 , a nd T 4 . T he f r equen c ie s o f t h e se c o re s i n f i ne c he r t a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t a r e a lmo s t e qua l , a nd b o th t h e b a sa l t a nd q ua r tz c o r e h ave f l a t p l a tfo rm s . I n r e la t ive p ropo r t ion t o t h e m o re n ume rou s d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s , s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e m o re f r equen t ly i nf i ne c he r tt h an i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t . Mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o re s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t i n b o th c he r t s . T he a ve rage a ng le v a lue s o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s , d oub le p l a t fo rm c o re s , mu l t i -p la t f o rm c o re s , a nd o f a l l c o re s h ave s k ewed d i s t r ibu t ion s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . T he r a nge s o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s , d oub le -p la t f o rm c o r e s , mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s , a nd o f a l l c o re s h ave a b r oad d i s t r ibu t ion . T he c o r e s c on ta in s pec imen s w i th a cu te a nd w id e a ng le s o f w h ich w ide a ng le s a r e mo s t c ommon . T he

T he ma jo r i ty o fw a s te f r agmen t s a r e b i d i r ec t iona l s pec imen s ( 56 .1 % ) . U n id i rec t iona l p i ece s a r e m o re c ommon t h an b i d i rec t iona l p i ece s a t t h ree t r enche s ( T2 , T 3 , T 5 ) . O ne b id i rec t iona l f r agmen t d e r ive s f r om T 4 a nd t wo mu l t id i re c t iona l f r agmen t sf r om T i . T he a ve rage s c a r v a lue s o f t h e D onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s a r e s ma l l a nd h ave s kewed d i s t r ibu t ions . Who le w a s te f l ake d o r sa l s c a r s a r e m a in ly u n id i r ec t iona l ( 55 .1 % ) . U n id i rec t iona l a nd b id i r e c t iona l f l ake s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t a tT 2 . B id i re c t iona l f l ake s a r e m o re n ume rou s t h an u n id irec t iona l f l ake sa tT 3a nd T 4 ; t h es i ng le T 5 s pec imen i s u n id i rec t iona l . F ew f l ake s e xh ib i t t r an sve r se a nd s ub rad ia l p a t te rn s ( a t T i) . Wa s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e u sua l ly u n id i rec t iona l s pec imen s ( 76 .4% ) , a nd t h e se a r e m o re n ume rou s c ompa red t o w ho le w a s te f l ake s . U n id i re c t iona l

3 5

b i po la rc o re a ng le s l i ew i th in t h el owe rr a nge o fc o r ea ng le s . Mo s t w a s te f l ake s h ave p l a in s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm s ( 6 8 .7% ) a t a l l t r enche s ,i n c lud ing t h es i ng le T 5 s pec imen .F a ce ted ( f rom T 1-T3 ) ,a ta pex ( f rom T i a nd T 2 ) ,c o r t ica l( f rom T lT4 ) ,a nd s ha t te red ( f rom T i a nd T 2 ) p l a t fo rm s w e r e n o t ed i n d e c r ea s ing o rde ro f f r equency . T oo ls a l so u sua l ly h ave p l a in p l a tfo rm s ( 65 .2% ) a t mo s t t r enche s e xcep t f o r T 5 , a nd t wo t r enche s( T2 a nd T 4 ) h ave o n ly p l a in p l a t fo rm f l ake s . O the r t o o l sh ave f a ce ted ( f rom T i a nd T 5 ) , c o r t ica l ( f rom T i , T 3 , a nd T 5 ) , a nd a t a pex ( f rom T 1 a nd T 3 ) p l a t fo rm s . Wa s te f l ake s a r e mo s t c ommon ly e nd s t ruck s pec imen s ( 6 5 .2% ) a t a l l t r enche s , i n c lud ing t h e s i ng le T 5 s pec imen . T he e xcep t ion a r e t h e T 3 f l ake s w h ich a r e i n e qua l f r equenc ie s e nd s t ruck , s i de s t ruck , a nd t r an sve r sa l s pec imen s . S i de s t ruck w a s te f l ake s a r e mo re n ume rou s ( f rom T 1T4 ) t h an t r an sve r sa lf l ake s ( f rom T i-T3 ) . T oo ls a r e m a in ly e nd s t ruck f l ake s ( 76 .1 % ) , a nd t h e se o ccu r a t a l l t r enche s . T ran sve r sa l f l ake s( f rom T i a nd T 3 ) a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an s i de s t ruck f l ake s( f rom T i) . I tw a s a l so n o ted t h a t b u lb s o fp e r cu s s ion o ccu r f r equen t ly , a nd t h a t p e r cu s s ion l i ne s a r e f a r m o r e c ommon t h an p e r cu s s ion r i ng s . T he r a nge s o f w a s te f l ake a nd t oo l p l a t fo rm a ng le s h ave a b road s p r ead . A ng le s a r e a cu te a nd w ide , b u t mo s t ly w ide . T he a ve rage p l a t fo rm a ng le so fw a s te f l ake sa nd t oo ls h ave s kewed d i s t r ibu t ion s . 3 . 7 .2 .g

D imens ions o fa r tefac t s

B ipo la r c o re s a r e t h e s ma l le s t c o re s . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e s ma l le r c ompa r ed t o d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s a nd mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o re s , e xcep t t h a t s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o re s e x c eed mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s i n max imum l e ng th . D oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s a r e s ma l le r i n m in imum s i ze t h an mu l t i -p la tf o rm c o re s , a nd l a rge ri n max imum l e ng th a nd s l igh t ly s ma l le r i n max imum w id th a nd t h ickne ss . T he a ve rage s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o re l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly , a l though t h e l e ng th m ed ian a nd m ode a r e t h e s ame . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h ickne s s . T he a ve rage d oub le -p la t f o rm c o r e l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h icknes s s how t h a t w id th h a s a s ymme t r ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h ickne s s . T he a ve r age mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a t w id th h a s t h e mo s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h ickne s s . C o re s a r e s ma l l t o r e la t ive ly l a rge s p e c imen s b a sed o nt h e i rs ma l le s ta nd l a rge s t d imen s ion s ( 0 .80 c m a nd 1 .85 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) , a nd i n c ompa r i son w i th t h e s i ze s o f o the r l i th ic c a tego r ie s . L eng th h a st h eb roade s t s p read . T he a ve rage c o r e l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne ss h ave t h e mo s t a n d l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h ickne s s . T he max imum s i ze o fc o re s ( 1 1 .85 c m ) i ss ma l le r t h an t h a t o f f l ake s ( 12 .55 cm ) , a nd max imum f l ake s i ze e xceed st h a to fc o re sa tt h ree t r enche s( T3 -T5 ) .

a r tef ac t sb a sed o n t h e i rs ma l le s ta nd l a rge s td imen s ion s ( 0 .30 c m a nd 1 2 .55 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s ss how t h a t t h ickne s s h a s t h e l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a l e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly .T he D onggu tuo w a s te f l ak ef r agmen t s a r es ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r te f a c t s ( sma l le s t a nd l a rge s t d imens ion s : 0 . 15 c m a nd 5 . 85 cm , t h ickne s s a nd w id th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s ss how t h a tt h ickne ss h a s t h e l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly . T he D onggu tuo w a s te f l ake s i n c lude s ma l l t o l a rge s i zed a r te f a c t s . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a t t h ickne ss h a s t h e l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion sa r e mo s ta nd l e a s td i spe r sed f o rl e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly . T he D onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l s a r e s ma l l t om ed ium s i z ed a r tef a c t s( sma l le s ta nd l a rge s td imen s ion s : 0 . 60 c m a nd 7 . 85 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s i s l e a s t d i sp e r sed f o r t h ickne ss . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion sa r e mo s ta nd l e a s td i spe r sed f o rl e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly . T he f l ake f r agmen tt o o l s a r es ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r te f a c t s ( sma l le s t a nd l a rge s t d imen s ion s : 0 . 60 c m a nd 6 . 00 c m , t h ickne ss a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s i sl e a s t d i spe r sed f o r t h ickne s s . T he s t and a rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly . T he Donggu tuo t o o ls a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r te f a c t s , a nd a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s i sl e a s t d i spe r sed f o r t h ickne s s . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o rl e ng th a nd t h ickne s s ,r e spe c t ive ly . 3 . 7 .2 .h V en t ra l f a ce f l ake f e a tu re s T he m a jo r i ty o fw a s te f l ake s e xh ib i t c onvex v en t ra l p rof i le s ( 70% ) a t mo s tt r enche s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e s i ng le T 5 f l ake w h ich i s s em i -d i shed . S em i -d i sh ed p rof i le s a m ma rg ina l ly mo re c ommon t h an d i shed f a ce s . T he f o rme r a r e mo re f r equen t a tT i , a nd t h e T 2 f l ake s c on ta in mo re d i sh ed s pec imen s . T he T 3 s pec imen sh ave e qua lf r equenc ie s o f b o th s em i -d i shed a nd d i shed p rof i le s , a nd o ne T 4 f l ake i s d i shed . C onvex p rof i le s a r e mo re f r equen t ly i n f i ne c he r t t h an i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . S em i -d i shed v en t ra l f a ce s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd d i shed f l ake s c on ta in m a rg ina l ly mo re f i ne c he r tt h an f i ne -coa r se c he r ts pec imen s .T he s i ng le c oa r se c he r t f l ake h a s ad i shed p rof i le , a nd mo s t b a sa l t s pe c imen s e xh ib i t c onvex f a ce s . T oo l p rof i le s a r e a l so u sua l ly c onvex ( 76 .1 % ) a t mo s t t r enche s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f T 4 f l ake s w h ich a r e mo re f r equen t ly s em i -d i shed ; a l T 5 t oo ls h ave c onvex v en t ra l f a ce s . S em i -d i shed f l ake s a l so o ccu r a t T i , T 2 , a nd T 3 . C onvex a nd s em i -d i shed f l ake s a r e mo re f r equen t ly i n t h e mo s t c ommon c he r t , i . e . f i ne c he r t , c ompa r ed t o f i ne -coa r se c he r t . T he s i ng le q ua r t z f l ake i s s em i -d i shed . 3 . 7 .2 . i

C o re a nd f l ake f r a c tu re s

T he m a jo r i ty o f c o re s e xh ib i t s t ep f r a c tu r e s i n s ma l l f r equenc ie s . D oub le , a nd mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e s a nd b i po la r c o re s h ave t h e h i ghe s t f r equency o f t h e se s pec imens , a nd p ropo r t iona te ly mo s tf r ac tu re s . T he mo s t c ommon m a te r ia l , i . e . f i ne -coa r se c he r th a s mo s tf r ac tu re s , w h i le t h e b a sa l t a nd q ua r tz c o re sh ave f ew f r a c tu re s .

T he Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t sa r es ma l lt or e la t ive ly l a rge s i zed a r te f ac t s( sma l le s ta nd l a rge s td imen s ion s : 0 . 70 c m a nd 1 0 .45 c m , t h ickne s s a nd l e ng th , r e spec t ive ly ) . T he a ve r age l e ng th ,w id th ,a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a tl e ng th a nd w id th h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ions , r e spec t ive ly . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion sa r e mo s td i spe r sed f o rl e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h ickne s s .

Wa s te f l ake sw i th s t ep f r a c tu red d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion s a r e mos t c ommon a t a l t r enche s ( 67% ) . O f t h e se s t ep v e r t ica l

T he Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s c omp r i se s ma l l t ol a rge

3 6

s pec imen s c omp r i se t h e h i ghe s t f r equ ency ( 4 4 .1 % ) o f a l f l ake s ; t h e s i ng le T 5 f l ake h a s as t ep c oncave e nd . F lake s w i th a p ica l a nd h i nge e nd s w e re n o t n o ted f o r t h e s ma l le s t s amp le s ( T4 a nd T 5 ) . I n p ropo r t ion t o t h e i r s ma l le r f r equen cy t o s t epped f l ake s , a p ica l s pec imen s h ave t h e h i ghe s tp ropo r t ion o ff i ne c he r ts pec imen s . A p ica l f l ake s a r e a l so i n a l l m a te r ia l s , i n c lud ing t h e c oa r se c he r t p i ece a nd mo s t b a sa l t f l ake s . S tep v e r t ica l f l ak e s a nd h i nge f l ake s a r e i ne qua l f r equenc ie s i n f i ne , a nd i nf i n e -coa r se c he r t , w h i le s t ep c oncave s pec imen s i n c lude am a rg ina l ly l a rge r n umbe r o ff i ne c he r tf l ake s .

T he m a jo r i ty o f w ho le f l ake t o o l s ( 54 .3% ) a nd mos t c a tego r ie s , w i th t h ee xcep t ion o f d en t icu la te p o in t a nd p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imens , w e re n o ted f o rl a ye r A . T oo ls f r om l a ye r Ba r e m a rg ina l ly mo re f r equen t t h an t h e e qua l ly n ume rou s l a ye r Ca nd u nknown l a ye r ( s ) s pec imen s . As i ng le t oo l w a s r e co rded f o r l a ye r D . E ach o f t h e se l a ye r s s ha r e s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f l a ye r D w he r e o ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ak e w a s n o ted . T he s i ng le d en t icu la te p o in t c anno t b e a s s igned t o al a ye r . T he s i ng le p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake d e r ive s f r om l a ye r C , a nd n o tche s w e r e n o ted f o r l a ye r s A a nd B . E nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd e nd d en t icu la t e s w e r e n o ted o n ly f o r l a ye r A . Mo s t f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a nd a l l c a tego r ie s d e r ive f r om l a ye r A ( 52 .1 % ) . S pec imen s f r om t h e u nknown l a ye r ( s ) a r e a s n ume rou sa st h ec omb ined f r equenc ie s o f l a ye r s Ba nd C . A m a rg ina l ly h i ghe rf r equency o ft o o l sw a sr e co rded f o rl a ye r C t h an f o r l a ye r B . S ide u t i l ised f l ake s , s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd n o t che s w e re n o ted f o rl a ye r sA -C . Ad en t icu la te p o in t a nd a p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake w e r e a l so r e co rd ed f o r l a ye r C , a nd n o t che s f o r l a ye r s B a nd C . E nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd e nd d en t icu la te s d e r ive o n ly f r om l a ye r A a nd t h e u nknown l a ye r ( s ) .

T he mo s t c ha ra c te r i s t ic t o o l t e rm ina t ion a t a l t r enche s a r e s t epped f l ake s ( 6 5 .2% ) . B o th s t epped v a r ie t ie s a r e e qua l ly c ommon e xcep t f o r T 5 , f o r w h ich o n ly s t ep v e r t ica l f l ake s w e r e n o ted . A p ica l f l ake s a r e a lmo s t a s n ume rou s a s s t ep c oncave s pec imen s a nd o ccu r a t a l t r enche s . H inge e nd f l ake s a r e u ncommon ( f rom T i) . A p ica l t e rm ina t ions a r e p ropo r t iona te ly mo re f r equen t ly i n f i ne c he r t t h an s t epped e nd s . S l igh t ly mo re s t ep c oncave f l ake s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r tt h an a r es t ep v e r t ica lf l ake s . T he s i ng le q ua r tz f l ake h a s as t ep v e r t ica le nd ,a nd h i nge e nd s a r ei nb o th c he r t s . 3 . 7 .2 . j

B ipo la ra r tef ac t s

C he r t i st h e p redom inan t t oo l m a te r ia l ( 9 4% ) o f w h ich f i ne c he r tc omp r ise s 6 7 .5% . F ive t o o ls a r e i nb a sa l t a nd t wo a m i nq ua r tz . A l l w ho le f l ake t o o l c a t ego r ie s i n c lude f i ne -coa r se c he r tt o o l s .T he e xcep t ion a r e t h e e nd u t i l ised f l ake s a nd t h e d en t icu la te p o in ti nf i ne c he r t . T he m o s t n ume rou s c a tego ry ( s ide u t i l i sed f l ake s ) h a s t h eh i ghe s tp ropo r t ion o f f i ne -coa r se c he r t f l ake s , a nd t h e o n ly t o o l i n q ua r tz ( f rom T 4 ) . T he l a rge s t n umbe r o f f i ne c he r t t o o l s a r e d en t icu la te s . Mo s t n o tche s a r e i n f i ne c he r t . A l l f l ak e f r agmen t t oo ls h ave s pec imen s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f d en t icu la te p o in t s ( f rom T i) . T he w ide s t r a nge o f m a te r ia l s w a sn o ted f o r s i de u t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t s . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e se a r e i n f i ne c he r t , af ew a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( f rom T i , T 3 , a nd T 4 ) , t wo a r e i n b a sa l t ( f rom T 5 ) , a nd o ne i si n q ua r t z ( f rom T i) . T he f ew e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne c he r ta nd o ne i si nf i ne -coa r se c he r t . S ide d en t icu la te sa r e e qua l ly f r equen t i n f i ne c he r t a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd i n c lude o ne p i ece i n b a sa l t ( f rom T i) . T he t wo e nd d en t icu la te s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( f rom T 4 ) a nd b a sa l t ( f rom T i) . D en t icu la te p o in t s a r e i n f i ne c he r t a nd o ne s pec imen i si n b a sa l t ( f rom T 2 ) . P o in t u t i l ised f l ake s a nd n o tche sa r e mo re o f ten i nf i ne c he r tt h an i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t . D en t icu la te t o o ls a r e e qua l ly f r equen t i n b o th c he r t s , a nd mo s t t o o l s i nb a sa l t b e long t ot h i s t o o l c a tego ry .

Two w a s te f l ake s ( i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ; a nd o ne t o o l ; s e e b e low )f r om T i ,l a ye r A , a ppea r t o r e p r e sen t b i po la r f l ake s . T he se s how d i s t inc t ive c ha rac te r is t ic s .T he s ma l le r s pec imen h a s d i agona l s c a r s o n t h e i regu la r o r c omp r e s sed r e lea se s u r f ace , as c a rc l o se t ot h ed i s ta le nd ,a nd a ne c la t& a l lu i re o n t h ep rox ima le nd .T he l a rge ra nd p r ima ry f l ake s how s al a rge b u lb a nd al e s s c r u shed v en t ra l f a ce , a nd a r e la t ive ly l a rge d o r sa l s ca rc ommenc ing f r om t h ep rox ima le nd . 3 . 7 .2 .k T oo l c a tego r ie s , m a te r ia ls , s hape , u se -wea r f e a tu re s , a nd d imen s ion s S ide u t i l ised f l ake s c omp r i se 4 6 .2% o fa l D onggu tuo t oo l s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s h ave a f r equency o f 2 3 .9% . N o t che s , p o in tu t i l i sed f l ake s ,e nd u t i l ised f l ake s , e nd d en t icu la te s a nd d en t icu la te p o in t so ccu ri nd ec l in ing o rde ro ff r equency . Mo s t t o o ls d e r ive f r om t r ench T i ( 52 .1 % ) , a nd i st h e o n ly t r ench w h ich i n c lude s a l l t oo l c a tego r ie s . Mo s t t o o l s d e r ive f r om l a ye r A ( 5 3% ) a nd u np rovenanced t o o l s c omp r i se 1 9 .7% o f a l l s pec imen s . A l l t o o l c a tego r ie s w e r e n o ted i n l a ye r Aa nd t h e u nknown l a ye r (s ) , l a ye r s Ba nd C i n c lude a lmo s t e qua l f r equenc ie so ft o o l s ,a nd o ne t o o ld e r ive sf r om l a ye rD .

A n e nd d en t icu la te i s t h e o n ly w ho le f l ake t oo l o n a n i regu la rq uad r i la te ra lf l ake ( f rom T i ) . I r regu la r p o in ted t oo ls c omp r i se , i n o r de r o f f r equency , s i de d en t icu la te s ( f rom T i , T 2 , T 4 ) , s i de u t i l ised f l ake s ( f rom T i , T 4 ) , a nd t h e d en t icu la te p o in t a nd p o in t u t i l ised f l ake s ( f rom T 2 ) . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake s ( f rom T 2 a nd T 3 ) , o ne s i de d en t icu la te ( f rom T i ) , a nd o ne e nd d en t icu la te ( f rom T 4 ) a r e t h e o n ly f l ake f r agmen t t o o l s o f i regu la r q uad r i la t e r a l s hape . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f e nd u t i l i sed a nd e nd d en t icu la t e f l ake s , a l c a tego r ie s c on ta in s pec imen s o n i regu la r p o in t s . Two s i de u t i l ised p i ece sa r eo nc r e scen ts haped f l ake s .

Who le f l ak e t oo ls a nd t h e mo re n ume rou s f l ake f r agmen t t o o l se a ch c on ta in s even c a tego r ie s . B o th s ha re s i de u t i l i sed a nd s i de d en t icu la te f l ake s a s t h e mo s t c ommon c a tego r ie s . O ft h e se s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e mo re f r equen t ( e a ch 3 7% ) a t a l lt r enche s .T he e xcep t ion i st h e T 2 s amp le w h ich i n c lude s n o f l ake f r agmen t s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd f l ake f r agmen t n o t che s a r e s l igh t ly mo re f r equen t t h an t h e s i ng le s i de d en t icu la te a t T 5 . T he l e a s t n ume rou s w ho le f l ake t oo l c a tego r ie s a r e e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd e nd d en t icu la te s ( f rom T i) , a nd d en t icu la te p o in ta nd p o in tu t i l i sed t o o ls ( f rom T 2 ) . N o t che s r e p r e sen t t h e mo s t f r equen t w ho le f l ake t oo l c a tego ry a f te rs i de d en t icu la te s( f rom T i ,T 3 , a nd T 5 ) a nd a r e mo s t c ommon a t T i . E nd u t i l i sed s pec imen s a nd e nd d en t icu la t e s ( f rom T i a nd T 4 ) a nd d en t icu la te p o in t s ( f rom T i a nd T 2 )a r et h el e a s tc ommon f l ake f r agmen tt o o l s . P o in t u t i l i sed f l ake s ( f rom T i , T 3 a nd T 4 ) a nd n o tche s ( f rom T i , T 2 a nd T 5 ) a r e e qua l ly f r equen t . T he se a r e t h e mos t n ume rou st o o ls a f te rs i de u t i l ised f l ake sa nd s i de d en t icu la te s . B o th c a tego r ie sa r e mo s tn ume rou sa tT i .

Mo s t w ho le f l ake t o o l s a r e u n i la t e ra l ly u t i l ised s pec imen s ( 9 5 .6% ) . T he o n ly b i la te ra l t o o l s a r e t h e d en t icu la te p o in t a nd t h e p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake f r om T 2 . T he ma jo r i ty o f f l ake f r agmen t t o o l s a l so s how u n i la te ra l u s e -wea r ( 88 .7% ) . T he c a tego r ie s w i th b i la te ra l u s e -damage a r e mo s t d en t icu la te p o in t s a nd p o in t u t i l ised s pec imen s . Who le t o o l f l ake s w i th b i f ac ia l u s e -wea r c omp r i se t h e m a jo r i ty o f s pec imen s

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t h e se s pec imen s . R e touch o n t h r ee f l ake f r agmen t s c omp r is ing s i de u t i l i sed , e nd u t i l ised , a nd s i de d en t icu la te s pec imen s m ay h ave f o rmed t h e r e la t ive ly a cu te ly a ng led u se -wea re dge s .T he s i de d en t icu la te m ay h ave b een mod if ied t o c r ea te t h e d en t icu la t ion . O ne n o tch f r agmen t may h ave b een r e touched . T h is m ay h ave p r odu c ed t h e n o t ch a nd /o r d ec rea sed t h et h ickne s s o f t h e f unc t iona l e dge . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e se t o o l s may h ave b een r e juvena ted . T he p o in t s o n t wo f r agmen t s , c omp r i s ing a d en t icu la t e p o in t a nd a p o in t u t i l ised s pec imen , s e em t o h ave b een s h aped b y r e touch . Two w ho le f l ake t oo l s f r om T 4 m ay h ave b een mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch . O ne o ft h e se i s as i de u t i l ised s pec imen i n q ua r tz ( f rom l a ye rD )w h ich w a s p o s s ib ly m od if i ed t o r e du ce t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e r e la t ive ly b l un t u s e -wea r e dge a nd /o r t o a l te r t h e a ng le . T he e dge may h ave b een r e juvena ted . T he s l igh t ly b lun tu t i l i sed e dge o ft h es i de d en t icu la te ( f rom l a ye r C )e xh ib i t ss t epped r e touch . T h i s may h ave f o rmed t h rough i n ten se u se -damage , o r s e conda ry r e touch t o s hape o r r e juvena te t h ee dge .

( 84 .8% ) . T oo l s w i th u se -wea ro n t h e d o r sa l f a ce i n c lude o ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake , t wo s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd o ne n o tch . T oo l s w i th v en t ra l u s e -damage c omp r i se t wo s i de u t i l i sed f l ake sa nd o ne n o tch . F lake f r agmen tt o o l sw i th b i f a c ia l u s e w ea r d i s t r ibu t ion p redom ina te ( 78 .9% ) . D o r sa l ly u t i l i sed t o o l sc omp r i se n i ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s , o ne s i de d en t icu la te , a nd o ne n o tch . T oo l s w i th v en t ra l u se -wea r a r e t wo s i de u t i l i sed s pec imen s , o ne s i de d en t icu la t e , a nd o ne p o in t u t i l i sed p i ece . U se -wea r o n w ho le f l ake s i s ma in ly d i s t r ibu ted o n d en t icu la te -ob l ique ( 34 .8% ) , c oncave -convex , c oncave , a n d d en t icu la te s t ra igh t e dge s , i n d ec r ea s ing o r de r o f f r equency . T he se e dge s hape s w e r e n o ted o n s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s , d en t icu la te f l ake s , a nd n o tche s . O b l ique a nd s t ra igh t e dg e s a nd a l so c onvex e dge s a r e o n s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s , a nd t h e p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen h a s a n o b l ique e dge . T he m o s t c ommon s hape s o f f l ake f r agmen t t oo l u s e -wea r e dg e s a r e c on cave -convex ( 32 .4% ) , o b l ique , a nd d en t icu la te -ob l ique . C oncave -convex e dge s o ccu r o n s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd o ne e nd u t i l ised f l ake , a nd o b l ique e dge s o n s i de u t i l i sed , e n d u t i l i sed ,a nd p o in tu t i l ised s pec imen s . D en t icu la te e dge sw e re o b se rved o nt h ed en t icu la te f l ake s , c oncave e dge so n n o t che s , a nd s t ra igh ta nd c onvex e dge so ns i de u t i l i sed f l ake s .

3 .7 .3 D iscuss ion a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f X iaochang l iang a nd Donggutuo a ssemb lages o f Dong Yang

T he o ccu r r ence o f w a s te m a te r ia ls a nd t o o l s a tb o th s i te s i s s t rong ly i n d ica t ive o f o n -s i te t o o l m anuf ac tu r e . Wa s te ma te r ia ls a r e mo re c ommon t h an t o o l s i nb o th s amp le s . T he g r ea te rf r equency o fw a s te ma te r ia l s a tD onggu tuo c ompa r ed t o X iaochang l iang i s p o s s ib ly d ue t o t h e mo re n ume rou s a r te f a c t s i n t h e Donggu tuo s amp le w h ich i s a lmo s t f i ve t ime s l a rge r c ompa r ed t o t h a t f r om X iaochang l iang . S im i la r ly , t h e mo re c ommon w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s t h an w ho le w a s te f l ake s a t X iaochang l iang , i n c on t ra s t t o D onggu tuo w he re w ho le w a s te f l ake sa r e m o r e n ume rou s , i s p o ten t ia l ly a l so a n a r te f a c t o f s amp l ing . T he re a r e f ewe r w a s te f r agmen t s t h an t o o l s a t X iaochang l iang , w h i le t h e se a r e i ns im i la r p ropo r t ion s a t Donggu tuo , a nd t h is m ay a l so b e d ue t o s amp l ing . H oweve r , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f s ome d if e r ence s i n t o o l manuf a c tu r e b e tween t h e s i te s c anno t b e e xc luded . A t b o th l o ca l i t ie s w a s te f l ak e s a r e t h e mos t n ume rou s a r tef a c t s , t o o l sr ep re sen tt h es e cond mo s t c ommon c a tego ry , a nd c o r e s t h e l e a s t c ommon c a tego ry . A f u r the r s im i la r i ty i s t h a t f l ake f r agmen t t o o l s a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an w ho le f l ake t oo l s . T he i d en t ica l d i ve r s i ty o f l i th ic c a tego r ie s i n t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e t wo d i s s im i la r r e touched n on f lake s f r om X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo , s ugge s t s im i la r i ty i nl i th ic t e chno logy . Ac ompa r ison o f t h e ma in a nd s upp lemen ta ry a t t r ibu te so ft h eX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage s i s s hown i n s umma ry f o rm i n T ab le s 7a nd 8 .

T he t h in w h i te p a t ina t ion o n t h e f unc t iona l e dge o f as i de d en t icu la te f r om T 4 ( l aye r C ) may h ave o r ig ina ted t h rough u t i l i sa t ion , b u t i t w a s a l so n o ted o n o t he r p a r t s o f t h e s pec imen . P a t ina a r ound t h e u t i l i sed e dge o f as i de u t i l i sed f l ak ef r agmen tf r om T 5 ( l aye rC ) may h ave b een r emoved b y s e conda ry r e touch . T he p a t ina may , h oweve r , h ave b e en f l aked o f f d u r ing u se o r d e s t royed b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l w ea the r ing .L u s t re o n as ma l l f l ake f r agmen t n o tch f r om T 2 ( l aye r C ) i sl im i ted t o t h e u se -wea r a r ea . T he a pex o f f o u r i regu la r ly p o in ted t oo ls f r om T 1 ( who le f l ake s : o ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake a nd o ne s i de d en t icu la te ; f l ake f r agmen t s : o ne s i de d en t icu la te a nd o ne p o in t u t i l ised s pec imen ) m ay b e b roken . T he t o o ls w i th t h e g rea te s t l e ng th a r e t h e mo s t n ume rou s w ho le f l ake t oo l c a tego r ie s ( i . e . s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s )a sw e l l a sp o in tu t i l ised f l ake s a nd n o t che s . A l l c a tego r ie sh ave s ome r e la t ive ly w ide s pec imens . E nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e a mong t h e t o o ls w i th t h e g r ea te s t t h ickne s s . S ide u t i l ised a nd p o in t u t i l i sed f l ak e f r agmen t t oo ls a r e t h e l o nge s t t oo l s a nd h ave t h e w ide s t l e ng th a nd w id th d i s t r ibu t ion . R e la t ive t o t h e i r s ma l l f r equenc ie s , e nd u t i l ised f l ake s a nd e nd d en t icu la te s a r e t h e w ide s t t oo ls . T he g rea te s t t h ickne ss w a s r e co rded f o r s i de u t i l i sed a nd p o in tu t i l i sed f l ake s( s ee C hap te rV ) . 3 . 7 .2 . 1

t he a nd

A r te f ac t sw i th s e conda ry r e touch T he l ow f r equency o fp r ima ry f l ake sa nd t h ep r edom inance o f n on -co r t ica l w a s te f r agmen t sa nd f l ake sa tb o th s i te s s ugge s t t h a tn o ta l lp a r t so ft h er e duc t ion s e quence sa r er e p re sen ted i n t h e s amp le s . T he o ccu r r ence o f p r ima ry f l ake s f r om Donggu tuo o n ly a tT 1 m ay i n d ica te t h a t t h e f i r s t s t age o f c o re r e duc t ion w a s l im i ted t o t h is a r ea . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion s eem s , h oweve r , t ob ea to dd s w i th t h ep r e sence o fc o re s a nd c o r t ica l s pec imens a tt h e o t he r t r enche s , a nd i ti sp o ss ib le t h a t f u r the r s t udy may i d en t if y p r ima ry f l ake s f r om t h e se t r enche s . T he r a r i ty o fp r ima ry f l ake sm ay s ugge s tt h a t s ome w e re r emoved f r om t h e s i te b y n a tu ra l p roce s se s ( s uch a s w a te rf l ow ) a nd /o rb y h om in id s , w h i le s ome f l ake s may n o t h ave b een r e cove r ed d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion s . I tm ay p e rhap s i n d ica te t h a to n ly p a r t o f t h e a r ea ( s ) o f i n i t ia l c o r e r e duc t ion w a s e xpo sed t h rough e xcava t ion , a nd /o r t h a t s ome c o r e

F ew t o o ls w e re mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch ( t o ta l n . 7o r 1 3 )a nd i n c lude s i xc a tego r ie s . N o r e touch ed s pec imen s w e r e i d en t if ied a mong t h eT 2a nd T 3 t oo ls . T he t o o l s w e r ew o rked b y s imp le a nd r e la t ive ly i nva s ive d o r sa l , v en t ra l , o r d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l( whe re d e te rm inab le )r e touch t h rough t h er emova l o fo ne o r af ew f l ake s . A t T i t wo , o r p o s s ib ly f o u r w ho le f l ake t o o ls , a nd f i ve o r s i x f l ake f r agmen t s w e r e f l ak ed b y s e conda ry r e touch . T he f unc t iona l e dge o f as i d e u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake may h ave b een mod if ied t o r e du ce t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e e dge , a l though t h is may b e a t t r ibu tab le t o b i po la r p e r cu s s ion d amage . T h ree s i de d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake s m ay h ave b een r e touched t o d ec r ea se t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e f unc t iona le dge a nd /o rt oi n c rea se t h e a ng le . H oweve r , h eavy u s e -damage may h ave c au sed t h e mod if ica t ion o n o ne o f

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r e duc t ion o ccu r r ed o f f s i te , p e rhap s a tt h e s ou r ce ( s ) o f r aw m a te r ia l . T he o b se rved f r equ en c ie s o f c o r t ica l a nd n on c o r t ica l a r te f a c t s i n t h e s amp le s m ay t h u s n o t b e r e p r e sen ta t ive o f t h e t r ue f r equenc ie s o f c o r t ica l a nd n on c o r t ica l s pec imen s , i . e . c on s ide r ing t h o se a r te f a c t s n o t a na ly sed b y t h is w r i te r . T he a b sence o f c o r t ica l f l ake p l a tf o rm s a tX iaochang l iang s how s t h a t o n ly f l ake s d e r iv ed f r om l a te rs t age so fc o re r e duc t ion a r ep r e sen t ,i . e . a b sence o f c o r t ica l b u t t s . T h i s m ay b e r e la t ed t ot h e s ma l l s i ze o f t h e s amp le .

a nd t o o l s ,a nd t h es i ng le c o r e ) . T he l a ck o ft oo l s i n b a sa l t a t T 3 a nd T 4 a nd t h e l a ck o f t o o ls i n q ua r tz a t mo s t t r enche s a ppea r st os ub s tan t ia te ap r e f e rence f o rc he r t . T he f r equen ti n c lu s ion i ni n d iv idua lc he r tb lock so ff i ne c he r t a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r ta nd l e s so f ten c oa r se c he r t ,a s s hown b y p re l im ina ry s u rvey s a nd p e r cu ss ion e xpe r imen t s b y t h is w r i te r ,a nd t h ei d en t if ica t ion o fo n ly o ne c oa r se c he r ta r tef ac t , m ay i n d ica te t h a th om in id sa dap ted t ot h is v a r iab i l i ty b y t h e s e lec t ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f c he r t b lock s w h ich l a cked c oa r se c he r t a nd c ong lome ra te s . T he l a rge r s amp le o f Donggu tuo a r te f a c t s c ompa r ed t o X iaochang l iang r e info rce s t h e i mp re s s ion o f t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e c he r t . T he s im i la r i ty o f t h ec he r t s u t i l ised a tb o th l o ca l i t ie s i n d ica te s im i la r ma te r ia l q ua l i t ie s . T he k napp ing e xpe r imen t s s ugge s t t h a t t h e f i ne c he r t , f i ne -coa r se c he r t ,a nd b a sa l th ave c ompa rab le f r ac tu r ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s . Mo r ee x ten s ive f l ak ing i sf ound o n f i ne c he r t m a te r ia l u s ed f o r w ho l ly f l aked d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a t X iaochang l iang a nd t h e w ho l ly w o rked mu l t i -p la tform c o r e s a t Donggu tuo . Mo s t p a r t ia l ly f l aked c o re s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t .

T he l a ck o f h amme r s tone s b o th a tX iaochang l iang a nd a t D onggu tuo m ay i n d ica t e t h a t t h e se r ema in i n t h e u nexcava ted p a r t o f t h e s i te . I t i s a l so p o s s ib le t h a t h amme r s tone s w e re n o t r e cogn i sed a s s uch i n f o rme r a na ly se s , o r t h a t t h ey w e r e r emoved b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l a genc ie s a nd /o r b y h om in id s . G iven t h e i r w e igh t ( c ompa r ed t o f l ake s ) , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t h amme r s tone s w ou ld b e l e s s a f e c t ed b y s ome p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s , e . g . , l i gh t w a te ra c t iv i ty , t h an f l ake s . H om in id s m ay a l te rna t ive ly h ave u s ed l o ca l b l ock s o f c he r t a nd /o r o the r ma te r ia ls a s h amme r s tone s . H oweve r , t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f t h e c he r t b l ock u s ed a s a n e xpe r imen ta l h amme r s tone a f te r as ma l l n umbe r o f b low s ( s ee a bove ) a nd t h e i r regu la r i ty o f c he r t b l ock s may s ugge s tt h a tt h eh om in id sd id n o ts e lec tt h e se f o r u se a s h amme r s tone s f o r p r ac t ica l r e a son s . F u r the rmo re , t h e se " hamme r s tone s" w ou ld p o s s ib ly n o tb er e cogn i sab le i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd b e cau se o f t h e s t rong t e ndency o f t h e m a te r ia l t o d i s in t eg ra te . T he a ppa r en t a b sence o f h amme r s tone s may a l te rna t ive ly i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s r e ga rded t h e se a ss uch v a luab le i t em st h a tt h ey r emoved t h e se f r om t h es i te ( s )a f te ro ccupa t ion .

T he f ew a r tef ac t si nt h er a r e f i ne c he r t f r om D onggu tuo ( i .e . t h e t wo t o o ls i n c hoco la te b rown c he r t a nd i n a l aba s te r c o lou red c he r t )m ay b ei n d ica t ive o fe i the r t h e l o ca l r a r i ty o f t h e se c he r t ' v a r ie t ie s ' o ro f ap r e f e rence f o rt h ec he r t so fo the r c o lou r s . I t may a l so b e p o s s ib le t h a t t h e se w e re b rough t i n f r om a n o u t s ide s ou r ce ( s ) . T he i d en t ica l c hoco la te b rown c he r ta nd ac he r tu s ed a tX u j iayao , a n e a r ly L a te P le i s tocene s i te i nt h eN ihewan B a s in ( s ee a bove ) , may i n d ica te t h a t t h e D onggu tuo h om in id s t r an spo r ted t h is c he r t t o Donggu tuo f r om t h i s a r ea , ad i s tance o f 7 0 km . T he l a ck o f t h e se c he r t ' v a r ie t ie s ' a tX iaochang l iang c ou ld b e af unc t ion o ft h es ma l l s amp le . H oweve r , i t m ay a l so b e s ugge s t ive o f mo r e e x ten s ive ma te r ia l p r o cu remen t b ehav iou r a nd a l e s s e xped ien t t e chno logy a t D onggu tuo ( r e la ted t o al o nge r p e r iod o f o ccupa t ion a t t h i s s i te c ompa r ed t o X iaochang l iang? ) .

T he a ppa ren t s e lec t ion o fc he r t a nd b a sa l t , a nd p o s s ib ly o f q ua r tz , f r om t h e s ame o u tc rop s s t rong ly i n d ica te s t h a t h om in id s f r om b o th s i te s u s ed t h e r aw ma te r ia l s ou r ce s i n t h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft h e i r a c t iv i ty a r ea s . A t b o th s i te s t h e s ub s tan t ia l ma jo r i ty o f a r te f a c t s w e re m anuf a c tu red i n w ha t a ppea r s o n p r e sen t e v id ence t o b e t h e mo s t a bundan t a nd a c ce s s ib le r aw ma te r ia l , i . e . c he r t . T he s l igh t ly mo re n ume rous c he r t a r tef a c t s a t X iaochang l iang m ay n o t r e p r e sen t a s i gn if ican t d if e r ence i n f r equenc ie s t o D onggu tuo , a l though i tm ay i n d i ca t e ar e la t ive ly l a rg e r p r e f e ren ce f o r c he r t a tX iaochang l iang . T h is d if e r ence may , h oweve r , b e r e la t ed t o t h e s ma l l s i ze o f t h e X iaochang l iang s amp le ,p e rhap si n d ica ted b y t h e m o re n ume rou s a r t e f a c t s i n n on -che r ts t one si nt h el a rge rD onggu tuo s amp le . F ine c he r t a r te f a c t sw e re n o ted i n g r ea t e r f r equenc ie s a tX iaochang l iang c ompa r ed t o D onggu tuo , a nd a t b o th l o ca l i t ie s a r te f a c t s i n f i ne c he r ta r e mo re c ommon t h an t h o se i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . A l l l i th ic c a tego r ie s a tX iaochang l iang c on ta in mo re f i ne c he r t t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t s pec imen s , a nd mo s t f i ne -coa r se c he r t a r te f ac t s a r e t o o l s . A t D onggu tuo c o re s a nd w a s te f r agmen t s a r e t h e o n ly c a t ego r ie s w h ich i n c lude mo re f i ne c oa r se c he r tt h an f i ne c he r ts p ec imen s . T he e xcep t ion t o t h is a r e t h e mo re n ume rou s s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s i n f i ne c he r t t h an i nf i ne -coa r se c he r ta nd t h ef i ne c he r t b ipo la r c o re s . T he p r edom inance o fc he r ta r te f a c t s ,a nd p a r t icu la r ly o f f i ne c he r t s pec imen s , i ss ugge s t ive o fh om in id p r e f e rence f o r c he r t a nd t h e f i ne c he r t v a r ie ty . T he l o ca l p r edom inance o f c he r t m ay i n d ica te t h a tt h ec ho ice o fs t one f o r t o o l manu f ac tu re w a s t o s ome e x ten tr e s t r ic ted t oc he r t ,a nd m ay t hu sb ei mpo r tan t i n u nde r s tand ing t h e p r edom inan t u se o f t h is ma te r ia l . I tm ay a l so e xp la in t h e l ow f r equ en cy o f n on -che r t a nd o f f l in t l ike s t one a r te fa c t sa tb o th s i te s . H om in id s a ppea r t o h ave r a r e ly e xp lo i t ed q ua r tz a tt h e s i te s , i n d ica t ed b y t h e s ma l l n umbe r o fq ua r tz a r te f a c t s ( wa s te f r agmen t s , w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ,

T he u se o fd i rec th a rd -hamme rp e rcu s s ion i si n d ica ted b y t h e g ene ra l s hape o f a r t e f a c t s , a nd b y t h e b u lb s o f p e r cu s s ion , p e rcu s s ion l i ne s , a nd t o af a r l e s se r e x ten t p e r cu ss ion r i ng s n o ted o n n ume rou s f l ake s . T he p r edom inance o f a r te f a c t s m anu f a c tu r ed b y t h is t e chn ique a nd t h e f ew a ppa ren t ly b i po la r a r te f a c t s ( i . e . c he r t f l ake s f r om X iaochang l iang a n d c he r t c o r e s a nd f l ake s f r om D onggu tuo ) i s a l so a c ommon d enom ina to ro fb o th l o ca l i t ie s . T he l a ck o f ab ipo la r c o r e ( s ) a tX iaochang l iang ,b u tt h eo ccu r rence o f b ipo la r f l ake s , may m ean t h a t t h e c o r e s a r e i n t h e u nexam ined p a r t o f t h e a s semb lage . T he g r ea te r d i ve r s i ty o f c o r e c a tego r ie s a t Donggu tuo c ompa red t o X iaochang l iang , a nd t h e p r e sence o f s i ng le p l a t fo rm c o re s a s t h e mo s t c ommon c o re c a tego ry a t X iaochang l iang , i n c on t ra s t t o D onggu tuo w he re d oub le p l a tfo rm c o re s a r e m o s t n ume rou s , s ugge s t t h a t c o r e r e duc t ion a t D onggu tuo w a s mo re i n tens ive . T h i s i s a l so i n d ica ted b yt h el a rge ra ve rage c o re s c a r c oun t s , t h e p r e sence o f mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s , a nd t h e a moun t o f c o re c o r tex a t D onggu tuo . T he h i gh f r equency o f c o re s w i th w ho le f l ak ing o ft h e p e r iphe ry a tX iaochang l iang s ugge s t s t h a t c o re s w e r e r e la t ive ly e x ten s ive ly w o rked ( a nd s e eb e low ) . T he p r edom inance o f ar a nge o f i n fo rma l a r tef ac t s , o f t h e u sua l ly l a rge c o r t ica l c o r e a r ea s , i regu la r c o r e s ca r s , a nd a s ma l l n umbe r o f s c a r s i s i n d ica t ive o f u n in ten s ive c o r e r e duc t ion a nd a n e xped ien t t e chno logy a tb o th s i te s . T h i s i s

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a l so s ugge s ted b yt h e u sua l ly u n id i rec t iona l a nd b i d i r e c t iona l s ca r p a t te rn s o n w a s te f r agmen t s a nd f l ake s , a nd a p redom inance o f p la in f l ake p l a tfo rm s . A n e xped ien t t e chno logy m ay b e f u r the r i n d ica t ed b y t h e w ide r a nge o f p l a t fo rm a ng le s ,t h er a r i ty o fa cu te c o re a nd f l ake a ng le s , a n d t os ome e x ten tb y t h ef r equency o fw a s te f r agmen t s .T he f ew a ta pex p l a tf o rm sa nd o ne f a ce ted p l a tf o rm a tX iaochang l iang a nd f a ce ted , a t a pex , c o r t ica l , a nd s ha t t e r ed p l a tfo rm s a t Donggu tuo s ugge s t t h a t c o r e s w e r e r a r e ly p r epa r ed ( o the r t h an f l a tp l a tfo rm p repa ra t ion ; s e e b e low ) . O n ly af ew c o re s ( f rom X iaochang l iang ) p r e se rve c o r t ica l p l a tfo rms . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o f s t one s f r om t h e c l o se s t s ou r ce ( s ) a l so s ugge s t sa ne xped ien tt e chno logy . T he f ew a pp rox ima te ly r egu la rc o re so fc y l ind r ica ls hape , t h e s ma l l n umbe r o fc o r e s w i th r e la t ive ly r e gu la r s c a r s , a nd t h e f ew f l ake -b lade t oo ls f r om X iaochang l iang s ugge s t t h e d e l ibe ra te m anuf a c tu re o f mo re r e gu la r a r t e f a c t s a nd a s ma l l d eg r ee o f s t anda rd i sa t ion . T h is i s a l so i n d ica t ed b y t h e b road ly s im i la r p o in ted r e touched n on -f lake a nd t h e s i de u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake f r om D onggu tuo . F u r the rmo re , t h e manu f a c tu re o f c o re s w i th f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le s p o in t s t o s ome d eg r e e o f p l ann ing . T he i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l , i regu la r p o in ted , o va l , a nd c r e scen t s h ap ed f l ake sm ay i n d ica te d e l ibe ra te a nd /o r f o r tu i tou s p roduc t ion o f mo re r e gu la rf l ake s . T he p redom inance o fe nd s t ruck f l ake s a t b o th s i te s may b e s ugge s t ive o f s ome s t anda rd i sa t ion a nd a p ref e rence f o r l o nge r f l ake s . O the r f l ake s a r e s i de s t ruck a n d t r an sve r sa l f l ake so fw h ich t h e f o rme r a r e mo re n ume rou s a t b o th s i tes . T he e xcep t ion t o t h is a r e t h e D onggu tuo t oo l s w h ich c on ta in mo re t r ansve r sa l s pec imen s .T he se f r equenc ie s a l so i n d ica te f u r the r t e chno log ica l s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e s amp le s . I tm ay a l so b ec on s ide red t h a tt h ei n f o rma l s hape o f mo s t t o o ls a tb o th s i te s may i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s p l a ced l i t t le i mpo r tance o n r egu la r ly s haped t o o ls .

r e duc t ion , i . e .d i r ec th a rd -hamme r p e rcu s s ion , a nd t h e u se o f f r ang ib le r aw m a te r ia l m ay h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f a n i n f o rma l r a nge o f a r te f ac t s , a nd p e rhap s a l so t ot h es ho r tr e duc t ion s e quence . T he c o r e s w i th f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le s a tb o th l o ca l i t ie sm ay r e p re sen ta t temp t s t oe xe r t s ome c on t ro l o ve r t h e f r ang ib le m a te r ia l . T he se s pec imen s i n d ica t e t h a t t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo h om in id s u sed a s im i la r me thod . T h i s p a r t icu la r mod if ica t ion m ay i n d ica te p lann ing i n t h a t t h e t e chno logy w a s a dap t ed t o r aw ma te r ia l p rope r t ie s . C on t ro l led p e r cu s s ion m ay n o t h ave b e en p o ss ib le w i th i regu la r p l a t fo rm s u r f ace s . T he se f l a t p l a tfo rm s m ay h ave ' s tab i l i sed ' t h e c o r e d u r ing p e r cu s s ion , p e rhap sc oncen t ra t ing t h ee ne rgy a nd d i r ec t ion o f t h e i mpac t t o p r even t t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f t h e m a te r ia l , a nd /o r t o p reven tu nde s i r ed f r a c tu re s .T h i st e chn ique d oe sn o t g ene ra l ly s eem t o h ave p r oduced r e gu la r t o o l b l ank s . T he mo re n ume rou s c o r e s f r om D onggu tuo w i th t h e se p la tfo rm s , c ompa r ed t o X iaochang l iang , m ay b e r e la ted t o t h e l a rge r n umbe r o f D onggu tuo c o re s , o r t o am o re e x ten s ive u se o f t h is t e chn ique . A t X iaochang l iang , d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s w i th f l a t p l a t fo rms a r e m a rg ina l ly m o re f r equen t t h an t h e mo re n ume rou s s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s . T he s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s a nd mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s f r om D onggu tuo h ave mo r e s pec imens w i th t h is f e a tu r e i n p ropo r t ion t o t h e mos t c ommon c a tego ry ( i . e . d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s ) . Mo s to f t h e se c o r e s a tX iaochang l iang a r e i n t h e p r edom inan t f i ne c he r t . T he D onggu tuo c o re s a r e a lmo s t e qua l ly n ume rou s i n b o th c he r t s , a nd b o th t h e b a sa l t a nd q ua r tz c o re h ave f l a t p la tfo rms , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e se s t one s w e re t r ea ted i n t h e s ame m anne r .L oca l i sed p l a t fo rm p repa ra t ion w a s o n ly n o ted o n af ew c o re s f r om b o th s i te s e xh ib i t ing r ough ly p r ep a r ed p l a t fo rm s ,p e rhap s i n d ica t ive o fr emova lo fo ve rhang . R aw m a te r ia lm ay h ave p l ayed ar o le i nt h e d eve lopmen t o f p rof i le v a r ia t ion sa nd s t ep f r a c tu r e s . F lake s w h ich d eve loped s em i -d i shed a nd d i shed f a ce sm ay b ee xp la ined b y ar e la t ive ly g r ea te rf o r ce a pp l ied t ot h ec o r e t h an t h e f o r ce e xe r ted d u r ing d e tachmen t o f f l ake s w h ich d eve loped c onvex p rof i le s . T he ma jo r i ty o ff l ake s a tb o th s i te sh ave c onvex v en t ra l p rof i le s . S em i -d i shed f l ake s a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an d i shed f l ake s , b u t l e ss s o ' a t D onggu tuo . T he r e i s n o s t rong c o r r e la t ion b e tween p ro f i le s a nd ma te r ia l s o f t h e X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake s a nd o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo t oo ls . A t Donggu tuo t h e re i s ac o r re la t ion b e tween c onvex w a s te f l ake p ro f i le sa nd f i ne c he r ta nd b a sa l t ,s em i -d i shed f l ake sa nd f i ne c oa r se c he r t ,a nd aw eak c o r r e la t ion b e tween d i shed f l ake sa nd f i ne c he r t ; t h e l a t te r i n c lude t h e c oa r se c he r t s pec imen . T he l a rge r s amp le o f t h e D onggu tuo w a s te f l ake s may i n d ica te t h a t d i f f e rence s i n c he r t s a r e t os ome e x ten t a s soc ia ted w i th v en t ra l s hape . H oweve r , t h e p r edom inance o f f l ake s i n f i ne c he r t m ay d i s to r t t h is i mp re s s ion . T he l a ck o f Donggu tuo t o o l s w i th d i shed p rof i le sm ay i n d ica te t h a th om in id s d i d n o t s e lec tt o o l b l ank s w i th v e ry c oncave p ro f i le s .

T he a ppa ren t ly l ow r educ t ion r a te a nd a bandonmen t o fc o r e s may p e rhap s a l so r e f lec t t h e k nappe r 's i n ab i l i ty t o f u r the r r educe t h ec o re sb ecau se o f al a ck o fs u i tab le f l ak ing a ng le s . T he s ma l l d if e r ence s i n a ve rage w a s te f l ak e a ng le s a nd t h e d if e r en ce s i n t oo l a ng le s b e tween t h e s i te s m ay n o t b e s i gn if ican t i n t e rm s o f t e chno log ica l v a r ia t ion . T he p redom inance o fc o re sw i th w ho le f l ak ing o ft h ep e r iphe ry a t X iaochang l iang a nd t h e p r edom inance o f D onggu tuo c o r e s w i th p a r t ia l p e r iphe ra l f l ak ing , i n d ica te s t h a t t h e l a t te r w e r e l e ss w o rked .H oweve r , t h e Donggu tuo d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s a nd mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re sc on ta in a lmo s t e qua l f r equ enc ie s o f b o th f l ak ing c a tego r ie s . T he l o ca l a bundance a nd t h e f r a c tu r ing c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f t h e ma te r ia ls a sw e l la st h ea ppa ren te a se w i th w h ich b l ock s c a n b e p rocu r ed , may h ave e ncou raged a n on -econom ic u se o f r aw m a te r ia l a nd r e la t ive ly u n in tens ive c o r e r e duc t ion . T he g ene ra l ly i r regu la r mo rpho log ie so f t h e a r te f a c t s , t h e i r s ma l l s i ze , a nd t h e l ow f r equency o f s pec imen s m od if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch i n b o th s amp le s may t o s ome e x ten t b e e xp la ined b y d i f f icu l t ie s i n w o rk ing t h e f r ang ib le a nd h e te rogeneou sm a te r ia ls . T he a ngu la r a nd i r egu la r s hape s o f t h e c he r t a nd b a sa l t b lock s ( a nd s e e a bove ) m ay a l so h ave i nf luenced t h ed eve lopmen to ft h is p a t te rn . T h i s m ay a l so b e i n d ica t ed b y t h e h igh f r equen c ie s o f s t ep a nd h i nge f r a c tu r e s o n f l ake s , b y t h e s t ep f r ac tu r e s o n mo s t c o r e s , a nd b y t h e p re sence o f w a s te f r agmen t s . T hu s , t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e ma te r ia l s , d e sp i te t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f r e la t ive ly l a rge c he r t b lock s , may h ave made c on t ro l led f l ak ing d i ff i cu l t a nd m ay t o s ome e x ten t h ave d e te rm ined t h e s i ze a nd s hape o f t h e a r te f a c t s . T he c omb ina t ion o f a s imp le f o rm o f c o r e

T he s t ep f r ac tu r ed t e rm ina t ion so ff l ake sm ay b e v i ewed a s a ' m i r ro r ' o f t h e c o r e s t ep f r a c tu re s a nd may r e p r e sen t u n in ten t iona l t e rm ina t ions . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f c o r e s t ep f r ac tu re sa tb o th s i te s may s ugge s t t h a t s ome w e r e r emoved b y f u r the r c o re r e duc t ion . A l though t h e c o re s i n t h e mos t c ommon s t one , i . e . f i ne c he r t a tX iaochang l iang a nd f i ne c oa r se c he r t a tD onggu tuo , h ave mo s t f r ac tu re s w h ich m ay i n d ica te t h a t b o th c he r t s a r e e qua l ly p rone t o d eve lop s t ep f r ac tu re s , t h e l a rge r D onggu tuo s amp le may b e mo re r ep re sen ta t ive o fm a te r ia l v a r ia t ion . H oweve r , t h e re d oe s n o t a ppea r t o b e as t rong c o r r e la t ion b e tween t ype o f f l ake

4 0

t e rm ina t ion a nd ma te r ia l a t e i the r s i t e . T h is i n d ica te s t h a t m a te r ia l m ay n o t h ave as ub s tan t ia l i n f luence o n d i s ta l e nd s hape .

u t i l ised w ho le f l ake t o o l s p r edom ina te a nd w he re s i de d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake s a r e a lmo s t a s n ume rou s a s s i de u t i l i sed s pec imens , m ay s ugge s t d if e r ence s i n a c t iv i ty ( ie s ) e mpha se s . Ap o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen f r om X iaochang l iang h a s as im i la r mo rpho log ica l p a t te rn t o t oo ls f r om s ome o t he rC h ine se l o ca l i t ie s( Kea te s 1 994 ) .

T he f e a tu re so nt h eb i po la rc o re sf r om D onggu tuo m ay h ave d eve loped t h rough p r e s su re e xe r t ed d u r ing b i po la r p e r cu s s ion b y c on tac tw i th t h ea nv i l a nd /o r h amme r s tone . T he d i f f e r ing b i po la r f e a tu r e s o f t h e Donggu tuo a nd X iaochang l iang a r tef a c t s m ay b e ac omb ina t ion o f m a te r ia l v a r ia t ion ( i . e . f i ne c he r ta nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t ) , h amme r s tone s i ze , d eg r e e o f f o r ce , a nd a ng le o fp e r cu s s ion . T he b i po la r f l ake t o o l f r om X iaochang l iang w h ich i so f mo re r e gu la r s hape t h an mos t a r tef ac t s , m ay i n d ica te a n a t temp t t o p r oduce mo re r e gu la r f l ake s u s ing b ipo la r p e r cu s s ion , p e rhap s i n r e spon se t o t h e f r ang ib i l i ty o f t h e c he r t ( bu t s e e b e low ) . T he a ppa ren t ly l im i ted u se o ft h eb ipo la rt e chn ique m ay b e af unc t ion o f t h e l o ca l a va i lab i l i ty o fr e la t ive ly l a rge c he r tb l ock s w h ich c ou ld b ew o rk ed b yd i rec th amme rp e r cu s s ion ,a nd p e rhap s b e cau se i t m ay h ave i n t roduced a s t ronge r e l emen t o f s t re s s ( c ompa r ed t o d i rec t p e r cu s s ion ) o n t h e f r ang ib le m a te r ia l . T he s ma l l s i ze a nd l im i ted c o r t ex o f t h e b i po la r c o r e s s ugge s t t h a t t h e se s pec imens m ay h ave b een d i s ca rd ed a s e xhau s t ed c o re s ; a l l s how w ho le p e r iphe ra l f l ak ing . T he se c o re s m ay h ave b een w o rk ed o n s ma l l p ebb le s ( c o l lec t ed f r om l o ca ls t reams a nd /o rr i ve r s? ) .A l te rna t ive ly ,s ome o r a l l o ft h eb i po la rc o re sm ay i n i t ia l ly h ave b een r e duced b y d i r e c t h amme r p e rcu s s ion o n b lock s o f c he r t . P roduc t ion o f v e ry s ma l l t o o l b l ank s may h ave l e d h om in id s t oc on t inue f l ak ing u s ing b i po la rp e rcu s s ion a st h es i ze o ft h e se c o r e sd ec rea sed .

A pa r t f r om i t s a bundan ce a nd a c ce s s ib i l i ty , c he r t may a l so r e p r e sen t t h e m a jo r t o o l m a te r ia l b ecau se o f , f o r i n s tance , s ha rpe r a nd mo re d u rab le e dge s . T he c he r t f l ake s p r odu ced d u r ing e xpe r imen t s w e r e n o t iceab ly mo re a cu te t h an t h e b a sa l t f l ake s ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) . T he d i f f e r ence s i n t oo l c a tego r ie s a nd m a te r ia l s b e tween X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo m ay i n d ica t e as ma l l d eg r ee o f s e lec t ion o f p a r t icu la rm a te r ia l sf o rt o o l c a tego r ie s . F o re xamp le , n one o f t h eX iaochang l iang s i de u t i l i sed f l ake f r agmen t s a r e i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t , b u ta l q ua r tz t o o ls b e long t ot h i s c a tego ry . T he D onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen t d en t icu la te s c omp r ise mos t s pec imen s i nb a sa l t . T he p redom inance o fc oncave -convex u se -wea r e dge s o n s i de u t i l i sed a sw e l l a se nd u t i l i sed t o o ls , a nd o fo b l ique e dge s o n d en t icu la t e s a nd p o in t s , m ay s ugge s t ac o r re la t ion b e tween t o o l c a tego ry a nd t h e s hape o f u s ed e dge s . T he se f r equenc ie s m ay a l so o r a l te rna t ive ly , i n d ica te t h a t u se -wea r p a t te rn s d eve loped s im i la r s hape s . T he s i de & e nd u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake f r om X iaochang l iang m ay r e p re sen t amo re i n ten s ive ly u t i l ised s pec imen , w h i le t h e b i la te ra l u se -damage o n mos t p o in t s i sp o s s ib ly f unc t iona l ly s pec if ic . A t b o th s i te s mos t t oo ls s how b i f ac ia l u s e -wea r . T he t h in w h i te p a t ina t ion a l ong t h eu t i l i sed e dge o f as i de d en t icu la te f r om D onggu tuo i st h eo n ly a r te f ac t w i th t h i s f e a tu re , b u t s i nce t h e p a t ina i s n o tc onf ined t ot h i s a r ea i tm ay n o td e r ive f r om t oo lu se . T he a ppa ren t ly mo s t ly u nexhau s ted t oo l e dge s , t h e p r edom inance o f u n i la te ra l u s e -wea r , t h e s ma l l f r equency o f t o o ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch , a nd t h e s imp le r e touch t e chno logy m ay p o in tt oa no ve ra l l e xped ien tu se o ft o o ls b y t h eN ihewan h om in id s . A l te rna t ive ly , t h e f ew w o rk ed b l un t e dge s a nd t o o l s w i th s e conda ry r e touch may i n d ica t e a p r e f e rence f o r f r e sh e dge s . T oo l s mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch c omp r i se mo r e s p ec imens a nd c a tego r ie s f r om D onggu tuo t h an f r om X iaochang l iang . T he ma jo r i ty o f s pec imens s haped b y s e conda ry r e touch a r e d en t icu la te s a nd p o in t sa tX iaochang l iang a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a tD onggu tuo . O n t wo s i de d en t icu la t e s f r om D onggu tuo , h eavy u s e -wea r m ay h ave d eve loped t h e a ppa ren t s e conda ry r e touch . T h i s m ay i n d ica t e t h a t t h e se t o o l s w e r e mo re i n ten s ive ly u s ed t h an o the r t o o ls , a nd t h a t u s e -damage may n o t h ave b een f unc t iona l ly s pec if ic . I tm ay a l so b e p o s s ib le t h a t o n s ome t o o ls s e conda ry r e touch w a s c onduc ted t o r e juvena te w o rn e dge s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e v e ry b r igh t g lo s s o n t h e X iaochang l iang n o tch a nd o f t h e l u s t re o n t h e D onggu tuo n o tch o n ly i n t h e u t i l i sed a r ea , may s ugge s t t h a t t h e se f e a tu re s w e r e p r odu ced b y u se , a nd p e rhap s b y w o rk ing a p l an t ma te r ia l ( s ) , s u ch a sw ood .

T he l a rge rs i ze o f t h e X iaochang l iang c o r e s c ompa r ed t o t h e Donggu tuo c o re s may s ugge s t t h a t l a rge r b l ock s o f m a te r ia l w e r e s e lec t ed a tX iaochang l iang . T h i s i s , h oweve r , d if i cu l t t od e te rm ine , s i nce t h e X iaochang l iang c o r e s a ppea r t o h ave b een l e s s i n ten s ive ly w o rked . T he o c ca s iona l s e lec t ion o f c obb le s u t i l i sed a s c o re s a t X iao chang l iang , b u t l e s s s o Donggu tuo ( p e rhap s i n c lud ing o ne o r mo re f o rme r h amme r s tone s , b u t n o t r e cogn isab le a ss u ch? ) m ay s ugge s t t h a tt h e se w e re mo re r e ad i ly a va i lab le t h an b l ock so f ma te r ia l f r om t h eo u tc rop a ts ome t ime . I tm ay a l te rna t ive ly i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s s e lec t ed c obb le s b e cau se o f s ome p e r ce ived a dvan tage , e . g . , mo re e ven s u r f a ce c ompa r ed t o t h e b lock s . T he se c o r e s may r e p r e sen t s pec imen s w i th w h ich h om in id s ' e xpe r imen ted ' t o t e s t t h e i r p o ten t ia l f o r t o o l m anu f ac tu re . T he c obb le s may h ave b een s e le c t ed f r om n ow e x t inc t s t ream so no r n ea r t h e Donggu tuo P l a t fo rm . O the r p o s s ib le c o re s o n c obb le s may h ave b een t o o f a r r e du ced t o b e i d en t if iab le a s s uch w h ich c ou ld e xp la in t h e i r l owe r f r equency a tD onggu tuo . B o th s i te ss ha re t h es ame t oo l c a tego r ie sw h ich may s ugge s t t h a t s im i la r a c t iv i t ie s w e re c a r r ied o u t a t t h e s i te s . T he p r edom inance o f s i de u t i l ised f r agmen t t o o l s a t b o th s i te s may i n d ica te as im i la r e mpha s is o n ap a r t icu la r a c t iv i ty ( o r a c t iv i t ie s? ) .T he t o o lc a tego r ie si n d ica t e ar a nge o f u se s , b u t i n t h e a b sence o fm ic rowea r s t ud ie s l i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t t h e f unc t ion s o f t h e t oo ls . T he m a rg ina l ly h i ghe r f r equency o f t h e D onggu tuo t oo l c a tego r ie s m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th s amp le s i ze o r w i th mo re d i ve r se a c t iv i t ie s . T he l a ck o f d en t icu la t e p o in t s a t X iaochang l iang m ay i n d ica te t h a t t h e f unc t ion ( s? ) f o r wh ich t h e se t o o l s w e r e u s ed a t D onggu tuo w e r e n o t c a r r ied o u t a t t h e s ma l le r s i te . T he t wo X iaochang l iang t o o ls w i th p o in t si n c l ined t owa rd t h eu t i l i sed e dge ( aw ho le f l ake s i de d en t icu la te a nd ap o in t u t i l i sed f l ake f r agmen t ) may b e o f f unc t iona l s i gn if icance . T he mos t c ommon e nd u t i l i sed w ho le f l ak e t o o l c a tego ry a t X iaochang l iang , i n c on t ra s t t o D onggu tuo w he re s i de

T he s ma l l s i ze o f t o o ls d oe s n o t s eem t o b e r e la ted t o a n i n tens ive r e duc t ion o f t h e c o re s a s , f o r e xamp le , s ugge s ted b yt h el ow f r equency o fd o r sa l s c a r s .T he g r ea te rf r equency o f t o o ls o n f l ake f r agmen t s c ompa r ed t o t oo ls o n w ho le f l ak e s m ay s ugge s t h om in id s e lec t ion . T he s ma l l a ve rage s i ze d i f f e rence sb e tween w ho le f l ake t o o ls a nd f r agmen t t oo ls d o n o t i n d ica te t h a t s i ze i sr e la ted t o t h e g r ea te r f r equency o f f r agmen t t o o l s m od if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch . T he a ve rage s i ze v a lue s o f t h e D onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo ls a r e l a rge r c ompa red t o X iaochang l iang , w h i le t h e a ve rage f l ake f r agmen t s i ze v a lue s o fb o th s i te s a r e s im i la r . T he s ma l le r

4 1

m ax imum s i ze so f a l l X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo t oo ls ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e g r ea te r X iaochang l iang f r agmen t t o o l t h ickne s s w h ich i sd ue t o o ne s pec imen ) , c ompa red t o w a s te f l ake s , may i n d ica te s e lec t ion f o r s ma l le r t o o l b l ank s i ze . T he s i ze d if e r en ce s b e tween t oo l c a tego r ie s m ay b e s ugge s t ive o f s e lec t ion f o r p a r t icu la r s i ze r a nge s a t b o th s i te s . H oweve r , s t a t is t ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a r t ef a c t s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t sa nd a l l w a s te f l ake s , a r eo fl im i ted v a lue g i ven t h e s ma l l s amp le s o f mo s t o f t h e X iaochang l iang c a tego r ie s . T he s t a t i s t ica l v a lue s m ay t h u s n o t b e i n d ica t ive o f t h e p opu la t ion f r om w h ich t h es amp le sd e r ive .

T he p r edom inance o f t oo ls o n f l ake f r agmen t s may i n d ica te h om in id s e lec t ion o f f r agmen t s r a the r t h an o f w ho le f l ake s . A s ma l l d eg r ee o f s e lec t ion o f c e r ta in m a te r ia ls f o r t oo l c a tego r ie s m ay b e s ugge s ted b y c ompa r i son s b e tween t h e se v a r iab le s . T oo l s i ze c ompa r ed t o w a s te f l ake s i ze m ay s ugge s tt h a th om in id s s e lec ted s ma l le rb l ank s f o rt o o ls . T oo l mo rpho log ie s a nd u se -wea r f e a tu r e s i n d ica te a r a nge o f a c t iv i t ie s , b u t mo re s ub s tan t ia l k now ledge o f t o o l f unc t ion s m ay o n ly b e g a ined b y m ic rowea r s t ud ie s . R e -f i t s t ud ie s o f a l l a r tef a c t s a nd d e ta i led a na lyse s o f t h e e x ten t o f m a te r ia l v a r ia t ion m ay l e ad t o amo re i n f o rmed u nde r s tand ing o f t h e v a r iab i l i ty a nd m echan ica l c ha ra c te r i s t i c s o f t h e ma te r ia l s , a nd a l so o ft h e p o ss ib le r a nge o f e f f ec t s o n t e chno logy a nd a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty . T he se s t ud ie s m ay a dd i t iona l ly s how h ow h om in id ss e lec ted c he r ta nd t ow ha te x ten tt h ey c ou ld b e s e lec t ive , c on s ide r ing t h e h e te rogeneou s n a tu re o f t h e m a te r ia l . B o th t h e s ma l l s i ze o f t h e t oo l s a nd t h e p r edom inance o ff l ake t oo ls a r e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic f e a tu re s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo s amp le s . T h is o b se rva t ion c onco rd s w i th C h ine se i n te rp re ta t ion so ft h et o o l s f r om t h e se l o ca l i t ie sa ss ma l l f l ake t oo l a s semb lage s .

T he c ha ra c te r i s t ics o f t h e D ong Y ang a r te f a c t s a r e c ompa rab le t o t ho se o b se rved a t X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e c o r e t o o l . Mo re i mpo r tan t ly , t h e l a ck o fc o re s a t D ong Y ang m ay i n d ica t e t h a t t h e p roduc t ion o f t h e w a s te f l ake s a nd t o o ls o c cu r r ed e l sewhe re . T he s ma l l s amp le o f D ong Y ang i s d i f f icu l t t o i n te rp re t , a l though t h e a r tef ac t s a t t h e l e a s t s e em t o d emon s t r a te t h a t h om in id s a ts ome t ime w e r e u t i l i s ing t h is p a r to ft h e D onggu tuo P la tfo rm . A l though t h e s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ionsh ip s o f t h e d en se f o s s i l if e rou s d epo s i t s a nd f i ve a r te fac t s , i n c lud ing t oo ls f o und a t Dong Y ang t o X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo h ave y e t t o b e e s tab l i shed , D ong Y ang may r e p r e sen t e v idence o f a n o f f s i te o f t h e se l o ca l i t ie s . 3 .8

e xped iency a nd p l ann ing s e em t os ome e x t en tt ob er e la ted t o m a te r ia l b ehav iou r . T he m anuf a c tu re o f c o re s w i th f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le s m ay h ave b e en ar e spon se t o t h e r e la t ive ly p oo r t r ac tab i l i ty o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l s , a nd s ugge s t s t h a t h om in id s h ad s ome u nde r s tand ing o f m a te r ia l t r ac tab i l i ty . T he u se o f f r ang ib le ma te r ia ls a nd o f d i r e c t h a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion m ay h ave b een i mpo r tan t f a c to r s i n t h e p roduc t ion o f i n fo rma l a r t ef a c t s a nd a s ho r t s e quen ce o f r e duc t ion . R aw ma te r ia l , r a the r t h an c o re r e duc t ion t e chno logy , s e em s mo re l i ke ly t o b e r e spons ib le f o r t h e s ma l l s i ze o fa r tef ac t s .

S ummary a nd C onc lus ion

T he e a r ly N ihewan l i t h ic a s semb lage s d ocumen t t h a t e a r ly h om in id ( i . e . H . e r ec tu s ) t e chno logy i n t h i s a r ea o f n o r the rn C h ina i n vo lved t h e u t i l i sa t ion o f l a rge r aw m a te r ia l s ou r ce s i n c l o se p rox im i ty t o t h e l o ca l i t ie s o f m anu f ac tu re , u t i l i sa t ion ,a nd d i sca rd o ff l ake t oo ls . T he a s semb lage s f r om t h e s i te s s ugges t as im i la r t e chno logy o f r aw m a te r ia l p rocu remen t , c o re manuf a c tu re , a nd t oo l t e chno logy . T he a s soc ia t ion so fw a s te m a te r ia l s a nd t o o l si n d ica te o n s i te t o o l m anuf a c tu re . T he h om in ids e xp lo i ted ma in ly c he r t f o r t oo l manuf ac tu re a nd o cca s iona l ly s e lec ted as ma l lv a r ie ty o fn on c he r t ma te r ia ls . T h i s s e lec t ion p a t te rn may b e e xp la ined b y t h e l o ca l p r edom inance o f c he r t . A r tef ac t s w e r e g ene ra l ly m anuf a c tu r ed b y d i rec t h a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion , w h i le t h e b i po la rt e chn ique s eem st oh ave b een r a re ly u sed .

T he a b sence o fc o re s a t Dong Y ang s ugge s t s t h a t t h is w a s n o t at o o l m anuf ac tu r ing s i te . T he s im i la r i t ie s o f t h e f ew a r t e f a c t s f o und a t t h is f o s s i l if e rou s l o ca l i ty t o t h o se a t X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo m ay i n d ica te t h a t D ong Y ang w a sa no f f s i te o ft h el a t te rs i te s .

A n e xped ien t t e chno logy i s s ugge s ted b y an umbe r o f a t t r ibu te s a tb o th s i te s , s uch a s t h e a ppa ren t ly u ne conom ica l u se o f s t one , t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s i te s n ea r l a rge s t one o u tc rop s , t h e g ene ra l ly i n fo rma l a r te f ac t s , a nd t h e r a r e o ccu r r ence o f r e touched f l ake a nd c o r e p l a t fo rm s . T he u neconom ica l ma te r ia l e xp lo i ta t ion may a l so h ave b een i n f luenced b y t h e f r ang ib le n a tu re o f t h e s t one s . T he re a r e a l so i n d ica t ion s t h a t h om in id t e chno logy i n vo lved s ome s t anda rd i sa t ion a nd p l ann ing . T h i s i s r e f le c ted i n t h e f ew c o re s o f a pp rox ima te ly c y l ind r ica l s hape , t h e m ed ium ( a t X iaochang l iang )t oh i gh ( a t Donggu tuo ) f r equency o f f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t n on -co r t ica l c o re p l a tfo rm t a b le s w h ich s ugges t as imp le t e chn ique o fp l a t fo rm p r epa ra t ion , t h e f ew f l ake -b lade s ( a t X iaochang l iang ) , a nd t h e s im i la r p o in t ed w ho le f l ake a nd t h er e touched n on f lake ( a tD onggu tuo ) . T he i nf luence t h e r aw m a te r ia ls may h ave h ad o n h om in id t e chno logy mu s tb et a ken i n to a ccoun tt oa r r ive a t ab a lanced i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e i n fo rma l c ha ra c te r o f t h e a s semb lage s . T h i si si n d ica ted b y t h ep e r cu s s ion e xpe r imen t sc onduc ted b y t h ew r i te rw h ich s ugge s tt h a tc on t ro l led p e r cu s s ion m ay h ave b een d i f f icu l t w i th t h e a va i lab le f r ang ib le s t one s . B o th

4 2

CHAPTER I V

o u tc rop s a ppea r t o h ave b een u s ed f o r a l o the r c o re s . T he ma jo r i ty o fc o re s a r ea mo rphou s i nm o rpho logy w i th aw ide d eg r ee o f v a r ia t ion i n s hape a nd s h ape s a r e u sua l ly d i ff icu l t t od e f ine . Two c o re sa r er e la t ive ly r e gu la ri nf o rm . T he se a r e d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s ( P 5 469 , P 5 467 ) i n f i ne c he r t o f a ngu la r ,c y l ind r ica l s hape sw h ich o no ne f a ce s how r e la t ive ly r e gu la rs c a r s ( F ig s . 3 4 , 3 5 ) . As i ng le -p la t form c o re ( P 5 468 ) o f i regu la r s hape i n f i ne c he r t h a s r e la t ive ly l ong , r egu la r , a nd p a ra l le l s ided s c a r s ( n . 3 ) w h ich w e r e r emoved f r om o ne f a ce o ft h ec o re ( F ig . 3 6 ) .

L i th ic c on ten ts o f X iaochang l iang a nd X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang

4 . 1 T he I ntroduc t ion

X iaochang l iang

a ssemb lage :

T he X iaochang l iang s t one a r te f a c t s a na ly sed b y t h e w r i te r d e r iv e f r om b o th s e c t ion s ( A a nd B ) o f t h e s i te . S tone a r te f a c t s ( a nd v e r teb ra te f o s s i l s ) w e r e r e cove r ed f r om b o th s e c t ion so fX iaochang l iang ( F ig . 3 1) a nd w e re p oo led b y t h e C h ine se e xcava to r s( s ee Y ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . T he s e c t ion p rovenance o fa r tef ac t sc o l lec ted b yP ope ( u npub l . ) a nd P ope e t a l . ( 1990 ) w a s n o ted ( a nd s e e b e low ) . S pec imen s o f u nce r ta in p rovenance a r e r e f e r r ed t o i n t h e t e x t , t a b le s , a nd f i gu re s a s d e r iv ed f r om ' u nknown s e c t ion ( s ) A /B ' o r ' NB ' . S ome a r te f a c t s a r e i d en t if ied b y t h e i r I .V .P .P . a c ce s s ion n umbe r ,e . g . , P5 485 ,o rb y t h ea cce s s ion n umbe rd e s igna ted b y t h e w r i te r , e . g . , 9 021 .

T he m a jo r i ty o fc o re sa r ec o r t ica l( 8 0% ) .T he a r ea c ove red b y c o r tex w a s c a lcu la ted b a sed o n s e ven p e r cen tage c l a s se s r a ng ing f r om 0 -1 00% w h ich a r e e s t ima te s . T h i s a t t r ibu te w a s a l so u sed f o rt h eo t he rl i t h ic c a tego r ie s . T he ma jo r i ty o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e c o r t ica l ( n . 8 ) a nd t h e se p i ece s p r e se rve c o r tex r a ng ing f r om 1 -60% o f w h ich mo s t h ave b e tween 4 1-60% c o r tex . D oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s a r e a l so u sua l ly c o r t ica l ( n . 4 ) w i th c o r t ica l s u r f a ce s o f b e tween 1 6 0% a nd u sua l ly b e tween 2 6 -40% . T he n umbe r o f s ca r s o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s i ss l igh t ly h i ghe rc ompa red t ot ho se o f t h e d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s , w h i le t h e m in imum a nd max imum s c a rr ange o ft h ef o rme r i sl owe r c ompa red t o t h e l a t te r ( Tab le s 1 6 -19 ; a nd s e e 4 . 7 ) . T ab le 2 0 l i s t s t h e mea su remen t s a nd r aw m a te r ia l s o f t h e X iaochang l iang c o re s . Mo s td oub le -p la t fo rm c o re ss how w ho le f l ak ing o ft h e p e r iphe ry ( n . 4 ) , w h i le p a r t ia l ly a nd w ho l ly f l aked s i ng le p l a t fo rm c o re sa r ee qua l ly f r equen t ( n . 5e a ch ) . T he ma jo r i ty o fs i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re si nf i ne c he r ts how p a r t ia lf l ak ing ( n . 5 ) , a nd a l f i ne -coa r se c he r t s pe c imen s a nd f ew f i ne c he r t p i ece sw e re w o rked a r ound t h ee n t i re p e r iphe ry . Mo s td oub le p l a t fo rm c o re s w i th w ho le f l ak ing a r e i n f i ne c he r t ( n . 3 ) , a nd t h eo n ly f i ne -coa r se c he r tp i e ce i sa l so w o rk ed a r ound i t s w ho le p e r iphe ry . T he o n ly p a r t ia l ly f l aked d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re i si nf i ne c he r t . O ft h ef i ne c he r tc o re s s l igh t ly mo re a r e p a r t ia l ly f l aked t h an w ho l ly w o rk ed s pec imen s , a nd a l l f i ne c oa r se c he r t c o re s a r e w ho l ly f l ak ed s p ec imen s ( Tab le s 2 1 , 2 2 ) .

T he 1 50 a r tef a c t s i n t h is s t udy i n c lude 8 . 7% ( n . 7 0 ) o f t h e s pec imens d e sc r ibed b y Y ou e ta l . ( 1 978 , 1 980 ) a s w e l l a s s pec imen s e xcava ted mo re r e cen t ly ( n . 8 0 ) . T he l a t te r w e r e ma in ly r e cove r ed f r om s e c t ion A . T he m a jo r i ty o f a r te f a c t s a r ew a s te f l ake s w i th af r equency o f4 7 .3% . T oo ls r e p re sen t a lmo s t at h i rd o f t h e s amp le , w h i le w a s te f r agmen t s a nd c o re s a r el e s sn ume rou s .A lmo s th a l fo ft h ea r te fa c t s( 46 .7% ) c anno t b e a t t r ibu ted t o as e c t ion . T he f r equency o f w a s te ma te r ia l s ( i . e . c o re s , w a s t e f r agmen t s , a nd w a s te f l ake s ) i n t h e s amp le i s6 8 .7% . C he r t i s t h e m a jo r m a te r ia l ( 9 5 .3% ) a nd a l l c a tego r ie s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne c he r t ( 82 .5% ) ; af ew a r tef ac t sa r e i n q ua r tz ( Tab le s 9 12 ) . B lock s o f s t one s f o und i n s ec t ion A ( You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) w h ich may i d en t i f y u nmod if ied s t one ( manupo r t s? ) o r d eb i tage w e re n o t f o und d u r ing r e cen t i n ve s t iga t ion s ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . 4 .2

No te c oncern ing h ammers tones

N one o f t h e e xam ined a r te f a c t s s howed t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic p i t t ing o f h amme r s tone s , a nd n o r e f e r en ce i s m ade t o h amme r s tone s i n p rev iou s s t ud ie s ( s ee , e . g . , Y ou e t a L 1 978 , 1 980 ) . T he p o ss ib i l i ty s hou ld b e c on s ide r ed t h a t a h amme r s tone ( s ) may b e i n t h e u nexcava t ed p a r t o f t h e s i te . D u r ing ar e cen t s u rvey o f t h e D onggu tuo P la tfo rm s t one s w h ich c ou ld f unc t ion a sp o ten t ia lh amme r s tone s ( o fp ebb le , a nd c obb le s ize w i th e ven o r r e la t ive ly e ven s u r f a ce s ) w e r e o b se rved . 4 .3

X iaochang l iang c ore s

T he s amp le o f X iaochang l iang c o re s ( n . 1 5 ) d e r ive s f r om b o th s i te s e c t ion so fw h ich t h ree a r e c o r e s r e cove r ed b y Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) . T he o r ig ina l r e po r t s d o n o t s pec if y t h e n umbe r o f c o re s e xcava t ed f r om e i the r s e c t ion , o r w he the r t h e se a r te f ac t sw e re o n ly f ound i no ne o f t h e se a r ea s ( You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . D u r ing mo re r e cen t i n ve s t iga t ion s t h e m a jo r i ty o fc o re s w e r e f ound i n s e c t ion B ( 60% ) . T he c o r e s a r e s i ng le , a nd d oub le p l a t fo rm s pe c imen s o f w h ich t h e f o rme ra r e mo re n ume rou s ( n . 1 0 ; T ab le s 1 3 , 1 4 ) .

At h i rd o f t h e c o re s h ave p l a t f o rm s w h ich w e r e w o rked t o f o rm f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t t a b le s b y t h e r emova l o f o ne o r mo re f l ake s .T he i n c idence o ft h i s m od i f ica t ion i sh ighe r o n d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s ( n . 3 ) c ompa r ed t o s i ng le -p la t fo rm s pec imen s ( n . 2 ) ( Tab le 2 3 , F ig s . 3 4 , 3 5 ) . F lake s d e r iv ed f r om t h is mod if ica t ion w e r e n o t i d en t if ied . T he se p la t fo rm s a r e ma in ly o n f i ne c he r t c o r e s ( Tab le 2 3 ) . F ou r s i ng le p l a t fo rm c o re s h ave c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s ( Tab le 1 6 ) . C o re s d on o te xh ib i t l o ca l i sed p l a t fo rm p repa ra t ion w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne p l a t fo rm o n as i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re i n t h e f o rm o f r ough f l ak ing . T he m a jo r i ty o f c o re s e xh ib i t s t ep f r a c tu re s w h ich o ccu r r e la t ive ly m o r e f r equen t ly o n d oub le p l a t fo rm c o re s . T he se f r a c tu r e s a r e n o t n ume rou s . T h e s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t s how ma rg ina l ly a nd p ropo r t iona te ly mo re f r a c tu r e sc ompa red t o t h o se i n f i ne c he r t , a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s i n f i ne c he r t h ave mo re f r ac tu re s c ompa r ed t o s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o re s ; t h e d oub le p l a t f o rm s pec imen i nf i ne -coa r se c he r ti st h eo n ly c o re w h ich d oe s n o t e xh ib i t t h is f e a tu r e ( Tab le 2 4 ) . S ee T ab le s 1 8 , 1 9 a nd 2 5f o rd imen s ion s ,p l a t fo rm a ng le s ,a nd n umbe r o f s c a r s o ft h eX iaochang l iang c o re s( a nd s e e4 . 7 ) . 4 .4

X iaochang l iang wa s te f ragmen t s

T he 1 7 w a s te f r agmen t s c omp r i se 1 .3% o f t h e X iaochang l iang s amp le . T he s e c t ion o f o r ig in o f t h e m a jo r i ty ( 64 .7% ) o f t h e se i regu la r c hunky s pec imen s i s u nknown . R ecen t e xcava t ion s r e cove r ed mo re w a s te

A l l c o re s a r e i n c he r t w i th f i ne c he r t i d en t i f ied a s t h e ma in m a te r ia l ( 66 .7% ) f o r b o th c a tego r ie s ( Tab le 1 5 ) . F ou r s pec imen sw h ich a r ea l ls i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e sa r e o n c obb le s ( s ec t ion B ) , w h i le b lock s o f c he r t a s f o und i n t h e l o ca l

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f r agmen t sf r om s e c t ion B . T he se a r tef a c t s a r e p r edom inan t ly i n c he r t o f w h ich mo re a r e i n f i ne ( 82 .3% ) t h an i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t ; o ne s pec imen i si n q ua r t z ( Tab le s 2 6 , 2 7 , 9 ) . F igu re 3 7 i lu s t ra te ss ome o ft h e se a r tef ac t s . T he m a jo r i ty o f w a s te f r agmen t s a r e n on -co r t ica l ( 76 .5% ) . T he f ou r c o r t ica l p i e ce sh ave e s t ima ted c o r t ica l s u r f a ce a r ea s r ang ing f r om 1 t o 4 0% o f w h ich t h e ma jo r i ty h ave 1 -25% c o r tex . T he s p e c imen s s how ma in ly b i d i r ec t iona l s c a r p a t te rn s ( 7 6 .5% ) w i th s im i la r ly l ow p e r cen tage s f l aked f r om u n id i rec t iona la nd m u l t id i rec t iona l o r ien ta t ions ( Tab le s 2 8 -30 ) . T ab le s 3 1 a n d 3 2 s how m ea su remen t s a nd s c a r n umbe r o f t h e w a s te f r agmen t s( a nd s e e4 . 7 ) . 4 . 5

o ccu r r ing i nt h ef o rme rc a tego ry ( 89 .5% ) ( Tab le s4 6 -50 ) . S ee T ab le s 5 1 a nd 5 2 f o r mea su remen t s a nd d o r sa l s c a r c oun t ( a nd s e e4 . 7 ) . Ar a nge o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s i ss hown i n F igu re 3 9 . 4 .6

X iaochang l iang t oo ls

T he 4 7 t o o ls a na ly sed h e re d e r ive m a in ly f r om t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion ( 9 3 .6% )a nd o n ly t h ree s pec imen s( f lake f r agmen t t o o l s ) d e r iv e f r om ak nown s e c t ion . T he m a jo r i ty o f t oo ls a r e o n f l ake f r agmen t s , w h i le w ho le f l ake s r e p re sen t j us t o ve r at h i rd o ft h e t oo ls ; o ne t oo l i so n an on f lake ( Tab le s 5 3 , 5 4 ) .

X iaochang l iang w as te f l akes

T he 7 1 w a s te f l ake s c on s t i tu te 4 7 .3% o f t h e s amp le o f w h ich t h em a jo r i ty a r ew a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ( 80 .3% ) . Mo s t w a s te f l ake s a na ly sed h e r e w e r e r e cove r ed r e cen t ly . T he se d e r ive p redom inan t ly f r om s e c t ion A ( Tab le s9 ,1 0 , 3 , 3 4 ) . A l l 1 4w ho le w a s te f l ake sa r ei nc he r t o f w h ich f i ne c he r t i s t h ep redom inan t v a r ie ty ( 7 1 .4% ) . T he f l ake s a r e o f i r egu la r s hape . C o r t ica l s pec imen s a r e r a re ( n . 3 ) , a nd i n c lude o ne p r ima ry ( b ipo la r )f l ake . T he e s t ima ted d o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r f a ce a r ea sh ave ar a nge o f 2 6 -40% a nd 8 1-100% a nd mo s t f l ake s h ave 8 1-100% c o r tex . F lake s c a r p a t te rn s a r e u n i , a n d b i d i rec t iona l a nd s ub rad ia l w i th u n id i rec t iona l s p e c imen s m o s tn ume rou s( 50% ) ( Tab le s3 5 -38 ) . T ab le s 3 9 a nd 5 2 l i s t d imen s ion s ,p l a t fo rm a ng le sa nd d o r sa l s c a r n umbe r ( a nd s e e 4 . 7 ) .T he ma jo r i ty o ff l ake sa r ee nd s t ruck s pec imen s( 6 4 .3% ) a nd i n c lude o ne b i po la r f l ake . S ide s t ruck f l ake s a r e m o re c ommon t h an t r an sve r sa l f l ake s , a nd s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm a ng le s r a nge f r om 6 2 .5 ° t o 1 41 ° . Mo s t f l ake s e xh ib i t p l a in s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s ( 85 .7% ) a nd o the r p l a tfo rm s a r e a t a p ex a n d f a ce t ed . V en t ra l p rof i le s a r e c onvex , s em i -d i shed , a nd d i sh ed w i th t h ef i r s tc a tego ry mo s tf r equen t( 7 1 .4% ) . Ac ompa r i son b e tween v en t ra lf a ce sa nd c he r t s s how s n o s t rong c o r r e la t ion b e tween p rof i le a nd ma te r ia l v a r ia t ion ( Tab le s 4 0 , 3 9 , 4 1 4 3 ) . F lake s i n t h e d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion c a tego ry w i th t h e l a rge s tn umbe ro fs pec imen sa r et ho se w i th a p ica ld i s ta l e n d s ( 4 2 .8% ) . T he ma jo r i ty o ff l ake s h ave i regu la r d i s ta l e nd s o f s t ep c oncave a nd s t ep v e r t ica l mo rpho logy . A c ompa r i son b e tween d i s ta l e nd s a nd c he r t s s how s t h a t f i ne c he r t f l ake s p r oduced t h e s ame n umbe r o fa p ica l a nd s t epped s p ec imen s , a nd t h a t f i ne -coa r se c he r t i n c lude s t h e m a jo r i ty o f s t epped f l ake s( Tab le s4 4 ,4 5 ) . T he s i ng le p r ima ry f l ake a ppea r s t o r e p re sen t ab i po la r s pec imen ( 9011) . T he v en t ra l f a ce o f t h is f i ne -coa r se c he r t f l ake s how so ppo s ing s ca r s r unn ing ma in ly t owa rd t h e d i s ta l e nd w i th f ewe r s c a r s o b se rvab le i n t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e p rox ima le nd .T he f l ake s hows n o p e rcu s s ion b u lb a nd h a s a s ma l l a nd p l a in s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm ; t h e d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion i s s t epped ( F ig . 3 8 ) . F igu re 3 8 s how s ar a nge o f w ho le w a s te f l ak e s .

T he 1 7w ho le f l ake t o o ls a r ei nc he r ta nd m o s ta r ei nt h ef i ne v a r ie ty ( n . 1 2 ) . T oo l s hape s a r e ma in ly i regu la r ( 82 .3% ) , a nd o t he r s hape s a r e i regu la r q uad r i la te r a l ( i nc lud ing t h e f l ak e -b lade ) a nd i regu la r p o in ted . T he s i ng le c o r t ica l w ho le f l ake t o o l h a s ad o r sa l c o r t ica l a r ea i n t h e 4 1-60% r a nge . U n id i rec t iona l a nd b i d i rec t iona l s c a r p a t te rn s a r e a lmo s t e qua l ly n ume rou s ,a nd t h eo n ly o the r p a t te rn i se xh ib i ted o n t wo s pec imen s w i th s ub rad ia l s ca r s . T oo l s a r e ma in ly e nd s t ruck ( 52 .9% ) , i n c lud ing a b ipo la r f l ake a nd t h e f l ake b l ade a nd o t he rs pec imen sa r es i de s t ruck a nd t r an sve r sa l . T he f l ak ing a ng le r a nge i s 1 04 °431° ( Tab le s 1 2 , 5 5 -58 ) . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne s t r ik ing p la tfo rm e xh ib i t ing t wo s c a r s ( a t a pex ) , a l l o t he r t oo ls ( i nc lud ing t h e f l ake -b lade ) h ave p l a in p l a t fo rm s ( 94 .1 % ) . T ab le 5 7 l i s t s d imens ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s c a r s . V en t ra l p rof i le s a r e c onvex , s em i -d ished , a nd d i shed o f w h ich t h e f i r s t c a tego ry p r edom ina te s( 64 .7% ) .B o th c onvex a nd s em i -d i shed p ro f i le s o ccu r mo s t f r equen t ly i n f i ne c he r t , t h e mos t c ommon m a te r ia l a s d oe s t h e d i sh ed s pec imen . T he f r equenc ie so fa p ica la nd s t epped d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion s ( c oncave a nd v e r t ica l )a r ea lmo s te qua l ly n ume rou s , w h i le h i nge f l ake s a r e u ncommon . T he ma jo r i ty o f a p ica l f l ake s a r e i n f i ne c he r t . S t epped f l ake s a r e a lmo s t e qua l ly n ume rou s i n b o th c he r t s , a nd s t ep c oncave s pec imen s a r e t h e mo s t f r equen t f l ake s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ; h i nge f l ake s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t i nb o th c he r t s ( Tab le s5 9 -62 ) . O ne n on -co r t ica l f l ake i nf i ne c he r ts how sf e a tu r e sa ppa ren t ly d e r ived f r om b i po la r p e rcu s s ion ( P 5 475 ; F ig . 4 0 .1) . T he p l a in s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm i ss ma l l a nd h a s t h e w ide s t a ng le o f a l l t o o l s ( 1 31 ° ) . T he p rox ima l e nd s how s ap ronounced b u lb f r om w h ich a p rom inen t p e r cu s s ion l i ne l e ad s t o a' c le f t ' c l o se t o a nd m e rg ing w i th t h e b o rde r o f t h e d i s ta l e nd ( i nd ica ted b y a n a r row ; F ig . 4 0 .1) . Wha t a ppea r t o b e p e rcus s ion l i ne sr un f r om t h ed i s ta l t owa rd t h e p rox ima l e nd w i th f ewe r v i s ib le i n t h e o ppo s i te d i re c t ion . O n t h e d o r sa l f a ce ad ep r e s s ion n ea r t h e d i s ta l e nd i ss im i la r t o a n e c la t &a l lu i re . As ma l l b u lb i sv i s ib le o n t h e l owe r b o rde r o f t h i s s c a r a nd b o th f e a tu re s m ay b e d e s c r ib ed a s a ' s l ipped p l a t fo rm ' ( i nd ica ted b y a n a r row i nF ig .4 0 .1) . Who le f l ake t oo ls i n c lude s i x c a tego r ie s . T he p r edom inan t t o o l c l a s s i se nd u t i l i sed f l ake s ( n . 7 ) , a nd t h e o t he r t oo ls a r e f ou r s i de u t i l ised f l ake s , o ne s i de & e nd u t i l i sed s pec imen , t wo s i de d en t icu la te s , t wo e nd d en t icu la te s , a nd o ne n o tch . E nd u t i l ised t o o l s i n c lude mo re f i ne c he r ts pec imen st h an t h e o the rt o o lc a tego r ie s , a nd s i de u t i l i sed a nd e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s i n c lude t h e o n ly p i ece s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ; s i de u t i l i sed t o o ls a r e t h eo n ly t o o l c a tego ry p redom inan t ly i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( Tab le s 6 3 , 6 4 ) . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f a n i regu la r q uad r i la te ra ls i de u t i l i sed f i ne -coa r se c he r t s pec imen o f f l ake b l ade p ropo r t ion s w i th a pp rox ima te ly p a ra l le l l a te ra l e dge s a nd t h el e ng th t w ice e xceed ing t h ew id th ( F ig .4 0 .2 ) a nd t wo

T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e 5 7 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e i n f i ne c he r t ( 89 .5% ) . T he o the r m a te r ia ls a r e f i ne -coa r se c he r t a n d q ua r tz wh ich a r e p re sen t i n e qua l f r equenc ie s . T h i s c a t ego ry i n c lude s t h e h ighe s t f r equency o f f i ne c he r t a r t e f a c t s . . Amo rphou sf o rm sp r edom ina te ( 87 .7% )a nd o the r s hape s a r e i regu la r q uad r i la t e ra l a nd i regu la r p o in ted . C o r t ica l w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s o ccu r i n l ow f r equency ( n . 8 ) . O f t h e se s pec imen ss even e xh ib i td o r sa lc o r tex o f w h ich t h e m a jo r i ty f a l l w i th in t h e 2 6 -40% r a nge , r e p re sen t ing t h e m ax imum v a lue o f c o r t ica l s u r f ace a r ea . F lake f r agmen t s e xh ib i t u n i , a nd b id i rec t iona l s c a r p a t te rn s w i th mos t s p e c imen s

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i r regu la r p o in ted s i de d en t icu la te s , a l l c a tego r ies i n c lude i regu la r ly s haped s pec imens , a l though t h e b i po la r f l ake i s mo re r e gu la r ( Tab le 6 5 ; F ig . 4 0 .1) . U se -damage i s ma in ly u n i la te ra l ly a nd b i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e s i de & e nd b i la te ra l ly u t i l ised f l ake a nd t h ree u n ifac ia l ly e nd u t i l ised f l ake s . T he e nd u t i l ised s pec imens i n c lude t wo w i th d o r sa l u se -wea r , i n c lud ing t h e b i po la r f l ake , a nd o ne w i th u se -damage l im i ted t ot h e v en t ra l o fi t s b eve l led e dge ( Tab le s 6 6 , 6 7 ) . T he c oncave -convex u s e -wea r e dge s hape c a tego ry i st h e mos t n ume rous , o b l ique a nd d en t icu la te o b l ique e dge s a r ee qua l ly f r equen t , a nd c oncave a nd s t ra igh t e dges i n c lude o ne s pec imen e ach . T he f ou r s i de u t i l ised f l ake sh ave e qua l ly f r equen tc oncave -convex a nd o b l ique u se w ea r e dge s hapes , a nd t he e nd u t i l ised f l akes s how p redom inan t ly c oncave -convex e dges w i th t h e b a lance c omp r is ing o ne o b l ique a nd o ne s t ra igh t e dged s pec imen . T he s i de & e nd u t i l ised f l ake h a s o b l ique u sed e dges , t h e n o tch a c oncave e dge , a nd a l l f our d en t icu la tes h ave d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge f o rms ( Tab le 6 8 ) . T he mos t n ume rous t o o l c a tego ry , t h e e nd u t i l ised t o o ls i n c lude t h e l a rges t t oo ls w i th t he w ides t s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion . S ide d en t icu la tes e xceed t h e max imum m ea suremen ts o f e nd d en t icu la te s( Tab le 6 9 ) . A l l t oo l s s how s ma l l u se -sca r s . T he e x ten t o f u se -wea r i s i nd ica ted i nt h e i lus t ra t ions b y b a r s w he re p os s ib le . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake s w i th c oncave -convex e dge s a r e s l igh t ly b lun t , w h i le t h e o b l ique ly a ng led e dge o f af i ne c he r t s p ec imen i s a cu te . T he b i fac ia l u se -sca r s o n t h e s i de & e nd u t i l ised f l ake ( P5 485 )o ccu ro n o b l ique ly i n c l ined a nd s l igh t ly b l un te dge s ( F ig . 4 1 .1) . E nd u t i l i sed ( e .g . , P5 472 ; F ig . 4 1 .2 ) a nd s i de u t i l ised ( e .g . , P5 519 ; F ig . 4 0 .2 ) t oo ls , t h e e nd & s i de u t i l ised f l ake , a nd t wo o ft h e d en t icu la te s s how n o e v idence o f s hap ing o r r e juvena t ion b y s e conda ry r e touch . T he u se w ea r a r ea s o f d en t icu la tes a r e s l igh t ly b l un t . U se -wea r o n b o th e nd d en t icu la tes o ccur s a l ong h a lf o f t h e e dge w i th c h ipp ing d i s t r ibu ted ma in ly o n t h e d o r sa l f a ce . T he d en t icu la te e dge o n o ne e nd d en t icu la te ( P 5 510 ) m ay h ave b een f o rmed b y l im i ted s e conda ry r e touch o n t h ed o r sa l f a ce ( F ig . 4 1 .3 ) . T he u sed e dge o n o ne s i de d en t icu la te ( P 5 543 ) s hows i nva s ive a nd i n c l ined s e conda ry d o r sa l r e touch w i th f ou r f l ake s ca r s , a nd o ne f l ake w a s r emoved o n t h e v en t ra l f a ce e x tend ing a lmos t t h e w ho le l e ng th o f t h e s ame e dge . T he p o in t i si n c l ined a ta n a ng le t owa rd t h e u sed e dge ( F ig . 4 2 ) . T h is t o o l w as p rev ious ly d e sc r ibed a s as i ng le s t ra igh t s c rape r ( You 1 983 ; s ee C hap te rV I ) . O n t h e s i ng le n o tch ( P 5 515) b i f ac ia l u se -sca r s a nd g loss a r e d i s t r ibu ted i n t h e c oncav i ty o n t h e t h in l a te ra l s i de o f t h is s ma l l , l o ng f l ake . F igu re 4 3 i n c ludes am ic ro scop ic p ho tog raph o f t h e n o tch s how ing t h eg l o ss . T he V shaped a nd s ha rp -edged n o tch may h ave f o rmed t h rough i n ten t iona l b reakage d i rec ted f r om t h e d or sa l f a ce o rd u r ing f l ake r emova l f r om t h ec o re . O ne e dge o f t he n o tch i sb eve l led ( F ig . 4 3 ) . T he p o s s ib le r e touch o n t he e nd d en t icu la te a nd t h e r e touch o n t h e s i de d en t icu la te may h ave b een c a r r ied o u t t o c r ea te a d en t icu la te e dge . R e touch may a l te rna t ive ly , o r a l so h ave b een c onduc ted t o t h in t he e dge p r io r t ou t i l isa t ion o n t h e d en t icu la te s a nd t h e n o tch . T he u se -wo rn c oncav i ty o n t h e n o tch m ay h ave b een f o rmed t op repa re t h ee dge f o ru t i l i sa t ion .T he r e touch o n t h e s pec imens may h ave b een f o r t h e p u rpose o fr e juvena t ing a wo rn e dge . F ine c he r t f r agmen t t o o ls a r e mo re n ume rous ( n . 2 1) t h an t hose i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd q ua r tz . T he m a jor i ty o f f r agmen t s a r e i r regu la r i nf o rm ( 6 3 .3% ) , a nd o t he r t oo ls a r e ma in ly i r regu la r p o in t s a nd i r regu la r q uad r i la te ra l p ieces , i n c lud ing as i de u t i l ised f l ake -b lade i nq ua r tz ( P 524 ) w i th

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a pp rox ima te ly p a ra l le l e dge s ( F ig . 4 4 .1) . A l l f r agmen t s a r e n on -co r t ica l , a nd mos t h ave u n id irec t iona l f l ak ing ( 70% ) ( Tab le s 1 2 , 7 0 -72 ) . T ab le s 7 3 t o7 5 s how d imens ions a nd d o r sa l s c a r f r equency . F lake f r agmen t a nd n on -f lake t oo ls i n c lude s i x u t i l isa t ion c a tego r ie so fw h ich s i de u t i l ised f l ake s r ep re sen t t h e l a rges t c a tego ry ( n . 1 ) . P o in t u t i l ised f l ake s , n o tche s , e nd u t i l ised f l ake s , s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd o ne e nd d en t icu la te w e re n o ted i nd ec rea s ing o rde ro ff r equency . Mo s t t o o l c a tego r ie s i n c lude mo re f i ne c he r tt h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t s pec imens , a l though s i de u t i l ised f r agmen ts i n c lude n o p i ece s i nf i ne -coa r se c he r ta nd t h es i ng le e nd d en t icu la te i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . T he mos t n ume rous t o o l c a tegory , s i de u t i l ised f l ake s i n c lude s mos t s pec imens i nf i ne c he r t a nd i s t h e o n ly c a tegory wh ich i n c ludes q ua r tz f l akes . A s i de u t i l ised s pec imen a nd a s i de d en t icu la te a re o n i r regu la r q uad r i la te ra l f l ake s . Mo s tt o o ls o fi regu la rp o in ted s hape a r e p o in tu t i l ised f l ake s , a nd o the rs pec imen s i nt h is c a tego ry a r e t wo s i de u t i l ised , o ne s i de d en t icu la te a nd o ne n o tch . Un i la te ra l u se -damage w as i d en t if ied o n t h e ma jor i ty o f t o o ls . T he o n ly t oo ls w i th b i la te ra l u se -wea r a re f ou r p o in t u t i l ised s pec imens . T oo ls e xh ib i t b i fac ia l u se -wea r w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f as i de u t i l ised f l ake w i th d o rsa l w ea r . T he ma jor i ty o f u se -wea r e dge s hape s a r e c oncave -convex a nd i n c lude s i de u t i l i sed f l akes a nd e nd u t i l ised f l ake s . T oo ls w i th o b l ique e dge s i n c lude t wo s i de u t i l ised t oo ls a nd a l l p o in t u t i l ised f l ake s . O ne s i de u t i l ised s pec imen i st he o n ly t oo l w i th as t ra igh t e dge a nd c oncave e dge s w e re o n ly i d en t if ied o n n o tche s ; t h e d en t icu la tes h ave d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge s ( Tab le s7 6 -81) . T he s i de u t i l ised t oo l w i th u n ifac ia l u se -damage ( P 5 477 ) e xh ib i t s u se -sca r s d i s t r ibu ted d o r sa l ly a l ong mos t o f t h e i n c l ined p a r t o ft h e l a te ra l e dge ( F ig . 4 4 .2 ) . O n e nd u t i l ised t oo ls t h e u sed a r ea s a r e l im i ted i ne x ten t w i th t he e xcep t ion o fo ne t o o l ( P 5 505 ) o n wh ich a lmos t t wo th irds o ft h e e dge s hows u se -wea r ( F ig . 4 4 .3 ) . U t i l ised e dges a r e r e la t ive ly b l un t w i th s ma l l s ca r s o n t wo t o o ls . Two o the r e nd u t i l ised t oo ls s how i n va s ive u se -wea r o fw h ich o ne i sc ha rac te r ised b y i r regu la r s t epped u se re touch ( a nd r e juvena t ion? ) a l ong a bou th a lf i t ' s e dge ( P 5 512 ; F ig . 4 4 .4 ) . T he u sed e dges o fd en t icu la te s a r e o n r e la t ive ly t h in e dge s o ppo s i te t h ick u nu t i l ised e dge s . T he e dge s a r e b lun t , a nd o n t wo p i ece s u t i l isa t ion i sd i s t r ibu ted a l ong mos to ft h e e dge s . T he u se -wea ra r ea o nt h e i regu la rp o in ted s i de d en t icu la te ( P 6 059 ) i ss ho r te r a nd u n l ike t h e o the r s i de d en t icu la te s u se s ca r s a r e c l us te red a nd o ve r lapp ing a nd o ccu r ma in ly o n t h e d o r sa l s i de . O n t h is t oo l t h e u t i l ised e dge w a s r educed i n t h ickne ss b o th d o r sa l ly a nd v en t ra l ly t h rough t h e r emova l o f t wo f l ake s . T he p o in ta ppea r st ob e b roken o f f wh ich may b e ar e su l t o f e i the r u t i l isa t ion o r o f o ccupa t iona l o r p os t o ccupa t iona l d amage ( F ig . 4 5 .1) . O n t h e e nd d en t icu la te ( P 5 545 ) u se -wea r i sd i s t r ibu ted a l ong mo s t o ft h e o b l ique a nd r e la t ive ly s t eep e dge , a nd i s mo re p ronounced a nd i n va s ive o n t h ed o r sa l f a ce o ft h e b l un ted d en t icu la te e dge ( F ig . 4 5 .2 ) . T he d en t icu la t ion o n t h is s pec imen may h ave b een f o rmed b ys e conda ry d o r sa l r e touch . One o f t h e s i x p o in t u t i l ised t o o ls ( 9021) s hows l im i ted d o r sa l r e touch o n o ne h a lf o f i t s b road , r ound p o in t . Sma l l u se -sca r sa r ed i s t r ibu ted b i la te ra l ly a l ong t h es l igh t ly s i nuous e dges o f t h e p o in t ( F ig . 4 6 .1) . T he r e touch may h ave b een c onduc ted t o s hape o r t o r e juvena te p a r t o f t he p o in t . A no the r p o in t u t i l ised t oo l ( P 5 503 ) s hows t h ree r egu la r , r e la t ive ly l o ng f l ake s ca r s p laced a pp rox ima te ly p a ra l le l t o e ach o t he ro n i t s u ppe rd o r sa l f a ce a nd o ne s c a ro n t h ev en t ra l i nt h e a r ea o ft h e u sed a nd r e la t ive ly b l un t e dge ( F ig . 4 6 .2 ) .

T h i s m od if ica t ion a ppea r s t o h ave h ad t h e p u rpo se o f i s o la t ing a p o in t , a nd a l so e i the r i n ten t iona l ly o r a s a s e conda ry e f ec t i tp roduced ar e duc t ion i n t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e e dge . T he o the r u n i la te ra l ly u t i l i sed p o in t i st h e s i ng le n on -f lake t oo l ( P 5 466 ) . T he u s e sca r s o n t h i s c hunky s p ec imen o ccu ro n t h e d o r sa l f a ce i n a n a r ea f r om w h ich a f l ake w a sr emoved f r om t h e v en t ra l ( F ig . 4 6 .3 ) , p o s s ib ly t o r e duce t h ee dge 's t h ickne s sa nd /o rt oc r ea te al e s s s t eep e dge . T he p o in t o f t h e s ma l le s t p o in t u t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t ( 9 042 ) a ppea r s t o h ave b een ' f o rmed b y s e conda ry r e touch f r om t h ev en t ra lf a ce . U se sca r s a r e d i s t r ibu ted b i la te ra l ly o n t h es ho r tp o in to f t h is t oo l w h ich i si n c l ined a t al e f t a ng le ( F ig . 4 7 .1) . N one o f t h e f i ve n o tche s a ppea r t o h ave b e en s haped b y s e conda ry r e touch a nd t h e n o t che s a ppea r t oh ave d eve loped a s ar e su l to fu t i l i sa t ion .T he w o rn e dge s a r e b l un t a nd s how s ma l l s c a r s . T he u s e -wea r a r ea o n t h e i regu la r ly p o in ted n o tch ( P 5 473 ) i sc ove r ed o n t h e v en t ra l s i de b y a t h in w h i te p a t ina ( F ig . 4 7 .2 ) . S ide u t i l ised a nd p o in t u t i l i sed t o o l si n c lude t h e t o o ls w i th t h e l a rge s t l e ng th . S i de u t i l i sed t o o l si n c lude s ome o ft h et h inne s tf r agmen t s . T he s i ng le e nd d en t i cu la t ee xceed s t h e s i de d en t icu la te s i n w id th . T he p o in t u t i l i sed c a tego ry h a st h e b roade s tt h ickne s sr a nge ( Tab le 8 2 ) . 4 .7 Measurement s a nd X iaochang l iang a ssemb lage

s tat is t ics

o f

t he

T h i s s e c t ion d i scu s se s t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ions , s c a r n umbe r s , a nd p l a t fo rm a ng le s o f l i th ic c a tego r ie s a nd t h e i r s t a t i s t ica l f r equenc ie s . T he s t a t is t ica l a na ly se s a r e b a sed o n t h e m ean , m ed ian , a nd moda l v a lue s a nd a l so r e f e r t o t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion . T he m ean , m ed ian , a nd mode a r e a ve rage s o r m ea su r e s o f c en t ra l t e ndency ( Rown t ree 1 991 :48 ) . T he m ean i s a r e a sonab ly c on s tan t e s t ima te o fc en t ra l t e ndency a nd am o r e r e p r e sen ta t ive a nd r e l iab le m ea su re o f d i s t r ibu t ion t h an t h e m ed ian o r mode ( Rown t ree 1 991 :49 ) , e xcep t w he r e t h e r e a r e e x t r eme v a lue s ( F le tche r a nd L ock 1 99 1 :35 , 3 6 ; R own t r ee 1 99 1 :50 ) , o r w he r e ad i s t r ibu t ion h a s a n u neven o r w ide s p r ead ( F le t che r a nd L ock 1 991 :35 ) . T he m ed ian i si nc a se s o f s ome e x t reme v a lue s a mo re r ep re sen ta t ive m ea su r e o f c en t r a l t e ndency ( F le tche r a nd L ock 1 991 :34 ; R own t r ee 1 99 1 :50 ) . T he mode i s t h e v a lue w h ich o ccu r s w i th t h e g r ea te s t f r equency ( F le tche r a nd L ock 1 991 :31 ; R own t ree 1 991 :46 ) , b u t b o th t h e mode a nd t h e m ed ian c an b e i nf luenced b y c hange s i n af ew v a lue s ( F le t che r a nd L o ck 1 99 1 :31) . T he mo re s ymme t r ica l ad i s t r ibu t ion i s , t h e m o r e s im i la r t h e mean , m ed ian , a nd mode w i l l b e t o e a ch o t he r ( F le t che ra nd L ock 1 991 :36 -37 ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i sa m ea su r e o fd i spe r s ion i n ad i s t r ibu t ion ( F le t che r a nd L ock 1 99 1 :44 ; R own t ree 1 991 :53 -54 ) . I t i s am e thod w h ich i n d i ca te s t h e " ave r age ' a moun t b y w h ich a l l t h e v a lue s d ev ia t e f r om t h e m ean ." ( Rown t ree 1 991 :54 ) . T he s t and a rd d ev ia t ion h a s aw e igh t ing a lowance w i th r e g a rd t o t h e g r ea t e r d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e m ean w h ich make s i t am o re b a la nced m ea su re o fd i spe r s ion ( F le tche r a nd L ock 1 99 1 :44 , 4 6 ) .T he l a rge r ad i spe r s ion i s , t h e l a rge r t h e d ev ia t ion f r om t h e m ean a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion w i l l b e ( Rown t r ee 1 99 1 :54 ) . T he s ma l le r t h e s amp le s i ze i s , t h e l e s s r e l iab le t h ei n f e rence sw i l lb eo ft h ec ha rac te r is t ic so f ap opu la t ion o f a r t e f a c t s f r om w h ich t h e s amp le i s d rawn , a nd v i ce v e r sa ( F le t che r a nd L ock 1 991 :63 -64 , 7 3 ) . A r e a sonab le s amp le s i ze f o r s t a t is t ica l e va lua t ion s i s a t l e a s t 5 0 ( Lock p e r s . c omm . ) .F o rs t anda rd d ev ia t ion , t h es amp le s i ze s hou ld b e a t l e a s t 3 0 ( Rown t ree 1 991 :103 ) . T hu s , o n ly t h e X iao chang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a nd w a s te f l ak e s i n c lude s u ff ic ien t n umbe r s o f s pec imen s o n w h ich b a s i s

4 6

g ene ra l s t a temen t s a bou t t h e p opu la t ion f r om w h ich t h e se a r t ef a c t sd e r ive may b e m ade . B ecau se o f t h e s ma l l s amp le s i n vo lved i n f e rence s a bou t t h e g ene ra l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f s i ze , n umbe r o f s c a r s , a nd p l a t fo rm a ng le s s hou ld b e i n t e rp r e ted w i th c au t ion . T he ' a ve r age ' v a lue s ( i . e . q uo t ing t h e m ean , m ed ian ,a nd m ode )p rov ide amo re a c cu ra te r ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s f o r s k ewed d i s t r ibu t ion s ( F le tche r a nd L ock 1 991 :36 , 3 8 ) . T he max imum s i ze o ft h eX iaochang l iang c o re si s1 5 .30 c m a nd t h a t o f f l ake s i s 7 . 40 c m . S ing le -p la tfo rm c o r e s a r e s ma l le r i n t h e i r m in imum l e ng th ( 3 .50 c m ) c ompa r ed t o d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s( 5 . 10 c m ) ,a nd t h ef o rme r a r e l a rge r i n m ax imum l e ng th ( 15 .30 c m ) t h an t h e l a t te r( 1 1 .40 c m ) . T he m in imum a nd m ax imum w id th s o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s ( 3 .40 -10 .00 c m ) a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s ( 3 .30 -10 .10 c m ) a r e s im i la r . T he m in imum a nd max imum t h ickne s s o f d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s ( 1 .60 -9 .80 c m ) a r e l owe r a nd h i ghe r , r e spec t ive ly , c ompa red t o s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s ( 2 .50 -9 .20 c m ) . C o re s i n c lude s ma l l t or e la t ive ly l a rge s pec imen s b a s ed o n t h e m in imum a nd m ax imum l e ng th ( 3 .50 15 .30 c m ) , w id th ( 3 .25 10 .10 c m ) ,a nd t h ickne s s ( 1 .60 -9 .80 c m ) r a nge s w h ich a l so s how t h a t l e ng th h a s t h e w ide s t s p r ead . C o r e s h ave t h e s ame m ean a nd m ed ian ( 9 .1 c m ) l e ng th a nd t h e se v a lue s a r eh i ghe rt h an t h e mode ( 6 .1 c m ) .C o re w id th h a s n o m ode a nd am ean ( 7 .1 c m ) s im i la r t o t h e m ed ian ( 7 .3 c m ) . T he t h ickne s sm ean o fc o re s ( 5 .7 c m )i sl owe rt h an t h e e qua l m ed ian a nd m oda l v a lue s ( 6 .0 cm ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s l i e 3 . 22 , 2 . 25 , a nd 2 . 52 a bove t h e m ean , r e spe c t ive ly ( Tab le 2 5 ) . T he ' a v e r age ' l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s sa nd t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion ss how t h a t l e ng th a nd w id th h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s ,r e spec t ive ly ,a l though w id th h a s n om ode . T he m in imum a nd m ax imum l e ng th ( 1 .90 -6 .50 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .40 -4 .10 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .90 -3 .10 c m ) r a nge s o f w a s te f r agmen t s s how t h a t t h e se a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i z ed a r te f a c t s a nd t h a t l e ng th h a s t h e w ide s t s p read . Wa s te f r agmen t m ean l e ng th ( 3 .2 c m ) i s l a rge r t h an t h e s im i la r m ed ian ( 2 .7 c m )a nd moda l ( 2 .6 c m ) v a lue s . T he m ean ( 2 .7 c m )a nd m ed ian ( 2 .75 c m ) w id th v a lue s a r e s im i la r , a nd t h e f ou r mode s ( 1 .7 c m , 2 . 75 c m , 3 . 2 c m , 3 . 25 c m ) l i e m a in ly b e low a nd a bove t h e se v a lue s , a nd o ne i s t h e s ame a s t h e m ed ian . T he t h ickne s s m ean ( 1 .8 c m )i ss im i la r t o t h e e qua l m ed ian a nd m oda l v a lue s ( 1 .6 cm ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s l i e 1 . 12 , 0 . 75 , a nd 0 . 63 a bove t h em ean ,r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 3 2 ) .T he a ve r age l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s ,r e spec t ive ly . B a sed o n t h e m in imum a nd max imum l e ng th ( 1 .60 -7 .40 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .60 -6 .60 c m ) , a nd t h ickne ss ( 0 .45 -3 .50 c m ) w ho le w a s te f l ake s i n c lude s ma l l t o m ed ium s i z ed s pec imen s ; l e ng th h a st h ew ide s ts p read .T he se a r te f a c t s h ave al e ng th m ean ( 4 .0 c m ) t h a t i s s im i la r t o t h e m ed ian ( 3 .8 c m ) , a nd b imoda l v a lue s ( 4 .0 cm , 5 . 1 c m ) . T he w id th m ean ( 3 .3 cm ) i sl a rge rt h an t h em ed ian ( 2 .6 c m ) , a nd b o th v a lue s e xceed t h e mode ( 2 .2 c m ) . T he t h ickne s s m ean ( 1 .4 c m ) i s s im i la r t o t h e m ed ian ( 1 .2 c m ) , a nd o f t h e t r imoda l v a lue s ( 0 .9 cm , 1 . 1 c m , 1 . 3 c m ) a l l l i e b e low t h e m ean a nd t wo b e low t h em ed ian .T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 6 , 1 . 57 , a nd 0 . 8 a bove t h e m ean , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 3 9 ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ions , r e spec t ive ly .

Wa s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i z ed a r t e f a c t s b a sed o n t h e m in imum a nd max imum l e ng th ( 0 .90 -5 .90 c m ) , w id th ( 0 .90 -4 .50 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .20 -2 .10 c m ) ; l e ng th h a st h ew ide s ts p read . T he l e ng th m ean ( 2 .4 c m )h a sa s im i la rv a lue t ot h em ed ian ( 2 .2 c m ) ,a nd t h e m od e ( 1 .4 c m ) i ss ma l le rt h an b o th . T he w id th m ean ( 2 .2 c m ) i sl a rge r t h an t h e m ed ian ( 1 .9 c m ) , a nd t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 1 .7 c m , 1 . 8 c m )a r ec l o se t ot h em ed ian .T he t h ickne s sm ean ( 0 .9 c m ) i s c ompa r ab le t ot h e med ian ( 0 .8 c m ) , a nd t h e t wo m ode s ( 0 .3 c m , 0 . 6c m )a r e s ma l le r . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 17 , 0 . 93 , a nd 0 . 53 , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 5 1) .T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t and a rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spe c t ive ly . H oweve r , t h e t h ickne s s mode s a r e mo r e d i spe r sed f r om t h e m ean a nd m ed ian t h an t h ew id th mode s .

d ev ia t ion s s how t h a tw id th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a n d l e a s td i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ions ,r e spec t ive ly . T he l e ng th m ean ( 3 .1 c m )o ff l ake f r agmen t t o o l s i ss ma l le r t h an t h e m ed ian ( 3 .4 c m ) , a nd o f t h e t wo mode s ( 3 .4 c m , 3 . 65 c m ) b o th a r e l a rge r t h an t h e m ean , o ne i st h e s ame a s t h e m ed ian a nd o ne e xceed s t h e m ed ian . T he w id th m ean ( 2 .75 c m ) i ss im i la rt o t h e m ed ian ( 2 .55 c m ) , a nd t h e mode ( 2 .0 c m ) i s s ma l le r . T he t h ickne s s m ean ( 1 .2 c m ) a nd med ian ( 1 .1 c m )a r ec ompa rab le , a nd t h eb imoda l v a lue s ( 1 .0 c m , 1 . 1 c m ) a r e s im i la r t o t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion so fl e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 0 . 81 , 0 . 95 , a nd 0 . 45 , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 7 4 ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t w id th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r s ed d i s t r ibu t ions ,r e spec t ive ly .

T he m in imum a nd max imum l e ng th ( 0 .90 -7 .40 c m ) , w id th ( 0 .90 -6 .60 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .20 -3 .50 c m ) o f a l w a s te f l ake s s how t h a t t h e se a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i z ed a r t e f a c t s ; l e ng th h a s t h e w ide s t s p read . T he m ean l e ng th ( 2 .7 c m ) i s s im i la r t ot h e m ed ian ( 2 .5 cm ) a nd b o th e x ceed t h e m ode ( 1 .4 c m ) . T he mean w id th ( 2 .4 c m ) i sl a rge rt h an t h e m ed ian ( 2 .1 c m ) a nd b o th l i e a bove t h e mode ( 1 .8 c m ) . T he m ean t h ickne s s ( 1 .0 cm ) i s s im i la r t o t h e m ed ian ( 0 .9 c m ) a n d b o th e x ce ed t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 0 .3 c m , 0 . 6 c m ) . T he s t and a rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 4 , 1 . 16 , a nd 0 . 62 ,r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 8 3 ) . B a sed o nt h e a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s , l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mos t a nd l e a s t d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly ; t h e t h ickne s s m ode s a r e mo re d i spe r sed f r om t h e mean a nd med ian t h an t h ew id th m ode .

A l l t oo l s a r e s ma l l a r te f ac t s b a sed o n t h e m in imum a nd max imum l e ng th ( 1 .85 -5 .50 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .20 -4 .80 cm ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .30 -4 .10 c m ) . T he m ean l e ng th ( 3 .2 c m ) i s s ma l le rt h an t h em ed ian ( 3 .5 c m ) a nd t h em ode ( 3 .4 c m ) l i e s b e tween t h em ean a nd m ed ian .T he m ean w id th ( 2 .7 c m ) a nd med ian ( 2 .8 c m ) a r e s im i la r , a nd b o th e x ce ed t h e mode ( 2 .0 c m ) . T he m ean t h ickne s s ( 1 .2 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 1 .1 c m ) a r e s im i la r ; t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 0 .8 cm , 1 . 0 c m ) l i e b e low t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 0 . 89 , 0 . 84 , a nd 0 . 61 , r e spe c t ive ly ( Tab le 8 4 ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . H oweve r , w i th r e spec t t o t h e moda l v a lue s , l e ng th d i f f e r s l e s s t h an w id th f r om t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s a r e t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed v a lue s , r e spec t ive ly .

Who le f l ake t oo ls a r e s ma l l s i zed s pec imen s b a sed o n t h e m in imum a nd max imum l e ng th ( 1 .60 -4 .50 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .60 -4 .15 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .50 -1 .80 c m ) . T he l e ng th m ean ( 3 .1 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 2 .9 c m ) a r e s im i la r , a nd t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 2 .6 c m , 2 . 8 cm ) a r e b e low t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he w id th mean ( 2 .7 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 2 .8 c m ) a r e s im i la r , a nd o f t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 1 .95 c m , 2 . 85 c m ) o ne l i e sb e low t h e mean a nd m ed ian a nd o ne a bove t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he t h ickne s s m ean ( 1 .0 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 0 .9 c m ) a r e s im i la r a nd b o th a r e s im i la r t o t h e mode ( 0 .8 c m ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion so fl e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 0 . 86 , 0 . 70 , a nd 0 . 42 , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 5 7 ) . T he a ve r ag e l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s ,r e spec t ive ly .

T he m ax imum d imen s ion so fw a s te f l ake sa nd t o o l sa r e 7 . 40 c m a nd 5 . 50 c m , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le s 8 3 , 8 4 ) . T he s ma l le s t d imen s ions ( i . e . l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s )o fa l l t oo ls ( n . 4 7 , i . e . i n c lud ing t h e n on -f lake t oo l ) a nd o f a l l t oo ls o n f l ake s( n . 4 6 ) a r eg r ea te rc ompa red t oa l w a s te f l ake s ( n .7 1 ) . T he l a rge s td imens ion so fa l l t o o ls c ompa red t ow a s te f l ake s a r es ma l le re xcep tf o rt h ickne s sw h ich i sg r ea te rf o ra l lt oo l s , b u t s ma l le r f o r a l l t o o ls o n f l ake s . T he m in imum s i ze s o f w ho le f l ake t o o l s ( n . 1 7 ) c ompa red t o t h o se o f w ho le w a s te f l ake s ( n . 1 4 ) a r e t h e s ame e xcep t f o r t h ickne s s w h ich i s s l igh t ly g r ea te rf o r t h e t oo ls . T he max imum s i ze s o f w ho le f l ake t o o ls c ompa red t o t ho se o f w ho le w a s te f l ake s a r e s ma l le r . T he s ma l le s t s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fa l l t o o ls o n f l ake f r agmen t s ( n . 2 9 ) a nd o f a l l t oo ls o n f r agmen t s ( n . 3 0 ) c ompa r ed t o w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s ( n . 5 7 ) i s g r ea te r , e spec ia l ly i nl e ng th , a nd t h e m ax imum t o o l s i ze sa r e s ma l le r e xcep t f o r t o o l w id th a nd t h e g r ea t e r t h ickne s s o f a l l f r agmen tt o o l s ( Tab le 8 5 ) .

T he m in imum a nd max imum l e ng th ( 1 .85 -5 .50 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .20 -4 .80 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .30 -4 .10 c m ) r a nge s o f f r agmen t t o o ls ( i .e . i n c lud ing t h e n on -f lake t o o l ) a nd t h e m in imum a nd max imum l e ng th ( 1 .85 -5 .00 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .20 -4 .80 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .30 -2 .00 c m )r a nge so f f l ake f r agmen tt o o ls s how t h a tt h e se a r es ma l la r te f ac t s . T h ickne s s h a s t h el a rge s t s p read f o r f r agmen t t o o l s a nd w id th f o r f l ake f r agmen tt o o ls . T he l e ng th m ean ( 3 .2 c m ) o ff r agmen t t oo ls i ss im i la r t o t h e med ian ( 3 .4 c m ) , a nd b o th o f t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 3 .4 c m ,3 . 65 c m )a r el a rge rt h an t h em ean a nd o ne i s t h e s ame a s t h e m ed ian . T he w id th m ean ( 2 .8 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 2 .7 c m ) a r e c ompa rab le a nd t h e mode ( 2 .0 c m ) l i e s b e low b o th v a lue s . T he t h ickne s s m ean ( 1 .3 c m ) i ss im i la r t ot h em ed ian ( 1 .1 c m ) , a nd o f t h e t wo mode s ( 1 .0 c m , 1 . 1 c m ) b o th a r e s ma l le r t h an t h e mean a nd o ne i st h e s ame a s t h e m ed ian . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s o f l e ng th , w id th , a n d t h ickne s s a r e 0 .91 , 0 . 93 , a nd 0 .69 , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 7 3 ) . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a nd t h e s t anda rd

T he s c a r n umbe r ( n . 7 2 ) mean o f c o r e s ( 4 .8 ) i sl a rge r t h an t h e m ed ian ( 4 ) ; t h e mode ( 3 ) l i e s b e low t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he se v a lue ss how as kewed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he r a nge i s2 -8 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion l i e s 1 . 93 a bove t h e m ean ( Tab le 2 5 ) . Wa s te f r agmen t s h ave a l a rge r s c a r m ean ( 4 .5 ) t h an t h e e qua l m ed ian a nd mode ( 4 ) a nd a d i sp e r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he r a nge o ft h e 7 7 s ca r s i s3 7 a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 12 ( Tab le 3 2 ) . T he w ho le w a s t e f l ake m ean a nd m ed ian ( 3 .5 )d o r sa l s ca rv a lue sa r es ma l le rt h an t h e m ode ( 5 ) . T he 4 9 s c a r s h ave a r a nge o f 0 -7 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s2 . 10 ( Tab le 3 9 ) . T he w a s te f l ake f r agmen t m ean ( 1 .6 ) i sl a rge r t h an t h e m ed ian a nd m ode ( 1 ) . T he 9 2 s c a r s h ave ar a nge o f1 5 a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s0 . 82 ( Tab le

4 7

5 1 ) . T he 1 4 1 d o r sa l s c a r s o f a l l w a s te f l ake s h ave a l a rg e r m ean a nd m ed ian ( 2 ) t h an t h e mode ( 1 ) . T he r a nge i s 0 -7 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 39 ( Tab le 8 3 ) . T he a ve r age v a lue so fw a s te f l ake s h ave s kewed d i s t r ibu t ions . T he d o r sa l s c a rm ean ( 3 .3 ) o fw ho le f l ake t o o ls i ss im i la r t ot h e m ed ian a nd mode ( 3 ) .T he se s pec imen sh ave 5 6s ca r s w i th ar a nge o f 1 6 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 45 ( Tab le 5 7 ) . T he s c a r m ean ( 2 .8 )o ff r agmen t t o o ls i sl a rge rt h an t h e m ed ian ( 2 .5 ) , a nd b o th e x ceed t h e moda l v a lue ( 2 ) . T he r a nge o f t h e 8 3 s c a r s i s 1 6 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 3 ( Tab le 7 3 ) . F l ake f r agmen t t oo ls h ave a l a rge r s c a r m ean ( 2 .7 ) t h an t h e m ed ian a nd mode ( 2 ) . T he r a nge o f t h e 7 8 s c a r s i s 1 6 , a n d t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s1 . 26 ( Tab le 7 4 ) . T he a ve rage v a lue s o f w ho le f l ake t oo ls , f r agmen t t o o ls , a nd f l ake f r agmen t t o o l s h ave d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ions . A l l t oo l s h ave t h e s ame d o r sa ls c a rm ean ,m ed ian ,a nd mode ( 3 ) . T he 1 39 s c a r s h ave ar a nge o f1 6 ,a nd t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 37 ( Tab le 8 4 ) . T h i s i s as ymme t r ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . T he a ve rage v a lue s a n d t h e r a nge s o f s c a r s s how s t h a t t h e X iaochang l iang a r te f ac t s h ave as ma l l n umbe ro fs ca r s . S i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s h ave s im i la rc o re s t r ik ing a ng le v a lue s ( 9 2 °427 ° ) c ompa r ed t o d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s ( 97 .5 ° -130 ° ) . T he m ean ( 108 .3 ° ) a nd m ed ian ( 109 .5 ° ) o f c o r e a ng le s a r e s im i la r , a nd s ma l le r t h an t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 1 12 ° , 18 ° ) . T he r a nge i s 9 2 °430 ° , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 8 . 62 ( Tab le 2 5 ) . T he mean ( 1 10 ° ) a nd m ed ian ( 1 12 ° ) w a s te f l ake p l a t fo rm a ng le sa r es im i la r ; t h e re i sn o mode . T he r e i st h u s n ot y p ica la ng le ( s ee F le tche ra nd L ock 1 991 :33 ) . T he r a nge i s6 2 .5 ° 14 1 ° ,a nd t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s1 7 .27 ( Tab le 3 9 ) . T he m ean ( 1 16 ° ) a nd m ed ian ( 1 15 ° ) a ng le s o f t oo ls a r e s im i la r . Two o ft h e t r imoda l t oo l a ng le s ( 1 10 ° , 12 ° , 1 20 ° ) a r es ma l le rt h an t h e mean a nd m ed ian a nd o ne e xceed s b o th . T he a ng le r a nge i s 1 04 ° -131° , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 7 . 55 ( Tab le 5 7 ) . T he a ve rage v a lue s o fp l a t fo rm a ng le s a r e d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion sa nd t h e r a nge s s how t h a t a ng le s h ave ab r oad s p read .P la tfo rm a ng le sa r e u sua l ly w ide ; o n ly w a s t e f l ake si n c lude a cu te a ng le s . 4 .8

T he X iaochang l iang Bong Yang a r tefac t s

T h i s r e cen t ly d i scove r ed l o ca l i ty l i e s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e X iaochang l iang p romon to ry ( Pope e t a l . 1 990 ; F ig . 2 3 ) . Mamma l ian f o ss i ls w e r e r e cove r ed f r om t h e c a lca reou s s i l t s e d imen ta nd t h ree w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s w e r e f ound e r od ing f r om t h e t o p o f t h e f o s s i l if e rou s l e ve ls . T he se f i ne c h e r t s pe c imen s a r e s ma l l a nd o f i regu la r s hape , n on -co r t ica l , w i th u n id i rec t iona l s ca r p a t te rns , c onvex p rof i le s , a nd a p ica l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion s ( Tab le 8 6 ) . A pp rox ima te ly 1 00 m t o t h e w e s t o f t h e se o ccu r rence s ( F ig . 2 3 ) t wo p a r t ia l ly e xpo sed t o o l s w e r e r e cove r ed i n s i tu f r om s i l t sand . O ne o f t h e se a r te f ac t sw a sf ound i n ad epo s i tc . 1m a bove t h es u r f ace , a n d t h e s e cond w a s r e cove red a bou t 2m t o t h e s ou th o f t h e f o rme ro ccu r rence f r om ap i tc .7 0c mb e low t h es u r f ace .T he f i r s ts pec imen i so n a n i regu la r f i ne -coa r se c he r t c o re , n on c o r t ica l , a nd mu l t id i rec t iona l ly f l aked . T h is t oo l i s as i de d en t icu la te w i th u n i la te ra l a nd b i f a c ia l u se -wea r o n a n o b l ique e dge . T he s e cond t o o l i s af i ne c he r t n on -co r t ica l w ho le f l ake o f i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l s hape . T he s c a r p a t te rn o f t h is e nd s t ruck s pec imen i s b i d i rec t iona l . T he p l a in s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm i s ' n ecked ' i n t h a t t h e l owe r p a r t o f t h e p l a t fo rm i sc ons t r ic ted b e tween i ta nd t h e ma in b ody o f t h e f l ake ; t h e s t r ik ing a ng le i s 5 5 ° . T he p rof i le i s s em i -d i shed a nd t h e d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion i ss t ep v e r t ica l . T h is u n i la te ra l ly a nd b i f ac ia l ly s i de u t i l i sed f l ake e xh ib i t s u se -wea r d i s t r ibu ted o n ac oncave -convex e dge . T he c o r e t oo l i s l a rge r t h an t h e f l ake t o o l ( Tab le 8 6 ; F ig . 4 8 ) .

4 8

CHAPTER V L ith ic

5 . 1

C he r t i st h e ma jo r r aw ma te r ia l o fw h ich f i ne c he r t i s mo re f r equen t ( 54 .3% ) t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( 4 3 .2% ) a nd c oa r se c he r t ( 0 .2% ) . B a sa l t ( 1 .6% ) a nd q ua r tz ( 0 .7% ) make u p t h e b a lance ( Tab le s 8 7 ,9 4 , 9 5 ) .

c ontents o f Donggutuo

5 .3

The Donggutuo a ssemb lages : I n troduc t ion

T rench T i C ores

T he w r i te r 's l i th ic a na lys is o f Donggu tuo i sb a sed o n t h e a r tef ac t s f r om a l l t r enches ( i . e . T lT5 ) . P rev ious s t ud ie s o f t h e D onggu tuo s pec imens make l im i ted d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e se f i ve s amp le s ( s ee C hap te r V I ) . T he s amp les f r om t h e l a ye r s o f t h e f i ve t r enche s i n t h is s t udy a r e t r ea ted a s i n d iv idua l a s semb lage s , a nd a r es ub sequen t ly c ompa red .T he s amp le s f r om T 2 t oT 5 a r e s ub s tan t ia l ly s ma l le r t h an t h eT 1 s amp le ( 25 .5% a nd 7 4 .4% o f t h e t o ta l , r e spec t ive ly ; T ab le 8 7 ) , b u t t h e ir i n c lus ion may n eve r the less a l low a mo re d e ta i led s t udy o f l i th ic v a r iab i l i ty a nd h om in id b ehav iou r . B ecause o ft h e l owe r a r tefac t f r equenc ie s f r om T 2 , T 3 , T 4 a nd T 5 , mos t o f t h e d a ta f r om t h ese t r enches h a s b een t a bu la ted t o ge the rw i th t h eT i d a ta . P e rcen tage f r equenc ie so f t h e T 2 -T5 a r tefac t s w e re c a lcu la ted i nr e la t ion t oa l l o ft h e s pec imens f r om Donggu tuo . A s t h e v e r t ica l p o s i t ion o ft h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e a r tefac t s w a s r e co rded ( l aye r s A t oD ; n o s pec imens f r om l a ye r Ea r e i n c luded i nt h is s t udy ; T ab le s 8 , 8 9 ) t h ese c ou ld b e c ompa red o n al a ye r to laye r b a s is b e tween t h e t r enches p rov id ing p oss ib le i n forma t ion o f i n s i tu v a r ia t ion i n l i th ic t e chno logy . T h is may a l so g i ve a n i nd ica t ion o f t h e d egree o f p oss ib le p os t -depos i t iona l d i s tu rbance o ft h e d epo s i ts . T he g eo log ica l e v idence o ft h e d epo s i t iona ry c on tex t i st o s ome e x ten t i n conc lu s ive ( s ee C hap te r I ) a nd may a t al a te r , mo re a dvanced s t age o f r e sea rch s how t ha t t he e xcava ted a reas a re i s o la ted o ccu r rences o f h om in id a c t iv i ty , p e rhaps f o rmed d u r ing s u cce s s ive p e r iod s , o rt h a tt h e t r enche s r ep re sen tp a r to fo ne l a rge s i t e . I nt hose c a ses w he re t h ep a ren tl a ye ro fa r tef ac t si s u nknown t h e s pec imens w e re i n c luded i n t h e c a tego ry ' u nknown l a ye r (s ) ? ' , e . g . , ` T2? ' . An umbe ro fa r tefac t s a r e s pec if ied b y t h e ir I .V .P .P . a cce ss ion n umbe r , e . g . , P5 642 , o rb y t h e a ccess ion n umbe rg i ven b y t h ep re sen t w r i te r ,e . g . , 4 33 .

T he 4 3 c o re s i n c lude ma in ly d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s ( 44 .2% ) , a nd o t he rc a tego r ie s a r es i ng le -p la tform , mu l t i -p la t form , a nd b i po la r c o re s . T he p r inc ipa l r aw ma te r ia l i sc he r t o f wh ich f i ne -coa r se c he r tc o re s a r e mo re n ume rou s ( 5 5 .8% ) t h an f i ne c he r t s pec imens ; o ne c o re i si nq ua r tz , t h e o n ly q ua r tz c o re f r om Donggu tuo (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he f r equency o f f i ne -coa r se c he r t i sh ighe s t f o r mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o res , a nd a l l b i po la r c o re s a r e i nf i ne c he r t ( Tab le s 9 6 -99 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o fc o re sc anno tb ea c commoda ted i ns t anda rd s hape c a tego r ie s a nd a r e i r regu la r s pec imens ( e .g . , P5 642 , P5 646 , 4 84 , 5 71 , P 5 647 , 6 20 ; F igs . 4 9 -53) . T he q ua r tz c ore i s o f a pp rox ima te ly c y l ind r ica l s hape ( 399 ; F ig . 5 4 ) , a nd t wo o f t h e b ipo la r c o res a r e p i l la r -shaped s pec imens ( P 5 655 , P 5 654 ; F ig . 5 5 , a nd s e e C hap te r V I ) . S ca r s a r ep redom inan t ly i r regu la r , r e la t ive ly w ide a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . Mos t c o res a ppea rt oh ave b een manuf ac tu red o n b l ock so fs t one a nd o ne c o re i so n ac obb le ( 484 ; F ig . 5 0 ) .

A t t r ibu te a na lys is o f 5 1 .3% ( n . 7 40 ) o f t h e a va i lab le a nd p ub l ished c o l lec t ion ( n . 1 , 443 ; s e e We i 1 985 , 1 989 ) w a s c onduc ted i n d e ta i l ( Tab les 9 0 , 9 1) . B ecause o f l im i ted r e sou rce s t h e r ema in ing p a r to ft h e c o l lec t ion ( n . 7 03 ) c ou ld o n ly b es t ud ied t oi d en t ify t h er e la t ive f r equenc ie so fd eb i tage a nd t oo ls . B a sed o n t h is , 8 . 1% ( n . 17 ; s ee b e low ) o f t h e D onggu tuo a r tefac ts a r e t oo ls a nd 9 1 .9% i sd eb i tage ( n . 1 , 326 ; T ab le 9 2 ) . I n t h is s t udy w as te ma te r ia ls c omp r ise 8 4 .2% o f a l l s pec imens ( Tab les 9 3 , 9 4 ) . Mos t a r tef ac t s a r e w a s te f l akes ( 59 .3% ) , a nd t o o l s , w a s te f r agmen t s , c o re s , a nd o ne n on -f lake w e re n o ted i nd ec rea s ing o rde r o f f r equency ( Tab les 9 0 , 9 1) . Mos t s pec imens d e r ive f r om t r ench T 1 ( 74 .4% ) a nd l a ye r A( 76 .1 % ) ( Tab les 8 7 , 8 8 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o fa r tef ac t s a r e i nc he r t w i th af r equency o f9 6 .6% o fw h ich mo s ta r e i nf i ne c he r t ; o the r ma te r ia ls a r e b a sa l t , q ua r tz , a nd i n du ra ted s and s tone ( Tab le 9 5 ) .

Mo s t s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o res h ave p a r t ia l ly f l aked p e r iphe r ies ( F ig . 4 9 ) . Doub le -p la tfo rm c o re s a nd mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s a l so i n c lude mo re p a r t ia l ly w o rked s pec imen s ( F ig s . 5 0 , 5 1) , a l though t h ef r equenc ie so ft h e se a nd w ho l ly f l aked c o res a r e a lmos t e qua l . A l l b i po la r c o re s e xh ib i t f l ak ing o ft h e w ho le p e r iphe ry . On a c ompa ra t ive b a s is , d oub le -p la tform c o re s w h ich a r e t h e mos t c ommon c o res , a l so h ave t h e h ighes t f r equency o f w ho l ly f l aked c o res ( Tab le 14 ) . O f t h e f ou r s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s w i th w ho le p e r iphe ra l f l ak ing t wo a r e i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t , o ne i si nf i ne c he r t , a nd o ne i si nq ua r tz . I nt h ep a r t ia l ly f l aked c a tego ry , t h e f r equenc ie so fb o th c he r t v a r ie t ies a r e e qua l . O f t h e n ine who l ly w o rked d oub le p l a tfo rm c o re s f i ve a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd f ou r a r e i n f i ne c he r t . S even o ft h e 1 0p a r t ia l ly w o rked d oub le -p la tform c o re s a r e i nf i ne -coa r se c he r ta nd t h ree a r e i nf i ne c he r t . Two o f t h e t h ree who l ly f l aked mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s a r e i n f i ne c he r t a nd o ne i si nf i ne -coa r se c he r t . A l l f ou ro ft h e p a r t ia l ly w o rked mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . A l l b ipo la r c o res a r e i n f i ne c he r t . O f a l l c o res w i th who le f l ak ing o f t h e p e r iphe ry , 1 0 a r e i n f i ne c he r t , e i gh t a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd o ne s pec imen i si nq ua r tz ( Tab le 15 ; F ig . 5 4 ) . C ompa red t o t h ese f r equenc ies , mo re p a r t ia l ly f l aked c o re s a r e i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t ( n . 1 6 ) t h an i nf i ne c he r t ( n . 8 )( Tab le 15 ) .

5 .2

C ores a r e p redom inan t ly c o r t ica l w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f mu l t i -p la tfo rm s pec imens . T he max imum c o r t ica l c ore s u rf ace i sa n e s t ima ted 4 1-60% . Mo s t o ft h e s i ng le -p la tform c o res a r ec o r t ica l a nd h ave ac o r t ica l s u rf ace b e low 6 0% , t h e ma jo r i ty o f wh ich f a l l w i th in t h e 1-40% r ange . J us t o ve r h a lf o ft h ed oub le -p la t form c o re sa r ec o r t ica lw i th t h ec o r t ica l a r ea r a ng ing f r om 1 60% a nd ma in ly b e low 4 0% . T h ree o f t h e mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s a r ec o r t ica l , r a ng ing f r om 1 40% i n c o r t ica l s u rface a r ea . O f t h e t h ree b i po la r c ore s t wo a r e c o r t ica l w i th 1 10% c o r tex . T he c umu la t ive f r equency o f c o r t ica l c o re s i s6 2 .8% o fw h ich t h e ma jo r i ty r a nge f r om 14 0% c o r t ica l s u rface w i th t h e l owes t q uan t i ty i nt h e4 1-60% r ange ( Tab les 1 00 , 1 01 ; a nd s ee T ab le s 1 02 -109 ) . T ab les 10 -113 s how m in imum a nd max imum d imens ions , a nd n umbe ra nd r ange o fp l a tform a ng le sa nd s c a r s .

The t rench T i a ssemb lage : I ntroduc t ion

T h is s e c t ion d escr ibe s4 6 .6% o fc a ta logued a r tef ac t sf r om t h e l a rge s t t r ench i nt h e Xu j iapo g u l ly (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; T ab le 6 ) . A l l a r tefac t sd e r ive f r om l a ye r A( Tab le 8 9 ) . Wa s te f l ake s a r e t h e mos t n ume rous c a tego ry w i th af r equency o f6 4 .6% , a nd w a s te f r agmen t s ( 16 .3% ) , t o o ls ( 1 1 .1 % ) , c o res ( 7 .8% ) , a nd a s i ng le r e touched n on -f lake r epresen t t h e o the r c a tego r ies . Wa s te ma te r ia ls r ep re sen t 8 8 .8% o ft h e s amp le .

T he m a jo r i ty o fc o re s ( 69 .8% ) e xh ib i t f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t

4 9

a nd o va l . N on -co r t ica l w ho le f l ake s a r e mo s t c ommon ( 6 4 .4% ) , a nd t h e ma jo r i ty o fc o r t ica l s pec imen s ( 5 1 o f 6 7 ) e xh ib i td o r sa l c o r tex , u sua l ly b e low 4 0% ; 1 5 p r ima ry f l ak e s w e r e n o ted . F lake s h ave u n id i rec t iona l , b i d i r ec t iona l , s ub rad ia l , a nd t r an sve r se s c a r p a t te rn s o f w h ich s pec imen s w i th s i ng le o r ien ta t ions p r edom ina te ( 56 .9% ) , w h i le s ub rad ia l a nd t r an sve r se p a t te rn s a r e l e a s t c ommon ( Tab le s 1 25 -130 ) . T ab le 1 3 1 s how s d imens ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o f d o r sa l s ca r s . T he ma jo r i ty o f f l ake s a r e e nd s t r uck s pec imen s ( 69 .1 % ) a nd o t he r f l ake s a r e s i de s t ruck a nd t r an sve r se . Mo s t s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm s a r e p l a in ( 69 .7% ) , a nd o t he r p l a t fo rm s i n d e scend ing o rde r o f f r equency a r e f a ce t ed w h ich s how r ough ly f l aked p l a tfo rm s , p l a t fo rm s a t a pex , a nd c o r t ica l a nd s ha t te red p l a t fo rms . V en t ra l p rof i le s a r e c onvex , s em i -d i shed a nd d i shed o f w h ich t h e f o rme r c a tego ry i s t h e mo s t c ommon ( 7 1 .3% ) . T he s ub s tan t ia l ly mo re n ume rou s f l ake s w i th c onvex p rof i le s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne c he r ta nd s em i -d i shed f l ake s a r e mo s t f r equen t ly i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t .D i shed f l ake sa r e s l igh t ly mo r e f r equen t i n f i ne c he r t t h an i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd i n c lude t h e c oa r se c he r t s pec imen . T he t h ree b a sa l t f l ake s o ccu r i n a l l p rof i le c a tego r ie s . F lake se xh ib i ts t ep v e r t ica l , s t ep c oncave , a p ica l , a nd h i nge t e rm ina t ions o fw h ich s t ep v e r t ica l f l ake s o ccu r i n t h e m a jo r i ty ( 46 .8% ) . Mo s t a p ica l e nd f l ake s a r e i n f i ne c he r t ,s t ep c oncave s pec imen sa r ee qua l ly f r equen ti nf i ne a n d f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd s t ep v e r t ica l a nd h i nge f l ake s a r e s l igh t ly mo re f r equen t i n f i ne t h an i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . T he c oa r se c he r t a nd t h e b a sa l t f l ake s a r e a p ica l s pec imen s ( Tab le s 1 32 -137 ) . F igu re s 5 8 a nd 5 9 i lu s t ra te a r a nge o f w a s te f l ake s . Two w ho le w a s te f l ake s i n g r ey c he r t a r e i lu s t ra ted i nF igu re 5 7 ( numbe r s 2 76 , 5 50 ) . T h is f i gu re a l so s how ss ome o ft h es ma l l n umbe ro fa b raded a r tef a c t s .

s t r ik ing p l a t f o rm t a b le s . N o f l ake s d e r iv ed f r om c r ea t ing t h e se p l a t f o rm s w e r e i d en t if ied . T he se p l a t fo rm s o ccu r o n mo s t s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s ( n . 1 2 ) , a nd f o u r mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e s h ave t h i s f e a tu r e ( Tab le 16 ; F ig s . 4 9 , 5 2 , 5 3 ) . Doub le -p la t f o rm c o re s h ave l e s s f r equen t ly m od if i ed p la tfo rm s ( n . 1 4 ; F ig s . 5 0 , 5 1) , b u t i n c ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s t h is t e chn ique i s mo s t o f ten e xh ib i ted o n t h e se c o re s( 3 2 .6% ; T ab le 16 ) . O ft h e s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s , s i x s pec imen sa r ei nf i ne -coa r se c he r tw i th o ne l e s s i nf i ne c he r t , a nd o ne i si nq ua r tz , w h i le e i gh td oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd s i x i n f i ne c he r t . T he f r equenc ie s o f t h e se c he r t s a r e e qua l i n t h e mu l t i -p la tfo rm c a tego ry . C o re s w i th r e la t ive ly f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( n . 1 6 )a r e mo re c ommon t h an i nf i ne c he r t( n . 1 3 ; T ab le 17 ) . S t r ik ing p l a t fo rm sa r en on -co r t ica l , a nd c o re s d o n o t e xh ib i t l o ca l i sed p r epa ra t ion ( i . e . r e s t r ic ted t o t h e i n d iv idua l p l a t fo rm ) w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne p l a t fo rm o n as i ng le p l a t fo rm c o r e i n t h e f o rm o f r ough f l ak ing . S ha t te r ed p l a tfo rm s a r e v e ry r a r e ( n . 8 ) a nd o ccu r o n t h r ee s i ng le p l a t fo rm c o r e s ( e a ch w i th o ne s ha t t e red p l a t fo rm ) , o ne d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re ( n . 2 ) , o ne mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e ( n . 1 ) , a nd t h eb i po la rc o re s( e ach w i th o ne ) . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t wo s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s , a l l c o re s e xh ib i t s t ep f r a c tu re s . T he se f r a c tu r e s a r e mos t f r equen t o n d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s ( 3 3 o f1 9c o re s )a nd l e a s t f r equen t o n s i ng le -p la t fo rm ( 17 o f 1 2c o re s ) a nd b i po la r c o r e s ( 3 o f 3c o re s ) . F ine -coa r se c he r t c o re s e xh ib i t t h e h ighe s t i n c idence o f f r a c tu r e s ( 44 o f 2 3 c o re s )( Tab le 18 ) . T he c omb ina t ion o fp a r t ia l ly c r u shed c o re s u r f a ce s , s ha t te red p la t fo rm s , a nd s t ep f r a c tu r e s o n t h e b i po la r c o r e s w a s p o ss ib ly c au sed b y d ef o rma t ion t h rough p re s su re a st h ep i ece sc ame i n to c on tac tw i th t h ea nv i la nd /o r t h e h amme r s tone d u r ing p e rcu s s ion . T he s e cond l a rge s t b i po la r c o r e ( P 5 654 ) i s t h e mos t e x ten s ive ly f l ak ed s pec imen . 5 .4

T he t wo f l ake s i d en t if i ed a s b ipo la r s pec imen s a r e b o th i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . O n t h e s ma l le r s pec imen ( P 5 660 ) , t h e i regu la r v en t ra l f a ce w i th d i agona l s c a r f o rma t ion m ay b e d ue t oc r u sh ing o ft h e ma te r ia la st h ec o re w a ss t ruck a ga in s t t h e a nv i l . As c a r n ea r t h e d i s ta l e nd may b e f u r the r d amag e i n cu r r ed t h rough b i po la r p e r cu s s ion p re s su re . T he p rox ima l e nd e xh ib i t s a n e ca i l le 6 r a i l lu re , b u tn o b u lb ( F ig . 5 9 .3 ) . T he s e cond ,a nd l a rge rs pec imen ( 146 ) , s how s al a rge b u lb a nd a l e s s c omp r e s sed v en t ra l f a ce . T he r e la t ive ly l a rge s c a r o r ig ina t ing f r om t h e p rox ima l e nd o n t h e o t he rw i se c o r t ica l d o r sa l f a ce may h ave b een r emoved d u r ing p e rcu ss ion ( F ig . 6 0 ) .

N o te c oncern ing t r ench T i h ammer s tones

S pec imen s i d en t if iab le a s h amme r s tone s w e re n o t o b se rved i nt h eT 1T5 s amp le s .B a t te red s t one sd e sc r ibed b y S ch ick e t a l . ( 199 1) a s p o s s ib le h amme r s tone s w e r e n o t i d en t if ied . H amme r s tone s m ay b e p re sen t i n t h e u n s tud ied p a r t o f t h e c o l lec t ion . 5 .5

T rench T i was te f ragmen t s

T he 9 0 w a s te f r agmen t s a r e m a in ly i n c he r t a nd mo s t f r equen t ly i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t ( 58 .9% ) , a nd o ne s pec imen i s i nb a sa l t . Wa s te f r agmen t s a r e u sua l ly n on -co r t ica l ( 5 5 .6% ) . O ft h ec o r t ica ls pec imen s , t h e m a jo r i ty w i th 2 5 p i ece s h ave ac o r t ica l a r ea b e low 2 6% , w h i le o ne p i ece f a l ls w i th in t h e 6 1-80% r a nge . Mo s ts pec imen s h ave b id i rec t iona l s c a r s , a nd o the r f r agmen t s e xh ib i t u n id i re c t iona l a nd mu l t id i rec t iona l s ca r s( Tab le s 19 -123 ) . T ab le 1 24 l i s t s d imen s ion s a nd s c a r f r equency o f t h e D onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s . F igu re 5 6 s how s l i ne d r aw ing s o fw a s t e f r agmen t s , a nd s pec imen 4 44 i nF igu re 5 7i s aw a s te f r agmen ti ng rey f i ne -coa r se c he r t .

T he m a jo r i ty o f f l ake f r agmen t s a r e i n c he r t o f w h ich f i ne c he r t p r edom ina te s ( 58 .9% ) , a nd o t he r ma te r ia l s a r e b a sa l t a nd q ua r tz . O f t h e i r regu la r , i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l , a n d i regu la r p o in ted f r agmen t s , i regu la r p i ece s a r e mo s t n ume rou s ( 82 .1 % ) . F ragmen t s a r e u sua l ly n on -co r t ica l ( 7 9 .2% ) , a nd mo s t c o r t ica l s pec imen s h ave d o r sa l c o r t ex b e low 4 1% ; t h ree s pec imen s a r e p r ima ry f l ake s . T he m a jo r i ty o f f l ake f r agmen t s h ave u n id i rec t iona l s c a r s ( 7 3 .2% ) , a nd o the r s pec imen s a r e ma in ly b i d i rec t iona l , a nd o ne i s as ub rad ia ls pec imen ( Tab le s 1 38 142 ; F ig . 6 1) . T ab le 1 43 l i s t sd imen s ion sa nd d o r sa l s c a rf r equency .

5 .6

5 . 7

T rench T i w as te f l akes

T rench T 1 t oo ls

T he 6 1 t o o ls i n c lude mo re s pec imen s o n f l ake f r agmen t s ( 59 .0% )t h an o n w ho le f l ake s . T he 2 5 w ho le f l ake t o o l s a r e i nc he r to f w h ich f i ne c he r t t oo ls a r e mo s t c ommon ( 6 8% ) . F l ake f o rm s c omp r i se i n d e scend ing f r equency i regu la r ( 80% ) , i regu la r p o in ted , a nd i regu la r q uad r i la t e ra l s pec imen s . T he ma jo r i ty o f w ho le f l ake t o o ls a r e n on c o r t ica l ,a nd o ft h ef ou r c o r t ica l f l ake s , t h e t h ree w i th d o r sa l

T he 3 56 w a s te f l ake s i n c lude as l igh t ly h i ghe r f r equency o f w ho le f l ake s ( 52 .8% ) t h an f l ake f r agmen t s . Who le w a s te f l ake s( n . 1 88 )a r em a in ly i nc he r to fw h ich mo re a r e i n f i ne c he r t ( 5 4 .8% ) t h an i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . O ne s pec imen i si n c oa r se c he r t a nd t h ree f l ake s a r e i n b a sa l t . Who le f l ake s a r e mo s t f r equen t ly o f i regu la r s hape ( 70 .7% ) a nd o t he r mo rpho log ie s a r e i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l , i regu la r p o in ted ,

5 0

c o r t ex h ave e s t ima ted c o r tex o f1 40% . B id i rec t iona l ly f l ak ed d o r sa l f a ce s p r edom ina te ( 60% ) , a nd o t he r s c a r p a t te rn s a r e u n id i r e c t iona l a nd o ne s pec imen h a s ac r e s t s u r f a ce ( Tab le s 1 44 149 ) . T ab le 1 50 i n c lude s t h e d imen s ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd d o r sa l s c a r s c oun t . T he ma jo r i ty o f f l ake s a r e e nd s t r u ck s p ec imen s ( 64% ) , i n c lud ing o ne b i po la r p i e ce . O th e r f l ak e s a r e s i de a nd t r an sve r sa l s pec imen s , t h e l a t te r b e ing m o r e c ommon . P la in s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm s p r edom ina t e ( 5 6% ) , w h i le f a ce ted t y pe s a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an c o r t ica l a nd a ta pex p l a tfo rm s . F lake s h ave c onvex a nd s em i -d i shed p rof i le s o fw h ich 8 0% a r e c onvex . C onvex a nd s em i -d i shed f l ak e s a r e m a in ly i n f i ne c he r t , a nd t h e m a jo r i ty o f f i ne c oa r se c he r t t o o ls a r e c onvex f l ake s . Mo s t f l ake s h ave s t ep t e rm ina t ion s o f w h ich s t ep c oncave d i s ta l e nd s a r e mo s t n ume rou s( 4 4% ) .A p ica l e nd s a r e mo re c ommon t h an h i nge f r a c tu r e s . A p ica l a nd s t ep v e r t ica l e nd s a r e m a in ly i n f i ne c he r t , w h i le s t ep c oncave f l ake s a r e ma rg ina l ly m o re n ume rou s i n f i ne c he r t . H inge f l ake s a r e e qua l ly i n b o th c he r t s( Tab le s 1 51-156 ) .

i ni t ss hape t o an on -f lake i nf i ne c he r t ( P 5 679 ) . T he d o r sa l f a ce w a s mod i f ied b y m a in ly r e gu la rl o ng i tud ina l a nd o b l ique f l ak ing , w h i le t h e o bve r se a spe c t i s v e ry i regu la r . T he a ppa ren t ly s haped p o in t i s b road a nd s ymme t r ica l ( F ig . 6 2 .6 ) . A l though n o u se -wea r w a s o b se rvab le o n t h is s pec imen , i tm ay b e c l a s s if ied a s at o o l b l ank j udg ing f r om i t s mod if ica t ion a nd i t ' s s im i la r i ty t o t h e s i de u t i l i sed f l ake . U se -wea r o n t h e s ma l le r e nd u t i l i sed f l ake ( P 5 733 ) i s d i s t r ibu ted a l ong mo s t o f i t s e nd p a r t ly i n t h e f o rm o f s t epped u se sca r s ( F ig . 6 3 .1) . T he s e cond e nd u t i l i sed f l ake ( P5 675 ) i st h e l a rge s tT i t o o l a nd e xh ib i t s s t epp ed u s e -wea r s c a r s , a l ong h a lf o f i t ' s d i s ta l e nd ( F ig . 6 3 .2 ) . B o th a r e i n f i ne c he r t .

Who le f l ake t oo l s c omp r ise f i ve u se -wea r c a tego r ie s o f w h ich s i de u t i l ised a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e t h e m os t n ume rou sw i th e i gh ts pec imens e ach . F ive n o tche s , t wo e n d u t i l i sed f l ake s , a nd t wo e nd d en t icu la te s a r e t h e o the r t o o ls . A l l t o o l c a tego r ie s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fe nd u t i l i sed f l ak e s a nd n o t che s i n c lude s pec imen s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . S i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd e nd d en t icu la t e s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t i n b o th c he r t s .T he s i ng le t o o lo fi r regu la rq uad r i la te ra ls hape i s a n e nd d en t icu la te a nd t wo s i de u t i l ised a nd t wo s i de d en t i cu la te f l ake s a r e o n i regu la r p o in t s . T he t o o ls e xh ib i t u n i la te r a l u s e -wea r a nd ma in ly b i f ac ia l u se -damage ; as i de d en t icu la te a nd an o tch h ave d o r sa l w ea r a nd a s i de u t i l i sed f l ak e a nd a n o tch h ave v en t ra l w ea r . T he u s e -wea r e dg e s hape so fs i de u t i l i sed s pec imen s a r e ma in ly c oncave -convex a nd o b l ique a nd i n c lude o ne c onvex e dge . U se -wea r o n e n d u t i l i sed f l ake s i so n c oncave -convex e dge s . S ide d en t icu la te t o o lu s e -damage o ccu r s ma in ly o n d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge s , w h i le t wo s pec imen s h ave s t ra igh t d en t icu la te e dge s . E nd d en t i cu la te s h ave d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge s a nd n o t che s h ave c oncave e dge s ( Tab le s 1 57 -166 ) . T ab le 1 67 c ompa re s t h e l e ng th , w id th a nd t h ickne ss r a nge so ft h ev a r iou s w ho le f l ake t o o lc a tego r ie s( a nd s e eC hap te rI I ) . Two s i d e u t i l i sed f l ake s e xh ib i t u se -wea r n ea r t h e p rox ima l e nd w h ich o n t h e l a rge r f i ne c he r t s pec imen ( P 5 726 ) o ccup ie sa bou t at h i rd o fi t ' se dge i n t h e f o rm o f v e ry s ma l l s c a r s ( F ig . 6 2 .1) . T he s ma l le ro ft h e se i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( P5 717 )a nd s how s s ha l low s t epped u se sca r s a l ong h a lf o f i t ' s e dg e ( F ig . 6 2 .2 ) . Af u r the r t oo l ( P 5 740 ) a l so h a s u s e d amage a l ong h a lf o f i t ' s e dg e a nd o ne i n t h e c en t r e ( P 5 700 ) . O ft wo s i de u t i l ised f l ake s w i th u se -wea r n ea r t h e i r d i s ta le nd s ,o ne e xh ib i t su se -sca r s l im i ted t o t h e v en t ra l f a ce a l ong a bou th a lf o ft h ee dge ( P5 751) . T he d i s ta l e nd o f t h i s f i ne c he r t t o o l may b e s napped . I fs o , i t may r e p re sen t a f o rme rp o in tu t i l i sed f l ake ( F ig . 6 2 .3 ) . T he s i ng le s pe c imen w i th ab eve l led e dge ( 184 ) e xh ib i t s u se sca r s a l ong mo s t o f i t ' se dge . T he u t i l ised e dge o f t h e b i po la r f l ake ( P 5 656 ) i n f i ne c he r t a ppea r s t o h ave b een mod if i ed b y i n va s ive d o r sa l r e touch t h rough t h e d e ta chmen t o f o ne f l ake , p e rhap s t o r e du ce t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e e dge , a l though t h i s f l ake m ay h ave b ecome d e ta ch ed d u r ing b i po la r p e rcu s s ion . T h i s s p ec imen s how s c r u shed f a ce s s im i la r t o t h e l a rge b i po la r w a s t e f l ake . U se -damage i s d i s t r ibu t ed a l ong mo s t o f t h is e dg e ( F ig . 6 2 .4 ) . O ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake ( P 5 749 ) i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t s how s s ome d o r sa l s c a r s l ong i tud ina l t o t h e m a in a x i s .U n i la te ra l u se -wea ri sl o ca ted b e low i t ' ss ho r t a n d i regu la r p o in t ( F ig . 6 2 .5 ) . T h is s pec imen may b e c ompa r ed

5 1

U se -wea r o n t h e s i de d en t icu la te s i s l o ca t ed i n t h e a pp rox ima te c en t re o ft h e i r e dge s . T he se t oo ls u sua l ly s how r e la t ive ly p ronounced d en t icu la t ion ,i n c lud ing t h el a rge s ts i de d en t icu la te ( P5 72 1 , f i ne -coa r se c he r t ; F ig . 6 4 .1) . T h r ee s i de d en t icu la te s s how f i ne d en t icu la t ion . O ne o f t h e se ( P 5 696 ) i sa n i r regu la rp o in ted f l ake i n f i ne c he r t o n w h ich t h e a p ex o f t h e p o in t may h ave b roken o f f ( F ig . 6 4 .2 ) . T h r ee s i de d en t icu la te s e xh ib i t s im i la r mod if ica t ion t h rough t h e d e ta chmen t o f o ne o r mo re f l ake s o n t h e u se -damaged e dge . O ne o ft h e se ( P 5 711) i n f i ne c he r t s how s d o r sa l ly i n va s ive r e touch o n t h e r i gh t e dg e ( F ig . 6 4 .3 ) . T he s e cond s pe c imen i sa n i regu la r p o in ted f l ake ( 202 ) i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t w i th d o r sa l u se sca r s . T he r e la t ive ly n on inva s ive v en t ra l r e touch m ay h ave b een c au sed b yi n tens ive u se , a nd n o tb y s e conda ry r e touch ( F ig . 6 4 .4 ) . T he u t i l i sed e dge o f t h e t h i rd s p e c imen ( P 5 695 , f i ne c he r t ) s hows i n va s ive s e conda ry r e tou ch t h rough t h er emova l o f t h r ee f l ake s o n t h e r i gh t e dg e o f t h e d o r sa l a spec t a nd r e la t ive ly h eavy u se -wea r c h ipp ing o n t h e v en t ra l ( F ig . 6 4 .5 ) . T he s e conda ry r e touch may h ave b e en c onduc t ed t o r e du ce t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e f unc t iona l e dge s a nd /o r t o i n c r ea se t h e a ng le ; t h e o ppo s i te e dge s a r e t h icke r . U se -wea r o n t h e i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l f i ne c he r t e nd d en t icu la te ( 227 ) i so n al o nge r , mo r e o b l ique ly o r ien ted a nd b eve l led e dge ( F ig . 6 5 .1) . U se -wea r o n t h is s pe c imen i s m o re p ronounced t h an o n t h e l a rge r e nd d en t icu la te i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t ( 255 ; F ig . 6 5 .2 ) . T he s ma l les t n o tch f l ake ( P 5 715 ) e xh ib i t s u se -wea r n ea r t h e p rox ima l e nd a nd c ove r s a bou t at h i rd o ft h e e dge ( F ig . 6 5 .3 ) . O n a no the r n o tch u s e w ea r( 256 )i sd i s t r ibu ted d o r sa l ly f r om t h e c en t r e t oc l o se t o t h e d i s ta l e nd ( F ig . 6 5 .4 ) . O n t wo n o tche s u s e -wea r i s l im i ted t ot h ea pp rox ima te c en t re o ft h e e dge , a nd o n o ne o f t h e se ( P5 688 ; F ig . 6 5 .5 ) u se sca r s a r el im i ted t o t h e v en t ra l f a ce . O n t h e s e cond o f t h e se t oo l s ( 1 36 ) s ma l l s t ep -f laked s c a r s a r e v i s ib le i nt h e n o tch a r ea ( F ig . 6 5 .6 ) . T he se t o o ls a r ei nf i ne c he r t . T he 3 6 f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a r e c h ief ly i n c he r t w i th s pec imen s i n f i ne c he r t mo s t n ume rou s ( 69 .4% ) . A f ew t o o ls a r ei nb a sa l ta nd q ua r tz . F lake f r agmen t s a r e m a in ly o f i regu la r ( 52 .8% ) a nd i regu la r p o in ted ( 38 .9% ) s hape s w i th f ew i regu la r q uad r i la te r a l a nd c r e scen t p i ece s . T he m a jo r i ty o ff r agmen t sa r en on -co r t ica l ( 80 .6% ) , a nd t h e s even c o r t ica l f r agmen t s h ave d o r sa l c o r tex r ang ing f r om 2 6 -80% . F l ake f r agmen t s a r e u n i , a nd b i d i rec t iona l ly s t ruck s pec imen s o f w h ich t h e l a t te r c omp r i se 5 2 .8% ( Tab le s 1 68 -172 ) . T ab le 1 73 i n c lude s d imen s ion s a nd d o r sa l s c a r f r equency . F l ake f r agmen t t o o l s i n c lude s even c a tego r ie s . S ide u t i l i sed t o o ls a r e mo s t c ommon w i th 1 7 s pec imen s ( 47 .2% ) . T he d en t icu la te c a tego ry i s a l so n ume rou s , a nd i n c lude s s e ven s i de d en t icu la te s , t wo d en t icu la te p o in t s , a nd o ne e nd d en t icu la te .F ou rf l ake s a r e p o in t u t i l i sed , t h ree a r e n o tche s , a nd t wo a r e e nd u t i l ised . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake f r agmen t s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne c he r t , a nd t wo s pec imen s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se

c he r t a nd o ne i si n q ua r tz . E nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e i n f i ne c he r t .T h ree s i de d en t icu la te s a r e i n f i ne c he r t , t h r ee i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t , a nd o ne i si n b a sa l t . T he e nd d en t icu la te i s i n b a sa l t , t h e d en t icu la te p o in t s i n f i ne c he r t , a nd t h e p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t i n b o th c he r t s . Two n o tche sa r ei nf i ne c he r t a nd o ne i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . T he o n ly t o o lo fi regu la rq uad r i la te ra l s hape i s as i de d en t icu la te a nd b o th c r e scen t s haped t oo ls a r e s i de u t i l ised . D en t icu la te p o in t s a nd p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e o n i regu la r p o in t ed f l ake s . S i de u t i l i sed f l ake s , s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd n o t che s i n c lude i regu la r p o in ted t oo ls ( Tab le s 1 74 -177 ) . F lake f r agmen t s a r e m a in ly u n i la te ra l ly u t i l ised s pec imens . O ne d en t icu la te p o in t a nd mo s t p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake s s how b i la te ra l u s e -wea r . O n t h e ma jo r i ty o f t oo l s u s e -damage i s d i s t r ibu ted b i f a c ia l ly . Two s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s h ave u s e -wea r l im i ted t o e i the r t h e d o r sa l o r v en t ra l a nd o ne n o t ch h a s d o r sa l w ea r . U se -wea r o n s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s i s ma in ly o n c oncave -convex e dge s ,f ou rh ave w ea ro no b l ique s e dge s , a n d t wo o n c onvex e dge s . E nd u t i l i sed f l ake s h ave c oncave c onvex a nd o b l ique e dge s . A l l d en t icu la te s h ave d en t icu la te o b l ique e dge s hape s . U se -damage o n p o in t u t i l ised f l ake s i s o n o b l ique e dge s a nd o n n o tche s o n c oncave e dge s ( Tab le s 1 78 -180 ) .T ab le 1 81 s how s t h e l e ng th , w id th a nd t h ickne s s r a nge so ft h ef l ake f r agmen tt o o l c a tego r ie s ( a nd s e e C hap te r

5 742 ) s e em s t oh ave b een s haped b i la te ra l ly b y n on -ab rup t i n va s ive d o r sa l o r v en t ra l r e touch . B i la te ra l u se -wea r c ove r s t wo th i rd s o fo ne e dge a nd h a lf o f t h e o ppo s i te e dge ( F ig . 6 9 .2 ) . T he b i la te ra l ly u t i l ised p o in t o f o ne p o in t u t i l ised f r agmen t ( P5 745 )a ppea r s t oh ave b een i s o la ted b yi n va s ive s e conda ry r e touch f r om t h e v en t ra l . T he b r oad p o in t ' s i t s ' o n aw ide r b ody g i v ing i t a b eaked a ppea ran ce ( F ig . 6 9 .3 ) . T he r e la t ive ly n a r row p o in t o f o ne p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen ( P 5 752 )s how su n i la te ra l u se -wea ro n t h eu ppe rh a lf o fi t ' s l e f t e dge ( F ig . 6 9 .4 ) . A b i la te ra l ly p o in t u t i l ised t oo l ( P 5 743 ) s how s u s e -wea r e x tend ing a l ong h a lf i t s l e f t e dge , a nd a q ua r t e r o f i t s r i gh t e dge . T he a pex o f t h is s pec imen 's s ho r t a nd r e la t ive ly n a r row p o in t may b e b roken ( F ig . 6 9 .5 ) . Two n o tche sa r eo n i regu la rp o in ted f l ake s , a nd o n o ne ( 1 37 ) t h e u n i la te r a l u s e -damage i s l im i ted t o t h e c en t r e o f t h e e dg e ( F ig . 6 9 .6 ) . T he c oncav i ty o n t h e s ma l le s t n o tch ( 538 ) m ay h ave b een p r oduced b y s e conda ry r e touch t h rough t h e r emova lo fo ne f l ake f r om t h e v en t ra l , a nd /o r t o d e c r e a se t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e e dge ; u se sca r s o ccu r a l ong mo s t o f t h is e dge ( F ig . 6 9 .7 ) . T he t h i rd n o tch ( P 5 739 ) e xh ib i t s u t i l i sa t ion i nt h ef o rm o fs ha l low s t epped s ca r so n t h e d o r sa l h a lf o fo ne e dge . 5 .8

T he ma jo r i ty o fs i de u t i l ised s pec imens e xh ib i t u s e -wea r o n a pp rox ima te ly h a lf o fo ne e dge . U se -wea r o n t h e s i ng le s i d e u t i l i sed f l ake i n q ua r tz ( 441 ) e x tend s f r om b e low a s ho r t , n a r row , h ook l ike p o in t t o as ma l l p ro jec t ion . T he s l igh t ly b l un ted u t i l i sed e dge c ove r s a bou t h a lf o f o ne e dge ( F ig . 6 6 .1) . O n o ne o ft h e l a rge r s pec imen s ( P 5 710 ) t h e u t i l i sed e dge i so ppo s i te t h e c o r t ica l e dge ( F ig . 6 6 .2 ) . T he l a rge s t s i de u t i l ised f l ake ( 200 ) e xh ib i t s u t i l isa t ion a l ong mo s t o f o ne e dge . U se -ch ipp ing i s mo re p ronounced o n i t ' s v en t ra l f a ce i n c lud ing s ha l low s t epped u se sca r s e x tend ing f r om t h e e dge 's m idd le a lmo s t t o t h e e nd ( F ig . 6 6 .3 ) . O ne o f t h e s ma l l s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s s hows s t eep s e conda ry r e touch o n b o th l a te ra le dge sa nd u se -wea ro nt h er i gh te dge ( F ig . 6 6 .4 ) . T h i s s pec imen i sc ompa rab le t o t h e s ma l le s t e nd u t i l i sed f l ake i n s hape a nd s t eep s e conda ry r e touch . O n t h is t oo l ( 1 30 ) r ough r e touch e x tend s a r ound t h r ee q ua r t e r s o f i t ' s p e r iphe ry a nd u s e -wea r s ca r s a r e l o ca ted i n t h e c en t re o f t h e r e touched e dge o n t h e e nd ( F ig . 6 6 .5 ) . R e touch a ppea r s t o h ave b een d i r e c t ed f r om t h e v en t ra l . T he o t he r e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s how su se -damage a l ong i t ' se n t i re e nd .

S ummary o f t he T i a ssemb lage

A l l a r t e f a c t s f r om T i d e r ive f r om l a ye r A . Wa s te f l ak e s r e p r e sen t t h e m a jo r c a tego ry a nd c o re s a nd o ne r e tou ched n on -f lak e a r e t h e s ma l le s t c a tego r ie s . Mo s t a r te f a c t s c omp r i se w a s t e m a te r ia ls . T he ma jo r i ty o f a r tef a c t s a r e i n c he r t o f w h ich mo re a r e i n f i ne c he r t t h an i n f i ne coa r se c he r t . O ne a r te f ac ti si nc oa r se c he r ta nd af ew s pec imens a r e i n b a sa l t a nd q ua r tz . C o re s a nd w a s te f r agmen t s a r e mo s t f r equen t ly i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd f l ake s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne c he r t . Mo s t c o r e s a nd f l ake s a r e o f i regu la r s hape . F ou r c o re sh ave r e la t ive ly r e gu la rc y l ind r ica ls hape s , i n c lud ing t h e s i ng le q ua r tz c o re , a nd t wo b ipo la r c o re s a r e p i l la r shaped . F lake s i n c lude i regu la r q uad r i la t e ra l a nd i r regu la r p o in ted s pec imen s . Who le w a s te f l ake s a nd f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls i n c lude o ne a dd i t iona ls hape c a tego ry e ach .

O n t h ree s i de d en t icu la te s , i n c lud ing t h e i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l f l ake ( P 5 697 ; F ig . 6 7 .1) u se sca r s a r e d i s t r ibu ted a l ong mos t o f o ne e dge . T h ree s i de d en t icu la te s a r e o n i regu la r p o in ted f l ake s o f w h ich t h e s ma l le s t s pec imen i si nb a sa l t . U se -wea r o n t h is f l ake ( P 5 750 ) i s d i s t r ibu ted i n t h e m idd le o f o ne s l igh t ly b lun t e dge a nd b e low w ha t a ppea r s t o b e ab roken p o in t ( F ig . 6 7 .2 ) . O n a s e cond s pe c imen ( 528 ) u se -wea r i s d i s t r ibu ted b i la te ra l ly a l ong a bou t o ne t h i rd o f i t ' s s t eep e dge s ( F ig . 6 7 .3 ) . T he l a rge s t p o in ted f l ake ( 180 ) s how s u s e -wea r a l ong l e s s t h an h a lf i t ' s e dge b e low t h e s hou lde r o f t h e p o in t a nd u p t o a s ma l l p ro jec t ion ( F ig . 6 7 .4 ) . O ne s i de d en t icu la te ( P 5 731 ) w a s mod if ied b i la te ra l ly t h rough i n va s ive r e touch f r om t h e v en t ra l f a ce . U se -wea r i s d i s t r ibu ted a l ong p a r t o f t h e l e f t e dg e ( F ig . 6 7 .5 ) . T he s i ng le e nd d en t icu la te ( 223 ) m ay r e p r e sen t ad i s ta l f r agmen t a nd i s i n b a sa l t . U se sca r s a r e d i s t r ibu ted m a in ly o n t h e d o r sa l f a ce o f t h e b l un t ed f unc t iona le dge ( F ig . 6 8 ) . O n t h e s ma l le s t d en t icu la te p o in t ( 2 10 )u se sca r sa r ed i s t r ibu ted f r om t h e p o in t h a lf -way d own i t 's e dge ( F ig . 6 9 .1) . T he p o in t o f o ne d en t icu la te p o in t ( P

5 2

T he m a jo r i ty o f c o r e s a r e c o r t ica l . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o r e s i n c lude p r opo r t iona te ly mo s t c o r t ica l s pec imens a nd mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o r e s i s t h e o n ly c a tego ry i n w h ich n on -co r t ica l c o re sa r em o re f r equen t .D oub le -p la t fo rm c o re sp re se rve mo re c o r tex c ompa red t o t h e o the r c o re c a tego r ie s , a nd t h is c a tego ry a nd s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s i n c lude c o re s i n t h e m idd le c o r t ica lr a nge . Wa s te f r agmen t sa nd f l ake s a r e u sua l ly n on -co r t ica l s pec imen s . Mo s t c o r t ica l w a s te f r agmen t s h ave s ma l l c o r t ica l a r ea s . D o r sa l c o r tex o ccu r s o n mos t c o r t ica l f l ake sa nd i su sua l ly i nt h el owe rr a nge . Wa s te f l ake s i n c lude as ma l l n umbe r o f p r ima ry f l ake s . C o re s ca r s a r e u sua l ly r e la t ive ly w ide , i regu la r , a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . Wa s te f r agmen t sa r ep r ima r i ly b i d i rec t iona l ly f l aked s pec imens , a nd mo s tw a s t ef l ake sh ave u n id i rec t iona lf l ake s ca r s .T oo ls w i th b i d i rec t iona l p a t te rns a r e mo s t n ume rou s . A n umbe r o f f l ake s h ave s ub rad ia l , t r an sve r se , a nd c r e s t p a t te rns . Mo s t c o re s e xh ib i t p a r t ia l ly f l aked p e r iphe r ie s a nd d oub le , a n d mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s i n c lude t h e ma jo r i ty o f s pec imen s w i th w ho le p e r iphe ra l w o rk ing . A l l b i po la r c o re s a r e w ho l ly w o rked . C o re s w i th w ho l ly f l aked p e r iphe r ie s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne c he r t , a nd i n c lude t h e s i ng le q ua r tz s pec imen . Mo s t p a r t ia l ly w o rked c o re s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . A l l b i po la r c o r e sa r ei nf i ne c he r t . T he ma jo r i ty o f c o r e s h ave r e la t ive ly f l a tp l a t f o rm t a b le s w i th s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s i n c lud ing t h e h i ghe s tc ompa ra t ive f r equency ,a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s t h e

m a jo r i ty o fs pec imen s . C o re s w i th t h e se p l a t fo rm s i n c lude mo re s pec imen si nf i ne -coa r se c he r tt h an i nf i ne c he r t ,e xcep t f o r mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s w h ich i n c lude e qua l f r equenc ie s i n b o th c he r t s ;o ne s pec imen i si nq ua r tz . T he m a jo r i ty o fc o re s h ave s t ep f r ac tu re sa nd mo s to ccu r o n d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . C o re s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t e xh ib i t mo s t f r ac tu re s . C o re s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s a r e n on -co r t ica l , r a r e ly s ha t te r ed , a nd a s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o re s how s r ough mod if ica t ion o f o ne p l a t fo rm . F l ake s a r e mo s t c ommon ly e nd s t ruck , a nd t h e b a lance c omp r ise s s i de s t ruck a nd t r an sve r sa l f l ake s . T h r ee w ho le f l ake s ( two w a s te f l ake s a nd o ne t o o l ) s e em t o b e b i po la r f l ake s . Mos t f l ake p l a t fo rm s a r e p l a in , a nd o t he r p l a t f o rm s a r e f a ce ted , a t a pex , c o r t ica l , a nd s ha t te red . T he m a jo r i ty o f f l ake s h ave c onvex p rof i le s a nd s em i -d i shed f l ake s a r e m o re n ume rou s t h an d i shed s pec imen s . C onvex f l ake s a r e t h e mo s t f r equen t s pec imen s i n f i ne c he r t , s em i d i shed s pe c imen s a r e s l igh t ly mo re n ume rou s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd d i shed f l ake s a r e s l igh t ly m o re c ommon i n f i ne c he r ta nd i n c lude t h ec oa r se c he r tf l ake . B a sa l tf l ake so ccu r i n a l p rof i le c a tego r ie s . D is ta lt e rm ina t ion s a r e u sua l ly s t epp ed ( c oncave a nd v e r t ica l ) , a nd a p ica l t e rm ina t ion s a r e mo re c ommon t h an h inge e nd s . Mo s t s t epped f l ake s , a nd e spec ia l ly a p ica l s pec imens a r e i n f i ne c he r t . A p ica l f l ake s a l so i n c lude c oa r se c he r t a nd b a sa l t s pec imen s . H inge f l ake s i n c lude a s l igh t ly h ighe r p ropo r t ion o f s pec imen s i n f i ne c he r t . Who le f l ake t oo ls i n c lude f i ve t o o l c a tego r ie s a nd f l ak e f r agmen tt o o ls c omp r ise s even . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon w ho le f l ake t o o ls , a nd s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon f r agmen t t oo ls . S i de d en t icu la te s , e nd d en t icu la te s , a nd n o t che s a r e m a rg ina l ly mo re c ommon o n w ho le f l ake s t h an o n f l ak e f r agmen t s . B o th f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s i n c lude e qua l f r equenc ie s o fe nd u t i l ised s pec imen s . F lake f r agmen t t oo ls a l so i n c lude p o in t u t i l ised f l ake s a nd d en t icu la te p o in t s . Who le s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e e qua l ly n ume rou s i n b o th c he r t sa nd m o s ts i de u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e i n f i ne c he r t a nd o ne i si nq ua r tz . S ide d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne c he r t ,a nd s i de d en t icu la te f r agmen t s a r e e qua l ly c ommon i n b o th c he r t s a nd i n c lude o ne b a sa l t f l ake . E nd d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t i n b o th c he r t s a nd t h e f r agmen te nd d en t icu la te i si nb a sa l t .A l lw ho le f l ake n o tche s a r e i n f i ne c he r t , a nd f r agmen t n o tche s a r e m a rg ina l ly m o re f r equen t i nf i ne , t h an i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . A l l e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd d en t icu la te p o in t s a r e i n f i ne c he r t , a nd p o in t u t i l i sed s p ec imen sa r ee qua l ly c ommon i nb o th c he r t s . Af ew w ho le f l ake s i de u t i l ised f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e o f i regu la r p o in ted s hape a nd o ne e nd d en t icu la te i s o n a n i regu la r w ho le f l ake . A s i de d en t icu la te f r agmen t i s o f i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l f o rm . A l l d en t icu la te p o in t s a nd p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e o n i regu la r p o in t ed f r agmen t s a nd t h is s hape c a tego ry a l so i n c lude s s i de u t i l i sed , s i de d en t icu la te , a nd n o t che s o n f r agmen t s . Two s i de u t i l ised f r agmen t s a r e c r e scen ts haped .

s t r a igh t e dge s . A l l n o tche s e xh ib i t u s e -wea r o n c oncave e dg e s . Who le f l ake t o o l s mod if ied b ys e conda ry r e touch i n c lude o ne p o s s ib le s i de u t i l i sed f l ake a nd t wo o rt h ree s i de d en t icu la te s . R e touch o n t h e s i de u t i l ised s pec imen s e em s t o h ave b een c ondu c t ed t o d ec r ea se e dge t h ickne s s , b u t d amage ( c r u shed f a ce s )i n cu r red d u r ing b i po la r p e rcu s s ion may b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h is a ppa r en t r e touch . O n t h e s i de d en t icu la te s r e touch m ay h ave r e duced t h et h ickne s s a nd /o r i n c rea sed t h e a ng le o f t h eu s e -wea re dge s .T he d en t icu la t ion m ay h ave b een f o rm ed o n ly b y u s e -damage . I n ten s ive u se may b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h em od if ica t ion o n o ne o ft h e se t o o ls . F lake f r agmen t t oo l s i n c lude f i ve , o r p o ss ib ly s i x t oo ls mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch . O n s i ng le s pec imen s o f s i de u t i l i sed , e nd u t i l ised , a nd s i de d en t icu la te f l ake st h e r e touch may h ave b een c a r r ied o u t t oc r ea te a r e la t ive ly a cu te ly a ng led e dge p r io r t o u se , a l though r e touch may h ave f o rmed t h e d en t icu la t ion o n t h e s i de d en t icu la te . R e touch o n t h ed en t icu la te p o in ta nd o n o ne p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake a ppea r s t o h ave s haped t h e p o in t s . O n o ne n o t ch s e conda ry r e touch m ay h ave r e du c ed t h e t h ickne s s o ft h ee dge a nd /o rs haped t h e c oncav i ty . T he r e touched t oo ls w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e p o in t s m ay r e p re sen t r e juvena ted s p ec imen s . R e touch o n t h e t o o l s w a s c ondu c ted f r om e i the r t h e d o r sa l ( n . 3 ) , v en t ra l ( n . 6 ) , a nd d o r sa l o r v en t ra l ( n . 1 ) b y t h e r emova l o f af ew f l ake s . T he a pex o f t h e p o in t m ay b e b r oken o n t wo i regu la r p o in ted w ho le f l ake t oo l s ( o ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake a nd o ne s i de d en t icu la te ) , a nd o n i regu la r p o in ted f l ake f r agmen t s ( one s i de d en t icu la te a nd o ne p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen ) . T he s hape o f t h e s i ng le a nd a s f a r a s i s d e t e rm inab le u nu t i l ised n on -f lake i ss im i la rt o as i de u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake . T h i s p o in ted s pec imen may r e p re sen t at oo l b l ank b ecau se o fi t sg ene ra l ly r e gu la r ly f l aked d o r sa l f a ce a nd s ymme t r ica l , b road a nd a ppa ren t ly s haped p o in t . 5 . 9

T he t r ench T 2 a ssemb lage : I n troduc t ion

T he s amp le f r om t h e s ma l le s t t r ench a t Donggu tuo i n c lude s 6 0 .6% o f t h e T 2 a r te f ac t s r e co rded b y We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ; T ab le 6 ) . T he s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance o f 5 6 .2% o f s p ec imens i n t h e p re sen t s amp le i s n o t k nown a nd t h e b a lance d e r ive s f r om l a ye r C (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he m o s t n ume rou s c a tego ry i s w a s te f l ake s ( 45% ) , a nd o t he r c a t ego r ie s i n d e scend ing o r de r o f f r equency a r e c o re s , t oo ls , a nd w a s te f r agmen t s . Wa s te m a te r ia l sc omp r i se 8 2 .5% o ft h e a r t e f ac t s . C o re s a nd w a s te f r agmen t s a r e p redom inan t ly i n f i ne coa r se c he r t a nd f l ake s , i n c lud ing t oo l s a r e m a in ly i n f i ne c he r t ; s even a r tef ac t sa r ei nb a sa l ta nd q ua r tz ( Tab le s 8 7 , 8 9 , 9 4 , 1 82 ) . 5 . 10

T rench T 2 c ores

T h i r teen o f t h e 1 7 c o re s d e r ive f r om a n u nknown l a ye r ( s ) . D oub le -p la t fo rm c o re sa r e mo s tc ommon ( 58 .9% ) , a nd o t he r c a t ego r ie s a r e s i ng le , a nd mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s . T he p r edom inan tm a te r ia l i sc he r t . T he f ou rs i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s a r e m a in ly i n f i ne c he r t , t h e t e n d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd o ne s pec imen ( 593 , T 2? ; F i g . 7 0 ) i si nb a sa l t . O ft h e t h ree mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e s mos t a r ei nf i ne c he r t( Tab le s9 6 , 9 8 , 1 82 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f c o r e s a r e o f i regu la r mo rpho logy , w h i le o ne mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e h a sa na pp rox ima te ly c y l ind r ica l s hape ( 560 , T 2? ; F ig . 7 1) . C o r es c a r s a r em a in ly i regu la ra nd o fv a r iab le s i ze .

Mo s tt o o l s , i n c lud ing a l l w ho le f l ake s e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u se w ea r . Ad en t icu la te p o in ta nd mo s tp o in tu t i l i sed f l ake s h ave b i la te ra l u s e -damage . B if a c ia l u se -wea r i s mo s t c ommon . D o r sa lu se -wea r w a s n o ted o n as i de u t i l i sed f l ake , n o t che s , a nd as i de d en t icu la te .V en t ra lw ea ro ccu r so n an o t ch a nd o n s i de u t i l ised s pec imen s . S ide u t i l i sed u s e -wea r e dge s hape s a r e mo s t f r equen t ly c oncave -convex , a nd a l so i n c lude o b l ique , a nd l e a s t f r equen t ly c onvex e dge s . O n mo s t e nd u t i l i sed f l ake s u se -damage i s a l ong c oncave -convex e dge s . A l l d en t icu la te t oo ls a nd p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen s e xh ib i t u se -wea ro n o b l ique e dge s e xcep t f o r af ew w ho le f l ake s o n

A l ls i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re sa r e c o r t ica l w i th t h e a r ea o f c o r tex r a ng ing b e tween 1 60% . H a lf o f t h e d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s a r e c o r t ica l w i th t h e a moun t o f c o r tex b e low 4 1% , a nd o ne

5 3

mu l t i -p la tform c o re i sc o r t ica l w i th c o r tex i n t h e 1 -25% r ange ( Tab les 1 02 -107 ) . S ing le -p la tform c ore s w e re a l l worked a round p a r t o f t h e p e r iphe ry , p a r t ia l a nd w ho le wo rked d oub le -p la tfo rm c o res a r e e qua l ly f r equen t , a nd a l l mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re sw e re f l aked a r ound t h ew ho le p e r iphe ry . Mo s t o ft h e s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s a nd mu l t i -p la tfo rm c ore s a r e i nf i ne c he r t . D oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s w o rked a r ound t h e e n t i re a nd p a r t ia lp e r iphe ry o ccu ri ne qua l f r equenc ie s i nf i ne c oa r se c he r t . T he o n ly f i ne c he r td oub le -p la tform c o re s how s w ho le p e r iphe ra l r educ t ion , a nd t h e b a sa l tc o re w a s p a r t ia l ly f l aked ( Tab le s 14 , 15 ) .

S t ep f r ac tu red d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions a r e t h e mos t n ume rous o f wh ich s pec imens w i th c oncave mo rpho log ies ( n . 9 ) p redom ina te . O the r f l akes h ave a p ica l a nd h inge e nds . Mo s t f i ne c he r tf l ake s a nd a l l f i ne -coa r se c he r tf l ake s h ave s t epped e nds , a nd t h e b a sa l t f l akes i n c lude t wo a p ica l s pec imens a nd o ne w i th as t ep c oncave t e rm ina t ion ( Tab le s 1 32 -137 ) . T ab le 1 31 i n c ludes t h e d imens ions , p la tform a ng les , a nd t h e n umbe ro fd o r sa l s c a r s o ft h e Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s . F igures 7 4 -76 i lus t ra te a r ange o f w ho le w as te f l akes , i n c lud ing t h ree s pec imens i nb a sa l t ( F ig s . 7 4 .4 , 7 5 .1 , 7 6 ) .

C o re s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s a r e n on -co r t ica l . L oca l ised p l a tform p repa ra t ion o ccu r s o n ly o n ad oub le -p la tfo rm c o re i n t h e f o rm o fr ough f l ak ing . A lmo s t h a lf o ft h e c o re s h ave f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t p l a tfo rm s . H a lf o f t h e s i ng le -p la tfo rm a nd d oub le -p la tform c o re s s how t h is f ea ture , i n c lud ing t he c y l ind r ica l mu l t i -p la tform c o re . C o re s w i th t h ese p l a tform s a r e ma rg ina l ly mo re f r equen t i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t ( P 5 648 , T 2? ; F ig . 7 2 ) t h an i nf i ne c he r t ; t h e b a sa l t c o re a l so s how s t h is f e a tu re . S ha t te r ed p l a t fo rm sa r er a re ( n . 2 )a nd o ccu ro n a s i ng le -p la tfo rm a nd a mu l t i -p la tform c ore . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f as i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re i n f i ne c he r t , a l l c o res h ave s t ep f r ac tu re s . T he se f r ac tu res o ccu r mo re f r equen t ly o n f i ne c he r t t h an o n f i ne -coa r se c he r t c ores w i th t h e h ighes t i n c idence o nd oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s ( Tab le s 16 -118 ) . T ab le s 1 83 -185 s how c o re d imen s ion s , p l a tform a ng le s a nd n umbe r o fs ca r s o ft h e D onggu tuo s i ng le -p la tform , d oub le -p la tform a nd mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e s . 5 .11

T rench T 2 w a s te f ragments

N ine o f t h e 1 3 w a s te f r agmen ts d e r ive f r om l a ye r C . T he p redom inan tr aw m a te r ia l i sc he r to f wh ich f i ne -coa r se c he r t o ccur s mo s t f r equen t ly ( n . 8 ) . T he o n ly o the r ma te r ia l i s q ua r tz w i th o ne s pec imen . Cor t ica l w as te f r agmen ts c omp r i se e i gh to ft h es pec imens , a nd t h ec o r t ica l a r ea r ange s b e tween 1 60% w i th mos t i n t he l owes t r ange . Was te f r agmen t s a r e u n i , a nd b i d irec t iona l ly f l aked p i ece s w i th mo s t f l aked f r om o ne d i rec t ion ( Tab les 8 9 , 19 -123 ) . T ab le 1 24 l i s t s t h e d imen s ion s a nd s ca r n umbe r o ft h e D onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s , a nd F igu re 7 3 s hows a r ange o f w a s te f r agmen t s , i n c lud ing o ne q ua r tz s pec imen ( F ig . 7 3 .1) . 5 .12

T rench T 2 w as te f l akes

T he 3 6w a s te f l ake sc omp r i se e qua lp ropor t ions o fw ho le a nd f r agmen t f l ake s . Mo s t s pec imens c anno t b e a t t r ibu ted t o a l a ye r , i n c lud ing mos t o f t h e who le f l akes ( n . 1 6 ) , wh i le mos t f l ake f r agmen t s d e r ive f r om l a ye r C( n . 1 2 ) . Who le w a s te f l ake s a r e p redom inan t ly i nc he r t ( n . 1 5 ) o fw h ich 1 a r ei nf i ne c he r t ; t h ree f l ake s a r e i nb a sa l t . T hese f l ake so ccu r i n i r regu la r , i r regu la r q uad r i la te ra l , a nd i r regu la r p o in ted s hape s o fw h ich t h e f i r s t c a tego ry i n c lude s mos t s pec imens ( n . 1 4 ) . T he t wo c o r t ica l s pec imens h ave ad o r sa l c o r t ica l a r ea o f 1 10% . Un i , a nd b id irec t iona l s ca rp a t te rns o ccu r i n e qua l p ropo r t ions ( Tab le s 8 7 , 1 25 -130 ) . H a lf o f t h e f l akes a r ee nd s t ruck s pec imen s ,a nd t r ansve r sa l s pec imens a r e mo re f r equen t t h an s i de s t ruck f l akes . T he ma jo r i ty o ff l ake s h ave p l a in s t r ik ing p la tfo rm s ( 6 1 .1 % ) , a nd o the r f l ake s h ave a t a pex , c or t ica l , f a ce ted , a nd s ha t te red p la tfo rms . V en t ra l p rof i les a re c onvex , s em i -d ished , a nd d i shed o f w h ich t h e f i r s t c a tego ry i st h e mo s t n umerous w i th 6 6 .7% . S ix o ft h e f i ne c her t f l akes h ave c onvex p rof i le s , f our h ave d i shed p rof i les , a nd o ne h a s as em i -d ished v en t ra l . T he f our f i ne c oa r se c he r t s pec imens h ave ma in ly c onvex f a ce s a nd o ne d i shed p rof i le , a nd a l l b a sa l t f l ake s h ave c onvex p rof i les .

5 4

Wa s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e p redom inan t ly i nc he r t o f w h ich f i ne c he r t i s mo s t f r equen t ( n . 1 2 ) ; o ne f l ake i si n b a sa l t . F ragmen t s hape s a r e i r regu la r , i r regu la r q uadr i la te ra l , a nd i r regu la r p o in ted w i th mos t ( n . 1 5 ) o f i r regu la r f o rm . S pec imens a r e m a in ly n on -co r t ica l , a nd o ft h e t wo c o r t ica l p i eces o ne e xh ib i t s b e low 2 5% a nd t h e o the r b e low 8 0% d o r sa l c o r tex . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f as i ng le b i d irec t iona l ly f l aked s pec imen , a l l f r agmen t s h ave a n u n id irec t iona l s ca r p a t te rn ( Tab le s 1 38 142 ) . D imens ions a nd n umbe r o fd o r sa l s c a r so ft h eD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r ei n c luded i n T ab le 1 43 . F igure 7 7 s hows a r ange o f wa s te f l ake f r agmen t s . 5 . 13

T rench T 2 t oo ls

E igh t o f t h e 1 4 t oo ls d e r ive f r om l a ye r Ca nd t h e b a lance c anno t b e a t t r ibu ted t o al a ye r (s ) . Mo s tt oo ls ( 64 .3 % ) a r e o n f l ake f r agmen t s . T he f i ve who le f l ake t o o ls a r e i n c he r t o f w h ich f ou r a r e i nf i ne c he r t . S pec imens a r e o fi r regu la r a nd i r regu la rp o in ted s hape s o fw h ich t h el a t te rp redom ina te . T he s i ng le c o r t ica l f l ake h a s ad o r sa l c o r t ica l a r ea i nt h e 6 1-80% r ange . F lake s s how u n id irec t iona l a nd b id irec t iona l f l ake p a t te rns o fw h ich f ou r a r e u n id irec t iona l , a nd a l l f l ake s a r e e nds t ruck s pec imens w i th p la in s t r ik ing p la tforms . F ou r f l ake sh ave c onvex v en t ra lp rof i le s a nd o ne f l ake h a s as em i d i shed f a ce ; t h ef i ne -coa r se c he r ts pec imen i s ac onvex f l ake . D is ta l t e rm ina t ions a r e s t epped ( ve r t ica l a nd c oncave ) a nd a p ica l w i th t h el a t te rl e a s tf r equen t ; t h ef i ne -coa r se c he r tf l ake h a s as t ep v e r t ica l d i s ta l e nd ( Tab les 1 44 -149 , 1 51-156 ) . T ab le 1 50 l i s t s t h e d imens ions , p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o fd o r sa l s c a r s o f t h e Donggu tuo who le f l ake t oo ls . Who le f l ake t o o ls i n c lude f ou r c a tego r ies r ep re sen ted b y t wo s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd t h e b a lance b y s i de u t i l ised , d en t icu la te p o in t , a nd p o in t u t i l ised f l akes . T he p o in t u t i l ised s pec imen i st h e o n ly t o o l i nf i ne -coa rse c he r t . T he s i de u t i l ised t oo l a nd as i de d en t icu la te a r e o fi r regu la r s hape a nd t h e b a lance a r e o n i regu la rp o in ts . Mos t t oo ls s how u n i la te ra l u se -wea r a nd o n t h e d en t icu la te p o in t a nd t h e p o in t u t i l ised t oo ls u se w ea r i sd i s t r ibu ted b i la te ra l ly . A l l s pec imens h ave b i fac ia l u se -damage . D en t icu la te t oo ls s how u se -damage o n d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dges , a nd o n t h e s i de u t i l ised a nd p o in t u t i l ised f l ake s i to ccur s o n o b l ique e dge s ( Tab les 1 57 -158 , 1 61 , 1 63 -167 ) . T he s i de u t i l ised f l ake s hows u se -wea r l im i ted t ot h e l owe r h a lf o fo ne l a te ra l e dge . T he s ma l l s i de d en t icu la te ( 5 37 , T 2? ) h as u se -wea ro n ab eve l led e dge , b u t n o t a tt h e e nd s o f t h is e dge ( F ig . 7 8 .1) . U se -wea r o n t h e l a rge a nd p o in ted s i de d en t icu la te ( 252 , T 2? ) i sd i s t r ibu ted a l ong h a lf i t ' s e dge ( F ig . 7 8 .2 ) . T he p o in t u t i l ised f l ake h a s al o ng , n a r row p o in t c ompa red t ot h e b road , s ho r t p o in t o f t h ed en t icu la te p o in t . T he n i ne f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls a r e i n f i ne c he r t w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne b asa l t s pec imen . T oo ls a r e o f i r regu la r , i regu la rq uad r i la te ra l , a nd i r regu la rp o in ted s hape s o fw h ich f i ve a r e i regu la r . T he t wo c o r t ica l f l ake s h ave d o r sa l c o r tex r ang ing f r om 2 6 -40 % . S even o f t he t oo ls h ave

u n id i rec t iona l s c a r s a nd t h e b a lance h ave b i d i rec t iona l s c a r s . ( Tab le s 1 68 -172 ) . T ab le 1 73 s hows t h e d imen s ion s a n d n umbe r o f d o r sa l s c a r s o f t h e D onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls . S ix f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a r e s i de u t i l i sed s pec imen s , t wo a r e n o tche s a nd o ne i s ad en t icu la t e p o in t . A l l t o o l c a tego r ie s a r e i n f i ne c he r t w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e d en t icu la te p o in ti nb a sa l t . B o th i regu la r q uad r i la t e r a l f l ake s a r e s i de u t i l i sed t o o ls a nd i regu la r p o in t s i n c lude o ne s i de u t i l i sed t o o la nd t h ed en t icu la te p o in t . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h eb i la te ra l ly u t i l ised d en t icu la te p o in ta l f r agmen t s e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u se -wea r . Mo s tt o o ls h ave b i f a c ia lu se -damage ,a nd t h r ee s i de u t i l ised p i ece s e xh ib i t d o r sa l w ea r . S i de u t i l i sed t o o l s s how u s e -wea r o n c oncave -convex , o b l ique , a n d s t ra igh te dge si ne qua lf r equenc ie s .E dge s hape o n n o t che s i s c oncave a nd d en t icu la te -ob l ique o n t h e d en t icu la te p o in t ( Tab le s 1 74 -181) . U se -wea r o n t h e s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s i s d i s t r ibu ted a l ong h a lf o f o ne e dge . O n t h e i r egu la r q uad r i la te ra l s pec imen ( P 5 702 , T 2? ) t h i s i n c lude s t h e a d jacen tc o rne r( F ig . 7 8 .3 ) . T he i regu la rp o in ted s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s how s u se -damage b e low i t ' s p o in t . T he s ho r t , b r oad p o in to f t h e d en t icu la te p o in t i ss l igh t ly b lun t . U se -damage o n b o th n o tche s i sd i s t r ibu ted a l ong t h e u ppe r h a lf o f o ne e dge . T he s ma l l n o t ch e xh ib i t s al u s t re w h ich i sl im i ted t o t h eu se -wea ra r ea . 5 . 14

t h ec o re c a tego r ie s w i th t h is a t t r ibu te . T he c y l ind r ica l s haped c o re e xh ib i t s a n a pp rox ima te ly f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le . C o re s w i th f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le s a r e s l igh t ly mo re f r equen t i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t . T he s i ng le b a sa l t c o re e xh ib i t s p a r t ia l f l ak ing a nd a f l a t p l a t fo rm . O ne d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s hows l o ca l i sed a nd r ough p l a t fo rm p repa ra t ion , a nd s ha t te r ed p l a t f o rm s a r e u ncommon . A l l c o re s e xh ib i t s t ep f r a c tu r e s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o re . F ine c he r t c o re s h ave mo re f r a c tu re s t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t s pec imens . Mo s tf l ake s , i n c lud ing a l l t o o ls a r e e nd s t ruck s pec imen s a nd h ave p l a in p l a t fo rm s . Wa s te f l ake s a l so i n c lude t r an sve r sa l a nd s i de s t ruck f l ake s a nd a t a pex , c o r t ica l , f a ce ted , a nd s ha t te r ed p l a t fo rm s . Mo s t f l ake s e xh ib i t c onvex p rof i le s a nd d i shed f l ake s a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an s em i -d i shed s pec imen s . T he m a jo r i ty o f c onvex a nd d i shed f l ake s a nd b o th s em i -d i shed f l ake s a r e i n f i ne c he r t . T he b a sa l t w a s te f l ake s s how c onvex p rof i le s . S t epped ( c on cave a nd v e r t ica l ) d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion s a r e mo re c ommon t h an a p ica l a nd h i nge e nd s . A p ica l a nd s t epped t e rm ina t ion s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne c he r ta nd i n c lude t h eb a sa l tf l ake s . T he l e s s n ume rou s who le f l ake t o o ls c omp r i se f o u r c a tego r ie sa nd f l ake f r agmen t si n c lude t h ree . S i de d en t icu la te s a r e t h e mo s t f r equen t who le f l ake t o o l s a nd s i de u t i l i sed s pec imen s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon f r agmen t t oo ls . Who le f l ake t o o ls a l so i n c lude o ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake , o ne d en t icu la te p o in t , a nd o ne p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen . F lake f r agmen t t oo ls a l so i n c lude o ne d en t icu la te p o in t a nd t wo n o t che s . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a l who le f l ake t oo l s a r e i nf i ne c he r t . A l l f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a r e i n f i ne c he r t e xcep t f o r t h e d en t icu la te p o in ti nb a sa l t . As i de d en t icu la te , t h e d en t icu la te p o in t a nd t h e p o in t u t i l ised w ho le f l ake s a r e o n i regu la r p o in ted f l ake s . Two s i de u t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t s a r e o n i regu la r q uad r i la te r a l f l ake s , a nd o ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake a nd t h e d en t icu la te p o in t a r e o f i regu la r p o in ted s hape . Mo s t t o o ls e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u se -wea r . T he d en t icu la te p o in t s a nd t h e p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake e xh ib i t b i la te ra l u se -damage . A l l w ho le f l ake t oo l sa nd mo s tf r agmen tt o o l ss how b i f ac ia l u se w ea r .D o r sa l u se sca r so ccu ro nt h ree s i de u t i l i sed f r agmen t s . Who le f l ake u se -wea r i s o n o b l ique e dge s . F lake f r agmen t s i de u t i l i sed u s e -damage i s e qua l ly f r equen t o n c oncave c onvex , o b l ique , a nd s t ra igh t e dge s , d en t icu la t e p o in t f l ake f r agmen t w ea r i s o n a n o b l ique e dg e a nd n o t che s h ave c oncave e dge s . L u s t re o ccu r s i n t h e u s e -wea r a r ea o f t h e s ma l l n o tch .

S ummary o f t he T 2 a ssemb lage

T he s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance o f mo s t s pec imens f r om t r ench T 2c anno tb ee s tab l i shed a nd o t he ra r te f a c t sd e r ive f r om l a ye r C . A l l ma jo r l i th ic c a t ego r ie s w e r e n o ted i n t h e u np rovenanced s amp le a nd l a ye r C . Wa s te f l ake s a r e t h e l a rge s tc a tego ry a nd w a s te f r agmen t s a r e t h e s ma l le s t . Wa s te m a te r ia l s i n c lude t h e ma jo r i ty o fa r tef ac t s . C he r t i st h e m a in m a te r ia lo fw h ich f i ne c he r tp redom ina te s ,a nd af ew a r t e f a c t s a r e i n b a sa l t a nd q ua r tz . C o re s a nd w a s t e f r agmen t s a r e m a in ly i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd f l ake s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne c he r t . C o r e s a r e p r edom inan t ly o f i regu la r s hape w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f a n a pp rox ima te ly c y l ind r ica l ly s haped m u l t i p l a t fo rm c o re . T he ma jo r i ty o f f l ake s a r e i r egu la r s p ec imen s .A l lf l ake c a tego r ie s i n c lude i regu la r q uad r i la t e r a l a nd i regu la rp o in ted s pec imens w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fw ho le f l ake t o o ls w h ich i n c lude n oi regu la rq uad r i la te ra lp i e ce s . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o r e s a r e t h e o n ly c a tego ry i n w h ich a l s pec imen s a r e c o r t ica l , a nd t h e se c o re s a l so e xh ib i t t h e l a rge s t c o r t ica l a r ea s . Mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e l e a s t f r equen t ly c o r t ica l . D oub le -p la tf o rm c o re s , t h e m o s t n ume rous c a tego ry , i n c lude e qua l f r equenc ie s o fc o r t ica l a n d n on -co r t ica l s pec imens , w i th c o r t ica l a r ea s i n t h e l owe r a n d m idd le r ange s . Mo s t w a s te f r agmen t s a r e c o r t ica l w i th u sua l ly s ma l lc o r t ica ls u r f ace a r ea s . F lake sa r ep redom inan t ly n on -co r t ica l a nd d o r sa l c o r tex i s ma in ly i n t h e l owe r a n d m idd le p e rcen tage r a nge s .C o re s c a r sa r eu sua l ly i regu la r a n d o fv a r iab le s i ze . U n id i rec t iona l ly f l aked w a s te f r agmen t s a n d f l ake s a r e mo re n ume rou st h an b i d i rec t iona l s pec imen s .

5 .15

The t r ench T 3 a ssemb lage : I n troduc t ion

T he s amp le o fT 3 a r tef ac t s ( n . 4 4 ) c omp r i se s 6 5 .7% o f t h e s pec imens i n c luded i n We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ; T ab le 6 ) s t udy . T he a r te f a c t sd e r ive f r om l a ye r s Ba nd C , b u t mo s t ( 72 .7% ) c anno t b e a s s igned t o ak nown l a ye r ( s ) . Wa s te f l ak e s c omp r i se t h e ma jo r i ty o f s pec imen s ( 52 .3% ) , t o o ls a r e t h e n ex t mo s t n ume rous c a tego ry , w h i le c o r e s a nd w a s te f r agmen t s a r e e qua l ly l ow i n f r equency . Wa s te m a te r ia l s r e p re sen t7 0 .5% o ft h e s amp le . A l l a r te f a c t s a r e i nc he r t a nd mo s t( 56 .8% ) a r e i nf i ne c he r t( Tab le s 8 7 , 8 9 , 9 4 , 1 86 ) .

C o re s w i th p a r t ia l f l ak ing o f t h e i r p e r iphe r ie s a r e s l igh t ly mo re n ume rou s t h an w ho l ly w o rked c o re s . A l l s i ng le p l a t fo rm c o re s e xh ib i t p a r t ia l f l ak ing , a l l mu l t i -p la t f o rm c o re s a r e w ho l ly w o rked , a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s i n c lude e qua l f r equenc ie s o f w ho l ly a nd p a r t ia l ly f l aked s p ec imen s . Who l ly a nd p a r t ia l ly w o rked c o re s a r e e qua l ly n ume rou s i n f i ne , a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t . L e s s t h an h a lf t h e c o r e s h ave r e la t ive ly f l a tp l a t fo rm t a b le s .I nr e la t ive p ropo r t ion t oo t h e r c a tego r ie s , s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s i n c lude t h e h i ghe s t i n c idence o ff l a tp l a tfo rm s . Mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s i n c lude o ne c o re w i th af l a t p la t form t a b le a nd i st h e l e a s t n ume rou s o f

5 . 16

T rench 1 3 c ore s

T he f o u rc o re s d e r ive f r om l a ye r s Ba nd C a nd m a in ly f r om u nknown l a ye r ( s )a nd c omp r i se o ne s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re a nd t h r ee d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s . A l l c o re s a r e i nc he r t o f w h ich t h e m a jo r i ty a r e i n f i ne c he r t w i th a d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e r e p re sen t ing t h e o n ly s pec imen i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ( Tab le s 9 6 , 9 8 , 1 86 ) . C o re mo rpho logy i s i regu la r , a l though t h e

5 5

d oub le -p la t f o rm c o r e h a s ar e la t ive ly c y l ind r ica l s hape ( P 5 649 ,T 3? ;F ig . 7 9 ) . T h is f i ne c he r tc o re i sh eav i ly p a t ina t ed o n h a lf o f i t ' s b ody a nd i s t h e o n ly s uch c o r e i n t h e Donggu tuo s amp le . T he s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re i s t h e o n ly n on -co r t ica l s pec imen , a nd t h e d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s p re se rve c o r tex w h ich r a nge s b e tween 1 -40% ( Tab le s 1 02 1 07 ) . C o r e s c a r s a r e g ene ra l ly i regu la r a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . T ab le s 1 83 a nd 1 84 i n c lude t h ed imen s ion s ,p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o fs c a r s o ft h e Donggu tuo s i ng le , a nd d oub le p l a t fo rm c o r e s .

f l ake h a s n o d o r sa l c o r tex . S ca r p a t te rn s a r e u n i , a n d b i d i rec t iona lo fw h ich s i x s pec imen s h ave s i ng le o r ien ta t ion s ( Tab le s 1 38 -142 ; F ig . 8 3 ) . S ee T ab le 1 43 f o r D onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen td imens ion sa nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s c a r s . 5 . 19

A l l c o r e s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne d oub le -p la t f o rm c o r e s how w o rk ing a r ound t h e i r e n t i re p e r iphe r ie s . T he p a r t ia l ly w o rk ed c o r e a nd t h e w ho l ly f l aked s i ng le -p la t f o rm a n d d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re sa r ei nf i ne c he r t , w h i le a no the r d oub le p la t fo rm c o r e i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . Two d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re si nf i ne c he r th ave f l a t o r r e la t ive ly f l a t p l a t fo rm t a b le s ( Tab le s 14 117 ; 2 89 , T 3? ; F ig . 8 0 ) . O ne o f t h e se s pec imen s h a s as e cond f l a t a nd s ma l l p la t fo rm w h ich i s ' t w i s ted ' t oo ne s i de o f i t s b ody p o s i t ioned o n t h e o ppo s i te e nd o ft h e l a rge rp l a tfo rm ( F ig . 7 9 ) . S t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s a r e n on -co r t ica l , a nd o ne d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re h a s o ne r ough ly p repa r ed p l a t fo rm .O ne s t ep f r a c tu re o ccu r s o n t h e f i ne c he r t s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re a nd t h ree o n t wo d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s i nf i ne c he r ta nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t( Tab le 18 ) . 5 .17

T rench T 3 was te f ragmen ts

O n ly o ne o ft h ef ou r w a s te f r agmen t s d e r ive s f r om ak nown l a ye r( l aye rC ) . Wa s te f r agmen t s a r e i n c he r t o f w h ich t h r ee a r ei nf i ne -coa r se c he r t .H a lf o ft h es pec imen sa r ec o r t ica la nd t h e se e xh ib i t 1 10% c o r tex . S ca r p a t te rn s a r e u n i , a n d b id i rec t iona l w i th t h ree s pec imen s i n t h e f i r s t c a tego ry . ( Tab le s 19 123 ) . T ab le 1 24 l i s t s t h e d imen s ion s a nd s c a r n umbe ro ft h eD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s ( F ig . 8 1 .1) . 5 .18

T rench T 3 was te f l ake s

T he 2 3 w a s te f l ake s d e r ive w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t wo s pec imen s f r om l a ye r s Ba nd C f r om a n u nknown l a ye r ( s ) a nd c omp r i se m a in ly w ho le f l ake s ( 65 .2% ) . T he 1 5 w ho le f l ake s a r e a lmo s t e qua l ly n ume rou s i n f i ne , a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t .F lake s s hape s a r e i regu la r , i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l , a n d i regu la r p o in ted o f w h ich i regu la r s pec imens i n c lude 1 3 f l ake s . N ine o ft h e f l ake s a r e c o r t ica l a nd t h e se h ave d o r sa l c o r tex w h ich r a nge s f r om 1 80% w i th s i x s pec imen s o ccu r r ing b e low 2 6% . Who le f l ake s e xh ib i t u n i , a n d b id i rec t iona l s c a rp a t te rns w i th n ine s pec imens o ccu r r ing i n t h e l a t te r c a tego ry . S pec imen s o f e nd s t ruck , s i de s t ruck , a n d t r an sve r sa l d e r iva t ion a r e e qua l ly n ume rou s . T he se e xh ib i t p la in , f a ce t ed , a nd c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm s w i th a p redom inance ( n . 1 0 )o fp l a in s pec imen s . V en t ra lp rof i le sa r e c onvex , s em i -d i shed , a nd d i shed w i th n i ne f l ake s o f c onvex s hape .T he m a jo r i ty o ff i ne c he r tf l ake sh ave c onvex p rof i le s a nd f i ve o fe i gh tf i ne -coa r se c he r tf l ake sh ave s em i -d i shed a nd d i sh ed p rof i le s . S tep v e r t ica l a nd s t ep c oncave d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion f l ake s i n c lude n i ne s pec imens , f ou r f l ake s h ave a p ica ld i s ta le nd s ,a nd t wo h ave h i nge e nd s . Mo s t f i ne -coa r se c he r tf l ake ss how s t epped a nd h i nge e nd sa nd a p ica lf l ake sa r e u sua l ly i nf i ne c he r t ( Tab le s 8 7 , 1 25 -130 , 1 32 -137 ) . T ab le 1 31 s how s t h e d imens ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o f d o r sa l s c a r s o ft h e Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s . F igu re s 8 1 .2 -4 a nd 8 2s how ar a nge o fw ho le w a s te f l ake s . Wa s te f l ake f r agmen t s( n . 8 )a r ei ne qua lf r equenc ie s i n f i ne , a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t . S even o f t h e f l ake s a r e o f i regu la r s hape a nd o ne i s i r regu la r q uad r i la te ra l . T he s i ng le c o r t ica l

5 6

T rench T 3 t oo ls

T he t h i r teen t o o ls i n c lude a lmo s t e qua l f r equenc ie s o f s pec imen s f r om l a ye r s Ba nd C a nd s i x f r om a n u nknown l a ye r ( s ) . Mo s t t o o ls ( 6 1 .6% ) a r e o n w ho le f l ake s . S even o f t h e e i gh t w ho le f l ake t o o ls a r e i n f i ne c he r t a nd o ne i s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . A l l a r eo fi regu la r s hape . T he t wo c o r t ica l s pec imens h ave d o r sa l c o r tex r a ng ing f r om 1 25% . F ive f l ake s h ave u n id i rec t iona l s c a r s a nd t h e b a lance a r e b i d i r e c t iona l s pec imens . P e r cu s s ion d i re c t ion s a r e e nd a n d t r an sve r sa l w i th s i x f l ake sr ep re sen t ing e nd s t ruck s pec imen s . S t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s a r ec o r t ica l , p l a in , a nd a ta pex , w i th p l a in p l a t f o rm s mo s t n ume rou s ( n . 6 ) . S ix f l ake s h ave c onvex p ro f i le s a nd t h e b a lance a r e s em i -d i shed s pec imen s . Mo s t f i ne c he r t f l ake s a nd t h e s i ng le f i ne -coa r se c he r t f l ake h ave c onvex p rof i le s . A p ica l a nd s t ep ( v e r t ica l a nd c oncave ) d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions a r ee qua l ly f r equen t .T he s i ng le f i ne -coa r se c he r t f l ake h a s as t epped d i s ta le nd a nd f ou ro ft h e s even f i ne c he r t f l ake s h ave a p ica l t e rm ina t ion s ( Tab le s 1 44 -149 , 1 51 -156 ) . S ee T ab le 1 50 f o r D onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l d imen s ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd d o r sa l s c a r n umbe r . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake s i n c lude h a lf o f t h e w ho le f l ake t oo ls , a nd o the r t o o ls a r e t h r ee s i de d en t icu la te s a nd o ne n o tch . O ne s i de u t i l i sed s pec imen i st h e o n ly t o o l i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd a l l t o o l c a tego r ie s a r e o n i regu la r f l ake s . T oo l s e xh ib i t u n i la te r a l u se -wea r ,a nd w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f as i de u t i l i sed s pec imen w i th d o r sa l u se -damag e a l l t o o ls s how b i f ac ia l w ea r . S i de u t i l i sed p i ece ss how u se -wea ro ns t ra igh ta nd c oncave -convex e dge si ne qua lf r equenc ie s . U se -damage o n s i de d en t icu la te si s o nd en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge s , a nd o n t h e n o tch o n ac on cave e dge ( Tab le s 1 57 -158 , 1 6 1 , 1 63 167 ) . O n t h e s ma l le s t s i de u t i l i sed s pec imen ( P 5 684 , T 3? ) u se -wea r i s d i s t r ibu ted o n a bou th a lf o fi t ' se dge ( F ig . 8 4 .1) , s im i la r t o t wo o t he r s i d e u t i l i sed f l ake s . O ne t o o l i n t h is c a t ego ry ( P 5 720 , T 3? ) s how s u s e sca r s a l ong mo s t o f i t ' s e dge ( F ig . 8 4 .2 ) . T he n o t ch s how su se -wea ri nt h ec en t re o fo ne e dge . U se -wea r o n o ne s i de d en t icu la te ( 2 7 , T 3B ) i sd i s t r ibu ted a l ong mo s t o f o ne o f t h e t wo s t eep l a te ra l e dge s ( F ig . 8 4 .3 ) , u n l ike t h e o t he r s i de d en t icu la te s w he r e u s e -wea r i s l im i ted t o p a r t o f o ne e dge . T he f i ve f l ake f r agmen t t oo l s a r e i n c he r t w i th t h r ee s pec imen s i n f i ne c he r t . T h r ee o f t h e f r agmen t s a r e o f i regu la r s hape , a nd t wo a r e o n i regu la r q uad r i la te r a l a n d i regu la rp o in ted f l ake s .F ragmen t sa r en on -co r t ica l , a nd t h ree f l ake s h ave u n id i rec t iona l s c a r s a nd t h e b a lance a r e b i d i r e c t iona l ( Tab le s 1 68 -172 ) . T ab le 1 73 l i s t s t h e d imen s ion s , p l a t form a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o f d o r sa l s c a r s o f t h e D onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls . T h r ee f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls a r e s i de u t i l i sed p i ece s , o ne i s as i de d en t icu la te , a n d o ne ap o in tu t i l i sed f l ake . O ne s i de u t i l i sed f l ake a nd t h e s i d e d en t icu la te s pec imen a r e t h e o n ly t oo ls i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . T he s i ng le f l ake o f i regu la r q uad r i la t e ra l s hape i s as i de u t i l i sed p i e ce o n am ed ia l f r agmen t a nd t h e p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake i si regu la r p o in ted . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake w i th b i la te ra l u s e -damage a l l o t he r t o o l s e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u s e -wea r . T he ma jo r i ty o f t o o ls s how b i f a c ia lu se -wea r ; t h es i de d en t icu la te h a s w ea r l im i ted t o i t s v en t ra l f a ce a nd as i de u t i l ised f l ake h a s d o r sa l w ea r .T he s i de d en t icu la te s how s u se -damage o n i t s d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge , t h e s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s i n c lude t wo p i ece s w i th c oncave -convex e dge s a nd o ne w i th a n o b l ique e dge , a nd o n

t h e p o in t u t i l i sed t o o l i ti sd i s t r ibu ted o n o b l ique ly a ng led e dge s( Tab le s 1 74 18 1) . T he m ed ia ls i de u t i l i sed f r agmen t ( P 5 7 13 , T 3? ) i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t w i th u s e -wea r d i s t r ibu t ed a l ong i t ' s o b l ique e dge ( F ig . 8 4 .4 ) , a nd t h e l a rge r s i de u t i l i sed s pe c imen ( P 5 729 , T 3? ) s hows u se s ca r s a l ong p a r t o fo ne e dg e ( F ig . 8 4 .5 ) . T he p o in t u t i l i sed t o o l h a s as ho r t a nd b r oad p o in tw i th a lmo s te qua l ly l o ng e dge s t oi t . 5 . 20

c a tego r ie s o f w h ich s i de u t i l ised f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e c ommon t o b o th . S ide u t i l ised s pec imen s a r e mos t c ommon , a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e mo re c ommon o n w ho le f l ake s t h an o n f r agmen t s . O ne w ho le f l ake n o tch a nd o ne p o in t u t i l ised f r agmen t m ake u p t h e b a lance . Mo s t s i de u t i l i sed f l ake a r e i nf i ne c he r t . Who le f l ake s i de d en t icu la te s , a nd t h en o t ch a nd p o in tu t i l i sed f l ake sa r ei nf i ne c he r t , w h i le t h e s i de d en t icu la te f r agmen t i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . A s i de u t i l ised f l ake i so n a n i regu la rq uad r i la te ra l f r agmen t a nd t h e p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen i s a n i regu la r p o in ted f l ake . A l l t o o ls e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u s e -wea r e xcep t f o r t h e b i la te ra l ly u t i l i sed p o in t , a nd mo s t t o o l s s how b i f a c ia l u s e -damage . O n t wo s i de u t i l ised t o o ls ( who le f l ake a nd f r agmen t )u se -wea ri s d i s t r ibu ted o nt h ed o r sa l , a nd o nt h es i de d en t icu la te f r agmen t i ti so n t h e v en t r a l f a ce . S ide u t i l i sed w ho le f l ake s s how i n e qua l f r equenc ie s u s e -wea r o n s t ra igh t a nd c oncave -convex e dge s , a nd e xcep t f o r o ne o b l ique ly e dg ed s pec imen s i de u t i l i sed f r agmen t e dge s a r e c oncave -convex . U se -wea r o n d en t icu la te s a nd o n t h e p o in t i so n o b l ique e dge s a nd o n a c oncave e dge o n t h en o tch .

S ummary o f t he T 3 a ssemb lage

T he m a jo r i ty o f T 3 s pec imen s c anno t b e a s s igned t o a l a ye r ( s ) ,a nd t h e se i n c lude a l l l i t h ic c a tego r ie s . Wa s te f l ake s a r e t h e m o s t n ume rous c a tego ry , c o re s a nd w a s te f r agmen t s a r el e a s tc ommon , a nd w a s te ma te r ia ls a r e f a r mo re f r equ en t t h an t o o ls . A l l a r tef a c t s a r e i n c he r t o f w h ich f i ne c he r t s p ec imen s a r e mo re f r equen t t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t p i e ce s . Mo s tc o r e sa r ei nf i ne c he r ta nd mo s t w a s te f r agmen t s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . Wa s te f l ake si n c lude ma rg ina l ly m o r e f i ne c oa r se c he r t s pec imens , a nd t oo ls a r e p redom inan t ly i n f i ne c he r t . T he c y l ind r ica l ly s haped d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e i st h e o n ly c o r e w h ich i s o f r e la t ive ly r e gu la r mo rpho logy . T he m a jo r i ty o ff l ake sa r eo fi regu la rs hape . Who le a nd f r agmen t w a s te f l ake s a nd f l ake f r agmen t t oo l s i n c lude i r egu la r q uad r i la t e ra ls pec imen s , a nd w ho le w a s te f l ake s a nd f r agmen t t o o l sa l so i n c lude i regu la rp o in ted f l ake s .

5 .21

The t r ench T 4 a ssemb lage : I n troduc t ion

T he T 4 s amp le ( n . 3 7 ) r e p re sen t s 8 4 .1 % o f We i 's ( 1 985 , 1 989 )a s semb lage a nd d e r ive sf r om t h el a rge s tt r ench a f te rT 1 ( Tab le 6 ) . A r te f a c t s d e r ive f r om f ou r l a ye r s ( A -D ) w i th o ne s pec imen e a ch f r om l a ye r s Ca nd D . T he s t ra t ig raph ic o r ig in o f 5 1 .4% o f a r te f a c t s c anno t b e e s tab l i shed . Mo s t a r t e f a c t s a r e t o o ls ( 45 .9% ) , a nd o the r c a tego r ie s a r e w a s t e f l ake s ( 4 3 .2% ) , c o r e s a nd o ne w a s te f r agmen t . Wa s te m a te r ia l s ( 54 .1 % ) a r e s l igh t ly mo re n ume rou s t h an t o o l s . C he r t i st h e mo s t c ommon m a te r ia l o f w h ich 5 4 .1 % i s f i ne a le r t ; t wo a r tef ac t sa r ei nb a sa l ta nd q ua r tz ( Tab le s 8 7 , 8 9 ,9 4 , 1 87 ) .

T he t h r ee d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e c o r t ica l a nd p r e se rve c o r tex i n t h e l owe r a nd m idd le r a nge s . H a lf o f t h e w a s te f r agmen t s a r e c o r t ica l a nd h ave v e ry s ma l l c o r t ica l a r ea s . L e s s t h an h a lf o f t h e w ho le f l ake s a r e c o r t ica l w i th u sua l ly l im i ted c o r tex , a l though w a s te f l ake s i n c lude a f ew s p ec imen s w i th mo re d o r sa l c o r tex t h an t o o ls . Wa s t e f l ak e f r agmen t s a r e p redom inan t ly n on -co r t ica l a nd a l f l ake f r agmen t t o o l s a r e n on -co r t ica l . S ca r s o n c o r e s a r e u sua l ly i regu la r a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . Wa s te f r agmen t s a nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e ma in ly u n id i rec t iona l s pec imen s , w ho le w a s te f l ake sa r e ma in ly b i d i rec t iona l ,a nd t o o ls i n c lude m o re u n id i rec t iona l t h an b i d i rec t iona l p i ece s . O f t h e t h r ee c o r e s w i th w ho l ly f l aked p e r iphe r ie s t wo a r e i n f i ne c he r t a nd o ne i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ; t h e p a r t ia l ly f l ak ed d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re i si nf i ne c he r t . Two f i ne c he r t c o re s ( d oub le -p la t fo rm s c o re s ) h ave r e la t ive ly f l a t p la t fo rm t a b le s , i n c lud ing o ne s p ec imen w i th a s e cond , s ma l le r f l a t p l a tfo rm . Sma l l n umbe r s o f c o re s t ep f r a c tu re s w e r e n o t ed o n t h e s i ng le p l a t f o rm c o re a nd o n t wo o f t h e d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e s ; f r a c tu r e s a r e mo re f r equen t i n f i ne c he r t . C o re s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s a r e n on -co r t ica l , a nd o ne c o re , ad oub le -p la t f o rm s p ec imen h a s al o ca l i sed mod if ied p l a t fo rm . T oo l s a r e m a in ly e nd s t ruck s pec imen s a nd i n c lude t wo t r an sve r sa l f l ake s , w h i le e nd s t ruck , s i de s t ruck , a nd t r an sve r sa l w a s t e f l ake s a r e e qua l ly f r equen t . Mo s t f l ake p l a t fo rm s a r e p l a in , a nd c o r t ica l f l ake s a r e u ncommon . Wa s t e f l ake s i n c lud e f a ce ted s pec imen s ,a nd t o o ls i n c lude a ta pex f l ake s .

5 . 22

T he t r ench T 4 c ores

T he t h ree c o r e s c omp r i se s i ng le , d oub le , a nd mu l t i p l a t fo rm s pec imen s o f w h ich t wo d e r ive f r om l a ye r Ba nd o ne f r om l a ye r C . A l l c o r e s a r e i n c he r t w i th mo s t i n f i ne c he r t . C o re s a r e o f i regu la r p ropo r t ion s a nd c o re s c a r s a r e i regu la r a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . T he s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e a nd t h e d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e a r e c o r t ica l w i th c o r tex r a ng ing f r om 1 25% . T he c o re s s how p a r t ia l f l ak ing o f t h e p e r iphe ry a nd i n c lude t h ed oub le -p la t fo rm c o re i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t . T he f i ne c he r t s i ng le , a nd mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o r e s h ave f l a t p l a t fo rms ( Tab le s 9 6 , 9 8 , 1 02 -107 , 14 -117 ) . F igu re 8 5 .1 s how s t h e mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e ( 433 , T 4? ) . S t r ik ing p l a t fo rm sa r en on -co r t ica l . S t ep f r ac tu re so ccu ro nt h es i ng le p l a tfo rm c o r e ( n . 1 )a nd o n t h e d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re ( n . 2 ) ( Tab le 18 ) . T ab le s 1 83 185 s how t h e d imens ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd s c a rn umbe ro ft h eD onggu tuo c o re s . 5 . 23

Mo s tf l ake se xh ib i tv en t ra l f a ce s a nd af ew f l ake s h ave s em i d i shed a nd d i shed p rof i le s . T he s i ng le f i ne -coa r se c he r tt o o l i s ac onvex f l ake ,a nd w a s te f l ake s i n c lude mo r e c onvex p i ece s i n f i ne , t h an i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . S em i -d i shed a nd d i sh ed f l ake s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . T oo l s h ave e qua l ly f r equen t a p ica l a nd s t epped t e rm ina t ion s ( c onca ve a n d v e r t ica l ) , w h i le w a s te f l ake si n c lude mo re s t epped t h an a p ica l s p ec imen s a nd a l so i n c lude a f ew f l ake s w i th h i nge e nd s . A p ica l f l ake s a r e u sua l ly i n f i ne c he r t , s t epped e nd s a r e i n a lmo s te qua lf r equenc ie si nb o th c he r t s , a nd h i nge f l ake s a r e i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t .

T he t r ench T 4 w as te f ragmen t

T he s i ng le w a s te f r agmen t c anno t b e a s s igned t o ak nown l a ye r . I t i s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd n on -co r t ica l w i th a b i d i rec t iona l s c a rp a t te rn a nd f i ve s c a r s ( Tab le 19 124 ; F ig . 8 5 .2 ) . 5 . 24

The t r ench T 4 was te f l akes

T he 1 6 w a s te f l ake s d e r ive ma in ly f r om l a ye r s Aa nd B a nd i n c lude ma in ly f r agmen t s ( 68 .7% ) . F ou r o f t h e f i ve w ho le f l ake s a r ei nf i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd o ne i si n f i ne c he r t . T h r ee f l ake sa r eo fi regu la rs hape a nd t wo a r ei regu la r q uad r i la t e r a l a nd i regu la rp o in ted . O ft h et h ree c o r t ica l f l ake s t wo e xh ib i t d o r sa lc o r tex w h ich r a nge sb e tween 2 6a nd 6 0% .T h ree f l ake s

Who le f l ake a nd f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls e ach i n c lude t h r ee t o o l

5 7

T he 1 3 f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls a r e i n c he r t w i th f i ne c he r t p i ece s mo s t n ume rou s ( n . 8 ) . S pec imens a r e o f i regu la r , i regu la rq uad r i la te ra l ,a nd i regu la rp o in ted mo rpho logy w i th 1 0 f l ake s i nt h ef i r s t c a tego ry . T he ma jo r i ty o f f r agmen t s a r e n on -co r t ica l a nd t h e s i ng le c o r t ica l s pec imen e xh ib i t s b e tween 6 1 -80% d o r sa l c o r tex . F lakes h ave u n i , a n d b i d irec t iona l s c a r so fw h ich t h e l a t te r i s mo s t f r equen t ( n . 8 ) ( Tab le s 1 6 8 -172 ) . S ee T ab le 1 73 f o r al i s to fd imens ion s a n d d o r sa l s c a r f r equency . F lake f r agmen t s i n c lude f i ve t o o l c a tego r ie s o f w h ich s i de u t i l ised s pec imens a r e mos t n ume rous ( n . 6 ) . S ide d en t icu la te s , p o in t u t i l ised f l ake s , a n d e nd u t i l i sed a nd e nd d en t icu la te t o o ls w e re n o ted i n d e scend ing o r de r o f f r equency ; t wo s i de u t i l ised f l ake s a n d o ne s i de d en t icu la te d e r ive f r om l a ye r s Ba nd A , r e spec t ive ly . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne c he r t ( n . 6 ) , e nd u t i l ised f l ake s a nd e nd d en t icu la te s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd b o th p o in t s a r e i n f i ne c he r t . T he s i ng le t o o l o f i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l s hape i s t h e e n d d en t icu la te f l ake a nd b o th p o in t s a r e o n i regu la r p o in ted f r agmen t s . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t wo b i la te ra l ly u t i l ised p o in t s a l t o o ls e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u se -wea r . B if a c ia l ly u t i l ised f l ake si n c lude s even s pec imens . T oo ls w i th u n if a c ia l u s e -damag e c omp r ise f ou r s i de u t i l ised f l ake s a nd a s i de d en t icu la t e w i th d o r sa l w ea r , a nd ap o in t u t i l ised f l ake w i th v en t ra l w ea r . O n t h e s i de u t i l ised f l ake s u se -damage o ccu r s ma in ly o nc oncave -convex e dges a nd o no ne s pec imen o n a n o b l ique e dge . E nd u t i l ised a nd p o in t u t i l ised p i ece s h ave o b l ique ly a ng led u t i l ised e dges , a nd a l d en t icu la te t oo ls h ave u se -wea ro nd en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge s( Tab le s 1 74 -181) .

h ave b i d i rec t iona l s c a r s a nd t wo a r e u n id i rec t iona l f l ake s . F lakes a r e e nd , a nd s i de s t ruck w i th t h e f o rme r i n c lud ing mo s t s pec imens ( n . 3 ) . T h ree s t r ik ing p l a tfo rms a r e p l a in a nd t wo a r ec o r t ica l . T he ma jo r i ty o ff l ake s e xh ib i t ac onvex v en t ra lp rof i le a nd o ne s pec imen h a s ad i shed f a ce ; t h e s i ng le f i ne c he r t f l ake h a s ac onvex p rof i le . A l l f l ake s h ave s t ep d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions w i th v e r t ica l e nds mos tc ommon ; t h e f i ne c he r tf l ake e xh ib i t s as t ep c oncave e nd ( Tab le s 8 7 , 1 25 -130 , 1 32 -137 ; F ig s . 8 6 , 8 7 ) . T ab le 1 3 1 l i s t s t h e d imen s ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd d o r sa l s ca rf r equency . T he ma jo r i ty o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s a r e i n c he r t a n d ma in ly i nf i ne c he r t ; o ne s pec imen i si n b a sa l t ( F ig . 8 8 .1) . A l l f l ake s a r e o f i regu la r mo rpho logy . T he s i ng le c o r t ica l s pec imen i s ap r ima ry f l ake , a nd w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fo ne b i d i rec t iona l f l ake , a l s pec imens a r e u n id i rec t iona l ( Tab le s 1 38 -142 ; F ig . 8 8 ) . T ab le 1 43 s hows t h e d imens ion s a n d d o r sa l s c a rn umbe r . 5 .25

T he t rench T 4 t oo ls

T he 1 7 t o o l s d e r ive f r om l a ye r s A -D a nd ma in ly f r om a n u nknown l a ye r (s ) , a nd mos t t o o ls a r e o n f l ake f r agmen t s ( 76 .5% ) . T he f ou r w ho le f l ake t oo ls a r e p redom inan t ly i n c he r ta nd m a in ly i nf i ne c he r t , a nd o ne s pec imen i si nq ua r tz . T he t oo ls a r e i n e qua l p ropo r t ions o f i r regu la r a nd i regu la r p o in ted s hape s . S pec imens a r en on -co r t ica l , a nd e xh ib i t u n i , a nd b id i rec t iona l a nd c r e s ts ca rp a t te rns w i th h a lf f l aked f r om t wo d i rec t ions . A l l s pec imens a r e e nds t ruck w i th p l a in p la tfo rms . T he ma jo r i ty o f v en t ra l p rof i le s a r e s em i -d i shed a nd o ne f l ake i sc onvex . T he c onvex a nd a s em i -d i shed t o o l a r e i n f i ne c he r t a nd t wo s em i -d i shed s pec imen s a r e i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t a nd q ua r tz . D is ta l t e rm ina t ions a r e ma in ly s t ep ( c oncave a nd v e r t ica l ) a nd o ne s pec imen e xh ib i t s a n a p ica l d i s ta l e nd . T he a p ica l a nd t h e s t ep c oncave f l ake a r e i n f i ne c he r ta nd t h e s t ep v e r t ica l f l ake s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a n d q ua r tz ( Tab le s 1 44 -149 , 1 51-156 ) . T ab le 1 50 s how s d imens ions , p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd d o r sa l s c a r f r equency . Who le f l ake t oo ls i n c lude s i de u t i l ised ( l aye r s Ba nd D ) a n d s i de d en t icu la te ( l aye r s B a nd C ) s pec imens i n e qua l f r equenc ie s . O f t h e s i de u t i l ised s pec imens o ne i s i n f i ne c he r ta nd o ne i nq ua r tz ,a nd s i de d en t icu la te s a r e i n f i ne , a n d i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . O ne s i de u t i l ised f l ake a nd o ne s i de d en t icu la te a r e o f i regu la r p o in ted s hape . A l l t oo ls e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l a nd b i f ac ia l u se -wea r w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f as i de u t i l ised f l ake w i th v en t ra l u se -wea r . T he s i de u t i l ised t oo ls e xh ib i t u s e -damage o n c oncave a nd c oncave -convex e dge s , a nd b o th s i de d en t icu la te s s how w ea r o n d en t icu la te -ob l ique e dge s ( Tab le s 1 57 -158 , 1 61 , 1 63 -167 ) . T he l a rge r s i de u t i l ised f l ake i st h e o n ly T 4 t oo l i n q ua r tz ( 4 12 , l a ye r D ) . T he r e la t ive ly b lun t u t i l ised e dge w i th u se -sca r s o ccupy ing a bou th a lf o ft h ee dge may h ave b een mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch t h rough t h er emova l o fo ne o r af ew f l ake s f r om t h e v en t ra l o rd o r sa l t or e duce t h et h ickne ss a nd /o r t o c hange t h e a ng le o ft h is e dge . T he e dge may h ave b een r e juvena ted ( F ig . 8 9 .1) . O ne s i de d en t icu la te ( 100 , l a ye r C ) i s i n f i ne , c hoco la te b rown c he r t . U se -wea r i s d i s t r ibu ted a l ong a bou t h a lf o f i t s l e f t l a te ra l e dge w he re i ti s s l igh t ly b lun t a n d s hows s t epped r e touch wh ich may h ave f o rmed e i the r t h rough h eavy u t i l isa t ion , r e touch t o f o rm t h e e dge , o r r e juvena t ion . T h is t oo l s hows t h in w h i te p a t ina t ion a l ong t h e u sed e dge , b u t i sn o t c onf ined t o t h is a r ea ( F ig . 8 9 .2 ) . T he l a rge r s i de d en t icu la te ( 32 ) s hows u se -damage a l ong mo s t o f o ne e dge w h ich i si n te r rup ted i n t h e m idd le o f t h e e dge b y as ma l l p ro t ru s ion ; n o u s e -damage w a s o b se rved o n t h is p a r t ( F ig . 8 9 .3 ) .

A l l s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s h ave u se -wea r l im i ted t o h a lf o r l e s s t h an h a lf o f t h e ir e dge s . F igu re 9 0 .1 . , 2 . s hows t wo s pec imens i n t h is c a tego ry ( 196 , P 5 712 , T 4? ) . T he e n d u t i l ised s p ec imen ( P 5 728 , T 4? ) i so n ad i s ta l f r agmen t a n d s how su s e -wea ro n p a r to ft h ee dge ( F ig . 9 0 .3 ) . O n t wo s i de d en t icu la te su s e -wea ri sl im i ted t ot h e u ppe rh a lf o fo ne e dge , w h i le o n t h e t h i rd s i de d en t icu la te i t i s d i s t r ibu ted a l ong mo s to ft h ee dge . O ne o ft h e f o rme rt wo s pec imens ( P 5 730 , T 4? ; F ig . 9 0 .4 ) s how s s l igh t ly l a rge r d en t icu la te s t h an t h e t h i rd ( 5 86 , T 4A ) t oo l w h ich e xh ib i t s s ma l l s t epped a n d p a r t ia l ly s h a t te red u se -sca r s a l ong h a lf o f i t ' s e dge ( F ig . 9 0 .5 ) . T he e nd d en t icu la te ( P5 690 ) s hows u se -damage a l ong mo s t o f i t ' s e nd , a nd o n t h e v en t ra l as c a r w h ich m ay r e p re sen t u s e -damage ( F ig . 9 1 .1) . T he d o r sa l o f o ne p o in t u t i l ised s pe c imen ( P5 675 , T 4? ) i sc o r t ica l e xcep t f o r p a r t o f t h e b i la te ra l m a rg ins , i n c lud ing t h e a r ea o f t h e a pex o f i t ' s p o in t ( F ig . 9 1 .2 ) . T he p o in t o f t h e o ther t oo l i n t h is c a tego ry ( P 5 747 , T 4? ) i sb roade r , a nd b o th s how u s e -wea r e x tend ing f r om t h e a pex t o t h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h e ma rg ins . T he a pex o f b o th p o in t s e xh ib i t as ma l l c oncav i ty ( F ig . 9 1 .3 ) . 5 .26

S ummary o f t he T 4 a ssemb lage

T he m a jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t s d e r ive f r om a n u nknown l a ye r ( s ) , a nd l a ye r Bi n c lude s t h e h ighe s t f r equency a r tef ac t s a nd o f l i th ic c a tego r ie s ; o ne a r tef ac t i s f r om l a ye r D . Wa s te ma te r ia ls a r e mo re n ume rous t h an t o o ls . T he w a s te f r agmen t a nd t h e t o o ls a r e t h e l e a s t a nd mo s t c ommon c a tego r ie s , r e spec t ive ly .F l ake f r agmen t s a r e mo re c ommon t h an w ho le f l ake s . C he r t i s t h e c h ief ma te r ia l a nd f i ne c he r t i s m o re c ommon t h an f i ne -coa r se c he r t . Two s pec imens a r e i n b a sa l t a nd q ua r tz . C o re s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne c he r t , t h e w a s te f r agmen t i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , w a s te f l akes a r e ma rg ina l ly mo re f r equen t i n f i ne c he r t , a nd i n c lude a b asa l t f r agmen t , a nd mos t t o o ls a r e i n f i ne c he r t . A l l c o re s a r e o f i regu la r mo rpho logy a nd c o re s ca r s a r e i regu la r a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze .

5 8

F lake s a r e p r edom inan t ly o f i regu la r s hape , a nd t h e f ew i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l a nd i regu la r p o in ted f l ake s i n c lude w ho le w a s te f l ake sa nd t o o l s .

r e touch t o s hape o r r e juvena te t h e e dge , o r a l l . T he w h i te p a t ina t ion o n t h is s pec imen m ay h ave b een p roduced b y u se w ea r , a l though i ta l so o ccu r s o n o t he rp a r t s o ft h e t o o l .

B o th t h e s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re a nd t h e d oub le -p la t f o rm c o r e a r ec o r t i ca lw i th s ma l lc o r t ica l a r ea s .T he w a s te f r agmen t a n d mo s t w a s te f l ake s a r e n on -co r t ica l . T he t wo w ho le w a s te f l ake s e xh ib i tl e ss d o r sa l c o r tex t h an t h e s i ng le a nd p r ima ry w a s t e f l ak e f r agmen t . T he s i ng le c o r t ica l t oo l i s af l ake f r agmen t w i th a l a rge d o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r f a ce . T he w a s te f r agmen t i s ab i d i rec t iona l s pec imen . Who le w a s te f l ake s i n c lude m a rg ina l ly mo re b i d i re c t iona l s pec imen s , w h i le w a s te f l ak e f r agmen t s a r e p r edom inan t ly u n id i rec t iona l . T oo l s a r e m a in ly b i d i re c t iona l f l ake s a nd i n c lude a s i ng le c r e s t ed w ho le f l ake . A l l c o re s e xh ib i t p a r t ia l ly f l ak ed p e r iphe r ie s . T he f i ne c he r t s i ng le , a nd t h e mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o r e s h ave f l a t p la tfo rm t a b le s . C o re p l a tfo rm s a r e n on c o r t ica l , a nd t h e s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re a nd d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e ( i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t ) h ave v e ry f ew s t ep f r ac tu re s . T he m a jo r i ty o ff l ake s a r e e nd s t ruck p i ece s ; t wo w a s te f l ake s a r e s i de s t ru ck s pec imens . Mo s t f l ake s t r ik ing p l a t fo rms a r e p l a in , a nd w a s te f l ake s i n c lude a f ew c o r t ica l s pec imens . Wa s t e f l ake p rof i le s a r e ma in ly c onvex a nd i n c lude o ne d i shed f l ake . T oo ls h ave m a in ly s em i -d i shed p rof i le s a nd i n c lude o ne c onvex f l ake .C onvex a nd s em i -d i shed f l ake s a r e s l igh t ly mo re c ommon i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t , t h e d i sh ed f l ak e i si nf i ne -coa r se c he r t ,a nd o ne s em i -d i shed f l ake i si nq ua r t z . Mo s tf l ake sh ave s t ep v e r t ica l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions . T he s i ng le s pec imen w i th a na p ica le nd i s at o o l i n f i ne c he r t . A l l s t ep v e r t ica l f l ak e s a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t e xcep t f o r o ne q ua r tz f l ake . S t ep c oncave f l ake s a r e s l igh t ly mo re f r equen t i n f i ne c he r t .

5 . 27

T he t r ench T 5 a ssemb lage : I n troduc t ion

T he t r ench T 5 s amp le i n c lude s mo re s pec imens ( n . + 11) t h an We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a s semb lage ( Tab le 6 ) . T he 2 8 a r t e f ac t s i n c lude s pec imen sf r om l a ye r sA ,B , a nd C a nd t h ree w h ich c anno tb e a s s igned t o al a ye r ( s ) . T he l a rge s t c a tego ry i st o o ls ( 42 .9% ) . O the r c a tego r ie s i n d e scend ing o r de r o f f r equency a r ew a s te f l ake s ,w a s te f r agmen t s ,a nd c o r e s . Wa s te m a te r ia ls c omp r i se 5 7 .1 % o ft h ea r tef ac t s . Mos t a r te f a c t s a r e i nc he r ta nd p r edom inan t ly i nf i ne c he r t( 50% ) ; t h ree a r te f ac t s a r e i n b a sa l t a nd i n du ra ted s a nd s tone ( Tab le s 8 7 , 8 9 , 9 4 , 1 8 8 ) . 5 . 28

T he t r ench T 5 c ore s

T he t wo c o re s ( f rom l a ye r B ) i n c lude o ne s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r ei nf i ne c he r ta nd o ne d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . C o re mo rpho logy i s i regu la r a nd c o re s c a r s a r e i regu la r a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . T he s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re i s n on -co r t ica l , a nd t h e c o r t ica l d oub le -p la t fo rm e xh ib i t s b e tween 1 -25% c o r tex . B o th c o re s h ave p a r t ia l ly w o rked p e r iphe r ie s .T he s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re e xh ib i t s af l a t p l a t fo rm a r ea , a nd c o re s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm sa r en on -co r t ica l .T he s i ng le p l a t fo rm c o r e h a s o ne s t ep f r ac tu re a nd t h e d oub le -p la t fo rm c o r e e xh ib i t s t wo ( Tab le s 9 6 , 9 8 , 1 02 -107 , 14 -117 ) . S ee T ab le s 1 83 a nd 1 84 f o r d imen s ions , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a n d n umbe ro fs c a r s . 5 . 29

F lake f r agmen t s i n c lude t h e g r ea te s t n umbe r o f t oo l c a tego r ie s . B o th who le a nd f r agmen t t o o ls a r e m a in ly s i de u t i l ised f l ake s a nd s i de d en t icu la te s o f w h ich s i de u t i l i sed s pec imens a r e mo s t c ommon . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake s a r e p redom inan t ly i nf i ne c he r t , a nd t wo a r e i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd o ne i s i n q ua r tz . D en t icu la te s a r e e qua l ly c ommon i n f i ne , a nd i nf i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd t h e s i ng le e nd d en t icu la te i s i n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . P o in t u t i l ised a nd e nd u t i l i sed s pec imens a r e l e a s t c ommon . T he f o rme r t oo ls a r e i n f i ne c he r t a nd t h e l a t te r i si n f i ne -coa r se c he r t . O ne s i de u t i l i sed a nd o ne s i de d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake a r e o f i regu la r p o in t ed s hape , t h e e nd d en t icu la te f r agmen t i s o n a n i regu la r q uad r i la t e ra l f l ake , a nd b o th p o in t u t i l i sed t oo l s a r e o n i regu la rp o in ted f l ake s .

T he t r ench T 5 w as te f ragmen ts

T he s i x w a s te f r agmen t s d e r ive m a in ly f r om l a ye r s A -C . T he se a r te f a c t s a r e i n a lmo s t e qua l f r equenc ie s i n f i ne , a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r ta nd o ne s pec imen i si n i n du ra ted s a nd s tone . T he t wo c o r t ica l f r agmen t s h ave c o r t ica l a r ea s o f 1 25% . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne b i d i rec t iona l s pec imen a l f r agmen t s h ave u n id i rec t iona ls c a r s( Tab le s 19 124 ) . 5 . 30

A l l t o o l s a r eu n i la te ra l ly u t i l ised f l ake s w i th t h ee xcep t ion o f t h e b i la te ra l p o in t u t i l i sed s pec imen s . S ide u t i l i sed f l ake s e xh ib i tm a in ly u n if ac ia lu se -damage w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f a w ho le f l ak e w i th v en t ra l w ea r , a nd f ou r f r agmen t s w i th d o r sa l w ea r . O ne s i de d en t icu la te f r agmen t h a s d o r sa l u s e w ea r , a nd o ne p o in t u t i l i sed f r agmen t s how s v en t ra l u s e d amage . A l l o t he r t oo l s h ave b i f a c ia l u se -wea r . Mo s t s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s s how u s e -wea r o n c oncave -convex e dge s , w h i le o ne w ho le f l ake h a s ac oncave e dge , a nd o ne f r agmen t a nd t h ee nd u t i l ised p i ece h ave o b l ique e dge s . A l ld en t icu la te s a nd p o in t u t i l i sed f l ake s e xh ib i t u se -wea r o n o b l ique ly i n c l ined e dge s . Two w ho le f l ake t o o ls s how p o s s ib le s e conda ry a nd s imp le r e touch . T he s i de u t i l ised f l ake i n q ua r tz ( f rom l a ye r D ) w h ich s how s ar e la t ive ly b lun t f unc t iona l e dge may h ave b een r e touched t o r e du ce t h e t h ickne ss o ft h ef unc t iona le dge a nd /o rt oa l te ri t s a ng le ; t h i s e dge m ay h ave b een r e juvena ted .T he s l igh t ly b l un t a nd s t ep f l aked u t i l i sed e dge o f as i de d en t icu la te ( f rom l a ye r C ) m ay h ave f o rmed e i the r t h rough h eavy u t i l isa t ion , s e conda ry

5 9

T he t r ench T 5 w as te f l ake s

Wa s te f l ake s ( n . 8 ) a r e m a in ly f r om l a ye r s A -C w i th t h e s i ng le w ho le f l ake f r om a n u nknown l a ye r . T he w ho le f l ake i si nf i ne c he r t , o f i regu la r f o rm , n on -co r t ica l , a nd h a s a n u n id i re c t iona l s c a r p a t te rn a nd t h r ee d o r sa l s ca r s . I t i s a n e nd s t ruck s pec imen w i th a p l a in p l a t fo rm , as em i -d i shed v en t ra lp rof i le , a nd as t ep c oncave d i s ta le nd . A l l s e ven f l ak e f r agmen t s a r ei nc he r tw i th f i ve i nf i ne c he r t . F ive f l ake s a r e o f i regu la r a nd t wo o f i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l s hape . Mo s t s p ec imen sa r en on -co r t ica la nd t h es i ng le d o r sa lc o r t ica l f l ak e i s c ove r ed b y 6 1-80% c o r tex . S ca r p a t te rn s a r e m a in ly u n id i rec t iona l , a nd o ne f l ake s how s b i d i rec t iona l f l ak ing ( Tab le s 8 7 , 1 25 130 , 1 32 -137 , 1 38 142 ; F ig . 9 2 .1) . T ab le s 1 3 1 a nd 1 43 l i s td imen s ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro f d o r sa ls c a r s . 5 . 31

T he t r ench T 5 t oo ls

T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e 1 2t o o l sa r eo n f l ake f r agmen t s a nd t o o ls d e r ive w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne u np rovenanced s p ec imen f r om l a ye r s Ba nd C . T he f ou rw ho le f l ake t oo l s a r e i nc he r t w i th e qua l p ropo r t ion s i nf i ne a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t , a nd a r e o fi regu la r s hape . T h ree t o o ls a r e c o r t ica l a nd i n c lude t wo w i th d o r sa lc o r tex w h ich r a nge s f r om 1 -40% . S ca r p a t te rn s a r eu n i ,a nd b i d i rec t iona l i ne qua l f r equenc ie s . A l l f l ake s a r e

e nd s t ruck s pec imen s a nd h ave c o r t ica l , p la in , a nd f a ce t ed p la t fo rm sw i th t h ef i r s tc a tego ry p redom inan t . F lake p ro f i le s a r ec onvex a nd w i th e qua lf r equenc ie si nf i ne , a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t . D is ta l e nd s a r e a p ica l a nd s t ep v e r t ica l i n e qua l f r equenc ie s .T he t wo f i ne c he r t a nd t h e t wo f i ne -coa r se c he r t f l ake sh ave a p ica la nd s t ep v e r t ica l t e rm ina t ions ( Tab le s 1 44 1 49 , 1 51-156 ) . T ab le 1 50 s how s d imens ion s , p l a t fo rm a ng le s , a nd d o r sa l s c a r f r equency . Who le f l ake t o o l s i n c lude t wo s i de u t i l i sed f l ake s , o ne s i de d en t icu la te a nd o ne n o t ch . O ne s i de u t i l i sed s pe c imen a nd t h e n o tch a r e t h e o n ly t o o ls i nf i ne -coa r se c he r ta nd a l l t o o ls a r eo fi regu la r s hape . T oo l s s how u n i la te ra l a nd m a in ly b i f ac ia l u se -wea r w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f ad o r sa l ly u t i l i sed s i de d en t icu la te . S i de u t i l i sed t oo ls c a r ry u se -damage o nc oncave -convex a nd s t ra igh te dge s , u se -wea r o n t h e s i de d en t icu la te i s o n ad en t icu la te s t ra igh t e dge a nd o n t h e n o t ch o n ac oncave e dge ( Tab le s 1 57 158 , 1 61 , 1 63 -167 ) . T he u t i l i sed a r ea o f t h e n o tch i s l o ca ted i n t h ec en t re o fo ne e dge .

T he s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o re i s n on -co r t ica l , w h i le t h e c o r t ica l d oub le -p la t f o rm c o re p re se rve s as ma l l a r ea o f c o r tex . Mo s t w a s te f r agmen t s a nd w a s te f l ake s a r e n on -co r t ica l . Wa s te f r agmen t s e xh ib i t t h e s ma l le s t c o r t ica l a r ea s , w h i le t h e s i ng le w a s t e f l ake f r agmen t w i th d o r sa l c o r tex e xh ib i t s t h e l a rge s t c o r t ica l a r ea . Mo s t w ho le f l ake t oo ls a r e c o r t ica l i n c on t ra s t t o f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls . Do r sa l c o r tex o n t h e se s pec imen si si nt h e l owe ra nd m ed ian r a nge . T he ma jo r i ty o f w a s t ef r agmen t sa nd w a s te f l ake se xh ib i tu n id i rec t iona ls c a r s , w h i le t o o l s a r e e qua l ly u n id i rec t iona l a nd b i d i rec t iona l s pec imen s . B o th c o re s e xh ib i t p a r t ia l ly w o rk ed p e r iphe r ie s . T he f i ne c he r ts i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re h a s af l a t p la tfo rm t a b le . B o th c o r e s h ave f ew s t ep f r a c tu re s . A l l f l ake s a r e e nd s t ruck s pec imen s . F l ake s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm s a r e i ne qua l f r equenc ie s p l a in a nd c o r t ica l a nd i n c lude o ne f a ce t ed s pec imen . T oo l p rof i le sa r ec onvex a nd t h es i ng le w a s te f l ake i ss em i -d i shed . T he c onvex f l ake sa r ee qua l ly f r equen ti nb o th c he r t s ,a nd t h e s em i -d i shed s p ec imen i s i n f i ne c he r t . T oo l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion sa r e i ne qua l f r equenc ie s a p ica l a nd s t ep v e r t ica l a nd i n b o th c he r t s . T he f i ne c he r t w a s te f l ake h a s as t ep c oncave e nd .

T he e i gh t f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a r e i n e qua l f r equenc ie s i n f i ne ,a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t a nd t wo s pec imen s a r e i n b a sa l t . T he se t oo ls i n c lude s i x s pec imens o f i regu la r a nd t wo s pec imen s o f i regu la r p o in ted s hape . T he s i ng le c o r t ica l f r agmen th a sb e tween 2 6 -40% d o r sa lc o r tex ,a nd s c a rp a t te rn s a r e u n i , a nd b i d i r ec t iona l i n e qua l f r equenc ie s ( Tab le s 1 68 1 72 ) . S ee T ab le 1 73 f o r d imen s ion s a nd d o r sa l s c a r n umbe r . F lake f r agmen t t o o ls i n c lude f i ve s i de u t i l ised f l ake s , o ne s i de d en t icu la te ,a nd t wo n o tche s . S ide u t i l ised f r agmen t s a r e i nf i ne c he r ta nd b a sa l t ,a nd o t he rc a tego r ie sa r ei nf i ne -coa r se c he r t . O ne s i de u t i l i sed t oo l a nd t h e s i de d en t icu la t e a r e o n i regu la r p o in ted f l ake s . A l l t oo ls s how u n i la te ra l u s e d amage ,a nd w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f as i de u t i l ised f l ake w i th v en t ra lw ea rt o o l se xh ib i tb i f ac ia l u se -wea r . U se -wea r o n t h e s i de u t i l i sed s pec imen s i sd i s t r ibu ted o n c oncave -convex ( n . 2 ) a nd s t ra igh t e dge s ( n . 3 ) . S ide d en t icu la te u se -wea r e dge s hape i sd en t icu la te -ob l ique a nd n o t che s h ave c oncave e dg e s ( Tab le s 1 74 -181 ) .

B o th w ho le f l ake a nd f r agmen t t oo ls i n c lude t h e s ame t oo l c a tego r ie s a nd a l so s im i la r f r equenc ie s o f c a tego r ie s r e la t ive t o t h e g r ea t e r n umbe r o f t o o l s o n f r agmen t s . S ide u t i l i sed s pec imen sc omp r i se t h el a rge s tc a tego ry a nd mo s ta r e i n f i ne c he r t . O ne s i de u t i l i sed w ho le t oo l i st h e s i ng le f i ne -coa r se c he r ts p ec imen , w h i le t wo f r agmen t s a r e i n b a sa l t . T he t wo s i de d en t icu la te s a r e i n b o th c he r t s a nd n o t che s a r e i n f i ne c oa r se c he r t . O ne s i de u t i l i sed f r agmen t a nd o ne s i de d en t icu la te f r agmen ta r eo fi regu la r p o in ted s hape . A l l t oo ls a r eu n i la te ra l ly u t i l i sed f l ake sa nd mo s tt o o ls e xh ib i t b i f a c ia l u se -wea r . O ne s i de d en t icu la te w ho le f l ak e s hows d o r sa l u se d amage a nd o ne s i de u t i l i sed f r agmen t s how s v en t ra l u se w ea r .T he u s e -wea re dge s hape so fs i de u t i l i sed s pec imen sa r e s t ra igh t a nd c oncave -convex w i th t h e f o rme r ma rg ina l ly mo re f r equen t . S i de d en t icu la te e dge s hape s a r e s t ra igh t a nd o b l ique , a nd a l l n o tche s e xh ib i t c oncave u t i l i sed e dge s . T he T 5 t o o l s s how n o e v idence o f s e conda ry r e touch w i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o f as i de u t i l i sed f r agmen t f r om l a ye r C t h rough r emova l o fp a t ina f r om a r ound t h e f unc t iona l e dge , a l though t h is m ay b e a t t r ibu tab le t o u se r e touch o r p o s t d epo s i t iona l w ea the r ing .

Mo s t o f t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l o f o ne o f t h e s i de u t i l i sed p i ece s ( 1 10 , l a ye r C , i n a l aba s te r c o lou red f i ne c he r t ) i s c ove red b y ag r ey p a t ina e xcep t f o r t h e a r ea a r ound t h e u s e w o rn e dge ( F ig . 9 2 .2 ) .T h is may i n d ica te t h a tt h e p a t ina w a s e i the rr emoved t h rough u s e -damage o r s e conda ry r e touch , o r t h a t p a r t o f t h e t o o l w a s e xpo sed t o p o s t -depo s i t iona l w ea the r ing . O nt h es ma l le rn o tch t h eu se -wea ra r ea i sl o ca ted a to ne e nd o fa ne dge .T he l a rge r n o tch s im i la r t o t h e w ho le f l ake n o tch e xh ib i t su se -wea ri nt h ec en t re o fo ne e dge . 5 .32

5 .33 Measuremen ts a nd D onggu tuo a sse mb lages

S ummary o f t he T 5 a ssemb lage

L aye r B i n c lude s t h e h i ghe s t c oncen t ra t ion o f s pec imen s , w h i le l a ye r s A a nd C c omp r i se e qua l ly l ow f r equenc ie s ; a f ew a r te f ac t s h ave n o s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance . N o l a ye r i n c lude s a l l i th ic c a tego r ie s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f l a ye r B . Wa s te ma te r ia l s i n c lude a lmo s t t wo th i rd s o f t h e a r te f a c t s . T he mo s tn ume rou s a nd l e a s t n ume rous c a tego r ie s a r e t o o ls a nd c o re s ,r e spec t ive ly .T he ma jo r i ty o fa r tef a c t s a r e i n c he r t o f w h ich f i ne c he r t i s s l igh t ly mo re c ommon t h an f i ne c oa r se c he r t . Wa s t e f r agmen t s i n f i ne , a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t a r ea lmo s te qua l ly c ommon a nd o ne s pec imen i si n i n du ra t ed s and s tone . Wa s te f l ake s a r e ma in ly i n f i ne c he r t . C o re s a n d t oo l s a r e e qua l ly n ume rou s i n f i ne , a nd f i ne -coa r se c he r t . B o th b a sa l t s pec imen s a r e t oo ls . T he c o re s a r e o f i regu la r s hape a nd t h e s c a r s a r e i regu la r a nd o f v a r iab le s i ze . Wa s te f l ake s a nd t o o l s a r e m a in ly o f i regu la r s hape . Wa s te f l ake s i n c lude t wo i regu la r q uad r i la te ra l s pec imen s a nd f l ake f r agmen tt o o l si n c lude t wo i regu la rp o in ted f l ake s .

6 0

s tat ist ics

o f

t he

T h is s e c t ion e xam ine s t h es i ze s , s c a r n umbe r s , a nd p l a tfo rm a ng le s o f l i t h ic c a tego r ie s a nd t h e i r s t a t is t ica l f r equenc ie s . T he n umbe r o f m o s t o f t h e T i c a tego r ie s a r e s uf f ic ien t ly l a rge f o r m ean ingfu l s t a t is t ica l a na ly se s i n c on t ra s t t o t h e T 2 -T5 c a t ego r ie s ( Lock p e r s . c omm . ) . T he s t a t i s t ica l m e thod sa r ee xp la ined i nC hap te rI V ,4 . 7 . T he D onggu tuo c o re sh ave am ax imum s i ze o f 1 .85 c ma nd t h e f l ake s o f 1 2 .55 c m . Max imum f l ake s i ze e xceed s t h a t o f c o re sa tt h r ee t r enche s ( T3 -T5 )( Tab le 1 89 ) .B ipo la r c o r e s a r e t h e s ma l le s t c o r e s ( l eng th : 2 . 20 -4 .00 c m , w id th : 1 . 10 -2 .10 c m , a nd t h ickne s s : 1 . 00 -2 .10 c m r a nge s ) , a nd s i ng le p l a tfo rm c o r e s a r e s ma l le r ( l eng th : 2 . 30 -10 .95 cm , w id th : 2 . 15 -8 .45 c m , a nd t h ickne s s : 0 . 80 -7 .00 c mr a nge s )c ompa red t o d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s ( l eng th : 3 . 60 -11 .85 cm , w id th : 2 . 85 -8 .90 c m , a nd t h ickne s s : 2 . 15 -7 .40 cm r ange s ) a nd mu l t i -p la t f o rm c o re s ( l eng th : 4 .45 -8 .90 cm , w id th : 4 . 70 8 . 95 c m , a nd t h ickne ss : 3 .05 -7 .45 c m r a nge s ) , e xcep t t h a t s i ng le -p la t f o rm c o r e s e xce ed mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o r e s i n m ax imum l e ng th . D oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s a r e s ma l le r i n

m in imum s i ze t h an mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s , a nd l a rge r i n max imum l e ng th a nd s l igh t ly s ma l le r i n max imum w id th a nd t h ickne s s ( Tab le s 13 , 1 83 -185 ) . S i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s h ave al a rge rm ean l e ng th ( 5 .4 cm )t h an t h ee qua l med ian a nd mode ( 4 .6 c m ) . T he mean w id th ( 4 .6 c m ) i sl a rge r t h an t h e med ian ( 4 .3 c m )a nd t h eb imoda l v a lue s( 4 .1 cm ,4 . 3 c m ) l i e b e low t h e m ean , a nd b o th a r e s im i la r t o t h e med ian . T he m ean t h ickne s s ( 3 .5 cm ) i sl a rge r t h an t h e med ian ( 3 .2 c m ) a nd o ft h et wo mode s ( 2 .9 cm , 3 . 5 cm ) o ne i ss ma l le r t h an t h e m ean , o ne i st h e s ame a s t h e mean , a nd t h e m ed ian l i e s b e tween t h e mode s . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e2 .4 , 1 . 7 , a nd 1 . 6 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage s i ng le -p la t form c o re l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s s how t h a t l e ng th a nd t h ickness h ave t h e mos t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ions , r e spec t ive ly . H oweve r , t h e m ed ian a nd mode f o rl e ng th a r et h es ame . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a m mos t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h ickness . T he e qua l mean a nd m ed ian l e ng th o f d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s ( 6 .8 c m ) l i e s b e tween t h et h ree moda l v a lue s ( 4 .75 cm , 7 .4 cm , 7 . 95 cm ) . T he m ean , med ian , a nd moda l w id th v a lue s a r e t h e s ame ( 5 .9 c m ) . T he mean t h ickne ss ( 4 .7 cm ) a nd m ed ian ( 4 .6 cm ) a r e s im i la r ; b o th l i e b e tween t h e f i ve mode s ( 3 .7 cm , 3 . 8 c m , 5 . 1 cm , 5 . 9 cm , 6 . 8 cm ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o rl e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss a r e 2 . 13 , 1 . 6 , a nd 1 . 4 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss s how t ha t w id th h a s as ymme t r ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions a r e mos t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s tf o r t h ickness . T he mean l e ng th ( 6 .9 c m ) o f mu l t i -p la tf o rm c o re s i sc l o se t ot h e med ian ( 7 .0 cm ) ; t h e re i s n o mode . T he m ean w id th ( 6 .7 cm )e xceeds t h e e qua l med ian a nd mode ( 6 .2 c m ) .T he mean t h icknes s ( 5 .1 cm ) i sc l ose t o t h ee qua lm ed ian a nd mode ( 5 .0 cm ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 5 , 1 . 45 , a nd 1 . 35 , r e spec t ive ly .T he a ve rage mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss s how t h a t w id th h a s t h e mos t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mos t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s tf o rt h ickne ss ( Tab le s 1 83 -185 ) .

d i s t r ibu t ions , r e spec t ive ly . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mos t d i spe r sed f o rl e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h icknes s ( Tab le 1 24 ) . S ee T ab le 1 92 f o r mea su remen t s a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o f w a s te f r agmen t s . T he l e ng th ( 0 .90 -12 .55 cm ) , w id th ( 1 .00 -7 .85 cm ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .30 -3 .40 c m ) r a nge s o f t h e Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s s how t h a tt h e se a r e s ma l l t o l a rge a r tef a c t s . T he l e ng th m ean ( 3 .5 cm ) i sl a rge rt h an t h e med ian ( 3 .1 cm ) , a n d o ne o f t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 2 .5 cm , 3 . 1 cm ) i st h e s ame a s t h e m ed ian . T he mean w id th ( 3 .1 cm ) a nd med ian ( 3 .0 c m ) a r es im i la r , a nd t h e mode i ss ma l le r ( 2 .3 cm ) . T he t h ickne s s m ean ( 1 .2 cm ) a nd med ian a nd mode ( 1 .1 cm ) a r e s im i la r . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss a r e 1 . 62 , 1 . 32 , a nd 0 .61 , r e spec t ive ly , a nd a r e mos t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly . A w ho le w a s te f l ake f r om T 4 i st h e l a rge s t f l ake i n t h e s amp le . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss s how t h a t t h ickne ss h a s t h e l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he l e ng th ( 0 .75 -5 .20 cm ) , w id th ( 0 .40 -5 .85 cm ) , a nd t h ickne ss ( 0 .15 -2 .10 cm ) r a nge s o ft h eD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s s how t h a t t h e se a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r tef ac t s . T he l e ng th mean ( 2 .4 c m ) i sc l o se t ot h e med ian ( 2 .3 c m )a nd b o th e xceed t h e mode ( 2 c m ) . T he m ean w id th ( 2 .3 cm ) i sl a rge rt han t he med ian ( 2 .1 c m )a nd t h e mode ( 2 c m ) i sc l ose t o t h e med ian . T he mean a nd m ed ian t h ickne s s v a lue s ( 0 .9 cm ) a r es im i la rt ot h e mode ( 0 .8 c m ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions f o r l e ng th , w id th , a n d t h ickne s s a r e 0 .99 , 0 . 91 , a nd 0 . 43 , r e spec t ive ly , a nd a r e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly .T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss s how t h a t t h ickne ss h a s t h e l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion ( Tab le s 1 3 1 , 1 43 ) . T he D onggu tuo w a s te f l ake s a r es ma l l t ol a rge s i zed a r tef ac t s b a sed o nt h el e ng th ( 0 .75 -12 .55 cm ) , w id th ( 0 .40 -7 .85 cm ) , a nd t h ickne ss ( 0 .15 -3 .40 c m ) r a nge s . T he mean l e ng th ( 3 .0 c m )i sl a rge rt h an t h e med ian ( 2 .7 cm ) , a nd o ft h et wo mode s ( 2 .5 , 3 . 1 c m ) o ne i ss ma l le r t h an a nd o ne i ss im i la r t o t h e m ean ,o ne i ss ma l le ra nd o ne i sl a rge r t han t h e med ian . T he m ean w id th ( 2 .7 cm ) e xceed s t h e med ian ( 2 .5 cm ) ; t h e b imoda l v a lue s a r e s ma l le r( 2 .0 cm , 2 . 3 cm ) t h an b o th . T he t h ickne s sm ean a nd mode ( 1 .1 cm )a r e s im i la r t o t h e m ed ian ( 1 .0 c m ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions f o r l e ng th , w id th , a n d t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 46 , 1 . 22 , a nd 0 . 55 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h icknes s s how t h a t t h ickne ss h a s t h e l e a s td i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion .T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mos t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne ss , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 1 93 , 1 94 ) .

T he Donggu tuo c o re s a r e s ma l l t or e la t ive ly l a rge s pec imen s b a sed o n c o re l e ng th ( 2 .20 -11 .85 cm ) , w id th ( 1 .10 -8 .95 cm ) , a nd t h ickne ss ( 0 .80 -7 .45 cm )r ange s ; l e ng th h a s t h e b roade s t s p read . T he l e ng th mean ( 6 .2 cm ) e xceed s t h e med ian ( 5 .95 cm ) , a nd t h e mode ( 4 .6 c m )i ss ma l le r t h an b o th . T he w id th mean a nd m ed ian a r e t h e s ame ( 5 .5 c m ) a nd t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 4 .3 c m , 5 . 9 cm ) a r e b o th l owe r a nd h ighe r t h an t h e mean a nd m ed ian . T he t h icknes s mean ( 4 .3 cm ) a nd m ed ian ( 4 .1 cm ) a r e s im i la r , a nd t h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 2 .9 cm , 5 . 1 cm )l i eb e low a nd a bove t h e mean a nd med ian . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions o fc o re l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss a r e 2 . 2 , 1 . 9 , a nd 1 . 6 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss s how t h a tl e ng th a nd t h ickne ss h ave t h e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ions , r e spec t ive ly . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions a r e mos t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd l e a s t f o r t h ickne ss ( Tab le 1 90 ) . T ab le 1 91 t a bu la te s t h e mea su remen t s a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eD onggu tuo c o re s .

T he l e ng th ( 2 .00 -7 .85 cm ) , w id th ( 1 .20 -5 .80 cm ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .60 -2 .85 c m ) r a nge s o f t h e Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o ls s how t h a t t h e se a r e s ma l l t o med ium s i zed a r tef ac t s .T he l e ng th mean ( 4 .0 cm ) e xceed s t h e m ed ian ( 3 .5 c m )a nd mode ( 3 .2 c m ) . T he m ean w id th ( 3 .0 cm ) i sh ighe r t h an t h e m ed ian ( 2 .7 cm ) , a nd t h e f ou r moda l v a lue s ( 2 .0 c m , 2 . 2 c m , 3 . 5 cm , 4 . 2 cm ) a r e l owe r a nd h ighe r t h an t h e m ean a nd med ian . Mean ( 1 .4 cm ) a nd med ian ( 1 .3 c m ) t h ickne s s a r e s im i la r , a nd t h e t wo mode s ( 0 .8 cm , 1 . 0 c m ) a r e s ma l le r . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions f o r l e ng th , w id th , a n d t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 47 , 1 . 02 , a nd 0 . 57 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s i sl e a s t d i spe r sed f o r t h ickne s s . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne ss , r e spec t ive ly . T he l e ng th ( 1 .40 -6 .00 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .10 -5 .75 c m ) , a nd t h ickness ( 0 .60 -2 .90 c m ) r a nge so ft h ef l ake f r agmen t t oo ls s how t h a t t h e se a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r te fac t s . T he l e ng th mean ( 3 .4 cm ) i s l a rge r t h an t h e med ian ( 3 .1 c m ) a nd o ne o f t h e b imoda l

T he Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s a r es ma l l t or e la t ive ly l a rge s i zed a r tef ac t s b a sed o n t h e l e ng th ( 1 .20 -10 .45 cm ) , w id th ( 1 .10 -7 .00 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .70 -4 .10 cm ) r a nge s . T he mean l e ng th ( 4 .0 cm ) a nd med ian ( 3 .9 cm ) a r e s im i la r ; b o th a r e s ma l le r t h an t h e t r imoda l v a lue s ( 4 .5 cm , 4 .7 cm , 5 . 15 cm ) .T he w id th mean ( 3 .1 cm ) a nd m ed ian a nd moda l v a lue s ( 3 .0 cm ) a r e s im i la r . T he e qua l m ean a nd med ian t h ickne s s v a lues ( 1 .9 cm ) e xceed t h e mode ( 1 .3 cm ) . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ions o fl e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss a r e 1 . 53 , 1 . 28 , a nd 0 . 72 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s s how t ha tl e ng th a nd w id th h ave t h e mo s ta nd l e a s t d i spe r sed

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v a lue s( 3 .1 c m ,4 . 2c m )i st h es ame a st h em ed ian , w h i le t h e s e cond e xceed s t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he w id th m ean ( 2 .7 c m )a nd m ed ian ( 2 .6 c m ) a r e s im i la r a nd t h e m ode ( 3 .1 c m ) i sl a rge r .T he t h ickne s sm ean a nd m ed ian ( 1 .3 c m ) a r e h i ghe r t h an t h et h ree mode s ( 0 .8 c m , 1 . 0c m , 1 . 2 c m ) . T he s t and a rd d ev ia t ion sf o rl e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 1 , 0 . 87 , a n d 0 . 5 ,r e spec t ive ly .T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne ss i s l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r t h ickne s s . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le s 1 50 , 1 73 ) . T he l e ng th ( 1 .40 -7 .85 c m ) , w id th ( 1 .10 -5 .80 c m ) , a nd t h ickne s s ( 0 .60 -2 .90 c m ) r a nge s o f a l l D onggu tuo t oo l s s how t h a t t h e se a r e s ma l l t o m ed ium s i zed a r te f a c t s . T he l e ng th m ean ( 3 .6 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 3 .4 c m ) a r e s im i la r , a nd t h eb imoda lv a lue s( 3 .1 c m ,4 . 2c m )a r eb e low a nd a bove t h e m ean a nd m ed ian .T he w id th m ean ( 2 .8 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 2 .7 c m ) a r e s im i la r , a nd b o th e x ceed t h e mode ( 2 .0 c m ) . T he s im i la rt h ickne s sm ean ( 1 .4 c m ) a nd m ed ian ( 1 .3 c m ) e x c e ed t h eb imoda l v a lue s( 0 .8 c m , 1 . 0 cm ) .T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f o r l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s a r e 1 . 29 , 0 . 94 , a nd 0 . 52 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s i s l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r t h ickne s s . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e mo s t a nd l e a s t d i spe r sed f o r l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly ( Tab le 1 95 , 1 96 ) .

i s0 . 9 . A l l w a s te f l ake d o r sa l s c a r s ( n . 9 5 1) h ave t h e s ame m ean ,m ed ian ,a nd m oda l v a lue s ( 2 ) a nd ar a nge o f 0 -8 ; t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 12 . T he s t a t is t ica l v a lue s o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s c a r s a nd o f a l l w a s te f l ake s ca r s h ave s ymme t r ica l d i s t r ibu t ions . T he w ho le w a s te f l ake s h ave s kewed d i s t r ibu t ion s ( Tab le s 1 31 , 1 43 , 1 93 ) . T he d o r sa l s c a r n umbe r ( n . 1 27 ) m ean ( 2 .8 ) o f t h e w ho le f l ake t oo ls i s s ma l le rt h an t h em ed ian ( 3 ) ,a nd t h e mode ( 2 ) l i e s b e low t h e m ean a nd m ed ian . T he r a nge i s 1 5 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s0 . 92 . T h is i s ar e la t ive ly s k ewed d i s t r ibu t ion . T he d o r sa ls c a rn umbe r o f f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls ( n . 2 08 ) a nd o fa l l t oo ls ( n . 35 ) h ave t h e s ame m ean s ( 2 .9 ) a nd m ed ian s a nd mode s ( 3 ) . T he r a nge i s 1 6 ; t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a r e 1 . 09 a nd 1 . 02 , r e spec t ive ly . T he a ve rage s c a r v a lue s a nd r a nge s s how t h a t t h e D onggu tuo a r te f a c t s h ave a s ma l l n umbe r o f s c a r s . T he v a lue s h ave d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s ( Tab le s 1 50 , 1 73 , 1 95 ) . S ing le -p la t fo rm c o re a ng le s h ave t h e s ame m ean a nd m ed ian ( 100 ° ) a nd t h i s v a lue l i e s b e tween t h e t r imoda l v a lue s ( 9 1° , 9 5 ° , 10 ° ) . T he r a nge i s8 2 ° -115 ° , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s8 . 13 . D oub le -p la tf o rm c o re s h ave t h e s ame mean , m ed ian , a nd mode ( 1 02 ° ) a nd a r a nge o f 8 2 °420 .5 ° . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s7 . 16 . Mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s h ave as im i la r m ean ( 102 .5 ° ) a nd m ed ian ( 102 ° ) , a nd t h e se l i e b e tween t h e f o u r mode s ( 9 8 ° , 1 0 1 ° , 1 04 ° , 1 08 ° ) . T he r a nge i s8 6 * -116 .5 ° ; t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s7 . 06 . T he t wo b ipo la r c o re a ng le s ( 9 1 ° , 9 6 ° ) l i e w i th in t h e l owe r r a nge o f c o re a ng le s ( Tab le s 1 83 1 85 , 13 ) . A l l c o r e s h ave s im i la r mean ( 102 ° ) a nd m ed ian ( 10 1 ° ) a ng le s ,a nd t h et wo mode s( 98 ° , 1 03 ° ) a r e s ma l le r a nd l a rge r t h an b o th . T he r a nge i s 8 2 °420 .5 ° , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s7 . 5 ( Tab le 1 90 ) . T he w a s te f l ake s h ave s im i la r m ean ( 1 13 ° ) a nd m ed ian ( 1 13 .5 ° ) a ng le s , ah ighe r m oda l v a lue ( 1 18 ° ) ,a nd ar a nge o f5 6 °447 °.T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s1 3 .12 ( Tab le 1 3 1 ) . T he l e s s n ume rou s t o o ls h ave s im i la r m ean ( 1 11 .4 ° )a nd m ed ian ( 1 12 ° )v a lue s , a nd t h e se l i e i n t h e u ppe rr a nge o ft h et h ree mode s( 103 ° , 10% 14 ° ) . T he r a nge i s6 7 ° -137 ° ,a nd t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 3 .30 ( Tab le 1 50 ) . T he a ve rage v a lue s h ave s k ewed d i s t r ibu t ions w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fd oub le -p la t f o rm c o re s . T he r a nge s o f p l a t fo rm a ng le s s how t h a t t h e se h ave aw ide s p r ead a nd u sua l ly w ide a ng le s . S ome o ft h ec o re s , w a s te f l ake s a nd t oo ls h ave a cu te a ng le s ( Tab le s 1 83 185 , 1 31 , 1 50 ) .

A c ompa r i son b e tween t h e l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s m ea su r emen t s o f t o o ls a nd w a s te f l ake s s how s t h a t t h e m in imum l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s v a lue s o f t o o ls a r e g r ea te r a nd t h e max imum r e spec t ive m ea su remen t s s ma l le r . T he s ma l le s t l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s o f w ho le f l ake t o o l s a nd f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls e xceed t ho se o f w ho le w a s te f l ake s a nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . T he se o b se rva t ion s a pp ly e spec ia l ly t ol e ng th . T he l a rge s t r e spec t ive w ho le f l ake t oo l m ea su remen t s a r e s ma l le r c ompa r ed t o w ho le w a s te f l ake s , w h i le f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls a r e l o nge r a nd t h icke r , b u t l e s s w ide t h an w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s( Tab le 1 97 ) . T he s ca rn umbe r( n . 9 6 )m ean ( 4 .8 ) o f s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o r e s i ss ma l le rt h an t h em ed ian ( 5 ) . O ft h e b imoda l v a lue s ( 4 , 5 ) o ne i ss ma l le r a nd o ne i sl a rge r t h an t h e m ean , a nd o ne i s s ma l le rt h an a nd o ne i st h es ame a st h em ed ian . T he r a nge i s 3 8 ;t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s1 . 2 .D oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s c a r s ( n . 2 16 )h ave amean ( 6 .35 )l a rge rt h an t h e med ian a nd m ode ( 6 ) . T he r ange i s4 11 ; t h es t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 45 . Mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o re s ca r s ( n . 7 5 )h ave amean ( 6 .25 )l a rge rt h an t h e m ed ian ( 6 ) ; t h e mode ( 5 ) i ss ma l le r t h an b o th . T he r a nge i s 5 10 ; t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 42 ( Tab le s 1 83 -185 ) . T he s ca r( n . 4 07 ) mean o fa l lc o re s( 5 .9 ) l i e s c l o se t o t h e m ed ian a nd moda l v a lue s ( 6 ) . T he r a nge i s 3 10 ; t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 86 ( Tab le 1 3 .336 ) . T he a ve rage v a lue s h ave d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion s , a l though t h e v a lue s o f a l c o r e s a r e s im i la r . T he v a lue s a l so s how t h a t c o re s h ave a s ma l l n umbe r o f s ca r s ( Tab le s 1 83 -185 ) . T he 2 0 s c a r s o f t h e b i po la rc o re sh ave ar a nge o f3 14 ( Tab le 13 ) . T he mean ( 4 .2 )o fD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s c a r s ( n . 4 79 ) i sl a rge rt h an t h e m ed ian ( 4 ) , a nd b o th e xceed t h e mode ( 3 ) . T he r a nge i s 1 9 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 44 . T he a ve rage v a lue s h ave s k ewed d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd a l so s how a s ma l ln umbe ro fs c a r s( Tab le 1 24 ) . T he Donggu tuo w ho le w a s t ef l ake d o r sa l s c a r ( n . 5 31) m ean ( 2 .3 ) i sl a rge r t h an t h e m ed ian a nd moda l v a lue s ( 2 ) . T he r a nge i s0 -8 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i s 1 . 25 . T he w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa l s c a r ( n . 4 20 ) m ean , m ed ian , a nd m ode a r et h es ame ( 2 ) , t h er a nge i s1 5 , a nd t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion

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CHAPTER V I

I ts hou ld , h oweve r ,b en o ted t h a tY ou ( 1983 ) , b e s ide ' t oo ls ' , a l so l i s t s 1 20 ' u t i l i sed f l ake s ' . T he l a rge r n umbe r o f t oo l s i d en t if i ed b y t h is w r i te r c ompa r ed t o Y ou e t a l . 's ( 1978 , 1 980 ) f r equen cy may t o s ome e x ten t b e e xp la ined b y t h e c u r so ry n a tu r e o f Y ou e ta l . 's ( 1978 , 1 980 ) e xam ina t ion o f mo s t( 8 9 .6% )o ft h e i r 8 04 a r te f ac t s a nd b y t h e a dd i t ion o f a f ew mo r e r e cen t ly e xcava t ed t oo ls . Y ou ( 1983 ) i d en t if ied a c o r e , u nu t i l i sed f l ake s , u t i l i sed f l ake s , a nd t oo l s o f w h ich u t i l i sed f l ake sa r e mo s tn ume rou s( Tab le 2 00 ) . H uang ( 1985 ) n o ted t wo u nu t i l i sed f l ake s a nd 1 3 t oo ls , a nd h a 's ( 1985 ) s amp le i n c lude sc o re s , f l ake s , t oo l s , a nd w a s te ma te r ia l , a n d af ew p o s s ib le b one t oo l s ( Tab le 1 98 ) .

T he X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo l o ca l i t ies i n r e la t ion t o p rev ious i n terpre ta t ions a nd t he ir s i gn if icance i n P a laeo l i th ic a nd e thnograph ic c ontexts

6 . 1

I n troduc t ion

T he a na ly se s o f s amp le s o f t h e X iaochang l iang a n d Donggu tuo a s semb lage sb y t h ew r i te r i n d ica te t h a t t h e m a in c ha ra c te r i s t ic o fh om in id t e chno logy w a se xped iency .C e r ta in a t t r ibu te so ft h e a r t ef a c t s , h oweve r , p o in t t o s ome d eg re e o f p l ann ing a nd c on t ro l .I tw a s a l so f ound t h a tt h en a tu re o f t h e r aw ma te r ia l s u s ed f o r t o o l manuf a c tu re m ay b e s i gn if ican t i n u nde r s tand ing t h e o n t h e w ho le i n fo rma l n a tu r e o f t h e a s semb lage s , a nd b o th t h e e xped iency a nd p l ann ing . T he t e chno logy a tb o th s i te s s eem s t o b e s im i la r , i n d ica ted , f o r e xamp le , b y t h e p ropo r t ion o fw a s te m a te r ia l s t o t o o l s a n d b yt h ei mpo r tance o fc he r ta nd o ff l ake t o o ls .

T he i d en t if ica t ion o f c he r t a s t h e p r edom inan t r aw ma te r ia l a nd o f v e in q ua r t z a nd b a sa l t a s o t he r s t one s b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 )a g ree s w i th t h e w r i te r 's a na ly s i s , a l though Y ou e ta l . 's ( 1 978 , 1 980 ) c he r t f r equen cy i sh i ghe r ( Tab le 2 0 1) . T he se a u tho r s a l so n o ted q ua r tz i te ( Tab le 2 01) , as t one n o t i d en t if ied i n t h e w r i te r 's s amp le . J i a ( 1985 ) c l a ss if ie s t h e p r inc ipa l m a te r ia l a s f l in t , a nd i s t h e o n ly a u tho r t o h ave i d en t if i ed t h i s s t one a t X iaochang l iang ( Tab le 1 98 ) . T h i s i d en t if i ca t ion m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d i f f icu l ty o f d i s t ingu i sh ing i nt r an s la t ion s b e tween t h eC h ine se c ha ra c te r s

T he f i r s t t wo p a r t s o ft h i s c hap te r d i scu s s t h e o b se rva t ion s o n t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s m ade b y f o rme r w o rke r s . T he p r ima ry s t udy o f t h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage w a s c onduc ted b yY ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) . S ince t h e i r w o rk w a s p ub l i shed ,o n ly t h ree o t he r , a nd l e s s c omp rehen s ive a na ly se s h ave b een c ondu c t ed b y You ( 1983 ) , H uang ( 1985 ) , a nd J i a ( 1985 ) . T he f i r s t a nd mos t e x ten s ive e xam ina t ion o f t h e Donggu tuo a s semb lage sh a sb een c a r r ied o u t b y We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) ,a nd i sb a sed o nt h e ma te r ia l s f r om a l l t r enche s . Mo r e r e cen t ly , S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) h ave c onduc ted as t udy o f t h e T i ,l a ye r Aa s semb lage ,u s ing amode rn a na ly t ica l a pp roach .

f o rf l in ta nd c he r t .2 1 O n ly v e ry f ew a r te f a c t s w e r e i d en t if i ed a sf l in t l ike s t one b y t h i s w r i te r . T he s p ec imen s d e sc r ibed b y Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 :7 ; s e e F ig . 3 1 ) a s " b lock s" o r " p iece s o f s t one" may r e p r e sen t d eb i tage a c co rd ing t oH uang We iwen ( p e r s . c omm . ) ,b u t t h i s c anno tb ec l a r if ied a tp re sen t . T he c o re s d e sc r ibed b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1 978 , 1 980 ) a r ec l a s s if ied o n ly o n t h eb a s is o fs i ze . T h i s p reven t s c ompa r i son w i th t h i s w r i te r 's c l a s s if i ca t ion o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e n umbe r o f p la t fo rm s . L a rge c o re s ( n . 1 9 ) a r e s pec imen s w h ich m ea su re 1 0 -15 c m a nd s ma l l c o re s ( n . 6 ) r ange i ns i ze f r om 0 -5 c mw i th a ppa ren t ly n oc o re s i d en t if ied i n t h e 6 9 c m s i ze r a nge ( s ee Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . A l l c o re s a r e i n c he r t ( You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . T he c he r t i d en t if i ca t ion a g r ee s w i th t h is w r i te r 's f i nd ing , b u t t h e max imum c o re s i ze ( l eng th ) w a s g r ea t e r a nd c o re s i ze r a nge w ide r . T h i sp o s s ib ly m ean st h a tn o ta l lc o re s s t ud ied b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1 978 , 1 980 ) a nd b y t h is w r i te r a r e t h e s ame s pec imen s . T he l a rge c o re s e xh ib i t b o th c o r t ica l a n d n a tu ra l ly r e la t ive ly f l a t p l a tfo rm s , a s w e l l a s p r ep a r ed p l a t fo rm s , b u tY ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) m ake n o r e f e r en ce t o t h ef r equency o fs pec imens i ne a ch o f t h e se c a tego r ie s . O n ly af ew c o r e s w i th c o r t ica l a nd p r ep a r ed p l a t fo rm s a nd s ome w i th f l a t a nd a ppa ren t ly p r epa red p l a t fo rm t a b le s w e r e i d en t if ied b yt h ew r i te r . T he s i xs ma l lc o re s ( F ig . 9 3 ) a ppe a r t o h ave ah i ghe r s c a r c oun t t h an l a rge c o re s a nd a l so s how l o nge r f l ake s c a r s ( s ee You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . T he se o b se rva t ion s c anno t b e c ompa red w i th t h is w r i te r s ' b ecau s e o f d i f f e r en t c o r e c l a s s if ica t ion s a nd t h e l im i ted i n fo rma t ion p r e sen t ed b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) . I n c on t ra s t t o t h i s w r i t e r 's f i nd ing s , a nd p e rhap s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ma l l s amp le s i ze , Y ou ( 1983 ) h a s i d en t if ied o ne b ipo la r c o re ( 3 .8 x2 . 8 x 1 . 9 c m ) . T h is v e in q ua r tz c o re s hows o ppo sed s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s o n b o th e nd s ( You 1 983 ; F ig . 9 4 ) . S im i la r t ot h i s w r i te r , Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) d e sc r ibe t h e ma in r e duc t ion t e chn ique a s d i r e c t p e r cu s s ion w i th o n ly a f ew s p e c imen sp roduced b yb ipo la rp e r cu s s ion .

6 .2 Compar ison t o p rev ious r e search a nd i n terpreta t ions o f t he X iaochang l iang l o ca l i ty P ub l i shed a c coun t s o f t h e X iaochang l iang c o l lec t ion ( s ee Y ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; You 1 983 ; H uang 1 985 ; J i a 1 985 ) a r en o td e ta i led i nt h e i rt e chno log ica la na ly se s ,t h u sa l low ing o n ly l im i ted i n fo rma t ion t ha t c an b e e x t r a c ted f r om t h e se p ub l ica t ion s . F u r the rmo re , t h e t e rm ino logy e mp loyed i sn o t a lways c l ea r ( s ee Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; Y ou 1 983 ; J i a 1 985 ) . T he a r te f ac t sf r om s ec t ion s Aa nd B h ave b een p oo led a s o ne ' a s semb lage ' , a nd i ti s n o t p o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween a r te f a c t sd e r ived f r om e i the ro ft h es e c t ion s( s ee Y ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; Y ou 1 983 ; a nd s e e C hap te r H ) . T h i s i n c on sequence l owe r st h er e so lu t ion a nd i d en t if ica t ion o f l i th ic v a r iab i l i ty b e tween t h es e c t ions .T h i sw r i te r h a s e nd eavou r ed w he re p o s s ib le t o n o te t he p rovenance o f s pec imen s b y s e c t ion . T he mo s te x ten s ive s t udy o ft h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage w a s c onduc t ed b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) . T h r ee o t he r C h ine se s t ud ie s( You 1 983 ; Huang 1 985 ;J i a 1 985 ) a r eb a sed o n s e lec ted s pec imen s a nd i n c lude f ewe r a r te f a c t s t h an t h i s w r i te r 's s amp le ( c f . , T ab le 1 98 a nd C hap te r I I ) . A cco rd ing t o Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) , t h e l a rge s t p ropo r t ion o f t h e a s semb lage c omp r i se s w a s te ma te r ia ls w h ich i n c lude s ma in ly w a s te a nd b rok en p i ece s , b e s ide c o re s a nd u nu t i l i sed f l ake s ( Tab le s 1 98 , 1 99 ) . T he l a rge r f r equen cy o f w a s te ma te r ia ls ( n . 7 89 o r 9 8 .1 % ) d ocumen t ed b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) ,i n c lud ing c o re s( Tab le s 1 98 , 1 99 )c ompa red t o t h is w r i te r 's s t udy c an p o s s ib ly a tl e a s t t o s ome e x ten t b e e xp la ined b y t h e s ma l le r s amp le . T oo ls a r e t h e s ma l le s t l i th ic c a tego ry i n mo s t o f t h e C h ine se s t ud ie s ( You e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; Y ou 1 983 )e xcep ti nH uang ( 1985 ; T ab le 1 98 ) .

2 1

N o t e :C h ine se r epo r t s u sua l ly d on o td i f f e ren t ia te b e tween f l i n ta nd c he r t . T h is i sa tl e a s tp a r t ly b ecau se t h e c ha ra c t e r sf o rf l i n ta nd c he r ta r ei d en t ica l ,a l though t h e re i s a na dd i t iona lc ha rac te rf o rf l in ta sw e l l .

6 3

You e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) a r gue t h a t t h e l a rge c ores w e re a bandoned b ecau se o ff r ac tu re d eve lopmen t ,w h ich a ppea r st o r e f e rt ot h e f r ang ib i l i ty o ft h ec he r t . I nt h is w r i te r 's v i ew , t h e p oss ib le s t ruc tu ra l w eakne s s o ft h e c he r t u sed f o r t h e l a rge c o re s may i n d ica te t h a t Y ou e ta l . 's ( 1978 , 1 980 ) l a rge c o re s a r e i n al e ss f i ne -gra in v a r ie ty , a nd b y i mp l ica t ion t h e p roduc t sd e r ived t h e reof , i . e . t h eh i gh f r equency o fw a s te a nd b roken s pec imens , t h an t h e a ppa ren t ly mo re h igh ly r e duced s ma l l c o res . T h is w ou ld s e em t os ugges t d i f f e rence s i nt h e t r ac tab i l i ty o f t h e c he r t , a nd w ou ld n o t b e c ons is ten t w i th t h is w r i ter 's k napp ing e xper imen ts wh ich i nd ica te c ompa rab le f r ac tu r ing c ha ra c te r is t ics b e tween t h e f i ne c he r t a nd t h ef i ne -coa r se c her t . H oweve r ,b ecause Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) d o n o t e xp l ic i t ly s t a te t h e c ha rac te r is t ics o ft h e c he r t , a nd i nc on t ra s t t ot h is w r i te r h ave n o t c onduc ted as t udy o f t h e m ine ra l c ompos i t ion o f t h e c he r t , t h is p o in t c anno t b e c l a r if ied . A l though i ti sn o ts t a ted w he the ra ny c o re r educ t ion e xpe r imen ts w e re c onduc ted ( s ee Y ou e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 ) , a s g eo log is t s t h e a u tho r s wou ld p robab ly h ave h ad a n i n te re s t i ni d en t ify ing t h ep rope r t ie so ft h e l o ca l s t one ma te r ia l . T he h i gh p ropo r t ion o f w a s te m a te r ia ls , i n c lud ing b roken p ieces i s af unc t ion o f t h e f r ang ib le ma te r ia l o f t h ese a r tef ac t s -a l l o fw h ich a r e i nc he r t -a cco rd ing t oY ou e ta t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ; T ab le 1 98 ) . T he mo re n ume rous w a s te a nd b roken p i ece s o f You e ta t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) , a l l o r s ome o f wh ich may r ep re sen t w a s te f r agmen t s c ompa red t o t h is w r i te r 's s t udy may a tl e a s t t os ome e x ten t b e r e f e rab le t ot h e l a rge rs amp le o fa r tefac t s e xam ined b y t h e se a u tho r s . Y ou e t a t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) s eem t o i mp ly t ha t b ecause o f t h e ir mo rpho logy , t h e w a s te a nd b roken p ieces w ou ld n o t h ave p rov ided u sab le t o o l b l ank s . T he se a u tho r s ( You e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 :9 ) a rgue t h a t r aw ma te r ia l p roper t ie s w ere p a r t ly r e spons ib le f o r s ma l l t oo l s i ze , s i nce t h e c her t b lock s d i s in teg ra te d ur ing p e rcu ss ion a nd d o n o tp roduce " r e la t ive ly l a rge s t one f l ake s" . T ha t t h eq ua l i ty o ft h e ma te r ia ls may t o s ome e x ten t h ave d e te rm ined t h e s i ze o f t h e t oo ls w ou ld a g ree w i th t h is w r i te r 's f i nd ing s . Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) a l so s ugge s tt h a tt oo l s i ze m ay b ea t t r ibu ted t os i ze r educ t ion t h rough r e -use a nd r e juvena t ion o fr e la t ive ly l a rge t oo ls . Y ou e t a l . 's ( 1978 , 1 980 :7 ) o p in ion t ha t t he " unadvanced t e chno log ica l a b i l i ty" o f L owe r P a laeo l i th ic h om in ids may a l te rna t ive ly e xp la in t h e l a rge q uan t i ty o f w a s te ma te r ia ls , a nd t h e e a r ly a ge o f t h e s i te may a l so e xp la in t h e s ma l l n umbe ro ft oo l t y pes , i gno re s o the r f a c to r s w h ich may h ave i n f luenced w as te ma te r ia l a nd t oo l f ea tu res , s uch a s s ub s is tence t e chno logy . T h is w r i te r c oncu r s w i th You e ta t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) t h a tt h eo ccur rence o fw a s te ma te r ia ls a nd t o o l s a tX iaochang l iang a rgues f o rt h e manufac tu re o ft h ea r tefac t s a tt h e s i te ( i t s eems t ha t t h e a u tho r s a re r e f e r r ing t o b o th s e c t ion s o ft h e l o ca l i ty ) . T he d escr ip t ion b y You e t a t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) o f t he X iaochang l iang f l ake sa si regu la r , s ho r ta nd t h ick s pec imens c an t o s ome e x ten t b e c onf irmed b y t h is w r i te r 's f i nd ings , b u t t h e re a r e a l so a n umbe r o f mo re r egu la r , l onge r , a nd t h inne r f l akes . J i a 's ( 1985 ) i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e f l akes a s r e la t ive ly t h in , a cu te e dged a r tef ac t s i nh i s s ma l l s amp le i s o n t h e who le i n cons is ten t w i th t h is w r i ter 's r e su l ts . Howeve r , t h e g ene ra l l a ck o f m e t r ica l d a ta i n t h e C h inese r epo r t s ( e xcep t f o r t h e f ew i lu s t ra ted a r tefac t s w i th s ca le s ) p reven t s ad e ta i led c ompa r i son o ff l ake s i ze . T he v e ry s ma l l n umbe r o fb ipo la r f l ake s i d en t if ied i nt h e C h ine se s t ud ies t wo b i po la r f l ake s i nc he r t ( F ig . 9 5 .2 ) a nd v e in q ua r tz ( You e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 ) a nd t h ree u nu t i l ised b ipo la r f l ake s ( You 1 983 ; F ig . 9 4 ) -a g rees w i th t h is w r i te r 's a na lys is , e xcep t t h a t o ne b ipo la r f l ake i s at o o l . H uang 's ( 1985 ) u nu t i l ised

6 4

f l ake s i n c lude o ne f l ake o fv e ry r egu la rs hape w i th ap repa red s t r ik ing p la t fo rm a nd o ne s pec imen w i th af a ce ted p l a tform ( F ig . 9 6 ) . O n ly o ne f a ce ted p l a tfo rm f l ake w a s i d en t if ied b y t h is w r i te r . B ecause o fd i f f e ren t t oo l c l a ss if ica t ions b e tween t h is w r i te r a nd C h ine se a u tho r sc ompa r isons a r el im i ted . T h ree t o o ls a r e c l a ss if ied a s u t i l ised f l ake s b y You e ta t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ; F ig . 9 7 ) ,a ppa ren t ly b ecau se t h e se w e re n o t mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch ( s ee Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 :8 ) . T h is may b e c ompa red w i th J i a( 1985 ) w ho a rgue s t h a t an umbe ro ff l ake t oo ls s eem t oh ave b een u t i l ised w i thou tp r io rr e touch . You e ta t .' s( 1978 , 1 980 ) r e touched t oo l f r equency i sl a rge r t h an t h is w r i te r 's . Mo s to fY ou e ta l . 's ( 1978 , 1 980 ) 1 5 t o o ls a r e f l ake s c rape r s ( n . 1 ) o fw h ich t h e t e n s i ng le -edge s c rape r s a r eo fr e la t ive ly t r i angu la rs hape w i th i regu la ru n if ac ia l u se ma rk s o n t h e d o r sa l f a ce ( F ig . 9 8 ) . T he o n ly mu l t ip le -edge s c rape rs how sd o r sa l u se -damage o n t wo e dge s w i th r e gu la r ly p a t terned u se -sca rs ( You e t a t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; F ig . 9 9 ) . H uang 's ( 1985 ) t o o ls i n c lude ma in ly v a r ie t ie s o fs c rape r s ( n . 7 : s i ng le s i de , s i ng le e nd , d oub le e nd , n o tched , a nd p ro to c a r ina ted ) , a nd a l so t h ree b u r ins , t wo b o re r s , a nd ac hopp ing t oo l ( F ig . 1 00 ) . Y ou ( 1983 ) i d en t if ied f i ve s i ng le s t ra igh t e dge s c rape r s a nd t wo r ound e nd s c raper s , f i ve p o in t s , i n c lud ing as ma l l t o r to ise b ack p o in t , a nd t wo s ma l l b o re r s ( F ig . 9 4 ) . Sma l l a nd u n if ac ia l ly ( do r sa l ly )r e touched s c rape r s a nd c hoppe r s a r e c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e t oo l a s semb lage ( J ia 1 985) . O ne e dge o f as ma l l a l te rna te ly r e touched a nd u n i la te ra l ly u t i l ised c hopp ing too l w a s mod if ied f o rg ra sp ing a cco rd ing t oY ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ; F ig . 1 01) a nd H uang ( 1985 ) . T races o f u se -wea r w e re n o t i d en t if ied o n t h is s pec imen b y t h e p resen t w r i te r a nd t h e i n terp re ta t ion o f mod if ica t ion f o rh o ld ing t h is s pec imen mu s t b e s pecu la t ive . T he s ma l l n umbe ro fc hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls i d en t if ied b y o ther a u thor s a t X iaochang l iang ( and Donggu tuo ) i n d ica te s al ow u t i l i ty o ft h e se a r tefac t s . A cco rd ing t oY ou e ta t . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) f i ve b one f l akes a nd o ne d ee r -ho rn f l ake w e re mod if ied b y b r eakage p r io rt ot h e i r u se a s t oo ls . J i a ( 1985 ) i d en t if ied s i x p os s ib le b one t oo ls . T he b one f r agmen t s i n c lude f ou re nd -choppe r s , a nd o ne b one a nd t h ed ee r -ho rn f r agmen ta r ec l a ss if ied a sc hoppe r s( You e t a t . 1 978 ) . T he se s pec imen sw e re n o ta va i lab le f o rs t udy . O ne o ft h e t h ree i lu s t ra ted p i ece s e xh ib i t s t wo n a r row , r e la t ive ly d eep a nd t wo s ha l low i n c is ion s i n te rp re ted a s" cu t s" i n cur red d u r ing t oo l m anuf ac tu re ( s ee You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 :10 , F ig . 1 0 .2 ; F ig . 1 02 ) . J udg ing f r om t h e d raw ing ( s ee F ig . 1 02 ) , t h ei n c is ion sm ay h ave o ccu r red d u r ing r e cove ry ( e .g . , t r owe l ma rk s ) . T he r a gged e nd s o f t h is a nd t wo o the r s ma l l b one f r agmen ts ( s ee Y ou e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 , F ig . 1 0 .1 , 3 ; F ig . 1 02 ) may b e af unc t ion o fp os t -depos i t iona l p rocesse s s uch a s c a rn ivo re g naw ing ( e .g . , c f . , B info rd 1 981 , F igs . 3 .06 , 3 . 19 , 3 . 40 ) . F o l low ing C h ia e ta l . 's ( 1972 ) t wo t r ad i t ion h ypo the s is o f C h inese P a laeo l i th ic t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t , t he X iaochang l iang a s semb lage i si n terp re ted a s ap os s ib le l i nk b e tween t h es ma l l a nd l a rge t oo l t r ad i t ions o fn o r the rn C h ina b y Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) . T hese a u tho r s ( You e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) s eem , h oweve r , r e luc tan tt oa t t r ibu te t h e t e chno log ica l f e a tu re s s o le ly t o a' t rad i t ion ' , a nd i nt h is d epa r t f r om many o t he rC h ine se a u tho r s i nc ons ide r ing a l te rna t ive c ause so ft h e c ha rac te r o f t h e a s semb lage , e . g . , t h e p rope r ty o f t h e r aw ma te r ia ls u t i l ised b y t h e h om in ids . T he p re sence o fb ipo la r f l akes l e ad s J i a ( 1985 :142 ) t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e a s semb lage may r ep re sen t p a r t o f a" genera l ised Nor the rn C h inese P a laeo l i th ic t r ad i t ion" . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion i sb a sed o n o n ly

o ne a t t r ibu te a nd d o e s n o t e nhance o u r u nde r s tand ing o f a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty a tX iaochang l iang . 6 .3 C ompar ison t o p rev ious r e search i n terpre ta t ions o f t he D onggu tuo l oca l i ty

c o r r e spond t oS ch ick e ta l . 's ( 199 1 ; T ab le 2 05 ) s amp le s i ze . I tc anno tb ee s tab l i shed f r om S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991 ;T ab le 2 05 ) w ha t t h e a mb iguou s c l a s s if ica t ion c o re s / co re t o o ls e xa c t ly r e f e r st o( a nd s e eb e low ) . Mo re c o r e s w e r e i d en t if ied b y We i ( 1985 , 1 989 )a nd mo re c hunk s b y S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) t h an b y t h i s a u tho r ( Tab le s 2 06 , 2 05 ) . B o th We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a nd S ch ick e ta l . ( 1 991) i d en t if i ed mo re w a s te f l ake s a nd a l a rge r p ropo r t ion o f w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s c ompa r ed t o w ho le w a s te f l ake s t h an t h is w r i te r( Tab le s 2 07 , 2 05 ) . T he se d i sc repanc ie s c ou ld i n d ica te t h a t t h i s w r i te r 's f r equen c ie s w ou ld n eed r e v i s ion i fal a rge r s amp le w e re t o b e e xam ined . We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a l so r e cogn ise s s ub s tan t ia l ly mo re t oo l sa t a l l t r enche so fw h ich mo s ta r eT i s pec imens w i th t h e l owe s t f r equency f r om T 5 ( Tab le 2 08 ) , c ompa r ed t o t h is w r i te r 's , a nd e spec ia l ly t oS ch ick e ta l . 's ( 1991) t o o l f r equency ( Tab le 2 05 ) . H oweve r , S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991 :cf . , 2 1 , 2 4 , a nd T ab le 1 ) a ppea r t o b e u nd e c ided w i th r e g a rd t o t h e c e r ta in i d en t if ica t ion o f t o o ls , a l te rna t ive ly r e f e r r ed t o a s " po s s ib le u t i l ized p i ece s" a nd a s " u t i l ized p i ece s" ( Tab le 2 05 ) . A p ropo r t ion o f a r te f a c t s , a nd s pec if ica l ly f l ake s c l a s s if ied a s t o o l sb y We i ( 1 985 , 1 989 ) may h ave b een i d en t if ied a sw a s te f l ake s b y S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) .

a nd

We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ) e xam ina t ion o f a t o ta l o f 1 , 443 c a ta logued D onggu tuo a r te f ac t s ( We i 1 985 , 1 989 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ; J i a a nd We i 1 987 ) i s t h e mo s t d e ta i led o f t h e C h ine se s t ud ie s ,a l though i ti sr e la t ive ly g ene ra lc ompa red t o c u r ren t a na ly se s b y w e s t e rn a r chaeo log is t s . S ch ick e t a l . ( 199 1) s t ud ied 1 , 432 l i t h ic a r te f ac t s ( n . 1 , 422 i n S ch ick e t a l . 1 99 1 :18 i sp robab ly am i sp r in t ) f r om t r ench T i , l a ye r A ( i .e . 9 8 .5% o f t h e D onggu tuo c o l lec t ion e xam ined b y C h ine se a u tho r s ; We iQ ip e r s . c omm . ; T ab le 2 02 ) . S im i la rt ot h i s w r i te r 's f i nd ing , t h e m a jo r i ty o f We i 's ( 1985 , T ab le 1 ,1 989 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) s pec imens d e r ive f r om T i , w h i le t r enche sT 2 -T5 p r oduced s ub s tan t ia l ly s ma l le r s amp le s w i th t h e l owe s t l i th ic f r equency r e co rded a tT 5 ( Tab le 2 03 ) . T h is w r i te r d o cumen t ed 1 a dd i t iona l a r tef a c t s f r om T 5 c ompa r ed t o We i ( s ee T ab le 6 ) . S ince mo s t o f t h e D onggu tuo m a te r ia l h a s n o t b een c a ta logued , t h e a r te f ac t f r equenc ie s o f a l l f i ve s amp le s t h u s r e p re sen t m in imum f i gu re s . T he r e spec t ive l a ye r s f r om w h ich t h e a r te f a c t s w e r e e xcava ted w e r e r e co rd ed f o r mo s t o f t h e c a ta logued D onggu tuo s pec imen s ,b u tt h en umbe ro fa r tef ac t sf r om e a ch o ft h el a ye r sh a s n o ty e tb een f u l ly e s tab l i shed , a l though t h e v a s tm a jo r i ty d e r ive f r om l a ye r A (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ; s e e C hap te r I ) . We i 's ( p e r s . c omm . ) a nd t h is w r i te r 's T i a s semb lage c omp r i se s s p ec imen s f r om l a ye r A . A r te f a c t s e xam ined b y We i ( p e r s . c omm . ) f r om T 2 -T5 d e r ive f r om l a ye r s A -D , b u t w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e T 4 s amp le , a l l l a ye r s a r e n o t r e p re sen t ed i n t h is w r i te r 's T 2 , T 3 , a nd T 5 s amp le s ,p o s s ib ly e xp la ined b y t h e s ma l le rs amp le s t ud ied .

T he v a s t m a jo r i ty o f c o re s d e r ive f r om T i a nd t h e l owe s t n umbe r f r om T 5 , w h i le t h e T i a s semb lage i st h e o n ly o ne w h ich i n c lude s a l c o re c a tego r ie s a c co rd ing t o We i ( 1985 , T ab le 1 ,1 989 ; T ab le 2 06 ) , o b se rva t ion s c on s i s ten tw i th t h is w r i te r 's f i nd ing s . C ompa r ed t o t h is w r i te r 's s t udy , We i ( 1985 , 1 989 )i d en t if ied mo re c o re sa tT i , T 3 ,a nd T 4 , l e s s a t T 2 , a nd a n e qua l f r equency a tT 5 ( Tab le 2 06 ) . C on t ra ry t o t h i s w r i t e r 's s t udy , We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) i d en t if ie s mu l t i p l a t fo rm c o r e sa st h e mo s t f r equen t c a tego ry , b u t s im i la r t o t h i s w r i te r 's a na ly s is d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s a r e mo re c ommon t h an s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s a nd b i po la r c o r e s r e p r e sen t t h e l e a s t n ume rou s c l a s s , a nd w e r e o n ly r e cov e r ed a tT i (W e i 1 985 , 1 989 , T ab le 1 ;T ab le 2 06 ) . A cco rd ing t o S ch ick e ta l . ( 1 991) t h e ' c o re s / co re t oo l s ' ( Tab le 2 05 ) c an f r equen t ly n o t b e a c commoda ted i n s pec if ic c a tego r ie s s u ch a sp o lyhed ron s , d i sco id s , a nd c o re s c ompa rab le t o c hoppe r s . T he m a jo r i ty a r e c a sua l c o re s a nd s how c oncho ida l f r a c tu re a nd t h e m a in p roduc t s a r e v e ry s ma l l f l ake s a nd f l ake t oo ls ( S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) . I n c on t ra s t t o t h is w r i te r 's a nd We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a na ly se s , S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) w r i te t h a t mos t c o re s h ave g ene ra l ly c ompa ra t ive ly f ew w o rked s u r f a ce s g ene ra t ed b y as ma l l n umbe r o f p e rcu s s ion b low s f r om s i ng le d i re c t ion s , a nd f ew c o re s -p o lyhed ron s , d i sco id s , a nd c hoppe r s -e xh ib i t e x tens ive r e duc t ion . F u r the rmo re , S ch ick e ta l . ( 199 1) i n te rp re tt h ec o re t e chno logy a s u ncomp lex a nd f o r tu i tou s e xh ib i t ing a l ow d eg r ee o f a l te ra t ion a nd s t anda rd i sa t ion . H oweve r , t h i s w r i te r n o ted ar e la t ive ly l a rge d eg ree o fs t anda rd i sa t ion i n d ica ted b yt h ea ppa ren tp repa ra t ion o ff l a tc o re p l a t fo rm t a b le s o n mo s ts pec imens .

D if f e rence s i n t h e f r equenc ie s o f i n d iv idua l l i th ic c a tego r ie s b e tween t h i s w r i te r 's s t udy a nd t h o se o f We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a nd S ch ick e t a l . ( 1 99 1 ) a r e p robab ly e xp la ined b y t h i s w r i te r 's s ma l le r s amp le . F u r the rmo re , d if e r ence s i n l i t h ic c l a s s if ica t ion b e tween t h i s w r i te r a nd f o rme r w o rke r s a nd b e tween t h e se a u tho r s ( s ee We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) i sp o s s ib ly af u nc t ion o f d if e ren t m e thodo log ie s . T he d i f f e r en t f r equenc ie s o f a r te f a c t s a t t r ibu ted t o t h e v a r iou s c a tego r ie sb y We i ( 1 985 , 1 989 ) a nd S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) may b es im i la r ly e xp la ined .T he l a rge rs amp le f r om T i e xam ined b y S ch ick e ta l . ( 199 1 ) , i . e . 2 49 mo re a r te f a c t s c ompa r ed t o We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ) T i s amp le , may n o t f u l ly e xp la in t h e o b se rved d i sc repanc ie si nt h e i rc l a s s if ica t ion s( Tab le 2 02 ) . B o th We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ) T i-T5 a nd S ch ick e t a l . 's ( 1 99 1 ) T i s t ud ie s a g r ee w i th t h i s w r i te r 's i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t w a s te ma te r ia l sf o rm t h e l a rge s t g roup o f t h e Donggu tuo a r te f a c t s ( Tab le s 2 02 -205 ) . T he l i t h ic c a tego r ie s a nd t h e m a jo r c a tego ry i d en t if ied b y We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a r e s im i la r t o t h is w r i te r 's e xcep t t h a t We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) n o ted n o w a s te f r agmen t s ( Tab le 2 03 ) . S ch ick e t a l . ( 1991) r e co rd ed mo r e c a tego r ie s t h an t h i s w r i te r , i n c lud ing a f ew p o s s ib le h amme r s tone s( on c obb le so rb l ock s ) , b u tt h ey a l so o b se rved w a s te f l ake sa st h em a in c a tego ry ( Tab le 2 05 ) . An umbe r o f a r te f ac t si n t e rp re ted b y We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a s c o re s m ay h ave b een c l a s s if ied b y S ch ick e t a l . ( 199 1) a s c hunk s . I t i s p o ss ib le t h a t S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) h ad d i f f icu l t ie s i n c l ea r ly i d en t ify ing t h ef e a tu r e sc ha ra c te r i s t ic o fh amme r s tone s .

T h i s w r i te r 's m a te r ia l a na lys is a g ree s l a rge ly w i th S ch ick e t a l . ( 1991 :15 , 2 1-22 )t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o f a r te f a c t s w e re m ad e i nv a r ie t ie so f" che r t " . H oweve r ,S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991 :15 , 2 1 2 2 ) a l so r e f e r t o t h i s s t one a s " ve ry f i ne -g ra ined , s i l ic if ied q ua r tz i t e" a nd " che r t /f ine -g ra ined q ua r tz i te " w h ich r a nge s f r om f i ne t o c oa r se -g ra in a nd f a u l ty . C la r if ica t ion o f t h e se a mb iguou s t e rm s i s n e eded . S ch ick e t a l . ( 1991) a l so i d en t if ied v e ry f ew a r te f a c t s i n v o lcan ic s t one , l ime s tone o r o t he r ma te r ia l . T he v o lcan ic s t one i sp o ss ib ly t h e v e ry r a r e b a sa l t o b se rved b y t h is w r i te r , b u t n o l ime s tone w a s i d en t if ied a mong t h e Donggu tuo a r te f a c t s . I t c anno t b e e s tab l i shed i fS ch ick e t a l . 's ( 1991) ' o the r m a te r ia l ' m ay i n c lude t h er a r eq ua r tz r e cogn i sed b y t h i sw r i te r .

T he l a rge rs amp le o fT i c o re s a nd c o r e t oo ls i n t h e p r ima ry a na lys i s ( s ee We i [ 1 985 , 1 989 ] ; T ab le s 2 06 , 2 03 ) d oe s n o t

6 5

m anuf ac tu r e . T h i s m ay b e af u nc t ion o f p o s t -depo s i t iona l a genc ie s a tD onggu tuo , p a r t icu la r ly r unn ing w a te r i n w h ich ap ropo r t ion o f f l ake s a nd f r agmen t s w e r e c a r r ied o f f s i te , a l though S ch ick e t a l . ( 1 99 1) a l so a r gue t h a t t h e p r e sen t q uan t i ty o f t h e se a r te f a c t s w ou ld i n f e r t h a t w a te r movemen t w a s n o t p ronounced . F u r the rmo re , an umbe r may n o t h ave b een r e co rd ed d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion ( Sch ick e t a l . 1 991) . S ch ick e t a l . ( 1 991 ) r e a son t h a t t h e p ropo r t ion o f s ma l l d eb i tage i n d ica te si ns i tu f l ak ing a tT i . T he a u tho r s ( S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) m a t ched t h ree p i nk c he r t [ f i ne -coa r se c he r t ; p e r s . o b se rvi f l ake st o ge the r( t wo e nd so f as p l i t f l ake w e re f i t ted t o af l ake d e ta ch ed f r om t h e c o r e a f te r t h e f i r s t t wo p i ece s ) . A l though t h is i s d e s c r ib ed a s a" ve ry c a sua l a t temp t a t r e f i t t ing" ( Sch ick e ta l . 1 99 1 :23 ) , a tl e a s t o ne o f t h e a u tho r s ( To th ) i sa na ccomp l i shed k nappe r ( e .g . , s e e T o th 1 982 ) . I n v i ew o ft h er e la t ive ly l a rge s amp le e xam ined b y S ch ick e ta l . ( 199 1) , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e r a r e f r equency o f c on jo inab le s pec imens a nd t h e s ma l l s amp le o f m ic rodeb i tage i s a n i n d ica t ion o ft h ei n tens i ty o fp o s t -depo s i t iona ld i s tu rbance o f T i . F u r the rmo re , p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance i s a l so s ugge s ted b y t h e v e ry r a r e m ic rodeb i tage n o ted a t t h e o t he r t r enche s b y t h is w r i te r . H oweve r , t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s w e r e n o t s i eved ( W e i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) , a nd t h is m ay h ave b een ac on t r ibu t ing f a c to r t o t h e p a t te rn o f l ow f r equenc ie so fm ic rodeb i tage a nd c on jo inab le s pec imen s .I ti s a l so i mpo r tan t t o n o te t h a t o f o ve r 1 ,000 Donggu tuo s pec imens ( w i th t h e m a jo r i ty r e cove r ed f r om T i) o n ly 1 4 .2% h ave b een a na ly sed . A na lys i s o f t h e w ho le a s semb lage m ay l e ad t ot h e r e cogn i t ion o f mo re c on jo inab le a r te f ac t sa nd m ic rodeb i tage .

S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991 :17 , 2 2 ) d e sc r ibe t h e c he r t i n a n o u t c rop a bou t 5 0 m d i s tan t f r om D onggu tuo a s " b locky , l ow q ua l i ty" m a te r ia l , b u tt h ey a l so r e f e rt ot h ec he r tu sed i nt h e ir e xpe r imen t sa s" exce l len tt op oo r " ( s ee b e low ) . T he o u t c rop i s p o s s ib ly i d en t ica l w i th t h is w r i t e r 's ma in o u tc rop , b u t o the r , s ma l le r o u tc rop s , a l so w i th b l ocky s t one w e r e n o t ed n ea r D onggu tuo . P e rcus s ion e xpe r imen t s b y S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991 :17 ,2 2 )s howed t h el e s s f i ne -g ra in c he r t t o d i s in teg ra t e a nd s ha t te r w i th c o re s a nd f l ake s b r eak ing " w i th b l ocky f r a c tu r e p l ane s" w h ich a cco rd ing t o t h e se a u tho r s m ay b e r e la ted t ot h es omewha th igh q uan t i ty o fc hunk s ( Tab le 2 05 ) . E xpe r imen t s c onduc ted o n c he r t p r odu ced c ompa r ab le d eb i tage s i ze s a nd t h e f i ne c he r t g ene r a ted mo re f l ake s t h an f r agmen t s ( Sch ick e t a l . 1 991 :22 ) . S ch ick e t a l . 's ( 1 99 1) e xpe r imen t s i n d ica te d if e r ence s i n t h e t r ac tab i l i ty o f t h e c he r t , a n i n te rp re ta t ion a l so s ugge s ted b y s ome C h ine se a u tho r s a t X iaochang l iang , b u t n o t b y t h is w r i te r 's e xpe r imen t s . I ti sp os s ib le t h a t t h e se a u tho r s u s ed a mo r e c oa r se -g r a in v a r ie ty o f c he r t t h an t h i s w r i te r a nd a d if e r en t c l a s s if i ca to ry s y s tem o ft h ec he r t . H oweve r , i ti sd i f f icu l t t o c ompa r e t h e r e su l t s o f t h e se e xpe r imen t s b a sed s o le ly o n S ch ick e ta l . 's ( 1991 ) i n suf f ic ien t ly d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion s . I n d ep th a na lyse s o f t h e c he r t v a r ie t ie s a nd f u r the r c on t ro l led e xpe r imen t s s hou ld b e c onduc t ed t o e xp lo re t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h eN ihewan m a te r ia l sf u r the r . T he D onggu tuo c o re s e xh ib i t aw ide r a nge o f s i ze s a nd s hape s ,a nd t h ea ve rage w e igh to fc o re sw a sc a lcu la ted a t1 08 g ram s ( r ange : 1 -758 g ) a c co rd ing t o We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ; F ig s . 1 03 -106 ) .T he f o rme rf i nd ing a g ree s w i th t h is w r i te r 's r e su l t s , b u t t h e w e igh t o f c o re s c anno t b e c ompa r ed i n t h e a b sence o fd a ta . Mo s t o f We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ) c o re s a nd c o r e s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm sa r ec o r t ica l , s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm s a r e u sua l ly c onf ined t o as ma l l a r ea , p l a t fo rm a ng le s ma in ly r a ng e b e tween 7 0 * -90 ° , a nd s ho r t a nd w ide s c a r s a s w e l l a s h i nge f r ac tu r e sa r ea l so c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu re so ft h e c o re s . Mo s t o f t h e se o b se rva t ion s d o n o t a g r ee w i th t h i s w r i te r 's f i nd ing s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e c o r e s c a r f e a tu r e s . T he d if e r en ce s i n i n te rp re ta t ion s may p a r t ly b e e xp la ined b y t h e s ma l le r c o re s amp le a na ly sed b y t h i s w r i te r , b y d if e r en t c l a s s if ica to ry s ys tem s , a nd b y d i f f e ren t m e thod s o f mea su r ing c o re a ng le s . We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e c o r e f r a c tu re s m ay h ave b een p rodu ced t h rough k napp ing a cc iden t s r a the r t h an b e ing r e p re sen ta t ive o f h om in id i n ten t ion , a l so s ugge s ted b y t h is a u tho r . A l l a u tho r s ( W e i 1 985 , 1 989 ; S ch ick e t a l . 1 991) a g r ee t h a t t h e p r ima ry r e duc t ion t e chn ique w a sd i rec th a rd -hamme rp e r cu s s ion ( b a sed o nc o re f e a tu r e sa cco rd ing t o We i [ 1 985 , 1 989 ] ) . I n c on t ra s t t o We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ; F igs . 1 06 , 1 07 ) , J i a a nd We i ( 1 987 ) , a nd t h i s w r i te r w ho h ave a l i d en t if ied a f ew s pec imen s p roduced b yt h eb i po la rt e chn ique , S ch ick e ta l . ( 199 1) n o ted f ew o r n o b ipo la r s pec imen s . T h i s u nce r ta in ty m ay b e e xp la ined b y t h e d i f f icu l ty o fp o s i t ive ly i d en t ify ing b i po la r a r te f a c t s .

T he s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fT i w a s te f l ake s i nt h is w r i te r 's s t udy ( i . e . 0 . 75 -9 .20 c m ) i s c ompa rab le t o t h a t d e te rm ined b y S ch ick e ta l . ( 1 991) o f u nmod if ied f l ake s ( 0 -8 .0 c m ) . T he l a rge r s amp le s i ze o f S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991 ; a nd s e e a bove ) p o s s ib ly a ccoun t sf o rd i f f e r ence si ns i ze d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd t h e g r ea te r max imum s i ze i nt h i s w r i te r 's a na ly s i s s eem s t o b e d ue t o t wo f l ake s . O f at o ta l o f 8 88 u nmod if ied f l ake s a nd f r agmen t s , 6 8 .7% f a l l w i th in t h e 1 3 cm max imum d imen s ion r a nge a nd a m ed ian a nd moda l d i s t r ibu t ion o f b e tween 2 -3 c m( Sch ick e ta l . 1 991 :22 ; F ig . 1 08 ) . T he f u l l m ean ing o fc ompa ra t ive m ea su remen t s b e tween t h i s w r i te r a nd S ch ick e t a l . ( 199 1 ) c anno t , h oweve r , b e a s se s sed , b ecau se o fd i sc repanc ie s i ns amp le s i ze s a nd b ecau se S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) h ave n o ts pe c if ied h ow t h e ir m ea su remen t sw e re t a ken .

We i 's ( 1 985 , 1 989 ) a na lys i s o ff l ake s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm s w a s c onf ined t o w a s te f l ake s . T he m a jo r i ty o f p l a tfo rm s a r e p l a in , c o r t ica l p l a tfo rm s a r e a l so f r equen t , w h i le b i po la r p l a tfo rm s ( f rom T i a nd T 3 ) , a nd t h o se e xh ib i t ing c o r e p repa ra t ion ( f rom T i a nd T 5 )a r el e a s tn ume rou s ( Tab le 2 09 , F ig . 1 07 ) . T he se o bse rva t ion s l a rge ly a g r ee w i th t h i s w r i te r s ' ,a l though s ha t te red p l a t fo rm s w e re a l so i d en t if ied . S im i la r t o S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) t h is w r i te r a l so o b se rved a l ow f r equency o f m ic rodeb i tage ( l e s s t h an 1 c m ) a t T i . S ch ick e ta l . ( 199 1) w ou ld u sua l ly e xpec t mo re t h an 6 0% o f d eb i tage mea su r ing 0 -2 c m t o b e g ene ra ted d u r ing

6 6

A cco rd ing t o We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) , mo s t t o o l s a r e f l ake t o o l s a nd v e ry f ew t oo l s a r e c hoppe r s o n p ebb le s a nd o n f l ake s w i th a l owe r f r equency o f p ebb le c hopp ing too ls a nd c o r e t o o ls ( Tab le 2 10 ) . W i th t h ee xcep t ion o ft h es i ng le n on -f lake t o o l , a l l t o o l s i d en t if ied b y t h is w r i te r a r e o n f l ake s . C hoppe r s ( F ig . 1 09 ) a nd c hopp ing too l s d e sc r ibed b y We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ; T ab le 2 08 ) w e r e n o t a va i lab le f o r s t udy . T hu s , ad i rec tc ompa r i son w i th We i 's ( 1985 , 1 989 ) n on -f lake t oo l s c anno t f o r t h e mo s t p a r t b e m ade , a l though v i ew ing o f t h e p a r t o f t h e a s semb lage n o t s t ud ied i n d e ta i l b y t h is w r i te r f ound n o n on -f lake t o o ls . C la rk a nd S ch ick 's ( 1988 :441) e xam ina t ion o f" . . .a s ma l la s semb lage . . ." o ft h e Donggu tuo a r te f ac t s , i d en t if ied " . . .co r e / choppe r s , f l ake s , f r agmen t s a nd c hunk s w i th s ome mod if i ed p i ece s w i th r e touch o f av e ry c a sua l n a tu re ." S ch ick e ta l . ( 1 991) n o t ed o ne f l ake s c rape r ( f rom l a ye r Ao rB ) , b u t a c co rd ing t o We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) a nd J i a a nd We i ( 1 987 ) , s c rap e r s a r e t h e p r edom inan t t oo l c a tego ry a nd t h e se a r e s ma l l a nd r ef ined s pec imen s ( Tab le 2 08 , F ig . 10 ) . H oweve r , c ompa r i son b e tween f o rme r a u tho r s ' a nd t h i s w r i te r 's t o o l c a tego r ie s i s u sua l ly n o t

p o ss ib le g i ven t h e d i f f e r en t c l a s s if ica to ry s y s tem s ( c f . , We i 1 985 , 1 989 , a nd C hap te r I I ) . We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) e xam ined t h e f r equenc ie s o f u n i , b i , a nd mu l t i la te ra l u s e -wea r o f p ebb le s c rape r s , c o r e s c r ape r s a nd f l ake s c rape r s a l so i n r e la t ion t o e dge s hape ( Tab le s 2 11-214 ) . F l ake s c r ape r s e xh ib i t ma in ly u n i la te r a l u s e -damage o ccu r r ing mo s t f r equen t ly o n c onvex e dge s ( o f at o ta l o f s i x i d en t if i ed s hape s )a cco rd ing t o We i ( 1 985 , 1 989 ;T ab le 2 14 ) . O n ly t h e f i r s to b se rva t ion i ss im i la rt ot h i s w r i te r 's , w h i le e dge s w e r e n o ted a s p r edom inan t ly c oncave -convex . I nd ica t ion s o f u s e w ea r i n t h e f o rm o f m ic ro sca r s m ax ima l ly e x tend ing t o a f ew m i l l ime t re s a l ong u n i la te ra l a nd mu l t i la te ra l ma rg in s w e r e o b ser ved o n n ume rou s f l ake s a nd f l ake f r agmen t s b y S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) ,i n c lud ing al ow f r equency o fd en t icu la te e dge s ( F ig . 11) . H oweve r , t h i s w r i te r a l so n o t ed mo re e x ten s ive u se -wea r s c a r s o n w ho le a nd f r agmen t f l ake s a nd t h a td en t icu la te e dge s a r e n o t u ncommon a tT i . We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) c l a s s if ied p o in ted t o o ls i n to t wo c a tego r ie s o f s ha rp a nd b l un t f o rm s o f w h ich t h e f o rme r i st h e mo s t n ume rou s ( 7 1 .2% ) , a nd i n to t wo s ubca tego r ie s a c co rd ing t ot h e s hape o ft h e i rp o in t so fw h ich b r oad p o in t s a r e mo re f r equen t t h an l o ng p o in t s ( Tab le 2 15 , F ig . 12 ) . A l though t h i s w r i te r n o ted t h a t s ome p o in t s w e r e mo re a cu te /b lun te r a n d b r oade r / longe rt h an o t he r s ,i ts e emed t h a tt h ed i f f e rence sw e re n o t g r ea t e nough t o c l a s s if y t h e se t oo ls l i ke We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) . S ch ick e t a l . ( 199 1) i d en t if ied a s l igh t ly l a rge r n umbe r o f a r te f ac t s e xh ib i t ing r e touch ( n . 1 0 ) t h an t h is w r i te r . T he se a u tho r s( S ch ick e ta l . 1 99 1) r e f e rt ot h er e touch r e su l t ing i n " we l l -def ined " e dge s , p o in t s o r n o t che s a l ong o ne o rs eve ra le dge s( Tab le 2 05 ) ,b u tt h ey d o n o t s pec if y t h e r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f t h e se a r te f a c t s a nd e dge s . T h is w r i t e r i d en t i f ied o n ly o ne r e touch ed p o in t a nd o ne n o tch t h a t m ay h ave b een r e touched a tT i .

a ppea r t o r e g a rd t h e D onggu tuo a s semb lage a s mo r e r e p r e sen ta t ive o f t h e ' e a r ly p ha se ' o f t h e n o r the rn C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic , t h e ' sma l l t o o l t r ad i t ion ' , i n c ompa r i son w i th t h e X iaochang l iang a s semb lage ( s ee J i a a nd H uang 1 985b , F ig . 1 4 .1 ; s e e C hap te r I ) . H oweve r , a s d i scu s sed p rev iou s ly b o th a s semb lage s a r e s im i la r a nd i t i s u nc lea r w hy D onggu tuo s hou ld b ec on s ide red mo re s i gn if ican t . 6 . 4

S ummary

T he mo s t i n fo rma t ive s t ud ie s o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) , We i ( 1985 , 1 989 ) , a nd S ch ick e ta l . ( 1991) . H oweve r , i n c on t ra s t t ot h e C h ine se a u tho r s , S ch ick e ta l . 's ( 199 1) m e thodo logy i s mo re p rob lem o r ien ted . T he i r i n te rp re ta t ions g a in s ub s tance , f o ri n s tance ,b y t h eu se o fp e rcu ss ion e xpe r imen t s a nd t h e c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e i mpo r tance o f m ic rodeb i tage . D if f e rence s i nc l a s s if ica t ion b e tween t h ea u tho r ss ugge s t t h a t t h e a pp l ica t ion o f as t anda rd i sed a pp roa ch c ou ld l e ad t o a c l ea re ru nde r s tand ing o ft h et e chno logy . Wa s te m a te r ia l s h ave b een i d en t i f ied a s f a r mo re n ume rou s c ompa r ed t o t o o ls a tX iaochang l iang ( s ee e spec ia l ly Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 98 ) a nd a tD onggu tuo (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) . T he m o s t d e ta i led s t ud ie s s ugge s t t h a t mos t a r t e f a c t s w e r e m anu f a c tu r ed b y d i rec t h amme r p e r cu s s ion . S ome C h ine se a u tho r s h ave a l so f ound e v idence f o r t h e r a r e u se o ft h e b i po la rt e chno logy . B o th Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 ) a nd S ch ick e ta l . ( 1 99 1) a r gue t h a t t h e n a tu re o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l w a s as i gn if i can tf a c to r i n d e te rm in ing t h e c ha ra c te r o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a s semb lage s , r e spec t ive ly . A l l s t ud ie s o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s h ave f o und t h a t f l ake t o o l s a r e s ub s tan t ia l ly mo re c ommon t h an c o re t o o l s .

T he c l a s s if ica t ion o f t wo b one f r agmen t s f r om T 1 a s t o o l s b y We i ( 1985 , 1 989 , F ig . 7 ,P l a te 2 ; F ig . 13 ) h a s s i nce b een r e t ra c ted (We iQ i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he p o in ted s hape a nd c h ipped e dge s o f t h e s pec imen s may h ave f o rmed t h rough c a rn ivo re g naw ing ( p e r s . o b se rv . ; e . g . , c f . , B in f o rd 1 981 , F ig s . 3 .09 , 3 . 13 , 3 . 45 ) . B one f r agmen t s ( n . 3 8 ) c o l le c t ed d u r ing t h e f i r s t i n ve s t iga t ion s o f t h e N ihewan B a s in ( e .g . , s e eB a rbou re ta l . 1 927 )a r ei d en t if ied a st oo l sb y Wang e ta l . ( 1988 ) , b u tt h ei lu s t ra ted s pec imen s ( s ee Wang e ta l . 1 988 , F ig . 1 ,P la te s I I I I ) a ppea r t o s how t h a t t h e i r m od if ica t ion m ay b e a t t r ibu tab le t os im i la rt a phonom ic p roce s se sa st h o se f r om X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo .

6 .5 T he s i gn if icance o f t he N ihewan a ssemb lages i n t he P a laeo l i th ic a nd e thnograph ic c ontex t s : I n troduc t ion T h is p a r t i n c lude s c ompa r ison s t o ma in ly n on -Ch ine se P a laeo l i th ic a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta i n a n a t temp t t o g a in a mo re c omp rehen s ive i n s igh t i n to h om in id b ehav iou r a t t h e e a r l ie r N ihewan B a s in l o ca l i t ie s . T he se c ompa r ison s a r e i mpo r tan t , s i nce i n t e rp re ta t ion s b y C h ine se a u tho r s o f l i th ic t e chno logy a nd t h e i r r e levance t o u nde r s tand ing h om in id b ehav iou r a r e u sua l ly g ene ra l s t a temen t s . F u r the rmo re , i n d ep th s t ud ie s o fE a r ly P l e i s tocene d epo s i t iona ry c on tex t s a s t h ey h ave b een c onduc t ed e spec ia l ly i n A f r ica a r e e x t reme ly l im i ted i nC h ina .

T he s ma l l s i ze o f t h e D onggu tuo t oo ls , t h e v a r ie ty o f p o in t s , c hoppe r s , a nd c hopp ing too l s , a nd f i ne r e touch a r e i n t e rp re ted a sa dvanced f e a tu re s a nd v i ewed a s c ompa rab le t o L a te P le i s tocene C h ine se l i t h ic a s semb lage s , s pec if ica l ly t o X u j iayao (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; J i a a nd We i 1 987 ; a nd s e e I kawa -Sm i th 1 983 :193 ) . T h i s s umma ry i n te rp re ta t ion i g no r e s t h e p o s s ib le i nf luence t h e r aw ma te r ia l s m ay h ave h ad o nt o o ls i ze a nd o ve r -empha s i se st oo l v a r iab i l i ty . I ta l so e xagge ra te s t h e r e touch f e a tu r e s , p o s s ib ly b ecau se t h i s k i nd o f r e touch i s u nexpe c t ed c ompa r ed t o o t he r C h ine se a s semb lage s o f t h is e a r ly a ge . A l though J i a ( 1 985 :144 ) c on s ide r s s ome r e touch m e thod s o f t h e Z houkoud ian L o ca l i ty 1a nd X u j iayao a s semb lage sc ompa rab le t ot h o se o f D onggu tuo ,a nd s pec if i ca l ly s e e ss im i la r i t ie si n an umbe r o f t o o lc l a s se sa nd r e touch t e chn ique so f Donggu tuo t oL oca l i ty 1 ,h e f a i ls t o s uppo r t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w i th d e ta i led d a ta . We i ( 1985 , 1 989 )a nd J i a a nd H uang ( 1985b ) a r gue t h a t t h e L oca l i ty 1a s semb lage m ay r e p r e sen t ac on t inu i ty i n l i th ic d eve lopmen t f r om D onggu tuo b a sed o n t h e s im i la r i t ie s o f t h e s ma l l a r tef a c t s . J i a ( 1 985 ) a nd J i a a nd H uang ( 1985b )

6 .5 .1 T he d epo s i t iona l a nd c on tex ts , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing f requenc ies

c hrono log ica l a nd l i th ic

X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a r et h ough tt or e p re sen ts i te s l o ca t ed i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e N ihewan p a laeo lake s ho re l ine a nd e x t inc t s t ream s a nd /o r r i ve r s (We i 1 985 , 1 988 , 1 989 ; P ope u npub l . ; s e eC hap te r I ) . T he p redom inan t ly f i ne -g ra in a nd w e l l so r ted s e d imen ta ry c on tex t o f t h e c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l s f r om X iaochang l iang a nd t h e l a rge ly f i ne -g ra in d epo s i t s a t D onggu tuo ( s ee C hap te r I ) may b e c ompa red w i th t h o se o f s ome A f r ican P l e i s to cene s i te s . A tt h e se s i te s s i l t s a nd c l ay s h ave b een i n te rp re ted a ss ugge s t ive o f f l oodp la in s l a id d own u nde r l ow -ene rgy c ond i t ions ( I saa c 1 981 ; a nd s e e P o t t s 1 988 :57 ) , a nd t h e f i ne -g ra in s a ndy s i l t s o f s ome o f t h e K oob i F o ra l o ca l i t ie s w e r e a l so d epo s i ted i n l ow -ene rgy c on tex t s o n f l oodp la in s ( Bunn e t a l . 1 980 ; a nd s e e I s aa c

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1 981) . T he c l ay s a nd s a nd s o f l a ke -ma rg in s i te s ( Bu t ze r 1 993 , T ab le 4 . 1) a r e d epo s i ted u nde r l ow -ene rgy c ond i t ion s ( I saa c 1 981 ; B u tze r 1 993 , T ab le 4 . 1) . A l though t h e f r e sh w a te r mo l lu sc f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r o f X iaochang l iang may i n d ica te t h e e x is tence o f af r e sh -wa te r s t ream n ea rt h es i te , t h es i ngu la r i ty o ft h i s f i nd may s ugge s t t h a ti ti so u to fc on tex t ( c f . , I s aac 1 98 1) . T he s and -g rave la tt r enche sT 1-T5 ( We i Q ip e r s . c omm . ) , t h e c ong lome ra t ic s i l ty s and s tone w i th p ebb le s a nd c obb le s a t t r ench T 1 ( Sch ick e t a l . 1 991) o f l a ye r D , a nd t h e w e l l r ounded g r ave l s f ound a t an ew ly e xpo sed s e c t ion o f t r ench T i i nl a ye r s C , D , a nd E a nd f u r the r a l ong f r om t h is t r ench i n l a ye r s Aa nd B s ugge s t t h a t t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l s h e r e m ay h ave b een d i spe r sed b y f l uv ia l a c t iv i ty , s uch a s a f a s t -mov ing s t ream ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . T he s i gn if icance o f t h is m ay b e f u r the r e va lua ted w i th r e f e r en ce t oI s aa c ( 1 967 ) w ho f ound t h a tt h el o ca t ion o fa r te f a c t s i ng r ave l d epo s i t s i s ma in ly c au sed b y h yd ro log ica l d i spe r sa l , a nd t h a t s a nd s a nd c ong lome ra te s ed imen t s a r e s ugge s t ive o f s t r eam c hanne l s ( I saa c 1 981) . A l te rna t ive ly , t h e se s ed imen t s m ay h ave b een d epo s i t ed b y s hee twa sh , p e rhap s c ompa rab le t o O lduva i l o ca l i ty DK w he re t h e r o unded p ebb le s i n f i ne -g ra in s ed imen t s h ave b een i n te rp re ted a s p o s s ib le s h ee twa sh s ed imen t s ( Hay 1 976 :45 , 4 8 ; P o t t s 1 988 :58 ) . T he s ed imen ta ry c on tex t s o f b o th l o ca l i t ie s h ave b een i n te rp r e ted a s p r ima ry ( J ia a nd We i 1 987 ) . H oweve r , t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f a b r aded a r te f a c t s ( c f . , I s aa c 1 967 ; B u t ze r 1 993 :39 , T ab le 3 1 , F ig . 4 . 5 ; P o t t s 1 988 :6 1-62 ; a nd s e e V i l la 1 983 :47 ) a nd t h e s ma l l m ic rodeb i tage s amp le f r om T i ( Sch ick e ta l . 1 991 ; a nd c f . , S ch ick i n B unn e t a l . 1 980 ) s ugge s t t ha t s ome h yd ro log ica l r e a r rangemen t h a s t a ken p l ace a t b o th s i te s . T he l a ck o f v e ry s ma l l f l ake s a t X iaochang l iang may i nd ica te t h a t t h e se w e r e m i s sed d u r ing e xcava t ion ( c f . , S ch ick e t a l . 1 991) , a l though t h i s i s p o s s ib ly t o s ome e x ten t r e la ted t o t h e s ma l l s amp le . T he p r edom inance o f s ma l l a r te f a c t s a t b o th s i te s m ay s ugge s t u np ronounced d i spe r sa l o f a r tef a c t s ( a nd f o ss i l s ) b y w a te r . T he v e ry f ew c on jo inab le a r tef ac t s f r om D onggu tuo a nd t h e l a ck o f t h e se a t X iaochang l iang m ay b e e xp la ined b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f o n ly p a r t o f t h e c o l lec t ion s , a nd /o r d i spe r sa l b y w a te r ( a s a l so i n d ica t ed b y t h e m ic rodeb i tage e v idence ) a nd /o rl a ck o fs i ev ing . Al a ck o fc on jo inab le p i ece s m ay b e i n d ica t ive o fh i gh e ne rgy f l uv ia ld i s tu rbance a nd /o rt h a tn oo r m in ima l f l ak ing o ccu r r ed a t al o ca l i ty a nd /o r p r e f e ren t ia l r emova l o f a r te f ac t s b y h om in id s ( To th 1 982 :88 ) . O the r i nd ica t ion s o f f l uv ia t i le r e a r rangemen t , s u ch a s p r e f e ren t ia l d i rec t ion o f ma te r ia ls ( s ee , e . g . , I s aa c 1 967 ; P o t t s 1 988 :6 1) c anno t b e a s se s sed f o r g ene ra l l a ck o f i n fo rma t ion . R a inf a l l ( G if fo rd 1 978 ) may h ave d i s loca ted s ome a r tef a c t s a t t h e s i te s ,e spec ia l ly m ic rodeb i tage . T he f i ne -g ra in s ed imen t s o f b o th s i te s m ay h ave o cca s ioned v e r t ica la nd p o ten t ia l ly a l so h o r izon ta ld i spe r sa l o f t h e s ma l l a r te f ac t s( c f . , G i f f o rd 1 978 ; V i l la 1 983 :70 ) o ve r at h ickne s s o f 0 . 3 m a tX iaochang l iang a nd 0 . 2 -0 .7 m a t D onggu tuo . T he re i s n o c l ea r e v idence t h a t t h e o ccu r r ence s h ave b e en a f f ec ted b yp l an ta c t iv i t ie s( c f . ,G if fo rd 1 978 ) , r oo t n e two rk s ( c f . , B u tze r 1 993 :113 ) , o r b i o tu rba t ion ( c f . , B ocek 1 992 ) , a l though ap o ten t ia l s ou rce o f b i o tu rba t ion a tD onggu tuo i s t h e mo le r a t Myospa lax c f . f on tan ier i ( s ee A ppend ix 4 ) w h ich d ig se x ten s ive t unne l s a nd t h row s t h e e xcava t ed e a r th o n t o t h e s u r f a ce ( Nowak a nd P a rad i so 1 991 :712 ) . A lmo s t c e r ta in ly t h e re h a sb een l o s s o f a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l s a s a r e su l to fe ro s ion a nd g o rge f o rma t ion .

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G if f o rd 's ( 1978 ) s ugge s t ion t h a t a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s w i l ln o tb ei n co rpo ra ted a nd p r e se rved o n n on -pe rmeab le s i te s u r f a ce s , s uch a s s t one , m ay b e o f r e levance i f t h e X iao chang l iang ( a nd D onggu tuo? ) h om in id s manu f a c tu r ed s ome a r tef ac t s o n t h e m a in o u tc rop f r om w h ich t h ey o b ta ined t h e i r r aw ma te r ia l s . T he s u r f a ce o f t h e o u tc rop a s n ow k nown i sh a rd , i n c rea s ing t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t a r te f ac t s , a nd o t he r p o s s ib le c u l tu ra l m a t e r ia l s w h ich may h ave b een d epo s i t ed h e re c ou ld n o t h ave b ecome p a r t o f t h e s ub s t ra te , a nd w e re l o s ta s ar e su l t . T he s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e d epo s i t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls w a s c on t inuou s a t b o th s i te s (We i 1 988 ) w ou ld i n d ica t e l o nge r o ccupa t ion o f D onggu tuo w i th i t s t h icke r d epo s i t s a nd f i ve l a ye r s ( d epo s i t ed d u r ing t h e s ame t ime p e r iod sa tt h et r enche s )c ompa red t ot h ea ppa ren t ly s i ng le a nd r e la t ive ly t h in l a ye ro fX iaochang l iang . T h is i sa l so i n d ica ted b yt h el a rge rq uan t i ty o fa r te f a c t sr e cove red f r om D onggu tuo . I tt h u s s e em sp o s s ib le t h a tt h eX iaochang l iang a r tef a c t s may h ave b een p r odu ced d u r ing o ne s i ng le p e r iod o f h om in id a c t iv i ty . T he a l te rna t ing l a cu s t r ine a nd f l uv ia l d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t sa tD onggu tuo a sd educed f r om t h e s ed imen ta ry e v idence s , s ugge s tt h a tf l ood ing o ft h es i te w ou ld h ave m ade c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion i mpo s s ib le . T he p re sumed c on t inu i ty o fo ccupa t ion a tD onggu tuo m ay i n d ica te t h a t a r te f a c t s ( a nd f o s s i ls ) w e r e f o und c on t inuou s ly d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t t h e f i ve l a ye r s . T h i s p a t te rn o f d i s t r ibu t ion a nd t h e t h ickne s s o f s ome l a ye r s s ugge s tt h a tt h e se a r en o t l i v ing f l oo r s , a nd m ay i n s tead b e i n d ica t ive o f p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance a nd p o s s ib le m ix ing o f ma te r ia l s , a nd n o t o f s epa ra te p e r iod s o f o ccupa t ion ( c f . , V i l la 1 983 :67 -69 ) . A v e r t ica l t h ickne ss o f a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l s o ve r af ew i n che s h a s b een d ef i ned a s al i v ing f l oo rb y M . L eakey ( 1 971 :258 ) . No g r id p l o t w a s u s ed a t Donggu tuo a nd s ome a r te f a c t s a r e o f u nknown s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance ( We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) . T h i s p r even t s a n a c cu ra te a s se s smen t o f t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s a nd d en s i ty o f t h e D onggu tuo a r te f a c t s ( i nc lud ing l i th ic c a tego r ie s ) a nd f o s s i l s w i th in a nd b e tween t h e l a ye r s a nd t r enche s . A l though i th a s b een s ugge s ted o n t h e b a s is o f s t ra t ig raph ic c o r r e la t ion t h a t X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a r e c on tempo raneou s , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e se l o ca l i t ie s m ay n o t b e t ime e qu iva len t s hou ld a l so b e c on s ide red . I f X iaochang l iang a nd l a ye r ( s ) D o r B a r e c on s ide r ed c on tempo raneou s , h om in id a c t iv i ty a t Donggu tuo d u r ing t h e se p e r iod sa ppea r st oh ave b een l e ss i n tense b a sed o n t h e s ma l ln umbe ro fa r te f a c t sf r om l a ye r s Da nd B . Howeve r , t h e t o ta la r tef ac tf r equenc ie sf r om l a ye r s Da nd B ( a nd A , Ca nd E ) h ave n o tb een e s tab l ished , a l though i ti sk nown t h a t mo s t o f t h e D onggu tuo a r te f a c t s w e r e f o und i n l a ye r A . T hu s , c o r r e la t ion w i th l a ye r A w ou ld i n d ica te mo re i n ten s ive h om in id o ccupa t ion a tD onggu tuo t h an a t X iaochang l iang . T he r e i s a t p r e sen t n o w ay o f k now ing t h e p r e c i se a r chaeo log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s o f X iaochang l iang a nd t h e v a r iou s D onggu tuo h o r izon s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e s ame h om in id s w e re i n vo lved a tb o th s i te s . A l though i t i s k nown t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e X iao chang l iang a r t e f a c t s d e r ive f r om s e c t ion A , t h e g ene ra l p auc i ty o fd a ta o n t h es pa t ia lp a t te rn ing , d ens i ty , a nd r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f mo s t a r te f a c t s , s e ve re ly l im i t s t h e s cope f o r t h ei d en t if ica t ion o fa c t iv i ty a r ea sa nd t h us o f mo re i n fo rmed b ehav iou ra l i n te rp re ta t ion s . T he r e cen t r e cove ry o f mos t c o r e s f r om s e c t ion B a nd mo s t d eb i tage a nd t oo ls f r om s e c t ion A , p i t s ca nd em ay o r m ay n o t i n d ica te t h a t c o r e r e du c t ion o ccu r r ed p r ima r i ly i n t h e s e c t ion B a r ea . T h is

w ou ld p o s s ib ly c on t rad ic tt h ee v idence f r om s e c t ion A w he r e mo s t a r te f a c t s w e r e f ound . S im i la r ly , p i t s ca nd e m ay o r m ay n o th ave b een a r ea so fp a r t icu la r ly i n ten se a c t iv i ty . T he p r e sen t p a t te rn o f d i s t r ibu t ion s ugge s t s t h a t t oo l m anu f a c tu re ,u se a nd /o rd i sca rd w a s c a r r ied o u t i n b o th a r e a s o ft h e s i te , a nd p o s s ib ly m a in ly i ns e c t ion A . T he p r e sence o ft h ev a s tm a jo r i ty o ft h e D onggu tuo a r t e f a c t s a tT i a nd i nl a ye r As ugge s t st h a t t h e y ounge s t s t ra t ig raph ic l a ye r a t t h e l a rge s t t r ench r e p r e sen t s t h e d en se s t a r ea o f h om in id a c t iv i ty . T he s ma l l q uan t i ty o f a r te f ac t s r e cen t ly r e cove r ed f r om T i may i n d ica t e t h a t t h is p a r t o f t h e t r ench w a s l o ca t ed a t t h e ma rg in o f h om in id a c t iv i ty . H oweve r , i n d ica t ion so fd epo s i t iona ry d i s tu rbance ( s ee a bove )m ay a l te r t h is s c ena r io . T he s ma l le r a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s f r om t r enche sT 2 -T5 m ay i n d ica te t h a t t h e se w e r e l e s s i n ten s ive ly u t i l i sed p l ace s , p e rhap s l o ca ted o n t h e p e r iphe ry o f h om in id a c t iv i ty . T h is may b e s im i la r t o t h e p a t te rn i d en t if ied a t K oob i F o ra l o ca l i ty F xJ j 5 0 w he re av e ry l ow c oncen t ra t ion o fa r te f a c t sa nd b one s w a s n o ted a tt h e s ou the rn e dg e o f t h e e xcava t ed a r ea ( s ee B eh ren smeye ra nd K au fu lu i n B unn e ta l . 1 981 ) . T he p re sence o fw a s te m a te r ia l sa nd t oo ls ( t he f o rme r b e ing mo re c ommon t h an t h e l a t te r a ta l l t r enche s ) i n d ica te s t h a th om in id sm anuf a c tu red a nd u s ed a nd /o rd i sca rded t o o l s a t a l t r ench a r ea s . T h is may s ugge s t t h a t t h e f i ve t r enche s r e p r e sen t s e pa ra te o r p a r t s o f s e pa ra te a c t iv i ty a r ea s . T he r e la t ive f r equency o f l i th ic c a tego r ie s , i n c lud ing t h e v a ry ing p ropo r t ion s o f t oo l c a tego r ie s b e tween t h e f i ve t r enche s a na ly sed b y t h e w r i te r m ay i n d ica te v a r ia t ion i n a c t iv i t ie s b e tween t h e se a r ea s .T he n umbe ro fa r te f a c t s , i n c lud ing t oo ls a nd t o o l c a tego r ie s f r om T i i n d ica t e t h a t h om in id a c t iv i ty w a s mo s t c oncen t ra ted a nd d i ve r se a t T i . A t t h e s ma l le r t r enche st h eh i ghe ra r tef ac tf r equenc ie so ft r enche sT 2 a nd T 3 may i n d ica te mo re i n ten se a c t iv i ty c ompa red t o T 4 a nd T 5 . H oweve r , t h e c ompa ra t ive t o ta l f r equenc ie s o f a r tef a c t s a nd l i t h ic c a tego r ie s f r om t h e se t r enche s h ave y e t t o b e e s tab l i shed . F u r the rmo re , b ecau se t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance o ft h e T 2 -T5 a r t e f a c t s c an i n mo s t c a se s n o t b e e s tab l i shed ( 55 .9% w h ich c on s t i tu te s 1 3 .4% o f a l l a r t e f a c t s i nt h i s s t udy ) , v a r iab i l i ty o f l i t h ic c a tego r ie s a nd f r equenc ie s b e tween t h e se t r enche sa nd b e tween t h e l a ye r s may n o t b e a t r ue r e p r e sen ta t ion o f a c tua l f r equenc ie s . G iven t h e p re l im ina ry d a ta b a se a nd t h e v e ry s ma l l T 2 -T5 s amp le s c omp r ehen s ive s t ud ie s o f s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing w ou ld b e m ean ing le s s . W i th r e f e rence t o P o t t s ' ( 1988 :145 ) A f r ican s t ud ie s , p o s s ib le mu l t ip le s i te o ccupa t ion a t D onggu tuo w ou ld m ean s ub s tan t ia lc hange o ft h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s i te 's c on ten t s , t h u s c omp l ica t ing i n te rp re ta t ion s o f s pa t ia la na ly s is a nd h om in id a c t iv i t ie s .

Ma sao 1 991 ; S t e rn 1 993 ) .T h is a pp roa ch h a s b een v a r iou s ly t e rmed " t he sca t te r -be tween the -pa t che s" ( I saa c a nd H a r r i s 1 975 , 1 980 ) , " of f s i te a r chaeo logy" ( Fo ley 1 981 :157 ) , " s ca t te r s a nd p a tche s a na ly s is" ( I saa c 1 981 i n I s aa c 1 989 :216 ) , a nd " l and s cape a r chaeo logy" ( B lumensch ine a nd Ma sao 1 991 :452 ) . I n al a rge ly u nexp lo red r e g ion s uch a s t h e N ihewan B a s in w h ich h a s y i e lded a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , t h i s a pp roa ch i s e spec ia l ly i mpo r tan t a nd r e levan t i n i d en t if y ing h om in id l a nd -u se p a t te rn s a s t h e r e cen t d i scove ry o f X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang h a s d emon s t ra ted . T he q ua r tz i te a r te f a c t r e cove r ed f r om a P le i s tocene l o ca l i ty n ea r N ihewan v i l lage ( Ka i a nd We i 1 974 , G a i a nd We i 1 989b ; C hang 1 977 ) i ss im i la r t oo ne o f t h e X iaochang l iang c o r e s ( s ee F ig . 3 6 ) a nd m ay r e p r e sen t af u r the r o f f s i te o ccu r rence . H oweve r , t h is l o ca l i ty a nd D ong Y ang m ay r e p re sen t o ccupa t ion s i te s . F u r the rc u l tu ra l ma te r ia l s may b e c on ta ined i n t h e w h i te f o s s i l if e rou s l a ye r w h ich r un s b ack f r om t h e X iaochang l iang p romon to ry t o n ea r G uan t ing v i l lage , b u t t h e s t eepne ss o ft h is r e la t ive ly n a r row a r ea a nd t h e t h ickne s s o ft h e o ve rbu rden w ou ld m ake i n ve s t iga t ion s d i f f icu l t ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) . 6 .5 .2

L i th ic t echno logy a nd h om in id b ehav iour

T he p r edom inance o f w a s te ma te r ia l s i n t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s i s c on s i s ten t w i th t h e o b se rva t ion m ade b y H a r r i s a nd I s aa c ( 1 976 ) t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o f P le i s tocene i n du s t r ie s i n c lude h i ghe r f r equenc ie s o f w a s te m a te r ia l s c ompa r ed t o t o o l s ( d eb i tage r e p re sen t s b e tween 5 7 .8% a nd 9 9 .4% o f 2 2 a s semb lage s f r om O lduva i B ed s Ia nd I a nd K a ra r i ) . A na ppa ren tp re f e rence f o r c he r t a tt h e N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s i s a l so i n d ica ted a tO lduva i S i t e HWK E a s t ( Lowe r M idd le B ed I ) w he r e L eakey ( 1971 :96 ) n o ted ar i se i n c he r t u se a nd a c oncom i tan t d ec l ine i n q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te u se , e spec ia l ly w i th r e spec tt ou t i l i sed f l ake sa nd l i gh t -du ty t oo ls a ppa ren t ly i n d ica t ing t h a t c he r t r a the r t h an o the r s t one s w a s s e le c t ed w hen i tw a s a va i lab le ( a nd s e e H ay 1 976 :183 ) . Ap r e f e r ence f o r t h e f i ne c he r t o f t h e D onggu tuo b i po la r c o r e s ( a nd c f . , B in fo rd a nd Q u imby 1 963 :286 ) may h ave l e d h om in id s t o c on t inue f l ak ing u s ing b i po la rp e rcu s s ion a st h es i ze o ft h e se c o r e s d e c r ea sed . F u r the r c o re r e duc t ion may o n ly h ave b een a ch ievab le w i th t h e b i po la r t e chn ique i n t h a t i tm ay h ave e nab led ag r ea te rc on t ro lo ve rt h e s ma l lm a te r ia l t h an m ay b e p o s s ib le w i th d i rec tp e r cu s s ion ( c f . , T o th 1 982 :126 ; s e e a l so C rab t ree 1 972 :9 ) . F u tu re r e sea r ch t h rough c hem ica l a na ly s is o ft h er aw m a te r ia ls s im i la rt ot h a tc onduc ted b y S t i le s e ta l . ( 1974 )a nd S t i le s ( 1 991) w ho se s t udy o f as amp le o fv a r iab ly c o lou red c he r t f r om O lduva i s i te MNK CFS b y 0 18 /0 16 a nd X ray f l uo re scence a na ly se s c onc luded t h a t an umbe r o f s pec imen s d e r ived f r om ad i f f e ren t r aw ma te r ia l s ou rce m ay b e a b le t o i d en t if y t h e e xac t s ou r ce ( s ) o f t h e v a r iou s m a te r ia l sf r om t h eN ihewan o u tc rop s .

A l though a n umbe r o f p roce s se s s uch a s d i f f e r en t ia l p re se rva t ion b i a s t h e s t udy o f a s semb lage s ( I saa c 1 981 ; S t i le s 1 99 1) , i ti sa l so i mpo r tan t t oc on s ide r t h a t e ven t h e m a te r ia l s f r om l a rge e xcava t ion s m ay o n ly r e p re sen t a n u nknown p o r t ion o ft h ef u l lr a nge o fh om in id a c t iv i ty . T h i s h a s , f o r i n s tance , b een d emon s t ra t ed t h rough s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion w o rk a t an umbe ro fE a r ly a nd M idd le P le i s tocene s i te s i n E a s t A f r ica . A t O lduva i G o rge , L , eakey ( 1971 , f r on t i sp iece map ) r e co rd ed 7 2 a r chaeo log ica l l o ca l i t ie s ( d i s t r ibu ted a l ong t h e Ma in G o rge a nd t h e S ide G o rge ) . F u r the rw o rk a tt h e" Z in jan thropu s" s i t ea tO lduva i b y K ro l l a nd I s aa c ( 1 984 )s howed t h a ts e ve ra l a r te f a c t f r agmen t s c ou ld b e r e -f i t t ed b e tween t h i s d en se a c t iv i ty a r ea a nd t h e n e ighbou r ing l e s s d en se a r ea . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia ls , a nd t h u st h et o ta l r a nge o f h om in id a c t iv i t ie s c an o n ly b e a s ce r ta ined a nd u nde r s tood b y i n ve s t iga t ing t h e u nexcava t ed a r ea s ( B lumen sch ine a n d

T he f e a tu r e s i n d ica t ive o f b i po la r p e rcu s s ion o n t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo f l ake s m ay h ave d eve loped t h rough r e bound a st h eh amme r s tone s t ruck t h e c o re , p r e s sed i ta ga in s t t h e a nv i l a nd t h u s c r u shed t h e r e lea se s u r f a ce ( a nd c f . , C rab t ree 1 972 :42 , 4 1 , 1 ) . A l though t h e u s e -wea r s c a r s o ft h ee nd u t i l ised b i po la r f l ake f r om X iaochang l iang o n t h e d i s ta l e nd a r e d i s t inc t , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty s hou ld b e c on s ide r ed t h a t t h e se may h ave d eve loped a s a r e su l t o f b i po la r p e rcu s s ion ( s pon taneou s r e touch? , c f . , N ewcome r 1 976 ; K ee ley 1 980 :25 ,4 )i nv i ew o ft h ep e rcu ss ion d amage o n t h is s pec imen .

6 9

W i th r e ga rd t o t h e a b sence o f h amme r s tone s a t X iaochang l iang a nd a t D onggu tuo i n t h is s t udy ( bu t s e e 6 . 3 ) , i tm ay b e u sefu l t op o in t o u t t h a t h amme r s tone s h ave b een r e cogn i sed a s r e la t ive ly r a re a r te f a c t s i n p ropo r t ion t o t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f s t one a r te f ac t s i n s ome w e l l s tud ied a s semb lage s . T he i r p o s s ib le e xpec ted f r equency m ay b e s ugge s ted b y s ome f r equenc ie s r e co rd ed f r om E a r ly a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene s i te s i n E a s t A f r ica . A t O lduva i G o rge t h e s i te DK a s semb lage ( Lowe r B ed ) i n c lude s 4 . 0% ( n . 4 8 ) o f h amme r s tone s , a nd t h e F LK a s semb lage ( M idd le B ed ) y i e ld ed 0 . 6% ( n . 1 3 ) ( s ee M .D . L eak ey 1 971 :37 , 3 9 , 5 3 , 5 8 ) . I n c ompa r ison , f i ve l o ca l i t ie s a t K oob i F o ra y i e lded 0 . 5% o fh amme r s tone s ( n . 1 7 o f t o ta l a r t e f a c t n . 3 , 349 ; s e e T o th 1 982 :33 , 5 6 -57 , T ab le 3 . 1) . I t m ay , h oweve r , n o t a lway sb ep o s s ib le t oi d en t if y h amme r s tone sa s a r te f a c t s . A s T o th ( 1982 :142 -143 ) h a s o b se rved i n e xpe r imen t s , p e r cu s s ion w ea r o n ( c obb le ) h amme r s tone s w i th " h a r d c o r t ica ls u r f ace s" t o ok l o nge rt og ene ra te t h e d i s t inc t ive w e a r f r om i mpac t c ompa r ed t o t ho se w i th s of t c o r tex . T he r e la t ive ly s of t c o r tex o f p ebb le s a nd c obb le s o n t h e D onggu tuo P la t fo rm s hou ld t hu s make h amme r s tone u se w ea rr e la t ive ly e a s i ly i d en t if iab le . T he c obb le u t i l ised a s a n h amme r s tone d u r ing e xpe r imen t s s howed d i s t inc t , s ha l low b a t te r ing ma rk s a f te r a s ho r t p e r iod o f u se . T he r e p re sen ta t ivene s so f t h e se f e a tu re s n eed s t o b e e va lua ted b y f u r the r w o rk a nd c ompa r ison t o p o s s ib le e xcava t ed h amme r t oo ls . T he s i ze o ft h eN ihewan f l ake s may b e d i r ec t ly c o r r e la ted t o t h e s i ze o fc o re s f r om w h ich t h ey d e r ive . T h i s r e la t ion sh ip h a s a l so b een s ugge s ted f o r t h e K oob i F o ra f l ake s ( To th 1 982 :87 ) . T he v a r ia t ion sb e tween t h es i ze o fb l ock se x t rac ted f r om t h eo u tc rop sa nd t h e max imum d imen s ion so fc o re s a nd f l ake s m ea su red b y t h is w r i te r may i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s g ene ra l ly e xp lo i ted l a rge r b lock s o f s t one t h an t h e s ma l le s t o ne s n ow a va i lab le . T he v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e N ihewan c he r t may a l so b e i mpo r tan t w i th r e spec t t o t h e g ene ra l ly s ma l l s i ze o fa r tef ac t s .I n skeep ( 1988 )h a so b se rved t h a tt h es ma l le r t oo l s o f t h e A f r ican M idd le S tone A ge i n c ha lcedony , i n c on t ra s tt ot h el a rge rt oo l s , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t d o n o t i n c lude t h e m any i r regu la r c av i t ie s wh ich f r equen t ly c ha r a c te r i se s t h is m a te r ia l . T he many w a s te ma te r ia ls f r om X iaochang l iang a n d D onggu tuo i n d ica te t h a t t h e l e ss s t ruc tu ra l h omogene i ty a s t one h a s ,t h e mo re n on -f lake p iece sw i l l b e p r odu ced d u r ing p e r cu s s ion . P o t t s ' ( 1988 :245 )s t udy a tO lduva ih a s s ugge s ted t h a tt h ev e ry h i gh f r equency o f q ua r tz i te f l ake f r agmen t s a nd " co re f r agmen t s" ( sma l l f a ce ted b roken p i ece s l a ck ing p l a t f o rm s [ a nd p o s s ib ly c ompa rab le t o c hunk s ] ) i s ap roduc t o f t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f q ua r tz i te c o r e s d u r ing p e r cu s s ion . K amm inga ( 1982 :24 ) s pecu la te s t h a t d i f f e r en t c he r t s m ay h ave v a ry ing t hough p o ss ib ly n o tg r ea t ly d i s t inc tm echan ica l q ua l i t ie s . T he h ypo the s is m ade b y t h is w r i te r t h a t t h e a ngu la r a nd i regu la r b lock s o f r aw m a te r ia l a nd d i ff icu l t ie s i nw o rk ing t h ef r ang ib le a nd h e te rogeneou s s t one s m ay h ave p r oduced t h e u sua l ly i regu la r a nd s ma l l c ha r a c te r o f t h e N ihewan a r te f a c t s i s t o s ome e x ten t s uppo r ted b y e xpe r imen t s c onduc t ed b y J one s ( 1979 , 1 981) a nd T o th ( 1982 :104 )w h ich s ugge s t t h a t t h e ma te r ia l a f f e c t s t h e f o rm o fa n a r te f ac t . F u r the rmo re , Wh i te e ta l . 's ( 1977 ) s t ud ie s i n t h e We s te rn H igh land s o f P apua N ew G u inea i n d ica te a p o s s ib le c o r re la t ion b e tween r aw m a te r ia l a nd t o o l s hape . O ne o ft h ef i ve s t one t oo l mak ing a nd u s ing h o r t icu l tu ra l i s t g roup s( t he H o ra i le )s e lec ted as ub s tan t ia l ly b r oade r r a nge o f f o rm s ,a nd t h ea u tho r s (Wh i te e ta t . 1 977 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h is c ou ld b e a n a dap ta t ion t o t h e l ow q ua l i ty m a te r ia l s t h is

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g roup i su sed t ow o rk ing w i th . C rab t ree 's ( 1972 :12 ) s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e p r epa ra t ion o f f l a t p l a t fo rm c o r e s u r f ace s m ay f o rm t h e d e s i r ed a ng le f o r p e r cu s s ion m ay e xp la in w hy t h eN ihewan h om in id sp roduced c o re s w i th f l a tp l a tfo rm t a b le s , a l though t h e f r ang ib le n a tu re o f t h e m a te r ia l s m ay h ave b een a m o r e i mpo r tan t f a c to r . I s aa c 's ( 1977a , F ig . 6 5 .4 ) i lu s t ra t ion o f a n i regu la r p o lyf ace t ed mu l t id irec t iona l c o r e f r om O lo rge sa i l ie w i th a f l a tp l a t fo rm t a b le s how s t h a tt h e se c o r e s a l so o ccu r i n n on C h ine se c on tex t . I n t h e p a t te rn o f f l ak e r emova l a nd t h e s hape o ff l ake s c a r st h eN ihewan c o r e sa r e c ompa rab le t o t h e c a sua l c o re s , t h ei r regu la r mu l t if a ce t ed m u l t id i rec t iona lc o re s , a nd t ot h e i regu la r p o lyf a ce t ed c o r e s f r om O lo rge sa i l ie ( c f . , I s aac 1 977a :176 -177 , F ig s . 5 5 , 6 5 .3 , 4 , 6 7 ) . T he p r edom inance o f e nd s t ruck f l ake s a tb o th s i te s may i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s a imed t o p roduce f l ake s o f ag r ea te r l e ng th t h an w id th ,p e rhap s t o i n c r ea se t h e " cu t t ing e dge " ( s ee T o th 1 982 :274 , 3 29 ) . S t epped a nd h i nge d i s ta l e nd s a pp ea r t o f o rm t h rough i n comp le te d e ta chmen t o f f t h e c o r e r e su l t ing i n a b rup t t e rm ina t ion s ( C rab t ree 1 972 :93 ,6 8 ) .T he h i ghe rf r equency o f N ihewan f l ak e s w i th s t ep d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions c ompa r ed t o a p ica l f l ake s s ugges t s t h a t mo s t f l ake s w e r e a b rup t ly t e rm ina ted . S t ep f r ac tu r e s m ay b e c a u sed b y av a r ie ty o f f a c to r s a nd may i d en t if y d i f f e ren t k napp e r s w i th i n d iv idua l v a r ia t ion i n t h e f o r ce a pp l ied t o t h e c o re s , a nd t h e u se o f h amme r s tone s w h ich d i f f e r i n s i ze , w e igh t , a nd s hape ( C rab t ree 1 972 :12 ) .T he f r equency d i f f e rence so fs t ep c oncave a nd s t ep v e r t ica l e nd s b e tween X iao chang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a nd t h ef ewe rh i nge e nd s a tX iaochang l iang m ay i n d ica te v a r ia t ions , f o r i n s tance , i nt h e f o r ce o f p e r cu s s ion . S ince t h e b i po la r w a s te f l ake f r om X iao chang l iang i s a p r ima ry f l ake i tg ive s s ome i n d ica t ion o ft h es i ze o ft h ec o re , a l though t h e s t epped d i s ta l e nd i n d ica t e s t h a t t h e p e rcu s s ion t e rm ina ted p r ema tu re ly . T he p r edom inance o fc o r t ica lc o r e s , t h e e s t ima ted a moun t o f c o re c o r tex , t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f c o r e , w a s te f r agmen t , a nd f l ake s c a r s , a nd t h e p r edom inance o f b i d i re c t iona l w a s te f r agmen ts c a r p a t te rns a nd o f u n id i r e c t iona l f l ake p a t te rns i s s ugge s t ive o f ar e la t ive ly n on in ten s ive r e duc t ion t e chno logy ( a nd c f . ,T o th 1 982 :271-272 )a nd n on -e conom ica lu se o f r aw m a te r ia l a tb o th N ihewan s i te s . T he s i ze a nd s hape o f t h e b lock s may a l so h ave i n f luen ced c o r e r e duc t ion ( a nd s e e B info rd a nd Q u imby 1 963 :278 ;J one s 1 981) .W i th r e spec t t o t h e s e em ing ly l ow e xp lo i ta t ion r a te o f c o re s , i t may b e u sefu l t o n o te t h a t a c co rd ing t o T o th ( 1 982 :46 ) mo re a cu te a ng le s i n d ica te t h a tf u r the rf l ake sc an b er emoved f r om ac o r e w i thou t d i f f icu l ty . T he N ihewan c o r e s h ave g ene ra l ly n on a cu t e a ng le s . T he v a r ia t ions n o ted i n t h e N ihewan f l ake a ng le sm ay p a r t ly b e af u nc t ion o fr aw m a te r ia lp rope r ty ( a nd c f . , L eakey 1 971 :268 ) . T he a ppa ren t ly g r ea te r f r equency o f a r t e f a c t s p r oduced d u r ing l a te r s t age s o f f l ak ing i n mo s t o f t h e K oob i F o ra a s semb lage s ( To th 1 982 :330 -331 , 1 987 ) m ay b e c ompa r ed w i th t h e s im i la r p a t te rn n o ted a t t h e N ihewan s i te s . A t K oob iF o ra , t h e se a s semb lage sm ay i n d ica t e t h a t e a r l ie r c o r e w o rk ing d i d n o t o ccu r w i th in t h e e x cava ted a r ea s , t h a t n on c o r t ica lf l ake sw e re p ref e ren t ia l ly t a ken t os i te s , t h a t c o r t ica l f l ake sw e r es e lec t ive ly r emoved b y h om in id s f r om t h e s i te s , a nd p o s s ib ly t o al e s se r e x ten t m ay b e a c coun ted f o r b y s e lec t ive w a te r t r anspo r t ( c f . , T o th 1 982 :330 -331 , 1 987 ) . T he h i ghe r f r equency o f n on -co r t ica l t h an c o r t ica l f l ake p l a t fo rm s a tt h e K oob i F o ra F xJ j 5 0 l o ca l i ty c ompa red t o

t h o se r e p l ica t ed i n e xpe r imen t s i s t h ough t t o b e l a rge ly a t t r ibu tab le t o t h e s e lec t ive t r anspo r t o f a r te f a c t s b y t h e K oob i F o ra h om in id s a nd t o s ome e x ten t t o f l oodwa t e r d i spe r sa l ( To th i nB unn e ta l . 1 980 ) .T he se s ugge s t ion s m ay c on t r ibu te t o e xp la in ing t h e l a rge r q uan t i ty o f n on -co r t ica l f l ake p l a t f o rm si nt h eN ihewan a s semb lage s .

m a te r ia l q ua l i ty , a nd t o s ome d eg re e s k i l l a nd t e chn ique c an h ave a n e f f e c t o n t h e f r equency o f r e sha rpen ing H ayden 's ( 1 977b ) e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s i n t h e We s te rn D e se r t f o und t h a t s t one s w i th n a tu ra l ly s ha rp e dge s w e r e f a r l e s s o f ten w o rk ed b y s e conda ry r e touch t h an t h o se w h ich l a ck ed t h is a t t r ibu te . T he s ha rpne s s o f t h e e dge s o f t h e c he r t f l ake s m anu f a c tu r ed i ne xpe r imen t s ( s ee C hap te r I n ) may t o s ome e x ten te xp la in t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f N ihewan t oo ls mod if ied b ys e conda ry r e touch .

B inf o rd ( 1 989 :34 )h a sa r gued t h a ts ho r tt o o lu se l i f ei n d ica te s " a l a ck o f p l ann ing d ep th" . H oweve r , t h e u t i l isa t ion o f a bundan tr aw m a te r ia ls ou r ce s i nt h ep rox im i ty o f t h e p l ace s o ft o o lm anuf ac tu re a tt h eN ihewan s i te s m ay n o t o n ly h ave e ncou raged a na ppa r en tl a ck o fe conom ica lu se ( a nd s e eJ one s 1 981 ; J e l inek 1 976 ; R o l land a nd D ibb le 1 990 ; B in f o rd 1 980 ) , b u t m ay h ave s t emmed f r om f o re s igh t , i . e . t h e s i te s m ay h ave b een s e le c t ed b ecau se o f t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f l a rge m a te r ia l s ou r ce s . T he e f fo r to fr e p lac ing t o o l sm ay t h u s h ave b een n eg l ig ib le c ompa r ed t o r e juvena t ing e dge s ( a nd s e e H ayden 1 977b ) . I n t h e We s te rn D e se r t o f A u s t ra l ia , t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw m a te r ia l may a f f ec t t h e n umbe r o f t oo ls o n p r ima ry f l ake s w h ich a r e r e touched b y t h e P in tup i , Y ankun t ja ra , a nd ` Wangkay i ' a bo r ig ina ls ( Hayden 1 977b ) . F u r the r f a c to r s t o c on s ide r a r e t h e k i nd s o f a c t iv i t ie s t h e t oo l s w e r e u s ed f o r ( s e e R o l land a nd D ibb le 1 990 ; K uhn 1 991) a nd t h e d u rab i l i ty o f t h e m a te r ia l s , i . e . h ow o f t en t oo ls n e ed ed t o b e r e p la ced b ef o re t h e e dge s w e r e w o rn o u t ( a nd s e e M i l le r 1 979 ) . A pa r t f r om i t s a bundan ce a nd a cce s s ib i l i ty , c he r t m ay a l so r ep re sen t t h e d om inan t t oo l ma te r ia ld ue t o as upe r io rp rope r ty ( ie s ) ( c f . ,J one s 1 981) . A n e xpe r imen ti nt h eN ihewan w i th a n u n re touched b a sa l t f l ak e ( l eng th : 4 . 0c m , t h ickne s s : 2 . 5 cm ) s howed t h a tt h e e dge s o f t h is f l ake b ecame m a rked ly d u l led a f te r as ho r t p e r iod o f s hav ing w ood ( c . 5m inu te s ) a nd t h a t t h is ma te r ia l d oe s n o t h o ld a ne dge w e l l( Pope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) .

T he a ppa r en t ly s ho r t u se l i f e o f t h e N ihewan t oo l s may t o s ome e x ten tb er e la ted t ow ha tm ay h ave b een as ho r t l e ng th o f o ccupa t ion . E thnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s b y Y e l len ( 1974 :192 , 1 96 -200 i nS ch if f e r 1 978 :232 -233 ) o f t h e ! Kung B u shmen i nt h eD obe r e g ion f ound t h a ta s t h e t ime o f c amp o ccupa t ion i n c r ea se s , s o d oe s t h e p robab i l i ty o f t h e p e r f o rmance o f a n a c t iv i ty , s u ch a s t o o l r epa i r . A r e la t ion sh ip h a sb een s ugge s ted b e tween t h ei n ten s i ty o ft oo l r e duc t ion a nd t h e r e la t ive ly d en se c ha ra c te r o f s i te o ccupa t ion so ft wo Mou s te r ian f a c ie si nE u rope a nd We s te rn A s ia ( J e l inek 1 982 ; C la rk a nd L ind ly 1 989 ; D ibb le 1 987 , 1 989 ) . R o l land a nd D ibb le ( 1990 ) h ave a r gued t h a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l v a r iab i l i ty i n d ica te s t h a t e l emen t s s uch a s l ow a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma te r ia l a nd i n ten s i ty o f o ccupa t ion m ay p roduce t o o lr e use . T he s u i tab i l i ty o f a n e dge , s uch a s s hape m ay h ave b een a mo re i mpo r tan tf a c to ri nt oo lb l ank s e lec t ion a tt h e N ihewan s i te s t h an t o o ls o f s t anda rd i sed s hape s . E thnog raph ic s t ud ie s h ave s hown t h e s u i tab i l i ty o f a n e dge t o b e t h e mos t s i gn if ican t v a r iab le i n t h e s e lec t ion o f t o o l s (Wh i te 1 967 ; G ou ld e ta l . 1 971 ; H ayden 1 977b ) . L eakey ( 1971 :268 ) h a s s ugge s t ed t h a t t h e t h ree k i nd s o f u s e -wea r o n t h e l i gh t -du ty f l ake sf r om t h eO lduva i s i te s s e em t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f o rm o f t h e e dge . T h is i n d ica te s ad eg r ee o f f unc t iona l s pec ia l i sa t ion , a nd t h a t t h e se f l ake s d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een m anu f a c tu r ed t o ad ef in i te d e s ign ( Leakey 1 971 :268 ) . Wh i te a nd T homa s 's ( 1 972 :278 -279 )r e sea rch i nN ew G u inea f ound t h a t t h e s i ze a nd f o rm o f a n e dge d epend s o n t h e f unc t ion . K ee ley ( 1 980 :29 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) s ugge s t s t h a t w h i te p a t ina t ion , a s o b se rved o n at oo l f r om Donggu tuo m ay b e c au sed b y i n s i tu w ea the r ing , s un l igh t o r a l ka l ine s o i l , a nd a l so b y s ome p l an tc hem ica ls i na c id c ond i t ion s .

T he r a r e u t i l isa t ion o fq ua r tz a t t h e N ihewan s i te s m ay b e r e la t ed t o i t s i n t rac tab i l i ty . Q ua r tz l a ck s c l eavage (Wh i t ten a nd B rook s 1 987 :4 12 ; a nd s e e I n skeep 1 988 ) o r c l eavage i s u sua l ly " poo r ly d eve loped" a nd v e in q ua r t z t e nd s t o b e s t ruc tu ra l ly w eak ( Kamm inga 1 982 :23 -24 ) . I th a s , h oweve r , b een o b se rved t h a t t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o f t h e L a te S tone A ge i n p a r t s o f A f r ica a r e u sua l ly m anuf a c tu r ed i n q ua r tz ( I n skeep 1 988 ) . T he se i n du s t r ie s c on ta in w e l l m ade s ma l l s c rape r s a nd m ic ro l i th si nt h i s s t one ( I n skeep 1 988 ) . A f i ne ly s h aped h andaxe i nq ua r tz d emon s t ra te s t h a t s k i l l w a s n o ti n ev i tab ly c on s t ra ined b y t h er aw ma te r ia l ( L . L eakey i n I n skeep 1 988 ) . E xpe r imen ta l s t ud ie s h ave d emon s t ra ted t h a t q ua r tz f l ake sh ave v e ry s ha rp c u t t ing e dge s ( Sch ick a nd T o th 1 994 ; a nd s e eT o th 1 982 :107 ) .

T he N ihewan d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s may h ave b een u s ed f o r w oodwo rk ing ( c f . , K ee ley 1 980 :66 , 7 2 , 8 9 ) . I n s ome a r ea s o f t h e We s te rn D e se r t mo s t t oo ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch w e r e u sua l ly e mp loyed t o w o rk w ood ( Hayden 1 977b ) . S ha rp e dge sa r e r e touched b y t h e X e ta t o l e s sen t h e e f ec t o fb r eakage d u r ing w oodwo rk ing ( M i l le r 1 979 ) . I s aa c ( 1986 )h a sp o in ted o u tt h a td en t icu la te e dge s a r e mo re u sef u l f o rs hap ing ap o in to n aw ooden s t ick a nd f o r b a rk s c rap ing t h an u n r e touched f l ake s . I t w a s , h oweve r , n o t a lway s p o ss ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh s e conda ry r e touch f r om h eavy u se w ea ro nt h eN ihewan t o o l s ( c f . ,N ewcome r 1 976 ; K amm inga 1 982 :7 ; s e e a l so E van s 1 872 :26 i n K amm inga 1 982 :9 ) . E dge m o rpho logy s t ud ie s o f Mou s te r ian n o tche s m ay i n d ica t et h a ts ome d en t icu la te sa r et o o ls w h ich w e re r e u sed a s n o t che s , w h i le o t he r s may r e p r e sen t h eav i ly u sed a nd i n ten se ly a nd r ough ly r e juvena ted s pec imen s ( Ba r ton 1 990 ; D ibb le 1 988 a nd J e l inek 1 988 i n B a r ton 1 990 ) . M ic rowea r s t ud ie s o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic F rench s c rape r s f ound n o c o r re la t ion b e tween s pec if ic s c rape r t y pe s a nd s pec i f ic f unc t ion s ( Bey r ie s 1 984 :135 -136 i nD ibb le 1 987 ) . I n p a r t s o f t h e N ew G u inea H igh land s t h e s ame t o o l w a s e mp loyed f o r d if e r en t a c t iv i t ie s , s uch a s s c rap ing a nd c u t t ing ( S t ra the rn 1 969 ) . H ayden 's ( 1977b :185 , F ig s . 5 a nd 6 )

A l though o ne o f Y ou e t a l . 's ( 1978 , 1 980 ) h ypo the se s c on jec tu re s t h a t t h e s ma l l s i ze o f t h e X iaochang l iang t oo ls may b e r e f e rab le t o s i ze r educ t ion t h rough r e -u se a nd r e juvena t ion o fr e la t ive ly l a rge t o o ls , i ts hou ld b e c on s ide r ed t h a t t h e s ma l l s i ze o ft o o ls may h ave l im i ted t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t o o l s c ou ld b e mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch , i n c lud ing t h e r e juvena t ion o f w o rn e dge s ( a nd c f . , D ibb le 1 987 , 1 989 ) . A c onven ien t s i ze f o r g ra sp ing t h e t o o l a nd a pp ly ing p r e ssu re i sa ni mpo r tan tv a r iab le i n We s te rn D e se r t t oo l u se ( Hayden 1 977b ) .T h i s may a l so h ave i n f luenced t h e b ehav iou ro ft h eN ihewan h om in id s i n t h a t f u r the r r e du c t ion t h rough r e touch m ay h ave made i td i f f icu l t o r i mpo s s ib le t o h o ld t h e t o o l a nd a d equa t e ly c on t ro l i t s movemen t d u r ing u t i l isa t ion . T oo l s m ay n o t b e f u r the r mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch w hen t h e e dg e b ecome s t o o s t eep t o b e d e em ed u sef u l ( Ba r ton 1 990 ) . T he l a ck o r l ow o ccu r r ence o f r e juvena t ion may t h u s n o t b e ag ood i n d ica to r o f t h e i n ten s i ty o f t oo l u se . K uhn ( 1990 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t r aw

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e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie so fP in tup i ( W e s te rn D e se r t ) f l ake t oo l s f ound t h a tr e touched n o tche s a nd d en t icu la te s w e re e mp loyed i nt h e s ame manne r ( f o r w oodwo rk ing ) w i th f u r the r r e touch c r ea t ing d en t icu la te e dge s ,a nd o ne f l ake w a sr e touched i n to a n o tch a nd t h en r e sha rpened ' b a ck ' i n to a s c rape r . H ayden ( 1977b :185 ) s ugge s t s t h a t " . . . i t s e em s a s t hough s c rape r , n o tch , d en t icu la te , a nd b u r in m ay w e l l b e s t y l is t ic v a r ian t s o f as i ng le f unc t iona l t ype ." . T he se o b se rva t ion s i n d ica t e t h a tt h eu se -wea rf e a tu r e s o n t h e N ihewan t oo ls m ay n o t b e d i re c t ly c o r r e la ted w i th f u nc t ion , a nd t h a t t h i s w ou ld c omp l ica te m ic rowea rs t ud ie s . T he a s aw ho le u n s tanda rd i sed c ha rac te ro ft h eN ihewan t o o ls may t os ome e x ten tb er e la ted t ot h e u se o f n on l i th ic t oo ls . I th a s b een s ugge s ted ( e .g . , G o rman 1 970 ; v an H eeke r en 1 972 :77 , 8 2 ; H u t te re r 1 977 ;P ope 1 989a ) t h a t t h e f r equen t ly i n fo rma l n a tu re o f F a r E a s te rn a s semb lage s m ay h ave d eve loped a s ar e su l t o f a n e mpha s is o n n on l i th ic t o o l u se emp loy ing s t one c o re s a nd f l ake s f o r t h e manuf ac tu r e o f a v a r ie ty o f n on l i th ic t oo ls a nd t h e i r ma in tenance . S ome u n re touched f l ake s m ay h ave b een e mp loyed f o r t h e manuf a c tu re o f n on l i th ic t o o ls a t X iaochang l iang a n d Donggu tuo ( c f . , K ee ley a nd T o th 1 981 ; I s aa c 1 986 ; a nd s e e O ak ley 1 975 ;L eakey a nd L ew in 1 978 :142 ) , a nd i th a s b e en s ugge s ted t h a t t h e X iaochang l iang s t one t oo ls w e r e u s ed t o make w ooden t oo ls , e . g . , s p ea r s ( Pope 1 993 ) . T he s ha rp s i l iceou s c o r t ica l e dge o f t h e K ukukuku ( New G u inea ) b amboo k n ive s ( B la ckwood 1 964 :33 ) a nd t h e v e ry s ha rp " p iece s o f s p l i t b amboo" m ade b y h o r t icu l tu ra l s t one t oo l u se r s i n t h e w e s te rn N ew G u inea h i gh land s ( t he K im -Ya l ) ( To th e ta l . 1 992 ) a r ee mp loyed f o rp i g b u tche ry ( B la ckwood 1 964 :33 ; T o th e ta l . 1 992 ; a nd s e e S t ra the rn 1 969 ) . A v e ry b r igh tp o l i sh i d en t if ied m ic ro scop ica l ly o n t h e u t i l i sed e dg e s o f f l in t a r tef ac t s w a s p r odu ced b y e xpe r imen ta l w oodwo rk ing ,a nd v e ry b r igh tg l o s s o n s i ck le s ( p roduced b y p hy to l i th s ) w a s s hown t od e r ive f r om g ra s s c u t t ing a nd w a s a l so f ound o nt oo l s u sed f o rc u t t ing b r acken a nd s aw ing f r e sh b amboo s t ems ( Kee ley 1 980 :35 , 6 0 -6 1 , 1 82 , F ig . 1 39 ) . H oweve r , G love r 's ( 1981 :23 ) e xpe r imen t s h ave s hown t h a t t h e e dg e g lo ss w h ich c an b e p r odu ced o n s t one f l ake s f r om mod if y ing b amboo i sc on s tan t ly r emoved d u r ing t h e a c t iv i ty a nd t h a t b amboo w o rk ing " c au se s r e gu la r f r ac tu r ing o f t o o l e dge s ." W i th r e ga rd t o t h e i n d ica t ion o f ap r e f e rence f o r f r e sh t oo l e dge s a nd a l so p o ss ib le t o o l f unc t ion a tt h e N ihewan s i te s , K amm inga ( 1982 :7 ; a nd s e e J one s 1 979 ; H ayden 1 977b ; K uhn 1 991) h a sr ema rked t h a ti ng ene ra l ar e touched e dge i s l e s s s ha rp a nd a cu te t h an a n u nmod if ied f r e sh e dge . E dg e s ha rpne s s w a s n o ted a s t h e mo s t s i gn if ican t e l emen t i n s e lec t ing f l ake s f o r u se a mong t h e W i ru a nd H agen o f N ew G u inea ( Sou the rn a nd We s t e rn H igh lands , r e spec t ive ly ) ( S t ra the rn 1 969 ) a nd a mong t h e X e ta f o r c u t t ing a c t iv i t ie s ( M i l le r 1 979 ) . H a r r is a nd I s aa c ( 1976 :103 ) s ugge s t t h a t u n r e touched , s ha rp f l ake s m ay h ave b een a s s i gn if ican t f unc t iona l ly a s ' t oo l s ' , i . e . s haped a r te f ac t s . T he se f l ake s a r e v e ry s u i tab le b u tche ry t o o l s a sd emon s t ra ted b y e xpe r imen t s ( To th i n B unn e ta l . 1 980 ; T o th 1 982 :312 , 3 31 ; T o th a n d S ch ick 1 983 i n I s aac 1 983 ; a nd s e e I s aac 1 978 ) , a nd c u t ma rk s t ud ie ss ugge s tb u tche ry w i th s ha rp f l ake s ( e .g . , B unn 1 981 ; P o t t s a nd S h ipman 1 981 ; B unn a nd K ro l l 1 986 ) . A s ou th -we s tA f r ican p eop le u s eu n re tou ched f l ake s f o r c u t t ing a nd s k inn ing a c t iv i t ie s ( Leakey 1 971 :268 ) . T he u se o f u n re touched t o o l sf o rs c rap ing a nd c u t t ing a c t iv i t ie sh a s b e en e t hnog raph ica l ly n o ted i n N ew G u inea ( S t ra the rn 1 969 ; Wh i te a nd T homa s 1 972 :278 ; a nd s e e Wh i te a nd Mod je ska 1 978 ;G ou ld 1 980 :177 )a nd f o rc u t t ing i nt h e We s te rn D e se r t

( Gou ld e ta l . 1 971) . A n u n r e touched f l ake o r f r agmen t e dg e o r ar e touched " s c r ape r " e dg e w e r e s hown i n e xpe r imen t s t o b es u i tab le f o r f i ne r w ood s hap ing ( To th 1 982 :306 ) . S ha rp e dged a nd u n r e touched f l i n to rc ha lcedony f r agmen t s a r e u s ed b y t h eK ukukuku o fc en t ra lN ew G u inea f o r c u t t ing b amboo a nd f o r t h e p roduc t ion o f av a r ie ty o f i t em s ( B la ckwood 1 964 :28 , 3 1 , P la te s VC a nd X I ID ) . S ha rp , a cu te e dge s w e r e o b se rved i nu se a mong t h eX e ta f o rs c rap ing b amboo ( M i l le r 1 979 ) . We s te rn D e se r t P in tup i a bo r ig ina l s u se f l ake s w i thou t s e conda ry r e touch i n w ood s hav ing a nd s c rap ing a c t iv i t ie s ( Hayden 1 977b ) . T he s t one s c rape r s o f A u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ine s w e r e n o rma l ly u s ed i n a n u nmod if ied c ond i t ion a nd t h ew o rk ing e dge w a sr e juvena ted w hen t h e e dge b e came b l un t ( T inda le 1 965 :135 i n K amm inga 1 982 :7 ) , a nd t h e W i ru a nd H agen t o o l sw e r eo n ly r e touched t or e sha rpen e dge s ( S t ra the rn 1 969 ) . T he t h ree b u r in s f r om X iaochang l iang ( s ee H uang 1 985 ) o f w h ich o ne m ay b e c ompa r ed t o a t yp ica l Mou s te r ian b u r ins ( c f . , F ig . 1 00 a nd B o rd e s 1 981 , P la te 3 5 .1 , 1 3 ) , a nd t h e o t he rt wo s pec imen s t o Mou s te r ian b u r ins ( c f . , F ig . 1 00 .9 , 1 0 a nd B o rde s 1 981 , P l a te 3 5 .4 a nd 3 , r e spec t ive ly ) , a l though t h e C h ine se i lu s t ra t ion s o f t h e l a t te r a r e n o t c l e a r e nough , m ay h ave b een m anuf ac tu r ed a cc iden ta l ly a s h a s b een s ugge s ted f o r b u r in l ike a r te f a c t s ( s ee B a rdon a nd B ouy s son ie 1 906 , C la rk 1 958 , A rke l l 1 949 :47 i n K amm inga 1 982 :92 ) . H oweve r , t h ey m ay n eve r the le s s h ave f u nc t ioned a s b u r in s , p e rhap s a s w oodwo rk ing t oo ls ( s ee K amm inga 1 982 :91 ; B o rde s 1 965 , S emenov 1 970 i n K amm inga 1 982 :91) . H ayden ( 1977b ) o b se rved a n a r te f a c t w i th a n e dge s im i la r t o ab u r in e dge u s ed b y a We s t e rn D e se r t P in tup i a bo r ig ina l a s a n e ff ic ien t w ood f l ake s have r f o rs pea rm anuf a c tu r e . T he X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo w a s te f l ake s may i n c lude s ome p o s s ib ly u t i l i sed s pec imen s a nd t h is may a l so i n c lude t h er e touched n on -f lake f r om D onggu tuo ( c f . , H a r r i s a nd I s aa c 1 976 ; I s aa c 1 977b ; L eakey 1 971 :268 ; K ee ley a nd T o th 1 981 ; H ayden 1 977b ; a nd s e e I s aa c 1 983 , 1 986 ; P o t t s 1 988 :217 ) .U se -wea r m ay n o t h ave b een i d en t if ied o n s ome o f t h e se a r t ef a c t s b e cau se t h ey w e re n o t u s ed i n ten s ive ly o r l o ng e nough ( c f . , G ou ld e ta l . 1 971) , a nd /o r w e r e u s ed o n a m a te r ia l ( s ) a nd /o r f o r af u nc t ion ( s ) w h ich d i d n o t l e ave r e cogn i sab le u s e -damage ( a nd s e e M i l le r 1 979 ) . L eakey ( 1971 :268 )r e a sons t h a t an umbe ro fs ha rp , s ma l l f l ake s w i th n o u se -damage m ay r e p r e sen t a r te f ac t s u t i l ised f o r c u t t ing a c t iv i t ie s i n vo lv ing s o f t m a te r ia ls , i n c lud ing mea t . I n a m ic ro -wea ra na ly s i so fn i ne u n re touched c he r t f l ake s , K e e ley a nd T o th ( 1981 ; a nd s e e T o th 1 982 :314 -317 ) f ound t h a t t h e se a ppea red t o s how i n d ica t ions o f m ea t , w oodwo rk ing , a nd p l an tc u t t ing a c t iv i t ie s . 6 .5 .3 R esource a nd s ubs is tence t he N ihewan B a s in : I n troduc t ion

t echno logy

i n

T he a s soc ia t ion o f t o o l s a nd f o s s i ls a t X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo h a s b een i n te rp r e ted a s e v idence o f t h e i r c on tempo raneou s d epo s i t ion a nd a t t r ibu ted t o h om in id s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s ( You e ta t . 1 978 , 1 980 ; Y ou 1 983 ; We i 1 985 , 1 988 , 1 989 ; H uang 1 985 ; P ope u npub l . ; L i Y i p e r s . c omm . ) . T he b one a nd h o rn t oo l s i d en t if ied b y Y ou e t a l . ( 1978 , 1 980 )a r ei n te rp r e ted a se v idence o fh un t ing b y t h e X iaochang l iang h om in id s w ho i n t h e f i na l s t age o f s i te o ccupa t ion b egan m anuf ac tu r ing b one a nd h o rn t o o l s( You e t a t . 1 978 , 1 980 ) . D e ta i led a na lyse s o f t h e c on tex t s o f d epo s i t ion , t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip s o f a r te f a c t s , a nd s pec if ica l ly o f t o o l s a nd f a una , a nd o f t h e c ond i t ion s o f

7 2

f o s s i ls h ave , h oweve r , n o t b een c onduc t ed , a nd C h ine se a u tho r s m ake n o m en t ion o f c u t -ma rk s t ud ie s ( s ee , f o r i n s tance , Y ou e t a l . 1 978 , 1 980 ; We i 1 985 , a nd p e r s . c omm . ) . I n fo rma t ion o n t h e f r equenc ie s o f a n ima l s ( t he

s ub s tan t ia l r aw m a te r ia l o u t c rop s . T he p r e sence o f e xp lo i tab le c he r ti st h ough t t o h ave b een o ne o f t h e r e a son s f o rt h e mu l t i tude o fa r tef ac t so n t h e s ou thea s te rn e dge o f t h e s a l ine O lduva i l a ke , a nd a dd i t iona l ly s i te s a ppea r t o h ave b een c oncen t ra t ed o n t h e s ou thea s te rn ma rg in w he re mo re f r e sh w a te rw a s a va i lab le ( Hay 1 976 :48 , 1 80 , 1 82 ,T ab le 3 2 ; a nd s e eI s aa c 1 98 1) .

m in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls o r MN I 2 )i sn o t a va i lab le . R ecen t n on -Ch ine se s t ud ie s o f t h e X iaochang l iang ( Pope u npub l . ; P ope e ta l . 1 990 ) a nd D onggu tuo ( Sch ick e ta t . 1 991) f o s s i l s h ave b een c on s t ra ined b ecau se t h e m a jo r i ty o f f o ss i ls w e r e n o t a va i lab le f o r s t udy ( s ee b e low ) . I n c on sequen ce o f t h e p r e l im ina ry d a ta o n s i te f o rma t ion p roce s se sa nd f o s s i lf a una ,a nd t h e l a ck o f d e ta i led s t ud ie s o f a s soc ia t ion s , o n ly l i m i ted i n te rp re ta t ion s o f h om in id r e sou r ce a c t iv i ty p a t te rn s a r e a t t h is s t age o f r e sea r ch p o ss ib le . T he r e con s t ruc t ion o f h om in id b ehav iou r a t t h e se s i te si sl a rge ly c onf ined t o t h e v a r iou s t e chno log ica l a spec t s a s t h ey p e r ta in t o r aw m a te r ia l p rocu remen t a nd t oo l m anu f a c tu r e ,u se ,a nd d i sca rd . 6 .5 .4 T he a rchaeo log ica l l ocat ions , e nv ironmen t , f oss i l t echno logy

H om in id a c t iv i t ie si nt h eN ihewan may h ave o ccu r r ed d u r ing a n e p i sode o f l a ke r e g re ss ion . F lood ing o f t h e s i te s w h ich m ay h ave b een c au sed b y ( s ea sona l? ) p a laeo lake f l uc tua t ion s w ou ld p robab ly h ave m ade t h e s i te s u n inhab i tab le a nd m a rk ed t h e c e s sa t ion o f h om in id o ccupa t ion . I f t h e a s semb lage s o f t h e i n d iv idua l l a ye r s a t D onggu tuo a r e r e p re sen ta t ive o f m u l t ip le o ccupa t ion , i tm ay i n d ica te t h a t t h i s p a r t o f t h e D onggu tuo P la t fo rm w a s a cce s s ib le f o r l o nge r p e r iod s t h an X iaochang l iang , p e rhap s b ecau se i tw a s n o tl o ca ted a sc l o se t o t h e l a ke a s X iaochang l iang a nd /o r i n a n a r ea w he r e l a ke i n unda t ion o ccu r red f o r s ho r te r p e r iod s t h an a tX iaochang l iang . T h i s may h ave e nab led h om in id s t o r e p ea t ed ly r e tu rn t o D onggu tuo , p e rhap s d u r ing p e r iod s o f w a t e r r e t rea t . I tm ay e xp la in d i f f e rence s i n t h e a ppa ren t i n ten s i ty o f h om in id u t i l isa t ion a t t h e se s i te s . H om in id o ccupa t ion a tX iaochang l iang may h ave b een l im i ted t o o ne p e r iod i n t h a t r e occupa t ion may n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le b e cau se i t b e came i n a cce s s ib le d ue t o ( e x tended ) l a ke i n unda t ion . T h is m ay b e i n d ica ted b y t h e a ppa ren t ly l e s s e x t en s ive u t i l i sa t ion o f X iaochang l iang s ugge s ted b y t h e o ccu r r ence o f as i ng le a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r a nd s ma l le r a r te f ac ta nd f o s s i ls amp le sc ompa red t oD onggu tuo ,a l though t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f n a tu ra l p a r t ia l s i te d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e p romon to ry m u s ta l so b ec ons ide red . Al a ye r o f a l luv ia l s i l t o fa pp rox ima t e ly 3 0c mt h ickne s sc an b el a id d own b y af ew p e r iod s o f f l ood ing d u r ing o ne s ea son ( G if f o rd a nd B eh r en smeye r 1 977 ; V i l la 1 983 :167 ) . T h is w ou ld p r e sumab ly d epend o nl o ca l c ond i t ion s ,b u tm ay i n d ica te t h a t t h e X iaochang l iang l a ye r a nd D onggu tuo l a ye r s B a nd D w e re f o rmed d u r ing as i ng le s ea son . T h is m igh t n o t e xc lude t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e t h icke rD onggu tuo l a ye r s ( i . e . A , C , a nd E )w e re a l so d epo s i ted d u r ing as ho r tp e r iod o ft ime .

e v idence : s i te f auna , a nd l i th ic

X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo a r e l o ca ted i n ar e g ion o f a l o ca l ly v a ry ing p a laeo lake a nd t r ibu ta ry s t ream s . T he c l o se p rox im i ty o f t h e se o pen -a i r s i te s a nd t h e i r a ge s ugge s t t h a t s im i la r r e sou r ce s w e r e a va i lab le f o r e xp lo i ta t ion a t b o th l o ca l i t ie s . T he e v idence s f o r p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s a r e , h oweve r , i n conc lu s ive . T he s im i la r i t ie s i n m amma l ian f o s s i ls i n d ica te t h a th om in id sa tb o th s i te so ccup ied as im i la r t empe ra te g r a s s land / s teppe e nv i ronmen tw i th s ome w ood land a nd /o rf o r e s t .I nc on t ra s t ,t h ep a lyno log ica l r e con s t ruc t ion o f X iaochang l iang Membe r 7s ugge s t s s l igh t ly mo re t r ee t h an h e rba ceou s v ege ta t ion . S im i la r t o t h e f o s s i l p o l len a s semb lage s , av a r ie ty o f f a c to r s mu s t b e t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion w hen e va lua t ing t h e r ep re sen ta t ivene s s o f f o s s i l f a una a nd i t ' s e co log ica l b ackg round ( Bu tz e r 1 993 :195 ) .T h is i n c lude st h es e lec t ive d epo s i t ion o fa n ima l s w i th r e spec t t o t h e i r s pec ie s , a nd c a r ca s s a nd b one s i ze b y w a te r , g rav i ty , a s w e l l a sb y a n ima l s a nd h om in id s ( Bu tz e r 1 993 :195 ) .T he p r e sence o fo n ly o ne s ma l l m amma l s pec ie s ( i . e . Myo spa lax c f .f on tan ier i a tD onggu tuo ) may t o s ome e x ten t b e e xp la ined b y t h e l a ck o f s c reen ing a nd b y n a tu ra l a genc ie s , e . g . ,w a te rd i spe r sa l( a nd s e eG if fo rd 1 978 ) ,a nd t h e mo re f r ag i le n a tu re o ft h e b one s o f s ma l l a n ima ls c ompa r ed t o l a rge r s pec ie s ( s ee B eh r en smeye r e t a t . 1 979 ; B eh r en smeye r 1 987 ; B u tz e r 1 993 :197 ; C oe 1 978 :79 ; I nge r so l l e ta t . 1 977 i n B u tze r 1 993 :197 ; s e e a l so K u r t6 1 1 1 952 :7 ) .

T he d i f f e r ence s i ns p ec ie s r e p re sen ta t ion s a tX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo m ay b ee xp la ined b y t h ep re l im ina ry s t a te o f e xcava t ion s a nd d i ff i cu l t ie s i n s ome s pec ie s i d en t if ica t ion s . B e cau se o ft h e l i m i ted t a phonom ic i n fo rma t ion i tc anno t b e e s tab l i shed i fa l o ro n ly s ome o f t h e s pec ie s may i n d ica te h om in id r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e f o s s i l s f r om T l , l a ye r A( 7 8 .7% ) a r eb one s t oo f r agmen ted t o m ake s pec ie s o r b ody p a r t i d en t if ica t ion p o s s ib le a c co rd ing t o S ch ick e ta l . ( 1 99 1 :23 ) , a l though t h e se a u tho r s a l so d e sc r ibe a bou t4 0% o ft h e se p i ece sa sb e ing " i n g ood c ond i t ion" . T he s ma l le r n umbe r o f D onggu tuo s pec ie s may r e f lec t mo re s pec ia l i sed s e lec t ion o fa n ima lr e sou r ce s .T he a n ima ls a ppea r t o b e r e p r e sen ta t ive o f av a r ie ty o f h ab i ta t s a nd i n c lude g r ega r iou s a n ima l s o f a g ra s s land h ab i ta t ( e .g . , h o r se ) i n d ica t ive o f ah i gh b i oma s s ( s ee , e . g . , B a i ley e ta t . 1 989 ) . A tt h eO lduva i a r t ef a c tl o ca l i t ie s , t h es pec ie s d i ve r s i ty s e em s t o s ugge s t h om in id t r an spo r ta t ion o f b one s d e r ived f r om mo re t h an o ne h ab i ta t , a nd i s i n d ica t ive o f u n spec ia l i sed e xp lo i ta t ion o f t a xa a nd b ody s i ze ( Po t t s 1 988 :187 ) . A l though t h ep r edom inance o fm ed ium s ized h e rb ivo re s may i n d ica te s e lec t ive u t i l i sa t ion b y t h e N ihewan h om in id s , a n umbe r o f n a tu r a l a genc ie s may b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h is p a t te rn ( s ee B eh r en smeye r 1 987 ) .

T he l o ca t ion o f h om in id a c t iv i t ie s n ea r w a te r ( whe r e t r ee s p rov id ing s hade a nd o t he r v ege ta t ion may h ave g rown ) a nd r aw m a te r ia l s ou r ce s i s ap a t te rn a l so i d en t if ied a t s ome A f r ican E a r ly P le i s tocene s i te s , s uch a sK oob iF o ra s i te F x J j 5 0 ( s ee B unn e t a t . 1 980 ) , i n d ica t ing s im i la r h om in id b ehav iou r . T he a ppa ren t ly h ype r sa l ine n a tu re o f t h e N ihewan l a ke w ou ld h ave m ade t h e w a te r u npa la tab le . T he s ed imen ta ry e v iden ce s f o r s t ream s a nd /o r r i ve r s a nd t h e p r e sence o f a n ima l s a nd h om in id s a r e , h oweve r , s t rong ly i n d ica t ive o ft h ee x i s tence o ff r e sh w a te r s ou rce s i n t h e a r ea . T he l o ca t ion o f t h e h om in id s i te s o n t h e D onggu tuo P la t fo rm may h ave b een i n f luenced b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f r e sh w a te r a nd a n ima l s f o r r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd o f 2 2

O ne d ef in i t ion o ft h e MN I i s" . . . the n umbe ro f

T he b one s f o und a t X iaochang l iang a r e i n w ho le a n d f r agmen ta ry c ond i t ion s (We i Q i a nd P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s .

a n ima l sn eeded t oa c coun tf o rt h ef a una lc ompo s i t ion i nt h e s amp le . . ." ( A l len a nd G uy 1 984 :41 i n Wh i te 1 992 :85 ) .

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o b se rv . ) . T he u nwea the red c ond i t ion o ft h e f o s s i l i sed b one s ( e .g . , n o c o r t ica l f l ak ing w a s o b se rved ; P ope p e r s . c omm . ) r e cen t ly r e cove red a tX iaochang l iang b yL iY i ( p e r s . c omm . ) w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h ey w e re d epo s i ted w i th in a n a pp rox ima te ly o ne y ea r p e r iod o f t ime ( s ee B eh ren smeye r 1 978 ) . C ompa r i son b e tween mamma l ian b one s e xpo sed i n s i tu a nd s u r f ace f i nd s a ts e c t ion A s t rong ly i n d ica te s t h a t a l a rge p a r t o ft h e b one b r eakage i s a t t r ibu tab le t o e xpo su r e a nd s ub sequen t e ro s iona l t r an spo r t o f t h e f o s s i l m a te r ia l s ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . T he r e f i t t ing o f s ome o f t h e r e cen t ly f o und b one s ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) s ugge s t s t h a t X iaochang l iang may h ave s uf e r ed l i t t le p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance . C on jo in ing b one f r agmen t s e t s f o und i n p rox im i ty t o e a ch o the r a tt h e K oob i F o r a F xJ j 5 0 l o ca l i ty a r e t h ough t t ob es t rong ly s ugge s t ive o ft h e b r eakage a nd /o r c hew ing o n s i te o f b one s i n t roduced i n a pp rox ima te ly c omp le te c ond i t ions ( Bunn i n B unn e t a l . 1 980 ) . T he f r ac tu re sa nd u np ronounced w ea the r ing o ft h eD onggu tuo T i , l a ye rAb one s a ppea r t o h ave d eve lop ed r e cen t ly w h ich m ay s ugge s t t h a t e xpo su re o f t h e se f o s s i l s o ccu r r ed r e la t ive ly r e cen t ly ( Sch ick e ta l . 1 991 ; a nd s e e C hap te r I ) . T he b one s e xcava t ed r e cen t ly b y L i Y i ( p e r s . c omm . ) s howed n o e v idence o f d amage i n cu r red d u r ing e xcava t ion ( e .g . , f r e sh b reak s ) . T he b roken c ond i t ion o f b one s a tb o th s i te s m ay i n d ica te t h e p r e sence o f o ne o r s e ve r a l mod ify ing a gen t s : n a tu ra l b r eakage a nd /o r a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion a nd /o r h om in id mod if ica t ion ( e .g . , e x t rac t ion o f m a r row ) . T he mo re f r agmen ta ry p r e se rva t ion o f t h e D onggu tuo f o s s i l s m ay i n d ica te l o nge r e xpo su re o f t h e f o s s i l s t on a tu ra l mod if y ing p ro ce s se s a nd /o r mo re i n ten s ive h om in id u t i l i sa t ion t h an a t X iaochang l iang ( a nd s e e a bove ) . S ome o f t h e f o s s i l s m ay h ave b een d epo s i ted b y f l uv ia l p roce s se s . I t h a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e b one s a tF xJ j 5 0 c ou ld h ave b een c a r r ied i na nd /o ro u to ft h es i te b y f l oodwa te r s( Bunn i n B unn e ta l . 1 980 ) . T aphonom ic s t ud ie s a t O lduva i h ave s hown t h a t w a te r t ran spo r t( e .g . ,B eh ren smeye r 1 975 ;B info rd 1 981 :294 ) c an b i a s b one s a s semb led b y a n ima l s , a nd a s t udy o f a mode rn c amp s i te h a sd emon s t ra ted t h e e f f ec t s h eavy r a inf a l l c an h ave o nt h ed i spe r sa lo fb one s( G if f o rd 1 978 ) . T he a s soc ia t ion o f a r te f a c t s , i n c lud ing t o o ls a nd f o s s i ls , i n d ica te sf unc t iona l r e la t ion sh ip s . T he f ew a nd p o s s ib le c u t m a rk ed b one s i d en t if ied a t X iaochang l iang ( a t l e a s t t h ree ) , i n c lud ing ap o s s ib ly c u t -ma rked r h inoce ro t id m and ib le f o und t o ge the rw i th af l ake l a ck ing a ppa r en t u s e -wea r ( s ee C hap te r I ) w h ich e xh ib i t a n umbe r o f f i ne , l i nea r s t r ia t ion s i n d ica t ive o fc u t -ma rk s ( L i Y i a nd P ope p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . , a nd t h e 1 5p o ss ib le c u t -ma rked b one s w i th amo re c e r ta in c u t -ma rked s i ng le s haf t b one ( wh ich a l so a ppea r s t o e xh ib i t an umbe r o f t oo th i mp re s s ion s ) a t Donggu tuo T i , l a ye rA( Sch ick e ta l . 1 991) , s ugge s t a tl e a s t as ma l l d eg r ee o f h om in id p roce ss ing o f a n ima ls . T he se s pec imen s a l so i n d ica te t h a ts ome t oo l s w e r e m anu f a c tu r ed f o r t h i s a c t iv i ty . T he se t oo ls may i n c lude s ome o ft h eu n re touched s pec imens , t o o l s w h ich h ave b een s hown t o b e v e ry e f f ec t ive f o r b u t che ry ( c f . , e . g . , K ee ley a nd T o th 1 981 ; T o th 1 982 :312 , 3 31) . S ome o ft h e se t oo l sm ay h ave b een n on l i th ic a nd t h u s n o tp r e se rved . T he f ew p o s s ib le g naw -ma rked b one s f r om X iaochang l iang , p e rhap s i n c lud ing t h e b one a nd h o rn ' t oo ls ' , a nd t h e 1 5 s pec imens f r om Donggu tuo T i e xh ib i t ing c a rn ivo re a l te ra t ion ( Sch ick e t a l . 1 99 1) , t h e c u t , a nd t o o th -ma rked s haf t b one f r om t h is t r ench , a nd p e rhap s t h e ' b one t o o l s ' r e p r e sen t e v idence o f n on -hom in id u t i l i sa t ion o f t h e se l o ca l i t ie s .T he c u t -ma rked b one s m ay i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s h ad f i r s t a nd o n ly a cce s s t o c a r ca s se s , w h i le t h e c u t , a nd

t o o th -ma rked s haf t b one m ay i n d ica te h om in id s c aveng ing ( c f . , P o t t s 1 988 :2 16 -217 ) , o rc ompe t i t ion b e tween h om in id s a nd n on -hom in id s ( c f . , P o t t s a nd S h ipman 1 981) . A p o ten t ia l a n ima l ( s )w ou ld b eH yena l i cen t i a nd H yena s p . a t X iaochang l iang , a nd C an i s s p . a nd Myospa lax c f .f on tan ier i r e co rded a tD onggu tuo ( s ee C hap te r I a nd A ppend ix 4 ) . I t c anno tb ee s tab l i shed g i ven t h ep oo rd a ta ,w he the r t h e g naw m a rk s w e re m ade b y a n ima l sc on t empo raneous w i th h om in id o ccupa t ion ,o rw he the rt h ey g a ined a c ce s s t o t h e b one s a f t e r h om in id s h ad l e f t . B one s a r e m o r e l i ke ly t o b e mod if i ed o r d e s t royed b y c a rn ivo r e s i fh om in id s i te o ccupa t ion w a s n o t p e rmanen t ( s ee , e . g . , B unn e t a l . 1 988 :448 -449 ) . ( I n c on t ra s t , t h e f o s s i l s r e cov e r ed a t X ia shagou a nd n ea r N ihewan v i l lage w e r e n o t a s f r agmen ta ry ( e .g . , i n ta c t s ke le ton s , c r an ia w i th a s so c ia ted m and ib le s ; B a rbou r e ta l . 1 927 ) c ompa r ed t o t h e k nown c ond i t ion o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo f o s s i ls , b u t i n c luded ah igh f r equency o f b one s m od if i ed b y h yena o r r oden t s . ) F u r the rmo re , t h e s i ze o f t h e D onggu tuo b one s amp le i s a n u nde re s t ima te ,s i nce We i ( p e r s .c omm . )h a s s t a ted t h a t many f o s s i l b one se xcava ted a tD onggu tuo w e r es o ld b e fo re S ch ick e ta l . 's ( 1991) a na ly s i s ( a nd s e e C hap te r I ) . I n v i ew o f t h is , t h er e p re sen ta t ivene s so ft h ec a lcu la ted r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f i n d iv idua l t a xa , t h e c ond i t ion o ft h e f o s s i ls , a nd t h e r e la t ive p ropo r t ion s o f g naw , a nd c u t -ma rked f o s s i l s c anno t b e d e te rm ined . A no the r f a c to r t oc on s ide r i st h a t t h e s ma l l s u r f ace a r ea o f f r agmen ta ry b one sr e duce s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fi d en t ify ing a ny p o ten t ia l g naw , o r c u t -ma rk s . T he p re sen t ly a va i lab le e v idence t hu s p robab ly u nde r e s t ima te s t h e e x ten t o f b o th h om in id a nd n on -hom in id a c t iv i t ie s . I t a l so n eed s t o b e c on s ide r ed t h a t b o th g naw -ma rk s ( s ee K le in 1 987 ) a nd c u t ma rk s m ay p o ten t ia l ly b e o b l i te r a ted b y a b ra s ion ( s ee K le in 1 987 ; S h ipman a nd R o se 1 983 ) . E v idence f o r e a r ly h om in id m ea tc on sump t ion m ay b er e duced b yt h ed i spe r sa lo f b roken b one s a nd b y w ea the r ing ( Po snan sky , I s aa c i n I s aa c 1 967 ) . D e s t ruc t ion o f b one s b y s c avenge r s ( B inf o rd a nd B e r t r am 1 977 ) w i l l a l so b i a s a n a s semb lage ( I saa c 1 967 ) . A no the r p o ten t ia l e l emen t o f s i te d i s tu rbance a nd mod if ica t ion o f f o s s i l s t h a th a st ob ec on s ide red f o r t h e N ihewan s i te s i st h e t r amp l ing o f b one s b y a n ima l s ( B in fo rd 1 981 :77 -81 ; B r a in 1 967 ; G if fo rd 1 977 i n B in f o rd 1 981 :78 ; a nd s ee B u tze r 1 993 :197 ) , e spec ia l ly b y l a rge a n ima ls ( Sch if f e r 1 972 ; C oe 1 978 :77 i n B in f o rd 1 981 :79 ) n e a r w a te r s ou r ce s ( G if f o rd 1 978 ) . T h is c an p o ten t ia l ly g ene ra te g r een -bone f r a c tu r e s ( B inf o rd 1 981 :79 ) a nd l e ad t o t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f b one s ( S ch if f e r 1 972 ; G if f o rd 1 978 ; C oe 1 978 :77 i n B in f o rd 1 981 :79 , 8 0 ; B u tze r 1 993 :197 ) . T he t r amp l ing o f b one s b y l a rge s ized s pe c ie s c an a l so g ene r a t e f e a tu re s v e ry s im i la r t o c u t -ma rk s ( And r ew s a nd C ook 1 985 ; B eh ren smeye r e t a l . 1 986 ;B info rd 1 987 :96 ,9 7 ; K le in 1 987 ) .L a rge a n ima ls w e re f ound a tb o th l o ca l i t ie s , a l though t h e i rp o ten t ia l i nf luence o n s i te d i s tu rbance i sa no pen q ue s t ion . T he n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f d i f f e ren t ia lb one p r e se rva t ion a nd e f f ec t so f mod if y ing a gen t s i s i mpo s s ib le t o f u l ly e va lua te g i ven t h e p auc i ty o f d a ta f r om b o th s i te s . F u r the rmo re , p a t te rn s o f h om in id b ehav iou r f o r e a r ly l o ca l i t ie s m ay n o t b e d e te c t ed o r p o s s ib ly m i s in te rp re ted b ecau se o f i n c rea s ing ly l e s s f a vou rab le c ond i t ions o f p r e se rva t ion w i th t ime o f e a r ly d epo s i t s a nd s ma l le r p opu la t ion s ( K i rkby a nd K i rkby 1 976 :252 ; a nd s e e b e low ) . T he d a ta a va i lab le a r e i n su f f ic ien t t o e s tab l ish w he the r t h e a n ima ls w i th c u t -ma rk s w e r e o b ta ined b y h un t ing o r s c aveng ing . N one o f t h e t o o l s a t t h e l o ca l i t ie s a ppea r t o i d en t if y h un t ing t oo l s . H om in id s m ay h ave a cqu i r ed a n ima l

7 4

r e sou r ce s b y b o th h un t ing a nd s c aveng ing , b u t t h e se mode s c an b e d i ff i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh f r om e a ch o t he r ( s ee I s aa c 1 977a :92 , 1 983 ; B unn e t a l . 1 980 ; B eh r en smeye r 1 987 ; P o t t s 1 988 :246 ) . S ome a u tho r s h ave s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a dven t o f p l anned a nd e f f ic ien t h un t ing w a s ar e la t ive ly r e cen te ven t ,a pp rox ima te ly c o inc iden tw i th t h ee me rgence o f mode rn h uman s ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 985 , 1 987 :47 ; K le in 1 987 ; T r inkau s 1 987 ) .A cco rd ing t oB in f o rd 's a na ly se s ( 1981 :293 2 94 , 1 985 , 1 989 ; a nd s e e S h ipman 1 983 ) o f f o ss i l s a t O lduva i , h om in id s o b ta ined a n ima l f ood ( p redom inan t ly c on s i s t ing o f b one ma r row a nd p e rhap s " s c rap s o f d r i ed m ea t " )b ys c aveng ing . H oweve r ,o t he rs t ud ie so ft h e O lduva i s ke le ta lf o s s i lp a r t sa nd o fc u t -ma rk sh ave f o und n o e v idence o f am a rg ina l mode o fh om in id s c aveng ing ( Po t t s 1 988 :234 , 3 08 , 2 15 ) .

v i ew o f t h e d ange r c a rn ivo r e s may h ave p o sed t o s ucce s s fu l o ccupa t ion o f s i te s a nd a tendan t p roce s s ing o f a n ima l r e sou r ce s ( Po t t s 1 988 :29 1 ; s e e a l so Mov iu s 1 948 :402 ; D a r t 1 965 ; C la rk a nd H a r r i s 1 985 ) . 6 .6

S ummary a nd C onc lus ion

C ompa r i son s o ft h i s w r i te r 's r e su l t s o ft h e l i th ic a na ly se s o f X iao chang l iang a nd D onggu tuo t o t ho se o f f o rme r a u tho r s a r e h ampe r ed b ecau se o f t h i s a u tho r 's s ma l le r s amp le s , p a r t icu la r ly w i th r e spec tt oX iaochang l iang . T h i s p rob lem i s e nhanced b y d i f f e r ence s i nl i t h ic c l a ss if ica t ion . H oweve r , i n many r e spec t s i n te rp re ta t ion s m ade b y e a r l ie r w o rke r s a r e c ons i s ten t w i th t h e p r e sen t w r i te r 's . T he h ypo the s is p u t f o rwa rd b y e a r l ie r w o rke r s t h a t t h e i n fo rma l c ha ra c t e r o f l i th ic a s semb lage s i nt h e F a r E a s t may b e r e f e rab le t o t h e p redom inan t u se o f n on l i th ic t oo ls may a t l e a s t t o s ome e x ten t e xp la in t h e g ene ra l ly u n s tanda rd i sed f e a tu r e s o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s . H oweve r , t h e N ihewan a r te f a c t s a l so s how s ome e l emen t s o f a ppa ren t s t anda rd i sa t ion w h ich m ay h ave b een ar e spon se t or aw m a te r ia lp rope r t ie s .

T he P l e i s tocene r e co rd o n t h e i mpo r tance o f p l an t f o od i s v e ry p oo r ( I saa c 1 977a :29 , 9 2 ; P o t t s 1 988 :233 ) . S tud ie s o f r e cen t h un te r -ga the re r s ub s i s tence h ave s hown t h a t p l an t f ood sa r ev e ry i mpo r tan t( Gou ld 1 969a )a nd t h a t t h ey a r e t h e m a in d i e ta ry c omponen t ( Le e a nd D eVo re 1 968 ; L ee 1 968 ; Woodbu rn 1 968 ; G ou ld 1 980 :9 ; Z ih lman 1 981 ; K amm inga 1 982 :53 ) . T he N ihewan h om in id s may h ave s ub s i s ted ma in ly o n al a rge v a r ie ty o fp l an t f ood s , i n c lud ing r oo t s a nd f r u i t s ( a s f o r e xamp le t h e ! Kung ; s e e L ee 1 968 ) . A u tho r s h ave , h oweve r , s ugge s ted ( Lee a nd D eVo re 1 968 ) t h a t a l l c on tempo ra ry a nd r e cen t h un t e r -ga the re r s l i ve i n ma rg ina l e nv i ronmen t s w he r e r e sou r ce s a r e l e s s r i ch a nd v a r ied , a nd t h a t p r eh i s to r ic h un t e r -ga the r e r s e xp lo i ted r i ch e r e nv i ronmen t s . T he l ow f r equency o fc u t -ma rked b one s a tb o th s i te s may t o s ome e x ten tb ee xp la ined b y al i m i ted u se o f b u t che ry t oo ls . T he r o a s t ing o f w ho le a n ima l c a r ca s se s w i thou t p r io r s k inn ing w a s t h e c ommon c u s tom o fA u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ine s ( Dah l 1 926 , G ou ld 1 969b , McA r thu r 1 960 i n K amm inga 1 982 :31 ) , a nd c ook ing o f s ma l l a nd w ho le a n ima l c a r ca s se s w a s p r a c t i sed b y s ome modem h un te r -ga the r e r s i nA u s t ra l ia ( P f e if f e r 1 985 :335 ; Abb ie 1 969 :75 a nd D r ive r a nd Ma s sey 1 957 :233 i n Wa tanabe 1 985 ) a nd N o r th Ame r ica ( Abb ie 1 969 :75 a nd D r ive r a nd Ma s sey 1 957 :233 i n Wa tanabe 1 985 ) . I ti s a l so c onduc ted b y p eop le i n S ou thea s t A s ian f o re s t s w he re t h e c ook ed c a r ca s s i sd i v id ed w i th t h e h and s ( Pope 1 989a ) . C ook ing o fc a r ca s se s i n t h e i r s k in s may n o t h ave r e qu i r ed much f ue l b e cau se b ody f a t a l one p rov ide s a v e ry g ood s ou r ce o f f ue l . H oweve r , t h e a ppa ren t a b sence f o r f i re u t i l i sa t ion ( s uch a sh ea r th s , b u rn t b one s , b a cked s o i l ) a t X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo ( s ee , e . g . , Y ou e ta t . 1 978 ; We i 1 985 ;P ope e ta l . 1 990 ; S ch ick e ta l . 1 991 ; L i Y i p e r s . c omm . )m ake st h is al e s s l i ke ly m e thod o fr e sou rce u se . T he e xcep t ion t o t h i s may b e as i ng le , a ppa ren t ly f i r e c r a ck ed f l ake r e cove r ed f r om t h e c u l tu ra l h o r izon o f s e c t ion B a t X iaochang l iang ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) .T he l a ck o fe v idence f o r f i r e u se m ay b e af unc t ion o fp o s t -depo s i t iona ld i s tu rbance o f t h e N ihewan s i te s ( c f . , I s aa c 1 977a :93 -94 ) , w h i le i t i s a l so p o s s ib le t h a tt h ep l ace so ff i re u se h ave n o ty e t b een l o ca ted . H oweve r , t h e u nbu rn t c ond i t ion o f t h e f o s s i ls , y e t c u t m a rk ed s t a te o f s ome f o s s i l s m ay i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s w e r e e i the r n o t f am i l ia r w i th t h i s t e chno logy o r d i d n o t u t i l i se i t .T ha tf i re u se may h ave b een k nown t o t h e e a r l ie s t H . e r ec tu si nt h e F a r E a s t i si n d i ca t ed b y e v idence o f f i re a t s ome A f r ican h om in id a c t iv i ty s i te s d a t ed t o c . 1 . 0 t o 1 . 5 my rbp ( Gow le t t e ta l . 1 981 ; B ra in a nd S i l len 1 988 ) . I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a b sence o f f i re u t i l i sa t ion a t X iaochang l iang may i n d ica te t h a th om in id ss ub s is ted o n r aw m ea t ( L i Y i p e r s . c omm . ; a nd c f . , S t ewa rd 1 968 :328 ) . T he u se o f f i re w ou ld h ave b een a dvan tageou s t o h om in id s i n

7 5

T he X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo l o ca l i t ie s l i e w i th in t h e s ed imen t so f an ow e x t inc t p a laeo lake a nd t r ibu ta ry s t ream s ; p a r t o f t h e D onggu tuo s e d imen t s i nd ica te a r i ve r c on tex t . T he se l o ca l i t ie s d a t e t o a pp rox ima te ly 0 . 900 -0 .970 my r o r o lde rt h an 0 . 970 m y r b a sed o n t h e p a laeomagne t ic e v idence . T he f a una s ugge s t sa nE a r ly P l e is tocene a ge o ft h es i te s .T he N ihewan s i te s a r e t h u s t h e o l de s t k nown a r chaeo log ica l l o ca l i t ie s a tt h i s l a t i tude . T he p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l e v iden ce s a r e i n conc lu s ive . T he m amma l ian f o ss i ls s ugge s t a t empe ra te g r a s s land / s teppe e nv i ronmen tw i th s ome w ood land a nd /o r f o re s t a tt h e t ime o f h om in id o ccupa t ion , w h i le t h e p a lyno log ica l e v idence f r om X iaochang l iang i n d ica te s a n e nv i ronmen t w i th s l igh t ly mo re t r ee t h an h e rba ceou s v ege ta t ion . D onggu tuo m ay r e p r e sen t a mu l t ip le h om in id o ccupa t ion s i te b a sed o nt h eo ccu r rence o fs eve ra l l a ye r s ,t h e i rd ep th ,a nd o n t h e mo re n ume rou s a r te f ac t s a nd f o ss i ls c ompa red t o X iaochang l iang . T he s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s , t h e g ene ra l ly f i ne -g ra in s ed imen ta ry c on tex t s , a nd t h e p r e sence o f b one s w h ich a ppea r t o b e c u t -ma rked , s t rong ly s ugge s t t h a t t h e a r t ef ac t s a nd f o ss i ls a t b o th s i te s w e re d epo s i ted d u r ing t h es ame p e r iod o ft ime . H oweve r , t h e d a ta o n s pa t ia l a s soc ia t ion s i s t oo p oo r t o i d en t if y s u ch f e a tu r e s a s d i sc r e t e a c t iv i ty a r ea s . H om in id s m ay h ave s e lec ted t h e s i te s f o r o ccupa t ion b ecause o f t h e p r e sence o f w a te r ,f a una l , a nd e x ten s ive r aw ma te r ia lr e sou rce s . T he a s soc ia t ion s o f f o s s i l s a nd a r tef a c t s a nd t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f c u t -ma rk ed b one s i n f i ne -g ra in s ed imen ta ry c on tex t s s ugge s t t h a t X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo r e p r e sen t p l a ce s a t w h ich s ome h om in id p roce s s ing o f a n ima l c a r ca s se s w e r e c onduc t ed . T he a va i lab le e v idence i s n o t s u f f ic ien t t o i d en t if y t h e m e thod o r m e thod s ( hun t ing a nd /o rs c aveng ing )b yw h ich h om in id s may h ave s e cu red t h e a n ima l s . T he p r e sence a tD onggu tuo , a nd p e rhap s a l so a t X iaochang l iang o f g naw -ma rked b one s i n d ica te t h a t n on h om in id s a l so u t i l i sed t h i s l o ca l i ty ( ie s ) . T he s i ng le c u t , a n d g naw -ma rked b one f r om D onggu tuo s ugge s t s h om in id a nd n on -hom in id u t i l isa t ion o ft h e s ame a n ima l r e sou r ce . T h e r e i sn o s ub s tan t ia le v idence f o rh om in id f i re u se . F u r the r r e sea r ch s hou ld b e c onduc ted t o c l a r if y t h e c h rono log ica l , d epo s i t iona ry , a nd t h e b ehav iou ra l c on tex t s , i n c lud ing t h e r o le s n on -cu l tu ra l a gen t s may h ave p l ayed i n

s i te f o rma t ions . S amp l ing o f p a lyno log ica l a n d p a laeon to log ica l l o ca l i t ie si nt h eN ihewan e mp loy ing c u r ren t t e chn ique so fc o l lec t ion ,r e co rd ing , a nd a na lys i s i sn eed ed t o a s se s st h er ep re sen ta t ivene s so ft h ep r e sen t f o s s i l s amp le s i n t e rm so ft h e i rc h rono log ica l a nd e co log ica l s i gn if icance s , a nd f o r a mo re i n fo rma t ive r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e a nc ien t e nv i ronmen t . F u tu re e xcava t ion s o f t h e D ong Y ang p romon to ry a nd s t udy o f t h e l o ca l g eo logy m ay c l a r if y t h e n a tu re o f t h e a r tef ac t s a nd f o s s i l s i n r e la t ion t o t h e a r chaeo log ica lo ccu r rence se l sewhe r eo nt h eP l a t fo rm . C ompa r ison o ft h e N ihewan s i te s t o s ome i mpo r tan t s i te s k nown f r om E a s t A f r ica s e em s t o d emon s t ra te s ome s im i la r i t ie s i n h om in id b ehav iou r . I n b o th o f t h e se p l a ce s , h om in id s o ccup ied l ow e ne rgy l a ke l o ca l i t ie s n ea r r aw m a te r ia ls ou r ce s . T he E a s tA f r ican ,a nd a l so t h ee t hnog raph ic d a ta , c an s e rve t o c l a r if y t h e o r ig in o f p a t te rns o f b one b r eakage .T he r a nge o fl i t h ic c a tego r ie s ,a nd i np a r t icu la r t h e p r e sence o fw a s te ma te r ia ls a nd t oo ls , i d en t if ied i n t h e w e l l s t ud ied E a s t A f r ican a s semb lage s a r e v e ry s im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s . B o th a r e s t rong ly i n d ica t ive o f h om in id t oo l m anuf ac tu re a tt h e p l a ce s o f o ccupa t ion . T he N ihewan d a ta c an a l so g a in mo re s i gn if icance i ne l uc ida t ing o t he r t e chno log ica l a spec t s b y c ompa r ing i t t o t h e E a s t A f r ican a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta .

7 6

CHAPTER V II

m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e E a r ly P le is tocene u p l if t o f t h e Q in l ing ( Pope 1 982 :100 ) .

A R ev iew o f Impor tan t E ar ly a nd Midd le P le istocene Archaeo log ica l L oca l it ies i n Nor thern C h ina

7 .1

7 .2 .1

T he G ongwang l ing s e c t ion r e ache s at o ta l t h ickness o f 6 2 .9 m( Gu e ta t . 1 966 i nP ope 1 982 :99 , 1 00 ) , o r 6 2 m ( Ta i a n d H sue 1 973 ) , o r6 0 m (Wu e ta t . 1 966 ) , o r a bou t 3 5 m ( An a nd H o 1 989 ) . T he f o ss i l h o r izon i s ar e d c l ay l a ye r ( a lso i d en t if i ed a s r e dd i sh s i l t ; We i Q i [ p e r s . c omm . ]) w h ich o ve r l ie s as andy g rave l b ed o f 3 m t h ickne ss ( Chang e ta t . 1 964 i nA igne r 1 981 :24 1 ; G u e ta l . 1 966 i nP ope 1 982 :100 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ) , o r 2 5 m ( Ta i 1 966 ) , o r 2 . 6 m (Wu e ta t . 1 966 ) , o r 1 7m( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) , o r 3 0 m ( J ia 1 980 :13 ) . T he t h ickne ss o f t h e f o ss i l if e rou s r e d c l ay i n t h e Gongwang l ing a r ea i s2 8 m ( Chang e t a t . 1 964 i n A igne r 1 981 :241 ; G u e t a t . 1 966 i n P ope 1 982 :100 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ) . T he d i f f e r ence s i n t h e t h ickness o f t h e w ho le s e c t ion a nd o ft h eg r ave lb ed may b e b ecau se d if e r en t s e c t ions w e re m ea su red .A cco rd ing t o An a nd Ho ( 1989 ) t h e s a ndy g rave ls o f E a r ly P le is tocene a ge f o rm t h e b a sa l l a ye r o ft h e Gongwang l ing s e c t ion , a nd t h ese a r eo ve r la in b y l o e s s a nd p a laeo so l so ft h eE a r ly a nd M idd le P le is tocene .

I n troduct ion

T he f i ve E a r ly P le i s tocene ( c . 1 . 85 -0 .730 my r ) a nd M idd le P le is tocene ( c . 0 . 730 -0 .127 my r ) l o ca l i t ie s d i scus sed i n t h is c hap te ra r ea mong t h e mo s ti mpo r tan t l o ca l i t ies k nown f r om C h ina ( F ig . 14 ) . T he se l o ca l i t ie sw e re s e lec ted b ecau se t h ey r ep re sen ts ome o ft h e mos t s ub s tan t ia l e v idence f o r h om in id a c t iv i ty i n t e rms o f t h e i r s t ra t ig raph ic , f o ss i l , a nd s t one a r tef ac tc on tex t s . T he a ims o ft h is c hap te ra r e t oc r i t ica l ly r e e xam ine t h e d epo s i t iona ry , c h rono log ica l , e nv i ronmen ta l , a nd h om in id b ehav iou ra l e v idence o f t h e se l o ca l i t ies , a nd t o e va lua te t h e ir s i gn if icance t o t h e N ihewan e v idence o f h om in id b ehav iou r . T ab le 2 16 s how s t he g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se l o ca l i t ie s i n r e la t ion t o t h e e a r ly N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s . 7 .2

Gongwang l ing

T he L ant ian l oca l i t ies : I n troduct ion

T he l a ye r s f r om w h ich t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls w e re e xcava ted h ave b een d i v ided i nd i f f e ren tw ays . T he d epo s i t o f t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion w a s d i v ided i n to f i ve l o e ss s o i ls c omp r is ing 1 2 l a ye r s o rl e ve ls ( l aye r s 1t o 1 2 f r om t h e b a se t ot h e t op ) (Wu e ta t . 1 966 ; A igne r 1 981 :241) a nd i n c lude s f r om t h e b a se t ot h e t op : s o i l 1i sl a ye r 1 ,s o i l 2i sl a ye r s 2 4 , s o i l 3i sl a ye r s 5 -8 , s o i l 4i sl a ye r s 9 10 , a nd s o i l 5i s l a ye r s 1 -12 (Wu e t a t . 1 966 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :241) . T he f a una , i n c lud ing t h e h om in id f o ss i ls w a s r e cove r ed f r om t h e b a sa l , c onc re t iona ry p a r t o f t h e r e d c l ay ( Chang e ta t . 1 964 i n A igne r 1 981 :241 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; J i a 1 980 :13 ; P ope 1 982 :98 -99 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ; a nd s e eA igne r 1 978a :209 , 1 988 :1036 ; Wu a nd D ong 1 985b ; C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 ) , l a ye r 6i n s o i l 3 (Wu e ta t . 1 966 ; A igne r 1 978a :209 , 1 981 :241 , 2 43 ) . O the r a u tho r s ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; Z hang 1 989 :124 ) r e f e r t o t h e h om in id l a ye r a s l a ye r 1 8 . A igne r ( 1 988 :1036 ) h a s s ubsequen t ly s t a ted t h a tt h eh om in id s pec imen sd e r ive f r om l a ye r 6a nd t h e mamma l ian f o ss i ls f r om l a ye r s 7a nd 8 . L aye r 6i s a2 . 6 m t h ick s ha l low f i ne g r ey s a nd w i th c a lca reou s c ong lome ra te a nd n odu le s (Wu e t a t . 1 966 ) . D ispe r sed o ccu r rence s o f c a lca reous n odu le so ccu ri nl a ye r s 7 12 (Wu e ta l . 1 966 ;F ig . 16 ) . T he f o ss i ls w e re f o und c oncen t ra ted i n o ne p a r t o f t h e f o s s i l if e rou s l a ye r (Wu e t a t . 1 966 ) , i n a" f oss i l p ocke t" ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 :100 ; A igne r 1 981 :241 ; J i a 1 980 :14 ) e nca sed i n ma t r ix (Wu e ta l . 1 966 ;J i a 1 980 :14 ) .

T he G ongwang l ing ( n ea r G ongwang l ing v i l lage ) a nd C hen j iawo ( n ea r C hen j iawo v i l lage ) l o ca l i t ie s w h ich a r e s i tua ted a bou t 1 6 km e a s t a nd a bou t 1 km n o r thwe s t , r e spec t ive ly o ft h et own o fL an t ian a nd s ou thea s t o f X ian i n s ou thea s te rn S haanx iP rov ince r e p re sen tt h e mo s t s i gn if ican t d i scove r ie s( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 ; Woo 1 964a , b , 1 966 ; H uang a nd C hang 1 966 ; Wu a nd Dong 1 985b ; J i a 1 980 :13 ; A igne r 1 981 :237 )o ft h e 2 7l o ca l i t ie s i nt h eL an t ian a r ea ( Huang a nd C hang 1 966 ; Z hang 1 985 :182 ; F igs . 14 , 15 ) . Gongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo a r e s i tua ted a t ad i s tance o f a bou t2 1 km f r om e ach o the ri nt h e n o r the rn f oo th i l ls o f t h e Q in l ing S han o n t h e n o r the rn s i de o f al a rge l oess p la tform , t h e G ongwang l ing h i l l n ea r t h e B ahe ( Ba r i ve r ) , at r ibu ta ry o f t h e We ihe ( Huang a nd C hang 1 966 ; a nd s ee A igne r 1 981 :241 ; F ig . 15 ) . T he L an t ian l o ca l i t ie s f i r s t c ame t o t h e a t ten t ion o f p a laeon to log is t s a nd g eo log is t s who d u r ing s u rveys d i scove red a n h om in id mand ib le i n 1 963 a t C hen j iawo , a nd ac a lo t te a nd o t he rh om in id b ones i n1 964 a t Gongwang l ing , c onspec if ic w i th H . e r ec tus ( e .g . , Woo 1 964a , b , 1 966 ; Wu e t a t . 1 966 ; T a i 1 966 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; J i a 1 980 :13 ; A igne r 1 981 :237 , 2 40 , 2 44 ; P ope 1 982 :101-102 , 1 983 , 1 988b ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ; Wu a nd D ong 1 985b ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :209 ) . F oss i l f a una a nd s t one a r tef ac t s w e re r e cove r ed i n 1 964 , 1 965 , a nd 1 966 ( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 ; Woo 1 966 ; T a i 1 966 ; Wu e ta t . 1 966 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 966 ; T a i a nd H sue 1 973 ; Q iu a nd L i 1 978 ; J i a 1 980 :13 , 1 6 -17 , 1 989a ; A igne r 1 981 :240 -243 ) , a nd i n 1 975 ( Zhang 1 989 :124 ) . A r e cen t i n spec t ion o f Gongwang l ing f ound t h a t t h e e xcava t ion h ad b een e x tended 5 0 m f u r the r f r om t h eh om in id l o ca l i ty ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 ) .

T he f o ss i ls e xcava ted i n 1 966 d e r ive f r om a n a pp rox ima te ly 1 7 m t h ick d epo s i t c omp r is ing 1 9 l a ye r s o f v a ry ing t h ickne s s ( numbe red 1 19 f r om t o p t ob o t tom ) ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) .T he f o s s i l s w e re r e cove red f r om l a ye r 1 3 , af i ne s a nd s ed imen to f 1 . 4 -2 .0 m d ep th , f r om t h e c l ay l a ye r 1 4 , o f 0 . 5 1 . 3 mt h ickne s s , l a ye r 1 5 , af i ne s and s ed imen t o f 1 . 7 -2 .0 m t h ickne ss , a nd l a ye r 1 8 , af i ne s a nd s ed imen t w i th c a lca reou s c ong lome ra te a nd n odu le s w i th at h ickness o f1 . 6 -2 .5 m ; t h e t o ta l t h ickne s s i s5 . 2 -7 .8 m ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 17 ; T ab le 2 17 ) . I n t h e s t ra t ig raph ic s e c t ion , b u t n o t i n t h e t e x t t h e f o ss i ls a r e s hown t o d e r ive o n ly f r om l a ye r s 1 5 a nd 1 8 ( c f . , T a i a nd H sue 1 973 , F ig . 1a nd p . 2 ; F ig . 17 ) . F oss i ls w e re mos t a bundan t i n l a ye r 1 8 a nd l e a s t a bundan t i n l a ye r 1 5 w he re o n ly o ne t o o th w a s f ound ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) . A cco rd ing t oC la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 ) t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e d c l ay l a ye r i s 1 0 m t h ick , a nd t h e f a una , i n c lud ing t h e

T he Gongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo l o ca l i t ie s c ons t i tu te p a r t o f t h e e x ten s ive C enozo ic a nd Q ua te rna ry L an t ian d epo s i t s wh ich r e ach at h ickness o f 5 00 -800 m ( Gu e t a t . 1 966 i n P ope 1 982 :99 ; A igne ra nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :237 , F ig . 8 1 ) . T he E a r ly P le is tocene d epo s i t s o f r e d c l ay a nd s andy g r ave l s i t u nconformab ly o n P l iocene r e d s andy c l ay s ( Chang e t a t . 1 964 i n A igne r 1 981 :214 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ) , a nd o n T e r t ia ry s e d imen t s ( Gu e ta t . 1 966 i n P ope 1 982 :99 ) . T he e ro s iona l u nconform i ty h a s b een t r a ced i n t h e ma jo r i ty o f c ro ss s e c t ions i n t h e L an t ian a r ea ( Chang e ta l . 1 964 , a nd X iang 1 976 i nP ope 1 982 :100 ) , a nd

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h om in id a nd a n a r tef ac t w e r e r e cove r ed f r om a 1 . 5 m t h ick l a ye r( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 ; a nd s e eb e low ) . T he a gg lome ra t ion o f t h e f o ss i ls i s t hough t t o r e p r e sen t e v idence o f r e -depos i t ion i n a h i gh -ene rgy f l uv ia l e nv ironmen t , a l though t h is o ccu r red o n ly o ve r a s ho r t d i s tance s i nce t h e f o ss i ls s how n o f l uv ia l a b ra s ion ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; J i a 1 980 :14 ) . C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 :443 ) h ave n o ted " . . . the p oo r ly p re se rved f a una a r e f r e sh w i th n o i n d ica t ion o f f l uv ia l s o r t ing , . . ." a nd i n " p r ima ry c on tex t" , a nd t h ey d e sc r ibe Gongwang l ing a sw ha ts eem s t o b e o ne o f C h ina 's " P r ima ry c on tex t s i tes ." . A igne r ( 1978a :209 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e f o ss i ls a nd g eo log ica l ly c on tempo raneou s a r tef ac t s " a re e v iden t ly d e r ived f r om u p s lope" , a nd t h e re f o re d o n o t o r ig ina te f r om ap r ima ry s t ra t ig raph ic l o ca t ion . A igne r a nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) a nd A igne r ( 1981 :242 ) r e s t r ic t t h is t o t h e ma jo r i ty o f f o re s t s pec ie s w h ich " we re e v iden t ly w a shed d own f r om u p s lope ( wh ich w a s w ooded )" a nd d epo s i ted " w i th t h e o the r f o ss i ls i n t h e r e s idua l r e dd i sh c l ays" . T he a r bo rea l p o l len a r e t hough t t o o r ig ina te f r om t h e h i l ls a bove t h e G ongwang l ing ( a nd C hen j iawo ) l o ca l i t ie s ( A cadem ia S in ica , I .V .P .P . 1 966 i n A igne r 1 981 :18 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :210 ) . C ha rcoa l g ra ins w e re f ound w i th v e r teb ra te f o ss i ls i n al a ye r j u s t a bove t h e h om in id ma te r ia ls ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; J i a 1 980 :17 f r om C h ia e t a l . 1 966 ; J i a 1 989a ) i n t h e f o ss i l if e rous l a ye r ( Zhang 1 985 :148 ) i n l a ye r 1 5 ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; T ab le 2 17 ) . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f g ra ins s ugges t sd i spe r sa lo ft h e c ha rcoa l b y r unn ing w a te r ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) . J i a a nd H uang ( 1990 :79 ) r e f e r t o " La rge g ra ins o f c ha r coa l . . .found i n t h e a sh d epo s i t s ." , a nd w r i te t h a t l a bo ra tory t e s t s h ave s hown t h e se p a r t ic le s t ob e c a rbon . T a i a nd H sue ( 1973 ) make n o men t ion o fa sh d epo s i t s . T he a r tef a c t sd e r ive f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty , f r om i s o la ted l o ca l i t ie s s eve ra l k i lome t res d i s tan t f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty ( 1 1 a r tef ac t s f r om e i gh t l o ca l i t ie s ) , a nd f r om t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e l o ca l i ty ( 35 s u r f ace a r tef ac t s ) ( Ta i a nd Ch i 1 964 ; T a i 1 966 ; T a i a nd H sue 1 973 ; Wu e ta l . 1 966 ; C hang 1 977 ; Q iu a nd L i 1 978 ; J i a 1 980 :16 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :237 ) . S ix a dd i t iona l a r tef ac t s w e re f ound i n1 975 a tt h e h om in id l o ca l i ty ( Zhang 1 989 :124 ) . A cco rd ing t o o ne r e sea r che r (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) , a l l a r te f a c t s f r om Gongwang l ing w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne s pec imen a r e a lmo s t c e r ta in ly s u r f ace f i nd s a nd d o n o t d e r ive f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty . F or r e a sons o f s pace , t h e p r e sen t d i scuss ion w i l l i n c lude o n ly t h e a r tef ac t s r e cove r ed f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty , b u t a l so t h e p rom inen t P ing l iang s pec imen a nd al a rge p o in tf ound n ea rt h eh om in id l o ca l i ty . At o ta l o f2 0a r tef ac t sd e r ive f r om e xcava t ions o ft h e w es te rn s l ope o f t h e h i l l a tt h e h om in id l o ca l i ty i n 1 965 a nd 1 966 . S even a r tef ac t s w e re r e cove red d u r ing t h e 1 965 f i e ld s e a son f r om l a ye r s 7a nd 8 o f s o i l 3 (Wu e ta t . 1 966 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; Q iu a nd L i 1 978 ; J i a 1 980 :16 17 ; A igne r 1 981 :243 ) . Z hang ( 1989 :124 ) w r i te s t h a t t h e se s p ec imen s w e re f ound i nl a ye r 8a nd i n t h e s ame l a ye r a s t h e h om in id . L aye r 7i s af i ne l i gh t b rown y e l low s a nd o f 0 . 2 -0 .6 m t h ickne s s , a nd l a ye r 8i s ab rown r e d c l ay o f 2m t h ickne ss (Wu e ta t . 1 966 ; F ig . 16 ) . T he s t ra t ig raph ic s e c t ion s hows t h e se a r tefac t s o n ly i nl a ye r 8( s ee F ig . 16 ) w h ich a r e mo re n ume rou s h e re t h an i n l a ye r 7 , t h e l e a s t t h ick h o r izon ( s e e Wu e ta t . 1 966 ) . T h ir teen a r tef ac t s w e re c o l lec ted i n 1 966 ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; Q iu a nd L i 1 978 ; A igne r 1 981 :241 , 2 43 ; J i a 1 980 :17 ; Z hang 1 989 :124 ; C hang 1 977 ) f r om s o i ls t h ough tt ob e i d en t ica l t ol a ye r s 7a nd 8( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ;

Q iu a nd L i 1 978 ; A igne r 1 981 :24 1 , 2 43 ; J i a 1 980 :17 ; C hang 1 977 ) . T he se a r tef ac t s w e re f o und d i spe r sed i n e i gh t l a ye r s ( l aye r s 4 ,5 ,7 ,9 , 1 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 7 ) o fc l ay a nd f i ne s and s ed imen t s m ea su r ing f r om 0 . 2 -0 .7 m ( l aye r 1 7 ) t o 1 . 7 -2 .0 m ( l aye r 1 5 ) i nt h ickne s s w i th at o ta l t h ickne s s o f 7 . 5 -11 .5 m ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 17 ; T ab le 2 17 ; a nd s ee b e low ) . T he se s ed imen t s a r e u sua l ly o f y e l low , b rown , a nd g r ey c o lou r , a nd i n l a ye r s 1 3 a nd 1 8 o f r e d c o lou r ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) . A cco rd ing t o Z hang ( 1989 :124 ) t h e a r tef ac t s w e r e f ound d i spe r sed i ns even l a ye r s ( l aye r s4 ,5 ,7 ,9 , 1 , 1 3 , 1 7 ) w i th at o ta l t h ickne ss o f7 . 5 -12 m . T he s ame a u tho r ( Zhang 1 985 :148 ) w r i te s t h a t t h e 2 0 a r tef ac t s w e r e f ound t o ge the r w i th t h e h om in id c a lo t te . T he s i x a r tef ac t se xcava ted i n 1 975 w e re f ound " p i led u p" i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon , b u t t h e p a ren tl a ye r ( s? ) i sn o ts pec if ied ( s ee Z hang 1 989 :124 ) . I ti si mpo r tan t t o p o in t o u t t h a t s ome a u tho r s ( s ee Q iu a nd L i 1 978 ; J i a 1 980 :16 -17 ; A igne r 1 981 :24 1 , 2 43 ; a nd s e e b e low ) p oo l a r tef ac t s n o t f ound a t t h e l o ca l i ty a s w e l l a s s u r f ace f i nds , t h a t d i f f e rence s i n c l a s s if ica t ion b e tween a u tho r s f r equen t ly l im i tc ompa r isons , a nd t h a t t h e ir d a ta c an b e amb iguous . F o r i n s tance , Q iu a nd L i ( 1 978 ) r e f e r t o o ne p oss ib le s t one b a l l , a nd o the r a u tho r s r e f e r t o s eve ra l s t one b a l ls ( Chang 1 977 ; J i a 1 980 :17 ; A igne r 1 981 :243 ) . J i a ( 1980 :17 ) s ugges t s t h a t o ne o f t h e s t one b a l ls may b e t h e o ldes t d i scove r ed i n C h ina . H oweve r , a c co rd ing t o T a i a nd H sue ( 1973 )o n ly o ne q ues t ionab le s t one b a l l w as f ound , a nd t h is d e r ive s f r om o ne o f t h e l o ca l i t ie s i n t h e Gongwang l ing a r ea ( Chou shu ihegou ) , a nd n o tf r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty . A s ma l l v e in q ua r tz p o in t f ound 1 00 m t o t h e e a s t o f t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty a nd al a rge q ua r tz i te f l ake r e cove red 1 km s ou th -ea s to fG ongwang l ing i n1 965 w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h e s u rf ace ( Ta i 1 966 ) . T he se s pec imens ( Ta i 1 966 ) a nd t h e l a rge q ua r tz i te p o in t d i scove red i n 1 964 ( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 ) a r e e r roneous ly t h ough tt od e r ive f r om C hen j iawo b yA igne ra nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) . A cco rd ing t o I .V .P .P . ( 1980 :9 ) a r tef ac t s ( i .e . " . . .f ragmen t s o f s t one t oo ls , m a in ly s c rape r s a nd c hoppe r s ,a nd af ew p ro to -handaxe s ." ) w e r e n o t f ound a tt h e h om in id l o ca l i ty , b u t " Nea r t h e f o s s i l s i te o f L an t ian Man . . ." [ i . e . a ppa ren t ly t h e Gongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo l o ca l i t ies ] . C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 :443 ) w r i te t ha t " The re s eems t o b e s ome c onfu s ion a s t o t h e n umbe r o f a r t if ac t s f r om t h e s ku l lcap s i te ;" q uo t ing Z hang 's ( 1985 :148 ) f r equency o f 2 0 a r tef ac t s a nd I .V .P .P . ( 1980 :9 ) , a nd t h e L an t ian Museum w ho i n fo rmed t h e se a u tho r s ' t ha t " 2 s c rape r s , 1f l ake a nd 4 c o re s" w e re a l so f o und i n t h e " s ame h o r izon , s l igh t ly h ighe rt h an t h e s ku l lcap ." ( a nd s ee b e low ) . T he l a t te ri si nf a c tt h ef r equency o ft h ea r tef ac t s r e cove red i n 1 965 a nd t h e i r s t ra t ig raph ic p os i t ion i n r e la t ion t o t h e h om in id ( s ee a bove ) . A l a rge p o in t f ound a tt h e P ing l iang l o ca l i ty 2 km e a s t o f Gongwang l ing d e r ive s f r om t h e s ame r e d c l ay l a ye r a s t h e h om in id m a te r ia ls a nd t h e o the r a r te f ac t s ( Ta i 1 966 ; J i a 1 980 :16 ; a nd s e e F reeman 1 977 :100 ) , a nd w a s a ppa ren t ly n o t e xcava ted ( s ee T a i 1 966 ) . T h i s i s t h e s ame s pec imen w h ich a cco rd ing t o C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 ; a nd s e e t h e ir r e f e rence t o F reeman [ 1977 ] ; a nd s e e a bove ) i s t h e o n ly a r tefac tf ound a tt h eh om in id l o ca l i ty i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e h om in id a nd t h e o the r f o ss i ls . I t i s u nc lea r f r om Z hang ( 1985 :151 , 1 82 , 1 989 :124 ) i f t h e P ing l iang s pec imen d e r ive sf r om t h e r e d c l ay o r f r om t h e s u r f ace . Ano the r l a rge p o in t w a s d i scove red n ea r t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty i n t h e s ame r e dc l ays ( o f" . . .M idd le P le is tocene . . ." a ge )a st h e f a una ( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 :155 , 1 6 1) . T he s ma l lp o l len a nd s po re s amp le ( 5 2 g ra in s ) s hows h i ghe r

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f r equenc ie s o f b o th h e rb s a nd g r a s se s ( 64% ; e . g . , S angu i so rba ) t h an t r ee s ( 36% ; e . g . , P inus s p . ; A cadem ia S in ica , I .V .P .P . 1 966 i n A igne r 1 981 :18 , F ig . 1 0 , 2 42 , 1 988 , F ig . 3 ;F ig . 18 ) . T he f auna f ound i n 1 965 c omp r ise s 2 5 ( Chow e t a l . 1 965 ) o r 2 1 ( A igne r 1 972 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; P ope 1 982 , T ab le I ) m amma l ian s pec ie s , o r 2 3 ( Huang a nd C hang 1 966 ) , o r3 8 (Wu e ta l . 1 966 ) s pec ie s ( Tab le 2 18 ) . A cco rd ing t oH an a nd X u ( 1 985 )t h e t o ta l f a una i n c lude s 4 2 t a xa o f w h ich t h ey l i s t 4 0 ( Tab le 2 19 ) . T he f a una i n c lude s a r cha ic a n ima ls , f o r i n s tance , N e s tor ther ium s p . ( A igne r 1 978a :209 , 1 981 :24 1) o rN e s tor ther ium s i nens i s ( J i 1 980 i n H an a nd X u 1 985 ; T ab le s 2 18 , 2 19 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e f a una i s r e p re sen ted b y v e ry f ew e l emen t s ( i nc lud ing H . e r ec tus ) w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f P seudax i s g ray i a nd t h e mo s t a bundan t a n ima l , L ep tobo s s pp . ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :241 , 2 42 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :209 -210 ) .

b o t tom o f t h e s i l ty l o e ss , a nd n o t w i th t h e h om in id l a ye r . A no the r p o ss ib i l i ty t o e xp la in t h e w a rm a nd h um id c l ima te f a una i st h a tt h e Q in l ing u nde rwen ts ubs tan t ia l o rogeny a tc . 1 . 15 myr w h ich c u tt h e i n te rchange o f a n ima ls n o r th o f t h is moun ta in c ha in ( An a nd H o 1 989 ) . T h is may s ugge s t t h a t t h e l a ndscape o f Gongwang l ing w a s v e ry d i f f e ren td u r ing t h is p e r iod , a nd t h a t t h e f a una i s n o t r e p re sen ta t ive o f w a rm c l ima t ic c ond i t ions ( An a nd H o 1 989 ) . L iu e ta l . ( 1986 :493 ) a r gue t h a t t h e t h icknes s o f t h e L1 5 l a ye r may s ugge s t " a d e se r t s teppe v ege ta t ion" . O p in ion o n t h ec h rono log ica l p l acemen to f Gongwang l ing i s d i v ided . S t ra t ig raph ic a nd f a una l a na lyse s d a te t h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon t o t h e e a r ly M idd le P l e is tocene ( Chow 1 964 ; C how e ta t . 1 965 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 966 ; Wu e ta l . 1 966 ; Z hang e ta l . 1 978 , a nd C how a nd L i 1 965 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . L aye r s 6 , 7 , a nd 8 a r e p robab ly c on tempo raneous b ecau se t h ey a r ep a r to f t h e s ame s o i l ( i .e . s o i l 3 ) (Wu e t a l . 1 966 ) . T he p r e sence o f s ou the rn f o ss i l e l emen t s i nt h ef a una h a s l e dA igne r a nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e l o ca l i ty p r eda te s t h e u p l if t o f t h e Q in l ing , a nd i se a r l ie rt h an C hen j iawo w h ich l a ck s t h ese t a xa ( a nd s e e H an a nd X u 1 985 ) . T he g eo log ica l , p a laeon to log ica l , a nd h om in id mo rpho log ica l e v idence s d a te Gongwang l ing t o c . 0 . 700 myr ( t he max imum t ime d ep th o f t h e m idd le Mo sbach ium i n te rg lac ia l ) ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ) , a nd t h e p o l len a l so i n d ica te a n i n te rg la c ia l p e r iod ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 978a :210 , 1 988 :1038 ) . T he f a una i n c lude s4 2% o fs pec ie so f" t he o l de rV i l laf ranch ian N ihewan f a una " ( i . e . t h e L a te P l iocene /Ea r ly P le is tocene f a una ) a nd 6 0% o f t a xa a l so i d en t if ied a t Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 a nd L oca l i ty 1 3 (Wu e t a l . 1 966 ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 978a :210 , 1 981 :242 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 988 :1036 ) . T he l owe r p ropo r t ion o f mode rn s pec ie s i n t h e Gongwang l ing f a una ( 37% ; Wu e t a l . 1 966 ) c ompa red t o L oca l i ty 1( 50% ) s ugge s t s t h a tt h e se l o ca l i t ies a r e n o t o f t h e s ame a n t iqu i ty ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ) . T he a ge o f t h e mamma l ian f a una i si n termed ia te b e tween t h eN ihewan f a una a nd t h e L oca l i ty 1 f a una ( Han a nd Xu 1 985 ) , b ecau se Gongwang l ing l a ck s s ome d i agno s t ic N ihewan s pec ie s ( i nc lud ing P robo sc id ippar ion s i nense ) a nd s pec ies f ound a t L oca l i ty 1 , a nd i n c lude s a s ma l le r n umbe r o f e x tan t v e r teb ra te sc ompa red t oL oca l i ty 1 .

T he p r edom inance o f h e rb s a nd g r a s se s r ef lec t s a w a rm ( i n te rg lac ia l ) c l ima te ( Academ ia S in ica , I . V .P .P . 1 966 i n A igne r 1 981 :18 , F ig . 1 0 , 2 42 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 988 :1036 ; F ig . 18 ; a nd s e e a bove ) , a nd i n d ica te s g r a s s land i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty w i th b r oad leaved t r ee s o n t h e h i l ls ( Academ ia S in ica , I .V .P .P . 1 966 , a nd H sue 1 966 i n A igne r 1 981 :18 , 2 6 , 2 42 ) , o r o pen w ood land ( A igne r 1 981 :270 ) . T he f a una i n c lude s t a xa o f a s ub t rop ica l p a laeoc l ima te a l so k nown f r om s ou the rn C h ine se P l e is tocene l o ca l i t ie s , A i luropoda s p . , S t egodon s p . , N es tor i ther ium s p . , T ap irus s p . , E laphodu s s p . , R usa s p . ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 978a :210 , 1 981 :241 , 1 988 :1036 ; P ope 1 982 :100 -101 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ; T ab le 2 19 ) , a nd i s c ha rac te r is t ic o f a w a rm o r s ub t rop ica l ( i n te rg lac ia l ) f o re s t a nd w ood land e nv i ronmen t w i th s ome g r a s s land ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 978a :210 , 1 981 :242 , 8 1 ) . B o th t h ep o l len p rof i le a nd t h e m a in ly f o re s t a nd w ood land f a una s ugges t a " wa rm t empe ra te" o pen w ood land ( A igne r 1 978a :210 , 1 981 :270 ) . A cco rd ing t o J i a ( 1980 :17 ) i n te rg lac ia l " t rop ica l a nd s ub t rop ica l" f o re s t w i th r e la ted f a una ( e .g . , Mega tap irus s i nens i s ) a nd e x ten s ive g r a s s land ( e .g . , S inomegacero s k unwan l inens is ) w a s c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e L an t ian e nv ironmen t . T he p r e sence o f A i luropoda s p . ( Ch i 1 975 ) i nd ica te s b amboo , a nd t hus a l so p o ss ib ly f o re s t v ege ta t ion ( s ee T ay lo r a nd Q in 1 989 ) . H oweve r , b ecau se o f t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f i n d iv idua ls o f mo s t a n ima l s , A igne r ( 1981 :242 ) c on s ide r s t h e f a una t o b e w i thou ts i gn if icance f o r p a laeoeco log ica l r e cons t ruc t ion , a nd s he ( A igne r 1 981 :18 , 2 42 , 2 70 ) a l so p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e p a lyno log ica l d a ta f r om Gongwang l ing ( a nd C hen j iawo ) i s " ( poo r )" ( s ee C hap te rI ) .

T he y ounge s t c hronome t r ic d a t e o f t h e " cu l tu ra l l a ye r" , i . e . s o i l l a ye r 3 (Wang 1 989 , T ab le 1 4 .1) i s o l de r t h an 0 . 510 myrbp b a sed o n t wo a m ino -a c id d e term ina t ion s a nd i n te rp re ted a s am in imum a ge ( L i a nd L in 1 979 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; Wang 1 989 ) . T he t h ree p a laeomagne t ic d e te rm ina t ions r a nge b e tween 0 . 750 -0 .800 a nd 1 . 15 my rbp ( Ma e ta l . 1 978 ; C heng e ta l . 1 978 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 a nd Wang 1 989 ; T ong 1 987 i n Wang 1 989 [ Tong 1 987 i s n o t r e f e r enced i n t h e b i b l iog raphy o f Wang 1 989 ] ; T ab le 2 20 ) . T he 1 . 0 myrbp c a lcu la t ion o f C heng e t a l . ( 1978 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 , Wang 1 989 ) i s b a sed o n p a laeomagne t ic d e term ina t ion , t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p os i t ion o f t h e h om in id s pec imens , a nd t h e r a te o f l o ess a ccumu la t ion . T he 1 . 0 my rbp d a te o f t h e s t ra t ig raphy i sq ue s t ioned a s t oo o l d b y Wu a nd Wang ( 1985 ) , a nd t h e r e su l t s o f t h e v a r iou s d a t ing t e chn ique s s ugge s t t h a t t h e Gongwang l ing m a te r ia ls a r eo l de rt h an t h o se f r om C hen j iawo . D eep -sea c o re a na lys is o f o xygen iso tope s p l ace G ongwang l ing a t e a r l ie r t h an t h e J a ram i l lo E ven t , i . e . o l de r t h an 0 . 970 myrbp ( Xu a nd Y ou 1 982 i n P ope 1 988b ; b u t s e e b e low ) . T he l i tho log ic a nd s t ra t ig raph ic s im i la r i ty o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l l e ve ls t o t h e s a ndy l o e ss L 15 o f t h e p a laeomagne t ica l ly d a ted L uochuan

T he f o s s i l if e rous l a ye r so f Gongwang l ing h ave r e cen t ly b een c o r r e la ted t o t h e L uochuan l o es s s t ra t ig raphy ( L iu e t a l . 1 985 :66 ; L iu e t a l . 1 986 ; An a nd H o 1 989 ) . T he l o e s s s e d imen t o f t h e f o ss i l b ea r ing l a ye r ( a s soc ia ted w i th c a lca reou sn odu le s ) s ugge s t sd ry a nd c o ld c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s ( An a nd H o 1 989 ; L iu e ta l . 1 986 ) , a l though t h e m amma l ian f a una r ef lec t s a w a rm , s ou the rn c l ima te a nd a f o re s t e nv i ronmen t ( An a nd Ho 1 989 ) . A n a nd H o ( 1 989 ) e xp la in t h is a ppa ren t d i sc repancy b y i n te rp re t ing t h e f o ss i l b ea r ing c a lca reous c ong lome ra te l a ye r a s s how ing s ome e v idence o f r e p re sen t ing ar emnan to ft h es ame p a laeo so l w h ich i sf o und i n t h e m idd le s e c t ion o f l o es s l a ye r L 15 o f L uochuan ( c . 1 . 09 -1 .20 my r ; a nd s e eC hap te rI ) , w h ich m ay b e c o r re la ted w i th t h e c a lca reou s l a ye r a t Gongwang l ing ; h oweve r , t h e w ho le o f L 15 i s a l so i d en t if ied a s as i l ty l o e s s w i th n o p a laeoso l , a nd t h e b o t tom o ft h is l a ye r i sc o r re la ted w i th t h e

7 9

l o e s s s e c t ion i st h ough t t od a te Gongwang l ing t oa bou t 1 . 15 my r( An a nd S un i nL iu e ta l . 1 985 :66 [ An a nd S un i sn o t r e f e renced i nt h e b i b l iog raphy o fL iu e ta l . 1 985 ] ; L iu e ta l . 1 986 ; P ope 1 988b ) , o rl e ss c e r ta in ly i sc o r re la ted t oL 9 d a ted t o0 . 800 my r ( L iu e ta l . 1 986 ) . An a ge o f 0 . 730 -0 .800 my r may b e mo re p a r s imon iou s b a sed o nc ompa r ison o ft h el o e ss a nd t h eo xygen iso tope p a laeoc l ima t ic c yc le s ; G ongwang l ing may c o r re la te w i th 1 8 0 s t age 2 0 -21 ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :66 ; a nd s ee P ope 1 988b ) . W i th in t h er e ve r sed p o la r i ty ma in ly n o rma l p o la r i ty w a s m ea su red a t ad ep th o f b e tween 1 7 -19 .5 m i nt h eG ongwang l ing s e c t ion , a nd t h is i s c o r re la ted t ot h eJ a ram i l lo , w h ich a tL uochuan i ss i tua ted i n L10 -S11 ( An a nd H o 1 989 ) . A n a nd H o 's ( 1989 ) c a lcu la t ion o ft h ed a te o ft h eh om in id f ound a t ad ep th o f 2 6 m i sb a sed o n e s t ima t ing t h e a ve rage r a te o fs o i l d epos i t ion b e tween t h e b a sa l " J a ram i l lo a nd t h e B runhe s - Ma tuyama b ounda ry p roduc ing a n a ge o f c . 1 . 07 myr f o r t h e h om in id , a nd a n e s t ima t ion o ft h is a ge w i th in t h eJ a ram i l lo d a tes t h e h om in id t oc .1 . 13 my r . A n a nd Ho 's ( 1989 ) c o r re la t ion o f t h e f o ss i l l a ye rt ot h ec en t ra l p o r t ion o f t h e L uochuan l o e ss l a ye r L 15 w i th a n a ge o f 1 . 09 -1 .20 my r p roduce s ad a te o f 1 . 15 my r f o rt h eG ongwang l ing f o ss i ls . C hen a nd Z hang ( 1991) a r gue t h a t t h e p a laeomagne t ic d a te s f r om Gongwang l ing ( a nd C hen j iawo ) r e qu i re v e r if ica t ion , b ecau se t h e r emanen t m agne t ism o f t h e d epos i t s i s n o t s uf f ic ien t ly s t rong t o d ef in i te ly p l ace t h e se w i th in t h ep a laeomagne t ic s e quence . T he s even a r tefa c t sf ound i n1 965 i n c lude f ou r c o re s , a s w e l l a s o ne f l ake h amme r s tone a nd t wo t oo ls ( Ta i 1 966 ) . T he a r te f ac t s w e re manuf ac tu red b y d i rec t h a rd -hamme r p e rcus s ion , a nd t h e c o re s a r e i n q uar tz i te , a nd t h e h amme r s tone a nd t oo ls a r e i n v e in q ua r tz ( Ta i 1 966 ) . T he f ou r c o re s a r e o n p ebb le s ( Ta i 1 966 ) , o f w h ich a tl e a s t o ne c o re b a sed o n i t ' s s i ze ( 14 .8 cm w id th x 7 .4 c m t h ickne s s ) w a s m ade o n ac obb le . F lakes w e re r emoved f r om t h e r e la t ive ly f l a t c o r t ica l s ur f a ce s o n o ne s i de o f t h e c o re s ( Ta i 1 966 ) . T he s t r ik ing p la tform o n o ne o f t h e se c o re s w a s t h e l e ve l c o r t ica l s u r f ace w i th a d jacen t p l a tforms a nd f l ake s c a r s b e tween 4 .0 a nd 6 .0 cm l e ng th ( Ta i 1 966 ; s e e a l so A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :243) . T h is s pec imen ( t he o n ly i lu s t ra ted c o re ) s hows t h ree s t ep f r ac tu re s j u s t b e low t h ree o f t h e f i ve p la tforms ( s ee T a i 1 966 , P la te I ,3 ; F ig . 19 .1) . T he f l ake h amme r s tone e xh ib i t s t wo " c ru shed s u r f a ce s" o r p i t t ing ( Ta i 1 966 :30 ) . T he t oo ls c omp r ise a f l ake e nd sc rape ra nd ac o re e nd sc rape r a nd b o th a r e s ma l l a nd mod if ied b y ma rg ina l s e conda ry r e touch w i th v e ry s ma l l s c a r s ( Ta i 1 966 ) . O n t h e a pp rox ima te ly r e c tangu la r " po in t l i ke" a nd n on -co r t ica l f l ake e nd sc rape r ( l eng th 2 . 9 c m x w id th 2 . 1 cm ) t h e r e touch o n i t ' s d i s ta l e nd p r oduced a s i nuou se dge , a nd l im i ted b i f ac ia l r e touch i sa l so l o ca ted o n o ne c o rne r o ppo s i te t h e s ma l l p o in t o n t h e s ame e dge ( Ta i 1 966 :30 ; s e e a l so Z hang 1 985 :150 ; F ig . 19 .2 ) . B i f a c ia l r e touch o n o ne e nd o f t h e c o re e nd sc rape r ( 4 .4 x 4 . 3 x3 . 2 c m ) r e su l ted i n ac onvex e dge s hape ( Ta i 1 966 ; s e e a l so Z hang 1 985 :150 ; F ig . 19 .3 ) . T he t h ir teen a r te f ac t se xcava ted i n 1 966 i n c lude s e ven c o re s , f o u rw a s te f l ake s , a nd t wo t oo ls ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) . Mos t s pec imen s ( n . 3 ) w e re r e cove r ed f r om l a ye r 9( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; T ab le 2 21) . T he ma jo r i ty o f a r tef a c t s a r e i n q ua r tz i te ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; Z hang 1 985 :148 , 1 989 :125 ) : s i x c o re s , f o u rw a s te f l ake s a nd o ne t o o l ( s ing le e nd u t i l ised f l ake ) . T he e xcep t ion s a r eo ne c o re i nq ua r tz i t ic s ands tone a nd o ne s i ng le s t ra igh tf l ake s c rape ri nv e in q ua r tz ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) .T he g ene ra l ly i regu la ra r tef ac t s w e re manuf ac tu red b y d i rec t h a rd h amme rp e rcuss ion ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) . T he s even c o re sa r e

8 0

o n " compa ra t ive ly l a rge" " g rave l s t ones" ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 :2 -3 ; F ig . 1 20 ) . Mea su remen t s a r e n o t g i ven , b u t t h e d e sc r ip t ion s ugge s t s t ha t c obb le -s ized s t one s w e re s e lec t ed ( s ee T a i a nd H sue 1 973 :2 -3 ; F ig . 1 20 .1-7 ) . T he c o re s a r e c l a ss if ied i n to f i ve t ypes , i . e . T ype s I -V a c co rd ing t o s hape a nd p a t te rn o f f l ake r emova l ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) . T ype I i n c lude s t wo c o re s w i th r e la t ive ly f l a t a nd c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tform s w i th f l akes r emoved f r om a c u rved p l a tfo rm a nd s ca r s c onve rg ing t o f o rm a s em i -cone s hape o ppo s i te t o t h e p l a tfo rm ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 1 20 .1 , 2 ) . T he p l a tfo rm a ng le o f t h e q ua r tz i t ic s and s tone s pe c imen i s 6 6 ° ( F ig . 1 20 .1) a nd a ng le s o f t h e s e cond s pec imen a r e 6 3 ° , 7 0 ° , a n d 7 5 ° ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 :3 ; F ig . 1 20 .2 ) . T ype I i n c lude s t wo c o re s w i th r e la t ive ly f l a t , c o r t ica l , a nd s t ra igh t s t r ik ing p l a tforms ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 1 20 .3 , 4 ) . T he l a rge r c o re o f t h is t y pe ( F ig . 1 20 .3 ) e xh ib i t s s t epped s c a r s , a max imum f l ake s c a r l e ng th o f 2 . 1 c m , a nd p l a t fo rm a ng le s o f6 9 ° , 8 0 ° , a nd 9 0 ° ( s ee T a i a nd H sue 1 973 :3 ) . T he s e cond s pec imen a ppea r s t o b e i d en t if ied a s as i ng le -p la tform c o re ( s ee T a i a nd H sue 1 973 :3 ) w i th a ng les o f 8 7 ° a nd 9 9 ° a nd i s s im i la r t o t h e c o re e xcava ted i n 1 965 a t G ongwang l ing d e sc r ibed b y T a i ( 1966 ; T a i a nd H sue 1 973 ; s e e a bove ; c f . , F ig s . 19 .1 a nd 1 20 .4 ) . T ype I I i sa n u n if ac ia l ly f l aked c o re w i th n ume rou s s ma l l s c a r s d e ta ched f r om t h e f l a t c o r t ica l p l a tfo rm a ta ng le s o f8 0 ° , 8 3 ° , a nd 8 4 ° ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 1 20 .5 ) . T ype I V a ppea r s t o b e i d en t i f ied a s as i ng le p l a tfo rm s pec imen ( s ee T a i a nd H sue 1 973 :3 ) w i th f l ake s d e ta ched f r om o ne f a ce f r om a f l a t s u r f a ce a ta ng le s o f 7 4 ° , 7 8 ° , a nd 8 3 ° ( F ig . 1 20 .6 ) . T ype V i s ac o r e o n as p l i t s t one w i th f l ake sr emoved f r om o ne f a ce a nd a n a ng le o f 8 7 ° ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 1 20 .7 ) . A l l c o re s h ave r e la t ive ly f ew f l ake r emova ls , b o th c o r t ica l a nd u np r epa red s t r ik ing p la t form s , a nd p l a tform a ng le s o f b e tween 6 3 ° a nd 9 9 ° , o f w h ich mo s t e xceed 8 0 ° ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ) . T he f ou r u nu t i l ised f l ake s i n c lude o ne p o in ted s pec imen a nd a l a rge f l ake ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 1 20 .8 -11) . T he c o r t ica l w a s te f l ake s t r ik ing p l a t forms h ave a ng le s o f 9 1 ° , 13 ° , a nd 15 ° o n ar e la t ive ly l a rge f l ake w i th a n i s le t o f c o r tex o n o ne e dge ;t h ea ng le o f t h e f ou r th f l ake i sn o t g i ven ( s ee T a i a nd H sue 1 973 :4 ) . T he s ma l l t oo ls i n c lude as i ng le s t ra igh t e dge s c rape r o n at h ick v e in q ua r tz f l ake mod if i ed b y s e conda ry r e touch a l ong o ne e dge o ppo s i te t h e o the r c o r t ica l a nd b l un t e dge ,a nd aq ua r tz i te f l ake w i th u se -damage a l ong o ne s ha rp i regu la re nd ( Ta i a nd H sue 1 973 ; F ig . 1 20 .12 , 1 3 ) . A cco rd ing t o Z hang ( 1985 :148 ) t h e 2 0 a r te f ac t s [ i . e . t h e 1 965 a nd 1 966 s pec imens ] c omp r ise 1 c o re s , f i ve f l ake sa nd f ou rt oo ls . W i th t h ee xcep t ion o fo ne s pec imen , t h e a r te f a c t s w e re p roduced b yd i rec th a rd -hamme rp e r cu s s ion b a sed o n t h e m a rked p e rcu ss ion p o in t s ( Zhang 1 985 :148 ) . A l a rge q ua r tz i te f l ake ( l eng th 1 2 .0 c m x w id th 1 3 .0 c m ) w a s manuf a c tu red b y a nv i l p e rcus s ion o n a c coun t o f i t ' s w ide s l an t ing p l a tfo rm p os i t ioned a t" an o b tuse a ng le i n r e la t ion t o t h e ma in f l ake s u r f ace" ( Zhang 1 985 :149 , F ig . 9 . 1B ) . T h is i sT a i a nd H sue 's ( 1973 ) l a rge h a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion f l ake ( F ig . 1 20 .11 ; s e e a bove ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t s a r e i nq ua r tz i te a nd t h e b a lance a r e i n q ua r tz ( Zhang 1 985 :148 ) . T he e l even c o re s i n c lude t e n s i ng le -p la t fo rm c o re s a nd o ne p o lyhed ra l c o re w o rked o n p ebb le s ( Zhang 1 985 :148 , F ig . 9 . 1A ) . T he c o re s e xh ib i t c o r t ica l a nd u np repa red s t r ik ing p l a tfo rms a nd f ew f l ake r emova ls , a nd p l a t form a ng le s a r e b e tween 6 3 -90 ° w i th t h e ma jo r i ty g r ea te r t h an 8 0 ° ( Zhang 1 985 :148 , 1 49 ) . B a sed o n t h e d imen s ion s o f t h e c o re s ( l eng th g r ea te r t h an 1 0 c m l e ng th , w id th o f t h e m a jo r i ty u sua l ly g r ea te r t h an l e ng th , a nd t h ickne ss u sua l ly a bou t 1 0 cm ; Z hang [ 1 985 :148 ]) , c obb le s ize s t one s w e re s e lec ted . T he mo rpho log ica l ly d i ve r se f l ake s h ave b o th c o r t ica l a nd

p l a in s t r ik ing p l a tform s ( Zhang 1 985 :149 ; a nd s e e J i a 1 980 :17 ) , a nd f l ake l e ng th i s g ene ra l ly g r ea te r t h an 6 c m ( Zhang 1 985 :149 ) . T he f ou r " f in ished t o o ls" , i . e . t oo ls mod if i ed b y s e conda ry r e touch , i n c lude t h ree f l ake t oo ls ( s t ra igh t a nd c onvex s i de s c rape r s ; t r ansve r se e nd s c rape r ) , a nd o ne c o re t oo l ( c onvex e nd s c rape r ) ( Zhang 1 985 :149 ) . O ne e dge o f t h e c onvex f l ake s i de s c rape r ( f orme r ly r e cogn i sed " a s au t i l ized f l ake" ) w a s m od if i ed b y r ough f l ak ing ( d o r sa l t o v en t ra l ) t o a s i nuou s s hape ( Zhang 1 985 :149 -150 ) . T he a lmo s t w o rn o u t u s ed e dge o n t h e s t ra igh t s i de s c rape r a ppea r s t o e xh ib i t e v idence o f s ome r e juvena t ion o n t h e v en t ra l f a ce ( Zhang 1 985 :149 , F ig . 9 . 2A ; s e e F ig . 1 20 .12 ) . T he t r an sve r se e dge o f t h e r e c tangu la r q ua r tz f l ake e nd s c rape r i s l o ca ted o ppo s i te t h e s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm a nd w a s " r ough ly" m od if ied b y mu l t id i rec t iona l r e touch r e su l t ing i n v e ry s ma l l , b i f ac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted s ca r s ( Zhang 1 985 :150 , F ig . 9 . 2B ) . T h i s i sT a i 's ( 1966 ) f l ake e nd s c rape r ( s ee F ig . 19 .2 ) . T he d o r sa l f a ce e xh ib i t s " ca refu l" r e touch ( Zhang 1 985 :150 ) . T he c o re s c rape r ( l eng th 4 . 4 cm ) w a s b i f ac ia l ly mod if ied b y r ough r e touch o n i t ' s u t i l ised c onvex e nd ( Zhang 1 985 :150 ) . T h is i s T a i 's ( 1966 ) c o re e nd s c rape r ( s ee F ig . 19 .3 ) . A igne r ( 1969 :3 , 1 981 :7 -8 ) n o tes t h a t C h ine se r e sea r che r s i n c lude b o th " u t i l ized a nd r e touched i regu la r f l ake s , b u t o n ly r a re ly s haped t o o ls" u nde rt h et e rm s c rape r s .

s c rape r s , t wo e nd s c rape r s , a nd o ne s i ng le s t ra igh t s c rape r ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T hey w e re s haped b y c r ude s e conda ry r e touch a l ong b o th s i ng le a nd mu l t ip le e dge s , a nd u sed e dge s i n c lude b lun t a nd s ha rp e dge s ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . J i a ( 1980 :17 ) r e f e r s t o t h e n umbe r o f t o o ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch a ss ma l l . T he h eavy t r iangu la r p o in t f r om P ing l iang ( Ta i 1 966 ) i s a l a rge ( 17 .0 x 9 .0 x 6 . 2 c m ) b i f ac ia l ly mod if ied q ua r tz i te p o in t w i th a n a pp rox ima te ly t r i angu la r c r o ss -sec t ion a nd a c o r t ica l b u t t ( Ta i 1 966 ; J i a 1 980 :16 ; s e e a l so F reeman 1 977 :100 ) . T h is s pec imen w a s m anuf ac tu red o n ac obb le , a nd b o th f a ce se xh ib i tm a in ly l a rge f l ake s c a r s . One f a ce w a s a lmo s t c omp le te ly w o rked , w i th a n i s le to f c o r tex r ema in ing i nt h e r i gh t l owe r c o rne r , a nd a bou t h a lf o f t h e o bve r se w a s mod if ied , a nd T a i ( 1966 ; F ig . 1 2 1) r e f e r s t o t h e s pec imen a s s em i -f in ished . T he mod if ica t ion p r oduced i regu la r d en t icu la te s i des , ar e la t ive ly l o ng a nd n on -co r t ica l p o in t , a nd o n t h e mo s t f l aked f a ce t wo s c a r s a r e s upe r impo sed o n p r ev ious s ca r s o n o ne e dge ( Ta i 1 966 ; F ig . 1 21) , p o ss ib ly t o p roduce t h inn ing o f t h e e dge . T h is s pec imen h as a l so b een c l a s s if ied a s a p ro tob if ace o r p o in ted c hoppe r ( Zhang 1 985 :152 , F ig . 9 . 3A , 1 989 :124 , F ig . 7 10 .1) , a s a" pa r t ia l b i f a ce " ( F reeman 1 977 :100 ) , a nd a s " . . . (a q ua r tz i te b i f ace r e semb l ing a n e a r ly A cheu l ian h andaxe f r om Af r ica ) . . ." ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 :443 ) . T he l a rge q ua r tz i te p o in t ( 18 .6 x1 2 .3 x8 . 3 c m ) f ound n ea rt h eh om in id l o ca l i ty i n 1 964 i s a n u n if ac ia l ly mod if ied p ebb le [ c obb le ] t o o l ( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 ; a nd s e e A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ) w i th f i ve l a rge f l ake s ca r so n t h e ma in f a ce ( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 ) . T he b u t t i s c o r t ica l a nd t wo f l ake s w e re d e ta ched o n o ne s i de o f t h e s pec imen ( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 ; F ig . 1 22 ) . Sma l l f l ake s w e r e r emoved a r ound a bou t h a lf o f t h e p e r iphe ry , i n c lud ing t h e b eve l led p o in t ( Ta i a nd C h i 1 964 ; a nd s ee A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; F ig . 1 22 ) . T he G ongwang l ing a nd P ing l iang p o in t s a r e s im i la r i n t h e ir r aw m a te r ia l , l a rge s i ze , t h e n umbe ra nd s i ze o ff l ake s ca r s , a nd t h e c o r t ica l b u t t , a nd t h e m a in d i f f e r ence i s t h a t t h e P ing l iang s pec imen w a s a l so , a l though p a r t ia l ly mod if ied o n t h eo bve r se ( Ta i 1 966 ) .

Z hang 's ( 1 989 :124 -126 ) mo re r e cen t s t udy p oo ls t h e G ongwang l ing a r tefac t s f ound i n1 965 , 1 966 , a nd i n1 975 o f w h ich t h e ma jo r i ty a r ec o re s ( n . 1 2 ) , a nd t h e o t he r c a tego r ie s a r es even u nu t i l ised f l akes a nd s even t o o ls . T he m a jo r i ty o f a r tef a c t s w e re m anuf ac tu red b y d i rec t h a rd -hamme r p e rcus s ion , o ne w a s te f l ake w a s p r oduced b y t h e a nv i l t e chn ique , a nd o ne i s d e sc r ibed a s a n " i ncomp le te f l ake" ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T he l a t te r i s p o s s ib ly a f l ake f r agmen t t o o i n comp le te f o ri d en t if ica t ion o f t h e t e chn ique . T he t oo ls a r e i n q ua r tz i te , q ua r tz , a nd f i ne s and s tone o f w h ich t h e f o rme ri st h e mos t c ommon ( Zhang 1 989 :125 ) . T he t we lve c o re s i n c lude s even s i ng le -p la t fo rm , t wo d oub le -p la tform , a nd t h ree u nc la s s if iab le c o re s ( Zhang 1 989 :125 ) . A l l c o re s w e re w o rked o n l a rge g rave ls t one sa nd h ave c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tfo rms p o s i t ioned a t as t eep a ng le ; p l a tfo rms o n d oub le p l a tfo rm c o re s a r e l o ca ted o ppo s i te e a ch o t he r ( Zhang 1 989 :125 ) . C o re r educ t ion w a s mode ra te w i th f ew f l ake s c a r s a nd t h e se a r e u sua l ly o f i r regu la r s hape ( Zhang 1 989 :125 ) . T he s e ven u nu t i l ised f l ake s e xh ib i t s em i p e r cu s s ion c one s a nd r a d ia t ion l i ne s , a nd w ide v a r ia t ion i nt h e i rr e gu la rs hape s ; t h e s hape o f o ne s pec imen i s u nc la ss if iab le ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T he l e ng th r a nge o f s i x f l ake s i s 4 . 2 -16 .6 cm , a nd o n f ou r t h e l e ng th i sg r ea te r t h an t h e w id th a nd o n o ne t h e w id th e xceed s t h e l e ng th ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T he l e ng th a nd w id th o f t h e l a rge s t f l ake , t h e a nv i l s pec imen a r e 1 0 .8 cm a nd 1 8 .4 c m w i th a 15 ° p l a t fo rm a ng le ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T h is i st h e s ame a nv i l f l ake f o rme r ly d e sc r ibed b y Z hang ( 1985 :149 ) , b u t n o te t h e d i f f e rence s i n l e ng th a nd w id th ( s ee a bove ) ,a nd i sT a ia nd H sue 's ( 1973 ) h a rd -hamme r f l ake ( s ee a bove ; c f . , Z hang [ 1989 , F ig . 7 10 .5 ] a nd F ig . 1 20 .11) .T h ree f l ake s h ave c o r t ica l p l a tfo rm s , t wo h ave p l a in p l a tfo rm s , a nd t h ep l a tfo rm o fo ne s pec imen i su nc la ss if iab le ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T he s even t oo ls a r e " c rude , s em i -f in ished p roduc t s" a nd i n c lude f i ve f l ake s , t wo c o re s , o f w h ich o ne i s ac hopp ing too l , a nd wha t may r e p re sen t af l ake f r agmen t ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T oo ls a r e s ma l l ( max imum l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss : 5 .0 x2 . 6 x5 . 4c m ; a ve rage l e ng th a nd w id th : 3 . 96 x 3 . 44 cm ) , a nd f i ve s pec imens a r e l o nge r t h an w ide , a nd o n o ne t h e w id th i s g r ea te r t h an t h e l e ng th ; t h e l e ng th a nd w id th o ft h ec hopp ing too l a r e4 . 4c m a nd 3 . 8 c m ( Zhang 1 989 :126 ) . T he t oo ls c omp r ise f ou r s i ng le n o tched

7 .2 .2

Chen j iawo

T he a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r a t C hen j iawo o ve r l ie s a pp rox ima te ly 8m o fy e l low a nd r e d s o i ls a nd s ands ( Gu e t a t . 1 966 i nP ope 1 982 :100 ) . T he h om in id mand ib le a nd t h e f a una w e r er e cove red f r om t h e b a se o f a3 0 m t h ick r e d c l ay b ed w h ich o ve r l ie s ag r ave l l a ye r ( Chow 1 964 ; A igne r 1 978a :209 , 1 981 :240 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 988 :1036 ) o f mo re t h an 1m t h icknes s (Woo 1 964b ) . T he m and ib le w a s f o und i nt h et h ird l a ye r( o f at o ta l o f e i gh t l a ye r s ) w h ich i sa n 0 .3 mt h ick ( Gu e ta t . 1 966 i nP ope 1 982 :99 ) r e d c l ay l a ye r ( Gu e ta l . 1 966 i nP ope 1 982 :99 ; A igne r 1 981 :240 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ) . L oe ss a nd p a laeo so l l a ye r s o f 5 0 m t h ickne ss l i e a bove a g r ave l l a ye r a nd t h e r e d c l ay i s i d en t if ied a s a p a laeo so l ( An a nd H o 1 989 ) . T he 1 964 f a una w a s f o und e nca sed i n ma t r ix ( Chow 1 964 ) . At o ta l o f t e n a r tef ac t s h ave b een d i scove red a tC hen j iawo a c co rd ing t oZ hang ( 1989 :127 ; b u t s ee b e low ) . I n a n e a r l ie r a r t ic le t h e s ame a u tho r ( Zhang 1 985 :150 ) w i th r e f e rence t o C h ia e t a t . ( 1 966 ) w r i te s o f a t o ta l o f f ou r a r tef ac t s a mong t h e " P r inc ip le d i scove r ie s . . ." f r om t h is l o ca l i ty . T he se s pec imen s w e r e f ound a s so c ia ted w i th t h e h om in id a nd mamma l ian f o s s i ls i n t h e r e d c l ay l a ye r ( Zhang 1 985 :150 ) . D u r ing t h e i n i t ia l e xcava t ion i n 1 964 f ou r a r tef ac t s w e re r e cove r ed o f w h ich t h ree w e r e e xcava ted f r om t h ef o s s i l if e rous r e dc l ay l a ye ro ft h e h om in id l o ca l i ty , a nd o ne w a s c o l lec ted 7 0 m a way f r om t h e s ame l a ye r ( Zhang 1 989 :127 q uo t ing C h ia e t a t . 1 966 ) . S even

8 1

a r tef a c t sw e re e xcava ted i n 1 975 f r om t h e s ame f o s s i l if e rou s h om in id l a ye r ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) . O ne a r te f ac t w a s r e cove r ed i n 1 964 a t ad i s tance o f mo re t h an 1 , 000 m f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty f r om t h e s ame r e dd i sh c l ays i n w h ich t h e m and ib le w a s f ound (Woo 1 964b ; C hang 1 966 :5 ) . T h i s b r ing s t h e t o ta l o f a r tef a c t s f r om C hen j iawo t o 1 2 o f w h ich 1 0d e r ive f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty . S ome a u tho r s ( Q iu a n d L i 1 978 ) r e f e r t o o n ly t wo a r tef ac t s o f w h ich o ne w a s r e cove red f r om t h e f o ss i l if e rou s l a ye r a nd o ne 7 0 m a way f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty . T he l a t te r s pec imen i s p os s ib ly t h es ame a st h eo ne d e sc r ibed a bove . T he C hen j iawo p o l len a nd s po re p rof i le ( 84 g ra ins ) i s v e ry s im i la r t ot h e Gongwang l ing p rof i le w i th ap r edom inance o f n on -a rbo rea l p o l len ( 65% ; e . g . , C henopod iaceae ) c ompa red t o a r bo rea l p o l len ( 35% ; P icea s p . ) ( Academ ia S in ica , I .V .V .P . 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :18 , F ig . 1 0 , 2 42 , 1 988 , F ig . 3 ; A n a nd Ho 1 989 ; F ig . 18 ) . T he f a una c omp r i se s 1 0 mamma l ian s pec ie s ( e xc lud ing O cho tono ide s c omp l ic idens ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; s e e b e low ) , o r 1 4 s pec ie s a c co rd ing t o H an a nd X u ( 1985 :271) , w ho l i s t 1 5 s pec ie s ( i nc lud ing 0 . c omp l ic idens ; H an a nd Xu 1 985 , T ab le 1 5 .3 ; s e e b e low ; a nd s e e Huang a nd C hang 1 966 ; T ab le s 2 22 , 2 23 ) . T he n umbe r o f f o ss i l e l emen t s i ss ma l l ( Chow 1 964 ; C hang e ta l . 1 964 , a nd C how a nd L i 1 965 i n A igne r a n d L augh l in 1 973 ; Woo 1 964a , b ; A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . Wu e ta l . ( 1966 ) g ive n o d a ta o n t h e n umbe r o f f o ss i l e l emen t s p e r s pec ie s . T he s i x s pec ie s r e co rded d u r ing t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion a r e r e p r e sen ted b y v e ry f ew e l emen t s a nd n umbe r s o f i n d iv idua ls w i th t h e a ppa r en t e xcep t ion o f P . g ray i ( Chow 1 964 ; T ab le 2 24 ) . T he p a lyno log ica l d a ta s ugge s t s " wa rm t empe ra te" o pen w ood land ( A igne r 1 981 :270 ) . T he f a una i s i n te rp re ted a s a " f o re s t s teppe o rs avanna" a s semb lage ( Chow a nd L i 1 965 i n A n a nd Ho 1 989 ) . A n a nd H o ( 1989 :219 ) a r gue t h a t t h e p a laeo so l , p a lyno log ica l , a nd f a una l c on tex t s i n d ica te " a r e la t ive ly w a rm a nd s e a sona l ly h um id" p a laeoc l ima te . T he a ge o f t h e C hen j iawo ma te r ia ls i s b a sed o n b i os t ra t ig raph ic , l i tho log ica l , a nd p a laeomagne t ic d a t ing . C h rono log ica l a s se ssmen t s o f t h e f a una a nd s p ec ie s d e s igna t ions v a ry ( s ee b e low ) , a nd t h e s ma l l f a una l c o l lec t ion f r om t h is l o ca l i ty c ompa red t o Gongwang l ing i s o ne o f t h e ma in d i ff icu l t ie s i n e s tab l ish ing a c onsensus o n t h ea ge o f C hen j iawo (Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . T he f a una w a s f i r s t d a t ed t o t h e M idd le P le is tocene a nd c on s ide r ed c on tempo raneous w i th Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ( Chow 1 964 ) . S t ra t ig raph ic a nd f a una l a na lyse s d a t ed t h e a r chaeo log ica ld epo s i tt ot h e l a te M idd le P le is tocene ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 966 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . F u r the r s t ra t ig raph ic a n d g eomo rpho log ica l s t udy (Wu e ta l . 1 966 ; Z hang e ta l . 1 978 , a nd C how a nd L i 1 965 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) a s s igned a n e a r ly M idd le P le is tocene a ge , r ough ly e qu iva len t w i th Gongwang l ing ( Huang a nd C hang 1 966 ; Wu e t a t . 1 966 ; C how e ta l . 1 965 , C how a nd L i 1 965 i n P ope 1 982 :100 ) . Wu e t a l . ( 1966 ) c ons ide r C hen j iawo a nd Gongwang l ing c on tempo raneous b ecau se t h e ma jo r i ty o f s pec ie s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fL epus w ong iw e re a l so f ound a t Gongwang l ing , a nd t h r ee s pec ie s ( 0 . c omp l ic idens , Myo spa lax t i ng i , a n d B ahomy s h ypsodon ta ) w e re d ocumen ted a t b o th l o ca l i t ie s . A cco rd ing t o H an a nd Xu ( 1985 :271 , T ab le 1 5 .3 , a nd c f . , T ab le 1 5 .4 ; T ab le 2 23 ) , t h e C hen j iawo f auna i ss l igh t ly l a te r t h an t h e Gongwang l ing f a una , a nd o f t h e 1 4 s pec ie s , t h e ma jo r i ty ( i .e . 1) , w e re a l so i d en t if ied a t Gongwang l ing a n d r e p r e sen t M idd le P le is tocene t a xa ( e .g . , 0 . c omp l ic id ens , Myospa lax c f . f on tan ier i , "Mega loceros ( S inomegacero s )" ) , a nd t h e b a lance ( e .g . , E lepha s s p . ) a r e i mpo r tan t M idd le t o

[ a nd ] L a te P l e is tocene t a xa . A igne r ( 1988 :1036 , 1 0 38 ) a r gue s t h a t 1 0 o f t h e 1 4 C hen j iawo s pe c ie s h ave b een r e co rded a t Gongwang l ing . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e t e n s p ec ie s i d en t if ied b y A igne r a nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) a r e k nown f r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 a nd L oca l i ty 1 , a nd f r om s ome K ehe l o ca l i t ie s , a nd o n t h is b a s is a r e r e f e r r ed t o t h e M idd le P le is tocene ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; T ab le 2 22 ) . T he r oden t Myospa lax [ e p i ] t ing i i n d ica tes c on tempo rane i ty w i th L oca l i ty 1 3a nd t h ee a r l ie s t l e ve ls o f L oca l i ty 1( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 988 :1038 ) . A igne r a nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) a r gue t h a t t h e p r e sence o f 0 . c omp l ic idens ( a n e x t inc t p ika ) b e low t h e ma in C hen j iawo f a una l ( a nd h om in id )b ea r ing s t ra tum p l aces t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls a t c . 0 . 300 my r i n t h e H o ls te in i n te rg lac ia l ( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :240 ; T ab le 2 22 ) . Wu a nd Wang ( 1985 ; a nd s e eH an a nd X u 1 985 ) , h oweve r ,d i spu te t h eb a s is o ft h is e va lua t ion a nd c i te t h e r epo r t b y C how a nd L i ( 1 965 ) w ho w r i te t h a t t wo p ika b one s ( one m ax i l la a nd o ne m and ib le )d e r ive f r om t h e h om in id l a ye r . Mo s t o f t h e o t he r p ika f o ss i ls e xcep t f o r o ne max i l la d e r ive f r om t h e s ame h o r izon , a nd i ta ppea r s t h a t o n ly t wo p ika s pec imens w e r e r e cove red f r om t h e h om in id l a ye r ( s ee Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . T he d a ta o n p ika a l so i n d ica te s t h a t t h e C hen j iawo a nd Gongwang l ing l a ye r s a r e n o t s epa ra te c h rono log ica l u n i t s , a nd t h a tt h e re i sn o e v idence f o r s epa ra te i n te rg lac ia l p e r iod s a ss ugge s ted i n 1 973 b y A igne ra nd L augh l in (Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :182 , 1 989 :127 ) b e l ieve s t h a t t h e C hen j iawo a nd Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 a r tef a c t s may b e o f t h e s ame a ge a st h ee a r ly s ed imen t so fL oca l i ty 1 . T he t h ree p a laeomagne t ic d e te rm ina t ions o f t h e " cu l tu ra l l a ye r" , i . e . t h e r e d c l ay l a ye r (Wang 1 989 , T ab le 1 4 .1) a r e b e tween 0 . 530 a nd 0 .650 myrbp ; t h e l a t te r d a te w a s d e te rm ined t w ice ( Ma e ta l . 1 978 ; C heng e ta l . 1 978 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 a nd Wang 1 989 ; T ong 1 987 i n Wang 1 989 ; T ab le 2 25 ) . T he mand ib le i sd a ted t o 0 . 500 myrbp b a sed o n a p a laeomagne t ic d e te rm ina t ion o f 0 . 530 myrbp , t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p os i t ion o f t h e mand ib le , a nd t h e r a te o f l o e ss a ccumu la t ion ( Cheng e ta l . 1 978 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . T he p a laeon to log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l l e ve ls o f C hen j iawo a r e i n te rp re ted a s c ompa rab le i n s o i l a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l c on tex t t o L uochuan p a laeoso l S 6 w h ich i s d a ted p a laeomagne t ica l ly t o a pp rox ima te ly 0 . 650 my r ( An a nd S un i nL iu e ta l . 1 985 :66 ; P ope 1 988b ; A n a nd H o 1 989 ) o r 0 . 660 my r( L iu e ta l . 1 986 ) a nd o ccur s a t3 8 m d ep th i n t h e C hen j iawo s equence ( An a nd Ho 1 989 ) . O n t h e b a s is o f t h e n o rma l p o la r i ty i d en t if ied a bove 4 3 m d ep th a nd t h e M idd le P le is tocene f a una , t h is p o la r i ty i si d en t if ied a s t h e B runhe s Ma tuyama b ounda ry ( An a nd Ho 1 989 ) . T he se d a ta a nd t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e r a te o f l o ess d epo s i t ion w a s " r ough ly u n ifo rm" d a te t h e f a una t oa n " e s t ima ted" 0 . 650 myr ( An a nd H o 1 989 :216 ) . C ompa r isons t o t h e l o e ss a nd t h e o xygen i s o tope p a laeoc l ima t ic c yc le s may d a te C hen j iawo t o a bou t 0 . 500 -0 .590 my r , o r t o 0 .65 my r ( L iu a nd D ing 1 984 ; L iu e ta l . 1 985 :66 ; a nd s e e P ope 1 988b ) . T he 1 964 a r tef ac t s i n c lude t h ree f l ake s a nd o ne s c rape r ( Zhang 1 985 :150 ) . Z hang ( 1989 :127 ) h a s r e c la s s if i ed t h e s ma l l c hopp ing too l o f C h ia e t a l . ( 1 966 i n Z hang 1 989 :127 ) a s a mu l t ip le -edge s c rape r , a nd e a r l ie r ( Zhang 1 985 :150 ) a s " a v a r ie ty o f s c rape r " o n a ccoun t o f i t s v e ry s ma l l d imens ions ( Zhang 1 985 :150 ) ( 3 .5 x 3 . 2 x1 . 1 cm ; Z hang 1 989 :127 ) . T he s i nuous a nd r e la t ive ly d u l l u t i l ised e dge o f t h is s pec imen w a s s haped b y a l te rna te r e touch ( Zhang 1 985 :150 , 1 989 :127 ) . A w o rked q ua r tz p ebb le w a s d i scove red 1 , 000 m a way f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty (Woo 1 964b ; C hang 1 966 :5 ; s e e a bove ) . T he o ne s i de o f t h is

8 2

s pec imen w h ich i s i l us t ra ted ( s ee Woo 1 964b , F ig . 8 ) s how st h a tt h e ' u ppe r ' h a lf w a s mod if ied ( t he i l u s t ra t ion i n Woo [ 1964b , F ig . 8 ] i s t o o p oo r f o r r e p roduc t ion ) . A cco rd ing t o t h e d imen s ion s o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 0 .1 c m l e ng th x 1 .3 c m w id th ( s ee Woo 1 964b , F ig . 8 ) t h i s s pec imen a ppea r st oh ave b een w o rked o n ac obb le . Q iu a n d L i ( 1978 ) r e f e r t o as ma l l f l ake i n v e in q ua r tz f r om t h e f o s s i l if e rou sl a ye ra nd as ma l l c hopp ing too l i nq ua r t z i t e 7 0 m a way f r om t h e l o ca l i ty . T he s even a r te f a c t s r e cove r ed i n 1 975 i n c lude t wo c o re s , t wo u nu t i l i sed f l ake s , a nd t h r ee t o o ls ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) . T he a r te f a c t s w e r e m anu f a c tu r ed b y s imp le d i r ec t h a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion j udg ing f r om t h e p rom inen tb u lb s ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) .T he u nu t i l i sed f l ake sa r e s ma l l ( n . 4 : 5 .0 x 3 . 9 x2 . 8 c m ; n . 1 :4 .0 x 3 . 2 c m ) , o f q uad r i la te ra l s hape , a nd t h e s ma l l s t r ik ing p l a t f o rm s a r e c o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) . T he t o o ls i n c lude o ne d oub le -edge f l ake s c rape r , o ne m u l t ip le -edge f l ake s c rape r ,a nd o ne c o r e c hopp ing too l ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) . T he v e ry s ma l l ( l eng th a nd w id th a r e 3 . 2 x2 . 4 c m ) d oub le e dge s c r ape r h a s t wo u t i l ised n o tched e dge s , t h e n o tch ing p r odu ced b y s e conda ry r e touch ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) . T he c hopp ing too lw a s manuf ac tu red o n al a rge g r ave l s t one , a nd Z hang ( 1989 :127 ) s ugge s t s t h a t i tw a s d i ff i cu l t t o m od if y . A l l C hen j iawo t o o ls a r es ma l l ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) . 7 .2 .3

a nd L in 1 985 ; a nd s e e F reeman 1 977 :100 ) . T a i a nd H sue ( 1 973 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h e o r ig in s o f t h e l a te r K ehe a nd D ingcun c u l tu re s c ou ld b e t r a ced t o G ongwang l ing . O the r a u tho r s( A igne r a nd L augh l in 1 973 ; A igne r 1 981 :237 , 2 43 ; s e ea l so Wu a nd L in 1 985 ) a r gue t h a t t h e m a t e r ia l may n o t b e n ume rou s e nough t oj u s t if y t h is c onc lu s ion , a nd A igne r a nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) o b se rve n o s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e L an t ian a nd t h e K ehe a nd D ingcun t e chno log ie s , a nd n o d i s t inc t s im i la r i ty t o t h e L oca l i ty 1 m a te r ia l s . T a i ( 1966 ) b e l ieve s t h a t t h e l a rge q ua r tz i te p o in t f ound n e a r G ongwang l ing i s s im i la r t o t h e l a rge K ehe a nd D ingcun p o in t s( c on tra A igne ra nd L augh l in 1 973 ) . J i a ( 1980 :16 ) a nd Q iu a nd L i ( 1978 ) a r gue t h a t t h e P ing l iang p o in t i s c ompa rab le t o t h e h eavy t r i angu la r K ehe a nd D ingcun p o in t s , a nd t h a t t h i s t o o l t y pe m ay e v ince a c u l tu ra l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween L an t ian , K ehe , a nd D ingcun . T he se p o in t s may r e p re sen t ad i agno s t ic t y pe o f t h is r eg ion ( Pope 1 982 :10 1) . T he G ongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo a r tef ac t s h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o t h e l a rge t oo l ( J ia a nd H uang 1 985b ) o r s ma l l t o o l t r ad i t ion ( Zhou a nd Wang 1 991) . T he L an t ian f a unae h ave b een r e la ted t oh om in id s ub s is tence a c t iv i ty ( A igne r 1 981 :274 ; J i a 1 980 :18 ) . J i a ( 1 980 :18 ) h a s s p ecu la ted t h a t t h e L an t ian h om in id s r e l ied p r ima r i ly o n p l an tf ood sa nd t h a tt h eP ing l iang p o in tw a su sed f o rd igg ing f o od f r om t h e g round . A n ima l f o od w a s o b ta ined b y s c aveng ing o f l a rge mamma ls b ecau se h om in id h un t ing a b i l i ty h ad n o t s uf f ic ien t ly a dvanced , a nd J i a ( 1980 :18 ) s ugge s t st h a tt h ec ha rcoa lr e p re sen t se v idence o fh om in id f i re u t i l i sa t ion f o rt h ep repa ra t ion o ff ood a nd f o r o b ta in ing l a rge a n ima lc a r ca s se sf r om c a rn ivo re s .T a ia nd H sue ( 1973 ) a r gue t h a t t h e c ha r coa l c ou ld b e a t t r ibu tab le t o h om in id f i re u se , b u tZ hang ( 1985 :148 , 1 989 :124 ) b e l ieve s i tt o b e p rema tu re t oa s soc ia te t h ec ha rcoa l w i th H . e r ec tu sa c t iv i ty .

I n terpre ta t ions o f t he L an t ian l o ca l i t ies

T he G ongwang l ing a r te f a c t s a r e d e sc r ibed a s g ene r a l ly u nadvan ced w i th r e f e ren ce t o t h e u n ref ined m anu f a c tu r ing t e chn ique , t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f c a tego r ie s a nd s p e c imen s w i th s e conda ry r e touch , t h e u n s tanda rd i sed s hape s , a nd l im i ted c ha rac te r i s t ics , a l though t h e f l ake s a nd an umbe r o f r e tou ched t o o l s i n d ica te " a r a the r w e l l d ef ined " a d v an ced t e chno logy ( Ta ia nd H sue 1 973 :10 , 1 2 ;a nd s e eJ i a 1 980 :17 ) . T he G ongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo a r te f ac t sa r e c on s ide r ed t o b e b a s ica l ly i d en t ica l i n t h e u se o f d i re c t h a rd -hamme r p e rcu s s ion , t h e t ype o f s c rape r s , a nd t h e u sua l ly c oa r se s e conda ry r e touch ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) . A l a rge n umbe r o f t h e G ongwang l ing t oo ls s e em t o r e p re sen t mu l t i -f unc t iona l s pec imens , w h i le t h e u n if unc t iona l t oo l s a r e p r og r e s s ive c ompa red t o" o lde ra s semb lage s" , i . e .X ihoudu a nd Y uanmou ( J ia 1 980 :17 ) .

7 .3

T he Z houkoud ian l oca l i t ie s : I n troduc t ion

T he 2 4 Z houkoud ian l o ca l i t ie s a r e s i tua ted a bou t 4 5 km s ou thwe s to f B e i j ing n ea r t h e v i l lage o f Z houkoud ian ( e .g . , J i aa nd H uang 1 990 :195 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :98 -173 ; F ig . 1 23 ) . Z houkoud ian l i e s i nt h e H ebe i P l a in a nd i nt h e w e s t i s l o ca t ed o n t h e e dg e o f t h e X i shan ( We s ter n H i l ls ) , a moun ta in r a nge o f c a rbon if e rou s s ha le s , g ran i te , a nd O rdov ic ian l ime s tone ( Te i lha rd a nd Y oung 1 930b :175 , F ig . 1 ;B la ck e ta t . 1 933 :6 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :64 ; A igne r 1 981 :98 ; a nd s e eZ hang 1 985 :154 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l d epo s i t s a r e l o ca t ed i n al ime s tone h i l l c a l led L onggu shan ( D ragon B one H i l l ) a bou t 6 0 m h igh ( Te i lha rd a nd Y oung 1 930b :175 , F ig . 2 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :386 ; A igne r 1 981 :98 ) a nd a pp rox ima te ly 1 45 m a bove s ea leve l ( Zhang 1 985 :154 ) . T he g eo logy o f t h is a r ea r ep re sen t s e v idence o f f i s su re a nd c ave c o l lap se , b r e cc ia t ion o n t h e e a s te rn s i de o ft h eh i l l , a nd i n f i l l ing so fr e dc l ay d epo s i t s a nd l ime s tone p i ece s a f te r f i s su re a nd c ave d e s t ruc t ion ( B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :22 -23 ; T e i lha rd a nd Y oung 1 930b :175 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :388 -389 ; A igne r 1 981 :98 -100 ) . A cco rd ing t o T e i lha rd a nd Y oung ( 1930b :184 ) t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e v a r iou s c ave s a nd f i s su re s a nd t h e g r ave l d epo s i t s a tZ houkoud ian a r e t h e r e su l to f r i ve r c u t t ing . Ar i ve r , t h e B e i 'e rhe w h ich f l ow s i n t h e a nc ien t b ed o f t h e Z houkouhe ( J ia 1 989b ) i s l o ca t ed a bou t 7 0 t o 8 0 m b e low t h e Z houkoud ian s i te c omp lex ( Mov iu s 1 944 :65 ; A igne r 1 981 :98 ) .

T he G ongwang l ing a r te f ac t sh ave b een d e sc r ibed a st h eo l de s t i nE a s tA s ia ( A igne ra nd L augh l in 1 973 )o ri nC h ina ( Zhang 1 985 :182 , 1 989 :152 , T ab le 7 . 5 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :182 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e a r te f a c t s f r om t h e o the r u nda t ed 2 5 L an t ian l o ca l i t ie s , i n c lud ing P ing l iang a r e " t ypo log ica l ly e qu iva len t " t o G ongwang l ing . T he d i spe r sed o ccu r rence o f t h e G ongwang l ing ma te r ia ls s ugge s t s t o T a i a nd H sue ( 1 973 ) t h a t t h e a r te f a c tua l l a ye r s d o n o t r e p r e sen t a n h om in id o ccupa t ion s i te . T he " ea r ly a s soc ia t ion s" a tL an t ian ( among s ome o the r C h ine se l o ca l i t ie s ) h ave b een d e s c r ib ed a s " s t ra t ig raph ic i nn a tu re a nd n o t c onf ined t o s pa t ia l ly l im i ted c on tex t s ." ( Pope 1 988a :1107 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s f o und a t Gongwang l ing a r e t hough t t o h ave b een d epo s i ted b y g eo log ica l ( f low ing w a te r ) a nd n o t h om in id a c t iv i ty ( Pope 1 993 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :150 , 1 989 :127 ) a r gue s t h a t b e cau se o ft h el ow f r equency o f t h e G ongwang l ing a r te f a c t s , c omp rehen s ive i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e t e chno log ica l a nd b ehav iou ra l f e a tu re s c anno t b e a dvanced , a nd h e ( Zhang 1 989 :127 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e G ongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo a r tef a c t sc an b er e f e r red t ot h es ame c u l tu re .

Z houkoud ian i n i t ia l ly c ame t ot h e a t ten t ion o f A nde r s son i n 1 9 18 t h rough t h e c hem i s t J . McG rego r G ibb w ho r e po r ted f o s s i ls f r om t h e l i me -qua r ry o f J i gu shan ( Ch i K u S han , a bou t 2 km d i s tance f r om L oca l i ty 1 ; a f te r 1 927 :

T he G ongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo a r te f ac t sa r e c on s ide r ed t o e xh ib i t mo re a f f in i t ie s w i th t h e K ehe a nd D ingcun a r t e f a c t s t h an t o Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s pec imen s ( Ta i 1 966 ; Wu

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Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 6 ) n ea r Z houkoud ian ( Ande r s son 1 919 , 1 934 :95 -96 ; Y oung 1 930 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :6 ; S hap i ro 1 974 :35 ; A igne r 1 981 :100 , 1 50 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :10 ; F ig . 1 24 ) . I n 1 921 a l o ca l k i ln w o rke r i n fo rmed A nde r s son , Z dansky , a nd G range r o f a f a r r i che r f o ss i l ( d ragon s ' b one ) l o ca l i ty n o r th o f J i gushan ( Ande r s son 1 934 :97 ; B lack e t a t . 1 933 :6 ; R eade r 1 988 :94 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :12 ) w he re i n 1 92 1 a nd 1 923 s u rveys a n d e xcava t ions b y Z dansky ( 1923 ) r e cove r ed a bundan t f o ss i l ma te r ia ls a t L oca l i ty 5 3 , l a te r d e s igna ted a s L oca l i ty 1 ( Te i lha rd a nd Y oung 1 930b :175 ; B lack e ta t . 1 933 :6 -7 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ; F ig . 1 24 ) . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f q ua r tz f r agmen t s a s a r tef ac t s i n t h e e xpo su re s o f L oca l i ty 1 b y A nde r s son ( 1934 :125 ) i n 1 921 ( Ande r s son i n B lack e t a t . 1 933 :6 ) , w a s n o t r e cogn i sed b y t h e o the r r e sea r che r s ( e .g . , Z dan sky 1 923 ; T e i lha rd a nd Young 1 930b :182 ) u n t i l t h e d i scove ry i n1 931 o f al a ye r w i th n ume rous q ua r tz f l ake s i n s i tu ( Pe i 1 931b ; B lack e t a t . 1 933 :10 ; R eade r 1 988 :94 ; A igne r 1 981 :129 ) . T he i n cen t ive f o rl a rge -sca le e xcava t ion a t Z houkoud ian w a sp rov ided b y t h e a nnouncemen t i n 1 926 o f t h e d i scove ry o f t wo h om in id t e e th ( B lack 1 927 ; Z dan sky 1 927 ; A igne r 1 981 :100 ) , c o l lec ted b y Z dansky i n 1 921 a nd 1 923 ( Reade r 1 988 :94 , 9 9 ; Z dansky 1 927 ) . E xcava t ion a t L oca l i ty 1 f r om 1 927 -1929 w a s c a r r ied o u t u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o f T he N a t iona l G eo log ica l S u rvey o f C h ina a n d t h e P e ip ing Un ion Med ica l C o l lege w i th t h e f i nanc ia l s uppo r t o f t h e R ockef e l le r F ounda t ion ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd Young 1 930b :173 ; A igne r 1 981 :100 -10 1 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :39 ) . T he e a r ly e xcava t ion wo rk w a s d i rec ted b y B oh l in ( 1927 ;J i aa nd H uang 1 990 :41) , a nd t h e reaf te rb y P e i( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :61) . I nve s t iga t ions a t Z houkoud ian w e r e i n te r rup ted b y t h eJ apane se i n va s ion o f C h ina i n 1 937 ( e .g . , Mov iu s 1 955 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ; s e e C hap te r I ) . R enewed e xcava t ions a tL oca l i ty 1 w e re c onduc ted o n as ma l le r s c a le i n 1 949 , 1 951 , 1 958 t o 1 960 , 1 966 , a nd 1 979 w i th t h e d i scove ry o f a dd i t iona l h om in id a nd f a una l s pec imens , a r tef ac t s , a s h , a nd n ew l o ca l i t ie s ( e .g . , C h iu e ta t . 1 973 ; J i a 1 980 :24 -26 ; A igne r 1 981 :10 1-102 ; a nd s ee Append ix 1 ) . O ft h e 2 2 f o ss i l b ea r ing c ave a nd f i s sure l o ca l i t ie s i d en t if i ed i nt h et wo k m2 l a rge Z houkoud ian a r ea ( l oca l i t ie s 1 7 a nd 1 8 a r e n o t l o ca ted w i th in t h is a r ea ) ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :195 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :98 -173 ) , s i x l o ca l i t ie s h ave p roduced a r tef ac t s r a ng ing i n a ge f r om t h e e a r ly /m idd le M idd le P le is tocene ( Loca l i ty 1 3 ; s ee b e low ) , m idd le la te M idd le P le i s tocene ( Loca l i ty 1 ; s ee b e low ) , t e rm ina l M idd le P le is tocene ( X indong ; Wang [ 1989 1 ) , ( e a r ly ) L a te P le is tocene ( Loca l i ty 1 5 ; Mov ius [ 1944 :53 , 6 8 -69 , 1 949 :345 , 3 48 , 3 98 ] ; Q iu [ 1985 :204 ] ; We i Q i [ p e r s . c omm . ] ; I .V .P .P . [ 1980 :61] ; b u t s e e A igne r [ 1981 :153 1 54 ] , w ho s ugges t s al a te M idd le P le is tocene a ge b a sed o n t h e" poo ra nd f r agmen ta ry f auna" ; a nd L oca l i ty 2 2 ; I .V .P .P . [ 1 980 :69 ] ; A igne r [ 1981 :160 ] ; P ope [ p e r s . c omm . ]) , a n d l a te / te rm ina l L a te P le is tocene ( Uppe r C ave ; P e i [ 1939b , 1 940 ] ; C hen e t a l . [ 1984 ] ; Wu a nd Wang [ 1 985 ] ; Wang [ 1 989 ] ) . (Wu a nd L in [ 1985 :3 ] w r i te o f " cu l tura l r e l ic s" f ound a tL oca l i ty 3 . T he se a u tho r s may b e r e f e r r ing t o t h e " f ew p i ece s o f b u rn t b one s" f ound i n t h is f i ssu re l o ca l i ty , b u tn oa r te f ac t sw e re r e cove red h e re , a nd t h e " ab sence o f a ny c l ea r t r a ce o f h uman c u l tu re" w a s p rev ious ly n o ted b y P e i [ 1936 :9 ] ; a nd s e e Mov ius [ 1944 :69 ] ; A igne r [ 1981 :149 1 . F ig . 1 24 . ) 7 .3 .1

L oca l ity

Mov ius 1 949 :391 , Map 3 ;A igne r 1 981 :152 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :111; F ig . 1 24 ) . A f te r i t ' s d i scove ry b y q ua r ry ing i n 1 933 i tw a s e xcava ted f r om 1 933 t o 1 934 o ve r a n e i gh t mon th p e r iod w i th a bou t h a lf o f t h e d epo s i t r ema in ing u nexcava ted ( Pe i 1 934b ; Mov ius 1 949 :391 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :111-114 ; F ig . 1 24 ) . O n t h e b a s is o f s e d imen ta ry v a r ia t ion t wo z one s w e re r e cogn ised b y t h e e xcava to r ( P e i 1 934b ) , n ame ly t h e U ppe r Z one , o r Uppe r P a r t a nd t h e L owe r Z one , o r L owe r P a r t ( F ig . 1 25 ) . A c he r t a r t e f a c t t o ge the r w i th s t one f l akes , f o ss i l f a una , c ha r r ed b one s , a n d t h in l a ye r s i n c lud ing v e ry s ma l l c ha r coa l f r agmen t s ( P e i 1 934b ) w e re r e cove red f r om t h e b o t tom o ft h er e dc l ay U ppe r Z one a t ad ep th o f 4m i na n u nd is turbed c on tex t ( Pe i 1 934b ; a nd s e e , e . g . , T e i lha rd 1 941 :57 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :390 -39 1 ; A igne r 1 981 :152 ; F ig . 1 25 ) . F oss i ls w e re p redom inan t ly f o und a bove t h ea r tef ac tl a ye r , a nd t h eb r ecc ia ted L owe r Z one y i e lded f ew f o ss i ls ( Pe i 1 934b ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 94 1 i n A igne r 1 981 , A ppend ix 2 P ; A igne r 1 981 :152 ; F ig . 1 25 ) . H ackbe r ry s e ed s ( Ce l t is s p . ) w e re r e cove r ed a bou t 1 . 5 m h i ghe r t h an t h e c he r t a r te f ac t ( Pe i 1 934b ; F ig . 1 25 ) . T he c he r ta r tef ac t w a s f ound " i ns i tu" ( Pe i 1 934b :367 ) . T he d i f f e rence s i n s ed imen t s i s t hough t t o i n d ica te t h a t t h e L owe r Z one w a s f o rmed u nde r c ave o r p a r t ia l f i s su re c ond i t ions , a nd t h e s u cceed ing Uppe r Z one a ppea r s t o r e p re sen t a n o pen -a ir d epo s i t w h ich o r ig ina ted a f te r t h e c o l lap se o f t h e c ave r oof ( Pe i 1 934b ; A igne r 1 981 :152 ) . L oca l i ty 1 3 w a s r e cen t ly d e sc r ibed a s af i ssu re d epo s i t ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :111) . As e cond l o ca l i ty , L oca l i ty 1 3A , w a s d i scove red i n 1 955 t o t h e s ou thea s t o f L oca l i ty 1 3 ( Zhang 1 989 :102 ) . A s ma l l n umbe r o f mamma l ian f o ss i ls a nd a n a sh l a ye r w e re f o und a s soc ia ted i n t h e c en t ra l p a r t o f t h is d epo s i t , b u t t h e s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ionsh ip t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a ye ro fL oca l i ty 1 3 a ppea rs t ob e u nc lea r ( s ee Z hang 1 989 :102 ) . T he f a una o f 2 9 o r 3 0 m amma l ian a nd t wo a ye s s p ec ie s ( A igne r 1 981 , A ppend ix 2 P ) o r 3 4 o r 3 5 mamma ls ( Pope a nd H owe l l 1 982 ; T ab le 2 26 ) i n h eav i ly m ine ra l ised , v e ry g ood , b u t g ene ra l ly c r u shed c ond i t ion i s r e p re sen ted l a rge ly b y m and ib le s , t e e th , c r an ia , a nd a n t le r s ( Pe i 1 934b ) a n d i n c lude s 2 87 i n d iv idua ls ( A igne r 1 981 , Append ix 2 P ; T ab le 2 26 ) . T he f o ss i ls s ugge s t am ixed w ood land , f o re s t a n d g r a ss land e nv i ronmen t( s ee T ab le 2 26 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e L oca l i ty 1 3 s pec ie s h ave a l so b een r e co rded a tL oca l i ty 1 ( s ee T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 941 i n A igne r 1 981 , A ppend ix 2 P ) . T he f a una i s a n e a r ly M idd le P le is tocene a s semb lage ( Mov ius 1 949 :389 ) . T he d epo s i t i s c on s ide red t op reda te L oca l i ty 1( l aye r s 1 10 ) o n t h e b a s is o f t wo r oden t s pec ie s , Myospa lax e p i t ing i ( f o rme r ly Myospa lax t i ng i , t h e l a te r f o rm ; P ope a nd H owe l l 1 982 ) a nd H ys tr ix l a gr e l i i , a nd t h e n on -pachyos ted ( i .e . a n t le r s n o t t h ickened ) Megacero sf l abe l la tus n o t f ound a t L oca l i ty 1 ( Pe i 1 937 , 1 934b ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 941 i nA igne r 1 981 , Append ix 2 P ; P ope a nd Howe l l 1 982 ; T ab le 2 26 ) . M . t i ng i w a s l a te r f o und i n e a r l ie r l a ye r s ( 1 1-13 ) o f L oca l i ty 1 w h ich i n d ica te s t h a t L oca l i ty 1 3 i s t i me -equ iva len t w i th t h e se l a ye r s ( J ia a n d H uang 1 990 :112 ; A igne r 1 981 :152 , 1 77 ) . T he o ccu r rence o f t h is r oden ta nd M .f l abe l la tus a tL oca l i ty 1 3 a nd i n l a ye r 1 3 o fL oca l i ty 1i st h ough t t o d emons t ra te t h e c on tempo rane i ty o ft h e se s ed imen t s ( J ia 1 980 :26 ) . O n t h e b a s is o ft h e r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f e x t inc t g ene ra a nd s pec ies ( 1 1 .11 % a n d 8 6 .64% , r e spec t ive ly , C h ia a nd Wang [ 1978 :72 ] ; o r 1 .11 % a nd 6 6 .64% , r e spec t ive ly , J i a a nd Huang [ 1 990 :112 ] ) , L oca l i ty 1 3 i s t h ough t t o b e c on tempo raneou s w i th K ehe a nd t o p r eda te L oca l i ty 1 .L aye r 1 3 o f L oca l i ty 1 h a s b e en

1 3

L oca l i ty 1 3 i s ac ave o n t h e s ou th s i de o f as ma l l h i l l s i tua ted a bou t 1km t o t h e s ou th o f L oca l i ty 1( Pe i 1 934b ;

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d a ted p a laeomagne t ica l ly t ol e ss t h an 0 . 690 m y r ( e .g . , Q ian e ta l . 1 980 ) .

a nd 8 ; A igne r 1 981 :104 -107 , 1 29 ; F igs . 1 27 -129 ) . P a r t o f t h e Ma in C ave h ad b een q ua r r ied b e fo re e xcava t ions w e r e i n i t ia ted ( e .g . , B lack e ta l . 1 933 :6 ) .

T he s ma l l a nd w e l l p a t ina ted b i f ac ia l ly w o rked c o re a r te f a c t i nc he r t( i den t if ied a s f l in t b y J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :112 ) w a s p r oduced o n ap ebb le [ c obb le ] ( 7 .85 x 5 . 80 x 3 . 63 c m ) b y a l te rna te f l ak ing a nd e xh ib i t s ab eaked p ro jec t ion a to ne e nd ( P e i 1 934b , 1 937 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :70 -71 , 1 949 :391 ; F ig . 1 26 ) .T h is s pec imen h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s a" r ough ` b if a ce" ( Pe i 1 934b :367 ) , a c r ude b i f ace ( Te i lha rd 1 935 ) , a n A bbev i l l ian h andaxe ( Pe i 1 937 ) , a nd a s a n " imp lemen t o r n uc leus" ( i nsc r ip t ion o n t h ec a s tp re sen ted b y P e i Wenzhong t oC amb r idge Un ive r s i ty ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) , a nd l a te r o p in ion i d en t if ied i ta s ac hoppe r ( Te i lha rd 1 941 :57 ; P e i 1 965 ) , a c hopp ing too l (Mov ius 1 949 :390 , 3 91 ; a nd s e e J i a a n d H uang 1 990 :112 ) , ac o re c hopp ing too l ( Zhang 1 989 :102 ) , a nd a s a" r ough ly" a l te rna te ly w o rked c he r t t oo l ( A igne r 1 981 :152 ) . T he p re sence o f s e conda ry r e touch o n t h e c o r e a r te f ac t w a s d i scoun ted b y P e i ( 1934b ) . L oca l ised b i la te ra l m od if ica t ion o no ne c oncave e dge b e low t h e s ho r t p o in t ( o r b eak ) may r ep re sen t p oss ib le u se -wea r r e touch . O ne f a ce e xh ib i t s i n va s ive a nd i r regu la r f l ake s ca r s , a nd r e gu la r , s ma l le r a nd n on inva s ive s ca r s o n t h e o bve r se w h ich m ay h ave c r ea ted t h ec oncav i ty .T he b eak s hows n o a ppa ren t u se w ea r ( pe r s . o bse rv . o f t h e c a s t a nd i lu s t ra t ion ; F ig . 1 26 ) . T he s eve ra l f l ake a r tef ac t s ( Te i lha rd 1 935 ) o r " f ew" ( B r eu i l 1 939 : i i ) s t one s pec imens h ave b een i d en t if ied a s " a r t if i c ia l ly b r oken f o re ign s t one s" ( Pe i 1 934b :367 ; a nd s e e Mov iu s 1 944 :70 ) , " b roken f o re ign s t ones o n w h ich t h e a r t if ic ia l w o rk ing i s n o t e v iden t" ( Pe i 1 937 :224 ; a nd s e e Mov iu s 1 949 :391) , a sf l ake s ( Breu i l 1 939 : i i ; T e i lha rd 1 941 :57 ) , a nd a s " wo rked q ua r tz f r agmen t s" ( J ia a nd Huang 1 990 :112 ) . Two a r tef ac t s i lus t ra ted i n I .V .P .P . ( 1980 :41 , l owe r p l a te ) m ay b et ho se men t ioned b y e a r l ie r a u tho r s ( s ee a bove ) . O ne o ft h e se a ppea r s t ob e as pec imen i n s uga ry q ua r tz o n w h ich o ne d en t icu la te e dge may d e r ive f r om s e conda ry r e touch a nd /o r u se -damage ( s ee I .V .P .P . 1 980 :41 , l owe r p l a te , s p ec imen i nl owe r r i gh t c or ne r ) . Z hang ( 1989 :102 ) r e f e r s t o at o ta lo ff ou ra r tef ac t so f wh ich t h ree a r e a n u t i l i sed f l ake , a s c rape r ,a nd ap o in ted t oo l ( a nd s ee a bove ) . P e i ( 1937 :224 ) w a s a to ne t ime n o tc onv inced t h a t t h es i ng le a r t e f ac tr e p r e sen ted e v idence " . . .of at r ue h uman i ndu s t ry . . ." p r eda t ing t h eL oca l i ty 1a s semb lages , b u t h e ( Pe i 1 965 , a n d s e e P e i 1 938b ) l a te r a g ree s w i th o the r a u tho r s ( Te i lha rd 1 935 , 1 941 :57 ; Mov ius 1 944 :cf . , 7 1 , 1 949 :391) t h a t t h i s t o o l i s t h e e a r l ie s t a r tef ac t d i scove red i n C h ina . A igne r ( 1 981 :152 ) c ons ide r s i t t h e o lde s t t oo l k nown f r om Z houkoud ian . Z hang ( 1989 :102 ) a rgue s t h a t t h e a r te f ac t s m ay r ep resen tp a r to ft h eL oca l i ty 1c u l tu re . T he b u rn t s t a te o f t h e " f ew i s o la ted" b one s a nd t h e c ha rcoa l h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o h om in id a c t iv i ty ( Pe i 1 934b :367 ; O ak ley 1 961) , a nd J i a a nd Huang ( 1990 :195 -196 , 7 9 ) i n te rp re t t h e e v idence f o r f i re u se among t h e o lde s t i n C h ina b a sed o n c hem ica l t e s t s . 7 . 3 .2

L oca l ity 1

T he L oca l i ty 1c ave e x tend s o ve r al e ng th o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 40 m i ne a s t -we s td i rec t ion a nd a tt h e c en t re h a s aw id th o f a bou t2 0m ( Zhang 1 985 :154 , 1 989 :103 ) . T he s i ze h a s a l so b een r e f e r red t oa s 1 07 m i n l e ng th , 2 0 -25 m i n w id th , a n d 4 0 m i n h e igh t ( B info rd a nd Ho 1 985 :416 , F ig . 3 ; F ig . 1 27 ) . T he d epo s i t i n c lude s t h e l a rge s t a r ea , t h e Ma in C ave ( o r Ma in Depo s i t ) w i th t he L owe r F i ssu re a nd b e low i tt h e L owe r C ave , a nd t h e G ez idong c ave , t h e e a s te rn p a r t o f t h e c ave ( e .g . , B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :10 , 1 4 , 1 7 -18 , 2 0 , F igs . 6 , 7

8 5

T he d epo s i t h a s b een d i v ided o n t h e b a s i s o f g eo log ica l , p a laeon to log ica l , a nd c u l tu ra l c r i te r ia , b u t a p r ec i se u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s t ra t ig raphy i sn o t p oss ib le b ecau se o f t h e c omp lex g eo log ica l h i s to ry o f t h is c ave , t h e me thodo logy e mp loyed i n t h e f i r s t y ea r s o fe xcava t ion , a nd t h e v a r ious r e cons t ruc t ions o f t h e g eomo rpho logy a nd r e la t ionsh ip s o f t h e l a ye r s s i nce e xcava t ion b egan ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd Young 1 930b :179 -183 ; P e i 1 93lb :110 -120 , F igs . 1 4 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :14 -23 ; C h ia 1 959b ; K ah lke a nd C how 1 961 ; A igne r 1 981 :99 -100 , 1 04 -107 ) . T he s ed imen t s c omp r ise b recc ia ,t r ave r t ine ,c ong lome ra te ,l ime s tone , s and s , a nd c l ay , o f v a ry ing t h ickne sse s ( e .g . , P e i 1 93 1b :110 -120 , F ig s . 1 4 ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :317 -321 ; B lack e t a L 1 933 :14 , 1 7 -18 , 2 0 , F ig s . 7a nd 8 ; C h ia 1 959b ; A igne r 1 981 :104 -105 ; K ah lke a nd C how 1 961 ; Mü l le rBeck a nd A igne r 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 , T ab le 1 0 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :155 -156 , 1 989 :103 -104 ; J i a 1 983 , Huang 1 959 , 1 960 , i n B info rd a nd H o 1 985 , F ig . 6 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :23 ; T ab le s 2 27 -229 , F ig s . 1 29 -132 ) . E igh teen ( Ren e ta l . 1 981 i n B info rd a nd H o 1 985 :417 ) o r 1 7 ( Zhang 1 985 :155 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 988 :1040 ) l a ye r s h ave b een i d en t if ied ( F ig . 1 32 ) . T he k nown d ep th o ft h ed epo s i ti sa pp rox ima te ly 5 0m ( e .g . , B reu i l 1 935 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :154 ; A igne r 1 981 :104 ) . T he b r ecc ia ted n a tu re o f mos t s t ra ta i n t h e d epo s i t n ece s s i ta ted t h e u se o f d r i l l ing t oo ls a nd e xp lo s ive s t o r emove f o s s i l sa nd a r tef ac t s( Te i lha rd a nd Young 1 930b :177 ; A igne r 1 981 :101) . Ma te r ia ls e xcava ted f r om s a ndy l a ye r s w e re s i eved ,a nd a l l b one s , i n c lud ing t hose i n af r agmen ta ry s t a te w e re c o l lec ted ( A igne r 1 981 :101) . F rom 1 932 o nwa rd s , e xcava t ion b ecame mo re s ys tema t ic , a nd i n c luded t h e u se o f a n h o r izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l g r id d i v ided i n to 1 m e t re s qua re s ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :83 -91 ; a nd s e e B lack e t a l . 1 933 :111 2 ) ,o rf ou r me t re s qua re sa nd 1me t re t h ick l e ve ls , w i th t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o f i mpo r tan t s pec imens r e co rded i n f i e ld r e co rd sa nd o nt h e s pec imens ( J ia 1 980 :23 ) . P e rhaps a s much a s o ve r 5 0% o f t h e d epo s i t s h ave n o t b een e xcava ted ( Howe l ls 1 980 ; a nd s e eB lack e ta l . 1 933 :12 ) . T he c u l tu ra l s ed imen t se x tend o ve r ad ep th o fg r ea te r t h an 4 0 m( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :114 ) ,4 0m( Pope 1 992b :256 ) , a bou t 3 1 .5 -42 .0 m ( s ee H ong K ong Mu seum o f H i s to ry 1 983 :20 ) , a bou t 3 4 .4 m ( B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :17 -18 ) , o r 3 0 -40 m ( Ch ia 1 959b ; Z hang 1 985 :154 ; T ab le s 2 28 , 2 29 , F ig s . 1 28 , 1 29 , 1 32 ) . T he se s ed imen t s i n c lude t h e h om in id l o ca l i t ie s ( Loc i A -0 , a nd o ne u nspec if ied L ocu s ; s ee , e . g . , B lack e t a l . 1 933 :20 -22 ; Wu a nd Dong 1 985b ) . T he c u l tu ra l l a ye r s w e re f o rme r ly d i v ided i n to t h e Q ua r tz Ho r izons o f G ez idong ( Pe i 1 93lb :111-117 , F igs . 1a nd 3 ) ; t h e C u l tu ra l Z one s A , B , a nd C , a nd Qua r tz L aye r s o f t h e Ma in D epo s i t , a nd t h e C u l tu ra lZ one s Ba nd C o f G ez idong a nd t h e L owe r F i ssu re ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :317 -321 , F ig . 1 , a ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :17 -18 , 2 2 , 10 , F igs . 7 , 8 ; A igne r 1 981 :104 -105 , 1 29 -130 ; T ab le 2 30 , F igs . 1 28 -131 , 1 33 ) . T he se z one s a nd h o r izons a r e r ough ly e qu iva len t t o t h e l a ye r s n ow g ene ra l ly r e cogn ised , a nd f o rm p a r to ft h e 1 3 l a ye r s( e .g . , C h ia 1 959b ; Huang 1 960 ; K ah lke a nd C how 1 961 ; A igne r 1 981 :104 1 07 ) , o r 1 l a ye r s ( Zhang 1 985 :155 ) , o r 2 9 l e ve ls o f 1 0 l a ye r s ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :88 ; T ab les 2 27 -229 , F ig . 1 32 ) . T he c u l tu ra l l a ye r si n c lude f r om t o pt ob o t tom l a ye r s 1t o 6 ( Chang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :155 ; J i a 1 983 ; H ong K ong Museum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ; J i a a nd Huang 1 990 :237 ) ,

l a ye r 7i n G ez idong ( Zhang 1 985 :168 ) , l a ye r s 8 a nd 9 ( A igne r 1 981 :107 , 1 31 ; Hong K ong Museum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ; Z hang 1 985 :155) , l a ye r 1 0 ( A igne r 1 981 :107 , 1 31) , a nd l a ye r s 1 0a nd 1 ( Ch ia 1 959b ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :156 ; T ab le 2 29 , F igs . 1 3 1 , 1 32 ) . L aye r 1 3 i s i n te rp re ted a s ac u l tu ra l l a ye r( e .g . , C h ia 1 959b ,J i a 1 980 :26 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :115 ) , a l though Z hang ( 1985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ) a r gue s t h a t l a ye r s 1 2 t o 1 7 o ccu r b e low t h e c u l tu ra l s t ra ta .A cco rd ing t oB info rd a nd H o ( 1985 :436 , 4 37 ) t h e re i ss t rong e v idence f o rt h ep o s t -depo s i t iona ry n a tu re o f a l a rge n umbe r o f t h e se l a ye r s w h ich t h ey c l a s s ify a s " non d epo s i t iona ry u n i t s" . T he se a u tho r s ( B info rd a nd H o 1 985 :4 17 )a r gue t h a tb r ecc ia ted s ed imen t s , a nd a tL oca l i ty 1 e spec ia l ly l a ye r s 6 10 c an m a in ly b e d i s t ingu ished o n t h e b as is o f t h e e x ten t o f b recc ia t ion , b u t n o t a s d i s t inc t l a ye r s ( a nd s e eb e low ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t s w a s r e cove r ed f r om t h e t h ree a r tef ac tb ea r ing l e ve ls o ft h e t h ick a sh l a ye r 4( Chang 1 962 ; C h ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989b ; A igne r 1 981 :130 ; a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :317 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :110 ; T ab le 2 29 , F igs . 1 28 , 1 29 , 1 32 ) . P a r t o f l a ye r 4 w a s e xcava ted i n 1 928 a nd mos t o f t h e a r tef ac t s f r om t h is l a ye rw e re d epo s i ted i nt h e s po i l -heap b e fo re t h e ir a r te f ac tua l n a tu re w a s r e cogn i sed ( e .g . , T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :321; A igne r 1 981 :130 ; s ee F ig . 1 33 ) . A r tef ac t s a r e a l so a bundan t i n l a ye r 3( Chang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :155 ) , a nd l a ye r s 8 10 w i th mo re t h an 2 ,000 q ua r tz a r tef ac t s ( Pe i 1 93 l b :120 ; A igne r 1 981 :130 , 1 31 ; a nd s e e B lack e ta l . 1 933 :10 ; Hong Kong Mu seum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ; T ab le 2 29 , F igs . 1 28 1 30 ) . B lack e ta l . ( 1933 :22 ) n o ted t ha t a r tef ac t s w e re mos t n ume rous a bove l a ye r 6 . L ow f r equenc ie s o f a r tef ac t s w e r e o b se rved i n l a ye r s 5 , 1 0 , 1 ( Zhang 1 989 :104 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :155 , 1 56 , 1 68 ) , l a ye r 6( Hong K ong Museum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ) , a nd l a ye r 7( Chang 1 962 ) . D i spe r sed o ccu r rence so fa r tef ac t so ccu rb eyond t h e t h ree c u l tu ra l z one s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :319 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :113 ) . A s c rape ra nd t wo " e nd f l ake s" [ t oo ls? ] w e re f ound i n l a ye r 1 ( J ia 1 989b :204 ) . L aye r 1 3 y i e lded l i th ic a r tef ac t s i nt h e 1 958 e xcava t ion , i n c lud ing o ne c he r t t oo l ( Ch ia 1 959b , J i a 1 980 :26 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :130 ) , o r f l in t f l ake o f t r iangu la rs hape ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :115 ) ,o rf l in tf l ake t oo l ( J ia 1 989b ) , a nd i n 1 960 a s a nds tone a r te f ac t ( J ia 1 980 :26 , 1 989b ) . T he s ma l l n umbe ro fa r tefac t s f r om l a ye r 7( a nd s e e b e low ) c ou ld m ean t h a t t h ey w e re e r oded o u t o f t h e o l de r l a ye r s ( Chang 1 962 ) . A r tef ac t s w e re f o und a s soc ia ted w i th f o ss i ls i n l a ye r s 1 3 ( e .g . , Z hang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ; Hong K ong Museum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ; C h iu e ta l . 1 973 ) , l a ye r 4( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :317 ; B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :17 , 10 ; C h ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989 ; Z hang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ; C h iu e ta l . 1 973 ) , l a ye r 6 ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :17 , 10 ; Z hang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ; Hong K ong Museum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ) , l a ye r s 7 10 ( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :17 , 10 , 13 ; Z hang 1 989 :104 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :155 -156 ) , l a ye r 1 ( Zhang 1 985 :156 , 1 989 :104 ) a nd l a ye r 1 3( J ia 1 980 :26 ) . H om in id f o ss i ls w e re r e co rded i n l a ye r 3(Wu a nd D ong 1 985b ) , t h ee a s te rn a nd h i ghe s tp a r to f l a ye r4 ,a nd l a ye r s 5a nd 7 11 ( e .g . , B lack e ta l . 1 933 :20 -22 ; Wu a nd D ong 1 985b ) . T he se f o ss i ls w e re p a r t icu la r ly n ume rou s i n t h e a r tefac tua l a nd a sh l a ye r s ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :17 -18 , 2 2 ) , b u t n o t c l o se t o a r tef a c t a nd a sh l o ca t ions ( A igne r 1 981 :148 ) . A r tef ac t s a nd a sh w e re r e co rded i n a s soc ia t ion i n l a ye r 3 ( Zhang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ; H ong K ong Museum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ) , l a ye r 4( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :17 , 10 ; C h ia

8 6

1 964 i nJ i a 1 989b ; Z hang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ; Hong K ong Mu seum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ) , l a ye r 5 ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :317 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :17 , 10 ; Z hang 1 989 :104 ) , l a ye r 6( Zhang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :104 ; Hong Kong Mu seum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ) , w i th a n " a shy p a tch" i n t h e " s t rong ly l am ina ted" l a ye r 6o f G ez idong ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :17 , 1 8 , 2 2 ) , l a ye r 7( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :18 , 2 2 , 10 -111) , l a ye r s 8a nd 9 ( Hong K ong Mu seum o f H is to ry 1 983 :20 ; Z hang 1 989 :104 , 1 985 :156 ) , a nd l a ye r 1 0 ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :18 , 11 , 13 ; Z hang 1 989 :104 , 1 985 :156 ) . T he a sh w a s n o ted a s t h ick l a ye r s o f v a r iab le t h ickne ss a nd a s h eap s ( Ch ia 1 975 :34 ) , n o t h ea r th s ( J ia 1 989b ; a nd s e e B reu i l 1 932a ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :79 ) w i th v a r iab ly c o lou red b anded l a ye r s i n c lud ing i regu la r ly d i spe r sed c a rbon p a r t ic le s ( B reu i l 1 932a ) . T he y ounge s t a sh l a ye r w a s r e co rded b e low l a ye r 4 o f G ez idong w he re t h e a sh i sl o ca ted o n al a rge " l ime s tone s l ab" w h ich o r ig ina te s f r om t h ec o l lapsed r oof a nd i n te rp re ted a s al i v ing f l oo r ( Ch ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989b ; a nd s e e J i a a n d H uang 1 990 :79 ) . T he t h icke s t a sh a ccumu la t ions w e r e d i scove red i nl a ye r 4( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :117 ;B lack e ta l . 1 933 :110 , 13 ; T e i lha rd 1 94 1 :56 , F ig . 2 4 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :392 ; C h ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989b , C h ia 1 975 :34 ; A igne r 1 981 :104 ) w i th as t ra t if ied a nd v a r iab ly c o lou red d i s t r ibu t ion o fa s h l a ye r s ( Ch ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989b ; a nd s ee B lack e ta l . 1 933 :17 ) a nd mo re t h an 1 00 l e nse s ( B lack 1 931 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :17 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :155 ; A igne r 1 981 :104 ) o f a pp rox ima te ly s i x me t re s i n max imum t h ickne s s ( Ch ia 1 975 :34 , C h ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989b ; Z hang 1 985 :155 , 1 989 :105 ) o r 6 10 me t res ( Hong Kong Museum o f H i s to ry 1 983 :20 ; a nd s e e B reu i l 1 932a ; T ab le 2 29 ) . One a sh l a ye r w a s f o und b e tween l a ye r s 8 a nd 9 w i th a max imum t h ickne s so f 4m a nd o ne i nt h e l owe rp a r to fl a ye r 1 0a nd u p t o 1m t h ick ( Ch ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989b ; a nd s ee B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :18 ) . O ne a u tho r ( Pope 1 988b :67 ) r e f e r s t o t h e m ax imum t h ickne s s o f t h e a sh l a ye r s a s 3m . T he a r te f a c t l a ye r s a l so y i e lded c ha rcoa l f r agmen t s , c ha r red b one s ( B la ck 1 931 ; B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :17 , 10 -114 , 1 30 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :386 ; C h ia 1 975 :34 (2 ) , 3 5 , J i a 1 980 :23 , 2 9 ; J i a a n d H uang 1 990 :75 , 7 7 -79 ; Z hang 1 985 :157 ) a nd s t one s ( B reu i l 1 932a ; Mov ius 1 949 :386 ; C h ia 1 964 i n J i a 1 989b , C h ia 1 975 :34 (3 ) , 3 5 , J i a 1 980 :23 , 2 9 ; Z hang 1 985 :157 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :317 , 3 21) , as ma l l n umbe r o f c ha r r ed a r te f a c t s ( Zhang 1 985 :157 , 1 989 :104 ) , a nd a n t le r s a nd h o rn c o re s ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :113 ; a nd s ee Mov ius 1 949 :386 ) . S ome o f t h e mo re t h an 1 00 o s t r ich ( S tru th io a nd er s son i ) e gg she l l f r agmen t s i nt h e a r te f a c t l a ye r s a r e b ur ned a nd w e r e p r edom inan t ly f o und i n t h e u ppe r l a ye r s ( Young 1 933 ; a n d s e e B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :48 ) . C ha r red r oden t f o ss i ls w e r e r e cove r ed f r om t h e a sh l a ye r s ( A igne r 1 981 :148 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f s ma l l mamma l ian f a una d er ive s f r om l a ye r 4 ( Ch ia 1 964 i nJ i a 1 989b ; a nd s e e B lack e ta l . 1 933 :17 ) a n d t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f l a rge mamma l b one s f r om t h is l a ye r w a s u sua l ly f o und i n a b ur ned c ond i t ion ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :17 ) . C ha rcoa l f r agmen t s o f r e dbud w ood ( C er c i s b l ack i i )w e re f ound i n l a ye r s 8 10 o f G ez idong ( Chaney a n d D aughe r ty 1 933 ; B lack 1 931 ; A igne r 1 981 :107 ; a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :157 ) . H ackbe r ry s e ed s ( Ce l t i s b arbour i ) w e r e r e cove red f r om l a ye r s 8 10 a nd e spec ia l ly f r om l a ye r s 4a nd 6 ( Chaney 1 935 ) i nb urn tc ond i t ion ( Ch ia 1 975 :35 ) . C hem ica l a na ly se so n s amp le so fc ha r red b one s , a n t le r s , a nd s o i l f o und a s soc ia t ed w i th a r tef ac t s i n t h e Ma in C ave s howed t h a t t h e b l ack c o lou ro f t h e c ha r r ed a n ima l ma te r ia ls w a s c a rbon a n d n o t i r on o r m angane se a nd t h a t t h e s o i l c on ta ined a h i gh a moun t o f f r ee c a rbon , i n o the r w o rds " cha r coa l d eb r i s" ( B la ck 1 931 :108 ) . Ap a lyno log ica l s amp le o f 1 32 p o l len g ra ins a nd n i ne s po re s

i n c lude s m a in ly a r bo rea l a nd s h rub p o l len ( 7 6% ) w i th t h e b a lance c ompo sed o fh e rb a nd g r a s sp o l len a nd s po re s( Va sa r i 1 960 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :109 ; T ab le 2 31 ) . S ub sequen t , m o re e x ten s ive s amp l ing p r oduced 1 , 972 p o l len a nd s po re s , i n c lud ing n on -a rbo rea la nd a r bo rea lp o l len ( H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :110 ; T ab le 2 32 , F ig . 1 34 ; s e e b e low ) .

o pen c ond i t ion sa r e i n d ica ted b y ad e c r ea se i n b i rch , s h rub s , a nd h e rb s a nd w a rme r t empe ra tu re s b y t h e a ppea rance o f S ymp loco s s p . , at r ee n ow g row ing s ou th o f t h e a r ea ( H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :110 -111 ; F ig . 1 34 ) . I n S tage D I ( l aye r s 4 -6 ; T ab le 2 32 ) t h e re a r e f ew e r n on -a rbo rea l s pec ie s c ompa r ed t o S tage I , w a rm t empe ra t e t r ee s ( e .g . , C arp inu s s p . ) a r e c ommon , a nd S ymp locos s p . i ss t i l l p re sen t , a l l s ugge s t ing w a rme rc l ima t ic c ond i t ion st h an a tp re sen t ( H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :111 ; F ig .134 ) . S tage s Ia nd I l a r e i n te rp r e ted a s t empe ra te ( i n te rg la c ia l ) c l ima t ic p e r iod s ( H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :111 , 2 5 -26 , 1 988 ) . T he p r edom inance o f n on -a rbo rea l p o l len ( b e tween 1 9 -56% w i th a n a ve rage o f3 0% )a nd t h eh i ghe r p e r cen tage o f b r oad leaved t r ee p o l len ( 24 -55% w i th a n a ve r ag e o f l e s s t h an h a l f ) c ompa r ed t o t h e r a re c on if e rou s p o l len ( < 1 0% ) i s c ha rac t e r i s t ic o fl a ye r s4 11 , a nd i n te rp r e ted a s r e p re sen ta t ive o f b r oad leaved f o re s t w i th g r a s s land c ompa rab le t o t h e p re sen t v ege ta t ion a nd s l igh t t empe ra tu re a nd p rec ip i ta t ion c hange s( H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i n A igne r 1 981 :110 , 1 988 :1050 , F ig . 6 ; a nd s e e Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . T he e v idence f r om S t age I ,V a sa r i 's d a ta ( 1960 ) a nd i t ' s a tr ibu t ion t o l a ye r s 1 3 , a nd a d ec l ine i n B e tu la s p . i n S t age D I s ugge s t l owe r t empe ra tu re s i n t h e l owe r p a r t a nd i nt h e t o p 9 . 3 m o f t h e d epo s i t ( A igne r 1 981 :111) . H a ckbe r ry ( s ee a bove ) i s n o t a g ood c l ima t ic i n d ica to r , a nd i t ' sc on tempo ra ry r ange i si nt h e s em ia r id z one t o t h e n o r th o f I n ne r Mongo l ia ( A igne r 1 981 :107 ) , a nd i sa tp re sen t mo re s p e c if ic o f t r op ica l r a the r t h an t empe ra te r eg ion s ( Mabbe r ley 1 989 :110 ) . T he r e dbud f r agmen t s( s ee a bove ) s ugge s t t empe ra te c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w i th r e la t ive ly h i ghe r r a infa l l t h an a tp r e sen t ( Chaney a nd D aughe r ty 1 933 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :392 , 4 02 ) . T h is p l an t n ow o ccu r s o n t h e m a rg in s o f t empe ra te f o re s t s r a ng ing s ou thwa rd i n to H ube i p rov ince ( A igne r 1 981 :107 ) . P a lyno log ica l a nd m ine ra log ica l s t ud ie s( Chen 1 981 i n P ope 1 982 :315 ) s ugge s t as e quence o f d e c l in ing t empe ra tu re s , p rec ip i ta t ion , a nd h um id i ty f r om t h eb o t tom ( l aye r 1 ) t ot h e t o po ft h ed epo s i t .

T he L oca l i ty 1f a una c omp r i se s g a s t ropod ( n . 9 ) , a mph ib ian ( n . 4 ) , r ep t i l ian ( n . 4 ) , a v ian ( n . 1 8 ) , a nd p r edom inan t ly m amma l ian s pe c ie s ( B la ck e ta l . 1 933 , A ppend ix , T ab le 1 ; A igne r 1 981 , T ab le 1 ) . T he f r equency o fm amma ls d if e r s b e tween a u tho r s( n . 9 8 , A igne r [ 1 981 , T ab le 1 ] ; n . 7 6 /79 , P ope a nd H owe l l [ 1 982 ] ; n . 9 3 , H an a nd X u [ 1 985 ] ; n . 8 8 , B lack e ta l . [ 1 933 , A ppend ix , T ab le I ] ; T ab le s 2 33 , 2 34 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o fa n ima ls a r er oden t s ( e .g . , M icro tus b rand t i ) , h yena ( Pachycr ocu ta b r ev iro s tr i s s i nens i s ) , r h inoce ro s ( D icerorh inu s k i r chbergen s i s ) , a nd d e e r( P seudax i s g ray i a nd Megace ro s p achyo s teus ) ( Te i lha rd 1 930 ; B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :38 , A ppend ix , T ab le 1 ; A igne r 1 981 :12 1 , T ab le 1 ; T ab le s 2 33 , 2 34 ) . T ab le 2 34 d e ta i l s t h e s t ra t ig raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f i n d iv idua l s pec ie s a nd s how s , f o r i n s tance , t h a t s ome s pec ie s s eem t o o ccu r o n ly i n af ew l a ye r s ( e .g . , C er vus s p . ) , w h i le s ome o the r s ( e .g . , h o r se ) w e re r e co rd ed i n mo s t l a ye r s ; h oweve r , much o ft h e d a t a i si n comp le te . T he h om in id s amp le c omp r ise s a tl e a s t 4 5 H . e r ec tu s i n d iv idua l s ( j uven i le a nd a du l t ma le a nd f ema le ) w i th a bou t 7 5% f o und i nl a ye r s 8 10 ,a nd t h eb a lance ma in ly f r om l a ye r s 3 -4 , w i th af ew s pec imen sf r om l a ye r s 5 ,7 ,a nd 1 (We iden re ich 1 940 , 1 941 i n Mov iu s 1 944 :47 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :386 ; A igne r 1 978a :173 , 1 78 -179 , 1 981 :121-122 ; Wu a nd D ong 1 985a ; P ope 1 992b :257 ) . P o l len g ra ins a nd s po re s s amp led b y V a sa r i ( 1 960 ) f r om m a t r ix o n aM . p achyos teus f o s s i l c o l le c ted b y Z dan sky ( Ku r t6 1 1 a nd V a sa r i 1 960 ) s how a p r edom inance o f a r bo rea l s pec ie s ,e spec ia l ly p ine ( 33% ) a nd b i rch ( 2 8% ) a nd o f s h rub s pec ie s , a nd l owe r f r equenc ie s o f h e rb a nd g r a s s t a xa i n t h e p o l len p rof i le ( Va sa r i 1 960 ; T ab le 2 31 ; a nd s e e a bove ) . T he p rof i le s eem st ob ec ompa rab le t o mode rn c on i f e rou s f o re s t s i n n o r the rn A s ia , s ugge s t ing a f o re s t s t eppe p a laeoenv i ronmen t r e f lec t ing l owe r t empe ra tu r e s ( Va sa r i 1 960 ) . A cco rd ing t oH sue ( 1965 , 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :110 ) V a sa r i 's ( 1960 ) s amp le a ppea r s t o o r ig ina te f r om l a ye r s 1 3 b ecau se i ts ugge s t s ad ec rea se i nt empe ra tu re i n d ica ted b y h i s ( H sue 1 965 , 1 966 )o wn s amp le o fS t age I I ( s ee b e low ) , a nd A igne r( 1981 :109 )s ugge s t st h a tt h es amp le m ay d e r ive f r om t h e se l a ye r sb ecau se M . p achyo s t eus i s mo s t a bundan t h e r e . K u r t6n a nd V a sa r i ( 1960 ) c on s ide r t h e s amp le t o b e r e p re sen ta t ive , b u t A igne r ( 1981 :109 ) d i sag r ee s b ecau se o f i t s s ma l l s i ze .

T he f a una i n d ica te s amo re h um id a nd m i lde r c l ima te t h an c u r ren tc ond i t ion sa cco rd ing t oB la ck e ta l . ( 1933 :50 ; a nd s e e Mov iu s 1 949 :392 ) . K u r t6n ( 1960 ; K u r t6n a nd V a sa r i 1 960 ) b a se sh i sc onc lu s ion t h a tt h ef a una r e p r e sen t s g l ac ia l o r c oo l c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s b o th o n V a sa r i 's ( 1 960 ) r e su l t s a nd o n c o r re la t ion t o E u ropean g l ac ia l s p e c ie s i n d ica t ive o f c o ld t empe ra tu re s ( e .g . , w oo l ly r h inoce ro s ) . K ah lke a nd C how ( 1 96 1) s ugge s t t h a t mos t o f t h e d epo s i t w a s f o rmed u nde r i n te rg la c ia l , i . e . w a rm c ond i t ion s , e s pe c ia l ly b ecau se o f t h e n ume rou s w a rm a dap ted f a una l s p ec ie s ( e .g . , B uba lu s t e i lhard i ) f r om l a ye r s 4 11 , a nd t h ey a l so n o te t h a t t h e w oo l ly r h inoce ro s ( C . a n t iqu i ta t i s ) d oe s n o t r e p re sen t t h e g l ac ia l E u ropean s pec ie s . T rop ica l a n ima l s pec ie s h ave n o t b een i d en t if ied ( Pope 1 982 :315 ) . T he f a una f r om l a ye r s 1 3 s ugge s t s r e la t ive ly w a rm c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s ( J ia 1 978 i n Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) . A cco rd ing t oA igne r ( 1981 :121 , 2 70 , 2 73 , T ab le 1 , 1 988 :1050 , 1 052 ) m o s t o f t h e f a una ( e .g . , P a laeo loxodon n amad icu s , B . t e i lhard i ) i s s ugge s t ive o f w a rm ( t empe ra te )b road leaved f o r e s ta nd g r a s s land c ond i t ion s w i th a f o re s t t o g r a s s land s pec ie s r a t io o f 7 5% a nd 2 5% , r e spec t ive ly , w i th n o c hange s i nc o ld a nd o pen s pec ie s a nd w a rm f o r e s t a nd g r a s s land a dap t ed t a xa a nd n o s ub s tan t ia l c l ima t ic c hange . P ope ( 1982 , F ig . 1 ,1 988b ; F ig . 1 35 ) h a s i d en t if i ed mo re s t eppe ( c . 4 0 -75% ) t h an f o re s t ( c . 2 5 -60% ) s pec ie s t h rough mo s t t h e s e quen ce ( l aye r s 1 11 , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fl a ye r s5 ,8 ,a nd 9 ) . T he f a una s ugge s t s aw a rm h um id c l ima te f o r t h e c u l tu ra l l a ye r s ( Xu a nd Y ou 1 982 ) . A cco rd ing t o L i a nd J i( 1981 i n A igne r 1 988 :1050 , 1 052 ) t emp e ra t eg r a s s land s pec ie sa r e m o r e f r equen t t h an t empe ra te

T he l a rge r f o s s i l p l an t s amp le s c o l le c t ed b y H sue ( 1965 , 1 966 , S un 1 965 i n A igne r 1 981 :109 110 , F ig . 1 ) f r om l a ye r s 4 11 a nd t h e B a sa l G rave l s h ave b een d i v ided i n to t h r ee d i s t inc t f l o ra l z one s o r s t age s ( Tab le 2 32 ; a nd s e e a bove ) . T he e a r l ie s t s amp le , S t age I ( c o r re spond ing , b u t a ppa ren t ly n o t t ime e qu iva len t , w i th t h e B a sa l G rave l s ; T ab le 2 32 ) s how s ap r edom inance o fh e rb p o l len a nd s po re s ( f o r i n s tance , A r tem i s ia s p . ) r e f lec t ing l owe r t empe ra tu re s t h an n ow ( H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i nA igne r 1 981 :110 ; F ig . 1 34 ) . I n S t age I ( l aye r s 7 11 ; T ab le 2 32 ) n on -a rbo rea l p o l len ( e .g . , R hamnus g l obo sa ) a r e mo re c ommon t h an a r bo rea l p o l len ( e .g . , A b ies s p . ; H sue 1 965 , 1 966 i n A igne r 1 981 :110 ; F ig . 1 34 ) . T ree s o f c o ld t empe ra t e c ond i t ion s i n t h ee a r ly p a r to ft h is s t age a r er e p la ced a b rup t ly f u r the r u p i n t h e p rof i le b y w a rm t empe ra te s p ec ie s a nd w i th p l an t s s ugge s t ing am ixed f o re s t , a nd a tt h et o p o f t h e p ro f i le mo re

8 7

f o re s ts pec ies i nl a ye r s 1 3 ( 60% )a nd 4( 65% ) , 1 0 ( 52 :48% ) , a nd 1 ( 55 :45% ) , a nd f o re s t s pec ie s a r e mo re n ume rou s i n l a ye r s 5 -9 ( 58 -68% ) , ap a t te rn i n d ica t ive o f v a r ia t ion s i n p rec ip i ta t ion a nd t o al e sse r e x ten t i n t empe ra tu re . A igne r ( 1988 :1050 , 1 052 ) a rgue s t h a tL i a nd J i 's ( 1981) s t udy d o e s n o t c on s ide r t h e r e la t ive a bundance o f t a xa a nd t h a t t h e p e r cen tage c a lcu la t ion i s n o t b a sed o n n umbe r s o f i n d iv idua ls . I n te rg lac ia l f o re s t s pec ie s a ppea r t o b e r e p re sen ted i nl a ye r s 5a nd 8 -9 , a nd t h e o t he r l a ye r s s ugge s t g l ac ia l c l ima t ic c ond i t ions ( Xu a nd O uyang 1 982 ) . S pec ie s i n te rp re ted a sc o ld -adap ted ( e .g . , Marmo ta b obak )d e r ive f r om l a ye r s 4 a nd 6 11 a nd s pec ie s o f w arm c l ima te s ( e .g . , P a laeo loxodon s p . ) f r om l a ye r s 3 11 w h ich s ugge s t s mode ra te ly w a rm i n te rg lac ia ls a nd mode ra te ly c o ld p e r iod s , r e spec t ive ly ( Xu a nd O uyang 1 982 ) . T hese d i sc repanc ie s ( Xu a nd O uyang 1 982 ) a r e t hough t t o s uppo r t K ah lke a n d C how 's ( 196 1) c onc lus ion o f s ubs tan t ia l c on t inu i ty i n t h e d epo s i ta nd f a una . C l ima t ic c o r re la t ion w i th t h e L uochuan l o e s s -pa laeo so l s e quence i n d ica te f l uc tua t ions o f w arm a nd w e t a nd c o ld a n d a r id c ond i t ions f r om l a ye r s 1 t h rough 1( Xu a nd Y ou 1 982 , K ong e ta t . 1 985 , L iu e ta l . 1 985 i n P ope 1 988b , F ig . 4 ; F ig . 1 35 ) . T he t r ave r t ine a nd t h e f i ne -g ra ined s ed imen t s o f l a ye r 1 0 may b e c o r re la ted w i th t h e L uochuan p a laeo so l S 5 ( t he y ounges t d epos i t o f t h e L owe r L i sh i L oe ss ) , t h e " c l ima t ic o p t imum" d a ted t o 0 . 560 -0 .460 myr ( L iu 1 982 i n L iu e ta l . 1 986 :493 ) . B a sed o n t h e c o r re la t ion o f o xygen i s o tope s t ages , a b so lu te d a tes , a nd c l us te r a na lys is o f a n ima l s pec ie s l a ye r s 1 4 , 6 -7 , a nd 1 0 -11 a r e c o r re la ted w i th c o ld o xygen iso tope s t age s ( 8 , 1 0 , a nd 1 2 ) , a nd l a ye r s 5a nd 8 9 w i th w a rm s t age s ( 9a nd 1 ) ( Xu a nd Ouyang 1 982 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 988 :1043 , T ab le 3 ;T ab le 2 35 ) . A igne r ( 1988 :1048 ) t a ke s i s sue w i th t h e me thodo log ica l b a s is o f X u a n d O uyang 's ( 1982 ) s t udy , b ecause i td oes n o tt a ke i n to a c coun t t h ei n d iv idua le nv i ronmen ta l u ncommonne ss o f s pec ie s , a n d p r e sumes t h a t p a laeoc l ima t ic c ond i t ions c an b e d i r ec t ly i n f e r r ed f r om f a una l r e semb lance s b e tween l a ye r s , b u t i g no r ing t h ep o ss ib le e f f ec to fp o s t -depos i t iona l d i s to r t ion o f t h e l a ye r s . P a laeoc l ima t ic r e cons t ruc t ion b y L iu ( 1985 i n A igne r 1 988 :1041 , 1 043 ) i s b a sed o n t h e c o r re la t ion o f a bso lu te d a te s w i th t h e o xygen iso tope r e co rd a nd t h e L uochuan l o ess c h rono logy w h ich s ugges t s t h a t l a ye r s 1 13 f a l l w i th in o xygen iso tope s t age s 6 16 a nd L i sh i L oe s s l a ye r s 2 -9 , a nd l a ye r s 4 10 w i th in o xygen iso tope s t age s 9 1 3 . T he s ed imen to log ica l a na lys is s ugges t s t h a t t h e b r ecc ia ted l a ye r s ( l a rge p i ece s i n l a ye r 6 , s pa l ls i n l a ye r s 1 , 3 , 6 ,9 , a nd 1 3 [ No te : L a rge p i ece s a nd s pa l ls i n l a ye r 6 1 ) w e r ef o rmed i nc o ld t empe ra tu re s w h ich i ss uppo r ted b y t h e p re sence o fP inus s p . a nd A b ies s p . i n s ome o f t h e se l a ye r s ( L iu 1 985 i n A igne r 1 988 :1041) . T he f i ne r s e d imen t s , i n c lud ing t r ave r t ine a nd a sh l a ye r s a nd t h e p r edom inance o f b r oad leaved t r ee sa r e i n te rp re ted a s w a rm c l ima t ic i n d ica to r s ( L iu 1 985 i n A igne r 1 988 :1041) . B a sed o n t h e se e v idence s , L iu ( 1 985 i n A igne r 1 988 :1041) r e cogn ise s as e quence o f a l te rna t ing i n te rg lac ia l a nd g l ac ia l p e r iod s f o r t h e d epo s i t w h ich i s , h oweve r , u sua l ly n o t s uppo r ted b y t h e f a una . T he c onc lu s ions r e a ched b y Xu a nd Ouyang ( 1982 ) a nd L iu ( 1 985 )d i ve rge i n r e spec t o f a ge o f t h e d epos i t , t h e o xygen i s o tope c or re la t ion o f t h e l a ye r s , a nd t h e f a una l a nd f l o ra l c l ima t ic r e cons t ruc t ion ( A igne r 1 988 :1043 , 1 047 -1047 , 1 048 ) . A cco rd ing t o B info rd a nd Ho ( 1985 :436 , 4 37 ) t h e v a r iou sa gen t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e " non d epo s i t iona ry u n i t s" ( s ee a bove ) w ou ld t e nd t o d i f f u se a n d p re jud ice t h e ma te r ia ls i nt h e se , p r ec lud ing a ny s ub s tan t ia l ly v a l id s t udy o fp a laeoc l ima t ic a nd e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions .

D a t ing o f t h e d epo s i t w a s o r ig ina l ly b a sed o n t h e l i tho s t ra t ig raphy a nd b i o s t ra t ig raphy w i th e mpha s is o n t h e f a una ( e .g . ,T e i lha rd a nd Young 1 930b :197 -198 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :23 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 6 1 , 1 37 , F ig . 8 2 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :392 ; K u r t& 1 960 ; K ur ta a nd V a sa r i 1 960 ; K ah lke a nd C how 1 961 ; A igne r 1 981 :112 ) . F auna l ( Pe i 1 931b :137 ) a nd s ed imen ta ry a nd f a una l s t ud ie s ( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :23 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 6 1 , 1 37 , F ig . 8 2 ; a nd s ee P e i 1 965 ) s ugge s ted a M idd le P le is tocene a ge .2 3

A n a ge e qu iva len t w i th

t h e H o ls te in

i n te rg lac ia l o fE urope , o rt h e m idd le M idd le P le is tocene w a s s ugge s ted b y l a te ra u tho r s f o r t h e d epo s i t ( T e i lha rd 1 94 1 :57 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :98 , 1 949 :392 , T ab le 1 ; K ah lke a nd C how 1 96 1) f o rl a ye r s 1 10 o r 1 ( A igne r 1 981 :12 1) o r l a ye r s 3o r 4 11 ( A igne r 1 988 :1047 ) . K ah lke a nd C how ( 196 1) n o ted t h e m any w a rm c l ima t ic f a una l s pec ie s a nd a l so Megacero s s p . , a n i mpo r tan t e l emen t i n E u ropean H o ls te in f a unae . K u r t& I ( 1960 ) a nd K u r t& I a nd V a sa r i ( 1960 ) i n te rp re t t h e f a una ( a nd t h es ma l l p o l len s amp le ; s e e a bove ) a s i n d ica t ive o f ag l ac ia l a ge , p robab ly E ls te r I . A igne r ( 1981 :120 ) d i sag ree s w i th K u r t& i 's ( 1960 ) a na ly s is b e cau se i ti g no re s t h es t ra t ig raph ic o r ig in a nd r e la t ive s pec ie s f r equency a s w e l l a s m is in te rp re t ing t h e e co log ica l r ange o f h i s k ey s pec ie s . T he l o ng d u ra t ion o fa n ima l t a xa f r om l a ye r s 3o r 4 11 -b y c ompa r ison w i th t h ep e r iod ic f a una l ( g lac ia l a nd i n te rg lac ia l ) t u rnove r i n E u rope -a nd t he f l o ra l d a ta s ugge s t d epo s i t ion d u r ing o ne i n te rg lac ia l ( t empe ra te ) p e r iod ( A igne r 1 986a , 1 988 :1054 ) l a s t ing a bou t 1 00 ,000 y ea r s ( A igne r 1 986a ) . I t h a s , h oweve r , b een a r gued ( Pope 1 988b :47 , 5 6 ) t h a t t h e f a unae o f t h e E u ropean g l ac ia l c l ima te s c anno t b e d i rec t ly c ompa red t o t h e g ene ra l ly e quab le M idd le P l e is tocene n o r the rn C h inese f a unae ( a nd s e eC hap te rI ) . Abso lu te a ge d e te rm ina t ion s o f t h e c ave a r e b a sed o n p a laeomagne t ic , f i ss ion t r ack , t h e rmo lum ine scence , u ran ium se r ie s , a nd am ino -ac id r a cem iza t ion a nd h ave p roduced a d a te r a nge o f a bou t 0 . 230 t o 0 . 460 my rbp f o r l a ye r s 1 10 ( e .g . , L iu e ta l . 1 977 ; P e i a nd S un 1 979 ; Guo e t a t . 1 980 ; Q ian e t a l . 1 980 ; X ia 1 982 ; Z hao e t a l . 1 980 ; P ope 1 983 , 1 988b :56 ; Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; L iu a nd D ing 1 985 ; Wang 1 989 ; T ab le 2 36 ) . L aye r s 1 0 -11 h ave a n a ge o f c .0 . 500 myrbp a nd l a ye r 1 r a nge s i n a ge f r om c .0 . 460 t o 0 . 687 my rbp b a sed o n t h e a m ino -ac id m e thod , l a ye r 1 2 h a s a n u r an ium -se r ie s a ge r a nge o f a bou t 0 . 310 - 0 . 500 myrbp , a nd l a ye r 1 3 h a s b een d a ted p a laeomagne t ica l ly t o l e ss t h an 0 . 690 myrbp ( Zhou 1 989 ; X ia 1 982 ; Q ian e ta l . 1 980 ; B ada 1 987 , L i a nd L in 1 979 , Z hao e ta l . 1 985 , i n Wang 1 989 ; T ab le 2 36 ) . P a laeomagne t ic d a t ing o f l a ye r s 1 4 -17 t o o l de r t h an 0 . 690 myrbp i si n te rp re ted a ss how ing r e ve r sed p o la r i ty ( i .e . Ma tuyama R eve r sed E poch ) ( Q ian e ta l . 1 980 ; Q ian e t a t . 1 985 i n Wang 1 989 ; a nd s e e Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; T ab le 2 36 ) . A igne r ( 1986a , 1 988 :1047 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e a b so lu te d a te s h ave b een a pp l ied u nc r i t ica l ly r e su l t ing i n " . . .h igh ly i n cons is ten t . . ." d a te s . T he re a r e u nce r ta in t ie s w i th t h e u r an ium se r ie s a nd t h ermo lum ine scence t e chn ique s o ve r t h e a ge o f2 00 ,000 y ea r s ( A igne r 1 988 :1047 ) , a nd Wu a nd Wang ( 1985 )h ave p o in ted o u tt h a t t h e u ran ium se r ie s d a te s r e qu i re c onf irma t ion . T he i n cons is ten t d a te s o f l a ye r s 1 3 ( A igne r 1 988 :1048 , T ab le 4 ) a r e b a sed s o le ly o n u r an ium se r ie s d e te rm ina t ion s ( s ee , e . g . , Wang 1 989 ; s e e T ab le 2 36 ) . D i sag reemen t s b e tween t h e t h ermo lum ine scence a nd f a una l d a te s h ave a l so b een n o ted (Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; A igne r 1 988 :1047 ) . Am ino -ac id d a te s a r e s ub jec t t o a ve rage 2 3

T he t h en c ur ren tc h rono logy d i dn o ti n c lude aM idd le

P le is tocene p e r iod , a nd w a s c l a s s if ied a sE a r ly P le is tocene , t h a t i sb e tween t h eF ina l P l iocene a nd U ppe rP le is tocene .

8 8

t empe ra tu re f l uc tua t ions a t t h e t ime o f b u r ia l w h ich w i th p re sen t ly a va i lab le t e chn ique s c anno t b e d ef ined ( Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; a nd s ee A igne r 1 986a , 1 988 :1047 ) . T he se d a te s e xceed t h e a ge s o f o t he r t e chn ique s ( Zhou 1 989 ; P ope 1 992b :257 ) , b u tt h ey h ave a l so p roduced i n cons is ten t r e su l t s when o ne l a ye r u n i t i sd a t ed ( e .g . , l a ye r s 3 -4 ; Wang e t a l . [ 1986 ] i n Wang [ 1989 ] ; s ee T ab le 2 36 ) . A igne r ( 1 988 :1047 , 1 050 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e a b so lu te d a te s d i sag ree w i th h e r c onc lus ion o f as i ng le i n te rg lac ia l a ge b a sed o n t h e mos t r e l iab le c h rono log ica l e v idence s o f f l o ra l a nd f a una l f r equenc ie sa nd t h e i re nv i ronmen ta lr a nge s( s ee a bove ) . O the r a u tho r s ( Pope 1 988b :56 , 1 992b :257 ; Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ) b e l ieve t h a tt h ea b so lu te d a te s s how s ub s tan t ia l a g reemen t .

( Zhang 1 985 :158 ) o r 8 8 .8% ( Zhang 1 989 :107 ) o f 4 4 ma te r ia ls ( Zhang 1 985 :158 , 1 989 :107 ) . O the r ma te r ia ls a r e r o ck ( q ua r tz ) c r ys ta l ( 4 .7% , Z hang 1 985 :158 ; 4 .8 % , Z hang 1 989 :107 ; a nd s e e P e i 1 931b :120 , 1 938b :185 ) , s and s tone ( 2 .6% , Z hang 1 985 :158 , 1 989 :107 ) , a nd f l in t ( 2 .4% , Z hang 1 985 :158 ; 2 . 428% , Z hang 1 989 :107 ; a nd s ee P e i 1 938b :185 ) . J i a ( 1980 :28 ) r e f e r s t o s a nd s tone a s t h e mos t n ume rou s s t one a f te r v e in q ua r tz . T he b a lance ( i .e . 4 0 ma te r ia ls ) a ccoun t s f o r 1 . 9% ( Zhang 1 985 :158 ) o r 1 . 0% ( Zhang 1 989 :107 ) o f u t i l ised s t ones . L ow f r equenc ie s o f q ua r tz i te ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :117 ; Mov ius 1 944 :71 , 1 949 :393 ; a nd s e e J i a 1 980 :28 ; b u t s e e P e i 1 938b :185 ) , c he r t ( Pe i 1 931b :121 , 1 938b :185 ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :118 ) , v o lcan ic r o ck ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :118 ; b u t s e e P e i 1 938b :185 ) , f i ne g r een s and s tone ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; a nd s e e P e i 1 938b :185 ; J i a 1 980 :28 ) , s ch is t , g r een s l a te a nd g r een s ha le ( Pe i 1 93 1b : 121) , c ha lcedony a nd j a spe r ( Pe i 1 938b :185 ) , l ime s tone ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :118 ; Mov ius 1 944 :71 , 1 949 :393 ) , o pa l ( J ia 1 980 :28 ) , a nd h o rnf e l s a nd d o lom i te ( F reeman 1 977 :97 ) h ave a l so b een i d en t if ied . T he 1 966 a r tef ac t sa r e ma in ly i nv e in q ua r tz ( 57 .2% )a nd f l in t ( 26 .0% ) , a nd t h eo the r ma te r ia ls a r e mud s tone , s and s tone ,a nd v o lcan ic r o ck ( Ch iu e ta l . 1 973 ; T ab le 2 40 ) . J i a ( 1980 :28 ) r e f e r s t o c he r t , a nd n o t f l in t , a nd o the r a u tho r s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :353 ;B lack e ta l . 1 933 :129 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd 1 941 :61 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :71 , 1 949 :393 ; A igne r 1 981 :131-146 ) i d en t if i ed f l in t l ike s t one . Mo s t o f t h e r aw ma te r ia ls d e r ive f r om t h e r i ve r b ed a nd b ank l o ca ted i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e c ave ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :118 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :158 , 1 989 :107 ; J i a 1 980 :28 , 1 989 1 3 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :74 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :118 ; Mov ius 1 944 :71 , 1 949 :393 ; T e i lha rd 1 941 :61 ; A igne r 1 981 :146 ) . T he c he r t a nd r o ck c rys ta l s ou rce s l i e a bou t 2 km s ou thwes t o f t h e l o ca l i ty ( A igne r 1 981 :146 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :118 ; Mov ius 1 944 :71 , 1 949 :393 ; J i a 1 989b ) . A cco rd ing t o Z hang ( 1985 :158 , 1 989 :107 )r o ck c r ys ta l a nd o the r s t one v a r ie t ie s i n t h e f o rm o f s ma l l n odu le s d e r ive f r om s u r f ace e xposu re s a pp rox ima te ly 5 km f r om L oca l i ty 1 . T he d o lom i te a ppa ren t ly d e r ive s f r om as ou rce a bou t 2 0 km f r om t h e c ave ( F reeman 1 977 :97 ) .

T he t o ta l n umbe ro fs t one a r tefac t sr e cove red f r om L oca l i ty 1 v a r ie sb e tween a u tho r s . E s t ima tes r a nge f r om 5 , 897 ( Chang 1 962 ) , t o 1 0 ,000 (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) , a bou t 2 0 ,000 ( I .V .P .P . 1 980 :32 ) , 1 00 ,000 ( J ia 1 980 :28 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :219 ; H ong K ong Museum o f H is to ry 1 983 :22 ; F reeman 1 977 :98 ) , t o o ve r 1 00 ,000 (Wu a nd L in 1 985 ; J i a 1 989b ) . T he a r tef ac t s w e re f i r s t d e sc r ibed i n ap r e l im ina ry a r t ic le b y P e i ( 193 1b ) a nd a f te r f u r the r d i scove r ie s i n mo re e x tens ive s t ud ie s b y T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 ) , B la ck e t a l . ( 1933 :110 -135 ) a nd Mov ius ( 1944 :71-74 , 1 949 :393 -396 , 3 98 ) . Ma jo r r e -ana lyse s o f 5 ,897 s t one a r tef a c t s f r om a l l c u l tu ra l l a ye r s h ave b een c onduc ted b y C hang ( 1 962 ) w ho t r ea t s t h e a r te f ac t s l a rge ly a s ap oo led c o l lec t ion ( a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :142 ) , a nd b y P e i a nd Z hang ( 1985 ; Z hang 1 985 :157 ,

1 989 :107 ;

a nd

s ee

P e i

1 965 ) .2 4

Z hang 's

( 1989 :107 -118 ) s t udy i s b a sed o n P e i a nd Z hang ( 1985 ) . E xcava t ion c onduc ted i n1 966 p roduced 1 73 l i th ic s p ec imen s f r om l a ye r s 1 4 ( Ch iu e t a l . 1 973 ; T ab le 2 37 ) . I t i s f r equen t ly n o tp o ss ib le t oe s tab l i sh p rec i se f r equenc ie so f ,f o r i n s tance , l i th ic c a tego r ie s , r aw ma te r ia ls , a nd a r te f a c t s w i th s e conda ry r e touch ( s ee P e i 1 93lb :120 -135 , 1 938b :185 ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 -354 ; B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :115 -133 ; Mov ius 1 949 :393 -398 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :158 -166 , 1 989 :107 -118 ; a nd s ee A igne r 1 981 :131) . C h iu e ta l . ( 1 973 ) p ub l ish o n ly p e rcen tage f r equenc ie s o f t h e 1 966 l i th ic c a tego r ie s a nd r aw ma te r ia ls a nd t h e p re sen t w r i te r h a s t r i ed t o e s tab l ish t o t h e n ea re s t f r equency t h e n umbe r o f s pec imens ( s ee b e low ) . B info rd a nd Ho 's ( 1985 , T ab le 2 ) f r equenc ie sd i f f e ri ns ome i n s tance sf r om C h iu e ta l . ' s( 1 973 ) a nd t h ep re sen to nes ( c f . ,T ab les 2 37 a nd 2 38 ) .

D i rec t h a rd -hamme r p e rcu ss ion a nd b ipo la r p e rcus s ion w e re e mp loyed f o r t h e manuf ac tu re o f t h e a r tef ac t s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :351 ; B reu i l 1 935 ; P e i 1 938b :185 , 1 965 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :131 ; Mov ius 1 944 :72 , 1 949 :396 ) , a nd t wo a u tho r s ( Chang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :158 , 1 989 :107 ; P e i 1 965 c on t ra P e i 1 937 ) h ave a l so i d en t if ied as ma l l n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s a s a nv i l p e rcu ss ion p roduc t s , a nd t h e se a r e mo s t n ume rous i n l a ye r s 8a nd 9( Chang 1 962 ) . F reeman ( 1977 :98 ; a nd s ee P e i 1 937 ) h a s f ound n o e v idence f o r t h e l a t te r t e chn ique . T he p r inc ipa l manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique w a s b i po la r p e rcuss ion ( Pe i 1 938b :185 , 1 965 ; Z hang 1 985 :158 , 1 989 :107 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :351) .

T he a r te fac t si n c lude c o re s ,h amme r s tone s , a nv i l s , u nu t i l i sed f l ake s , a nd t oo ls , o f wh ich f l ake s i n c lude t h e m a jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t s ( Pe i 1 939a ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :158 -166 , 1 989 :107 -118 ; a nd s e e C h ia 1 960 ) . E a r ly a u tho r s i d en t if ied c o re a nd p ebb le a r tef ac t s a nd f l ake s ( Pe i 1 93 l b :122 ) , a nd f l aked b ou lde r s a nd c hoppe r s , c o re s , a nd t oo ls ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :320 -351 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :119 -130 ) . B la ck e ta l . ( 1933 :120 )i d en t if ied c o re sa sa ppa ren t ly t h e mo s t n ume rou s c a tego ry a nd Mov ius ( 1944 :73 , 1 949 :396 , 3 98 ) a s r a r e a r tef ac t s . T he a r tefac t sf ound i n1 966 ( Ch iu e ta l . 1 973 :119 ) c omp r ise c o re s , f l ake s , b ipo la r f l ake s , d eb i tage , t h e mos t n ume rou s c a tego ry ( 4 1 .0% ) o f h amme r s tone s , a nv i ls , a nd o the r[ u nspec if ied ] a r tef ac t s ,a nd t o o ls ( Tab le s2 37 ,2 39 ) .

E a r ly a u tho r s c l a s s if ied c o re s a s d i sco ida l a nd c on ica l ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :333 -337 ; Mov ius 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :396 , 3 98 ;a nd s ee B lack e ta l . 1 933 :120 , F igs . 6 2 -64 ) , a nd P e i ( 1931b :122 ) d e sc r ibed c o re s a s i regu la r a nd t h ick w i th f ew s ca r s . T he ma jo r i ty o f c o re s ( Mov ius 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :396 ) w i th t h ee xcep t ion o fo ne s pec imen i n" qua r tz if ied q ua r tz i te" ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :333 -334 , b u t c f . , c ap t ion F ig . 1 a nd p p . , 3 33 -334 ) o r a l l c o re s ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :120 ) a r e i n q ua r tz , a nd p redom inan t ly i n v e in q ua r tz ,

V e in q ua r tz i s t h e p r inc ipa l r aw ma te r ia l ( Pe i 1 931b :120 1 21 , 1 965 ;T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :353 ; J i a 1 980 :28 ; a nd s e e P e i 1 938b :185 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :120 , 1 31 ; T e i lha rd 1 941 :60 ; A igne r 1 981 :131) w i th a f r equency o f 8 8 .4% 2 4

T he p ub l ica t ion b y P e i a nd Z hang ( 1985 ) w a s n o t a va i lab le f o rs t udy .

8 9

a nd o fs ma l l t o med ium s i ze w i th d i ame te r s ma in ly b e tween 4 -8 c m( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :120 ; Mov ius 1 949 :396 , 1 944 :73 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :333 ) . D isco ida l c o re s i n c lude o ne s ub rec tangu la r p i ece o r c hoppe r , a bou t t e n p i ece s g r ad ing i n to l a rge a nd a mo rphou s f l ake s ( mean l e ng th : 8 . 0 cm ) , t h i r teen c o re s w i th v a r ious r a nges o f a pp rox ima te ly s phe ro ida l s hape ( l a rge s t a ve rage d i ame te r i s 6 . 5 c m ) , i n c lud ing s ome v e ry s im i la r t o h amme r s tone s , a nd e i gh t s pec imens w i th r e touch a r ound t h e b a se ( up t o 5 .0 c m i n d i ame t e r ) ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :333 -337 ; a nd s e e B lack e t a l . 1 933 :120 ; F ig s . 1 36 -138 ) . D isco ida l c o re s e xh ib i t i regu la r f l ak ing a r ound t h e p e r iphe ry ( Mov ius 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :398 , F ig . 3 7 .14 , 1 5 ) wh ich i n a bou t t e n c a se s a pp ea r s t o b e m a in ly t h e r e su l t o f u se ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :335 3 36 , F ig . 1 2 ; F igs . 1 36 .2 , 1 37 .1) . T he c on ica l c o r e s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :337 , F ig . 1 5 ) o r s ome ( Mov iu s 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :398 , F ig . 3 7 .14 , 1 5 ; F ig . 1 39 .1) s how mod if ica t ion a r ound t h e p e r iphe ry w i th i regu la r a nd s ma l l s c a r s . A l l t h ree c on ica l c o re s s eem t o r e p re sen t h amme r s tone s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :337 , F ig . 1 5 ; F ig . 1 39 ) . E xhau s ted c o re s a r e o va l o r s ub sphe r ica l i n s hape ( B reu i l 1 935 ) . T he i n den ted c o r t ica l v en t ra l f a ce s o f t wo w o rked l i me s tone p i ece s a r e i n te rp re ted a s p oss ib le c o r e s , h amme r s tone s , o r s ma l l a nv i ls ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :348 , F ig s . 3 1 , 3 2 ; s e e b e low ) . T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 :350 ) f o und n o e v idence f o r p l a tfo rm p repa ra t ion , a l though Mov ius ( 1949 :398 ) r e f e r s t o as ma l l n umbe r o f p ebb le c o re s f r om w h ich o ne f l ake w a s s t ruck t o p roduce t h e ir p l a in p l a tfo rm s , a nd B reu i l ( 1935 ) i d en t if ied a s ma l l n umbe r o f c o re s w i th p l a tfo rm p r epa ra t ion . F lake p l a tforms a r e l a rge a nd a t a n o b l ique a ng le w i th r e cogn isab le b u lb s o f p e rcus s ion a cco rd ing t oB reu i l ( 1935 ) . S ome o f t h e c o re s h ad a l so b e en u s ed a s c hoppe r s o r s ma l l h amme r s tone s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :333 ) . A n umbe r o f c o re s e xh ib i t u se -wea r o n t h e i r s ha rp e dge s ( Mov iu s 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :396 ; a nd s ee b e low ) . Mo re t h an 4 , 000 b ipo la rf l akes a nd c o res h ave b een i d en t if ied ( Zhang 1 985 :166 ) , a nd Z hang ( 1989 :107 ) r e f e r s t o s e ve ra l t h ou sand b i po la r f l ake s a nd 2 64 c o re s f r om l a ye r s 3 -9 . T he ma jo r i ty o f b ipo la r a r tef ac t s a r e i n v e in q ua r tz ( Zhang 1 989 :107 108 , 1 985 :159 ) ; 1 s pec imens a r e i n f l in t ( Chang 1 962 ) .B ipo la rc o re sa r ei d en t if ied o n t h e b a s is o f t h e i r w o r n b u lb sa nd r a d ia t ing l i ne s a nd mo s t ( Pe i 1 965 ) o r a l l ( Chang 1 962 ; b u ts e e b e low ) f l ake s a r ec ha rac te r ised b y c rush ing a n d r a d ia t ing l i ne s a t o ppos i te e nd s ( a nd s e e B lack e t a l . 1 933 :120 , 1 24 , 1 31) . P o lyhed r ic a nd v e ry f i ne s ma l l a n d s ha rp e dg ed b l ade s a r e i n ( uncommon ) v e ry f i ne -g ra in s t one ( Breu i l 1 935 ) . A cco rd ing t oZ hang ( 1985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) , i n t h e e a r ly s t age o f mod if ica t ion mos t c o re s a r e h i gh ly i regu la r a nd e xh ib i t v e ry c oncave s ca r s , a nd d eve lop i n to u n iform s pec imens w i th a n umbe r o f l ong s ca r s i n t h e l a te r p ha se so fr e duc t ion . Mo s tb ipo la rc o res a r eo fi regu la r s hape ( Chang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) a nd e xh ib i t a w ide v a r ia t ion i n mo rpho logy a nd t h e s ma l le s t a nd l a rge s t l e ng th i s1 . 9 c m a nd 7 . 3 cm , r e spec t ive ly ( Zhang 1 989 :107 ) . T he r e gu la r ly s haped c o re s i n c lude s p ind le -shaped ( F ig . 1 40 ) , p r isma t ic , c on ica l ( Zhang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) a nd a ngu la r ( Chang 1 962 ) s pec imens . C o re s c a r s ( Chang 1 962 ) a n d f l ake s a r e u sua l ly e l onga ted a nd q uad r i la te ra l , w h i le o t he r f l ake s o ccu r i n av a r ie ty o f s hape s ( Chang 1 962 ; a nd s e e B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :120 , 1 24 , 1 31 , F ig . 6 9 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :396 ; P e i 1 965 ; F ig . 1 41) . T he mo s t r e cen t s t udy ( Zhang 1 985 :158 -159 , 1 989 :107 ) r e cogn ise s t wo k i nd s o f f l ake s p r oduced b y t h e b ipo la r t e chn ique b a sed o n e xpe r imen ta l wo rk a nd c on jo in ing a na lyses . F lake s w i th c r u shed m ic robu lbs o n b o th e nd s a r e i d en t if ied a s g enu ine b ipo la r f l ake s a nd a ppea r t o d e r ive f r om l a te r s t age s o f c o r e

9 0

r e duc t ion ( Zhang 1 985 :158 -159 , 1 989 :107 ) . T he se s pec imens a r e g ene ra l ly t w ice a s l ong a s t h ey a r e w ide , o f r e c tangu la r , t r apezo ida l , o r f l a t a nd p o in ted f o rm s , a nd a s ma l l n umbe r a r e i regu la r c ompa red t o t h e s i ng le -end c r u shed m ic ro sca r f l ake s w h ich a r e l e ss s t anda rd ised , t h icke r , a nd l e ss l o ng ( Zhang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) . F lake s w i th o ne c r u shed e nd s e em t o h ave b een made d u r ing t h e e a r ly s t age s o f c o re p e r cus s ion , a l though Z hang ( 1985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) a l so a rgue s t h a t b o th s i ng le , a nd b ipo la r c r u shed f l ake s a ppea r t o d e r ive f r om t h is p rocess . T he 1 5 b i po la r f l ake s i d en t if ied a mong t h e 1 966 a r tefac t s ( Ch iu e ta l . 1 973 ; T ab le 2 37 ) a r e i n v e in q ua r tz o f w h ich n ine s how ma in ly s c a r s r e su l t ing f r om p e rcus s ion o n o ne e nd a nd s i x o n b o th e nd s . B ipo la rf l ake sa ppea rt oi n c rea se i nr egu la r i ty a nd l e ng th a n d d ec rea se i n t h ickness a s c o re r e duc t ion p roceed s r e su l t ing i n s ma l l e xhau s ted c o re s ( l eng th a bou t 2 . 0 -4 .0 c m ) w i th c r u shed b i po la r p l a tfo rm s ( Zhang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) . A cco rd ing t oB reu i l ( 1935 ) , b i po la r q ua r tz f l ake s a r e u sua l ly s ma l l a nd t h in a nd i n c lude s ma l l b l ade s a nd a f ew l a rge r e gu la r f l ake s . Mov ius ( 1949 :396 ; a nd s e e B reu i l 1 9 35 ) a r gues t h a tb i po la ra r tef ac t s a r e mo re s t anda rd ised t h an t h o se m ade b yd i rec th amme rp e r cu ss ion . D i rec t h amme r p e rcu ss ion a r tefac t s a r e i n f l in t , h a rd s a nds tone , m i lky q ua r tz , i g neous , a nd o the r r e la t ive ly t r ac tab le ma te r ia ls ( Zhang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :108 ; a nd s e e P e i 1 965 ) . C hang ( 1962 ) i d en t if ied f l in t a s t h e ma in m a te r ia l . C o re s a r e s i ng le , a nd mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o r e s a nd t h e se a r e u sua l ly l o nge r t h an 6 .0 cm ( Zhang 1 985 :160 , 1 989 :108 ) . S i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s w e re u sua l ly n o t w o rked o u t b a sed o n t h ea r ea o f c o r tex a nd t h ey e xh ib i t as ma l l n umbe r o f s ho r t a nd w ide f l ake s c a r s ( Zhang 1 985 :160 161 , 1 989 :108 ) . S t r ik ing p l a tfo rm a ng le s a r e g ene ra l ly g r ea te r t h an 8 0 ° a n d p e r cu ss ion p o in t s a r e i n mos t c a se s n ume rou s a n d c oncen t ra ted ( Zhang 1 985 :160 -161 , 1 989 :108 ) . An umbe r o f t h e mo re t h an 1 00 mu l t i -p la tfo rm ( o r p o lyhed ra l ) c o re s a r e c l a s s if iab le i n to f unne l , s em i -con ica l , c ub ic , a nd t a bu la r c o re s , i n c lud ing s ymme t r ica l a nd s omewha t t h in s p ec imens ( t h icknes s c .2 . 0 -3 .0 c m ) , b u t a r e g ene ra l ly i regu la r ( Zhang 1 985 :161 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 989 :108 ) . T he se c o re s s how mu l t id irec t iona l a nd i regu la rf l ake s ca r s , a nd mo re i n ten s ive w o rk ing c ompa red t o s i ng le -p la tform c o re s ( Zhang 1 985 :16 1 , 1 989 :108 ) . T he s even c o re s f ound i n 1 966 a r e mu l t i -p la tform c o re s a nd i n c lude at a bu la r c o re i n f l in t f r om l a ye r s 1 3 w i th t wo s t r ik ing p la tforms ( a ng le s a r e 7 0 ° a n d 7 5 ° )o fw h ich o ne i s ap r epa red p la tform ( Ch iu e ta l . 1 973 ; F ig . 1 42 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :161 , F ig . 9 . 8B , 1 989 :108 , F ig . 7 3 . 1) h a s c l a ss if ied t h e l a t te r a s a mu l t i -p la tfo rm t a bu la r c o re w i th a r e la t ive ly a dvanced me thod o f f l ake r emova l . Mo s t c o re s h ave c o r t ica l p l a tforms ( 58 .9% ) , a nd s pec imen s w i th p l a in p l a tfo rms ( 39 .7% ) may i n c lude t h ree c o re s w i th r e touched p l a t fo rm s ( Zhang 1 989 :108 ) . A cco rd ing t o C hang ( 1 962 ) p l a tfo rm p r epa ra t ion r e su l ted i n s ma l l a nd r e la t ive ly l o ng f l ake s o f c ommon ly t r iangu la r a nd l e ss f r equen t ly r e gu la r s hape w i th d i s t inc t p e rcuss ion p o in t s , s ma l l a n d s em i -con ica l p e r cus s ion b u lb s a nd s t r ik ing a ng le s o f 9 5 ° 1 05 ° . Mo s tf l ake sa r eo fi regu la rf o rm , w h i le t h eb a lance a r e t r i angu la r( F ig . 1 43 ) , t r apezo ida l , a nd r e c tangu la r s pec imens , t h e l a t te r i n r o ck c r ys ta l a nd f l in t a nd o f s ma l l s i ze ( Zhang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :108 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f d i rec t h amme r p e rcuss ion f l ake s h ave p l a in s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm s ( 62 .9% ) , a n d f l ake s w i th c o r t ica l p l a tfo rms ( 3 1 .0% ) a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an t ho se w i th p oss ib ly p r epa red p l a tforms ( 5 .9% ) ( Zhang 1 989 :109 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :16Q ) . I r regu la r d o r sa l s c a r s a r e mo re f r equen t t h an r e gu la r s ca r s ( Zhang 1 985 :160 , 1 989 :107 ) . Many o f t h e f l ake s r a nge i n l e ng th b e tween 4 .0 a nd 6 .0 cm , af ew a r e s ma l le r t h an 2 . 0 c m a nd o t he r s a r e

l o nge r t h an 1 0 .0 cm ( Zhang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :108 ) . T he l e ng th u sua l ly e xceed s t h e w id th , b u t o n ly af ew f l ake s a r e t w ice a s l o ng a s t h ey a r e w ide a nd t h e l e ng th -w id th r a t io i s a r ound 9 0( Zhang 1 985 :159 ) .

1 978a :179 ) . T oo l c l a s s if ica t ions v a ry b e tween a u tho r s , a l though s c rape r s a r eu sua l ly i d en t if ied a st h ep redom inan tt o o lc a tego ry ( B la ck e ta t . 1 933 :120 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :161 , 1 989 :119 ; J i a 1 980 :28 ; C h iu e t a t . 1 973 ; a nd s ee T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :338 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , 1 949 :396 ; C h ia 1 960 ; A igne r 1 981 :141) , w i th a f r equency o f 7 5 .2% ( Zhang 1 985 :161) o r a bou t 8 2 .3% ( Chang 1 962 ) . Among t he 2 3 t o o ls f r om t h e 1 966 e xcava t ion s c rape r s p r edom ina te ( Ch iu e t a t . 1 973 ; T ab le 2 39 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f s c rape r s a r e o n f l ake s ( B lack e t a t . 1 933 :120 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , 1 949 :396 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :161 ; J i a 1 980 :28 ) , i n c lud ing s ome b ipo la r s pec imens ( B lack e t a l . 1 933 :120 , F ig . 6 9 ; Mov ius 1 944 :73 , F ig . 2 9 .13 , 1 949 :396 , F ig . 3 7 .13 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :339 ) . Ab ipo la r q ua r tz f l ake s c rape r i d en t if ied b yT e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 :339 , F ig . 2 0 .A ) i sd e sc r ibed a s a b ipo la r q ua r tz f l ake b y Z hang ( 1985 :158 , F ig . 9 .7A , 1 989 :107 , 7 -2 .2 ; s ee F ig . 1 41 .1) . S c rape r s a r e s ma l l a nd s ho r te r t h an 4 .0 c m w i th a w e igh t o f b e low 2 0 g ram s ( Zhang 1 985 :161) . F lake s c rape r s i ze h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s v a r iab le ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :74 ) . P ebb le s c rape r s ( Mov ius 1 944 :72 , 1 949 :396 ) h ave al e ng th r a nge o f u sua l ly 3 . 0 -5 .0 cm ( Ch ia 1 960 ) . S c rape r s o n c hoppe r s w e r e i d en t if ied b y B lack e ta t . ( 1933 :120 , F ig . 6 5 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :330 ) .

A r tef ac t s m anuf ac tu red b y a nv i l p e rcu s s ion c omp r i se 3 9 f l ake sa nd e i gh tc o res w h ich a r eu sua l ly i n s and s tone ( Zhang 1 985 :161 , 1 989 :110 ; a nd s e e P e i 1 965 ) . T he c o re s w e r e f o und i n l a ye r s 4 , 8 -9 , a nd 1 a nd mo s t f l ake s i n l a ye r 8 ( Zhang 1 989 :110 ) . C o re s a r e l a rge w i th t h e l a rge s t i n s a nd s tone a nd 2 4 .5 x 2 1 .7 x 8 . 3 cm i n l e ng th , w id th , a n d t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly a nd a w e igh t o f 5 , 040 g ram s ( Zhang 1 985 :161 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 989 :110 ; F ig . 1 44 ) . T he l a rge c o re s e xh ib i t l a rge a nd w ide s ca r s a nd p e rcu ss ion b u lb s a nd p e rcu ss ion p o in t s a r e n o t d i s t inc t o n t h e c o re s a nd f l ake s ( Chang 1 962 ) . F lake l e ng th r a nge sb e tween s ma l le r t h an 4 .0 c m t o mo re t h an 1 0 .0 cm w i th mo s t i n t h e l a t te r s i ze c a tego ry ( Zhang 1 985 :161 ; a nd s e e C hang 1 962 ; P e i 1 965 ) , i n c lud ing t h e l a rge s t f l ake ( 2 1 .2 x 1 4 .5 cm ; C hang 1 962 ) , a nd t h e ma jo r i ty o f f l ake s a r e w ide r t h an t h ey a r e l o ng ( Zhang 1 985 :161 , 1 989 :110 ) . F lake sh ave i n c l ined p l a t fo rm s w i th a ng le s c ommon ly o ve r 1 20 ° a nd v e ry d i f f u se r a d ia t ing l i ne s ( Chang 1 962 ; F ig . 1 45 ) . F o r ty -fou rh amme r s tone sw e re u sed f o rd i rec tp e rcu ss ion ,a nd t h e 1 7 w i th s ha l low s ca r s f o r b ipo la r p e rcu ss ion ( Zhang 1 985 :166 ; a nd s ee Z hang 1 989 :111-112 ; C h ia 1 960 ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :353 ) . H amme r s tone s a r e u sua l ly i n s a nd s tone ( Zhang 1 989 :112 )o ro nh a rd , f i ne -g ra in l ime s tone f r agmen t s (Mov iu s 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :398 ) . Appa ren t ly a l s pec imens i d en t if ied a s h amme r s tones s how e nd u t i l isa t ion ( s ee Z hang 1 985 :166 , 1 989 :111-112 ) , o f w h ich t h o se w i th o ne u t i l i sed e nd o ccu r i n h ighe r f r equenc ie s t han t h o se w i th b i po la r d amage ( Zhang 1 985 :166 ) . One i l u s t ra ted h amme r s tone i n s and s tone i s a lmo s t w ho l ly c o r t ica l a nd s how su se -wea r o n b o th o f i t ' s e nd s ( s ee Z hang 1 985 , F ig . 9 . 15 ; F ig . 1 46 .2 ) . T he s c a r f r ac tu re s o n t h is c obb le s ize s pec imen may b ea t t r ibu tab le t o t h e a r te f ac t 's u se a s ac o r e . T he h amme r s tone s ,a nv i ls a nd o the r [ u nspec if ied ] a r tef ac t s o f C h iu e t a t . ( 1973 ; T ab le 2 37 ) i n c lude o ne s a nd s tone h amme r s tone w i th l o ca l i sed p i t t ing i n t h e c en t re o n t wo f a ce s a nd a s ca r o n o ne e nd ( F ig . 1 46 .1) . Wood o r b one h amme r s tone sa ppea rt oh ave b een u sed f o r f l ake d e tachmen t o n s ome c o re s ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :74 ; a nd s e e C hang 1 962 ) . Nume rous " p i t ted o rb ru ised b ou lde r s" w e r e i d en t if i ed a s p oss ib le h amme r s tone s b y T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 :353 , F ig . 3 6 ; F ig . 1 47 ) . T he 1 9 s t one a nv i ls i n c lude o ne p i ece i n s and s tone a nd s how o ne o r s eve ra l u s e -damage i n den ta t ions ( Zhang 1 985 :165 , F ig . 9 . 14 , 1 989 :112 -113 , F ig . 7 -5 ; F ig . 1 48 ) .

S ide s c rape r s a r e t h e mos t n ume rous s c rape r c a tego ry ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :338 -339 ,F ig s . 1 6 -20 .A ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :120 , F ig . 6 6 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , F ig . 2 9 :1 , 2 , 1 949 :396 , 3 98 , F igs . 3 7 .1 , 2 , 3 5 .7 ; Z hang 1 985 :161 , 13 14 ) a nd t h e se a r e p redom inan t ly i n q ua r tz o r q ua r tz c rys ta l ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :338 -339 ,F ig s . 1 6 -20 .A ; B lack e ta t . 1 933 :120 , F ig . 6 6 ; Mov ius 1 944 :72 , F ig . 2 9 .1 , 2 , 1 949 :396 , 3 98 , F igs . 3 7 .1 , 2 ,3 5 .7 ; F ig s . 1 41 .1 , 1 49 ) . O ne o ft h e se s pec imens a l so s how s u se -wea r o n i t s e nd ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :339 ; F ig . 1 49 .6 ) . S ide s c rape r s s how a w ide r a nge i n s i ze , s hape , a nd i n t h e e x ten t a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e touch ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :338 -339 ) . T hey e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u se re touch a nd s ome h ave b i la te ra l r e touch ( Mov iu s 1 944 :72 -73 , 1 949 :396 , 3 98 ) . C oncave s c rape r s ( F ig . 1 50 .1-3 , 7 ) , c onvex s c rape r s ( F ig . 1 50 .4 -6 ) ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :34 1-342 , F igs . 2 1-24 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , F ig . 2 9 .3 -6 , 1 949 :396 , F ig . 3 7 .3 -6 ; C h ia 1 960 , J i a 1 980 :28 ) , a nd t h e l e ss n ume rous c omp lex s c rape r s o r " r o sea te i mp lemen t s" ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :343 -345 , F ig s . 2 5 , 2 6 .B ) h ave a l so b een i d en t if ied . C omp lex s c rape r s a r e o n s ma l l q ua r tz f l ake s w i th r e touch a l ong a d jo in ing e dge s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :343 ; F igs . 1 51 , 1 52 ) . F ive o f t h e se b eaked t oo ls s how mod if ica t ion o f t wo n e ighbou r ing e dge s a ta n o b l ique a ng le r e su l t ing i n ab eak a t o ne e nd o f t h e s pec imen ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :344 -345 , F ig s . 2 6 , 3 5 .A , C ; B lack e t a t . 1 933 :120 ; a nd s e e Mov iu s 1 944 :73 , F ig . 2 9 .10 , 1 949 :396 ) , a nd s eem t o r e p re sen t at y pe o f b u r in ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :344 -345 ; B lack e t a t . 1 933 :120 ; F igs . 1 51 .2 , 3 , 1 52 , 1 53 .3 ) . Mov ius ( 1944 :73 , F ig . 2 9 .10 , 1 949 :396 , F ig . 3 7 .10 ) r e f e r s t o b eaked i mp lemen t s , a nd t h e s pec imen h e i lu s t ra te s i s t h e s ame a s o ne o f p rev iou s a u tho r s( s ee T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 , F ig . 2 6 .B ; F ig . 1 51 .3 ) . I tc anno tb ee s tab l ished whe the r t h e se may b e i d en t ica l w i th a l l o f t h e f i ve c omp lex s c rape r s . I n mos t c a se s t h e r e touch w a sc a r r ied o u tf r om t h ev en t ra lf a ce a nd i si n c l ined ( Mov iu s 1 944 :73 , F ig . 2 9 .10 , 1 949 :396 ) . O the rs c rape rc a tego r ie s a r e d i sco ida l s c rape r s ( B lack e ta t . 1 933 :128 , F ig . 7 7 ; Mov ius 1 944 :72 , F ig . 2 9 .11 , 1 949 :396 , F ig . 3 7 .11 ; C h ia 1 960 , J i a 1 980 :28 ; F ig . 1 53 .2 ) , a nd ad oub le s c rape r ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :344 , F ig . 2 7 ; F ig . 1 53 .1) . Two l a rge c he r t s c rape r s ,

F lake t oo ls a r e s ubs tan t ia l ly mo re n ume rou s t h an c o re t oo ls ( Pe i 1 937 , 1 939a ; Mov ius 1 944 :72 , F ig . 2 9 , 1 949 :396 , F ig . 3 5 ; C h ia 1 960 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :74 ) w i th 7 1 .3% ( Zhang 1 985 :161) o r7 1 .5% ( Zhang 1 989 :119 ) o n f l ake s a nd 2 8 .7% ( Zhang 1 985 :161) o r 2 5 .5% ( Zhang 1 989 :119 ) o n s ma l l c hunk s . S ome t oo ls a r e o n f l ake f r agmen t s , e xhau s ted c o re s , a nd p ebb le s ( Zhang 1 985 :161 , 1 989 :119 ) . Many t oo ls a r eo n b ipo la r b l ank s ( Ch ia 1 960 ) . T oo ls i n c lude s ma l l a n d l a rge ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :338 -348 ) , a nd ma in ly s ma l l ( Chang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :167 , 1 989 :119 ; J i a 1 980 :28 ; C h iu e t a l . 1 973 ) s pec imens , i n c lud ing s c rape r s ( Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , 1 949 :396 ) . T oo ls w i th a l e ng th o f l e ss t h an 4 .0 cm c omp r ise mo re t han 7 0% o f a l l t oo ls ( Zhang 1 985 :167 , 1 989 :119 ) . A igne r ( 1969 :203 , 1 978a :179 ) d e sc r ibe s f l ake t oo l mo rpho logy a nd s i ze a s u sua l ly v a r iab le w i th t h e ma jor i ty o f f l akes r e p re sen t ing l a rge s pec imens ( A igne r

9 1

i n c lud ing ad i sco ida l s c rape r a nd ac oncave s i de s c rape r f r om l a ye r 4a r e s i ng led o u t a s e xcep t iona l s pec imens b ecau se o f t h e ir c omp lex mod if ica t ion ( Mov ius 1 944 :73 , F igs . 2 7 .7 a nd 2 9 :11 , 1 949 :398 , F igs . 3 5 .7 a nd 3 7 .11 ; F igs . 1 53 .2 , 1 50 .7 ) . Mo s t s c rape r s e xh ib i t c oa r se a nd i regu la r mod if ica t ion ( Mov ius 1 944 :72 , 1 949 :396 ) . F ou r q ua r tz s i de s c rape r s w i th u n i la te ra l u se re touch w e re f ound i n l a ye r s 1 4 ( Ch iu e t a l . 1 973 ; T ab le 2 39 , F ig . 1 54 .1) . S i de s c rape r s a r e u sua l ly i n q ua r tz a nd e xh ib i t u n i la te ra l u s e re touch ( Chang 1 962 ) . T he mo s t r e cen t s t udy ( Zhang 1 989 :113 -114 , 1 985 :16 1-162 ) i d en t if ied s i x s c rape r c a tego r ie s , n ame ly s i de s c rape r s w i th s t ra igh t , c oncave , a nd c onvex e dge s , t h e s e cond mo s tf r equen t d oub le -edge s c rape r s , a nd t h e l e a s t c ommon mu l t ip le -edge s c rape r s a nd o ne e nd s c rape r( F ig . 1 55 ) . O n r ough ly r e touched s i de s c rape r s w h ich p redom ina te , t h e ma rg ins a r e s i nuous , a nd o n t h e r a re f i ne ly a nd r e gu la r ly mod if ied s pec imens t h e a cu te e dge a ng le s a r e b e tween 6 0 ° a nd 7 0 ° ( Zhang 1 985 :161-162 , 1 989 :114 ) . S c rape r s a l so i n c lude a l te rna te e dge s c rape r s ( Ch iu e t a l . 1 973 ) . T he d oub le e dge s c rape r s w h ich w e re r e touched b y b ipo la r p e rcu ss ion a f te r t h ey h ad b een m ade b y d i r ec t p e rcus s ion , o f ten e xh ib i t v e ry s ma l l s c a r s c ompa rab le t o p re s su re f l ak ing s ca r s ( Zhang 1 989 :114 , F ig . 7 -6 .4 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :162 , F ig . 9 .9 ; F igs . 1 54 .2 , 3 , 1 56 .3 , 4 ) . T he a l te rna te e dge s c rape r s s how d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l u se -damage ( Ch iu e t a l . 1 973 ; T ab le 2 39 , F ig . 1 56 .1 , 2 ) . T en r o und s c rape r sf r om l a ye r 4h ave e dge s o f d i f f e ren t t h ickne sse s a n d a ng le s o f b e low 7 5 ° ( Chang 1 962 ) . T he s ha l low s c a r s o n s ome s c rape r s may d e r ive f r om b one o r w ood h amme r s ( Chang 1 962 ) .

r e touch a r e n o t n ume rou s , a nd p o in ts a r e u sua l ly c ha rac te r ised b y b e t te rr e touch ing a nd a n h i ghe r f r equency o f s ymme t r ica l a r tef ac t s [ c ompa red t o s c rape r s ] ( Zhang 1 985 :162 , 1 989 :114 ; a nd s e e J i a 1 980 :29 ) . Mod if ica t ion b y t r imm ing f r om t h e d o r sa l f a ce a nd i n ve r se r e touch a r e p r eva len t ( Zhang 1 985 :162 , F ig . 9 . 10 , 1 989 :114 , F ig . 7 7 . 4 ; F ig . 1 58 .2 ) . O ne e nd o f ap o in t f r om l a ye r s 1 4 w a s r e touched o n av e in q ua r tz f l ake ( Ch iu e t a l . 1 973 ; F ig . 1 58 .1) . A cco rd ing t o C h ia ( 1960 ) , mos t p o in t s a r e u n if a c ia l ly r e touched a nd o n a l l s pec imens t h e n a r row p o in t s w e re s h aped b y r e touch ( J ia 1 980 :29 ) . F l ake g r ave r sc omp r ise 4 .2% o f a l l t oo ls ( Zhang 1 985 :164 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 989 :115 -116 , C hang 1 962 ) . S ome o f t h e se a r tef ac t s r e p re sen t r ough ly s haped g rave r s o r b u r ins ( B reu i l 1 935 ; P e i 1 937 ) , b u t t h e mo rpho logy w a s s ub sequen t ly a t t r ibu ted t ot h ee f f ec t s o f b ipo la r p e rcu ss ion ( Pe i 1 965 ; a n d s e e Mov ius 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :396 ) . T he se s ma l l t oo ls d e r ive f r om t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e c u l tu ra l l a ye r s ( Zhang 1 985 :164 , 1 989 :115 ) . T h ree g r ave r s o r b u r ins h ave b een i d en t if ied b y C h iu e t a l . ( 1973 ) i n l a ye r s 1 4 ( F ig . 1 59 .1) . A igne r ( 1 981 :142 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e a ppa ren t b ur in s ca r s o n t h e se s pec imens may h ave b een u n in ten t iona l . Z hang ( 1985 :164 , F ig . 9 . 12 , 1 989 :115 , F ig . 7 -8 .1) d i s t ingu ishes t h ree ma in k i nd s o f g r ave r s -f l u ted , a ng le , d i hed ra l -w i th a l ow f r equency o f r e touched s pec imens w i th e i the r l im i ted u n i la te ra l a nd l e s s o f ten b i la te ra l e dge mod if ica t ion . B o th a cu te a nd d u l l e dged g rave r s a r e i d en t if ied w h ich may r e f l ec t t h e i rw ide f u nc t iona l r ange ( Zhang 1 985 :164 , 1 989 :116 ; s e e b e low ) .

P o in ted t o o ls i n c lude a pprox ima te ly 1 3 .7% o ft h eL oca l i ty 1 a s semb lage w i th t h e ma jo r i ty r ep re sen t ing f l ake t oo ls ( Zhang 1 985 :162 ) . N ine p o in t s d e r ive f r om l a ye r s 1 4 ( Ch iu e t a l . 1 973 ) . J i a ( 1980 :29 ) r e f e r s t o a pp rox ima te ly 1 00 p o in t s , a nd f o rme r ly ( Ch ia 1 960 ) i d en t if ied p o in t s a s u ncommon w i th a f r equency o f 6 7 . P e i ( 1 938b :185 ) d e sc r ibed p o in ted t oo ls a s c ommon , a nd o t he r e a r ly a u tho r s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :345 -346 , 3 51 , F igs . 2 8 -30 , 3 5 .B ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :123 -124 , F ig . 7 2 ) f o und f i ve s pec imens . T he se f i ve p o in t sd e r ive ma in ly f r om t h ee a r ly l a ye r s a nd a r e i n v e in q ua r tz ( F ig . 1 57 .1-4 ) a nd t h e s ma l les t i s i n q ua r tz c r ys ta l a nd t h e o n ly o ne f r om l a ye r s 4 -5 ( F ig . 1 57 .5 ) ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :345 -346 , 3 51) . P o in ted t oo ls a r e u sua l ly o n s ma l l s i zed ( l eng th u sua l ly l e ss t h an 4 .0 c m ) ( Zhang 1 985 :162 ) q ua r tz a nd c he r t f l ake s m anuf a c tu r ed ma in ly b yd i rec tp e rcuss ion ( Zhang 1 989 :114 , a nd s e eZ hang 1 985 :162 ) , a nd s l igh t ly s ma l le rc ompa red t o s c rape r s ( Zhang 1 985 :162 , 1 989 :114 ; a nd s e e C h ia 1 960 , J i a 1 980 :29 ) . S ome s pec imens w e re (Mov ius 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :396 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :346 ) o r s e em t o h ave b een p r oduced b y b i po la rp e rcus s ion ( n . 3 ;Z hang 1 985 :162 ) . C hang ( 1962 ) i d en t if ied o ne p o in t o n ab ipo la r f l ake ( f rom l a ye r 6 ) . Mos t o fJ i a 's ( 1980 :29 ) p o in t s a r e i nv e in q ua r tz ( 73 .0% ) , a nd t h e b a lance i n q ua r tz c rys ta l ( 18 .0% ) , c he r t ( 8 .0% ) , a nd o pa l ( f ewe r t h an 1 . 0% ) . C h ia ( 1960 ) f o rme r ly d e sc r ibed t h e ma te r ia ls a s v e in q ua r tz a nd c he r t . F ou r p o in t s w e r e s eem ing ly s haped b y s e conda ry r e touch ( F ig . 1 57 .1 , 2 , 4 ) , i n c lud ing o ne p o in t w i th a l te rna te ly w o rked e dge s ( F ig . 1 57 .1) ;a no the rp o in t a ppea r s t oh ave b een mod if ied o n ly b y u se -wea r( F ig . 1 57 .3 ) ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :345 , F igs . 2 8 3 0 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :123 -124 ) . Mov ius ( 1949 :396 , F ig . 3 7 .7 -9 )a r gue s t h a ts haped p o in t sa r er a re ( s ee F ig . 1 57 .1-3 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :162 , 1 989 :114 ) h a sc l a s s if ied p o in ts a s s t ra igh t e dged , a ng led , a nd d oub le e dg ed t y pes o f w h ich 7 1 .9% a r e s t ra igh t e dg ed ( F ig . 1 58 .2 -5 ) . I r regu la r p o in ts w i th c oa r se

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Aw ls a r e g ene ra l ly o n f l ake s a nd i n c lude s ome o f t h e s ma l le s t s pec imens o f t h e L oca l i ty 1 t oo ls ( Chang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :164 , 1 989 :116 ) . T hese t oo ls c omp r ise 1 5 s p ec imens f r om l a ye r 6( Chang 1 962 ) , a l though t h e a u tho r ( Zhang 1 985 , 1 989 :116 ) l a te r s t a tes t h a t a w ls d e r ive o n ly f r om l a ye r s 1 5 . Z hang ( 1985 :164 , F ig . 9 . 13 , 1 989 :116 , F ig . 7 -8 .2 )d i sc r im ina te s b e tween t wo t y pe s , o ne e xh ib i t ing ar e la t ive ly l ong r e touched p o in t ( "S lende r shou lde red a w ls" ; F ig . 1 59 .2 ) , t h e o the r u sua l ly o n s ho r te r a nd w ide r f l ake b l ank s ( " Sho r t shou lde red a w ls" ) s haped i n to a r obus t p o in t w i th l e ss e x tens ive t r imm ing , a nd h e s ugges t s t h a t t h e m a te r ia l may t o s ome e x ten t h ave i nf luenced t h e mo rpho logy o ft h e s ho r t a w ls . C hoppe r sr ep re sen t 1 . 85% o f a l l a r tef ac t s a nd 5 .4% o f t o o ls w i th r e touch ( Zhang 1 985 :184 ) o f wh ich mos t ( 56% ) d e r ive f r om Q ua r tz H o r izon 2 i d en t if i ed a s l a ye r 7( Chang 1 962 ) . O ne c hoppe r w a s f ound i n l a ye r s 1 4 ( Ch iu e t a l . 1 973 ) . C hoppe r s a r e u n ifac ia l ly ( Ch ia 1 960 ; Z hang 1 985 :162 , 1 989 :116 ) a nd u sua l ly d o r sa l ly mod if ied a r tef ac t s o f mo re t h an 1 0 .0 c m i n l e ng th ( u sua l ly g r ea te r t h an 2 50 g r am s i n w e igh t ) ( Zhang 1 985 :162 , 1 989 :116 ) . T he max imum l e ng th i s 2 1 c m a c co rd ing t o Mov iu s ( 1944 :72 1 949 :393 , 3 96 ) . A l te rna te ly f l aked s pec imens ( Ch ia 1 960 ) w i th a s i nuous e dge c l a s s if ied a s c hopp ing too ls a nd w o rked o n s a nd s tone p ebb le s ( Mov ius 1 944 :72 , F ig . 2 7 .1 , 1 949 :393 , 3 96 , F ig . 3 5 .1 ; a nd s e eT e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :330 , F ig . 7 ;B lack e ta l . 1 933 :119 -120 ) a r er a re . C hoppe r s a r eo n g reen s ands tone a nd v e in q ua r tz , a nd r a re ly o nq ua r tz i te , q ua r tz c r ys ta l , c he r t( n . 2 3 ) , a nd l ime s tone ( n . 3 ) b ou lde r s ( Pe i 1 931b ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :118 -120 , F igs . 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 1 ; a nd s e e Mov ius 1 944 :72 1 949 :393 , 3 96 ; F igs . 1 60 -169 ) . A cco rd ing t o C h ia ( 1960 ) c hoppe r s a r e o n f l a t o r r o unded s a nd s tone p ebb le s . S pec imens i n v e in q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz c r y s ta l a r e s ma l l ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :322 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :118 -120 ) . Many o f t h e c hoppe r s a r e v e ry r ough ly

w o rk ed a nd o n a pp rox ima te ly r ound , o va l , o r l o ng p ebb le s ( Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , F ig s . 2 7 .2 , 2 8 .1 , 2 , 5 , 1 949 :396 , F ig s . 3 5 .2 , 3 6 .1 , 2 , 5 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :162 , 1 989 :116 ) w r i te s t h a t c hoppe r sa r eo nl a rge f l ake s , p ebb le s , c hunk s , a nd e xhau s t ed c o re s , a nd h e e a r l ie r ( Chang 1 962 ) f ound t h a t t h e se a r e p r edom inan t ly o n f l ake s . T he v a s t ma jo r i ty w e r e m ade b y d i rec th a rd h amme rp e r cu s s ion a nd t h eb a lance s e em t o s how e v idence o ft h ea nv i lt e chn ique ( Zhang 1 985 :162 , 1 989 :116 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o fc hoppe r s s how u n s tanda rd i sed m od if i ca t ion r e su l t ing i n u neven a nd s i nuou s e dge s , a nd t h e f ew s pec imens w i th f i ne w o rk ing a r e s ymme t r ica l ( Zhang 1 985 :162 , 1 989 :116 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :163 , 1 989 :116 ) h a s c l a s s i f ied c hoppe r sa ss i ng le -edge ,d oub le -edge , mu l t ip le -edge o rd i sco ida l ,e nd ,a nd p o in ted t y pe s , b u ta r gue s t h a t c hoppe r s a r en o tr e ad i ly a ccommoda ted i nd i s t inc tc a tego r ie s . T h i s w a s a l so n o ted b yB lack e ta l . ( 1933 :120 , F ig . 6 5 ) w ho d e s c r ib ed c hoppe r s w i th p o s s ib le s e conda ry r e touch mod if ica t ion a l so a sl a rge s c rape r s ( F ig . 1 67 ) . O ne o f t h e se i s s im i la r t o a d i sco ida l c o r e ( c f . , F ig s . 1 67 .1 a nd 1 38 .3 ) . O the r c hoppe r s s how d amage f r om u se ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :329 , 30 , F ig s . 5 , 8 ) o r p o ss ib ly f r om u se a s h amme r s tone s ( Zhang 1 985 :163 , 1 989 :116 ; F ig . 1 69 , ?a nd 1 68 ) . T h i s i st h ough t t op rove t h a t t h e se c hoppe r s w e r e mu l t i -func t iona l ( Zhang 1 985 :163 , 1 989 :116 ) . O n m any c hoppe r s o ne e dg e w a s m od if ied t oa na cu te " cu t t ing e dge " ( Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , F igs . 2 7 .2 , 2 8 .1 , 2 , 5 , 1 949 :396 , F ig s . 3 5 .2 , 3 6 .1 , 2 , 5 ; F igs . 1 65 .1 , 3 , 1 66 ) . C hoppe r s e xh ib i t s ma l l u se -wea r s c a r s a n d n o mod if ica t ion b y s e conda ry r e touch ( Chang 1 962 ) . S ome c hoppe r s s how v a ry ing d eg r ee s o f u t i l isa t ion r a ng ing f r om s l igh t t o h eavy a nd t ho se w i th a l te rna te e dge u s e -wea r ( T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :325 -333 ; F igs . 1 65 -169 ) . O n s ome c hoppe r so ne e nd ( " p repa red h ee l" c hoppe r s )a ppea r ed t oh ave b een m od if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :330 , 3 38 ; B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :120 , 1 31 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :72 , 1 949 :396 , F ig . 3 5 .4 , 6 ; a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :163 , 1 989 :116 ; F ig s . 1 62 , 1 63 .2 , 1 67 , 1 69 .2 , a nd s ee F ig . 1 64 ) .

H uang ( 1990 :122 )a r gue t h a ta r tef a c t s mod if i ed b y s e conda ry r e touch a r e n o t n ume rou s . T h is r e touch i s i regu la r a nd r o ugh ( Pe i 1 965 ) . A igne r ( 1969 :203 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :131) r e a son s t h a t n one o r o n ly a s ma l l n umbe r o f a r te f a c t s w e r e s haped b y s e conda ry r e touch a nd t h a t f l ake t o o ls w e re n o te x ten s ive ly mod if ied b ye i the rr e touch o r u se w ea r . S he ( A igne r 1 981 :146 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :183 ) c ha ra c te r i se st h et o o ls a s" l a rge mu l t ifunc t iona lc hoppe r s a nd c l eave r s" a nd " r a the rc omp lex ly f i n i shed f l ake t o o l s . . . ." . T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 :354 ) c ha ra c t e r i sed t h e L oca l i ty 1 a r t e f a c t s a s " choppe r s a nd a n a lmo s t m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry . . . ." . C h ia ( 1960 , J i a 1 980 :29 ) r e cogn i se s t h e a r te f a c t s a s r e p re sen ta t ive o f a t e chno log ica l ly a nd t y po log ica l ly a dvan ced , t h ough q u i te p r im i t ive c u l tu re w h ich , f o r e xamp le , h ad a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e f r a c tu r ing c ha rac te r i s t ic so f an umbe ro fr aw m a te r ia l sa nd u sed d i f f e r en t p e rcu s s ion m e thods f o rt h e manuf ac tu re o f av a r ie ty o f s t one t o o l s . P e i ( 1 965 ) a nd C hang ( 1962 ) i n te rp re t t h e i n du s t ry a s p r im i t ive b ecau se o f al a ck o f d ef inab le l i t h ic t y pe s a nd t h e p r e sence o f mu l t i -func t iona l t o o ls . Mo re r e cen t ly , t h e a r t e f a c t sh ave b een i n t e rp re ted a s af l ake i n du s t ry b ecau se o fa p r edom inance o f f l ake t o o ls ( Zhang 1 985 :167 , 1 989 :119 ) . Wa tanabe ( 1 985 :7 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e " c rude a nd h eavy t o o l" i n du s t ry r e p re sen t s a " . . .choppe r -chopp ing t o o l v a r ie ty ." c ompa rab le t ot ho se o fS ou thea s tA s ia .

E igh t s phe ro id s o f v a r iou s s i ze s d e r ive f r om l a ye r 7o f t h e G ez idong C ave a nd f r om l a ye r s 1 5 a nd 8 -9 o ft h e m a in c a v e ( Zhang 1 985 :164 , 1 989 :116 , a nd s e e C hang 1 962 ) o f w h ich f o u r w e re f ound i n o ne l a ye r ( Zhang 1 989 :116 ) . S phe ro id s a r eo fi regu la r s hape ( Zhang 1 989 :116 ) a nd e xh ib i t c r u sh ed a nd s ma l l a nd l a rge f l ake r emova ls a ta n a ng le o ve r t h e m a in s u r f a ce o f mo re t h an 1 20 ° ( Zhang 1 985 :164 ) . B e cau se o f t h e i r w ide d imen s iona l r a nge , s phe ro id s a r e i n te rp r e t ed a s p ound ing s t one s , h amme r s tone s , a nd p e rhap s m i s s i le s t one s ( Zhang 1 985 :164 -165 )a nd may b es im i la rt os phe ro id s f r om K ehe a nd o the rl o ca l i t ie si nt h eF enhe r eg ion ( Chang 1 962 ) . J i a ( 1980 :28 ) h a s i d en t i f ied l a rge " b if ac ia l h and -axe s o r s i ng le -edged o ne s" a mong t h e t o o ls . A cco rd ing t o o t he r a u tho r s ,b i fa ce s ( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :131 ;B reu i l 1 935 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :10 1 , 1 949 :402 ) o r " t rue b i f ace s" ( Zhang 1 985 :167 , 1 989 :119 )h ave n o tb een f ound . A pp rox ima te ly 1 0% o fa l f l ake sa r e u t i l i sed a nd n o t w o rk ed b y s e conda ry r e touch ( Zhang 1 985 :166 , 1 989 :118 ) . A cco rd ing t o T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 :329 , 3 30 , 3 42 , 3 51 , 3 54 ) a nd B la ck e t a l . ( 1933 :120 , 1 23 -124 , 1 3 1132 ) m o s t r e touch a ppea r s t o b e r e f e rab le t o u se -wea r d amage a nd t h a t l i t t le , i fa ny s ub s tan t ia l e v idence o f s hap ing b y s e cond a ry r e touch c an b e i d en t if ied w i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o f a n umbe r o f r ough ly r e touched c hoppe r s w i th a " t r unca t ed h ee l" , p o in ted t oo ls , a nd b eak ed t oo ls mod if ied b y c r ud e r e touch . B reu i l ( 1935 ) f o und t h a t s ome t oo ls w e r e u s ed w i thou tr e touch a nd o the r s w e re s haped i n to s ma l l b o r e r s o r a w ls ,p o in t s ,a nd av a r ie ty o fs c rape r s .P e i ( 1965 )a nd J i aa nd

9 3

Many a u tho r ss e e ac o r re la t ion b e tween t h e r aw m a te r ia l a nd t h et e chno logy u sed a tL oca l i ty 1 .T he i n f e r io rq ua l i ty o f t h e v e in q ua r tz i st hough t t o h ave b een ac on s ide r ab le f a c to r i n t h e u n s tanda rd i sed c ha ra c t e r o f t h e a r tef ac t s ( Pe i 1 931b :137 ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :353 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :133 ; Z hang 1 989 :118 ; a nd s e e Mov iu s 1 949 :402 ; A igne r 1 978a :183 , 1 981 :146 ) . T he b ipo la rt e chn ique i st h ough tt oh ave e vo lved a tL oca l i ty 1i n r e spon se t o t h e s ma l l v e in q ua r tz n odu le s a va i lab le ( Zhang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) a nd t h e i n t ra c tab i l i ty o f t h is s t one ( B reu i l 1 935 ; Z hang 1 985 :159 , 1 989 :107 ) . B la ck e ta l . ( 1933 :133 ) w r i te , " Bu t n o c l o se c ompa r i son w i th a ny A s ia t ic o r E u ropean i n du s t ry c an w e l l b e m ade a t p r e sen t , s i nce w ha teve r p o in t s o f a ppa ren t s im i la r i ty m ay a ppea r , t h ey a r e p robab ly r e f e rab le t o t h e u se o f a n e qua l ly b ad m a te r ia l [ i . e .q ua r tz ] f o r mak ing e qua l ly a t yp ica l t o o ls ." . T he a r te f a c t sf r om l a ye r s 8 10 r ef lec t a n i n ab i l i ty t oc on t ro l t h e f l ak ing o f t h e m a te r ia l ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :354 ) . Mov iu s ( 1 949 :402 ) h a s a r gued t h a t t h e v e ry " un spec ia l ized q ua r tz i n du s t ry" d oe s n o t a ppea r t o b e r e f e r ab le t o ac u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion , b u t may b ee xp la ined b y t h e l a rge q uan t i ty o f , a nd e a sy a cce s s ib i l i ty t o t h is ma te r ia l . T he f ew s t anda rd i sed a r te f a c t s a r e i n f l in t ( B r eu i l 1 935 ) . E a r ly a u tho r s ( B reu i l 1 939 : i i ; Mov iu s 1 944 :73 -74 , 1 949 :398 ) i d en t i f ied ac hange i nm anu f a c tu r ing t e chn ique s i nt h eu ppe rl a ye r s .T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1 932 :353 ) a nd B la ck e t a l . ( 1933 :128 129 ) r e cogn i sed a na ppa ren to ve ra l l s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e a r te f a c t s f r om t h e u ppe r l a ye r s ( l aye r s 4a nd 5 ) a nd f r om t h e l owe r l a ye r s ( 8 1 0 ) , a l though t h ey s ugge s ted t h a t t h e h i ghe r f r equ ency o f " p i t t ed b ou lde r s" o r p o ss ib le h amme r s tone s , mo s t ly l o ng b i po la r f l ake s , a nd mo re n ume rou s a r t ef a c t s i n f l i n t l ike s t one , p a ra l le led b y ar i se i n mo re f i ne ly w o rk ed a nd t y po log ica l ly mo re r e cogn i sab le a r te f ac t s i n l a ye r s 4a nd 5 i n d ica ted a mo re a dvanced c ha ra c t e r o f t h e u ppe r l a ye r s . Mov iu s ( 1944 :73 -74 , 1 949 :398 ; c on t ra T e i lha rd 1 94 1 :6 1) a r gue s t h a t t h e c he r t ( po s s ib ly t h e f l in t l ike s t one o f e a r l ie r a u tho r s ; e . g . , B lack e ta l . 1 933 :129 ) t oo l s i n t h e u ppe rmo s t l a ye r a r e t h e " be s t " t o o l s w h ich s how s t h a t " t h i s v e ry p r im i t ive h om in id" c ou ld p roduce ' we l l -made t o o ls ' w i th a t r a c tab le m a te r ia l . A igne r ( 1978a :183 , 1 981 :146 ) s ugge s t s t h a tt h er a re q ua r tz c r y s ta lt oo ls s how ah i ghe r l e ve l o f s k i l l

c ompa red t ot h o se i nv e in q ua r tz . C hang ( 1962 )f o rme r ly r e cogn ised e a r ly a nd l a te s t age so ft h e e a r ly L owe r P a laeo l i th ic L oca l i ty 1i n dus t ry , a nd s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a r tef ac t s f r om l a ye r 7i n t h e G ez idong a r ea w e r e r e la t ive ly p rog re s s ive a nd t h e refo re i n d ica t ive o f al a te s t age w h ich s hou ld b e c o r re la ted w i th t h e y ounge r l a ye r s o f t h e Ma in D epo s i t ( a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 :142 ) . L aye r 6 w a s c l a s s if ied a s al a te p e r iod l a ye r ( Chang 1 962 ) . T he a u tho r ( Zhang 1 985 :168 , 1 989 :118 ) s ub sequen t ly i d en t if ied c hange s i n t h e a s semb lage o f t h e L oca l i ty 1 i n du s t ry o ve r t h ree L owe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iods . T he " Ea r ly S tage" i sr e cogn i sed i nl a ye r s 8 11 , a nd d i s t ingu ished b y ap redom inance o fq ua r tz a nd s and s tone a r tef ac t s , r a re b i po la r a r tef ac t s , mos t ly l a rge t oo ls ( a bou t 7 0% ) o n p ebb le s , c o res , a nd s ma l l c hunk s , a n d f ewe r o n f l ake s . Mo s t t oo ls a r e s c rape r s a nd a v a r ie ty o f c hoppe r s , i n c lud ing n ume rous s pec imens w i th f i ne mod if ica t ion a r e p r e sen t , w h i le p o in t s a nd g r ave r s a r e b o th u ncommon a nd c ha rac te r ised b y v e ry r ough r e touch . A r tef ac t t ypes a r e n o t r e ad i ly i d en t if iab le , a nd a ppa ren t ly " t a sk s pec if ic" t o o ls a r e l e ss n ume rou s t h an t h o se w h ich s e em t o b e mu l t i -func t iona l ( Zhang 1 985 :168 , 1 989 :119 -120 ) . T he "M idd le S age" l a ye r s i n c lude a r tef ac t s f r om l a ye r 7 o f G ez idong a nd l a ye r 6o f t h e Ma in C ave ( Zhang 1 985 :168 , 1 989 :120 ) . I nt h e se l a ye r s , s ands tone a r tefac t sa r e r a re , w h i le q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz c r ys ta l a r tef ac t s a r e mo re n ume rou s c ompa red t o t h e e a r l ie r p e r iod . B ipo la r c o re s a r e mo re c ommon t h an d i rec t p e rcu ss ion c o res , a nd a n a dvance i n b ipo la rt e chn ique i sa l so i d en t if ied , a ppa ren t ly i n t h e h i ghe r f r equency o f u n ifo rm ly s haped f l ake s c ompa red t o t h ose p roduced b y d i r ec t p e rcus s ion , w h i le a nv i l p e rcu ss ion a r tef ac t s a r eu ncommon . C hoppe r so ccu ri nl owe rf r equenc ie s a nd mo s t t o o ls a r e o n f l ake s . T oo l t ypes a r e s e em ing ly p rog re ss ive ,e nd s c rape r s a ppea r , a nd f i ne ly r e touched p o in t s a r e mo re n ume rou s w i th v a r iou s t ype sr e cogn ised . T he re i sa t e ndency t owa rd s ma l le r t oo l manuf ac tu re w i th mo re t h an 6 8% o f s pec imens s ma l le r t h an 4 .0 cm a nd l e s s t h an 2 0 g rams i nw e igh t . R e touch t e chn ique sa r ea dvanced b ecau se o f ag r ea te r n umbe r o f s t anda rd ised t oo ls . A d ec r ea se i n mu l t i f unc t iona l t o o ls i sr e cogn isab le w h ich s ugge s t s a n i n c rea se i nu n if unc t iona l t o o ls ( Zhang 1 985 :169 , 1 989 :120 ) . U n le s s mo re a r tef a c t s w e re f o und s i nce 1 962 , t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e l a ye r 7a r te f a c t s i s b a sed o n 1 4 s pec imens ( s ee C hang 1 962 ) . S ub s tan t ia l t e chno log ica l a dvance s c ha rac te r ise t h e a s semb lage o fl a ye r s 1 5 , t h e" La te S tage" w h ich i st h ough t t o p a ra l le l t h e e vo lu t iona ry d eve lopmen t o f t h e h om in id s ke le ta l ma te r ia ls ( Zhang 1 985 :169 , 1 989 :120 ) . A r tef ac t s i n t h e se l a ye r s a r e f r equen t ly i n ag ood t ype o f m i lky q ua r tz , a nd a n h ighe r f r equency o f f l in t a r tef ac t s a nd b ipo la r f l ake s a r e r ep re sen ted . D i rec t h amme r p e rcuss ion , p o ss ib ly p er fo rmed w i th as o f t h amme r ( bone o r w ood ) a nd b i po la r f l ake manufac tu re s how a n i n c rea sed s oph is t ica t ion . T he u se o f t h e se t e chn ique s r e su l ted i n s ome s t anda rd i sed a nd t h in f l ake sa nd f l ake -b lade s , a nd a l so i n b ipo la r f l ake s s im i la r t o b l ade s a nd m ic rob lade s ( Zhang 1 985 :170 , 1 989 :120 ) . T he r e i s a n h ighe r f r equency o f f l ake t oo ls w i th 7 3 .9% ( Zhang 1 989 :120 , a nd s e e Z hang 1 985 :169 ) c ompa red t o c o re t oo ls ( 26 .1 % ; Z hang 1 985 :169 , 1 989 :120 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd 1 941 :61-62 ) , a nd h eavy c o re t oo ls , i n c lud ing c hoppe r s w i th af r equency o f 2 . 1% o f a l l t o o ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch a r e l e ss n ume rou s . Sma l le r , s t anda rd ised , a nd " t ypo log ica l ly c l a s s if iab le" t o o ls i n crease i nf r equency w i th s ome t o o l t y pes e xh ib i t ing g r ea te r t e chn ica l s k i l l , a nd mu l t i -func t iona l t o o ls a nd t hose w ho se f unc t ion c anno t b e d e te rm ined a r e n o t n ume rous ( Zhang 1 985 :169 , 1 989 :120 ) . P o in t s w i th f i ne mod if ica t ion t o ta l l ing 9 0% o f a l l p o in t s a nd w i th c omp lex r e touch a ppea ri nt h ese l a ye r s ( Zhang 1 985 :169 , 1 989 :119 ) .

9 4

T he f r agmen ta ry c ond i t ion o f b one s a nd t h e i n c is ion ma rk s o n t h e se f o und a s soc ia ted w i th s t one a r tef ac t s a nd h om in id s w a s f i r s t e xp la ined b y t h e ir u se a s t o o ls b y P e i ( 1937 , a n d s e e P e i 1 93 1b :137 ) w i th g nawed s pec imens a t t r ibu ted t o h yena a nd r oden t mod if ica t ion ( Pe i 1 932 ) . P e i 's ( 1938a ) s ub sequen t s t udy o f t h e f o ss i ls f r om L oca l i ty 1 a nd o t he r C h ine se l o ca l i t ies c onc luded t h a t n on -hom in id a genc ie s ( r oden t a nd c a rn ivo re g naw ing , r oo t ma rk s , w a te r , a n d c hem ica ls ) a nd e xcava t ion d amage w e re ma in ly r e spons ib le f o r ap o r t ion o f t h e mod if ied b one s2 5 . P e i ( 1960 i n C h ia 1 959a ) l a te r b e l ieved t h a t av e ry s ma l l n umbe r o f b roken b one s w e re b one t o o ls mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch . B reu i l ( 1931 , 1 932a , 1 938 , 1 939 ) w ho s t ud ied t h e f o ss i ls r e cove r ed u p t o 1 934 ( a nd l o s t i n 1 937 ; B reu i l 1 939 : iv , 4 1) , w a s t h e m a in p roponen t o fa n o sseous i n du s t ry a tL oca l i ty 1 .B reu i l ( 1939 :1-4 ) a l so c on s ide r ed t h e e f f ec t s o f n a tu ra l b one mod if ie r s ( e .g . , r oden t s a nd c a rn ivo re s ) . B reu i l ( 1931 , 1 932a , 1 938 , 1 939 :1-2 , 4 , 9 -30 , P la te s I -XXV I ) r e cogn i sed a bundan t e v idence f o r ab one i n du s t ry i n t h e f r ac tu red a n d o t he rw ise a l te red b ones ( e .g . , l o ng i tud ina l a nd s p ira l f r ac tu re s ) , a n t le r s , a nd j aws w i th s t one t oo ls u t i l ised b y h om in id s a s p i e rc ing t oo ls , h amme r s , c h ise ls , a nd f o r o t he r p u rpo se s . T he mod if ica t ions i d en t if ied b y B reu i l ( s ee , e . g . , 1 939 , P la te s I -V I ) c anno t b e v e r if ied f r om t h e i lu s t ra ted p ho tog raph s , a nd t h e i regu la r f r a c tu re s o n t h ese a nd s ome o t he r s pec imens , i n c lud ing l o ng b one s ( s ee , e . g . , B reu i l 1 939 , P la te s X II I -XX I ) a ppea r t o b e s im i la r t o g naw -ma rk s ( c f . , e . g . , P e i 1 938a , P la te s V I I I , X -X I I , P la te I X , 1 4 ) , w h i le o t he r s ( s ee , e . g . , B reu i l 1 939 :64 , P la te X I I ) may r e p re sen t c u t m a rk s . A cco rd ing t o C h ia ( 1959a , J i a 1 980 :29 , 1 989b ; a nd s e e J i a a nd Huang 1 990 :79 ) , t h e b roken b one s a r e m a in ly i n d ica t ive o fc a rn ivo re a nd r oden t g naw ing , r ock f a l l , a nd m a r row e x t rac t ion b y h om in id s , b u t h e a l so r e cogn i se s b one f r agmen t s w i th a cu te f r ac tu r e s a nd c hopped o r c u t a n t le r s ( o f P . g ray i a nd Megacero s s p . ) a s t oo ls u sed f o r p i e rc ing , c u t t ing , a nd d igg ing , a nd a s h amme r s tone s . C h ia ( 1959a , J i a 1 989b ) a r gue s t h a t l e s s t h an 1 % o f t h e f r agmen ta ry b ones s how s e conda ry r e touch . O the r a u tho r s ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :321 , 3 54 ; T e i lha rd 1 941 :62 ; A igne r 1 986b ) a r gue t h a t a ny e v idence f o r ab one i ndus t ry w ou ld r e qu i re f u r the r e xam ina t ion , s ys tema t ic t aphonom ic s t ud ie s ( B lack e ta l . 1 933 :130 ,F ig s . 7 9 a nd 8 0 ; a nd s ee T e i lha rd a n d P e i 1 932 :354 ; L eakey 1 971 :275 ) , o r t h a t t h e e v idence f o r s uch a n i n du s t ry w a s e xagge ra ted (Mov ius 1 944 :73 , 1 949 :398 ; A igne r 1 981 :144 ) . Y ou ( 1986 ) b e l ieve s t h a t t h e r e touched a nd p o in ted b ones r e p re sen t b one t oo ls . B inf o rd a nd H o ( 1985 :416 , 4 38 ; a nd s e e B info rd 1 981 :195 -196 ) a n d B info rd a nd S tone ( 1986 :454 , 4 64 , 1 987 ) a r gue t h a t t h e f e a tu re s i n te rp re ted a s e v idence o f h om in id b one a nd a n t le r t o o l m anuf a c tu re c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o a n ima l a c t iv i ty ( e .g . , g naw ing ; a nd s e e b e low ) . S ome o f t h e b one f r agmen t s i d en t if ied b y B reu i l a s t oo ls w e re mod if ied b y t oo ls s ugge s t ing t h a t t h ese w e r e b roken b y h om in ids f o r ma r row ( B info rd a nd Ho 1 985 :437 ) . L ü ( 1985 :433 ) b e l ieves t h a t g naw ing b y l a rge c a rn ivo re s mod if ied t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e b one f r agmen t s , a nd t h a tt h e re i sn oe v idence f o rb one t oo ls . 2 5

I nr e ga rd t oe xcava t ion p rocedu re sa nd d amage o f

m a te r ia ls , i ti su sefu l t or e f e rt oJ i a 's s t a temen t ( i n J i aa nd H uang 1 990 :72 ) who n o te s t ha tw h i le u ncove r ing a n a sh l a ye ri nQ ua r tz Ho r izon 2i n1 931 , " The t e chn ic ians w e re b y n ow p rof ic ien t f o ss i l h un te r s , w ho c ou ld t e l l b y s ound w he the rt h eo b jec t s t h ey s t ruck w i th t h e i rs pade s w e re q ua r tz o rn o t . T h is s k i l l won g r ea ta dm ira t ion f r om J i a L anpo . H e m ade u ph i s m ind t ol e a rn f r om t h em , a nd h e t oo c ou ld s oon t e l l t h es ound o fs t ruck q ua r tz ."

T he f r agmen ta ry c ond i t ion o ft h eh om in id ma te r ia ls w a s f i r s t a t t r ibu ted t oc ann iba l ism b y We iden re ich ( 1939b :52 , 5 6 -57 , 1 943 :189 19 1) , a l though h e a l so r e a soned t h a t s ome b one s may h ave b een d amaged b y r oof f a l l , w h i le o t he r b one s i n f r e sh c ond i t ion , i n c lud ing s ku l ls a ppea r ed t o h ave b een f r ac tu red b y h yena s . Mo re r e cen t i n te rp re ta t ions e i the r s uppo r t t h e h ypo thes i s o f c ann iba l ism ( Chang 1 977 ; J i a 1 989b , a nd s e e J i a 1 980 :29 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :211-213 ) , o ra t t r ibu te t h es t a te o f t h e h om in id s t o g eo log ica l a nd n on h om in id d e s t ruc t ion ( c a rn ivo re g naw ing ) r e jec t ing t h e c l a im f o r c ann iba l i sm ( A igne r 1 981 :128 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 986b ; B inf o rd a nd H o 1 985 :414 -416 , 4 37 ; B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :468 ; B info rd 1 981 :291-292 ;a nd s ee B reu i l 1 939 : i i i iv ; P e i 1 940 :71) . B reu i l a nd L an t ie r ( 1965 :231-232 i n B inf o rd a nd H o 1 985 :416 ) h ave a rgued f o rh om in id b u r ia l i nt h e c ave b a sed o nt h ed i sp ropo r t iona te s ke le ta lf r equenc ie s -c r an ia a n d mand ib les -i n t h e d epo s i t s . T h is f r equency p a t te rn h a s a l so b een o b se rved i n S ou th A f r ican c ave s w he re i ti s an a tu ra l p henomenon ( B info rd a nd Ho 1 985 :416 ) . B inf o rd a nd H o ( 1985 :426 , 4 28 ) a rgue t h a t h om in id e l emen t f r equenc ie s a t t h e c ave 's e n t rance i n d ica te t h e ir i n t roduc t ion h e re b y n on h om in id s c avenge r s ; t h e l a t te r s ub sequen t ly s c a t te red t h e se f o s s i l s i nt h ec ave . A igne r( 1981 :128 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e d e ad h om in id s w e re d epo s i ted b y h om in id s a way f r om t h e a c t iv i ty a r ea s w he re t h ey w e re s ub sequen t ly d amaged b y c a rn ivo r e s ,r oden t s , a nd r oof -fa l ls .

a c t ive a tt h e c ave d u r ing a u tumn , w in te r , a nd e a r ly s p r ing ( B reu i l 1 939 :39 -40 ; A igne r 1 981 :128 , 1 46 ) . Au tumn a n d w in te r o ccupa t ion i ss ugge s ted b y t h e n ume rous a sh l e n se s a nd h ea r ths ( A igne r 1 981 :146 ; a nd s e e b e low ) . B info rd a n d S tone ( 1986 :464 ) , h oweve r , a t t r ibu te t h e p re sence o f o n ly f ew Megacero s s p . w i th u nshed a n t le r s t o at r an spo r t b i a s a ga in s t l a rge s ku l ls a nd a n t le r s b y d enn ing a n ima ls a n d h om in ids .

L oca l i ty 1 i s i n te rp re ted a s a n o ccupa t ion s i te w he r e h om in id sm anuf ac tu red a nd u t i l ised s t one t oo ls ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :354 -358 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :130 -135 ; Mov iu s 1 944 :68 , 7 1 -74 , 1 949 :386 , 3 98 ; C h ia 1 975 :28 -31 , J i a 1 980 :28 -29 , 1 989b ; A igne r 1 978a :183 -184 , 1 981 :128 , 1 46 ; C hang 1 962 , Z hang 1 985 :154 -167 , 1 989 :103 -119 ; J i a a n d H uang 1 990 :72 , 7 4 , 7 6 , 8 1 ; P ope 1 988b :66 ) . H om in id a c t iv i ty i se spec ia l ly c oncen t ra ted i n l a ye r s 4( e .g . , C hang 1 962 ; J i a 1 989b ) a nd 8 10 ( Pe i 1 931b :120 ; A igne r 1 981 :146 ) , a nd h om in id f oss i ls a r e u sua l ly p re sen t i n t h e c u l tu ra l l a ye r s , a l though d en se a ccumu la t ions w e re n o t i d en t if ied h e re ( A igne r 1 981 :146 , 1 48 ; a nd s e e a bove ) . H om in id o ccupa t ion o ccu r red w i th in a s i ng le i n te rg lac ia l p e r iod ( A igne r 1 986a , 1 988 :1054 ; a nd s e e a bove ) . T he a b so lu te d a te s s ugges t t ha t h om in id a c t iv i ty r a nged o ve r a m in imum p e r iod o f 2 00 ,000 y ea r s ( Pope 1 988b :67 ) , o r a bou t2 30 ,000 y ea r s ( a nd s ee a bove a nd T ab le 2 36 ) . T he a s soc ia t ion o f c a rn ivo re s a nd h om in ids i n d ica tes t h a t b o th o ccup ied t h ec ave ( Te i lha rd 1 930 ) i n term i t ten t ly ( B la ck e t a l . 1 933 :22 ; Ch ia 1 975 :9 -10 , J i a 1 989b ) . T he many H yaena s p .a nd U r sus s p . f o ss i ls i nt h el owe s tl a ye r s s ugge s t d ec r e a sed h om in id a c t iv i ty h e re ( Te i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :321 ; B lack e ta l . 1 933 :113 ) . P e i ( 1934d :43 i n C heng a nd T ang 1 985 ) a r gu ed t h a t t h e c ave w a s p o ss ib ly n o t i nhab i ted b y h om in id s , b u t u sed b y H yaena s p . a s ad en . T he many a n ima l b one s a nd t h e i r f r equen t ly b roken a nd c r u sh ed c ond i t ion c an t o al a rge e x ten tb e e xp la ined b y c a rn ivo re a n d r oden t a c t iv i t ie s a nd r oof f a l l , a nd t o al e sse r e x ten t b y h om in id a c t iv i t ie s ( A igne r 1 981 :128 , a nd s e e A igne r 1 988 :1040 ;J i a 1 989b ) . Hom in id c ave o ccupa t ion i st hough t t o h ave b een p e r iod ica l ( B reu i l 1 939 : i ; Mov iu s 1 949 :392 ) , a nd o n as e a sona l b a s is a c co rd ing t o B reu i l 's ( 1939 :39 -40 ) s t udy o f d ee r a n t le r s . B reu i l ( 1939 :39 -40 ) f ound t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o fP .g ray ia n t le r sw e re u nshed ( 174 o f 1 76 ) , w h i le o n ly a s ma l l n umbe r o f t h e Megacero s s p . a n t le r s w e r e a t tached t ot h ec r an ium ( 10 o f 6 4 ) s ugge s t ing t h a t h om in id s h ad k i l led t h e f o rme r s pec ies b e tween l a te s umme r a nd t h e b eg inn ing o fa u tumn , a nd t h el a t te ri ne a r ly w in te r . No h a lf g rown a n t le r s w e re f ound i n d ica t ing t h a t h om in ids w e r e

P e i ( 1931b :119 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h e p re sence o f o n ly f r agmen ta ry l o ng b one s o f l a rge mamma ls may b e r e f e rab le t o h om in id a c t iv i ty . T he i n c i sed o r c u t -ma rked b one s h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o h om in id a c t iv i ty ( Pe i 1 932 ; T e i lha rd a n d P e i 1 932 :321 , 3 54 ; A igne r 1 981 :144 ) , a nd t ho se f ound i n l a ye r 7 may r e p re sen t p os s ib le h om in id mod if ied b one s ( B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :18 ) . T he mos t a bundan t f o s s i l mamma ls ( P . b . s i nens i s , D . k i r chbergens is s pp . , P . g ray i , a nd M . p achyos teus ; s e e T ab le 2 34 ) h ave b een i n te rp re ted a s i n d ica t ions o f h om in id s ub s is tence e conomy ( Young 1 932c :94 ; A igne r 1 981 :147 -148 ) , b e s ide r oden t s a nd o t he r s ma l l mamma ls ( A igne r 1 981 :148 ) . R oden t s a n d i n sec t ivo res a r e mo s t h eav i ly r e p re sen ted i n l a ye r s 4a nd 5 ( Young 1 934 :130 -132 , 1 84 ) , a nd m ic rof auna i sc ommon i n t h eb l ack l a ye r so fl a ye r 4( Te i lha rd a nd Young 1 930b :181) . T he a bundance o fd ee r ( a lmo s t 7 0% o f t h e f os s i ls ) s ugge s t s d e e r h un t ing s pec ia l isa t ion ( Mov iu s 1 944 :68 , 1 949 :392 ; C hang 1 977 ; Wu a nd L in 1 983 ) . T he v e ry l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f y oung r h inoce ro s a nd Megacero s s p . a r e t hough t t o s ugge s t e f f ic ien th un t ing ( A igne r 1 981 :146 ) , a nd B reu i l ( 1932a ) h a s a r gued t h a th om in id s c ap tu red , s ys tema t ica l ly b u tche red , a nd r oa s ted l a rge n umbe r so fa n ima ls . C h ia ( 1975 :40 -44 ) r e a son s t h a th om in ids s ub s is ted ma in ly o np lan t sb ecause t h e se w e r e amo re r e l iab le r e sou r ce , a nd h un ted s ma l l , a nd r a re ly l a rge a n ima ls . T he h a ckbe r ry s e ed s ( l aye r s 4a nd 6 , a nd f ewe r i n l a ye r s 8 10 ; s e ea bove )h ave b een e xp la ined a s h om in id f o od d eb r is (Mov ius 1 944 :68 , 1 949 :392 ; A igne r 1 981 :145 -146 ; c on t ra B info rd a nd Ho 1 985 :428 , 4 38 )2 6 .H om in id s m ay a l so h ave e xp lo i ted o the r f r u i t s a nd n u t s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e s i te ( A igne r 1 981 :146 ) . T he o s t r ich e ggshe l l f r agmen t s , i n c lud ing s ome b u rn t s pec imens ( Young 1 933 ; C h ia 1 975 :42 ; s ee a bove ) a r e t hough t t o r e p re sen t e v idence o f s ub s is tence ( Ch ia 1 975 :42 ; o the r o s t r ich f o ss i ls h ave n o t b een i d en t if ied ; s e e ,e . g . ,B lack e ta l . [ 1 933 :48 ] ) . T he c ave 's p o s s ib le l o ca t ion i n ac oo l a nd w a rm t empe ra te r e g ion s ugge s t s t ha t a pp rox ima te ly h a lf o f t h e h om in id s ' d i e t w a s m ea t w h ich i n w in te r may h ave d e r ived t o as ub s tan t ia l e x ten tf r om s ma l lf a una (Wa tanabe 1 985 ) . T he " l im i ted t o o l s y s tem" o f c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls s ugge s t s as t rong r e l iance o n s ma l lf a una f o rd i e tw h ich i sa l so i mp l ied b y t h e h eavy r ep re sen ta t ion o fs ma l l b u rned a n ima l f o ss i ls i n l a ye r 4(Wa tanabe 1 985 ) . T he many s t one t o o ls w e re u sed f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima ls a cco rd ing t o Y ou ( 1986 ) . Wi th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o f b one c l ubs ( A igne r 1 981 :148 ) , t h e a r te f a c t s y i e ld n o i n forma t ion o n h om in id h un t ing t e chn ique s ( A igne r 1 981 :148 ; a nd s e e Mov ius 1 949 :392 ) . Many o f t h e t o o ls u s ed f o r h un t ing may h ave b een manu f ac tu red f r om n on l i th ic ma te r ia l s ( A igne r 1 981 :148 ; a nd s ee P ope 1 989a ; J i a 2 6

C haney ( 1935 )c onc luded t h a tt h ei n tac te ndoca rp s

i n d ica ted h om in id c on sump t ion , a nd t h a tt h ef r agmen ta ry o ne sc ou ld b ea t t r ibu ted t oc a rn ivo re a c t iv i ty . S ubsequen t a na lys is o ft h ec on ten t so fh yaena a nd b ea rc op ro l i te sh a s s hown t h a tt h e se i n c luded c omp le te s eed s( L i e ta l . 1 966 i n A igne r 1 981 :107 ) .

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a nd Huang 1 990 :74 ) , a nd much o ft h e s ma l l f a una m ay h ave b een s e cu red w i th u nmod if ied o r s ha rpened d igg ing s t ick s (Wa tanabe 1 985 ) . T he c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls m ay h ave b een u s ed t o p roce ss b a rk a nd l a rge mamma l c a rca s se s f o r f ood , i n c lud ing t h e b r eakage o f b ones f o r ma r row e x t rac t ion (Wa tanabe 1 985 ) . S c rape r s a r e i n te rp re ted a s mu l t i -func t iona l t o o ls u sed f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f f l o ra l a nd f a una l r e sou r ce s ( Zhang 1 985 :161 , 1 989 :118 ) a nd f o r b o th s c rap ing a nd c u t t ing ( Chang 1 962 ) . S crap ing o f w ood b r anche s t os hape c l ub sc ou ld h ave b een c a r r ied o u t w i th t h e l a rge c oncave s c rape r ( J ia 1 980 :28 -29 ) . P o in t s may h ave b een u sed f o r av a r ie ty o fa c t iv i t ie s , s uch a s a n ima l b u tche ry ( s k inn ing a nd s e ve rance o fs i news f r om b one s )a nd e x t rac t ing w o rms f r om t r ee b a rk ( J ia 1 980 :29 ) . T he a cu te a nd d u l l e dged g r ave r s a r e i n te rp re ted a s e ng rav ing a nd c u t t ing t o o ls a nd s c rape r s ( Zhang 1 985 :164 , 1 989 :116 ; a nd s e e a bove ) . C hoppe r s a r e t h ough t t o h ave b een u sed f o r c u t t ing a n d b r eak ing a nd t h e p o in ted s pec imens f o r d igg ing ( Zhang 1 985 :163 -164 ) . C hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls c ou ld h ave b een emp loyed f o rt r ee f e l l ing o rt h e m anuf ac tu re o f h un t ing e qu ipmen t ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :74 ) . S phe ro ids may r e p resen t h amme r , a nd m iss i le s t ones ( Zhang 1 985 :164 1 65 ) .

b one s i n c lude e i gh t c u t , o ne c u t a nd h acked , a nd t h ree h a cked / chopped s pec imens , a nd t wo p o ss ib ly u sed a s a nv i ls ( B info rd a nd S t one 1 986 :455 ,4 59 -460 , a nd s e e T ab le 2 ) a n d r e p re sen t s ub s tan t ia l e v idence t h a t s ome h om in id a c t iv i ty w a s r e la t ed t o h o r se mod if ica t ion ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :455 , 4 60 -46 1) . T he c u t -ma rk s s ugges t t wo t y pe s o f t oo l u se , t h a t i ss l ic ing c a r r ied o u t w i th f l ake s , a nd h ack ing ma rk s f r om h eav ie r a nd l a rge r t oo ls ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :46 1) . H om in ids s eem t o h ave e xp lo i ted ma in ly t h e mea t a nd n o t t h e m a r row o f h o r ses , a nd t o ngue , mu sc le , a nd /o r m and ib le r emova l i s i n d ica ted b y t h e p l acemen t o f c u t -ma rk s o n t h e m and ib les ( f ive f r agmen t s ) f r om c a r ca s se s i n r e la t ive ly f r e sh c ond i t ion ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :460 , 4 6 1 , 4 67 ) . T he a ppa ren t a nv i ls c anno t b e e xp la ined b y h om in id a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion f o r f ood ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :455 , 4 60 -461) . T he c u t -ma rks o n B uba lus s p . b one s s ugge s t t h e r emova l o f musc le t i ssue ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :463 ) . O ne c u t -ma rk p a t te rn o n t h e c e rv id mand ib le s s e ems t o i d en t if y t o ngue r emova l , a no the r a ppea r s t o b e r e f e rab le t o t h e r emova l o f t i ssue b y s c rap ing , a nd h ack ing m a rk s w e r e o n ly o b se rved o n Mega loceros s p . a nd t h e se mand ib le s a l so h ave t h e h ighe s t i n c idence o f l o ng i tud ina l s c rap ing mod if ica t ion ( n . 4 ; B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :463 4 64 , T ab le 9 ) . T he t o o l -ma rked mand ib le s a nd m ax i l lae d e r ive f r om a du l ta n ima ls ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :466 ) .

Mo re r e cen t ly , s t ud ie s b y B info rd a nd H o ( 1985 :425 , 4 29 ) h ave s ugge s ted t h a t h yena a nd o the r s c avenge r s w e re t h e ma jo rc on t r ibu to r s t os i te f o rma t ion b a sed o n t h ep re sence o f t h e i rf o ss i ls a nd h yena c op ro l i te s ( a nd s ee b e low ) , w h i le t h e e v idence f o r h om in id s ubs is tence a c t iv i ty , i n p a r t icu la r t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f t oo ls i s n o t s ubs tan t ia l . B info rd a nd S tone 's ( 1986 :455 , 4 72 ) a na lys is i n vo lved t h e s t udy o f 1 , 523 o f t h e L oca l i ty 1 f o ss i ls o f w h ich t h e ma jo r i ty a r e r e p r e sen ted b y t e e th ( n . 1 , 091) a nd 4 32 b y b one f r agmen t s . T he c e rv id s amp le c ons is ts ma in ly o f t e e th a nd p a r t s o f mand ib le s , a nd i s c ha rac te r ised b y a h igh d eg r ee o f w ea the r ing o r e xcava t ion d amage ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :463 , T ab le 8 ) . T he h ighe r f r equency o f g naw -ma rk s c ompa red t o t o o l -ma rk s o n t h e f o ss i ls , e spec ia l ly o n h o r se a nd b ov id ( ho r se : g naw -ma rk s n .3 9o r2 7% , c u t -ma rk s n .1 5 o r 1% o n as amp le o f 1 43 b one s ; b ov id : g naw -ma rk s n . 1 9 , c u t -ma rk s n . 2o n as amp le o f 5 5 b one s a nd 9 0 t e e th ; c e rv id s : P seudax i s s p . : g nawed n .6 1 [ 6 6 12 7 ,c u t n . 1 0 , o f a t o ta l s amp le o ft wo a n t le r s , 1 83 [ 203 ] b ones a nd 6 35 t e e th , Mega loceros s p . ( s ic ) : g nawed n . 2 2 [ 2 5 ] , c u t n . 5 , o f o ne a n t le r , 5 9 [ 6 2 ] b one s a nd 1 93 t e e th , S p irocerus s p . : g nawed n .5 ,c u t n .2 ,o f 1 6 b one s a nd 5 3 t e e th ) s hows t h a t d enn ing a n ima ls w e re g ene ra l ly r e spons ib le f o r t h e p r e sence o f t h e se a n ima ls ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :455 , 4 59 , 4 60 -461 , 4 64 , 4 67 -468 , T ab le s 2 a nd 8 ) . T h is i s a l so s uppo r ted b y a na tom ica l e l emen t f r equenc ie s , t h e a r rangemen t o f g naw ma rks o n t h e e qu id a nd b ov id f o ss i ls , a nd c ompa r isons t o a s semb lage s mod if ied b yd enn ing a n ima ls ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :455 -459 , 4 61 , 4 67 ) . T he l a rge n umbe r o f h o r se b one s i n c lude w ho le s pec imen s , e spec ia l ly me tapod ia ls w h ich i s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f h yena d en l o ca l i t ie s , a l though g naw ing i s l e a s tf r equen to nh o r se f o s s i ls ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :455 , 4 68 ) . Mos t c u t -ma rk s o ccu r o n h o r se a nd mo s t mand ib le s w i th e v idence o f t oo l mod if ica t ion a r e a l so r e p re sen ted b y t h is a n ima l ( 25% ) , w h ich m ay s ugge s t p re f e ren t ia l e xp lo i ta t ion o f h o r se a nd o f e nv i ronmen t s f r equen ted b y t h is a n ima l ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :467 -468 ) . T he t o o l mod if ied e qu id

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T he s upe rpo s i t ion o f t oo l i mp re ss ions o n g naw -ma rk s o n f ou r p i ece s ( o f t h ree s pec ie s ) i n d ica te s h om in id s c aveng ing ( B info rd a nd S t one 1 986 :463 , 4 68 , 1 987 ) . T he a ppa ren t ly l a rge n umbe r o f h o r se c r an ia l e l emen t s i s i n te rp re ted a s c ompa t ib le w i th h om in id s c aveng ing i n t empe ra te c l ima te s , b u t t h e l a ck o f d ee r a ppend icu la r e l emen t s i sn o t c ons is ten t w i th t h is b ehav iou r( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :468 ) . T he h igh f r equency o f h o r se h ead s pec imens , e spec ia l ly o f mand ib le s i si n d ica t ive o f a c cumu la t ion b y d enn ing a n ima ls a nd t o a l e sse r e x ten t o f h om in id s caveng ing ( B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :46 1 ,4 66 -467 ) . B info rd a nd Ho ( 1985 :429 ) a nd B inf o rd a nd S tone ( 1 986 :467 , 4 68 )h ave b een u nab le t oi d en t ify c l ea r e v idence f o r h un t ing , a nd B info rd a nd S tone ( 1986 :468 ) s ugge s tt h a th om in id sp rocu red a n ima l r e sou rces a nd ma in ly mea t b y s c aveng ing . B info rd a nd S tone 's ( 1 986 ) i n te rp re ta t ion s h ave b een c r i t ic ised b ecau se o f i n suf f ic ien t t ime f o r a na lys is ( O lsen 1 986 ; P ope 1 988b :66 ; c on t ra B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :472 ) a nd s ma l l s amp le s i ze ( O lsen 1 986 ; P ope 1 988b :67 ) . F u r the rmo re , t h e L oca l i ty 1 f r equenc ie so fs k e le ta l e l emen t c a tego r ie s ( no t mo re t h an 2 0 a nd u sua l ly l e s s t h an 1 0 ) a r e t oo l ow t o b e c ompa red t o l o ca l i t ie s w i th s u ff ic ien t f r equenc ie s , a nd t h e 1 00% g naw m a rked f r equency o f f i ve h o r se f o ss i l c a tego r ie s w i th o n ly o ne e l emen t p e r c a tego ry i s a l so i n te rp re ted a s m i s lead ing ( Pope 1 988b :67 -68 ) . B eh rensmeye r ( 1986 :469 ; c on t ra B info rd a nd S tone 1 987 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e e l emen t f r equenc ie s a r e p robab ly i n f luenced b y " po s t -excava t ion b i a se s" . I t i s t h us q ue s t ionab le i f t h e s amp le i s r ep re sen ta t ive ( Beh ren smeye r 1 986 ; P ope 1 988b :67 -68 ) . F u r the rmo re , i t h a s r e cen t ly b een s hown t h a t g naw -ma rk s c an o b scu re c u t ma rk s , w h i le c u t -ma rk s r a re ly d e s t roy g naw -ma rk s ( Po t t s 1 988 :217 ; S h ipman 1 986 ; P ope 1 988b :68 ) . A igne r ( 1 986b ) r e a sons t h a ts t udy o f al a rge r s amp le o f s pec imens f r om t h e c u l tu ra l a r ea s i sr e qu i r ed t o a dd re s s t h e s caveng ing v e r su s h un t ing i s sue . T he a s soc ia t ion o f a sh l a ye r s , c hem ica l t e s t s i d en t if y ing s amp le s o f c ha r red b ones , a n t le r s , a nd s o i l , a nd t h e many c ha r red b one sh ave b een a t t r ibu ted t oh om in id f i re u se ( B la ck 1 931 ; P e i 1 931b :137 ; B reu i l 1 932a ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :32 1 , 3 56 ; B lack e t a l . 1 933 :133 , 1 34 ; Mov ius

F requenc ie s i ns qua re b r acke t sr e p re sen tt h ew r i te r 's

c oun to fB info rd a nd S tone 's ( 1986 ,T ab le 8 )f r equenc ie s .

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1 944 :68 , 1 949 :386 , 3 92 ; C h ia 1 975 :33 -37 , J i a 1 980 :29 , 3 0 , 1 989b ; A igne r 1 981 :128 , 1 46 ; L ü 1 985 ; Z hang 1 985 :157 , 1 84 , 1 989 :104 , 1 55 ; O l sen 1 986 ; Y ou 1 986 ; P ope 1 988b :67 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :77 -79 ; a nd s e e T e i lha rd 1 941 :57 ; Wa tanabe 1 985 ) . T o B lack e ta l . ( 1933 :113 ) t h e e v idence f o rf i re i s" . . .so c l ea ra nd a bundan t t h a t t h ey r e qu i r e o n ly t ob e m en t ioned w i thou t a ny f u r the r d emons t ra t ion ." . S ome a u tho r s a r gue t h a t h om in id s w e r e a b le t o m ake f i r e ( B la ck e ta l . 1 933 :134 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :386 ; C h ia 1 975 :34 , J i a 1 980 :29 , 1 989b ) . T he f ou r a sh l a ye r s i n t h e c ave ( Ch ia 1 964 , 1 975 :33 , J i a 1 989b ; Y ou 1 986 ) h ave b een i n te rp r e t ed a s s ugge s t ive o f e x ten s ive h ea r th s ( Mov iu s 1 949 :392 ; A igne r 1 981 :128 ) . T he s t ra t if ied a nd v a r iab ly c o lou r ed d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a sh l a ye r s i n l a ye r 4s e em t o h ave b e en f o rmed b y l ow -ene rgy w a te r a c t iv i ty ( Ch ia 1 964 , 1 975 :34 , J i a 1 989b ) . Y oung ( 1934 :131 , 1 32 ) e xp la ined t h e d if e r en t s t age s o f a n ima l f o s s i l isa t ion d ue t o v a r ia t ion s i n u nde rg round w a te r a c t ion , o r t o f i r e b a sed o n c o lou ra t ion o f f o s s i ls ( wh i te , b l ue , a nd g r een ) mo s t ly c oncen t ra ted i n t h e a sh l a ye r s , s uch a s l a ye r 4 . T oo ls a r e mo s t f r equen t ly a s soc ia t ed w i th h ea r th s a nd r oden t f o ss i l s i n b u rn t c ond i t ion a r e u sua l ly mo s t a bundan t i n l a ye r s w i th h eavy h om in id a c t iv i ty ( A igne r 1 981 :146 , 1 48 ) . O the r a u tho r s h ave f o und n o e v idenc ef o r h om in id f i re u se o r t h e p r e sence o f h e a r th s ( B inf o rd 1 981 :29 1-293 ;B info rd a nd H o 1 985 :414 , 4 37 ) , a nd a r gue t h a t t h e c o lou red l a ye r s w e re n o t c au sed b y f i r e ( B inf o rd a nd S tone 1 986 :467 ) .T hey s ugge s tt h a tt h e se l a ye r s s eem t ob e d e ca lc if i ed s ed imen t s , a nd t h a t l a rge a moun t s o f m angane se o x ide c an f r equen t ly o ccu r i n o r n ea r s uch s ed imen t s ( B in fo rd a nd Ho 1 985 :420 -421 , 4 25 ) . H oweve r , h om in id s m ay h ave u sed f i re ( B in f o rd a nd H o 1 985 :437 ) . B info rd a nd H o( 1985 :429 )a r gue t h a tt h ee x ten s ive t h ickne s s o f t h e a sh l a ye r s p r ec lude s t h e se f r om b e ing i d en t if ied a s h ea r ths , a nd s ugge s t t ha t t h e a sh l a ye r s a nd b u rn t a nd o t he r mod if ied b one s a r e p o ss ib ly d ue t o n a tu ra l c au se s o f t h e s pon taneou s c ombu s t ion ( a nd s e e O ak ley 1 961 :181) o f g uano d epo s i t sa sf ound i nc ave s o ft h e s ou thwe s te rn U n i t ed S ta te s ; p o s t -depo s i t iona l mod if ica t ion , a nd n a tu ra l ( f o re s t ) f i re st h a tm ay h ave e n te red t h ec ave v i a f i s su re s . B inf o rd a nd H o ( 1985 :425 ) c l a im t ha t t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f e a r ly a u tho r s ( T e i lha rd a nd P e i 1 932 :319 ) o f " l i t t le c on s is tency" i n t h e p a t te rn ing o f m a te r ia ls i n l a ye r s 8 10 s ub s tan t ia l ly c o r robo r a t e s t h e i r i mp re s s ion t h a t t h e a sh l a ye r s w i th t h e i r v a r iab ly c o lou r ed l a ye r s r ep r e sen t a p o s t -depo s i t iona ry p henomenon w h ich may b e e xp la ined b y d eca lc if i ca t ion o f t h e d epo s i t s , a nd a l so a r gue t h a t e v iden ce f o r al i v ing f l oo r a s soc ia ted w i th h ea r th s c an b e q ue s t ioned b ecau se t h e s ed imen t s c ou ld b e d eca lc if i ed a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l . H oweve r ,T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 :319 ) m e re ly n o ted t h a t t h e " f aun is t ica la nd a r ch a z log ica lc on ten t "o ft h e se a pp rox ima te ly 2m t h ick l a ye r s w i th " ve ry c on s tan t " s t ra t if ica t ion a pp ea r " t o b e v e r y v a r iab le" , s uch a s t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e mo s t n ume rou s q ua r tz l a ye r " above a nd n o t u nde r t h e b l ack l a ye r c . " . N o o rl i t t le l i gh t a ppea r s t o h ave r e a ched t h e i n te r io r o f t h ec ave b e cau se t h ee n t rance w a sn o t l a rge e nough w h ich i s i n compa t ib le w i th h om in id c ave b ehav iou r r e cogn i sed i n s ub sequen tc ave o ccupa t ion s w he re o n ly t h o se p a r t so f ac ave w e re o ccup ied w i th t h e max imum a moun t o f l i gh t a va i lab le ( B in f o rd a nd H o 1 985 :425 , 4 37 ) . N ume rou s b one s s how n o e v idence o fb u rn ing a nd an umbe r( B info rd a nd H o 1 985 :420 ) o r mo s t ( B in f o rd a nd S tone 1 986 :467 ) o f t h o se f o rme r ly i n te rp r e ted a sc ha r red s eem t oh ave b een mod if i ed b y m ine ra l s t a in ing a nd n o tb u rn ing .

c on tend s t h a tt h ee v idence f o rf i re i sc ons i s ten tw i th h om in id u s ea nd c on t ro l o f f i r e d ocumen ted , f o r i n s tance , b y t h e a s h h eap sc onf ined t o al i v ing f l oo ro n as l ab l o ca ted b e low l a ye r 3( a nd s e ea bove ) . L ü ( 1985 ) a r gue s t h a tt h e re i sn o e v iden ce f o rt h e m ine ra l o r ig in o f f i re , b u t i n s tead a bundan t e v id en ce f o r h om in id f i re u se i n t h e m any b u rn t b one s ( r ang ing i n c o lou rf r om b l ack , g r ey , g reen , a nd b l ue ) , i n c lud ing c r a ck ed s pec imen s , t h e c ha r coa l i n t h e a sh l a ye r s , a nd t h e b u rn t h a ckbe r ry a nd r e dbud ,a nd Y ou ( 1986 :47 1) r e f e r s t o c hem ica l a na ly se s w h ich f ound t h a tt h ea sh ,c ha r coa l , a nd b u rn t b one s a nd s t one s c on ta in " f re e c a rbon" w i th n o t r a ce o f i r on o r m angane se ( Pe i a nd Z hang 1 985 , P e i 1 985 i n Y ou 1 986 :471 ; a nd s e e C h ia 1 975 :33 ; A igne r 1 986b ; O l sen 1 9 86 ; P ope 1 988b :67 ; a nd s e e a bove ) . T he h ypo the s is o f s pon taneou s c ombu s t ion h a s b een r e jec ted b ecau se t h i s o ccu r s i n h o t a nd a r id c ond i t ions o f t h e s ou thwe s t e rn U .S .A . , b u t h a s n o t b een d ocumen ted f o r t h e w a rm h um id c l ima te o fL oca l i ty 1( Pope 1 988b :67 ; a nd s ee S t rau s 1 985 ) . I ti sa l so n o tp o s s ib le t op rec i se ly e s tab l i sh t h e p o s i t ion s o f t h eo pen ing s , a nd l i gh tw ou ld h ave e n te red t h e c ave t h rough t h e se o pen ing s a c co rd ing t o P ope ( 1988b :67 ) . H e ( Pope 1 988b :67 ) a l so a r gue s t h a t t h e l o ng u t i l isa t ion o f t h e l o ca l i ty f u r the r s uppo r t s t h e e v idence f o r h om in id f i re u se . O ak ley ( 1 961 :181) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e h om in id s m ay h ave e xp lo i ted " acc iden ta lf i re s" . F i re w a s a ppa ren t ly u t i l ised t o c ook mea t ( Mov iu s 1 949 :386 , 3 92 ; C h ia 1 975 :37 ; A igne r 1 981 :146 , 1 48 ) . T he c ha r r ed r e dbud w ood f r agmen t sa nd t h el a rge n umbe r o f b u rn t h a ckbe r ry s e ed sa r et h ough tt or e p re sen t e v idence o f h om in id u se o ft h e se p l an t s a s f i re -wood ( A igne r 1 981 :146 -147 ; L ü 1 985 ; Mov iu s 1 949 :386 ) . F i re may a l so h ave b een u sed a sa d e t e r r en t t o k eep c a rn ivo re s a way f r om t h e c ave ( Mov iu s 1 949 :386 ; O ak ley 1 956 , 1 961 ; a nd s e e J i a 1 980 :30 ) . O l sen ( 1 986 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e l im i ted v a r ie ty o f b a t a n d r o den t s ke le ta l e l emen t s i n t h e a sh a r ea s c ompa red t o o t he r p a r t so ft h ed epo s i ti si n d ica t ive o fh om in id s e lec t ion ( c on t r a B in fo rd a nd S tone 1 986 :473 ) . B in fo rd a nd S tone ( 1986 :460 , 4 67 -468 ) h ave i d en t if ied e l even b u rn t h o r se s pec imen s o f w h ich s e ven w e r e b u rn t i n f r e sh c ond i t ion a nd f ou r a f te r a l o ng d e lay . T he se s e em t o h ave b een c ooked s ub sequen t t o t h e d e ta chmen t o f t h e mand ib le s a nd t h e b u rn ing c an b e e xp la ined a s ar e su l t o f h om in id f i re u se ( B in fo rd a nd S tone 1 986 :460 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e se f ew s pec imens a ppa ren t ly d e r ive f r om l e ve ls 3 -4 ( B inf o rd a nd S tone 1 986 :460 , 4 67 ) , a l though t h e h o r se f o s s i ls c ou ld o r ig ina te f r om l a ye r s 7 8 ( A igne r 1 986b ) . T he l ow f r equency o f c haf ed b one s f r om o l de r l a ye r s s e em t o h ave b een b u rn t i n d r y c ond i t ion a n d r e p r e sen t v e ry i n sub s tan t ia l e v idence o f h om in id b u rn ing ( B in f o rd a nd S tone 1 986 :467 ) . J i a ( 1989b ) p o in t s o u t t h a t mo s t b one s w e r e n o t f ound i n ab u rned c ond i t ion . O l sen ( 1 986 ) h a s q ue s t ioned B inf o rd a nd S tone 's ( 1 986 ) a s sump t ion o f b e ing a b le t o d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween b u rn t a n d u nbu rned b one s o n t h eb a s i s o f v i sua l i n spec t ion a nd a r gue s t h a tb u rn ing m ay mod ify b one , b u tl e ave n o t r ace s t h a t m ay b ea ppa ren t( c on tra B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :473 ) . B inf o rd a nd H o ( 1985 :416 , 4 25 , 4 29 ) q ue s t ion t h e h om in id b ehav iou ra l a s soc ia t ion o f n on -hom in id b one s , t oo ls , a n d a s ha nd d i dn o ti d en t if y ac l ea rp a t te rn ing o f h ea r th s o r l i th ic t o o ls , a l though t h e p r e sence o f s t one t oo l s s ugge s t s a r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e a sh l a ye r s a nd h om in id c a v e o ccupa t ion . T he se a u tho r s ( B inf o rd a nd H o 1 985 :429 , 4 38 ) a l so r e a son t h a t t h e p a t te rn ing o f f e a tu re s i n t h e c ave d o e s n o tc onf o rm t ot h a t k nown f r om 5 0 ,000 t o 1 00 ,000 y ea r o l d s i te s ( a nd s e e B in f o rd 1 978 , 1 983 :144 -192 ) , a l though a ny p a t te rn ing m ay h ave b een o b scu red b y e xcava t ion a n d

J i a( 1989b ) ,o ne o fm a in r e sea r che r s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion s a nd f am i l ia r w i th t h e Z houkoud ian m a te r ia l s , a r gue st h a tm angane se o x ide d oe s n o t o ccu r i n t h e c ave , a nd

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r e co rd ing me thods . T he i n te rp re ta t ions b y B info rd a nd H o ( 1 985 )a nd B info rd a nd S t one ( 1986 ) d o n o t f u l ly a pp rec ia te t h a t as i te s uch a s L oca l i ty 1 w i th e v idence o f n a tu ra l d e s t ruc t ion , e . g . , r oof c o l lap se a nd r o ck f a l l ( s ee , e . g . , B lack e ta l . 1 933 :e .g . , 1 2 -13 ; A igne r 1 981 :128 ; P ope 1 988b :67 ) c ou ld h ave mod if ied t h e ir s amp les a nd t h us b i a sed t h e ir i n te rp re ta t ions . B inf o rd a nd H o ( 1985 :438 ) d o , h oweve r , c oncede t h a t i ti sn o tp o ss ib le t oe xam ine t h e v a r iou s a spec t s o f t h e h i s to ry o f d epo s i t iona ry f o rma t ion s uch a s w a te r t r anspo r t p e r t inen t t o " a r e a l is t ic i n te rp re ta t ion" o f t h e d epo s i t . P os t -depo s i t iona ry p roce sse s w ou ld p robab ly d i s to r t t h e p r ima ry a r chaeo log ica l c onf igu ra t ion , a nd B info rd a nd Ho 's ( 1985 ) r e eva lua t ion o f t h e g eo logy d i s r ega rd s s i gn if ican t p ub l ica t ions b y C h ine se w o rke r s , i n c lud ing e xcava t ion r epo r t s ( Pope 1 988b :66 , 6 7 ) . J i a ( p e r s . c omm . i n P ope 1 988b :67 ; a nd s e e O lsen 1 986 ) a rgue s t h a t t h e e xcava t ion r epo r t s c on t rad ic t B info rd a nd Ho 's ( 1 985 ) i n te rp re ta t ion o f a n on -cons is ten t a s soc ia t ion b e tween a r tefac t s , f auna , a nd a sh . A igne r( 1986b ) r e a sons t h a t B info rd a nd S tone 's ( 1986 ) i n te rp re ta t ions a r e " p rema tu re" , b ecause o f t h e p rob lema t ic d e te rm ina t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l l o ca t ion o f f i nd s i n t h e d epos i t a nd p oo r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing .

t h e H uanghe w hen i ti s a t l ow w a te r s t and (We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) .

B info rd a nd Ho ( 1985 :4 16 , 4 29 ) c onc lude t h a t h om in ids h ab i tua l ly u sed t oo ls a nd a l so a ppea r t o h ave u sed f i re , b u t t h e n a tu re o f h om in id c ave a c t iv i ty c anno t b e e s tab l ished ; t h ey a l so r e cogn ise a c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e r e la t ive ly c onse rva t ive l i th ic a s semb lage s a nd t h e a ppa ren t ly s l ow mo rpho log ica l e vo lu t ion o f t h e h om in id s . I n t h e i r o p in ion ( B info rd a nd Ho 1 985 :438 ) , t h e h om in ids , s im i la r t o t h e k nown t oo l -us ing n on -hom in ids a ppa ren t ly l a cked t h e c apac i ty f o r c u l tu ra l b ehav iour . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion h a s b een r e jec ted b ecause o ft h ee v idence f o rl i t h ic t o o l p roduc t ion a nd f i re u t i l isa t ion ( Pope 1 988b :66 ) . A cco rd ing t o B info rd a nd Ho ( 1985 :429 , 4 38 ) c u l tu re e vo lved w i th moder n H . s ap ien s ( 35 ,000 t o 4 0 ,000 y ea r s a go ) , a nd t h ey r e cogn ise d i s s im i la r r a te s o f t e chno log ica l e vo lu t ion b e tween t h e L owe r a nd Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic . A igne r ( 1981 :271) a r gue s t h a t t h e s i te 's ma te r ia l e v idence i n d ica te s a h igh d eg r ee o f h om in id " behav io ra l a nd a dap ta t iona l c omp lex i ty" ,o ne o f t h e r e a son s b e ing t h el o ng term o ccupa t ion . 7 .4

Kehe

K ehe i sl o ca ted i nt h el owe rF enhe ( Fen r i ve r ) v a l ley n ea rt h e m idd le r e ache s o f t h e H uanghe , R u icheng c oun ty , o f s ou thwes tern S hanx i p rov ince i n t h e S anmenx ia a r ea ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :192 , 1 981 :177 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :18 ; F ig . 14 ) . T h i r teen p a laeon to log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l l o ca l i t ie s h ave b een d i scove red i nt h e a r ea o fK ehe v i l lage ( J ia 1 980 :19 ; P ope 1 982 :167 ) . O f t h e se L oca l i ty 6 053 i st h eE a r ly /M idd le P le is tocene X ihoudu l o ca l i ty ( a nd s ee C hap te r sI ,I ) , a nd L oca l i ty 6 060 i so f L a te P le is tocene a ge ( A igne r 1 981 :177 , a nd s ee A igne r 1 978a :194 ) . T he M idd le P l e is tocene K ehe l o ca l i ty c omp lex i s as e r ies o f 1 r i ve r t e r race l o ca l i t ies , a nd w a s f i r s t men t ioned a s ap a laeon to log ica l l o ca l i ty i n 1 936 , a nd a f te r a s u rvey i n 1 957 , w a s e xcava ted i n 1 959 f o l lowed b y amo re e x tens ive e xcava t ion i n 1 960 ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 964 ; J i a 1 980 :18 1 9 ) . A n ew K ehe l o ca l i ty ( I .V .P .P . 9 30525 ) d i scove red i n 1 993 a nd l o ca ted a bou t8 00 m f r om l o ca l i ty 6 056 i ss i tua ted i n ag rave l d epos i t (We i Q i ,P ope , a nd S hu t le r p e r s . c omm . ; p e r s . o bse rv . ) . T he l o ca l i t ie s a r e s c a t te red i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e l e f t b ank o f t h e H uanghe ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :177 ; C h ia e t a t . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :18 -19 ; T ab le 2 41) . K ehe l o ca l i ty 6 056 n ow l i es a bou t 1 2 km f r om

9 8

I n t h e K ehe a r ea E a r ly P le is tocene f l uv io lacus t r ine c l ay d epo s i t sa r es e pa ra ted b y a n e ros ion s u r f ace f r om t h e M idd le P le is tocene r i ve rd epo s i t s w h ich a r e i nt u rn o ve r la in b y L a te P le is tocene g r ave l a nd l o ess s ed imen t s ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :177 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :18 1 9 ) . T he M idd le P le is tocene s e c t ion o f t h e r i ve r t e r ra ce c on ta ins f o u r l e ve ls o f a bou t 3 1 m t h icknes s ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 98 1 :177 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ) , o rb e tween 2 0 -40 m ( Ch ia 1 963 ) . T he se s ed imen t s a r e c ompo sed f r om t op t o b o t tom o fr e dc l ay ( l eve l 1 :2 2 mt h ick ) , f i ne s and ( l eve l 2 : 1 mt h ick ) ,c r o s s -bedded s ands ( l eve l 3 : 4m t h ick ) i d en t i f ied a s a n e ro s ion s u r f ace , a nd s l igh t ly c emen ted g r ave l ( l eve l 4 ) , t h e b a sa l a nd a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :177 ; a nd s e e C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 ; F ig . 1 70 ) . A cco rd ing t o J i a ( 1980 :19 ) t h e f l uv ia l n on -a rchaeo log ica l d epo s i tr e ache s at h ickne ss o f a pp rox ima te ly s i x me t res , a nd t h e b a sa l l a ye ra tl o ca l i ty 6 054 i s a" . . .redd ish -b rown ma r ly c l ay a nd w i th m a rked s u r f ace e ros ion , . . . ." ( Ch ia 1 963 :34 ) . A r tef ac t sa nd f o s s i ls w e re e xcava ted f r om i n s i tu c on tex t s o f l e ve l 4w h ich h a s a max imum d ep th o f 1m ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :177 ; C h ia e ta t . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 , a nd s e e J i a 1 980 :19 ; F ig . 1 70 ) . A b ipo la r f l ake w a s e xcava ted f r om " r edd ish c l ay" a tl o ca l i ty 6 055 ( Zhang 1 985 :153 , 1 82 ) . T he f a una w a s r e cove red f r om f ou r l o ca l i t ie s ( 6051 , 6 052 , 6 054 , a nd 6 056 ; T ab le 2 42 ) a nd t h e a r te f ac t s f r om 1 l o ca l i t ie s ( 6051 , 6 052 , 6 054 -6058 , 6 059 , 6 061 , 6 062 , a nd 6 065 ; T ab le 2 43 ) w i th t h e ma jo r i ty o f s pec ie s a nd a r te f ac t s f ound a tl o ca l i ty 6 054 , t h e ma in l o ca l i ty ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :192 , T ab les 6a nd 7 , 1 981 :177 -178 , T ab le 1 4 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 ; T ab le s 2 42 , 2 43 ) . J i a a nd H uang ( 1990 :79 ) w r i te t h a t l a rge c ha r coa l g ra ins f ound a t K ehe h ave b een i d en t if ied a sc a rbon , a nd J i a ( 1980 :20 ) r e f e r s t o " A c ha r r ed m amma l ian b one f l ake" r e cove red f r om a l o ca l i ty 1 . 5 k m t ot h e s ou thea s t o fK ehe w i th l i th ic a r te f a c t s f r om al a ye r s t ra t ig raph ica l ly e qu iva len t w i th K ehe ( a nd s e e b e low ) . D u r ing ar e cen t i n spec t ion o f K ehe l o ca l i t ies 6 054 a nd 6 056 , a r te f ac t s ( f lake s , c o re s , a nd r e touched s c rape r s ) w e re f ound a tl o ca l i ty 6 056 i n a1 . 5 m t h ick g r ave l a nd s a nd l a ye r , o ve r la in b y a 1 5 m t h ick f o ss i l if e rou s ma r l ( p redom inan t ly t e e th ) , b y ac oncre t iona ry b ed , a nd b y Ma lan a nd L ish i L oe s s w i th at h ickne s s o f3 4 m ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 ) . A t l o ca l i ty 6 054 , ar ed c l ay l a ye r i ss upe r impo sed b y a n a r te f ac tua l a nd f o ss i l ife rous g r ave l l a ye r o f 1 . 0 -1 .5 m t h ickne s s ,o ve r la in b yc ros s -bedded s and so f 4m d ep th , ma r l 1 . 0 -1 .5 m t h ick , r e d s o i l o f 7m t h ickne ss w i th a b a sa l c onc re t iona ry l a ye r , " a l owe r p a laeoso l , ar e dd ish , s andy s i l t s ome 1 5 m t h ick , ab rown p a laeo so l , a nd " g rey ish y e l low s i l t , s a nd , a nd g rave l , a nd Ma lan L oe ss" a t t h e t op o f t h e e xpo su re ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 :441) . Many o ft h e f o ss i ls a r e f r agmen ta ry ( Tab le 2 42 ) a nd i n v e ry w a te r -ab raded c ond i t ion ( Ch ia 1 963 ) , a nd A igne r ( 1978a :193 ) w r i te s t h a t t h e s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t " a nd t h e a s soc ia t ion o f t h e t r anspo r ted f o ss i ls a nd a r tef ac t s" a r e n o t e s tab l ished a nd " mus t b e p r e sumed ." . T he g rave l b ed c on tex t o f t h e a r tef ac t f r om t h e n ew K ehe l o ca l i ty ( s ee a bove ) a nd i t ' s a s soc ia t ion w i th v e ry f r agmen ta ry f o ss i ls s ugge s t s t h a ti t may n o t b e i n p r ima ry c on tex t . T he h eav i ly a b r aded s t a te o f s ome o f t h e K ehe f o s s i ls i n d ica te s r e depo s i t ion f r om t h e l owe r , o l de r l a ye ra c co rd ing t o We i Q i ( pe r s . c omm . ) . F ou r p ho tog raph s i n C h ia ( 1 963 ) s how s ome a b ra s ion o f t h e a r tef ac t s , a nd C la rk a nd S ch ick 's ( 1988 :442 ) i n spec t ion o f " . . .a r e p re sen ta t ive s e r ie s o f t h e . . ." K ehe a r t ef a c t s c onc luded t h a t t h e se w e r e " . . .on ly mode ra te ly a b raded ." . P ope ( 1993 ) h a s

a r gued t h a t t h e c on tex t o f t h e a r tef ac t s a nd f o ss i ls i s g eo log ica l ,a nd h a ss ugge s ted t h a tt h eK ehe s and sa nd g r ave ls may r e p re sen t a luv ia l s ed imen t s w a shed u p a s ar e su l t o f r i ve r f l ood ing , a nd t h a t p a r t o f t h e d epo s i t a t l o ca l i ty 6 056 may r e p re sen t as l ump ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) . T he b roken c ond i t ion o f t h e " sma l l ish c obb le s" i n t h e l o ca l i ty 6 056 e xpo su re c ou ld b e ar e su l t o f " sea sona l f r os t" d amage ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 :44 1) . T he f a una i n c lude s at o ta l o f 1 3 o r 1 4 s pec ie s , i n c lud ing o ne mo l lusc a nd 1 2 o r 1 3 mamma ls , b u t many o f t h e se a n ima ls h ave n o tb een i d en t if ied t o s pec ie s l e ve l , a nd a r e r e p r e sen ted b y v e ry f ew e l emen t s ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a ,T ab le 7 , 1 981 , T ab le 1 4 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ) a nd i n d iv idua ls ( Tab le 2 42 ) .T he m amma l ian f auna c omp r ise s a mong o t he r s pec ie s , P a laeo loxodon s p . , C oe lodon ta s p . , a nd t wo s pec ie s o f Megacero s s pp . ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a , T ab le 7 , 1 981 :177 , T ab le 1 4 , T ab le 1 4 ; J i a 1 980 :20 -21 ; T ab le 2 42 ) , a nd i n d ica te s a f o re s t a nd g ra ss land e nv i ronmen t ( J ia 1 980 :20 -21) w i th r e la t ive ly c o lde r t h an , o r c ompa rab le t o c on tempo raneou s c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s ( J ia a nd H uang 1 990 :112 ) . No a b so lu te d a te s a r e a va i lab le f o r K ehe ( s ee , e . g . , C h ia e t a l . 1 964 ; Wu a nd Wang 1 985 ; Wang 1 989 ) . T he e a r ly M idd le P l e i s tocene a ge a t t r ibu t ion o f K ehe i s b a sed o n t h e p oo led f a una a nd t h e i r s t ra t ig raph ic p os i t ion , i . e . b e low t h e e ro s ion s u r f ace ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :177 , T ab le 1 4 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 964 ; C h iu 1 962 ; C h ia 1 963 ; a nd s e e I .V .P .P . 1 980 :27 ) . T he a ge o f t h e a r tef ac t s i sa l so e va lua ted o n t y po log ica l g r ound s ( s ee b e low ) . C h ia ( 1963 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e b a sa l l a ye r a t l o ca l i ty 6 054 ( s ee a bove ) i n d ica te s a n E a r ly P le is tocene a ge . T he f auna , p a r t icu la r ly f r om L oca l i ty 6 054 ,a nd t h ei ndex f o ss i ls S t egodon s pp . a nd Megacero s f l abe l la tus , i s t hough t t o i n d ica te c on tempo rane i ty w i th L oca l i ty 1 3 a nd l a ye r s 1 -13 o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :177 , a nd i n P ope 1 982 :167 ; C h ia 1 963 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :192 ) , o rL oca l i ty 1 3 ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 964 ) , o rl a ye r 1 0 o f L oca l i ty 1( Ch iu 1 962 ) . Howeve r , C h ia e ta l . ( 1962 , 1 964 ) f o rme r ly m i s iden t if ied S t egodon c h ia ia st h ee a r l ie r , P l iocene s pec ie s S . z dansky i ( A igne r 1 978a :192 , 1 981 :177 ) . T he i d en t if ica t ion o fS t egodon c f . o r ien ta l i s wh ich i sb a sed o n a s i ng le b roken mo la r c ou ld r ep re sen t S t egodon c h ia i ( A igne r 1 981 :177 , T ab le 1 4 ; T ab le 2 42 ) . T he f auna , a nd s pec if ica l ly t h er e cove ry o ft h en on -pachyos ted Megacero sf l abe l la tus a nd t h e l a te r p achyo s ted M . p achyos teus i nd ica te s t h a t K ehe p o s tda te s Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 ( A igne r 1 981 :177 ) . B a sed o n t h eg eo logy a nd b io s t ra t ig raphy K ehe i st hough t t o b ep reda te L oca l i ty 1 5 ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 964 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :182 ) s ugge s t s t h a t l o ca l i ty 6 054 a ppea r s t o b e c h rono log ica l ly e qu iva len t t o L oca l i ty 1 . J i a ( 1980 :20 ) d a te s K ehe t o c . 0 .600 my r , a nd J i a a nd Huang ( 1985b ) d a te K ehe ( w i th L an t ian ) t o 0 . 800 -1 .0 my r . G eomo rpho log ica l a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l a na ly se sb y We i ( 1992 )s ugge s tt h a t t h e K ehe d epo s i t s a r e o f t e rm ina l M idd le P le is tocene o r e a r ly L a te P le is tocene a ge , a nd t h a t t h e l o ca l i t ie s a r e n o t t ime e qu iva len t . T he b u rn t b one f l ake i s t hough t t o b e c on tempo raneou s w i th t h e K ehe a r te f ac t s o n t h e b a s is o f s t ra t ig raph ica l c o r re la t ion ( J ia 1 980 :20 ) . A na lys is o f t h e 1 38 K ehe a r tef ac t s o n al o ca l i ty to loca l i ty b a s is i s n o t a lway s p oss ib le , s i nce a r tef ac t s f r om a l l l o ca l i t ies w e re p oo led ( s ee C h ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :192 , 1 93 , 1 981 :177 , 1 78 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 964 ) . R ef e rence i s m ade t o 2 3 .9% ( n . 3 3 ) o f t h e a r tef ac t s f r om e i gh tl o ca l i t ie s i nt h e i lus t ra t ions o f w h ich mo s t s pec imen s

9 9

a nd c a tego r ie s d e r ive f r om l o ca l i ty 6 054 ( s ee C h ia e t a l . 1 964 ; T ab le 2 43 ) . T he a r tef ac t s i n c lude 5 3 c o re s , 6 6 f l ake s , a nd 1 9 t o o ls w i th f l ake s c ons t i tu t ing t h e p redom inan t c a tego ry ( 47 .8% ) ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :193 , 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; a nd s e e I .V .P .P . 1 980 :27 ; J i a 1 980 :19 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h ea r tefac t s a r e i n q ua r tz i te a nd a s ma l l n umbe r a r e i n v e in q ua r tz ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :19 , 2 0 ; a nd s e e C h ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :193 , 1 981 :178 ) . T he r aw ma te r ia l i n t h e f o rm o f p ebb le s [ a nd c obb le s ized s t one s ] a r e t hough t t o d e r ive l o ca l ly f r om t h e r i ve r b ank s ( Ch ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :19 ) o r l a ke s ho re s ( Ch ia 1 963 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :193 , 1 981 :178 ) . T h ree manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s h ave b een i d en t if ied w i th t h e ma jo r i ty o f f l ake s made b y d i rec t h a rd h amme r p e rcu s s ion a nd e xh ib i t ing a p rom inen t s em i -cone a nd a l e s s s l an ted p l a tfo rm c ompa red t o b ipo la r s pec imen s ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :193 , 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 ; c f . , F ig s . 1 71 .3 -5 , 1 72 .2 -4 , 1 73 a nd F igs . 1 71 .2 , F ig s . 1 72 .5 ) . T he b ipo la r t e chn ique r e su l ted i n l a rge , o b tuse ly a ng led p la tfo rms a nd " coa r se" s em i -cone s ( F igs . 1 71 .2 , 1 72 .5 ) , a nd l a rge f l ake s w e r e m ade b y t h row ing o r d ropp ing o ne b ou lde ro n a no the r , t h el e a s t f r equen t t e chn ique ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a :193 ; F ig . 1 72 .1) . A igne r ( 1978a :193 , 1 981 :178 ) i s n o t c onv inced o f t h is i n te rp re ta t ion , b ecau se o f t h e d i f f icu l ty o f d i f f e ren t ia t ing b e tween t h e se t e chn ique s ( Bo rde s t o A igne r 1 978a :193 p e r s . c omm . ) . T he i lus t ra ted t h rown o r d r opped s pec imen a nd t h e t wo b i po la r f l ake s ( s ee C h ia e ta l . 1 964 , P la te I V .! , P la te s 1 1 .2 a nd I V .5 )s e em t os how f e a tu re ss im i la r t o t ho se o f t h e d i rec t h a rd -hamme r p e rcu ss ion a r tef ac t s ( s ee F igs . 1 72 .1 , 1 71 .2 , 1 72 .5 , c f . , e .g . , F igs . 1 71 .3 , 1 72 .2 -4 ) . T he n umbe r o f c o re s i s 5 3 i n C h ia e t a l . ( 1962 ; A igne r 1 978a :193 , 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 964 ) a nd 5 0 i n J i a ( 1980 :19 ) . C o re s w e re f ound a t mo s t l o ca l i t ies a nd n o t a t 6 051 a nd 6 057 b a sed o n t h e a va i lab le d a ta ( s ee T ab le 2 43 ) . T he c o re s a r e c l a ss if ied i n to s ma l l , med ium , a nd l a rge s i zed c a tego r ie s ,o fw h ich t h el a t te rp redom ina te ( Ch ia e t-a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ) . O n mo s tc o re s o n ly o ne f a ce w a s w o rked a nd t h e n umbe r o f s ca r s i s s ma l l w h ich s ugge s t s al ow e xp lo i ta t ion r a te ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :183 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ) . Mos to ft h e e x is t ing s ca r s w e r e n o t u t i l i sed a s p l a tforms ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 , 1 83 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; F igs . 1 71 .1 , 1 74 , 1 75 ) . T he i lus t ra t ion s ( F ig . 1 74 .1 , 3 , ?a nd 1 74 .5 ) s how t h a t t wo , o rp e rhap st h ree c o re sa ppea r t o h ave f l a t p l a tfo rm t a b le s . A s t udy o f s ome o f t h e K ehe a r tefa c t s b y C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 :142 ) f ound t h a t t h e se i n c lude " . . .po lyhed ron s , . . . , c a sua lc o re s , a ng le c o re s ," a nd " un if ac ia lc o re /choppe r s . . ." i n q ua r tz i te . T he f l ake s ( n . 6 6 ) i n c lude o ne l a rge f l ake ( 235 x 3 15 x 7 5 mm ) f r om l o ca l i ty 6 055 ( Zhang 1 985 :151) , a nd t wo ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 964 ) o r o ne ( Zhang 1 985 :151) b i po la r f l ake (s ) . Mo s t f l ake s a r e u n s tanda rd ised i n mo rpho logy , t h e ir b u lb s o f p e r cu ss ion a r e p rom inen t , a nd s t r ik ing p la tfo rms a r e l a rge w i th s t r ik ing a ng le s a t 15%120 ° ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 ; C h ia 1 963 ; F igs . 1 71 .2 -5 , 1 72 , 1 73 ) . T he p r edom inan t ly l a rge f l ake s h ave e nd , a nd s i de p l a t fo rm sa nd a r ei nq ua r tz i te b a sed o n ap a r t ia l s t udy o f t h e K ehe a r te f ac t s ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 ) . T he e dge s o f t h e f l ake s a r e s ha rp ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 964 ) . T he f l ake s s how n o e v idence o f p l a tfo rm p repa ra t ion ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :182 -183 ) . Mos t f l ake t oo ls h ave p la in p la tfo rm s , a nd t h e w id th o f t h e f l ake s s ugges t s t h a t c o re s w e re m in ima l ly w o rked ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 964 ) . S ome f l ake sa nd c hoppe r s e xh ib i t

r e juvena t ion s c a r s ( J ia 1 980 :19 , 2 1) . T oo ls c omp r ise 1 3 .8% o f t h e a r tef ac t s a nd i n c lude f i ve c a tego r ie s , n ame ly c hopp ing too ls ( n . 7 , i n c lud ing c hoppe r s ) , s c rape r s ( n . 7 ) , s phe r ica l s t ones ( n . 3 ) , o ne h eavy t r i angu la r p o in t , a nd o ne s ma l l t h ick p o in t , o f w h ich t h e f i r s tt wo c a tego r ies a r e mo s t a nd e qua l ly n ume rous ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :193 , 1 981 :178 , 1 82 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 964 ) . A s ma l l n umbe r o f t h e 6 6 f l ake s ( s ee a bove ) s how u se -wea r , a nd u t i l ised f l ake s p o ss ib ly e qu iva len t t o s c rape r s a r e v e ry n ume rous ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 , 1 82 ; C h ia e t a t . 1 964 ) . C h ia e t a l . ( 1964 ) a l so w r i te t h a t t h e u t i l ised f l ake s c omp r ise 1 3 .8% o f a l l a r tef ac t s [ i . e . t h e f r equency o ft o o ls ; s ee a bove ] , b u t t h ey n eve r the le s s i n c lude a mong t h e se f l ake s t h e t o o ls m anuf ac tu red o n c o re s , t h e p ebb le ,a nd t h es phe r ica l s t one s . T he c hopp ing too ls w e re w o rked o n l a rge f l ake s ( n . 3 ) , t h ick c o re s ( n . 3 ) , a nd o n ap ebb le ( n . 1 )( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; a nd s e eA igne r 1 978a , T ab le 8 ) . T he t e rms c hoppe r a nd c hopp ing too ls a r e u s ed i n te rchangeab ly ( s ee C h ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 ) , a l though t h e ' c hopp ing t oo ls ' i n c lude f ou r c hoppe r s , i . e . u n ifac ia l ly mod if ied s pec imens . Two u n if ac ia l ly mod if ied s pec imens , a nd o ne b i f ac ia l s pec imen a r e o n f l ake s ; t wo u n if ac ia l ly w o rked s pec imens a nd o ne a l te rna t ive ly f l aked s pec imen a r e o n t h ick c o re s ; a nd o ne b i fac ia l ly mod if ied s pec imen i s o n ap ebb le ( F ig s . 1 76 , 1 77 .2 -4 , 1 78 .3 -5 ) . C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1 988 :142 ) r e f e r t o " . . .un ifac ia l c o re / choppe r s . . .and a s t eep , c i rcu la r , h i gh -backed c o re s c rape r ." i nq ua r tz i te . T he s even s c rape r s a r eo n l a rge f l ake s ( J ia 1 980 :19 ) , a nd a r e t h e o n ly t oo ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a :194 , T ab le 8 , 1 981 :178 ; C h ia e t a t . 1 964 ) . Two o ft h ese a r e s ma l l s c rape r s ( 4 .0 x4 . 5 x1 . 8 cm a nd 2 . 7 x4 . 7 x0 .9 cm ) f r om l o ca l i t ie s 6 054 a nd 6 058 a nd e xh ib i t u n if ac ia l r e touch o n t h e e nd ( Ch ia e t a l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :178 ; J i a 1 980 :19 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 978a , T ab le 8 ; F igs . 1 77 .1 , 1 78 .2 ) . O ne o f t h e se s pec imens i s o n a t r an sve r se ly s t ruck f l ake ( s ee C h ia e t a t . 1 964 , P la te V I I I , l a , b ; F ig . 1 77 .1) . A cco rd ing t oJ i a ( 1980 :19 ) t h e s ma l le r l e ng th t h an w id th o f an umbe r o f s ca r s o n f l ake e dge s s ugges t s t h e i r u se a s s c rape r s . Aq ua r tz i te f l ake e nd s c rape r s hows s t eep r e touch ( C la rk a nd S ch ick 1 988 ) . T he l a rge h eavy t r iangu la r p o in t ( 1 1 .5 x 7 . 7 x6 . 2 c m ) d e r ive sf r om l o ca l i ty 6 054 a nd w a s w o rked o n at h ick f l ake o n a l l t h ree f a ce s ; t h e c r o s s sec t ion i st r iangu la r ( Ch ia e ta t . 1 964 ; J i a 1 980 :19 ; F reeman 1 977 ; s e e a l so C h ia e ta L 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a , T ab le 8 , 1 981 :182 ; F ig . 1 79 .1) . T he e n d c l o se t ot h e p o in t i sb roken ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a , T ab le 8 , 1 981 :182 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 ) . T he s ma l l ( 3 .4 x 2 . 7 x1 . 3 cm ) t h ick p o in t w a s f ound a tl o ca l i ty 6 056 a nd i so n af l ake s haped b y u n if a c ia ld o r sa l r e touch ; t h e a pex o ft h e p o in t i sb roken ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :182 ; C h ia e ta t . 1 964 ; J i a 1 980 :20 ; Z hang 1 985 :153 , F ig . 9 . 5 ; a nd s ee A igne r 1 978a :194 , T ab le 8 ; F ig . 1 79 .2 ) . C h ia ( 1963 ) s t a tes t h a t t h ep o in ted e nd so fs ome t h ick p o in t s ( s ic ) s how s e conda ry e nd r e touch [ n o t t h e t wo s c rape r s w i th s e conda ry e nd r e touch ; s e e C h ia e t a t . ( 1964 ) ] . C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 :142 ) i d en t if i ed u n if ac ia l ly w o rked " po in t l ike t o o ls ." i nq ua r tz i te . O ne o ft h e t h ree s phe r ica l s t one s d e r ive s f r om l o ca l i ty 6 054 a nd h a s ad i ame te ro f8 . 5 -9 .5 c m ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 964 ) , a nd a w e igh t o f 1 , 035 g rams ( J ia 1 980 :20 ) . J i a ( 1980 :20 ) d e sc r ibe s t h e mod if i ca t ion o f t h is a r te f ac t a s " ca refu l" a nd t h e mo rpho logy a s " c rude" . T he s phe r ica l

1 00

s t ones a r e t h ough t t o r e semb le t h e r o unded a r tef ac t s f r om D ingcun ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; C h ia e t a t . 1 964 ; A igne r 1 981 :182 ;J i a 1 980 :20 ) , a nd i np a r t icu la r t h e s pec imen f r om l o ca l i ty 6 054 i n b o th s i ze a nd mod if ica t ion ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 964 ) . T he se s pec imen s may b e c ompa rab le t o s phe r ica l a r tef ac t s f r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 a nd t o — h amme r s tone s— f o und a t L oca l i ty 1 5 ( A igne r 1 981 :182 , a nd s ee A igne r 1 978a :194 , T ab le 8 ) . T he o n ly d e sc r ibed a nd ( p a r t ia l ly ) i l u s t ra ted s pec imen ( s ee C h ia e t a t . 1 964 , P la te V I , 1 )s e ems t o r e semb le a c o re o r p e rhap s as ub sphe ro id ( s ee F ig . 1 78 .1) . T he a r tef ac tr e cove red f r om l o ca l i ty 9 30525 ( s ee a bove ) i s ab i f ac ia l ly w o rked a nd n on -co r t ica l v e in q ua r tz c obb le ( 8 .3 x 8 . 2 x8 . 4 c m ) i n n on -ab raded c ond i t ion w i th n o u se -wea r . T he w o rked e dge i ss i nuous i ns hape . T he c ompo s i t ion o ft h e l i t h ic c o l lec t ions i n d ica te s t h a t K ehe f u nc t ioned a s at o o l m anufac tu r ing s i te ( Ch ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :21) . A cco rd ing t o J i a ( 1980 :21) a l l t oo ls r e p re sen t e xhau s ted s pec imen s . A igne r ( 1978a :193 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e v e ry h i gh f r equency o f c o re s may i n d ica te t h a t t h e se w e r e c oncen t ra ted a s ar e su l t o f t r anspo r t , a nd C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 :442 )n o te t h a tt h ea b sence o f s ma l l d eb i tage s e ems t o b e a t t r ibu tab le t ot h e i rd i spe r sa l b y " . . .s t ream a c t ion ." T he h eavy t r i angu la r p o in t i st hough t t o b e s im i la r t o t h e t r iangu la r p o in t s f r om D ingcun ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :183 ; A igne r 1 98 1 :235 ; C h ia e ta t . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :19 ) i ni t ' s t e chn ique a nd s i ze ( Ch ia 1 963 ) , a l though i t i s v e ry c r ude i n c ompa r ison ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 964 ) . T he p o in ted t o o ls a r e i n te rp re ted a st h ep r ecu r so r s o f t h e D ingcun p o in t s ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978 :193 ) , a nd J i a ( 1980 :20 ) c ons ide r s t h e s ma l l p o in t t h e o lde s t k nown a nd s ugge s t s t h a t s ma l l p o in t t e chno logy o r ig ina ted a t K ehe . C h ia ( 1963 ) i n te rp re t s t h e t h ick p o in ts a s s ome o f t h e mo re a dvanced a nd c ommon t oo ls o f t h a t t ime p e r iod , a nd c ompa rab le t o t h e p o in t s f ound a t Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 a nd o the r l o ca l i t ie s . T he s phe r ica l s t one s a r e i n te rp re ted a s ' a nce s t ra l ' t o r o unded a r tef ac t s f r om D ingcun ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; A igne r 1 981 :182 ; C h ia e t a t . 1 964 ; J i a 1 980 :20 ) , e spec ia l ly t h e l o ca l i ty 6 054 s pec imen ( Ch ia e ta t . 1 964 ) . T he K ehe a r tef ac t s a r e i n te rp re ted a s aL owe r P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :207 ; Wu a nd L in 1 985 ; Z hang 1 985 :151 ; Q iu 1 985 :194 ; Wang a nd O lsen 1 985 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 985b ; I .V .P .P . 1 980 :27 ) . C ompa red t o t h e o l de r X ihoudu a r tefac t s , t h e K ehe a r tef ac t s a r e t h ough t t o b e " mo re a dvanced" ( J ia 1 980 :20 ) . T he K ehe c u l tu re i st h ough t t o b e a nce s t ra l t o D ingcun ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 964 ; J i a 1 980 :20 ) . T he K ehe a nd D ingcun t e chno log ie s a r e t h e s ame , a l though K ehe i s c on s ide r ed a s t e chno log ica l ly l e s sa dvanced c ompa red t o L oca l i ty 1( Ch ia e ta t . 1 962 ; J i a a nd H uang 1 990 :207 ;J i a 1 980 :20 ) a nd t o D ingcun ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 962 ; J i aa nd H uang 1 990 :207 ; C h ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :20 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ) . C h iu ( 1 962 ) a nd C h ia ( 1962 ) d i sag r ee t h a t t h e K ehe t e chno logy i s l e ss s k i l led t h an L oca l i ty 1 , b u t A igne r ( 1981 :183 ) i s n o t c onv inced o f t h is i n te rp re ta t ion . K ehe i st h ough t t o b e o l de r t h an L oca l i ty 1 5 b ecau se o f i t s " s imp le" t oo ls a nd " p r im i t ive" t e chn ique s ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 964 :108 ) . T he manuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique s o f K ehe a r e s im i la r t o t h o se o f L oca l i ty 1 5 , a l though t h e h i ghe r e xp lo i ta t ion r a te o f c o re s , i n c rea sed n umbe r , s ha rpe r a nd r e la t ive ly s t anda rd i sed s hape o f f l ake s , t h e a b sence o f t h e " p r im i t ive" t h row ing o r d ropp ing t e chn ique , t h e " mo re r ef ined" t o o ls a nd t h e " mo rpho log ica l ly mo re a dvanced" c hoppe r sa nd s c rape r s a tL oca l i ty 1 5 a r e t hough t t o i n d ica te a n a dvanced c apac i ty c ompa red t o K ehe ( Ch ia e t a t . 1 964 :108 ) . T he l ow e xp lo i ta t ion r a te o f c o re s c ompa red t o

L oca l i ty 1 5 s ugge s t s " a r a the r l ow e f f ic iency i n f l ake p roduc t ion" ( Ch ia e ta l . 1 962 i nA igne r 1 981 :183 ) . A cco rd ing t o C h ia ( 1963 , J i a 1 980 :20 -2 1) t h e K ehe h om in id s o ccup ied t h e r i ve r b ank , s ub s is t ing o n h un ted a n ima ls b ye mp loy ing s t one s phe ro id s , a nd o n s he l l -f i sh a nd p l an t g a the r ing . T he r e juvena ted c hoppe r s a l so s ugge s t h om in id o ccupa t ion i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l l o ca l i t ie s w he r e t h e " be s t" a nd u nd i scove r ed t o o l s w e r e u t i l i sed ( J ia 1 980 :2 1) . C hoppe r s ma in ly f u nc t ioned a s w ood c hopp ing t o o ls b ecau se o ft h e ir n o t ched e dge s ( Ch ia 1 963 ) , a nd t h e t r i angu la r p o in t w a s u sed f o r d igg ing p l an t s , i n c lud ing t u be r s ( J ia 1 980 :21 , C h ia 1 963 ) . T he t h ick p o in t s m ay h ave b een u s ed f o r e x t rac t ing i n sec t s f r om t r ee t r unk s ( Ch ia 1 963 ) . T he s phe r ica l s t one s a r e i n te rp re ted a s m is s i le s t one s ( Ch ia e ta L 1 962 ; A igne r 1 978a , T ab le 8 , 1 981 :182 ; C h ia e ta l . 1 964 ; C h ia 1 963 , J i a 1 980 :20 , 2 1) , o r m is s i le s t one s a nd h amme r s tone s ( A igne r 1 978a , T ab le 8 , 1 981 :182 ) . Z hang ( 1985 :154 ) c on s ide r s t h e se f unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ions t ob ep rema tu re . 7 .5

D iscuss ion

T he a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s f r om L an t ian a nd K ehe d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een r e cove red f r om p r ima ry c on tex t s . A t G ongwang l ing r e depo s i t ion i s i n d ica t ed b y t h e s c a t t e r ed d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ef o s s i ls f r om t h e s e cond e xcava t ion a nd o f a r tef a c t s f r om t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond e xcava t ions o ve r s e ve ra l l a ye r s f r om ad eep d epo s i t . T h is p a t te rn a l so s ugge s t s t h a t t h e l a ye r s a r e n o t p a laeo su r f a ce s a nd t h a t G ongwang l ing i s n o t a n h om in id a c t iv i ty s i te . T h is may a l so s ugge s t t h a t t h e G ongwang l ing m a te r ia l s w e re n o t o r ig ina l ly a s soc ia ted a nd a r en o tc on t empo raneou s .T he c oncen t ra ted o ccu r r ence o f s i x o f t h e G ongwang l ing a r te f a c t s may i n d ica te t h a t t h e se w e r e f ound c onf ined t o o ne l a ye r . A l though t h e n on -ab r aded G ongwang l ing f o s s i l s a r e t h ough t t o h ave b een r e depo s i ted u nde rh i gh -ene rgy f l uv ia l c ond i t ions o ve r al im i ted d i s tance , t h e d i s tance o f t r an spo r t m ay c once ivab ly h ave b een mo re e x ten s ive . T he f i ne s a nd a nd c l ay c on tex t s o f t h e G ongwang l ing ma te r ia ls m ay s ugge s t d epo s i t ion u nde r l ow e ne rgy f l uv ia l c ond i t ion s , b u t t h is s eem s t o b e c on t r ad ic ted b y t h e o t he r e v idence s . T he t h ickne ss o f t h e f o s s i l if e rou s l a ye ra tC hen j iawo a nd i t s c l ay c on tex t may i n d ica te al ow e ne rgy d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t . H oweve r , t h e s ma l l a nd f r agmen ta ry f a una l c o l lec t ion s f r om L an t ian , i n c lud ing t h e s ma l l e l emen t f r equenc ie s a nd n umbe r o f i n d iv idua l s o f t h e G ongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo ( f rom t h e f i r s t a nd ? s e cond e xcava t ion ) f aunae , t h e s ma l l a r te f ac t a nd p o l len c o l lec t ion s f r om b o th s i te s , t h e f ew a nd d i spe r sed c ha r coa l g ra in s f r om G ongwang l ing , a nd a t G ongwang l ing p e rhap s t h e p ropo r t iona l r ep re sen ta t ion o f c o re s t o f l ake s a nd a ppa r en t a b sence o fq ua r tz c o r e s , b u t p r e sence o f q ua r t z t o o ls may b e mos t c on s is ten t w i th i n te rp re ta t ion s t h a t t h e L an t ian m a te r ia l sd e r ive f r om d i s tu rbed d epo s i t s . T he f l uv ia lc on tex ta nd t h ickne s s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r a t K ehe , t h e f r agmen ta ry a nd h eav i ly w a t e r -ab r ad ed c ond i t ion so f al a rge n umbe r o r o f a l f o s s i l s i n d ica te h i gh e ne rgy r edepo s i t ion .T h i sc onco rd s w i th s ugge s t ion s t h a t t h e K ehe a r te f a c t s a nd f o s s i ls a r e t r an spo r ted a nd p o s s ib ly n o t a s soc ia t ed ma te r ia l s . F u r the rmo re , g eomo rpho log ica l a nd s t ra t ig raph ic s t ud ie s i n d ica te t h a t t h e K ehe l o ca l i t ie s a r e n o t c on tempo raneou s . R edepo s i t ion o f K ehe may a l so b e i n d ica ted b y t h es ma l l n umbe ro ff o s s i l s a nd r e la t ive ly s ma l l a r te f ac t c o l lec t ion , t h e a b r aded c ond i t ion o f s ome a r te f a c t s , t h e l a ck o fs ma l ld eb i tage , a l though t h is m ay t os ome e x ten t b ee xp la ined b ys e lec t ion b i a sd u r ing e xcava t ion ,p e rhap s t h e

p ropo r t ion o f c o r e s t o f l ake s , a nd b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r te f ac t so ve r 1l o ca l i t ie s .T he p redom inance o f med ium a nd l a rge s i zed a n ima l s a tK ehe m ay r e f lec t ab i a s i n c o l lec t ion ( a nd s e e , e . g . , C hap te r I ) a nd p e rhap s t h e s e lec t ive p r e se rva t ion o fl a rge a n ima l b one s ( s ee , e . g . , G if fo rd 1 978 ; B eh r en smeye ra nd B oaz 1 980 ) . A l though i th a s b een a r gu ed t h a t w a t e r a b ra s ion may n o t n ece s sa r i ly c o r re la te w i th t r anspo r t ( Beh r en smeye r 1 987 ) , t h e o the r e v idence s f o r r e depo s i t ion a tK ehe s ugge s tt h a t t h e f o ss i ls w e re a b r aded a s ar e su l to ff l uv ia l t r an spo r ta t ion . T he p re sen t v i c in i ty o f t h e s i te t ot h eH uanghe m ay s ugge s t t h a t K ehe w a s o n t h e b ank o ft h i s r i ve ra tt h e t ime o fh om in id o ccupa t ion , a nd t h a t o ne o r mo re e p i sode so ff l ood ing a nd /o ro fr i ve r c ou r se c hange ( s ) c au sed d i sp la cemen t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls ( a nd s e e C hap te r sI ,I ) . T he K ehe a r tef ac t s a nd f o s s i l s m ay o r ig ina l ly h ave d e r ived f r om o ne o r mo re r i ve r b ank l o ca l i ty ( ie s ) f r om w h ich t h ey w e r e s ub sequen t ly d i spe r sed b y f l uv ia l a c t iv i ty . Wh i le t h e p r e sence o f c o re s , f l ake s , a nd t oo ls i n d ica te s t oo l m anu fa c tu r e a t K ehe a nd t h e d en se s t f o s s i l if e rou s a nd a r te f ac tua l l o ca l i ty , i . e . l o ca l i ty 6 054 a nd t h ec ompo s i t ion o f t h e a r te f a c t c o l lec t ion f r om h e re may i n d ica te t h a t h om in id a c t iv i t ie s w e r e c oncen t ra t ed h e re , t h e e v idence s f o r d epo s i t iona ry d i s tu rbance s ugge s t t h a t t h is l o ca l i ty a nd t h e o t he r l o ca l i t ie s d o n o t r e p re sen t h om in id a c t iv i ty s i te s . I t c anno tb ee s tab l i shed f r om t h e p ub l i shed s ou rce s i fe v idence o f k napp ing b a sed o n t h e o ccu r rence o f c o re s w i th o the r a r te f ac t sw a s f o und a to n ly f ou r o f t h e l o ca l i t ie s . O n ly f ou r o ft h eK ehe a r t e f a c tl o ca l i t ie sy i e lded f o s s i l s . T he u nce r ta in ty o ve r t h e n umbe r o f a r te f a c t s r e cove r ed f r om t h eG ongwang l ing h om in id l o ca l i ty c anno t b e r e so lved h e re , b u tt h ea s se r t ion o fo ne w o rke rt h a to n ly o ne a r tef a c t d e r ive s f r om t h e d epo s i t s o f t h is l o ca l i ty may b e i mpo r tan t . S im i la r ly , t h e r e a ppea r s t o b e s ome u nce r ta in ty o ve r t h e n umbe r o f a r t e f a c t s w h ich w e re f ound a s so c ia ted w i th t h e C hen j iawo m amma l ian f o s s i l s i n t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion a nd p e rhap s o ve r t h e n umbe r o f a r tef a c t s f r om t h is s i te . T he d i s tance a t w h ich t h e P ing l iang p o in t ( ? a nd t h e l a rge q ua r tz i te p o in t f r om n ea r G ongwang l ing ) a nd t wo o f t h e C hen j iawo a r t e f a c t s w e re r e cove red f r om t h e f o s s i l if e rou s l a ye r s o f t h e L an t ian h om in id l o ca l i t ie s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se r e p re sen ta r te f a c t sf r om s epa ra te l o ca l i t ie s . Mo s t o f t h e f o s s i ls f r om L oca l i ty 1 3 , i n c lud ing t h e l a rge n umbe r o f i n d iv idua ls may r e p re sen t n a tu ra l i n t roduc t ion s . T h i s s e em s t ob e i n d ica ted b y t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o f mo s t f o s s i l s a bove t h e a r te f a c t l a ye r a nd b y t h e s pa r se e v idence f o r h om in id a c t iv i ty , e . g . , t h e f ew a r te f ac t s a nd b u rn t b one s ( a nd s e e b e low ) a nd w ou ld a l so f i nd s ome s uppo r t i ft h i s l o ca l i ty i s af i s su re d epo s i t . T he u sua l ly c r u shed s t a te o ft h ef o s s i l s may t hus b e a t t r ibu ted t o n a tu ra l d e s t ruc t ion ( g eo log ica l a nd /o r n on -hom in id ) , a nd n o t t o h om in id mod if ica t ion , w h i le t h e p redom inance o f c r an ia l b one sm ay i n d ica te h yena d en a ccumu la t ions ( c f . , B ra in 1 981 i nB u tze r 1 993 :193 ;B info rd a nd S tone 1 986 :466 ) a nd /o r t h e s e lec t ive p r e se rva t ion o f mo re r obus t b one s ( c f . , B ra in 1 981 :11) . Q ua r ry ing a tt h is s i te may h ave r e su l ted i n s ome d i s tu rbance o f t h e d epo s i t , a l though t h e c on tex t o f t h e d epo s i t f r om w h ich s ome o f t h e f a una , t h e b u rn t b one s , a r te f a c t s ,a nd c ha r coa lf r agmen t sw e re r e cove r ed w a sd e sc r ibed a s u nd i s tu rbed . T he a ppa ren t a b sence o f d eb i tage f r om t h e m anu f a c tu r e o f t h e c he r t a r tef a c t m ay i n d ica te t h a t m anuf a c tu re o c cu r r ed e l sewhe re o r t h a t t h is r ema ins t o b e e xcava t ed . G eomo rpho log ica l a nd t a phonom ic a na ly se s may a dvance amo re i n f o rmed u nde r s tand ing o f t h e d epo s i t iona ry h i s to ry o f t h i s p a r t ia l ly e xcava t ed s i te a nd t h e r o le o f h om in id s ( e .g . , c f . , B inf o rd 1 981 :e .g . , 1 8 -20 , 1 80 , 2 10 ,

1 01

1 987 ; B ra in 1 981 :e .g . , 1 38 -144 ) . T he l i t h ic c o l lec t ion f r om L oca l i ty 1w h ich i st h e l a rge s t o f a l l l o ca l i t ie s , t h e a ppa ren t u t i l isa t ion o f f i re a nd o f a n ima l c a r ca s se s ( s ee b e low ) s ugge s t t h a t t h is w a s t h e mos t e x tens ive ly o ccup ied h om in id s i te . T he p r e sence o f c o re s , h amme r s tone s , a nv i ls , u nu t i l ised f l ake s , a nd t oo ls s ugge s t s t h a t t oo l manuf ac tu re , u se , a nd d i s ca rd o ccu r red i n t h e c ave . S ome t o o l u se a nd d i sca rd may a l so h ave o ccu r red o u t s ide o f t h e c ave ( e .g . , b u tche ry a nd s e lec t ion o f c a rca s s p a r t s f o r t r anspo r t t o t h e c ave? ) . A l though s ome r e cen t a u tho r s h ave a r gued t h a t t h e re i s l i t t le c ons is tency i n t h e p a t te rn ing o f ma te r ia ls i n t h e c ave , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls d oe s s how a s soc ia t ions o f , f o r e xamp le , a r tef ac t s a nd b u rn tb one s , a nd p e rhap s s epa ra t ion o fa c t iv i ty a r ea s , a n d a cco rd ing t o J i a L anpo ( i n P ope 1 988b :67 ) c ons is ten t c l u s te r ing i sn o ted i nt h e e xcava t ion r e po r t s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f c u l tu ra l m a te r ia ls i n s eve ra l l a ye r s i n d ica te s ap a t te rn o f i n te rm i t ten t p e r iods o f h om in id o ccupa t ion . H oweve r , b ecause o f t h e c omp lex i ty o f t h e g eo logy , t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e d epo s i t b y g eo log ica l , n on -hom in id a nd h om in id a genc ie s , t h e c oa r se -g ra in n a tu re o f s ome l a ye r s , t h e u se o f d e s t ruc t ive e xcava t ion me thods , a nd b ecause o n ly i mpo r tan t a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls w e re p l o t ted , i t may n eve r b e p oss ib le t o i d en t ify d i s t inc t h om in id a c t iv i ty a r ea s . Mod if ica t ion b y t r amp l ing a nd m ix ing o fn ew ma te r ia ls w i th t ho se o fa ne a r l ie ro ccupa t ion l a ye r p o s s ib ly o ccu r red i n t h is r e pea ted ly u t i l ised c ave ( c f . , B u tze r 1 993 :99 ) . T aphonom ic a na lyse so ft h e who le s u rv iv ing f o s s i l c o l lec t ions a nd s t udy o f t h e e xcava t ion r epo r t s a r e n e ed ed t o a s sess i n d e ta i l t h e r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ions o f a n ima ls a nd h om in ids i n t h e f o rma t ion o ft h e s i te . T he p r e sence o f j uven i le a nd a du l t ma le a nd f ema le i n d iv idua ls o f a t l e a s t 4 5 H . e r ec tu s a tL oca l i ty 1 s ugge s t s t h a t f am i ly g roups o ccup ied t h e c ave . T he re s e em s t o b e i n suf f ic ien t e v idence f o r s ea sona l h om in id o ccupa t ion . A l though a u tumn a nd w in te r o ccupa t ion h a s b een s ugge s ted b a sed o n t h e e v idence f o r f i re , f i r e a ppea r s t o h ave b een e mp loyed f o r c a rca ss p roces s ing a nd m ay p e rhap s a l so h ave s e rved a s p ro tec t ion f r om c a rn ivo re s ( a nd s ee C hap te r I V ) . Wh i le t h e u se o f f i re f o r w arm th a ppea r s t o b e c on t rad ic ted b y a tl e a s t s ome o f t h e c l ima t ic e v idence , i t may h ave b een e mp loyed i n ac o ld a nd d amp c ave e nv i ronmen t , a s p e rhap s s ugge s ted b y t h e p re sen t c ond i t ion s a t L oca l i ty 4 ( pe r s . o bse rv . ) .

a nd may a l so p a r t ly a g ree w i th l im i ted c h rono log ica l v a r ia t ions o f s t eppe a nd f o re s t f a una . Mos t o f t h e p a lyno log ica l a nd f a una l r e cons t ruc t ions , h oweve r , s ugge s t w a rm c ond i t ions ( a nd f o re s t a nd g r a s s land ) a t L oca l i ty 1 . Whe the r o r n o t t h is m ay i n d ica te t ha t c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions w e re n o tp ronounced m ay o n ly b ee s tab l i shed t h rough f u r the r w o rk w h ich a l so n eed s t o e xam ine t h e r e levance o f t h e L uochuan d a ta t ot h is c ave . B ecau se o f i n d ica t ion s o f r e depos i t ion , t h e l a te E a r ly P le is tocene p a laeomagne t ic d a te s f r om Gongwang l ing m ay n o tb e v a l id ( c f . , B a rend reg t 1 985 ) , wh i le t h ey ounge r m idd le M idd le P le is tocene a m ino -ac id d a te s f r om t h is l o ca l i ty m ay i n d ica te d i f f icu l t ie s w i th t h is d a t ing me thod , s uch a s s amp le c on tam ina t ion ( c f . , R u t te r e ta l . 1 985 ) . T he i s sue a bou t t h e e i the r e a r ly M idd le P l e is tocene o r l a te E a r ly P l e is tocene p os i t ion o f Gongwang l ing a nd t h e s i gn if icance s o f t h e f a una l , l o e ss a nd o xygen iso tope c o r re la t ions may o n ly b e r e so lved t h rough f u r the r w o rk . T he v a r ious e v idence s f r om Gongwang l ing i n d ica te t h a t t h is s i te p r eda te s C hen j iawo . T he mo s t p a r s imon ious a ge o f C hen j iawo s eem s t o b e M idd le P le is tocene . T he mo s t e x tens ive ly , a nd i t s e em s mos tr e l iab ly d a ted d epo s i ti sL oca l i ty 1 .F u r the r d a t ing may b e a b le t o r e so lve t h e i n con s is tenc ies w i th s eve ra l o f t h e a bso lu te d a t ing t e chn ique s . T he a b so lu te a ge r a nge o f h om in id o ccupa t ion a tt h is c ave ( i .e . c .0 .230 -0 .460 my rbp ) w ou ld b ee x tended u p t ol e s s t h an c .0 .690 myrbp i fl a ye r 1 3 r e p re sen t s ac u l tu ra l l a ye r , a l though t h e f ew a r tef a c t s f r om t h is l a ye r may h ave b een i n t roduced f r om a n h ighe r l a ye r ( s ) . T he L oca l i ty 1 3 d epo s i t s e em s t o p r eda te mos t o f t h e L oca l i ty 1d epo s i t , b u t t h is i n te rp re ta t ion a nd t h e s uppo sed s t ra t ig raph ic c on tempo rane i ty t o l a ye r 1 3 o f L oca l i ty 1 r e qu ire s f u r the r r e sea r ch , i n p a r t icu la r t h e d a t ing o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r .T he a ge d e term ina t ion o f K ehe r ema in s i n conc lus ive , b u t g ene ra l ly b r acke ts t h e s i te w i th in t h e M idd le P le is tocene . T he p o s s ib ly d i s turbed n a ture o f L an t ian a nd K ehe a nd t h es ma l l n umbe r o f i d en t if iab le f o ss i ls o f t h e p oo led K ehe f a una a r ei mpo r tan tt oc ons ide rw hen e va lua t ing t h ec h rono log ica l a ge s o ft h e se l o ca l i t ie s , e spec ia l ly o f K ehe w he re t h e f o s s i ls a r e as i gn if ican t e l emen t i n t h e d a t ing a nd w he re n o a b so lu te s d a te s a r e a va i lab le f r om . A b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f C h ine se P l e is tocene b io s t ra t ig raphy c ou ld b e a p o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan t means o f c l a r ify ing t h e s i gn if icance o ft h ef a una l c h rono log ies ( a nd s ee C hap te rI ) . T he k i nd s o f r aw m a te r ia ls u t i l ised a t t h e l o ca l i t ies w a s p robab ly i nf luenced b y t h ep rox im i ty o f t h e ir s ou rce s t o t h e p l ace s o f h om in id a c t iv i ty a nd p e rhap s b y t h e i r g r ea te r a bundance c ompa red t oo t he rm a te r ia ls . T he g r ea te rv a r ie ty o f r aw ma te r ia ls a tL oca l i ty 1may b e a s soc ia ted w i th r e pea t ed a nd mo re e x ten s ive s i te o ccupa t ion . T he u t i l isa t ion o f v e ry f ew r aw ma te r ia ls a ta l l o ca l i t ie s e xcep t f o r L oca l i ty 1a nd t h ep redom inance o fq ua r tz i te a tG ongwang l ing a nd K ehe , o f q ua r tz , a nd n o t c he r t a ppa ren t ly a tL oca l i ty 1 3 , a nd o f v e in q ua r tz a t L oca l i ty 1 m ay s ugges t ap r ef e rence f o r c e r ta in s t ones , p a r t icu la r ly a t L oca l i ty 1 . Two a r tef ac t s f r om C hen j iawo a r e i n q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te , t h e f o rme r f r om t h e f o ss i l if e rous l a ye r , b u t n o d a ta i sa va i lab le o n t h e ma te r ia ls o ft h eo the r a r tef ac t s . T he p r edom inance o f c e r ta in m a te r ia ls may a l so i mp ly ag r ea te ra dap tab i l i ty o ft oo ls i nt h e se s t one s i n t h e e conom ic s y s tems o f t h e h om in ids . T he l im i ted v a r ie ty o fm a te r ia ls a tL an t ian a nd L oca l i ty 1 3 i s , h oweve r , p o ss ib ly a l so t o s ome e x ten t r e la ted t o t h e s ma l l a r tef ac t s amp les . T he p r edom inance o f q ua r tz i te i n t h e l a rge r K ehe c o l lec t ion m ay s ugge s t t h a t i tw a s t h e mo s t a bundan t l o ca l m a te r ia l a va i lab le . T he s ma l le r f r equenc ie s o f s ome o t he r m a te r ia ls a tL oca l i ty 1( e .g . , c he r ta nd q ua r tz c r ys ta l ) m ay b e

T he o n ly r ep re sen ta t ive p a lyno log ica l s amp le i n t e rms o f p o l len f r equenc ie s d e r ive s f r om L oca l i ty 1 , l a ye r s 4 11 . B ecau se o f i n d ica t ions o f r edepo s i t ion a tL an t ian a nd K ehe , t h ef a una a nd p e rhap s t h ep o l len m ay n o tb er ep re sen ta t ive o f t h ea nc ien te nv i ronmen t s . T he e nv i ronmen ta l r e cons t ruc t ion s f o rL an t ian a r e , mo reove r , i n conc lus ive , i . e . o pen w ood land o r f o re s t a nd w ood land w i th s ome g r a s s land o r f o re s t w i th a bundan tg ra s s land a t Gongwang l ing , a nd o pen w ood land o r f o re s t s teppe o r s avanna a t C hen j iawo , a l though t h ey s ugge s t w a rm c ond i t ions . A t L oca l i ty 1 3 i t c anno t b e e s tab l ished f r om t h ea va i lab le d a ta w h ich s pec ies w e re f ound a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a r tef ac t s , a nd t h us w ha t k i nd o f e nv i ronmen t o b ta ined a tt h e t ime o f h om in id a c t iv i ty . T he p oss ib le d i s to r t ion b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s o f t h e L oca l i ty 1l a ye r s may l im i t f i ne -g ra in r e cons t ruc t ions o f t h e a nc ien t c l ima te a nd e nv i ronmen t . T he c o r re la t ions o f L oca l i ty 1 t o t h e L uochuan l o e s s -pa laeoso l a nd t o t h e o xygen iso tope s e quence s s ugge s t w arm a nd c o ld f l uc tua t ions w h ich t o s ome e x ten t a g ree s w i th t h e p a lyno log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions ( i nc lud ing t h e s ma l l s amp le )

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r e la t ed t ot h e g r ea t e r d i s tance o f t h e i r o u tc rop s t o t h e c ave . T h i s m ay s ugge s t t h a t h om in id s d u r ing p e r iod s o f o ccupa t ion u sua l ly r ema ined c l o se t o t h e c ave , p e rhap s i n f luenced b y as u ff ic ien t a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw m a te r ia l a nd s ub s is tence r e sou r ce s . T he se s t one s may h ave b een e xp lo i ted a s p a r t o f t h e r e sou r ce s y s tem , e . g . , a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd /o rb r ough ti nb ys pec if ic f o rays t ot h e se s ou r ce s .

s a nd s tone , t h em a te r ia l i nw h ich mo s to ft h e s pec imen s w e r e m anu f a c tu r ed ( a nd s e eb e low ) . T he u se o f t h e d i rec t h amme r p e r cu s s ion t e chn ique a t L oca l i ty 1 may b e r e la ted t o t h e h i ghe r t r a c tab i l i ty o f t h e m a te r ia ls u sed , s uch a s h a rd s a nd s tone , a nd p e rhap s t o t h e i r l a rge r s i ze . A l though t h e K ehe a r te f a c t s a l a ppea r t o r e p re sen t d i r ec t h a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion s pec imen s j udg ing f r om t h e i lu s t ra t ions , t h e se m ay n o t b e c l ea r e nough . F u r the rmo re , t h e t h row ing t e chn ique a nd h amme r p e r cu s s ion c an b e d i f f icu l t t o d i s t ingu ish , b ecau se b o th p roduce t h e s ame f r a c t u r e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s e xcep t t h a t t h e t h row ing t e chn ique c a n g ene r a l ly r e su l t i n l a rge r f l ake s ( To th 1 982 :130 ) a nd t h i s m ay b e i mpo r tan t s i nce t h e t h rown K ehe a r tef a c t s a r e a l l a rge f l ake s . T he t h row ing t e chn ique a tK ehe may b e r e la t ed t ot h es i ze a nd s hape o fs ome o f t h e s t one s u s ed h e re . I th a s b een a r gued t h a tt h i st e chn ique -i n w h ich as t one i st h rown a ga in s t a n a nv i l - mu s t i n s ome c a se s b e e mp loyed t o f r a c tu r e s phe r ica l s t one s ( C rab t r ee 1 972 :9 -10 ) a nd t h a t i ti s t h e o n ly p o ss ib le r e duc t ion t e chn ique f o r f r a c tu r ing s u ch s t one s ( To th 1 982 :129 -130 ) .

Wh i le t h e g ene ra l ly i n fo rma l c ha ra c te r o f t o o ls s e em s t o s ome e x ten t t ob e af unc t ion o f t h e r aw m a te r ia ls i n w h ich t h e se w e r e m anuf a c tu red , i t w a s p os s ib ly a l so a s so c ia ted w i th f u nc t ion , s k i l l , a nd p e rhap s t h e m anu f a c tu re o f n on l i t h ic t o o l s . T he i n f r equency o f s pec imen s mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch m ay i n d ica te d i ff icu l t ie s w i th w o rk ing t h e s t one s , s u ch a s c oa r se q ua r tz i te ( s ee J one s 1 979 ) . T he s ha rp e dge so f an umbe ro ft h e K ehe f l ake t o o ls m ay s ugge s t t h a t s ha rp e dge s w e r e mo re i mpo r tan t t h an r e gu la r s hape . T h i s m ay b e s uppo r ted b y t h e l ow f r equency o f t o o ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch . I t may a l so b e c on s ide r ed t h a t t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f r e touched a r tef a c t s a t L oca l i ty 1 may i n c lude s ome t o o l s w i th " na tu ra l" " ' re touche s" w h ich h ave b een i d en t if i ed i nt h e d i s tu rbed l a ye r s o f c ave e nv i ronmen t s ( s ee B o rde s 1 96 1 :46 i n K ee ley 1 980 :31) . T he i lu s t ra ted f l u t ed g r ave r f r om L oca l i ty 1 r e semb le s a n a t yp ica l Mou s te r ian b u r in . S pa l l ing o n " bu r in l ike" c o re s a nd f l ake s c an b e p r odu ced a c c iden ta l ly a s n o ted i n e xpe r imen ta l b ipo la r c o r e m anuf a c tu r e , a nd t h e o p in ion t h a t " some s pa l led a nd b u r in l i ke" a r te f ac t s w ou ld b e f o und a mong t h e d eb i tage a t l o ca l i t ie s w he re t h e b ipo la r t e chn ique w a s i n c ommon u se ( Kamm inga 1 982 :92 , F ig . 2 7 ; a nd s e e C hap te r V I ) m ay b e o fr e levance t oL oca l i ty 1w he re s ome a u tho r sh ave i d en t if ied t h eb u r in t e chn ique .

T he r e a ppea r s t o h ave b een s ome s e lec t ion o f c e r t a in m a te r ia l s f o r s pec i f ic a c t iv i t ie s a t L oca l i ty 1 , e . g . , a p r edom inance o f h amme r s tone s i n s and s tone a nd t o o l s i n v e in q ua r t za nd f o r s ome l a rge r a r te f ac t s , e . g . , t h e s a nd s tone f l ake s w h ich s ugge s t st h a t s and s tone o ccu r r ed i n l a rge r f o rm c ompa r ed t o v e in q ua r tz . A p r e f e r ence f o r l a rge s i ze i s i n d ica t ed a t K ehe b y t h e p r edom inan t ly l a rge f l ake s a n d t o o l s . T h i s m ay s ugge s t t h a t t h e u sua l ly l a rge c o re s i n d ica te s e le c t ion o f l a rge s ized r aw ma te r ia l , a nd s pec if ica l ly o f q ua r tz i t e .

R aw m a te r ia l v a r iab i l i ty a nd d if e r ence s i n m anuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique s p o s s ib ly a ccoun t f o r s ome o f t h e d if e r ence s b e tween t h e a s semb lage s . A t L oca l i ty 1 , t h e u se o f s ma l l v e in q ua r tz n odu le sa nd t h ei n t ra c tab le n a tu re o f t h i s m a t e r ia l m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ma l l s i ze o f mos t t oo ls . T he p r edom inance o fb ipo la r a r te f a c t s a tL oca l i ty 1a nd o f d i r ec t h a rd -hamm e rp e r cus s ion a r te f ac t s a tL an t ian a nd K ehe may b e r e la t ed t o t h e s i ze a nd t r ac tab i l i ty o f t h e r aw ma te r ia l s . A l though i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t a cce s s ib i l i ty t o l a rge a moun t s o fq ua r tz may e xp la in t h e u n s tanda rd i sed c ha r a c t e r o ft h e q ua r t z a r te f a c t s , t h e r aw ma te r ia l p rope r t ie s may b e m o re s i gn if ican ti ne xp la in ing t h en a tu re o ft h e se s pec imens . T he G ongwang l ing c o re s w i th r e la t ive ly f l a t c o r t ica l p l a t fo rm s m ay i n d ica te s e lec t ion o f c obb le s w i th f l a t p l a t fo rm s . T he f ew L oca l i ty 1c o re sw i th f l a tp l a tfo rm t a b le s a nd t h e f ew K ehe c o re s w h ich s e em t o s how t h is f e a tu r e s ugge s ts ome p repa ra t ion ,p e rhap si nr e spon se t o d i ff i cu l t ie s i nf l ak ing t h em a te r ia ls . T he a dd i t iona l t wo manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s d e sc r ibed f o r L oca l i ty 1 , i . e . h a rd -hamme r a nd a nv i l p e r cu ss ion a nd f o r K ehe , i . e . t h e f ew b ipo la r a nd t h rown o r d r opped a r te f a c t s , a nd t h e a dd i t iona l o ne i d en t if ied b y o ne w o rke r a t G ongwang l ing , i . e . t h e a nv i l t e chn ique r e p r e sen ted b y o ne l a rge f l ake may s ugge s t t h a t t h e u t i l i sa t ion o f d if e r en t t e chn ique s w a s p e rhap s a dap t ed t o c e r ta in r aw m a te r ia l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s . T he c l a im b y s ome w o rke r s t h a t a nv i l a r t e f a c t s a r e n o t p re sen t a t L oca l i ty 1 m ay r e f lec t t h e d i f f icu l ty o f i d en t ify ing t h i s t e chn ique , a nd i t h a s b e en p o in ted o u t t h a t f l ake s manu f a c tu r ed b y t h e a nv i l t e chn ique s how c ompa rab le t r a i t s t o h a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion f l ake s , i . e . l a rge p l a t fo rm s a nd s t rong p e r cu s s ion b u lb s ( s ee T o th a nd S ch ick 1 988 ) . T he l a rge s i ze o f t h e L oca l i ty 1 a nv i l c o re s a nd f l ake s i s p o ss ib ly a s so c ia ted w i th w o rk ing

T he a ppa r en t ly l im i ted e x ten t t o w h ich t h e G ongwang l ing a nd K ehe c o re s w e r e e xp lo i ted , e . g . , t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f c o r es c a r si n d ica te n on -econom ica lr aw ma te r ia l u se .A tK ehe t h i s m ay a l so b e i n d ica ted b y t h e h ighe r f r equency o f l a rge c o re s c ompa r ed t o t h e s ma l l a nd m ed ium s i zed c o re s . T he p r e sence o f s ome r e juvena ted f l ake s a nd c hoppe r s a tK ehe m ay i n d ica te s ome e conom ic u se o f ma te r ia l , a l though t h e r e juvena t ion may p e rhap s r e p r e sen t h eavy u se -wea r . N on e conom ica l ma te r ia l u se a t G ongwang l ing a nd K ehe , t h e g ene ra l ly i regu la r G ongwang l ing c o re s ca r s , a nd t h e l ow f r equen cy o f p l a t fo rm p r epa ra t ion a t a l l s i te s s ugge s t g ene r a l ly u n s tanda rd i sed t e chno log ie s , p e rhap s i n f luenced b y l a rge r aw m a te r ia l r e sou r ce s a nd t r ac tab i l i ty . T he w ide p l a t fo rm a ng le so f mo s to ft h eK ehe f l ake s may i n d ica te t h a t c o r e s w e r e a bandoned b ecau se s u i tab le s t r ik ing a ng le s c ou ld n o tb ef o und . H oweve r , t h e e l onga ted a nd q uad r i la te r a l s h ape o f mo s t b i po la r c o r e s c a r s a nd f l ake s , t h e p r e sence o f s ome u n if o rm ly s haped b i po la r c o re s , a nd t h e g ene ra l ly e l onga t ed a nd r e gu la rb i po la rf l ake sw i th c r u shed b ipo la r m ic robu lb s a t L oca l i ty 1 s ugge s t t h a t h om in id b ipo la r c o re r e du c t ion i n vo lved s t anda rd i sa t ion . H oweve r , mos t o f t h e L oca l i ty 1 t o o l sa r eo fi regu la r mo rpho logy . T he p r edom inance o fs c rape r sa tL an t ian a nd L oca l i ty 1m ay s ugge s t e mpha se s o n ap a r t icu la r a c t iv i ty , o r t h e i r m u l t i f u nc t iona l u se . T he t oo l c a tego r ie s a tL oca l i ty 1 i n d ica t e a w ide rr a nge o fa c t iv i t ie sc ompa red t o L an t ian a nd K ehe . T he m o re d i ve r se t oo ls f r om K ehe c ompa red t o L an t ian s ugge s t m o re v a r ied f unc t ion s a nd p e rhap s l i gh t , a nd h eavy -du ty a c t iv i t ie s a tK ehe . T he v a r ia t ion s i n f r equency o f t o o l t y pe s a tL oca l i ty 1t h rough t h e s e quen ce may s ugge s t c hange s i n a c t iv i t ie s o ve rt ime . S ome o f t h e t oo ls may h ave b een u s ed f o r t h e p roce ss ing o f p l an t f ood s a nd t h e m anu f a c tu r e o f w ooden t o o l s .T he s pec imens i n te rp re ted b y s ome a u tho r s a s b u r in sa tL oca l i ty 1m ay h ave b een u sed s im i la rt ob u r in s a s

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w ood w o rk ing t oo ls ( e .g . , c f . , K amm inga 1 982 :91) . T he p redom inance o fs ma l l f l ake t o o ls a nd t h e r a r i ty o f c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls a t L oca l i ty 1 s ugges t t h a t h om in id a c t iv i t ie sd id n o tu sua l ly i n vo lve h eavy -du ty a c t iv i t ie s , s u ch a s b one c r ack ing f o r m a r row e x t rac t ion . T h is m ay b e c ons is ten t w i th t h e r e cen t c u t -ma rk s s t ud ie s w h ich i n d ica te t h a t ma r row e x t rac t ion w a s n o t a n i mpo r tan t a c t iv i ty , a l though i th a s r e cen t ly b een a r gued t h a t t h e f r agmen ta ry c ond i t ion o f s ome f o ss i ls c l a s s if ied b y a n e a r ly a u tho r a s b one t oo ls may r e p re sen t s pec imens e xp lo i ted b y h om in id s f o r ma r row . H oweve r , i n t h e a b sence o f m ic rowea r a na lyse s a nd p a laeoeconom ic d a ta f r om L an t ian a nd K ehe , t h e f unc t ions f o rw h ich t o o ls w e re e mp loyed r ema in o b scu re . A t L oca l i ty 1 , s ome t o o ls w e re p robab ly u s ed f o r c a rca s s p roce s s ing ( a nd s e eb e low ) . B ecause o f al a ck o f i lus t ra t ions i ti sd i f f icu l t t o c ompa re t h e L oca l i ty 1 s phe ro id s t o o the r a r tef ac t sc l a ss if ied i nt h is c a tego ry . T he K ehe s phe ro id i sn o t s im i la r t o t h e s phe ro id s a nd s ub sphe ro id s ( o f r o und a nd a pp rox ima te ly r ound s hape s ) f r om t h e e a r ly L a te P l e is tocene X u j iayao l o ca l i ty ( c f . , P l a te i n J i a 1 980 ; p e r s . o b se rv . ) . R ecen t e xpe r imen ta l w o rk h a s i n d ica ted t h a t s phe ro id s a nd s ub sphe ro id s a r e t h e b yp roduc t s o f t h e r e pea ted u se o f a ngu la r / subangu la rc hunk so rc o re s a sh amme r s tone s( Sch ick a nd T o th 1 994 ; a nd s e e Wh i t thof t i n P f e if f e r 1 985 :73 ) . F unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ions o f s phe ro id s a nd s ub sphe ro id s i n c lude t h e ir u se a s h un t ing t oo ls o r b o la s ( Leakey 1 971 :262 , 2 66 -267 , a nd L .S .B L eakey a nd R .E . L eakey i n L eakey 1 971 :266 ; C h ia e t a l . 1 979 ; J i a 1 980 :39 ; W i l loughby 1 985 ; a nd s e e B o rde s 1 981 , P la te 1 07 , 6 ) , a s p ounde r s u sed f o r t h e p roce s s ing o f f ood o r b a rk , o r a s h amme r s tone s (W i l loughby 1 985 ) . T he b roken p o in t s o f t h e h eavy t r iangu la r p o in t a nd t h e s ma l l t h ick p o in t f r om K ehe may s ugge s t d amage i n cu r red d u r ing u t i l isa t ion ( o r p o s t d epo s i t iona ry d i s tu rbance? ) . C r i t ics o ft h e c ann iba l ism h ypo the s is a tL oca l i ty 1s e em t o h ave a s t ronge r c a se t o e xp la in t h e f r agmen ta ry s t a te o f h om in id f o ss i ls c on s ide r ing t h e e x tens ive g eo log ica l a nd c a rn ivo re d amage o f b o th h om in id a nd n on -hom in id f o ss i ls d ocumen ted a tt h e c ave . S im i la r ly , t h e t a phonom ic e v idence h a s l e d mos t a u tho r s t o b e e i the r s c ep t ica l o f o r r e jec t t h e p re sence o f as o -ca l led b one t o o l i n dus t ry . T he s ugge s t ion t h a t h om in ids d i spo sed o f t h e d ead i n p a r t s o f t h e c ave s epa ra te f r om t h e p l ace s o f a c t iv i ty m ay i n f e r i n ten t iona l b ur ia l , a nd w ou ld r e p re sen t t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence f o r t h is b ehav iou r i nC h ina . T he mos t s ubs tan t ia l a nd d i rec t e v idence f o r h om in id s ub s i s tence t e chno logy d e r ive s f r om L oca l i ty 1 i n t h e a s soc ia t ion o fa r tefac t sa nd f o ss i ls , b u rn t ma te r ia ls , a nd t oo l ma rked b ones . T he l ow f r equency o f c u t -ma rk s a nd t h e ir o ccu r rence o n o n ly f ou r s pec ie s s e em s a t o dd s w i th t h e e x tens ive e v idence f o rt o o lm anuf ac tu re a nd r e pea ted h om in id o ccupa t ion o f t h e c ave . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f t o o l -ma rked f o ss i ls may l a rge ly b ee xp la ined b y t h es ma l l s amp le s w h ich w e re e xam ined a nd b y t h e p oo r p re se rva t ion o f f o ss i ls . Whe the ro r n o ti tmay a l so t os ome e x ten tr ef lec t l im i ted u se o f c u t t ing too ls ( e .g . , c ook ing o f s ome a n ima l c a r ca s se s i n t h e i r s k ins ; c f . , P ope 1 989a ; s e e a l so Wa tanabe 1 985 ; s e e 6 . 12 .1) c anno t b e e s tab l i shed h e re . T he p r edom inance o f h o r se c u t -ma rked b one sm ay a ss ugge s ted p r ev ious ly i n d ica te ap ref e rence f o rt h is s pec ie s . T h is d oe s n o t c onco rd w i th t h e o p in ion o f e a r ly a nd s ome r e cen t a u tho r s w ho h ave a r gued t h a t t h e p redom inance o f d e e r w a s i n d ica t ive o f h om in id s ubs is tence s pec ia l isa t ion . T he r e cen t i d en t if ica t ions o f g naw -ma rked c e rv id s m ay p a r t ly e xp la in t h e a bundance o f c e rv id i n t h e c ave . Mo re e x tens ive t a phonom ic s t ud ie s o f

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d ee r may p r ove t o b e d i f f icu l t , i ft h e r e cen t ly s t ud ied a nd p oo r ly p r e se r ved c e rv id f oss i ls a r e r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e s amp le . T he a du l ta ge o ft oo l -ma rked mand ib le sa nd max i l lae may i n d ica te s e lec t ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima ls w i th a h i gh y i e ld o fm ea tc ompa red t oy oung a n ima ls . T he many y oung r h inoce ro s m ay s ugge s t s e lec t ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f v u lne rab le a n ima ls w h ich a r e r e la t ive ly e a sy t o p rocu re c ompa red t o a du l t s , b u t t o o l -ma rk s t ud ies h ave y e t t o e s tab l ish t h e r e la t ionsh ip o f t h e se a n ima ls t o h om in id a c t iv i t ies . T he f a una s ugge s t s e xp lo i ta t ion o f av a r ie ty o f e co log ica l z one s ( a nd s e eA igne r 1 981 :147 ) . H ow a n ima ls w e re s e cu red b y t h e L oca l i ty 1 h om in id s i s s t i l l am a t te r o f s ome c on jec tu r e , a l though t h er e cen tt a phonom ic e xam ina t ion w h ich i d en t if ied mo re g naw -ma rked t h an t o o l -ma rked f o ss i ls h as s ugge s ted h om in id s c aveng ing . S e lec t ion o f t h e c ave may h ave b een i n f luenced b y t h e g ood v i ew w h ich t h e Z houkoud ian h i l l a f f o rd s o ve r t h e B e i j ing p l a ins ( pe r s . o b se rv . ) f o r t h e s i gh t ing o f a n ima l r e source s . T he i s o la ted s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o ft h eL oca l i ty 1 3 h ackbe r ry s eeds a bove t h e a r te fac t l a ye r may i n d ica te n a tu ra l d epo s i t ion . T he f ew b urn t b one s i n t h e a r te f ac t l a ye r o f L oca l i ty 1 3 ( a nd s e e b e low ) m ay p o ss ib ly r e p re sen t e v idence o f l im i ted h om in id s ub s is tence a c t iv i ty . I n t h e a ppa ren t a b sence o f h om in id p a laeoeconom ica l d a ta ( s uch a s c u t -ma rked b one s ) f r om L an t ian a nd K ehe a nd i nd ica t ions o f r e depo s i t ion a t t h e se s i tes , t h e n on -hom in id f o ss i ls may n o t b er e la ted t o h om in id s ubs is tence b ehav iou r . I n te rp re ta t ions o f h om in id r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion mu s t r ema in i n conc lus ive . T he f ew a nd d i spe r sed c ha rcoa l g ra ins f r om Gongwang l ing , t h e i n d ica t ion s o f r e depo s i t ion a t Gongwang l ing a nd K ehe , a nd t h e l a ck o f o the r i n d ica t ions o f h om in id f i re u se f r om t h e se d epo s i t s , f o r e xamp le , b u rn t b one s s ugges t t h a t h om in id sd i d n o t u se f i re a t t h e se l o ca l i t ie s . A cco rd ing t o a r e cen ts ou r ce l a rge c ha r coa l g ra ins w e re f ound a tK ehe , b u t i t m ay b e i mpo r tan t t h a t o the r w o rke r s m ake n o men t ion o f t h e se . A l though ar e cen ts ou rce h a s s t a ted t h a tt h ec ha rcoa l a t Gongwang l ing o ccu r red i n a sh d epo s i t s , t h is c on t rad ic t s o the rw r i te r sw ho r e f e ro n ly t ot h ee v idence f o r c ha rcoa l , a nd n o t t o a ny a sh d epo s i t s . T he i s o la ted c ha r r ed b one f ound i n t h e K ehe a r ea i n al a ye r t hough t t o b e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly s im i la r w i th K ehe d oe s n o t s eem t o d e r ive f r om o ne o f t h e ' o ld ' K ehe l o ca l i t ie s . T he a ppa ren t l a ck o f ( o the r ) a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls f r om t h is f i nd spo t may i n d ica te a s e conda ry c on tex t o f t h is s pec imen . T he l a ck o f o t he r e v idence o f f i re a t L an t ian a nd K ehe may s ugges t t h a t e v idence w a s r emoved f r om t h e s i tes t h rough n a tu ra l d i s tu rbance , o r t h a t h om in id s u sed f i re a t ap l ace o u t s ide o f t h ee xcava ted a r ea s .T he c ha rcoa l may h ave b een p roduced b y n a tu ra l a gen t s ( c f . , I s aac 1 977a :94 ; B inf o rd 1 987 :99 ) . A t L oca l i ty 1 3t h e s ma l l n umbe ro fb urn t b ones , t h e v e ry s ma l l c ha r coa l f r agmen t s , a nd t h e f ew a r tef ac t s f o und i n t h e s ame l a ye ri n d ica te l im i ted h om in id f i re u se . T he a sh l a ye r a nd t h e f ew mamma l ian f o s s i ls f ound a tL oca l i ty 1 3A may b er e la ted t o h om in id a c t iv i t ie s , b u t i n t h e a b sence o f a r tef ac t s l i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t t h e s i gn if icance o f t h ese o ccu r rence s . T he r e cen t a r gumen t s l a rge ly r e jec t ing e v idence f o r h om in id f i r e u se a tL oca l i ty 1 ,e . g . , f o rma t ion o f t h e t h ick a sh l a ye r s b y s pon taneou sc ombus t ion ( a l though t h e se r e cen t w r i te r s h ave a l so a r gued t h a t h om in ids may h ave u sed f i re ) h ave b een r e fu ted b y t h em a jo r i ty o f wo rke r se i the rd i rec t ly o ri n d i rec t ly f am i l ia r w i th t h e n ume rous e v idence s f o r h om in id f i re u se , e . g . , c onf i rma t ion b y c hem ica l t e s t s o f b u rn t b one a nd s o i l f ound w i th t h ea r tef ac t s . T he r e cen t ly i d en t if ied c ha r red h o r se f o ss i ls ( a nd t h ee v idence f o rc u t -ma rked h o r se f o ss i ls ) f u r the r s uppo r t s t h e e v idence f o r h om in id f i re u se . T he c ha r r ed r e dbud w ood f r agmen t s a nd t h e m any b u rn t h ackbe r ry s e ed s

m ay b e r e f e rab le t o h om in id a c t iv i t ie s . T he c ha r r ed a nd u nbu rn t o s t r ich e gg she l l f r agmen t s a nd t h e a ppa r en t l a ck o f o the r o s t r ich r ema in s s ugge s t t h a t t h e L oca l i ty 1 h om in id s e xp lo i ted o s t r ich n e s t s . T he c o r r e la t ion o f s i gn if ican t t e chno log ica l p rog re s s i n l a ye r s 1 5o fL oca l i ty 1t o t h e e vo lu t iona ry d eve lopmen t o f h om in id mo rpho logy may n o t b e r e p r e sen ted i n t h e s ke le ta l ma te r ia ls . A l though s ome C h ine se a n th ropo log is t s ( s ee P ope 1 992b :257 , 2 60 ) r e cogn i se a n umbe r o f a dvan c ed c r an ia l f e a tu r e s i n t h e h om in id s f r om t h e l a te l a ye r s , t h e re a ppea r st ob ev e ry l i t t le d i ach ron ic c hange ( Pope 1 992b :260 2 61 , T ab le 1 ) . T he r e cen t c ha r ac te r isa t ion o ft h e L oca l i ty 1 h om in id s( a nd E a r ly a nd o t he r M idd le P le i s tocene h om in id s ) b y s ome a u tho r s a s n on -cu l tu ra l a n ima l s d eempha s i se s t h e s ub s tan t ia la r tef a c tua le v idence f r om t h ec ave a nd a s aw ho le t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd p r io r t o t h e e me rgence o f H . s . s ap ien sw h ich s t rong ly s ugge s t st h a th om in id s w e re h ab i tua l a nd d ependen tt o o lu se r s . 7 .6 T he N ihewan l oca l i t ies i n t he c on tex t o f i mpor tan t E ar ly a nd Midd le P le istocene n or thern Ch inese l oca l it ies T he l a rge n umbe ro fa r tef ac t s d i s t ingu i she s t h e N ihewan a nd L oca l i ty 1 s i te s f r om t h e L an t ian , L oca l i ty 1 3 , a nd K ehe l o ca l i t ie s .T h i sm ay b ee xp la ined b y t h e g r ea te r p re se rva t ion o f a r t e f a c t s i n t h e l a rge ly l ow -ene rgy d epo s i t s o f t h e N ihewan s i te s , a nd b y t h e p ro tec t ion o f a r te f ac t s i n a nd r epea ted o ccupa t ion o ft h e L oca l i ty 1c ave e nv i ronmen t , a nd t o al e s se r e x ten t p e rhap s a l so b y e xcava t ion t e chn ique s a nd b i a sed r e cove ry .A nu nde r s tand ing o fl i th ic v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s i n r e la t ion t o L an t ian , L oca l i ty 1 3 , a nd K ehe i sh ampe r ed b ecau se o f t h e v e ry s ma l l t o s ma l l a r te f a c t f r equenc ie s f r om t h e se l o ca l i t ie s a nd b ecau se t h e L an t ian a nd K ehe m a te r ia ls a ppea r t o d e r ive f r om d i s tu rbed c on tex t s . F u r the rmo re , t h e a ppa ren t u nce r ta in ty o ve r t h e n umbe r o f a r te f a c t s r e cove red f r om t h e L an t ian h om in id s i te s , a nd t h e f r equen t l a ck o f d e ta i led d a ta , a s , f o r i n s tance , o n t h e C hen j iawo a nd L oca l i ty 1 c o l lec t ion s a l so l im i t s c ompa r i son s a nd e va lua t ion s . T ab le 5 . 30 i s as umma ry c ompa r i son o fi mpo r tan td a ta o ft h el o ca l i t ie si nt h is c hap t e r a nd t h eN ihewan l o ca l i t ie s . A l l s i te sa ppea rt oh ave b een l o ca ted i nt h ev i c in i ty o fp l a ce s p rov id ing a c ce s s t o w a te r , a nd p o ten t ia l ly t o a n ima l r e sou r ce s , a nd t o s ou rce s o f r aw m a te r ia l f o r t oo l m anuf a c tu re .T he a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia ls f r om t h e N ihewan a nd L oca l i ty 1( a nd L oca l i ty 1 3? )d e r ive f r om w ha t a ppea r t o r e p re sen t h om in id a c t iv i ty s i te s a t w h ich t oo ls w e r e m anuf a c tu r ed , u t i l i sed a nd d i sca rd ed a nd a n ima l c a r ca s se s p roce s sed . B e cau se o f l a ck o fd a ta c omp rehen s ive s t ud ie s o f a c t iv i ty a r ea sa r en o tp o s s ib le . T he e v idence s ugge s t s r eg iona l v a r ia t ion i n r aw m a te r ia l s e lec t ion . I n t h e N ihewan t h e p r edom inance o fc he r t a nd a t L oca l i ty 1o fv e in q ua r tz s eem t ob ea s soc ia ted w i th t h el o ca l p r edom inance o f t h e se ma te r ia ls . T he N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s h ave y i e lded t h e o n ly a s semb lage s m anuf a c tu r ed m a in ly i n c he r t . T he l a rge r v a r ie ty o f l i t h ic ma te r ia l s a t L oca l i ty 1 c ompa red t oa l lo t he rs i te s may b e af unc t ion o fr eoccupa t ion a nd mo re e x ten s ive u t i l isa t ion o f t h e c ave . T he l i th ic c o l lec t ion s a r e s im i la r i n t h e a lmo s t e xc lu s ive u se o f o ne m a te r ia l f o r t o o l m anuf ac tu r e f r om a s ou r ce n ea r t h e l o ca l i t ie s , t h e p r edom inance o f f l ake t oo ls , t h e i r g ene ra l ly i n fo rma ls hape s ,a nd t h el ow f r equenc ie so fa r te f ac t s mod if ied b y s e conda ry r e touch . T oo ls w i th s e conda ry r e touch a ppea r ,

h oweve r , t o b e mo s t n ume rou s a t L oca l i ty 1 . A t t h e N ihewan , L an t ian , a nd K ehe s i te s a r te f a c t s w e r e p r edom inan t ly m anuf a c tu r ed b y h a rd h amme r p e r cu s s ion , i n c on t ra s tt oL oca l i ty 1w he re t h ep redom inance o f t h e b i po la r t e chn ique m ay b e a n a dap ta t ion t o t h e s ma l l s i ze o f v e in q ua r tz n odu le s a nd t h e i n t rac tab i l i ty o f t h is s t one . T he t e chn ique s e mp loyed f o r t o o l manuf a c tu re may h ave b een a r e spon se t ot h e p rope r t ie s o f t h e r aw ma te r ia ls . T he c o re s w i th f l a to rr e la t ive ly f l a tp l a tfo rm t a b le s i nt h eN ihewan a nd a tL oca l i ty 1 ,a nd p o s s ib ly a tK ehe , a nd t ho se w i th c o r t ica l f l a t p l a t fo rm s f r om G ongwang l ing m ay s ugge s t ac ommon a pp roa ch i nd ea l ing w i th r e la t ive ly i n t rac tab le r aw m a te r ia ls . T he f r equency o ft h e se c o re sd oe s n o ts e em t o h ave i n c re a sed t h rough t h eE a r ly t oM idd le P le i s tocene . T he g r ea te r n umbe r o f t h e se c o r e s i n t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s c ompa r ed t o L oca l i ty 1m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p r edom inance o f t h e b i po la rt e chn ique a tt h e l a t te rs i te . T he l a ck o f e v idence f o r t h e u t i l isa t ion o f p lan t s i n t h e N ihewan w i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o f t h e f ew t oo ls w i th p o l i sh p robab ly i n d ica te s al a ck o fp r e se rva t ion e ven i nt h e se l ow -ene rgy c on tex t sa nd p e rhap sp oo r e xcava t ion t e chn ique s . T he p o s s ib le e v idence o f p l an t e xp lo i ta t ion a tL oca l i ty 1i s l im i ted a nd , s im i la rt ot h el a ck o fp l an th om in id r e sou r ce s a t t h e L an t ian , K ehe , a nd i t s eem s L oca l i ty 1 3 s i te s a l so p r e sumab ly a f unc t ion o f p re se rva t ion . T he e v idence f o r h om in id e xp lo i ta t ion o fa n ima ls f r om t h eN ihewan s i te s , i . e . t h ea s soc ia t ion o f a r te f a c t s a nd f o s s i l s i n u sua l ly f i ne -g ra in , l ow -ene rgy s e d imen ta ry c on tex t sa nd t h ef ew , a ppa ren t ly c u t m a rk ed b one s s e em s t o b e t h e e a r l ie s t s uch e v idence a nd i n d ica t e s t h a t l a te E a r ly P le i s tocene h om in id s i n n o r the rn C h ina u t i l i sed a n ima lr e sou r ce s . T he a ppa ren tl a ck o fs im i la r e v idence f r om L an t ian a nd K ehe , p a r t icu la r ly i n v i ew o f t h e e a r ly N ihewan d a ta i sp o s s ib ly af unc t ion o f t h e a ppa ren t ly s e conda ry c on tex t d epo s i t s , a nd p e rhap s a l so o f e xcava t ion a nd r e co rd ing t e chn ique s . H om in id a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion f r om L oca l i ty 1 3 i s v e ry l im i ted , w h i le t h e t o o l -ma rked b one s amp le f r om L oca l i ty 1r e p re sen t s t h e mo s t s ub s tan t ia l d a t a a nd s ugge s t st h e l im i ted e xp lo i ta t ion o fa tl e a s tf ou r m ed ium t o l a rge s i zed s pec ie s . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f c u t -ma rk ed b one sf r om t h eN ihewan a nd L oca l i ty 1s i te s , a l though t h e se b one sa r em o re n ume rou sa tL oca l i ty 1m ay t o s ome e x ten t b e af unc t ion o f t h e s ma l l a va i lab le s amp le s i ze s a nd o f p r e se rva t ion . T he e v idence s a r e i n suf f ic ien t t o i d en t if y h ow h om in id s o b ta ined t h e a n ima ls , a l though s caveng ing h a s b een s ugge s t ed f o r L oca l i ty 1 . T he l a ck o f s ub s tan t ia l e v idence f o r f i r e u se a t L an t ian a nd i n t h e N ihewan may i n d ica te t h a tf i re u se w a sn o tp a r to ft h ec u l tu ra l r e pe r to i re o f e a r ly C h ine se h om in id s i n n o r the rn C h ina a nd w ou ld c on t r ad ic t t h e e a r l ie r e v idence f r om A f r ica . N ega t ive p r e se rva t ion m ay e xp la in t h ea b sence o ff i re t e chno logy . T he e a r l ie s te v idence s e em st ob e r e p r e sen t ed a tL oca l i ty 1 3 , b u t t h ee xa c t c h rono log ica l p o s i t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a ye r , a nd n o t o f t h e a ppa ren t ly u n sa t i sf ac to r i ly d a t ed w ho le L oca l i ty 1 3 d epo s i t , n eed s t o b e e s tab l i shed . T he mos t s ub s tan t ia l e v idence f o r h om in id f i r e u se d e r ive s f r om L oca l i ty 1 .T he a ppa ren t ly e x ten s ive o ccu r rence o f f i re a t t h i s c ave m ay i n d ica te t h a t h om in id s b y l a te r M idd le P l e i s tocene t ime s w e re h ab i tua l u se r so ff i re .

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T he g ene ra l ly u n s tanda rd i sed n a tu re o f t h e a s semb lage s i s p o s s ib ly r e la ted t o av a r ie ty o fd i f f e ren tf a c to r s ( a nd c f . , I s aa c 1 977a :97 ) , i n c lud ing t h e l o ca l a va i lab i l i ty a nd s e lec t ion o f m a te r ia ls , a nd t h e ir s i ze a nd f r ac tu r ing p rope r t ie s , t r ad i t ion ( e .g . , c f . , S acke t t 1 973 ) , f unc t ion ( e .g . , c f . , B inf o rd 1 973 ) , a nd s k i l l ( c f . , L eakey 1 962 :127 i n I s aa c 1 977a :95 ) . T he s t ud ie s o f r aw ma te r ia l p rope r t ie s i n t h e N ihewan ( s e e

C hap te r I V ) a nd i n te rp re ta t ions b y f o rme r a u tho r s o f t o o l s i ze a tL oca l i ty 1 s ugge s t t h a t r aw ma te r ia l s e ems t o b e a s i gn if ican t e l emen t i ne xp la in ing t oo l s i ze a nd mo rpho logy . A cco rd ing t o T e i lha rd ( 1927 , a nd s e e 1 941 :62 -63 , 7 6 ) , t h e l a ck o f ' s u i tab le ' r aw m a te r ia ls , i n p a r t icu la r f l in t w a s a n i mpo r tan t d e te rm in ing f a c to r i n p roduc ing t h e g ene ra l ly u n s tanda rd i sed C h ine se a s semb lage s , a nd h e ( Te i lha rd 1 927 ) f o und t h a t C h ine se c he r t i s i regu la r o r t h a t i t s ha t te r s . A l though t h ef r ac tur ing c ha rac te r i s t ics may h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h e o n t h e w ho le i n fo rma l n a tu re o f t oo ls , t h e a ppa ren t ly u nsu i tab le l i t h ic ma te r ia ls , s u ch a sc he r ta nd v e in q ua r tz w e re e x tens ive ly u t i l ised , a s s ugge s ted b y t h e N ihewan a n d L oca l i ty 1 a s semb lage s . F u r the rmo re , a l though t h is i s o u t s ide t h e c h rono log ica l s cope o f t h is w o rk , t h e v e ry f i ne g ra in c he r t u s ed a mong o t he r m a te r ia ls a tt h e X u j iayao s i te p r oduced a t l e a s t 2 0 ' t humbna i l s c rape r s ' t o as t anda rd i sed p a t te rn ( pe r s . o b se rv . ) . T he a ppa ren t ly n on -econom ic u se o f r aw m a te r ia ls i n t h e N ihewan , a t Gongwang l ing , a nd K ehe m ay n o t o n ly b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f r ac tu r ing p rope r t ie s , b u t p e rhap s a l so w i th l im i ted c ompe t i t ion f o r s t one r e sou rce s . T h is may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o g ene ra l ly u n s tanda rd i sed t oo lk i t s a nd a c onse rva t ive l i t h ic t o o l t e chno logy . T he e v idence i st oo p oo r t o e xam ine h ow t he t oo ls may b e r e la ted t ov a r ia t ions i na c t iv i ty f a c ie s , a nd i na ny c a se , t h is i s d i ff i cu l t c ons ide r ing t h e u n s tanda rd ised n a tu re a nd l im i ted v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e t oo ls . M ic rowea r a na lyses may b e a b le t o e xp lo re t h is f u r the r . S ome o f t h e N ihewan a nd L oca l i ty 1 a r tef ac t s p r e sumab ly p roduced t h e cut -m a r k s. T he p r edom inance o f f l ake t o o ls a t L an t ian , N ihewan , a n d L oca l i ty 1 ,a nd p e rhap s a t L oca l i ty 1 3 s ugges t s t h a t f l ake t o o l s w e re mo re a dap t ive t h an c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls . T he m anuf ac tu re a nd u se o f n on l i th ic t oo ls may a tl e a s t t o s ome e x ten t e xp la in t h e i n fo rma l n a tu re o f t h e se t oo ls ( a nd s e eC hap te rI ) .T he l a ck o f d i rec t e v idence o f n on l i th ic t o o l u se c ou ld b e i n d ica t ive o f n ega t ive p rese rva t ion . T he p o s s ib ly g r ea te r v i s ib i l i ty o fl i th ic r aw ma te r ia ls i nt h e mo re o pen e nv ironmen t s o ft empe ra te n o r the rn C h ina c ompa red t o s ou the rn C h ina , t h e h ighe rd i ve r s i ty a nd a bundance o f p l an t s i n t h e s ou the rn r eg ions , a nd t h e p oss ib ly l e ss a bundan t o ccu r rence o fb amboo i nn o r the rn C h ina ( s ee C hap te rI ) , a l so i n d ica ted b y t h ea ppa ren tr a r i ty o ff o ss i l p anda i n t h is r e g ion ( s ee 7 . 3 .1 , T ab le 2 34 ; a nd s e e A igne r 1 981 , F ig . 1 5 ) , t h e o n ly a n ima l a lmos t s o le ly d ependen to n b amboo w h ich m ay b e i n d ica t ive o f l e ss f a vou rab le p a laeoenv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions f o r b amboo g row th i n t h e No r th c ompa red t o s ou the r ly r e g ions may h ave r e su l ted i n l e ss e mpha s is o n n on l i th ic t oo l t e chno logy i n t h e N o r th . H ypo the t ica l ly , t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fb amboo a s af ood , e . g . , b amboo s hoo t s m ay h ave l e d t o t h e i n i t ia l r e cogn i t ion o f t h is w oody p l an t a s a m ed ium f o r t oo l manuf ac tu re . E thnog raph ic r e co rd s f r om S ou theas tA s ia w h ich d ocumen tt h e w ide a nd v e r sa t i le u se o f n on l i th ic t o o ls ( e .g . , H a r r i son 1 978 ) , i n c lud ing b amboo p o in t s f o r s pea r s i n a n ima l t r ap s ( Evans 1 927 :130 ) a n d w ooden d i gg ing s t ick s ( Fo rde 1 934 :17 ) s ugge s t s ome o f t h e p o ss ib le k i nds o f t oo ls w h ich m ay h ave b een m anuf a c tu red d u r ing t h eP a laeo l i th ic .

Xu j iayao s i te (We i 1 985 , 1 989 ; J i a 1 985 ; J i a a nd We i 1 987 ) i mp ly a p e r s is tence o f s ome t e chno log ica l t r a i t s , i n p a r t icu la rs ma l l t o o l s i ze ( J ia a nd Huang 1 985b ) a nd s l ow t o mode ra te t e chno log ica lc hange . T h is may t o s ome e x ten t b e r e la ted t o r e la t ive e nv ironmen ta l s t ab i l i ty c ompa red t o E u rope ( s ee C hap te rI ) w h ich d i d n o t n eces s i ta te s i gn if ican t c hanges i nl i t h ic a nd s ub s is tence t e chno log ie s . H oweve r , t h e p auc i ty o fr e a sonab ly l a rge l i th ic c o l lec t ions , o f r e l iab le a nd c onc lus ive d a ta o n e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions , a nd h om in id r e sou r ce s ubs is tence f r om p r ima ry E a r ly a nd M idd le P le is tocene c on tex t s l i m i t s a na lyse s o f t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l t e chno log ica l a nd a dap ta t iona ld eve lopmen ts . T he c onse rva t ive n a tu re o f C h inese a r t efa c t s may a l so b e i n d ica ted b y s im i la r s ma l l p o in t s b a sed o n t h is w r i te r ' s r e sea r ch ( Kea te s 1 994 ) . T he se p o in t s w e re r e touched a t a n o b l ique a ng le a nd o ccu r t h roughou t t h e P a laeo l i th ic , i n c lud ing as pec imen f r om X iaochang l iang ( s ee C hap te r I V ) , s pec imens f r om L oca l i ty 1 a nd L oca l i ty 1 5 , D ingcun , X u j iayao , a nd a l so f r om L a te P le is tocene s i tes ( a nd a Ho locene s i te ) , b u t t h e f r equenc ie s c anno t i n mo s t c a se s b e e s tab l ished f r om t h el i t e ra tu re ( Kea te s 1 994 ) . S ix o ft h e l o ca l i t ie s , i . e . G ongwang l ing , Donggu tuo , a nd b y i mp l ica t ion , X iaochang l iang , C hen j iawo , L oca l i ty 1 , a n d K ehe a r e ' p ivo t s ' i nt h es ma l l a nd l a rge t oo l t r ad i t ion m ode l ( s ee C hap te r I ) . T he se a r e i n te rp re ted a s r ep re sen ta t ive o f d i f f e ren t t e chno log ie s , a nd r e cen t ly o f p o ss ib ly p a r t ly i n te r i n dependen t ly d eve lop ed c u l tu re s , b u t a u tho r s d i sag ree , f o r e xamp le , a bou t t h e s uppo sed c u l tu ra l a f f in i ty o f Gongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo , i . e . w he the r t h ey b e long t o t h el a rge o r s ma l l t o o l t r ad i t ion , a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s a r gu ing f o r a g r ea te r r e la t ionsh ip b e tween Gongwang l ing a n d C hen j iawo w i th K ehe a nd D ingcun t h an w i th L oca l i ty 1a nd t h e p oss ib ly a nce s t ra l p o s i t ion o f Gongwang l ing t ot h e K ehe a nd D ingcun c u l tu re s h ave a l so b een q ue s t ioned . T he s epa ra t ion o f t wo d i f f e ren t t r ad i t ions o ver a pp rox ima te ly 1 m i l l ion y ea r s i s d i f f icu l t t o c once ive o f . A s t h e r e v iew s how s , o ne o f t h e c ha r ac te r is t ics o f t h e L an t ian a r tef ac t s a r e s ma l l t oo ls , a nd w h i le l a rge t oo ls p redom ina te a tK ehe , t h e re a r e a l so s ma l l t o o ls . T he o n ly o the r l a rge t oo ls f r om L an t ian d o n o td e r ive f r om t h e h om in id l o ca l i ty , a l though t h e h eavy t r iangu la r p o in t f r om P ing l iang a nd t h e o the r l a rge p o in t w e r e f ound i n t h e f o s s i l if e rous l a ye r . F u r thermo re , mos t o f t h e L an t ian a nd K ehe t o o ls a r e o n f l ake s . Mo reove r , t h e l a rge too l t r ad i t ion c u l tu re i n c lude s t oo ls f r om a ppa ren t ly s e conda ry c on tex t s , i . e . L an t ian a nd K ehe a nd f r om v e ry s ma l l o r r e la t ive ly s ma l l c o l lec t ions , i . e . f r om L an t ian a nd K ehe , r e spec t ive ly . F l ake t o o ls a r e t h ough t t o h ave b ecome s ubs tan t ia l ly mo re i mpo r tan t t han c o re t oo ls t h rough t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd d ec rea s ing t o o l s i ze h a s a l so b een r e cogn i sed ( s ee , e . g . , Z hang 1 985 :183 -184 ; s ee C hap te rI ) , b u tt h is d oes n o t s eem t o b e t r ue b a sed o n t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s a nd t ho se r e v iewed f r om i mpo r tan t E a r ly a nd M idd le P le i s tocene s i te s .

A l though i th a sb een a r gued t h a tt h e s im i la rh eavy t r iangu la r p o in t s may b e d i agnos t ic o ft h e L an t ian , K ehe , a nd D ingcun r e g ion ,t h e se a r ee x t reme ly r a re ,a nd c ompa rab le i n f r equen cy t o h andaxe s , mos t o f w h ich a r e , mo reove r , s u r f a ce d i scove r ie s ( s ee K ea te s 1 994 ;a nd s e eP ope a nd K ea te s 1 994 ) . T he c ommona l i t ies o b se rved b e tween t h e a s semb lage s o f Donggu tuo , L oca l i ty 1 , a nd o f t h e e a r ly L a te P l e is tocene

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CHAPTER V III S u mmary a nd Conc lus ion

T he e a r l ie s t n o r the rn C h ine se h om in id s o ccup ied o pen -a i r l o ca l i t ies d u r ing t h el a te E a r ly P le is tocene a t Gongwang l ing , X iaochang l iang , a nd D onggu tuo , b u t t h e c h rono log ica l p os i t ion o f G ongwang l ing i s l e ss c e r ta in ( e a r ly M idd le P le i s tocene o rl a te E a r ly P le is tocene? ) . T he f i r s t s ub s tan t ive e v idence f o rc ave o ccupa t ion i si n t h e m idd le t o l a te M idd le P le is tocene a tZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 . T he a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls f r om L oca l i ty 1 3 may h ave b een d epo s i ted u nde r o pen -a i rc ond i t ion s . T he d a tes o ft h e N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s ( i .e . c .0 . 900 -0 .970 o ro l de r t h an 0 .970 my r ) , o f Gongwang l ing , a nd o f t h e M idd le P l e is tocene C hen j iawo , L oca l i ty 1 3 , L oca l i ty 1 , a nd K ehe s i tes , r e qu i re e i the r c onf irma t ion o r mo re s ub s tan t ive d e te rm ina t ion . O n p re sen t e v idence t h e N ihewan s i te s a r e t h e o lde s t i n a t empe ra te p a laeoenv i ronmen t( a nd s e eT ab le 2 44 ) . Hom in ids s e em t o h ave o ccup ied p l ace s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f w a te ra nd r aw m a te r ia lr e sou rce s . O n ly t h ree o ft h el o ca l i t ie s , i . e . t h eN ihewan a nd L oca l i ty 1s i te s p re se rve g ood e v idence o f h om in id a c t iv i ty . Mu l t ip le h om in id o ccupa t ion i s s ugge s ted a t L oca l i ty 1 , b u t l e ss c e r ta in ly a t Donggu tuo . D isc re te a c t iv i ty a r ea s c anno t b e i d en t if ied a t t h e N ihewan s i te s g i ven t h e i n adequa te i n forma t ion o n s pa t ia l a s soc ia t ion s . T he L oca l i ty 1 3 ma te r ia ls s eem t oi n d ica te v e ry l im i ted h om in id a c t iv i ty .T he s ed imen ta ry c on tex t sa nd o the r d a ta f r om L an t ian a nd K ehe s ugge s t t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s f r om t h e se s i te s d e r ive f r om d i s tu rbed d epo s i t s a nd t h a tt h ep l ace s o f h om in id a c t iv i ty h ave n o t b een i d en t if ied . T he s ma l l a r tef ac tua l , f l o ra l , a nd f a una l c o l lec t ion s f r om L an t ian , t h e s ma l l a r tef ac tua l a nd f a una l c o l lec t ion s f r om K ehe , a nd t h e v e ry l im i ted ma te r ia ls f r om L oca l i ty 1 3 i n d ica te t h a t o n ly p a r t o f t h e a s semb lage s h ave b een r e cove red . F lake t o o ls , a nd n o tc hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing too ls , a nd s ma l l t o o ls , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f mos to ft h e K ehe s pec imens , a r e t h ed i agno s t ic t o o ls a tt h e l o ca l i t ie s . T he i n fo rma l c ha ra c te r o f t h e a s semb lages a nd t h e i n f requen t u se o f s e conda ry r e touch s eem t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p rope r t ie s o f t h e ma te r ia l s u s ed f o r t o o l manuf ac tu re , t h e manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , a nd p oss ib ly w i th f unc t ion , s k i l l , a nd t r ad i t ion , t h e l a t te rn o t i nt h e s en se o ft h e C h inese s ma l l a nd l a rge t oo l t r ad i t ion mode l . T he p roduc t ion o f f l a t c o re p l a t form t a b le s a tt h e N ihewan s i te s , a nd t h e l owe r f r equency o f s uch c o re s f r om t wo o r t h ree o the r l o ca l i t ies s ugge s t s t h a t t h is may h ave b een r e la ted t o d ea l ing w i th r e la t ive ly i n t rac tab le s t one s . Whe the ro rn o tt h e l a ck o r l im i ted s t anda rd isa t ion o f l i t h ic t o o ls i sr e la ted t ot h ep redom inan t manuf ac tu re a nd u se o f n on l i th ic t o o ls r ema in s a n o pen q ue s t ion . T he c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion mode l s e em s s imp l is t ic a nd h a s v e ry l im i ted v a lue i n e xp la in ing h om in id b ehav iou r . I t s c oa r se -g ra in a pp roach may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o a n o ve ra l l l a ck o f d e ta i led l i th ic a na ly ses . T he l i th ic a na lyse s o f s amp les o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a s semb lage si n d ica te t h a t h om in ids e mp loyed a n e xped ien t t oo l mak ing t e chno logy , a s , f o r e xamp le , s ugge s ted b y t h e g ene ra l ly i n fo rma l a r tef a c t s a nd a ppa ren t ly u neconom ic u se o f s t ones f o r t oo l manuf ac tu re . T he se a na ly ses a l so s ugge s t s ome s t anda rd isa t ion a nd p l ann ing b a sed o n t h em anuf ac tu re o ff l a tc o re p la t form t a b le s ( a nd s e e b e low ) a nd o f t h e f ew c o re s a nd t oo ls o f mo re r e gu la r

p ropo r t ions . I ts e em s t h a t e xped iency a nd p l ann ing w e re t o s ome e x ten t a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f r ang ib le n a tu re o f t h e ma te r ia l s u s ed f o r t oo l manufac tu re . T he i n fo rma l i ty o f a r t ef a c t s a nd t h e s ho r t s e quence o f r e duc t ion may b e a s soc ia ted w i th b o th ma te r ia l b ehav iou r a nd p e rcuss ion t e chno logy , i . e . h a rd -hamme r d i rec t p e rcus s ion . T he p r edom inan t u s e o f c he r t a nd t h e r a r e e xp lo i ta t ion o f n on c he r ts t one sa tt h eX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo s i te s may b er e la ted t ot h el o ca l a bundance o fc he r t . H om in id p ref e rence f o r t o o ls o n f l ake f r agmen t s may b e i n d ica ted b y t h e p r edom inance o ft h e se t oo ls c ompa red t o w ho le f l ake t oo ls . T oo l s hape sa nd u se -wea rc ha rac te r is t ics i n d ica te av a r ie ty o f a c t iv i t ie s . Sma l l f l ake t o o ls a r ec ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e N ihewan s i te s w h ich a g ree s w i th C h inese e va lua t ions . D e sp i te t h is w r i te r 's s ma l le r s amp le s a nd d if e rence s i n l i th ic c l a ss if ica t ion , i n te rp re ta t ion s r e a ched b y t h is w r i te r a nd f o rme ra u tho r sf i nd c ommon g round o n many p o in t s . T he e v idence f o r h om in id b ehav iou r a s i n o the r E a r ly a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene n on -Ch ine se c on tex t s i s mos t a bundan t f o r l i th ic t e chno logy . A l l l o ca l i t ie s w i th t h e p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f L oca l i ty 1 d ocumen t al a ck o f e v idence f o r h om in id p l an t e xp lo i ta t ion . T h is i s p re sumab ly b ecau se o f p oo rp re se rva t ion ( a ta l l s i te s , a l though L oca l i ty 1may h ave l im i ted e v idence ) , a nd p oo r e xcava t ion a nd r e co rd ing t e chn ique s ( a t a l l s i te s , b u t t o a l e sse r e x ten t a t Z houkoud ian ) . T he e v idence f o r h om in id e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima lr e sou r ce sf r om t h eE a r ly a nd M idd le P le is tocene s i te s d i scu ssed i nt h i sw o rk i sv e ry l im i ted . A t L an t ian a nd K ehe t h e a s soc ia t ion s o f a r tef ac t s a nd f o ss i ls may b e r e f e rab le t o p o s t -depo s i t iona l e f f ec t s . L im i ted e v idence f o r h om in id s ub s is tence i nt h e f o rm o fa r tef ac ta nd f o s s i l a s soc ia t ion s a n d c u t -ma rked b one s i si n d ica ted f o r t h e N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s a nd mo s t s ub s tan t ia l ly f o r L oca l i ty 1 w he re , mo reove r , b u rn t f o ss i ls h ave b een i d en t if ied . T he f ew b u rn t f o ss i ls f r om L oca l i ty 1 3 m ay d e r ive f r om v e ry l im i ted h om in id a c t iv i ty . T he d a ta f r om t h e N ihewan l o ca l i t ies i s i n suf f ic ien t t o a s ce r ta in h ow h om in id s o b ta ined a n ima ls , a nd a l though h om in id s c aveng ing h a sb een s ugge s ted f o rL oca l i ty 1 , mo re e x ten s ive s t ud ie s a r e n e eded h e re a nd e l sewhe re . T he e a r l ie s t u se o ff i re m ay b er ep re sen ted a tL oca l i ty 1 3 , b u t t h e a ge o f t h e l a ye r f r om w h ich t h e c ha r r ed b ones w e re r e cove r ed r e qu i re s s pec if ic d a t ing . L oca l i ty 1 h a s y i e lded t h e mos t s ubs tan t ia l e v idence f o r h om in id f i re u se a nd may i n d ica te t h e h ab i tua l u s eo ft h is t e chno logy . T he l im i ted e v idence f o r f i re f r om G ongwang l ing a nd K ehe c anno t b e r e l iab ly t i ed t o h om in id a c t iv i ty , a nd may a t l e a s t t o s ome e x ten t b e a f unc t ion o fs e conda ry d epo s i t ion . F u tu re r e sea r ch i nn o r the rn a nd s ou the rn C h ina n eed s t of u l ly d ocumen t , e xam ine , a nd p ub l ish t h e f l o ra l , f a una l , a nd a r tef a c tua ls amp le s r e t r ieved f r om s i tes . T h is s hou ld i n c lude t h e u se o f t h r ee -d imens iona l p lo t t ing a nd s i ev ing , t h e c u ra t ion o f a l e xcava ted ma te r ia ls , a nd e s tab l ish ing , w he re p os s ib le , t h e n umbe ro ff auna l e l emen t s a nd i nd iv idua ls , e t c . I n d ep th s t ud ie s o f w ho le l i th ic a s semb lage s a nd o f t h e n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f a ny n a tu ra l a nd /o r h om in id d amage o n f o ss i ls s hou ld a l so b e i n c luded i n r e sea r ch p rog ramme s . T he c on t inued n eg lec t o f t h e se i mpo r tan t e l emen t s o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch w i l l p oss ib ly mean t h a t o u r k now ledge a nd u nde r s tand ing o fh om in id b ehav iou r i n C h ina a nd i t se vo lu t ion w i l l n o tb es i gn if ican t ly a dvanced . I tw i l l a l so c on t inue t ol im i t c ompa r isons w i th n on -Ch ine se P a laeo l i th ic e v idence s . T he E a s t A f r ican r e co rd i so f s pec ia l i n te re s t i n t h i s r e spec t b ecau se h om in id b ehav iou r i n t h is r e g ion i s f a r b e t te r s t ud ied t h an t h a t i n C h ina . T he

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c ompa r ison s b e tween t h e e v idence s f r om t h e N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s a nd t ho se o f i mpo r tan t E a r ly a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene E a s t A f r ican h om in id a c t iv i ty s i te s s ugge s t c e r ta in c ommona l i t ie s i n t h e b ehav iou r o f e a r ly h om in id s . T h i s i n c lude s s im i la r i t ie s i n s i t e s e lec t ion a nd l i th ic t e chno logy .T he N ihewan a nd E a s t A f r ican d a ta i n d ica te t h a t i tw ou ld b ep rom is ing t oe xp lo re t h e se c ompa r i son s i n mo re d e ta i l . T h is a na ly t ica l f r amewo rk c ou ld p o ten t ia l ly i n c r e a se o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e f u ndamen ta l d ynam ic s u nde r ly ing e a r ly ( H . e r ec tu s ) a nd l a te r ( H . s ap ien s ) h om in id b ehav iou r . I n aw o r ldw ide p e r spec t ive ,t h eN ihewan s i te s a r e s i gn if ican t i nt h e v a r ie ty o fe v idence s a nd t h e q uan t i ty o fa r tef ac t s t h ey p re se rve . T he l i th ic e v idence s f r om t h eN ihewan s ugge s t t h a t r aw m a te r ia l may c ons t i tu te a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r i n a t temp t s t oe xp la in t h ed i f f e rence si nt o o lt e chno logy e a s ta nd w e s t o f t h e Mov iu s l i ne . C on t inua t ion o f d e ta i led e xam ina t ion s o f t h e N ihewan a s semb lage s a nd t h e i r d epo s i t iona ry a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c on tex t s c ou ld f o rm a f i rm b a s i s f o r mo re a dvanced f u tu re s t ud ie so fa r cha eo log ica l s i te si nC h ina .

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N o tes t o R ef erences 1 .N ame s o fC h ine se a u tho r s Whe r e aC h ine se a u tho r i sl i s ted a c co rd ing t o t h e f o rme r s pe l l ing o f h e r /h i s n ame , t h e a u tho r w he re f i r s t r e f e r enced i sl i s ted u nde rt h e f o rme r n ame a s i ta ppea r s i n t h e p ub l ica t ion w i th t h e c u r ren t s pe l l ing s hown i n b racke t s , f o r e xamp le , C h ia , L P . ( J ia , L P . ) . I n ap ub l ica t ion w he re aC h ine se a u tho r 's n ame a ppea r s w i th t h e c u r ren t s pe l l ing , t h e o l d s pe l l ing i s s hown i n b r acke t s , f o re xamp le , Wu , RK . (Woo ,J K . ) ( c f . , A ppend ix 1 ) . 2 .C h ine se j ou rna l t i le s i nC h ine se w i th L a t in a nd E ng l i sh e qu iva len t s ; t h ei t a l i s ized t i t le i st h e t i t le u nd e r w h ich t h e j ou rna l i sr e f e ren ced . R en le ixue X uebao :A c ta A n thropo log ica S i n ica ;J ou rna lo fA n th ropo logy A c ta A r chaeo log ica S i n ica :s e eK aogu X uebao A c ta G eo log ica S in ica :D izh iX uebao ;J ou rna lo fG eo logy J i anghan K aogu ;J i anghan A r chaeo logy K aogu Y u W enwu : p rev iou s ly K 'ao -ku ; A r cheo logy a nd C u l tu ra lR e l ic s K aogu X uebao : p rev iou s ly K 'ao -Ku -H sueh -Pao , K 'ao -ku X uebao ; E ng l i sh t i t le u n t i l 1 974 , No . 2 : T he C h ine se J ou rna l o f A r chaeo logy ;L a t in t i le f r om 1 975 , No . 1 :" Ac ta A r cha eo log ica S i n ica " ;r e f e renced a cco rd ing t ot h et i t le c u r ren t a tt h e t ime o f p ub l ica t ion K exue T ongbao :p rev iou s ly ,K 'o -H sueh -T 'ung -Pao ;B u l le t in o fS c ience P al i zon to log ia S in ica :C h ine se P a laeon to logy Z hongguo D i s i j iY an j iu : Q ua t ernar ia S in ica ; C h ine se G eo logy S tudy ( o rR e sea r ch ) S h iq ian Y an j iu ; P reh i s to ry ; P reh i s to r ic S tud ie s

R eferences A bb ie , A .A . , 1 969 . T he o r ig ina lA us tra l ian s . S ydney : A .H . &A .W . R eed . A cadem ia S i n ica , I .V .P .P . , 1 966 . T he C eno zo ic o fL an t ian . P ek ing : S c ience P re s s . A dam s ,J .M . &F . I . Woodwa rd , 1 989 . P a t te rn s i n t r ee s pe c ie s r i chne s s a s at e s t o f t h e g l ac ia l e x t inc t ion h ypo the s is . N a tur e 3 39 , 6 99 -70 1 . A igne r , J . S . , 1 969 . T he A r chaeo logy o f P le i s tocene C h ina . U npub l i shed P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion . Mad ison : U n ive r s i ty o f W i scon s in . A igne r , J . S . , 1 972 . R e la t ive d a t ing o f No r th C h ine se f a una l a nd c u l tu ra l c omp lexe s .A r c t ic A n thropo logy I X (2 ) , 3 6 -79 . A igne r , L S . , 1 976 . C h ine se P l e i s tocene c u l tu ra l a nd h om in id r ema in s : Ac on s ide ra t ion o f t h e i r s i gn if i cance i n r e con s t ruc t ing t h e p a t te rn o f h uman b i ocu l tu ra l d eve lopmen t . I n L e P a l eo l i th ique i n f er i eur e tm oyen e n I nd e , e n A s ie C en t ra le , e n C h ine e t d an s l e s ud -e s t A s ia t ique , e d . A .K . G ho sh . N ice : U n ion I n te rna t iona le d e s S c ience s p reh i s to r ique s e t P ro toh i s to r ique s , I XC ong re s , p p . 6 5 -90 . A igne r , J . S . , 1 978a . I mpo r tan t a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s f r om N o r th C h ina . I nE ar ly P a leo l i th ic i n S ou th a nd E a s t A s ia , e d . F . Ikawa -Sm i th . T he H ague : Mou ton , p p . 1 63 -232 . A igne r , J . S . , 1 978b . P le i s tocene f auna l a nd c u l tu ra l s t a t ion s i ns ou th C h inaa . I nE ar ly P a leo l i th ic i nS ou th a nd E a s tA s ia , e d . F . Ikawa -Sm i th . T he H ague : Mou ton , p p . 1 29 162 . A igne r , J . S . , 1 981 .A r chaeo log ica lR ema ins i nP le i s tocene C h ina . München : C .H . B eck . A igne r , J . S . , 1 983 . C ommen t s . C urr en tA n thropo logy 2 4 (2 ) , 1 90 -191 . A igne r , J . S . , 1 986a . T he a ge o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 :t h e n ew ly p ropo sed c o r r e spondence s . F os s i l m an -n ew f a c t s , n ew i d ea s .A n thropo s( B rno )2 3 , 1 57 -174 . A igne r , J . S . , 1 986b . C ommen t s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 2 7 (5 ) , 4 68 -469 . A igne r , J . S . , 1 988 . D a t ing t h e e a r l ie s t C h ine se P le i s tocene l o ca l i t ie s : t h e n ew ly p ropo sed 01 8 c o r r e spondence s , I n T he P a laeoenv ironmen t o fE a s tA s ia f rom t h e M id -T e r t iar y, e d s . P . Why te , J . S . A igne r , N .G . J ab lon sk i , G . T ay lo r , D . Wa lke r &P . Wang . H ong K ong : C en t re o fA s ian S tud ie s o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fH ong K ong . V o lume I , 1 032 -1061 . A igne r ,J . S . &W .S . L augh l in , 1 973 . T he d a t ing o fL an t ian man a nd h i s s i gn i f icance f o ra na lyz ing t r end s i nh uman e vo lu t ion . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n thropo logy 3 9 ( 1) :97 -109 . A l len , G .M . , 1 938 -1940 . T he Mamma l s o fC h ina a nd Mongo l ia .N a tura lH i s tor yo fC en t ra lA s ia X I , V o lume s 1& 2 . N ew Yo rk : Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH is to ry . A l len , J .& J .B .M . G uy , 1 984 . E s t ima t ion s o fi n d iv idua l s i n a r cha eo log ica l f a una l a s semb lage s : H ow m in ima l i st h e MN I? A r chaeo logy i nO cean ia 1 9 ,4 1-47 . A n , ZM . , 1 990 . T he p ro to -handaxe a nd i t st r ad i t ion i nC h ina .A c ta A n thropo log ica S i n ica I X (4 ) , 3 03 -311 . A n ,Z S . & CK . H o , 1 989 .N ew m agne to s t ra t ig raph ic d a te so fL an t ian H omo e r ec tu s . Q ua ternar yR e sear ch 3 2 ,2 13 -221 . A n , Z S . , G .J . K uk la , S .C . P o r te r & J .X iao , 1 991 . Magne t ic s u scep t ib i l i ty e v idence o f mon soon v a r ia t ion o n t h e L oe s s P la teau o fc en t ra lC h ina d u r ing t h el a s t 1 30 ,000 y ea r s .Qua t ernar yR e sear ch 3 6 ,2 9 -36 . A nde r s son , J .G . , 1 919 . P r e l im ina ry d e sc r ip t ion o f ab one d epo s i t a t C houkou t ien i n F ang S han H s ien , C h ih l i P rov ince . G eograph ic A nna l s 1 ,2 65 -268 .

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A nde r s son ,J .G . , 1 934 . C h i ld ren o ft h e Y e l low E ar th . L ondon : K . P au l , T rench , T rubne r &C o . L td . A nde r s son , J .G . , 1 943 . R e sea r che s i n to t h e p reh i s to ry o f t h e C h ine se . B u l le t in Mu seum F a r E a s t er n A n t iqu i t ie s 1 5 . S tockho lm . A nd rew s , P .A . &J .C ook , 1 985 . N a tu ra l mod if ica t ion s t ob one s i n at empe ra te s e t t ing . Man 2 0 , 6 75 -691 . A nd rew s ,R .C . , 1 924 . L iv ing a n ima l so ft h eG ob iD e se r t .N a tura lH i s tor y XX IV (2 ) , 1 50 -159 . A nd rew s , R .C . , 1 926 . O n t h e T ra i lo fA nc ien t Man . N ew Y o rk : P u tnam . A nd rew s , R .C . , 1 932 . N a tu ra l h i s to ry o fC en t ra l A s ia . An a r ra t ive o f t h e e xp lo ra t ion s o f t h e C en t ra l A s ia t ic e xped i t ion s i n Mongo l ia a nd C h ina 1 921-30 . T he N ew C onque s to fC h ina . V o l . 1 .N ew Y o rk . A nd rew s , R .C . , 1 949 . Mee t Y our A nce s tor s . L ondon : J ohn 'L ong L td . A rke l l ,A .J . , 1 949 . E ar ly K har toum . O xfo rd : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . A ud ley -Cha r le s , M .G . , H u r ley , A .M . & Sm i th , A .G . , 1 981 . C on t inen ta l movemen t s i n t h e Me sozo ic a nd C enozo ic . I n Wa l lace ' sL ine a nd P la t e T ec ton ic s ,e d .T .C . Wh i tmo re . O xf o rd : C la r endon P re s s ,p p .9 -23 . B ada , J .L . , 1 987 . P a leoan th ropo log ica l a pp l ica t ions o f a m ino a c id r a cem iza t ion d a t ing o f f o s s i l b one s a nd t e e th . A n thropo log i scher A nze iger 4 5 , 1 8 . B ae , K . , 1 992 . T r ip t o N ihewan : e a r l ie s t P a leo l i th ic s i te s i n N o r the rn C h ina . E a s t A s ian A r chaeo logy N e twork /EAANouncemen t s 8 ,1 5 -18 . B a i ley , R .C . , G . H ead , M . J en ike , B . Owen , R . R ech tman & E . Z echen te r , 1 989 . H un t ing a nd g a the r ing i n t r op ica l r a in f o re s t : I si tp o s s ib le? Amer ican A n thropo log i s t9 1(1) , 5 9 -82 . B a rbou r , G .B . , 1 924 . P re l im ina ry o b se rva t ion i nK a lgan a r ea . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina 3 (3 ) , 1 67 -168 . B a rbou r , G .B . , 1 925 . G eo log ica l s t udy o f t h e d epo s i t s o f t h e S angkanho B a s in . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f C h ina 4 ( 1) , 5 8 . B a rbou r ,G .B . , 1 927a . D epo s i ta nd e r o s ion i nt h eH ua i la iB a s in a nd t h e i r b ea r ing o n t h e P l e i s tocene h i s to ry o f No r th C h ina . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina 6 ( 1) , 4 7 -55 . B a rbou r ,G .B . , 1 927b . No te o n c o r re la t ion o fp hys iog raph ic s t age s . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f C h ina 6 (3 ) , 2 79 2 80 . B a rbou r , G .B . , 1 933 -34 . P hy s iog raph ic s t age s o fc en t ra l C h ina .B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina 1 3 (3 ) , 4 55 -467 . B a rbou r ,G .B . , 1 934 . A na lys i so ft h eL u shan g l ac ia t ion p rob lem . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina 1 3 (4 ) , 6 47 6 56 . B a rbou r ,G .B . , 1 935 . R ecen to b se rva t ion so n t h el o e ss o fN o r th C h ina . G eograph ic J ourna l8 6 ( 1) ,5 4 -64 . B a rbou r ,G .B . , 1 965 .I nt h eF ie ld w i th T e i lhard d eC hard in .N ew Y o rk :H e rde ra nd H e rde r . B a rbou r , G .B . ,E .L icen t &P .T e i lha rd d eC ha rd in , 1 927 . G eo log ica l s t udy o ft h ed epo s i t so ft h e S angkanho B a s in . B u l le t in o f t h eG eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina 6 (3 ) , 2 63 -278 . B a rbou r , G .B . &M .N . P ien , 1 930 . T he P le is tocene v o lcanoe s o ft h e S angkanho .B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f C h ina 9 (4 ) , 3 61-370 . B a rdon ,J .& A . B ouy sson ie , 1 906 . O u t i l s6 ca i l l6e p a rp e r cu s s ion .R evue d e l ' gco le d 'An thropo log ie 1 6 , 1 70 -175 . B a rend reg t ,R .W . , 1 985 .D a t ing m e thod so fP le is tocene d epo s i t sa nd t h e i rp rob lem s : V I . P a leomagne t i sm . I n Da t ing Me thod s o fP le i s tocene D epos i t sa nd T he ir P rob lem s , e d .N .W . R u t te r . G eo sc ience C anada , R ep r in tS e r ie s2 ,p p . 3 9 -49 . B a rne s , R .S .K . , P . C a l low , P . J .W . O l ive & D .W . G o ld ing , 1 988 . T he i n ve r t ebra t e s : an ew s yn the s i s . O xfo rd : B la ckwe l l S c ien t if ic P ub l ica t ion s . B a r ton , C .M . , 1 990 . S tone t oo ls a nd P a leo l i th ic s e t t lemen t i n t h e I b e r ian p en in su la . P roc eed ing s o ft h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 6 , 1 5 -32 . B a r t s t ra , G . -J . , S .G . K ea te s , B a soek i &B ah ru K a l lupa , 1 991 . O n t h e d i spe r s ion o f Homo s ap ien s i nE a s te rn I ndone s ia : T he P a laeo l i th ic o fS ou th S u lawe s i . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 3 2 (3 ) :317 -321 . B eh ren smeye r , A .K . , 1 986 . C ommen t s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 2 7 (5 ) , 4 69 . B eh ren smeye r , A .K . , 1 987 . T aphonomy a nd h un t ing . I n T he E vo lu t ion o f H uman H un t ing , e d s . M .H . N i teck i & D .V . N i teck i . N ew Y o rk : P lenum P re s s , p p . 4 23 -450 . B eh rensmeye r , A .K . &D .E .D . B oaz , 1 980 . T he r e cen t b one s o f Ambo se l i N a t iona l P a rk , K enya , i nr e la t ion t o E a s t A f r ican p a leoeco logy , I n F o s s i l s i nt h e Mak ing : V e r t ebra t e T aphonomy a nd P a leoeco logy , e d s . A .K . B eh r en smeye r & A. P . H i l l . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s , p p . 7 2 -93 . B eh ren smeye r ,A .K . , K .D . G o rdon & G .T . Y anag i , 1 986 . T ramp l ing a s ac au se o f b one s u r f a ce d amage a nd p seudo -cu tma rk s . N a tur e3 19 , 7 68 -771 . B e rgg ren ,W .A . &J .A .V an C ouve r ing , 1 974 .T he l a te N eogene .P a laeogeography , P a laeoc l ima to logy , P a laeoeco logy S pec ia l I s sue 1 6 (1/2 ) , 1 216 . B e rgg ren ,W .A . &J .A . V an C ouve r ing , 1 979 .T he Q ua te rna ry . I nT r ea t i se o n I n ver t ebra t e P a leon to logy , e d s . R .A . R ob in son &C .T e icha r t . L aw rence , K an sa s : G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f Ame r ica p p . 5 05 -543 . B info rd ,L .R . , 1 973 . I n te ra s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty -t h e Mou s te r ian a nd t h e ' f unc t iona l ' a r gumen t . I n T he e xp lana t ion o f c u l tur e c hange : mode l s i np r eh i s to ry ,e d .C .R enf rew . L ondon : D uckwo r th ,p p . 2 27 -254 . B info rd ,L .R . , 1 978 .N unam iu te t hnoar chaeo logy .N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . B info rd , L .R . , 1 980 . W i l low s moke a nd d og 's t a i ls : h un te r -ga the r e r s e t t lemen t s y s tem s a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i te f o rma t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 ,4 -20 . B info rd ,L .R . , 1 981 . B one s . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . B info rd ,L .R . , 1 983 . I nP ur su i to ft h eP a s t :D ecod ing t h eA r chaeo log ica lR ecord . N ew Y o rk : T hame sa nd H ud son . B info rd , L .R . , 1 985 . H uman a nce s to r s : C hang ing v i ew so ft h e i rb ehav io r .J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA r chaeo logy 4 ,4 92 3 27 . B info rd , L .R . , 1 987 . We re t h e re e l ephan th un te r sa tT o ra lba? I nT he E vo lu t ion o fH uman H un t ing , e d s . M .H . N i teck i & D .V . N i teck i . N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s , p p . 4 7 -106 . B info rd ,L .R . , 1 989 . I s o la t ing t h et r an s i t ion t oc u l tu ra l a dap ta t ion s : a no rgan iza t iona l a pp roa ch . I nT he Emergence o f Mod ern

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H umans , e d . E . T r inkaus . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ,p p . 1 8 -41 . B info rd ,L .R . &J .B . B e r t ram , 1 977 .B one f r equenc ie s a nd a t t r i t iona lp roce sse s ,I nF or T heory B u i ld ing i nA rchaeo logy ,e d . L .R . B info rd . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re ss ,p p . 7 7 -153 . B info rd ,L .R . &C .K . Ho , 1 985 . T aphonomy a t ad i s tance : Z houkoud ian , " The c ave h ome o fB e i j ing m an"? C urr en t A n thropo logy 2 6 (4 ) ,4 13 -429 , 4 36 -442 . B info rd ,L .R . &G . I . Qu imby , 1 963 .I nd ian s i te sa nd c h ipped s t one ma te r ia ls i nt h e n o r the rn L ake M ich igan a r ea . F ie ld iana A n thropo logy 3 6 (12 ) , 2 77 -307 . B info rd ,L .R . &N .M . S tone , 1 986 . Z houkoud ian : Ac l o se rl o ok . C urren tA n thropo logy 2 7 (5 ) , 4 53 -468 ,4 71-475 . B info rd , L .R . &N .M . S tone , 1 987 . O n Z houkoud ian . R ep ly t oc ommen t s . C urren tA n thropo logy 2 8 (1) , 1 02 -105 . B lack ,D . , 1 926 . T e r t ia ry m an i nA s ia -t h eC hou K ou T ien d i scove ry .N a tur e LX IV (1668 ) , 5 86 -587 . B lack , D . , 1 927 . O n al owe rh om in id t o o th f r om t h eC hou K ou T ien d epo s i t , P a l c eon to log ia S in ica S e r . D 7 ( 1) , 1 28 . B lack , D . , 1 931 . E v idence so ft h eu se o ff i re b y S i nan thropus . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X I , 1 07 -108 . B lack , D . , P .T e i lha rd d eC ha rd in , C .C . Young & W .C . P e i , 1 933 . F oss i l Man i nC h ina : T he C hou Kou T ien c ave d epos i t s w i th as ynop s is o fo u rp re sen tk now ledge o ft h e l a te C enozo ic i nC h ina . I n Memo ir so ft h e G eo log ica lS urvey o f C h ina , e d . D . B lack . S e r ie s A1 , 1 166 . B lackwood ,B . , 1 964 . T he T echno logy o f aMode rn S tone A ge P eop le i nN ew G u inea . I nO ccas iona lP aper so n T echno logy , e ds .T .K . P enn iman & B .M . B lackwood . O xfo rd : O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty P re ss , 3 ,1 60 . B low ,R .A . &N . H am i l ton , 1 975 . P a laeomagne t ic e v idence f r om DSDP c o re so fn o r thwa rd d r if to fI nd ia .N a tur e 2 57 , 5 70 5 72 . B lumen sch ine ,R .J . &F .T . Ma sao , 1 991 . L iv ing s i te s a tO lduva i Go rge ,T anzan ia? P re l im ina ry l a ndscape a r chaeo logy r e su l t s i nt h eb a sa l B ed I l a ke ma rg in z one .J ourna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 2 1 ,4 51-462 . B oh l in , B . , 1 927 . E xcava t ion o ft h eC hou Kou T ien d epo s i t . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina 6 ,3 45 -346 . B o rde s ,F . , 1 961 . T ypo log ie d uP a ldo l i th ique . B o rdeaux : D e lma s . B o rde s ,F . , 1 965 .U t i l isa t ion p o s s ib le d e sc ö te sd e sb u r ins .S onderdruck a us F undber ich te a u sS chwaben , 1 7 , 3 -4 . B o rde s , F . , 1 968 . T he O ld S t one A ge . N ew Yo rk : Wo r ld U n ive r s i ty L ib ra ry . B o rde s , F . , 1 978 . F o rewo rd , I nE ar ly P a leo l i th ic i nS ou th a nd E as tA s ia , e d . F .I kawa -Sm i th . T he H ague : Mou ton , p p . i x -x . B o rde s ,F . , 1 981 . T ypo log ie d uP a leo l i th ique A nc ien e t Moyen . C ah ie r sd u Qua te rna i re 1 .P a r is : C en t re N a t iona l d el a R eche rche S c ien t if ique . B ou le , M . , H . B reu i l , E .L icen t&P .T e i lha rd d eC ha rd in , 1 927 . L eP a leo l i th ique d el aC h ine .A rch ive sd e l ' Ins t i tu td e P a ldon to log ie Huma ine Memo i re 4 . B ou le ,M . , 1 927 . I n t roduc t ion . I nL eP a leo l i th ique d e l aC h ine , e ds . M . B ou le , H . B reu i l ,E .L icen t&P .T e i lha rd d e C ha rd in . A rch ives d e l ' Ins t i tu td eP a ldon to log ie Huma ine Memo i re 4 ,I -V I I I . B ow le s ,G .T . , 1 933 . Ap re l im ina ry r epor to fa r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ions o nt h e S ino -T ibe tan b o rde ro fS zechwan . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina 1 3 , 19 -148 . B ra idwood ,R .J . , 1 947 . A s ia t ic p reh i s to ry a nd t h eo r ig in o f man .J ourna lo fN ear E as tern S t ud ies 6 ,3 0 -42 . B ra in , C .K . , 1 981 . T he h un ter so rt h eh un ted? A n i n troduc t ion t oA f r ican c ave t aphonomy . C h icago : Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re ss . B ra in , C .K . &A . S i l len , 1 988 . E v idence f r om t h e Swa r tk rans c ave f o rt h ee a r l ie s tu se o ff i re ,N a ture 3 36 ,4 64 -466 . B reu i l , H . , 1 927 . A rcheo log ie . I nL eP a laeo l i th ique d el aC h ine ,e ds . M . B ou le , H . B reu i l ,E .L icen t&P .T e i lha rd d e C ha rd in .A rch ives d el ' Ins t i tu td eP a ldon to log ie H uma ine Memo i re 4 ,1 03 -136 . B reu i l , H . , 1 931 . L ef eu e tl ' indu s t r ie l i th ique e to sseu se aC houkou t ien . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X I (2 ) , 1 47 -154 . B reu i l ,H . , 1 932a . L ef eu e tl ' indu s t r ie d ep ie r re e td 'o sd ans l eg i semen td u " S inan thropu s" äC hou K ou T ien . L 'An thropo log ie 4 2 , 1 17 . B reu i l , H . , 1 932b . L es i ndu s t r ie s äe c la t sd uP a leo l i th ique A nc ien . P rdh i s to ire 1 ,1 25 190 . B reu i l , H . , 1 935 . L 'e ta ta c tue l d en o s c onna issance s s u rl e si n dus t r ie sp a leo l i th ique sd eC houkou t ien , C ommun ica t ion , S eance d u 1 9J u in 1 935 . L 'An thropo log ie 4 5 , 7 40 -746 . B reu i l , H . , 1 938 . T he u se o fb one i mp lemen t s i nt h e O ld P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . A n t iqu i ty 2 ,5 6 -67 . B reu i l , H . , 1 939 . B one a nd a n t le r i n dus t ry o ft h eC houkou t ien S inan thropu s s i te . P a lmon to log ia S in ica Who le S e r ie s 17 , N ew S e r ies D 6 : 7 -40 ,P la te sI -XXV I . B reu i l , H . &R . L an t ie r , 1 959 .L es h ommes d e l ap ierr ea nc ienne . P a r is : B ib l io th& iue S c ien t if ic -Payo t . B rook s ,J .L . , 1 984 . J us tB ef or e t h e O r ig in : A lf red R usse l Wa l lace 's T heor yo fE vo lu t ion . N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re s s . B uf f e tau t , E . , 1 987 . AS hor tH i s tor yo fV er tebra te P a laeon to logy . L ondon : C room H e lm . B unn ,H .T . , 1 981 . A rchaeo log ica le v idence f o r mea t -ea t ing b yP l io -P le is tocene h om in id sf r om Koob i F o ra a nd O lduva i Go rge . N a tur e 2 91 , 5 74 -577 . B unn , H .T . , 1 983 . E v idence o nt h ed i e ta nd s ub s is tence p a t te rns o fP l io -P le is tocene h om in ids a t Koob iF o ra , K enya a nd O lduva i Go rge ,T anzan ia .B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sI n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 63 ,2 1-30 . Bunn , H . , J .W .K . Ha r r is , G . I s aac , Z . K aufu lu , E . K ro l l , K . S ch ick , N . T o th & A .K . B eh rensmeye r , 1 980 . F xJ j50 : a n E a r ly P le i s tocene s i te i nn o r the rn K enya . Wor ld A r chaeo logy 1 2 (2 ) , 13 -136 . B u rnham , C .P . , 1 988 . T he f o re s te nv i ronmen t : s o i l s . I n T rop ica lR a inf ore s t so ft h e F ar E as t ,T .C . Wh i tmo re . O xfo rd : C la rendon P re ss ,p p . 1 37 -154 . B u tze r , K .W . , 1 993 .A rchaeo logy a sh uman e co logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . C ampbe l l , B .G . , 1 974 . H uman E vo lu t ion : A nI n troduc t ion t o Man 's A dap ta t ion s . C h icago : A ld ine ( 2nd e dn . ) . C ao , ZY . , QH . Yu , L .S . L iu & PY . H e , 1 983 . P rob lem s c once rn ing t h e l owe r l im i to fQ ua te rna ry i nC h ina . A c ta G eo log ica S in ica 5 7 (1) , 9 6 -103 . C haney ,R .W . , 1 935 . T he o ccu r rence o fe ndoca rp s o fC e l t i s b arbour i a tC houkou t ien . B u l le t in o ft h eG eo log ica lS oc ie ty o f

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C h ina X IV (1) , 9 9 -113 . C haney , R .W . &L .H . Daughe r ty , 1 933 .T he o ccu r rence o fC erc is a s soc ia ted w i th r ema ins o fS i nan thropu s . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X I I (3 ) , 3 23 -328 . C hang , K .C . , 1 960 . N ew l i gh to n E a r ly Man i nC h ina . A s ian P er spec t ives I (2 ) , 4 1-61 . C hang , KC . , 1 966 . N ew L igh to n P reh i s tor ic C h ina . S upp lemen t t o Vo lume O ne . C amb r idge : W . H ef f e r&S ons L td . U n ive r s i ty o fT o ron to P re ss . C hang , K .C . , 1 977 . C h inese P a laeoan th ropo logy . A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 6 , 1 37 -159 . C hang , K .C . 1 987 . T he A rchaeo logy o fA nc ien tC h ina . N ew H aven : Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re ss . ( 4 th e dn . ) C hang , S S . ( Zhang , S S .) , 1 962 . S ome p rob lem sc once rn ing t h eS inan thropus i n dus t ry o fC houkou t ien . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 6 (3 ) , 2 70 -279 . C hang , YP . ( Zhang , YP . ) , WP . Huang , Y J . T ang , HK . C h i & SY . T ing , 1 964 . P re l im ina ry o bse rva t ions o n t h e C enozo ic f o rma t ion o fL an t ian , S hens i . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 8 (2 ) , 1 34 -160 . C ha t te r jee ,D . , 1 987 . A s ia ( Exp lana to ry n o te ) . G eo log ica l Wor ld A t las ( s hee t 1 3 ) . I n te rna t iona lG eo log ica l Mapp ing B u reau . P a r is : UNESCO . C hen , MN . , 1 988a . P a leon to log ica l r e sea r ch i nN ihewan B eds ( I I I ) G eo log ica l a ge s i gn if icance o f mamma lf o ss i l sc o l lec ted f r om N ihewan B eds . I nS tudy o n t h eN ihewan B ed s , e ds . B . Z hu & MN . C hen . B e i j ing : O cean P ub l ish ing House , p p . 7 8 -84 . C hen , MN . , 1 988b . S tudy o n t h e N ihewan B ed s ( Abs t rac t ) . I nS tudy o n t h eN ihewan B ed s , e d s . B . Z hu & MN . C hen . B e i j ing : O cean P ub l ish ing Hou se , p p . 1 42 -145 . C hen , TM . , S .Y uan & S .G ao , 1 984 . U s ing t h e u ran ium me thod t oi n ve s t iga te i mpo r tan t P a laeo l i th ic d a tes i nn o r the rn C h ina . A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica 3 ( 3 ) , 2 59 -269 . C hen , TM . &S . Yuan , 1 988 . U ran ium -Se r ie sd a t ing o fb one s a nd t e e th f r om C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic s i te s .A rchaeome tr y 3 0 (1) , 5 9 -76 . C hen , TM . & YY . Z hang , 1 991 . P a laeo l i th ic c h rono logy a nd p oss ib le c oex is tence o f Homo e r ec tus a nd H omo s ap iens i n C h ina . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 3 (2 ) , 1 47 -154 . C hen , WY . , 1 981 . T he e nv i ronmen to fP ek ing Man s i te d u r ing t h ed epo s i t ion o ft h eB a sa l , U ppe r , a nd L owe rT rave r t ine sa nd o ft h eE lephan ts i te . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 1 9 (1) ,5 5 -56 . C heng , GL . , S L . L i &J L . L in , 1 977 . D iscu ss ion o n t h ea ge o f Homo e r ec tus y uanmouens i s a nd t h ee ven to fe a r ly Ma tuyama . S c ien t ia G eo log ica S in ica 6 ( 1) , 3 4 -43 . C heng , GL . ,J L . L in & S L . L i , 1 978 . Ar e sea rch o n t h ea ge so ft h e s t ra ta o f" Lan t ien man" . I nG ur en le iL uwen j i ( Co l lec ted P aper so fP a laeoan thropo logy ) ,e d . I n s t i tu te o fV er tebra te P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan thropo logy C h ine se A cademy o f S c iences . B e i j ing : S c ience P re s s ,p p . 1 5 1-157 . C heng , GL . ,J L . L in , S .L i &Q . L iang , 1 978 . Ap r e l im ina ry p a leomagne t ic s u rvey o ft h eN ihewan b ed . S c ien t ia G eo log ica S in ica 7 (3 ) , 2 47 -252 . C heng , TK . , 1 957 .A rchaeo log ica lS tud ie s i nS zechwan . . C amb r idge : C amb r idge a tt h eU n ive r s i ty P re s s . C heng , TK . &C . T ang , 1 985 . C ommen t s . C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 6 (4 ) , 4 31 . C h i , H . , 1 975 . T he L owe rP le is tocene mamma l ian f o ss i ls o fL an t ian d i s t r ic t , S hens i . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 1 3 , 1 69 -177 . C h ia , L P . ( J ia L anpo ) , 1 955 . 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C h ina R econs truc t s X I I (1) , 3 2 -34 . C h ia , L P , . 1 975 . T he C ave Home o fP ek ing Man . P ek in : F o re ign L anguage s P re ss . C h ia , L P . , P .Ka i ( P . Ga i ) &Y . You , 1 966 . T he p a laeo l i th s o ft h e L an t ian a r ea , S haanx i r eg ion . I nS ympos ium o n t h e L an t ian C enozo ic o fS haanx iP rov ince . B e i j ing : S c ience P re ss , p p . 1 51-156 . C h ia , L P . , P .K a i &Y . You , 1 972 . R epo r to fe xcava t ion i nS h i Yu , S hanx i -aP a laeo l i th ic s i te . A c ta A r chaeo log ica S in ica I ,3 9 -60 . C h ia , L P . & CY . Wang ( J . Wang ) , 1 957 . E a r l ie rc r ad le o f man -t h eN ihewan s t ra ta . B u l le t in o fS c ience 1 ,3 0 -31 . C h ia , L P . & CY . Wang , 1 958 . H is to ry o fd i scove ry a nd e xcava t ion . I nR epo r to n t h ee xcava t ion o fp a laeo l i th ic s i te s a tT ing t s 'un H s iang -f en -hs ien , S hans i P rov ince , WC . P e i , J K . Wu , L P . C h ia , MC . C hou , H . L iu & CY . Wang . I ns t i tu te o f V er tebra te P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan thropo logy Memo ir 2 ,1 ,9 . C h ia , L P . & CY . Wang , 1 978 . H s ihou tu -A c u l tur e s i te o fE ar ly P le is tocene i nS hans i P rov ince . P ek ing : Wenwu P re s s ( Cu l tu ra l R e l ics P re ss ) , p p . 1 85 . C h ia , L P . & TY . Wang (Wang , ZY . ) , 1 957 . T he d i scove ry o ft h eJ i aocheng , S hans i P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re . K aogu T ongxun 5 , 1 2 -18 . C h ia , L P . , TY . Wang & C . Wang , 1 962 . K ehe -A n E a r ly P a laeo l i th ic s i te i ns ou th -wes te rn S hans i . I n s t i tu te o fV er tebra te P a laeon to logy a nd P a leoan thropo logy , A cadem ia S i n ica Memo i r No . 5 ,1 40 . C h ia , L P . , TY . Wang & C . Wang , 1 964 . K 'oho : A n E a r ly P a laeo l i th ic s i te i ns ou th -we s te rn S hans i P rov ince . A rc t ic A n thropo logy 2 (1) , 1 05 -117 ( s umma ry t r ans la t ion o fC h ia e ta l . 1 962 b y J .A igne r ) . C h ia , L P . &Q . We i , 1 976 . AP a laeo l i th ic s i te a tH sue -ch ia -yao i n Yangkao C oun ty , S hans i P rov ince .A c ta A rchaeo log ica S in ica 2 ,9 7 -114 . C h ia , L P . , Q . We i &C . L i , 1 979 . R epo r to n t h ee xcava t ion o fH such iayao man s i te i n 1 976 . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 1 7 (4 ) , 2 77 -293 .

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( An e xh ib i t ion b y t h eI n s t i tu te o fV e r teb ra te P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan th ropo logy , A cadem ia S in ica a nd t h eU rban C ounc i l , Hong K ong . ) H ong Kong : H ong Kong Museum o fH is to ry . H ood , D . , 1 981 . D av idson B lack . D ic t ionary o fS c ien t if ic B iography . N ew Y o rk : S c r ibne r s , V o ls . 1& 2 ,1 71-172 . H oo i je r , D .A . , 1 948 . P reh is to r ic t e e th o f Man a nd t h e O rang -U tan f r om C en t ra l S uma t ra , w i th n o te so n t h ef o ss i l O rang -U tan f r om J ava a nd S ou the rn C h ina .L e iden Z oo log ische Med ede l ingen R i jk smuseum v an N a tuur l i jke H is tor ie , L e iden XX IX , 1 75 -301 . H oo i je r ,D .A . , 1 962 . T he m idd le P le is tocene f a una o fJ ava . I nE vo lu t ion a nd Hom in i sa t ion , e d . G . K u r th . S tu t tga r t . Hopwood , A .T . , 1 935 . F o ss i le l ephan t s a nd m an . P roceed ings o ft h e G eo log ica lA ssoc ia t ion L ondon 4 6 , 4 6 -60 . H ovan , S .A . , D .K . R ea , N .G . P i s ia s &N .J . S hack le ton , 1 989 . Ad i rec tl i nk b e tween t h e C h ina l o e s s a nd ma r ine o xygen i s o tope r e co rd : a eo l ian f l ux t ot h en o r th P ac if ic . N a tur e3 40 , 2 96 -298 . Howe l l , F .C . , 1 977 . I n t roduc t ion . I nP a leoan th ropo logy i nt h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina , e d s . W .W . H owe l ls & P . T such i tan i . C omm i t tee o n S cho lar ly C ommun ica t ion w i th t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina 4 , 1 4 . Wa sh ing ton , D .C . : Na t iona lA cademy o fS c ience s . H owe l l , F .C . , L .S . F ich te r&R . Wo lf f , 1 969 . F oss i l c ame ls i nt h e Omo b ed s , S ou the rn E th iop ia . N a ture 2 23 , 1 50 -152 . H owe l ls , W .W . , 1 977 . Hom in id f o ss i ls , I nP a leoan th ropo logy i nt h eP eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina , e d s . W .W . Howe l ls & P . T such i tan i . C omm i t tee o n S cho lar ly C ommun ica t ion w i th t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina 4 ,6 6 -78 . Wa sh ing ton , D .C . : N a t iona lA cademy o fS c ience s . H owe l ls , W .W . , 1 980 . Homo e r ec tus -Who , w hen a nd w he re : As u rvey . Y earbook o fP hys ica lA n thropo logy 2 3 , 1 23 . Howe l ls , WW . &P .T such i tan i , 1 977 . P a leoan th ropo logy i nt h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina . C omm i t tee o n S cho lar ly C ommun ica t ion w i th t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina 4 . Wa sh ing ton , D .C . : N a t iona l A cademy o fS c iences . H sue , J . , 1 965 . T he c l ima te i nn o r th C h ina d u r ing t h e t ime o fS i nan thropus . Q ua ternar ia S in ica 4 ( 1) , 7 7 -83 . H sue , J . , 1 966 . T he c l ima t ic c ond i t ion i nn o r th C h ina d u r ing t h e t ime o fS i nan thropus . S c ien t ia S in ica 1 5 (3 ) , 4 10 -414 . H uang , WB . , 1 960 .R e -s tudy o ft h e CKT S i nan thropus d epo s i t s . P a leover tebra ta e tP a leoan thropo log ia 2 ,8 3 -95 . H uang , WP . & YP . C hang , 1 966 . T he Q ua te rna ry mamma l ian f o ss i l l o ca l i t ies o fL an t ian d i s t r ic t , S hens i . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 1 0 (1) , 3 5 -46 . Huang , WP . , Q . F ang e ta l . , 1 991 . Wushan Hom in id S i te . B e i j ing : C h ina O cean P re ss . H uang , WW . , 1 985 . O n t h es t one i n du s t ry o fX iaochang l iang .A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica I V (4 ) , 3 0 1-307 . H uang ,WW . , 1 986 -1988 .J i aL anpo .I nG rea tE ncyc loped ia o fC h ine se A r chaeo logy . B e i j ing a nd S hangha i : G rea t E ncyc loped ia o fC h ine se A rchaeo logy P ub l ish ing H ouse ,p .2 25 . H uang , WW . , 1 987 . B iface s i nC h ina .A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica V I ( 1 ) , 6 1-68 . H uang , WW . , 1 989a . T he L a te P a laeo l i th ic o fC h ina , I nE ar ly H umank ind i nC h ina , e ds . RK . Wu , XZ . Wu & S S . Z hang . B e i j ing : S c ience P re s s , p p . 2 20 -244 . H uang ,WW . , 1 989b . T he E a r ly P a leo l i th ic o fC h ina . Q ua ternar yR esear ch 2 8 (4 ) , 2 37 -242 . H uang , WW . , 1 990 . B iface s i nC h ina . H uman E vo lu t ion 4 ( 1) , 8 7 -92 . H uang , WW . , 1 991 ,E v idence f o re a r ly man 's a c t iv i t ie sf r om t h el a te r is t ic b ed so fS ou th C h ina . Q ua ternary S c ience s 1 2 (4 ) , 3 73 -379 . H uang , WW . , Y . L iu , CR . L i & XF . Y uan , 1 988 . T en ta t ive o p in ions o n t h e a ge o fB a ise s t one i n du s t ry , I n T rea t ises i n C ommemora t ion o ft h e3 0 th A nn iver sary o ft h eD i scovery o f Maba H uman C ran ium , e d . G uandong P rov inc ia l Mu seum a nd t h e Museum o ft h e Q u j iang C oun ty . B e i j ing : C u l tu ra l R e l ics P ub l i sh ing H ou se , p p . 9 5 -101 . H uang , WW . ,J .L eng , X . Y uan & G . X ie , 1 990 . Advanced o p in ions o n t h e s t ra t ig raphy a nd c h rono logy o fB a ise s t one i ndus t ry .A c ta A n thropo log ica S i n ica I X (2 ) , 1 05 -112 . H uang , WW . ,J .W . O lsen , R .W . R eeve s , S .M i l le r -An ton io & J Q . L e i , 1 988 . N ew d i scove r ie s o fs t one a r t if ac t s o n t h e s ou the rn e dge o ft h eT a r im B a s in , X in j iang .A c ta A n thropo log ica S i n ica V I I (4 ) , 2 94 -301 .

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H uang , WW . & GQ . Q i , 1 987 . P re l im ina ry o bse rva t ion s o fL iang shan p a leo l i th ic s i te .A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica V (3 ) , 2 36 -244 . H u s sa in , T . &R .L . B e rno r , 1 984 . E vo lu t iona ry h i s to ry o fS iwa l ik H ippa r ions . C our ier F or schungs ins t i tu tS enckenberg 6 9 , 1 81-189 . H u tch ison , C .S . , 1 989 . G eo log ica lE vo lu t ion o fS ou th -ea s tA s ia . O xfo rd : C la rendon P re ss . H u t te re r , K .L . , 1 976 . An e vo lu t iona ry a pp roach t ot h eS ou thea s tA s ian c u l tu ra l s equence . C urren tA n thropo logy 1 7 (2 ) , 2 212 42 . H u t te re r , K .L . , 1 977 . R e in te rp re t ing t h e S ou thea s tA s ian p a laeo l i th ic . I nS unda a nd S ahu l , e ds . J .A l len ,J . Go lson & R . J ones . L ondon : A cadem ic P re ss , p p . 3 1-71 . H u t te re r , K .L . , 1 985 . T he P le is tocene a r chaeo logy o fS ou thea s tA s ia i nr e g iona lc on tex t . Modern Q ua terna ry R esear ch i n S ou theas tA s ia 9 , 1 23 . I kawa -Sm i th , F . , 1 978 . I n t roduc t ion : T he E a r ly P a leo l i th ic t r ad i t ion o fE a s tA s ia . I nE ar ly P a leo l i th ic i nS ou th a nd E as t A s ia ,e d . F .I kawa -Sm i th . T he Hague : Mou ton , p p . 1 10 . I k awa -Sm i th , F . , 1 983 . C ommen t . C urren tA n thropo logy 2 4 (2 ) , 1 93 194 . I n skeep , R .R . , 1 988 . A f r ica : E ve ry th ing b u tf l in t . I nN on -f l in ts t one t o o ls a nd t h e P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion o fB r i ta in , e ds . R .J . MacRae & N . Mo loney . Oxfo rd : B r i t ish A r chaeo log ica l R epo r t sB r i t ish S e r ie s 1 89 , 2 35 -242 . I s aac , G .L 1 . , 1 966 . N ew e v idence f r om O lo rge sa i l l ie r e la t ing t ot h ec ha rac te ro fA cheu lean o ccupa t ion s i te s . I nA c ta sd e l V C ongre so P anaf r icano d eP reh is tor ia yd eE s tud io d e lC ua ternar io ,e d . L .D . C u scoy ,P ub l icac ione sd e l Mu seo A rqueo log ico S an ta C ruz d eT ene r if e , 6 ( 11) , 1 3 5 145 . I s aa c ,G .L . , 1 967 . T owa rd t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fo ccupa t ion d eb r is : s ome e xpe r imen t sa nd o bse rva t ion s . K roeber A n thropo log ica lS oc ie ty P aper s 3 7 , 3 1-57 . I s aac , G .L . , 1 977a . O lorgesa i l ie . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s . I s aac , G .L . , 1 977b . S queez ing b lood f r om s t one s . I nS t one T oo ls a s C u l tura l Marker s , e d . R .V .S . Wr igh t . A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f Abo r ig ina l S tud ies , C anbe r ra . N ew J e r sey : Human i t ies P res s , p p . 5 12 . I s aac , G .L . , 1 978a . T he f ood -sha r ing b ehav io ro fp ro tohuman h om in id s . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 38 (4 ) , 9 0 108 . I s aac ,G .L . , 1 978b . F ood -sha r ing a nd h uman e vo lu t ion : a r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om t h eP l io -P le is tocene o fE a s tA f r ica , J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lR e search 3 4 (3 ) ,3 11-325 . I s aac , G .L . , 1 981 . S tone Age v i s i t ing c a rd s : a pp roache st ot h es t udy o fe a r ly l a nd -use p a t te rns , I nP a t tern o ft h eP as t , e ds . I . Hodde r , G . I s aac & N . H ammond . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ,p p . 1 31-155 . I s aac , G . L l . , 1 983 . Bone s i nc on ten t ion : c ompe t ing e xp lana t ions f o rt h ej ux tapos i t ion o fe a r ly P le is tocene a r tef ac t sa nd f auna l r ema ins ,I nA n ima l sa nd A rchaeo logy :H un ter sa nd t h e ir P rey ,e d s .J .C lu t ton -Brock & G .G r ig son . O xfo rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sI n te rna t iona l S e r ie s ,p p . 3 19 . I s aac , G .L 1 . , 1 986 . F ounda t ion s t one s : e a r ly a r tef ac t sa si n d ica to r s a nd a b i l i t ies ,I nS tone A ge P reh i s tor y : S tud ie s i n Memory o fC har le s McBurney , e d s . G .N . B a i ley & P .C a l low . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,p p . 2 21-242 . I s aac , G . L . , 1 989 . T he A r chaeo logy o f Human O r ig ins ,e d . B . I s aac . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . I s aac ,G .L 1 . &D . C rade r , 1 981 . T ow ha te x ten tw e re e a r ly h om in ids c a rn ivo rou s? A na r chaeo log ica lp e r spec t ive . I n Omn ivorous P r ima te s : Ga ther ing a nd H un t ing i nH uman E vo lu t ion ,e d s . R . H a rd ing & G . T e lek i . N ew Yo rk : Co lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re s s , p p . 3 7 -103 . I s sac , G . L . &J .W .K . H a r r is , 1 975 . T he s ca t te r sb e tween t h ep a tche s . P aper p re sen ted t ot h eK roeber A n thropo log ica l S oc ie ty , U n iv . o fC a l if orn ia , B erke ley . I s sac , G . L . &J .W .K . H a r r is , 1 980 . A me thod f o rd e te rm in ing t he c ha rac te r is t ics o fa r tef ac t sb e tween s i te si nt h e Uppe r Membe ro ft h e Koob iF o ra F orma t ion ,E a s tL ake T u rkana . P roceed ings o ft h eE igh th P an -Af r ican C ongr es so n P reh is tory a nd Q ua ternar yS tud ie s , N a irob i , 1 977 ,p p . 1 9 -22 . I .V .P .P . ( Comp i l ing G roup o ft h eA t la s , I n s t i tu te o fV e r teb ra te P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan th ropo logy ) , 1 980 .A t las o f P r im i t ive Man i nC h ina . B e i j ing : S c ience P re s s . J e l inek , A .J . , 1 976 . F o rm , f unc t ion , a nd s t y le i nl i t h ic a na lys is . I n C u l tura l C hange a nd C on t inu i ty ,e d . C .E . C le land . L ondon : A cadem ic P re ss ,p p . 1 9 -33 . J e l inek , A .J . , 1 982 . T he T abun C ave a nd P a leo l i th ic Man i nt h eL evan t . S c ience 2 16 :1369 -1375 . J e l inek , A .J . , 1 988 . T echno logy , t ypo logy a nd c u l tu r e i nt h eM idd le P a leo l i th ic .I n U pper P le is tocene P r eh is tor yo f Wes tern E uras ia , e ds . H .L . D ibb le & A . Mon te t - Wh i te . P h i lade lph ia : U n ive r s i ty Museum ,p p . 1 99 -212 . J i a , L P . ( Ch ia , LP . ) , 1 978 . An o te o n t h e w ea the rc ond i t ions i nC houkou t ien a r ea o fP ek ing Man 's t ime .A c ta S t ra t igraph ica S in ica 2 (1) , 5 3 -56 . J i a , LP . , 1 980 . E ar ly Man i nC h ina . B e i j ing : F o re ign L anguage s P re ss . J i a , L P . , 1 983 . I n S earch o ft h e O r ig in o f Mank ind . H ong K ong : J o in t P ub l ish ing . J i a ,L P . , 1 985 . Ch ina 's e a r l ie s tP a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s .I nP a laeoan thropo logy a nd P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo logy i nt h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina , e ds . RK . Wu & J .W . O l sen . L ondon : A cadem ic P re ss , p p . 1 35 -145 . J i a , L P . , 1 987 . T he i mpo r tan tp o s i t ion o fG uandong i nt h e s t udy o fp a leoan th ropo logy . I n Guangdong P rov inc ia l Museum a nd t h e Museum o ft h e Q u j iang C oun ty . T rea t i se si nC ommemora t ion o ft h e3 0 th A nn iver sar yo ft h eD i scove ry o f Maba Human C ran ium . B e i j ing : C u l tura l R e l ic s P ub l ish ing H ouse , p p . 4 5 -47 , 2 31 . J i a , L P . , 1 989a . E a r l ies tP a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s o fC h ina . I nE ar ly H umank ind i nC h ina , e ds . RK . Wu , XZ . Wu , &S S . Z hang . B e i j ing : S c ience P re ss , p p . 8 1-96 . J i a , LP . , 1 989b . On p rob lem so ft h eB e i j ing - Man s i te : Ac r i t ique o fn ew i n te rp re ta t ions . C urren tA n thropo logy 3 0 (2 ) , 2 00 2 05 . J i a , L P . &W W . Huang , 1 985a .T he L a te P a laeo l i th ic o fC h ina . I nP a laeoan thropo logy a nd P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo logy i nt h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina , e ds . RK . Wu & J .W . O lsen . L ondon : A cadem ic P re ss , p p . 2 11-223 . J i a , L P . &W W . Huang , 1 985b . O n t h er e cogn i t ion o fC h ina 's P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ions . I nP a laeoan thropo logy a nd P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo logy i nt h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina , e d s . RK . Wu & J .W . O lsen . L ondon : A cadem ic P re ss ,

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p p . 2 59 -265 . J i a , L P . &W W . H uang , 1 990 . T he S tory o fP ek ing Man . B e i j ing : F o re ign L anguage s P re ss a nd H ong K ong : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss . J i a , L P . &W W . H uang 1 991 . T he P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re o fC h ina . Q ua ternary S c ience R ev iews 1 0 , 5 19 -521 . J i a ,L P . &Q . We i , 1 987 . S tone a r t ifac t s f r om l owe rP le is tocene a t Donggu tuo s i te n ea rN ihewan ( N ihowan ) , H ebe i p rov ince , C h ina . L 'An thropo log ie 9 1(3 ) , 7 27 -732 . J i a , L P . , Q . We i &C . C hen , 1 982 . T he L owe rP a laeo l i th ic o fC h ina . K okogaku Z ash i 2 06 , 3 6 -4 1 . J i ang , N . ,R . S un & Q . L iang , 1 988 . S t ra te s C 6nozo iques t a rd ive s e tf o ss i le s h uma in sd ans l eB a ss in d e Y uanmou , Yunnan , C h ine . L 'An thropo log ie 9 2 (3 ) , 9 39 -944 . J ones , P .R . , 1 979 . E f f ec t so fr aw ma te r ia ls o n b i f ace manuf ac tu re . S c ience 2 04 , 8 35 -836 . 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L iu , H . &N . Wang , 1 974 . An ew P ung i t ius f r om N ihowan F o rma t ion o fN o r th C h ina . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 1 2 (2 ) , 9 8 1 08 L iu , H . &J . Wang , 1 983 . P a laeomagne t ic s t udy o n d r i l l c o re f r om n o r the rn B oha i c oa s ta l p l a in . G eoch im ica 2 ,1 96 -204 . L iu ,J . , 1 980 . P o l len a na lys is a nd g eo log ica l a ge o ft h e N ihewan F o rma t ion . K exue T ongbao 2 5 (7 ) , 5 84 -587 . L iu ,J L . & LY . T ang , 1 980 . P o l len a na lys is o ft h eN ihewan F o rma t ion . P aper f or t h e5 th I n terna t iona lP a lyno log ica l C onf er ence p p . 8 . L iu , KB . , 1 988 . Q ua te rna ry h i s to ry o ft h et empe ra te f o re s t s o fC h ina . Q ua ternar yS c ience R ev iew s 7 ,1 20 . L iu , S . , F .Z hang , R . Hu , J .L iu , T .G ou , T . &S .Z hou , 1 985 . D a t ing P ek ing man b y f i ss ion t r ack . I n Mu l t i -D isc ip l inary S t udy o ft h e P ek ing Man S i t e a tZ houkoud ian , e d s . RK . Wu , M . R en , XM . Z hu , ZG . Y ang , CK . Hu , ZC . K ong , YY . X ie & S S . Z hao . B e j ing : S c ience P ress , p p . 2 41-245 . L iu , T S . ( L iu , DS . ) , 1 982 . Q ua ternary G eo logy a nd E nv ironmen to fC h ina . Q ua te rna ry R e sea rch A ssoc ia t ion o fC h ina . B e i j ing : C h ina O cean P re s s . L iu , T S . , 1 985 . Q ua ternary G eo logy a nd E nv ironmen to fC h ina . B e i j ing : C h ina O cean P re ss . L iu , T S . , 1 991a . L oess , E nv ironmen ta nd G loba l C hange . B e i j ing : S c ience P re ss . L iu ,T S . , 1 991b . Q ua ternar yG eo logy a nd E nv ironmen t . B e i j ing : S c ience P re ss . L iu , T S . & ML . D ing , 1 982 .P le is tocene s t ra t ig raphy a nd P l io /P le is tocene b ounda ry i nC h ina . I nQ ua ternar y G eo logy a nd E nv ironmen to fC h ina , e d . T S . L iu . Q ua te rna ry R e sea rch A s soc ia t ion o fC h ina . B e i j ing : C h ina O cean P ress , p p . 1 6 . L iu ,T S . & ML . D ing , 1 984a . At e n ta t ive c h rono log ica l c or re la t ion o fe a r ly h uman f o ss i l h o r izons i nC h ina w i th l o es sd eep s ea r e co rd s .A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica 3 (2 ) ,9 3 -101 . L iu ,T S . & ML . D ing , 1 985 . P le i s tocene s t ra t ig raphy a nd P l io /P le is tocene b ounda ry i nC h ina . Q ua ternar ia S in ica 6 (2 ) ,9 18 . L iu ,T S . & ML . D ing , 1 985 . P le is tocene s t ra t ig raphy a nd P l io /P le is tocene b ounda ry i nC h ina . I nQ ua terna ry G eo logy a nd E nv ironmen to fC h ina , e d . T S . L iu . Q ua te rna ry R e sea rch A s soc ia t ion o fC h ina . B e i j ing : C h ina O cean P re ss , p p . 1 9 . L iu T S . , Y . L u , H . Z heng , Z . Wu & B . Y uan , 1 985 . L oe ss a nd t h eE nv ironmen t . B e i j ing : C h ina O cean P re ss . L iu ,T S . , SX . Z hang & JM . H an , 1 986 . S t ra t ig raphy a nd p a leoenv i ronmen ta l c hange s i nt h el o e ss o fC en t ra l C h ina . Q ua t ernar ia S i n ica 5 (4 ) ,4 89 -50 1 . L iu , X . &Z .X ia , 1 983 . As ugge s t ion o n t h ed iv is ion a nd c o r re la t ion o ft h eN ihewan f o rma t ion . Mar ine G eo logy a nd Q ua t ernar yG eo logy 3 ( 1) ,7 5 -85 . L iu , X . &Z .X ia , 1 989 . As ugge s t ion o n t h ed iv is ion a nd c o r re la t ion o ft h eN ihewan f o rma t ion . I nS e lec ted T rea t i ses o n N ihewan , e ds . Q . We i &F .X ie . B e i j ing : C u l tu ra l R e l ics P ub l ish ing Hou se , p p . 4 21-432 . L iu , Y . , 1 988 . T he r eobse rva t ion o fs t one a r tefac t s i nD ingcun .A c ta A n thropo log ica S i n ica V I I (4 ) , 3 06 -313 . L iu , ZC . , 1 982 . C l ima tos t ra t ig raphy o ft h es ed imen t s i nt h eP ek ing Man 's c ave . I nQ ua t ernar y G eo logy a nd E nv ironmen to f C h ina . B e i j ing : C h ina O cean P res s , p p . 2 5 -31 . L iu , ZC . , 1 985 . S equence o fs ed imen t sa tL oca l i ty 1i nZ houkoud ian a nd c o r re la t ion w i th l o e ss s t ra t ig raphy i nn o r the rn C h ina a nd w i th t h ec h rono logy o fd eep -sea c o re s . Q ua terna ry R e sear ch 2 3 , 1 39 -153 . L u , YC . ,J Z . Z hang & J .X ie , 1 988 . T he rmo lum inescence d a t ing o fl o e ss a nd p a laeo so ls f r om t h eL an t ian s e c t ion , S haanx i p rov ince , C h ina . Q ua ternary S c ience R ev iews 7 ,2 45 -250 . L ü , Z 'E . , 1 985 . C ommen t s . C urren tA n thropo logy 2 6 (4 ) , 4 32 -433 . L uo , BX . , YZ . Wang , ZR . L in , MM . C hen , CY . L an & ML . F u , 1 988 . P a leon to log ica l r e sea rch i nN ihewan B ed s ( I ) P a lyno logy . I nS tudy o n t h eN ihewan B ed s , e d s . B . Z hu & M . C hen . B e i j ing : O cean P ub l ish ing House , p p . 4 0 -62 . Ma , HH . , F .C h ien , L . P u &S C . J u , 1 978 . P a leomagne t ic d a t ing o fL an t ian Man . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 1 6 (4 ) , 2 38 -244 . Ma , X . ,Z .Q iang , J .S u , W . X ie , D . Wu , F .X ie e ta l . 1 986 . L i tho spher ic D ynam ics Map o fC h ina a nd a d jacen ts eas . B e i j ing : G eo log ica l P ub l ish ing H ouse . Ma , X . , Z . Q iang , J .S u , W . X ie , D . Wu , F .X ie e ta l . 1 986 . E xp lana tory n o te f or t h e L i tho spher ic d ynam ic map o fC h ina a nd a d jacen ts eas . B e i j ing : G eo log ica l P ub l ish ing H ouse ,p p . 1 53 . Mabbe r ley ,D .J . , 1 989 . T he P lan tB ook . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . Mag l io ,V .J . , 1 973 . O r ig in a nd e vo lu t ion o ft h eE lephan t idae . T ran sac t ion s o ft h e Amer ican P h i losoph ica lS oc ie ty N ew S e r ie s 6 3 , 1 149 . Mag l io , V .J . , 1 975 . P le is tocene f a una l e vo lu t ion i nA f r ica a nd E u ra s ia . I nA f ter t h eA us tra lop i thec ine s , e ds . K .W . B u tze r& G .L I s aac . T he H ague : Mou ton , p p . 4 19 -476 . Mahe r , B .A . &R . T hompson , 1 992 . P a leoc l ima t ic s i gn if icance o ft h em ine ra l magne t ic r e co rd o ft h eC h ine se l o e ss a nd p a leo so l s . Q ua terna ry R esear ch 3 7 , 1 55 -170 . Ma lde , H .E . , 1 977 . G eo logy i nC h ine se P a leoan th ropo logy . I nP a leoan th ropo logy i nt h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina , e d s . W .W . Howe l ls & P .T such i tan i . C omm i t tee o n S cho lar ly C ommun ica t ion w i th t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina 4 , 1 8 -39 . Wa sh ing ton , D .C . : N a t iona l A cademy o fS c ience s . Mank inen , E .A . &G .B . D a l rymp le , 1 979 . R ev ised g eomagne t ic p o la r i ty t ime s ca le f o rt h ei n te rva l 0 -5 m .y . B .P .J ourna lo f G eophys ica lR esear ch 8 4 (B2 ) , 6 15 -626 . Ma t thew , W .D . , 1 9 14 . C l ima te a nd e vo lu t ion . A nna l s o ft h eN ew Y ork A cademy o fS c iences 2 4 , 1 71-318 . Ma t thew , W .D . &W . G range r , 1 923 . N ew f o ss i l mamma ls f r om t h eP l iocene o fS zechuan . B u l le t in o ft h e Amer ican Museum o fN a tura lH i s tory 4 8 , 5 63 -598 . May r , E . , 1 950 . T axonom ic c a tego r ie s i nf o s s i l h om in ids . I nO r ig in a nd E vo lu t ion o f Man . C o ld S pr ing Harbor S ympos ia o n Q uan t i ta t ive B io logy XV , 1 09 -117 . McA r thu r , M . , 1 960 . F ood c on sump t ion a nd d i e ta ry l e ve ls o fg roup so f Abo r ig ine s l i v ing o n n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing f oods . I n R ecord so ft h e Amer ican -Aus tra l ian S c ien t if ic E xped i t ion t oA rnhem L and , e d . C .P . Moun tfo rd . Me lbou rne : Me lbou rne Un ive r s i ty P re s s , V o l . 2 ,p p . 1 143 . Mengh in , 0 . , 1 937 . O r ig in a nd d eve lopmen to ft h eE a r ly P a leo l i th ic c u l tu re s . I nE ar ly Man , e d . G .G . McCu rdy . P h i lade lph ia : A cademy o fN a tu ra l S c ience s , p p . 3 03 -314 . M i l le r , T .O . , 1 979 . S tonewo rk o ft h eX e ta I nd ians . I nL i th ic U se -W ear A na ly s i s ,e d . B . H ayden . 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p p . 4 0 1-407 . Mo lna r , P .&P .T apponn ie r , 1 975 . C enozo ic t e c ton ics o fA s ia : e f f ec t s o f ac on t inen ta l c o l l is ion . S c ience 1 89 , 4 19 -426 . Mo lna r , P .&P .T apponn ie r , 1 977 . T he C o l l is ion b e tween I nd ia a nd E u ra s ia . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 36 ( 4 ) , 3 0 -4 1 . Mov iu s , H .L . , 1 943 . T he S tone Age o fB u rma . T ransac t ions o ft h e Amer ican P h i losoph ica lS oc ie ty 3 2 (3 ) , 3 4 1-393 . Mov iu s , H .L . , 1 944 . E a r ly man a nd P le is tocene s t ra t ig raphy i ns ou the rn a nd e a s te rn A s ia . P aper so ft h eP eabody Museum o f Amer ican A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy X IX (3 ) , 1 125 . Mov ius , H .L . , 1 949 . T he L owe rP a leo l i th ic c u l tu re so fs ou the rn a nd e a s te rn A s ia . T ransac t ions o ft h e Amer ican P h i losoph ica lS oc ie ty 3 8 (4 ) , 3 29 -420 . Mov ius , H .L . , 1 955 . R ecen t r e sea rch o n e a r ly m an i nC h ina . Amer ican A n thropo log is t5 7 , 3 34 -337 . Mov ius , H .L . , 1 956 . N ew p a laeo l i th ic s i te s , n ea rT ing -T s 'un i nt h eF en R ive r , S hans i p rov ince , No r th C h ina . Q ua ternar ia 3 , 1 3 -26 . Mov iu s , H .L . , 1 978 . S ou the rn a nd E a s te rn A s ia : C onc lus ion s . I nE ar ly P a leo l i th ic i nS ou th a nd E as tA s ia ,e d . F .I kawa Sm i th . T he H ague : Mou ton , p p . 3 51-355 . Mu lvaney , D .J . , 1 970 . T he P a t j i tan ian i n du s t ry : s ome o bserva t ion s . Mank ind 7 , 1 84 -187 . N e lson , N .C . , 1 926 . P reh is to r ic man o fc en t re l C h ina . Na tura lH is tory 2 6 , 5 70 -579 . N ewcome r , M .H . , 1 976 . S pon taneous r e touch . I nS econd I n terna t iona lS ympos ium o n F l in t , N eder land se G eo log ische V eren ig ing , Maas tr ich t , e d . F .H .G . E nge len . S tar ing ia 3 ,6 2 -64 . N ihewan C enozo ic R e sea rch T eam , 1 974 . O b se rva t ion o n t h el a te C enozo ic o fN ihewan B a s in . V er tebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 1 2 (2 ) , 9 9 -110 . Nowak , R .M . &J .L . P a rad iso , 1 983 . Wa lker 's Mamma l s o ft h e Wor ld . B a l t imo re & L ondon : T he J ohns H opk ins Un ive r s i ty P re ss , Vo ls . Ia nd I . Nowak , R .M . &J .L . P a rad iso , 1 991 . Wa lker 's Mamma l s o ft h e Wor ld . B a l t imo re & L ondon : T he J ohn s H opk ins Un ive r s i ty P re ss , Vo ls . Ia nd I ( 5 th e dn . ) . O ak ley , K .P . , 1 956 . T he e a r l ie s t f i re -make r s .A n t iqu i ty 3 0 (2 ) , 1 02 -107 . O ak ley , K .P . , 1 961 . On man 's u se o ff i re , w i th c ommen t s o n t oo l -mak ing a nd h un t ing . I nS oc ia lL if eo fE ar ly Man , e d . S .L . Wa shbu rn . C h icago : A ld ine , p p . 1 76 -193 . O ak ley , K .P . , 1 975 . Man t h e T oo lmaker . L ondon : B r i t ish Museum ( Na tu ra l H is to ry ) ( 6 th e dn ) . Oh ta ish i , NY . & YT . G ao , 1 990 . Ar ev iew o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa l l s pec ies o fd ee r( T ragu l idae , Mo sch idae a nd C e rv idae )i n C h ina . Mamma l R ev iew . 2 0 (2 /3 ) , 1 25 -144 . O lsen , J .W . , 1 986 . C ommen t s . C urren tA n thropo logy 2 7 (5 ) ,4 70 -471 . O lsen , J .W . , 1 987a . T he p rac t ice o fa r chaeo logy i nC h ina t oday .A n t iqu i ty 6 1 , 2 82 -290 . O lsen ,J .W . , 1 987b . R ecen td eve lopmen t s i nt h eU ppe rP le is tocene p reh is to ry o fC h ina . I nT he P le i s tocene O ld Wor ld : R eg iona lP er spec t ive s , e d . 0 . S of f e r .N ew Y o rk a nd L ondon : P lenum P re ss , p p . 1 35 -146 . O lsen , J .W . &S .M i l le r -An ton io , 1 992 . T he P a laeo l i th ic i ns ou the rn C h ina . A s ian P er spec t ives 3 1(2 ) , 1 29 -160 . O sbo rn , H .F . , 1 924 . T he d i scove ry o fa n u nknown c on t inen t .Na tura /H i s tor y XX IV (2 ) , 1 32 -149 . O sbo rn , H .F . , 1 926 . Why C en t ra l A s ia? N a tura lH i s tory XXV I (3 ) , 2 63 -271 . O sbo rn , H .F . , 1 927 . R ecen td i scove r ies r e la t ing t ot h eo r ig in a nd a n t iqu i ty o f man . S c ience 6 5 ,4 81-488 . Ov ing ton ,J .D . , 1 983 . I n t roduc t ion . I nT empe ra te B road -Leaved E ve rg reen F o res ts , e d .J .D . Ov ing ton . E cosy s tems o ft h e Wor ld 1 0 , 1 4 . Ams te rdam : E lsev ie r . P a lac io s -Fe s t ,M .R . , 1 992 .L a te C enozo ic p a leoeco log ic a nd p a leoc l ima t ic r e cons truc t ion o ft h eN ihewan B a s in i nt h eH ebe i p rov ince , PRC : T he n onmar ine o s tracod e v id ence .R e sea rch P ropo sa l ,U npub l ished manu sc r ip t ,p p . 1 22 . P e i ,J X . , 1 980 . An a pp l ica t ion o ft h e rmo lum ine scence d a t ing t ot h ec u l tu ra l l a ye r s o f" Pek ing Man" s i te . Q ua ternar ia S in ica 5 ( 1) , 8 7 -95 . P e i , J X . , 1 985 . T hermo lum ine scence d a t ing o ft h eP ek ing man s i te a nd o the rc ave s . I n Mu l t i -D i sc ip l ina ry S t udy o ft h e P ek ing Man S i te a t Z houkoud ian , e d s . RK . Wu , M . , R en , XM . Z hu , ZG . Y ang , CK . Hu , ZC . K ong , YY . X ie & S S . Z hao e ta l . B e j ing : S c ience P re ss . P e i , J X . &J Z . S un , 1 979 . T hermo lum inescence a ge so fq ua r tz i na sh ma te r ia ls f r om H omo e r ec tus p ek ino s i s s i te a nd i t s g eo log ica l i mp l ica t ion . K exue T ongbao 2 4 ( 18 ) , 8 49 . P e i , WC . , 1 929 . An a ccoun to ft he d i scove ry o fa n a du l tS inan thropus s ku l l i nt h eC hou K ou T ien d epo s i t . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina V I I (3 ) , 2 03 -205 . P e i , W .C . , 1 931a . Mamma l ian r ema ins f r om L oca l i ty 5a tC houk 'ou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S in ica S e r ie s CV I I (2 ) , 1 17 . P e i , W .C . , 1 93 l b . No t ice o ft h ed i scove ry o fq ua r tz a nd o the rs t one a r t ifac t si nt h eL owe rP le is tocene h om in id -bea r ing s ed imen t s o ft h eC houkou t ien c ave d epo s i t .B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X I (1) , 1 09 -146 . P e i , W .C . , 1 932 . P re l im ina ry n o te o n s ome i n c ised , c u ta nd b roken b one s f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th S i nan thropus r ema ins a nd l i th ic a r t ifac t s f r om C houkou t ien . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X I I ( 1) , 1 05 -108 . P e i , W .C . , 1 934a . Ap re l im ina ry r epo r to n t h e l a te p a laeo l i th ic c ave o fC houkou t ien . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o f C h ina X I I I (3 ) , 3 27 -358 . P e i , W .C . , 1 934b . R epo r to n t h e e xcava t ion o ft h eL oca l i ty 1 3 i nC houkou t ien . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X I I I (3 ) , 3 59 -367 . P e i , W .C . , 1 934c . O n t h e C a rn ivo ra f r om L oca l i ty 1o fC houkou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S i n ica S e r ie s C 8 ( 1) , 1 2 16 . P e i , W .C . , 1 934d . C houkou t ien e xcava t ion s . G eo log ica l Memo ir s S e r . B , 7 . P e i , W .C . , 1 936 . On t h e mamma l ian r ema ins f r om L oca l i ty 3a tC houkou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S in ica S e r ie s CV I I (5 ) , 1 1 20 . P e i , W .C . , 1 937 . P a laeo l i th ic i n dus t r ie s i nC h ina . I nE ar ly Man , e d . G .G . Mc C u rdy . P h i lade lph ia : A cademy o fN a tu ra l S c iences , p p . 2 21-232 . P e i , W .C . , 1 938a . L er o le d e s a n imaux e td e sc au se s n a tu re l le sd ans l ac a s su re d es o s . P a l c eon to log ia S i n ica Who le S e r ie s 18 , New S e r ie s D , 7 ,1 16 , P la te s I -XX I .

1 20

P e i , W .C . , 1 938b . Ap re l im ina ry s t udy o n an ew p a laeo l i th ic s t a t ion k nown a sL oca l i ty 1 5 w i th in t h e C houkou t ien r eg ion . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X IX (2 ) , 1 47 -187 . P e i ,W .C . , 1 939a . A na t temp ted c o r re la t ion o fQ ua te rna ry g eo logy ,p a laeon to logy a nd p reh i s to ry i nE u rope a nd C h ina . I n s t i tu t eo fA r chaeo logy U n iver s i ty o fL ondon , O cca s s iona lP aper 2 ,3 16 . P e i , W .C . , 1 939b . T he U ppe rC ave i n du s t ry o fC houkou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S i n ica N ew S e r ie sD 9 ,1 4 1 . P e i , W .C . , 1 939c . N ew f o s s i l ma te r ia ls a nd a r t if ac t sc o l lec ted f r om t h eC houkou t ien r eg ion d u r ing t h ey ea r s 1 937 t o1 939 . B u l l e t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fC h ina X IX (3 ) , 2 07 -232 . P e i , W .C . , 1 940 . T he U ppe rC ave f a una o fC houkou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S in ica N ew S e r ie s C 1 0 , 1 84 . P e i , W .C . , 1 948 . AS t ud yo n P r e -H i s tor ic C h ina . S hangha i : T he C omme rc ia l P re s s L im i ted . P e i , WC . , 1 955 . P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r e so fC h ina . K 'o -H sueh -T 'ung -Pao 1 ,3 0 -45 . P e i , WC . , 1 958a . D e sc r ip t ion o fm amma l ian f o s s i l s . I nR epo r to n t h ee xcava t ion o fp a laeo l i th ic s i te s a tT ing t s 'un H s iang f e n -h s ien , S han s i P rov ince , WC . P e i , J K . Wu , L P . C h ia , MC . C hou , H . L iu & CY . Wang . I n s t i tu te o fV er tebra te P a l eon to logy a nd P a leoan thropo logy Memo ir 2 ,2 1-74 . P e i , WC . , 1 958b . Mamma l ian f o s s i l s f r om L oca l i ty 1 03 a nd o t he rl o ca l i t ie s o ft h e S anmen ian a ge i nT ing t sun a r ea , H s iang f enns ien , S han s iP rov ince .A c ta P a laeon to log ia S i n ica 6 (4 ) , 3 59 -374 . P e i , WC . , 1 960 . O n t h ep rob lem o ft h e" bone i mp lemen t s" o fZ houkoud ian S inan thropu s . K 'ao -Ku -H sueh -Pao 2 ,7 . P e i , WC . , 1 96 1a . F o ss i ls mamma l so fe a r ly P l e i s tocene a ge f r om Y uanmo ( Maka i )o fY unnan . V er t ebra ta P a lAs ia t ica 5 ( 1) , 1 6 -30 . P e i , WC . , 1 961b . Ar ev iew o ft h ed i scu s s ion o n e o l i th s . N ew C on s t ruc t ion 7 . P e i , WC . , 1 965 .P rof e s so rH en r iB r eu i l , p i onee ro fC h ine se p a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy a nd i t sp rog r e s sa f te rh im . I nM i sce lanea e nH omena je a lA ba te H enr iB r eu i l ,e d .E .R ipo l lP e re l lo .B a rce lona : D ipu tac ion P rov inc ia ld eB a rce lona ,I n s t i tu to d e P reh i s to r ia yA rgueo log ia , 2 ,2 51-269 . P e i , WC . &L P . C h ia , 1 958a . G eo log ica l a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l o b se rva t ion o ft h eT ing t sun s i te s . I nR epo r to n t h ee xcava t ion o fp a laeo l i th ic s i te sa tT ing t s 'un H s iang -f en -h s ien , S han s iP rov ince , I n s t i tu t eo fV er t ebra t eP a leon to logy a nd P a leoan thropo logy Memo ir , WC . P e i , J K . Wu , L P . C h ia , MC . C hou , H . L iu & CY . Wang . 2 ,2 -8 , 9 14 . P e i , WC . &L P . C h ia , 1 958b . S tud ie s o fT ing t sun p a laeo l i th s . I nR epo r to n t h ee xcava t ion o fp a laeo l i th ic s i te s a tT ing t s 'un H s iang -f en -h s ien , S hans iP rov ince , I n s t i tu te o fV er tebra t eP a leon to logy a nd P a leoan thropo logy Memo ir , WC . P e i , J K . Wu , L P . C h ia , MC . C hou , H . L iu & CY . Wang . 2 ,7 5 -111 . P e i , WC . , J K . Wu , L P . C h ia , MC . C hou , H . L iu & CY . Wang , 1 958 . 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S h iq ian Y an j iu 1 ,4 6 -50 . Y ou , YZ . , 1 984 . P re l im ina ry s t udy o f aP a laeo l i th ic b one e ng rav ing . K exue T ongbao 2 9 (1) , 8 0 -82 . Y ou , YZ . , 1 986 . C ommen t s . C urren tA n thropo logy 2 7 (5 ) ,4 71 . Y ou , Y . , Y . T ang & Y . L i , 1 978 . P a leo l i th ic d i scove r ie s i nt h eN ihewan f o rma t ion . C h inese Q ua ternary R esearch 1 ( 5 ) , 1 1 3 . Y ou , Y . , Y . T ang & Y . L i , 1 980 . N ew d i scove ry o fp a laeo l i th s i nt h eN ihewan F orma t ion . Q ua ternar ia S in ica 5 ( 1) , 1 13 . Y oung , C .C . , 1 930 . On t h e mamma l ian r ema in s f r om C h i K u S han , n ea rC hou K ou T ien . P a l c eon to log ia S in ica S e r ie sC V I I (1) , 1 24 . Y oung , C .C . , 1 932a . On s ome f o ss i l mamma ls f r om Y unnan . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS ur vey o fC h ina X I (2 ) , 3 84 -393 . Y oung , C .C . , 1 932b . O n t h ef o ss i l v e r teb ra te r ema in s f r om L oca l i t ie s 2 , 7a nd 8a tC houkou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S i n ica S er ie s C V I I (3 ) , 1 24 . Y oung , C .C . , 1 932c . O n t h eA r t iodac ty la f r om t h eS i nan thropus s i te a tC houkou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S in ica S e r ie s C V I I I (2 ) , 1 100 . Y oung , C .C . , 1 933 . O n t h e n ew f i nds o ff o ss i l e gg so fS t ru th io A nder s son iL owe i n No r th C h ina w i th r ema rk s o n t h ee gg r ema ins f ound i nS hans i , S hens i , a nd C houkou t ien .B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS urvey o fC h ina X I I (1) , 1 45 -151 . Y oung , C .C . , 1 934 . O n I n sec t ivo ra , R oden t ia , a nd P r ima te s o t he rt h an S i nan thropu f r om L oca l i ty 1 ,C houkou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S in ica S e r ie sC V I I I (1) , 1 139 . Y oung , C .C . , 1 935 . No te o n amamma l ian m ic rof auna f r om Y ench inkou n ea r Wan s ien v i l lage .B u l le t in o ft h eG eo log ica l S urvey o fC h ina X IV (3 ) , 2 47 -248 . Z dan sky , 0 . , 1 923 . U ebe re i n S aeuge rknochen lage ri nC hou Kou T ien , P rov inz C h ih l i . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica lS ur vey o f C h ina 2 ( 1) , 8 3 -89 . Z dan sky , 0 . , 1 927 . P re l im ina ry n o t ice o n t wo t e e th o f ah om in id f r om ac ave i nC h ih l i ( Ch ina ) . B u l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o fC h ina V I (3 ) , 2 81-284 . Z dansky , 0 . , 1 928 . D ie S äuge t ie re d e rQ ua r tä rf auna v on C hou -kou t ien . P a l c eon to log ia S in ica C 5 (4 ) , 1 146 . Z hang , SQ . , 1 986 . P hy s ica lG eography o fC h ina . B e i j ing : S c ience P re s s a nd N ew Y o rk : J . Wi ley & S on s . Z hang , S S . , 1 985 . T he E a r ly P a laeo l i th ic o fC h ina .I nP a laeoan thropo logy a nd P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo logy i nt h eP eop le 's R epub l ic o fC h ina , e d s . RK . Wu & J .W . O lsen . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s , p p . 1 47 -186 . Z hang , S S . , 1 989 . T he E a r ly P a laeo l i th ic o f No r th C h ina . I nE ar ly H umank ind i nC h ina , e ds . RK . Wu , XZ . Wu & S S . Z hang . B e i j ing : S c ience P ress , p p . 9 7 -158 . Z hang , S S . , 1 990 . R eg iona l i n dus t r ia l g radua l a dvance a nd c u l tu ra le xchange o fP a leo l i th ic i n No r th Ch ina .A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica I X (4 ) , 3 22 -333 . Z hang , S S . & CM . Z hou , 1 984 . Ap re l im ina ry s t udy o ft h e s e cond e xcava t ions i nt h eD a l i Man l o ca l i ty .A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica 1 1 (1) , 1 9 -29 . Z hang , YP . ( Chang , YP . ) , WP . Huang , Y J . T ang , HX . J i , .YZ . You , YS . T ong , SY . D ing , XS . Huang & J . Z heng , 1 978 . C enozo ic s t ra t ig raphy o ft h eL an t ian r eg ion ,S haanx i . Memo ir o ft h eI n s t i tu te o fV er tebra te P a laeon to logy a nd P a laeoan thropo logy S e r ie sA1 4 .B e i j ing : S c ience P re ss . Z hao , S S . , M . X ia , ZH . Z hang , ML . L iu , SX . Wang , QF . Wu & ZB . Ma , 1 980 . As t udy o ft h e a ge o fP ek ing man b y t h e u ran ium -se r ie s me thod . K exue T ongbao 2 5 (4 ) , 1 82 . Z hou , CM . & QS . Z hang , 1 986 . Da l i s i te a nc ien ta r te f ac t s a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey i n ve s t iga t ion s umma ry . S h iq ian Y an j iu 1 2 ,9 8 -110 . Z hou , GX . , 1 988 .T he f i r s t man i nC h ina : T he d a te a nd e nv i ronmen to fY uanmou man . I n T he P a laeoenv ironmen to fE as t A s ia f rom t h e M id -T er t iary , e d s . P . Why te , J . S . A igne r , N .G . J ab lonsk i , G . T ay lo r , D . Wa lke r &P . Wang . H ong Kong : C en t re o fA s ian S tud ie s o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fH ong K ong , V o l . I , 1 062 -1068 .

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Z hou , K . , X . L iang , F .Y an & Y . Y e , 1 983 . S ome r ema rk so n t h eN angou c o ld p e r iod b a sed o n t h e a na lys is o ft h e p o l len f r om t h eN ihewan s t ra tum . S c ien t ia G eo log ica S in ica 1 ( 1) , 8 2 -92 . Z hou , MZ . & YQ . Wang , 1 991 . P le is tocene e nv ironmen ta l c hange s , m amma l ian f auna s a nd f o ss i l man o fC h ina . I n C on tr ibu t ions t ot h eX I I II NQUA , I n s t i tu te o fV e r teb ra te P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan th ropo logy . B e i j ing : B e i j ing S c ien t if ic a nd T echno log ica l P ub l ish ing H ou se , p p . 1 14 . Z hou , Y . , 1 989 . Am ino a c id d a t ing o fP ek ing man a nd D ingcun man .A c ta A n thropo log ica S in ica V I I I (2 ) , 1 77 -181 . Z hu , B . & MN . C hen , 1 988 . S tudy o n t h e N ihewan B ed s . B e i j ing : O cean P ub l ish ing H ouse . Z hu , zw . , 1 988 . P a laeomagne t ism a nd p a laeogeog raphy o fE a s tA s ia d u r ing t h eP l io -P le is tocene , I nT he P a laeoenv ironmen t o fE as tA s ia f rom t h e M id -T er t iar y , e d s . P . Why te , J . S . A igne r , N .G . J ab lonsk i , G . T ay lo r , D . Wa lke r &P . Wang . H ong K ong : U n ive r s i ty o fH ong Kong , C en t re o fA s ian S tud ie s , V o l . I ,7 -2 1 . Z ih lman ,A .L . , 1 981 . Women a ss hape r so ft h eh uman a dap ta t ion . I n Woman t h eG a therer ,e d . F .D ah lbe rg . N ew H aven a nd L ondon : Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re ss , p p . 7 5 -120 .

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Append ix

1

B iograph ica l s ources f or C h inese P a laeo l i th ic p reh istory T h i sa ppend ix i ss upp lemen ta ry t oC hap te r I ,1 . 1 , a nd l i s t s i n a pp rox ima te ly s e quen t ia l o r de r o f t ime t h e p r inc ipa l r e se a r ch e r s o f t h e C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic . T h is l i s t a l so i n c lude s w o rke r s w ho c on t r ibu ted t o r e sea r ch r e levan t t o a r chaeo logy , e . g . , g eo logy , h om in id a nd n on -hom in id p a la eon to logy ,p a lyno logy , a nd d a t ing ,a nd a l so w o rke r s a n d s c ien t if ic i n s t i tu t ion si n f luen t ia l i nd eve lopmen t so f C h ine se a r chaeo logy . T h is i n c lude s t h e n ame ( n ame s i n b r acke t s o f C h ine se r e sea r che r sr e f e rt ot h e o l d s pe l l ing ) , t h e c oun t ry o f o r ig in , t h e c i t izen sh ip a nd t h e l e ng th o f r e sea r ch i n C h ina ( whe r ek nown ) ,t h ed i sc ip l ine ( s )( whe re a pp rop r ia te t h e m a in f i e ld o f e xpe r t i se i s m en t ioned f i r s t ) , a nd t h e s i te s t h e i n d iv idua l r e sea r che r s w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th ( wh e r e a pp rop r ia te ) . T he a bb rev ia t ion s o f t h e i n s t i tu t ions i n c lude t h i s w r i te r 's . No te t h a tw h i le t h i sa ppend ix a t temp t s t ob e a s c omp rehen s ive a s p o s s ib le , i t d oe s n o t p re sume t o b e c omp le te .

h uman s ,t h es ma l le rb r a ined P i thecan thropu sa l a lu s( a pe -man w ho c ou ld n o ts peak ) . Owen , R . ( Eng land ) b i o log is t , v e r teb ra te p a laeon to log i s t ; 1 870 : i mpo r tan tp ub l ica t ion o n C h ine se mamma l ian f o s s i l s f r om c ave n ea r C hung -k ing -f oo c i ty , S i chuan p rov ince , s ou the rn C h ina s en t b y R . Sw inhoe . L ydekke r ,R .( Eng land ) 1 879 : h ypo the s i sed t h a t l a te T e r t ia ry a pe a nce s to r s e vo lved i n t h e O r ien t b a sed o n 1 878 d i scove r ie so ff o s s i l p r ima te s i nS iwa l ik s H i l l s . Wa l la ce , A .R . ( New Z ea land ) : n a tu ra l i s t ; 1 870 : s ugge s ted e a r ly h uman a nce s to r s e vo lved i n w a rm r e g ion s ( 1 855 : c on tempo ra ry s pec ie s d i ve r s i ty g r ea te s t i n t r op ic s ) ; 1 876a : p ropo sed t h a t a pe s a nd o t he r v e r teb ra te s o r ig ina ted n o r th o f t h ee qua to ri nA s ia a nd A f r ica , a nd i n 1 876b : s pec if ica l ly i n " Pa laea r c t ic a nd O r ien ta l r eg ion s" ; 1 856 : s ugge s ted h uman a nce s to r w a s a pe l ike b a sed o n o b se rva t ion s o f B o rnean o r ang -u tan , h ypo the s i s a ppa ren t ly h ad n o i mpac t o n s ub sequen t r e sea r ch o n h uman o r ig in s ; 1 888 : s ugge s ted p o s s ib i l i ty o fr e cove r ing t h e r ema in s o f h uman a nce s to r s i n t h ec ave so fr e g ion so fe x tan ta pe s .

1 . P r inc ipa l r esearch i ns t i tu t ion s i n Ch ina T he N a t iona lG eo log ica lS u rvey o fC h ina ( NGSC ; L ockha r t H a l l , P ek ing , P e ip ing [ Be i j ing ] ; 1 931 t r an s f e r r ed t o N ank ing ) , e s tab l i shed 1 916 ( r eo rgan i sed f r om M in i s t ry o f I n du s t ry a nd C omme rce , D iv i s ion o f G eo logy , f o und ed 1 9 12 ) ; 1 92 1 -1937 ( d i scon t inued b y J apane se a rmy i n va s ion i n1 937 ) : e x ten s ive i n ve s t iga t ion so fQ ua te rna ry g eo logy a nd p a laeon to logy ; j ou rna l : ' The Memo i r s o f t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey ' ,l a te r : ' Memo i r so ft h eG eo log ica l S u rvey o fC h ina ' a nd ' Geo log ica l Memo ir s ' , ' Bu l le t in o f t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o fC h ina ' ;l a bo ra to ry f o r p a leon to logy f o unded 1 928 u nde r NGSC . C enozo ic R e sea r ch L abo ra to ry ( CRL ) , d epa r tmen to f NGSC ,p redece s so ro fI .V .P .P . , f o und ed 1 929 a sj o in t r e sea r ch u n i t u nde r t h e NGSC w i th o b jec t ive t o c a r ry o u t i n tens ive s t ud ie s o f Z houkoud ian a nd o f t h e r e g iona l p reh is to ry : g eo logy , p a laeon to logy , a n d a n th ropo logy , s uppo r ted b y t h e R ocke f e l le r F ounda t ion , C h ina B oa rd . C enozo ic R e sea r ch L abo ra to ry o f V e r teb ra te P a leon to logy o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f V e r teb ra te P a leon to logy , A cadem ia S in ica ( Ch ine se A cademy o fS c ience s ) , e s tab l i shed 1 949 , p r edece s so r o f I .V .P .P . . I n s t i tu te o f V e r t eb r a t e P a leon to logy a nd P a leoan th ropo logy ( I .V .P .P . ) , r e s e a r ch i n s t i tu te o f t h e A cadem ia S in ica , B e i j ing , e s tab l i shed 1 957 , t o c a r ry o u t g eo log ica l , p a laeon to log ica l , a n th ropo log ica l , a nd a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s t h roughou t C h ina ; j ou rna l s : ` Ve r teb ra ta P a lA s ia t ica ' , ' Ac ta A n th ropo log ica S in ica ' , ' Ac ta A r chaeo log ica S in ica ' . P e ip ing U n ion Med ica lC o l lege ( PU MC ) , f o rme r ly U n ion Med ica l C o l lege , e s tab l i shed 1 906 b y P ro te s tan t m is s ion s , b ough t b y R ocke f e l le rF ounda t ion i n1 9 15 a nd r e o rgan i sed a nd r e named ; j ou rna l : Pa lwon to log ica S in ica ' . B e i j ing N a tu ra l H i s to ry Mu seum ( BNH M ) , p a laeon to log ica l , a n th ropo log ica l , a n d a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch a nd e xh ib i t ions . Z houkoud ian I n te rna t iona l P a leoan th ropo log ica l R e sea r ch C en te r ( Z IPRC ) , r e sea rch i n s t i tu te o ft h e A cadem ia S in ica , B e i j ing , e s tab l i shed 1 993 w i th o b jec t ive t o c a r r y o u t r e new ed i n ten s ive s t ud ie sa tZ houkoud ian . 2 . P r inc ipa l r esearchers o u t s ide o f Ch ina H aecke l , E .H . ( Ge rmany ) b i o log i s t ; 1 868 : p r ed ic t ed a n ce s to r o f H . s . s ap ien s w a s b i peda l , p ropo sed n omen P i thecan thropus , i n t e rmed ia te i ne vo lu t ion b e tween a pe a n d

D ubo i s , M .E .F .T . ( Ho l land ) 1 890 -1895 ( i n J ava ) : m ed ica l d oc to r ,p hy s ica l a n th ropo log is t , p a laeon to log is t ; 1 887 1895 : a rmy d oc to r o f t h e N ede r land sch Ind i e A rmy ; d i scove r e r a n d c l a s s if ie r o f e a r l ie s t h om in id s pec ie s i n t h e F a r E a s t a t T r in i l , e a s t J ava , P i thecan thropu s e r ec tu s ; g enu s n ame a dop ted f r om E .H . H aecke l ; 1 891 : d i scove ry o f h om in id f o s s i lc a lo t te a tT r in i l ; 1 892 : r e cove ry o f h om in id f emu r a n d mo la r ,T r in i l ; 1 894 : P i thecan thropu se r ec tu sc l a s s if ied a st h e h uman a nce s to r ( P . e r ec tu s n ow s ub sumed u nde r H omo e r ec tu s [ May r 1 950 ] ) . G aud ry ( ? ) p a laeon to log i s t ; 1 872 : d e sc r ibed P l e i s tocene m amma l ian f o s s i l sc o l le c ted b y lee D av id . K oken , E . ( Ge rmany ) p a laeon to log i s t ; 1 885 : P le i s tocene m amma l ian f o s s i l s c o l lec ted b y R ich thof en .

d e s c r ibed F . v on

S ch lo s se r , M . ( Ge rmany ) v e r teb ra t e p a laeon to log i s t ; 1 906 : s t udy o f C h ine se f o s s i l s c o l lec ted b y K .A . H ab e r e r , i n c lud ing d e sc r ip t ion o f v e ry w o rn M3 , a t t r ibu t ion t o " Homo ? A n th ropo ide?" ; p ub l ica t ion s s i gn if ican t f o r i n d ica t ing a bundance o f C h ine se T e r t ia ry mamma l ian f a una a nd r e v i s ing p rev iou ss t ud ie so ff o s s i lf a una ( e .g . ,b y Owen ) ; a l so f o r S ch lo s se r 's o p in ion t h a t t h e mo la r e v inced m o re s im i la r i t ie s t o ah uman mo la r ( r a the r t h an t o a n ew a n th ropo id ) ,b u tb ecau se a n h om in id o fT e r t ia ry a ge h ad n o t b een c onf i rmed h ew a sc au t iou si nh i s i d en t if ica t ion . O sbo rn , H .F . ( U .S .A . ) ; v e r teb ra te p a laeon to log i s t , Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry : AMNH ,a nd d i rec to r o f AMNH ( 1 89 1-? ) ; 1 923 : s uppo r ted L e idy 's ( 1 857 ) h ypo the s i s t h a t c en t re o fh uman e vo lu t ion w a s o n t h e h i gh a l t i tude s t eppe s o f t h e C en t ra l A s ia t ic P la teau , a nd s pec if ica l ly t h e c en t ra l Mongo l ian p l a teau , b ecau se f o re s t s w ou ld n o t h ave p r ov ided f a vou rab le c ond i t ion s f o r t h e e vo lu t ion o f b i peda l i sm ; i n s t rumen ta l i n s e t t ing u p C en t ra l A s ia t ic e xped i t ion s t o G ob i d e se r t ; o ne o f m a jo r r e a son s f o r T h i rd C en t ra l A s ia t ic E xped i t ion w a s t h e d i scove ry o f p r ima te s , i n p a r t icu la r p r ima te s pec ie s w h ich m ay y i e ld i n fo rma t ion o n h uman o r ig ins .

1 29

3 . P r inc ipa l e xped it ions )

r e searcher s

i n

Ch ina

( i nc lud ing

o f f o s s i l s a tH u tou l iang ; 1 924 -1929 : s u rvey s , e xcava t ion s , a nd r e cove r y o f f o ss i ls w i th T e i lha rd a nd G .B . B a rbou r a t N ihewan ; 1 924 : w i th T e i lha rd s u rvey s a r ound J eho l , Mongo l ian P la teau , a nd o fH uanghe P la in .

R ich thof en , F . v on ( Ge rmany ) e xp lo re r , g eo log is t ; 1 870 's : b ough t f o s s i l b one s a nd t e e th a ppa ren t ly d ug f r om c ave s i n Y unnan p rov ince , s ou the rn C h ina , i nd rug s to re s .

McG r ego r G ibb , J . ( ? ) , c hem i s t ry i n s t ruc to r a t B e i j ing U n ive r s i ty , a ma teu r p a laeon to log is t ; 1 9 18 : d i scove ry o f f o s s i l s a tt h e l i me -qua r ry o f J i gu shan ( Ch i K u S han ; a f t e r 1 927 : Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 6 ) a bou t 2 km f r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 , r e po r t ed t h is d i scove ry t o J .G . A nde r s son .

Sw inhoe , R . ( Eng land ) 1 858 -c . 1 874 ; B r i t ish C on su l i n C h ina ; s en ta n ima l s pec imen s , i n c lud ing m amma l ian f o s s i l s a nd n o te s o n t h e z oo logy o f n o r the rn , e a s te rn , a nd s ou the rn C h ina t o t h e Z oö log ica l S oc ie ty o f L ondon a nd t o t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum ; p ub l ica t ions o n e a s te rn C h ine se a n d T a iwane se m amma l s , i n c lud ing n ew s pec ie s .

A nde r s son , J .G . ( Sweden ) 1 914 -1924 ; g eo log is t , a ma teu r p a laeon to log is t a nd a r chaeo log is t ; m in ing a dv i se r c on t r a c t ed b y t h e C h ine se g ove rnmen t ; s ugge s ted t o V .K . T ing e s tab l i shmen to f NGSC ; a r ranged w i th NGSC c o l lec t ion o f f o s s i l s f o r S wed ish i n s t i tu t ions f i nanced b y Swed ish C h ina R e sea r ch C omm i t tee ; 1 9 18 : d i scove ry o f f u r the r f o s s i l s a t J i gu shan a f te r J . McG rego r G ibb 's r epo r t ; 1 921 : s u rvey o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 5 3 , l a te r n amed L oca l i ty 1 ,w i th W . G range r ,W .D . Ma t thew a nd 0 . Z dansky a f te rl o ca ll ime k i ln w o rk e r i n f o rmed g roup o f t h is r i ch f o s s i l l o ca l i ty , a nd h e r e h i s i d en t if i ca t ion o f v e in q ua r t z c h ip s a s a r tef ac t s ; 1 926 : a nnounced d i scove ry o f Z dan sky 's h om in id t e e th f i nd s a t L oca l i ty 1 .

l 'W e D av id , A . ( F rance ) 1 862 -c . 1 873 ; J e su i t m iss iona ry , n a tu ra l i s t ; t r ave l led t h rough much o f C h ina a nd c o l le c ted f a una , e . g . , c . 1 870 -c . 1 871 i n S i chuan p rov ince ; 1 866 1 868 : a ppa ren t ly p e r sona l ly c o l lec t ed P le i s tocene m amma l ian f o s s i ls i n I nne r Mongo l ia ( Ch ine se Mongo l ia ) ; s pec imen s s en t t o P a r is Mu seum , i n c lud ing s eve ra l n ew s pec ie s , d e sc r ibed b y A . M i lne -Edwa rd s , s e ve ra l p ub l ica t ion s . H abe re r , K .A . ( Ge rmany ) 1 899 -1900 ; p hys ic ian , n a tu ra l i s t ; c o l lec to ro ff o s s i l s f o r mu seum i n Mun ich , i n c lud ing aw o rn mo la rf r om aB e i j ing s t o re d e sc r ibed b yS ch lo s se r .

Ma t thew ,W .D . ( Canada ) v e r teb ra te p a laeon to log i s t , AMNH ; 1 914 : s ugge s ted n o r the rn A s ia a s t h e c en t r e o f mamma l ian d i spe r sa l c au sed b y c hang ing c l ima te s d u r ing t h e T e r t ia ry ; 1 921 : s u rvey o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 w i th J .G . A nde r s son a nd 0 . Z dan sky ; 1 923 : p r e l im ina ry s t udy o f f o s s i ls f r om Y ench inkou ( Yen -ch ing -kao ) f i s su re l o ca l i t ie s , S i chuan p rov ince , s ou ther nC h ina , w i th W . G range r .

E dga r ,J .H . ( U .S .A . ) 1 913 -1930 ;r e ve rend ; r e cove ry o f s t one a r te f ac t s , S i chuan p rov ince , i n c lud ing t wo "Mou s te r ian" s t one s c rape r s , D aof u V a l ley , a nd o the r p a r t s o f s ou the rn C h ina , i n c lud ing T ibe t ; w e s te rn C h ina . B ow le s , G .T . ( U .S .A . ) ; f e l low o f H a rva rd -Yench ing I n s t i tu te ; 1 931 : r e cove ry o f s t one a r te f ac t s i n w e s t er n S i chuan p rov ince , i n c lud ing N eo l i th ic , ?a nd P a laeo l i th ic s pec imen s , w i th J .H . E dga r 's a s s i s tance .

Z dan sky , 0 . ( Au s t r ia ) 1 921-1923 ; p a laeon to log i s t ; 1 921 : p o s ted t oC h ina b y C . W iman , Upp sa la U n ive r s i ty ( Sweden ) t od i rec ts y s tema t ic e xcava t ion so ff o s s i ll o ca l i t ie s w i th J .G . A nde r s son ; 1 921 a nd 1 923 : e xcava t ions a t Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ,r e cove ry a nd s t udy o f mamma l ian f o s s i ls a nd f i r s th om in id f o s s i l s ( two t e e th ) ; 1 926 : i n fo rmed A nde r s son o f d i scove ry o f L oca l i ty 1h om in id f o s s i ls ; 1 928 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1p robo sc idean s .

G raham , D .C . ( ? ) ; We s t C h ina U n ion U n ive r s i ty ; 1 933 , 1 935 : r e cove ry o f a r tef a c t s i n S i chuan p rov ince , i n c lud ing N eo l i th ic , ?a nd P a laeo l i th ic s pec imens . T ing ,V .K . ( T ing V en -k iang , T ing -T ing Wen -ch iang ; C h ina ) 1 912 -19? ;g eo log i s t ; ( s tud ied a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fG la sgow ) ; f ounde ro f NGSC ,a nd 1 916 -1923 : i t ' s f i r s td i rec to r . S cho t te , F . ( Ge rmany? ) ; m i ss iona ry ; s ome y ea r s b e f o r e 1 924 : d i s cove r ed q ua r tz i te a r te f a c t s w i th e x t inc t r h ino ce ro s s ku l l n ea r S hu idonggou , N ingx ia Au tonomou s R eg ion , n o r the rn C h ina , l a te r d e sc r ibed a s t h e " . . .f i r s t P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra lr ema in sd i scove red i nC h ina" . L icen t , E . ( F rance ) 1 9 14 -19? ; J e su i t p r ie s t , p a laeon to log i s t ; 1 920 : d i scove red a r tef ac t s i n L a te P le is tocene l o e s s a n d g rave l s ed imen t s , n o r the rn Q ingyang , G an su p rov ince , n o r the rn C h ina ; 1 921 : a ppea l t om i s s iona r ie sf o r f o s s i l f i nd s ( "Appe l a ux M i s s ionna i re s" ) , r e spon se b y V icen t o f N ihewan v i l lage m i s s iona ry o fd i scove ry o f f o s s i l b one s a nd s he l ls i nt h e v i c in i ty o fN ihewan ; 1 922 : f o unde r a nd d i re c to r o f Mu s& H oangho -Pa iho ( a mu seum o f n a tu ra l h i s to ry ) a t t h e E co le d e s H au te s E tude s , T ian j in ( T ien t s in ) , T ian j in Mun ic ipa l i ty ; s u rvey a t S j a r ra -o s so -go l ( Sa lawu su ) , O rdo s , o n r e commenda t ion o f F a the r s Mo s tae r t a nd d e W i lde ( Be lg ian M i s s ion ) w ho h ad h e r e d i scove red s t one a r t e f a c t s a nd f o s s i l s ,r e cove ry o ff o s s i l v e r teb ra te s ,i n c lud ing ah uman f emu r ; 1 923 : w i th T e i lha rd d e C ha rd in , s u rvey , d i scove ry , a nd e xcava t ion s o f S ja r ra -o s so -go l ( La te P l e i s tocene ) ; 1 924 : N ihewan s u rvey a nd r e cove ry o ff u r the rf o s s i l s ,a nd d i scove ry

G range r , W . ( U .S .A . ) ; v e r teb ra t e p a laeon to log is t , AMNH ; 1 921 : w i th J .G . A nde r s son i nve s t iga t ions a t Z houkoud ian , a nd c h ie f p a laeon to log i s t o f T h i rd ( Cen t ra l ) A s ia t ic E xped i t ion ; 1 920 -1921 : d i scove ry o f m amma l ian f o s s i l s a t Y ench inkou f i s su re l o ca l i t ie s , a nd 1 923 : p re l im ina ry s t udy o f t h e se m a te r ia ls w i th W .D . Ma t thew ; 1 927 -28 : e xp lo ra t ion s a t Y uanmou ; a t Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty l i n t rodu ced c u r ren t e xcava t ion t o o ls a nd c a re fu l m e thod f o r e x t ra c t ion o f f r ag i le s pec imen s ; c h ie f p a laeon to log i s t o f AMNH A s ia t ic E xped i t ion s . A nd r ew s , R .C . ( U .S .A . ) 1 916 / 17 -1930 ; z oo log is t , e xp lo r e r ; C h ief o ft h e d i v i s ion o f A s ia t ic e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e AMNH , l e ade ro ft h e f i ve A s ia t ic E xped i t ions ( "The M iss ing L ink E xped i t ion s" ) ; 1 916 -1917 : F i r s t A s ia t ic E xped i t ion t o F u j ian a nd Y unnan ; 1 919 : S econd A s ia t ic E xped i t ion t o n o r the rn Mongo l ia ; 1 92 1 : T h i rd ( Cen t ra l )A s ia t ic E xped i t ion t oG ob i D e se r t , i n s t iga ted b y H .F . O sbo rn t o " t e s t t h eo ry o f c en t ra l A s ian o r ig in o f mamma l ian l i f e o f E u rope a n d Ame r ica " a nd t o r e cove r " Ea r ly Man" f o s s i ls ; m embe r s i n c luded W . G range r ( U .S .A . ) , c h ief p a laeon to log i s t ; N .C . N e lson ( U .S .A . ) , a r chaeo log is t ; r e cove ry o f m ic ro l i th ic a r te f a c t s O rok N o r a r ea , G ob i D e se r t ; C .H . P ope ( U .S .A . ) , p a laeon to log is t .

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Wong , WH . ( Ch ina ) : 1 923 -1935 ; s e ismo log is t , m ine ra log is t ( s tud ied a tL ouva in Un ive r s i ty ) ; s ucce s so r t o V .K . T ing a s d i rec to ro f NGSC .

L oca l i ty 1 a r t iodac ty le s , a nd o f f o ss i l v e r teb ra te s f r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i t ie s 2 , 7 , a nd 8 ; 1 933 : d i scus s ion o f f o s s i l o s t r ich e gg s , a nd s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 g eo logy , s t ra t ig raphy , f auna , a nd a r tef ac t s w i th B lack , T e i lha rd , a n d P e i ; 1 934 : s t udy o ft h e L oca l i ty 1 i n sec t ivo re s , r oden t s , a nd n on -hom in id p r ima tes ; 1 935 : s t udy o f Y ench inkou , S i chuan p rov ince , mamma l ian m ic rof auna ; o ne t ime d i rec to r o f I .V .P .P .

B oh l in ,A .B . ( Sweden ) ; p a laeon to log is t ; 1 927 -1928 : d i r ec t ed e xcava t ion sa tZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 . B a rbou r , G .B . ( Sco t land /USA ) 1 921-1930 ; g eo log is t , p a laeon to log is t ; e x tens ive r e sea r ch o n g eo logy , p a laeon to logy , a nd b ios t ra t ig raphy o f n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn C h ina ; 1 924 -1927 : e xcava t ions a t N ihewan a f te r T e i lha rd 's 1 924 a dv ice t o u nde r take r e sea r ch ; 1 923 , 1 924 : s u rveys a t K a lgan ; 1 929 -1930 : V is i t ing P hys iog raphe r t o R ockef e l le r F ounda t ion ; 1 930 : s t udy o f t h e S angganhe ( N ihewan B a s in ) v o lcanoe sw i th B ien .

B ien , M .N . ( P ien Me i -n ien , B ian Me i -n ien ; C h ina ) ; g eo log is t , b io log i s t ( Yench ing Un ive r s i ty ) ; 1 929 : A s s is tan t t o NGSC ; 1 930 : s t udy o f t h e S angganhe v o lcanoe s w i th B a rbou r ; 1 931 : s u rvey ,e xcava t ion p lann ing , a nd mapp ing o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1w i th P e i Wenzhong a nd J i aL anpo .

P e i , W .C . ( Pe i Wenzhong , P e i Wen -chung ; C h ina ) 1 927 1 982 ; a r chaeo log is t ; t a phonom is t ; 1 929 -1935 : d i r ec t ed f i e ldwo rk a tZ houkoud ian a s membe r o f NGSC , a nd ma in d i scove re ro fh om in id ma te r ia ls , i n c lud ing w i th L iu , YS . i n 1 927 : f i r s t c r an ium ; 1 929 -1935 : e xcava t ion o f L oca l i ty 1 ; 1 931 : r e cogn ised q ua r tz s pec imens a tL oca l i ty 1a s a r te f ac t s a nd a na ly s is o f t h e se a r tef ac t s a nd L oca l i ty 5 mamma ls ; 1 932 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 a r tef ac t s w i th T e i lha rd ; 1 933 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 g eo logy , s t ra t ig raphy , f a una , a nd a r tef a c t s w i th B lack , T e i lha rd , a nd Y oung ; 1 933 -1934 : e xcava t ion s o f L oca l i ty 1 3 a nd Uppe r C ave ; 1 934 : p ub l ica t ion o f Uppe r C ave , o f L oca l i ty 1 3 s t ra t ig raphy , f a una , a r tef ac t s , a nd c ha r r ed s pec imens , o f L oca l i ty 1 c a rn ivo re s , a nd o f Z houkoud ian e xcava t ion s ; 1 935 -1937 : s t udy o f a r chaeo logy i n P a r is u nde r H . B reu i l ; 1 931 , 1 938 : t a phonom ic a na lyses o fL oca l i ty 1f a una ,p o in ted o u t n a tu ra l c au se sw e r e p r edom inan t mod if ie r s o f f a una ; 1 936 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 3mamma l ian f o ss i ls ; 1 937 : d i scus s ion o n C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic c u l ture ; 1 938 : p ub l ica t ion o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 5 ; 1 939 : c ompa ra t ive s t udy o f C h ine se a nd E u ropean P le is tocene g eo logy , p a laeon to logy , a nd p reh is to ry ;p ub l ica t ion o f Uppe r C ave c u l tu ra l ma te r ia ls a nd o fn ew ly r e cove red Z houkoud ian f o ss i ls a nd a r tef ac t s ; 1 940 : p ub l ica t ion o f Uppe rC ave f a una ; 1 941 : s t udy o fL oca l i ty 1 3 mamma ls w i th T e i lha rd ; 1 948 : p o in ted o u t t h a t f r agmen ta ry c ond i t ion o f Uppe r C ave h om in id s p o ss ib ly d ue t o r o ck f a l l ; 1 954 : d i r ec to r o f e xcava t ion s a t D ingcun , r e cove ry o f v e r teb ra te f o ss i ls , i n c lud ing h om in id , a nd l i th ic a r tef ac t s ; 1 958 : s en io ra u tho ro fD ingcun monog raph , i n c lud ing r e po r t o f g eo logy , s t ra t ig raphy , a nd a r te f ac t s w i th J i a ; 1 960 : d i scus s ion o f L oca l i ty 1 ' b one t oo ls ' ; 1 961 : s t udy o f P l e i s tocene mamma l ian f o ss i ls f r om Y uanmou a nd d i scus s ion o n e o l i ths ; 1 965 : r ev iew o f C h ine se a r chaeo logy ; 1 965 : d i r e c to r o f Guany indong c ave , Gu izhou p rov ince e xcava t ion s ; 1 966 : d i rec to r o f e xcava t ions a t L oca l i ty 1 ; 1 981 : s u rvey a nd d i scove ry o f Donggu tuo l o ca l i ty w i th We i Q i ; 1 985 :r e s tudy o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s t one a r te f a c t s w i th Z hang , S S . ; d oyen o fC h inese a r chaeo logy . Y oung , C .C . ( Yang C hung -ch ien , Y ang Z hong j ian ; C h ina ) 1 928 -1979 ; v e r teb ra te p a laeon to log is t ( s tud ied u nde r M . S ch lo s se r ) ; 1 928 -1929 : a s s is ted B oh l in a t Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ;1 929 -? : A ss is tan tD i rec to ra nd P a laeon to log i s tt o NGSC ; 1 929 : d i scove ry o f l o ca l i t ie s w i th l i th ic a r tef ac t s i n w e s te rn S hanx i a nd n o r the rn S haanx i p rov ince s w i th T e i lha rd ; 1 930 : s t udy o f C h i K u S han , i . e . Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 6 mamma l ian f o ss i ls a nd s ho r t p e r iod o f d i rec t ing f i e ldwo rk a tZ houkoud ian ; 1 930 -1931 : d i scove ry o fl o ca l i t ie s w i th l i th ic a r tef ac t s i nI nne r Mongo l ia , G ansu p rov ince , a nd X in j iang U ygu r Au tonomous R eg ion w i th T e i lha rd ; 1 932 : s t udy o f m amma l ian f o ss i ls f r om Y unnan p rov ince , o f t h e

L ee , J . S . ( L i S su -kuang , L i S zeguang ; C h ina ) 1 921-1981 ; g eo log is t( g radua ted a tU n ive r s i ty o f Manche s te r ) ; 1 921-19? : h ead o f G eo log ica l I n s t i tu te , A cadem ia S in ica , N ank ing ; 1 934 -? : h ead o f D epa r tmen t o f G eo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f P ek ing ( f o rme r ly , I mpe r ia l U n ive r s i ty o f P ek ing , P ek ing N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty ) ; 1 922 -1947 : e x ten s ive s t udy o f n o r the rn ,e a s te rn , a nd c en t ra lC h ine se g eo logy , i d en t if i ca t ion o f' g lac ia l d epo s i t s ' , a nd f o rmu la t ion o ft h ree C h ine se g l ac ia l p e r iod s ; 1 939 : s t anda rd b ook o nC h ine se g eo logy . P ive teau , J . ( F rance ) ; J e su i t p r ie s t , p a laeon to log is t ; 1 930 : s t udy o fN ihewan mamma l ian f o ss i lf auna w i th T e i lha rd . C o lbe r t , E .H . ( F rance ) ; p a laeon to log is t ; 1 940 : s t udy o f v e r teb ra te f o ss i ls f r om Yuanmou ( f o rme r ly , Ma K a i V a l ley ) , Y unnan p rov ince . T e i lha rd d eC ha rd in ,P .M .J . ( F rance ) 1 923 -1924 , 1 926 -1927 , 1 929 -1946 ; J e su i t p r ie s t , g eo log is t , p a laeon to log i s t ( s pec ia l isa t ion : mamma l ian f auna , i n c lud ing p a laeo p r ima to logy ) , a r chaeo log is t ; 1 920 , 1 923 -1929 : r e sea r ch c o l labo ra t ion w i th E . L icen t ; 1 923 : f i e ld -wo rk w i th E . L icen t , No r th C h ina P la in , Manchu r ia a nd I nne r Mongo l ia , d i scove ry , e xcava t ion , a nd 1 924 : a na lys is o f S hu idonggou a nd S ja ra -osso -go l , O rdo s l i th ic a s semb lage s ; 1 926 : p a r t ic ipan ti nN ihewan B a s in e xcava t ion s ; 1 927 : j o in t s t udy w i th M . B ou le , E . L icen t , a nd H . B reu i l o f t h e C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic , a nd w i th C .C . Young s u rveys o f H uanghe v a l ley l o es s d epo s i t s o f w es te rn S hanx i a nd n o r the rn S haanx i , d i scove ry o f a r tef ac t s ; 1 929 : g eo log is t a nd c oo rd ina to ro ff i e ld -wo rk a tZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ,s howed e a r ly a ge o f f i r s t h om in id c r an ium ; 1 929 -19? : g eo log ic a dv i so r t o NGSC , f i e ld -wo rk i n S hanx i a nd S haanx i p rov ince s , a nd We s te rn H i l ls ; 1 930 : g eo log i s t o n C en t ra l A s ia t ic E xped i t ion , a nd w i th P ive teau s t udy o f N ihewan f a una ; 1 929 -c .1 945 : r e sea rch c o l labo ra t ion w i th E . L e roy ; f r om 1 929 /30 : c hange o f r e sea rch a l l iance f r om F rench t o S i no -Ame r ican i n s t i tu t ions ; b y 1 934 : d i rec to r o fG eo log ica l S u rvey , membe ro f CRL ; 1 932 : s t udy o fL oca l i ty 1a r tef a c t s w i th P e i ; 1 933 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 g eo logy , s t ra t ig raphy , f a una , a nd a r tef ac t s w i th B lack , Young , a nd P e i ; 1 936 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 9 mamma ls ; 1 937 : d i scu ss ion o n C h ine se P l e is tocene s t ra t ig raphy a nd c o r re la t ions ; 1 940 : f ounded w i th E . L e roy t h e I n s t i tu te d e G 6o -B io log ie , P ek in [ Be i j ing ] , d e f unc t a bou t 1 946 ; 1 941 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 3 mamma ls w i th P e i ; 1 940 -1945 : f i e ld -wo rk v e ry l im i ted b ecau se o f J apane se m i l i ta ry o ccupa t ion ; 1 940 : s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 8 f o ss i ls ; 1 941 : s ynops is o f C h inese P le is tocene g eo logy , b i o s t ra t ig raphy , a nd a r chaeo logy ; 1 942 : s ynops is o f C h ine se m amma l ian f o ss i ls w i th L e roy .

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B lack , D . ( Canada ) 1 9 19 -1934 ; a na tom is t , a n th ropo log is t ; 1 919 : P rof e s so r o fA na tomy a nd N eu ro logy , PU MC ; f i e ld r e sea r ch i n e a s te rn Mongo l ia , G ob i D e se r t , H enan , G an su , T ha i land , Z houkoud ian ; 1 926 , 1 927 : d e sc r ibed a nd a s s igned l e f t mo la r f ound b y Z dan sky a tZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 t o n ew h om in id g enu s a nd s pec ie s S i nan thropus p ek inen s i s ( B lack a nd Z dan sky ) , a nd r e cogn i sed s im i la r i t ie s t o S ch lo s se r 's ( 1906 ) m o la r ; 1 927 : a r ranged f u nd ing f o r L oca l i ty 1e xcava t ion se t c . a nd f o r t h e f ound ing o f t h e CRL f r om R ocke f e l le r F ounda t ion ; 1 929 -1934 ( d e cea sed ) : f o unde r a nd H ono ra ry D i re c to r o f CRL f o l low ing d i scove ry o f L oca l i ty 1 h om in id t e e th ; s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 f o ss i ls , i n c lud ing h om in id sa nd e nv i ronmen t ;s ub sc r ibed t ot h eo ry o f c en t ra lA s ia a sc en t re o fl a nd mamma l d i spe r sa l a nd o f p l a ce o f h uman e vo lu t ion , a nd 1 926 , 1 927 : l a t te r s uppo r ted b y L oca l i ty 1 h om in id t e e th ; 1 931 : p ub l ica t ion o f r e su l t s o f t e s t so fe v idence f o rf i r ea tL oca l i ty 1 ;1 933 : s en io ra u tho ro f s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 g eo logy , s t ra t ig raphy , f a una , a n d a r te f a c t sw i th T e i lha rd , Y oung , a nd P e i . G rabau , A .W . ( U .S .A . ) 1 920 -1941 ; g eo log i s t , p a laeon to log i s t ; 1 920 : a ppo in ted c h ief p a laeon to log is t o f NGSC ;p rof e s so ro fp a laeon to logy a tU n ive r s i ty o f P ek ing ; t r a ined C h ine se g eo log i s t s a nd p a laeon to log is t s ; c o ined ` S inan thropu s p ek inen s i s ( B la ck a nd Z dan sky ) ' f o r Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1t o o th d e sc r ibed b y D . B la ck ( 1927 ) ; s ub sc r ibed t o t h eo ry t h a t C en t ra l A s ia w a s p l ace o f h uman o r ig in . L e roy , P . ( F rance ) ; z oo log i s t ; 1 930 -1945 : s ucce s so r t o E . L icen t ; 1 942 : s ynop s i s o fC h ine se mamma l ian f o s s i l s w i th T e i lha rd . L i , C . ( Ch ina ) g eo log i s t ; 1 927 -1928 : a s s is tan t t o B oh l in a t Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 . J i a , L P . ( Ch ia L an -po ; C h ina ) 1 931; a r chaeo log i s t , P le i s tocene g eo log is t , p a laeon to log is t , I .V .P .P . , V ice P re s iden t o f t h e A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty o f C h ina ; 1 931 1 935 : t r a inee a t t h e NGSC , a nd t e chn ica l a s s i s tan t a t Z houkoud ian e xcava t ions ,a nd 1 935 : r e p la ced P e i Wenzhong a sd i rec to ro fe xcava t ion s ; 1 949 , 1 951 : d i rec to r o f L oca l i ty 1e xcava t ion s w i th L iu , XT . , a nd 1 958 : s o le d i rec to r ; 1 954 : p a r t ic ipan t i n D ingcun e xcava t ion ; 1 955 : p ub l ica t ion o f D ingcun h om in id f o s s i l s a nd a r tef ac t s ; 1 956 : r e po r t o f C h ine se h andaxe d i scove r ie s ; 1 958 : r epo r t o n h i s to ry o f d i scove ry a nd e xcava t ion o fD ingcun w i th Wang , CY . , a n d D ingcun g eo logy ,s t ra t ig raphy ,a nd a r tef ac t sw i th P e i ; 1 959 : r epo r t o n L oca l i ty 1 1 958 e xcava t ion , a nd d i scu s s ion o f L oca l i ty 1b one t o o l s ; 1 960 : d i r ec to r o f K ehe e xcava t ion s , d i re c to r o f X ihoudu e xcava t ions , a nd n o te o n L oca l i ty 1 l i th ic a r tef ac t s ; 1 962 : d i scu s s ion o nK ehe c h rono logy ; 1 963 : e xcava t ion o fS h iyu ,r e cove ry o f f o ss i ls a nd a r te f a c t s ; 1 964 : d i rec to r o f I .V .P .P . g eo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion so fL an t ian a r ea ,r e cove ry o f f o s s i l v e r teb ra te s , i n c lud ing a nH . e r ec tu sc a lo t te a nd o t he r h om in id b one s , a n d a r te f ac t s ; 1 964 : p ub l ica t ion o n K ehe w i th Wang , TY . a n d Wang , CY . ; 1 966 : s t udy o fL an t ian a r tef ac t s w i th G a i P e i a nd Y ou Y uzhu ; 1 972 : p ub l ica t ion o fS h iyu l o ca l i ty , S hanx i p rov ince ( La te P l e i s to cene ) a nd o f t h e t wo c u l tu re s t oo l t r ad i t ion t h eo ry o f t h e n o r the rn C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic w i th G a i P e i a nd Y ou Y uzhu ; 1 974 : d i r ec to r o f f i r s t X u j iayao e xcava t ion , r e cove ry o f f o s s i l v e r teb ra te s , i n c lud ing h om in id s ,a nd s t one a r te f a c t s ( e a r ly L a te P le is tocene ) ; 1 975 : p ub l ica t ion o n L oca l i ty 1 c u l tu re ; 1 976 , 1 979 : s t udy o f Xu j iayao g eo logy , s t ra t ig raphy , f a una , a r tef ac t s , a nd c h a r r ed ma te r ia ls w i th We i , Q . a nd L i , C . ; 1 978 : monog raph o n

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X ihoudu w i th Wang , CY . ; 1 980 : p ub l ica t ion o n t h eC h ine se P a laeo l i th ic ; 1 982 -:d oyen o fC h ine se a r chaeo logy a f te r P e i Wenzhong ; 1 985 , 1 989 : d i scu s s ion o f t h e e a r l ie s t C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic a r t e f a c t s ; 1 985 : d i scu s s ion o f C h ina 's ' La te P a laeo l i th ic a nd o f c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ions w i th Huang , WW . ; 1 987 : r e po r to n t h e Donggu tuo s t one a r t ef a c t s w i th We i Q i ; 1 989 : r e p ly t or e in te rp re ta t ion s o f L oca l i ty 1 ; 1 990 : m a jo r p ub l ica t ion o n Z houkoud ian w i th H uang , WW . B reu i l , F . ( F r ance ) 1 931 , 1 935 ; A bbé a r chaeo log i s t ; o n i nv i ta t ion o f CRL , p a r t ic ipan t i n Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 e xcava t ion , a nd l i t h ic a nd f o s s i l a na ly se s ; i d en t if ica t ion o f L oca l i ty 1b one , a n t le r , a nd d en ta l t oo l s , a nd o r ig ina to r o f ` o s teo -den to -ke ra t ic ' t oo l t h eo ry f o r t h i s s i te w h ich s e t t h e f ounda t ion f o r c on t inu ing r e cogn i t ion o fb one i n du s t r ie s i n C h ina . We iden r e ich , F . ( Ge rmany ) 1 935 -1941 ; a na tom is t , p hys ica l a n th ropo log is t ; 1 935 : s ucce s so r t o D . B lack ; V is i t ing P ro f e s so r o f A na tomy a tt h e PU MC , H ono ra ry D i rec to r o f CRL ; p a r t ic ipan ti ne xcava t ions a tZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ; s upe rv i s ion o fb one p repa ra t ion , r e con s t ruc t ion , c a s t ing , a nd i lu s t ra t ion o fL oca l i ty 1a nd U ppe rC ave h om in id m a t e r ia l s ; 1 937 1943 : a na ly s i s o f Z houkoud ian h om in id s p ub l i shed i n s e r ie so f monog raph s ; 1 937 1939 : p a r t ic ipa t ion w i th G .H .R . v on K oen ig swa ld i n s t udy o f J avane se f o s s i l h om in id s , 1 939 : c ompa r i son o f P i thecan thropu s s p . a nd S inan thropu s s p . m a te r ia l s ; 1 939 : o r ig ina to r o f mu l t i r eg iona l e vo lu t ion mode l ( g ene f low b e tween " ad ja cen t l i neage s" ) , p ropo sed e vo lu t iona ry s e quence o f P i thecan th rop ine s ( i .e . H . e r ec tu s ) t o P a laeoan th rop inae , N eande r tha l s , t o N eoan th rop inae ( i .e . H . s ap ien s s ap ien s ) ; 1 939 , 1 943 : h ypo the s ised e x i s tence o f c ann iba l i sm a tL oca l i ty 1a nd U ppe r C ave ; 1 941 : s a lvage o f Z houkoud ian a nd J avane se h om in id c a s t s , c u ra t ion a t AMNH ; 1 945 : g i an t s a s a nce s to r s o f e x tan t r a ce s h ypo the s is ; 1 946 : r e named G igan top i th ecu s b lack i s pec ie s G igan tan thropu s ( g ian t a peman ) , b ecau se h e c on s ide r ed t h i s s pec ie sa n a nc ien th om in id o fP le i s tocene s ou the rn C h ina . K oen ig swa ld , G .H .R . v on ( Ge rmany /Ho l land ) 1 935 , 1 939 , 1 973 ; g eo log is t , p a laeon to log is t , a n th ropo log is t , a r chaeo log i s t ; 1 935 : c o l lec t ion o f f o s s i ls , i n c lud ing G igan top i thecu s b l ack i ( von K oen ig swa ld 1 935 ) i n H ong K ong d r ug s to r e s ; 1 939 : w i th F . We id en r e ich c ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s o f P i thecan thropu s s p . a nd S i nan thropus s p . s pec imen s i n B e i j ing ; 1 952 : a g re ed w i th We iden r e ich o n h om in id s t a tu s o f G igan top i thecus b lack i , b u t n o t h om in id a nce s to r ( c on t ra We iden re ich ) , b ecau s e c on tempo raneou s w i th M idd le P l e i s tocene Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1h om in id s , a nd a v e ry s p ec ia l i sed h om in id ; 1 973 : o n i nv i ta t ion o f A cadem ia S in ica , o ne o f f i r s t s c ien t is t s ( w i th P . L i sowsk i , H ong K ong , a na tom is t ) t o v i s i t p o s t revo lu t iona ry C h ina , r e po r t ed " t rue h and -axe s o f ( l a te ) A cheu lean t ype . . . [ a s ] t h e f i r s t h and -axe s" k nown f r om C h ina ( Fen H e r eg ion ) , f i r s t n on -Ch ine se d e sc r ip t ion o f Y uanmou i n c i so r s , L an t ian c a lo t te a nd m and ib le , a nd a ge e s t ima t ion ; i d en t if ied N eande r tha l a f f in i t ie s o n Maba c r an ium ; r e cogn i sed n o a f f in i t ie so fD r yop i thecus s p . mand ib le s w i th R amap i thecu s s p . L iu , AG . ( Ch ina ) ; 1 936 : r e po r t ed h i s mamma l ian f o s s i ls f r om K ehe t oY ang , ZQ .

d i scove ry

o f

Y ang , ZQ . ( Ch ina ) ; 1 936 : r e cogn i sed m amma l ian s pe c imen s r e po r t ed b y L iu , AG . f r om K ehe a s i mpo r tan t f o s s i ls , d epo s i t ed i n r i ve r a nd l a ke s ed imen t s s im i la r i n a ge t o Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 ; 1 937 : p l an t o s u rvey K ehe a r ea

c ance l led b yJ a pane se m i l i ta ry o ccupa t ion . Mov ius , H .L . , J r . ( U .S .A . ) ; a r chaeo log is t ; 1 944 : l i th ic a na lyse s o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i t ie s 1 , 1 3 , 1 5 , a nd U ppe r C ave a r te f ac t s , a t t r ibu t ion t o c hoppe r c hopp ing too l c u l tu re o fF a rE a s t ; 1 955 : r epo r to nc u r ren tr e sea r ch i nC h ina ; 1 956 : f i r s tn on -Ch ine se a na lys is o f t h e D ingcun l o ca l i ty b a sed o n C h inese p re l im ina ry r epo r t s . Wang , ZY . (Wang , C . ; C h ina ) ; p a laeon to log is t , S hanx i R e l ic s P re se rva t ion C omm i ss ion ; 1 953 : s u rvey o fD ingcun , r e cove ry o f m amma l ian f o s s i ls a nd a r te f ac t s a f te r d i scove ry o fv e r teb ra te f o s s i ls . Z hang , I .V .P .P . ; a r tef ac t s , t h eE a r ly

S S . ( Chang S enshu i ; C h ina ) ; -a r chaeo log i s t , 1 962 : r e -s tudy o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 s t one a nd 1 985 : w i th P e i , WZ . ; 1 985 , 1 989 : r e v iew o f P a laeo l i th ic o fC h ina .

Z hou , MZ . ( Chow M in -chen , C hou M inzhen ; C h ina ) ; p a laeon to log i s t , d i rec to r o f BNHM ; 1 964 : s t udy o f C hen j iawo f o ss i l mamma ls ; 1 965 : s t udy o f Gongwang l ing f o s s i l mamma ls w i th Hu , C .K . a nd L ee , Y .C . , a nd o f C hen j iawo f o s s i l mamma ls w i th L ee , Y .C . ; 1 974 : s t udy o f C h ine se f o s s i l P robosc idea w i th Y u , P Z . ; 1 979 : s t udy o f h i s to ry o fC h ine se v e r teb ra te p a laeon to logy . H uang , WP . ( Ch ina ) ; g eo log is t , p a laeon to log is t , I .V .P .P . ; 1 963 : s u rvey o f L an t ian a r ea a f te r g eo log ica l r e po r t s o f v e r teb ra te f o ss i ls , d i scove ry o f Gongwang l ing l o ca l i ty a nd r e cove ry o f v e r teb ra te f o ss i ls , d i scover y o f C hen j iawo m and ib le w i th Z hang , YP . ; 1 990 : d i scove ry a nd e xcava t ion o f Wushan c ave l o ca l i ty , S i chuan ( Ea r ly P le is tocene? ) a nd r e cove ry o ff o s s i ls a nd a r tef ac t s . Wu , RK . ( Woo J u -Kang ; C h ina ) ; p hys ica l a n th ropo log is t , I .V .P .P . ; 1 958 : d escr ip t ion o fD ingcun h om in id t e e th ; 1 964 , 1 966 : d e sc r ip t ion o f L an t ian h om in ids ; 1 965 : d i r ec t ed G ongwang l ing e xcava t ion s ; 1 985 : s en io r e d i to r o f p ub l ica t ion o n C h ine se a n th ropo logy a nd P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy w i th J .W . O lsen ; 1 985 : r ev iew o f C h ine se p a laeoan th ropo logy w i th L in , S L . , a nd s en io r e d i to r o f mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry s t udy o f L oca l i ty 1 , i n c lud ing r e v iew o f L oca l i ty 1h om in id s w i th D ong , XR . ; 1 985 : d i scus s ion o f C h inese H . e r ec tu s w i th Dong , XR . ; 1 989 : s en io r e d i to r o f p ub l ica t ion o nC h ine se a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy .

C h ina w i th O lsen , R eeve s , a nd M i l le r -An ton io , a nd 1 988 : a nnouncemen t o f s t one a r tef a c t f i nds f r om T a r im B a s in l o ca l i t ie s ( La te P le is tocene ) ; 1 989 : d i scu ss ion o f C h ina 's L a te P a laeo l i th ic . Q ian , F . ( Ch ien F ang ; C h ina ) ; g eo log is t , I n s t i tu te o f G eomechan ics , C h ine se A cademy o f G eo log ica l S c ience s ; 1 965 : d i scove re ro f Y uanmou H . e r ec tu s t e e th , a nd o ngo ing s u rveys a nd e xcava t ion s i nY uanmou B a s in ; 1 973 : a r tef ac t s , a sh ,a nd b u rn tb one sr e cove red a tY uanmou ; 1 977 : w i th P u , QY . , e ta l . d a t ing o fY uanmou h om in id l o ca l i ty ; 1 980 : w i th Z hang , J . , a nd Y in , W . p a laeomagne t ic d a t ing o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 . X u , R . ( Hsue , J . ; C h ina ) ; 1 965 , 1 966 : a na ly s i s o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1d epos i t .

p a lyno log ica l

A n , Z S . ( Ch ina ) : g eo log is t , X ian L abo ra to ry o f L oe s s a nd Q ua te rna ry G eo logy ; l o ng te rm g eo log ica l a nd c h rono log ica l s t udy o f C h ine se l o e s s s t ra t ig raphy ; 1 989 : r eda t ing o f L an t ian w i th Ho , CK . ; 1 990 : c o -d i rec to r o f e xcava t ions a t X iaochang l iang ,a nd p a laeomagne t ic d a t ing o fs amp le s . K ah lke , H .D . ( t he f o rme r E a s t G e rmany ) ; p a laeon to log is t ; 1 961 : s t udy o f S t egodon -A i luropoda f a una a nd a ge o f G igan top i thecus b lack i , a nd s u rvey o f N ihewan f o ss i l l o ca l i t ie s ; 1 961 : d i scu s s ion o f L oca l i ty 1 s t ra t ig raphy a nd p a laeon to logy w i th C hou , P S . ; 1 963 : s t udy o fZ houkoud ian c h rono logy ; 1 972 : d i scus s ion o f c ompa ra t ive e vo lu t ion o f P l e is tocene P ongo l a ceped ei nC h ina a nd J ava . We i , Q . (We i C h i ; C h ina ) : 1 972 : g eo log is t , g eomo rpho log is t , a r chaeo log i s t , I .V .P .P . , Z IPRC ; 1 972 : o ngo ing s u rveys a nd e xcava t ions i n N ihewan B a s in ; 1 972 : s u rvey i nN ihewan B a s in a nd d i scove ry o fs t one a r tef ac t w i th G a i ,P . ; 1 974 : e xcava t ion o f Xu j iayao u nde rd i rec t ion o fJ i a , L P . ; 1 976 : d i rec to ro fs econd X u j iayao e xcava t ion , d i scove ry o ff o s s i lv e r teb ra te s( i nc lud ing h om in id s )a nd a r tef ac t s ; 1 977 : s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion o f Hu tou l iang , N ihewan , r e cove ry o f f o ss i ls a nd a r tefac t s ; 1 981-1984 : e xcava t ion s a t Donggu tuo ; 1 990 -1992 : f i e ld -d i rec to r o f e xcava t ions a t Donggu tuo , c o d i r ec t ed b y J i a , L P . a nd D . C la rke ; 1 990 : d i scove ry o f B anshan , N ihewan B a s in , e xcava t ion o f a r tef ac t s a nd m amma l ian f o ss i ls emp loy ing mode rn t e chn ique s ; 1 993 : d i scove ry o f K ehe l o ca l i ty 9 30525 , r e cove ry o f f o ss i ls a nd o ne a r tef a c t .

L iu , T S . ( L iu Dong S heng , L iu T ungsheng ; C h ina ) ; g eo log is t , I n s t i tu te o f G eo logy , A cadem ia S in ica ; 1 958 : l o ng te rm o ngo ing s t udy o f C h ine se l o es s d epo s i t iona ry e vo lu t ion .

A igne r , J . S . ( U .S .A . ) ; a r chaeo log is t ; 1 969 : d oc to ra l t h e s is o nC h ine se P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy ; n ume rous p ub l ica t ion s o n C h ine se p a laeon to logy , b io s t ra t ig raphy , p a laeoenv i ronmen t , a nd c u l tura l ma te r ia ls , i n c lud ing h e r 1 973 ( w i th L augh l in ) d i scu ss ion o f t h e Gongwang l ing a nd C hen j iawo l o ca l i t ie s a nd h e r b ook " A r chaeo log ica l R ema in s i nP l e i s tocene C h ina" ; 1 985 : r e sea rch v i s i tt ot h e P .R .C .

Z hang , YP . ( Ch ina ) ; g eo log is t , I .V .P .P . ; 1 963 : s u rvey o f L an t ian a r ea , d i scove ry o f Gongwang l ing l o ca l i ty a nd r e cove ry o f v e r teb ra te f o ss i ls , a nd d i scove ry o f C hen j iawo mand ib le w i th H uang , WP .

Z hou , GX . ( Chou K uo -h s ing ; C h ina ) ; a n th ropo log is t , a r chaeo log is t , v i ce d i rec to r o f BNH M ; 1 978 : o ngo ing s u rveys a nd e xcava t ion s i n Y uanmou B a s in , r e cove ry o f f o s s i ls a nd a r tefac t s ; 1 979 : s t udy o f Yuanmou h om in id t e e th w i th H u , CC . ; 1 980 : s t udy o f Yuanmou mamma l ian c h rono logy w i th Z hang , Y .P .

Huang , WW . ( Ch ina ) ; a r chaeo log is t , I .V .P .P . ; 1 963 : d i rec to ro fe xcava t ion a t Gongwang l ing ; 1 985 : d i scu ss ion o f s e lec ted s t one a r tef ac t sf r om X iaochang l iang ; 1 98? : o ngo ing s u rveys a nd e xcava t ions o fr i ve rt e r race s ,B a i se a r ea ,G uangx i p rov ince ; 1 987 , 1 990 , 1 991 : p ub l ica t ions o f B a i se s t one a r tef ac t s ( c hoppe r s , c hopp ing too ls , f l ake s , a nd h andaxe s ) ; 1 985 , 1 990 : p ub l ica t ions o n C h ine se a r chaeo logy w i th J i a , LP . ; 1 988 , 1 990 : d i scu ss ion o n a ge o fB a i se a r tefa c t s w i th L iu , Y . , L i , CR . , Yuan , XF . , L eng , J . , a nd X ie , G . ; 1 98? : s u rveys a nd e xcava t ions i n T a r im B a s in , X in j iang , w e s te rn

T ang , Y . ( Ch ina ) ; g eo log i s t ; X iaochang l iang s i te .

1 978 : r e po r ted d i scove ry o f

L ü , Z 'E . ( Ch ina ) ; a r chaeo log is t , D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy ,B e i j ing U n ive r s i ty , B e i j ing ; d i rec to r o fJ i nn iu

1 33

S han e xcava t ions , r e cove ry o ff o ss i ls , i n c lud ing H . s ap ien s c r an ium a nd p o s t -c ran ia l b one s ( l a te M idd le P l e is tocene ) ; s t ud ie s o n a n ima l b one mod if ica t ion ; 1 989 : t a phonom ic s t udy o f t h e J i nn iu S han f a una a nd e xpe r imen t s o f g naw , a nd c u t -ma rk f o rma t ion s . L i , Y . ( Ch ina ) ; p a laeon to log is t , I .V .P .P . ; 1 990 -1992 : e xcava t ions a t X iaochang l iang , r e cove ry o f f o ss i ls a nd a r tef ac t s . Ame r ican ( U .S . )P a leoan th ropo logy D e lega t ion 1 975 ( 15 .5 . 1 4 .6 . ) , u nde r p a t ronage o f ' Comm i t tee o n S cho la r ly C ommun ica t ion w i th t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o f C h ina ' ( CSCPRC ) , h eaded b y F .C . H owe l l , p a laeoan th ropo log is t ; w i th H .E . Ma lde a nd F .H . B rown , g eo log is t s ; E . D e lson , v e r teb ra te p a laeon to log is t ; P . T such i tan i , p a laeobo tan is t ; W .W . Howe l ls , p hy s ica l a n th ropo log is t ; L .G . F reeman a nd H .M . Wo rm ing ton , a r chaeo log is t s ; D .N . K e igh t ley , h i s to r ian ; 1 977 : p ub l ished r epo r t o n s t a te o f p a laeoan th ropo logy a nd r e la ted s c ience si nC h ina . O lsen , J .W . ( U .S .A . ) 1 98? ; a r chaeo log is t ; s u rveys a nd e xcava t ions w i th H uang W W . ,T a r im B a s in , w e s te rn C h ina , r e cove ry o f a r tef ac t s ; 1 988 : a nnouncemen t o f s t one a r te f ac t f i nd s f r om T a r im B a s in w i th H uang , WW . , R eeve s , a nd M i l le r -An ton io ; 1 985 : e d i to r o f p ub l ica t ion o n C h ine se a n th ropo logy a nd P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy w i th Wu , RK . ; 1 990 -1991 : d i rec to ro f NAS /CSCPRC , B e i j ing . B in fo rd , L .R . ( U .S .A . ) 1 985 ; a r chaeo log i s t ; 1 985 , 1 986 : r e ana ly s is o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 d epo s i t s , s t ra t ig raphy , a nd f o ss i l s amp les w i th Ho , C .K . ( U .S .A . ) , a r chaeo log is t , a nd N . S tone ( U .S .A . ) , t a phonom is t .

K ea te s , S .G . ( Eng land ) 1 989 ; a r chaeo log is t ; 1 989 1991 : p a r t ia l s t udy o f t h e X iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo c o l lec t ions ; 1 989 : f i e ld s u rvey o f P le is tocene l o ca l i t ie s i n S hanx i p rov ince , i n c lud ing Xu j iayao ; 1 990 : membe r o f ` S ino -Ame r ican E xped i t ion t o t h e N ihewan 1 990 ' , a nd d i scove ry o fX iaochang l iang Dong Y ang ;p a r t ia l s t udy o f t h e B a ise a r tef ac t s ,o fX u j iayao a nd D a l i a r tefac t sa nd f o s s i ls , a nd o f t h e X ihoudu a r tef ac t s ; 1 993 : membe r o f S ino -Ame r ican S urvey 1 993 ' , a nd p a r t ia l s t udy o f t h e D ingcun a nd K ehe a r tef a c t s . S ino -Ame r ican E xped i t ion t ot h eN ihewan 1 990 : e xp lo ra to ry e xcava t ion o f X iaochang l iang , a nd p a r t ia l e xcava t ion o f X iaochang l iang D ong Y ang , r e cove ry o f a r tef ac t s , mamma l ian f o s s i l s ,a nd s amp le sf o rd a t ing ,d i rec ted b y G .G . P ope a nd A nZ h i sheng ; w i th Y ue L ep ing ( Ch ina ) , g eo log is t ; D .A . B akken ( U .S .A . ) , t a phonom is t ; S .G . K ea tes . S ino -Ame r ican S u rvey 1 993 : We i Q i , G .G . P ope , R . S hu t le r J r . , a nd S .G . K ea te s ; s u rveys o f P le is tocene l o ca l i t ie s i n S hanx i , S haanx i , a nd H ebe i p rov ince s , i n c lud ing K ehe a nd D a l i , X iaochang l iang , Dong Y ang , a nd Donggu tuo ,a nd d i scove ry o fK ehe l o ca l i ty 9 30525 , r e cove ry o ff o s s i ls a nd o ne a r tef ac t . S ources ( t h is l i s t s t h e r e f e rence s i n d iv idua l r e sea r che r s i n R e f e rence s )

f o r r e sea r ch a l phabe t ica l

i n s t i tu t ions o rde r ; a nd

a nd s e e

1 .P r inc ipa l r e sea r ch i n s t i tu t ions i nC h ina : Mov ius ( 1955 ) ; C hang ( 1977 ) ; F reeman ( 1977 ) ; J i a a nd Huang ( 1990 :52 , 1 73 , 2 14 , 2 29 ) ; We i Q i ( pe r s . c omm . ) ; X u Q ing i ( p e r s . c omm . ) ; Z hou M ingzhen ( pe r s . c omm . ) ; Z hou G uox ing ( p e r s . c omm . ) .

U .S . r e sea rch v i s i t t o t h e P eop le 's R epub l ic o f C h ina 1 987 b y i nv i ta t ion o f t h e I .V .P .P . : h eaded b y J .D . C la rke a nd G .G . P ope ; w i th K .D . S ch ick ( U .S .A . ) , t a phonom is t , N . T o th ( U .S .A . ) , a r chaeo log is t , a nd D . E t le r ( U .S .A .) , a n th ropo log is t ; v i s i t s t oZ houkoud ian , Xu j iayao , Q ingc iyao , X ihoudu , K ehe , D ingcun , G ongwang l ing , Wu ta i S han , S h iyu , Xueguan , X iachuan .

2 . P r inc ipa l r e sea r che r s o u t s ide o f C h ina , a nd 3 . P r inc ipa l r e sea r che r si nC h ina ( i nc lud ing e xped i t ions ) :

P ope , G .G . ( U .S .A . ) 1 987 ; p a laeoan th ropo log i s t ; 1 977 : a t t r ibu t ion o f J i an S h i h om in id t e e th ( Aus tra lop i thecus c f . a f r icanu s ; G ao 1 975 ) t o Homo s p . ; 1 982 : s t anda rd ( u npub l ished ) s t udy o f C h ine se b io s t ra t ig raphy ; 1 983 : r e e va lua t ion o fF a r E a s te rn P le is tocene h om in id c h rono logy ; 1 984 , 1 985 , 1 988 : d i scu ss ion s o n F a r E a s te rn P l e is tocene p a laeoenv ironmen t s , d a t ing , h om in id t a xonomy , a nd a r te fac t s ; 1 987 : membe r o fU .S . r e sea rch v i s i t t o t h e PRC ; 1 988 : l e c tu re t o u r , a nd r e v iew o f F a r E a s ter n p a laeoan th ropo logy ; 1 988 , 1 990 , 1 991 : s u rvey s a tN ihewan , X iaochang l iang , a nd Donggu tuo , r e cove ry o f a r tef ac t s a nd mamma l ian f o ss i ls ; 1 989 : w i th We i Q i a nd S . K ea te s : s u rveys o f Xu j iayao , S hang shenz i , Q ingc iyao ( N ihewan B a s in ) , d i scove ry o f a r te f ac t s a nd f o ss i ls ; 1 990 : c o -d i re c to r a nd f i e ld -d i rec to r o f t h e ` S ino -Ame r ican E xped i t ion t o t h e N ihewan 1 990 ' ; 1 992 : s t udy o nC h inese h om in id e vo lu t ion ; 1 993 : membe ro f` S ino -Ame r ican S u rvey 1 993 ' . C la rk , J .D . ( Eng land /U .S .A . ) 1 987 ; a r chaeo log is t ; 1 987 : m embe r o f U .S . r e sea r ch v i s i t ; 1 991-1992 : c o -d i rec to r o f e xcava t ion s a t Donggu tuo ; w i th N . T o th a nd K . S ch ick ; s ed imen to log ica l , t e chno log ica l , a nd t a phonom ic s t ud ie s o f Donggu tuo a r tef ac t s a nd f o s s i ls , a nd e xam ina t ion o f s ome N ihewan l o ca l i t ie s w i th We i Q i , N . T o th , K . S ch ick , a nd D . E t le r .

1 34

A igne r : A igne r ( 1 969 , 1 978a , b , 1 981 , 1 986a , b , 1 988 ) ; A igne r a nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) . Ame r ican ( U .S . ) P a leoan th ropo logy D e lega t ion : Howe l ls a nd T such i tan i ( 1977 ) . A n : L iu e ta t . ( 1985 ) ; An a nd Ho ( 1989 ) ; P ope e t a t . ( 1990 ) ; A n ( p e r s . c omm . ) . Ande r sson : Ande r sson ( 1919 , 1 934 :97 , 1 25 ) ; B la ck e ta t . ( 1933 :6 -7 ) ; S hap iro ( 1974 :35 ) ; A igne r( 1981 :100 , 1 50 ) ;R eade r( 1988 :92 -95 ) ;J i aa nd H uang ( 1990 :10 , 1 2 ) . A nd rew s : A nd rew s ( 1924 , 1 926 ) . B a rbou r : B a rbou r ( 1924 , 1 925 , 1 927a , b , 1 934 , 1 965 ) ; B a rbou r e ta t . ( 1927 ) ; B a rbou r a nd P ien ( 1930 ) . B ien : J i a a nd H uang ( 1990 :85 -86 ) . B info rd : B info rd a nd Ho ( 1985 ) ; B info rd a nd S tone ( 1986 ) . B la ck : B lack ( 1926 , 1 927 , 1 931) ; B lack e ta t . ( 1933 ) ; B a rbou r ( 1965 :19 ) ; Hood ( 1981) . B oh l in : B oh l in ( 1927 ) ; J i a a nd H uang ( 1990 :41-43 ) . B ow le s : C heng ( 1957 :20 ) ; Wu a nd L in ( 1985 ) . B reu i l : B reu i l ( 1931 , 1 932a , b ,1 939 ) ; P ope ( p e r s . c omm . ) ; D a r t( 1965 ) ; F reeman ( 1977 ) . C la rk : C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 ) ; S ch ick e t a t . ( 1990 ) . C o lbe r t : C o lbe r t( 1940 ) . Dubo is : Dubo is ( 1891 , 1 894 :31) ; T heun issen ( 1 989 :2 -3 , 3 2 -35 , 4 3 -47 ) . E dga r : C heng ( 1957 :18 , 2 0 ) ; Wu a nd L in ( 1985 ) . G aud ry : B uf f e tau t ( 1987 :190 ) . G rabau : S un ( 1947 ) ; H ed in ( 1947 ) . G range r : A nde r s son ( 1 943 i n F reeman 1 977 :85 ) ; Ma t thew a nd G range r( 1923 ) ; R eade r ( 1988 :94 ) . G raham : C heng ( 1957 ) ; Wu a nd L in ( 1 985 ) . H aecke l : H aecke l ( 1868 :493 ) ; F reeman ( 1977 ) . H abe r e r : S hap iro ( 1974 :34 ) ; R eade r ( 1988 :91) ; S ch lo sse r ( 1 906 ) ; a nd s ee B lack ( 1927 ) ; J i a a nd H uang

( 1 990 :8 ) . Huang , WW . : H uang ( 1985 , 1 987 , 1 989a , b ) ; J i a a nd H uang ( 1985a , b , 1 990 ) ; H uang e ta l . ( 1988 ) ; H uang e t a l . ( 1 988 ) ; Huang e t a l . ( 1990 ) ; H uang ( p e r s . c omm . ) . H uang , WP . : Huang a nd C hang ( 1966 ) ; H uang , F ang , e ta l . ( 1 99 1) ; H uang ( p e r s . c omm . ) . J i a : C h ia ( 1955 , 1 956 , 1 959a , b , 1 960 , 1 962 , 1 975 ) ; J i a ( 1980 , 1 985 , 1 989a , b ) ; P e i a nd C h ia ( 1958a , b ) ; P e i e t a l . ( 1958 ) ; C h ia e t a l . ( 1962 ) ; C h ia e t a l . ( 1964 ) ; C h ia e t a l . ( 1966 ) ; C h ia a nd Wang ( 1958 ) ; C h ia a nd Wang ( 1978 ) ; J i a ( 1980 :38 ) ; J i a a nd H uang ( 1985a , b ) ; Huang ( 1986 -1988 ) ; J i a a nd We i ( 1 987 ) ; J i a a nd H uang ( 1990 :73 , 8 1 , 2 27 , 2 49 ) ; J i a ( pe r s . c omm . ) ; K ea t e s ( i n p ress , b ) . K oen ig swa ld , v on : v on K oen ig swa ld ( 1935 , 1 952 , 1 958 , 1 973a , b , c ) ; v on K oen ig swa ld a nd We iden r e ich ( 1939 ) ; P ope ( 1982 :68 -69 ) ; F ranzen ( 1 983 ) ; T ob ia s ( 1984 :79 ) ; T ob ia s ( p e r s . c omm . ) . K ah lke : K ah lke ( 1 96 1 , 1 962 , 1 963 , 1 972 ) ; K ah lke a nd C hou ( 1 961) . K oken : K oken ( 1885 ) ;B uf f e tau t ( 1987 :189 ) . L ee , J . S . : L e e ( 1 934a , b , 1 939 ) ; B a rbou r ( 1965 :46 ) . L e roy : T e i lha rd a n d L e roy ( 1942 ) . L ydekke r : T heun issen ( 1989 :34 ) . L i , C . : R eade r( 1988 :10 1) . L i , Y . : L i Y i ( t o P ope p e r s . c omm . ) ; L i Y i ( p e r s . c omm . ) . L icen t : L icen t ( 1924 ) ; T e i lha rd a nd L icen t ( 1924 ) ; A nde r sson ( 1934 :147 ) ; Wu a nd L in ( 1985 ) . L iu , AG . : J i a ( 1980 :18 ) . L iu , DS . : L iu e ta l . ( 1 985 ) ; L iu ( p e r s . c omm . ) . L ü , Z 'E : L ü ( 1985 ) ; L ü ( p e r s . c omm . ) ; P ope ( 1992b ) . Ma t thew : Ma t thew ( 1914 ) ; Ma t thew a nd G range r ( 1923 ) ; A nd rew s ( 1949 :18 ) . McG rego r G ibb : J i a a nd Huang ( 1990 :10 ) . Mov ius : Mov iu s ( 1944 , 1 948 , 1 955 , 1 956 ) . O lsen : Wu a nd O lsen ( 1985 ) ; H uang e ta l . ( 1 988 ) ; P ope ( p e r s . c omm . ) . O sbo rn : O sbo rn ( 1924 , 1 926 , 1 927 ) ; A nd rew s ( 1949 :17 , 1 8 , 2 0 -21) . Owen : Ma t thew a nd G range r ( 1 923 ) ; B uf f e tau t ( 1987 :189 ) . P e i : P e i ( 1931a , b , 1 932 , 1 934a , b , c ,d , 1 936 , 1 937 , 1 938a , b , 1 939a , b , c , 1 940 , 1 955 , 1 958a , b , 1 960 , 1 961a , b , 1 965 ) ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1 932 ) ; B lack e t a l . ( 1933 ) ; P e i ( 1948 i n J i a a nd H uang [ 1 990 :97 ) ) ; P e i a nd Ch ia ( 1958a , b ) ; P e i e ta l . ( 1958 ) ; P e i e t a l . ( 1965 ) ; Mov ius ( 1955 ) ; J i a a nd H uang ( 1990 :97 , 2 28 ) . P e re D av id : A l len ( 1938 -1940 :4 ) ; B uf f e tau t ( 1987 :190 ) . P i ve teau : T e i lha rd a nd P ive teau ( 1930 ) . P ope : P ope ( 1977 , 1 982 , 1 983 , 1 984 , 1 985 , 1 988a , b , 1 991 , 1 992b , u npub l . ) ; P ope e ta l . ( 1990 ) ; P ope ( pe r s . c omm . ) . Q ian : Q ian ( 1 985 ) ; Q ian , P u e ta l . ( 1977 ) ; Q ian e ta l . ( 1980 ) ; Q ian , Z hou , e ta l . ( 1991 :e .g . , 5 -8 , 1 92 ) ; Q ian ( pe r s . c omm . ) . R ich thof en , v on : K oken ( 1885 :31-32 ) ;B uf f e tau t ( 1987 :189 ) . S ch lo sse r : S ch lo sse r ( 1906 :20 , F ig . 1 , 1 924 ) ; Ma t thew a nd G range r ( 1 923 ) ; R eade r ( 1988 :92 ) . S cho t te : Wu a nd L in ( 1 985 :2 ) . S hu t le r : S hu t le r ( pe rs . c omm . ) . S ino -Ame r ican E xped i t ion t o t h e N ihewan 1 990 : P ope e t a l . ( 1990 ) ; K ea te s ( p e r s . o b se rv . ) . S ino -Ame r ican S u rvey 1 993 : We i Q i , P ope , a nd S hu t le r ( pe r s . c omm .) , K ea te s ( pe r s . o bse rv . ) . Sw inhoe : A l len ( 1938 -1940 :3 -4 ) . T ang : We i Q i ( pe r s . c omm . ) . T e i lha rd d eC ha rd in : T e i lha rd ( 1936 , 1 937a , b , 1 940 , 1 94 1) ; T e i lha rd a nd L icen t( 1924 ) ;B ou le e ta l . ( 1927 ) ; T e i lha rd a nd Y oung ( 1930a ) ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 ) ;B lack e ta l . ( 1 933 ) ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1941) ; T e i lha rd a nd L e roy ( 1942 ) ; A nde r s son ( 1934 :155 ) ; B a rbou r ( 1965 :16 -20 ) ; G l ick ( 1 981) . T ing : F reeman ( 1977 ) . U .S . r e sea rch v i s i t t o t h e PRC : C la rk a nd S ch ick ( 1988 ) ; P ope ( unpub l . ) ; P ope ( p e r s . c omm . ) . Wa l lace : Wa l lace ( 1870 :323 -324 ; 1 876a :153 , 1 876b :154 , 1 55 , 1 60 , 1 80 ) , Wa l lace ( 1855 :192 i n B rook s 1 984 :77 , 10 ) ; Wa l lace ( 1888 i nH oo i je r 1 948 ) ; Who 's Who ( 1 947 ) . Wang , ZY . : J i a ( 1980 :43 ) . We i : We i ( 1985 , 1 988 , 1 989 , 1 991) ; K a i a nd We i ( 1974 ) ; C h ia a nd We i ( 1976 ) ; G a i a nd We i 1 977 , 1 989a , b ) ; F reeman ( 1977 ) ; C h ia e t a l . ( 1 979 ) ; S ch ick e t a l . ( 1991) ; We i ( pe r s . c omm . ) . We iden re ich : We iden re ich ( 1939a , b , 1 943 , 1 945 , 1 946 ) ; v on K oen ig swa ld a nd We iden re ich ( 1939 ) ; G rego ry ( 1 949 ) ; P ope ( 1982 :68 -69 , 1 991) ; R eade r ( 1988 :108 ) . Wong : J i a

a nd H uang ( 1990 :175 ) . Wu , RK . : Woo ( 1958 , 1 964a , b , 1 966 ) ; Wu a nd L in ( 1985 ) ; Wu a nd Dong ( 1985a , b ) ; Wu a nd O lsen ( 1985 ) ; Wu e ta l . ( 1985 ) ; Wu e ta l . ( 1989 ) . Xu : A igne r ( 1981 :109 -111) ; Wu a nd Wang ( 1985 ) . Y ang : J i a ( 1980 :18 ) . Y oung : Young ( 1930 , 1 932a , b , c , 1 933 , 1 934 , 1 935 ) ;B lack e ta l . ( 1933 :9 ) ; v on K oen ig swa ld ( 1973b ) ; Wu a nd L in ( 1985 ) . Z dansky : Z dan sky ( 1923 , 1 927 ) ; Z dan sky ( 1928 i n A igne r 1 978a ) ; R eade r ( 1988 :93 -94 , 9 8 -99 , 1 00 , 1 0 1) . Z hang , S S . : C hang ( 1962 ) , Z hang ( 1985 , 1 989 ) . Z hang , YP . : J i a ( 1980 :13 ) . Z hou , MZ . : C how ( 1964 ) ; Z hou ( pe r s . c omm . ) . Z hou , GX : Q ian , Z hou e t a l . ( 1991 :192 ) ; Z hou ( 1988 ) ; Z hou ( pe r s . c omm . ) .

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Append ix

2

E nd d en t icu la te ;S ide d en t . =S ide d en t icu la te ; D en t . p o in t = D en t icu la te p o in t ; P o in t u t i l .= P o in t u t i l ised . O the r : A n = Anv i l ; B f =B if ace ; H tp = H eavy t r iangu la r p o in t ; H s t =H amme r s tone ; L p = L a rge p o in t ; S ph = S phe ro id ; Wf rg =Wa s te f r agmen t .

T rans la t ions o f Ch inese l oca l ity a nd p lace n ames

L oca l i ty a nd p l a ce n ames a r e i n t h e mode rn P iny in r oman isa t ion . T he c u r ren t l o ca l i ty a nd p lace n ame s a r e t r an s la ted w i th t h eo ld s pe l l ing s w he r e a pp rop r ia te s hown i n b r acke t s . B e i j ing : No r the rn c ap i ta l C hang j iang ,C hang J i ang ( Yang tze ) : L ong r i ve r C hen j iawo ( Chen -Ch ia -Ou , C hen j iaou , C h 'en -ch ia -wo , C hench iawo ) : C hen v i l lage Donggu tuo : E a s tg o rge G ez idong ( Ko tze tang ,G ez i tang ) : P igeon H a l lc ave Gongwang l ing ( Kung -wang l ing , Kungwang l ing ) : Wang c ommune H a i : S ea H e : R ive r , n o r th C h ina H uanghe ,H uang H e : Y e l low r i ve r J i ang : R ive r , s ou th C h ina J i gu shan ( Ch i K u S han , Ch iku shan ) : C h ickenbone h i l l K ehe ( K 'oho ,G ehe ) : R ive rc onf luence L an t ian ( Lan t ien ) :B lue f i e ld N an shan : S ou the rn moun ta in s N ihewan ( N ihowan ) : Muddy b end i nt h er i ve r P ing l iang : F la t b eam S angganhe ( Sangkanho , S anggan H e , S anggan r i ve r ) : Wh i te mu lbe r ry d ry r i ve r S anmenx ia : T h ree G a tes Go rge S han : Moun ta in S h i l i shan : S tone moun ta ins X iaochang l iang : Sma l l l ong b eam , o rp romon to ry X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang : X iaochang l iang E a s tR idge X ia shagou ( H s ia -sha -kou ) : B e low s and d i tch X ionge r shan : B ea r se a r s moun ta in s X ishan : We s te rn H i l ls Z houkoud ian ( Chou Kou T ien , C houk 'ou t ien , C hou -kou t i en , C houkou t ien ) : T he i nn a tC hou 's g ap .

2 . 2L i th ic a t t r ibu tes R aw m a te r ia l : BAS a nd b a s =B a sa l t ; C h =c he r t ; CH /F = F ine c he r t ; CH /F -C = F ine -coa r se c he r t ; CH /C = C oa r se c he r t ; F l =f l in t ; I S a nd I nd . s ands t . =I ndu ra ted s and s tone ; L ime s t . =L ime s tone ; QU a nd q u = Qua r tz ; Qur t = Qua r tz i te ; Q ur tc = Q ua r tz i t ic ; S and s tone = S ands t ; V e in q u =V e in q ua r tz ;V o lc s t . = Vo lcan ic s t one . T echno log ie s : An = Anv i l ; B ip = b ipo la r ; Hhdp = H a r d h amme rd i rec t p e rcuss ion ; Hhf l =h a rd -hamme r f l ake ; T h r = T h rown o rd ropped . F lake s hape s : I r r . p o in ted = I r regu la r p o in ted ; I r r . q uad . = I r r egu la rq uad r i la te ra l . P rof i le s : C v =C onvex ; D =D ished ; S -d = S em i -d ished . D i s ta lt e rm ina t ions : Ap = Ap ica l ; H =H inge ; S tep c = S t ep c oncave ;S tep v t =S t ep v e r t ica l . T oo lu se -wea r : 1 . Un i l . = Un i la te ra l ; B i l . =B i la te ra l ; U n if . Do r V =Un if ac ia ld o r sa lo rv en t ra l ;B if . =B if ac ia l . 2 . C c = C oncave ; C v =C onvex ; C c -cv = C oncave -convex ; D en t /ob l =D en t icu la te o b l ique ;D en t / s t r =D en t icu la te s t ra igh t ; O b i = O b l ique ; S t r =S t ra igh t . 2 . 3 N on l i th ic c a tego r ie s A n t =A n t le rt o o l ; B t l =B one t oo l ; H t l = Horn t oo l . 3 . Abbrev ia t ions u sed f or f oss i ls Mam . s pp . =m amma l ian s pec ie s ; f r g =f r agmen ta ry ;j uv . = j uven i le ; a d . =a du l t . 4 . Geograph ica l

o r ientat ions

n w =n o r thwe s t ; s e =s ou thea s t ; s w =s ou thwes t . 5 . D at ing

Append ix

3 5 . 1 G eoch rono log ica l a ge

Abbrev iat ions u sed i n t ab les E P =E a r ly P le is tocene ; MP = M idd le P le is tocene ; L P = L a te P le is tocene ; e= e a r ly ; m = m idd le ; 1= l a te ; t= t e rm ina l .

1 . L oca l ity a nd l ayer X iaochang l iang : A = s ec t ion A ; B =s e c t ion B ; A /B = u nknown s e c t ion . Donggu tuo : T i -T 5 =t r enche s T i -T 5 . A -D = l a ye r s At oD ; 0= u nknown l a ye r ;L ys / lys = l a ye r s . 2 . Ar tefac ts 2 . 1 .L i th ic c a tego r ie s C =C o re ; S p =S ing le -p la tfo rm c o re ; Dp = Doub le -p la tfo rm c o re ; Mp =Mu l t i -p la tform c o re ;B p =B ipo la rc o re . Wf =Wa s te f l ake ; Wfwh o r wh = Who le w a s te f l ake ; Wf f rg o rf r g =Wa s te f l ake f r agmen t . T 1 = T oo l ; C t l = C o re t oo l ; C h = C hoppe r ; C hp = C hopp ing too l ; F t l = F lake t oo l ; T lwh , wh f l , o r wh = Who le f l ake t o o l ; T lf rg , f l f rg , o r f r g =F lake f r agmen t t oo l ; F l =F lake ; N -f l t 1 = Non -f lake t oo l . T oo l c a tego r ie s : E nd u t i l . =E nd u t i l ised ; S ide u t i l . =S ide u t i l ised ; S ide & e nd u t i l . =S ide & e nd u t i l ised ; E nd d en t . =

1 36

5 . 2T echn ique s A = Am ino -a c id r a cem iza t ion ; B =B io s t ra t ig raph ic ; E SR = E lec t ron S p in R e sonance ; F = F i ss ion -T rack ; K /A r = P o ta s s ium -A rgon ; L= L i tho log ica l ; P =P a laeomagne t ic ; T =T he rmo lum ine scence ;U -s =U ran ium se r ie s .

Append ix

4

X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo f aunae

4 . 1

X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo f auna l l i s t s

T h i sp a r to ft h ea ppend ix l i s t s t h e f o s s i l a n ima l t a xa r e cove r ed a tX iaochang l iang ( s pe c ie s c .n . 1 2 ) a nd D onggu tuo ( s pe c ie s m in imum n .9 ) ,a nd i sc omp i led f r om Y ou e ta L ( 1978 , 1 980 ) [ 1 ] ; We i e ta L ( 1989 ) a nd We i ( 1991) [ 2 ] ;L i Y i ( p e r s . c omm . ) [ 3 ] ; S ch ick e ta l . ( 199 1) [ 4 ] ;P ope ( pe r s .c omm . ) [ 5 ] ;p e r s .o b se rv . [ 6 ] . N umbe r si ns qua re b r acke t s i d en t if y t h er e f e rence , e . g . , Y ou e ta l . ( 1978 , 1 980 )i sr e f e rence [ 1 ] . T he D onggu tuo f a una a l so i n c lude s o t he r , a s y e t u n iden t if ied c a rn ivo re s , i na dd i t ion t ot h o se l i s ted b e low a sw e l la sc e rv id s ,b ov id s ,a nd r oden t ( s )( s ee S ch ick e ta l . 1 991) . X iaochang l iang Mo l lu sca :

D onggu tuo

L ampro tu la s p . [ 5 ; 6 ]

R oden t ia :

Myo spa lax c f .f on tan ier i [ 2 ]

C a rn ivo ra :

C an i ss p . [ 2 ] ?U r su ss p . [ 2 ] H yaena l i cen t i [ 3 ] H yaena s p . [ 1 ]

P robo sc idea :

P a laeo loxodon s p . [ 1 ] E lepha ss p . [ 5 ]

P e r i s sodac ty la :

H ippar ion s p . [ 1 ] P robo sc id ippar ion s p . [ 3 ;5 ;6 ] E quu ss anmenens i s [ 1 ;5 ;6 ] R h inocero ss p . [ 5 ] C oe lodon ta s p . [ 1 ]

A r t ioda c ty la :

4 . 2

C er vus s pp . [ 1 ] Ga ze l la s p . [ 1 ]

P a laeo loxodon s p . [ 2 ;4 ]

E quu ss anmenen s i s[ 2 ;4 ] C oe lodon ta a n t iqu i ta t i s [ 2 ] C oe lodon ta s p . [ 4 ]

G a ze l la s p . [ 2 ] B i son s p . [ 2 ]

T he e nv ironmen ta l c on tex t o f t he X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo f aunae

T h i ss e c t ion d e sc r ibe st h eX iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo f a una ls p ec ie s w i th r e f e r ence t o t h e i r f o s s i l a nd mode rn r a nge s a nd h ab i ta t d i s t r ibu t ions ( whe r e k nown ) i n a n a t temp t t o r e con s t ruc t t h e e nv i ronmen t o f t h e N ihewan a t t h e t ime o f h om in id o ccupa t ion . I n t ho se c a se s w he r e t h e s pec ie s d e s igna t ion i sn o t d ef in i te ( i . e . Myo spa lax c f .f on tan ier i ) o r n o t k nown ( e .g . , C an i ss p . ) ,c ompa ra t ive d a ta o ft h e s ame g roup o ff o s s i lo re x tan ta n ima l f o rm i su sed . Mo l lu sca :

L ampro tu la s p . ( f re sh -wa te r mo l lu sc )( Ba rbou re ta l . 1 927 ) .

R oden t ia :

Myo spa lax c f .f on tan ier i( mo le ra t )

Myo spa lax f on tan ier i( mo le ra t ) ; f o s s i lr a nge a nd h ab i ta t : P l e i s to cene ( mo s to f Wucheng L oe s st o Ma lan L oe s s ) , c o ld a nd a r id c l ima t ic c ond i t ions ( L iu e ta l . 1 985 :72 , F ig . 4 . 1) ; c ommon i nm idd le M idd le P le i s tocene a nd L a te P le i s tocene ( Uppe r L i sh i L oe s sa nd Ma lan L oe s s ) ; Myo spa lax s pp . a dap t ed t o c o ld a nd a r id s t eppe s ( Kuk la 1 987 ) ; mode rn r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn C h ina , i n w ooded a r ea s a nd c u l t iva ted f i e ld s , a d ap t ed f o r d igg ing , s ubs is t s o n r oo t s a nd g ra in s ( Nowak a n d P a rad i so 1 991 :711-712 ) . C a rn ivo ra : C an i ss p . ;F am i ly C an idae ( dog s ) ; f o s s i lr a nge : P l e is tocene ( Han a nd X u 1 985 ) ; mode rn r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : w o r ldw ide ;h i gh ly e u ry top ic a nd g r ea tc l ima t ic t o le rance ,i nh i gh land s ,l ow land s ,t u nd ra ,f o re s t ,s t eppe s ,s em i -a r id r e g ion s ,a nd d e se r t( Ku r t6n 1 968 ;G rz imek 1 990 :50 , 5 1) . ?U r su ss p .( b ea r ) U r su sc f .e t r u scus ( e t ru scan b ea r ; e x t inc t ) ; f o s s i l r ange : L a te P l io cene /Ea r ly P l e i s tocene E u ra s ia ( A igne r 1 981 , A ppend ix 3 ) , E a r ly P l e i s tocene N ihewan ( Han a nd X u 1 985 ) . U .a r c to s( b rown b ea r ) ;f o s s i lr a nge a nd h ab i ta t : n o r the rn C h ina , Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1( Han a nd X u 1 985 ) , f o re s t , omn ivo re ( A igne r 1 981 , A ppend ix 3 ) ; mode rn r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : E u rope a nd A s ia , p r ima r i ly f o re s t( A l len 1 938 -1940 :326 ; K u r th 1 968 :119 ) .

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H yaena l i cen t i ,H yaena s p . i n de t . ( h yena ) ; H . b r ev iro s t r i sl i cen t i( s ho r t -f aced h yena ;e x t inc ti nC h ina ) ;f o s s i l r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : L a te P l iocene /Ea r ly P le i s tocene , s t eppe s , t u nd ra ,f o re s t( Ku r ta 1 968 ;A igne r 1 981 , Append ix 3 ) , s c avenge r( Ku r ta 1 968 ) . P robo sc idea : P a laeo loxodon s p . ; E lepha s [ Pa laeo loxodon ] n amad icu s ( e lephan t ; e x t inc t ) ; f o s s i l r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : P le i s tocene E u ra s ia , f o re s t , c omp lex h yp sodon t l ame l la r t e e th , a b le t o d i ge s t t ough p lan t s ( G rz imek 1 990 :486 ) ; P a laeo loxodon a n t iquu s ( e x t inc t ) ; P le i s tocene , w a rm ( i n te rg lac ia l ) c l ima t ic i n d ica to r , f o re s t o r t empe ra te w ood ed g r a s s land ( A igne r 1 981 ,A ppend ix 3 ) . E lepha ss p . ( e lephan t ) ; ?E lepha s[ Pa laeo loxodon ] n amad icu s . P e r i s sodac ty la : H ippar ion s p . ( t h r ee toed a nce s to r o f h o r se ; e x t inc t ) ; f o s s i l r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : L a te P l iocene a nd E a r ly P le i s tocene ( P robo sc id ippar ion [ H ippar ion ] s i nen se ) ( Han a nd X u 1 985 ; s e e a l so S imp son 1 951 :139 ) ; g r aze r ( hyp sodon t c emen t mo la r s ) , a dap t ed t o g r a s s land ( Kur t6 1 1 1 968 ; S imp son 1 951 , F ig . 1 7 , 1 85 -188 , 2 08 ) ; H ippar ion s p . d i scove red i n a s so c ia t ion w i th b o th s t eppe a nd f o re s tf a unae i nn o r ther nC h ina ( t he " Do r cado ide s" ( a f te rG a ze I la d or cado id e s )f a una i n e a s te rn G an su a nd n o r thwe s t e rn S hanx i ,a nd t h e " Gaud ry i" ( Ga z e I la g aud iy i ) f a una i nH enan , n o r the rn H ebe i , a nd S hanx i ) , t h e r e fo r e b o th s t eppe a nd f o re s ta dap ted o rn o tt r ue s t eppe f o rm ( Ku r t6n 1 952 :15 16 ,2 0 , 2 8 ) . P robosc id ippar ion s p . ( s pec ia l i sed h ippa r ion ;e x t inc t ) ;f o s s i lr a nge a nd h ab i ta t : ?l a te P l iocene t o l a te E a r ly P l e i s tocene /ea r ly M idd le P le i s tocene ;g r aze r( hyp sodon tc emen t mo la r s ) ,g ra s s land ( Pope p e r s .c omm . ) . E quus s anmenen s i s( z eb r ine h o r se ;e x t inc t ) ; f o s s i l r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : n o r the rn C h ina , E a r ly a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene ( Han a nd Xu 1 985 ) ; g raze r( h yp sodon t mo la r s ) , g ra ss land ( Ku r t6 1 1 1 968 ; S imp son 1 951 , F ig . 1 7 , 1 85 -188 , 2 08 ) . E quus s p . ( ho r se ) ;g r a ze r( hyp sodon t mo la r s ) ; ?r a nge a nd h ab i ta ts im i la rt oE .s anmenens i s . R h inocero ss p . ( r h ino ce ro s ) ; f o ss i l r a nge : A s ian l a te E ocene t o R ecen t ( Nowak a nd P a rad i so 1 983 :1167 ) ; mode rn r a nge a nd h ab i ta t :A f r ica ,s ou thcen t ra la nd S ou thea s tA s ia , i n t h e s ub t rop ics a nd t r op ic s u sua l ly o ccu r s i n s avannah , s h rub , a nd c l o sed f o re s t r eg ion s , c ommon ly l im i ted t o e nv i ronmen t s w i th c l o se w a t e r s ou r ce a va i lab le , b row se r ( Nowak a nd P a rad i so 1 983 :1165 , 167 ) . C oe lodon ta a n t iqu i ta t i s ( woo l ly r h inoce ro s ; e x t inc t ) ; f o s s i l r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : E a r ly P le i s tocene , a s soc ia ted w i th t empe ra te f auna l a s semb lage s ,e . g . ,w a rm ( i n te rg lac ia l )Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1( A igne r 1 981 , Append ix 3 ) ; f i r s t a ppea rance a ppa ren t ly i nE a r ly P le i s tocene o fN o r thea s t A s ia , e x t reme t u nd ra , a l so i n a r id , t empe ra te c l ima te s w i th e x ten s ive g r a s s land s a nd s ome b road leaved t r ee s ;v e ry h yp sodon t mo la r sw h ich i si n d ica t ive o fg raz ing a dap ta t ion ( Ku r t6n 1 968 ) . C oe lodon ta s p . ( r h inoce ro s ,e x t inc t ) ; ?r ange a nd h ab i ta ts im i la rt oC .a n t iqu i ta t i s . C er vus s pp . ( r ed d ee r ) ; f o s s i l r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : e a r ly O l igocene t o R e cen t ( Nowak a nd P a rad i so 1 99 1 :1373 ) , P le i s tocene ( Ku r t6n 1 968 ; H an a nd X u 1 985 ) , l ow c r owned d en t i t ion , g ene ra l ly w ood land ( A igne r 1 981 , A ppend ix 3 ) ; mode rn r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn C h ina , C e rv idae a r e e u ry top ic , i n f o re s t , w ood land , d e se r t , s wamp , h yp sodon t p remo la r s a nd mo la r s ,h e rb ivo rou s( Nowak a nd P a rad iso 1 99 1 :1362 , 1 373 , 1 380 ) ,n o r the rn a nd c en t ra l C h ina , r e s t r ic t ed r a nge ( Oh ta i sh i a nd G ao 1 990 ) ;d ee rp a r t ia lt od ec iduou sf o re s tb o rde r s ( C le land 1 965 i nS t rueve r 1 968 :309 -310 ) . G a ze I la s p . ( g aze l le ) ;f o s s i l r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : P le i s tocene ( Han a nd X u 1 985 ) , g r a s s land ( Pope p e r s . c omm . ) ; moder n r a nge a nd h ab i ta t : C en t ra lA s ia ( A igne r 1 981 , Append ix 3 ) , n o r the rn C h ina , Mongo l ia , s ou the rn S ibe r ia , a r id s t eppe s a nd s ubde se r t , o pen o rb ru sh land ,c an b ee i the rg raze r so rb row se r s ( Nowak a nd P a rad i so 1 99 1 :1466 , 1 468 , 1 470 ) . B i son s p . ( buf f a lo ;e x t inc tf o rm ) ;f o s s i lr ange a nd h ab i ta t : P le i s tocene f o re s ta nd s t eppe ( Ku r tin 1 968 ) .

4 .3 T he N ihewan p lants

f oss i l

f l ora

i n t he c ontex t

o f t he p resen t e nv ironmenta l

r ange s

o f

c o mparab le

T he p i ne s r a nge f r om c oo l n o r the rn ( P icea s p . ) , n o r the rn t empe ra te ( Ab ie s s p . ) , t empe ra te ( P inus s p . , T suga s p . ) , s ou the rn t empe ra te a nd t r op ica l h i gh land s ( Podocarpu s s p.. ) , t o moun ta ins ( C ed r u s s p . ) ( s ee Mabbe r ley 1 989 :452 , 1 ,4 55 , 5 95 , 4 65 , 1 09 ) . T he b r oad leaved t r ee s o ccu r i n n o r ther n t empe ra te ( Quer cu s s p . , U /mus s p . , T i l ia s p . ) a nd t empe ra te , b u t g ene ra l ly t r op ica l ( C e l t i ss p . )r e g ion s ( Mabbe r ley 1 989 :490 , 5 98 , 5 82 , 10 ) . S ome s p ec ie s a r e t r ee s a nd s h rub s , a nd o ccu r i n n o r the rn ( Be tu la s p . , C up re s sa ceae ) , n o r the rn t empe ra te a nd h igh a l t i tude t r op ica l ( Acer s p . ) , c o ld a nd t empe ra te n o r the rn ( Sa l ix s p . ) r eg ion s ( Mabbe r ley 1 989 :67 , 1 60 , 4 ,5 15 ) . T he s h rub s a nd h e rb s u sua l ly g r ow i n s em i -de se r t s a nd d e se r t s ( Chenopod ia ceae ) , d r y a r ea s , a nd e spe c ia l ly t h e R u ss ian s t eppe s ( Ar t em i s ia s p . ) , c o smopo l i tan ( Compo s i tae ) , b u t g ene ra l ly t empe ra te ( Cype ra ceae ) ,a nd t empe ra te a nd n o r the rn t empe ra te ( Ranuncu la ceae ) r e g ion s ( Mabbe r ley 1 989 :119 , 4 5 , 1 39 , 1 66 , 4 93 ) . T he h e rb s a r e mo s t c ommon i n n o r the rn t empe ra te ( Po lygona ceae ) , a nd t empe ra te r eg ion s ( Chenopod ium s p . , C ruc if e ra e ) a nd i n c lude ac o smopo l i tan s pec ie s( T ypha s p . ) ( Mabbe r ley 1 989 :469 , 19 , 1 55 ,5 97 ) . T he G ram ineae , a l though c o smopo l i tan a r e mo s tc ommon i nt r op ica la nd s ub -a r id n o r the rn t empe ra te r e g ions ( Mabbe r ley 1 989 :250 ) .

1 38

I mpo r tan t C h ine se P a laeo l i th ic l o ca l i t ie s ( a f te r Wu a nd Z hang 1 985 , F ig . 7 . 1)

Append ix

1 39

5

T ab le a nd f i gures o f Chap ter s I— V I

H OLOCENE

P o l ish ed t o o l s

N eo l i th ic / M ic ro l i th i c

r rn o oko u

P LE ISTOCENE

X iocn onho i ( 13 ,000-9000 )

H u tou l iong (1 ,000-9000 ) X ioch uon ( 23 ,000 -16 ,0 M )

S h iy u (c o .2 8 ,000 )

S hu idonggo u

S jo ro-o sso -go ? ( So low u su ) (50 ,000 -30 ,000 )

i

/

a a l % % t

• • • • •

D i ng cun (?9 0 ,000-70 ,000 )

X u j ioy oo (c o . 100000 ) S onm en x 10 (? 400 ,000 ) Z hou ko ud L o co l l ty 1 (700 ,000 -2 00000 ) K ehe e nd L on t ion

( 1 ,000000 - 8 00 ,000 ) D onggu tuo (c o .1 , 000 ,000 ) 4 .

Xi h oodu (c o .1 ,8 0 0 ,000 )

F igu re 2 . T he d eve lopmen to fP a laeo l i th ic t r ad i t ion s i n No r th C h ina ( a f te rJ i aa nd H uang 1 985b , F ig . 1 4 .1)

g 1 17 . , . e

0

C Z› < N. - C

c r s

1 4 1 CA

O

c e i

c .0 .040 -0 .010

0. = 0.

d i rec th a rd -ha

0 g

t o. . O •0 o" B= s ' . e' Z

L a te P a laeo l i th ic

. 0 _ ' 0 ' V AC ; . • e . 0 " C 1 . .

m idd le a nd l a te

3• ,3

H an a nd X u 1 985 ;

Z hang 1 985 , 1 989

H an a nd X u 1 985

J i aa nd H uang 1 985a

t r ) 0 C D 1

L a te P l e is tocene

0 0 0

c .0 . 128 -0 .040

l c, . = t e

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic

=

L a te P le is tocene

t p L 0 c e . , i ) 0 0 „b =

t o o ls ; s c rape r s

H an a nd X u 1 985 • •4

c .1 . 0 -c .0 . 200 o r0 . 100

L owe rP a laeo l i th ic

E a r l ie s tP a laeo l i th ic

d i agno s t ic t e chno log ie s

C u l tu re a nd

CZ •1 • • • ,

L a te P l e is tocene*

M idd le P l e is tocene

G eo logy a nd a ge ( my r )

No r the rn C h ine se g eo log ica l -b io s t ra t ig raph ic a nd c u l tu ra lc h rono logy a cco rd ing t oC h ine se a u tho r s

i f ) 0 C

0 t e ) =

0e 0; 3 -4

0

t e

c e. 0_ g m

7 2 . =

V D V D C I D

0 =

. .

0 C l ) c n

c n C . ) 1 7 J

0

t e 2 ' i c " ‘ 5 . 1 : ‘ 3 4 m 1 5 : 1 ) . 4 3 :1 v 9 -• . 0 7 2 T z s ' . — : . I . )7 5 • I — , •. e 1 0 . 0 a ) .2 I , O . . ) E . -, =

. 2 •. , " ds

u 5 ' 0

a )• 5 0 , 0

c n

a .)

* , ; ' e z < I . )

I . )

4 ,•I O z • c v ) n • 'c 0i . : ,e • 0. 0 , 01

[ 2 7

HAND-AXE CULTURE

r - 1CHOPPING -TOOL

CULTURE

F igu re 3 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fL owe rP a laeo l i th ic h and -axe a nd c hopp ing too lc u l tu re s i nt h eO ld Wo r ld d u r ing l a te M idd le P le is tocene t ime s ( a f te r Mov iu s 1 948 , Map 4 )

CL I MATE AND CULTURE DUR ING THE P LE ISTOCENE

U n inhab i c d dw .ng P l e i s to cene I l anda

• •

m e srm i M e l

C hoppe r c hopp ing t o o lc omp lex

J ANUARY F ROST L INE MOV IUS 'S L INE

F igu re 4 . T he Mov ius L ine s how ing t h e g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f h andaxe c u l tu re s a nd o f t h e c hoppe r c hopp ing too l c omp lex ( a f te rC oon 1 966 , Map 3a nd p .4 8 )

1 42

I ND IAN OCEAN

ACHEULIAN

IAN ISOO

F igu re 5 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb amboo ( s t ip le ) a nd o fA cheu lean a s semb lage s ( s t r ipe s ) . Ove r lap o ccu r s o n ly i n S ou th A s ia a nd e ven h e re l a rge a r ea sa r et oo d ry t os uppo r tn a tu ra l b amboo g row th ( a f te rP ope 1 988a , F ig . 3 )

1 43

Q inghai X izang P lateau

South Ch ina Sea

F igu re 6 . C h ina i nr e la t ion t oa d jacen tr eg ions ( a f te r Why te 1 984a , F ig . p .6 )

r f an D ep l v e s s ion \ ) • — •. . \

T ar im B a s in S INK IANG

-

I NNER N IONGOL IA

—• o rde r la ild s

O rdo s /

C h ingha i ( T s ingha i )

L o e s s

/N o r th C h ina IP l a in

/S han tung 1P e i n su la 1 ,

I

HUANG HO B AS IN

ci T ibe t 1 ., T IBETAN P LATEAU

H ua i B a s in C hamdo \ A r ea

. /

S IK IANG BAS IN

YUNNAN -K WE I CHOU P LATEAU

F igu re 7 . T he n a tu ra l g eog raph ic r eg ions o fC h ina ( a f te rA igne r 1 981 , F ig . 1 4 , p .4 7 )

1 44

F igu re 8 . C h ina 's ma jo r moun ta in r ange s a nd r i ve r s ( a f te rR en e ta l . 1 985 , F ig . 2 )

F igu re 9 . T he t h ree a l t i tud ina l s t eps o fC h ina 's t opog raphy . Mean a l t i tude : I= 4 .000 m .a .s . 1 . ; I=1 , 000 -2 ,000 m .a .s . 1 . ; I l =< 1 , 000 m .a .s . 1 . . T he d o t ted a r ea i st h e n ow s ubme rged c on t inen ta l s e a -she lf a nd r e p re sen t s af ou r th s t ep ( af t e r L iu a n d D ing 1 984 , F ig . 1 ;a nd a f te r P ope 1 992b , F ig . 1 ) .

1 45

NORTHEAST W INTER MONSOON

0 .

Typ ical nor thern l imn o f s um mer r nonsoon X

; T Ibete n r> leteau z

X IAN

3

CHINA

EAST AS IA MONSOON

4 IM•

I ND IAN SOUTH WEST MONSOON T o• 100•

12o•

1 10*

F igu re 1 0 . Monsoon c i rcu la t ion o fe a s te rn C h ina . 1 .I nw in te r , c o ld a nd d ry a i rf l ows f r om c en t ra l a nd n or the rn A s ia . 2 .I ns umme r , t h e t r op ica l monsoon b r ing s w a rm a nd mo is ta i ri n to e a s te rn C h ina ( a f te rP o r te re ta l . 1 992 )

1 46

z i su ss L

2 S3 3 L4

L

5

Ss

L6

6

8

0 . 73

. 7 3

9 0 ) . 97

4 '4 , 4

W 5,• > 1 2

. 6 7 4

8 . " .

6

I

2

7

•• • 1

8

N2c,

9

. 7

4 8

F igu re 1 . A . S t ra t ig raph ica l l o e s s -pa laeo so l s ec t ion o f H e imugou , L uochuan . s ec t ion o fL uochuan Qun 2 2c o re ( a f te rL iu e ta l . 1 985 , F ig . 3 . 1) .

3

i nI 4

B . S t ra t ig raph ica l l o e s s -pa laeo so l

L egend : A . 1 .B lack l o am . 2 .B u r ied b l ack l o am . 3 .P a laeo so l . 4 .P a laeo so l , o rw ea the r ing l a yer . 5 . Ma lan L oess . 6 .L ish i L oess . 7 . Wucheng L oe s s . 8 .C a lca reous n odu le . 9 .C lay . B . 1 .L oe s s . 2 .P a laeo so l , o r w ea the r ing l a ye r . 3 .C a lca reou s n odu le . 4 .R ed c l ay .

1 47

•

e

I

7 ,0

Op ."` " • • -1

, . .« . . t9

1 00

1 10

VEGETAT ION REGIONS

12 . 0

-

1 40

10

BOREAL FOREST

STEPP' . • _--

• • '

6 '

a e

J

b .I lh

a

: Z :

i l • •

M IXED CON IFEe • . . . HARD WOOD FOREST

9 d.

t

*

: **9

•

« :

.

M IXED D EC IDUOUS . . . ! B ROADLEAVED ,r ' E VERGREEN . F0 F iEST \

P . •

91 . •

. :64• : •V • GETAT IO.Na

•b.•••• . •* • " •e •%.•:9 a g: : 4: •• • ••. •• •• • .•

2

TROP ICAL MONSOONAL RA IN FOREST i t 0

F igu re 1 2 . Mode rn v ege ta t ion r e g ions o fC h ina ( a f te rL iu 1 988 , F ig . 2 )

1 48

=0K1 . 1

A

. e129, : x c p e ,

i

C m: 4 -a ir z .

7 3 0

.c ec t iCc r 'o 'e e

i o

J

. 5 .

3N3001S 131d

L Ic 5 ;

4 5 ;

• % ‘ , .

4 »

* r

>

e =

—

4 Ä

( ‚ e4 c e , i

( 0

>

C D C O I . .€ 0

r

J .°

P L IOCENE

* 4 A , , ' N Y, 0PI

i e

1

l i o 1 3 0 U i — -5 0 0 3 c-J O — 3 T O. Z O7

6 - 4 C Z > t t 6,

2 f i s t Interglacial 1

r e

0 0 e •

r

9 ,e.

o u ba 44 .A 11 18 10 1 . .-

°

4 9

t z : t :2 t 2 L. . . 4„ .„ . 4 .

10

4 (/

e

c ee be

‘ , . . „ .. . . _ _A :

0 (0 e 0

---

. 9 t, N 1 9.,

0

-

e 0 0 •, 6k „ , • Y o 00, YQ

e / 0 0 -

e •o • 4* 6 .

. 4 ve

4 , 0 6° 1' e O

f -r ' 0

. . , _ ., . , _. . _ . . • . ä . i . Ä .ä . i

0 0 0 .

-. a e 0 / 4 , Q

9 , / 1 •N ' e i e r e

, . __

0 0, 3 . )

•• 1 6 .

0 01„

I S, •

0,

0 17 , 0

e, o -4 90 9 4 0

d k eZ e. )

9 ,1 7 . }

„. . , . . _ _ _ _ . ._ . A l ha b l . .A .

• , • " ' • • • s• C Y _ ' I0 -

0

0 y •

0 0 C M

0 0 C e

0 0

e .

0 0

I )

F igu re 1 3 . P o l len d iag ram f o rt h eC ang -9 b o reho le ( 556 m l e ng th ) w i th p o l len p e r cen tage s b a sed o n a n AP s um ( a f te r L iu 1 988 , F ig . 6a nd p .1 )

1 49

S tra ta ;

Nu mber o f W ood Herb Pollens

I I ? I

I

4,7 1

W

d z .

W ood

Pollen I

l e t 1 1 CM C M

t e

eLse t

L i E i L i S i L3 63

•• •

Li

L s E s L i L71 22

"2

F 1r 7 .77,79 =

L i

F igu re 1 4 .

111 % . && & • .1r t . .-- C Z = 7 Z 2.1e = S. . « =1 1 .•• ,. C t r U E ., 1 . C 11 , 1 . Ki t r L .

J ,

2C , t u t

0

i t4 - d e2 a i r

Numbe r a nd t ype s o fp o l len g ra ins i nt h eH e imugou s equence ( a f te rK uk la 1 987 , F ig . 1 8 )

1 50

A rtAmIsla

7 : .

A nneardl4eexe

L

Numbe ro f Wood , S trata & H erb P o l lens r e S e V e t r P X,

W ood

Po llen

Herb l e 7 0 r f_ 4 1 0 _ , . .t . t e i• .t e r t

X r e' X

-

_ LI . 8 3 L i I S5e

S7 I ,

W

—

_

-

=

1 sk

_

I

-

A n

7, V ,

'\

S 3

r . —

e i y j

54 -

1 , `

ä .

4

• 2 t e e e

‚ a

•

1 .

a

M • •

e r . • I j

• • -, e

,

t J •

• 4 .

e e

c z a 0 s

•

Numbe ra nd t ype so fp o l len g ra ins i nt h e L iu j iapo s equence ( a f te rK uk la 1 987 , F ig . 1 7 )

1 51

C rsoinfiu p

•

. . it z

F igu re 1 5 .

M.

,

A rtemisia

W

T ab le 2 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fp o l len a nd s pec ie s o ft h e H e imugou l o e ss p rof i le , P o tou v i l lage , L uochuan ( a f te rL iu e t a l . 1 985 , T ab le 4 . 3 )

N umbe ro fg r a in s M .L . L .L . W .L . T ree p o l len t o ta l

N umbe ro fg ra in s M .L . L .L . W .L .

8 8

2 48

2 09

F e rn s po re s t o ta l

2 2

4 7

6 8

/ 5 / 3 1 4 0 I 2 7 I I 6 I 6 I I 5 I I / I I I 1 / I I 2

/ 1 6 2 1 2 8 1 48 4 8 1 2 4 3 I 3 I 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 I 2 / I 1 3

1 3 8 / / 3 8 3 3 8 5 5 8 7 / / 1 / 2 5 1 I / 1 1 1 1 / 1 3 I 4

L ycopod ium S e lag ine l la A thyr ium O smunda D ryop ter i s G le ichen ia ceae H icr iop ter i s G onocormus A sp len ia ceae P o lypod iaceae P ter i s P t er id ium M icro l ip ia A d ian tum Dava l l iaceae F i l ica le s

I I 1 I I / I I / 5 1 4 I 3 I 9

I 6 I 2 1 / I 7 / 6 I 1 3 1 / I 6

3 2 I / 1 2 3 2 7 1 6 I 1 0 3 / 1 2

B rush & h e rb p o l len t o ta l

2 20

2 43

2 01

E phed r a R anuncu laceae S angu i sorba R ub iaceae U r t ica ceae Humu lus C ruc if e rae P o lygonaceae Umbe l l if e rae A s ter A r tem i s ia C ompo s i tae G en t iana C ype ra ceae G e ran ia ceae T ypha R o sa ceae L ab ia tae Ama ran tha ceae B e rbe r ida ceae L egum ino sae C henopod ia ceae G ram ineae

I / 1 1 / 1 3 2 1 2 / I 9 8 2 0 I 1 2 / 1 0 / / / 1 1 1 3 8

I 2 2 / / 6 6 8 3 I 1 0 1 2 3 I 3 1 / 2 / 1 / / 1 2 7 3

2 / / / 1 2 1 2 / 2 1 38 2 1 1 / / / 3 / / / 5 3 9

P i na ceae P inus T axod ia ceae C up r e s sa ceae B e tu la A lnus C ory lus C arp inu s Q uer cu s F agu s T i l ia Mo r a cea e Morus B rou s sone t ia C a rya P t erocar ya U lma ceae C e l t i s A cer O lea cea e R hus S ymp locos N i t ra r ia L iqu idambar S ima roubaceae A i lan thus a l t i ss ima P onc iru st r if a l ia ta S a l ix

f l

M .L . : Ma lan L oess ; L .L . : L ish i L oe ss ; W .L . : Wucheng L oes s

1 52

5 0

1 940

km

L IAON ING

I NNER M IJ INGOL IA

2

1 (1

: 57

A H E B

E I 1

, B JM , 40

OM z 4 t r c n 14

15

17

16

18

19

F igu re 1 6 . T he l o ca t ion o f N ihewan v i l lage ( N ) i n C h ina [ A ] a nd n o r thwe s te rn H ebe i p rov ince [ B ] ; a nd i n r e la t ion t o Z houkoud ian ( Z ) n ea rB e i j ing ( BJ ) i nB e i j ing mun ic ipa l i ty ( BJ M ) ( a f te rP ope u npub l . )

1 53

•

a

•

6 , \

1 54 0P a laeo l i th ic l oca l i ty

0 0

•N eo l i th ic l oca l i ty

-0

C c e =

1 1 . ) 4 . c z ' = c z z z c u ' I C E ' s . —C — / ' D

C O C O 1 — . , . , . . . . , C A + C O C Z 41 "C C O C O C d ) "C J Q . ) PZ C O

C O a ) , . = . . Z a ) = , . . , 0 C O 0 C O

. = ; . . 4 _ • C / 2

-z :

a ) , . 0 " z z C O C O „ . . C r ) s . _ . , a ) b e C O . — . , > C O C O a ) , . = . Z 0 C O 0 C O -0 . )

; . , C O . , C d ) Q . ) . . . 4 , . . . , C O Z . ) C D

C C O C O

t e b e C O 0 C -0 C O C O . . , , . _ . . t e C O C O . i t e C O C O . = C ) 0 C O . . , X a . ) . = H OC i •• • • 1

e ) 1 . C O b . 0 . . f . 1

1 55

T ab le 3 G eo log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l c l a s s if ica t ion o ft h eN ihewan B a s in l o ca l i t ies ( n= 19 , t r ans la ted f r om We i 1 991 ,T ab le p .7 1 , a nd a f te r We i 1 991 , T ab le p .7 3 ) S t ra t ig raph ic s equence

L oca l i ty Donggu tuo B an shan X iaochang l iang

C u l tu ra l s t age

N ihewan L owe r F orma t ion

C en j iawan Ma l iang Q ingc iyao

F orma t ion

X u j iayao

X u j iayao F orma t ion

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic

X igou S hangshazu i B an j ing

H ighe r r i ve rt e r ra ce s ed imen t

U ppe r

S henquan s i X iba imay ing S h iyu Y ouf ang Hu tou l iang N anmo

L owe r

Emaokou Z hou j ia shan S ha iz i l ing luo

X iaodukou P a laeo l i th ic

r i ve rt e r race s ed imen t

P a laeo l i th ic

H o locene N eo l i th ic s ed imen t

1 56

0 t .

300

1 000

. ...... ........... . ........... ................ ...... ........ ............ .... ......

• • . . . .

DONGGUTU • , • 1 1 24 Guan T i ng

: : X IAOCHANGL IANG : : : -•• : •

_ . ,Feng E r / ' Moun ta in

-

,r ece .

' 1 7N je." 4 . •

••

•

•• • • • • • • • • •

• •

• : U r

. . . . . . .• •• . . . .

: • : • : • :

•

Ho locene A l luv iu m

L owe r N ihewan

F oss i l L oca l i t ies

L o e s s

P re ter t ia ry

A rchaeo log ica l L oca l i t ies

Uppe r N ihewan

F r

F au l t

D epos i t

V i l lage

F igu re 1 9 . T he Donggu tuo P la tfo rm a r ea s how ing t h e l o ca t ions o f X iaochang l iang a nd D onggu tuo i n r e la t ion t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e L owe ra nd U ppe rN ihewan F o rma t ions ( a f te rP ope e ta l . 1 990 , F ig . 2 )

1 57

•

.3

se

F igu re 2 0 . T he X iaochang l iang ( 1 ) a nd D onggu tuo ( 2 ) l o ca l i t ies , a nd N ihewan v i l lage ( 3 ) i nr e la t ion t ot h e S angganhe V a l ley L a te T e r t ia ry -Qua te rna ry B a s ins , f au l t s , a c t ive p l a te a nd b l ock b ounda r ie s ,v o lcan ic c en t res , a nd h i s to r ica l e a r thquake sb e fo re 1 900 A .D . S ca le : 1 : 4 ,000 .000 ( a f te r Ma e ta l . 1 986 , P la te 1 ) S

S angganhe ; H =H u l iuhe ; D =D a tong c i ty ; Z =Z hang j iakou c i ty ; V = Vo lcan ic c en t re O u t l ine o fS angganhe V a l ley B a s ins F au l t s A c t ive p l a te a nd b lock b ounda r ies H is to r ica l e a r thquake s b efo re A .D . 1 900

0 1 58

MO XCL

F igu re 2 1 . T he N ihewan d epos i t s v i ewed f r om t h eX iaochang l iang p romon to ry ( l ef t f o reg round , XCL ) w i th p a r t o f t h e m a in o u tc rop ( r igh tf o reg round , MO )a nd t h eS angganhe ( backg round ,S )

1 59

XCL

F igu re 2 2 . P o s i t ion o ft he g o rge ( l ef t m idd le g round , G ) b e tween t h e ma in o u tcrop ( f o reg round a nd c en t ra l a nd r i gh t m idd le g round )a nd t h eX iaochang l iang p romon to ry ( l ef tb ackg round , XCL )

1 60

1 61

E a S and

C a l ca r eou s s i l t

F o s s i l s

F igu re 2 4 . Geo log ica l s ec t ion o fX iaochang l iang Dong Y ang t r ench s how ing s ed imen ta ry c on tex t a nd s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o fv e r teb ra te f o ss i ls

1 62

1 63

T he X iaochang l iang p romon to ry ( r igh tm idd le g round ) a nd t h ep a laeomagne t ic t r ench ( l ef tm idd le g round ) v i ewed f r om t h e m a in o u tc rop

C . ) 7 e

3 3

k

a . ..Trre•

1.1 . I

•I• I•

» . * • • • • •

E

0

0 3

1 64

E

T ab le 4 S ed imen ta ry a nd c u l tu ra l s t ra t ig raphy o f Donggu tuo t r enches T l-T5 ( a f te r We i Q i p e r s . c omm . ) Su r f a c e 4 5 ms t e r i le d epo s i t 0 . 8 -1 . 3 m : s i l t ( Y ) 0 . 1 -0 . 6 m : c l ay ( G ) C u l tura ll a yer A : C u l tura ll a yer B : C u l tura ll a yer C : C u l tura ll a yer D t : C u l tura ll a yer E :

0 . 4 0 .6 0 .7 0 .4 0 .9

1 .1 m : -0 . 8 m : m* : m : m :

S t e r i le l a ye rF :

s i l t ( Y ) =0 . 7 m * s i l t&f i ne s and ( B ) =0 . 2 m* s i l t ( G ) s a nd -g rave l c l ay -s i l t( G ) 0 . 3 m :

2 .9 i nt h ick c u l tura l d epo s i t V

s i l t -c lay ( G )

K ey t os ymbo ls : *D ep th o fh o r izon sr e f e r s t o max imum t h ickne s s ; tE qu iva len tt o Membe r 7a nd c u l tu ra l l a ye r a tX iaochang l iang ; V App rox ima te ly 3m t h ick i n We i ( 1988 :932 ) . N o te : C ap i ta ls i nb racke t sr e f e rt oc o lou ro fs ed imen t s : ( Y ) =y e l low ; ( G ) =g r ey ; ( B ) =b rown .

T ab le 5 S ed imen ta ry a nd c u l tu ra l s t ra t igraphy o f Donggu tuo t r ench T i ( a f te rS ch ick e ta l . 1 99 1 :16 ) Su r f a ce o ve r 2m s t e r i le d epo s i t C u l tura l h or izon A : C u l tura l h or i zon B : C u l tura l h or izon C : C u l tura lh or i zon D: C u l tura l h or i zon E :

v e ry f i ne s and sa nd s i l t s v e ry f i ne s and sa nd s i l t s v ery f i ne s and sa nd s i l t s c ong lome ra t ic s i l ty s ands tone w i th s ome p ebb le sa nd c obb le s s andy s i l t s tone

4m t h ick c u l tura ld epo s i t c . 1myr

8 85 NAP

8 80 . .

: .• •

j

L

E a r ly P l e is to cene

:'

I ,

•

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s

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• •

4

.

i

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I

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8 60 —

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8 30 e 6

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0

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-

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- p-C s- CÄ

C layey s and a nd g ra ve l ,

4 0

r

2 0

'i

m

2 0

4 0 8 0

l i

m

4 0 8 0

r—, r—, r—, 2 0

2 0

2 0

i

i

2 0

NAP s um

L i gh t b rown s and a nd g ra ve l

c on ta in ing c a l iche

D ark s andy c l ay , c on ta in ing

C ro s s -bedded g rav e l

f o s s i l s na i l s a nd s h e l l f r agmen t s

G ray c l ay w i th s andy l a ye r s , c o n ta in ing l e a f i mp re s s ion s a nd f o s s i l s na i l s

R ed c l ay

F igu re 2 7 . P o l len d iagram f o r t h e N angou s ec t ion . P o l len p e rcen tages f o r t r ee s pec ie s a r e b a sed o n a n AP s um a nd h e rb p o l len p e rcen tage s a r e b a sed o n as um o fa l NAP s pec ies . N o te v a r iab le p e r cen tage s ca les a tb o t tom ( a f te rL iu 1 988 , F ig . 7 )

1 66

1 67

T he X u j iapo g u l ly s how ing t h ep o s i t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon a tD onggu tuo ( a f te rJ i aa nd We i 1 987 , F ig . 2 )

1 68

F igu re 3 0 .

X iaochang l iang s e c t ion B a f te rt h e 1 990 e xcava t ion

1 69

D I E

1 70

L i th ic a r te f ac t s

S t one b l ock s

E xcava t ion t r enche s

F igu r e 3 2 .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f Donggu tuo t r enches T I-T5 i nt h e X u j iapo g u l ly ( a f te r We i 1 985 , F ig . 1 )

Donggu tuo V i l lage

l oess

s i l t

c lay

g rave l

v o ican i r ock

g

c hert n odu les

980 950

f oss i l mo l lusks — Ce l l i (swan V i l lage

Donggu tuo S i te * Sangganhe

450

4 10

F igu re 3 . T he p os i t ion o f Donggu tuo i nr e la t ion t ot h e S angganhe a nd t h e s t ra t ig raph ic a nd p a laeomagne t ic s e c t ions o f D onggu tuo ( a f te r S ch ick e ta l . 1 991 , F ig . 2 )

1 71

T ab le 6 S i ze o fe xcava ted a r ea o f Donggu tuo t r enche sa nd d ens i ty o fa r tef ac t s

S i ze o ft r ench

T 1

1 5 m2

T 2

5 m

T 3 T 4 T 5 T o ta l

We i Q i*

T h is s t udy

1 , 183

( 551 ; 4 6 .6% )

1 32

(8 0 ; 6 0 .6% )

6m2

6 7

(4 4 ; 6 5 .7% )

1 2 m2

4 4

(3 7 ; 8 4 .1 % )

1 7

(2 8 ; +1 )

7m

2

N umbe ro fa r tef ac t s

2

1 , 443

7 40

*We i 1 985 , 1 989 , a nd p e r s . c omm .

1 72

0

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. 0. 1 ( 4

j

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= z >

• -

4 :4 : c o n r n . e : o d . C : ,r

c l , .r i r ;

c r n . .

S . 4 C ' OC OC , O.

• • 9 c L . , r i

E

c e' 7 , 3 '

-, i .' e '

i . :0 . 6 c e ••" t 1*. r z , e , = c z s c z s c z ' E E E C / D

2 , . oJ. , .; = ' 1 ) e z . . .3 c 2, . . . , C O C O C O C O o m z t 0 p 0 0 0 0 0 C s c l ) C O Z1 7 C1 i j a . ) . P . j' ( . ) Z Z Z Z

0 e ; l ° .

C C D V D C D

X iaochang l iang

C D V D ; 7 3

7 5

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r e. ) ( 1)

c i p

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C O

( c 3

4— , • k ' 7 2 c p ( 1 . ) c . ) ; --C O

°

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E

Me thod o fc o re r e duc t ion C o re c o r tex

S umma ry r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h e ma in a t t r ibu te s o ft h eX iaochang l iang a nd Donggu tuo a s semb lages

c • i

ü • r - I n 0 5 7 1 : o o 0 b i k " o b

0

33Ew '33 E 1 73

X

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X iaochang l iang

e „ r.. r : c i r . - v • ) o v o ,z •, ; :

1 74

T ab le 9 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang l i th ic c a tego r ie s C a tego ry

n

%

C o re s Wa s te f r agmen t s Wa s te f l ake s T oo ls

1 5 1 7 7 1 4 7

1 0 .0 1 .3 4 7 .3 3 1 .3

1 50

9 9 .9

T o ta l

T ab le 1 0 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang l i t h ic s ubca tego r ie s A n

C a tego ry C s p d p Wf rg Wf w h f r g T I w hf l f l f rg n -f l T o ta l n T o ta l %

B n

A /B n

S ub to ta l n %

1 0 5

3 2 1 1

9 7 2 5

3 1 2 1

5 3 9

3 1 2

6 6

0 2 0

0 1 0

1 7 2 6 1

5 0 3 3 .3

3 0 2 0 .0

7 0 4 6 .7

T o ta l

1 4 5 7

1 9 .7 8 0 .3

1 7 2 9 1

3 6 .2 6 1 .7 2 . 1

n

%

1 5

1 0 .0

1 7 7 1

1 .3 4 7 .3

4 7

3 1 .3

1 50

9 9 .9 1 00

T ab le 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fX iaochang l iang w a s te ma te r ia ls a nd t oo ls C a tego ry

n

%

Wa s te m a te r ia ls T oo ls

1 03 4 7

6 8 .7 3 1 .3

T o ta l

1 50

1 00

T ab le 1 2

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang l i t h ic c a tego r ie s , n .1 50

C a tego ry

n

C %

n

Wf rg %

Wfwh n %

Wf f rg n %

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

1 0 5 0

6 .7 3 .3 0 .0

1 4 2 1

9 . 3 1 . 3 0 .7

1 0 4 0

5 1 3 3

C a tego ry

n

%

n

%

n

C he ry f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

1 2 5 0

8 . 0 3 . 3 0 .0

2 1 6 3

1 4 .0 4 .0 2 .0

18 2 5 3

T lwh

T lf rg

6 . 7 2 . 7 0 .0

T o ta l %

7 8 .7 1 6 .6 4 . 7

3 4 .0 2 . 0 2 .0

T ab le 1 3 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang c o re s A

B

A /B

T o ta l

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

3

2 0 .0

9

6 0 .0

3

2 0 .0

1 5

1 00

T ab le 1 4

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s

C a tego ry

A n

B n

A /B n

n

S p D p

2 1

7 2

1 2

1 0 5

6 6 .7 3 3 .3

T o ta l

3

9

3

1 5

1 00

T ab le 1 5

T o ta l %

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s

C a tego ry

A S p n

A D p n

B S p n

B Dp n

A /B S p n

A /B D p n

n

C hen f i ne f i ne -coa r se

1 1

1 0

4 3

1 1

1 0

2 0

1 0 5

T o ta l %

6 6 .7 3 3 .3

F igu re 3 4 .

X iaochang l iang d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re . Unknown s e c t ion

1 77

F igu re 3 5 .

X iaochang l iang d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re . U nknown s e c t ion

F igu re 3 6 .

X iaochang l iang s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re . U nknown s e c t ion

1 78

T ab le 1 6 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica l a nd n on -cor t ica l X iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s ; t h en umbe ro fs pec imens w i th c o r t ica l p l a tforms i ss hown i nb racke t s

C a tego ry

S p A n

S p B n

S p A /B n

D p A n

D p B n

D p A /B n

n

C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

1 1

6( 4 ) 1

1 0

1 0

1 1

2 0

1 2 3

T o ta l % 8 0 .0 2 0 .0

T ab le 1 7 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang c o r t ica ls u r f a ce o fc o re c a tego r ies ; s i ng le -p la tform n . 8( 80 .0% ) ; d oub le -p la tform n . 4( 80% ) ; t o ta l n .1 2 ( 80% )

% o fc o r tex

S p A n

S p B n

S p NB n

D p A n

D p B n

D p NB n

n

%

0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0% 4 1 -6 0%

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 5

0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1

3 2 3 7

2 0 .0 1 0 .0 1 0 .0 6 0 .0

T o ta l

T ab le 1 8 M in imum a nd max imum d imen s ions ( i n c m ) , p la tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o fs ca r so fX iaochang l iang s i ng le -p la t form c o re s

n . 1 0 M in imum Max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

A ng le

S ca r

3 . 5 1 5 .3

3 . 4 1 0 .0

2 . 5 9 .2

2 6 9 2 1 27

3 7 2 6

T ab le 1 9 M in imum a nd max imum d imens ions ( i n c m ) ,p la tform a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o fs ca r so fX iaochang l iang d oub le -p la t fo rm c o re s

n .5 M in imum Max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

A ng le

S ca r

5 . 1 1 .4

3 . 3 1 0 .10

1 . 6 9 . 8

2 5 9 7 .5 1 30

3 5 6 8

T ab le 2 0 Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,e xcava t ion s e c t ion sa nd r aw ma te r ia l so ft h eX iaochang l iang c o re s A cce s s ion n umbe r*

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

C a tego ry

S ec t ion R aw ma te r ia l

9 025 9 036 9 037 9 030 9 000 5 469 8 80 1 9 049 9 052 9 050 9 047 5 467 5 468 9 051 9 048

3 . 50 5 . 10 6 . 10 6 . 10 7 .00 7 . 20 8 . 60 9 . 10 1 0 .90 1 .00 1 .30 1 .35 1 .80 1 2 .10 1 5 .30

3 .40 3 . 25 4 .80 5 .60 6 .45 6 . 10 8 .25 8 . 45 1 0 .00 6 .00 7 . 30 1 0 .10 9 .20 8 . 95 9 . 10

2 . 60 1 . 60 2 . 50 4 . 50 4 .00 4 . 30 9 .80 6 . 30 8 . 50 6 .00 4 . 80 8 . 45 6 . 15 6 . 00 9 . 20

S p D p S p D p S p D p D p S p S p S p S p D p S p S p S p

A B A B B A /B A B B B B A /B A /B B B

1 79

CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C

*T he f i r s t c o lumn i d en t if ies t h e a cces s ion n umbe r , t h e s econd , t h ird , a nd f our th c o lumns r e f e r t o t h e l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s , r e spec t ive ly , t h e f i f th c o lumn i d en t if ie s t h e c o re c a tego ry , t h e s i x th c o lumn r e f e r s t ot he s ec t ions A a nd B , a nd w he re t h e s ec t ion i s u nknown A /B i su sed , a nd t he s even th c o lumn r e fe r s t o t h e r aw ma ter ia l ; s ee Append ix 3 f o r a bb rev ia t ions . X iaochang l iang a ccess ion n umber s b eg inn ing w i th t h e n umbe r s ' 5 a nd ' 6 r epresen t I .V .P .P . a ccess ion n umbe r s , a nd s pec if ica l ly t h e a r tef ac t s c a ta logued b y You e ta l . i n 1 978 . S pec imen n umbe r s b eg inn ing w i th t h e n umbe r ' 8 8 ' a r e a r tef ac t s c o l lec ted b y P ope i n 1 988 a nd t ho se b eg inn ing w i th t h e n umbe r ' 9 0 ' a r e a r tef ac t s r e cove red b y P ope e ta l . a t X iaochang l iang s e c t ions A a nd B i n1 990 ; n umbe r s' 8 8 ' a nd ' 9 0 ' w e re a s s igned b y t h ea u tho r .

T ab le 2 1

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe x ten to fc o re r e duc t ion o fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie s

C a tego ry S p f l aked f l aked D p f l aked f l aked

a r ound who le p e r iphe ry a r ound p a r t ia lp e r iphe ry

5 5

3 3 .3 3 3 .3

a r ound w ho le p e r iphe ry a r ound p a r t ia lp e r iphe ry

4 1

2 6 .7 6 . 7

T ab le 2 2 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe x ten to fX iaochang l iang c o re r educ t ion i nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s A

A /B

C a tego ry

B A B S p D p f l aked a round w ho le p e r iphe ry n n n n

A /B B A /B S p D p f l aked a r ound p a r t ia lp e r iphe ry n n n n n

n

C her t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

1 1

1 0

1 4

1 2

1 0

1 1

B

4 0

1 0

0 0

1 0

T o ta l %

T ab le 2 3 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ff l a tp l a t fo rm t a b les o fX iaochang l iang o r ec a tego r ies a nd i nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s

C a tego ry

A D p n

B S p n

A /B D p n

n

%

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

1 0

1 1

2 0

4 1

2 0 .0 6 0 .0

T o ta l

T ab le 2 4 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang c o re c a tego r ie sw i th s t ep f r ac tu re s ; t h e n umbe ro ff r ac tu re si ss hown i nb r acke t s

C a tego ry

A S p n

A D p n

B S p n

B D p n

A / 1 3 S p n

A / 1 3 D p n

S ub to ta l S p D p n n

n

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

1 ( 1) 1 ( 3 )

1 ( 1) 0

4 ( 2 ) 3 ( 1)

1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 0 )

1 ( 1) 0

2 ( 5 ) 0

6 ( 4 ) 4 (4 )

1 0 ( 1 2 ) 5( 4 )

1 80

4 (8 ) 1 ( 0 )

T o ta l

6 6 .7 3 3 .3

7 3 .3 2 6 .7

T ab le 2 5

S t a t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang c o re d imens ions ,p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

n .1 5 M ean M ed ian Mode

9 . 1 9 . 1 6 . 1 ( 2x )

7 . 1 7 . 3 n o mode

5 . 7 6 .0 6 . 0 ( 2x )

S .D . m in imum m ax imum

3 . 22 3 . 50 1 5 .30

2 .25 3 . 25 1 0 .10

2 . 52 1 . 60 9 . 80

T ab le 2 6

T ab le 2 7

S ca r

5 1 1 08 .3 ° 1 09 .5 ° 12 ° , 18 ° ( 3 xe ach ) 8 . 62 9 2° 1 30 °

7 2 4 . 8 4 3( 4x )

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s

A

1

A ng le

B

5 . 9

5

A /B

2 9 .4

1

T o ta l

6 4 .7

1 7

1 00

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s A

B

A / 1 3

1 0 0

5 0 0

8 2 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

1 4 2 1

8 2 .3 1 .8 5 . 9

1 . 93 2 8

I

3

4

F igu re 3 7 .

X iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s . 1 3 . S ec t ion B .

1 82

4 .U nknown s ec t ion . T o s ca le .

T ab le 2 8 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica lX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s A

B

A /B

0 1

2 3

2 9

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l Non -cor t ica l

4 1 3

2 3 .5 7 6 .5

T ab le 2 9 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen tc o r t ica l s u r face , n . 4( 23 .5% ) A

B

A /B

1 0 0

3 1 1

9

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0%

7

0

1 3 3 1

7 6 .5 1 7 .6 5 . 9

T ab le 3 0 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen ts c a rp a t te rns A

B

A /B

0 1 0

0 4 1

2 8 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id i rec t iona l B id irec t iona l Mu l t id irec t iona l

1 .8 7 6 .5 1 .8

Mea su remen t s , e xcava t ion s e c t ions a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen t s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

9 002 9 018 5 526 5 516 5 522 9 008 9 022 9 020 5 509 5 488 5 537 5 487 5 479 9 031 5 478 5 496 5 491

1 . 90 2 . 10 2 . 30 2 . 45 2 . 60 2 .60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 70 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 45 3 . 70 3 . 70 4 .20 4 .50 6 . 50

3 .20 1 . 70 1 . 70 2 .20 1 . 40 2 . 30 3 .20 4 . 10 2 . 75 2 . 80 3 . 25 3 .25 2 .75 2 .80 2 . 35 2 . 55 4 .00

1 . 45 1 . 60 0 .90 1 . 05 1 . 50 1 . 60 1 . 80 1 . 60 1 . 45 2 .05 1 . 40 3 . 10 1 . 95 1 . 00 3 . 00 2 .00 2 . 55

S ec t ion R aw ma te r ia l

““" b '“ ”

A cce s s ion n umbe r

“

T ab le 3 1

2 1 3 2

CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F QU CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C

T ab le 3 2

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f r agmen td imens ions ( i n c m )a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

S ca r

n . 1 7 Mean Med ian Mode

3 . 2 2 .7 2 . 6 ( 4x )

1 . 8 1 . 6 1 . 6 ( 3x )

7 7 4 . 5 4 4( 5 x )

S .D . m in imum max imum

1 . 12 1 . 9 6 . 5

2 .7 2 .75 1 . 7 , 2 . 75 , 3 .2 , 3 . 25 ( f ou r modes ; 2 x ) 0 .75 1 . 4 4 . 1

0 .63 0 .9 3 . 1

1 . 12 3 7

T ab le 3 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake s

A

4 4

B

6 2 .0

T ab le 3 4

1 5

A /B

2 1 .1

1 2

T o ta l

1 6 .9

7 1

1 00

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake sa nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s A

B

Wh E rg

5 3 9

3 1 2

T o ta l

4 4

1 5

A /B

T o ta l

C a tego ry

T ab le 3 5

6 6 1 2

1 4 5 7

1 9 .7 8 0 .3

7 1

1 00

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s , n .1 4 A

B

A /B

5 0

0 3

5 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C her t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

T ab le 3 6

1 0 4

7 1 .4 2 8 .6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l X iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s A

B

A /B

1 4

1 2

1 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l Non -co r t ica l

T ab le 3 7

3 1

2 1 .4 7 8 .6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa l c o r t ica l s ur f ace , n . 3( 2 1 .4% ) A

B

A /B

4 0 1

7 0 1

5 1 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 2 6 - 4 0% 8 1 -1 00%

1 1 2

7 8 .6 7 . 1 1 4 .3

1 84

T ab le 3 8 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa l s c a rp a t te rns A

B

A /B

4 1 0

1 1 1

, 3 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id i rec t iona l B id i rec t iona l S ub rad ia l

7 5 2

5 0 .0 3 5 .7 1 4 .3

T ab le 3 9 S t a t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d imen s ion s ( i n cm ) , s t r ik ing p la t form a ng le s ,a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n . 1 4 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

A ng le

S ca r

4 .0 3 . 8 4 .0 , 5 . 1 ( b imoda l , 2 xe ach ) 1 . 6 1 . 60 7 . 40

3 . 3 2 .6 2 . 2 ( 2x )

1 . 4 1 . 2 0 . 9 , 1 . 1 , 1 . 3 ( t h ree mode s , 2 xe ach ) 0 .8 0 .45 3 . 50

10 ° 12 ° n o mode

4 9 3 . 5 3 . 5 5( 4x )

1 7 .27 6 2 .5 ° 1 4 1 °

2 . 10 0 7

1 . 57 1 . 60 6 .60

T ab le 4 0 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d i rec t ion o fp e rcu ss ion A

B

A /B

3 1 1

2 1 0

4 1 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry E nd s t ruck S ide s t ruck T ransve r sa l

T ab le 4 1

9 3 2

6 4 .3 2 1 .4 1 4 .3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s t r ik ing p l a t form morpho log ie s A

B

A lB

5 0 0

2 1 0

5 0 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry P la in A ta pex F a ce ted

T ab le 4 2

1 7 1 1

8 5 .7 7 . 1 7 . 1

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang who le w a s te f l ake p rof i le s A

B

A / 1 3

4 0 1

2 1 0

4 2 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C onvex S em i -d ished D ished

1 0 3 1

7 1 .4 2 1 .4 7 . 1

T ab le 4 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake p rof i le si nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia lf r equenc ie s Cv

S -d

C a t ego ry

A n

B n

A /B n

B n

A /B n

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

4 0

0

4

0

1

9

0

1

1

T ab le 4 4

D A n

n

1 0

1 0 4

T o ta l %

7 1 .4 2 8 .6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions A

B

A /B

3 0 2

1 1 1

2 3 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry A p ica l S t ep c oncave S t ep v e r t ica l

6 4 4

4 2 .8 2 8 .6 2 8 .6

T ab le 4 5 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion si nr e la t ion t or aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie s

C a tego ry

A n

A p B n

A /B n

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

3 0

0 1

0

2

S tep c B A /B

A

S tep v t B

A /B

T o ta l n

0 1

2 1

2 0

1 86

0 1

1 0

1 0 4

%

7 1 .4 2 8 .6

I 1 == :,

2

e o

4

F igu re 3 8 . X iaochang l iang w ho le w a s te f l ake s . I .P r ima ry a nd b i po la rf l ake . S ec t ion B . U nknown s e c t ion . T o s c a le .

1 87

2 .S ec t ion A .

3 .a nd 4 .

T ab le 4 6

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s o fX iaochang l iang w as te f l ake f r agmen t s , n .5 7 A

B

A /B

3 7 2 0

1 0 1

3 1 2

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

T ab le 4 7

5 1 3 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s hape s A

B

A /B

T o ta l ( 7 0

C a tego ry I r regu la r I r r .q uad . I r r . p o in ted

T ab le 4 8

8 9 .5 5 . 3 5 . 3

3 3 3 3

1 2 0 0

5 I 0

5 0 4 3

8 7 .7 7 . 0 5 . 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s A

B

A /B

6 3 3

2 1 0

0 6

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l Non -cor t ica l

T ab le 4 9

8 4 9

1 4 .0 8 6 .0

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fe s t ima ted X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r f ace , n . 7( 12 .3% ) A

B

A /B

3 4 1 1 3

1 0 1 1 0

6 0 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0%

T ab le 5 0

5 0 2 2 3

8 7 .7 3 . 5 3 . 5 5 . 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa l s c a rp a t te rn s A

B

A / 1 3

3 5 4

1 2 0

4 2

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id irec t iona l B id irec t iona l

T ab le 5 1

5 1 6

8 9 .5 1 0 .5

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen td imens ions ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n .5 7 Mean Med ian Mode S .D . m in imum max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

2 .4 2 .2 1 . 4 ( 4x ) 1 . 17 0 .90 5 .90

2 . 2 1 . 9 1 . 7 , 1 . 8 ( b imoda l ;4 x ) 0 . 93 0 . 90 4 . 50

0 .9 0 .8 0 . 3 , 0 .6 ( b imoda l ; 7 x ) 0 . 53 0 .20 2 . 10

1 88

S ca r 9 2 1 . 6 1 1( 30x ) 0 .82 1 5

T ab le 5 2 Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ies ,e xcava t ion s e c t ions a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eX iaochang l iang w a s te f l akes A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

C a tego ry

S ec t ion R aw ma te r ia l

9 027 9 0 17 9 004 9 029 9 0 14 9 0 13 9 0 16 829 9 0 15 826 8 825 9 040 8 824 9 026 9 053 8 827 9 006 9 041 8 819 9 005 8 822 9 028 5 528 8 823 9 043 9 035 5 463 9 034 9 054 8 809 8 821 9 032 8 810 8 828 8 812 9 007 5 476 9 033 8 818 8 817 5 489 9 055 8 813 8 808 8 811 9 038 8 806 8 807 5 521 8 816 5 540 8 814 5 502 9 003 9 001 8 805 9 0 10 5 511 8 815 9 0 11 9 023 5 500

0 . 90 0 . 90 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 20 1 . 25 1 . 30 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 45 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 70 1 . 75 1 . 80 1 . 80 1 . 90 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 20 2 .25 2 . 30 2 . 35 2 .40 2 .45 2 .45 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 .60 2 . 60 2 . 65 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 .70 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 85 2 . 90 3 .05 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 40 3 . 45 3 .60 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 75 4 .00 4 .00 4 .00 4 . 55

1 . 90 2 .20 2 . 10 0 .90 1 . 60 1 . 70 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 20 1 . 90 1 . 75 2 .70 2 .70 1 . 00 2 . 15 3 . 10 1 . 75 1 . 10 1 . 20 2 .60 1 . 45 1 . 20 1 . 30 1 . 80 1 . 60 3 . 35 1 . 70 2 . 10 1 . 80 1 . 40 1 . 70 1 . 15 2 .00 2 . 15 1 . 60 1 . 80 1 . 85 2 .50 3 . 15 1 . 75 1 . 80 1 . 80 2 .05 4 .20 2 .60 2 . 25 2 .60 1 . 90 2 . 15 2 .90 3 .00 2 . 10 1 . 85 3 . 10 3 . 45 2 .90 1 . 70 2 .40 2 .50 3 .95

0 .40 0 .60 0 .40 0 .20 0 .40 0 .45 0 .40 0 .60 0 . 30 0 . 30 0 .40 0 . 30 0 .60 0 . 50 1 . 10 0 . 30 0 . 70 0 .60 0 .60 0 . 50 0 .60 0 . 30 0 . 90 0 .40 0 . 70 0 .20 1 . 00 0 . 75 1 . 60 0 .75 1 . 35 0 . 80 0 .80 0 . 30 0 .80 1 . 10 0 .45 0 . 30 1 . 40 1 . 25 1 . 30 1 . 70 0 .60 0 .90 0 .55 1 . 50 0 . 85 1 . 50 0 . 90 1 . 35 1 . 15 1 . 30 2 .00 1 . 35 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 80 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 30 1 . 10 1 . 25

f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g w h w h f r g

A A B A A A A A A A A A A A B A B A A B A A A /B A A B A /B B B A A A A A A B A /B A A A A /B B A A A B A A A /B A A /B A A /B B A A B A / / 1 3 A B A AB

1 89

CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F QU CH /F CH /F CH /F QU QU CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F

T ab le 5 2 ,c on t inued A cce ss ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

C a tego ry

S ec t ion R aw m a te r ia l

9 009 6 058 9 0 19 5 464 8 803 9 039 8 804 8 802 5 470

5 .00 5 . 10 5 . 10 5 . 10 5 .20 5 . 30 5 .90 6 . 10 7 .40

5 . 45 4 .00 4 . 20 4 .45 4 . 50 3 . 40 4 .00 5 . 10 6 . 60

2 . 35 2 . 10 1 . 95 2 . 10 1 . 45 1 . 80 1 . 90 1 . 40 3 . 50

w h w h w h f r g f r g f r g f r g w h w h

B A /B B A /B A B A A A /B

CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F

1

2

3

F igu re 3 9 .

4

X iaochang l iang w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . 1 .a nd 2 .S ec t ion A .

3 .a nd 4 .S ec t ion B . T o s c a le .

T ab le 5 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang t o o ls

A

2

B %

n

4 . 3

1

A /B

2 . 1

4 4

T o ta l

9 3 .6

4 7

1 00

T ab le 5 4 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake ,f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t oo ls A

B

A /B

T o ta l

0 2 0

0 1 0

1 7 2 6 1

1 7 2 9 1

3 6 .2 6 1 .7 2 . 1

1

4 4

4 7

1 00

C a tego ry F lakes w h f r g N f l T o ta l

T ab le 5 5

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo ls hape s

C a tego ry I r regu la r I r r .q uad . I r r .p o in ted

1 4 1 * 2

8 2 .3 5 . 9 1 .8

T ab le 5 6 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o ld o r sa ls ca rp a t te rns C a tego ry U n id i r ec t iona l B id i rec t iona l S ub rad ia l

8 7 2

4 7 .0 4 1 .2 1 .8

T ab le 5 7 S ta t is t ica l a na lys i s o fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o l d imens ions ( i n c m ) , p l a tfo rm a ng les , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa ls ca r s

n . 1 7 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

A ng le

3 . 1 2 .9 2 .6 , 2 .8 ( b imoda l ; 2 xe ach )

2 . 7 2 . 8 1 . 95 , 2 . 85 b imoda l ; 2 xe ach )

1 . 0 0 .9 0 . 8 ( 3x )

0 . 86 1 . 60 4 . 50

0 . 70 1 . 60 4 . 15

0 .42 0 .50 1 . 80

16 ° 15 ° 10 ° , 12 ° 1 20 °( t h ree mode s ; 2 xe ach ) 7 . 55 1 04 ° 1 3 1°

S ca r 5 6 3 . 3 3 3( 7 x )

1 . 45 1 6

T ab le 5 8

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iao chang l iang t o o l d i rec t ion so fp e r cu s s ion

C a tego ry

n

%

E nd s t ruck S i de s tn ick T ran sve r sa l

9 6 2

5 2 .9 3 5 .3 1 .8

T ab le 5 9 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lp rof i le s C a tego ry

n

C onvex S em i -d ished D i shed

1 5 1

T ab le 6 0

% 6 4 .7 2 9 .4 5 . 9

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lp rof i le si nr e la t ion t or aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie s

C a tego ry

C v n

S -d n

D n

n

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

8 3

3 2

1 0

1 2 5

T ab le 6 1

T o ta l %

7 0 .6 2 9 .4

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions

C a tego ry

n

%

A p ica l S tep c oncave S tep v e r t ica l H inge

8 4 3 2

4 7 .1 2 3 .5 1 7 .6 1 .8

T ab le 6 2 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fX iaochang l iang who le f l ake t o o l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions i nr e la t ion t or aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie s

C a tego ry

A p n

S t ep c n

S t ep v t n

H n

n

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

7 1

1 3

3 0

1 1

1 2 5

T o ta l

1 92

%

7 0 .6 2 9 .4

1

2

F igure 4 0 . X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o ls . 1 .B ipo la rf l ake ,e nd -u t i l ised . T os ca le . U nknown s e c t ion

1 93

2 .S ide u t i l ised f l ake -b lade .

T ab le 6 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo l c a tego r ie s

C a tego r ie s S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide & e nd u t i l . S i de d en t . E nd d en t . N o tch

2 3 .5 4 1 .2 5 .9 1 .8 1 .8 5 . 9

1 7

T o ta l

T ab le 6 4

4 7 1 2 2 1

1 00 .1

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s S ide u t i l .

E nd u t i l .

S ide & e nd u t i l .

1 3

5 2

1 0

S ide d en t .

E nd d en t .

No tch

2 0

1 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se

T ab le 6 5

2 0

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo l c a tego r ie s i nr e la t ion t os hape I r r .

I r r .q uad .

I r r . p o in ted

1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 / 0 0

1

2

T o ta l

C a tego r ie s S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide & e nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . N o tch

1 4

T o ta l

T ab le 6 6

3 7 1 0 2 1

4 7 1 2 2 1 1 7

1 00

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fu n i la te ra l a nd b i la te ra l X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo l u se -wea r Un i ! .

B i l .

T o ta l

C a tego ry S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide & e nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . N o tch T o ta l

2 3 .5 4 1 .2 5 .9 1 .8 1 .8 5 . 9

4 7 0 2 2 1 1 6

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

4 7 1 2 2 1 1 7

2 3 .5 4 1 .2 5 . 9 1 .8 1 .8 5 . 9 1 00 .1

1 94

1 2 5

7 0 .6 2 9 .4

T ab le 6 7 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fu n if a c ia l a nd b i f a c ia lX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o l u s e -wea r U n if .

B if . V

T o ta l

C a tego ry

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide & e nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . N o t ch

0 / 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

T o ta l

1

1

4 4 1 1 1

1 1 4

4 7

1 2 2 1 1 7

2 3 .5 4 1 .2 5 . 9 1 .8 1 .8 5 . 9 1 0 1 .0

T ab le 6 8 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o lu se -wea re dge s hape s C c

C c -cv

O b l

S t r

D en t /ob l

T o ta l

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide & e nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . No tch

0 0 0 0 0 1

2 5 0

0 0 0

2 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 2 2 0

4 7 1 2 2 1

2 3 .5 4 2 .1 5 . 9 1 .8 1 .8 5 . 9

T o ta l

1

7

4

1

4

1 7

1 0 1 .0

C a tego ry

T ab le 6 9 C ompa ra t ive l e ng th ,w id th , a nd t h ickne s sr a nge so fX iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s ( i n cm ) ; n umbe r si nb racke t sr e f e rt on umbe ro fs pec imen s S ide u t i l . ( 4 )

E nd u t i l .

S ide & e nd u t i l .

( 7 )

( 1 )

S ide d en t . ( 2 )

E nd d en t . ( 2 )

N o t ch ( 1 )

L eng th

2 . 5-4 .0

1 . 8 -4 .5

2 .6

2 . 6 -4 .25

1 . 6 -2 .1

3 . 35

W id th

1 . 6 -3 .25

1 . 7 -4 .15

2.0

1 . 95 -3 .0

2 . 3 -2 .85

1 . 95

T h ickne s s

0 .5 -1 .3

0 . 5 -1 .95

0 .75

0 . 8 -1 .4

0 . 9 -1 . 0

0 .7

C a tego ry

1 95

1

2

3

F igu re 4 1 .

X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake t oo ls . 1 .S ide & e nd u t i l ised .

U nknown s e c t ion

1 96

2 .E nd u t i l ised . T o s ca le .

3 .E nd d en t icu la te .

F igu re 4 2 .

X iaochang l iang w ho le f l ake s i de d en t icu la te . Unknown s e c t ion

1 97

F igu re 4 3 .

X iaochang l iang who le f l ake n o tch . U nknown s e c t ion

1 98

2 1

3

4

F igu re 4 4 . X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls . 1 .S ide -u t i l ised q ua r tz f l ake -b lade . E nd u t i l i sed . Unknown s e c t ion

1 99

2 .S ide u t i l i sed . T o s ca le .

3 .a nd 4 .

T ab le 7 0

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen t a nd n on -f lake t o o ls , n .3 0 A

B

A JB

2 0 0

1 0 0

1 8 6 * 3 t

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

2 1 6 3

7 0 .0 2 0 .0 1 0 .0

*I n c lude s n on -f lake t oo l . tI n c lude s f l ake -b lade .

T ab le 7 1

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fX iaochang l iang f r agmen t t o o l s hape s A

T o ta l

C a tego ry I r r egu la r I r r .q uad . I r r . p o in ted

0 0 2

0 0 1

1 8 2-1 7 *

1 8 2 1 0

6 3 .3 3 . 3 3 3 .3

tI n c ludes f l ake -b lade . *I n c lude s n on -f lake t o o l .

T ab le 7 2

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on f lake t oo l d o r sa l s ca rp a t te rns A

B

A /B

1 1

1 0

1 9t 8 *

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id i rec t iona l B id irec t iona l

2 1 9

7 0 .0 3 0 .0

*I n c ludes n on f lake t oo l . tI nc lude s f l ake -b lade .

T ab le 7 3

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang t o o l f r agmen td imens ions ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n .3 0 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

T ab le 7 4

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

3 .2 3 .4 3 .4 , 3 .65 ( b imoda l ; 3 xe ach ) 0 .91 1 . 85 5 . 50

2 .8 2 .7 2 .0 ( 4x )

1 . 3 1 . 1 1 . 0 , 1 . 1 b imoda l ; 3 xe ach ) 0 .69 0 . 30 4 . 10

0 .93 1 . 20 4 .80

S ca r 8 3 2 .8 2 .5 2 (11x )

1 . 3 1 6

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen t t oo l d imens ions ( i n cm ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n .2 9 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

3 . 1 3 .4 3 .4 , 3 .65 ( b imoda l ; 3 xe ach ) 0 .81 1 . 85 5 .00

2 .75 2 . 55 2 .0 ( 4x )

1 . 2 1 . 1 1 . 0 , 1 . 1 ( b imoda l ; 3 xe ach ) 0 .45 0 . 30 2 .00

0 .95 1 . 20 4 .80

2 00

S ca r 7 8 2 .7 2 2( 1 1x )

1 . 26 1 6

T ab le 7 5

Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,e xcava t ion s e c t ion s a nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eX iaochang l iang t o o ls

A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

C a tego ry

S ec t ion R aw m a te r ia l

5 518 5 472

1 . 60 1 . 80

2 . 85 2 . 85

0 . 90 0 .60

w h w h

A /B A / 1 3

CH /F CH /F

5 527 5 512 5 523 9 042 8 820 5 510 5 486 6 059 5 525 5 505 5 520 5 513 5 482 5 485 5 545 5 484 5 508 5 524 5 483 5 506 5 473 5 480 5 515 5 519 5 551 5 507 5 477 9 021 5 498 5 503 5 514 5 499 5 497 5 517 5 475 5 465 5 481 5 501 5 490 5 471 5 504 5 543 5 495 5 474 5 466

1 . 85 1 . 90 2 .00 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 .20 2 . 30 2 .40 2 .45 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 .60 2 .60 2 .60 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 .90 2 .90 2 .95 3 . 25 3 . 30 3 . 35 3 .40 3 .40 3 .40 3 .40 3 . 50 3 . 60 3 .60 3 . 65 3 . 65 3 .65 3 . 70 3 . 80 3 . 85 4 .00 4 .00 4 .00 4 .20 4 .25 4 . 25 4 . 50 5 .00 5 . 50

1 . 70 3 . 10 1 . 60 1 . 20 1 . 75 2 . 30 2 . 00 3 . 30 2 .00 4 . 80 2 . 00 3 . 10 1 . 95 2 . 00 4 . 30 2 . 55 3 . 25 1 . 30 1 . 70 3 . 50 2 . 55 3 . 40 1 . 95 1 . 60 2 .00 2 . 40 3 .00 3 . 30 2 . 50 3 . 40 1 . 95 3 . 85 4 .40 2 . 40 2 . 45 3 . 15 2 . 80 2 . 80 3 . 35 4 . 15 2 . 40 3 . 00 3 . 35 3 . 80 3 . 10

0 . 30 0 .95 0 .60 0 .70 0 . 70 1 . 00 0 . 85 1 . 20 0 . 50 1 . 00 1 . 40 1 . 30 0 . 80 0 . 75 1 . 45 0 . 80 0 . 80 0 . 35 0 . 50 1 . 70 1 . 00 1 . 80 0 . 70 0 . 50 1 . 10 1 . 60 1 . 10 1 . 55 1 . 00 1 . 85 1 . 40 0 . 80 1 . 70 1 . 45 1 . 50 1 . 45 1 . 20 1 . 50 2 . 00 1 . 80 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 50 1 . 30 4 . 10

f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g l i g w h w h w h f r g w h w h f r g w h w h f r g f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h f r g n on -f lake

A /B A /B Af f l A A A /B A /B A /B A /B A /B AB A /B A /B A /B A /B A / 1 3 A /B Af f l A /B A /B AB AB A / 1 3 A /B A /B A /B Af f l B A /B A /B Af f l Af f l A /B A /B Af f l A /B A /B A / 1 3 A /B A /B A /B A /B A /B A /B A /B

CH /F -C CH /F QU CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F QU CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C QU CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C

T ab le 7 6 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t oo lc a tego r ie s A

B

A /B

1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 4 3 1 4 5

T o ta l

C a tego r ie s S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . P o in t u t i l . No tche s

1 4 3 1 6 5

3 6 .7 1 3 .3 1 0 .0 3 . 3 2 0 .0 1 6 .7

T ab le 7 7

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t oo l c a tego r ie s S ide u t i l .

E nd u t i l .

S ide d en t .

E nd d en t .

8 0 3

3 1 0

2 1 0

0 1 0

P o in t u t i l .

No tche s

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

T ab le 7 8

4 1 0

0

2 1 6 3

7 0 .0 2 0 .0 1 0 .0

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen t a nd n on -f lake t o o l c a tego r ie s i nr e la t ion t os hape

C a tego r ie s

A n

I r r . B n

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S i de d en t . E nd d en t . P o in t u t i l . N o tche s

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

T o ta l

0

0

T ab le 7 9

4

A /B n 8 4 1 I 0 4 1 8

I r r . q uad . A /B n

A n

1 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 0

2

2

I r r . p o in ted B n

A /B n

n

T o ta l

0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 4 1

1 4 3 1 6 5

1

7

3 0

% 3 6 .7 1 3 .3 1 0 .0 3 . 3 2 0 .0 1 6 .7 1 00

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fu n i la te ra l a nd b i la te ra l X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t oo l u se -wea r

U n i !

A B i l

B B i l

A /B U n i !

B i l

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S i de d en t . E nd d en t . P o in t u t i l . N o tches

1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 4 3 1 2 5

0 0 0 0 2 0

1 4 3 1 6 5

3 6 .7 1 3 .3 1 0 .0 3 . 3 2 0 .0 1 6 .7

T o ta l

1

1

1

2 5

2

3 0

1 00

T o ta l

C a tego ry

T ab le 8 0

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fu n if ac ia l a nd h i f ac ia l X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t oo l u se -wea r A

B B if .

A /B U n if . B if . T o ta l

C a tego ry S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S i de d en t . E nd d en t . P o in t u t i l . N o tche s

1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0

T o ta l

2

1

1

9 4 3 1 4 5 2 6

1 4 3 1 6 5

3 6 .7 1 3 .3 1 0 .0 3 . 3 2 0 .0 1 6 .7

3 0

1 00

2 02

T ab le 8 1

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t o o l u se -wea re dge s hape s A C c -cv

Ob l

B Ob i

C c

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . P o in t u t i l . N o tche s

1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 5

T o ta l

1

1

1

5

A /B C c -Cv

O b i

S t r

D /ob l

T o ta l

2 0 0 0 4 0

1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 3 1 0 0

1 4 3 1 6 5

3 6 .7 1 3 .3 1 0 .0 3 . 3 2 0 .0 1 6 .7

6

1

4

3 0

1 00

C a tego ry 7 4 0 0 0 0 1

1

2

F igu re 4 5 .

X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls . 1 .S ide d en t icu la te . T o s c a le .

2 03

2 .E nd d en t icu la te . U nknown s e c t ion

1

2

3

F igu re 4 6 .

X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen t p o in t u t i l ised t o o ls . 1 .S ec t ion B . 2a nd 3 .U nknown s ec t ion . T o s ca le

2 04

1

2

F igure 4 7 .

X iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls . 1 .P o in t u t i l ised . S ec t ion A .

2 05

2 . No tch . U nknown s e c t ion

T ab le 8 2 C ompa ra t ive l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h icknes sr ange so fX iaochang l iang f l ake f r agmen ta nd n on -f lake t o o l c a tego r ie s ( i n cm ) ; n umbe r s i nb racke t sr e f e rt on umbe ro fs pec imens C a tego ry

S ide u t i l . ( 1 1)

E nd u t i l . ( 4 )

S i de d en t . ( 3 )

E nd d en t . (1)

P o in t u t i l . ( 6 )

No tche s ( 5)

L eng th

2 .0 -5 .0

1 . 85 -3 .3

2 . 3 -3 .6

2 .6

2 . 1-5 .5

2 . 2 -4 .0

W id th

1 . 3 -4 .4

1 . 7 -4 .8

2 . 4 -3 .3

4 .3

1 . 2 -3 .4

2 . 0 -3 .85

T h ickne s s

0 . 35 -1 .7

0 . 3 -1 .8

1 . 0 1 .6

1 . 45

0 . 7 -4 .1

0 . 8 -2 .0

T ab le 8 3

S t a t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang w a s te h ake d imens ions ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s c a r s

n .7 1 Mean Med ian Mode S .D . m in imum max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

S ca r

2 .7 2 . 5 1 . 4 ( 4 x ) 1 . 4 0 .90 7 .40

2 .4 2 . 1 1 . 8 ( 5 x ) 1 . 16 0 .90 6 . 60

1 . 0 0 . 9 0 . 3 , 0 . 6 ( b imoda l ; 7 xe ach ) 0 .62 0 .20 3 . 50

1 4 1 2 2 1 ( 32x ) 1 . 39 0 7

T ab le 8 4 S t a t is t ica l a na lys is o fX iaochang l iang t oo l d imens ions ( i n cm ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

n .4 7 Mean Med ian Mode

3 . 2 3 . 5 3 . 4 ( 4x )

2 .7 2 . 8 2 . 0 ( 5x )

S .D . m in imum max imum

0 . 89 1 . 85 5 . 50

0 . 84 1 . 20 4 .80

1 . 2 1 . 1 0 . 8 , 1 . 0 ( b imoda l ;4 x e a ch ) 0 .61 0 . 30 4 . 10

2 06

S ca r 1 39 3 3 3( 15x ) 1 . 37 1 6

T ab le 8 5

C ompa ra t ive mea su remen t so fX iaochang l iang t o o ls a nd w a s te f l ake s ( i n cm )

C a t ego ry T I* n .4 7 m in imum m ax imum f l n .4 6 m in imum m ax imum w hf l n . 1 7 m in imum m ax imum f l f rg n .2 9 m in imum m ax imum a l f r g n .3 0 m in imum m ax imum Wf n .7 1 m in imum m ax imum w hf l n . 1 4 m in imum m ax imum f l f rg n .5 7 m in imum m ax imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

1 . 85 5 . 5

1 . 2 4 .8

0 . 3 4 . 1

1 . 6 5 .0

1 . / 4 . 8

0 . 3 2 . 0

1 . 6 4 .5

1 . 6 4 . 15

0 . 5 1 . 8

1 . 85 5 .0

1 . 2 4 .8

0 . 3 2 . 0

1 . 85 5 . 5

1 . 2 4 .8

0 . 3 4 . 1

0 .9 7 .4

0 .9 6 .6

0 . 2 3 . 5

1 . 6 7 .4

1 . 6 6 .6

0 . 45 3 . 5

0 .9 5 .9

0 .9 4 .5

0 . 2 2 . 1

*I n c lude s n on -f lake t oo l .

T ab le 8 6 Mea su remen t s , c a tego r ie sa nd r aw ma te r ia l so ft h e Dong Y ang a r tef ac t s A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

9 044 9 046 9 045 9 0 12 9 024

1 . 25 1 . 70 2 . 10 3 . 90 6 . 60

2 . 10 0 .60 1 . 90 ' 0 . 80 1 . 45 0 . 50 2 . 10 1 . 20 4 .50 2 . 35

C a tego ry

R aw ma te r ia l

w f w f w f t l t l

CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C

1

,

1 2

F igure 4 8 .

X iaochang l iang Dong Y ang t oo ls .

1 .S ide d en t icu la te o n c o re .

2 08

2 .S ide u t i l ised w ho le f l ake

T ab le 8 7 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie sb y t r ench T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

S ub to ta l

1 4 1 9 7 3 9 0

4 1 0 3 0 1 3

1 3 0 0 4

1 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 6

1 88 1 68 1

1 8 1 8 0

1 5 8 0

5 1 0

1 7 0

2 27 2 12

2 5 3 6

5 9

8 5

4 1 3

4 8

4 6 7 1

5 51 7 4 .4

8 0 1 0 .8

4 4 5 .9

3 7 5 .0

2 8 3 . 8

T o ta l

C a tego ry C s p d p mp b p Wf rg Wf w h f r g R e t . c o re T i w hf l f l f rg T o ta l n T o ta l %

T ab le 8 8

2 1 3 4 1 3

6 9

9 . 3

14 4 39

1 5 .4 5 9 .3

1 17

0 . 1 1 5 .8

2 . 8 4 .6 1 . 5 0 . 4

3 0 .7 2 8 .6

6 . 2 9 . 6 7 40 9 9 .9

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie sb y l a ye r A

S ub to ta l

T o ta l

C a tego ry C s p d p mp

1 4 1 9 7

3 2 0

3 2 0

0 0 0

1 1 4

2 1 3 4 1

b p Wf rg Wf w h f r g R e t . c o re T 1 w hf l f l f rg

3 9 1

0 3

0 1

0 0

0 9

3

1 89 1 77 1

2 3 0

2 1 5 0

0 0 0

3 4 1 7 0

2 27 2 12

2 5 3 7

8 8

6 9

1 0

6 1 7

4 6 7 1

T o ta l n T o ta l %

5 63 7 6 .1

2 9 3 . 9

4 8 6 . 5

1 0 . 1

9 9 1 3 .4

1 00%

6 9

9 . 3

14 4 39

1 5 .4 5 9 .3

1 17

0 . 1 1 5 .8

2 . 8 4 .6 1 . 5 0 . 4

3 0 .7 2 8 .6

6 . 2 9 . 6 7 40 9 9 .9

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C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo l i t h ic c a tego r ie s b y t r ench a nd l a ye r

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T ab le 9 0 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fD onggu tuo l i th ic c a tego r ie s C a tego ry C o re s Wa s te f r agmen t s Wa s te f l ake s R e tou ched n on -f lake T oo l s

6 9 14 4 39 1 17

9 . 3 1 5 .4 5 9 .3 0 . 1 1 5 .8

T o ta l

7 40

9 9 .9

T a le 9 1

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fD onggu tuo l i th ic s ubca tego r ie s S ub to ta l

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o re s s p d p mp b p Wa s te f r agmen t s Wa s te f l ake s w h f r g R e touched n on -f lake T oo ls w h f r g

2 1 3 4 1 3

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14 4 39

1 5 .4 5 9 .3

1 17

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7 40

9 9 .9

3 0 .7 2 8 .7

6 . 2 9 .6

T o ta l

T ab le 9 2

6 9 2 .8 4 .6 1 . 5 0 .4

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo w a s te ma te r ia l s a nd t o o ls

C a tego ry Wa s te m a te r ia ls T oo ls

1 326 17

9 1 .9 8 . 1

T o ta l

1 443

1 00

T ab le 9 3

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies o fs e lec ted Donggu tuo w a s te m a te r ia ls a nd t oo ls

C a tego ry Wa s te m a te r ia ls T oo ls

6 22 17

8 4 .2 1 5 .8

T o ta l

7 39

1 00

T ab le 9 4

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te m a te r ia ls a nd t oo ls T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry Wa s te m a t e r ia ls T oo ls

4 89 6 1

8 8 .8 1 .1

6 6 1 4

8 2 .5 1 7 .5

3 1 1 3

7 0 .5 2 9 .5

2 0 1 7

5 4 .1 4 5 .9

1 6 1 2

5 7 .1 4 2 .9

6 22 17

8 4 .2 1 5 .8

T o ta l

5 51

9 9 .9

8 0

1 00

4 4

1 00

3 7

1 00

2 8

1 00

7 39

1 00

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oc 5 c 5c 5

„ .

r Do 0 CV N

I f ) C,I CD

11

, t r j r fj

dc . ;d d

„ , r. . c vc h

c z0

, e ,• 1

00 N

C

— . . , . . .

,

" 1 - .. 1

C S t c ) r c )

C

_

CD

( 1 ) i

* . . . c / D 1 : $

0

0I ) 1 : •• • C I ) e l ) =

t l ) =

c ' ' e

Te

5

=

' '

*I ndu ra ted s a nd s tone

m t .L r ic 5c 5dc 5

2 12

T ab le 9 6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo c o re s a nd c o re c a tego r ie s T1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry S p D p Mp B p

1 4 1 9 7 3

2 0 .3 2 7 .5 1 0 .1 4 .3

4 1 0 3 0

5 . 8 1 4 .5 4 . 3 0 .0

1 3 0 0

1 . 4 4 .3 0 .0 0 .0

1 1 1 0

1 . 4 1 . 4 1 . 4 0 .0

1 1 0 0

1 . 4 1 . 4 0 .0 0 .0

2 1 3 4 1 3

3 0 .4 4 9 .3 1 5 .9 4 .3

T o ta l

4 3

6 2 .3

1 7

2 4 .6

4

5 . 8

3

4 .3

2

2 .9

6 9

9 9 .9

T ab le 9 7

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so f Donggu tuo c o re c a tego r ie s , n =69 S p

Dp

Mp

B p

T o ta l

C a tego ry C her t f i ne f i ne -coa r se B a sa l t Q ua r tz

1 2 8 0 1

1 7 .4 1 .6 0 .0 1 . 4

1 0 2 3 1 0

1 4 .5 3 1 .9 1 . 4 0 .0

5 6 0 0

7 .2 8 .7 0 .0 0 .0

2 13

3 0 0 0

4 .3 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0

3 0 3 7 1 1

4 3 .5 5 3 .6 1 . 4 1 . 4

• , .. . 1

. . 1

H

e H

C • 1

H

=

0 4 , .

=

H

=

i r ) H

=

4 7 t c A : 0 . ) ..

H

=

C . ) o o o N

0

2 14

T ab le 9 9 C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo T 1 c o re c a tego r ie s S p

Dp

C a t ego ry

n

%

C h e r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

6 7 1

1 3 .9 1 6 .3 2 . 3

n

7 1 2 0

Mp

B p

T o ta l

%

n

%

n

%

1 6 .3 2 7 .9 0 . 0

2 5 0

4 . 7 1 .6 0 . 0

3 0 0

7 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

1 8 2 4 1

4 1 .9 5 5 .8 2 . 3

F igu re 4 9 .

D onggu tuo T 1 s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o res .

1 .5 . 70 x7 . 85 x5 . 25 c m .

2 .9 . 50 x 5 .60 x4 .65 cm .

F igure 5 0 .

D onggu tuo T 1 d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re . 8 . 35 x 6 .75 x6 . 85 c m

2 17

F igu re 5 1 .

Donggu tuo T I d oub le -p la tform c o re . 9 . 80 x 8 . 80 x7 .40 cm

F igu re 5 2 .

Donggu tuo T i mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re . 7 . 15 x 7 . 90 x6 .90 c m

2 18

F igu re 5 3 .

D onggu tuo T i mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re . 8 . 90 x7 . 65 x7 . 45 c m

F igu re 5 4 .

Donggu tuo T I q ua r tz c o re . 6 .45 x 5 .85 x 5 .70 cm

2 19

I

2

F igu re 5 5 .

T ab le 1 00

Donggu tuo T 1 b i po la r c o re s . 1 .2 . 20 x 1 . 10 x 1 . 00 c m .

2 .4 .00 x 1 . 80 x2 . 10 cm

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l D onggu tuo T 1 c o re c a tego r ie s S p

D p

Mp

B p

9 5

1 3 6

3 4

2 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

2 7 1 6

6 2 .8 3 7 .2

T ab le 1 0 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s o fe s t ima ted Donggu tuo T 1 c o r t ica l s u r f ace o fc o re c a tego r ie s : s i ng le -p la t fo rm n =9 ( 64 .2% ) ; d oub le -p la tform , n = 13 ( 68 .4% ) ; mu l t i -p la tfo rm , n =3 ( 42 .9% ) ; b i po la r , n =2 ( 66 .7% ) ; t o ta l n =27 ( 62 .8% ) S p

Dp

Mp

B p

% o fc o r tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0% 4 1 -6 0%

% 5 2 3 3 1

3 5 .7 1 4 .3 2 1 .4 2 1 .4 7 . 1

6 5 2 4 2

3 1 .6 2 6 .3 1 0 .5 2 1 .1 1 0 .5

4 1 1 1 0

5 7 .1 1 4 .3 1 4 .3 1 4 .3 0 .0

1 2 0 0 0

3 3 .3 6 6 .7 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0

T o ta l n 1 6 1 0 6 8 3

3 7 .2 2 3 .3 1 3 .9 1 8 .6 7 . 0

T ab le 1 02

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

9 5

4 0

0 1

1 0

0 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

1 4 7

6 6 .7 3 3 .3

T ab le 1 03 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo c o r t ica ls u rf ace o fs i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s ;n = 14 ( 66 .7% ) T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

5 2 3 3 1

0 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0% 4 1 -6 0%

7 3 5 4 2

3 .3 1 4 .3 2 3 .8 1 9 .0 9 . 5

T ab le 1 04 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l D onggu tuo d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 3 6

5 5

3 0

1 0

1 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

2 3 1

6 7 .6 3 2 .4

T ab le 1 05 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe s t ima ted Donggu tuo c o r t ica ls u r face o fd oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s ;n =23 ( 67 .6% ) T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

6 5 2 4 2

5 3 1 1 0

0 0 2 1 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0% 4 1 -6 0%

1 9 6 6 2

3 2 .4 2 6 .5 1 7 .6 1 7 .6 5 . 9

T ab le 1 06 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies b y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica lD onggu tuo mu l t i -p la tform c o re s T 1

T 2

T 4

3 4

1 2

0 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

4 7

3 6 .4 6 3 .6

T ab le 1 07 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fe s t ima ted Donggu tuo c o r t ica l s u r f ace o fm u l t i -p la tfo rm c o re s ; n =4 ( 36 .4% ) T 1

T 2

T 4

4 1 I I

2 0 1 0

1 0 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0%

T ab le 1 08

7 1 2 1

6 3 .6 9 . 1 1 8 .2 9 . 1

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l D onggu tuo c o re s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 7 1 6

1 0 7

3 1

2 1

1 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

4 3 2 6

6 2 .3 3 7 .7

T ab le 1 09 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fe s t ima ted c o r t ica l s u rf ace o fD onggu tuo c o res ; n =43 ( 62 .3% ) T 1

T 2

T 3

1 6 1 0 6 8 3

7 4 3 2 1

1 0 2 1 0

T 4

T 5

0 0

1 0 1 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0% 4 1 -6 0%

2 6 1 5 1 3 1 4

3 7 .7 2 1 .7 1 8 .8 1 5 .9 5 . 8

T ab le 10 M in imum a nd m ax imum d imens ions ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ra nd r a nge o fp l a tform a ng le s a nd s ca r s o f Donggu tuo T i s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re s

n . 1 4 M in imum Max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

A ng le

S ca r

3 . 70 1 0 .95

2 . 80 8 . 45

1 . 70 7 .00

4 8 9 0 ° 15 °

7 0 3 8

T ab le 11 M in imum a nd m ax imum d imens ions ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ra nd r ange o fp l a tform a ng le s a nd s ca r so f Donggu tuo T 1 d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re s

n . 1 9 M in imum Max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

A ng le

S ca r

3 . 60 1 .85

3 . 35 8 . 90

2 . 15 7 .40

6 4 8 8 ° 15 °

1 22 5 1 0

T ab le 12 M in imum a nd m ax imum d imen s ion s( i n c m )a nd n umbe ra nd r a nge o fp l a tfo rm a ng le sa nd s c a r so fD onggu tuo T i mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re s

n .7 M in imum Max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

A ng le

S ca r

4 . 45 8 . 90

5 . 55 8 . 80

3 . 40 7 . 45

2 4 8 6 ° 16 .5 °

4 9 5 1 0

T ab le 13 M in imum a nd m ax imum d imen s ion s( i nc m ) a nd n umbe ra nd r a nge o fp l a t fo rm a ng le sa nd s c a r so fD onggu tuo T i b ipo la rc o re s

n .3 M in imum Max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

A ng le

S ca r

2 . 20 4 . 00

1 . 10 2 . 10

1 . 00 2 . 10

2 9 1 ° 9 6 °

2 0 3 1 4

T ab le 14 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe x ten to fc o re r e duc t ion o fD onggu tuo c o re c a tego r ie s , n -,6 9 T 1

T 2

T 3

1 4

1 5

T o ta l

a r ound w ho le p e r iphe ry a r ound p a r t ia lp e r iphe ry

4 1 0

0 4

1 0

0 1

0 1

5 1 6

7 . 2 2 3 .2

a r ound w ho le p e r iphe ry a r ound p a r t ia lp e r iphe ry

9 1 0

5 5

7 1

0 1

0 1

1 6 1 8

2 3 .2 2 6 .1

a r ound w ho le p e r iphe ry a r ound p a r t ia lp e r iphe ry

3 4

3 0

0 0

0 I

0 0

6 5

8 . 7 7 . 2

a r ound w ho le p e r iphe ry

3

0

0

0

0

3

4 . 3

C a tego ry S p f l aked f l aked D p f l aked f l aked Mp f l aked f l aked B p f l aked

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fe x ten to fD onggu tuo c o re r e duc t ion i nr e la t ion t or aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s

v " ) V D

t r n

c q r n v 5 r q r q C

Q

c zcz

V D

r n

g i n r n

E -,

c c )

C C

r . 1 0

o

o

C

H

f i n

r n

( 50 ( N Ir . )

\ 0

t i n —

C r s

2 24

VD 0

7 1-

r • I

e s ) k i n

( , )

> ,

a i

2

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies b y t r ench o ff l a tc o re p l a tform t a b le so fD onggu tuo c o re c a tego r ie si nr e la t ion t or aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s ; n =43 ( 62 .3% )

r - c q o c ;

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies b y t r ench o ff l a tc o re p l a t form t a b le so fD onggu tuo c o re c a tego r ie s ; n =43 ( 62 .3% )

c l ( N I r - r n r q

E -, • C D C D C D

C D

C 1 4

H

r-

a t ) ( 1 . )

a )

C D C D

H r , 1 r q C D C D

H r q C D C D C D

v D o o C D C D

• C D C D C D

• C D C D C D

r q C D C D C D

, . 4 D

t z : e z z i

C D

C

c e

N

r i p

0

e l ) 1 — K =

E' '

=

. , . 5 1 4 e 44

7, 3

• •4

e r , 4 0

. C > M

0

C >

E -4

C D C D C D 0 0 • • 1

0

0

0

0

0

" z r

C / D

— r n s C • 1

C s . ]

0

0

•

t r ) 1 . ) c n

0 .6 — , — , 7 3

a ) 3

0 F

c e F

> , ö

c r s

e z a ) c e

c ? . 1

U 2 25

C . )

N

t z r , zc z Z P Z

T ab le 19 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s

CC )

e

T ab le 1 20

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ies b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s , n . 14 T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

3 6 5 3 1 0 0

4 8 0 1 0

1 3 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

2 3 0 0 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Ba sa l t Q ua r tz I nd . s ands t .

T ab le 1 2 1

4 3 6 8 1 1 1

3 7 .7 5 9 .6 0 . 9 0 . 9 0 . 9

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

4 0 5 0

8 5

2 2

0 1

2 4

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l Non -co r t ica l

T ab le 1 22

5 2 6 2

4 5 .6 5 4 .4

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fe s t ima ted Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen tc o r t ica l s u rf ace ; n .5 2 ( 45 .6% ) T I

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

5 0 1 5 1 0 8 6 1

5 4 2 1 1 0

2 2 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0

4 1 1 0 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc or tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0% 4 1 -6 0% 6 1 -8 0%

T ab le 1 23

6 2 2 2 1 3 9 7 1

5 4 .4 1 9 .3 1 .4 7 . 9 6 . 1 0 . 9

Compa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen ts ca rp a t te rns T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

3 2 5 6 2

8 5 0

3 1 0

0 1 0

5 1 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id i rec t iona l B id i rec t iona l Mu l t id i rec t iona l

T ab le 1 24

n . 14 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

4 8 6 4 2

4 2 .1 5 6 .1 1 . 8

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fD onggu tuo w a s te f r agmen td imens ions ( i n cm ) a nd n umbe ro fs ca r s L eng th

W id th

T h icknes s

S ca r

4 .0 3 .9 4 .5 , 4 .7 , 5 . 15 ( t h ree mode s ; 4 xe ach ) 1 . 53 1 . 20 1 0 .45

3 . 1 3 .0 3 . 0 ( 6x )

1 . 9 1 . 9 1 . 3 ( 7x )

4 79 4 .2 4 3( 37 x )

1 . 28 1 . 10 7 .00

0 .72 0 .70 4 . 10

1 . 44 1 9

2 26

1

2

4

F igu re 5 6 . Donggu tuo T i w a s te f r agmen t s . 2 . 65 cm . 4 .4 . 50 x 3 . 00 x 3 . 10 cm

1 .3 . 30 x 2 . 45 x 2 . 40 c m .

2 .3 . 80 x 3 . 25 x 1 . 80 cm .

3 .4 .05 x 3 . 50 x

F igu re 5 7 .

Donggu tuo T i w a s te f r agmen t a nd w a s te f l akes i ng r ey c he r t

2 28

T ab le 1 25

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake sa nd w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s T I

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

T o ta l

Wh F rg

1 88 1 68

1 8 1 8

1 5 8

5 1

1 7

2 27 2 12

5 1 .7 4 8 .3

T o ta l

3 56

3 6

/ 3

1 6

8

4 39

1 00

C a tego ry

T ab le 1 26

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s , n .2 27 T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 03 8 1 1 3

1 4 0 3

7 8 0 0

1 4 0 0

1 0 0 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se c oa r se B a sa l t

T ab le 1 27

1 23 9 7 I 6

5 4 .2 4 2 .7 0 .4 2 .6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s hape s T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 33 4 5 9 1

1 4 3 1 0

1 3 1 1 0

3 1 1 0

1 0 0 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry I r regu la r i r r .q uad . I r r . p o in ted O va l

T ab le 1 28

1 64 5 0 1 2 1

7 2 .2 2 2 .0 5 . 3 0 .4

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake s T 1

T 2

6 7 1 21

2 1 6

T 3

T 4

T 5

3 2

0 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

9 6

8 1 1 46

3 5 .7 6 4 .3

T ab le 1 29 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r f ace ; n .6 4 ( 28 .2% ) T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 37 1 4 4 1 0 5 3 1 5

1 6 2 0 0 0 0 0

6 4 2 1 0 / 0

3 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 1- 1 0% 1 - 2 5% 2 6 - 4 0% 4 1 - 6 0% 6 1 - 8 0% 8 1 -1 00% *P r ima ry f l ake s

2 29

1 63 2 0 6 1 2 6 5 1 5*

7 1 .8 8 . 8 2 .6 5 . 3 2 .6 2 . 2 6 .6

T ab le 1 30

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d o r sa l s ca rp a t te rn s T 1

T 2

T 3

9 9 0 0

6 9 0 0

T 4

T 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id i rec t iona l B id i rec t iona l S ub rad ia l T ransve r se

1 07 7 2 3 6

7

3 0 0

I 0 0 0

1 25 9 3 3 6

5 5 .1 4 1 .0 1 . 3 2 .6

T ab le 1 31 S t a t is t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake d imen s ions ( i n cm ) , p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n .2 27 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

T ab le 1 32

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

A ng le

S ca r

3 .5 3 . 1 2 . 5 , 3 . 1 ( b imoda l ; 8 xe ach ) 1 . 62 0 .90 1 2 .55

3 . 1 3 . 0 2 . 3 ( 9x )

1 .7 1 . 1 1 . 1 ( 1 8x )

13 ° 13 .5 ° 18 ° ( 12x )

5 31 2 . 3 2 2( 83x )

1 . 32 1 . 00 7 . 85

0 .61 0 . 30 3 .40

1 3 .12 5 6 ° 1 47 °

1 . 25 0 8

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake d i rec t ions o fp e r cuss ion T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 30 4 2 1 6

9 3 6

5 5 5

3 2 0

1 0 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry E nd s t ruck S ide s t ruck T ran sve r sa l

T ab le 1 33

1 48 5 2 2 7

6 5 .2 2 2 .9 1 .9

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake s t r ik ing p l a tform mo rpho log ies T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

7 1 31 1 5 3 1 4

1 1 4 1 1

1 1 0 0 4 0

2 3 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l P la in A ta pex F a ce ted S ha t te red

T ab le 1 34

1 1 56 1 9 3 6 5

4 . 8 6 8 .7 8 . 4 1 5 .9 2 . 2

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b yt r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le w a s te f l ake p rof i le s T I

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 34 3 1 2 3

1 2 1 5

9 3 3

4 0 1

0 1 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C onvex S em i -d ished D i shed

2 30

1 59 3 6 3 2

7 0 .0 1 5 .9 1 4 .1

r g r - m t

N

K i n e

\ . 0

N

N

t 9-

c q • -

("1

L i n e

0

— C

CC

c z C s \ 0

a . > •

0

C. k i n

CD C D C D

C D C D C D

r n N

C D r n C D C D

r s : e N e

C h

r n r s . 1 c D r q V C N

c i ) . 5 2

C D C D C D

C • 1 c e l C)

C . r q o o C D

k t n

r n

C C D

7 1 E .

v f D r n

0

r n

H

r n C D ^ o o t e n

H

c n

co

0 O A 1 > r e.

. 1 2 2 : 1

0 C . ) C IZ

C

r-

v Z

k r ) r r )

— C

C )

c z $

I

4 3

6

7

F igu re 5 8 . Donggu tuo T1w ho le w a s te f l akes . 1 .P r ima ry f l ake , 4 . 15 x2 .65 x 1 . 10 c m . 2 . 1 . 70 x 1 . 45 x0 .60 cm . 3 . 3 . 35 x 3 . 15 x 1 . 10 c m . 4 . 2 .60 x 2 . 25 x0 .60 cm . 5 .3 . 95 x 3 . 05 x 1 . 30 c m . 6 .2 . 90 x 2 .40 x 1 . 05 c m . 7 .2 . 30 x 3 . 60 x1 . 00 cm

2 32

3

F igu re 5 9 . Donggu tuo T i w ho le w a s te f l akes . 4 . 50 x2 . 30 x0 .85 cm

1 .5 . 40 x 3 . 70 x 1 . 80 cm . 2 .5 . 95 x6 . 35 x2 . 50 cm . 3 .B ipo la r f l ake ,

2 33

F igure 6 0 .

Donggu tuo T i b ipo la r w a s te f l ake

2 34

T ab le 1 38

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

9 9 6 4 3 2

1 2 5 1 0

4 4 0 0

7 3 1 0

5 2 0 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se B a sa l t Q ua r tz

T ab le 1 39

1 27 7 8 5 2

5 9 .9 3 6 .8 2 . 4 0 . 9

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen ts hape s T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 38 2 1 9

1 5 1 2

7 1 0

1 0 0

5 2 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry I r regu la r I r r .q uad . I r r .p o in ted

T ab le 1 40

1 76 2 5 1

8 3 .0 1 .8 5 . 2

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l D onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

3 5 1 33

2 1 6

1 7

1 1 0

2 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l Non -co r t ica l

4 1 1 7 1

1 9 .3 8 0 .7

T ab le 1 4 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fe s t ima ted Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa l c o r t ica ls u rf ace ; n .3 4( 16 .1 % ) T i n

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

% o fc o r tex 0% 1- 1 0% 1 - 2 5% 2 6 - 4 0% 4 1 - 6 0% 6 1 - 8 0% 8 1 -1 00%

1 38 7 7 4 4 5 3

1 6 0 1 0 0 1 0

8 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

6 0 0 0 0 1 0

T o ta l

1 78 7 8 4 4 7 4

8 3 .9 3 . 3 3 . 8 1 . 9 1 . 9 3 . 3 1 . 9

T ab le 1 42 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen td o r sa l s ca rp a t te rns T i n

T 2 n

T 3

T 4

T 5

C a tego ry Un id i rec t iona l B id i rec t iona l S ub rad ia l

1 23 4 4 1

1 7 1 0

6 2 0

1 0 1 0

6 1 0

T o ta l

1 62 4 9 1

7 6 .4 2 3 .1 0 . 5

F igu re 6 1 . Donggu tuo T i w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . 1 .1 . 90 x 1 . 30 x0 . 40 c m . 2 .P r ima ry f l ake , 2 . 20 x2 . 25 x0 . 75 cm . 3 .2 .00 x4 . 30 x 1 . 10 cm . 4 . 1 . 55 x 1 . 10 x 1 . 25 c m . 5 .2 . 35 x 2 . 35 x 1 . 70 c m . 6 . 1 . 90 x2 . 25 x 0 . 65 c m . 7 .2 .35 x 2 . 60 x0 . 95 c m . 8 .2 . 40 x 3 . 60 x 1 . 20 c m . 9 . 1 . 90 x2 .00 x0 .65 c m . 1 0 . 4 . 60 x 3 . 50 x 1 . 70 c m

2 36

T ab le 1 43

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o fD onggu tuo w a s te f l ake f r agmen td imens ions ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n .2 12 Mean Med ian Mode S .D . m in imum max imum

T ab le 1 44

L eng th

W id th

T h icknes s

S ca r

2 .4 2 .3 2( 9x ) 0 .99 0 .75 5 .20

2 . 3 2 . 1 2( 1 1x ) 0 . 91 0 . 40 5 . 85

0 .9 0 .9 0 . 8 ( 19x ) 0 .43 0 . 15 2 . 10

4 20 2 2 2( 83x ) 0 .9 1 5

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo ls a nd f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry Wh F rg

2 5 3 6

T o ta l

6 1

T ab le 1 45

5 9 1 4

8 5 1 3

4 1 3 1 7

4 8 1 2

4 6 7 1 17

3 9 .3 6 0 .7 1 00

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo ls , n .4 6 T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 7 8 0

4 1 0

7 1 0

2 1 1

2 2 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

T ab le 1 46

3 2 1 3 1

6 9 .6 2 8 .3 2 . 2

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l s hape s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 0 1 4

2 0 3

8 0 0

2 0 2

4 0 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry I r regu la r I r r . q uad . I r r . p o in ted

T ab le 1 47

3 6 1 9

7 8 .3 2 .7 1 9 .6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o ls T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

4 2 1

1 4

2 6

0 4

3 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l N on -co r t ica l

1 0 3 6

2 37

2 1 .7 7 8 .3

T ab le 1 48 ( 19 .5% )

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f e s t ima ted Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l d o r sa l c o r t ica l s u rface ; n .9

T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 2 1 1 1 0

4 0 0 0 1

6 1 1 0 0

4 0 0 0 0

1 0 2 1 0

T o ta l

%o fc o r tex 0% 1-1 0% 1 -2 5% 2 6 -4 0% 6 1 -8 0%

T ab le 1 49

3 7 2 4 2 1

8 0 .4 4 . 3 8 . 7 4 . 3 2 . 2

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l d o r sa l s ca rp a t te rns T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

4 1 0

5 3 0

1 2 1

2 2 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id i rec t iona l B id i rec t iona l C re s t

9 1 5 1

2 1 2 3 2

4 5 .7 5 0 .0 4 .3

T ab le 1 50 S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l d imens ions ( i n c m ) , p la tform a ng les , a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n .4 6 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

T ab le 1 51

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

A ng le

4 .0 3 . 5 3 .2 ( 4x )

3 .0 2 .7 2 .0 , 2 .2 , 3 . 5 , 4 .2 ( f ou r mode s ; 3 xe ach ) 1 . 02 1 . 20 5 . 80

1 . 4 1 . 3 0 . 8 , 1 . 0 ( b imoda l ; 5 xe a ch )

11 .4 ° 12 ° 1 03 °,10 ° , 14 ° ( t h ree mode s ; 3 xe a ch ) 1 3 .30 6 7 ° 1 3T

1 . 47 2 .00 7 .85

0 . 57 0 . 60 2 . 85

S ca r 1 27 2 .8 3 2( 18x )

0 .92 1 5

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo t oo l d i rec t ions o fp e rcuss ion T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

1 6* 2 7

5 0 0

6 0 2

4 0 0

4 0 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry E nd s t ruck S ide s t ruck T ransve r sa l

3 5 2 9

7 6 .1 4 .3 1 9 .6

*I n c lude so ne b ipo la rf l ake

T ab le 1 52

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo t oo l s t r ik ing p la t fo rm mo rpho log ie s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 1 4 1 8

0 5 0 0

1 6 1 0

0 4 0 0

2 1 0 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l P la in A ta pex F a ce t ed

5 3 0 2 9

2 38

1 0 .9 6 5 .2 4 . 3 1 9 .6

T ab le 1 53

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l p rof i le s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 0 5

4 1

6 2

1 3

4 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C onvex S em i -d i shed

T ab le 1 54 f r equenc ie s

3 5 1

7 6 .1 2 3 .9

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l p rof i les i n r e la t ion t o r aw ma te r ia l

C a tego ry

T 1 n

T 2 n

Cv T 3 n

T 4 n

T 5 n

T 1 n

S d T 2 n

T 3 n

T 4 n

T o ta l n %

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se Q ua r tz

1 3 7 0

3 1 0

5 1 0

1 0 0

2 2 0

4 1 0

1 0 0

2 0 0

1 1 1

3 2 6 9 .6 1 3 2 8 .3 12 .2

T ab le 1 55

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

5 1 7 2

2 1 2 0

4 2 / 0

1 1 2 0

2 0 2 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry A p ica l S t ep c oncave S tep v e r t ica l H inge

1 4 1 5 1 5 2

2 39

3 0 .4 3 2 .6 3 2 .6 4 .3

v D r n c l q 0- 0 r v : D

r • I

C Z )

C,1 C >

-

C Z )

-

C

-

• — e C D

-

0

0

H

-

e

C

C D r n o o r n • 7 i e

r ,

e l c q

r q

r 9

r -

o o c,10 0 r,1C D C D t r )

7 .2 ;

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yl a ye ro fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s

H

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l d i s ta l t e rm ina t ions i nr e la t ion t or aw m a te r ia lf r equenc ie s , n =46

-

c D r n o o r l • M t r q r q

r e ) C D N

C —

C

C > C • C D C . > C>

C

C D C D C D C D C D C D

r n C D r q C D C D

C D

r q C D • 1- C D C D C D r q

o0 c ' , 1 0 0 C,1

C

I A

* E. 0

-

.

V D U 1 U p L U

. = C ) 0 C 1 2 4 Z

2 40

" c D ' 1 ) ^ C D

' 1 )

I )

• 2 0 0 Z . 1 Z

e r ;

T ab le 1 59

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo t oo l c a tego r ies T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

T o ta l

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . D en t . p o in t P o in t u t i l . N o tche s

7 5 4 1 5 3 2 4 8

7 0 2 0 2 1 2

7 0 4 0 0 1 1

8 1 5 1 0 2 0

7 0 2 0 0 0 3

5 4 5 2 8 4 4 8 1 4

T o ta l n T o ta l 9 0

6 1 5 2 .1

1 4 1 2 .0

1 3 1 .1

1 7 1 4 .5

1 2 1 0 .3

17

C a tego ry

T ab le 1 60

4 6 .2 4 .3 2 3 .9 3 .4 3 . 4 6 . 8 1 2 .0

1 00

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y l a ye ro fD onggu tuo t oo l c a tego r ie s A

B

C

D

9

T o ta l

C a tego ry S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . D en t . p o in t P o in t u t i l . N o tche s

2 5 4 1 6 3 2 4 8

T o ta l n T o ta l %

6 2 5 3 .0

8 0 5 0 0 0 3

7 0 3 0 1 2 2

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 3 1 4 1 1 2 1

5 4 5 2 8 4 4 8 1 4

1 6 1 3 .7

1 5 1 2 .8

1 0 .8

2 3 1 9 .7

17

4 6 .2 4 .3 2 3 .9 3 . 4 3 . 4 6 . 8 1 2 .0

1 00

2 41

, C CD . D

—

C

C

i ' a ) l c 0

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie sb y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s , n =46

E . - [ . 1 J =

7 t -

, . , , c z

=

, 4, 4C

N H

=

c • I C D C D

g

=

k r ) en CD

H

5: e n a ) a ) "e C i )

— . 5 =

k e " )

H

c qc ,c D

=

Ü

, , , ( CD

C H =

e n

H

=

c n - c p

5 a ) . . H ( 7 ) =

— C C

—

g i

=

C

C

t r ) C D CD

1 . )

› , ; . , O u c z

U

g 0 Q r . , u== . = t:2, tz. =

U

4

0 '

>, s . 0 & DO 1 ) 0 2 U

2 42

T ab le 1 62

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo t oo ls , n . 17 T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

4 2 1 6 2 1

1 2 1 1 0

1 0 3 0 0

1 0 6 0 1

T 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se B a sa l t Q ua r tz

T ab le 1 63

C a tego ry S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . D en t . p o in t P o in t u t i l . N o tche s T o ta l

T ab le 1 64

5 5 2 0

7 9 3 1 5 2

6 7 .5 2 6 .5 4 . 3 1 . 7

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l c a tego r ies i nr e la t ion t os hape

T 1 n 6 7 6 1 0 0 5 2 0

T 2 n

I r r . T 3 n

T 4 n

T 5 n

I r .q uad . T 1 n

I r r . p o in ted T i T 2 n n

T 4 n

n

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

4 0 3 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

2 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 0

2 0 2 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 7 7 1 6 2 1 1 7

3 7 .0 4 . 3 3 4 .8 4 . 3 2 . 2 2 . 2 1 5 .2

2

8

2

4

1

4

3

2

4 6

1 00

T o ta l %

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fu n i la te ra l a nd b i la te ra l Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l u se -wea r Un i l . T 1

U n i l .

B i l . T 2

Un i l . T 3

U n i l . T 4

U n i l . T 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S i de d en t . E nd d en t . D en t . p o in t P o in t u t i l . N o tch T o ta l

T ab le 1 65

8 2 8 2 0 0 5 2 5

1 0 2 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 1 0

4 0 3 0 0 0 1

2 0 2 0 0 0 0

2 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 7 1 1 6 2 1 1 7

3 7 .0 4 .3 3 4 .8 4 . 3 2 . 2 2 .7 1 5 .2

3

2

8

4

4

4 6

1 00

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fu n if ac ia l a nd b i fac ia l Donggu tuo w ho le f l ake t oo l u se -wea r

C a tego ry

T 1 Un if . D n

V n

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . D en t . p o in t P o in t u t i l . N o tche s

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 1

T o ta l

2

2

T 1 B if .

T 2 B if .

n

n

T 3 U n if . D n

1 0 2 0 1 1 0 5

7 2 7 2 0 0 3 2 1

n

T 4 U n if . V n

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 0 3 0 0 0 1

1

7

B if .

2 43

n

T 5 U n if . D n

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 2 0 0 0 0

1

3

B if .

B if . T o ta l n

n

%

0 0 1 0 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 7 2 1 6 2 1 1 7

3 7 .0 4 . 3 3 4 .8 4 . 3 2 . 2 2 . 2 1 5 .2

1

3

4 6

1 00

N

U

U

=

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0C D0 0 0C D

0

0

0

0

0

-,

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l u se -wea re dge s hape s

0 m . 0

C V 0

. 0

0

r ? (1 (1 ( N I N N v ;

0

r -. 1 .1

Cs i

, 4 : : : ,

N

, -1

,,

t -.

Il

,.

I . . . , . r . L ) Z c l . ) C Z =

,• O

eI

1 , 0

e l ) . S Z M S

0 0 C U c e

E .4

0

U

7 1- 0

0

0

0

0

0

c n

N

0

0

0

0

0

.

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 C )

• = , . . • • -

. . ;

5

Olr )

•

•0 • C l i = c u . _ . . . , = Q) 7 : 3 : 1= J = 7) = I -) 3 0 c 7 D L I Z V D W Z a . )

C V

t f )

•• 1

. : • •' • . 17 5 ' — = . , . . , , . , . .• , , . , = , . . =o , , •. . ,. = I ) 6 0 c 7 ) U . J c / D WCZ P . . , Z

2 44

tr ) 00

in rt

rs : v ! )

« l:

c r t C,i

0 Z ). • ,

CD C, I

c

) l

0 0 C 3

0 0 0

S i de d en t . ( 1 6 )

N

0 cn

S ide u t i l . ( 1 7 )

0

C ompa ra t ive l e ng th , w id th ,a nd t h ickne ss r a nge so fD onggu tuo w ho le f l ake t o o l c a tego r ie s , n =46 ( i nc m ) ; n umbe r s i nb ra cke t sr e f e rt on umbe ro fs p ec imens

C " = 1 . ) C Z =

T ab le 1 67

—

2

1

4

3

5

6

F igu re 6 2 . Donggu tuo T 1 s i de u t i l ised w ho le f l ake s a nd r e touched n on -f lake . 1 .4 .70 x3 . 50 x 1 . 60 cm . 2 .2 . 70 x2 . 20 x 0 . 80 c m . 3 .2 . 95 x 2 .25 x 1 . 45 cm . 4 .3 . 60 x 2 . 60 x 1 . 20 c m . 5 .4 .90 x4 .20 x 1 . 90 c m . 6 .R e touched n on -f lake , 6 . 30 x4 .00 x3 . 30 cm

2 45

1

2

F igure 6 3 .

Donggu tuo T i e nd u t i l ised who le f l akes .

1 .4 .60 x 3 . 20 x 1 . 60 cm . 2 .6 . 15 x 5 .80 x 2 .85 cm

2 1

4

3

5

F igure 6 4 .

Donggu tuo T i s i de d en t icu la te w ho le f l akes .

1 .5 .90

x4 .65 x 2 . 70 cm . 2 . 3 . 10 x 2 .00 x 1 . 00 cm . 3 .3 .20 x

4 .00 x 1 . 20 cm . 4 . 4 .55 x 2 .80 x 1 . 75 cm . 5 .2 .90 x 2 .30 x 1 . 40 cm

2 47

2

1

3

4

F igu re 6 5 . Donggu tuo T i e nd d en t icu la te a nd n o tch w ho le f l ake s . 1 .E nd d en t icu la te , 2 . 70 x2 .20 x 1 . 05 cm . 2 .E nd d en t icu la te , 2 . 75 x 2 .40 x 1 . 00 cm . 3 . No tch , 2 . 35 x 1 . 60 x0 . 80 c m . 4 . No tch , 3 . 40 x 2 . 70 x 1 . 10 cm . 5 . No tch , 3 . 35 x1 . 60 x 1 . 30 cm . 6 . No tch , 3 . 70 x 2 . 65 x 1 . 65 cm

2 48

T ab le 1 68

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls , n .7 1 T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 5 8 2 1

8 0 1 0

3 2 0 0

8 5 0 0

3 3 2 0

T o ta l

C a tego ry C he r t f i ne l i ne -coa r se B a sa l t Q ua r tz

T ab le 1 69

4 7 1 8 5 1

6 6 .2 2 5 .4 7 .0 1 . 4

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen t t oo l s hapes T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

5 2 1 4 0

3 1 2 0

1 0 1 1 0

6 0 2 0

4 2 6 2 2

T o ta l

C a tego ry I r regu la r 1 8 I r r .q uad . 2 I r r . p o in ted C re scen t 2

T ab le 1 70

5 9 .2 8 . 4 2 1 2 . 8

2 9 .6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fc o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l Donggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo ls T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 2 9

0 7

1 5

1 1 2

1 7

T o ta l

C a tego ry C o r t ica l 7 N on -co r t ica l

1 5 .5 6 0

8 4 .5

T ab le 1 7 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fe s t ima ted D onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo l d o r sa l c o r t ica l s u r face ; n .1 ( 1 5 .5% ) T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

2 9 3 2 2

7 2 0 0

5 0 0 0

1 7 0 0 1

7 1 0 0

T o ta l

% o fc o r tex 0% 2 6 -4 0% 4 1 -6 0% 6 1 -8 0%

T ab le 1 72

6 0 6 2 3

8 4 .5 8 . 5 2 .8 4 .2

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo l d o r sa l s ca rp a t te rn s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

7 2

2 3

5 8

4 4

T o ta l

C a tego ry U n id irec t iona l B id i rec t iona l

1 7 1 9

3 5 3 6

4 9 .3 5 0 .7

T ab le 1 73

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo f l ake f r agmen t t o o l d imen s ions ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s

n .7 1 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

T ab le 1 74

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

S ca r

3 .4 3 . 1 3 . 1 , 4 .2 3 . 1 ( 6x ) ( b imoda l , 5 x e ach ) 1 . 1 1 . 40 6 .00

2 .7 2 .6 0 . 8 , 1 . 0 , 1 . 2

1 . 3 1 . 3 3( 27x ) ( t h ree mode s ,

2 08 2 .9 3

6 xe a ch ) 0 . 87 1 . 10 5 .75

0 .5 0 .60 2 . 90

1 . 09 1 6

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo l c a tego r ie s T 1

T 2

T 3

T 4

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . D en t . p o in t P o in t u t i l . No tche s

1 7 2 7 1 2 4 3

6 0 0 0 1 0 2

3 0 1 0 0 1 0

6 1 3 1 0 2 0

T o ta l n 36 T o ta l %

9 5 0 .7

5 1 2 .7

1 3 7 .0

8 1 8 .3

T 5

T o ta l

C a tego ry

T ab le 1 75

5 0 1 0 0 0 2

3 7 3 1 2 2 3 7 7

7 1 1 .3

5 2 .1 4 .2 1 6 .9 2 . 8 4 .2 9 . 9 9 . 9

1 00

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ies b y l a ye ro f Donggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt oo l c a tego r ies A

B

C

9

S ide u t i l . E nd u t i l . S ide d en t . E nd d en t . D en t . p o in t P o in t u t i l . N o tche s

1 7 2 8 1 2 4 3

6 0 1 0 0 0 1

4 0 1 0 1 1 2

1 0 1 2 1 0 2 1

T o ta l n 37 T o ta l % 5 2 .1

8 1 .3

9 1 2 .7

1 7 2 3 .9

7 1

T o ta l

C a tego ry 3 7 3 1 2 2 3 7 7

5 2 .1 4 . 2 1 6 .9 2 . 8 4 . 2 9 . 9 9 . 9

1 00

2 50

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s b y t r ench o f Donggu tuo f l ake f r agmen t t oo l c a tego r ies , n .7 1 e r

S

t n

N

H

1 . 1

C D

e

o r s ( — )

a . )

=

c a7 , d N

N 0 0 ( r )

N C D

C 0 C D

C D

C C D 0

C C C D

7 1 - C N I

C D C

a )

N

f : 4

2 51

c l

C h

r l r ye

C h C h

0

• •• 1

e q C D C D C D C D C D C D

C D

E -,

C D C D C D C D

C D C D C D C D C D N

C D

C D C D C D C D C D

C D

•

C D C D C D

m

C D

e n

C

C D C D C D

•

r i

C D C D

N

N

N

7 1-

0

• •• 1

c qe

0

0

r n

0

r n CD

0

0

0

0

N

•

m

C D C D C D C D

N

C D

E -,

r n

C D C D C D C D C D e q

C D C D C D C D

r qr n

r -

r -

0 c : E . -

> • , 0 b e 0 2 C . . )

. " : •

•

R : 1

V D

" 0

V D L I J

C D C D C D C D

•

• 0• •

a ) -

C D C D C D C D C D N

M

C D

C O

5 .

C D C D

C O

C D C D

e

*E

•

. 0 I )

. 7 2

C O

C D

C D C D C D C D

C D C D C D C D

E r 2 ,

N C )

C D C D C D

C D C D C D C D C D

7 1- 0

0 ,

Nr nr • •

C D C D C D C D

L A

E -,

0

V D

e q C D C D C D C D C D C D

C D C D

r q

0 0 C l C S

k n o — o zczc i

C D C D C D

C D C D C D C D C D C D

c v c>

•

. 8

0 0

e a . ) 32 Z . 4

C O

2 52

•

C O

" 0 C O

•

.

•

. . 0

( 1 )• 3 0 Z

N

•

> 4 . c e 3 1 . 1 )

cN

m t:

00

c q

N m t C h C h

N C r ) r e )

N r s l C r ) r "-• r • •

m t C D

C D C D C D C A

•

C D

C D C D C D C D C D C D

k n H . Z I Z

=

C 9

C A

C D

C D

C D C D C D C D

e i ) Z

m t C D

C D

C D C D C D C D

C 9 C D C D C D C D m . C D

C D C D

C D C D C D C D

C D C D C D C D C D C D

r e-) C D C D C D m C D c 9

c i r ) C D C D C D C D C D C D

t n C A r -

c 9 m t c 9

•

C D C D C D C D C D C D

•

C D C D C D C D C D .

C9

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie sb yt r ench o fD onggu tuo f l ake f r agmen tt o o l u se -wea re dge s hape s

0

C D C D C D C D C D

N

1 7 )

•

5 i z 6 1 ' ) -o

-o

N

v pw

c u

3

C

C

C D C D

C

2 53

C

r —

m t . C

—

U

C

C 9 C D C D

C

C

C

C D C D C D C D C D

C 9 C D C D C D C D C D C D

C D C D C D C D C D C D c r )

57 ) c s I )

7 :3 = 7 :3

Z

C

0

t d )

0

C

C D C D C D C D C D C D C V

•• • , .I . • 7 7.

a . )

•

C

. 7 s E

0 0

0 b l )

C

r q c p c ) c D C D C D C D

C D

c r S

C D C D

7 5 • •• • , 4 5 0

, 2

( 1 ) = a )

E . — c . ) a ) f a . C I ) 4• C Z . « U .C )

E = = C

U 3 . . C A

. c q c h 0 0 e l C ) C I ( . , i 7 1: , 5c ‘ i e Ch Ch

=

c

C C -

M ; . S Z = . -

. . .. .,

C A 1 .

N r n (. 3 c • I e n r - r e n -

C D C D , - C D C D C D C D

r . ) . 2 U

a ) . L D

E = =

. 1 ,

r n C D C D C D C D C D C D

C * 1

f q C D C D C D C D C D C D

N

E U = . t I t = c z ' a ) . — , .

c n 0 ) = 0 ) 0 Z Rs ,

= 5 5 . 0 a

0 b i )

a )

M L ) 0 0

1 . . ,

• I.

C D C D C D C D C D C D C q

N I

5 a )

E

> C ) ( . I ) U

0 . 0

C D C D C D

7 1 "

O 4 .. g 0

, . - . . * C D C D C D C,1 C D

C A

0 c

1 . ) 0 0 = M . v ) v ) a ) = . 2 U . , C

t n C D C D C D C D C D C D

' V = M

C D C D , , C D C D C D C D

• •

4 . " C ) . " .d rz

H 0 =

, C D C D C D C D , C D

e q

= 1 . )

T ab le 1 80 ,c on t inued

a ) > C O c q C D C D C D C D C D C D

, 1

•

. .

—

0

0 )0 c ) " c z c7 z =_ Q ) 62

— r n . . , . _ . . C O z C O w

( N I

C O Q . ,

E C U •• • 1

0 0 , ,

U zz

C O H

> , 1 . 0 0 . 0 a . ) C O U

2 54

L eng th 1 . 40 -6 .00

C D C D r n , .

M % . 4 , a . ) . M = 0 = 5 e l ) 0 . 1 ) = 0

S i de d en t . ( 12 )

=

S ide u t i l . ( 37 )

C / D

2

1

5

F igure 6 6 . Donggu tuo T 1 s i de u t i l ised a nd e nd u t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t s . I .- 4 . S ide u t i l ised . 1 .3 .90 x 2 .20 x 1 . 70 cm . 2 .4 .70 x 3 . 50 x 1 . 60 cm . 3 .6 .00 x 3 . 10 x 1 . 60 cm . 4 .2 .20 x 1 . 80 x 0 . 85 cm . 5 .E nd u t i l ised . 1 . 90 x 1 . 80 x 0 .75 cm

2 55

1

2

1 . 1

4

3

5

F igure 6 7 . Donggu tuo T 1 s i de d en t icu la te f l ake f r agmen t s . 1 .1 . 70 x2 . 35 x0 . 70 c m . 2 .3 . 95 x2 .00 x 1 . 40 cm . 3 .4 .20 x2 .00 x 1 . 40 cm . 4 .4 .20 x4 .00 x 1 . 90 cm . 5 .4 .00 x 3 . 10 x 1 . 05 c m

2 56

F igu re 6 8 .

D onggu tuo T I e nd d en t icu la te f l ake f r agmen t . 3 . 00 x4 . 70 x 1 . 50 c m

'M 2

3

5 4

6

F igu re 6 9 . Donggu tuo T i d en t icu la te p o in t s , p o in t u t i l ised , a nd n o tch f l ake f r agmen t s . 1 .a nd 2 .D en t icu la te p o in t s . I . 2 . 50 x 2 .25 x 1 . 25 cm . 2 .3 . 80 x2 .60 x 1 . 20 cm . 3 .-5 .P o in t u t i l ised . 3 .3 . 10 x 3 . 10 x 1 . 00 cm . 4 .2 . 90 x 1 . 50 x 1 . 00 cm . 5 .3 . 20 x 2 .45 x 1 . 35 c m . 6 .a nd 7 . No tche s . 6 .4 . 50 x 3 . 25 x 1 . 30 cm . 7 . 1 . 90 x 3 . 10 x 2 .00 cm

2 58

T ab le 1 82

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s o fD onggu tuo T 2 l i th ic c a tego r ie s , n .8 0 C

C a tego ry

T 2C n

C he r t f i ne f i ne -coa r se B a sa l t Q ua r tz

3 1 0 0

F igu re 7 0 .

1 2? n

3 9 1 0

Wf rg T 2C T 2? n n

Wfwh T 2C 1 2? n

3 6 0 0

1 1 0 0

1 2 0 1

1 0 3 3 0

Wf f rg T 2C 1 2? n n

9 3 0 0

Donggu tuo T 2 d oub le -p la tform c o re . 8 . 00 x7 . 10 x3 . 60 c m

2 59

3 2 1 0

T T 2C n

1 2? n

n

T o ta l

6 1 1 0

6 0 0 0

4 5 2 8 6 1

%

5 6 .2 3 5 .0 7 . 5 1 . 2

F igu re 7 1 .

D onggu tuo T 2 mu l t i -p la t fo rm c o re . 8 . 80 x .8 . 95 x6 . 15 c m

2 60

F igu re 7 2 .

Donggu tuo T 2 d oub le -p la tform c o re . 5 . 75 x5 . 90 x5 . 30 c m

T ab le 1 83 s c a r s

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo s i ng le -p la tfo rm c o re d imens ions ( i n c m ) , p l a tform a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o f

L eng th

W id th

T h icknes s

n .2 1 Mean Med ian Mode

5 .4 4 .6 4 . 6 ( 3 x )

4 .6 4 .3 4 . 1 , 4 . 3 ( b imoda l ; 2 xe ach )

3 . 5 3 . 2 2 . 9 , 3 . 5 ( b imoda l ; 2 xe a ch )

S .D . m in imum max imum

2 .4 2 . 30 1 0 .95

1 . 7 2 . 15 8 . 45

1 . 6 0 . 80 7 . 00

2 61

A ng le

S ca r

6 4 1 00 ° 1 00 ° 9 1° , 9 5 ° , 10 ° ( 3 mode s ; 4 xe ach ) 8 . 13 8 2 ° 15 °

9 6 4 .8 5 4 ,5 ( b imoda l ; 8 xe ach ) 1 . 24 3 8

T ab le 1 84 s c a r s

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re d imens ions ( i n cm ) , p l a tform a ng le s , a nd n umbe r o f

n .3 4 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum m ax imum

T ab le 185

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

6 .8 6 .8 4 .75 , 7 . 4 , 7 . 95 ( t h ree mode s ;2 x ) e a ch ) 2 . 13 3 .60 1 .85

5 . 9 5 . 9 5 . 9 ( 3 x )

4 .7 4 .6 3 . 7 , 3 . 8 , 5 . 1 , 5 . 9 , 6 .8 ( f ive mode s ; 2 xe ach ) 1 . 4 2 . 15 7 .40

1 . 6 2 . 85 8 . 90

A ng le

S ca r

17 1 02 ° 1 02 ° 1 02 ° ( un imoda l ; 8 x )

2 16 6 . 35 6 6 ( 1 7x )

7 . 16 8 2 ° 1 20 .5 °

1 . 45 4 1

S t a t is t ica l a na lys i so f Donggu tuo mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re d imens ion s ( i n cm ) ,p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs c a r s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

n . 1 Mean Med ian Mode

6 .9 7 .0 n o mode

6 . 7 6 . 2 6 . 2 ( 2 x )

5 . 1 5 .0 5 .0 ( 2 x )

S .D . m in imum max imum

1 . 5 4 .45 8 .90

1 . 45 4 . 70 8 . 95

1 . 35 3 . 05 7 .45

2 62

A ng le

S ca r

3 7 1 02 .5 ° 1 02 ° 9 8 ° , 1 01° , 1 04 ° , 1 08 ° ( 4 mode s , 3 xe ach ) 7 .06 8 6° 16 .5 °

7 5 6 . 25 6 5 ( 4 x )

1 . 42 5 1 0

I

2

F igu re 7 3 . cm .

Donggu tuo T 2 w a s te f r agmen t s .

1 .2 . 25 x2 . 55 x 1 . 50 cm . 2 .5 . 00 x2 .70 x 1 . 40 cm . 3 .4 .70 x 3 . 85 x 2 .45

2 63

M' 9

1

2

3

4

5

F igu re 7 4 . Donggu tuo T 2 w ho le w a s te f l ake s . 1 .2 .25 x 1 . 70 x0 .60 c m . 2 .2 . 70 x2 . 30 x 1 . 05 cm . 3 .3 . 10 x 2 . 85 x 1 . 25 cm . 4 .4 .25 x 3 . 40 x 1 . 55 c m , s how ing p a r t o fv en t ra l f a ce . 5 .4 .30 x3 . 35 x 1 . 90 c m

2 64

I

2

F igu re 7 5 . f a ce

Donggu tuo T 2 w ho le w a s te f l akes . 1 .5 . 00 x5 . 50 x 1 . 50 c m . 2 .6 . 80 x 5 .00 x2 . 20 c m , s how ing v en t ra l

2 65

F igure 7 6 .

Donggu tuo T 2 w ho le w a s te f l ake . 7 . 80 x 7 . 85 x 1 . 50 cm

2 66

hC A 4

F igu re 7 7 . Donggu tuo T 2 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . 1 .2 .40 x 1 . 50 x0 .60 c m . 2 .2 . 65 x2 .25 x0 . 75 cm . 3 .3 . 35 x2 . 80 x1 . 50 cm . 4 .4 .25 x2 . 65 x0 . 95 cm . 5 .3 . 40 x5 . 85 x 1 . 30 cm

2 67

1

2

3

F igu re 7 8 . Donggu tuo T 2 t oo ls . 1 .a nd 2 .S ide d en t icu la te w ho le f l akes . 1 .2 . 40 x2 . 00 x0 . 60 c m . 2 .7 .60 x4 .25 x 2 . 50 cm . 3 .S ide u t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t . 3 . 45 x2 . 50 x 1 . 70 c m

2 68

0 \ 0 \ I r

L r

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie s o fD onggu tuo T 3 l i t h ic c a tego r ie s , n .4 4

c C e " ) « d- N

k r ) C > d c f r )

c r ) e n 0

C s 1

0

e n

C : ; C • 1

E r 24 0 1 )

c o n

a . )

0 e N o c r s

2 69

F igu re 7 9 .

Donggu tuo T 3 d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re . 7 . 95 x 7 . 20 x5 . 90 cm

1

F igu re 8 0 .

Donggu tuo T 3 d oub le -p la tfo rm c o re . 7 . 65 x6 .20 x3 . 55 c m

2 70

1

4

F igu re 8 1 . Donggu tuo T 3 w a s te f r agmen t a nd w ho le w a s te f l ake s . 1 . Wa s te f r agmen t , 4 . 95 x3 . 60 x 1 . 65 cm . 2 . -4 . Who le w as te f l akes . 2 .3 . 00 x 5 . 30 x 1 . 30 cm . 3 .3 .05 x4 .70 x 1 . 65 cm . 4 .3 . 90 x2 . 80 x 1 . 50 cm

2 71

I

2

3

F igu re 8 2 . 1 . 95 cm

D onggu tuo T 3 w ho le w a s te f l ake s .

1 .3 . 90 x 3 . 25 x 1 . 25 cm .

2 72

2 .3 . 90 x4 .40 x 1 . 50 c m .

3 .6 .00 x5 .05 x

4 5

F igu re 8 3 . D onggu tuo T 3 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . 1 .2 . 15 x2 . 30 x0 . 80 c m . 2 .2 . 45 x2 . 00 x0 . 90 cm . 3 .2 .45 x2 . 20 x0 . 90 c m . 4 .2 . 70 x 5 . 60 x 1 . 50 c m . 5 .4 . 10 x2 . 85 x 1 . 00 c m

2 73

T

1

3

4

5

F igu re 8 4 . Donggu tuo T 3 t oo ls . 1 .a nd 2 .S ide u t i l ised w ho le f l akes . 1 .2 . 30 x 1 . 20 x 1 . 10 cm . 2 .3 . 20 x2 . 90 x0 . 80 c m . 3 .S ide d en t icu la te w ho le f l ake , 3 . 40 x2 . 20 x0 . 90 c m . 4 .a nd 5 . S ide u t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t s . 4 . 1 . 80 x2 . 80 x 0 . 80 cm . 5 . 2 . 95 x 3 . 35 x 1 . 25 cm

2 74

, . t n r • : t . 1 :c j r q c ,1 k r ) 7 17

C D k r ) ( , 1i

v •— ,

k n k n C D , C 2

Ü '

c e-; c r i C D ( 2 )

d e H

4 r -• 7 1H =

Ü

=

r - eiz o

Ü ' -

I f ) k r ) 0

0

C D 0

r--

0

C

C e H

c •

e E .

=

4 ( N

C

O

o

c

o

c

C

C

C

C

=

C D 0

C D 4

r - 0

C D 0

, 0

0

c N i C c ; c ;

C ompa ra t ive r aw m a te r ia l f r equenc ie so fD onggu tuo T 4 l i t h ic c a tego r ie s , n .3 7

U 7 1 H =

C D i 0

0

0

0

=

C D

C

0

d e H =

C D 4 C D C D

e r ) 4 4 C

ü D ,

r - c

C D

o o

c N i c

C

C

4 i 0

C D C D

d 4 e r H =

0

=

i C D 0

k r ; r N i ( N ic ; c • • e H

c -• 7 fE — , =

Z

U Ü

0 : 1 7 1 H =

0 0 1 ) 4 1 . ) c e U

r - r - o

c,

c N i c,i C

C

=

> , 1 . .

o t D A a . )

. 1 c 5

U

2 75

I

2

F igu re 8 5 . Donggu tuo T 4 mu l t i -p la tform c o re a nd w a s te f r agmen t . 2 . Wa s te f r agmen t , 5 .00 x3 . 50 x 1 . 95 cm

2 76

1 . Mu l t i -p la tfo rm c o re , 4 . 50 x5 .00 x3 .05 c m .

1

2

F igu re 8 6 .

Donggu tuo 1 4 who le w a s te f l ake s .

1 .4 . 50 x5 . 50 x 1 . 85 cm .

2 77

2 .5 . 80 x7 . 25 x2 . 90 c m

F igu re 8 7 .

D onggu tuo T 4 who le w a s te f l ake .

1 2 .55 x7 . 50 x3 . 40 c m

2 78

2 3

4

F igu re 8 8 . x1 . 90 cm .

Donggu tuo T 4 w a s te f l ake f r agmen t s . 4 .4 . 10 x 2 .85 x 1 . 00 c m

1 .3 .00 x5 .45 x 1 . 25 cm .

2 79

2 .3 . 55 x 3 . 60 x 1 . 70 cm .

3 .4 . 10 x 3 . 40

1

2

3

F igu re 8 9 . Donggu tuo T 4 w ho le f l ake t oo ls . x2 . 25 x 1 . 00 cm . 3 .6 . 30 x 3 . 60 x 1 . 50 cm

1 .S ide u t i l ised , 3 .00 x 1 . 90 x 1 . 70 cm .

2 80

2 .a nd 3 .S ide d en t icu la te s . 2 .3 . 90

1 2

3

4

91 5

F igu re 9 0 . Donggu tuo T 4 f l ake f r agmen t t o o ls . 1 .a nd 2 .S ide u t i l ised . 1 .3 . 10 x 3 . 55 x 1 . 30 c m . 2 .4 . 10 x2 . 85 x 1 . 10 c m . 3 .E nd u t i l ised , 2 .40 x2 . 85 x 1 . 35 c m . 4 .a nd 5 .S ide d en t icu la te s . 4 .2 . 85 x2 . 30 x 1 . 20 c m . 5 .3 . 10 x 1 . 90 x 1 . 55 cm

2 81

. .. . ..

M.,

I

3

2

F igu re 9 1 . Donggu tuo T 4 f l ake f r agmen t t oo ls . 1 .E nd d en t icu la te , 4 . 30 x2 . 25 x 1 . 30 cm . 2 .6 . 00 x5 .75 x 2 . 90 cm . 3 .4 . 55 x 3 . 40 x 2 .00 c m

2 82

2 .a nd 3 .P o in t u t i l ised .

0 e n e r ) c n

r - c n

E s

C : )C D O C D • O

0 0 0

e 5r e ;

e 5

L E 2 0 0 0

N

e n c n ' I * C A 0

v Z, 0 0 e 5 c 5

( 2 : 1 t ow) C Z

o c • , -;

o c 5

e n 0 0 0 • f ri

O

U

E 1 2

00 00

▪ c z t

1 . 1

c i

I nd . s and s t .

C ompa ra t ive r aw ma te r ia l f r equenc ie s o fD onggu tuo T 5 l i th ic c a tego r ie s , n .2 8

e • •

• — ;

2 83

1

2

F igu re 9 2 . Donggu tuo T 5 who le w a s te f l ake a nd f l ake f r agmen t t oo l . 2 .S ide u t i l ised f l ake f r agmen t , 3 . 60 x2 . 35 x 1 . 40 c m

2 84

1 . Who le w a s te f l ake , 3 . 90 x3 . 05 x 1 . 90 c m .

T ab le 1 89

Max imum s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o f Donggu tuo c o re s a nd f l ake s ( i n c m )

C a tego ry

T i

T 2

T 3

T 4

T 5

A l l

C o re F l ake

1 .85 9 .20

8 . 95 7 . 85

7 . 95 8 . 10

7 . 40 1 2 .55

6 . 20 7 . 85

1 .85 1 2 .55

T ab le 1 90

S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo c o re d imens ions ( i n c m ) , p l a tfo rm a ng le s , a nd n umbe ro fs c a r s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

n .6 9 Mean Med ian Mode

6 .2 5 .95 4 . 6 ( 3x )

S .D . m in imum m ax imum

2 . 2 2 . 20 1 .85

5 . 5 5 . 5 4 . 3 , 5 . 9 ( b imoda l ; 3 xe ach ) 1 . 9 1 . 10 8 . 95

4 . 3 4 . 1 2 . 9 , 5 . 1 ( b imoda l ; 3 xe a ch ) 1 . 6 0 . 80 7 . 45

T ab le 1 91

A ng le

S ca r

2 20 1 02 ° 1 0 1° 9 8 ° , 1 03 ° ( 1 3x e ach )

4 07 5 .9 6 6 ( 2 3x )

7 . 5 8 2 ° 1 20 .5 °

1 . 86 3 1 4

Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s ,t r enche s , l a ye r sa nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h e Donggu tuo c o re s

A cce ss ion n umbe r*

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

5 655 6 9 8 5 8 6 4 67 4 70 5 654 5 77 5 059 5 650 5 5 1 26 2 71 1 2 1 0 1 1 02 6 23 4 33 9 5 12 5 0 1 5 80 9 4 2 68 1 3 4 71 5 62 8 4 4 69 5 645 5 652 5 642 5 648 1 24 4 68 18

2 .20 2 . 30 3 .00 3 .25 3 . 60 3 . 70 3 . 90 3 . 90 4 .00 4 .00 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 .20 4 .30 4 .40 4 .40 4 .45 4 . 50 4 .60 4 .60 4 .60 4 .70 4 .75 4 .75 4 .90 4 .95 5 . 10 5 . 15 5 . 15 5 . 40 5 .45 5 . 70 5 . 75 5 . 80 5 . 95 6 .00

1 . 10 2 . 15 2 . 90 3 .00 4 .30 2 . 80 2 . 10 3 . 35 1 . 80 3 . 95 4 . 10 4 . 30 4 .65 2 . 85 3 . 65 4 . 30 6 . 20 5 .00 3 . 70 4 .05 4 . 10 5 . 95 4 .40 4 . 50 2 . 70 3 . 60 5 . 35 4 .20 4 .60 5 . 10 5 . 00 7 . 85 5 . 90 5 . 90 4 .90 5 . 80

1 . 00 0 . 80 1 . 20 2 . 70 3 .00 2 .45 1 . 85 2 . 15 2 . 10 3 . 85 2 . 90 3 . 20 1 . 70 2 .90 4 . 10 3 . 50 3 . 40 3 .05 3 . 50 2 .90 2 . 40 3 . 10 4 .90 3 . 15 3 . 10 3 . 00 5 . 40 3 . 70 3 . 90 3 . 80 3 . 95 5 . 25 5 . 30 4 . 55 3 . 60 3 . 15

B p S p S p S p D p S p B p D p B p D p S p S p S p D p S p S p Mp Mp S p S p S p D p D p D p S p D p D p D p S p D p D p S p D p D p S p S p

1 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 5 1 4 4 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1

A C B C A A A A A A C A A 0 A B A 0 B A A A C A 0 A 0 C A A A A 0 A A A

CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH/F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C

2 85

T ab le 1 9 1 , c on t inued A cce s s ion n umbe r*

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

5 05 1 09 19 3 99 17 1 23 1 5 35 9 5 6 1 2 72 6 20 2 70 9 9 8 2 89 16 4 11 5 649 5 93 1 0 4 84 1 22 5 60 5 647 5 646 6 5 71 5 72 5 651 15 1 21 5 892

6 . 15 6 .20 6 . 20 6 .45 6 .65 6 . 80 6 .90 6 .90 7 .00 7 . 10 7 . 15 7 . 15 7 . 30 7 .40 7 .40 7 .65 7 .90 7 . 95 7 .95 8 .00 8 . 30 8 . 35 8 . 60 8 . 80 8 . 90 9 .50 9 . 50 9 .80 1 0 .80 1 0 .90 1 0 .95 1 .00 1 .85

5 . 30 5 . 90 6 . 10 5 . 85 6 . 25 6 . 60 4 .70 5 . 60 6 .20 4 .70 4 . 35 7 . 90 5 . 55 7 .00 7 . 30 6 .20 8 . 80 5 . 80 7 . 20 7 . 10 7 . 60 6 .75 7 . 95 8 . 95 7 .65 5 . 60 8 . 90 8 . 80 7 . 80 8 . 45 7 . 70 7 . 80 8 . 20

4 . 20 3 . 70 4 . 50 5 . 70 4 .90 5 . 00 5 . 10 4 .25 4 .20 4 . 80 4 . 70 6 . 90 5 .00 6 . 30 5 . 10 3 . 55 5 .40 3 . 80 5 .90 3 . 60 5 . 90 6 . 85 5 .45 6 . 15 7 . 45 4 .65 6 . 85 7 .40 6 . 80 6 . 50 7 .00 6 . 80 5 . 10

D p D p Mp S p D p Mp Mp D p Mp D p D p Mp Mp D p D p D p Mp D p D p D p D p D p D p Mp Mp S p D p D p D p S p S p D p D p

1 5 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 2 3 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

A B A A 0 0 0 A A 0 0 A A B 0 0 A A 0 0 0 A A 0 A A A A A A A A A

CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C QU CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F BAS CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F

*T he f i r s t c o lumn o ft h is t a b le i d en t if ie s t h e a cce ss ion n umbe r , t h e s e cond , t h i rd , a nd f ou r th c o lumns r e f e r t ot he l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne ss , r e spec t ive ly , t h e f i f th c o lumn i d en t if ie s t h e c o re c a tego ry , t h e s i x th c o lumn r e f e r s t ot h e Donggu tuo t r enche s T i -T 5 , e . g . , 1s t ands f o rt r ench T i , 2f o rt r ench T 2 , a nd s of o r th , t h e s even th c o lumn r e f e r s t ot h e l a ye r s A -D , e . g . , As t ands f o rl a ye rA , Bf o rl a ye rB , a nd s o f o r th , w h i le 0s t and s f o ru nknown l a ye r , a nd t h ee i gh tc o lumn r e fe r s t ot h e r aw ma te r ia l ( s ee Append ix 3 f o r a bb rev ia t ions ) . Donggu tuo a r tef ac t a cce ss ion n umbe r s b eg inn ing w i th t he n umbe r ' 5 ' r ep re sen t I .V .P .P . a cce ss ion n umbe r s , c a ta logued b y We i Q i f r om 1 981-1985 ; f our s pec imens w e re c a ta logued w i th i d en t ica l n umbe r s . T he ma jo r i ty o fa r tef ac t s r e cove red b y We i Q i d on o tb ea ri d en t if ica t ion n umbe r s , a nd t h ep resen ta u tho r n umbe red t h e se w i th o ne , t wo , a nd t h ree d ig i tn umbe r s f o rp urpo se so fa na lys is .

T ab le 1 92

Mea su remen t s ,c a tego r ie s , t r enche s , l a ye r sa nd r aw m a te r ia l so ft h e Donggu tuo w a s te f r agmen t s

A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

4 51 4 1 2 6 5 687 4 61 4 83 4 45 5 686 4 62 4 76 4 56 4 15

1 . 20 1 . 50 1 . 60 1 . 70 1 . 75 1 . 90 1 . 90 2 .00 2 .00 2 . 10 2 . 20 2 .25

1 . 65 1 . 30 1 . 20 1 . 10 1 . 15 1 . 50 3 . 45 1 . 60 2 . 90 1 . 60 1 . 55 2 . 55

0 . 80 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 20 1 . 20 1 . 30 1 . 35 1 . 50 1 . 35 1 . 40 1 . 50

1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

A A C A A A A A A A A 0

CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C QU

2 86

T ab le 1 92 , c on t inued A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

4 95 3 40 1 53 6 1 5 683 4 42 4 43 4 58 4 59 4 48 5 34 4 64 4 99 4 72 4 44 4 80 4 53 4 50 1 76 5 643 4 60 4 54 5 19 6 24 4 55 5 43 3 5 04 7 6 2 0 6 2 5 680 4 57 4 92 7 8 5 00 5 13 2 36 5 25 6 5 5 83 5 18 4 93 4 46 5 78 5 03 4 14 1 90 4 90 2 04 5 353 5 10 5 673 5 653 5 12 5 06 1 99 5 70 4 91 5 7 1 49

2 . 35 2 . 35 2 . 35 2 . 40 2 . 40 2 . 45 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 . 80 2 . 90 2 . 90 2 . 95 2 . 95 3 .00 3 .00 3 . 00 3 . 00 3 .05 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 15 3 . 15 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 30 3 . 30 3 . 30 3 . 35 3 . 35 3 . 40 3 . 50 3 . 60 3 . 65 3 . 70 3 . 75 3 . 75 3 . 80 3 . 85 3 . 90 3 . 95 4 .00 4 .00 4 .05 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 . 15 4 .20 4 .20 4 .30 4 .35 4 .45 4 .50 4 . 50 4 . 50 4 .50

1 . 30 1 . 70 2 . 90 1 . 75 2 . 30 1 . 60 1 . 10 1 . 70 2 . 85 1 . 30 3 . 65 1 . 40 1 . 50 2 . 85 1 . 60 2 .20 1 . 35 1 . 55 1 . 90 2 . 20 1 . 70 1 . 65 2 .60 3 . 70 1 . 75 1 . 85 2 .00 2 .40 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 .25 2 .45 2 .60 2 .45 3 . 00 2 . 95 1 . 55 3 . 00 3 . 30 2 . 30 3 . 00 3 . 00 3 . 25 2 .40 3 . 85 4 .00 3 . 30 4 .40 3 . 50 2 .00 3 . 10 3 . 30 2 .45 3 . 10 3 .40 3 . 20 3 . 25 3 .00 3 . 00 3 . 35 3 . 85

1 . 10 0 . 80 1 . 30 1 . 15 1 . 30 1 . 40 0 . 90 1 . 00 1 . 80 1 . 00 1 . 35 0 . 75 1 . 30 1 . 60 1 . 45 2 . 10 0 . 90 1 . 30 0 . 70 2 . 30 0 . 95 1 . 65 2 . 00 1 . 95 1 . 60 0 . 90 1 . 50 2 . 35 1 . 60 2 . 20 1 . 45 2 . 40 2 . 00 1 . 90 1 . 00 2 . 00 1 . 00 1 . 90 1 . 65 1 . 60 1 . 45 2 . 15 1 . 80 1 . 65 2 . 35 2 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 2 . 65 1 . 50 2 . 00 2 . 00 2 . 50 2 .00 1 . 65 1 . 80 1 . 30 2 .05 3 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 40

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 5 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1

A A A C A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B A C A C A A A C A A A A C A A A A A A 0 A A A A A 0 A A A A A A C A

CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH I P -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C

2 87

T ab le 1 92 , c on t inued L eng th

A cce ss ion n umbe r

1 43 5 07 5 95 2 60 6 32 4 47 6 00 1 04 4 66 8 2 5 725 6 04 4 23 6 25 4 77 5 02 2 77 4 96 14 4 49 2 05 6 0 1 6 2 1 1 2 5 11 5 4 4 94 1 03 1 28 5 36 4 81 1 27 2 5 79 1 25 4 79 5 704 7 4 98 8 3 4 89

T ab le 1 93

n .4 39 Mean Med ian Mode

S .D . m in imum max imum

4 .55 4 .60 4 .60 4 .70 4 .70 4 .70 4 .70 4 .75 4 .90 4 .90 4 .95 5 .00 5 .00 5 .05 5 . 10 5 . 10 5 . 10 5 . 15 5 . 15 5 . 15 5 . 15 5 . 20 5 . 30 5 . 30 5 .40 5 . 55 5 .70 5 .70 5 . 80 5 . 80 5 .95 6 .00 6 . 10 6 . 10 6 . 10 6 . 15 6 . 25 6 . 70 7 . 80 9 . 10 1 0 .45

W id th

4 .05 2 . 10 2 . 75 2 .90 3 . 85 5 . 15 5 . 70 3 . 35 3 . 45 5 .20 3 .60 2 .70 3 . 50 2 .70 3 . 45 4 .00 5 . 15 2 . 85 3 . 85 4 .30 7 .00 3 . 10 4 .00 4 .50 4 .70 4 . 10 4 .80 5 .40 4 .70 4 .80 4 .30 4 .00 3 .65 4 .20 5 . 50 4 . 10 3 . 80 6 .05 4 .50 6 .00 6 .40

T h ickne ss

1 . 75 1 . 60 3 . 10 1 . 30 2 .45 2 . 30 3 . 10 1 . 80 2 . 10 3 .00 1 . 65 1 . 40 1 . 95 2 . 35 2 .40 1 . 40 1 . 90 2 .20 2 . 30 2 . 10 2 . 15 3 . 10 2 .60 2 .70 2 .60 3 . 30 3 . 80 2 . 30 3 . 50 2 . 35 2 . 50 2 . 80 2 . 20 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 .00 2 . 10 2 .90 2 .65 3 . 25 4 . 10

T rench

1 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 2 3 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1

L aye r

A A A A 0 A A B A C 0 0 0 A A A A A C A A A A A A C A B A A A A 0 A A A A 0 A C A

R aw ma te r ia l

CH /F -C CH /F -C CH/F -C BAS CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C I S CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C

S t a t i s t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake d imens ion s ( i n c m )a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s c a r s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

S ca r

3 . 0 2 . 7 2 . 5 , 3 . 1 ( b imoda l ; 1 5x e a ch ) 1 . 46 0 . 75 1 2 .55

2 .7 2 .5 2 .0 , 2 . 3 ( b imoda l ; 1 8x e ach ) 1 . 22 0 .40 7 . 85

1 . 1 1 . 0 1 . 1 ( 36x )

9 51 2 2 2( 166x )

0 . 55 0 . 15 3 . 40

1 . 12 0 8

T ab le 1 9 4 Mea su remen t s , c a tego r ie s , t r enche s , l a ye r s a nd r aw m a te r ia ls o ft h e Donggu tuo w a s te f l ake s A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

3 08 5 63 5 98 4 5 59 5 62 1 6 1 4 38 1 74 3 38 6 03 1 75 1 63 3 07 3 32 5 97 1 64 5 81 3 85 2 74 3 59 6 0 2 76 4 63 1 72 4 22 1 62 3 61 5 14 5 87 3 00 1 60 1 93 3 53 5 60 2 96 3 81 3 41 4 39 4 30 2 8 3 15 3 28 3 09 5 64 3 51 1 59 1 94 5 657 3 36 6 08 3 11 3 39 2 62 3 13 3 04 4 87 4 25 3 79 5 75 5 88 2 54

0 .75 0 . 80 0 . 80 0 . 80 0 . 85 0 .90 0 .90 0 .90 0 .90 0 .90 0 .95 0 .95 1 . 00 1 . 00 1 . 00 1 . 05 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 15 1 . 15 1 . 15 1 . 20 1 . 20 1 . 20 1 . 20 1 . 25 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 35 1 . 35 1 . 35 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 45 1 . 45 1 . 45 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 55 1 . 55 1 . 55 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 60

1 . 90 0 . 85 0 . 90 1 . 20 0 . 75 0 .40 0 . 90 1 . 00 1 . 20 1 . 55 1 . 95 2 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 20 2 . 30 0 . 75 0 . 90 1 . 25 1 . 75 1 . 85 1 . 90 1 . 00 1 . 70 2 . 10 1 . 50 1 . 55 1 . 80 1 . 90 1 . 30 1 . 05 1 . 10 1 . 15 1 . 40 1 . 60 2 . 00 3 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 55 2 . 20 1 . 20 1 . 20 1 . 70 2 . 60 1 . 20 1 . 55 2 . 50 1 . 20 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 35 1 . 35 1 . 40 1 . 85 2 . 10 2 . 30 2 . 50 1 . 10 1 . 65 1 . 70 1 . 10 1 . 20 1 . 30

0 . 70 0 .25 0 . 50 0 . 60 0 . 15 0 . 25 0 . 25 0 . 50 0 . 30 0 . 30 0 . 50 0 . 30 0 . 20 0 . 50 0 .40 0 . 20 0 . 30 0 . 35 0 . 35 0 .40 0 . 60 0 . 70 0 . 30 0 . 90 0 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 40 0 .60 0 . 80 0 .45 0 .45 0 . 45 0 .40 0 . 75 0 . 70 0 . 80 0 . 50 0 . 80 0 . 30 0 .40 0 .60 0 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 65 0 . 35 0 .40 1 . 10 0 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 60 0 . 70 0 . 40 0 . 80 0 . 80 1 . 25 0 . 30 0 . 45 1 . 40 0 . 30 0 .60

f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f i g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h w h w h f r g

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F C H / F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F C H / F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C

2 89

T ab le 1 94 , c on t inued A cce ss ion n umbe r 2 93 8 1 2 80 2 19 6 31 3 06 1 9 5 17 4 78 2 2 2 33 2 97 2 24 3 22 6 4 3 56 4 75 4 34 5 708 6 10 4 28 1 44 2 34 1 82 3 49 3 48 2 50 3 72 1 95 3 73 3 86 2 26 4 73 4 17 2 92 3 47 1 42 5 67 6 02 3 02 3 33 1 97 5 58 5 74 1 87 5 90 3 95 2 11 3 80 5 21 2 09 5 3 2 39 5 69 1 6 3 37 3 83 3 74 3 70 1 77 3 35 4 85

L eng th 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 65 1 . 65 1 . 65 1 . 65 1 . 65 1 . 65 1 . 65 1 . 65 1 . 70 1 . 70 1 . 70 1 . 70 1 . 70 1 . 70 1 . 70 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 75 1 . 80 1 . 80 1 . 80 1 . 80 1 . 85 1 . 85 1 . 85 1 . 85 1 . 90 1 . 90 1 . 90 1 . 90 1 . 90 1 . 90 1 . 95 1 . 95 1 . 95 1 . 95 1 . 95 1 . 95 1 . 95 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00

W id th

T h ickne ss

C a tego ry

T r ench

L aye r

R aw m a te r ia l

1 . 50 1 . 60 1 . 80 1 . 85 2 . 35 2 . 80 1 . 20 1 . 35 1 . 55 1 . 80 2 . 50 2 .65 2 . 70 3 . 25 1 . 30 1 . 45 1 . 60 1 . 80 2 .00 2 . 30 3 .00 1 . 10 1 . 30 1 . 65 2 .00 2 .25 2 .65 2 .80 2 .90 3 . 05 1 . 80 2 .00 2 . 30 3 . 90 1 . 35 1 . 40 1 . 45 2 .00 1 . 20 1 . 30 2 .00 2 .20 2 . 25 2 . 75 1 . 00 1 . 15 1 . 50 1 . 80 1 . 90 2 .00 2 . 30 1 . 45 1 . 45 1 . 50 1 . 60 1 . 75 1 . 80 1 . 90 1 . 90 2 .00 2 . 25 2 . 30

0 . 70 0 . 35 0 . 95 0 . 75 1 . 10 0 . 85 0 .80 1 . 20 0 . 70 0 . 40 0 . 60 1 . 10 0 .65 0 . 70 0 . 80 0 .60 1 . 10 0 . 75 0 .60 0 . 90 0 . 70 0 .70 0 . 50 0 . 65 0 .95 0 . 50 0 . 45 0 . 70 0 . 80 0 . 80 0 . 35 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 05 0 .65 0 . 60 0 .60 0 .90 0 .40 0 . 40 0 .65 0 . 55 0 . 65 1 . 00 0 . 50 0 . 35 0 . 55 0 . 40 0 . 65 0 . 80 0 . 70 0 . 40 0 .60 0 .60 0 .60 0 . 85 0 .40 0 . 50 0 . 65 0 .90 0 . 55 1 . 15

f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f i g w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h w h w h f r g f r g f r g

1 2 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

A C A A A A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 0 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F BAS CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F BAS CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C

2 90

T ab le 1 94 , c on t inued A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

1 54 3 01 3 10 1 71 3 54 5 56 2 1 4 09 3 23 1 69 6 11 1 8 1 5 51 1 73 5 714 5 52 2 49 3 14 3 29 5 30 1 83 6 07 3 58 5 682 3 05 2 78 2 25 4 20 3 71 3 69 5 24 2 45 3 34 6 12 5 755 3 96 3 57 3 52 1 52 1 7 3 55 1 57 3 44 5 53 2 75 3 91 4 97 5 09 5 73 2 95 2 12 2 42 5 96 5 47 4 82 1 5 2 43 3 6 6 36 1 98 6 33 3 68

2 .00 2 .00 2 .05 2 .05 2 .05 2 .05 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 20 2 .20 2 . 20 2 .20 2 .20 2 .25 2 .25 2 .25 2 .25 2 .25 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 35 2 . 35 2 . 35 2 . 35 2 . 35 2 .35 2 . 35 2 . 35 2 .35 2 . 35 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40 2 .40

3 . 75 4 . 30 1 . 40 1 . 60 1 . 85 2 . 10 1 . 45 1 . 70 2 .00 2 .00 2 . 10 3 . 15 1 . 40 1 . 80 1 . 80 1 . 95 2 .00 2 . 30 2 .65 3 . 60 3 .65 3 . 90 1 . 15 1 . 75 2 .25 2 . 75 3 .05 1 . 70 1 . 75 2 .20 2 . 30 4 .75 1 . 60 1 . 70 1 . 85 1 . 90 1 . 90 2 .25 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 .45 3 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 85 1 . 90 2 . 30 2 . 35 2 . 60 2 .60 2 . 80 2 . 95 3 . 15 1 . 50 1 . 60 1 . 65 1 . 85 1 . 90 2 . 80 2 . 95 3 . 20 3 . 55 3 .60

1 . 15 1 . 10 0 . 80 0 .40 1 . 00 0 .60 0 .90 0 .40 0 . 55 0 .65 0 .40 1 . 00 0 .60 0 . 30 1 . 10 1 . 05 0 . 65 0 .80 0 .65 0 .95 1 . 05 1 . 00 0 .45 1 . 10 0 .75 1 . 05 0 . 90 0 .60 0 .65 1 . 10 0 . 60 1 . 75 0 .85 0 .90 0 .80 0 . 80 0 . 85 0 .80 0 .90 1 . 10 0 .80 1 . 00 0 . 50 0 . 55 0 .40 0 . 65 1 . 70 0 . 95 1 . 05 0 . 80 1 . 00 0 . 65 0 .60 0 . 85 1 . 35 0 .90 0 . 75 0 .90 0 . 60 1 . 70 1 . 00 1 . 20

f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h w h f r g

1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 5 1 1 1 1

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 0 A A A A A A A A A 0 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 0 A A A A A A A A A

CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F QU CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C BAS CH /F CH /F QU CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH/F CH /F -C BAS

2 91

T ab le 1 94 , c on t inued A cce s s ion n umbe r 3 31 2 84 2 66 5 46 3 78 3 87 5 569 3 42 3 12 2 73 4 86 2 13 5 23 1 40 2 18 3 26 3 43 1 9 1 6 14 3 90 5 82 3 20 5 16 5 08 1 56 3 88 6 8 4 27 3 65 2 47 1 38 2 20 1 47 2 14 4 40 1 86 3 30 5 6 1 1 55 3 97 5 65 5 705 2 08 5 42 2 07 2 6 1 2 16 5 716 2 17 13 2 94 2 83 3 75 5 54 2 0 1 2 06 1 53 5 6 4 04 3 51 5 57 3 84

L eng th 2 . 45 2 . 45 2 . 45 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 55 2 . 55 2 . 55 2 . 55 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 65 2 . 65 2 . 65 2 . 65 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 . 75 2 . 75 2 . 75 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 85 2 . 85 2 . 85 2 . 90 2 . 90 2 . 90 2 . 90 2 . 90 2 . 95 2 . 95

W id th 1 . 00 2 .00 2 .20 1 . 20 1 . 45 1 . 60 1 . 70 2 . 15 2 .25 2 .40 2 . 50 3 . 10 3 . 20 3 .20 3 . 25 3 . 35 3 . 50 4 .00 1 . 75 2 .00 3 . 10 3 .45 2 . 15 2 .20 2 .25 2 . 30 2 .50 2 .90 3 .00 3 . 10 3 . 50 3 . 90 1 . 30 1 . 60 2 . 25 4 . 30 1 . 40 2 . 10 2 . 30 4 .50 5 .60 1 . 50 1 . 90 2 .85 1 . 40 1 . 65 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 .40 2 . 85 3 .40 4 . 10 1 . 45 1 . 50 3 . 10 1 . 30 2 . 35 2 .35 2 .40 2 . 80 2 .25 2 .40

T h ickne s s 0 .80 0 .90 0 .90 0 . 50 0 .45 0 . 50 1 . 20 1 . 10 0 .65 0 .65 0 .65 0 . 70 0 . 70 1 . 10 1 . 15 1 . 45 0 . 75 2 . 10 0 . 80 0 .80 0 . 85 0 . 85 1 . 20 1 . 10 0 .60 1 . 00 1 . 40 0 . 90 1 . 20 1 . 25 1 . 10 0 . 70 0 .90 1 . 00 0 . 75 1 . 05 0 . 85 1 . 35 1 . 05 0 . 80 1 . 50 0 . 80 1 . 10 2 . 60 1 . 00 0 . 80 0 . 80 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 30 1 . 75 0 . 75 0 . 85 1 . 30 0 . 90 1 . 30 1 . 40 1 . 05 1 . 00 1 . 35 0 . 75

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

f r g f r g f r g f r g w h w h f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h w h w h f r g w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h w h w h w h

1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

A 0 0 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 0 C A A A A A A A 0 A A A 0 A 0 A A A A A A A A A A 0 A A A A A C A A A A

CH IP -C CH IP -C CH IP CH IP -C CH /F CH IP -C CH IP -C CH IP -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH IP CH I P -C CH I P -C CH /F CH IP CH IP CHI P -C CH IP CH I P CH IP CH IP CH I P -C CH IP CH /F CHI P -C CH I P CH IP CH IP CH IP CHI P -C CH IP BAS CH /F CH IP CH IP CH IP CH I P -C CH I P -C CH I P -C CH /F CH IP CH IP CH IP CH IP CH IP CH IP CH IP CHI P -C CH IP CH I P -C CH IP CH /F CHI P -C CH I P CH IP CHI P -C CH IP CH I P -C CH IP

2 92

T ab le 1 94 , c on t inued A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

5 20 4 88 2 46 3 45 7 2 5 681 3 50 5 659 5 50 1 33 1 41 4 07 1 31 5 89 4 13 4 08 2 87 5 45 1 4 7 9 3 03 6 13 3 89 5 666 2 21 4 7 5 736 7 7 4 18 7 0 4 26 2 98 4 9 8 0 6 30 1 45 5 99 2 82 8 9 4 36 1 92 4 10 4 31 5 658 4 21 5 706 3 46 4 8 2 67 1 48 5 668 1 51 1 66 6 05 5 661 3 82 2 38 5 665 5 67 5 1 3 76 1 8

2 .95 2 .95 2 .95 2 .95 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 .05 3 .05 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 15 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 20 3 . 25 3 .25 3 . 30 3 . 30 3 . 30 3 . 30 3 . 30 3 . 35 3 . 35 3 . 35 3 . 35 3 . 35 3 .40 3 . 40 3 . 40 3 .40 3 . 40 3 . 40 3 .40 3 .45 3 .45 3 . 45 3 . 45 3 . 50

2 .40 2 .60 2 .65 5 . 15 2 . 10 2 . 10 2 . 30 2 .45 2 .70 3 .00 3 .00 3 . 90 4 . 80 5 . 30 5 . 45 2 .60 4 .70 1 . 70 2 .00 2 . 10 2 . 15 2 .20 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 35 2 . 70 2 .70 2 .80 2 . 85 2 .90 3 . 20 5 . 50 2 . 70 1 . 60 2 . 10 2 . 15 2 .60 3 . 80 2 . 80 4 .00 3 . 50 3 . 90 3 . 95 4 .00 4 .95 1 . 70 2 . 30 2 . 80 2 . 80 3 . 15 2 .00 2 .40 2 .95 3 . 30 3 . 35 3 . 70 5 . 85 1 . 50 1 . 95 2 .90 5 .00 1 . 50

1 . 25 1 . 30 1 . 00 2 . 10 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 70 1 . 30 1 . 00 0 . 80 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 70 1 . 30 1 . 25 0 . 80 1 . 65 0 . 50 0 . 80 1 . 25 0 . 75 0 . 90 0 . 95 1 . 00 1 . 30 1 . 00 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 25 1 . 40 0 .60 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 05 0 .65 1 . 00 1 . 20 1 . 70 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 90 2 .00 1 . 30 0 . 80 1 . 40 0 . 75 0 . 95 1 . 35 1 . 50 1 . 10 1 . 55 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 30 1 . 00 1 . 45 1 . 30 0 . 75 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 00 1 . 70

f r g f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h w h f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g w h w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h w h w h w h f r g w h w h f r g w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h w h w h f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g

1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 5 3 4 1 3 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 5

A A A A C A A A A A A A C 0 0 A 0 A A C A A A A A A A C 0 C A A A C A A A 0 C 0 A A A A 0 A A A 0 A 0 A A 0 A A 0 A A A A A

CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F BAS CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F

2 93

T ab le 1 94 , c on t inued A cce ss ion n umbe r 1 88 3 63 3 19 5 753 2 32 3 24 3 93 3 17 4 74 4 02 5 32 2 9 1 2 64 5 29 1 78 5 4 1 3 16 2 03 3 67 1 39 7 1 5 44 3 27 4 29 2 29 4 03 5 74 4 05 3 66 6 09 6 34 4 6 5 26 11 5 15 5 698 4 16 5 27 7 5 5 874 5 85 2 86 2 59 3 77 3 9 6 3 2 58 1 34 2 88 2 44 3 92 5 0 2 28 1 68 5 667 5 84 4 37 1 37 2 79 5 38 2 35 4 65

L eng th 3 . 50 3 . 50 3 . 50 3 . 50 3 . 55 3 . 55 3 . 55 3 . 60 3 . 60 3 . 60 3 . 60 3 . 60 3 . 60 3 . 65 3 . 65 3 . 65 3 . 65 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 75 3 . 80 3 . 80 3 . 80 3 . 85 3 . 85 3 . 90 3 . 90 3 . 90 3 . 90 3 . 90 3 . 90 3 . 90 3 . 90 3 . 95 4 .00 4 .00 4 .00 4 .00 4 .00 4 .00 4 .05 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 . 10 4 . 15 4 . 15 4 .20 4 .25 4 .25

W id th 2 .00 2 . 50 3 .05 3 . 20 3 . 40 3 .60 5 . 10 2 .20 2 . 35 2 . 80 3 .00 3 .25 3 . 80 2 . 10 2 .75 3 .05 3 .90 1 . 70 2 .25 2 .40 2 .60 3 .00 3 . 30 3 . 50 3 . 65 3 . 75 3 . 80 3 . 90 1 . 80 1 . 75 2 .00 3 . 50 3 . 30 3 .40 2 .65 2 .80 2 . 80 2 . 90 3 .00 3 .05 3 . 25 4 .40 3 .05 2 .60 2 . 80 2 .90 3 . 20 3 . 80 5 .45 3 .40 2 . 50 2 . 75 2 . 80 2 . 80 2 . 85 3 .40 3 . 80 2 .65 4 .25 4 .00 2 .65 2 .65

T h ickne s s 1 . 15 1 . 25 0 . 95 1 . 60 0 . 70 1 . 70 1 . 45 0 . 80 1 . 30 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 30 2 .00 1 . 15 1 . 10 1 . 20 2 .00 0 . 70 1 . 35 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 10 1 . 50 0 . 85 1 . 40 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 60 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 20 1 . 50 1 . 70 1 . 90 0 . 80 1 . 50 0 .70 1 . 90 1 . 90 1 . 25 1 . 50 1 . 30 1 . 00 1 . 85 1 . 30 1 . 50 1 . 10 2 . 15 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 20 1 . 20 2 . 20 1 . 00 1 . 90 1 . 85 1 . 10 1 . 70 1 . 15 0 .95 1 . 10

C a tego ry f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g w h w h f r g f r g w h w h f r g f r g w h w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g w h w h w h w h w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g f r g w h w h w h w h f r g f r g

2 94

T rench 1 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 3 3 1 2 5 3 3 1 1 5 2 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 4

L aye r A A A 0 A 0 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A C A A A A A A A A A A A A C A 0 0 A C 0 0 0 A A B C A B 0 A A A A A 0 B 0 A A A 0 0

R aw ma te r ia l CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH/F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F

T ab le 1 94 , c on t inued A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

1 65 5 91 2 31 4 0 1 3 60 6 35 5 68 9 6 5 40 1 79 5 722 3 21 5 660 4 24 4 06 4 00 4 19 3 64 5 723 3 62 2 57 5 31 1 58 2 65 5 2 4 5 5 724 9 7 6 06 2 4 1 5 664 5 94 4 52 2 37 2 99 1 85 4 4 5 33 5 39 3 94 3 18 1 67 2 30 5 49 2 85 4 3 3 25 3 1 5 76 2 48 4 32 2 40 2 53 1 70 2 81 1 46 2 90 4 35 2 69 5 22 2 22 5 92

4 .25 4 .25 4 .30 4 .30 4 .30 4 .40 4 .40 4 .45 4 .45 4 .45 4 .45 4 .45 4 .50 4 .50 4 .55 4 .55 4 .60 4 .60 4 .60 4 .70 4 .70 4 .70 4 .75 4 .75 4 . 80 4 .80 4 .80 4 .90 4 .95 5 .00 5 .00 5 .00 5 .00 5 .05 5 . 10 5 . 15 5 . 15 5 . 15 5 .20 5 .20 5 .20 5 .25 5 .40 5 . 55 5 .60 5 . 60 5 .60 5 .60 5 .65 5 . 75 5 . 80 5 . 95 6 .00 6 .00 6 .00 6 . 30 6 . 75 6 . 80 7 . 10 7 .20 7 . 50 7 . 80

3 .00 3 . 40 2 . 50 3 . 35 4 .45 3 . 75 4 .45 3 .00 3 . 20 3 . 45 3 . 85 3 . 90 2 . 30 5 . 50 3 .75 3 . 85 2 .95 3 . 50 4 .20 3 . 15 3 . 30 3 . 60 3 . 45 4 . 50 3 .00 3 .90 5 .00 3 .25 3 . 60 2 . 30 3 . 25 5 . 50 5 .80 3 . 65 2 .60 3 .25 3 . 55 5 . 15 3 . 10 3 . 80 5 . 60 3 . 30 3 . 70 3 .00 3 . 90 4 . 10 4 .20 4 .70 4 .25 3 . 35 7 .25 6 . 35 3 . 80 4 .30 5 .05 4 .75 5 . 85 5 .00 6 . 30 4 .80 6 . 50 7 . 85

1 . 30 1 . 55 1 . 20 1 . 90 1 . 70 1 . 50 2 . 95 1 . 25 1 . 85 1 . 10 1 . 50 1 . 80 0 . 85 1 . 85 1 . 70 1 . 30 1 . 30 1 . 70 2 . 20 1 . 50 1 . 95 1 . 85 1 . 80 1 . 60 1 . 30 1 . 20 2 .60 2 .05 1 . 15 0 .90 1 . 20 1 . 50 2 . 10 1 . 80 1 . 70 1 . 50 1 . 45 2 . 30 1 . 95 1 . 75 2 . 40 1 . 50 1 . 80 1 . 75 1 . 60 1 . 25 1 . 60 2 . 10 1 . 30 1 . 75 2 .90 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 . 15 1 . 95 1 . 35 2 . 90 2 .20 2 .60 1 . 60 2 . 50 1 . 50

w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h w h w h f r g w h w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h w h w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h w h

1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 2 1 3 1 3 2 1 1 1 2

A 0 A 0 A A 0 A A A A A A 0 A A A A A A A A A 0 A A 0 A 0 A A 0 A A A A A A A A A 0 A A 0 A A B A A 0 A 0 A 0 A 0 0 A A A 0

CH /F BAS CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C BAS CH /F -C BAS CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C BAS CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C BAS

2 95

T ab le 1 94 , c on t inued A cce ss ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

2 63 9 3 5 691 5 893 5 670

7 .95 8 . 10 8 . 55 9 .20 1 2 .55

6 . 50 5 .45 5 . 60 4 . 85 7 . 50

2 . 30 2 . 65 2 . 70 3 . 15 3 . 40

w h w h w h w h w h

1 3 1 1 4

A B A A 0

CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F

T ab le 1 95

n . 17 Mean Med ian Mode S .D . m in imum max imum

T ab le 1 96

S t a t is t ica l a na lys is o f Donggu tuo t o o l d imens ion s ( i n c m ) a nd n umbe ro fd o r sa l s ca r s L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

3 .6 3 .4 3 . 1 , 4 .2 ( b imoda l ; 5 x e ach ) 1 . 29 1 . 40 7 . 85

2 . 8 2 . 7 2 . 0 ( 7x )

1 . 4 1 . 3 0 . 8 , 1 . 0 ( b imoda l ; lx e a ch ) 0 . 52 0 .60 2 . 90

0 . 94 1 . 10 5 . 80

S ca r 3 35 2 .9 3 3( 44x ) 1 . 02 1 6

Mea su remen t s , c a tego r ie s , t r enche s , l a ye r sa nd r aw ma te r ia ls o ft h eD onggu tuo t oo ls

A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

5 705 2 5 5 697 3 5 713 1 30 5 38 4 2 9 0 5 55 7 4 5 735 5 684 1 29 5 689 5 767 5 715 5 37 5 728 6 7 3 8 5 678 2 10 5 719 5 74 1 5 703 5 717 2 27 2 55 6 6 7 3 5 730

1 . 40 1 . 50 1 . 70 1 . 75 1 . 80 1 . 90 1 . 90 1 . 95 2 .00 2 .00 2 . 15 2 . 20 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 35 2 .40 2 .40 2 .45 2 .50 2 .50 2 . 50 2 . 50 2 .60 2 . 70 2 .70 2 .70 2 .75 2 .80 2 .85 2 .85

2 .00 1 . 30 2 . 35 1 . 10 2 . 80 1 . 80 3 . 10 1 . 80 1 . 80 2 .00 1 . 70 1 . 80 1 . 20 1 . 30 1 . 70 1 . 80 1 . 60 2 .00 2 . 85 2 . 10 1 . 90 2 .05 2 . 25 3 . 60 1 . 65 1 . 50 2 .20 2 . 20 2 . 40 2 .05 1 . 80 2 . 30

0 . 70 0 . 60 0 . 70 0 . 80 0 . 80 0 . 75 2 . 00 0 . 70 0 . 80 0 . 60 1 . 35 0 . 85 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 20 1 . 10 0 . 80 0 . 60 1 . 35 0 . 90 0 . 80 1 . 30 1 . 25 1 . 00 0 . 85 0 . 80 0 . 80 1 . 05 1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 20

f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h w h w h f r g f r g f r g

1 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 2 4 2 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 4

A C A A 0 A A A B A C A 0 0 A A A 0 0 C B A A A A A A A A C C 0

CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F C H / F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F C H / F -C CH /F CH /F CH/F

2 96

T ab le 1 96 , c on t inued A cce s s ion n umbe r

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne ss

C a tego ry

T rench

L aye r

R aw ma te r ia l

5 752 9 8 5 695 5 9 5 751 5 737 5 729 4 12 5 707 2 51 2 23 1 50 5 86 5 696 3 0 5 745 2 9 1 96 5 663 5 743 5 720 5 711 5 740 1 84 5 688 5 662 2 7 5 685 2 56 5 702 9 1 5 718 10 5 656 2 3 4 0 5 709 5 690 1 36 5 739 1 06 5 742 5 677 4 41 1 00 2 4 5 750 5 731 5 712 5 28 5 676 1 1 80 9 2 5 699 5 690 3 7 3 5 5 746 1 32 1 37

2 . 90 2 .90 2 . 90 2 . 90 2 . 95 2 . 95 2 .95 3 .00 3 .00 3 .00 3 . 00 3 .05 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 . 10 3 .20 3 .20 3 .20 3 . 20 3 .20 3 . 25 3 . 35 3 . 40 3 . 40 3 .40 3 .40 3 . 45 3 . 50 3 . 50 3 .60 3 .60 3 . 60 3 . 60 3 . 60 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 . 70 3 .70 3 . 80 3 . 85 3 . 90 3 .90 3 .90 3 . 95 4 .00 4 . 10 4 .20 4 .20 4 .20 4 .20 4 .20 4 .20 4 . 30 4 . 30 4 .30 4 . 30 4 . 50 4 . 50

1 . 50 2 . 30 2 . 30 2 . 80 2 . 25 2 .60 3 . 35 1 . 90 2 . 35 3 . 45 4 .70 2 .60 1 . 90 2 .00 2 . 20 3 . 10 3 . 40 3 . 55 1 . 95 2 .45 2 .90 4 .00 4 .25 4 .20 1 . 60 1 . 90 2 .20 2 . 30 2 .70 2 . 50 2 .00 3 . 55 2 .35 2 .60 2 .60 2 .70 3 . 10 2 . 20 2 .65 2 . 80 3 .45 2 .60 4 .00 2 .20 2 .25 2 .40 3 .00 3 . 10 2 . 85 2 .00 3 . 25 3 . 60 4 .00 4 . 10 4 .45 2 .25 2 .95 3 . 10 3 . 90 3 .00 3 .25

1 . 00 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 70 1 . 45 1 . 80 1 . 25 1 . 70 0 . 95 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 20 1 . 55 1 . 00 0 .80 1 . 00 1 . 20 1 . 30 0 . 75 1 . 35 0 . 80 1 . 20 1 . 15 1 . 30 1 . 30 0 . 80 0 .90 1 . 55 1 . 10 1 . 70 1 . 00 1 . 00 1 . 40 1 . 20 1 . 35 1 . 25 1 . 30 0 . 80 1 . 65 1 . 85 2 . 25 1 . 20 1 . 15 1 . 70 1 . 00 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 05 1 . 10 1 . 40 1 . 60 2 . 70 1 . 90 1 . 40 1 . 60 1 . 30 1 . 00 1 . 70 1 . 10 1 . 00 1 . 30

f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h w h f r g w h f r g w h w h f r g w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h w h f i g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g f r g f r g w h f r g f r g

1 4 1 2 1 4 3 4 4 1 1 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 2 3 1 5 1 3 5 1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 4 3 1 1 4 1 4 2 1 3 1 4 5 5 2 5 1

A B A C A 0 0 D 0 A A A A A B A B 0 A A 0 A A A A A C 0 A 0 B A C A C C A A A A B A 0 A C C A A 0 A 0 0 A B A 0 B A 0 B A

CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F QU CH /F -C CH /F BAS CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C CH /F C H / F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F C H / F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F BAS CH /F CH /F -C QU CH /F CH /F BAS CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F BAS CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C

2 97

T ab le 1 96 , c on t inued A cce ss ion n umbe r

5 700 2 02 5 747 5 733 5 8 5 710 5 726 8 8 5 749 2 15 1 05 5 732 1 08 5 701 5 721 2 00 3 4 5 675 5 675 3 2 8 7 5 748 2 52 1 07

T ab le 1 97

L eng th

4 . 50 4 . 55 4 . 55 4 .60 4 . 70 4 . 70 4 . 70 4 . 85 4 .90 5 .00 5 . 05 5 . 10 5 . 80 5 . 85 5 . 90 6 . 00 6 .00 6 . 00 6 . 15 6 . 30 6 . 65 7 . 25 7 . 60 7 . 85

W id th

3 .60 2 . 80 3 . 40 3 . 20 2 .70 3 . 50 3 . 50 3 . 20 4 .20 4 . 30 2 . 80 4 . 30 3 . 65 2 .70 4 .65 3 . 10 3 . 50 5 . 75 5 . 80 3 . 60 3 . 50 4 .20 4 .25 4 . 15

T h icknes s

2 . 50 1 . 75 2 .00 1 . 60 2 . 45 1 . 60 1 . 60 1 . 20 1 . 90 1 . 40 1 . 50 1 . 50 2 . 75 1 . 25 2 . 70 1 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 90 2 .75 1 . 50 1 . 80 2 . 20 2 . 50 2 .20

C a tego ry

T r ench

w h w h f r g w h f r g f r g w h f r g w h w h w h f r g f r g f r g w h f r g w h f r g w h w h w h w h w h w h

1 1 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 5 4 1 4 2 3 2 5

C ompa ra t ive m ea su remen t so f Donggu tuo t o o ls a nd w a s te f l ake s ( i n c m )

C a tego ry T i n 17 m in imum m ax imum w hf l n .4 6 m in imum max imum f l f rg n .7 1 m in imum max imum Wf n .4 39 m in imum max imum w hf l n .2 27 m in imum max imum f l f rg n .2 12 m in imum max imum

L eng th

W id th

T h ickne s s

1 . 40 7 . 85

1 . 10 5 . 80

0 .60 2 . 90

2 . 00 7 . 85

1 . 20 5 . 80

0 .60 2 . 85

1 . 40 6 . 00

1 . 10 5 . 75

0 . 60 2 . 90

0 . 75 1 2 .55

0 .40 7 . 85

0 . 15 3 . 40

0 . 90 1 2 .55

1 . 00 7 . 85

0 . 30 3 . 40

0 . 75 5 . 20

0 .40 5 . 85

0 . 15 2 . 10

2 98

L aye r

A A 0 A C A A C A A B A B A A A B 0 A B C 0 0 B

R aw ma te r ia l

CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F BAS CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F -C CH /F CH /F -C

Y ou e ta l . ( 1 978 , 1 980 )

S umma ry r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h em a in a t t r ibu t e so ft h eX iaochang l iang a s semb lage a c co rd ing t op r ev iou sa u tho r s

C A C A

c • •

00

0

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0

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0

c ;

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r A

C / i

c ;

C A

2 99

T ab le 1 99 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eX iaochang l iang l i t h ic c a tego r ie s ( t ran s la ted a nd a f te rY ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) C a tego ry

n

%

C o re s Wa s te & b roken p i ece s F lake s u nu t i l i sed u t i l i sed T oo ls

2 5 7 20

3 . 1 8 9 .6

T o ta l

8 04

4 4 3 1 2

5 . 5 0 . 3 1 . 5 1 00

T ab le 2 00 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eX iao chang l iang l i t h ic c a tego r ie s( t ran s la ted a nd a f t e rY ou 1 983 ) C a tego ry

n

T o

C o r e 1 U nu t i l i sed f l ake s 3 U t i l i sed f l ake s 1 20 T oo l s 1 4

0 . 7 2 . 2 8 7 .0 1 0 .1

T o ta l

1 00

1 38

T ab le 2 0 1 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so ft h eX iaochang l iang r aw ma te r ia ls ( t ran s la ted a nd a f te rY ou e ta l . 1 978 , 1 980 ) C a tego ry

n

%

C he r t V e in q ua r tz Q ua r tz i te B a sa l t

7 90 1 0 2 2

9 8 .3 1 . 2 0 . 2 0 . 2

T o ta l

8 04

9 9 .9

1c m

F igu re 9 3 .

Sma l l c o re f r om X iaochang l iang ( t ran s la ted f r om a nd a f te rY ou e ta l . 1 980 ,F ig . 6 )

3 00

1 2

1 3

1 4

F igu re 9 4 . S tone a r tef ac t s f r om X iaochang l iang . I .B ipo la rc o re . 2 .T h in f l ake . 3 .a nd 4 .B ipo la rf l ake s . 5 .a nd 6 . Sma l l p l a tform f l akes . 7 . , 8 .a nd 9 . U t i l ised f l ake s . 1 0 . a nd 1 . S ing le s t ra igh t s c rape r s . 1 2 . R ound e nd s c rape r . 1 3 . Sma l l t o r to ise b ack p o in t . 1 4 . Sma l l b o re r( t ran s la ted f r om a nd a f te r You 1 983 , F ig . 1 )

3 0 1

1 1cm

F igu re 9 5 . U nu t i l ised f l ake s f r om X iaochang l iang . 1 . Sma l l f l ake . 2 .B ipo la rf l ake ( t rans la ted f r om a nd a f te r You e ta l . 1 980 , F ig . 7 . 3 , 4 )

0 . 510

T ong 1 987 C heng e ta L 1 978* Ma e ta t . 1 978 L ia nd L in 1 979Y

K ey t os ymbo ls : *C hen a nd Z hang ( 1991) r e f e rt o ap a laeomagne t ic d a te o f0 . 980 my r mea su red b y C heng e ta l . ( 1978 ) . t" An ima l b one" a nd "Mamma l ian f o ss i ls" s amp le i n Wu a nd Wang ( 1 985 , T ab le 2 . 1 , p .3 8 ) . VM in imum a ge .

3 24

(

2C D 7

2

3

F igu re 19 . T he Gongwang l ing 1 965 a r tefac t s . 1 .C o re . 2 .F l ake e ndscrape r . 3 .C o re e nd scrape r . S ca le o f 1a nd 3i s l i f e s ize ( t rans la ted f r om a nd a f te rT a i 1 966 , F ig . 1a nd P l a te 1 )

3 25

T ab le 2 21 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so f Gongwang l ing 1 966 l i t h ic c a tego r ie s i nr e la t ion t ot h e i rs t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion ( t rans la ted a nd a f te rT a i a nd H sue 1 973 )

5

C a tego ry

4 n

C o re s U nu t i l ised f l ake s U t i l ised f l ake S t ra igh te dge s c rape r

1 1 0 0

1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1

T o ta l

2

1

1

6

7 n

L aye r s 9

1 n

1 3

1 5

1 7

1 2 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

3

1

1

2

2

T o ta l n

1 0

1 2

%

7 53 .8 4 3 0 .8 1 7 . 7 1 7 . 7 1 3

1 00

1 3

F igu re 1 20 . T he G ongwang l ing 1 966 a r tef ac t s . 1 .-7 .C o res : 1 . , 2 .T ype I , 3 . , 4 .T ype I , 5 .T ype I I , 6 .T ype I V , 7 . , T ype V . 8 .-1 . U nu t i l ised f l akes . 1 2 . S t ra igh t f l ake s c rape r . 1 3 . U t i l ised f l ake . S ca le : 1 3 , 5 -7 , 1 , 1 / 4 s i ze , 4 ,8 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 / 2 s i ze ( t ran s la ted f r om a nd a f te rT a i a nd H sue 1 973 , F ig . 2 )

3 26

F igu re 1 2 1 .

P o in tf r om P ing l iang ( t rans la ted f r om a nd a f te rT a i 1 966 , F ig . 2 )

,

F igu re 1 22 . 1 0 )

P o in tf r om n ea r Gongwang l ing . S ca le r e p re sen t s t h ree c m ( t rans la ted f r om a nd a f te rT a i a nd C h i 1 964 , F ig .

3 27

T ab le 2 22 C ompa ra t ive s pec ie s f r equenc ie so ft h e Gongwang l ing ( G WL ) a nd C hen j iawo ( CJ W )f a unae c ompa red t oK ehe ( K ) ,Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3( L 1 3 ) a nd L oca l i ty 1( L 1 )( a f te rA igne ra nd L augh l in 1 973 a nd A igne r 1 981 :177 ) S pec ie s

GWL

C JW

x x

x x x • x x -

Homo e r ec tus N eomy s s pp . Myospa lax s pp . A pod emus s y lva t icus O cho tono id e sc omp l ic idens O cho tono id es s pp . L epus s pp . S t egodon s pp . P a laeo loxodon s p . T ap irus s p . E quus s anmen iens i st N es tor i ther ium c f . s i nense R h inoceros s p . ( ?R . s i nens i s ) S us l y dekker i E laphodu sc epha lophus C ervus ( r usa ) s p . Megacero sk onwang l iens i s P seudax i sg ray i G aze / /a s p . L ep tobos s pl B ison s p . H yaena b r ev iros tr i ss i nens i s Megan ther eon s p . P an thera c f .p ardu s P . t i gr i s A c inonyx p le i s tocaen icus A c inonyx s p . Mus te la s pp . Me le sl e ucurus C uon s pp . N yc tereu t e ss i nens i s U r su st h ibe tanus¥ A i luropoda s p .

x * x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x t x x x x x

x x x -

T o ta l

2 1

1 0§

-

K

L1 3

-

x

x x x -

-

x x ? x -

L1 x x x ? x x x x

-

x S 2 x * x -

x x * -

-

x x x x x -

6

1 0

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x E 2 2

K ey t os ymbo ls : xp resen t . -n o t p re sen t . •b e low r e s to ff a una . *S .o r ien ta l i s o rS .p raeor ien ta l i s . tA s ma l l f o rm a nd p e rhaps mo re p r im i t ive s pec ie s . S 2 Two s pec ie so f Megaceros s pp . p re sen t . *P seudax i s s p . ( ?P .g ray i ) . (1 [S im i la rt oB i son p r i scus . t" La rge rt h an t h eV i l laf ranch ian" [ e a r ly E a r ly P l e i s tocene ] " form" . V" Somewha tp r im i t ive" . EA i luropoda s p . o rA i lurus s p . i nA igne ra nd L augh l in ( 1973 ) , b u tt h ep re sence o fp anda a tL oca l i ty 1i sn o tc e r ta in . §No t i n c lud ing 0 . c omp l ic idens .

T ab le 2 23 C hen j iawo f a una l s pec ie s( a f te r H uang a nd C hang 1 966 a nd H an a nd X u 1 985 )

Homo e r ec tu s L epus w ong i O cho tono id e sc omp l ic idens B ahomy sh ypsodon ta Myospa lax t i ng i M .f on tan ier it A podemus c f . s y lva t icus H ys tr ix s p . i n de t . C an i sa l p inus V Me le sc f . l e ucurus F e l is t i gr i s

3 28

T ab le 2 23 , c on t inued

E lepha s s p . S us c f . l y dekker i P seudax i sg ray i S i nomegaceros ( Mega locero s )s p . K ey t os ymbo ls : tM . c f .f on tan ier i a nd VCuon a lp inus o fH an a nd Xu ( 1985 ) .

T ab le 2 24 C ompa ra t ive e l emen ta nd m in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls f r equenc ie s o ft h eC hen j iawo f a una , 1 964 e xcava t ion ( t rans la ted a nd a f te rC how 1 964 ) S pe c ie s

E lemen t s

MN I

Myo spa lax f on tan ier i

l e f t mand ib le f r agmen t* w i th M 1,M2

1

C uon a l p inus

2max i l la ry f r agmen t s , l e f t &r i gh t , e ach w i th t h e f ou ru ppe rc heek t e e th , 1i n c iso r s ku l l , max i l la , mand ib le a s t ra lagu s , l u na te , f emu rh ead j aw s a nd l imb b ones, a n t le r s max i l la , 2mand ib le s , a l w i th c heek t e e th

F e l l s t i gr i s " E lepha s" s p . P seudax i sg ray i S us c f . l y dekker i

1 1 1 §2 t 2

K ey t os ymbo ls : *A lmo s tc omp le te . VMa jo r i ty o fe l emen t s , a nd o fv a ry ing a ge s . §I n c lud ing o ne b ow t i ne o fy oung i nd iv idua l . -I -N ume rous i n d iv idua ls ( Chow 1 964 )

T ab le 2 25

C hen j iawo c h ronome t r ic d a te s( t rans la ted a nd a f te r Wang 1 989 a nd Wu a nd Wang 1 985 )

L aye r

S amp le

T echn ique

A ge ( my rbp )

R e f e r ence

C u l tu ra l C u l tu ra l C u l tu ra l

s o i l s o i l s o i l

P P P

0 . 650 0 . 650 0 . 530

Ma e ta t . 1 978 T ong 1 987 C heng e ta l . 1 978

S an j iad ian

C3 0 ZHOUKOUD IAN

P ek ing Man S i te

F igu re 1 23 . T he l o ca t ion o ft h eZ houkoud ian l o ca l i t ie si nr e la t ion t oB e i j ing a nd Z houkoud ian v i l lage ( a f te rJ i a a nd H uang 1 990 :11)

3 29

.V

0

1 00

2 00

3 00 1 . 1

F igu re 1 24 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e ma in f o ss i l if e rous l o ca l i t ie s i nt h eZ houkoud ian a r ea w i th e l eva t ion a . s . l . ( i n me t re s ) ( a f te rJ i aa nd H uang 1 990 :120 ) 1 15 F o s s i l if e rou s l o ca l i t ie s A Uppe rC ave

AA

A '

L EGEND ( I )

C her

( 2 )

S eed o fC e i t is

m p lemen t

O rdov ic ian l i me s tone U pper p ar t L ower p ar t S ta lagm i t ic f l oor Or irCru l lt ilt IOO

3

t o r n .

F igu re 1 25 . S t ra t ig raphy o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 s how ing e a s t -we s ta nd n o r th -sou th s e c t ions a nd p o s i t ions o ft h e c he r ta r te f ac ta nd C e l t i s s p . s eeds . T he Uppe rP a r t a nd L owe rP a r ta r e a l so c a l led U ppe rZ one a nd L owe rZ one , r e spec t ive ly ( a f te rP e i 1 934b , F ig . 1 ,a nd p p . 3 60 -362 )

30

T ab le 2 26 C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 n umbe r o f f a una l e l emen t s ( ELE ) a nd i n d iv idua l s ( lND ) ( a f te rA igne r[ 1 981 , Append ix 2 P ] a f te rT e i lha rd a nd P e i [ 1 94 1 ] ; s p ec ie s u pda ted f r om P ope a nd Howe l l [ 1 982 ]) ELE

I ND

S pec ie s A qu i la s p . P ha s ianu sc f . c o lch icus Macaca a nd er s son i( e x -robus ta ) E r inaceu so l ga i Ma rmo ta b obac ?C i te l lus c f . mongo l icus* C r ice tu lu sv ar ians C .c f . g r i seus lo r C . c f . v ar ians M icro tu s " brand t io ide s" Myo spa lax e p i t ing i H y s tr ix l a gre l l i H . c f . s ubcr i s ta ta L epus c f . o i os to /us ( i nc l . e x -wong i ) O cho tona d aur ica C an i sl u pus m osbachens i s( e x -var iab i l i s ) N yc tereu te ss i nens i s c h ih l iens i s V u lpe s( Cyna lopex ) c or sac X enocyon s p . ( Cuon a lp inus v a r . a n t iqua ) P achycrocu ta b rev iro s tr i ss i nens i s* P an thera p ard us* H omo ther ium u l t imum* F e l i sc f . c h inens is* U r su sa r c to s Me le sc f . l e ucurus Mar te sa nd er s son i . Mu s te la a l ta ica M . c on s tr ic ta A c inonyx p le i s tocaen icus s p . t D icerorh inus k i r chbergens i ss pp .¥ C oe lodon ta a n t iqu i ta t i sy ushanens i s E quus s anmen iens is S us s c rof al y dekker i H yd ropo t e si n term is p le i s tocaen ica P seudax i sg ray i Megacero sf l abe l la tus G a ze l la s ubgu t turosa s p . B uba lu st e i lhard i( 1 [

? ? 1 1 7 1 ? 6 2 3 7 3 4 1 1 85 3 15 3 1 8 3 ? ? ? ? 4 3 6+ 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 0+ 2 1 1 0 3 9 1 60+ 3 2

T o ta l

7 37+

? ? 1 1 1 7 3 2 2 4 0 2 1 6 8 2 2 4 2 6 1 ? ? ? ? 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 6 1 4 4 3 1 8 6 0 1 1

1

2 87

*N o t i nA igne r ( 1981 , Append ix 2 P ) . t?A c inonyx s p . i nA igne r ( 1981 , Append ix 2 P ) . D . k i rchbergens is i nA igne r( 1981 , A ppend ix 2 P ) .( 1"Mo re b i son l ike t h an L oca l i ty 1f o rm" ( A igne r 1 981 :314 )

31

?

C

F igu re 1 26 .

3

4Cm

C he r t a r tef ac tf r om Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1 3 ; n a tu ra l s i ze ( a f te rP e i 1 934b , F ig . 4 )

—

—

Con tour o ft he E xcava ted A rea

— + — Con tou ro ft he D epos i t

0

/ 4 1

5

/ 0

2 0

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L owe r Cave 1

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Gez i tang Cave

1 927-30 , 1 934 -37 , 1 949 , 1 951 , 1 958 -60 , 1 966

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1 933-34 4 .

0

F igu re 1 27 .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1e xcava ted a r ea s ( a f te rJ i aa nd H uang 1 990 :46 )

3 32

Cap T ravertine Uppe, Cave

1 50 -

1 40

N

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( C) P2-8 --

. . .

( C)? 4 20

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5 8.

F igu re 1 28 . Ap a r t ly d i ag ramma t ic l o ng i tud ina l s e c t ion o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1Ma in D epo s i t , L owe rF i ssure , a nd Ko tze tang ( Gez idong )C ave s how ing l a ye r s 1 11 . ( A ) , ( B ) , a nd ( C ) : C u l tu ra l l a ye r s . Q 1 -Q 3 : Q ua r tz Ho r izons . K : K o tze tang C ave . S ca le i si n me t re s ( a f te rB lack e ta l . 1 993 , F ig . 8a nd p p . 1 7 -18 )

. 1 70

1 70M

1 60

1 60 '

1 50

1 50

1 40

1 40

1 30

1 30

1 20

1 20

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F igu re 1 29 . Two t r ansve r se s ec t ion so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1Ma in D epo s i t , L owe rF i ssu re , a nd K o tze tang ( Gez idong ) C ave . T he u nshaded c i r cumsc r ibed a r ea o fs e c t ion BD i n d ica te st h ea r ea o ft h eL owe rC ave a nd s e c t ion E Fi st h ep a r t ly e xcava ted K o tze tang C ave . ( A ) , a ,b ,c ,( B ) a nd ( C ) : C u l tu ra l l a ye r s . 1-1 : C h ief s t ra t ig raph ic l a ye r s . S ca le i si n me t re s ( a f te rB lack e ta l . 1 933 , F ig . 7a nd p p . 1 7 -18 )

3 33

T ab le 2 27 S ed imen ta ry s t ra t ig raphy o f Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1b y l a ye r : I .a f te r A igne r ( 1981 , F ig . 3 0 .A ) a f te r C h ia ( 1959b ) ; 2 . a f te r Mü l le rBeck a nd A igne r ( 1966 n . d . ) i n A igne r ( 1981 , T ab le 1 0 ) . N o te : Whe re mo re t h an o ne m a te r ia l o ccur s i na n i nd iv idua l l a ye r , t h e ma jo ro ne i sc i ted f i r s t

L aye r

1 . S ed imen t

L aye r

2 . S ed imen t

1 3

B r ecc ia

1

B r ec c ia

3

B r ecc ia

2

T rave r t ine

4

A she s & l ime s tone

3

C o l lap sed r oof D isconfo rm i ty

5

T raver t ine

4

S and & C lays

6

B recc ia & l ime s tone

C lay 5 S ta lagm i te

7

S ands & l ime s tone

8

B recc ia & l ime s tone

6

B r ecc ia

9

B recc ia , l ime s tone &c ong lome ra te

7

S and s

1 0

R edd ish c l ay &b r ecc ia

1

B r e cc ia

1 2

S ands

1 3

S and & m ud

8 /9

B r ecc ia ted L owe r F i s su re D i sconform i ty?

1 0

L owe rT rave r t ine

1

L owe rT rave r t ine

1 2 / 13

B a sa l G rave ls

T ab le 2 28 T h ickne ss o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1l a ye r s : 1 .a f te rA igne r( 198 1 :104 105 ) a f ter P e i ( 1931b ) , T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 ) , C h ia ( 1959b ) , K ah lke a nd C hou ( 196 1) ; 2 .o ft h e Ma in D epo s i ta nd L owe rF i ssu re , a f te rB lack e ta l . ( 1933 :17 -18 ) ; 3 .a f te r Z hang ( 1985 ) ; t h ickness i si n me t re s 2 . T h ickness

L aye r 1

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T ab le 2 29 S ed imen ta ry , f o ss i l a nd c u l tu ra l s t ra t ig raphy o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1( a f te rH ong K ong Mu seum o fH is to ry 1 983 ) ; t h icknes s i si nm e t re s ; t o ta l t h ickne ss i sc .3 1 .50 - c .4 2 .00 m L aye r

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C ro s s -co r re la t ion o fs t ra t igraph ic d e s igna t ions b y s eve ra l w o rke r s( a f te rB info rd a nd Ho 1 985 ,F ig . 6 )

T ab le 2 30 C ompa ra t ive c u l tu ra l d iv is ion o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1o fe a r ly a u tho r s . K : K o tze tang ( Gez idong ) C ave ; QH : Qua r tz H o r izon ; S 1 : S ub laye r s ; MD : Ma in d epo s i t ; L F : L owe rF i s su re ; CZ : C u l tu ra l Z one ; QL : Q ua r tz L aye r ; L :L aye r P e i K QH

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P e i ( 1931b :11 1 117 , F ig s . 1 3 ) ; T e i lha rd a nd P e i ( 1932 :317 -32 1 , F ig . 1 ,a ) ; B lack e ta l . ( 1933 :17 -18 , 2 0 , 10 , 13 , F igs . 7a nd 8 ) ; Ab : P oo r ly k nown l a ye r . A c : B a se o fU ppe ra shy l a ye r . CZ C : L owe ra shy l a ye r . CZ C o ft h e MD may b e c or re la ted w i th al a ye rb e tween l a ye r s 9a nd 1 0i nt h e L F . CZ C o ft h e Kp robab ly c o r re sponds t ol a ye r s 8 10 o ft h e MD .

3 37

F igu re 1 33 . C omb ina t ion o fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1s e c t ion s f r om e a s t t ow e s t . I : Ma in D epo s i t . L owe rC ave . I I . K o tze tang C ave . P :r ubb ish . L :l ime s tone ( ou te r w a l l ) . L i -L 8 : v a r iou s l a ye r s o fd epo s i t s . SA - SG : v a r iou sH . e r ec tu sl o c i . Q 1 a nd Q 2 : t wo h o r izon sw i th q ua r tz a r tef ac t s . a l pha - d e l ta s ymbo l s : s ubd iv i s ion so fL owe rF i ssu re d epo s i t s ( a f te rA igne r 1 981 , F ig . 2 8 a nd P e i 1 931b , F ig . 1 )

T ab le 2 31

C ompa ra t ive f r equenc ie so fZ houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1p o l len a nd s po re s ( a f te rV a sa r i 1 960 ) S ub to ta l

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T ab le 2 33

Z houkoud ian L oca l i ty 1m amma l ian s pec ie s ( a f te rH an a nd X u 1 985 )

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