The Story Of Civilization - Part 4 - The Age Of Faith
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u;
BOOKS BY WILL DURANT
The Story
of Philosophy
Transition
The Mansions Adventures
The Story
of Philosophy in
Genius
of Civilization:
I.
Our
Oriental Heritage
II.
The
Life of Greece
III.
Caesar and Christ
IV.
The Age
of Faith
1
Dante Dronzc, Nntional Aluscum, Naples
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION: PART
THE AGE OF FAITH A History of Medieval Civilization — Christian, Islamic,
and Judaic—from to
Dante :
A.D.
Constantine
525-1500
By Will Durant
SIMON AND SCHUSTER NEW YORK
:
1950
IV
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED INCLUDING THE RIGHT OF REPRODUCTION IN WHOLE OR IN PART IN ANY FORM COPYRIGHT, 1950, BY WILL DURANT PUBLISHED BY SIMON AND SCHUSTER, INC. ROCKEFELLER CENTER, I23O SIXTH AVENUE,
NEW YORK
20, N. Y.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 35-10016
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
TO ETHEL, JIMMY, AND MONICA
To THIS book aims to give from
is
the Reader
as full
and
fair
an account of medieval civilization,
325 to 1300, as space and prejudice will permit. Its m.ethod integral history— the presentation of all phases of a culture or an age in one A.D.
total picture legal,
and narrative. The obligation to cover the economic,
political,
mihtary, moral, social, religious, educational, scientific, medical, philo-
sophic, literary, and artistic aspects of four distinct civilizations— Byzantine,
and West European— has made unification and brevity difThe meeting and conflict of the four cultures in the Crusades provides
Islamic, Judaic, ficult.
measure of unity; and the tired reader, appalled by the length of the book, may find some consolation in learning that the original manuscript was half a
again longer than the present text.* Nothing has been retained except what seemed necessary to the proper understanding of the period, or to the life and color of the tale. Nevertheless certain recondite passages, indicated by reduced type, may be omitted by the general reader without mortal injury. These two volumes constitute Part IV of a history of civilization. Part I, Our Oriental Heritage (1935), reviewed the history of Egypt and the Near East to their conquest by Alexander about 330 B.C., and of India, China, and Japan to the present century. Part II, The Life of Greece (1939), recorded the career and culture of Flellas and the Near East to the Roman Conquest of Greece in 146 b.c. Part III, Caesar and Christ (1944) surveyed the history of Rome and Christianity from their beginnings, and of the Near East from 146 B.C., to the Council of Nicaea in a.d. 325. This book continues the study of the white man's life to the death of Dante in 1 3 2 1 Part V, The Renaissance and the Refor7nation, covering the period from 1321 to 1 648, should appear in 1955; and Part VI, The Age of Reason, carrying the story to our own time, should be ready by i960. This will bring the author so close to senility that he must forgo the privilege of applying the integral method to the two ,
.
Americas.
Each of
these volumes
is
designed as an independent unit, but readers
and Christ will find it easier to pick up the threads of Chronology compels us to begin with those facets of the quadripartite medieval civilization which are most remote from our normal interest— the Byzantine and the Islamic. The Christian reader will be surprised by the space given to the Moslem culture, and the Moslem scholar will mourn the brevity with which the brilliant civilization of medieval familiar with Caesar
the present narrative.
*
An
occasional hiatus in the numbering of the notes
vii
is
due to last-minute omissions.
TO THE READER Islam has here been summarized.
A
persistent effort has
each faith and culture from
partial, to see
dice has survived,
if
its
own
been made to be im-
point of view. But preju-
only in the selection of material and the allotment of
The mind, like the body, is imprisoned in its skin. The manuscript has been written three times, and each
space.
discovered errors.
Many must
still
rewriting has
remain; the improvement of the part
sacrificed to the completion of the whole.
The
is
correction of errors will be
welcomed. Grateful acknowledgment Institute of
New York,
is
due to Dr. Use Lichtenstadter, of the Asia
for reading the pages on Islamic civilization; to Dr.
Bernard Mandelbaum, of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, for reviewing the pages on medieval Jewry; to Professor Lynn Thorndike, of
Columbia University, for the use of his translation of a passage from Alexander Neckham; to the Cambridge University Press for permission to quote translations from Edward G. Browne's A Literary History of Persia; to the its Hollywood Branch, and to the Library of Congress, for the loan of books; to Miss Rose Mary DeWitte for typing 50,000 notes; to Dr. James L. Whitehead, Dr.C. Edward
Public Library of Los Angeles, and specifically to
Hopkin, and Mrs. terial; to
Misses
W^ill
Durant for
Mary and
Flora
their learned aid in classifying the
Kaufman
ma-
for varied assistance; and to Mrs.
Edith Digate for her high competence in typing the manuscript.
This book,
who
like all its predecessors,
should have been dedicated to
for thirty-seven years has given
me
my wife,
a patient toleration, protection,
guidance, and inspiration that not all these volumes could repay. It is at her prompting that these two volumes are dedicated to our daughter, son-in-law, and grandson.
WILL DURANT November
22,
1949
vui
.
Table of Contents BOOK
THE BYZANTINE ZENITH:
i:
a.d.
325-565
Chronological Table
Chapter I.
II.
III.
II.
III.
The Legacy of Constantine
3
Christians and Pagans
7
iv.
lo
v.
New
The
11.
Caesar
The Triumph
The Threatened Frontier The Savior Emperors Italian
Chapter I.
Julian the Apostate: 332-63
1.
Chapter I.
Background
III.
The
III.
The Organization
3.
IV.
Jerome
Christian Soldiers
The
The Pagan Emperor Journey's End
13
19
of the Barbarians: 325-476
22
22 25
iv.
28
v.
of the
The Heretics The Christian West I.Rome 2. St.
3
The The
Barbarian Flood Fall of
Rome
35 41
Progress of Christianity: 364-451
Church 11.
2
Christian East
i.
44 46
2.
v. St.
50
Augustine
The Sinner 2. The Theologian 3. The Philosopher 4. The Patriarch The Church and the World. i.
50 51
55 58
The Monks of the East The Eastern Bishops
vi.
44 58 61
64 64 67 71
73 75
Chapter IV. Europe Takes Form: 325-529 I.
II.
III.
Britain
Becomes England
80
Ireland
82
Prelude to France
85
1
The
2.
3.
iv.
Last Days of Classic
Gaul
The Franks
80
v.
The Merovingians
92
Visigothic Spain
95
Ostrogothic Italy
97
85
i.Theodoric
97
88
2.
Boethius
99
Chapter V. Justinian: 527-65 I.
II. III.
103
The Emperor
103
Theodora
106
iv.
Belisarius
107
v.
ix
The Code of Justinian The Imperial Theologian
in 115
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter VI. Byzantine Civilization: 337-565 I. Work and Wealth 118
118
The Byzantine Artist
Science and Philosophy
121
2.
III.
Literature
3. St.
IV.
Byzantine Art
124 126
4.
From
126
5.
The Byzantine Arts
II.
I
.
The
Passage from
I.
The Persians:
II.
128
129
Constantinople to
Ravenna
Paganism
Chapter VII.
Sophia
131
133
224-641
136
Sasanian Society
136
iii.
Sasanian Art
148
Sasanian Royalty
142
iv.
The Arab Conquest
151
BOOK
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION:
11:
a.d.
569-1258
Chronological Table
Mohammed:
Chapter VIII. I.
II.
153
Arabia in
Mecca
155
Mohammed iv. Mohammed
in.
155
Mohammed
Chapter IX.
569-632 162
in
Medina
Victorious
166 171
The Koran
175
Form
175
II.
Creed
176
iv.
Religion and the State
182
III.
Ethics
179
V.
Sources of the Koran
184
I.
The Sword of Islam: 632-1058 i.Harun al-Rashid The Successors 187 2. Decline of the Abbasids II. The Umayyad Caliphate .192 iv. Armenia III. The Abbasid Caliphate 196
Chapter X. I.
..
Chapter
XL The Islamic Scene:
The Economy II. The Faith III. The People ,
I.
II.
III.
IV.
I.
II.
III.
210
iv.
219
v.
Thought and Art
in
235
v.
Science
239
vi.
Medicine Philosophy
245
vii.
249
viii.
206
The Government The Cities
225 227
Eastern Islam: 632-1058 Mysticism and Heresy Literature
Art Music
of Africa
282
iv.
Islamic Civilization in
286
Islam in the Mediterranean 289
270 278
282
Spanish Islam
291
i.
Caliphs and Emirs
2.
Civilization in
Spain
X
235
257 262
Western Islam: 641-1086
The Conquest Africa
204
632-1058
Scholarship
Chapter XIII.
...200
206
I.
Chapter XII.
187 196
291
Moorish 297
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter XIV.
The Grandeur and Decline
of Islam:
1058- 1 258 I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
308
The Islamic East The Islamic West
308
\a.
312
vii.
Glimpses of Islamic Art
315
viii.
The Age of Omar Khayyam The Age of Sa'di
BOOK
ix.
Moslem Science
328
Al-Ghazali
331
Averroes
333
The Coming
of the
Mongols
319 x.
324
JUDAIC CIVILIZATION:
III:
338
Islam and Christendom
a.d.
341
135-1300
Chronological Table
Chapter I.
II.
III,
XV. The Talmud:
The Exiles The Makersof the Talmud The Law I.
Theology
Chapter XVI. I.
II.
Jewish Life
Government
L Letters II.
Science
IV.
The
2.
Ritual
353
3.
Ethics of the
rv.
356
Life and the
Talmud
Law
359
364
Jews: 500-1300
366
366 2.
Economy
375
369
3.
Morals
378
374 374
4.
Religion
382
iv.
Anti-Semitism
385
of the Jew: 500-1300
395
395
The Adventures Talmud
III.
350
The Mind and Heart
Chapter XVII.
347
347
The Medieval
The Oriental Communities The European Commu-
I.
135-500
353
nities III.
346
of the
Among the Jews
Rise of Jewish Philosophy
BOOK
iv:
400
v.
402
vi.
405
viii.
vii.
THE DARK
Maimonides
408
The Maimonidean War The Cabala
414 416
Release
418
AGES:
a.d.
566-1095
Chronological Table
421
Chapter XVIII.
The Byzantine World:
Heraclius
423
The
I.
II.
Iconoclasts
III.
Imperial Kaleidoscope
425 427
IV.
Byzantine Life
431
v. vi. vii.
xi
566-1095
The Byzantine Renaissance... 437 The Balkans 443 The Birth of Russia 446
423
.
..
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter XIX. I.
Italy
The Lombards The Normans in
3.
Venice
4. Italian
III.
I.
451 Italy
Civilization
Christian Spain
France
Chapter
1
The Coming
452
of the Caro-
lingians
460
453 456
2.
Charlemagne
461
3.
The
471
458 460
4.
Letters and Arts
5.
The
483
Alfred and the Danes
Anglo-Saxon Between Conquests Wales
v.
48 3
2.
Civilization 485
3.
492
III.
Irish Civilization
495 496
IV.
Scotland
501
II.
450
Carolingian Decline Rise of the
476
Dukes
479
XX. The Rise of the North:
England 1
of the West: ^66-1066
451
2.
1.
II.
The Decline
5 66- 1 066 The Northmen 1. The Kings' Saga 2.
VI.
Viking Civilization
Germany The Organization of Power 2. German Civilization
48 3 502
502
504 510
1
510 514
Chapter XXI. Christianity in Conflict: 529-1085 I.
II. III.
IV.
v.
St.
Benedict
517
517
Gregory the Great
519
Papal Pohtics
524
VI.
527
VII.
The Greek Church The Christian Conquest of Europe
VIII.
530
IX.
The Nadir of the Papacy The Reform of the Church The Great Eastern Schism
537
Gregory VII Hildebrand
545
541
544
Chapter XXII. Feudalism and Chivalry: 600-1200 I.
II.
Feudal Origins
552
Feudal Organization
553
1.
2. 3.
4.
The Slave 553 The Serf 555 The Village Community 558 The Lord 560
book
v:
5.
The Feudal Church The King
552 564
III.
Feudal
Law
564 566
IV.
Feudal
War
569
6.
V.
Chivalry
572
the CLIMAX OF CHRISTIANITY: a.d.
1095-1300
Chronological Table
Chapter XXIII. I.
Cmsade Latin Kingdom
V.
The Second Crusade Saladin
585
585
First
Jerusalem IV.
Crusades: 1095-1291
Causes
The III. The II.
The
582
588 of
VI. VII.
592
VIII.
594 596
IX.
The Third Crusade The Fourth Crusade The Collapse of the Crusades
xii
The
598 602
606
Results of the Crusades 609
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXIV. The Economic Revolution:
Chapter I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
The The
Revival of
I.
II.
III.
IV.
v. VI.
Progress of Industry
621
vi.
625
vii.
Interest
630
The
633
Guilds
XXV. The Recovery
Byzantium The Armenians Russia and the Mongols
The Balkan Flux The Border States Germany
vn. Scandinavia viii.
England 1. William the Conqueror 2. Thomas a Becket 3.
Magna Carta
653
5.
657
ix.
659
x.
661
xi.
669
xii.
672
xiii.
From Mantua
712
I
.
714
vi.
714
vii.
v.
III.
Prayer
742
vii.
IV.
Ritual
748
viii.
The Early
The Albigensian Heresy The Background of the Inquisition
Chapter
701
The Wonder World
Life
721
725 728
1095-1294
Canon Law
The Clergy The Papacy Supreme The Finances of the Church
776
The
tv.
Results
732 754 756 760 765
769
Inquisitors
779 783
Friars: 1095-1300
785
v.
Bernard
787
vi.
III.
St.
Francis
792 802
vii.
Dominic
Rise of Florence
iii.
St.
IV. St.
717
769
XXIX. Monks and
The Monastic
of the
Empire vs. Papacy The Dismemberment of
The
703
Inquisition: 1000-1300
II.
I.
697
Portugal
Italy
vi.
II.
695
3.
738
Chapter XXVIII.
690
Spain
2.
732
I.
Philip the Fair
688
Italy: 1057-1308
The Faith of the People The Sacraments
I.
II.
682
The Roman Catholic Church:
Chapter XXVII.
680 685 688
The Excommunicate Crusader
678
The Rhinelands
3.
706
II
650
Ireland— Scotland— Wales
666
IV.
Frederick
The Growth of the Law The English Scene
France i. Phihp Augustus 2. Sl Louis
708
V.
646
665 666
Venice Triumphant
Genoa
643
War
of Europe: 1095-1300 4.
III.
to
Class
637
650
703
II.
The
652
Norman Sicily The Papal States
I.
The Communes The Agricultural Revolution
viii.
XXVI. Pre-Renaissance
Chapter
614
Commerce 614
Money
Chapter
1066-1300
viii.
xiii
785
The Nuns The Mystics The Tragic Pope
811
Retrospect
816
805 807
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter XXX. The Mor^vls and 700-1300 I. The Christian Ethic 819
Manners of Christendom: 819
Premarital Morality
821
vi.
III.
Marriage
823
vii.
IV.
Woman
825
viii.
Public Morality
828
ix.
II.
V.
Medieval Dress In the
831
Home
835
Society and Sport
Morality and Religion
839 842
Chapter XXXI. The Resurrection of the Arts: 1095-1300 845 I. The Esthetic Awakening 2. Miniatures .845 852 II. The Adornment of Life 3. Murals 853 847 III.
Painting I,
851
Mosaic
851
The
Cathedral
The Norman
868
Style in
England IV.
The Evolution
V.
French Gothic
856 857
1095-1300
of Gothic
vi.
English Gothic
882
vii.
German Gothic
886 887
893
870
viii.
.872
ix.
Gothic Spanish Gothic
875
x.
Considerations
Italian
890
Chapter XXXIII. Medieval Music: 326-1300 I. The Music of the Church 11. The Music of the People 895 ...
Chapter XXXIV. 1 000300 1 I.
II.
III.
IV.
I.
II.
III.
The Transmission
The World of Books The Translators The Schools
XXXV.
of Knowledge:
v.
906
vi.
909 913
vii. viii.
Universities of the South
916
Universities of France
919 924 926
Universities of England
Student Life
Abelard: 1079-1142
Divine Philosophy
931
Heloise
935 938
The Pvationalist
iv.
v.
931
The Letters of Heloise The Condemned
Chapter XXXVI. The Adventure of Reason: I. The School of Chartres 949 II. Aristotle in Paris 3. Theology 953 III.
IV.
The Freethinkers The Development
955 of Scho-
lasticism V. VI.
Thomas Aquinas The Thomist Philosophy 1.
2.
Logic Metaphysics
895 900
903
TheRiseof the Vernaculars 903
Chapter
863
863
Continental Romanesque
II.
III.
Stained Glass
The Gothic Flowering:
Chapter XXXII. I.
4.
Sculpture
IV.
970
Ethics
972
6. Politics
974 976
Religion
The Reception Thomism The Successors 8.
xiv
969
5.
7.
vii.
949
Psychology
958
967 968
120-1308
4.
961 ...967
i
942
944
of
977 979
TABLE OF CONIENTS XXXVII. Christian Science: 1095-1300 The Magical Environment 984 v. The Revival of Medicine II. The Mathematical Revo\a. Albertus Magnus lution 989 vii. Roger Bacon HI. The Earth and Its Life 992 viii. The Encyclopedists IV. Matter and Energy 994
984
Chapter I.
Chapter XXXVIII. I.
Ti.
The
The Age
Latin Revival
Wine, Woman, and Song
Drama
III.
The Rebirth
IV.
Epics and Sagas
Chapter
of
XXXIX. Dante:
of Romance: 1100-1300 v. The Troubadom's 1018 vi. The Minnesingers 1024 vii. The Romances 1027 viii. The Satirical Reaction 1030
997 1003
1006 1015
1018 1036
1039 1042 1051
1056
1265-1321
The Poem
1066
1056
i.
1058
2.
Hell
1069
III.
The Italian Troubadours Dante and Beatrice The Poet in Politics
1061
3.
Purgatory
1073
IV.
The Divine Comedy
1066
4.
Heaven
1076
I.
II.
Epilogue:
The Medieval Legacy
1082
Bibliography
1087
Notes
II 01
Index
1
XV
1
37
List of Illustrations PAGE
Fig.
I.
Interior of Santa Maria
Fig.
2.
Interior of
Fig.
3.
Interior of San Vitale
Fig.
4. Detail of
Fig.
5.
Fig. Fig.
Maggiore
142
Hagia Sophia
Rock
142 142
Relief
143
Court of the Great Mosque
270
6.
Dome
270
7.
Portion of Stone Relief
271
Fig.
8.
Court of El Azhar Mosque
271
Fig.
9.
Wood
302
Fig. 10.
of the
Minbar in El Agsa Mosque Pavilion on Court of Lions, the Alhambra Facade of
St.
Fig. 13. Piazza of the
303
Mark's
462
Duomo, Showing
Baptistry, Cathedral,
Tower
Fig. 16.
and Leaning 462
Fig. 14. Interior of Capella Palatina Fig. 15.
303
Mosque
Fig. II. Interior of Fig. 12.
Rock
463
Apse of Cathedral, Monreale Cimabue: Madonna with Angels and
Fig. 17. Portrait of a Saint,
Book
of Kells
Century
Fig. 18. Glass Painting, 12th
463 St.
Francis
846
846 846
Fig. 20.
Rose Window, Strasbourg Notre Dame
847
Fig. 21.
The
847
Fig. 22.
Gargoyle
Fig. 19.
846
Virgin of the Pillar
847
Fig. 23. Chartres Cathedral,
West View
Fig. 24. "Modest\^" Fig. 25. Fig. 26.
847
"The Visitation" Rheims Cathedral
847 878
Fig. 27. St. Nicaise BetAveen
Two
Fig. 28.
"The Annunciation and
Fig. 29.
Wrought
Fig. 30.
Canterbury Cathedral
Fig. 31.
Hotel de Ville
Angels
Visitation"
Iron Grille
Fig. 34. Cathedral Interior,
878
878 878 878 878
Fig. 32. Salisbury Cathedral Fig. 33. Cathedral Interior,
847
878
Durham
878
Winchester xvii
878
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE
Fig. 35.
Westminster Abbey
878
Fig. 36. Strasbourg Cathedral Fig. 37. Fig. 38.
879
"The Church" "The Synagogue"
879 879
Fig. 39. Saint Elizabeth
879
Fig. 40.
Mary
Fig. 41.
Ekkehard and His Wife Uta Rose Facade, Orvieto Cathedral
Fig. 42.
879
\
Fig. 43. Fa9ade, Siena Cathedral
879
Rear View of Cathedral, Salamanca
Fig. 46. Cathedral Interior, Santiago di
Maps of Europe and
879 879
Fig. 44. Pulpit of Pisano
Fig. 45.
879
Compostela
879 879
the Byzantine Empire (a.d. 565), the Caliphate (a.d. 750), (a.d. 1190) will be found on the inside covers.
and Europe
All photographs, with the exception of those otherwise marked, were secured
through Bettmann Archive.
XVlll
BOOK
I
THE BYZANTINE ZENITH 325-5^5
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Dates of rulers and popes are of their reigns. All dates are 226.
a.d.
CHAPTER
I
Julian the Apostate 332-63
I.
THE LEGACY OF CONSTANTINE
the year 335 the Emperor Constantine, feehng the nearness of death, INcalled sons and nephews to and divided among them, with the his
his side,
government of the immense Empire that he had won. To his eldest son, Constantine II, he assigned the West— Britain, Gaul, and Spain; to his son Constantius, the East— Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; to his youngest son, Constans, North Africa, Italy, Ulyricum, and Thrace, including the new and old capitals— Constantinople and Rome; and to two nephews Armenia, Macedonia, and Greece. The first Christian Emperor had spent his life, and many another, in restoring the monarchy, and unifying the faith, of the Roman Empire; his death (337) risked all. He had a hard choice: his rule had not acquired the sanctity of time, and could not ensure the peaceable succession of a sole heir; divided government seemed a lesser evil than civil folly of fondness, the
war. Civil
army
war came none
the
less,
and
assassination simplified the scene.
rejected the authority of any but Constantine's sons;
all
The
other male
dead Emperor were murdered, except his nephews Gallus and Julian; Gallus was ill, and gave promise of an early death; Julian was five, and perhaps the charm of his age softened the heart of Constantius,
relatives of the
whom
and Ammianus credited with these crimes.^ Constantius rewar between East and West which had never really ceased since Marathon, and allowed his brothers to eliminate one antradition
newed with
Persia that ancient
strife. Left sole Emperor (353), he returned to Constantinople, and governed the reunified realm with dour integrity and devoted
other in fraternal
incompetence, too suspicious to be happy, too cruel to be loved, too vain to be great.
The
had called Nova Roma, but which even in his lifetime had taken his name, had been founded on the Bosporus by Greek colonists about 657 b.c. For almost a thousand years it had been known as Byzantium; and Byzantine would persist as a label for its civilization and its art. No site on earth could have surpassed it for a capital; at Tilsit, in 1807, Napoleon would call it the empire of the world, and would refuse to yield it
city that Constantine
to a Russia fated
by the
direction of her rivers to long for 3
its
control.
Here
a
THEAGEOFFAITH
4
( CHAP. I
at any moment the ruling power could close a main door between East and West; here the commerce of continents would congregate, and deposit the products of a hundred states; here an army might stand poised to drive back the gentlemen of Persia, the Huns of the East, the Slavs of the North, and the barbarians of the West. The rushing waters provided defense on every side but one, which could be strongly walled; and in the Golden Horn— quiet inlet of the Bosporus— war fleets and merchantmen might find a haven from attack or storm. The Greeks called the inlet Keras, horn, possibly from its shape; golden was later added to suggest the wealth brought to this port in fish and grain and trade. Here, amid a population predominantly Christian, and long inured to Oriental monarchy and pomp, the Christian emperor might enjoy the public support withheld by Rome's proud Senate and pagan populace. For a thousand years the Roman Empire would here survive the barbarian floods that were to inundate Rome; Goths, Huns, Vandals,
would threaten the new millennium would Constantinople
Avars, Persians, Arabs, Bulgarians, Russians
capital in turn
and
fail;
only once in that
be captured— by Christian Crusaders loving gold a
little
better than the cross.
For eight centuries after Mohammed it would hold back the Moslem tide that would sweep over Asia, Africa, and Spain. Flere beyond all expectation Greek civihzation would display a saving continuity, tenaciously preserve its ancient treasures, and transmit them at last to Renaissance Italy and the Western world. In November 324 Constantine the Great led his aides, engineers, and priests from the harbor of Byzantium across the surrounding hills to trace the boundaries of his contemplated capital.
Some marveled
that he took in
much, but "I shall advance," he said, "till He, the invisible God who marches before me, thinks proper to stop." ^ He left no deed undone, no
so
word
unsaid, that could give to his plan, as to his state, a deep support in the
religious sentiments of the people
"In obedience to the
workmen and
and
command
in the loyalty of the Christian
of God,"
^
Church.
he brought in thousands of
artists to raise city walls, fortifications,
administrative build-
and homes; he adorned the squares and streets with fountains and porticoes, and with famous sculptures conscripted impartially from a hundred cities in his realm; and to divert the turbulence of the populace he provided an ornate and spacious hippodrome where the public passion for games and gambling might vent itself on a scale paralleled only in degeneratings, palaces,
Rome. The New Rome was dedicated as capital of the Eastern Empire ri, 330— a day that was thereafter annually celebrated with imposing ceremony. Paganism was officially ended; the Middle Ages of triumphant faith were, so to speak, officially begun. The East had won its spiritual battle against the physically victorious West, and would rule the Western soul for a thousand years. Within two centuries of its establishment as a capital, Constantinople being
on
May
CHAP.
JULIAN THE APOSTATE
l)
5
came, and for ten centuries remained, the richest, most beautiful, and most civihzed city in the world. In 337 it contained some 50,000 people; in 400 some 100,000; in 500 almost a million."' An official document {c. 450) lists five imperial palaces, six palaces for the ladies of the court, three for
4388 mansions, 322
nitaries,
streets, 52 porticoes;
high dig-
add to these a thousand
shops, a hundred places of amusement, sumptuous baths, brilliantly orna-
mented churches, and magnificent squares the art of the classic world. ^
above
its
On
that
were
the second of the
encompassing waters lay the
Forum
veritable
hills
museums
of
that hfted the city
of Constantine, an elliptical
space entered under a triumphal arch at either end; porticoes and statuary
formed
its
circumference; on the north side stood a stately senate house; at
the center rose a famous porphyry
pillar,
120 feet high, crowned with the
and ascribed to Pheidias himself.* a broad Mese or Middle Way, lined with palaces and shops, and shaded with colonnades, led west^vard through the city to the Augusteum, a plaza a thousand by three hundred feet, named after Constantine's mother Helena as Augusta. At the north end of this square rose the first form of St. Sophia— Church of the Holy Wisdom; on the east side was a second senate chamber; on the south stood the main palace of the emperor, and the gigantic public Baths of Zeuxippus, containing hundreds of statues in marble or bronze; at the west end a vaulted monument— the Milion or Milestone-marked the point from which radiated the many magnificent roads (some still functioning) that bound the provinces to the capital. Here, too, on the west of the Augusteum, lay the great Hippodrome. Between this and St. Sophia the imperial or Sacred Palace spread, a complex structure of marble surrounded by 1 50 acres of gardens and porticoes. Here and there and in the suburbs were the mansions of the aristocracy. In the narrow, crooked, congested side streets were the shops of the tradesmen, and the homes or tenements of the populace. At its western terminus the Middle Way opened through the "Golden Gate"— in the Wall of Constantine— upon the Sea of Marmora. Palaces lined the three shores, and trembled with reflected glory figure of Apollo,
From
in the
the
Forum
waves.
The
population of the city was mainly
Roman
at the top,
and for the
rest
overu^helmingly Greek. All alike called themselves Roman. While the lan-
guage of the
state
was
Latin,
Greek remained
the speech of the people, and,
displaced Latin even in government. Below the great and the senators was an aristocracy of landowners dwelling now in
by the seventh century, officials
the city,
now on
their
country
estates.
Scorned by
these,
but rivaling them
in wealth, were the merchants who exchanged the goods of Constantinople and its hinterland for those of the world; below these, a swelhng bureaucracy of governmental employees; below these the shopkeepers and master work-
*
Blackened with time and
fire, it is
now known
as the
Burnt
Pillar.
THE AGE OF FAITH
6
men
(CHAP.
I
of a hundred trades; below these a mass of formally free labor, voteless
normally disciplined by hunger and police, and bribed to peace by races, games, and a daily dole totaling 80,000 measures of grain or loaves of bread. At the bottom, as everywhere in the Empire, were slaves, less numerous than in Caesar's Rome, and more humanely treated through the legislation of Constantine and the mitigating influence of the Church.*'
and
riotous,
Periodically the free population rose
drome. There,
from
its toil
to
crowd
the
Hippo-
an amphitheater 560 feet long and 380 wide, seats
in
accommodated from 30,000 to 70,000 spectators; these were protected from the arena by an elliptical moat; and between the games they might walk under a shaded and marble-railed promenade 2766 feet long.^ Statuary lined the spina or backbone of the course— a low wall that ran along the middle length of the arena from goal to goal. At the center of the spma stood an obelisk of Thothmes III, brought from Egypt; to the south rose a pillar of '^
commemotwo monuments still stand. The
three intertwined bronze serpents, originally raised at Delphi to rate the victory of Plataea (479 B.C.)
;
these
emperor's box, the Kathis7i7a, was adorned in the horses in gilded bronze, an ancient
were celebrated with
great national festivals
century with four
In this Hippodrome the
processions, athletic contests,
and exhibitions of exotic beasts and birds. Greek tradition and Christian sentiment combined to make the amusements
acrobatics, animal hunts
of Constantinople
less
combats in the new
and
fifth
work of Lysippus.
fights,
cruel than those of
Rome; we
hear of no gladiatorial
twenty-four horse and chariot program provided all the excitement that had marked a Roman holiday. Jockeys and charioteers were divided into Blues, Greens, Reds, and Whites, according to their employers and their garb; the spectators— and indeed the whole population of the city— divided likewise; and the principal fashions— the Blues and Greens— fought with capital. Nevertheless, the
races that usually dominated the
Hippodrome and occasionally with knives in the streets. Only games could the populace voice its feehngs; there it claimed the right to ask favors of the ruler, to demand reforms, to denounce oppressive officials, sometimes to berate the emperor himself as he sat secure in his exalted seat, from which he had a guarded exit to his palace. Otherwise the populace was politically impotent. The Constantinian Constitution, continuing Diocletian's, was frankly monarchical. The two senates— at Constantinople and at Rome— could deliberate, legislate, adjudicate; but always subject to the imperial veto; their legislative functions were throats in the at the
by the ruler's advisory council, the sacnt?7t consistoriwn pmicipis. The emperor himself could legislate by simple decree, and his will was the supreme law. In the view of the emperors, democracy had failed; it had been destroyed by the Empire that it had helped to win; it could rule a largely appropriated
city, perhaps,
cense,
and
but not
a
hundred varied
license into chaos, until
its
had carried liberty into liand civil war had tlireatened the
states;
class
it
CHAP.
JULIANTHEAPOSTATE
l)
7
economic and political life of the entire Mediterranean world. Diocletian and Constantine concluded that order could be restored only by restricting higher offices to an aristocracy of patrician counts (comites) and dukes (duces), recruited not by birth but through appointment by an emperor who possessed full responsibility and power, and was clothed with all the awesome prestige of ceremonial inaccessibility, Oriental pomp, and ecclesiastical coronation, sanctification, and support. Perhaps the system was warranted by the situation; but it left no check upon the ruler except the advice of complaisant aides and the fear of sudden death. It created a remarkably efficient administrative and judicial organization, and kept the Byzantine Empire in existence for a millennium; but at the cost of political stagnation, public atrophy, court conspiracies, eunuch intrigues, wars of succession, and a score of palace revolutions that gave the throne occasionally to competence, seldom to integrity, too often to an unscrupulous adventurer, an oligarchic cabal, or an imperial fool.
II.
CHRISTIANS AND PAGANS
In this Mediterranean world of the fourth century, where the state de-
pended so much on religion, ecclesiastical affairs were in such turmoil that government felt called upon to interfere even in the mysteries of theology. The great debate between Athanasius and Arius had not ended with the Council of Nicaea (325). iMany bishops— in the East a majority ^— still openly or secretly sided with Arius; i.e., they considered Christ the Son of God, but neither consubstantial nor coeternal with the Father. Constantine himself, after accepting the Council's decree, and banishing Arius, invited him to a personal conference (331), could find no heresy in him, and recommended the restoration of Arius and the Arians to their churches, Athanasius protested; a council of Eastern bishops at Tyre deposed him from his Alexandrian see (335) and for two years he lived as an exile in Gaul. Arius again visited Constantine, and professed adherence to the Nicene Creed, with subtle reservations that an emperor could not be expected to understand. Constantine believed him, and bade Alexander, Patriarch of Constantinople, receive him into communion. The ecclesiastical historian Socrates ;
here
tells a
painful tale:
was then Saturday, and Arius was expecting to assemble with the congregation on the day following; but Divine retribution over-
It
took
daring criminalitv. For going out from the imperial palace
his
and approaching the porphyry pillar in the Forum of Constanhim, accompanied by violent relaxation of his bowels. Together with the evacuations his bowels protruded, followed bv a copious hemorrhage, and the descent of the smaller intes.
.
.
tine, a terror seized .
.
.
THEAGEOFFAITH
8 tine;
moreover, portions of
his spleen
and
his liver
(cHAP.
were eliminated
I
in
the effusion of blood, so that he almost immediately died.^°
Hearing of this timely purge, Constantine began to wonder whether Arius had not been a heretic after all. But when the Emperor himself died, in the following year, he received the rites of baptism from his friend and counselor Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, an Arian. Constantius took theology more seriously than his father. He made his own inquiry into the paternity of Jesus, adopted the Arian view, and felt a moral obhgation to enforce it upon all Christendom. Athanasius, who had returned to his see after Constantine's death, was again expelled (339) church councils, called and dominated by the new Emperor, affirmed merely the likeness, not the consubstantiality, of Christ with the Father; ecclesiastics loyal to the Nicene Creed were removed from their churches, sometimes by the violence of mobs; for half a century it seemed that Christianity would be Unitarian, and abandon the divinity of Christ. In those bitter days Athanasius spoke of himself as solus contra iiiundum; all the powers of the state were opposed to him, and even his Alexandrian congregation turned against him. Five times he fled from his see, often in peril of his life, and wandered in alien lands; through half a century (323-73) he fought with patient diplomacy and eloquent vituperation for the creed as it had been defined under ;
his leadership at
him, above
all,
Athanasius
when Pope Liberius gave in. To Church owes her doctrine of the Trinity. his case before Pope Julius I (340) Julius restored him to
Nicaea; he stood firm even
the
laid
.
but a council of Eastern bishops at Antioch (341 ) denied the Pope's jurisdiction, and named Gregory, an Arian, as bishop of Alexandria. When
his see;
Gregory reached the city the rival factions broke into murderous riots, killing many; and Athanasius, to end the bloodshed, withdrew (342).^^ In Constantinople a similar contest raged;
when
ment of
by
the orthodox patriot Paul
Paul's supporters resisted the soldiery, lives.
Constantius ordered the replace-
the Arian Macedonius, a
Probably more Christians were slaughtered by Christians
years (342-3) than history of
by
all
crowd of
and three thousand persons
the persecutions of Christians
lost their
in these
by pagans
two
in the
Rome.
on almost every point but one— that the pagan temples should be closed, their property confiscated, and the same weapons of the state used against them and their worshipers that had formerly assailed Christianity.^^ Constantine had discouraged, but not forbidden, pagan sacrifices and ceremonies; Constans forbade them on pain of death; Constantius ordered all pagan temples in the Empire closed, and all pagan rituals to cease. Those who disobeyed were to forfeit their property and their lives; and these penalties were extended to provincial governors neglecting to enforce the decree.^^ Nevertheless, pagan isles remained in the spreading Christian sea. Christians divided
CHAP.
The
JULIANTHEAPOSTATE
l)
9
older cities— Athens, Antioch, Smyrna, Alexandria,
sprinkling of pagans, above
Olympia
all
among
the games continued
till
Rome— had
a large
the aristocracy and in the schools. In
Theodosius
I
(379-95); in Eleusis the
Alaric destroyed the temple there in 396; and the schools of Athens continued to transmit, with mollifying interpretations,
Mysteries were celebrated
till
the doctrines of Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno. (Epicurus
came
a
synonym
was outlawed, and be-
for atheist.) Constantine and his son continued the salaries
of the scholarchs and professors
who
loosely constituted the University of
Athens; lawyers and orators still flocked there to learn the tricks of rhetoric;
and pagan sophists— teachers of wisdom— offered their wares to any who could pay. All Athens was fond and proud of Prohaeresius, who had come there as a poor youth, had shared one bed and cloak with another student, had risen to the official chair of rhetoric, and at eighty-seven was still so handsome, vigorous, and eloquent that his pupil Eunapius regarded him as "an ageless and immortal god." ^^ But the leading sophist of the fourth century was Libanius. Born at Antioch ( 3 1 4) he had torn himself away from a fond mother to go and study at ,
Athens; offered
a rich heiress as
would decline the hand of
a
wife
he would stay, he declared that he
if
goddess just to see the smoke of Athens.^^
He
used his teachers there as stimuli, not oracles; and amid a maze of professors
and schools he educated himself. After lecturing for a time at Constantinople and Nicomedia, he returned to Antioch (354), and set up a school that for forty years was the most frequented and renowned in the Empire; his fame (he assures us) was so great that his exordiums were sung in the streets.-^^ Ammianus Marcellinus, St. John Chrysostom, and St. Basil were among his pupils. He enjoyed the favor of Christian princes, though he spoke and wrote in defense of paganism and offered sacrifice in the temples. When the bakers of Antioch went on strike he was chosen by both sides as arbitrator; when Antioch revolted against Theodosius I he was named by the chastened city to plead
its
cause before the Emperor.^'^
He survived by
almost a generation
the assassination of his friend Julian, and the collapse of the pagan revival.
Fourth-century paganism took
many
forms: Mithraism, Neoplatonism,
Stoicism, Cynicism, and the local cults of municipal or rustic gods. Mithraism
had
lost
ground, but Neoplatonism was
still a
power
in religion
losophy. Those doctrines to which Plotinus had given a a triune spirit binding
all reality,
of a Logos or intermediary deity
done the work of creation, of soul
as divine
and matter
and phi-
shadowy form— of as flesh
who had
and
evil,
of
whose invisible stairs the soul had fallen from God to man and might ascend from man to God— these mystic ideas left their mark on the apostles Paul and John, had many imitators among the Christians, and molded many Christian heresies.^^ In lamblichus of Syrian Chalcis miracle was added to mystery in Neoplatonic philosophy: the mystic not only saw things unseen by sense, but— by touching God in ecstasy— he acspheres of existence along
THEAGEOFFAITH
lO
(CHAP.
quired divine powers of magic and divination. lamblichus' disciple,
I
Maximus
of Tyre, combined the claim to mystic faculties with a devout and eloquent paganism that conquered Julian. Said Maximus, defending against Christian scorn the use of idols in pagan worship,
God
the father and the fashioner of
all
sky, greater than time and eternity and
that
is,
older than the sun or
is unnamable by any la\\giver, unutterable bv^ any voice, not to be seen by any eye. But we, being unable to apprehend His essence, use the help of sounds and names and pictures, of beaten gold and ivory and silver, of plants and rivers, torrents and mountain peaks, yearning for the knowledge of Him, and in our weakness naming after His
nature
that
all
is
all
the flow of being,
beautiful in this world. ... If a
remembrance of God by the
Greek
is
stirred to
Egyptian by worshiping animals, or another man by a river or a fire, I have no anger for their divergences; only let them note, let them remember, the
let
them
art of Pheidias, or an
love.^^
was in part the eloquence of Libanius and Maximus that won Julian from Christianity to paganism. When their pupil reached the throne Maximus rushed to Constantinople, and Libanius raised in Antioch a song of triIt
umph and
joy:
passes over
all
"Behold us verily restored to
life;
a breath of happiness
the earth, while a veritable god, under the appearance of a
man, governs the world."
^^
III.
THE
NEW
CAESAR
Flavius Claudius luhanus was born in the purple at Constantinople in 332,
nephew
of Constantine. His father, his eldest brother, and most of his cousins were slain in the massacre that inaugurated the reign of Constantine's sons. He was sent to Nicomedia to be educated by its Bishop Eusebius; he received an overdose of Christian theology, and gave signs of becoming a saint. At seven he began to study classical literature with Mardonius; the old eunuch's enthusiasm for Homer and Hesiod passed down to his pupil, and Julian entered with wonder and delight into the bright and poetic world of Greek mythology. In 341 for reasons now unknown, Julian and his brother Gallus were banished to Cappadocia, and were for six years practically imprisoned in the castle of Macellum. Released, Julian was for a time allowed to live in Constantinople; but his youthful vivacity, sincerity, and wit made him too popular for the Emperor's peace of mind. He was again sent to Nicomedia, where he took up the study of philosophy. He wanted to attend the lectures of Libanius there, but was forbidden; however, he arranged to have full notes of the master's discourses brought to him. He was now a handsome and im,
CHAP.
JULIAN THE APOSTATE
l)
II
pressionable lad of seventeen, ripe for the dangerous fascination of phi-
And while
philosophy and free speculation came to him in all their was presented to him as at once a system of unquestionable dogma and a Church torn with scandal and schism by the Arian dispute and the mutual excommunications of East and West. In 351 Gallus was created Caesar— i.e., heir apparent to the throne— and took up the task of government at Antioch. Safe for a while from imperial suspicion, Julian wandered from Nicomedia to Pergamum to Ephesus, studying philosophy under Edesius, Maximus, and Chrysanthius, who completed his secret conversion to paganism. Suddenly in 354 Constantius summoned both Gallus and Julian to Milan, where he was holding court. Gallus losophy.
lure, Christianity
had overreached
his authority,
and had ruled the Asiatic provinces with
a
despotic cruelty that shocked even Constantius. Tried before the Emperor,
he was convicted of various offenses, and was summarily beheaded. Julian
was kept under guard for several months in Italy; at last he convinced a suspicious monarch that politics had never entered his head, and that his one interest was in philosophy. Relieved to find that he had only a philosopher to deal with, Constantius banished him to Athens (355). Having expected death, Julian easily reconciled himself to an exile that placed him at the fountainhead of pagan learning, religion, and thought. Six happy months he spent there studying in the groves that had heard Plato's voice, making friends with Themistius and other immortal and forgotten philosophers, pleasing them with his eagerness to learn, and charming the citizens with the grace and modesty of his conduct. He compared these polished pagans, heirs of a millennium of culture, with the grave theologians
who
had surrounded him
thought
it
necessary to
Nicomedia, or those pious statesmen who had his father, his brothers, and so many more; and
in
kill
he concluded that there were no beasts more ferocious than Christians.^^ He wept when he heard of famous temples overthrown, of pagan priests proscribed, of their property distributed to eunuchs and partisans.-"
probably
at this
It
was
time that in cautious privacy he accepted initiation into the
The morals of paganism condoned the dissembling of His friends and teachers, who shared his secret, could hardly
Mysteries at Eleusis. his apostasy.
consent to
his revealing
it;
they
knew
that Constantius
would crown him
with inopportune martyrdom, and they looked forward to the time
when
and restore their emoluments and their gods. For ten years Julian conformed in all externals to the Christian worship, and even read the Scriptures pubhcly in church.^^ Amid all this apprehensive concealment a second summons came to present himself before the Emperor at Milan. He hardly dared go; but word was conveyed to him from the Empress Eusebia that she had promoted his cause
their protege
would
inherit the throne,
and that he had nothing to fear. To his astonishment Constantius gave him his sister Helena in marriage, conferred upon him the title of
at court,
THEAGEOFFAITH
12
(CHAP.
I
him the government of Gaul (355). The shy young had come dressed in the cloak of a philosopher, adopted uncomfortably the uniform of a general and the duties of matrimony. It must Caesar, and assigned to
ceHbate,
who
have further embarrassed him to learn that the Germans, taking advantage civil wars that had almost destroyed the military power of the Empire
of the
West, had invaded the Roman provinces on the Rhine, defeated a army, sacked the old Roman colonia of Cologne, taken forty-four other towns, captured all Alsace, and advanced forty miles into Gaul. Faced with this new crisis, Constantius called upon the lad whom he both suspected and despised to metamorphose himself at once into an administrator and a warrior. He gave Julian a guard of 3 60 men, commissioned him to reorganize the army of Gaul, and sent him over the Alps. Julian spent the winter at Vienne on the Rhone, training himself with military exercises, and zealously studying the art of war. In the spring of 356 he collected an army at Reims, drove back the German invaders, and rein the
Roman
captured Cologne. Besieged at Sens by the Alemanni— the tribe that gave a
name
to
Germany— he
repulsed their attacks for thirty days, managed to
secure food for the population and his troops, and outwore the patience of the enemy.
Moving south, he met the main army
bourg, formed his
men
into a crescent
of the Alemanni near Stras-
wedge, and with
brilliant tactics
and
them to a decisive victory over forces far outnumbering his own.^"* Gaul breathed more freely; but in the north the Salian Franks still ravaged the valley of the Meuse. Julian marched against them, defeated them, forced them back over the Rhine, and returned in triumph to Paris, the provincial capital. The grateful Gauls hailed the young Caesar as another Julius, and his soldiers already voiced their hopes that he would soon be personal bravery led
emperor.
He remained
five years in
Gaul, repeopling devastated lands, reorganizing
the Rhine defenses, checking economic exploitation and political corruption, restoring the prosperity of the province and the solvency of the govern-
ment, and
at the
same time reducing
youth, so lately torn from
his
into a general, a statesman,
taxes.
Men marveled that this meditative
books, had transformed himself as
and
a just
but humane judge.-^
if
He
the principle that an accused person should be accounted innocent
by magic
established till
proved
guilty. Numerius, a former governor of Gallia Narbonensis, was charged with embezzlement; he denied the charge, and could not be confuted at any
point.
The
judge Delfidius, exasperated by lack of proofs, cried out: "Can
anyone, most mighty Caesar, ever be found guilty the charge?"
To which Julian
replied:
it
be enough to have accused him?"
of
many instances of his humanity." His reforms made him enemies.
if it
be enough to deny
"Can anyone be proved innocent if this," says Ammianus, "was one
"And ^^
Officials
who
feared his scrutiny, or en-
vied his popularity, sent to Constantius secret accusations to the effect that
)
JULIAN THE APOSTATE
CHAP.
I
Julian
was planning
a
I3
to seize the imperial throne. Julian countered
fulsome panegyric of the Emperor. Constantius,
still
by writing
suspicious, recalled
had co-operated loyally with Julian. If we may believe Ammianus, the Empress Eusebia, childless and jealous, bribed attendants to give Julian's wife an abortifacient whenever she was with child; the Gallic prefect Sallust,
who
when, nevertheless, Helena bore
a son, the
midwife cut
near the body that the child bled to death.-' iVmid received from Constantius (360) a
command
all
its
navel string so
these worries
Juhan
to send the best elements of
army to join in the war against Persia. Constantius was not unjustified. Shapur II had demanded the return of Mesopotamia and Armenia (358); when Constantius refused, Shapur besieged and captured Amida (now Diyarbekir in Turkish Kurdistan). Con-
his Gallic
and ordered Julian to turn over to the imperial legates, for the campaign in Asia, 300 men from each Gallic regiment. Julian protested that these troops had enlisted on the understanding that they would not be asked to serve beyond the Alps; and he warned that stantius took the field against him,
Gaul would not be safe should her armv be so depleted. (Six years later the Germans successfully invaded Gaul.) Nevertheless, he ordered his soldiers to obey the legates. The soldiers refused, surrounded Julian's palace, acclaimed him Augustus— \.t.. Emperor— and begged him to keep them in Gaul.
He
again counseled obedience; they persisted; Julian, feeling, like an earlier
was cast, accepted the imperial title, and prepared to Empire and his hfe. The army that had refused to leave Gaul now pledged itself to march to Constantinople and seat Julian on the throne. Constantius was in Cilicia when news reached him of the revolt. For anCaesar, that the die
fight for the
other year he fought Persia, risking his throne to protect his country; then,
having signed a truce with Shapur, he marched his legions westward to meet his cousin. Julian advanced with a small force. He stopped for a while at Sirmium (near Belgrade) and there at last proclaimed his paganism to the ,
world.
To Maximus he wrote
enthusiastically:
"We now publicly adore the
army that followed me is devoted to their worship." -* Good fortune rescued him from a precarious position: in November 361 Congods, and
all
the
stantius died of a fever near Tarsus, in the forty-fifth year of his age.
month
A
Juhan entered Constantinople, ascended the throne without opand presided with all the appearance of a loving cousin over Con-
later
position,
stantius' funeral.
IV.
Juhan was
him
now
THE PAGAN EMPEROR
thirty-one.
Ammianus, who saw him
often, describe?
as
of
stature. His hair lay smooth as if it had been combed; beard was shaggy and trained to a point; his eyes were bright
medium
and
his
THEAGEOFFAITH
14 and
full
fine, his
of
fire,
(
CHAP.
I
mind. His eyebrows with full lower shoulders large and broad. From his
bespeaking the keenness of
nose perfectly straight, his
mouth
his
a bit large,
neck thick and bent, his head to his fingertips he was well proportioned, and therefore was strong and a good runner.^^ lip; his
His
self-portrait
Though the
it
this
is
not so flattering:
nature did not
bloom of youth,
long beard. ...
I
make
my
face
any too handsome, nor give
myself out of sheer perversity added to put up with the lice that scamper about in I
it it
though it were a thicket for wild beasts. My head is disheveled; seldom cut my hair or my nails, and my fingers are nearly always black with ink.^*^ as
.
.
.
I
He
prided himself on maintaining the simplicity of a philosopher amid the
He rid himself at once of the eunuchs, barbers, and had served Constantius. His young wife having died, he resolved not to marry again, and so needed no eunuch; one barber, he felt, could take luxuries of the court.
spies that
care of the whole palace staff; as for cooks, he ate only the plainest foods, which anyone could prepare.^^ This pagan lived and dressed like a monk. Apparently he knew no woman carnally after the death of his wife. He slept on a hard pallet in an unheated room; ^" he kept all his chambers unheated throughout the winter "to accustom myself to bear the cold." He had no taste for amusements. He shunned the theater with its libidinous pantomimes, and offended the populace by staying away from the Hippodrome; on solemn festivals he attended for a while, but finding one race like another, he soon withdrew. At first the people were impressed by his virtues, his asceticism, his devotion to the chores and crises of government; they compared him to Trajan as a general, to Antoninus Pius as a saint, to Marcus Aurelius as a philosopher-king.^^ We are surprised to see how readily this young pagan was accepted by a city and an Empire that for a generation had known none but Christian emperors. tie pleased the Byzantine Senate by his modest observance of its traditions and prerogatives. He rose from his seat to greet the consuls, and in general played the Augustan game of holding himself a servant and delegate of the senators and the people. lege,
When,
inadvertently, he infringed
a senatorial privi-
he fined himself ten pounds of gold, and declared that he was subject
like his
fellow citizens to the laws and forms of the republic.
From morn
till
night he toiled at the tasks of government, except for an intermission in the
which he reserved for study. His light diet, we are told, gave his body and mind a nervous agility that passed swiftly from one business or afternoon,
and exhausted three secretaries every day. He performed with assiduity and interest the functions of a judge; exposed the sophistry of visitor to another,
advocates; yielded with grace to the sustained opinions of judges against his
CHAP.
JULIAN THE APOSTATE
l)
I5
own; and impressed everyone with the righteousness of his decisions. He reduced the taxes levied upon the poor, refused the gift of golden crowns traditionally offered by each province to a new emperor, excused Africa from accumulated arrears, and remitted the excessive tribute heretofore exacted from the Jews.^* He made stricter, and strictly enforced, the requirements for
crowned
a license to practice medicine.
triumph
his
as a general; "his
His success
as
an administrator
fame," says Ammianus, "gradually
whole world." ^^ Amid all these activities of government his ruling passion was philosophy, and his never-forgotten purpose was to restore the ancient cults. He gave orders that the pagan temples should be repaired and opened, that their confiscated property should be restored, and their accustomed revenues renewed. He dispatched letters to the leading philosophers of the day, inviting them to come and live as his guests at his court. When Maximus arrived, Julian interrupted the address he was making to the Senate, ran at full speed to greet his old teacher, and introduced him with grateful praise. Maximus took advantage of the Emperor's enthusiasm, assumed ornate robes and luxurious ways, and was subjected, after Julian's death, to severe scrutiny of the means by which he had acquired so rapidly such unbecoming wealth.^^ Julian took no notice of these contradictions; he loved philosophy too much to be dissuaded from it by the conduct of philosophers. "If anyone," he wrote to Eumenius, "has persuaded you that there is anything more profitable to the human race than to pursue philosophy at one's leisure without spread until
it filled
interruptions, he
He
is
a
the
deluded
loved books, carried
man trying to
a library
delude you."
with him on
^"^
campaigns, vastly en-
his
larged the library that Constantine had founded, and established others.
"Some men," he wrote, "have
a passion for horses, others for birds, others
from childhood have been possessed by a passionate longing to acquire books." ^^ Proud to be an author as well as a statesman, he sought to justify his policies with dialogues in the manner of Lucian, or orations in the style of Libanius, letters almost as fresh and charming as Cicero's, and formal philosophical treatises. In a "Hymn to a King's Son" he expounded his new paganism; in an essay "Against the Galileans" he gave his reasons for abandoning Christianity. The Gospels, he writes, in a preview of Higher Criticism, contradict one another, and agree chiefly in their incredibility; the Gospel of John differs substantially from the other three in narrative and theology; and the creation story of Genesis assumes a plurahty for wild beasts; but
I
of gods. Unless every one of these legends [of Genesis] ing, as I
is
a
myth, involv-
indeed believe, some secret interpretation, they are
with blasphemies against God. In the ignorant that she
fall.
place lie
is
filled
represented as
created to be a helpmate to Adam would Secondly. ti refuse to man a knowledge of
who was
be the cause of man's
first
THE AGE OF FAITH
l6
(cHAP.
I
(which knowledge alone gives coherence to the huto be jealous lest man should become immortal by partaking of the tree of life— this is to be an exceedingly grudging and envious god. Why is your god so jealous, even avenging the sins of the fathers upon the children? Why is so mighty a god so angry against demons, angels, and men? Compare his behavior with the mildness even of Lycurgus and the Romans towards transgressors. The Old Testament (like paganism) sanctioned and required animal sacrifice. Why do you not accept the Law which God gave the was limited in time and You assert that the earlier Law Jews? place. But I could quote to you from the books of Moses not merely ten but ten thousand passages where he says that the Law is for all
good and
evil
man mind), and
,
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
time.^^
When
Julian sought to restore paganism he found
cilably diverse in practice
it
not only irrecon-
and creed, but far more permeated with incredible
myth than Christianity; and he realized that no religion can hope win and move the common soul unless it clothes its moral doctrine in a
miracle and to
splendor of marvel, legend, and
ritual.
He was
impressed by the antiquity
and universality of myths. "One could no more discover when myth was originally invented than one could find out who was the first man that sneezed." *° He resigned himself to mythology, and condoned the use of .
myths
.
.
to instill morality into unlettered minds.*^
He
himself told again the
how the Great Mother had been carried in the form of from Phrygia to Rome; and no one could surmise from his narrative that he doubted the divinity of the stone, or the efficacy of its transference. He discovered the need of sensory symbolism to convey spiritual ideas, and adopted the Mithraic worship of the sun as a religious counterpart, among the people, of the philosopher's devotion to reason and light. It was not difficult for this poet-king to pen a hymn to Helios King Sun, source of all life, author of countless blessings to mankind; this, he suggested, was the real Logos, or Divine Word, that had created, and now sustained, the world. To this Supreme Principle and First Cause Julian added the innumerable deities and genii of the old pagan creeds; a tolerant philosopher, he thought, would not strain at swallowing them all. story of Cybele, and a black stone
It
would be
with reason.
a
He
mistake to picture Julian as a freethinker replacing
myth
denounced atheism
as su-
as bestial,*^
and taught doctrines
pernatural as can be found in any creed. Seldom has a
nonsense
as in Julian's
hymn
to the sun.
trinity, identified Plato's creative
considered them
as the
He
man composed
archetypal Ideas with the mind of God,
intermediary Logos or
Wisdom by which
had been made, and looked upon the world of matter and body
impediment
to the virtue
piety, goodness,
such
accepted the Neoplatonist
and liberation of the imprisoned
and philosophy, the soul might free
soul.
itself, rise
all
things
as a devilish
Through
to the con-
CHAP.
JULIAN THE APOSTATE
l)
templation of spiritual
realities
perhaps in the ultimate
God
I7
and laws, and so be absorbed
Himself.
The
deities of
Julian's belief impersonal forces; he could not accept
in the
Logos,
polytheism were in
them
in their popular
anthropomorphic forms; but he knew that the people would seldom mount to the abstractions of the philosopher, or the mystic visions of the saint. In
public and private he practiced the old rituals, and sacrificed so
many
to the gods that even his admirers blushed for his holocausts.^^
animals
During
his
campaigns against Persia he regularly consulted the omens, after the fashion of Roman generals, and listened carefully to the interpreters of his dreams. He seems to have credited the magic-mongering of Maximus. Like every reformer, he thought that the world needed a moral renovation; and to this end he designed no mere external legislation but a religious approach to the inner hearts of men. He had been deeply moved by the symbolism of the Mysteries at Eleusis and Ephesus; no ceremony seemed to him
new and
nobler life; and he hoped that these imand consecration might be extended from an arislarge proportion of the people. According to Libanius, "he
better fitted to inspire a
pressive rites of initiation tocratic
few
to a
wished rather to be called
a priest
hierarchy of Christianity,
astical
than an emperor." its
devoted
^^
priests
He envied the ecclesi-
and women, the com-
munalism of its worship, the binding persuasiveness of its charity. He was not above imitating the better aspects of a religion which he hoped to supplant and destroy. He called new blood into the pagan priesthood, organized a pagan Church with himself as its head, and importuned his clergy to rival and surpass the Christian ministry in providing instruction to the people, distributing alms to the poor, offering hospitality to strangers, and giving examples of the good life.^^ He established in every town schools for lectures and expositions of the pagan faith. To his pagan priests he wrote like a Francis to fellow monks: Act towards mc as you think I should act towards you; if you like, let us make this compact, that I am to point out to you what are my views concerning all your affairs, and you in return are to do the same for me concerning my sayings and doings. Nothing in my .^' opinion could be more valuable for us than this reciprocity. generally with more men, but money with all We ought to share our the good and the helpless and the poor. And I will assert, though it will seem paradoxical, that it would be a pious act to share our clothes and food even with the wicked. For it is to the humanity in .
a
man
that
we
give,
and not to
his
.
moral character.^'
This pagan was a Christian in everything but creed; and as we read him, and discount his dead mythology, we suspect that he owed many lovable developments of his character to the QirL^ian ethic which had been poured into
him
childhood and early youth. How, then, did he behave to the which he had been reared? He aUawed Christianity full freedom
in
religion in
THEAGEOFFAITH
l8
(cHAP.
I
of preaching, worship, and practice, and recalled the orthodox bishops exiled
by
Constantius.
He withdrew from
the Christian
Church
all state
subsidies,
and closed to Christians the chairs of rhetoric, philosophy, and literature in the univ^ersities, on the ground that these subjects could be taught with sympathy only by pagans.^^ He ended the exemption of the Christian clergy from taxation and burdensome civic duties, and the free use by the bishops of the facilities supplied for the public post.
made
He forbade legacies to churches;
Qiristians ineligible to governmental offices;
^^
ordered the Christians
community to make full reparation for any damage that they had inflicted upon pagan temples during preceding reigns; and permitted the demolition of Christian churches that had been built upon the illegally of each
seized lands of
from
pagan
shrines.
When
this precipitate logic, Julian
refused to change his laws.
philosopher
when
He was
^^
them
who had
a
suffered violence
to support their misfortunes
with pa-
who reacted to these laws with insults or violence were pagans who took to violence or insults in dealing with
Christians
severely punished; Christians
capable of sarcasm hardly becoming
he reminded certain Christians
that "their Scriptures exhort tience."
confusion, injustice, and riots resulted
sought to protect the Christians, but he
were handled with
had nursed
a special
Athanasius' see;
leniency.^^ In Alexandria the
hatred for that Arian Bishop George
when
pagan populace who had taken
he provoked them by a public procession satirizing
the Mithraic rites they seized
him and
Christians cared to defend him,
many
tore
him
to pieces;
and though few
Christians were killed or
wounded
in
the attendant disorders (362). Julian wished to punish the rioters, but his advisers prevailed
upon him
to content himself with a letter of strong protest
to the people of Alexandria. Athanasius
sumed
now came
his episcopal seat; Julian protested that this
ing him, and ordered Athanasius to retire. the following year the
umphant
Emperor
died,
The
out of hiding, and re-
was done without consultold prelate obeyed; but in
and the Patriarch, symbol of the triTen years later, aged eighty, he
Galileans, returned to his see.
passed away, rich in honors and scars.
In the end Julian's passionate perseverance defeated his program.
Those
whom he injured fought him with subtle pertinacity; those whom he favored responded with indifference. Paganism was spiritually dead;
no longer had in it any stimulus to youth, any solace to sorrow, any hope beyond the grave. Some converts came to it, but mostly in expectation of political advancement or imperial gold; some cities restored the official sacrifices, but only in payment for favors; at Pessinus itself, home of Cybele, Julian had to bribe the inhabitants to honor the Great Mother. Many pagans interpreted paganism to mean a good conscience in pleasure. They were disappointed to find Julian more puritan than Christ. This supposed freethinker was the most pious man in the state, and even his friends felt it a nuisance to keep pace with his devotions; or they were skeptics who not too privately smiled at his it
)
CHAP.
JULIAN THE APOSTATE
I
I9
outmoded deities and solicitous hecatombs. The custom of sacrificing animals on altars had almost died out in the East, and in the West outside of Italy; people had come to think of it as a disgrace or a mess. Julian called his
movement Hellenism, but
the
word
sophical argument,
works were
which never reached
intelligible
artificial
He
rehed too
much on
philo-
to the emotional bases of faith; his
only to the educated,
cept them; his creed was an
who
repelled the pagans of Italy,
scorned anything Greek that was not dead.
who were
too educated to ac-
syncretism that struck no roots
in the
hopes or fancies of men. Even before he died his failure had become evident; and the army that loved and mourned him named a Christian to succeed to his throne.
V.
His
last
great
Roman standards
dream was
officers,
would mark gathered
his
Alexander and Trajan: to plant the and end once and for all the Persian Empire. Eagerly he organized his army,
to rival
in the Persian capitals,
threat to the security of the
chose his
journey's end
Roman
repaired the frontier fortresses, provisioned the towns that
route to victory. In the
his troops.
The merchants
fall
of 362 he
came
to Antioch,
and
of the city took advantage of the influx
complained that "everything is plentiful but everyeconomic leaders and pled with them to restrain their profit seeking; they promised, but did not perform; and at last he "appointed a fair price for everything, and made it known to all men." Perhaps to force prices down he had 400,000 jnodii (pecks) of corn brought to raise prices; the people
thing
in
is
dear." Julian called in the
from other
made
cities in
Syria and Eg)^pt.^-
The merchants
protested that his
bought up the imported corn, took it and their goods to other towns, and Antioch found itself with much money and no food. Soon the populace denounced Julian for his interference. The wits of Antioch made fun of his beard, and of his laborious attendance upon dead gods. He replied to them in a pamphlet, Misopogoji, or Hater of Beards, whose wit and brilliance hardly became an emperor. He sarcastically apologized for his beard, and berated the Antiocheans for their insolence, frivolity, extravagance, immorality, and indifference to the gods of Greece. The famous park called Daphne, once a sacred shrine of Apollo, had been changed into an amusement resort; Julian ordered the amusements ended and the shrine restored; this had hardly been completed when a fire consumed it. Suspecting Christian incendiarism, Julian closed the cathedral of Antioch, and confiscated its wealth; several witnesses were tortured, and a priest was put to death. °^ The Emperor's one consolation in Antioch was his "feast of reason" with Libannis. At last the army was ready, and in March 363 Julian began his campaign. prices
profit impossible; they secretly
He led his forces across the Euphrates, then across the Tigris; pursued the re-
THEAGEOFFAITH
20
(cHAP.
I
was harassed and almost frustrated by their "scorched all crops in their wake; time and again his soldiers were near starvation. In this exhausting campaign the Emperor showed his best qualities; he shared every hardship with his men, ate their scant fare or less, marched on foot through heat and flood, and fought in the front ranks in every battle. Persian women of youth and beauty were among his captives; he never disturbed their privacy, and allowed no one to dishonor them. treating Persians, but
earth" policy of burning
Under
his able generalship his troops
phon, and
Shapur
II
laid siege to
it;
advanced to the very gates of Ctesi-
but the inability to get food compelled
retreat.
chose two Persian nobles, cut off their noses, and bade them go to
men who had deserted because of desert. They obeyed; Julian trusted
Julian in the guise of
this cruel indignity,
them, and followed and lead him into a his army, for twenty miles into a waterless waste. While he was extricating his men from this snare they were attacked by a force of Persians. The attack was repulsed, and the Persians fled. Julian, careless of his lack of armor, was foremost in their pursuit. A javelin entered his side and pierced his liver. He fell from his horse and was carried to a tent, where his physicians warned him that he had but a few hours to live. Libanius alleged that the weapon came from a Christian hand, and it was noted that no Persian claimed the reward that Shapur had promised for the slaying of the Emperor. Some Christians, like Sozomen, agreed with Libanius' account, and praised the assassin "who for the sake of God and religion had performed so bold a deed." ^* The final scene (June 27, 363) was in the tradition of Socrates and them, with
Seneca. Julian, says
Ammianus,
com"Most opportunely, friends, has the time now come for me to leave this life, which I rejoice to restore to Nature at her demand." All present wept, whereupon, even then maintaining his authority, he chided them, saying that it was unbecoming for them to mourn for a prince who was called for a union with heaven and the stars. As this made them all silent, he engaged with the philosophers Maximus and Priscus in an intricate discussion about the nobility of the soul. Suddenly the wound in his side opened wide, the pressure lying in his tent, addressed his disconsolate and sorrowing panions:
.
.
.
of the blood checked his breath, and after a draught of cold water for
which he had year of
asked, he passed quietly away, in the thirty-second
his age.^^
The army,
*
commander; and its leaders chose Jovian, captain of the imperial guard. The new Emperor made peace with Persia by surrendering four of the five satrapies that Diocletian had seized some seventy years before. Jovian persecuted no one, but he promptly transstill
in peril, required a
• The story that he died exclaiming, "Thou hast conquered, Galilean," appears first in the Christian historian Theodoret in the fifth century, and is now unanimously rejected as a legend.^*
eople
who,
all
clad in white, called themselves the Servants of Love.
They arranged a succession of sports, merrymakings, and
dances with and bourgeois marched to the sound of trumpets and music, and held festive banquets at midday and at night. This Court of Love lasted nearly two months, and it was the finest and most famous that had ever been in Tuscany.^^ ladies; nobles
Chivalry, beginning in the tenth century, reached teenth, suflFered
from the
brutality of the
Hundred
its
height in the thir-
Years'
War,
in the merciless hate that divided the English aristocracy in the
shriveled
Wars
of the
Roses, and died in the theological fury of the religious wars of the sixteenth
century. But
it left its
decisive
mark upon
the society, education, manners,
and vocabulary of medieval and modern Europe. The orders of knighthood— of the Garter, the Bath, the Golden Fleece— multiplied to the number of 234 in Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain; and schools like Eton, Harrow, and Winchester combined the chivalric ideal with "liberal" education in the most effective training of mind and will and character in pedagogical history. As the knight learned manners and gallantry at the court of noble or king, so he transmitted something of this coiirtoisie to those below him in the social scale; modern politeness is a dilution of medieval chivalry. The literature of Europe flourished, from the Chanson de Roland to Don Quixote, by treating knightly characters and themes; and the rediscovery of chivalry was one of the exciting elements in the Romantic movement of literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Whatever its excesses and absurdities in literature, however far chivalry in fact fell short of its ideals, it remains one of the major achievements of the human spirit, an art of life more splendid than any art. In this perspective the feudal picture is not merely one of serfdom, illiteracy, exploitation, and violence, but as truly a scene of lusty peasants clearing the wilderness; of men colorful and vigorous in language, love, and war; of knights pledged to honor and service, seeking adventure and fame rather than comfort and security, and scorning danger, death, and hell; of women literature, art,
FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY
CHAP. XXIl)
579
patiently toiling and breeding in peasant cottages, and titled ladies mingling
the tenderest prayers to the Virgin with the bold freedom of a sensuous
poetry and courtly love— perhaps feudalism did more than Christianity to raise the status of
woman. The
great task of feudalism
was
to restore polit-
and economic order to Europe after a century of disruptive invasions and calamities. It succeeded; and when it decayed, modern civilization rose ical
upon
its
ruins and
its
The Dark Ages
He
legacy.
are not a period
upon which the scholar can look with
no longer denounces their ignorance and superstition, their political disintegration, their economic and cultural poverty; he marvels, rather, that Europe ever recovered from the successive blows of Goths, Huns, Vandals, Moslems, Magyars, and Norse, and preserved through the turmoil and tragedy so much of ancient letters and techniques. He can feel only admiration for the Charlemagnes, Alfreds, Olafs, and Ottos who forced an order upon this chaos; for the Benedicts, Gregorys, Bonifaces, Columbas, Alcuins, Brunos, who so patiently resurrected morals and letters out of the wilderness of their times; for the prelates and artisans that could raise cathedrals, and the nameless poets that could sing, between one war or terror and the next. State and Church had to begin again at the bottom, as Romulus and Numa had done a thousand years before; and the courage required to build cities out of jungles, and citizens out of savages, was greater than that which would raise Chartres, Amiens, and Reims, or cool Dante's vengeful fever into measured verse. superior scorn.
BOOK V
THE CLIMAX OF CHRISTIANITY 1095-1300
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE FOR BOOK V
750-1100:
The
Elder Edda
Oath
842: Stxasbourg
1121:
uses vernacu-
lars
1122: 1
Rise of polyphonic music 1020: First communal charter
122-1204:
c. 1000:
1123: (to
1124-53:
staff
ii33f:
I050-II22: Roscelin, philosopher I056-III4: Nestor & the Russian Chronicle I056-II33: Hildebert of Tours, poet
"35-54:
Leon) 1040:
1 1
Guido of Arezzo's musical
27:
1137:
Monmouth's Historia
King of England I066-I200: Norman architecture in Eng1066-87: William
I
Lucca; rise of governing cities in Italy I080-II54: William of Conches, phil'r I08I-II5I: Abbot Suger of St. Denis I083-II48:
1137-96: 1138:
io88f:
fen line I Enriquez, of Portugal
1 1
Anna Comnena, historian Domesday Book William X, Duke of Aquitaine, first known troubadour Imerius & Roman law at Bologna
1089-1131
Pope Urban II Abbey of Cluny
1090-1153
St.
1088-99
1
093- 1 109
1093-H75 c.
1095 1095
1
095- 1 164 1098
1
140-1227:
1098-1125 1099 1099-1 118
1099-1179
St.
1
100
1100-55:
1
Order founded
of Jerusalem Hildegarde Arabic numerals in Europe; paper manufactured in Con-
Henry
I King of England Arnold of Brescia, reformer
1
154-1256: 1156:
University of Paris takes form 1113: Prince Monomakh quiets revo-
Kiev
1114-58: Otto of Freising, historian 14-87: Gerard of Cremona, translator
c. 1120:
Abelard teaches Heloise
John of Salisbury,
Henry
II
begins
Plantagenet
York Minster
Moscow founded
Bank of Venice issues gov't bonds H57-82: Valdemar I King of Denmark 1157-1217: Alexander Neckham, naturalist 1 159-81: Pope Alexander III C.
1
160:
The Cid
1I60-I2I3: Geoffrey
de
Villehardouin,
hist'n
II63-I235: Notre Dame de Paris 1 165-1220: Wolfram von Eschenbach, poet 1I65-I228: Walther von der Vogelweide,
poet
I I
17-80:
Pope Hadrian IV
1157:
mo:
1 1
The Nibehmgenlied
line
1104-94: Transition style in architecture 1 105: Adelard's Qiiaestiones naturales
1117:
Decretum of Gratian
of Peter Lombard; sculptures of Moissac; flying buttress used at Noyon 150-1250: Heyday of French troubadours 1152-90: Frederick I Barbarossa emperor of Holy Roman Empire
II
Kingdom
lution in
Goliardic poets Guelf & Ghibelline fac-
150: Sententiae
1 154-9: 1154-89:
stantinople
Iroo-35:
142:
1150: 1
V
1099-1143 C.
c.
Henr)^ King of Germany Crusaders take Jerusalem Latin
Sens
1145-1202: Joachim of Flora 1 146-7: Revolt of Arnold of Brescia 1147-1223: Giraldus Cambrensis, geogra-
of Sicily
Pope Paschal
The
at
Troyes
pher
Cathedral Chanson de Rolafid Proclamation of First Crusade II
Abelard condemned
king
tions 1
Durham
Cistercian
140:
140-91: Chretien de
first
1142: Rise of
Bernard Anselm Archb'p of Canterbury
Roger
Walter Map(es), satirist Conrad III begins Hohenstau-
1139-85: Alfonso
self-
1085: English
I086-II27:
Brito-
ninn
land I076-II85: Gilbert de la Porree, phU'r I079-II42: Abelard, philosopher 1080: Consuls in
Abelard condemned at Soissons Concordat of Worms Eleanor of Aquitaine First Lateran Council David I King of Scotland Est't of Knights Templar Abbey of St. Denis rebuilt in Gothic Stephen King of England The first Cortes; Geoffrey of
1167:
Lombard League formed;
be-
ginning of Oxford Univer-
phil'r
Est't of the Hospitalers
sity
582
[Continued from previous page] 1167-1215: Peire Vidal, troubadour 1
170:
Murder
Thomas
of
1
a Becket;
205-1 303: Cathedral of Leon 1206-22: Theodore Lascaris
"Strongbow"
begins conquest of Ireland; Peter Waldo
Lyons Dominic
at
1170-1221: St. 1
Cant'y
founds Friars Minor; Innocent III lays interdict on Engl'd 1209: Cambridge University founded 1 2 10: Aristotle forbidden at Paris; Gottfried Strasbourg's of 1208: St. Francis
170-1245: Alexander of Hales, phil'r
Doges
ii72f: Palace of the
1174-1242: Wells Cathedral 1
1
175-1234: Michael Scot 175-1280: Early English Gothic ii75f: 1
176:
Canterbury Cathedral
Tristan
Carthusian Order est'd; Frederick Barbarossa defeated at
1211-1427:
founds Poor Clares
ii78f: Albigensian
heresy;
Peterbor-
1213-76: James 1 2 14: Philip
ough Cathedral 1178-1241: Snorri Sturluson, hist'n
1214-92: 12 15:
1
179:
Third Lateran Council
1
180:
University of Montpellier est'd; Marie de France, poetess
180-1225: Philip 180-1250:
1 1
82-1 2 16: St. Francis of Assisi
1 1
85-1 2 19: Lesser
Armenia
fl.
185-1237: 1189-92:
under Leo
190-7:
1217-62:
Bamberg Cathedral
Henry VI
of
1
Germany
1
192-1230: Ottakar I King of 192-1280: Lincoln Minster
1
193-1205: Enrico
1
193-1280: Albertus
1
1
Bohemia
1
1
Wales
1
199-12 16: c. 1200:
1
201:
tion
1227-1552: Cathedral of Beauvais i2 28f: Church of San Francesco
1204-29: Albigensian Crusades
Mont
St.
1228: Sixth Crusade; Frederick II re-
covers Jerusalem 2
29- 1 348: Cathedral of Siena i2 3of:
Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Brittany from England 1202-41: Valdemar II King of Denmark Mi-
1230-75:
1232-1300: 1
232-1
3
1
5:
Cathedral of Strasbourg
Guido
Guinizelli
Amolfo di Cambio, artist Raymond Lullv, phil'r
1235-81: Siger of Brabant, phil'r
1235-1311: Arnold of Villanova, physician 1237:
Mongols invade Russia; William of Lorris' Ro7?ian de la
chel 1204-61: Latin
at
Assisi
1
201-1500: 1202-4: Fourth Crusade 1202-5: Philip II of France takes
1204-50:
Norway
Pope Gregory IX 1 227-1493: Cathedral of Toledo
Germans conquer Livonia Cathedral of Rouen
JVIerveille of
of
1227-41:
King John of England David of Dinant, phil'r
La
Haakon IV
Salamanca est'd; beginning of papal Inquisi-
1200-1304: Cloth Hall of Ypres 1200-59: Matthew Paris, hist'n 1200-64: Vincent of Beauvais, encyclop't 1
Carta; Fourth Lateran
1227: University of
:
1
Magna
1225-74: St. Thomas Aquinas, phil'r 1225-78: Niccolo Pisano, sculptor 1226-35: Regency of Blanche of Castile 1226-70: Louis IX of France
Magnus
195-1390: Bourges Cathedral 198-12 16: Pope Innocent III
1
Bouvines
1224: University of Naples est'd 224-1 3 17: Jean de Joinville, hist'n 1225: Laws of the Sachsenspiegel
Dandolo Doge of Ven-
194-1240: Llywelvn the Great of 194-1250: Frederick II of Sicily 195-123 1 St. Anthony of Padua
at
1221-74: St. Bonaventure 221-1567: Cathedral of Burgos
ice
1
wins
Roger Bacon
1220-45: Salisbury Cathedral 1220-88: Amiens Cathedral
Third Crusade 1189-99: Richard I Coeur de Lion 1 190: Teutonic Order founded 1
II
Dominican Order founded 1216-27: Pope Honorius III 1216-72: Henry III King of England 1 2 17: Fifth Crusade 1217-52: Ferdinand III of Castile
III 1
King of Aragon
I
Council;
II Augustus of France Leonardo de Fibonacci, math'n C.1180-1253: Robert Grosseteste, scientist 1
1
Reims Cathedral
1212: Children's Crusade; Santa Clara
Legnano
c.
Eastern
emp. 1207-28: Stephen Langton Archb'p of
Kingdom
of Constant'ple 1205: Oldest Christian reference to
1240:
magnetic compass; Hartman von Aue's Der arme Heinricb
c. 1240:
583
Rose Victory of Alexander Nevsky
on Neva Aucassin et Nicolette
[Continued from previous page] 1240-13C2:
Cimabue
1272-1307;
1240-1320: Giovanni Pisano, artist defeat Germans 1 241: Mongols Liegnitz,
ravage 1243-54: 1244: 1245:
at
take Cracow, and
Hungary
Pope Innocent IV Moslems capture Jerusalem First Council of Lyons deposes Frederick
1245:
1273-91;
II
Giovanni de Piano visits Mongolia
Carpini
Louis captured; Frederick 1250: II d.; Bracton's De legihis et consnetiidinibiis Angliae 1252-62: Formation of Hanseatic League 1252-82: Alfonso X the Wise of Castile St.
Norway
con-
quers Iceland 1258-66: Alanfred King of Sicily Guido Cavalcanti 1 258-1 300: c. 1260:
c. 1290:
Voragine; Jean de Meung's
Eastern Empire at Constantinople 1265: Simon de Montfort's Parlia265-1 308:
ment Duns Scotus,
1
265-1 321:
Dante
1266: Op?/y
of
Anjou
gery
Church
of Santa Croce at Florence Pope Boniface VIII 1 294-1 303: Cathedral of Santa Maria de 1 294-1436: Fiore at Florence 1295: Edward I's "Model Parliament"
Wallace defeated at Falkirk; Palazzo Vecchio and Baptistery at Florence Cathedral of Barcelona 1302: Flemish defeat the French at bull Boniface's Courtrai; Unam sanctam; Philip IV
I298f:
General
Pope Clement V 1308-13: Henry VII Western Emperor 1309: Clement removes papacy to Avignon 1310-12: Suppression of Templars in 1305-16:
King
of
Sicily
266-1 3 37: Giotto
Conradin; end of Hohenstaufen line 1269: Baibars takes Jaffa and Antioch 1270: Louis IX leads Eighth Crusade (271-95: Marco Polo in Asia 1268: Defeat
Rose
end of Crusades; League of the Swiss cantons 1292-1315: John Balliol King of Scotland 1294: Lanfranchi founds French sur-
calls States
phil'r
wa/wj of Roger Bacon
1266-85: Charles
la
I2q6: Boniface's bull Clericis laicos
stores
1
Bruges
IV the Fair of France Golden Legend of lacopo de
Roman de
Flagellants
1260-1320: Henri de Mondeville, surgeon 1261: Michael VIII Palaeologus re-
1
1284: Belfry of
1294:
1253-78: Ottokar II of Bohemia 1254-61: Pope Alexander IV 1255-13 19: Duccio of Siena, painter
of
of Holy Roman Empire Second Council of Lyons 1279-1325: Diniz King of Portugal 1280-1380: English Decorated Gothic 1282: Sicilian Vespers; Pedro III of Aragon takes Sicily 1283: Edward I reconquers Wales 1274:
1290-1330: Cathedral of Orvieto 1291: Mamluks take Acre;
248-1 354: The Alhambra Cathedral of Cologne 1 248-1880: 1
Haakon IV
I King of England Rudolf of Hapsburg Emperor
1285-1314: Philip
1245-8: Ste. Chapelle 1245-72: Westminster Abbey 1248: St. Louis leads Seventh Crusade
1258:
Edward
of
584
1314:
France Scotland wins independence at
Bannockburn Hapsburg army at Morgarten and establish the Swiss Confederacy
1315: Swiss defeat
CHAPTER
XXIII
The Crusades 1095-1291
I.
THE
CAUSES
Crusades were the culminating act of the medieval drama, and
perhaps the most picturesque event in the history of Europe and the
Near
East.
Now
Christianity and
at last, after centuries of
Mohammedanism,
argument, the two great
the supreme court of war. All medieval development,
commerce and Christendom,
all
all
the expansion of
the fervor of religious belief,
of feudalism and glamor of chivalry came to a climax in a Years'
War
The Turks.
first
for the soul of
faiths,
resorted to man's ultimate arbitrament—
man and
all
power Hundred
the
Two
the profits of trade.
proximate cause of the Crusades* was the advance of the Seljuq
The world had
adjusted
itself
Moslem
to
control of the
Near
East;
and barring some exceptions, the Christian sects there had enjoyed a wide liberty of worship. Al-Hakim, the mad caHph of Cairo, had destroyed the church of the Holy the Fatimids of
Egypt had ruled mildly
Sepulcher (10 10), but the
in Palestine;
Mohammedans
themselves had contributed sub-
Moslem
restoration.^ In 1047 the
traveler Nasir-i-Khosru de-
stantially to
its
scribed
"a most spacious building, capable of holding 8000 persons, and
built
it
as
with the utmost
skill.
Inside, the
Byzantine brocade, worked in gold. peace be upon
Him!— riding upon an
.
church .
.
ass."
is
And ^
everywhere adorned with
they have portrayed Jesus-
This was but one of
many
Chris-
had free access to the holy places; a pilgrimage to Palestine had long been a form of devotion or penance; everyAvhere in Europe one met "palmers" who, as a sign of pilgrimage accomplished, wore crossed palm leaves from Palestine; such men, said Piers Plowman, "had leave to lie all their lives thereafter." ^ But in 1070 the Turks took Jerusalem from the Fatimids, and pilgrims began to bring home actian churches in Jerusalem. Christian pilgrims
counts of oppression and desecration.
An
that one wayfarer, Peter the Hermit,
old story, not verifiable, relates
brought to Pope Urban
II,
from
Simeon, Patriarch of Jerusalem, a letter detailing the persecution of Christians there, and imploring papal aid (1088). The second proximate cause of the Crusades was the dangerous weakening of the Byzantine Empire. For seven centuries *
From
the Spanish cnizada—"m^Tked with the cross."
it
had stood
at the crossroads
THE AGE OF FAITH
586
(CHAP. XXIII
of Europe and Asia, holding back the armies of Asia and the hordes of the steppes.
the
Now its internal
discords,
its
disruptive heresies,
isolation
from
the schism of 1054, left it too feeble to fulfill its historic task. the Bulgars, Patzinaks, Cumans, and Russians assaulted its European
While
gates, the
Turks were dismembering
Byzantine army was almost annihilated Edessa, Antioch at
its
West by
(
Constantinople
of Asia
its
Asiatic provinces. In 1071 the
at
Manzikert; the Seljuqs captured
1085) Tarsus, even Nicaea, and gazed across the Bosporus ,
itself.
The Emperor
Minor by signing
a
Alexius
I
(1081-1118) saved a part
humiliating peace, but he had no military means
of resisting further attack. If Constantinople should
would
fall, all
Eastern Europe
open to the Turks, and the victory of Tours (732) would be undone. Forgetting theological pride, Alexius sent delegates to Urban II and the Council of Piacenza, urging Latin Europe to help him drive back the lie
would be wiser, he argued, to fight the infidels on Asiatic soil than swarm through the Balkans to the Western capitals. The third proximate cause of the Crusades was the ambition of the Italian cities— Pisa, Genoa, Venice, Amalfi— to extend their rising commercial power. When the Normans captured Sicily from the Moslems ( 1060-9 1 ) ^^^ Christian arms reduced Moslem rule in Spain ( io85f), the western Mediterranean was freed for Christian trade; the Italian cities, as ports of exit for domestic and transalpine products, grew rich and strong, and planned to end Moslem ascendancy in the eastern Mediterranean, and open the markets of the Near East to West European goods. We do not know how close these Italian merchants were to the ear of the Pope. The final decision came from Urban himself. Other popes had entertained Turks;
it
wait for them to
'
the idea. Gerbert, as Sylvester
had appealed to Christendom to rescue (c. looi). Gregory VII, amid his consuming strife with Henry IV, had exclaimed, "I would rather expose my life in delivering the holy places than reign over the universe." ^ That quarrel was still hot when Urban presided over the Council of Piacenza in March of 1095. He supported the plea of Alexius' legates there, but counseled delay till a more widely representative assembly might consider a war against Islam. He was too well informed to picture victory as certain in so distant an enterprise; he doubtless foresaw that failure would seriously damage the prestige of Christianity and the Church. Probably he longed to channel the disorderly pugnacity of feudal barons and Norman buccaneers into a holy war to save Europe and Byzantium from Islam; he dreamed of bringing the Eastern Church again under papal rule, and visioned a mighty Christendom united under the theocracy of the popes, with Rome once more the capital of the world. It was a conception of the highest order II,
Jerusalem, and an abortive expedition had landed in Syria
of statesmanship.
From March to October of 1095 he toured northern Italy and southern France, sounding out leaders and ensuring support. At Clermont in Au-
THE CRUSADES
CHAP. XXIIl)
587
vergne the historic council met; and though it was a cold November, thousands of people came from a hundred communities, pitched their tents in the open fields, gathered in a vast assemblage that no hall could hold, and
throbbed
form in
vi^ith
emotion
as their
fellow
in their midst, addressed to
them
on
a plat-
influential
speech
Frenchman Urban, in
French the most
raised
medieval history.
O
From the by God! from Constantinople a grievous report has gone forth that an accursed race, wholly alienated from God, has violently invaded the lands of these Christians, and has depopulated them race of Franks! race beloved and chosen
.
.
.
confines of Jerusalem and
by
and fire. They have led away a part of the captives into own country, and a part they have killed by cruel tortures. They
pillage
their
destroy the
altars, after
The kingdom
having defiled them with their uncleanliness. is now dismembered by them, and has
of the Greeks
been deprived of territory so vast in extent that it could not be two months' time. On whom, then, rests the labor of avenging these wrongs, and of recovering this territory, if not upon you— you upon whom, above traversed in
others, God has conferred remarkable glory in arms, great bravery, and strength to humble the heads of those who resist you? Let the deeds of your ancestors encourage you— the glory and grandeur of Charlemagne and your other monarchs. Let the Holy Sepulcher of Our Lord and Saviour, now held by unclean nations, arouse you, and Let none of the holy places that are now stained with pollution.
all
.
.
.
your possessions keep you back, nor anxiety for your family affairs. For this land which you now inhabit, shut in on all sides by the sea and the mountain peaks, is too narrow for your large population; it scarcely furnishes food enough for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another, that you wage wars, and that many
among you
perish in civil strife.
Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels end. Enter upon the road to the Holy Sepulcher; wrest that land from a wicked race, and subject it to yourselves. Jerusalem is a land fruitful above all others, a paradise of delights. That royal city, situated at the center of the earth, implores you to come to her aid. Undertake this journey eagerly for the remission of your sins, and be assured of the reward of imperishable glory in the Kingdom of Heaven.^
Through the crowd an excited exclamation rose: Dieu li volt— ^God wills " Urban took it up, and called upon them to make it their battle cry. He bade those who undertook the crusade to wear a cross upon brow or breast. "At once," says WiUiam of Malmesbury, "some of the nobility, falling down it!
at the
knees of the Pope, consecrated themselves and their property to the
Thousands of the commonalty pledged themselves likewise; monks and hermits left their retreats to become in no metaphysical sense service of
God."
^
THEAGEOFFAITH
^88 soldiers of Christ.
The
(CHAP. XXIII
energetic Pope passed to other cities— Tours, Bor-
Nimes
and for nine months preached the crusade. When he reached Rome after two years' absence, he was enthusiastically acclaimed by the least pious city in Christendom. He assumed, with no serious opposition, the authority to release Crusaders from commitments deaux, Toulouse, MontpeUier,
.
.
.
hindering the crusade; he freed the serf and the vassal, for the duration of the war, from fealty to their lord; he conferred
upon
all
Crusaders the priv-
being tried by ecclesiastical instead of manorial courts, and guaran-
ilege of
teed them, during their absence, the episcopal protection of their property;
he
commanded— though
he could not quite enforce— a truce to
Christians against Christians; he established a
new
all
wars of
principle of obedience
above the code of feudal loyalty. Now, more than ever, Europe was made one. Urban found himself the accepted master, at least in theory, of Europe's kings. All Christendom was moved as never before as it feverishly prepared for the holy war.
II.
THE FIRST CRUSADE: IO95-99
Extraordinary inducements brought multitudes to the standard. indulgence remitting
all
A plenary
was offered to those who leave the soil to which they had
punishments due to
sin
were allowed to been bound; citizens were exempted from taxes; debtors enjoyed a moratorium on interest; prisoners were freed, and sentences of death were commuted, by a bold extension of papal authority, to life service in Palestine. Thousands of vagrants joined in the sacred tramp. Men tired of hopeless poverty, adventurers ready for brave enterprise, younger sons hoping to carve should
out
fall in
fiefs
the war. Serfs
new markets
for themselves in the East, merchants seeking
goods, knights whose enlisting serfs had
left
them
for their
laborless, timid spirits
shunning taunts of cowardice, joined with sincerely religious souls to rescue the land of Christ's birth and death. Propaganda of the kind customary in war stressed the disabilities of Christians in Palestine, the atrocities of Moslems, the blasphemies of the
worshiping
a statue of
Mohammedan
Prophet, fallen in an epileptic tales
were
creed;
Moslems were described
Mohammed,''^ and pious gossip related fit,
had been eaten
alive
by
how
as
the
hogs.^ Fabulous
told of Oriental wealth, and of dark beauties waiting to be taken
by brave men.^ Such
a variety of
motives could hardly assemble a homogeneous mass capa-
ble of military organization. In
many cases women and children insisted upon
accompanying their husbands or parents, perhaps with
reason, for prostitutes
soon enlisted to serve the warriors. Urban had appointed the month of August, 1096, as the time of departure, but the impatient peasants who were the
first recruits
could not wait.
One such
host,
numbering some
1
2,000 per-
THE CRUSADES
CHAP. XXIIl)
589
whom
only eight were knights), set out from France in March under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless (Gautier sans- A voir); another, perhaps 5000 strong, started from Germany under the priest Gottsons (of
from the Rhineland under Count Emico of Leiningen. It was chiejfly these disorderly bands that attacked the Jews of Germany and Bohemia, rejected the appeals of the local clergy and citizenry, and de-
schalk; a third advanced
generated for a time into brutes phrasing their blood lust in piety. The recruits had brought modest funds and little food, and their inexperienced
had made scant provision for feeding them. Many of the marchers had underestimated the distance; and as they advanced along the Rhine and the Danube the children asked impatiently, at each turn, was not this Jerusalem? ^° When their funds ran out, and they began to starve, they were forced to pillage the fields and homes on their route; and soon they added rape to leaders
rapine. ^^
The
population resisted violently; some towns closed their gates
against them, and others bade
them Godspeed with no
delay. Arriving at last
by famine, plague, by Alexius, but welcomed way, they were
before Constantinople quite penniless, and decimated leprosy, fever, and battles
on the
not satisfactorily fed; they broke into the suburbs, and plundered churches, houses, and palaces. To deliver his capital from these praying locusts, Alexius
provided them with vessels to cross the Bosporus, sent them supplies, and bade them wait until better armed detachments could arrive. Whether
through hunger or
restlessness, the
Crusaders ignored these instructions, and
advanced upon Nicaea. A disciplined force of Turks, marched out from the city and almost annihilated this
all
skilled
first
bowmen,
division of the
Walter the Penniless was among the slain; Peter the Hermit, dissfusted with his uncontrollable host, had returned before the battle to Constantinople, and lived safely till 1 1 15. Meanwhile the feudal leaders who had taken the cross had assembled each his own force in his own place. No king was among them; indeed PhiHp I of France, William II of England, and Henry IV of Germany were all under sentence of excommunication when Urban preached the crusade. But many counts and dukes enlisted, nearly all of them French or Frank; the First Crusade was largely a French enterprise, and to this day the Near East speaks of First Crusade.
as Franks. Duke Godfrey, Seigneur of Bouillon (a small Belgium), combined the qualities of soldier and monk— brave and
West Europeans estate in
war and government, and pious to the point of fanaticism. Count Bohemund of Taranto was Robert Guiscard's son; he had all the courage and skill of his father, and dreamed of shcing a kingdom for himself and his Norman troops out of the former Byzantine possessions in the Near East. With him was his nephew Tancred of Hauteville, destined to be the hero of competent
in
Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered: handsome, fearless, gallant, generous, loving glory and wealth, and universally admired as the ideal of a Christian knight.
Raymond, Count
of Toulouse, had already fought Islam in Spain;
now,
in
THE AGE OF FAITH
SgO
(cHAP. XXIII
old age, he dedicated himself and his vast fortune to the larger war; but a haughty temper spoiled his nobility, and avarice stained his piety.
By diverse routes these hosts made their way to Constantinople. Bohemund proposed to Godfrey that they seize the city; Godfrey refused, saying that he had come only to fight infidels; ^^ but the idea did not die. The masculine, half-barbarous knights of the West despised these subtle and cultured gentlemen of the East as heretics lost in effeminate luxury; they looked
with astonishment and envy upon the riches laid up in the churches, palaces, and markets of the Byzantine capital, and thought that fortune should belong
may
to the brave. Alexius iors;
and
his
have gotten wind of these notions among
his sav-
experience with the peasant horde (for whose defeat the
West
had censured him) inclined him to caution, perhaps to duplicity. He had asked for assistance against the Turks, but he had not bargained upon the united strength of Europe gathering at his gates; he could never be sure whether these warriors aspired to Jerusalem so much as to Constantinople, nor whether they would restore to his Empire any formerly Byzantine territory that they might take from the Turks. He offered the Crusaders provisions, subsidies,
bribes;
^^
their feudal sovereign;
him.
The
handsome
transport, military aid, and, for the leaders,
in return he asked that the nobles should
swear allegiance to him
any lands taken by them were to be held
as
in fealty to
nobles, softened with silver, swore.
Early in 1097
some 30,000 men, still under divided Moslems were even more divided Not only was Moslem power in Spain spent, and in
the armies, totaling
leadership, crossed the straits. Luckily, the
than the Christians.
northern Africa rent with religious faction, but in the East the Fatimid caliphs of
Egypt held southern Syria, while
their foes, the Seljuq
Turks, held
northern Syria and most of Asia Minor. Armenia rebelled against
its
Seljuq
itself with the "Franks." So helped, the arms of Europe advanced to the siege of Nicaea. On Alexius' pledge that their lives would be spared, the Turkish garrison surrendered (June 19, 1097). The Greek Emperor raised the Imperial flag over the citadel, protected the city from indiscriminate pillage, and appeased the feudal leaders with substantial gifts; but the Christian soldiery complained that Alexius was in league with the Turks. After a week's rest, the Crusaders set out for Antioch. They met a Turkish army under Qilij Arslan near Dorylaeum, won a bloody battle (July i, 1097), and marched through Asia Minor with no other enemies than a shortage of water and food, and a degree of heat for which the Western blood was
conquerors, and allied
unprepared. Men,
women,
horses,
and dogs died of thirst on that bitter march
of 500 miles. Crossing the Taurus, some nobles separated their forces from the
main army to make private conquests— Raymond, Bohemund, and God-
frey in Armenia, Tancred and Baldwin (brother of Godfrey) in Edessa; there Baldwin,
by
strategy and treachery, ^^ founded the
pality in the East (1098).
The mass of the
first
Latin princi-
Crusaders complained ominously
1
THE CRUSADES
CHAP. XXIIl)
at these delays; the nobles returned,
59
and the advance to Antioch was resumed.
Antioch, described by the chronicler of the Gesta Franc oru?n as a "city
extremely beautiful, distinguished, and delightful,"
^°
resisted siege for eight
months. Many Crusaders died from exposure to the cold winter rains, or from hunger; some found a novel nourishment by chewing "the sweet reeds
now
called zucra' (Arabic sukkar)\
sugar, and learned
how
it
for the
was pressed from
time the "Franks" tasted
first
cultivated herbs.^** Prostitutes
provided more dangerous sweets; an amiable archdeacon was
slain by the Turks as he reclined in an orchard with his Syrian concubine. ^^ In May, 1098, word came that a great Moslem army was approaching under Karbogha, Prince of Mosul; Antioch fell (June 3, 1098) a few days before this army arrived; many of the Crusaders, fearing that Karbogha could not be withstood, boarded ships on the Orontes, and fled. Alexius, advancing with a Greek force, was misled by deserters into believing that the Christians had already been defeated; he turned back to protect Asia Minor, and was never
To
Bartholomew, a priest found the spear that had pierced the side of Christ; when the Christians marched out to battle the lance was carried aloft as a sacred standard; and three knights, robed in white, issued from the hills at the call of the papal legate Adhemar, who proclaimed them to be the martyrs St. Maurice, St. Theodore, and St. George. So inspired, and under the united command of Bohemund, the Crusaders achieved a decisive victory. Bartholomew, accused of a pious fraud, offered to undergo the ordeal of fire as a test of his veracity. He ran through a gauntlet of burning faggots, and emerged apparently safe; but he died of burns or an overstrained heart on the following day; and the holy lance was withdrawn from forgiven.
from
restore courage to the Crusaders, Peter
Marseille, pretended to have
the standards of the host.^^
Bohemund became by held the region in
grateful consent Prince of Antioch. Formally he
fief to
Alexius; actually he ruled
as
it
sovereign; the chieftains claimed that Alexius' failure to released
them from
their
vows of
refreshing and reorganizing their
an independent
come
to their aid
allegiance. After spending six
weakened
months
in
forces, they led their armies
toward Jerusalem. At last, on June 7, 1099, after a campaign of three years, the Crusaders, reduced to 1 2,000 combatants, stood in exaltation and fatigue before the walls of Jerusalem.
By
the
humor
of history, the
Turks
whom
they had come to fight had been expelled from the city by the Fatimids a year before. The caliph offered peace on terms of guaranteed safety for Christian pilgrims and worshipers in Jerusalem, but
demanded unconditional sisted for forty days.
surrender.
On July
1
5
over the walls, and the Crusaders plished after heroic suffering.
mond
of Agiles,
The
Bohemund and Godfrey men re-
Fatimid garrison of 1000
Godfrey and Tancred
knew
led their followers
the ecstasy of a high purpose
Then, reports the
accomRay-
priestly eyewitness
THE AGE OF FAITH
592
( CHAP.
XXIII
wonderful things were to be seen. Numbers of the Saracens were beothers were shot with arrows, or forced to jump from the headed towers; others were tortured for several days and then burned in flames. In the streets were seen piles of heads and hands and feet. One rode about everywhere amid the corpses of men and horses.^^ ,
.
.
Other contemporaries contribute details: women were stabbed to death, suckHng babes were snatched by the leg from their mothers' breasts and flung over the walls, or had their necks broken by being dashed against posts; ^" and 70,000 Moslems remaining in the city were slaughtered. The surviving Jews were herded into a synagogue and burned alive. The victors flocked to the church of the Holy Sepulcher, whose grotto, they believed, had once held the crucified Christ. There, embracing one another, they wept with joy and release, and thanked the God of Mercies for their victory.
III.
THE LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM: IO99-II43
Godfrey of Bouillon, whose exceptional integrity had finally won recognition, was chosen to rule Jerusalem and its environs under the modest title of Defender of the Holy Sepulcher. Here, where Byzantine rule had ceased 465 years before, no pretense was made of subordination to Alexius; the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem became at once a sovereign state. The Greek Church was disestablished, its patriarch fled to Cyprus, and the parishes of the new kingdom accepted the Latin Hturgy, an Italian primate, and papal rule.
The price of sovereignty is the capacity for self-defense. Two weeks after army came up Godfrey defeated
the great liberation, an Egyptian city holy for too
many
faiths.
Ascalon to reliberate a
to it,
but
a
year later he died
(1100-18), took the loftier title of king. Under King Fulk, Count of Anjou ( 1 1 3 1-43 ) the new state included most of Palestine and Syria; but the Moslems still held Aleppo, Damascus, (11 00). His less able brother,
Baldwin
I
,
and Emesa. The kingdom was divided into four feudal principaHties, centering respectively at Jerusalem, Antioch, Edessa, and Tripolis, Each of the four was parceled into practically independent fiefs, whose jealous lords made war, coined money, and otherwise aped sovereignty. The king was
was checked by an ecclesiastical hierarchy subweakened by ceding the control of several ports— Jaffa, Tyre, Acre, Beirut, Ascalon— to Venice, Pisa, or Genoa as the price of naval aid and seaborne supplies. The structure and law of the kingdom were formulated in the Assizes of Jerusalem— one of the most logelected ject
by
the barons, and
only to the pope.
He
w^as further
and ruthless codifications of feudal government. The barons assumed all ownership of land, reduced the former owners— Christian or Moslem— to the condition of serfs, and laid upon them feudal obligations severer than any ical
THE CRUSADES
CHAP. XXIIl) in
593
contemporary Europe. The native Christian population looked back to
Moslem rule as a golden age.^^ The young kingdom had many elements of weakness, but it had a unique support in new orders of military monks. As far back as 1048 the merchants of Amalfi had obtained Moslem permission to build a hospital at Jerusalem for poor or ailing pilgrims. About 120 the staff of this institution was reorganized by Raymond du Puy as a religious order vowed to chastity, pov1
erty, obedience,
and the military protection of Christians in Palestine; and became one of the
these Hospitalers, or Knights of the Hospital of St. John,
noblest charitable bodies in the Christian world.
Hugh
About the same time
(
1 1
19)
de Payens and eight other crusader knights solemnly dedicated them-
and the martial service of Christianity. They site of Solomon's Temple, and were soon called Knights Templar. St. Bernard drew up a stern rule for them, which was not long obeyed; he praised them for being "most learned in the art of war," and bade them "wash seldom," and closely crop their selves to monastic discipline
obtained from Baldwin
hair.^^
"The
Christian
II a
who
residence near the
slays the unbeliever in the
Holy War," wrote
Bernard to the Templars, in a passage worthy of Mohammed, "is sure of his reward; more sure if he himself is slain. The Christian glories in the death of the pagan, because Christ a
good conscience
if
is
thereby glorified";
^^
men must learn
they are to fight successful wars.
black robe with a white cross on the
left sleeve; a
to kill with
A Hospitaler wore a
Templar
a
white robe with
a red cross on the mantle. Each hated the other religiously. From protecting and nursing pilgrims the Hospitalers and Templars passed to active attacks upon Saracen strongholds; though the Templars numbered but 300, and the Hospitalers some 600, in 1 180,^^ they played a prominent part in the battles of the Crusades, and earned great repute as warriors. Both orders campaigned for financial support, and received it from Church and state, from rich and poor; in the thirteenth century each owned great estates in Europe, including abbeys, villages, and towns. Both astonished Christians and Saracens by building vast fortresses in Syria, where, dedicated individually to poverty, they enjoyed collective luxury amid the toils of war.^^ In 1 190 the Germans in Palestine, aided by a few at home, founded the Teutonic Knights, and
established a hospital near Acre.
Most of the Crusaders returned to Europe after freeing Jerusalem, leaving the man power of the harassed government perilously low. Many pilgrims came, but few remained to fight. On the north the Greeks watched for a chance to recover Antioch, Edessa, and other cities which they claimed as Byzantine; to the east, the Saracens were being aroused and unified by Moslem appeals and Christian raids. Mohammedan refugees from Jerusalem told in bitter detail the fall of that city to the Christians;
Mosque salem,
of Baghdad, and
and the sacred
Dome
of the
they stormed the Great
Moslem arms should hberate JeruRock, from unclean infidel hands.^'' The
demanded
that
THE AGE OF FAITH
594
was powerless
caliph
to
heed their
pleas,
(CHAP. XXIII
but Zangi, the young slave-bom
Prince of Mosul, responded. In 1144 his small well-led army took from the Christians their eastern outpost al-Ruah; and a few months later he recap-
tured Edessa for Islam. Zangi was assassinated, but he was succeeded son, Nur-ud-din, of equal courage and greater
these events that stirred
IV.
St.
Europe
to the
ability. It
was the
by a news of
Second Crusade.
THE SECOND CRUSADE:
Bernard appealed to Pope Eugenius
III to
I 1
46-8
sound another
call to
arms
Eugenius, enmeshed in conflict with the infidels of Rome, begged Bernard
was a wise suggestion, for the saint was a he had made Pope. When he left his cell at Clair-
to undertake the task himself.
greater
man than
he
whom
It
vaux to preach the crusade to the French, the skepticism that hides in the heart of faith was silenced, and the fears spread by narratives of the First Crusade were stilled. Bernard went directly to King Louis VII, and persuaded him to take the cross. With the King at his side he spoke to a multitude at Vezelay (i 146) when he had finished, the crowd enlisted en masse; the crosses prepared proved too few, and Bernard tore his robe to pieces to provide additional emblems. "Cities and castles are emptied," he wrote to the Pope; "there is not left one man to seven women, and everywhere there are widows to still living husbands." Having won France he passed to Germany, where his fervent eloquence induced the Emperor Conrad III to accept the crusade as the one cause that could unify the Guelf and Hohenstaufen factions then rending the realm. Many nobles followed Conrad's lead; among them the young Frederick of Swabia who would become Barbarossa, and ;
would
die in the
At Easter
Third Crusade.
of 11 47 Conrad and the
Germans
set out; at
Pentecost Louis and
the French followed at a cautious distance, uncertain whether the
or the Turks were their most hated foes.
The Germans felt
Germans
a like hesitation
so many Byzantine towns were pillaged on many closed their gates, and dispensed a scanty ration by basway kets let down from the walls. Manuel Comnenus, now Eastern Emperor,
between Turks and Greeks; and the
that
gently suggested that the noble hosts should cross the Hellespont at Sestos, instead of going through Constantinople; but
Conrad and Louis
refused.
A
party in Louis' council urged him to take Constantinople for France; he
Greeks may have learned of his temptation. They were frightened by the stature and armor of the Western knights, and amused by their feminine entourage. His troublesome Eleanor accompanied Louis, and troubadours accompanied the Queen; the counts of Flanders and Toulouse were escorted by their countesses, and the baggage train of the French was heavy with trunks and boxes of apparel and cosmetics designed refrained; but again the
THE CRUSADES
CHAP. XXIIl)
to ensure the beauty of these ladies against
war, and time. Manuel
595 the vicissitudes of climate,
all
hastened to transport the
two armies
across the Bos-
porus, and supplied the Greeks with debased coinage for dealings with the
Crusaders. In Asia a dearth of provisions, and the high prices
many
demanded by
between saviors and saved; and Frederick that his sword had to shed Christian blood for mourned of the Red Beard the Greeks, led to
conflicts
the privilege of encountering infidels.
Conrad
insisted, against
Manuel's advice, on taking the route followed by
Greek guides, the Germans Moslem snares; and their loss was disheartening. At Dorylaeum, where the First Crusade had deQilij Arslan, Conrad's army met the main Moslem force, and was so
the First Crusade. Despite or because of their into a succession of foodless wastes and
fell
of
life
feated
badly beaten that hardly one Christian far behind, was deceived by
false
in ten survived.
news of
a
German
The French army,
victory;
and was decimated by starvation and Moslem
recklessly,
Attaha, Louis bargained with
Greek
raids.
army by demanded an impossible fee
per passenger; Louis and several nobles, Eleanor and several passage to Antioch, leaving the French
in
it
down upon
advanced Reaching
ship captains to transport his
sea to Christian Tarsus or Antioch; the captains
forces swept
it
army
in Attalia.
ladies,
took
Mohammedan
the city, and slaughtered nearly every
Frenchman
(i 148).
Louis reached Jerusalem with ladies but no army, Conrad with a pitiful remnant of the force with which he had left Ratisbon. From these survivors, and soldiers already in the capital, an army was improvised, and marched
Damascus under the divided command of Conrad, Louis, and Baldwin III (1143-62). During the siege disputes arose among the nobles as to which should rule Damascus when it fell. Moslem agents found their way against
into the Christian army,
or
retreat.^'^
and bribed certain leaders to
When word
advancing with a
larg-e
prevailed; the Christian
came
that the emirs of
a policy of inaction
Aleppo and Mosul were
force to relieve Damascus, the advocates of retreat
army broke
into fragments,
and
fled to
Antioch,
Acre, or Jerusalem. Conrad, defeated and diseased, returned in disgrace to Germany. Eleanor and most of the French knights returned to France. Louis
remained another year in Palestine, making pilgrimages to sacred shrines. Europe was stunned by the collapse of the Second Crusade. Men began to ask how it was that the Almighty allowed His defenders to be so humiliated; critics assailed St. Bernard as a reckless visionary who had sent men
and here and there emboldened skeptics called in question the most basic tenets of the Christian faith. Bernard repHed that the ways of the Almighty are beyond human understanding, and that the disaster must to their death;
punishment for Christian sins. But from this time the philosophic (d. 1142) had scattered found expression even among the people. Enthusiasm for the Crusades rapidly waned; and the Age of Faith
have been
a
doubts that Abelard
THE AGE OF FAITH
59^ under whose ministry the Franciscan Order made great gains in corporate wealth. Born in Tuscany in 122 1, Giovanni di Fidanza came for some unknown reason to be called Bonaventura— Good Luck. He nearly died of a childhood malady; his mother prayed to St. Francis for his recovery; Giovanni thereafter felt that he owed his life to the saint. Entering the Order, he was sent to Paris to study under Alexander of Hales. In 1248 he began to teach theology in the University; in 1257, still a youth of thirtyhe was chosen minister-general of the Franciscans. He did his best to reform the laxity of the Order, but was too genial to succeed. He himself lived in ascetic simplicity. When messengers came to announce that he had been made a cardinal they found him washing dishes. A year later (1274)
six,
he died of overwork.
His books were well written, clear, and concise. He pretended to be a mere compiler, but he infused order, fervor, and a disarming modesty into tvery subject that he touched. His Breviloqitmm was an admirable summary of Christian theology; iiis Soliloqiihmt and Itinerarhmi mentis in Deum (Journey of the Mind to God) were jewels of mystic piety. True knowledge comes not through perception of the material world by the senses, but through intuition of the spiritual world by the soul. While loving St. Thomas, Bonaventura frowned upon the reading of philosophy, and freely criticized some of Aquinas' conclusions. He reminded the Dominicans that Aristotle was a heathen, whose authority must not be ranked with that of the Fathers; and he asked could the philosophy of Aristotle explain a moment's movements of ence;
it is
a star? *^
God
better to feel
is
not a philosophical conclusion but
Him
a living pres-
The good is higher than sciences. One day, we are told.
than to define Him.
the true, and simple virtue surpasses
all
the
Brother Egidio, overwhelmed by Bonaventura's learning, said to him: "Alas! what shall we ignorant and simple ones do to merit the favor of God?" "My brother," replied Bonaventura,
"you know very well
that
it
suffices to love
.
THE AGE OF FAITH
960 the Lord."
"Do you
(CHAP. XXXVI
then beheve," asked Egidio, "that
a
simple
woman
might please him as well as a master in theology?" When the theologian answered in the affirmative, Egidio rushed into the street and cried out to a be£jgar woman: "Rejoice, for if you love God, you may have a higher
Kingdom of Heaven than Brother Bonaventura!"^'' Obviously it is a mistake to think of "the" Scholastic philosophy as a dreary unanimity of opinion and approach. There were a hundred Scholastic philosophies. The same university faculty might harbor a Thomas honoring reason, a Bonaventura deprecating it, a William of Auvergne ( 1 801249) following Ibn Gabirol into voluntarism, a Siger teaching Averroism. The divergences and conflicts within orthodoxy were almost as intense as between faith and unbehef. A Franciscan bishop, John Peckham, would denounce Aquinas as sternly as Thomas denounced Siger and Averroes; and place in the
1
Albertus Magnus, in an unsaintly moment, wrote: "There are ignorant
who would
fight
by every means
ticularly the Franciscans— brutish
not know."
^^
was works of the PhiChristian terms. He was born
Albert loved knowledge, and admired Aristotle he
who
among
first
the Scholastics surveyed
losopher, and undertook to interpret at
men
employment of philosophy; and parbeasts who blaspheme that which they do the
them
all
in
this side of heresy. It
the major
Lauingen, Swabia, about 1201, son of the rich count of Bollstadt.
He
Dominican Order, and taught in Dominican schools at Hildesheim, Freiburg, Ratisbon, Strasbourg, Cologne (1228-45), and Paris (1245-8). Despite his preference for the scholastic life he was made Provincial of his Order for Germany, and Bishop of Ratisbon ( 260) Tradition claims that he walked barefoot on all his journeys.^^ In 1262 he was allowed to retire to a cloister at Cologne. He left its peace when he was studied at Padua, joined the
1
seventy-six (1277) to defend the doctrine and memory of his dead pupil at Paris. He succeeded, returned to his monastery, and
Thomas Aquinas
unassuming character, and vast intellectual interests show medieval monasticism at its best. Only the quiet routine of his monastic years, and the massive diligence died at seventy-nine. His devoted
of
German
life,
scholarship, can explain
how
a
man who
spent so
much
of his
time in teaching and administration could write essays on almost every phase of science, and substantial treatises on every branch of philosophy and theology.*
Few men
in history
have written so much, or borrowed so much,
or so frankly acknowledged their debts. Albert bases his works almost
title
philosophy and theology: I. Logic: Philosophia rationalis; De De sex principiis; Perihermenias (i.e., De interpretatione) Analytica priora; Analytica posteriora; Topica; Libri elenchonmi. II. Metaphysics: De unitate intellectiis contra Averroistas; Metaphysica; De fato. III. Psychology: De am?f7a, De senni et sensato, De menwrla et reminiscentia; De intellectu et intelligibili; De potentiis avimae. IV. Ethica. V. Politica. VI. Theology: Sutmna de creatJiris; Simmia theologiae; Covnnentarmm in Sententias Petri Lombardi; Commentarium de divinis nojninibus. The first five treatises here listed fill twenty-one volumes of Albert's works, which are still incompletely published. • Albert's
major works
praedicabilibus;
De
in
praedicmne7itis\
;
THE ADVENTURE OF REASON
CHAP. XXXVl) for
title
on
Aristotle; he uses Averroes'
961
commentaries to interpret the Phi-
them manfully when they
differ from draws on the Moslem thinkers to such an extent that his works are an important source for our knowledge of Arabic philosophy. He cites Avicenna on every other page, and occasionally Maimonides' Guide
losopher; but he corrects both of
He
Christian theology.
to the Perplexed.
He
recognizes Aristotle as the highest authority in science
and philosophy, Augustine
in theology, the Scriptures in everything.
immense mound of discourse sistent
is
His
poorly organized, and never becomes a con-
system of thought; he defends
a doctrine in
one place, attacks
it
in
another, sometimes in the same treatise; he had no time to resolve his con-
He was too good a man, too pious a soul, to be an objective was capable of following a commentary on Aristotle with a long treatise in twelve "books" hi Praise of the Blessed Virgin Mary., in which he argued that Mary had a perfect knowledge of grammar, rhetoric, logic, tradictions.
thinker; he
arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.
What,
then,
was
his
achievement? Above
all,
as
we shall see, he contributed
and theory of his time. In philosophy he "gave Aristotle to the Latins"— which was all that he aimed to do; he promoted the use of Aristotle in the teaching of philosophy; he accumulated the storehouse of pagan, Arabic, Jewish, and Christian thought and argument from which his famous pupil drew for a more lucid and orderly synthesis. Perhaps without Albert, Thomas would have been impossible. substantially to the scientific research
V.
THOMAS AQUINAS
Thomas came
of lordly stock, and gave up riches to win Count Landulf of Aquino, belonged to the German nobility, was a nephew of Barbarossa, and was among the highest figures at the Apulian court of the impious Frederick II. His mother was descended from the Norman princes of Sicily, Though born in Italy, Thomas was on both sides of northern origin, essentially Teutonic; he had no Italian grace or deviltry in him, but grew to heavy German proportions, with large head,
Like Albert,
eternity.
His
father.
broad face, and blond friends called
him "the
hair,
and
great
a quiet
dumb ox
content in intellectual industry. His
^^ of Sicily."
He was born in 225 in his father's castle at Roccasecca, three miles from Aquino, and halfway between Naples and Rome. The abbey of Monte Cassino was near by, and there Thomas received his early schooling. At fourteen he began five years of study at the University of Naples, Michael Scot 1
Averroes into Latin; Jacob Anatoli was there, transAverroes into Hebrew; Peter of Ireland, one of Thomas' teachers, was an enthusiastic AristoteHan; the University was a hotbed of Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew influences impinging upon Christian thought. Thomas' broth-
was
there, translating
lating
THE AGE OF FAITH
962 crs
(CHAP. XXXVI
took to poetry; one, Rainaldo, became a page and falconer
court, and
begged Thomas to
join
him
at
Frederick's
Vigne and Fred-
there. Piero delle
erick himself seconded the invitation. Instead of accepting,
Thomas
entered
Dominican Order (1244). Soon thereafter he was sent to Paris to study theology; at the outset of his journey he was kidnaped by two of his brothers at their mother's urging; he was taken to the Roccasecca castle, and was kept under watch there for a year.-^ Every means was used to shake his vocation; a story, probably a legend, tells how a pretty young woman was introduced into his chamber in the hope of seducing him back to life, and how, with a flaming brand snatched from the hearth, he drove her from the room, and burned the sign of the cross into the door.^^ His firm piety won his mother to his purposes; she helped him to escape; and his sister Marotta, after many talks with him, became a Benedictine nun. At Paris he had Albert the Great as one of his teachers (1245). When Albert was transferred to Cologne Thomas followed him, and continued to study with him there till 1252. At times Thomas seemed dull, but Albert the
defended him, and prophesied as a a
his greatness.^"''"'
He
returned to Paris to teach
bachelor in theology; and now, following in his master's steps, he began
long
series
of works presenting Aristotle's philosophy in Christian dress.
In 1259 he left Paris to teach at the studiiim maintained
by
the papal court
now in Anagni, now in Orvieto, now in Viterbo. At the papal court he met William of Moerbeke, and asked him to make Latin translations of Aristotle directly from the Greek. Meanwhile Siger of Brabant was leading an Averroistic revolution
at the
Universitv of Paris. Tliomas was sent up to meet this challenge. Reaching Paris,
he brought the war into the enemy's
camp with
a tract
On the
of the bjtellect Against the Averroists (1270). lie concluded usual
it
Unity
with un-
fire:
Behold our refutation of these
errors. It
is
based not on documents
of faith but on the reasons and statements of the philosophers themselves. If, then, there be anyone who, boastfully taking pride in his supposed wisdom, wishes to challenge what we have written, let him
not do
it
in
some corner, nor before children who are powerless to dehim reply openly if he dare. He shall
cide on such difficult matters. Let
find me here confronting him, and not only my negligible self, but many another whose study is truth. We shall do battle with his errors,
and bring a cure to It
was
at Paris,
fellow
his ignorance.^®
a complex issue, for Thomas, in this his second period of teaching had not only to combat Averroism, but also to meet the attacks of
monks who
distrusted reason,
and
who
Thomas' claim that John Peckham, successor
rejected
Aristotle could be harmonized with Christianity.
to Bonaventura in the Franciscan chair of philosophy at Paris, upbraided
Thomas
for sullying Christian theology witli
tiic
philosophy of
a
pagan.
THE ADVENTURE OF REASON
CHAP. XXXVl)
Thomas— Peckham
reported— stood
later
great mildness and humiHty."'^' Perhaps
963
ground, but answered "with was those three vears of contro-
his
it
versy that undermined his vitahtv. In 1272 he was called back to Italy at the request of Charles of Anjou to reorganize the University of Naples. In his final years he ceased writing,
whether through weariness or through disillusionment with dialectics and argument. When a friend urged him to complete his Sinwim theohgica he said: "I cannot; such things have been revealed to me that \\\\m I have written seems but straw." ^^ In 1274 Gregory X summoned him to attend the Council of Lyons. He set out on the long mule ride through Italy; but on the way between Naples and Rome he grew weak, and took to his bed in the Cistercian monastery of Fossanuova in the Campagna. There, in 1274, still
but forty-nine, he died.
When he was canonized witnesses testified
that he "was soft-spoken, easy and bland of countenance generous in conduct, most patient, most prudent; radiant wdth charity and gentle piety; wondrous compassionate to the poor.""'^ He was so completely captured by piety and study that these filled every thought and moment of his waking in conversation, cheerful
.
.
.
day. He attended all the hours of prayer, said one Mass or heard two each morning, read and wrote, preached and taught, and prayed. Before a sermon
or a lecture, before sitting
fellow
monks
mind than
to the virtue of his
w^e find, every
came
down
compose, he prayed; and his knowledge less to the effort of the prayer.""^ On the margin of his manuscripts
thou£[ht that "he
now and
to study or
owed
his
then, pious invocations like
so absorbed in the religious and intellectual
life
Ave Maria!
He
be-
that he hardly noticed
w^hat happened about him. In the refectory his plate could be
removed and
but apparently his appetite was exInvited to join other clergymen at dinner with Louis IX, he lost him-
replaced without his being aware of cellent.
"^^
it;
meditation during the meal; suddenly he struck the table with his fist and exclaimed: "That is the decisive argument against the iManicheans!" His prior reproved him: "You are sitting at the table of the King of France";
self in
but Louis, with royal courtesy, bade an attendant bring writing materials to the victorious monk.**- Nevertheless the absorbed saint could write with
good
sense
on many matters of
practical
life.
People remarked
how he could
adjust his sermons either to the studious minds of his fellow monks, or to
the simple intellects of life,
common folk. He had no airs, made no demands upon
sought no honors, refused promotion to ecclesiastical immodest word.
ings span the universe, but contain not one
every argument against
his faith,
Improving upon the custom o^ of his intellectual borrowings.
office.
His writ-
He faces in them
and answers with courtesy and calm. his time,
He
he
made explicit acknowledgments
quotes Avicenna, al-Ghazah, Averroes,
Isaac Israeh, Ibn Gabirol, and Maimonides; obviously
no student can under-
stand the Scholastic philosophy of the thirteenth century without consider-
THE AGE OF FAITH
964
(CHAP. XXXVl
ing its Moslem and Jewish antecedents. Ttiomas does not share William of Auvergne's affection for "Avicebron," but he has a high respect for "Rabbi Moyses," as he calls Moses ben Maimon. He follows Maimonides in hold-
ing that reason and religion can be harmonized, but also in placing certain mysteries of the faith beyond the grasp of reason; and he cites the argument for this exclusion as given in the
Maimonides
that the
human
Guide
knowledge of His
to the
FerplexedP
He
agrees with
can prove God's existence, but can
intellect
and he follows Maimonides and metaphysics he takes Aristotle as his guide, and quotes him on almost every page; but he does not hesitate to differ from him wherever the Philosopher strays from never
rise to a
attributes;
closely in discussing the eternity of the universe.^^* In logic
Christian doctrine.
Having admitted
that the Trinity, the Incarnation, the
Redemption, and the Last Judgment cannot be proved by reason, he proceeds on all other points to accept reason with a fullness and readiness that shocked the followers of Augustine. He was a mystic in so far as he acknowledged the suprarationality of certain Christian dogmas, and shared the mystic longing for union with God; but he was an "intellectualist" in the sense that he preferred the intellect to the "heart" as an organ for arriving at truth. He saw that Europe was bound for an Age of Reason, and he thought that a Christian philosopher should meet the new mood on its own ground. He prefaced his reasonings with Scriptural and Patristic authorities, but he said, with pithy candor: Locus ab auctoritate est infirjnissijnus— 'the argument from authority is the weakest." ^^ "The study of philosophy," he wrote, "does not aim merely to find out what others have thought, but what the truth of the matter is."^^ His writings rival those of Aristotle in the sustained effort of their logic.
Seldom
in history has
order and clarity.
and
one mind reduced so large an area of thought to
We shall find no fascination in Thomas' style;
direct, concise
and precise, with not
a
word
it is
simple
of padding or flourish; but
we miss in it the vigor, imagination, passion, and poetry of Augustine. Thomas thought it out of place to be brilliant in philosophy. When he wished he could equal the poets at their own game. The most perfect works of his pen are the
hymns and prayers
composed for the Feast of Corpus Christi. Among them is the stately sequence Lauda Sion sahatoreni, which preaches the Real Presence in sonorous verse. In the Lauds is a hymn beginning with a line from Ambrose— Verbimi supernum prodie72S—2Lnd ending with two stanzas— O salutaris hostia—it^wX-AvXy sung at the Benediction of the Sacrament. a
And
in the
Vespers
is
that he
one of the great hymns of
all
time,
moving mixture of theology and poetry:
* "If," says the learned Gilson, "Maimonides had not been moved by Averroes to a special notion of immortahty, we might say that Maimonides and Thomas agreed on all important points." "5 It is a slight exaggeration, unless we rank the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the Atonement as unimportant elements of the Christian faith.
I i
THE ADVENTURE OF REASON Sing, O tongue, the mystery Pange, lingua, gloriosi
CHAP. XXXVl)
corporis mysterium
quern in mundi pretium fructus ventris generosi, rex effudit gentium.
Given to us and born for us from an untouched maid, and, sojourning on the planet,
datus, nobis natus
ex intacta virgine, et in
mundo
conversatus,
spreading seed of Word
sparse verbi semine,
moras incolatus miro clausit ordine.
as a
sui
all
food
et, si
with
efficit,
sensus deficit,
let the
To
*
new
rite;
and joyful song, power,
salutation, honor,
blessings manifold;
benedictio;
and to Him from both proceeding let our equal praise be told.
laudatio.*
as much as Albert, in a hfe little more than half as commentaries on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, on Job, Paul; on Plato's Timaeus, on Boethius and Pseudo-
almost
He composed
The
place to this
Begetter and Begotten
praise
honor, virtus quoque
the Gospels, Isaiah,
used
its
our faith redeem the failure of our darkened sense.
procedenti ab utroque
is
act of faith alone.
let
laus et iubilatio
Thomas wrote
into His flesh;
ancient liturgy
yield
Genitori genitoque
long.
word
Therefore such great sacrament venerate we on our knees;
veneremur cernui, et antiquum documentum novo cedat ritui; praestet fides supplementum sensuum defectui.
sit
a
by an
Tantum ergo sacramentum
compar
own hands.
the pure in heart be strengthened
let
sola fides sufficit.
sit et
gives to twelve assembled,
wine becomes the blood of Christ, and if sense should fail to see,
merum,
ad firmandum cor sincerum
salus,
stay.
Word made flesh converts true bread
panem verum
fitque sanguis Christi
His
food by law prescribed,
He
gives Himself with His
se dat suis manibus.
caro
He closed
with apostles while reclining, the ancient law observing in the
cibis in legalibus,
cibum turbae duodenae
verbo carnem
flesh,
In the night of the Last Supper,
fratribus,
observata lege plene
Verbum
made
dweller with us lowly,
wondrously
In supremae nocte cenae
recumbens cum
glorious,
and of blood beyond all price, which, in ransom of the world, fruit of womb most bountiful, all the peoples' King poured forth.
sanguinisque pretiosi,
Nobis
body
of the
965
final stanzas are also
as the processional
sung
in the
Benediction of the Sacrament; and the entire
on Holy Thursday.
hymn
.
THE AGE OF FAITH
966
(cHAP. XXXVI
Dionysius; on Aristotle's Orgmwn, Of Heaven and Earth, Of Generation and Corruption, Meteorology Physics, Metaphysics, On the Son!, Politics, ,
Ethics; qnaestiones dispiitatae—On Truth,
Mind,
On
On
On
the Ride of Princes,
the Principles of Nature,
On
Evil,
On
On
Summa
de
contra Gentiles (1258-60), a twenty-one-volume
the
random Beijig
the Occult Operatiojis of Nature,
the Ufjity of the Intellect, etc.; a four-volume fidei
On
Poiver,
Virtues, etc.; quodlibeta discussing points raised at
university sessions; treatises
Essence,
On
in
and
On
veritate catholicae
Swnma
theologica
Coinpendiuvi theologiae (127 1-3). Thomas' published writings fill 10,000 double-column foUo pages. The Swmna contra Gentiles, or Summary of the Catholic Faith Agaijist (1267-73), ^^^
3
was prepared
the Pagans,
at the
urging of
Raymond
of Pefiafort, General
of the Dominican Order, to aid in the conversion of Moslems and Jews in Spain. Therefore
Thomas
in this
work
argues almost entirely from reason,
though remarking sadly that "this is deficient in the things of God."*^^ He abandons here the Scholastic method of disputation, and presents his material in almost modern style, occasionally with more acerbity than befitted him whom posterit)^ would call doctor angelicus and seraphicus. Christianity must be divine, he thinks, because it conquered Rome and Europe despite its unwelcome preaching against the pleasures of the world and the flesh; Islam conquered by preaching pleasure and by force of arms.*^^ In Part IV he frankly admits that the cardinal dogmas of Christianity cannot be proved by reason, and require faith in the divine revelation of the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures. Thomas' most extensive work, the Summa theologica, is addressed to Christians; it is an attempt to expound and to defend— from Scripture, the Fathers, and reason— the whole body of Catholic doctrine in philosophy and theology.*
"We shall try," says the Prologue, "to follow the things that per-
tain to sacred doctrine
allows."
We
may
with such brevity and lucidity
as the subject
smile at this twenty-one-volume brevity, but
matter
it is
there;
Sunnna is immense, but not verbose; its size is merely the result of its scope. For within this treatise on theology are full treatises on metaphysthis
ics,
psychology,
ethics,
and law; thirty-eight
topics, 10,000 objections or replies.
question
is
praise than
The
treatises,
orderliness of
631 questions or
argument within each
more compare with the Euclidean organization of
admirable, but the structure of the Suvniia has received its
due. It cannot
Spinoza's Ethics, or the concatenation of Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy
The
treatise
on psychology (Part
I,
QQ.. 75-94)
discussion of the six days of creation and a study of inal it
innocence.
The form
is
continues, and perfects,
is
introduced between a
man
in the state of orig-
more interesting than the structure. Essentially the method of Abelard as developed by Peter
* The Simnua ro and including Part III, Question by Reginald of Pipcrn' of Prostitution, N. Y., 1910. Sarre, F., Die Kunst des alten Persien, Berlin, 1925. Sarton, G., Introduction to the History of Science, Baltimore, i93of. 3V. in 5. masterpiece of painstaking scholarship. Saunders, O. E., History of English Art in the Middle Ages, Oxford, 1932. Saxo Gramaiaticus, Danish History, London, n.d. 2V. S., Studies in Judaism, N. Y., 1920. 3V. ScHEViLL, F., Siena, N. Y., 1909. Schneider, H., The History of World Civilization, N. Y., 193 1. 2V, ScHOENFELD, H., Womeu of the Teutonic Nations, Phila., 1908. Schoenhof, J., History of Money and Prices, N. Y., 1896. *Scott-Moncrieff, C. K., The Letters of Abelard and Heloise, N. Y., 1926. Sedgwick, H. D., Italy in the Thirteenth Century, Boston, 191 2. 2 v. Seebohm, F., The English Village Community, London, 1896.
Schechter,
A
THE AGE OF FAITH
1098
Seignobos, C, The Feudal Regime, N. Y., 1902. Short, E. H., The Painter in History, London, 1929. Shotwell, J. T, and Loomis, L. R., The See of Peter, Columbia Univ. Press, 1927.
SiDONius Apollinaris, Poems and Letters, Loeb Lib. 2V. SiGFUSSON, Saemund, The Elder Edda, London, 1907. SiHLER, E. G., From Augustus to Augustine, Camb. Univ. Press, 1923. Singer, C, ed.. Studies in the History and Method of Science, Oxford, i9i7f. Smith, Margaret, ed.. The Persian Mystics: Attar, London, 1932. Smith, Toulmin, English Gilds: the Original Ordinances, London, 1870. Socrates, Ecclesiastical History, London, 1892. Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, London, 1855. Speculum, a Journal of A4edieval Studies, Cambridge, Mass. Spencer, H., Principles of Sociology, N. Y., 19 10. 3 V. *Spengler, O., Decline of the West, N. Y., 1928. 2 v. Stephens, W. R., Hildebrand and His Times, London, 1914. Sterling, M. B., The Story of Parzival, N. Y., 19 11. Stevens, C. E., Sidonius Apollinaris, Oxford, 1933. Street, G. E., Gothic Architecture in Spain, London, 1869. Strzygowski, J., Origin of Christian Church Art, Oxford, 1923. Stubbs, Wm., Constitutional History of England, Oxford, 1903. 3V. Sturluson, Snorri, Heimskringla: The Norse Sagas, Everyman Lib. Heimskringla: The Olaf Sagas, Everyman Lib. The Younger Edda, in Sigfusson, S. Sumner, W. G., Folkways, Boston, 1906. Sykes, Sir P., History of Persia, London, 192 1. 2V. Symonds, J. A., Studies of the Greek Poets, London, 1920. Introduction to the Study of Dante, London, 1 899.
al-Tabari, Chronique, Fr.
tr.
by Zotenberg,
2 v.
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Tagore, Sir R., Gitanjali, N. Y., 1928. Taine, H., Ancient Regime, N. Y., 1891. Italy: Florence and Venice, N. Y., 1869. Talmud, Babylonian, Eng. tr., London, i935f. 24V. Tarn, W., Hellenistic Civilization, London, 1927. Taylor, H. O., The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, N. Y., 1911. The Medieval Mind, London, 1927. 2V. Thatcher, O., and McNeal, E., Source Book for Medieval History, N. Y., 1905. Thierry, A., History of the Conquest of England by the Normans, London, 1847. 2V.
Thomas Aquinas,
St.,
Summa Summa
contra Gentiles, London, 1924. 4V. theologica,
tr.
by Dominican
Fathers,
London,
1920. 22V.
Thompson,
Sir E., Introduction to
Greek and Latin Palaeography, Oxford,
1912.
Thompson,
*
J.
W., Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages, 300-1 300, N. Y., 1928. Economic and Social History of Europe in the Later Middle Ages, N. Y., 193 1. Feudal Germany, Chicago, 1928. The Middle Ages, N. Y., 193 1. 2 v.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL GUIDE
IO99
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II
THEAGEOFFAITH
OO
WiCKSTEED,
P. H.,
Dante and Aquinas, London,
191
3.
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WiLLOUGHBY,
W.
WiNCKELMANN,
W.,
J.,
tr,
Caxton, London, 1893.
Social Justice,
N.
Y., 1900.
History of Ancient Art, Boston, 1880.
Wolfram von Eschenbach,
2 v.
Weston, London, 1894. 2 v. Wright, Th., ed.. The Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry, London, 1868. A History of Domestic Alanners and Sentiments in England during the Middle Ages, London, 1862. Parzival,
tr.
Yellin, D., and Abrahams, L, Maimonides, Zeitlin,
S.,
Zimmern,
Maimonides, N.
H.,
Phila., 1903.
Y., 1935.
The Hansa Towns, N,
Y., 1889.
Notes Full titles of works referred to will be found in the Bibliography. Capital Roman numerals, except at the beginning of a note, indicate volumes, followed by page numbers; small Roman numerals indicate "books" (divisions of a text), followed by chapter or verse numbers.
CHAPTER 1.
Ammianus MarceUinus,
2.
Philostorgius,
3.
4.
5.
xxi, 16.
ii, 9, in Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, II, 78. Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 3. Lot, Ferdinand, End of the Ancient World, 71; Bury, J. B., History of the
Later Roman Empire, I, 87. Canibridge Medieval History, IV, 748.
Munro and
Sellery,
Medieval
Civiliza-
tion, 87, says 30,000;
Bury, op.
cit.,
says
41. Ibid., 217B. 42. Ibid., 237B.
43.
Dudden,
Gregory the Great,
F. H.,
I,
10.
Socrates, Ecclesiastical History, 7-1
ii,
12. Boissier,
15-
the
of
37-8.
i,
49.
I,
68;
52. Julian,
54. 55.
250.
II,
op.
^6.
cit., I, 82.
W. C,
Wright, Cf. Inge, I,
W.
R.,
Introd.
Eunapius,
to
Ammianus,
22. Boissier,
of
24. Julian,
xxii, 5;
Duchesne,
II,
Works,
III,
II,
iii,
I;
8.
Ammianus,
Ammianus, xxii, 13. Sozomen, vi, 2. Ammianus, xxv, 3. Milman, H. H., History of Latin Christianity, I, 112; Sihler, E. G., From AuTheodoret, iii, 28, in Lecky, W. E. H., History of European Morals, II, 261. Duchesne, II, 268.
xxii, 4.
II,
9.
Jordanes, #26f; Gibbon,
0.
Ammianus,
Misopogon, 340B.
1.
Socrates,
Ammianus,
2.
Broglie,
34.
Gardner, Alice, Julian, Philosopher and
3.
Emperor,
4.
i.
260. xxii, 7.
Eunapius, 477. Letter 441, in Works,
37. Julian,
38. Julian,
To
Edicius, 23, in
5. III, 7.
Works,
6.
IIOI
III, 38.
xxxi, 13.
iv,
Due
31.
de, St. Ambrose, 120-4. Gibbon, IH, 168. Bury, J. B., History of the Later Roman Empire, I, 129; Gibbon, III, 175. Pirenne, H., Medieval Cities, 36. Louis, Paul, Ancient Rome at Work, 231.
III,
180.
Rostovtzeff, M., Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, 479. Dill, S., Roman Society in the Last Century of the Roman Empire, 297. Jordanes, Gothic History, #247. In Thompson, J. W., Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages, 106.
33.
Ammianus,
II
Dopsch, A., Economic and Social Foundations of European Civilization,
32.
xvi,
127.
Boissier,
5.
4.
Misopogon, 338B.
31. Socrates,
I,
3.
7.
Ammianus, xxv,
122.
4.
6.
199.
107.
I,
I,
William of Malmesbury, Chronicle of the Kings of England, i, 4. Lea, H. C, Superstition and Force, 451.
262.
i.
iii,
280C; Ammianus, xvi, 11-12. Ammianus, xvi, 53; Duchesne, Ammianus, xviii, i.
30. Julian,
36.
18; Julian,
89.
Letter to the Athefiians, 278D-
28. Boissier,
35.
290D.
10.
CHAPTER
2.
27. Ibid., xvi, 10.
29.
58.
Greek
102.
I,
23. Socrates,
26.
Theodorus,
gustus to Augustine, 217. 57.
1.
In Murray, A. S., History Sculpture, I, 100. 20. In Boissier, I, 96.
25.
Priest
Misopogon, 368C.
Philosophy of Plotinus,
II.
19.
21.
Ammianus, xxii, Sozomen, v, 5,
50. In Boissier,
53.
La Fin du paganisme,
Eunapius, Lives of the Sophists, 487. Capes, W. W., University Life in Ancient Athens, 66.
P-33318.
High
47. Letter to a Priest,
16. Boissier, I, 178. 17.
the
51. Julian, Letter 10; Boissier,
1.
G.,
Duchesne, 13- Boissier, 14.
To
16.
4in.
Duchesne, L., Early History Christian Church, II, 127.
II. Ibid.,
xxii, 12.
Arsacius.
129. 9.
Ammianus,
Lucian, Panegyric, in Boissier, I, 140. 45. Julian, Letter to a Priest, 305B; To 44.
48.
70,000. 8.
40.
46. Julian,
6. Ibid., I, 593. 7.
Against the Galileans, 89A-94A, 106DE, 168B, 351D, 238A, 319D. Julian, To the Cynic Herakleios, 205C.
39. Julian,
I
THE AGE OF FAITH
II02 17. Boissier, I, 18.
417; Dill, op.
Frank,
in
cit.,
De Gubeniatione
Salvianus,
EcouGmic
T.,
Avcient Rome,
228, 272.
,
Dei, v, 28,
Survey
of
,
,
19. Boissier, II, 416.
,
20. Ibid. 21. Louis, Paul, 235.
,
Hodgkin, T.,
22. In
and Her Invaders,
Italy
,
I,
in Heitland,
Ep. Ep.
cxvii, 7. xxii, 14.
Ibid.
Ep. Ep. Ep.
cvii, 3. xxii, 21. xxiii.
Adv.
423. 23. Cf. Augustine, 24. Salvian, iv, 15;
Ep.
232.
vii,
passim; and excerpts
W.
E., Agricola, 423, Bois-
and Bury, Later Roma7i
Jovin.,
Cutts, 150.
24
Jerome, Ep.
25.
In Dill, ^6.
Socrates,
26.
Symmachus, Ep.
25 26
vi,
42;
ii,
46; in Dill,
Friedlander, L., Roman Life a?id Manners under the Early Empire, II, 12. 28. Lot, 178; Dill, 58; Friedlander, II, 29. 27.
29. 30. 31.
Ammianus, xiv, 6. Symmachus, Ep. iii, Ammianus, xxii, 10.
33. 34.
36.
30,
43.
Thorndike,
3^-
L.,
"On
the Consulate of
44.
45. 46.
Works,
XIII, 77.
Shotwell,
J.
and Loomis,
T.,
I,
Duchesne, II, 391. Lecky, Morals, II,
107.
Leckv,
I.e.
II,
R.,
The
3,
in Boissier, II, 224.
43-
280. 44. iii,
3.25.
i;5.
Jerome, Ep. cxxv, Leckv, II, 115.
45-
46.
Sozomen, vi, 33. Lecky, II, no; Noldeke, Th., Sketches from Eastern History, mi. Lecky, H, 118. Taylor, H. O., Classical Heritage of tht Middle Ages, 78. Ibid.; Glover. T. R., Life and Letters in the Fourth Centttry, 349. In Gibbon, TH, 75.
48. Socrates, vi,
4.
461; Sihler, 302.
11.
41. Ibid., 100.
47-
iii,
III,
37- Ibid., 107. 1^8.
39-
#2 54f.
Gibbon,
History of Civilization,
34- Cutts, 137.
42.
Jordanes, i67f. Procopius, History of the Wars, Jordanes, ^168. Procopius, iii, 5. Jordanes, #181.
48. Procopius, 49.
33-
40.
See of Peter, 675. Symmachus, Ep. x,
47. Ibid.,
M,,
297.
Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, 15. Guizot, History of Civilization, II, 69.
38. Boissier, II,
130.
iii,
41. In Boissier,
43.
F.,
W. II,
36. Ibid., 210.
II.
Claudian, Foems,
39. In
Guizot,
in
ix, 7.
and West, Ancient History, S.,
341-
38. Boissier, II, 180.
42.
29.
W.
Davis,
Readings
Saturnalia, ad fin.
37. Voltaire,
40.
Augustine, Confessions,
31'
Stilicho,"
Broglie, 10-15.
In
32.
i,
Ix, 17.
iv, 30.
28,
History of
35. Ibid.,
74.
27,
Magic and Experimental Science, I, 285. Ammianus, xvi, i. Macrobius, Opera accedunt integrae.
32. Ibid., xxi, i;
2.
Ibid., 446.
23
150.
i,
Ep. xxii, 25. Duchesne, III,
E?f7pire, 307.
sier, II, 410, 420,
xxii, 30.
Ibid., xxxviii, 3; xxii, 13, 27.
260.
III,
Jerome, Letters,
49.
Burv, Later
3.
Roman
Etnpire,
I,
138-9.
50. Socrates, vi, 4-5.
CHAPTER 1.
2.
Paul,
I
Cor.
51- In
III
52.
vii, 32.
Gibbon, II, 318; Lecky, History of European Morals, II, 49; Duchesne, II, 189.
Free J. M., Short History of 242; Bury, History of the
3.
Robertson,
4.
Eastern Roinan Empire, 352f. Hefele, C. J., History of the Christian
Thought,
Councils, 5.
Milman, I, 28if. H. W. C, Medieval England.
54- AufTiistine,
56.
58.
60.
xxvii, 3.
61.
8.
Gibbon,
485n.
62.
Ammianus,
xxvii,
3;
Duchesne,
II,
364.
Confessions,
ii,
3.
Augustine, City of God,
ii,
14.
Encvlopaedia Britannica, II, 682. A4cCabe, Aiigustine, 254. Catholic Encyclopedia, II, 88; Augustine, Letters, introd., xvi-xviii.
128.
Ammianus,
Cutts, E. L., St. Jerome, 3of.
16.
57- Confessions, v, 8.
7.
9.
1
Augustine and His Age,
55- Ibid., vi, 3.
Davis,
10.
St.
228.
6.
II,
}.,
53- Ibid., 35.
•JO-
III, 12.
Claoham and Power,
AlcCabe,
63. 64.
Augustine, Ep. Ep. 93. Ep. 173. Ep. 204.
86.
NOTES 65. 66.
Eps. 103, 133. City of God,
68.
Semion Sermon
69.
Duchesne,
70.
Sermon
71.
Ep. 181A.
72.
Comment,
67.
mon 74. 75.
of
De De
289.
3.
III, 143.
4.
5.
in Joan. Evang., xxix, 6; Ser-
6.
581.
I,
7. 8.
i.
i,
7.
9.
Conjessions, xiii, 16. 78. City of God, iv, 27. 81.
ii,
16.
28;
De Wulf,
His-
I,
Political
conjiigali,
Aspects of
God, 76; Lea, H. ibacy, 47. 87. Confessions, x, 30.
123;
13.
Hyde,
14.
Lecky, Morals,
15.
Joyce, 123.
16. Briffault,
City Sacerdotal Cel-
roi da?is
J.
C,
19.
ii,
19.
20.
21.
22.
34.
23.
Augustine, Letters, p.
98.
Comm. on Psalm
99.
Funk, F. X., Manual of Church History,
38.
24.
cxxii.
25.
198.
26.
100. Frazer, Sir J. G.,
Adonis, Attis, Osiris,
315-
28.
106.
118.
29.
Renan, E., Marc Aurele, 61^. Duchesne, III, 11.
105. Ibid.,
30. 31.
16. II,
61.
no. Fisher, H.
L.,
The Medieval Empire,
35. I,
14-
Guignebert,
C,
in
du Revue
71.
the seventh-century "Voyage of Brand," in Hyde, 96f. Bede, i, 13; Bury, J. B., Life of St.
Duchesne, III, 425. Bury, Patrick, 172. Nennius, History of the Britons, 11, in Giles, Six Old English Chronicles, p Bury, Patrick, 121. Ausonius, Poems, Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium. Waddell, H., Medieval Latin Lyrics, Ausonius, Poerris, Parentalia, x. Ibid., Ep. xxii, 23f. Stevens, Sidonius ApolUnaris, 68-9. Guizot, History of Civilization, I, 343 Dill, Last Century, 206.
Past
and
Ambrose, Ep.
2,
in Boissier,
CHAPTER
II,
424.
IV
Cambridge Ancient History, XII, 287. Haverfield, F., The Roman Occupation
i6of.
Sidonius ApolUnaris, In
i,
Poems and
Letters,
2.
Francke,
Literature,
K.,
History
of
German
10.
Sidonius in Lacroix, P., Manners, Customs, and Dress, 514. 37. Gibbon, IV, 65. 38. Gregory of Tours, viii, 9. 39. Lea, Superstition and Force, 318. 40. Sophocles, Antigone, 11, 264-7. 41. Gibbon, IV, 70. 42. Schoenfeld, Hermann, Wo?nen of the 36.
Christianity
Present, 151.
2.
irlandaise,
From
Ep.
109. Ibid., 81.
1.
Hvde,
33. Ibid., 34.
108. Ibid., 83.
112.
Vepopee
32. Stevens, 134-8.
Lecky, Morals,
107. Ibid., 72.
111.
230,
3227.
loi. Ibid., 306.
104.
III,
JubainvUle, Le Droit
410.
97.
103.
253.
The Mothers,
R.,
De
II,
Patrick, 54. iv, 19.
95. Ibid., xix, 7; XX, 9. 96. Boissier, II, 331.
II,
11.
18. Ibid., 83.
Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, City of God, icv, i.
102. In Boissier,
His-
archeologique, XLIII, 332f. 17.
91. Figgis, 46.
I,
British
19.
quoting
City of God, vi, 9. 90. PhUippians, iii, 20; Ephesians,
i,
Monmouth,
W., Short History of Ireland, Hyde, D., Literary History of Ire-
N.,
Figgis,
x;
88. Ibid., vii, 14; x, 6, 22; xiii, 9.
94. Ibid.,
of
Joyce, P.
89.
93.
Britain, 320.
GeoflFrey
12.
St. Aiigustine's
of
92.
Bede, Ecclesiastical History, v, 24. GUdas, Chronicle, xxiii; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. 25. Bede, i, 15; A?iglo-Saxon Chronicle, 26. Collingwood, R. G., and Myres, J.,
land, jj.
Trin., x, 10.
De bono
Roman
Th., Provinces of the
211.
I,
William of Malmesbury, Chronicle, Collingwood, 324.
118;
85. Ibid., viii, 6; Confessions, x, 6. 86.
Roman
11.
10.
De libera arbitrio, De Gen. ad litt., vii,
De
Roman
G.,
tory, vii-xi.
tory of Medieval Philosophy, Catholic Encyclopedia, II, 90. 82. In De Wulf, I, 117. 83. Confessions, Book xi. 84.
Mommsen,
Rojnan
vera religione, xxiv, 45.
77.
80.
Home,
Quennell, M., Everyday Life in
Empire,
131.
43.
i,
220;
Britain, 103.
165.
Trinitate,
76. Solil.
Britain,
Britain, 104.
v, 9; vi, 22, 27.
Cambridge Medieval History,
73. In
II03
THE AGE OF FAITH
iI04
43.
44.
Teutonic Nations, 41; Dill, Roman Society in the Merovingian Age, 47. Salic law, xiv and xli, in Ogg, P., Source Book of Medieval History, 63-5.
Women
of Early Christian-
46. Lot, 397. 47.
Gregory of Tours,
ii,
V,
279.
53.
178; x, 246.
Michelet,
56.
Gregory, Gregory,
59. 60.
61.
Gibbon, IV,
20.
Lot, 267.
History of France,
J.,
107.
I,
27.
28.
Procopius, Buildings,
i,
CHAPTER
5.
prologue.
Gregory, introd., p. xxiv. Guizot^ History of Civilization, Lecky, Morals, II, 204.
58.
1.
2.
Rostovtzeff, M., History of the Ancient
World,
P.,
5.
Ibid., 10-12.
6.
Novella 122
Old Greek Education, 7. 8.
Thompson,
W., Economic History of
J.
the Middle Ages, 120. 66. Cassiodorus, Letters of, Variae, ii, 27. 67. Procopius, V, 1.26. 68. This survives only as a crude abbreviation by Jordanes.
Milman,
I,
433.
9.
10. 11.
72.
Milman,
6;
ii,
iii,
Consolation
76.
18.
19.
CHAPTER V 1.
Introd., 2. 3.
4.
I,
World
Civili-
640.
Castiglione,
A.,
History of Medicine,
Medi-
Thorndike, L., History of Magic and Experimental Science, I, 147. O'Leary, D., Arabic Thought, 53. Himes, 95. Thorndike, I, 584. Augustine, Confessions, vii, 6. Heath, Sir T., History of Greek Mathe-
Em-
22.
Socrates,
23.
Lecky, Morals, II, 315. Bury, Later Roitian Empire, Duchesne, III, 210.
24. 25.
II, 24.
Procopius, Anecdota, xv, History of the Wars, Buildings,
II,
168.
I,
382.
tnatics, II, 528.
6. Id.,
8.
Dichl,
9.
Procopius, Anecdota,
C, Byzantine
I,
217.
27.
24.
Gregory Nazianzen, Panegyric on St. Monroe, P., Source Book of the History of Education for the Greek and
Basil, in
Id.,
i,
i,
vii, 15.
26. Socrates, vii, 15.
11.
11.
7.
Portraits, 58.
Ro7ticin Period, 305.
xi.
28.
10. Ibid., ix, 50.
12.
Burv, l^ater Roman Empire, Procopius, Anecdota, xvii, 5.
13.
Dichl, Portraits, 70.
11.
21.
63.
Procopius, Buildings, i, 7. Procopius, Anecdota, viii, 24. John Malalas in Bury, Later Ro?nan pire,
5.
20.
Justiniani Institutionum libri quattuor,
I,
252; Garrison, F. H., History of cine, 123.
17. I.
du paganisme,
Schneider, H., History of
16.
Procopius, V,
fin
14.
15.
3.
La
Gibbon,
28.
74. Ibid., 4. 75. Ibid., iii, 10.
Roman Em-
356.
13.
Philosophy,
of
3, 7, 19.
traception, 92-6.
442.
I,
Bury, Later
in
i,
Dalton, O. M., Byzantine Art, 50. Bury, 357. Diehl, C., Manuel d'art Byzantin, 248. Procopius, Anecdota, xvii, 24. Himes, N., Medical History of Con-
zation,
73. Boethius, ii,
II,
12. Boissier,
70. Ibid., 439. 71. In Cassiodorus, Variae,
353-4.
4.
pire, J.
II,
Procopius, History, viii, 17. Lopez, R. S., in Speculum, XX,
3.
gal, 54-
Mahaffy,
VI
Frank, Economic Survey of Ancient
Bre-
An Encyclopedist of the Dark Ages, 215. 63. Dieulafoy, M., Art in Spain and Portu-
69.
i.
Ro?ne, IV, 152. I,
haut, E.,
65.
i,
introd., p. xxii.
62. Isidore of Seville, Ety?nologies, in
64.
359.
Proemium. Cod. I, xiv, 34. Cod. IV, xliii, 21. Cod. XI, xlviii, 21; Ixix, 4. Bury, Later Roman Empire, II, 406; Milman, I, 501. Procopius, History of the Wars, vii, 32. In Gibbon, V, 43.
26.
54. Id., iv, 100. 55.
iv, 6.
Lot, 267.
19.
25.
Merovingian Age, Gregory of Tours, vii,
58. II,
18.
24.
132-6; vi, 165.
52. Dill,
57.
Procopius, History of the Wars,
16. Ibid., vii, I.
23.
40.
50. II, 43.
51.
15.
22.
ii,
Roman
Africa, 107.
21. Justiniani Inst.,
37.
48. Ibid.
49. Id.,
Bouchier, E., Life and Letters in
17. Ibid., 5-8.
Schoenfeld, 40.
45. Brittain, A., ity, 203.
14.
II,
29.
Bury, Later Ro7nan Empire, Manuel, 218.
I,
377.
29. Diehl, 30.
Higham and Bowra, Oxford Book Greek Verse,
654.
of
NOTES 31. Ibid., 665.
33.
32. Socrates, vii, 48.
34.
33.
Procopius, History,
viii,
32; v, 3.
Winckelmann,
of Ancient J., History Art, I, 360-1; Finlay, G., Greece under the Romans, 195. Origin of Christian 35. Strzygowski, J., Church Art, 4-6. 36. Procopius, Buildings, i, 10. 34.
37. Ibid.,
i,
I.
i,
3.
35. 36.
Browne, Literary History, I, 127. Ibn Khaldun, Prolego?nenes,
Sykes,
38.
Rawlinson,
39.
Browne, Literary History,
Manuel, 249; Dalton, 579; Lot,
146.
43. Boethius, ix,
1.
Ammianus,
2.
Ibid.
3.
Dhalla,
VII
.
45.
46.
xxii, 6.
47.
M.
N., Zoroastrian Civilization,
Rawlinson, G., Seventh Great Orie^ital Mo7iarchy, 29. Procopius, Persian War, ix, 19. Bury, Later Roman Empire, I, 92.
8.
Ammianus, xxiii, 6. Talmud, Berachoth,
9.
Dhalla, 3oif.
8b.
Ameer
Macrobius, Saturnalia, vii, i. Gottheil, R. J., Literature of Persia,
13.
50.
.
.
tecture,
work
I,
of Shapur
Firdousi, Epic of the Kings, retold by Helen Zimmern, 191; Sykes, Sir P., His-
56.
tory of Persia,
57.
15.
Dhalla, 377.
I,
466.
55.
166. 58.
16. Ibid., 305.
I,
Pope, A. U., Introd. to Persian Art,
Browne, E. G., Literary History of
59.
Svkes,
Persia,
60.
Pope, A. U., Masterpieces of Persian
107.
I,
465.
I,
Browne, E. G., Arabian Medicine,
62. Fenollosa,
20.
Dhalla, 354.
23.
21. Ibid., 362.
23.
Bury, Later Roman Empire, L91.. Rawlinson, G., Seventh Great Oriental
24.
Monarchy, 636. Bright, W., Age of
25.
Sykes,
22. Ibid., 274;
I,
Art, 182.
Pope, Introd.,
Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art, I, 21. 63. Riefstahl, R. M., The Parish-Watson Collection of Mohojmnedan Potteries, p. viii; Pope, Survey, I, 779; Lot, 141. 64. Sir
the Fathers,
I,
Percy Svkes
202.
Hammerton,
J.
A.,
2318. 65. I,
755-
Examples
in
Sarre, F.,
Die Kunst des
alten Persien, 143. 66. Pope, Introd., 100.
Pope, Survey,
Dhalla, 356.
67.
29.
Pope, 761. Baron, S. W., Social and Religious History of the Jews, I, 256.
68. Dhalla, 273.
31.
Ammianus,
71. Svkes,
32.
Pope, 716.
xxiii, 6.
in
Universal History of the World, IV,
414.
Lowie, R. H., Are We Civilized?, 37. Pope, A. U., Survey of Persian Art,
64.
E.,
28.
30.
144,
168.
19.
27.
I.
167.
Ackerman, P., in Bulletin of the Iranian Institute, Dec, 1946, p. 42.
61.
26.
Herz-
Arnold, Sir T., Painting in Islam, 6i. Pope, Survey, I, 717; Dieulafoy, 21.
Sarton, G., Introd. to the History of Science, I, 435.
18.
114.
feld thought the Ctesiphon palace the 54. Gottheil,
I,
lOI.
I,
Dieulafov, Art in Spain, 13. 52. Ibid.; Pope, A. U., Iranian and Armenian Contributions to the Beginnings of Gothic Architecture, 130. 53. Theophvlactus Simocatta in Rivoira,
159.
Gottheil,
460.
I,
Procopius, History, i, 26. Mommsen, Provinces, II, 47. Graetz, H., History of the Jews, III, 18. Sykes, I, 48of. Pope, 524. Creswell, K. A., Early Muslim Archi-
51.
Ali, Spirit of lsla?n, 188.
14.
17.
I.
G. T., Moslem Architecture,
10.
11. 12.
48. 49.
371-
7.
171. Sykes,
Pope, 755. 41. Procopius, History of the Wars, ii, 9. 42. Noldeke, Th., Geschichte der Persej aus Tabari, 160, in De Vaux, Les Penseurs de V Islam, I, 92. 43. Rawlinson, 446. 44. Sykes,
CHAPTER
6.
I,
40.
41. Lot, 143.
5.
141.
449, places this massacre in the early
I,
40. Dalton, 258.
4.
403.
I,
years of Khosru
42. Diehl,
80.
I,
Rawlinson, 61, attributes this saying to Ardashir I. Eunapius, #466. Cami?ridge Ancient History, XII, 112.
37.
38. Ibid. 39. Ibid.,
IIO5
I,
775.
69.
Sykes,
70.
Browne, Literary History,
I,
I,
490.
490.
72. Ibid., 498.
I,
194.
.
I
THE AGE OF FAITH
io6
CHAPTER 1.
2.
VIII
The Arab
Civilization,
Dawson, Christopher,
The Making
Hell,
J.,
4.
Doughty,
5.
Deserta, I, xx. Alargoliouth, D. S., Mohannned and the Rise of Islam, 29; Noldeke, Sketches, 7.
6.
Lady A. and
Sir
W.
S.,
The Seven
Golden Odes of Pagan Arabia, 8. 9.
and ed. Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran. Pickthall's numbering of the verses differs occasionally from that of other translaKoran,
98;
ix,
tr.
G., in Wherry, E. M., Commentary on the Qur''an, with Sale's tr., I, 43.
12.
Herodotus,
Book
Ali Tabari,
of Religion and
Prologue, ix; Margoliouth, 59; Muir, Sir W., Life
pire,
hammed,
Moha?7m7ed, 13.
EmMoof
Persia,
I,
512.
261.
14. al -Tabari,
Jafar Muhammad, ch. xlvi, p. 202.
Abu
nique. Part
III,
W.
I,
247.
Original Sources of the Koran, 264, quoting Ibn Ishaq; LanePoole, S., Speeches and Table Talk of the Prophet
19.
20.
Andrae, 267. Koran, xxxiii, 5 1 Muir, 77, 244. Koran, xxxiii, 51. Muir, 201. Bukhsh, S. K., Studies,
46.
49. 50.
37.
51-
S.,
Mohammed,
53-
Ameer
54-
Bukhsh, Studies,
Ali, Spirit of Islam,
W.,
Margoliouth, 105; Irving, 231.
57-
Koran,
58. Sa'di,
60.
Gibbon, V,
61.
Margoliouth, 466.
IX
Lane-Poole, Speeches,
180.
Koran,
33.
xliv, 53;
XL VII, LV, LVI,
xxiv.
xxxv,
15, Ixxvi, 14-15.
56-8, Ixxviii,
33
;
xxxvii, 48.
17; Ixxvii, 19.
xcvi.
Ibid., 158.
AH, Maulana M., Religion of Lane-Poole,
76; Ixx-xv, 22,
Ivi,
Maulana Muhammad, The Religion
of Islam, 174.
Macdonald, D. B., Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, 42. Margoliouth. Mohammed, 45. R., Spanish Islam, 15.
ii,
232; Ali, 632.
Ibid., 684.
Wherry.
I,
Pickthall, p. 594n.
80.
al-Baladhuri, Abu-l Abas, Origins of the Islamic State, i, i. 30. Ameer Ali, Syed, Spirit of Islam, 54. 29.
Muir, Life, 214,
quoting traditions.
Ameer
xlvi,
Mohammed,
15.
Ali, 183.
Ibid.
34. Ibid.
Andrae, Tor,
Lane-Poole, 161. Koran, xxxi, 14;
Lane-Poole, 167. Quoted in Muir, Life, 520. Lane-Poole, 159.
234.
32. Ibid., 236. 33. Ibid., 238,
Maulana, 390. Koran, Iv, 10; iv, 31-2. Ali, Maulana, 655. Koran, xxxiii, 53. Ali,
Koran,
19.
28. Sale in
161, 163.
Ali, 602.
Dozv,
27. Hell,
35.
254.
CHAPTER
Ibid.
31.
29.
ii,
Margoliouth, 458.
Margoliouth, 69. Koran, xvii, 35; Lane-Poole,
23. Ali,
238.
xxxi, 19.
Gtdistan,
Ibid., 162.
26.
Mahomet,
Life of
56.
22. Lxxxvii, 6.
25.
no.
6.
Nicholson, R. A., Translations of Eastern Poetry and Prose, 38-40. Cf. Koran, Muir, Life, 51. Koran, xliii, 3;
and
Muir, 511. Lane-Poole, Speeches, xxx.
21. II, 91.
24.
Indian
Islajnic, 6.
E.g., sura Iv.
Browne, Literary History,
17. Tisdall,
18.
45-
xli, 6.
Chro-
15. Pickthall, p. 2. 16.
Koran,
XXXIII,
59-
Browne, E. G., Literary History of
Ali, 94.
44.
55- Irving,
8.
iii,
2.
69.
52-
tions.
i,
4.
43-
48.
Ibid.
10. Sale,
11.
Ameer
47-
43.
i,
Andrae, 238. Koran, ii, 100; Macdonald, D. B., Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitutional Theory,
Arabia
in
93.
Blunt,
Ibid.,
184.
Burton, R. F., Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Medinah and Meccah. II,
7.
Travels
Ali, Spirit of Islam, 58f.
252f.
al-Baladhuri,
of
3.
II,
Muir,
7;
Europe, 136. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chas.,
quoting Ibn Hisham and al-Tabari.
245f,
Ameer
Burton, Sir R. P., ed., Thousand Nights and a Night, I, vii.
206;
Muir,
Sale in
Wherry,
I,
122.
157.
Islam, 587.
I
NOTES Hag. ii, John xvi, Talmud, Pirke Aboth, ii, 18.
30. E.g.,
Deut.
of Songs,
31. 32. 33.
34. 35.
36.
37.
x\'iii,
ii,
15-18;
7;
Song
12-13.
xxi, 7;
3,
2.
Hitti, 351.
3.
Milman, H. H., History of Latin Christianity, III, 65n.
Noldeke, Sketches, 44. Cf. Koran, v, 35 with Talmud, Sanh., ii, 5; Koran, ii, 183 with Ber., i, 2; and Noldeke, 31. Lane-Poole, xl. Bevan, E. R., Legacy of Israel, 147; Hitti, P. K., History of the Arabs, 125. Baron, S. W., Social and Religious History of the Jews, I, 335-7. Hurgronje, C. S., Mohammedanism, 65
4.
5.
Cambridge Medieval History, II, 331. Burton, Personal Narrative, I, 149.
3.
Finlay, G.,
Greece under the Romans,
Muir, Sir W.,
The
Caliphate, 56.
5. Ibid., 57. 6. Ibid., 198.
8.
9.
toric Tiines, 113. Hitti, 344.
Gibbon, V,
9.
Alacdonald,
11.
Sykes, Sir Hell,
Development
Muslim
of
Muir, Caliphate, 501.
J.,
344.
16.
Browne, E. G., Literary History,
20.
22. P.,
History of Persia,
128.
i,
20.
schid, 30, 78. Arnold, Sir T.
Becker, C. H., Christianity
26.
27.
Sykes,
28.
Andrae,
25.
3.
19.
29. Sale in
80.
521.
I,
loi.
Wherrv,
I,
172.
Alaulana, 730. Pilgrim in Arabia, 40. 31. Philbv, H., 30. Ali,
A
32.
Doughty,
21.
W., Painting in Islam, 16. Abbott, Nabia, Two Queens of Bagh-
33.
dad, 183. Muir, Caliphate, 482.
34.
22.
Burton, Pilgrimage, I, 325. Ali, Maulana, 522. Burton, Pilgrimage, TI, 63;
25. 26.
35.
Palmer, 221. Ibid., 35; Abbott, 113. Palmer, 8 if. Ibn Khaldun, Les Prolegomenes,
Wherry, 36.
29.
30.
I,
26.
Eginhard, Life of Charlemagne, xvi, 3. Palmer, 121. Nicholson, R. A., Trmislations of Eastern Poetry and Prose, 64.
31.
Utbi, Abul-Nasr
37.
32.
Memoirs of the Emir Sabaktagin and Mahimid of Ghazni, ch. 50, p. 466. Saladin, H., et iMigeon, G., Manuel d'art I,
Histori-
38.
39.
40. 41. 42.
I.
in
III,
87;
Lestrange,
44.
XI
Lestrange, G., Palestine under the lems, quoting Masudi, ii, 438.
Mos-
Palestine.
and Guillaume,
212;
A.,
Arnold, Sir
The Legacy
of
Baron, S. W., History, I, 319. Guillaume, 132. Catholic Encyclopedia, VIII, 459. Becker, 32. Hitti, 685; Sarton, G., Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. II, Part I, 80.
43.
441.
CHAPTER
Sale
185.
Isla?}i, 81.
cal
musulman,
I,
59.
Graetz, H., History of the Jews,
T.,
Muhammad,
I,
Hitti, 234.
27. Hitti, 300. 28.
510.
61.
Guillaume, 47-52, 77. Margoliouth, Mohammed, Guillaume, 80.
24.
285.
Burton, Sir R. F., The Thousand Nights and a Night, I, 186. Palmer, E. H., The Caliph Haroun Alra-
24.
323.
Arnold, Painting in Islam, 104. Guillaume, A., The Traditioyis of Islam,
and Islam,
161; Hitti, 227.
Gulistan,
Dawson, 158. Browne, I, 323; Muir, Caliphate, Noldeke, 146-75.
23. Ibid., 134-8;
Caliphate, 376; Hitti, 222.
Muir, Caliphate, 428-37; Hitti, Noldeke, n2.
23.
I,
13-
538.
I,
59-60.
Dozy,
18.
J. W., Econofnic and Social History of the Middle Ages, 373. Ibn Khaldun, Les Prolegomenes, 416.
Hurgronje,
21.
14.
17. Sa'di,
Thompson,
15.
23.
15. 16.
13.
19.
296.
10. Hitti, 197.
13. A'luir,
11.
Barnes,
12. Hitti, 348.
18.
8.
12.
Les Penseurs
17. Ibid., 318.
7. Hitti, 176.
Theology,
Carra,
8.
I,
H. E., Economic History of the Western World, iii. Renard, G., Life and Work in Prehis-
7.
14. Hitti,
367. 4.
De Vaux, Baron d'lslam,
10.
2.
Lane, E. W., Arabiaji Society in the Middle Ages, 117. Usher, A. P., History of Mechanical Inventions, 128-9.
6.
CHAPTER X 1.
II07
45. 46.
Westermarck, E., Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, II, 476. Kremer, A. von, Kulturgeschichte des Orients unter den Khalifen, 52. Abbott, 98. Lane, E. W., Arabian Society, 219-20.
THE AGE OF FAITH
iio8 47.
Bukhsh,
S. K., Studies, 83.
93.
48. Hitti, 239.
94.
Maulana, 390. Lane-Poole, S., Saladin, 247. Macdonald, D. B., Aspects of Islam, 294;
Lane, E. W., Arabian Society, 203. Lane-Poole, S., Studies in a Mosque, 185.
49. All, 50.
51.
Ameer
All, Spirit of Islcnn, 362.
Modern
Evolution of
52. Miiller-Lver, F.,
Marriage, 42. 53. Lane-Poole, Saladin, 217. 54. Ibid.,
Sumner,
251;
W.
G., Folkways,
35355.
CHAPTER 2.
3.
Lane, Saladin, 86. Lane-Poole, S., Cairo,
4.
Hitti, 409.
5.
6.
56. Ibid., 223. 57. Hitti, 342.
58.
59.
60.
Bukhsh, Studies, Abbott, 137, 149. Bukhsh, 84.
61. al-Ghazzali,
Saadat,
tr.
bv C. Himes, N.
ness 62.
as
88.
Abu Hamid, The Alchemy
Kimiya'e of Happi-
Field. 93. E.,
Medical History of Con-
64.
65.
Westermarck, Moral
Wherry,
66. Sale in
I,
Ideas,
I,
94.
168.
67. Hitti, 338.
68.
De Vaux,
27 2f;
II,
Economic History,
Chardin,
Sir
J.,
113.
Bukhsh, 49-50.
9. Ibid., 197.
11.
Gibbon, V, 41 1. Browne, Literary History,
12.
Pope, Masterpieces of Persian Art,
13.
Sarton,
10.
traceptio7j, 136.
Lane-Poole, Saladin, 415. Guillaume, Traditions, 115.
63.
183.
Macdonald, Aspects of Islam, 289, 301. Bukhsh, Studies, 195. Carter, T. F., The Invention of Printing in China, introduction and p. 85; Thompson, Sir E. M., Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography, 34; Barnes,
8.
XII
Ali, Spirit of Islam, 331.
In
7.
Lane, E. W., Arabian Society, 221.
Ameer
1.
I,
14.
Gibbon, V,
al-Tabari, Chronique, i,
17. Ibid.,
i,
275.
298. i,
i.
17.
118.
18.
Sarton,
19.
De Vaux,
20.
Ibn Khaldun,
I,
637. 78.
I,
78.
I,
Travels in Persia, 198. 69. Muir, Caliphate, 374.
21.
Sarton,
22.
Arnold and GuiUaume, Legacy,
70. Ibid., 519.
23.
Sarton,
24.
Bukhsh, 168. De Vaux, II,
71.
72.
Lane, Saladin, 285. Bury, J. B., History
of
the
Eastern
Roman 73. 74.
Empire, 236. Hurgronje, 98. Macdonald, Muslim Theology, 84; Guillaume, 69; Burton, Personal Narrative,
I,
76.
jj.
Muir, Caliphate,
78.
Lestrange, Palestine, 24.
305.
I,
530.
76.
26. Ibid., 78.
Abu Rayhan Muhammad,
27. al-Biruni,
Chronology of Ancient Nations,
29. In
Boer, T.
J.
de,
De Vaux,
II,
31. al-Biruni, India, 32.
Bukhsh,
33.
217;
Arnold and Guil-
Sarton,
I,
198.
181. I,
707.
34. Ibid., 693.
82. Ibid, 301. 36.
Lane, Arabian Society, 54n. Ibn Khaldun, III, 250-5.
37.
Thompson,
35.
83. Ibid., 295-301, 342, 348, 353, 361, 377. 84. Ibid., 265. 85. Ibid., 237.
J. "\V.,
87. 88.
Lane, Saladin, 184.
40. Kellogg, J. H., 1928, 24.
89.
Ameer
41. Ibid.
38.
I,
Ali, Spirit of Islam, 339.
Rowbotham,
J.
F.,
The
39.
Baghdad during the Ab-
basid Caliphate, 253.
Grunebaum, G. von. Medieval
Ameer
Islam,
Ali, Spirit of Islam, 392.
Rational Hydrotherapy,
Lane, Arabian Society, 56. History of Medicine, 1929,
43. Garrison, F.,
Troubadours and the Courts of Love, i6n.
Social
331-
42.
90.
Economic and
History, 358.
K. A. C, Early Muslim Archi137; Rivoira, G. T., Moslem Architecture, no. Yaqub, ii, 587, in Lestrange, 262.
86. Creswell,
92. Lestrange, G.,
History of Philosophy
laume, 395.
81. Ibid., 342.
Baron, I, 320. 91. Abulfcda, in
introd.,
xiii.
30.
170.
Lestrange, 120.
tecture,
385.
602.
in Islam, 146.
79. Hitti, 236f. 80. In
I,
28. al-Biruni, India, I, 3.
148, 167.
Arnold and Guillaume, Legacy, Macdonald, Theology, 66.
75.
25.
151.
662.
15.
16. Ibid.,
I,
137-
44.
Arnold and Guillaume,
45.
Bukhsh,
197.
46. Hitti, 364.
3^6.
NOTES Campbell, D., Arabian Medicine,
49. Sarton, 50.
66f.
Muhammad,
Biographi-
440.
I,
97.
98.
W., History of the IntelDevelopment of Europe, I, 411.
lectual 53.
John,
54.
Bukhsh,
Abu-1 Hasan, Meadows of Gold, French tr., IV, 89. Lane-Poole, Cairo, 154. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Poetry,
J.
99
57.
Macdonald, Musli?ti Theology,
58.
Barhebraeus in Grunebaum, 353; Muir, Caliphate, 521.
150.
182; Hitti,
Translations, 33.
lOI,
102,
Browne,
103.
Nicholson, Islamic Poetry, 133-7. Rihani, A. F., The Quatrains of
59.
Boer, loi; Arnold and Guillaume, 255. 56. Aristotle, De Aninia, iii, 5. 55.
Id.,
Nicholson, R. A., Literary History of the Arabs, 295; Ibn Khallikan, I, 393, De Vaux, IV, 252.
100
1-3.
i,
404.
I,
96. al-Masudi,
51. Ibid., 443.
Draper,
Browne,
95.
609.
I,
Ibn Khallikan, cal Dictionary,
52. In
104,
I,
369.
'Ala (al-Ma'arri),
59. In Ameer Ali, Spirit of hla?n, 408. 60. Dawson, 155.
105.
Nicholson, Literary History, 319. Poetry, 148.
Ibn Khallikan, III, 308. O'Lear)^ DeL., Arabic Thought and Its Place in History, 153. 63. Ueberweg, F., History of Philosophy, 61.
107. Ibid., 102, 145;
108.
412.
De Vaux,
65.
Boer, 123.
IV, 12-18.
no. 1
Etude
D.,
d'Avicenne,
stir
la
metaphysique
21.
Ency-
clopedia of Religion and Ethics, XI, 275-6; Boer, 136. 70. Salibu, 170; Gruner, O. C, Treatise on the Canon of Medicine of Avicenna,
T16. Id., Islamic
74.
120. In
Bacon, Roger, Opus R. B. Burke, Vol. I, p. 15.
75. al-Baladhuri,
Mains,
tr.
6;
i,
78.
p. 118.
Nicholson, R. A., Mystics of Islam, Ibn Khaldun, III, 106. Browne, Literary History, I, 426.
80. 81.
82. In Hitti, 435.
83.
84.
Nicholson, Mysticism,
R.
A.,
Studies in
Islamic
4-5.
169-71;
125.
128. 129.
132.
134.
Arnold and Guillaume,
219.
136.
87. Hitti, 438.
'37-
88.
Browne,
89.
Nicholson, Studies in Mysticism, 6-21. Translations of Eastern Poetry,
261.
90. Id.,
98-100.
F38. 139.
140. II,
265.
Nicholson, Mysticism, 28-31,
93.
Browne,
404;
tr.
Jas.
Atkinson. Matthew
270.
Pope, Survey, II, 1439. Lane-Poole, Saladin, 29. Lane, Arabian Society, 54-61. Pope, II, 927; Hell, 109. I,
329.
Lane, Arabian Society, 58. Pope, II, 975. Pope, IV, 317-28. Pope, Arthur U., Introduction to Per-
Dawson,
Arnold and Guillaume, 117. Pope, II, 1447. FenoUosa, E. F., Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art, I, 21; Pope, Survey, I, 2. Pope, II, 1468. Guillaume, 128. Encyclopaedia Britannica, XV, 654.
141. Ibid.; Hitti, 420.
92.
I,
in Gottheil, Literature of Persia, I, 54.
sian Art, 200. 135-
Browne,
156,
130. Creswell,
78.
85. Ibid., 25.
91. In
The
124.
133-
Macdonald, Religious Attitude,
II,
ed..
131. In
Nicholson, Studies in Mysticisfn, 86.
J.,
Arnold has retold the story in Sohrab and Rustum. In Pope, Survey of Persian Art, II, 975. Cf. "The Nazarene Broker's Story" in Burton, Thousand Nights and a Night,
127. 7.
of Kings, retold
Ibid.,
126.
79. In
120.
The Epic
123,
I,
Arnold and Guillaume, 311. Avicemiae Canon Medicinae,
II,
by Helen Zimmern, 4. Firdousi, The Shah Nameh,
76. Salibu, 27. 77.
Browne,
121. In Firdousi,
Ali, 395.
Boer, 144.
Poetry, 140.
119. Id., Islamic
R.
138-42.
Ameer
Poetry, 119.
117. Ibid., 127.
72. Salibu, 208.
73. In
Translations, 102. Islamic Poetry, 150.
115- Id., Translations, 102.
introd., p. 9.
Boer,
Id.,
12. Id.,
118. Id., Translations, 102.
69. Ibid., 106, 114, 121, 151; Hastings,
71.
Ibid., 121.
114. Ibid.. 161-5.
Husik, I., History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy, xxxix.
68. Salibu,
1.
113. Ibid., 160.
66. Ibid., 8if.
67.
Rihani, 120.
Nicholson, Islamic Poetry, 108-10.
109. Ibid., 191-2.
1 1
64.
AbuH
vii.
106. Id., Islamic
62.
I,
109
94. Hitti, 443.
47. Ibid.
48.
I
158.
38.
142.
Arnold, Painting in Islam,
143- Ibid., 21.
85.
THE AGE OF FAITH
lO
I I
144.
Lane, Arabian Society, 117.
30. Ibid., vi, 6.
145. Ibid., 15.
31. Ibid.
146. Hitti, 274.
32.
147.
Farmer, H. G., in Arnold and Guillaume, 358.
148. Sa'di, GjiUsta?!,
ii,
153.
38.
Farmer, H. G., History of Arabian Music, 154. Farmer in Arnold and G., 359. 361;
Farmer,
39.
40.
41. 42.
31.
43.
156. Ibid., 112.
Farmer,
156.
120.
CHAPTER 1.
Gibbon, V,
2.
Sarton,
3.
Ueberweg,
4.
Tarn,
Clapham,
46.
Clapham, 354-5; Thompson, J. W., Economic and Social History, 547. Cambridge Medieval History, III, 432.
48.
W., I,
Hellenistic Civilization,
466.
7.
eval Civilization, 170. Lane-Poole, Cairo, 6§.
11.
14.
II, 223; Margoliouth, D. Cairo, Jerusalem, and Damascus, 46.
S.,
19.
Dimand, M.
17.
madan
Art,
S.,
Handbook
255;
Arnold,
278.
Arnold, Preaching,
Dozy,
of MuhamFainting in
62.
Maqqari,
63.
Thompson,
Moha?mned and Char-
W., Economic and
Social
Maqqari,
iii,
2.
i.
iii,
68.
Moorish Remains, 189. A. F., Cordova, 107. Maqqari, Vol. II, 139-200.
69.
Dozy, 455; Chapman,
70. Pirenne,
J., II,
50.
20.
72. In
Dozy,
73. Sarton,
74.
Dozv,
576.
713. 281. I,
75.
Maqqari,
76.
Arnold and Guillaume, Dozv, 326.
vii, i.
186.
78. Ibid.'
25.
Waern,
26.
Arnold and Guillaume,
27.
Waern,
28.
Calvert,
Cecilia,
Medieval
79.
Sicily, 20.
241.
in Van Doren, Mark, Anthology of World Poetry, 99.
Tr. by Dulcie Smith
25.
A.
F.,
Moorish Remains
Ahmed ibn Muhammad, the Mohmmnedan Dynasties 146.
CHAPTER XIV
in
Spain, 239.
ii,
J.
History, 549.
77.
i6of.
24. Hitti, 605.
in Spain,
i.
iii,
71. Alaqqari, II, 3.
Islam, 102.
History of
141.
534.
67. Calvert,
Pirenne, Henri,
al-Maqqari,
47.
Architecture, 240.
66. Calvert,
23.
19.
Moslem
60.
64.
22.
lemagne,
Dozy,
65. Ibid.,
Margoliouth, Cairo, 69. Arnold and Guillaume, 333. Arnold, Sir T. W., The Preaching of
21.
Arnold, Preaching, 144. Dozy, 235; Lane-Poole, Moors,
61.
of
Islam, 127. 20.
235.
58.
59. Ibid., 286.
Arnold and Guillaume, 163. Pope, Arthur U., Iranian and Armenian
18.
16.
58.
3.
Contributions to the Beginnings Gothic Architecture, 237. Lane, Arabian Society, 54f. Lane-Poole, Cairo, 44, 60. Pope, II, 1488. Arnold and Guillaume, 116.
15.
53.
57. Rivoira,
12. Hitti, 626. 13.
Chapman, 49, Dozy, 268.
56.
Browne,
Noldeke,
Arnold, Preaching, 134; Dozy,
52.
55.
9. Hitti, 625. 10.
50. Ibid., 19.
51.
54. Ibid.
223.
II,
H., and Power, E., Cambridge Economic History of Europe, 136; Barnes, Economic History, 114.
Jacques, Les grands courants de Vhistoire universelle, II, 117.
6.
Browne,
41. J.
49. Pirenne,
599.
409.
I,
W.
(ii),
Gibbon, V, 346. Munro, D. C, and Sellery, G. C, Medi-
8.
3.
Dozy, 234. Gibbon, V, 376. Chapman, C. E., History of Spain, 50. Ibid., 41; Dozy, 236; Lane-Poole, Moors,
Chapman,
XIII
344.
466; II
217; Sarton, 5.
633, 689. Cf. Maqqari, vi,
45.
Lane, Arabian Society, 172-6.
I,
Dozy,
44.
159. Ibid., 124. 160.
Calvert, A. F., Seville, 11. S., Story of the Moors in
Lane-Poole,
50.
Lane-Poole, Cairo,
157. Ibid., 60-4; 158.
vii, i.
516.
Spain, 43.
367.
154. Hitti, 214.
155.
Dozy,
37.
151. Ibid., 372. 152. Ibid.,
Maqqari,
34.
35. Ibid., 522;
26.
Arnold and Guillaume, 359. Farmer in Arnold and Guillaume,
149. In 150.
Dozy, 458-65.
33.
1.
Browne,
2.
Ibid., 177;
3.
Browne,
4.
Marco
II,
176.
Gibbon, V,
II,
17.
190.
Polo, Travels,
i,
24.
NOTES 5.
Ameer
Ali, Spirit of Islam, 313.
53. Ibid.,
6. Hitti, 446.
W., Economic and Social
7.
Thompson,
8.
History, 391; Arnold, Freacbing, 96. William of Tripoli in Lane-Poole,
J.
ID.
Hitti, 679.
Adams, Brooks, Law of Decay,
11.
13. 14.
and
128.
55.
Gulistan,
56.
Bustan in Grousset, R.,
W., The Alhambra,
47.
57.
Gulistan,
58.
I
61.
IV,
62. II,
63. 64.
VII,
II,
65. VII, 4.
II.
66. VIII, 31.
Fry, Roger, in Persian Art: Souvenir of the Exhibition of Persian Art at Burlington House, xix.
67. VIII, 38.
Dillon, E., Glass, 165. 18. Lane, Arabian Society, 200.
Pope, Masterpieces,
20.
Dimand, Handbook,
21.
Time Magazine,
23.
N. Y. Times Book Review,
24.
Bukhsh, 96. Nicholson, Translations, Ibn Khaldun, III, 438.
65.
280.
May
19,
33.
72.
Browne, II, 534. Grunebaum, 39.
73.
Sarton,
(i), 12.
75. Ibid., 27; II (ii),632. 76. Ibid., II (i), 31.
81. Hitti, 686.
II,
82. Sarton, II (i), 232.
375.
83. Garrison, 136. 84. Lestrange,
759.
(i), 8.
85.
II,
Garrison, Cairo,
760.
Browne,
II
79. Ibid., II (i),5i;II (ii),663. 80. Ibid., II (i),424.
116.
29. Ibid., 392.
I,
8.
77. Margoliouth, Cairo, 220. 78. Sarton, II (ii), 1014.
2.
27. Ibid., 426.
32. Ibid.,
V,
74. Ibid., 216.
Jan. 23, 1939. 22. Arnold, Painting, 127.
I,
69.
71.
19.
31. Ibid., II
68. 1,4-
70. III, II.
17.
30. Sarton,
12.
i,
2.
16.
Browne,
Baghdad, 136;
Nicholson, Islamic Poetry,
35.
Weir, T. H.,
36.
Nicholson, Islamic MysticisTn,
37.
Browne,
86.
4-5.
Omar Khayyam
the Poet,
Baron,
S.,
ed..
124-9;
Essays on Maimonides,
Some Religious and Moral Teachings, 138. 88. al-Ghazzali, Destruction of Philosophy,
II,
i.
108.
i55f.
Macdonald, Muslim Theology, 239. Asin y Palacios, Aliguel, Islam and the
90.
40.
Heron-Allen, Edw., in Houtsma, M., ed.. Encyclopedia of Islam, III (ii), 988. Weir, 16; Nicholson, Islamic Poetry, 5.
41.
Browne,
91. In Sa'di, Gulistan,
42.
Quatrain cxv of the Bodleian MS.
43. 44.
Weir, 36. Weir, 71. In Browne,
45.
Smith, Margaret,
II,
249. in
89.
Divine Comedy, 273-5. 92.
93. 94. II,
247.
95.
ed..
The
Persian
Mys-
Attar, 20-7.
ud-Din Rumi, Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz, ed. and tr. by R. A. Nicholson, 107,
46. Jalal
25.
97. Ibid., 99, 139.
Renan,
E.,
Averroes
et
Vaverroisme,
16.
49. Sarton, II (ii), 872.
Browne, II, 521. Sa'di, Rose GardeJi,
52. Sa'di, Gulistan,
96.
ii,
Muir, Caliphate, 146. Arnold, Painting, 54. Becker, 31. Boer, 175; Duhem, P., Le systhne du monde, IV, 522, 526; Macdonald, Muslivi Theology, 250. Abu Bekr ibn Tufail, History of Hayy ibn Yaqzan, 68.
97. In
47. Ibid., 71. 48. Ibid., 47.
51.
Lane-Poole, Cairo,
112.
38. Ibid., 256.
50.
117;
Margoliouth,
34;
87. al-Ghazzali,
21.
tics:
104.
Hell,
Hitti, 677.
246.
34.
39.
The CivilizaThe Near and
7.
Cf. Migeon, G., Les arts musulmans,
28.
I:
3-
15.
25.
530.
30.
tions of the East, Vol. Middle East, 272.
V,5. V,4.
1043.
26.
II,
ii,
60. II, 40.
ij.
Lane-Poole, Moors, 11$. Pope, Introduction, 30; Pope, Survey,
1940, p.
19.
In
59. II, 27.
In Lane-Poole, Cairo,
12. Irving,
Civilization
iii,
Browne,
54.
Cairo, 84. 9.
nil
ii,
7.
99. Sarton, II (i), 305. 100. 12.
Averroes, Exposition of the Methods of
Argtmient Concernmg the Doctrines of the Faith, 230.
.
THE AGE OF FAITH
II 12 loi. Id.,
A
Decisive Discourse on the Relaand Philosophy,
11.
tion between Religion
12.
Exposition, 190; Discourse, 50-1; Gilson, E., Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages, 4of 103. Averroes, Exposition, 193. 104. Sarton, II (i), 358. 105. Averroes, Discourse, 14.
Commentary on
107.
Commentary on Aristotle's Physics, in Renan, 112; Duhem, IV, 549.
108.
De Vaux,
109.
Commentary on
ics, xii,
bk.
iii,
Aristotle's
Renan,
in
IV,
Aristotle's
De
573.
Destruction,
the
in
113.
Arnold and Guillaume,
114.
C, Averroes' Doctrine of the Mind, Philosophical Review, May, 1943, 282n.; De Vaux, IV, 71; Duhem, I V, 566. Bacon, R., Opus maius, i, 6; De Vaux,
277-9;
Tornav,
S.
116.
15.
Tanhuma,
16.
Menachoth, 99b.
17.
Pesikta Rabbati,
10, 4, in
and
Tahnudic
Baghdad, 350; Browne,
II,
460.
19.
Examples
20.
Berachoth, 6b.
Aboda
24.
Chagiga, 3b. Succah, 52b. Barachoth, 6a.
25.
Aboda
23.
26. 27.
nica, 126.
XV,
Aboda
33. Sifre
128.
I,
1.
2.
3.
Works,
4.
Abbott, 45.
5.
Ammianus
6.
Jerome, 11-13, in
Baron,
I,
Baron, I, 255. Baeder, Gershom, Heroes, III, 46.
9.
Talmud, Ycbamoth,
lo.
Works, xxiii, i. on Isaiah, vi,
48.
49. 50.
51. 52.
Zara, 20b.
K'ddushin, 66d. Shebuoth, 41a.
Cohen, A.,
258.
Yebamoth, 48b. Ketuboth, 27; Cohen,
Spiritual
37b.
Friedlander, L., Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire, III, 173.
Exod. xxiii, Nidda, 17.
55.
Yoma,
'yS.
Shebuoth,
19; xxiv, 26;
75. 33.
Baba Bathra,
58b.
Pesachim, 109a. 60. Berachoth, 55a, 60b. 61. Taanith, iia. 62. Pesachim, 108. 59.
63.
A., 257.
Pesachim, 113a. Shebuoth, 152. Pesachim, 49b.
54.
58.
Jewish
108.
89.
Aboda
57. Ibid., 152a.
261.
8.
7.
Newman,
Rabbah, 44, i, in Newman, 292. Quoted in Cohen, A., EverymarCs Tal-
mud,
53.
Marcellinus,
34, in
90.
47. Leviticus xxi, 2-5.
III, 51.
Coinmentary
Midrash Mishle, 28, in Newman, Genesis Rabbah, xlviii, 8. Baba Metzia, 58b.
46. In
Abbott, G. F., Israel in Egypt, 43. Baron, S., Social and Religious History of the Jews, I, 266; Graetz, H., History of the Jews, II, 566. Socrates, Ecclesiastical History, iii, 20; Julian,
32.
Shebuoth, 55a.
Wayyikra Rabbah,
45.
CHAPTER XV
xxiii, 9.
41. Bereshit
44.
93.
18.
Zara, 5a.
on Deut.
40.
43.
Browne, II, 432. Arnold and Guillaume,
31.
6a.
Berachoth, 34a. Ketuboth, ma.
42.
37.
Newman,
39.
38.
259.
Rabbah on Gen.
32.
37.
I,
Shebuoth, 77b. Erubin, i8a. Bereshit
Dennis, Geo., Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,
127.
657.
L.,
Anthology,
Zara, 3b.
Berachoth,
36.
125.
Newman,
Mechilta, 65a, on Exod. xix, From Deut. vi, 4.
31.
35.
124.
Zara, 3b;
30.
120. Cf.
122.
Moore,
in
22.
121.
123.
242.
loa.
21.
34.
Arnold, Painting, 99. Pope, Survey, II, 1044. Burton, Personal Narrative, 90-2. Arnold and Guillaume, 169. Encyclopaedia Britannica, XVIII, 339. Arnold and Guillaume, 121; Pope, Introduction, 241; Encyclopaedia Britan-
II,
300.
29.
Lestrange,
S.,
Chagiga,
28.
440.
Spitz,
18.
Renan, 32. In Browne,
II,
ed. Buber, Yitro, sect. 7, in F., Judais?n in the First Cen-
Moore, G.
IV, 87.
117. Ibid., 439. 118. Pope, Survey, II, 1542. 119.
Baba Kama, 60b. MegiUa, i6b.
Ani?na,
Duhem, IV,
112. Ibid., 146.
115.
and section; to the tractate and
turies of the Christian Era,
122;
the
Gemara by
14.
Metaphysviii,
of
folio sheet. 13.
108.
no. Destruction of Renan, i37n. 111. In Renan, 143.
History
i.
chapter,
(Babylonian)
70.
Renan,
in
Tours, viii,
References to the Mishna will be by tractate,
102. Id.,
106.
Gregory of Franks, 19 16,
Exod.
xii, 13.
Deut.
xiv, 21.
NOTES 64.
Megilla on Esther, 7b, in Moore, II, 51. W. O., and Box, G. H., Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Medieval Judaimt, 149. Kiddushin, 31a; Isaiah vi, i. Baba Bathra, 8b; Baron, I, 277-8. Berachorh, loa. Gen. i, 28; Kiddushin, 29b. Genesis Rabbah, Ixxi, 6. Yebanioth, 12b; Himes, N. E., Medical History of Contraception, 72.
118.
6s. In Oesterley,
66. 67. 68. 69.
70. 71.
72. 73.
Baba Bathra, 21. Exodus Rabbah,
75. 76.
Ketuboth, 50a,
2.
3.
i.
589; cf. Oesterley
Ibid., 148.
Druck,
Friedlander,
15. 16.
Iv, 8.
18.
63a. 19.
89. Pesikta Rabbati, 25, 2, in
Berachoth, xxiv, 91. Kiddushin, 4. 90.
xlv,
Society in Gaul in
257.
Ameer
The
Ali, Syed,
Newman,
3.
i.
20. 21. 22.
64b.
i;
23.
93. Gittin, Ix, 10.
96.
Ketuboth, vii, 6. Cohen, A., 179. Ketuboth, 77a; Neuman, A. A.,
97.
Jews in Spain, Philadelphia, 1942, II, Yebamoth, xix, in Baeder, III, 66.
Druck, 26. Dozy, R., Spanish Islam, Abbott, G. F., 71. Abrahams, Jewish Life, Dozy, 721.
24.
Graetz,
25.
Neuman,
26. Ibid.,
The 59.
III,
Jews
in Spain,
28. Ibid., 29.
221; Graetz,
II,
Neuman,
II,
32.
Neuman,
101. 102.
Yoma,
34.
103.
Mikvaoth, 9b,
104. 105. 106. 107.
108.
33. Ibid.,
Cohen,
Hai Gaon in Newman, Yebamoth, 88b.
A., 170.
35.
Baba Kama, 113a. Pirke Aboth, iii, 2.
38.
Baron,
41.
iii,
116.
17.
De Le gibus,
42. Pollock, F.,
Shemot Rabbah,
16,
in
Newman,
29b, in
Moore,
II,
187.
51, in
Baron,
Law
before
Edward
I,
455-
Cambridge Medieval History, VII, 643. Rickard, T. A., Alan and Metals, TI, 602. 45. Abrahams, Jewish Life, 241. 46. Rapaport, S., Tales and Maxims from 44.
xxv,
vi,
and Maitland, F. W., His-
tory of English 43.
17.
Menachoth
Bracton,
I,
397117.
17.
II, 24.
113. Ibid., iv, 3. i,
II,
ed.,
of Israel, 698.
40. Ibid.
Baeder, III, 15. no. Bereshit Rabbah, xvii, 7. 111. Harris, M. H., Hebraic Literature, 340. 112. Pirke Aboth, iv, i.
115. Ibid.,
247.
39. Ibid., 26.
109.
114. Ibid.,
506.
Abrahams, Jewish Life, 61. Sholom Asch in Browne, Lewis,
37.
36.
III,
149.
The Wisdom
540.
Ketuboth, 47b. Shebuoth, 30b. Erubin, 41b.
II,
281.
III,
221.
Graetz, III, 36of. Baron, II, 37; Graetz,
in
I, 5.
27. Ibid., II, 184.
30.
83b.
366.
164.
31.
100.
s()ii.
617.
A.,
Kiddushin, Sob. Nidda, 45. Kiddushin, 49b.
98. Gittin, 90b. 99.
Spirit of Islam,
260.
88. Ibid., 65a, 44a.
Yebamoth,
III, 181.
Roman
Graetz, III, 143, 161, 241, 389. Benj. of Tudela, in Komroff, 260.
17. Ibid.,
Yebamoth,
66.
the Merovingian Age, 246.
85. Sota, 44a.
87.
Yehuda Halevy,
D.,
14. Dill, Sir S.,
82.
Taanith,
209.
13.
10.
Chagiga, i6a. 83. Berachoth, 6ia. 84. Kiddushin, 29b.
and Box,
133.
12.
9.
11.
86.
III,
Baron, I, 353. Husik, I., History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy, 35, 42f. Maker. H., Saadia Gaon, 279, 291. Benjamin of Tudela, in Komroff, 310. Baron, I, 318.
67.
81. Gittin, 70a.
95.
Polo, 290. Graetz, III, 90. Others date the Gaonate
6.
8.
79. Graetz, II, 486, 545. 80. Baba Bathra, 9.
94.
Abrahams, Israel, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, 219. Benjamin of Tudela, Travels, in Komroff, M., ed.. Contemporaries of Marco
Graetz,
9a.
78. Ibid., 20b.
308.
III,
5.
7.
336.
77. Taanith, 22.
92.
Graetz,
from i,
and Kabbala,
Baba Bathra,
E., Origins of Christianity: The Christian Church, 131; Baron, I, 305-6.
Renan,
CHAPTER XVI 1.
4.
74. Harris, M. H., ed., Hebraic Literature: Translations from the Talmud, Midrashiftr,
III3
the
Talmud,
147,
THE AGE OF FAITH
III4 47- Graetz, III, 229. 48.
Arnold, Sir T., and Guillaume, A.,
Legacy of
51. 52. 53.
54. 55.
Medieval
99.
Neuman,
GO.
02.
White, 185. Marcus, J., The Jew World, 313. Abrahams, 32.
03.
Neuman,
II,
04.
Baron,
288;
05.
Abrahams,
01.
Islam, 102.
49. Pirenne, H., 50.
The
Cities, 258.
Baron, II, 8f. Jewish Encyclopedia, IV, 379. Deut. xxiii, 20. Baba Metzia, v, 1-2, 11. Abrahams, Jewish Life, no. Baron, II, 120.
erature,
Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages, 451. Coulton, G. G., Medieval Panorama,
11.
Abbott,
214.
I,
60.
Jewish Encyclopedia,
Manners, 451.
W.
15. 16.
Abrahams, 411; Moore,
17.
Deut. vii, Klausner, Baron, II,
14.
Introduction to English Economic History and Theory, 202. 64. Abbott, 117. 65. Pollock and Maitland, 451. 66. Cambridge Medieval History, VI, 226. Ashley,
J.,
Abbott, 122. Husik, 508. 69. Abbott, 125; Graetz, III, 588. 70. Abbott, 135; Lacroix, Manners, 445. 71. In Foakes- Jackson, F., and Lake, K., Beginnings of Christianity, I, 76.
18. 19.
3;
20. Gittin, 61. 21.
73.
74. 75. 76.
77.
Baron, Baron,
I,
90.
277-8;
II,
3.
II,
II,
108.
Life,
141,
319,
Abrahams,
24. 25.
Graetz, IV,
Gregory I, Epistle ii, 6, in Dudden, H., Gregory the Great, II, 154. Ep. xiii, 15, in Dudden, II, 155.
277.
82.
Abrahams, 331. Baba Kama, 113b. Abrahams, 106.
35.
36.
38.
86. Ibid., 90.
Abrahams,
Kiddushin, 41a; Neuman,
166. II, 21.
90. Ibid.
563.
92. 94.
Burton,
95.
White, E. M.,
III,
Comb. Med. H., VII,
624; Jewish
Ency-
42. Graetz, III, 299.
117.
The Jew,
43. Ibid., 300.
43.
Woman
in
World His-
44. Ibid.,
tory,
tory, 176. 96. Abrahams, 155. 97. Brittain, A., anity, ID.
151.
clopedia, IX, 368.
22.
Women
189.
Marcus,
45341.
Moore, II, Abrahams,
White,
III,
39.
89.
98.
Graetz,
Baron, II, 85. 40. Abbott, 51; Jewish Encyclopedia,
112.
88.
91.
Thatcher, O. J., and McNeal, E. H., Source Book of Medieval History, 212. Lea, H. C, History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, II, 63.
37. Ibid., 583.
85. Ibid., 104.
II,
F.
H., Paris, 170. Graetz, III, 421. 33. Coulton, Panorama, 352. 34.
Baron,
33.
32.
Burton, Sir R. F., The Jew, the Gypsy, and El Islam, 128; Baron, II, 169.
87.
Baron, II, 40. Baron, II, 36. Abbott, 93. Coulton, Panorama, 352.
29.
81.
84.
413-4.
31. Belloc,
80. Ibid., 281.
83.
Abrahams,
28.
326,
99.
78. Coulton, Panorama, 357. 79.
Fro?n Jesus to Paul, 515.
23. Ibid., 424;
30.
335; Baron,
74.
xiii, 25.
27. Ibid.
99.
Moore, II, 174-5. Abrahams, Jewish
II,
44.
22. Ibid., 418.
26.
iv,
453.
55.
68.
Baba Bathra, Baba Metzia,
Nehemiah
J.,
67.
72.
III,
Maimonides,
Baron, II, 83. Lacroix, Manners, 439. Baron, II, 35.
13.
Israel, 113.
62. Lacroix, 63.
ume, 12.
I, tr.
Jewish Encyclopedia, IX, 122. Oxford History of Music, introd. vol-
12a. In Zeitlin, S.,
35261.
97.
09.
10.
ners,
60.
II,
126.
Moses, Hvamson, 6^a. In Waxman, M., History of Jewish Lit-
Man-
202; Lacroix, P.,
I,
153.
Moore, I, 316. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Book
58. Ibid., 646.
A.,
the Medieval
08.
07.
Pirenne, H., Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe, 134. 57. Ctnnbridge Medieval History, VII, 644.
Neuman,
in
06. Brittain, 12.
56.
59.
I,
63.
II,
45.
of Early Christi-
46.
3oif;
V,
Cambridge Medieval His-
275f; VII, 641.
Graetz, IH, 350; Abbott, 88. Jewish Encyclopedia, IV, 379.
47. Graetz, III, 356. 48.
Cambridge Medieval History, VII,
642.
NOTES Graetz, IV, 35; Jewish Encyclopedia, IX, 358. 150. Abbott, 124. 151. Coulton, Panorama, 359. 152. Cunningham, W., Growth of English Industry and Commerce, 204. 153. Jewish Encyclopedia, IV, 379. 154. Lacroix, Manners, 439; Coulton, 352. 155. Graetz, III, 642; Abbott, 130. 156. Abbott, 131.
Moral
the
149-
157. Ibid., 68.
II 15
30. 31.
33.
35.
Ueberweg,
37.
39.
40.
41.
164. Villehardouin,
G.
de. Chronicles of the
Crusades, 148.
Abbott,
166.
Cambridge Medieval History, VII,
113.
CHAPTER Abrahams, Jewish
4. 5.
6.
641.
1
9. 10.
I,
Sarton, II(i), 188.
Halevi,
13.
Salaman, 58. Abbott, 72.
14.
Druck,
Poems,
Selected
tr.
Nina
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
52.
Graetz, III, 604. Sarton, II (i), 145. N. Y. Ti?nes, June Sarton, II (i), 145. Cf. Komroff, M., of Marco Polo.
26.
Husik,
24.
27.
Munk,
S.,
Friedlander,
III, xli.
Baron, Essays, 139. xxxvii, xH; Deut. xxiii,
Guide, III, Exod. xxii, i; xxxi, 15. Mishneh Torah, 40b.
17;
56. Ibid., 53a.
57. Ibid., 53ab. 58. Ibid., 52b. 59. In Baron, Essays, 60. Zeitlin, 132.
6 955i 984^ 991. 1085
"Alfonsine Tables," 698, 991 Alfred the Great, 483-48^, 491, 496, 500 algebra, 241, 912, 990, 995
Algebra (Omar Khayyam), 321 Algeria, 230, 314 Algorisfnus vulgaris (Sacrobosco), 991
IND EX
II38 Algoritmi
de
Indorum
numero
(al-Khwa-
rizmi), 241
Alhambra, 270, 271, 315, 316 Alhazen, see Haitham, Muhammad ibn alAli, son-in-law of Mohammed, 162, 164, 177, 187, 191-192, 193, 217, 222, 254, 366, 1072 Ali, slave leader, 210
Anabaptists, 809 Anacharsis, 446
Anacletus II, 760, 791 Anacreon, 907, 1086 Anagni, 706, 815, 962, 1000 Anan ben David, 367 Anastasius
Alighieri, Dante, see
Dante Alighieri
Anatoli, Jacob, 386, 910, 961
Alighieri, Alighiero, 1058
anatomy,
alkalis,
Anatomy
244
All Souls' Day, 75 Allah, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 182, 183, 184, 192, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 219,
266, 720,
994
of Melancholy (Burton), 403 Anaxagoras, 1070 anchorites, 788*, 792 Ancient Chronicle (of Russia), 448
Ancona,
220, 235, 250, 258, 259, 260, 264, 333 allegiance, oaths of, 566; military, 553 allegory, 867, 907, 1051-1052
616, 708, 714, 725
Ancren Riwle, 806
Ahnagest (Ptolemy), 240, 244, 912, 991 Almanzor, see Amir, Muhammad ibn Abi Almeria, 304, 315
Almohads,
55, 103
I,
anathema, 755, 780
Ali Baba, 263
Andalusia, 292, 297, 306, 307, 314, 315 Andrea Pisano, 890
"Andreas" (Cynewulf), 491 Andreas Capellanus, 577
Andrew Andrew
314, 315, 372, 697
Almoravids, 314
I,
658
II,
607, 658, 810
alms, 214, 518, 693, 803, 831 Alp Arslan, 308, 312, 318
Anecdota (Procopius),
Alpetragius, see Bitruji, al-, 329, 911, 991 alphabet, 1067; Arabic, 277; Hebrew, 406, 417; Latin, 897, 906; Slavonic, 535
anesthesia, 246, looi
Alphonse, brother of Louis VIII, 776
Aneurin, 495 angels, 325, 416, 524, 977, 1079 Angers, 475, 697, 916, 923
Alps, 616, 617, 687, 839 Alptigin, 203 Alrui, David, 385 Alsace, 12, 444, 663
Angles,
altars, 863, 866, 1085 Althing, 1083 Alypius, 66, 67, 135 Amalasuntha, 102, 109 Amalfi, 290, 434, 436, 586, 593, 612, 616, 703, 989; Cathedral, 439 Amalric of Bene, 954, 955-956
Anglo-Saxons,
Ambrose,
Anna Comnena,
St.,
26,
106, 107, 120, 125
anemia, 693
22, 43, 80, 89, 450, 483, 489, 492, 501, 522,
532, 683, 905
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Alfred), 483*,
491,
625*
34, 35, 42, 45, 47, 54, 55-56,
114, 487, 495, 568, 667*, 668
Angouleme, 91, 393; Cathedral, 868 Ani, 205; mosque of, 317 Aniene River, 737 animals, 357, 797, 853, 859, 994, 1005, 1054, 1055 Anjou, 393, 480, 671, 688, 689, 791
Anna,
sister
of Basil
II,
448
650, 827
66, 69, 76, 78, 79, 81, 87, 135, 457, 630, 749, 750,
Annals of the Apostles and Kings (al-Tabari),
896, 933, 964, 1008
"Ambrosian chant," 896
238 Annibaldi, 706
America, 156*,
Annunciation, 747, 881, 885
241, 270, 504, 990, 1082
amethysts, 992
Anselm of Aosta,
Amfortas, 1047, 1048
Amida
(Diarbelcr),
Amiens,
13, 121, 312, 340,
874
37, 474, 623, 639, 647, 648, 690, 876;
Cathedral, 579, 697, 743, 846, 853, 859, 861, 865, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 887, 889, 983, 1085 Amin, 235, 280 Amir, Caliph, 319 Amir, Muhammed ibn Abi, 294-295 Amirid family, 296 Amleth (Hamlet), Prince of Jutland, 10 19
Ammar, ibn, 297 Ammianus Marcellinus,
3, 9,
12, 13,
31-32. 33. 51. 78, 136, 141. 515
amoraim,
Amr,
Amr
St.,
669, 734, 808, 916, 932-933,
949, 969. 979
351, 352 mosque of, 286
ibn al-As, 170, 192, 282-283, 369
Amstel River, 686 Amsterdam, 686, 695 amulets, 417, 433, 986
15, 20, 24,
Anthemius, Emperor, 42 Anthemius, mathematician, 1 30 Anthemius, Patriarch, 107, 113 anthologies, 305, 371-372, 437 Anthony of Egypt, St., 51, 57, 743
Anthony
of Padua, anthrax, 1002
St.,
anthropomorphism,
250, 314
802, 904
Antichrist, 772 anticlericalism, 169-184, 1052 Antidotary (al-Razi), 910
Antigone (Sophocles), 89 Antioch,
8, 9, 10, 11, 19, 21, 31, 45, 49, 51, 52, 59, 119, 121, 128, 132, 143, 145-146, 190, 201, 218,
230, 239, 375, 404, 429, 586, 590, 591, 592, 593, 595, 596, 598, 608, 663, 827, 949; public buildings of, 440; see of, 530
Antiochus Epiphanes, 359
IND EX Antiphonary of
St. Gall,
antipodes, 992, 1073 anti-Semitism, 385-394 Antonina, 108 Antonines, 114, 1002
Antoninus Pius, 14, Antwerp, 618, 686 Anwari, 232, 320
Apamea,
ribbed,
240,
861,
892;
architects, 457, 467, 491, 846, 847, 864, 889; English, 864, 883; French, 875, 882; Gothic, 864, 865, 873, 881; Greek and Saracen, 704; Seljuq,
910
apocalypses, 732
Apocrypha, Christian, 416; Hebrew, 416 112
ApoUinaris Sidonius,
457,
Archimatheus, 998 Archimedes, 99, 911, 912, 990 Archipoeta, 1025-1026
aphrodisiacs, 220
30,
Romanesque,
891; transverse, 866, 872; triumphal, 432 archiinagus, 139
77, 114
Apennines, 549, 553, 802 Aphorisms (Hippocrates),
St.,
867;
round, 268, 286, 870, 871, 872, 874, 877, 889,
145, 147
Apollinaris,
II39
diagonal, 866, 872; half, 873; horseshoe, 286; longitudinal, 866; pointed, 286, 872, 873, 874, 882, 883, 884, 887, 888, 890; principle of, 866;
852
57, 78, 85, 86-88, 93, 531,
539, 552, 1018
ApolHnia, St., 743 Apollo, 5, 19
ApoUonius of Perga, 122, 240, 854, 911 Apology for Christianity (al-Kindi),
317 architecture, 127-134, 267, 270, 286, 311, 312, 313, 341, 440, 441, 450, 452, 491, 492, 653, 704, 752, 846, 856, 861, 866, 895, 899, 915, 1028, 1085; Byzantine, 441; cathedral, 864, 894; civic, 886, 888; classic, 893, 894; Coptic, 132; ecclesias516, 847, 870-871; in England, 494; Gothic, 148, 692, 858, 8j2-8j^, 893, 894, 906; Islamic, 273; medieval, 892, 926; military, 271,
tical,
251
Apostles, 132, 739, 759, 770, 794, 802, 1079 Apostles' Creed, 479
Apostolic See, 50, 952, 1079
316; Moslem, 271-274; Norman, 669, 870; Persian, 274; Renaissance, 894; Sasanian, 148-
appeal, right of, 525, 692, 693, 780 appeals, court of, 759
272;
appointments, 756, 762, 828; lay, 546-547 apprentices, 634, 635, 636, 914, 915 apses, 865, 885 Apuleius, 466, 1018, 1022-1023
149,
272; Seljuq, 317; Spanish, 700; tower,
Western,
845, 846, 868
archives, 278, 909; keeper of, 908* Arctic, 655, 666
Ardagh
chalice, 499
Aqqa, see Acre
Ardan, 478, 499 Ardashir I, 142, 148 Ardashir III, 151
Aqsa, mosque of el-, 874 aqueducts, 313, 456, 531, 713, 1003
Ardistan, 274 Areca, Rab, 362
Aquileia, 26, 35, 40, 55, 453
Arezzo, 638, 779, 898, 919, 1062
Apulia, 453, 717, 724, 812, 861, 1056
Aquinas,
St.
Thomas,
94, 124, 252, 255, 257, 338,
407, 412*, 414, 554, 611, 632, 733, 734, 751, 752, 785, 803, 822, 824, 825, 838, 897*, 912, 913, 921,
923, 933, 940, 941, 949, 953, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, ^61-961, 968-972, 976-977, 980, 981, 991, 995, 1005, 1009, 1014, 1026, 1030, 1067, 1068, 1069, 1074, 1077, 1078; style of, 964-965
Aquitaine, 37, 461, 475, 480, 671, 672, 688, 690, 828, 1039; duchy of, 689, 827, 828
Ara pacts, Ravenna, 132; Rome, Arab conquests, 187-196
861
arabesques, 270, 273, 287, 876 Arabi, Muyhi al-Din, 333, 462, 1068 Arabia, 119, 143, 146, 155-162, 187, 188, 190, 195, 200, 206, 215, 218, 219, 223, 238, 264, 273, 282, 284, 349, 358, 367, 369, 596, 617, 847
Arabia Deserta (Doughty), 155* Arabs,
4, 22, 48, 49, 109, 115, 117, 140, 144, 146,
Argenteuil, 914, 942 Arians, 46-47, 58, 62-63, 9i» 92» 100, loi, 108, 451 Ariosto, Lodovico, 1054 Aristippus of Catania, 912 aristocracy,
7, 275, 303, 423, 432, 433, 464, 486, 497, 506, 552, 577, 639, 660, 683, 707, 711, 840, 975i 1037; Arab, 293, 295-296; of birth, 647, 710; of the East, 120; English, 578, 675-676,
679, 905; feudal, 552, 560-564, 826, 836; Florentine, 1061; French, 840, 858; German, 661,
665; Ghibelline, 729; Greek, 432; Hungarian, 658; Islamic, 197, 237, 342; Jewish, 372; ladies of,
578,
Roman, Aristotle,
1039; landed, 560; mercantile, 641; 512, 537-538; Viennese, 1040 9, 99, 122, 123, 138, 240,
241, 250, 251,
253. 255, 257, 288, 335, 336, 337, 342, 405, 406, 407, 412, 476, 554, 606, 611, 630, 720, 804, 820,
860, 879, 911, 912, 913, 915, 925, 928, 931, 938,
148, 151-344, 349, 357, 370, 371, 372, 423, 425,
949, 953-955, 959, 960, 961,
544, 624, 629, 645, 831, 874, 913, 1085
972, 973, 974-975, 977, 978, 981, 982, 988, 994, 1005, 1008, 1009, loio, 1014, 1017, 1070; com-
Aragon,
402, 698, 699, 700, 701, 762
Arbogast, 26 Arbre de sciencia (Lully), 979 arcades, 457, 874, 881, 882, 884 Arcadius, 26, 27, 64, 103 Arch of Khosru, 148-149 archbishops, 511, 525, 564, 667, 758, 763, 802,914 archery, 570, 678, 840, 1050 arches, 303, 304, 455, 873, 874; converging, 899;
mentaries on, 910, 957, 954; interpretation of,
9 397. 403.
1
INDEX
Il66 Italy (continued)
404, 423, 426, 443, 444, 445, 450, 4U-4SS, 462, 464, 466, 473, 491, 510, 511-513. 5151 519. 520, 528, 530, 531, 537, 539, 547, 549, 550, 552, 553, 554. 563^ 571. 575» 578, 586, 615, 616, 619, 622, 624, 627, 632, 633, 638, 642, 646, 648-649, 651, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 694, 697, 705, 725-727,
762, 766, 769, 771, 774, 779, 782, 783, 788, 791, 792, 798, 799, 808, 809, 812, 831, 840, 841, 847, 851, 854, 856, 862, 870, 876, 882, 887-890, 892,
Jehuda Jehuda Jehuda Jehuda
Halevi, see Khazari, alHanasi, 211, 351, 352*, 364 ibn Daud Chayuj, 396 ibn Ezra, 373
Jenghiz Khan, 339-340, 655 Jerome, St., 45, jz-jj, 57, 59,
69, 72, 78, 135, 348,
522, 526, 901, 908, 1018
Jerome of Ascoli, 1014 Jerusalem, 45, 59, 132, 147, 151, 156, 166, 169, 183, 185, 190, 194, 216, 218, 228, 229, 230, 270, 273,
894, 901, 903, 904-905, 906, 908, 913, 916, 919,
285, 289, 319, 338, 341, 348, 350, 355*, 359, 366,
920, 932, 945, 951, 958, 961, 963, 990, 991, 1 00 1, 1003, 1006, 1039, 1042, 1044, 1045, 1056, 1057, 1062, 1063, 1074, 1080, 1081; Byzantine, 845; central, 290, 451, 452, 525, 830, 888; eastern,
385, 389, 399, 424, 431, 440, 458, 469, 585, 586, 590, 59I1 592, 593. 595. 597. 598, 600, 601, 602, 607, 608, 715, 716, 752, 754, 865, 874, 909, 1019,
451' 553;
Greek, 544; Norman, 431, 452-453,
703-705; northern, 514, 520, 550, 553, 554, 638, 724, 783, 801, 809, 888, 956, 1057, 1062; Ostro-
1044, 1068; Assizes of, 592; Latin
Kingdom
609 Jerusalem Delivered (Tasso), 589 Jesuits, 978 of, 592-594, 596,
gothic,
jewelry, 131, 285, 287, 311, 376, 833, 834, 876
ern, 290, 403, 432, 440, 443, 554, 621, 663, 664, 716, 725, 761, 783, 831, 832, 912, 919, 956, 998
Jewish National Council, 347 "Jewish Pope," 760 Jews, 15, 16, 56, 93, 97, 100, 122, 139,
97-102; pre-Renaissance, 703-731; Renaissance, 187, 249, 341, 1085, 1086; south-
140, 142,
147, 163, 164, 166, 167, 169-170, 171, 182, 184,
Ither, 1048 Itil,
446, 447 Itinerarium mentis in
Deum
(Bonaventura),
185, 186, 194, 202, 208, 211, 214, 216, 218, 219, 222, 223, 226, 238, 240, 243, 252, 285, 290, 299,
959 Ivan-i-Kharka, 148 Ivo, St., Bishop of Chartres, 806, 914 ivory, 133, 846, 847, 849 Iivein (Chretien), 1049
309, 312, 328, 333, 337-338, 345-4' 9, 425. 426, 432, 436, 447, 465, 589, 592, 598, 610, 617, 619. 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 660, 675, 690, 695, 696,
Jab rites, 217
382; Babylonian, 348, 368, 369; Byzantine, 389; and Christians, 385-394; converted, 521;
Jacob ben Machir Tibbon, 415 Jacob ben Meir, 410 Jacob ibn Ezra, 397 Jacob ibn Tibbon, 910 Jacopone da Todi, 750, 897*
Egyptian, 369, 414; English, 374, 397-392; Exchequer of, 377; French, 370, 390, 692;
German,
Jacques de Vitry, 768, 927
Mosque
Jaffa, 592, 600, 601, 607,
Jagatai, 339 Jahiz, Othman
of, 273
Jahwar, ibn, 296 Jaime I, see James
al-,
I,
245
I
King of Aragon,
373, 402, 404, 698-699,
701,783 II, King of Aragon, 979, 1000 James, St., 458; bones of, 752 Jamshid, 269 Janda, Lake, 97 Japan, 140, 149, 263, 272, 910, 993 Japheth, 370* Jarrow, 483, 488 Jassas, ibn al-, 209 Jauhar, 286 Jean de Meung (Clopinel), 944, 1052-1053, 1055 Jean d'Orbais, 880 Jean le Texier, 878, 879 Jean Petit, 952 Jeanne of Navarre, 647 Jeanne of Toulouse, 776
James
391;
German and
"Rabbanite," 367; Spanish, 95, 370-373, 395, 608
Jalubi, 315
James
370*, 389,
417; medieval, 350, 366-419; Palestinian, 347, 366, 375, 385; pre-Moslem, 185; Qaraite, 406; 399, 400, 991
JHVH,
Amr
369,
French, 353; Greek, 369, 375; heretical, 411; Hungarian, 369; in Islam, 366; Italian, 370,
Jacqueries, 869 Jafar, 199, 207, 233, 278; Jafariya, 201
700, 711, 715, 721, 732, 777, 780, 831, 910, 925, 938, 939, 941, 966, 978, 979, 988, 990, 1003, 1006, 103 1, 1 041; apostate, 370; Ashkenazic,
354
jihad, 182
Jimena, wife of El Cid, 460 Joachim of Flora, 723, 808-809, 1000, 1068 Joachimsthal, 622; coins of, 622 Joan of Arc, 923 Joan, sister of Richard I, 600 Job, 412, 965, 1049;
Book
of, 48, 523
Jocelyn of Brakelond, 885, 926, 1019 Jocius of London, 921
John John John John John John John John John John John John
I, St.,
Pope, 10
VIII, Pope, 529, 535, 538 X, Pope, 538
XI, Pope, 538 XII, Pope, 512, 538-539 XIII, Pope, 512, 539
XIV, Pope, 539 XVI, Pope, 539 XXI, Pope, 977, 999-1000 XXII, Pope, 682,
Asen Asen
657 II, 657
I,
802, 899, 978
INDEX John
J
1
ziniisces,
Byzantine Emperor, 429-430,
444
John John John John John John
the Baptist, 743, 744, 745 Cassian, St., 57 II Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor, 650 Damascene, St., 55, 219 the Deacon, 897
of Ephesus, 106 Jolin of Holy wood (Joannes de Sacrobosco),
I
jurists, 304,
982; class of, 566 jury system, 680, 828, 1083 justice, 374, 480, 484, 527, 547, 933, 1063 I, loo-ioi, 104, 108, 115
Justin
990
John Lackland, King of England,
Justin
John of Palermo, 990
Justinian
377, 494, 640, 648, 658, 672, 6i^-6-j9, 690, 695, 763, 828, 992
John, Patriarch of Jerusalem, 54 John the Divine, St., 9, 53, 743 John of Salisbury, 476, 681, 735, 899, 909, 914, 923, 944, 950, 951-953, 985. 1027
II, 146, 423, 434 Justina, wife of Valentinian
//7,
I, 25, 56 the Great, 26, 47, 89, 100, 102, /05119-121, 123, 125, 126, 129-131, 138,
Code
of, 111-114, 630, 754, 777, 916, 917
Justinian
Joinville, Jean de, 393, 608, 692, 693, 697, 822, 830, 1020-1021
Kaaba,
Jonah ben Abraham Gerundi, 415 Jonah ibn Janaeh, 396 jongleurs, 563, 795, 901, 1027, 1029, 1054, 1055
Jonson. Ben, 124 Jordan River, 151, 274, 596, 716 Jordanes, 37, 38-39
Jordanus Nemorarius, 995 Jorden, Raimon, 1038 Joseph, 185, 268 Joseph of Arimathea, 752, 1046 Joseph ibn Migas, 408 Joseph ibn Naghdela, 372 Joshua Rotuhis, 134
I
145-146, 148, 155, 156, 389, 401, 423, 430, 431, 434' 45I1 519' 524. 718, 744, 755, 1074, 1077;
John of Spain, see Daud, ibn John III Vatatzes, 651, 652-653, 719 John of VerceUi, 1014 John Vladimir, Serbian prince, 446 joint-stock company, 627
II,
425
Jutes, 22, 80, 450, 483, 492, 905
Jutland, 80, 471 Juvenal, 53, 55, 76, 120, 1018 159, 161, 163, 164, 165, 169, 170, 171, 193, 200, 213, 215, 216, 217, 228, 229, 259, 262, 325,
596
Kaddish, 356 Kadisiva, battle of, 152 Kainuka, banu-, 168, 169 Kalbi, Husein al-, 290 Kalonymos family, 370
Kamil, Malik al-, 311, 312, 607, 716, 719, 955 Kant, Immanuel, 71, 332, 972, 980, 981
Karakorum,
339, 656, 658, 993, 1012
Kars, 205
Kashgar, 207, 308, 993 Kathis-ma, 6
Kavadh Kavadh
I,
144
jousting, 574, 840 Jovian, 20-21, 25, 31, 34, 143
151 Kells, 499, 532
Joyeuse, 570
Kelso, 683
Juan de Colonia, 891
Kenneth Kenneth
Jubais, ibn, 596 Jubayr, ibn, 330, 704 jubilee year 1300, 753, 813
Judah Judah Judah Judah
167
"Juliana" (Cynewulf), 491 Julius I, St., 8, 50 Jumieges, abbey of, 869; church of, 479, 494 Jund-i-Shapur, 138, 145, 239, 246, 258 Junta, 700 jurat a, 463, 680
II,
I
MacAlpin, 501
III,
501
ben Moses ibn Tibbon, 381 ben Saul ibn Tibbon, 910
Kent, 483, 484 Kepler, Johannes, 289 Kerak, fortress of, 596, 597, 892 Kerbela, 193, 252
Halevi, 255 ibn Quraish, 396
Kermanshah, 149, 232 Kether Malkiith (ibn Gabirol), 399
Judaism,
55, 139, 156, 163, 167, 168, 170, 174, 176,
181, 184, 200, 226, 227, 252, 305, 341-36$, 366,
367, 369, 382, 388, 391, 401, 405, 406, 413, 414, 415, 419, 721, 939, 953, 977, 987, 1068, 1083;
Reformed, 353* Judaism in the Christian Era (Moore), 351* .
.
.
Judea, 58, 343, 347 judges, 297, 341, 350, 463, 506, 711, 828, 829, 924, 1004 judgment, 676, 755, 972, 981; of the dead, 733*
Keys
of the Sciences
(Muhammad ibn Ahmad),
241..
Khadija, 162, 163, 164, 165, 172
Khagani, 320-321 Khaibar, 173, 349 Khaizuran, 221 Khaldun, ibn, 141, 199, 240, 320, 334, 464 Khalid ibn al-Walid, 151, 170, 187, 18S-190, 282 Khalid, son of Barmak, 197 Khalil, 609
Muhammad
Judgment Day, 94, 178, 327, 362 Judith, wife of Louis the Pious, 472, 473, 515 Judith, wife of Tostig, 493 Julian the Apostate, 3, 9, 10-21, 26, 31, 34, 56, 78,
208 Khariji (Seceders), 192, 217 Khazari, al- (Jehuda Halevi), 398-400, 406-407,
121, 123, 143, 347-348 Juliana of Cornillon, Blessed, 752
417, 910 Khazars, 446-447, 448, 653
Khallikan,
ibn, 247, 248, 253, 320
Khanfu (Canton),
INDEX
ii68 Khiva, 243, 3^9 Khodainaina (Danishwar), 268
Khordadhbeh, ibn, 242, 376 Khosru I Anushirvan, 108,
128,
knights, 459, 553, 571, 5-J2-S18, 638, 667, 671, 731, 746, 778, 822, 826, 829, 832, 838, 876, 1013, 103 1, 1042, 1047, 1050; Arthurian, 496; 138, 141, 144-
146, 149, 150
Khosru
II
Parvez, 138, 141, 146-148, 149, 228,
423, 424
913, 941, 945, 967-968, 972, 986,
Khumarawayh, Khurasan,
French, 701; German, 575, 729; Norse, 1032; Templar, 593, 627, 716; Walloon, 664 knowledge, 260, 288, 325, 327, 332, 563, 795, 820,
284
151, 200, 202, 203, 209, 210, 242, 247,
259, 274, 278, 339
Khurramiyya, 209
1067;
Konigsberg, 618, 893
Khuzini, Abu'l Path Khuzistan, 278
al-,
Konya,
328
Khwarizm, 237, 241, 243, 244, 311, 339 Khwarizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al-,
114,
162*, 163, 164, 1^^-186,
209, 211, 213, 215, 219, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226,
241, 243,
321,911,991 Kibt, 61* Kiddiish, 358 kidneys, 1000, looi
Kiev, 441, 445, 447, 448, 653-654, 6§5, 656, 803 Kildare, 84 Kilwardby, Robert, 977 Kinana, 170 Kimchi, David, 396, 415; Joseph, 396, 910; Moses, 396 Kindi, Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-, 249, 251, 279, 898, 911, 954, 957, lOII King Roger's Book (Idrisi), 704 "king's evil," 986
kings, 270, 277, 308, 314, 327, 365, 377, 404, 438, 446, 448, 459, 469, 474, 480, 487, 488, 495, 506, 515, 526, 531, 546-548, 559, 560, 564-566, 572, 634, 638, 647, 658, 692, 699, 722, 727, 736, 752, 758, 760, 767, 778, 786, 790, 791, 807, 810, 812, 814, 817, 818, 825, 833, 845, 863, 878, 879, 923, 976, 986, 996, 1000, 1003, 1005, 1055; Achaemenid, 142, 149; British, 1019; Burgundian,
1032; Carolingian, 475, 480, 552; English, 377, French, 525, 541, 547, 566, 876, 880, 914; German, 512, 514, 525, 661; Ghassanid, 160; Irish, 500, 682; Lakhmid, 157; Lombard, 392, 566;
461; Merovingian, 370, 460, 480, 530-531, 552, 848; Moslem, 341; Norman, 291; Norse, 502504; Persian, 348; Sasanian, 366; Seljuq, 317; Spanish, 459, 638, 697, 700, 919; Visigothic, 891 Kiot, 1047
Kitab al-Aghani (Abu'l Faraj), 263, 294 (al-Saadia), 368
Kitab al-Aqidah al-rafiah (Abraham ibn Daud), 407 Kitab al-Falaha (al-Awan), 330 Kitab al-Haivi (al-Razi), 246 Kitab al-Jami (Baitar), 330 Kitab al-Kiilliyat fi-l-tibb (Averroes), 335 Kitab al-Lugah (al-Saadia), 368 Kitab al-Manazir (al-Haithani), 288-289 Kitab al-Mansuri (al-Razi), 247, 910 Kitab al-Rujari (Idrisi), 329 Kitab al-Shifa (Avicenna), 248, 255, 256-257 Kitab alSiraj (Maimonides), 409 Kitab al-Tasir (Avenzoar), 330 Kitab mhan al-hik?nah (al-Khuzini), 328 Kitab shakl al-qatta (Nasir), 328
Knighr of La Tour-Landry, 822
311, 317, 325
Koran (Qur-an),
305,
Kkab al-Amanat
1014,
transmission of, 903-930 Kol Nidre, 384 Kolzim, Mt., 58
227, 228, 230, 235, 236, 237, 241, 247, 250, 251,
252, 254, 256, 259, 260, 264, 273, 276, 277, 278,
283, 287, 288, 305, 307, 320, 332, 336, 349, 353*, S^z, 367, 372. 377' 395' 406, 407, 596, 911, 1068,
1083; eternity of, 353* Kossara, wife of John Vladimir, 445 Kriemhild, 40, 1034-1036
Krum, Khan,
443, 657
Kublai Khan, 993 Kufa, 175, 191, 192,
193, 196, 207, 212, 229, 232,
245, 251, 262, 264, 273, 277
Kuhin
al-Attar, al- 403
Kulin, 658
kupah, 379 Kuraiza, banu-, 168, 170 Kurds, 13, 652 Kutna Hora, 660
Kyrie
eleison, 749, 895
labor, 285, 375, 634, 636, 643, 647, 788, 864 laboratories, 330, 1004, 1008
Labrador, 504, 506 Lactantius Firmianus, 46, 78 Lacy, Hugh de. Bishop of Winchester, 884 Lady Chapel, 747, 863, 883, 885 La Fontaine, Jean de, 1054
La
Fossalta, 724
Lagny, 615
Lambert
le Begue, 809 Lambert, Duke of Spoleto, 538
Lambert li Tors, 1044 lamps, 838-839, 848; street, 285, 302 Lancelot, 575, 1019, 1045, 1046, 1071 land, 485-486, 505, 552, 560, 564, 567, 823, 924; ownership of, 118, 120, 370, 375, 434-435, 463, 464, 480, 486, 497, 553, 607, 631, 647, 667, 679680, 786*
Landfried, 661-662 Landulf of Aquino, 961 Lanfranc, 479, 482, 494, 668, 669, 741, 828, 871, 916, 932
Lanfranchi, Guido, looi, 1016 Langton, Stephen, 674-675, 677, 763 language, 343, 466, 578, 903, 904 languages, 208, 396, 489, 719, 905, 906-908, 979, 983, 1006, 1008, 1012, 1027, 1029, 1030, 1084;
Alemannic, 905; Anglo-Saxon, 487; Arabic, 121, 158-159, 176, 201, 236, 237, 239-241, 244,
246, 248, 262, 267, 279, 282, 367, 371, 376, 395,
396, 403, 406, 411, 413, 596, 607, 715, 716, 719,
INDEX languages {continued) 868, 876, 910, 911, 919, 979, 989, 990, 1009; 349, 352, 367*, 396, 401; Bavarian, 905; British (Celtic), 81, 489; Bulgarian, 445;
Aramaic, Castilian,
698; Catalan, 459; Chaldaic,
459,
979, 1009; Danish, 905; Dutch, 905; Eastphalian, 905; English, 81, 264, 484, 485, 681,
683, 684, 841, 903-904, 905, 906, 910; Flemish, 685,
Franconian,
905;
French,
I I
69
latrines, 611, 835, 1003
905;
Frank,
376;
Latvians (Letts), 659 Latida Sion (Aquinas), 897, 964, 1026 Laudibiliter (Hadrian IV), 681-682 law, Anglian, 486; Anglo-Saxon, 484, 486, 678, 830; anti-Jewish, 370, 373; barbarian, 637, 754, 844; Byzantine, 429, 434; codes, 434, 448, 451, 496, 784; commercial, 434, 620, 641, 680, 699; criminal, 360, 662, 830; Danish, 666;
112, 124,
English, 567, 666, 672, 618-680, 905; European, 652, 1085; feudal, 375, 464, 547, ^66-$69, 679, 692, 917; forestry, 675; French, 696, 838; game, 840; Germanic, 486, 665, 667, 825; Hanseatic, 618; history of, 117; Icelandic, 504;
126, 205, 239, 240, 349, 376, 437, 450, 461, 477,
international, 620; maritime, 506, 618, 620-621,
497» 515, 531. 715. 719, 895, 909, 912, 919, 923, 925, 1006, 1086; Hebrew, 121, 158, 349, 368, 371, 383, 384, 395, 396, 401, 402, 403, 407, 411, 413, 698, 910, 919, 925, 936, 979, 1006, 1008;
699; modification of, 352; moral, 353*, 809, 844; Moslem, 226, 227, 254, 276, 341, 348, 363; municipal, 681, 729; natural, 938, 939, 955, 956, 957, 975, 1063; Norman, 667*, 678; Norse, 506; Persian, 141, 348; Saxon, 486, 825; schools
81, 605, 685, 792, 904, 905, 906, 936,
1084; Frisian, 905; Gaelic, 496; Galician, 702; Galician-Portuguese, 698; Ger1020,
1029,
man, 81, 445, 466, 489, 515, 618, Great Russian, 445; Greek, 65, 96,
904, 905;
Icelandic, 905; Irish, 489; Italian, 451, 456, 792, 905, 1027, 1056, 1058, 1062, 1066, 1081; Kufic, 229; Latin, 65, 85, 88, 94, 95, 99, 112, 121, 124, 236, 371, 403, 411, 450, 456, 461, 466,
484, 488, 515, 698, 719, 770, 792, 903, 904, 905, 906, 909, 910-912, 915, 919, 927, 936, 1006, 1009, 1018, 1022, 1024, 1025, 1027, 1029, 10.44, 1058, 1062, 1066; Little Russian, 445; Neo-
Hebraic, 352, 409; Norwegian, 905; Old Norse, 504*; Pahlavi, 262; Persian, 203, 248, 267, 376, 445; Pict, 489; Polish, 445; Portuguese, 702; Provencal, 459, 904, 1057; Ruthenian, 445; Sanslmt, 244, 262; Saxon, 489, 905; Serbo-Croat, 445; Silesian, 905; Slavonic, 376, 445; Slovak, 445; Slovene, 445; Spanish, 95, 376, 910; Swedish, 905; Svriac, 121, 138, 239, 240, 912;
Thuringian, 905; Tuscan, 905,
1057; Ukrainian, 445; phalian, 905
Wendish, 445; West-
langne d'oc, 770, 904
Languedoc,
292,
Cathedral, 857, 859, 860, 865 "lapidaries," 992 Lapo da Pistoia, 854
849, 860, 867, 877, 881, 885, 889, 964,
1052,
1069 Last Supper, 748, 1046 161
741, 745, 763-764, 914, 954
Lateran Palace, Rome,
knowl-
modifications in, 903; script, 489 Latini, Brunetto, 696, 1015-1016, 1058, 1067, 1072
of, 926;
Roman, 23, 89, 90, 107, iii, 434, 437, 566, 567, 568, 630, 637, 662, 665, 695, 699, 707, 718, 754, 756, 777, 781, 784, 824, 844, 917, 949, 1077;
law,
study of, 916 "law of wreck," 620 Lawrence, St., 744 (Plato), 240, 784 lawyers, 114, 338, 496, 690, 695, 696, 708, 757,
"Lay of the Battle of Maiden," 489 Layamon, 1045
Tower of Pisa, 865, 868 learning, 265, 293, 314, 319, 351, 369, 371, 378, 395, 4^^ .-^^ U"V'^< ^i:>.
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