The Role of Student Services in Higher Education: University and the Student Experience 3030814386, 9783030814380

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgements
Annie Grant Book Description
Contents
About the Author
Abbreviations
1: Universities, Students and the Development of Student Advisory Services
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Higher Education in the UK
1.3 Institutional Diversity
1.4 Student Diversity
1.5 The Development of Pastoral Support and Student Services in the UK
1.6 Institutional Role and Status
1.7 Student Services Structures
1.8 Funding Student Services
1.9 Personal Tutors and Their Relationships with Professional Advisers
1.10 The Student Voice and Students’ Unions
References
2: Academic Achievement and Career Progression
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Transition to Higher Education Learning
2.3 Learning Enhancement
2.4 Addressing Cheating and Plagiarism
2.5 EU and International Students
2.6 Postgraduate Students
2.7 Equality of Academic Outcome
2.8 Addressing the Personal Factors that can Impede Academic Success
2.9 Peer Support for Learning
2.10 Preparing for the Future
2.11 Government and Employer Expectations
2.12 Institutional Expectations
2.13 The Student Perspective
2.14 Inequality in Career Progression and the Benefits of Collaborative Approaches
2.15 Final Thoughts
References
3: Health and Wellbeing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Mental Health and Wellbeing
3.3 Mental Ill-health in the Student Population
3.4 How Has the Sector Responded?
3.5 Understanding the Causes of Mental Distress and Stress in the Student Population
3.6 Disclosure and Help Seeking
3.7 Postgraduate Wellbeing
3.8 What Can Be Done to Minimise Student Stress?
3.9 Shifting the Balance: Promoting Personal Strength and Responsibility
3.10 Staff Training
3.11 Peer Support
3.12 Working with the Statutory and Voluntary Sectors
3.13 Final Thoughts
References
4: Building Community in Higher Education Settings
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Institutional Context
4.3 Student Living Arrangements
4.4 The Residential Experience
4.5 Living at Home
4.6 Student Arrival and Induction
4.7 Creating an Inclusive Community: Involving the Whole Institution
4.8 Inclusion and Belonging
4.9 Community Engagement and Citizenship
4.10 Keeping the Community Safe
4.11 Discrimination, Religion and Belief
4.12 Bullying and Harassment
4.13 Sexual Mores and Behaviours
4.14 Alcohol and Drug Use and Misuse
4.15 Final Thoughts
References
5: Setting a Moral Compass
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Moral and Ethical Values of UK Higher Education
5.3 Duty of Care
5.4 In loco parentis?
5.5 Confidentiality
5.6 Policy Development: Concessions and Extenuating Circumstances
5.7 Fitness for Study and Professionalism
5.8 Postgraduate Research Students and Their Supervisors
5.9 Responding to External Pressures and Setting Clear Boundaries
5.10 Inequality: Retention and Achievement
5.11 The Marketisation of Higher Education and Ethical Recruitment
5.12 Student Discipline
5.13 Supporting the Supporters
5.14 Further Thoughts
References
6: League Tables, the Future Role of Student Services and the Importance of Measuring Impact and Effectiveness
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Measuring and Ranking HEIs: ‘Quality’ Control and League Tables
6.3 The Current and Future Roles of UK Student Services
6.4 Measuring Impact and Effectiveness
6.5 Avoiding the Reinvention of the Wheel
6.6 Final Thoughts
References
Index

Citation preview

The Role of Student Services in Higher Education University and the Student Experience Annie Grant

The Role of Student Services in Higher Education

Annie Grant

The Role of Student Services in Higher Education University and the Student Experience

Annie Grant Freelance researcher and writer; Associate Newnham College Cambridge Cambridge, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-81438-0    ISBN 978-3-030-81439-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81439-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book is dedicated to the memory of Professor Gerald Bermbaum, a former Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Registrar at the University of Leicester, who encouraged me to shift my attention from the long dead who were focus of my research and teaching as an archaeologist, to the lives and experiences of students, the life blood of all universities. I shall be forever grateful for Gerry’s faith in me as I embarked on this new, totally absorbing and very rewarding career, and for his enduring friendship and support over all the years that followed, right up until his untimely death in 2017.

Preface

Why have I felt the need, indeed the personal necessity, to write this book? There is already an extensive and ever-growing literature on learning and teaching and the politics of UK higher education (HE), not to mention seemingly endless and ever-changing government strategy documents, survey reports and daily blogs on a wide range of aspects of the UK student experience. However, many if not most of these are written from a top down perspective by those whose direct contact with today’s very diverse student body may be limited. As far as I know, there is not as yet a book that attempts to take a broad view of UK students’ lives and experiences and what is important to them from the ground up, that is from a student advisory perspective. Those who make the greatest contributions to the achievement of the academic and personal goals of higher education students are without any doubt the teachers and researchers who are the lifeblood of all institutions, supported in their endeavours by a wide range of specialist managers and administrators who range from librarians and finance directors to those who are responsible for their university’s estate. Without their contribution and that of the many other non-academic colleagues who provide vital leadership, administration and structural underpinning, many of the wide-ranging activities of universities could not function effectively. vii

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There is another rather less well understood and commented on group of staff whose main focus is student achievement and wellbeing. These are the professional advisory staff who work face-to-face with students in what are generally known in the UK as ‘student advisory/support services’, or ‘student affairs’ in the USA. It is their work and their understanding of students’ aspirations and goals, their university experiences and the challenges that they face that are the primary focus of this book. Their role is to stand alongside their academic and other colleagues and primarily through one-to one interactions, offer information, advice, guidance and counselling to help students find their ways of overcoming any difficulties that may trip them up as they progress through their courses, achieve their best and take maximum advantage of their student years. I hope that what I write will be of interest to a range of readers, including those responsible for HE funding, policy development and management, academic teachers and administrators and many others outside HE, including the school teachers and parents/guardians who have a responsibility for preparing prospective students for what is likely to be one of the most important transitional and transformational experiences of their lives. The book is certainly not intended as a manual or handbook of student service practice, although I hope that it might stimulate and encourage those who work in this sector of higher education in the UK and in other parts of the world, as I aim to bring what they do and achieve to greater prominence. I wish to encourage all those who work in HE to have a broader understanding of their students, the realities of their lives, the challenges that they may face and their successes. I wish to highlight the increasing importance of professional advice and guidance in helping students to overcome any difficulties and challenges they may face and develop the confidence and independence that will enable them to achieve their ambitions now and in the future. I am certain that student services should no longer be viewed as an optional add-on but as an essential part of UK higher education playing a significant role in helping to achieve the UK higher education sector’s mission, which, as Universities

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UK (UUK) has expressed it, is ‘… to provide students with a world-class education so that they can achieve their full potential’.1 The book’s structural organisation is broadly thematic beginning in Chap. 1 by putting the relevant practices and concerns of the UK higher education sector into an historical context. I make no apologies for devoting some of my allotted word count to outlining the history that has shaped the landscape of contemporary higher education and the role of student services within it. As have been writing this book I have become increasingly concerned about the short memories of governments and of those who lead and work in the sector and a seeming lack of interest in what has already been achieved in the past. We seem to be constantly reinventing wheels and launching supposedly new initiatives without looking first at what is already known. All those who embark on any piece of academic research know that the task that they must first address is the literature review. I hope that this book might encourage the sector to reconsider and build on its many past successes and also learn from its failures in order to avoid repeating them. Several interrelated themes are addressed in the following chapters of which the most evident are student achievement and wellbeing. These run as undercurrents throughout the book but are most particularly addressed in Chaps. 2 and 3 respectively. In Chap. 4 the value of conceptualising HEIs as learning and living communities and the responsibilities that ensue is examined. In the current climate where the key drivers are finances, league table rankings, audit regimes and external expectations, matters of principle and the ethical responsibilities of HEIs in respect of the duty of care and respect owed to their students and staff are rarely discussed or even openly addressed at sector or institutional level. Some are brought to light in several of the book chapters but are most specifically addressed in Chap. 5. The final and concluding Chap. 6 pulls out some final thoughts about matters such as league tables and their impact, the importance of rigorous evaluation of the impact of all policies and practices, and the ongoing future development of professional student advisory services.

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 http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/policy-and-analysis/Pages/student-experience.aspx.

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The higher education sector is complex and diverse, and I do not even hope to do justice to the very different missions, perspectives and practices of its wide range of institutions, subjects taught, qualifications offered, modes of study and so on. Readers will find a clear bias towards full-time students—undergraduate and postgraduate—and the pre-1992 HE sector, as these are those I know and understand the best. I have not been able to pay much attention to the particularities of higher education in Ireland, Scotland and Wales, nor sufficiently consider the diversity in the missions of the different HE sectors and the contributions of alternative providers and the further education sector. I do not say much at all about distance and online learning, although it seems likely that these will have an increasingly important place in the higher education of the future. I did not set out to ignore any of these, but the task in hand has proved to be far too great and unrealistically ambitious to cover everything of importance. The three years or more years during which I have been writing and further researching for this book has turned out to be a particularly turbulent time in higher education politics. The Office for Students (OfS)2 was established as the new regulatory body for UK higher education in 2018 and has been settling in amidst some controversy and dissent. A Teaching Excellence and Student Outcomes Framework (TEF)3 has been rolled out, ‘big data’ are the new gods and student mental health and the risk of sexual assault on campus make almost daily news. The politics of HE are constantly shifting with new guidance materials, policy initiatives, research reports, analyses of data,4 etcetera appearing or updated weekly and I cannot claim to have been able to keep pace with them all nor address all the topics that I consider to be important. Nonetheless, student aspirations and the challenges they face are more fundamentally constant. The several references I make in the following chapters to Mary Swainson’s (1977) pioneering work with students in the middle of the  https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk.  https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/for-students/the-tef/. 4  When I make reference to websites and other electronic resources that are regularly updated and may have changed since the time of writing, I have proved a direct link in a footnote rather than a formal reference. 2 3

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twentieth century and the insights she passed on in her writing, provide for me compelling and also humbling evidence to support this view. I have learned much from my many discussions with colleagues from across the sector, especially through the collaborative endeavours that characterise the work undertaken by the UK network of professional student advisers that membership of AMOSSHE, the UK student services organisation, provides. I have also benefited from finding out about the diverse ways institutions function and organise themselves when I have worked with some of them in a consultancy capacity. My starting point has not been that of a theorist but is rather more ethnographic in approach and also as much as possible evidence-based. I have undertaken an extensive but not systematically comprehensive review of relevant research literature from the UK, North America and to a lesser extent Australia. I have also referred to some student research studies that I have undertaken or been involved in myself. However, what has most influenced the views expressed in this book has been my direct experiences of working closely with students, first as an academic researcher, teacher and supervisor in several universities in the UK and abroad during the first part of my career, and in the following quarter of a century, developing and leading student services in two rather different UK universities. In order to keep the scale and scope of this book to manageable and publishable proportions, the main focus here is the personal face-to-face interactions and between universities and their adult, that is over-18 years old students. Despite a claim made at the 2017 British Science Festival lecture that the inspirational teachers of the future will be intelligent machines rather than humans, I doubt and certainly hope that this is any more likely to happen than is the paperless office we were promised when information technology first started to make its mark. We all need direct contact with other human beings whose reactions we can see and emotions and feelings sense. What helps us to learn and grow in a way that embeds knowledge and promotes deep understanding of self and others, provides reassurance and fosters self-respect and confidence are the face to face interactions, the discussions during and after lectures and seminars, the active processing of what we have learned through experiment, debate, challenge and resolving disagreement. Direct human contact is

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even more important when students seek ways to overcome personal challenges. Yes, TED talks, web resources, books, distance learning courses, self-help Apps and Zoom meetings can all play a role, but I remain convinced that what has long-lasting value will or should always include being listened to and when appropriate challenged by those who know what they are talking about, show empathy, compassion and their genuine commitment to task as they try to make it possible for students of any age or background to take ownership of their own intellectual and emotional development and ongoing path through life. This is what I sincerely hope will always count most and will continue be valued, maintained and further developed by all universities. NB: I have avoided naming specific institutions other than when it was particularly appropriate to do so. No assumptions should be made about the identity of the institutions where practices and experiences I refer to took place. When I have included a student case study, I trust that I have changed the details sufficiently to preserve anonymity. Norwich, UK

Annie Grant

Acknowledgements

Many people have willingly or inadvertently contributed to this book in many different ways. They include colleagues and in particular the many students whom I have taught and supervised, or who have sought my advice, and the students and staff who have anonymously completed the survey questionnaires devised to help further my understanding of higher education and how it is experienced by students and those who teach and support them. It would be impossible to name everyone who has had an influence on my thinking and the views I express in this book. Singling out some risks offending others I do not mention but have also been important to me. If I have caused offence this was not deliberate, and I apologise. Those I name below, together with those I shall undoubtedly regret having not included as soon as the book has gone to press, have been important in different ways, whether these be through their professional and practical insights, their feedback on sections of my writing where their specialist knowledge was needed, or through the ongoing friendships and personal support that has kept me going. My thanks go to Jayne Aldridge; Jane Amos; Ellie Baker; Caroline Ball; Paul Coathup; Anne Hillary; Richard Clark; Sally Downes; David

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Eastwood; Ken Edwards; Luke Jefferies; Ruth Liss; Maria Lorenzini; Margaret Mathieson; Rachel McShane; Geoff Moore; Judy Moore; Sally Olohan; David Owens; Martin Pennington; Michael Reynier; Jeremy Schildt; Johannes Siemons; Darren Thornton; David Thurkettle; Julie Walkling, Ezra and Marcia Zubrow, and very many more, including, of course, my family.

Annie Grant Book Description

This book provides an insight into the aspirations, challenges and experiences of twenty-first century university students through the ears and eyes of those who provide professional advisory services. It focusses on student academic and career success and their wellbeing, stressing the importance of understanding and respecting the diversity of the higher education student body. It emphasises the value of envisioning universities as inclusive and safe communities that challenge discrimination, prejudice and bullying and the importance of proactive initiatives that help students to develop their self-confidence and resilience. It also addresses other important but less frequently discussed matters that impact on students’ lives including the ethical and moral values of higher education, alcohol and drug abuse and the marketisation of higher education. The book also includes a brief outline of the growth of the UK Higher Education sector and that of student advisory provision in particular, highlighting the breadth and depth of the role that professional advisory staff now play and arguing for this to be much better understood and respected.

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Contents

1 Universities, Students and the Development of Student Advisory Services  1 1.1 Introduction   1 1.2 Higher Education in the UK   2 1.3 Institutional Diversity   8 1.4 Student Diversity   9 1.5 The Development of Pastoral Support and Student Services in the UK  17 1.6 Institutional Role and Status  21 1.7 Student Services Structures  23 1.8 Funding Student Services  25 1.9 Personal Tutors and Their Relationships with Professional Advisers  27 1.10 The Student Voice and Students’ Unions  29 References 31 2 Academic Achievement and Career Progression 35 2.1 Introduction  35 2.2 The Transition to Higher Education Learning  36 2.3 Learning Enhancement  38 2.4 Addressing Cheating and Plagiarism  44 2.5 EU and International Students  47 xvii

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2.6 Postgraduate Students  50 2.7 Equality of Academic Outcome  52 2.8 Addressing the Personal Factors that can Impede Academic Success  60 2.9 Peer Support for Learning  61 2.10 Preparing for the Future  63 2.11 Government and Employer Expectations  64 2.12 Institutional Expectations  67 2.13 The Student Perspective  68 2.14 Inequality in Career Progression and the Benefits of Collaborative Approaches  70 2.15 Final Thoughts  74 References 75 3 Health and Wellbeing 81 3.1 Introduction  81 3.2 Mental Health and Wellbeing  82 3.3 Mental Ill-health in the Student Population  83 3.4 How Has the Sector Responded?  86 3.5 Understanding the Causes of Mental Distress and Stress in the Student Population  88 3.6 Disclosure and Help Seeking  96 3.7 Postgraduate Wellbeing 102 3.8 What Can Be Done to Minimise Student Stress? 102 3.9 Shifting the Balance: Promoting Personal Strength and Responsibility106 3.10 Staff Training 108 3.11 Peer Support 110 3.12 Working with the Statutory and Voluntary Sectors 111 3.13 Final Thoughts 115 References118 4 Building Community in Higher Education Settings127 4.1 Introduction 127 4.2 The Institutional Context 128 4.3 Student Living Arrangements 129

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4.4 The Residential Experience 131 4.5 Living at Home 134 4.6 Student Arrival and Induction 135 4.7 Creating an Inclusive Community: Involving the Whole Institution 139 4.8 Inclusion and Belonging 143 4.9 Community Engagement and Citizenship 149 4.10 Keeping the Community Safe 151 4.11 Discrimination, Religion and Belief 152 4.12 Bullying and Harassment 154 4.13 Sexual Mores and Behaviours 156 4.14 Alcohol and Drug Use and Misuse 159 4.15 Final Thoughts 168 References168 5 Setting a Moral Compass173 5.1 Introduction 173 5.2 The Moral and Ethical Values of UK Higher Education 174 5.3 Duty of Care 176 5.4 In loco parentis? 177 5.5 Confidentiality 181 5.6 Policy Development: Concessions and Extenuating Circumstances185 5.7 Fitness for Study and Professionalism 187 5.8 Postgraduate Research Students and Their Supervisors 190 5.9 Responding to External Pressures and Setting Clear Boundaries193 5.10 Inequality: Retention and Achievement 196 5.11 The Marketisation of Higher Education and Ethical Recruitment200 5.12 Student Discipline 206 5.13 Supporting the Supporters 212 5.14 Further Thoughts 214 References216

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6 League Tables, the Future Role of Student Services and the Importance of Measuring Impact and Effectiveness221 6.1 Introduction 221 6.2 Measuring and Ranking HEIs: ‘Quality’ Control and League Tables 223 6.3 The Current and Future Roles of UK Student Services 226 6.4 Measuring Impact and Effectiveness 230 6.5 Avoiding the Reinvention of the Wheel 234 6.6 Final Thoughts 237 References240 Index243

About the Author

Annie  Grant  has a degree and doctorate in archaeology. Following a successful career as a much published researcher and teacher in her specialist field, her work with students as a teacher and PhD supervisor led to her decision to shift her focus to student guidance and support. She developed and directed the student advisory services in two UK universities and was awarded a National Teaching Fellowship for her contribution to student success and wellbeing. She is currently an Associate of Newnham College, Cambridge, a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London and a Trustee of the Norfolk and Norwich Archaeological Society, thus maintaining her ongoing interests in both students and archaeology.

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Abbreviations

ADD/ADHD Attention Deficit Disorder/Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder AdvanceHE A higher education agency formed in 2018 through a merger of the HEA, ECU and LFHE AGCAS Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services AMOSSHE Association of Managers of Student Services in Higher Education AUCC Association of University and College Counselling BACP British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy BAME/BME Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic/Black and Minority Ethnic BIS Department of Business and Skills BMI Body Mass Index BSI Brief Symptom Inventory BUCS British Universities and Colleges Sport CMA Competition and Markets Authority CNAA Council for National Academic Awards CPR Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation CVCP Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals (renamed Universities UK (UUK) in 2000) DBS Disclosure and Barring Service DDA Disability Discrimination Act (in 2010 incorporated within the 2010 Equality Act)

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DENI DfEE DfE DSA ECU ESRC FDTL FE GHS GLS GMC GP GuildHE HE HEA HEI HEFCE HEPI HESA HUCS ICAC IELTS ISE JISC LFHE LGBTQ+ MA MWBHE NADP NASMA NHS NPD NSS NUS OECD Ofqual OfS

Department of Education (Northern Ireland) Department for Education and Employment (now the DfE) Department for Education Disabled Students’ Allowance Equality Challenge Unit Economic and Social Research Council (formerly the Economic and Social Science Research Council, ESSRC) Fund for the Development of Teaching and Learning Further Education General Household Survey General Lifestyle Survey General Medical Council General Practitioner Formerly the Standing Conference for Principals (SCOP) Higher education The Higher Education Academy Higher Education Institution Higher Education Funding Council for England Higher Education Policy Institute Higher Education Statistical Agency Heads of University Counselling Services Independent Commission against Corruption of New South Wales, Australia International English Language Test System Institute of Student Employers Joint Information Systems Committee Leadership Foundation for Higher Education Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Questioning + Master of Arts Working group for Mental Wellbeing in Higher Education National Association of Disability Practitioners National Association of Money Advisers National Health Service (UK) Non-medical use of Prescription Drugs National Student Survey National Union of Students Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development The Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation Office for Students

 Abbreviations 

ONS Oxbridge PAL PASS Patoss PGT PGR POLAR

PRES PTES QAA QAR SCOP SHEFC SKILL SpLD SU STEM TESOF THE UCCA UCAS UCU UKCGE UKCISA UMHAN UNITE UUK WDHE WHO WP

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Office for National Statistics Oxford and Cambridge universities (colloquial) Peer Assisted Learning Peer Assisted Study Support Professional association of teachers of students with specific learning difficulties Postgraduate Taught student (for example, a Master’s student) Postgraduate Research Student Participation of local areas: a classification into 5 groups from lowest (1) to highest (5)) of UK postcode areas based on the proportion of the young population participating in HE. POLAR3 is the most recent version. Postgraduate Research Experience Survey Postgraduate Taught Experience Survey Quality Assurance Agency Quality Assessment Review Standing Conference for Principals (now GuildHE) Higher Education Funding Council for Scotland A former student disability charity Specific Learning Difficulties/Differences Students’ Union Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Teaching Excellence and Student Outcomes Framework Times Higher Education (a weekly publication devoted to HE matters) Universities Central Council on Admissions (replaced by UCAS in 1993) Universities and Colleges Admissions Service University and College Union UK Council for Graduate Education University Council for International Student Affairs University Mental Health Advisers Network UNITE STUDENTS: a commercial company proving private student residential accommodation Universities UK (formerly CVCP) Writing Development in Higher Education World Health Organisation Widening participation, also used as a personal descriptor, e.g. a WP student

1 Universities, Students and the Development of Student Advisory Services

1.1 Introduction This introductory chapter provides a broad background and context for the following chapters of the book. It outlines a history of higher education in Great Britain, and England in particular, focussing on changing government attitudes to the economic and societal role of universities and their funding. It summarises the development of the UK higher education sector and the impact of key government policies and legislation, including initiatives to widen student participation and shape student demographics and expectations. The second theme is the growth of professional student support and guidance services and their roles, status and inter-institutional relationships, particularly those with academic staff and student unions.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Grant, The Role of Student Services in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81439-7_1

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1.2 Higher Education in the UK Higher education (HE) in Britain has a 900 year history which began when Oxford and Cambridge became centres for teaching in the late eleventh and the early twelfth centuries respectively; they were formally recognised as universities in the thirteenth century. For many decades, these institutions remained alone until universities were established in Scotland and Ireland in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Growth in the following centuries was largely limited to the establishment of medical schools. The first major expansion did not take place until the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with the awarding of royal charters to the first university in Wales, and to Durham University, King’s College London and University College London, and the establishment of science and engineering colleges and civic universities in London and other major industrial cities. A second wave followed in the first half of the twentieth century when civic colleges in towns and cities such as Reading, Nottingham and Leicester were granted degree awarding powers. While the pre-nineteenth century institutions were predominantly religious foundations whose aim was to train the nation’s clerics and in the case of medical schools, doctors, the main purpose of the nineteenth and early twentieth century civic institutions was to educate growing urban populations and support economic growth. Another part of the post-compulsory education sector comprised the specialist teacher training colleges, art schools and technical colleges that offered professional qualifications, but not always at degree level. Despite this growth in higher education provision, a university education was a privilege available more or less exclusively to the upper and middle classes. In 1950 only 3.4 percent of the young adult population was attending a Higher Education Institution (HEI). A decade later the then prime minister, Harold Macmillan, conscious of the growing post-war generation of young people, had commissioned an economist to lead a review of full-­ time higher education in the UK and determine the principles on which its long-term development should be based (Robbins 1963) The outcome was an impressively comprehensive report that concluded with 178 recommendations, the most pertinent of which in the context of this

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discussion recommended a significant expansion of higher education and the investment of government resources to make this happen. Robbins and his committee wished to ‘democratise’ without radically changing the existing model, preserving  staff:student ratios and ensuring that research remained an integral part of universities rather than being concentrated in research institutions (p.  313). One key outcome was the establishment of eight new campus-based universities between 1961 and 1965; these are often referred to as ‘plate glass universities’ because of their contemporary architecture. A further tertiary educational sector that developed during the 1960s comprised ‘Polytechnic’ universities whose main purpose was to offer applied education for professional purposes. Many had a focus on engineering and technology, but some also offered degrees in architecture, business and other subjects, including those in the humanities. However, they did not have independent degree awarding powers and their courses had to be externally validated by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA). As a result of these changes, the thirty years following the Robbins report saw a significant increase in higher education participation rates. By the beginning of the 1990s fulltime participation in higher education had increased from the 3.4 percent of 1950 to 19.3 percent.1 In 1992 this ‘binary divide’ between the universities and polytechnics of the post-Robbins era was abolished creating a single sector in which all HEIs had independent degree awarding powers. In a single sweep this more or less doubled the number of institutions entitled to call themselves a University and award their own degrees. Other milestones in the development of higher education since then might be divided between those designed, amongst other purposes, to increase institutional accountability and efficiency in respect of research and teaching functions, and those that more specifically addressed funding at both institutional and individual student level. However, this division is somewhat blurred, and it could be said that almost all government initiatives since Robbins have fundamentally boiled down to money and the desire to educate economically productive members of society for the smallest possible per-capita cost.  http://Researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN04252/SN04252.pdf.

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It could be argued that nothing since the Robbins review has had such an important impact on students’ expectations and experiences of higher education as changing funding models. Fifty years ago, teaching was financed through government block grants to individual HEIs. UK students did not pay fees and could apply for grants from their local educational authorities to cover their living costs. In their consideration of the financing of an expanded higher education sector, the Robbins committee had rejected the introduction of loans and means-tested grants for fees although their report included the rider ‘at least for the immediate future’ (Robbins 1963, p.313). The size of the maintenance grants awarded to students were however linked to parental income. A key change in the funding model for teaching was an outcome of another major review of HE. In 1997, Lord Dearing and his fellow committee members were asked ‘to make recommendations for the future development and funding of higher education, including the support for students (Dearing 1997, p. 1) The Dearing Report’s publication was followed only a year later by the Teaching and Higher Education Act which gave an end date to Robbins’ rejection of loans and began the process of moving the funding of tuition from the state to the individual. International students had long been charged to study in the UK, but this was the first time that home students had to pay a fee to study for an undergraduate or master’s course. A standard fee of £1000 per year was payable by most undergraduates in England, Wales and Northern Ireland but Scotland’s devolved government offered grants to cover this fee for those ‘normally’ resident there. Means-tested maintenance grants were later abolished and replaced by repayable loans.2 In 2004 the fee cap was increased to £3000 but those on low incomes were exempt. Three thousand pounds was only a part of the real cost to HEIs of delivering a degree course and there remained a significant government contribution based on each institutions’ student numbers. These latter were capped for home undergraduates in order to control this element of public spending.  Following devolution in 1999, the Welsh and Scottish Parliaments became responsible for their own HE fee setting policies. At the time of writing, Scottish and EU resident students are not charged tuition fees if they study in Scotland; Welsh and Northern Irish institutions may charge up to £9000 and £4,275 respectively. 2

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In 2009, the Labour Government commissioned yet another review which it expected to result in recommendations that if implemented would ensure that the UK’s world class reputation for teaching was sustained and would remain accessible to all (Browne 2010, p. 2). However, by the time that this review was published, Labour had lost a General Election and a Conservative and Liberal Democrat Coalition Government was in power. This government used the Browne report as the basis from which to develop its own thinking about the future of HE and this was articulated in a government White Paper (BIS 2012). Their approach was to encourage competition between institutions and a greater diversity in mission. This they believed would result once HEIs could set their own fees. There had for some time been pressure from universities to be allowed to increase fees so that the true costs of higher education could be met. The government decision was to allow each institution to set its own student fees but only up to an initial maximum of £9000 per annum. This was later raised to £9250 and is currently fixed at this level until 2021. The government claimed in a further directive (BIS 2016) that competition and sector diversity would provide increased choice for students and greater social equity but so far it seems doubtful that this has been the case. In fact, it could be argued that in some respects the opposite has occurred, as I discuss below and in later chapters. Another serious miscalculation made by the authors of the government policy documents was their assumption that only the most prestigious universities would charge the maximum fee. In the event, most HEIs chose to do so, or close to it. Firstly, there was a financial imperative, as for other than the STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths) subjects there was no government top-up. Theoretically, tuition fees had been expected to cover the full cost of teaching and associated infrastructure. In practice, many institutions calculated that even with a £9000 fee there was a significant funding gap to be filled if their standards were to be maintained. Secondly, as part of ever-growing inter-institutional competition, aspirational institutions wanted to demonstrate that they were, to use a colloquial analogy, Rolls Royces rather than Ladas, and thus expensive. An expectation that universities should serve an economic end is longstanding. German institutions of the nineteenth century were admired because their scientific research contributed directly to the country’s industrial success. The authors of the Dearing Report also saw one of the

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key, but not the only, purposes of UK higher education as serving the needs of a knowledge-based economy (Dearing 1997, p. 66). The academics, students and administrators who joined forces to provide a critical response to the 2016 White paper (BIS 2016), noted in their introduction that it and the earlier Browne report, both of which made much of the individual benefits of a university degree in the form of higher graduate earnings, were the only major policy documents since the Robbins and Dearing reports to make no mention of the public value of higher education and the contribution of an educated work force to public benefit, including the creation of a common culture and the standards of citizenship articulated in the earlier reports (for example, Robbins 1963, p.25). In my experience, for the majority of those who are researchers or teach and guide students, such broader aspirations are a far better fit with their values (see also Holmwood et al. 2016). Institutional and student funding have become a political football. Different mechanisms to reduce the demands of higher education on the public purse, including the cost of student loans, have been tried out and then abandoned. Limits have been put on the number of home students each institution could recruit and then dropped. Educational providers have been encouraged to deliver some degrees at a significantly reduced cost and the possibility and potential for compressed two year degrees has also been mooted. These are not topics that I dwell on here other than to note the latest attempt to rethink higher education funding proposed in a report on university financing and student fees (Augar 2019). It is as yet too early to be able to assess this report’s impact on government policy, universities and their students. What concerns me most here is twofold. Firstly, shifting the financial burden of higher education from the state to the individual has had a non-trivial and differential impact on the financial position of students and graduates. It has inevitably deterred some prospective students from applying and put additional pressures on others to live at home or take on part-time jobs while studying (see Sects. 4.4, 4.5 in Chap. 4). Most of my university generation and those of the next few decades were able to graduate debt free even when not financially supported by parents, thanks to the full or partial grants that could be topped up by paid employment in vacations, something that did not seem to be nearly as difficult to find

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then as now. Most of today’s graduates are likely to start their new lives owing a considerable amount to the Student Loan Company which they will have to pay back gradually through their taxes once their income reaches a specified amount3 per year. Their debt is likely to impact on their ability to draw down other loans at a time when private sector rents are high, the deposits needed to buy a house large and well-paid employment difficult to find for many new graduates (Sect. 2.13 in Chap. 2). Secondly, and although not so immediately definable but likely to be found to have been far more profoundly damaging to the sector and its students, is that fees began to change students from willing and in most cases enthusiastic participants in an educational and personal developmental experience to purchasers of competitively marketed educational products. This has impacted on student expectations and motivations, the choices they make, their engagement with their courses and institutional and government rhetoric and behaviours. Even if students did not immediately rush to adopt such ways of thinking, HEIs quickly started to use the language of consumerism in both their internal communications and their external marketing. ‘Consumer’ and ‘customer’ were introduced as new words in the vocabulary of higher education: prior to the introduction of fees, no one would ever have thought of, or described students as customers and there are still many who resist all attempts to equate the institutional:student relationship with that which an individual might have with a shop, gym or bank. A survey of just over 1000 undergraduate students and their perceptions of their relationships with their university (UUK 2017) found that just under half the respondents said that they did regard themselves as customers. In contrast less than a fifth had perceived their relationship with their secondary school in this way. The authors of the survey report did not feel that this was at the time the overriding feature of students’ attitudes; other research has demonstrated the complexity of students’ relationship with their institutions (Kandiko and Mawer 2013; Tomlinson 2014; Tomlinson 2017). How applicants’ and students’ attitudes to universities and the role of higher education in their expectations for their futures will develop over the coming decade is of course yet to be seen.  Currently £25K per annum but under review (Augar, P. 2019).

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1.3 Institutional Diversity Currently we are witnessing one of the most turbulent times in the history of UK higher education. Since 2013 there have been at least five government ministers responsible for higher education and three general elections. There are more institutions in the UK entitled to call themselves a university with degree awarding powers than ever before, and the sector has become more complex, including both public and, increasingly, private providers. As I write, there are 162 universities in the UK in receipt of public funding,4 ranging in size from small specialist institutions of around 1000 students to large city centre institutions with over 30,000 and including one institution, the Open University, whose students are all distance learners.5 The comparability of university degrees across the UK sector is, in theory at least, assured by a system of external examiners and a range of other quality assurance regimes that aim to ensure parity. Nonetheless, the past histories of UK universities can still influence their ethos, what they offer in respect of teaching, advice and guidance and facilities, and how they are structured and managed. There are real differences in institutional size, financial resources, staff:student ratios, facilities and services provided, the range of courses offered, and teaching methods used (large lectures, seminars, laboratory classes, face to face and or distance or online learning) and their location (city centre or suburban), organisational structures (single location, distributed campuses, collegial, with or without on-site accommodation) and so on. All of these can have significant and different impacts on the experiences of their students (Sect. 4.2 in Chap. 4). There are also ‘pecking orders’ in respect of the perceived status of individual HEIs. In 1994, soon after the abolition of the ‘binary divide’ a self-selected group of vice-chancellors of well-established teaching and research institutions decided that they wished a more powerful voice in their dealings with the funding bodies and government than they felt  http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/facts-and-stats/Pages/higher-education-data.aspx.  Further education colleges who deliver degree courses validated by HEIs are not included in this count. 4 5

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they had through the representative bodies for all institutions now known as Universities UK (UUK) and GuildHE. These institutions, plus the few others admitted to their ranks more recently, comprise the 24-strong Russell Group and describe themselves as ‘leading UK universities’.6 Such elitism within the sector has been reinforced by league tables that rank UK institutions on the basis of measures that can range from student retention figures, degree performance and career progression to academic research quality (see Sect. 6.2 in Chap. 6 and Turnbull 2018). In general, and as a crude rule of thumb, the oldest institutions tend to populate the top half of league tables, while the former polytechnic universities and those teaching establishments only achieving university status in the twenty-first century are more likely, although not certainly, to be found lower down. Differences in the perceived status of institutions and the qualifications they offer affect student choice, their expectations and experiences and, unfortunately not only how others may view the value of their degrees and thus their employment prospects but also how they may view their own self-worth.

1.4 Student Diversity As much as UK HEIs are diverse, this is even more the case for the student body. Answering the question ‘Who are our students? in the 1950s or early 1960s might have been relatively easy: students were predominantly young adults who had recently completed their secondary education in a private or well-regarded state grammar school7 and were white and male. In the first wave of post Robbins expansion in the 1960s, privately educated students still made up a large proportion of the student population, but many more now came from state-funded grammar schools or had state scholarships that had made it possible for those from more modest backgrounds to attend fee-paying private schools. Many of  https://russellgroup.ac.uk/about/.  Grammar schools were state funded secondary educational institutions that admitted post-­ primary pupils on the basis of a competitive entrance examination at around the age of 11- the ’11 plus’. Those who failed the exam went to Secondary Modern Schools for their secondary education. This system was largely abolished in 1965 and replaced with non-selective Comprehensive Schools. 6 7

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these latter were what in North America are called first-generation students. However, even if their parents may not have been to university themselves, most were nonetheless otherwise well-educated and had high aspirations for their children. The latest available figures as I write show that the likelihood of a person in the 17 to 30 year age group attending university is 50.2 percent.8 The aim of successive governments since the 1960s has been both to increase overall student numbers and also widen participation to include those from varied financial, social and cultural backgrounds. The outcome has been the transformation of the pre-1960 elite university population dominated by upper- and middle-class men to one encompassing a much broader cross section that somewhat more closely reflects the UK population of young adults, although for at least the last ten years, women have significantly outnumbered men (see note 8). The student population also includes many mature students who had missed their chance to enter university when they left school or had previously had low expectations for their futures. The opportunities for part-time study have also expanded, allowing those who do not have the means or desire to fund full time course attendance, to choose to study for their degrees over an extended period, often while also working or fulfilling family responsibilities (Sects. 4.3–4.5 in Chap. 4). We know more about our students and their backgrounds than ever before. UK legislation and government-funded quangos involved in attempting to measure quality and impact require all institutions to monitor their student population profiles. While those who come directly from secondary education to university or after a break of only a year are still in the majority, the UK student body is far less homogeneous and more difficult to characterise than ever before. When we use the word ‘student’ in a generic sense we should be aware that we are referring to individuals who differ in respect of their age, gender, ethnicity, social background and financial circumstances, but also in many other important ways that can affect their aspirations, expectations and experiences (see below).  https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/843542/Publication_HEIPR1718.pdf.

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Direct action by government through financial incentives and penalties—carrots and sticks—have required recruitment strategies to target those who are under-represented in respect of, for example, their ethnicity, disability and social class, and much effort has been expended by institutions to  increase the diversity of their student populations. Currently, the most commonly used indicator of social background  is home postcode: higher education participation rates within each postcode area are used as a proxy for determining socio-economic advantage and disadvantage.9 Efforts to increase the number of applicants from low participation neighbourhoods appear to have had some success in respect of full-time undergraduate students and the proportion from the lower POLAR quintiles attending university have steadily risen over the past five or so years. However, there remains an overall under-­ representation as well as significant differences between institutions in the proportion of their students who come from areas of social disadvantage, who are often referred to as WP (widening participation) students. Social science researchers continue to study the barriers experienced by individuals for whom continuation from school to higher education may not seem a natural step, nor be supported or fully understood by their family, friends and local community (for example: Clayton et al. 2009; Crozier 2008; Crozier and Reay 2011; Thomas et al. 2005). Inevitably, general statistics mask a great variety in student demographics in respect of not only institution but also subject studied. Oxford and Cambridge in particular have been chastised for the relatively small proportions of students they admit from state-funded schools and minority ethnic backgrounds, although both institutions have pledged to halve the gap between those from the most and least privileged backgrounds (Havergal 2019) in response to new demands made by the Office for Students (OfS),10 the non-governmental regulatory body for higher education in England. Changes in the composition of the student population have also been stimulated by UK human rights legislation. This was initially developed  POLAR 4 is currently the most up-to-date version of the POLAR classifications: see https://www. officeforstudents.org.uk/data-and-analysis/polar-participation-of-local-areas/. 10  https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk. 9

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piecemeal, but in 2010 the Equality Act (HM Government 2015) created a streamlined legal framework that aimed to protect the rights of individuals and advance equality of opportunity for all. HEIs have a legal responsibility to ensure that no applicant or student experiences any avoidable disadvantage in respect of, for example, institutional admissions policies or procedures, the teaching and support provided on-­ course, their access to facilities and in preparation for their future careers, as a consequence of their age, disability, gender reassignment, pregnancy, maternity, race, religion or belief, or sex or sexual orientation (these latter are known as ‘protected characteristics’). In the same year, the government introduced the Disabled Students’ Allowance (DSA) in order to help students with disabilities, specific learning difficulties (SpLDs) (see Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2) or long-term physical or mental health conditions meet the cost of any additional expenditure necessary to ensure that they are able to fully participate in their chosen course of study.11 Even before the more powerful Equality Act came into force, the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) was beginning to have a significant impact on the composition of the student population. A particular focus of concern was those whose pathway through school and access to higher education and completion of a university course was hindered as a consequence of their dyslexia or what was at the time referred to as a Specific Learning Difficulty (see Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2). In 1994 a group of professionals established a National Working Party on Dyslexia in Higher Education. Their self-imposed task was to address the key questions concerning the adequacy of higher education responses to students with dyslexia, and the ways that HE might respond while maintaining academic standards and equality of opportunity (Singleton 1999. The 1997 Dearing Report also alerted the sector to the committee’s concerns about the level of understanding of the challenges of disability (Dearing 1997, Sub-report 6, Section 4.17). The DDA had brandished a stick by making it illegal for educational institutions to discriminate against those with disabilities but in the mid 1990s, the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) and Department of Education for Northern Ireland (DENI) proffered  See https://www.ucas.com/finance/additional-funding/disabled-students-allowances-dsas.

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carrots in the form of funding for a series of special initiatives that aimed to support HEIs in addressing inequalities in the admission, retention and achievement of students with disabilities, physical and mental health difficulties and special needs (this latter was the terminology used at the time for those with dyslexia and other difficulties that impacted on their learning styles). Universities were offered the opportunity to bid for funding on a competitive basis to support projects that aimed to improve understanding of the barriers to the admission and progression of those under-represented in HE and disadvantaged by the  current practices. Institutions successful in gaining funding were required have a robust dissemination strategy for the outcomes of their work so that the sector as a whole could ultimately benefit. The overall impact of the funded projects was significant, not only in respect of providing a very much better understanding of how those students now referred to as neurodiverse (see Sect. 2.7  in Chap. 2), and those with disabilities and health difficulties could be encouraged to apply for HE admission, but also in supporting the further development of specialist support and guidance across the sector. The proportion of applicants who felt confident about declaring a disability or other difficulty at the time of application began to increase significantly, making it easier for institutions to make adjustments to living and learning environments and put appropriate support in place even before new students began their studies. HE providers continue to make good strides in widening access for disabled students: their numbers increased from c.16,700 new entrants in 2003–04 to c.51,300 in 2012–13 (HEFCE 2015, p. 3). Further discussion of provision for students who are neurodiverse, or experience and physical or mental health difficulties can be found in Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2 and Chap. 3 respectively. Student populations are constantly shifting in their composition as a result of governmental initiatives and policies affecting both higher and secondary education. More widespread demographic and societal changes also have significant impacts. A case in point is gender balance: the proportion of women in the UK student population was very low prior to the 1960s HE expansion, but it had risen to 45 percent in 1985 and to 57 percent in 2017/18. It has remained steadily at this level through to

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2019/21.12 The Organisation for Economic Co-cooperation and Development (OECD) (Vincent-Lancrin 2008, p.271) predicted that by 2025 this might have risen to 71 percent, reflecting society-wide changes in women’s roles and aspirations. Whole population statistics mask considerable gender differences in subject choice. For example, the Higher Education Statistical Agency (HESA) data for 2017/8 show a fairly even gender balance amongst those studying science subjects at undergraduate level (52% female), but a disproportionately high percentage (61%) of women studying non-science subjects. The student population has also changed in respect of student nationality. The UK has the been one of the world’s top student study abroad destinations for many years, but changes in governmental funding models have increased the financial importance for the sector of the higher fee paying international students. In 1961/2 those then referred to as overseas students accounted for 7 percent of the undergraduate and 32 percent of the postgraduate fulltime student population, of whom the majority were from Commonwealth countries (Robbins 1963, para. 47, p.16). By 2016/17, these proportions had risen to 15 percent and 53 percent respectively. Currently, a significant majority of the non-EU students are from China; other countries represented by relatively large numbers of students include Malaysia, USA, India, and Nigeria.13 Analysis by other personal characteristics such as age, ethnicity, cultural background, religion, sexuality, gender identity and mode of study (full or part-time) also demonstrate the changing nature of student populations over time and between institutions. Although I do here sometimes use terms such as’ international’ or BAME (Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic) for the sake of writing convenience, at the same time I acknowledge and indeed emphasise my belief that these are not appropriately nuanced descriptors and risk minimising the diversity that exists within each broad demographic. Very many international students may have far more in common with home, that is UK  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/sb258/figure-5.  https://www.ukcisa.org.uk/Research%2D%2DPolicy/Statistics/International-student-statistics-UKhigher-education.

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students, than with others who travel from outside the UK to study. BAME students are very diverse in respect of their cultural, ethnic, social and educational backgrounds, as are the broad and often imprecisely defined age group referred to as ‘mature’ students. I feel uncomfortable about the indiscriminate use of descriptors that attempt to stereotype the attitudes and behaviours—how they like to communicate, their use of social media, their preferred learning styles, their ambitions, their work ethics, their resilience and their interests—of sequential generations of students born since the mid-1940s. Using terms such as Baby Boomers, Generation X, Millennials/ Generation Y and currently Generation Z and the more judgemental and patronising Snowflake Generation as a shorthand, ignores the considerable diversity within any cohort so typified and the likelihood that students may not be at all happy to hear themselves so described, stereotyped and sometimes patronised and dismissed. All those who teach and advise students might usefully remember that while there can of course be shared generational, situational or societal influences affecting the ways that individuals act, think, behave and live, these will remain very diverse and largely unpredictable. What is very likely to be the case is that many of the experiences, behaviours and aspirations of students today are very different from those of their teachers and advisers and the writers of the policies that define institutional/student relationships. Many of the early post-1960 student generations were, in respect of their broad educational, cultural and aspirational backgrounds, not so very unlike their teachers. This is not self-­ evidently the case today as can be seen from the current academic staff demographic: the latest available statistics indicate that 44 percent are at least 46 years old and thus likely to have begun their own degree courses a quarter of a century or longer before the students they are teaching. Only 16 percent are from a black or minority ethnic background in contrast to nearly a quarter of the current student population.14 Student populations today are diverse in many different ways and in each institution are likely to include those who are: 14

 https://www.hesa.ac.uk/news/24-01-2019/sb253-higher-education-staff-statistics.

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from a very wide range of cultural and ethnic backgrounds; from any one of well over 100 countries spread across the globe; native English speakers or struggling to improve their English comprehension and verbal or written fluency; gay, straight, transitioning, transgender, non-binary, uncertain about their identity…. refugees from war-torn countries; challenged in their academic studies by their neurodiversity, disability, or chronic health problems; managing significant family or other caring responsibilities; exploring learning for learning’s sake, pursuing an already mapped out career path, or without any sense of direction beyond graduation; well-funded, or needing to work alongside their studies to pay fees or living costs; practicing believers with a strong religious faith, agnostic or atheist; from close and supportive family backgrounds, without support or in abusive or controlling relationships; committed to making the world a better place, wanting to earn a big salary, or with no idea about their future direction; heavy drinkers or abstainers, or recreational drug takers and even addicts; involved in sporting activities, party animals, loners and so on and so on…

The subjects they are studying are also likely to be making very different demands on each of them. Despite the many genuine and vigorous efforts made and successes achieved in widening access to HE, it must be said that there is still a significant way to go not only in respect of admissions, but also in completion rates and degree outcomes. Recent analyses of retention rates and student achievement have revealed concerning differences in the academic and career outcomes of, for example, BAME students, those with disabilities, men, and those from WP backgrounds when compared to their other peers (Sects. 2.7 and 2.14 in Chap. 2).15

 The most recent data can be found on the OfS website at: https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/ data-and-analysis/differences-in-student-outcomes/. 15

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1.5 T  he Development of Pastoral Support and Student Services in the UK16 The early Oxford and Cambridge Colleges were essentially religious foundations for male students and run by clerics whose primary function was to educate those who would become their young colleagues and ultimately their successors. Colleges provided students with a home where they slept, ate communally and received their teaching. The first recorded use of the word ‘tutor’ was found in the early fourteenth century documents of these two institutions. Those who fulfilled this role had both teaching and pastoral duties. In the fifteenth century they were described as also being responsible for the conduct and instruction of their young students (Moore 1968). Over time, universities introduced statutes to regulate student behaviour in order to protect the reputations of both the students and their institutions. By the seventeenth century it was expected that ‘moral tutors’ as they were then called,17 had a responsibility to their college and to the students’ parents (Raines and Leathers 2003). The universities of the time were deemed to be acting in loco parentis (in place of parents) (Sect. 5.4 in Chap. 5) with both a legal and a moral responsibility to take care of their students and regulate their private lives, ensuring that they adhered to the prevailing moral and behavioural standards. It was other staff in the colleges who had a responsibility for the academic supervision of students, establishing what at the time was seen as an important principle that academic and non-academic personal guidance should be kept separate. One aspect of UK higher education that had a defining impact on the development of pastoral care across the sector is an expectation that most school leavers will, in normal circumstances, leave home to go away to university rather than attend their local institution, even when this is wellregarded and offers an appropriate course of study. This separation from family was and is still viewed by many as an important part of a process of transition into adulthood for young school leavers, providing them with  A more detailed summary of UK student services can be found in Grant (2008).  The term ‘moral tutor’ is still used in Oxford to refer to the member of a student’s college to whom a student can turn if they have concerns about their teaching or general welfare. 16 17

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the opportunity to learn how to be independent. It has been made possible outside Oxbridge by the provision of extensive institutional accommodation in most of the non-collegiate universities established from the late nineteenth century onwards. Halls of Residence were often overseen by a warden, usually a member of staff who often also held an academic role in their university. Wardens were responsible for the welfare of students living in their hall, they ate with them in the evenings in a communal dining room and had a responsibility for discipline and good order. Teaching was delivered outside the living environment and students had access to departmental tutors whose role was to offer academic guidance. At a time when the age of majority in the UK was 21 years, it is not surprising to find this oversight of young students’ personal lives and behaviour, although many of those who were students in the mid-1960s found the restrictions imposed to be very irksome. Even in the so-called ‘swinging 60s’ when there was a significant shift in societal attitudes toward sex outside marriage, students could be and some were expelled or temporarily withdrawn from their courses if they were found to have members of the opposite sex in their rooms outside defined hours, particularly in the collegiate institutions. However, many of the non-­ collegiate residences built during the expansion of the sector from the mid 1960s onwards were provided with communal kitchens so that students could either cater for themselves or eat in central institutional canteens (see Sect. 4.3  in Chap. 4). Once the legal age of majority was lowered to 18 in 1970, tight control of students’ personal lives began to be seen as irrelevant and intrusive. However, at the same time as close oversight of students’ living arrangements and behaviour was relaxing, the demand for specialised support and guidance in both the academic and personal aspects of their lives began to grow. Until the second half of the twentieth century advice on matters such as finances, the management of disabilities or mental and physical health difficulties and personal and family problems were not necessarily considered as an institutional responsibility beyond that which could be offered by academic staff in their roles as tutors, wardens of halls of residence, university nurses (these were common in many HEIs until 15 or 20 years ago) or the local General Practitioner (GP). The exception was careers advice: the first specialist student advisory service in the UK HE sector

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was Oxford University’s Appointments Committee, founded in 1892. Cambridge followed a few years later in 1902. Prior to the establishment of the Oxford committee, students were helped to find appropriate ‘appointments’ on graduation through the personal patronage and recommendations of their tutors, who used their own connections to help them to progress into the very narrow range of careers then thought suitable for an Oxford graduate, which were primarily the church, teaching and the civil services of the British Empire, and only somewhat later, the commercial world (Weston 1994, p.14). Today, as is the case for all other careers services now to be found across the sector, the Oxford service offers informed and impartial advice, guidance and development opportunities together with information about the wide range of employment possibilities now available across many different employment sectors (Sect. 2.10 in Chap. 2). An important but undeservedly unrecognised pioneer in the development of central provision for students experiencing academic and personal difficulties is to be found in the work of a young lecturer in the 1940s. When Mary Swainson was teaching at what was then Leicester College (since 1957 the University of Leicester) she encountered many students she believed needed individual advice to avoid failing their courses. Reflecting later on the students she had taught when she first started working at Leicester, she wrote of their crucial need for psychological help with personal problems and educational guidance (Swainson 1977, p.  41). Despite much opposition and prejudice on the part of many of her academic colleagues, some of whom believed that all advice should remain the remit of the tutor, and with the help of her head of department and a local consultant psychiatrist, a Psychological Advisory Service was quietly and quasi-unofficially established at Leicester College. Swainson’s commitment to student wellbeing, her insight, compassion and fighting and pioneering spirit ultimately led to recognition of the importance of her work and in 1955 the university finally awarded formal status to what had in reality been operating since 1948 as the first higher education counselling service in the UK. Other institutions gradually followed this early lead and as far as I can tell, all UK universities now have their own counselling services, or provide access to shared or external facilities.

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A wide range of other specialist advisory roles has now developed across the sector in response to changing student profiles and expectations. The 1990s and early 2000s was a particularly important time for student service expansion and diversification. The most influential forces behind these developments have almost certainly been the staff who worked very closely with students and drew attention to the challenges faced by, for example students with SpLDs or other neurodiversity (Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2) or who were experiencing physical or mental health difficulties (Chap. 3). These staff were supported in the late 1990s by grants from HEFCE (see above) and in other important ways by UUK and GuildHE and their predecessors CVCP and SCOP.  Advisory staff and counsellors raised their heads above the parapet to fight for a role within HE for professional and impartial advice on matters well beyond those that most academic tutors could be expected to respond to without the appropriate specialist knowledge, skill, experience and confidence. The former lobbied within and without their own institutions, they published reports for the sector outlining their concerns (Rana et al. 1999; CVCP 2000; AMOSSHE 2001) and organised national conferences, often gaining weight and critical mass through their several professional bodies, including the overarching professional body, AMOSSHE,18 the student services organisation representing leaders of student services and their staff. Other professional networks have grown up to guide and support specialist advisory staff including ADSHE and Patoss (SpLD advisors), NASMA (money advisers), AGCAS (careers advisers), AUCC and HUCS (counsellors), NADO and NADP (disability), UKCISA (international students), UMHAN (mental health), and WDHE (academic study). UUK and GuildHE19 have also played an important a role in supporting these organisations. The success of these largely bottom-up endeavours is evident across the sector: most institutions now offer access to professional advice, guidance and/or counselling in respect of all or most of the following:

 https://www.amosshe.org.uk.  see Abbreviations, p. xxx.

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academic learning, writing and language skills; career ambitions and skills development; specific learning differences (SPLDs) and neurodiversity; disability and physical and mental wellbeing; finances and financial management; accommodation requirements and practicalities; concerns about visa renewal, immigration, acculturation and integration; religious and spiritual belief and observance; practical and personal concerns; and in many, a great deal more.

Student services staff are also likely to play a key part in many of the other aspects of institutional provision in respect of the journeys of their students from recruitment and induction to graduation, many of which are explored below and in the following chapters.

1.6 Institutional Role and Status Individual HEIs take very different approaches to the organisation, scale, location, role and funding of their professional advisory services, and their internal status and level of influence varies significantly across the sector. Despite their growth and the ever increasing political and societal concern in respect of students’ academic and career success, retention and wellbeing, many of those working in the student services sector can find that their current and, perhaps even more significantly, potential institutional value is neither fully understood nor taken advantage of, particularly at a strategic level. Their role is often viewed by senior managers as one that is essentially remedial and reactive, focussing on helping individuals who present with difficulties through reactive responses. In other institutions, student services have a broader role in helping students to develop as confident adults. They are well respected, valued and understood as an essential and integral feature of what higher education institutions are about. The value of the insights that come from advisers’ extensive and direct contact with the realities of students’ institutional experiences and personal lives is recognised and taken full

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advantage of at strategic as well as operation level. A crude indication of the status and influence accorded can be gained from looking at the position of the student advisory services within an institution’s pyramidal management structure. For some years, AMOSSHE’s annual survey of its members asked heads of service how many steps away from their Vice-­ Chancellor they stood. A very few reported directly to the head of their institution, but the majority were only one or at the most two steps further down, reporting to a Deputy- or Pro-Vice Chancellor or Registrar, or to the head of a major administrative unit (Grant 2005). The strength and value of any message and the depth of understanding that the messenger brings is inevitably weakened by the number of times information is passed on from those directly involved up a hierarchical ladder before reaching its most crucial and influential destination. Heads of student services and specialist advisers who are fully informed about and involved in relevant developments across their institutions, given representation on internal working parties and key committees and afforded a respect and authority as equals are able to challenge decisions that might otherwise have unthought of consequences to the detriment of their students, and at the same time offer suggestions for alternative strategies. I have been fortunate to have worked in HEIs where I was able to establish strong relationships with academic staff (see 1.9) and given a seat on all the key committees concerned with student matters. I owe much to the opportunities these created to share information and enhance mutual understanding. Professional advisers are the eyes and ears of their institutions and can provide feedback on the ways that students experience institutional procedures, processes and facilities, how they view the ways they are taught, supervised, encouraged to learn and examined, the academic and personal pressures they experience, their health and wellbeing and their enthusiasms and successes. Through their direct contact with a diverse range of students they are able identify what goes beyond the individual and may be indicative of systematic weaknesses for which solutions or adjustments might be found at institutional level, or identify institutional and departmental strengths that might be further developed or expanded for the benefit of the student body as a whole. It is vital that this is acknowledged by their position within their institution’s hierarchies, and that their mission is understood as the promotion and

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enhancement of the success of all students, not just those who are experiencing problems at any particular moment. Within HE institutions there can be a perhaps inevitable although entirely undesirable tension between the academic and administrative ‘sides’ of universities. The nature of the work that professional advisory staff undertake does not fit neatly into either context, but while this can be somewhat institutionally isolating it can offer a level of independence that enhances the trust that the student body and academic staff have that the advice given is impartial and confidential.

1.7 Student Services Structures Across the HE sector, many different approaches have been taken to the organisational structuring of the different elements of student advisory provision. The early careers and counselling services tended to operate as quasi-independent units, separately located and reporting to whomever within their individual institutions seemed the most appropriate. Linked services began to be developed in some 1960s HEIs but more particularly in the 1970s in what was then the polytechnic sector (Sect. 1.3 in Chap. 1). Integrating and co-locating the specialist advisory services is generally viewed as best practice in respect of meeting student need for advice, guidance and welfare support in the most accessible, effective and holistic manner possible. A ‘one stop shop’ approach creates a single point of contact for the very many different queries and concerns students may have, providing a clear and direct pathway for those who are unsure where the most relevant help might be found. It can also reduce the fear of stigma that can be a barrier to help seeking for many (Sect. 3.7  in Chap. 3); (Thomas et al. 2002, pp. 71–74). Student services reception staff often play an important initial filtering function, helping to ensure quick and relevant responses to student concerns. Grouping together advisory staff with different areas of expertise is professionally invigorating and facilitates cross referral for students whose concerns are not unidimensional  as is  often the case. Centralisation of provision can also provide a more coherent management structure for staff and make it

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easier for tutors and administrative staff to refer on students for professional guidance. A range of other models of provision, structure, internal alignments and delivery modes can be found across the sector but there is not sufficient space here to discuss these in any depth, nor is this my primary purpose. I do though wish to stress the benefits of an integrated provision that genuinely views the student as a whole person and not as a series of separate difficulties or concerns, however this is achieved institutionally. Organisational structures that crosscut the silo effect of traditional vertical hierarchies and encourage the exchange of ideas and concerns can benefit all involved whether these be students, academics or other institutional staff. In one institution a fortnightly meeting, chaired by the head of student services, brought together advisors from each of the specialist areas of advisory provision, students and senior staff from the students’ union, representatives of the library, student accommodation, estates, campus security, the multifaith centre and academic and administrative staff responsible for both undergraduate and postgraduate matters. A representative of the bus service that served the campus, and the institution’s adjacent GP service were also invited to attend at least termly, as were any others whose views could contribute to improving students’ experiences. The agendas were structured but all were free to raise matters of concern and suggest ideas for further consideration. Minutes of the meetings were sent to the Vice-Chancellor and other senior institutional staff, and from the comments received in response, they were read and taken note of. One matter of concern voiced by many student services advisory staff relates to an increase in the outsourcing to external providers of some elements of student support, particularly those relating to disability, specific learning difficulties, counselling and/or mental health. In many institutions these had previously been viewed as an institutional responsibility. Experienced and professional as external providers may be, the risk of breaking the vital link between students’ difficulties and the institutional context in which they occur is significant. If this is not well understood, the quality of support offered may be compromised and the opportunities for direct feedback by these external advisors of the particular and

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possibly institutionally-related challenges faced by the students they see is likely to be limited, or only ever second- or third-hand.

1.8 Funding Student Services In an increasingly resource-constrained sector, HEIs will always be anxious to cut costs by avoiding what they perceive as unnecessary expenditure. Over the last two to three decades the growth of student services has expanded a sector that was once limited to careers and counselling provision and funded accordingly. I understand why heads of student services are rarely greeted with a broad smile when they knock on the doors of those responsible for resource allocation to ask for further funding, usually in order to meet growing student demand. For many of the senior administrative staff currently working in HE, their own university experience may have been at a time when some of those services now seen as essential did not exist. I still remember the response to a request I made many years ago for funding to develop a new mental wellbeing service: ‘when you provide a new service, all you do is create a new demand.’ Of course, there is some element of truth in this, but today the rising tide of student need for guidance and advice outside the academic teaching context cannot be denied. Those who work in this area do not need survey results to know that the support and guidance they provide is highly valued by students. For example, service use statistics from one institution’s integrated student advice centre showed that over the three years of a single cohort’s undergraduate experience, 70 percent had a booked and attended a consultation with at least one of the professional advisers; some of the students had used the services as many as 50 times. If asked, most advisory staff are likely to feel that overall, the provision they offer is underfunded to the extent that they unable to meet demand as quickly and effectively as they would like, let alone feel able to develop and implement proactive initiatives. Students themselves are becoming far more vocal about the importance of well-funded and timely professional advice and guidance. When a representative sample of over 1000 undergraduate students were asked to choose which three of seven options they wanted in respect of their relationship with their university,

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‘personalised advice and support’ was ranked in the overall top three, chosen by 80 percent of the respondents UUK 2017, p. 7)). This research did not ask specifically about the role of student services in providing such support, but a different survey conducted two years later (Neves and Hillman 2019) asked students to indicate which of 14 elements of university spending were the most acceptable use of tuition fees. Top of the list was teaching facilities (60%), but this was very closely followed by student support services (58%).20 It can be very difficult to make economies in order to meet rising demand without compromising the unique effectiveness of one-to-one student contact in a confidential setting. Nonetheless, judicious use of self-help resources (web sites, mobile phone apps, web- and paper-based guidance, peer support groups and workshops can all be helpful. Proactive initiatives informed by concerns that have been flagged up by analysis of service usage and other institutional data can also be very effective in preventing problems arising or worsening and ensuring rapid response when they do. However, ensuring that such initiatives are well-planned and robustly evaluated may well require additional investment of resources, at least in the short term. Student service providers need to be clear about their own underpinning principles and the limits of their roles and their boundaries: their role should certainly not be expected be limitless (see Sect. 5.13 in Chap. 5). Each professional service area inevitably develops its own aims, scope, principles, theoretical underpinnings and ethos and working practices in line with those of their profession organisations, their institutional culture and student service mission and the diversity of their student population, but these may well include reference to some or all of the following: sensitivity to the diversity of their institution’s population in respect of age, gender and gender identity, ethnicity, sexual orientation, prior educational experience, academic progress, social and cultural background and belief; advice and guidance that aims to find a balance between direct support or intervention and promoting student confidence and ability to resolve difficulties themselves;  In this survey, careers services, at 46%, were included as separate category.

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proactive, anticipating and responding to changing student expectations and institutional developments; confidential, impartial, compassionate and professional, underpinned by transparent policies and procedures; evidence based, using existing academic and other research, surveys, focus groups and data analysis to inform the ongoing development and review of policy and practice and underpinning principles.

Perhaps the most important role that advisors can play is to give individual students the opportunity to be heard and understood and have their concerns acknowledged and their feelings respected—something that is not always easily found in an increasingly pressured world within and beyond the higher education environment.

1.9 P  ersonal Tutors and Their Relationships with Professional Advisers It is now rare to find academic staff living with students in university accommodation (Sect. 4.3 in Chap. 4) other than in some of the collegiate institutions, but many HEIs have maintained a personal tutor system that operates on more or less traditional lines (Hixenbaugh et  al. 2006), providing a source of academic and, increasingly, also personal advice to their allocated tutees. Views about the desirability of separating the academic and the personal have gradually changed: the personal tutor, or equivalent, may now be expected to fulfil a more holistic role and respond to their tutees’ academic and personal concerns in recognition of the potential impact of learners’ personal circumstances on their academic progress and achievement. One of the consequences of increasing student demand for advice, particularly in respect of their mental wellbeing is an enhanced interest in strengthening personal tutoring within HE. A decade or so ago it appeared that some institutions were struggling to maintain their provision and looking for different and possibly more effective models (Grant 2006). However, there appears to be a growing expectation that academics who take on formal or even informal advisory roles should contribute to the sector-wide drive to improve

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academic achievement, retention and career progression rates—data often used in league table compilations (Sect. 6.2 in Chap. 6) and this has re-kindled interest in departmentally-based tutorial systems. A United Kingdom Advising and Tutoring association (UKAT)21 and a sector wide personal tutor network22 have been established to facilitate the exchange of information about the different approaches adopted and their effectiveness. New resources have been developed and conferences organised. The list of books and articles written to guide tutors has also grown significantly (for example, Hixenbaugh et al. 2006; Walker 2018). At institutional level, increasing attention is being given to training those who have personal tutor responsibilities and providing clear role definitions and guidance materials, although in some institutions this has been part of institutional practice for many years. Throughout my own working life in student services, the strongest and most frequent cross-institutional relationships were not with the administrative colleagues with whom student services were grouped in managerial structures, but with academic staff, especially those who held a personal tutor role. While most of the day-to-day work of any professional adviser is likely to be student-facing, a significant proportion is also likely to involve direct contact with teaching staff who are concerned about their students and seeking advice on how best to respond to the difficulties presented. The role of a departmental personal tutor has become increasingly challenging as students’ requests for help and advice are no longer limited to their concerns about academic matters and may include the disclosure of very challenging personal and health difficulties. Advice and reassurance from student service staff can save faculty time, stress and concern and help ensure a greater consistency of tutorial and other departmental advisory practice. Student services staff may also be involved in delivering personal tutor and research supervisor training programmes and may provide written or web-based guidance for reference purposes (Grant and Woolfson 2001). Trusting relationships between academic and professional student advisory staff help the former to feel confident about asking for advice and in seeking reassurance that  https://www.ukat.uk.  PersonalTutoring at Jiscmail.ac.uk.

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there are limits to what can reasonably be expected of them as academics (see Sect. 5.13 in Chap. 5). Student advisory staff may also wish to seek information from personal tutors about the academic context within which students’ concerns are situated, while of course preserving the students’ anonymity or with their full permission.

1.10 The Student Voice and Students’ Unions During the course of their day to day work, professional advisors are likely to have face-to-face conversations with very large numbers of students from diverse academic, social and cultural backgrounds studying at all levels from first year undergraduate to PhD researcher. These interactions give them a unique insight into the academic and personal experiences, positive and negative of the student population within their institutions. Through their membership of professional bodies and the sharing of ideas and practice with their co-members, the scale and scope of their understanding is broadened and also subjected to appropriate challenge and critical appraisal. Students are of course more than capable of speaking for themselves and they can and do raise matters of concern and provide positive and negative feedback through their unions, their responses to the many surveys they are likely to be asked to complete and their representation on institutional committees and departmental staff:student fora. The annual election of students’ union officers gives an opportunity for the student community to participate in a process that provides representatives to sit on institutional committees and consultative bodies and thus help to shape their community academically, culturally and socially. As much as it is vital to have student service representation on relevant decision-­ making committees and working groups, this is also the case for a student presence. Challenge is vital for the health of all institutions and student views need to be listened to and taken very seriously. Independence from the institution allows student unions to be the critical friend that can lobby for increased resources, alert their institution to problem areas, and feed in fresh ideas.

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The Dearing report made an important point about ensuring that students have access to independent advice from their unions (Dearing 1997, para. 8.55) especially when they wish to make a complaint about such matters as their institution’s teaching, learning resources and facilities or the provision of services, and in particular, when they want to appeal against a mark or a disciplinary decision. Professional advisory staff must also aim to be impartial in respect of the advice they offer, and in my experience, most are prepared to stand up and challenge their university on behalf of their students whenever necessary. However, their impartiality at must at the very be least be carefully considered as they are in most circumstances university employees. I agree with Dearing that independent advice must be available when students wish to make complaints about their institutions, but in many cases, the optimum outcomes for a student can be achieved when respectful relationships exist between union and institutional advisory staff that allow confidential discussion (normally anonymised) about difficult cases or with the full permission of the students involved. In practice, relationships between students’ unions and their host institutions can range from cooperative, trusting and respectful to oppositional and somewhat aggressive or something in between. I have witnessed the enormous benefit of collaborative relationships with unions when the latter really did act as critical friends and there was a sense of shared endeavour for the benefit of all, and much collaboration in addressing key student concerns. At other times a there has been a culture of strong criticism, very little evident friendship, and competition in respect of who ‘owns’ which element of institutional provision, knowledge or expertise. One of the major challenges in maintaining ongoing collaborative relationships with unions is the usual annual turnover of their elected officers, each of whom is likely to have their own interests and agendas. I have found most elected officers to be passionate, committed, insightful and hard-working but this has not always been the case and working collaboratively can sometimes be very difficult. There is much more that could and indeed should be said about the relationships between student’s unions and their institutions, and what makes them most effective in enhancing the lives of their students. A number of writers have begun to address this matter including Bell (2006), Day and Dickinson (2018),

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Greatrix (2012) and Grills (2015). I have little doubt that further exploration of ways of strengthening university: student union collaboration and joint working practices that are better adapted to the current academic, political and social climate and the changing expectations of students could be very valuable. This however is an opportunity for another researcher and a different book. In the following chapters I aim to shed further light on what matters to students and how student services professionals, explicitly and from behind the scenes, can help institutions to more deeply understand how students react to their HE experiences, the value they derive from their study and the other opportunities available to them, and how these could be enhanced. In Chaps. 2, 3 and 4 I address, respectively, three key areas: academic and careers support, promoting health and wellbeing and the importance of providing an inclusive, safe and supportive community. In Chap. 5 I examine some of the moral and ethical challenges faced by institutions and their professional advisors and in the concluding Chap. 6, I pick up some of the threads left dangling in earlier discussions, including the impact of league tables, the importance of using research to inform practice, the further professionalisation of the student advisory sector and the importance of raising the latter’s profile by formally recognising their role as an essential element of higher education and not merely an optional add-on.

References AMOSSHE. 2001. Responding to Student Mental Health Issues: ‘Duty of Care’ Responsibilities for Student Services in Higher Education. Winchester: AMOSSHE. Augar, Philip. 2019. Independent Panel Report to the Review of Post-18 Education and Funding. London: HMG Department of Education. Bell, Tom, Paul Greatrix, and Claire Horton. 2006. Universities and Their Unions: The Future Relationship Between Universities and Students’ Unions. Coventry: The University of Warwick. BIS. 2012. Higher Education: Students at the Heart of the System. London: Department for Business Innovation and Skills.

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———. 2016. Higher Education: Students at the Heart of the System. Success as a Knowledge Economy: Teaching Excellence, Social Mobility and Student Choice. London: Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Browne, Edmund J. P. 2010. Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education: An Independent Review of Higher Education Funding and Student Finance. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ uploads/attachment_data/file/422565/bis-­10-­1208-­securing-­sustainable-­ higher-­education-­browne-­report.pdf. Clayton, John, Gill Crozier and Diane Reay 2009. “Home and Away: Risk, Familiarity and the Multiple Geographies of the HE Experience”. International Studies in Sociology of Education 19 (no. 3–4): 157-174. Crozier, Gill. 2008. The Socio-Cultural and Learning Experiences of Working Class Students in HE. Full Research Report, ESRC End of Award Report, RES-139-25-0208. Swindon: Economic and Social Research Council. Crozier, Gill, and Diane Reay. 2011. Capital Accumulation: Working-class Students Learning How to Learn in HE. Teaching in Higher Education 16 (2): 145–155. CVCP. 2000. CVCP/SCOP Student Suicide Project. London: Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals. Day, Mike, and Jim Dickinson. 2018. David Versus Goliath: The Past, Present and Future of Students’ Unions in the UK. In HEPI Reports 111. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute. Dearing, Ron. 1997. Higher Education in the Learning Society : The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Grant, Annie. 2005. The Organisation, Scale and Scope of Student Service Provision in AMOSSHE Institutions. Journal of Student Services in Higher Education 1: 12–20. Grant, A. 2006. Personal Tutoring: A System in Crisis? In Personal Tutoring in Higher Education Paula Hixenbaugh, ed. Liz Thomas and Steven Barfield, 11–20. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books. Grant, Annie. 2008. United Kingdom. In Chapter 22 in Internationalization of Student Affairs and Services, ed. Kenneth Osfield and Associates, 169–182. Washington, DC: NASPA. Grant, Annie, and Myra Woolfson 2001. Responding to Students in Difficulty: A Cross-Institutional Collaboration. AUCC Newsletter and Journal, February 2001.

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Greatrix, Paul. 2012. Working With, Not Against: Students’ Unions Now Focus on Cooperation, Not Opposition. Times Higher Education, March 15, p. 35. Grills, Aiden. 2015. The Relationship Between Universities and Students’ Unions. Association of Heads of University Administration (website). https:// www.ahua.ac.uk/the-­r elationship-­b etween-­u niversities-­a nd-­s tudents­unions/. Havergal, Chris. 2019. Oxford and Cambridge Aim to Halve Rich Versus Poor Entry Gap. Times Higher Education, September 9 2019, p. 15. HEFCE. 2015. Delivering Opportunities for Students and Maximising their Success Evidence for Policy and Practice 2015–2020. Bristol: Higher Education Funding Council for England. Hixenbaugh, Paula, Liz Thomas, and Steven Barfield, eds. 2006. Personal Tutoring in Higher Education. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books. HM Government. 2015. Equality Act 2010: Guidance. London: Her Majesty’s Government. Holmwood, John, Tom Hickey, Rachel Cohen, and Sean Wallis, eds. 2016. In Defence of Public Higher Education: Knowledge for a Successful Society. London: The Convention for Higher Education. Kandiko, Camille, and Matt Mawer. 2013. Student Expectations and Perceptions of Higher Education. London: King’s Learning Institute. Moore, Will G. 1968. The Tutorial System and Its Future. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Neves, Johnathan, and Nick Hillman. 2019. Student Academic Experience Survey 2019. York: Higher Education Policy Institute. Raines, J. Patrick, and Charles G. Leathers. 2003. The Economic Institutions of Higher Education: Economic Theories of University Behaviour. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. Rana, Ravi, Eileen Smith, and Julie Walkling. 1999. The Impact of Increasing Levels of Psychological Disturbance Amongst Students in Higher Education. Lutterworth, Leicestershire: British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy. Robbins, Lionel. 1963. Higher Education. Report of the of the Committee Appointed by the Prime Minister Under the Chairmanship of Lord Robbins 1961–63. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Singleton, Chris. 1999. Dyslexia in Higher Education: Policy, Provision and Practice. Hull: University of Hull. Swainson, M. 1977. The Spirit of Counsel. The Story of a Pioneer in Student Counselling. London: Neville Spearman.

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Thomas, L., J. Quinn, K. Slack, L. Casey, C. Dennison, J. Astley, and R. Jones. 2002. Student Services: Effective Approaches to Retaining Students in Higher Education. Stafford: Institute for Access Studies, Staffordshire University. Thomas, L., H. May, H. Harrop, M. Houston, H. Knox, M.F. Lee, M. Osborne, H.  Pudner, and C.  Trotman. 2005. From the Margins to the Mainstream: Embedding Widening Participation in Higher Education. London: Universities UK/Standing Conference of Principals (SCOP). Tomlinson, Michael. 2014. Exploring the Impact of Policy Changes on Students’ Attitudes and Approaches to Learning in Higher Education. York: The Higher Education Academy. ———. 2017. Student Perceptions of Themselves as ‘Consumers’ of Higher Education. British Journal of Sociology of Education 38 (4): 450–467. Turnbull, Sally. 2018. A Guide to UK League Tables in Higher Education. In HEPI Reports 101. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute. UUK. 2017. Education, Consumer Rights and Maintaining Trust. What Students Want from their University. London: Universities UK. Vincent-Lancrin, S. 2008. The Reversal of Gender Inequalities in Higher Education: An On-going Trend. In Higher Education to 2030, Volume 1: Demography. Paris: OECD Publishing. Walker, B. 2018. A Defining Moment for Personal Tutoring: Reflections on Personal Tutor Definitions and their Implications. Impact. The University of Lincoln Journal of Higher Education Research 1: 1–11. Weston, Timothy. 1994. From Appointments to Careers: History of the Oxford University Careers Service 1892–1992. Oxford: Oxford University Careers Service.

2 Academic Achievement and Career Progression

2.1 Introduction The main focus of this chapter is the role played by professional learning advisory staff in support of students’ academic achievements. It includes discussion of the impact of students’ backgrounds and prior experiences, their transition to higher education and the challenges of ensuring equality in respect of student outcomes. It highlights the particular difficulties that may be faced by international students, those with specific learning differences and postgraduate students. The last sections of the chapter address institutional responsibilities for preparing students for their futures beyond graduation, institutional relationships with employers and the factors that can result in inequalities in graduates’ career progression.

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2.2 T  he Transition to Higher Education Learning Most students begin their higher education courses feeling enthusiastic and ready to face the challenges ahead, even if also somewhat nervous. Some adapt quickly to the new academic environment while others find that they are not as well-prepared as they expected for some of the unfamiliar and challenging learning modes and assessment tasks required. New students arrive with a wide range of educational backgrounds and prior life experiences. Their secondary education may have been completed very recently or several years ago, their entry qualifications gained in a school or college, through an access course, an English language preparation course or even via experiential learning in a work environment. They may have previously studied in the UK, another Anglophonic country or a non-English speaking environment. Whatever their background, there may be a mismatch between their previously acquired skills, knowledge and understanding and those needed to be successful in higher education in the UK.  Students studying subjects such as medicine, pharmacy, law or teaching may also meet for the first time the concept of professionalism embedded within the academic content of their degree, requiring their behaviours and attitudes to be evaluated alongside their academic performance (Sect. 5.7 in Chap. 5). Some on courses with relatively few teaching hours but requiring a great deal of individual study may find that they lack the self-study skills motivation and time management ability necessary to thrive in an environment that does not provide the tight structure to which they may have been accustomed during their secondary education. Others may find the opposite and become overwhelmed by the demands of lectures, seminars or lab work and the volume and difficulty of the coursework required. Faced with the realities of the choices they have made, some begin to find themselves uncertain of their own motivations for making university the next step in their lives. They may also fear that they have chosen the ‘wrong’ subject. An internal survey of a cohort of students who had not continued into the second year of their undergraduate (UG) courses indicated that for nearly half of the respondents, a major contributory factor

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was that their expectations of their course had not been met; a further third felt that they had chosen the wrong course. Typical of the comments received were the three I quote here: I was only just 18 and not ready to cope with university life. I decided to take a year off to think of alternatives; I chose the wrong course because I didn’t go into it in depth; I do not think I was ready and chose a course I thought I would be able to get a job with and not one I enjoyed.

Some degree of dissatisfaction or uncertainty about course choice was registered by around a third of the 14,000 first year full-time undergraduates who responded to a 2017 Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI) survey, although there was significant variation across disciplines. As the authors of the survey report note, it is not surprising that preferences and interests change over time (Neves and Hillman 2017, p. 2). It is perhaps also the case that the increasing costs of higher education, and anxiety about graduate career opportunities, often fuelled by media coverage and parental pressure, have pushed some students to choose a subject that might appear to offer the best career future but does not fully engage with their interests. There are real risks for students who have adopted such instrumental approaches to course choice and sadly find themselves unenthusiastic about their subject and lacking a strong enough motivation to undertake the work required to achieve good grades. Research into the experiences of students from widening participation backgrounds (Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1; Reay 2001; Reay et al. 2001, 2005) identified academic concerns, lack of academic engagement and feelings of not fitting into an unfamiliar academic environment as important influences on those who had considered or were considering dropping out. Students interviewed as part of Crozier and Reay’s (2011) research on student retention and engagement also spoke of their personal experiences of adjusting to an unfamiliar academic environment. Speaking of his initial experiences at what is described as an elite selective university, one student spoke of how unprepared he was when he first arrived and the length of time it took to understand what was wanted from him by the university in comparison to others who understood ‘what it was

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about’ (p. 146). A mature, student spoke of the difficulty of restarting her studies after a 25 year gap and how she had to ‘learn as she went along’ to write her essays (p. 148). It is vital that HEIs provide information that is sufficiently detailed and accurate for prospective students to be able to form realistic expectations of the content and demands of the courses offered, as well as a sense of the academic and social environment they will enter and the career opportunities they might have once they graduate. In the worst cases, disillusion can lead to stress and mental ill-health, voluntary withdrawal or course failure. Course completion rates are of much concern to HEIs, as they constitute one of the performance measures used in many league table calculations and quality assurance methodologies (Sect. 6.2  in Chap. 6). They are also of significant interest to charitable organisations such as the Sutton Trust Foundation, which is committed to improving social mobility and overcoming educational disadvantage and lack of opportunity (see Sect. 2.14 below).

2.3 Learning Enhancement Whatever the uncertainties and challenges students face as they begin their courses, these are likely to be exacerbated if they find that they do not yet have the academic skills to cope with the tasks they are expected to undertake and be judged by. Amongst these, a mastery of both generic learning skills and discipline-specific academic writing must rate as amongst some of the most crucial and universal, as Mary Swainson (1977, p. 41), pointed out over 40 years ago. When student numbers were relatively low and staff:student ratios high, lecturers and personal tutors might have found the time to offer individual guidance on writing and study. As the demands on these staff increased and the time available for such personal support became more difficult to find, levels of frustration amongst academics grew and increasing numbers began to voice their concerns about their students’ writing fluency, grammar and punctuation, and the structuring of their work. Some also felt strongly that it was not their responsibility to teach the rudiments of good grammatical writing: in their view these should have

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been learned at school. Changing attitudes to teaching grammar to school children in the latter half of the twentieth century meant that many who were students in the 1980s and 90s had missed out (Andrews et al. 2006). I remember posting off a grammar primer in response a desperate phone call from my daughter. She had just started an undergraduate degree course in Hispanic Studies and had discovered that despite being a fluent Spanish speaker she now needed the formal understanding of grammar that she had not been taught in either her primary or secondary schools. The successes of widening participation initiatives and increasing student numbers had also broadened the educational, cultural and social backgrounds of the student population, creating different and often increased demands on academic staff. In recognition of the challenges faced by both students and staff, institutions began to establish academic writing and study advice units. The creation of one of the earliest of such units was in large part stimulated by the complaints of academics about student ‘deficiencies’ and their frustration that they did not have the time or some cases the skills to provide an effective remedy. At this institution one of the starting points was a survey of academics in order to find out what they believed to be the most common difficulties faced by students in meeting the institution’s academic expectations. The outcomes of this research informed the priorities for the early development of the one-to-­ one guidance, workshops and study guidance leaflets offered in response. At the same time, some academics did more than complain and began to apply for grants to fund research in the area of student learning and writing in tertiary education. Lea and Street’s (1998) ESRC-funded investigation of academic literacies is one important example. In 1994, the Writing Development in Higher Education network (WDHE)1 was created, bringing together academics who were researching writing pedagogy and theory with specialist learning enhancement practitioners. These latter were not necessarily academics themselves but well-qualified professional staff with significant experience of helping students to develop the knowledge, skills and understanding needed to study effectively. This bottom up movement was strengthened by concerns raised at  The WDHE now has international membership and organises a well-respected biennial conference. 1

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a national level: one of the key recommendations of the Dearing inquiry report (Sect. 1.2 in Chap. 1) was that there should be a focus on learning skills and that students should be supported in becoming effective learners (Dearing 1997, para. 8.5). It is not always easy to measure the impact of government policy recommendations particularly, as was the case for the Dearing report, it was only one of 93 others, including the introduction of student fees, new quality assurance requirements and central student complaints procedures, all of which engendered far more political and institutional attention. Nonetheless, since the publication of the report, in addition to the many other changes in the HE landscapes of the new millennium, the steady growth in the scale and scope of the centralised advice services summarised in Chap. 1 has increasingly encompassed study-related advice. The latest AMOSSHE membership survey found that many of its members have learning skills units within their areas of responsibility. In other institutions broadly equivalent provision can be found in libraries, learning and teaching development centres or within faculty structures. Over time, these centres have developed and diversified. What is offered to students may include individual one-to one guidance from professional advisory staff, stand-alone workshops, sessions integrated within academic courses, resource-banks of on-line material and the peer assisted learning (PAL) opportunities discussed below (Sect. 2.9). While the initial focus tended to be on student writing, the scope of what is now provided can be much broader in response to difficulties that some students find in, for example, mastering the elements of courses that require competence in basic maths and statistics. Many HEIs now provide such guidance for students studying subjects that include nursing and the social sciences where the crucial importance of numeracy is not always fully realised by applicants or by those making choices about their options later on in their courses. Institutional provision in this area is supported by an increasing range of widely available online resources, in including ‘mathcentre’,2 a site that provides open access to a growing range of self-­guidance documents and videos, some of which are even specifically designed for mobile phone use.  http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/search/?q=number+theory&saudience=all&cat%5B%5D=4.

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There is no doubt that the opportunities offered are much used and well appreciated by students. One learning enhancement unit experienced an overall growth in demand for appointments with learning advisory staff of 150 percent in a period of just 5 years. The rise in the number of individual students seeking appointments was even greater, a demand that could only be met by a reduction in the average number of sessions offered per student and the additional provision of workshops and online resources. It is clear that there remains a need for academic guidance that is at least as acute now as it was when the Dearing Report’s recommendation I reference above was published. The activities of learning enhancement units and the professional networks that support them have certainly raised the profile of their work and the value of study guidance, but it is not entirely certain that the professionalism, underpinning principles and theory, and the experientially and research—informed work that learning enhancement practitioners undertake is sufficiently well understood and respected by academics and those at senior level in all institutions. I suspect that many assume that the work of these units is remedial and that those who consult them are struggling to gain good grades or are at risk of course failure. Yes, this is true for some but not, in my experience, necessarily for the majority of those who seek guidance. Many who seek out study guidance are doing well but aspire to do better or have encountered a particular aspect of their study that is unusually challenging. Many may be international students struggling to master the nuances of English language (Sect. 2.5). Internal research on the degree outcomes of those who had sought advice in one institution found that a significant majority went on to gain ‘good’ degrees (that is 1st or 2:1 classifications). These grades reflect not only the quality of the study  guidance offered but also and crucially, the self-­ awareness and commitment of the students who sought help. For some, it may not be an easy matter to find the motivation or confidence to do this: sensitive encouragement from academic staff may be needed. Understanding the barriers to help seeking is vital if institutions wish to ensure that all who might benefit from the guidance available do seek it out (see Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3). Academic writing and study advisers have developed their provision in line with their direct experience of student difficulty and uncertainty.

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They make very clear the distinction between teaching subject knowledge—the responsibility of faculty—and advising on the development of academic skills within both a generic and a discipline-specific context. They may provide guidance on the technical aspects of writing including grammar and punctuation, on interpreting essay questions and assignment tasks, structuring written work, referencing conventions, examination and revision techniques, preparing for and delivering presentations and the development of self-learning skills, including time management. They may also help students interpret their lecturer’s comments on their coursework thus bridging any gaps between students’ understanding of what lecturers want them to do and what students think they want them to do. Good study guidance helps students to engage with their subjects at a deeper level, understand the cultures and languages of writing in different disciplines and develop the critical thinking skills that allow them to move from a reliance on external authorities (lecturers and textbooks or, much worse, unvalidated digital resources) to being able to construct, articulate and defend objectively a voice and authority of their own. This task is one of ‘academic socialisation’ as Lea and Street’s (1998) research on academic literacy reminded us 20 years or so ago (p. 158). Some of the vocabulary of academic feedback used then and still in use today is not always easily understood by students. Indeed, some of the academics interviewed as part of this research project found themselves unable to clearly define or explain in detail terms such as ‘critically analyse’, ‘evaluate, or ‘reach a synthesis’. One lecturer interviewed for the research commented that although she could recognise a good essay, she could not describe how to write it (p. 162). In the world of academic learning, an understanding of the discipline-­ specific elements of writing for assessment is vital and may be best developed through collaborative approaches involving academic and advisory staff and also librarians. Helping students to develop their skills in ways that deepen their learning goes a long way beyond the acquisition of a set of generic study skills that can be applied with equal effectiveness across all subjects, valuable as many of these can be. It also requires the learning adviser to be sensitive to differences in the approaches to academic

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writing and the learning and assessment tasks that are particular to the various disciplinary cultures. Students from all backgrounds can find the adjustment to higher education challenging, but this may be more acute for those whose prior experiences have not provided them with an ease of expression, a rich vocabulary or the independent study skills necessary in an HE context. The impartial and confidential advice of an academic learning adviser who is not directly involved in teaching the subject discipline but has a broad grasp of it can be more helpful to a student than that from a lecturer deeply embedded in his or her own academic culture and struggling to meet a burden of teaching, research, administrative and pastoral responsibilities. Helping students to clarify their lecturer’s expectations and showing them how to present their own ideas is not the same as teaching students from a subject discipline perspective. Many students feel comfortable when raising their queries and uncertainties with their lecturers and tutors, but others can feel ashamed or embarrassed about revealing what they perceive as their weaknesses to those who teach them and will mark their work. A common theme raised in some of the research on the experiences of students from socially and economically deprived backgrounds is their self-doubt and lack of confidence in their own abilities, as we also learn from the students who participated in Crozier and Reay’s (2011) research referred to above. Many may feel more confident in seeking advice from independent advisors outside their academic department. Undergraduate students are usually most in need of guidance in the first year of their courses, but this does not mean that study advice is no longer required for those further on in their studies. Academic difficulty and pressure often increase over time. Students who have managed well at the start of their courses can find that they would benefit from advice when they meet new challenges, such as the writing of a final undergraduate or masters’ dissertation, as these may require unfamiliar writing and research skills and a different level of stamina and time management. Information literacy, knowing how to use libraries and electronic sources effectively is another increasingly necessary element of student learning. The large and often imposing buildings that house library collections can be both unfamiliar and personally intimidating for new

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students, particularly those whose only previous experience is of their local public or school library. Indeed, underfunded state schools may not have anything like the well-stocked libraries that those of us who grew up in a better resourced education system could access: this needs to be understood by academics as much as by professional librarians. Working collaboratively as equal partners across an institution’s academic, guidance and information service providers with a shared commitment to enhancing mutual understanding and creating a stimulating, creative and supportive learning environment can offer multiple benefits for students and staff.

2.4 Addressing Cheating and Plagiarism Reports of an apparently high incidence of student cheating can have a serious impact on institutional reputations, particularly when they are subject to sensationalised attention from the media, as can happen from time to time. Borrowing the essay of a fellow student or persuading or paying others to complete assignments are not new behaviours, but I suspect they were rarer in the pre-digital age when course work was handwritten and there was no easy access to the vast range of academic resources now available online. Over recent years, a new market has developed. ‘Essay mills’ are web-based enterprises that unashamedly promote their writing services to students. Merely by typing into an internet search engine ‘I want to pay someone to write an essay for me’ provided me with more than 10 pages of links to companies and individuals, most of whom could give me an instant quote for the cost of a piece of written work for which I could specify length, type (essay, dissertation, literature review), subject matter and even the hoped-for grade. It is even possible to pay an ‘expert’ to take students’ online exams for them. Costs vary as, transparently, does quality, but there is no doubt that the discerning shopper with sufficient funds can pay others to complete all their coursework assignments and even their PhD (Morgan 2019). An interesting slant on the business from the supply side was provided by a freelance commercial essay writer with an MBA and a PhD who was interviewed for BBC Radio 4 in 2016. He explained that his motivations

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included his love of learning—he specialises in subjects from philosophy and nursing to physics—his personal satisfaction in the high grades the students who employ him are awarded for their, or rather his, work and revenge for what he sees as the sector’s prejudice against black African candidates for academic posts.3 All reputable institutions have policies which define plagiarism, collusion, cheating and submitting as their own work that has been obtained, copied or bought from others as academic misconduct. Such policies also warn students of the penalties that they may incur should they be found guilty of such academic dishonesty: these may range from formal warnings and the docking of marks to temporary or even permanent exclusion. Some institutions use commercially available plagiarism-detecting software to check submitted work, but concerns have been raised about their value, effectiveness and appropriateness, including the message of automatic distrust that routine use may send to their students (see also Sects. 5.2, 5.6 and 5.7 in Chap. 5). Institutions concerned with protecting their academic integrity and doing their best for their students make vigorous efforts to ensure that all understand what plagiarism is, why it is a matter of concern to the sector, and how to avoid it. Many, if not most students are likely to benefit from guidance on referencing conventions and on how to use the ideas and work of others appropriately: knowing when, what and how to reference is not always straightforward, even for experienced academics. Students may be unsure about how to differentiate between what can be accepted as common knowledge and does not require attribution and what should be formally referenced. They may need guidance on how to paraphrase and précis, when quoting verbatim is appropriate, how to reference such quotes and the thoughts and ideas of others whose lectures, seminars and discussions have helped to inform and shape their own arguments. For some, the institutional warnings about the penalties they risk incurring if they are found to have plagiarised can be very intimidating, particularly if they have no intention of cheating but have little confidence in the value of their own opinions. One student interviewed for a research project said that as the only knowledge they had in response to the question  https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-36276324.

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posed by the essay title came from books, it seemed impossible that they could say anything which was not someone else’s idea (Lea and Street 1998, p. 10). Confidential advice can be very reassuring for those who are worried about plagiarism or have inadvertently plagiarised or failed to reference the work of others appropriately. It is also vital to try to understand and address the reasons why some students feel driven to plagiarise or cheat in other ways, so that proactive measures can be taken. Of course, there may always be some who just do not feel able or are not motivated to do the work required, particularly if they find they have chosen the wrong course, or, in the marketised world of contemporary higher education, feel that as they are paying for their degree, they are entitled have it by whatever means are at their disposal. However, I suspect that many of those who cheat are not intrinsically dishonest or lazy but lack confidence in their skills and knowledge and thus their ability to complete their assessment tasks to their desired standard. Some find themselves unable to manage the many pressures that assail them. They may be trying to fulfil very high family expectations, struggling to balance their academic workload with parental or other caring responsibilities or the part-time work essential to finance their studies. They may have become involved in demanding sporting activities that have taken over their lives, or, very commonly, have poor time management skills. Others may be prone to perfectionism or to procrastination and may need a combination of both academic and personal advice (see Sect. 2.8) to help them to find ways of overcoming their difficulties. The language and related academic challenges experienced by non-­ native English speakers discussed below (Sect. 2.5) are also important factors to be considered when tackling plagiarism. Many academics believe that the incidence of cheating is higher amongst international than home students (Magyar 2012), but this perception may be skewed by the detection methods employed. Plagiarised text can be relatively easy to recognise in the writing of non-native English speakers if their own writing has errors that do not occur in plagiarised text and thus stand out more clearly than in the plagiarised writing of native English speakers. Hayes and Introna (2005) warn that the ‘plagiarism’ detected by electronic detection software may not take account of the way some language

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learners are encouraged  to learn English by imitating whole phrases, a strategy that helps to establish the building blocks necessary to develop complexity in language. They also point out that paraphrasing, a common and legitimate way of avoiding plagiarism, is a difficult skill to master for non-native speakers who may lack the necessary breadth of vocabulary. The imperative to address such possible misconceptions and reputational injustices further highlights the importance of making specialist advice available and easily accessible to all students as well as paying due regard to different academic practices and cultural attitudes to the copying of text and the ownership of knowledge (Sect. 2.5). As Macfarlane has suggested, the sector needs to avoid the ‘moral panic’ that can overtake compassion when responding to students who are suspected of plagiarism and learn to trust them (Macfarlane 2017; and Sect. 5.11  in Chap. 5).

2.5 EU and International Students In 2017–184 there were 468,385, non-UK students studying at higher education level in the UK, 19 percent of the total UK HE student population. A significant proportion of both European Union (EU) and other non-UK students are likely to be non-native English speakers, previously educated in a language and/or an academic culture that differs significantly from that of the UK.  The language skills in speaking, listening, writing and reading of non-native English speakers are normally tested5 prior to full acceptance on UK HE courses, although the minimum skill levels required can vary significantly by institution and course. Unfortunately, the competitive recruitment market for international students can tempt some HEIs to accept students whose lack of easy fluency and writing ability can make their transition to a UK course particularly challenging (see also Sect. 5.11 in Chap. 5). Even those who begin  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/students/where-from.  English language tests include the widely accepted International English Language Testing System (IELTS) which scores speaking, listening, writing and reading skills on scales of 1 (non-user to 9 (expert user). 4 5

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their courses with high language test scores may find that they would nonetheless  benefit from additional language support. Questionnaire responses from the non-native English speakers who participated in an internal research project designed to inform the development of a language and academic skills advisory service showed that as many as a third of those with the relatively high English Language Test System (IELTS) scores of 6.5 and above had nevertheless experienced difficulty in speaking in seminars and expressing their ideas in writing when they began their UK studies; only a fifth claimed to have found these tasks easy. Even those who manage well in social situations may find that they lack the vocabulary and fluency to be able to contribute confidently to academic seminar discussions or express their ideas clearly enough  and with sufficient nuance to produce work of a standard that reflects their intellectual ability. Survey respondents with Chinese and other Asian language backgrounds reported the greatest difficulties, particularly in respect of speaking and writing. This research project also sought the views of academic staff on their non-UK students’ adjustment to the UK academic culture. Overall, staff tended to be somewhat more pessimistic about their students’ skills than the students themselves. One staff respondent commented that their experience was that while students’ spoken and written language could improve quite rapidly, they often had difficulty with exams ‘as they may not accurately interpret the wording of the questions and thus misunderstand what they have been asked to do’. Another commented that ‘many are fine, indeed they are some of our best students. However, a significant number are hopelessly ill-prepared, especially at the taught postgraduate level’. Many positive comments were also made about the improvement students make. Staff were respectful of the amount of time and effort that non-native English speakers put in to develop their English at the same time as keeping up with their academic work. Institutions frequently provide extra-curricular language classes, but in my experience, while many students are keen to have this additional support at the start of their courses, in practice attendance can drop off very quickly. Survey respondents reported that the main reason for this was the competing pressures of attending lectures and seminars and preparing for and completing

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assessment tasks. Some explained that generic classes had limited value for them as they needed to be helped to learn the specialist vocabulary of their chosen discipline: ‘…I’d really appreciate any help in ‘Scientific English’ … I am missing English vocabulary to talk about Maths’. Such comments confirm my view, supported by those of colleagues, that among the most effective approaches for students at the start of their courses include the incorporation of timetabled language learning sessions within the academic context, involving academic teaching and learning advisory staff, together with one-to-one feedback on draft written work to help learning advisers identify where students’ key difficulties lie. Another important finding from this research study is the high value that most respondents attached to their interactions with fellow students in developing their language skills. These were rated almost as highly in their effectiveness as professional language teachers and academic staff: ‘Just being in an English-speaking environment with all that that included is the most helpful’ was the comment from one respondent; many others made similar remarks. Even international students who are highly competent English speakers can have a very great deal to learn about UK academic cultures and expectations. The vocabulary and construction of academic writing differs in many ways from spoken English: bridging this gap can be problematic even for native English speakers. Achieving good grades in the formal essays, reports and dissertations that are such an important a part of the UK academic assessment tradition, requires not only a sophisticated use of English vocabulary and expression but also an understanding of the ways that written work is to be structured and arguments and ideas presented. Teaching methods and assessment tasks, including seminar discussions and oral presentations, can be unfamiliar to those educated outside the UK. Survey respondents commented specifically on the difficulties they had faced in ‘figuring out’ what is expected and had felt overwhelmed by the amount of reading required. An EU student explained her difficulties as stemming from: [t}he fact that in England students are asked to challenge ideas, whereas in France, we tend to be asked to ‘repeat’ what we’ve been taught in class and

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simply apply it without criticising ideas too much. It is a radically different way of teaching.

There can also be profound cultural differences in approaches to the ownership of academic knowledge. An Islamic student interviewed for a research project on plagiarism explained that for her, as all knowledge comes from God, it is to be shared with everybody. The idea of ownership of knowledge and the need to acknowledge those who were merely the first to write it down does not have meaning for her—she was only glad that others might benefit from what she writes (Magyar 2012, p. 10). This is a good example of the importance of taking account of the diversity in the cultural backgrounds and beliefs of the student body when planning approaches to student guidance and the development and implementation of academic regulations, including those concerning plagiarism.

2.6 Postgraduate Students It can be particularly important that those studying at postgraduate masters’ level or on exchange programmes, many of whom may be non-­ native English speakers, are explicitly encouraged to take full advantage of language learning provision at the start of their courses, as the typical one-year course or exchange programme can give little time for adjustment to the UK academic environment before the first assessments are due to be submitted. Those who have previously done well in their own countries may not realise that in order to gain good marks in the UK it may not be enough to have sound knowledge and understanding of the subject matter: they also require the skills and ability to write well, express ideas and defend an argument according to UK academic conventions. This was a part of the problem for the student whose experiences and near failure I mention in Sect. 5.11 in Chap. 5. The transition to a research environment presents new challenges for all students, even for those who have recently completed an undergraduate or taught postgraduate course. New research and analytical skills may be needed, including the sophisticated use of spreadsheets and unfamiliar statistical techniques. The advice of specialist library staff may be essential

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for those who need to make use of online bibliographical resources and databases. An advanced level of accuracy and sophistication in grammar and expression is usually expected from both native and non-native speakers. I have supervised the doctoral research of non-native English speakers who were rather surprised when I explained that while they had demonstrated adequate language skills in their master’s dissertations, in order to satisfy the examiners of their doctoral theses they would need to make continuing efforts to improve both their written and spoken English, tasks that for some can be very challenging without individual guidance and feedback. Research supervisors frequently play an important, time-consuming and often unacknowledged role in helping students to improve their writing. This was highlighted by some of the staff who responded to the international students’ language skills project discussed above (Sect. 2.5): As a supervisor, I try to support language/grammar etc as well as concept and content, but it would be very useful if students had more formalised training and support in these areas.

The amount of time that individual academics are able, prepared or feel skilled enough to give, also varies significantly: To be honest, most academic staff are not qualified to teach English as a foreign language and it doesn’t seem fair on the tutor or the student to engage in this.

It is not surprising that many postgraduates make use of institutional learning enhancement services. As I emphasise again below, it is difficult and often unhelpful to try to neatly separate the impact of academic and personal difficulties on student progress and achievement and this can be particularly evident in respect of research students. Time management and sustaining the emotional energy required to keep going for three or often more years can be very challenging, particularly for humanities and social sciences students whose research can be of a rather solitary and even isolating in nature in comparison to that undertaken in a laboratory environment. Feeling stuck and losing confidence in their ability to sustain the demands of

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postgraduate research and thesis writing is common, particularly in my experience, in the middle years of doctoral research. Coping with inadequate finances can also be very stressful: many PGR students run out of funding before they have completed their research and thesis writing or may have even been self-funding throughout their studies. A fear of failure and its consequences can have a debilitating impact on progress. Postgraduates’ concerns about their work-life balance were highlighted in Slight’s (2017) analysis of responses to the 2017 HEA Postgraduate Research Experience Survey (PRES). She paints a largely positive picture, with 85 percent reporting that they felt their programme to be worthwhile (p. 5). However, at the same time, only 65 percent reported that they were happy with their work-life balance. High levels of concern about work-life balance were also reported by the respondents to a major international study of postgraduate wellbeing (Evans et al. 2018); see also Sect. 5.8 in Chap. 5).

2.7 Equality of Academic Outcome One of the great successes of the last 30 or so years has been the expansion of mainstream higher education opportunities for those broadly classified as disabled by physical or sensory impairment or mental ill-­ health (see Chap. 3) and for those who are have what are often referred to as specific learning differences or difficulties (SpLDs). The most well-­ known and common of these is dyslexia, but the term can also be used to include dyscalculia and dyspraxia and Attention Deficit Disorder/ Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD/ADHD) and the ‘high end’ of the Autism Spectrum (sometimes referred to as Asperger’s). However as some of the characteristics of these conditions overlap, rather than applying a specific label to students the term neurodiverse is increasingly used as an overarching descriptor. Much of the groundwork underpinning institutional recognition of neurodiversity and encouraging growing numbers of students with SpLDs to apply for HE courses was undertaken between the mid-1990s and the early 2000s through a range of targeted  national  funding council initiatives (Sect. 1.4  in Chap. 1). There had been no explicit policy of exclusion from HE participation,

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but ignorance, prejudice, lack of encouragement and low expectations from school days onwards were common. The conditions were not well understood, nor necessarily even recognised, and the focus tended to be on what disabled and neurodiverse students could not do rather than on their strengths. Such support systems as existed, including the presence of professionally qualified and skilled advisory staff in schools and universities, were rarely well-enough developed, funded and publicised to make it self-evident to a prospective student that they would be professionally supported to achieve their academic goals. SpLDs are characterised by neurologically based processing differences. These can interfere with the mastery of skills such as spelling, reading, writing and mathematics and/or with planning, organisation, short or long-term memory recall and abstract reasoning which are so important in many academic contexts. For decades, and certainly into the mid twentieth century and beyond, the causes of and even the very existence of SpLDs such as dyslexia were disputed, including by some psychologists. Some sceptics labelled dyslexia as a ‘middle class condition’, used by parents to excuse the academic performance of children who were not as successful as they hoped they would be. Unfortunately, some prejudice still exists although it has generally been accepted that many of the difficulties faced by students with SpLDs are due not to a lack of academic ability but to differences in the ways that their brains take in, process and use information. Defining students by the difficulties they face risks a labelling that is the opposite of helpful and can impact negatively on students’ self-esteem and confidence and the ways others respond to them. It can also promote a potentially unhelpful medical approach to thinking about disability in contrast to the more positive and compassionate ‘social model’ of disability defined in the preamble to the United Nations (UN) Assembly’s Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability: ‘disability results from the interaction between persons with impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others’. (United Nations 2008, Preamble (e)). For students with dyslexia and with visual impairments, the primacy of the written word in the UK academic culture can raise potentially

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insuperable barriers. Reading and writing tend to be privileged above verbal expression: the most commonly used assessment tasks tend to be essay, report or dissertation writing and formal examinations. For those with dyslexia there is frequently a significant mismatch between their abilities to express themselves verbally and in writing. Indeed, it is the contrast between these abilities that can suggest undiagnosed dyslexia as the root cause of a student’s difficulties, and one hopes, stimulate referral for assessment and subsequent specialist guidance. Managing academic life with a SpLD will almost inevitably bring additional stresses even if students have access to specialist advice. We live in a world of the written word—textbooks, emails, posters, social media, instructions, directions, forms, timetables and so on. Processing words and planning and time management are likely to remain more stressful for the many neurodiverse students who have to put in far more effort and time than is required by the student majority in order to achieve the same outcomes. The UK Equality Act of 2010 requires ‘reasonable’ adjustments,‘accommodations’ to use UN terminology—to be made to the learning environment to ensure that students with neurological differences and disabilities are not treated less favourably than others (Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1). In practical terms, defining what is reasonable is not straightforward and the adjustments required can be challenging to implement at the level of the institution, the subject discipline and for individual academics who teach and mark the work of such students (see Sect. 5.10  in Chap. 5). It is now generally accepted as reasonable to allow relevant students additional time to complete time-limited tests and examinations. Most HEIs have formal policies that allow an additional 25 percent time allowance for those assessed as having a SpLD or relevant disability or physical or sensory impairment affecting their ability to complete their assessment tasks within a tight timeframe. Other adjustments may also need to be made in response to students’ individual circumstances, including large print text for assessment instructions, written documents on coloured paper, an amanuensis to scribe verbal answers or decode illegible handwriting or the opportunity to sit an examination in a quiet room instead of a large examination hall. Many institutions offer students the option of a using sticker to identify that their exam scripts or coursework is that of a student who has a SpLD or other difficulty or

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disability,  without, it is hoped, undermining the student’s anonymity. Markers must then make decisions about the extent to which spelling and grammatical errors and structural problems can be allowed without compromising academic standards. Specialist learning advisers help students to develop strategies to reduce errors in their work and also provide guidance to teaching staff to help them to understand neurodiversity and its impact in an academic context (see also Sect. 2.14). Students with SpLDs make up by far the largest proportion of those with recognised disabilities in higher education6 but academic and practical adjustments may be needed for students with a wide range of other disabilities and physical and mental health difficulties, including sensory impairments and so-called hidden disabilities such as epilepsy and diabetes, each of which may impact on a person’s ability to engage fully with the academic and professional requirements of their courses and the completion of their assessment tasks, even when time extensions have been granted. Slight’s (2017) analysis of the results of the 2017 postgraduate student survey referred to above (Sect. 2.6) showed that satisfaction with work-life balance was significantly lower for those with specific learning difficulties than for other survey respondents (p. 54). Many of the challenges the former face, including their reading and writing speeds, the organisation of their time and the structuring of their writing can make the already long and taxing task of writing a research dissertation particularly difficult. Current UK legislation requires that institutions be proactive and not merely wait for students to arrive before putting appropriate supportive frameworks in place. Good examples of proactive and anticipatory approaches can be found in the outcomes of a project developed by group of academic geographers as long ago as 2000. The Geography Discipline Network7 produced a series of six documents on ‘Providing Learning Support for Disabled Students Undertaking Fieldwork and Related Activities’.8 Each of the six guides addresses the challenges that disabled and neurodiverse students might face when participating in fieldwork.  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/students/table-15.  https://gdn.glos.ac.uk/disabil/index.htm. 8  http://gdn.glos.ac.uk/disabil.htm. 6 7

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The aim was to help those responsible for planning and running field activities to make them as accessible as possible. Not only are these guides valuable exemplars of ways in which inclusive teaching practices can anticipate students’ needs, they also show the value of partnership working: the project team included academics and student service professionals, and several were jointly written, including those concerning students with dyslexia (Chalkley and Waterfield 2001) and mental health difficulties (see Sect. 6 in Chap 4; Birnie and Grant 2001). Debates about which adjustments are reasonable and fair have stimulated much constructive debate. Subject benchmark statements, originally developed well over a decade ago, now form part of the Quality Assurance Agency’s QAA’s quality code9 (Sect. 6.2  in Chap. 6) and describe the knowledge, understanding, skills and capabilities a graduate with an honours degree in each main discipline or subject area might be expected to have when they complete their course of study. The development and ongoing review of these statements has stimulated critical evaluation of what is truly fundamental to each academic discipline. Questioning if physically or visually disabled students are able or even need to undertake the ‘essential’ field work elements of courses such as geography, biology, geology or archaeology, or asking if it really is vital that all medical students are able to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in order to qualify as a doctor has challenged entrenched beliefs, prejudices and habitual practices. As a result, accommodations have been made and alternative approaches developed that do not undermine the academic and professional standards that must be achieved by those who graduate. Many students with physical and sensory difficulties can and do undertake fieldwork or other seemingly impossible tasks if the direction of thinking is towards positivity, focussing on what students can and not what they cannot do (Gardner and Anwar 2001). Physically disabled students who had for decades been refused admission to medical schools on the grounds that they would not be able to perform CPR, challenged the prevailing view that this was an essential element of professional competency for all student doctors and doctors in training. In response, in 2013 the General Medical Council (GMC) reviewed its  https://www.qaa.ac.uk/quality-code/subject-benchmark-statements.

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position and its current statement on the matter is that in respect of the achievement of this particular learning outcome, there can be flexibility in allowing those training to be a doctor to demonstrate that they can either undertake CPR themselves or direct others to do so (GMC 2013, para. 9). This was an important step in widening access to medicine for those with certain physical disabilities. The GMC now provides regularly updated guidance on the accommodations that can be made10; many of these are also relevant for practicing doctors whose difficulties develop later in their careers. Despite significant developments in the support available and an increase in institutional understanding, there remains an ongoing need to watch for and counteract any explicit or implicit prejudices in HEIs at institutional and individual level. I suspect that some teaching staff still believe that the guidance provided by dyslexia advisers effectively amounts to the re-writing of essays for those who seek their help, and they may challenge or at least question whether the accommodations made for some are compatible with the achievement of the academic standards required for all. Some fail to fully understand the professionalism of SpLD and other advisers and the clear boundaries maintained between skills development and the inappropriate editing or rewriting of written work.11 The objective of the adviser is always to help students to develop individualised strategies which they can adopt to overcome or adapt to their differences. The integration of dyslexia support within an academic writing service instead of a disability unit helps to dispel some of the academic prejudices and enhances the status of the highly skilled and professional work undertaken. Such a grouping within an integrated student service (Sect. 1.7 in Chap. 1) also encourages the sharing of e­ xpertise and knowledge between all advisory staff and increases the chance that students whose neurodiversity has not yet been recognised will be picked up and referrals made to the relevant specialist staff.  https://www.gmc-uk.org/registration-and-licensing/join-the-register/plab/plab-2-guide/ what-reasonable-adjustments-can-we-make. 11  Membership of a professional body such as ADSHE or Patoss is obligatory for SpLD tutors working in HE, and their work is governed by their codes of conduct. All are required by their professional organisations to submit annual evidence of Continuing Professional Development (CPD). 10

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At the same time it is important to acknowledge that teaching and assessing the work of neurologically diverse and disabled students can put significant additional pressure on academic staff (Sect. 5.13 in Chap. 5), even though many of the straightforward but nonetheless valuable adjustments advised for students with SpLDs, including clear text on presentation slides and notes and reading materials in advance of lectures, are likely to have value for all students, including those with sensory or physical difficulties that impact on their speed of processing, writing and note taking, or on their stamina. Providing transcripts in advance of lectures and filming lectures so that they can be put online, are now common practices and can be very helpful for those who find it difficult to take notes in lectures. However, concerns have been raised about a possible negative impact on student attendance at, or full engagement with, online lectures, resulting in a lowering of student achievement (Edwards and Clinton 2019). This is a matter that would benefit from further research on the particular contribution to degree outcomes of face-toface and real-time interaction with academic staff, as concerns about student engagement and poor lecture attendance are being raised across the sector. The need for research is even more urgent following the major shift to online learning in response to the global Covid-19 pandemic that began in late 2019. School and university systems in the UK use a range of assessment modes to measure academic progress and achievement in most subjects at undergraduate and taught master’s levels. While in many institutions and subject areas, the balance of types of assessment has, to a greater or lesser degree, shifted somewhat from time-limited examinations to a more varied assessment diet including coursework, presentations, lab reports and so on. This may reduce some of the assessment anxiety within the student population but for some students the opposite effect is possible—giving oral presentations can be very challenging (Sect. 2.11). Timed examinations are likely to remain an important element of assessment for many institutions and subjects despite their disproportionately negative impact on some students. An experiment undertaken to address a gender gap in students’ achievements in mathematics and computing examinations has, I hope, opened up a new strand in the debates about equality of outcome in the sector. At the University of

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Oxford, the difference between the proportion of men and women achieving first class degrees in mathematics finals in 2016 was 24 percent. When the time allowed was extended by 15 minutes, but the examination papers remained unchanged, women’s performance improved significantly: in 2017 the gender gap was reduced to 8 percent. This was attributed to differences in male and female responses to the pressure of having to complete their papers within a very tight timeframe. As one might imagine, responses ranged from the very supportive to the highly critical, but among the former were those who expressed their view that examinations should not be seen as a time trial but a test of achievement, of what a student is capable of doing (Griffiths and Henry 2018). If more examinations were viewed in this way and the stressful race to the finish avoided as much as possible, many others who do not achieve their best in formal examination settings, including those disadvantaged by disabilities, SpLDs, or the burden of writing in a foreign language, might do much better and the sector could begin to close some of the gaps in achievement which may have been exacerbated by differences in students’ reactions to timed examinations taken in the intimidating atmosphere of large examination halls. Oxford says that it will continue its experiments and it is to be hoped that other institutions may also be willing to consider such adjustments in order to address differences in students’ assessment outcomes that are not related to their fundamental academic abilities. Such approaches may also offer a way of reducing some of the high levels of anxiety and stress that are becoming increasingly evident within the student population as a whole (Sect. 3.5 in Chap. 3). Adjustments to teaching practices and assessment requirements have gone a long way to make it possible for disabled and neurodiverse students to achieve good academic outcomes in the HE environment. Nonetheless, many students with SpLDs are likely to remain disadvantaged in academic environments where fluency and accuracy in writing are very important. Unfortunately, this disadvantage may also be carried through to the working environment (see Sect. 2.14). The hope remains that all academic subject teaching will become intrinsically inclusive, with the ultimate goal being to provide a fair, but not necessarily identical playing field for all (Sect. 5.2 in Chap. 5). This is likely to require flexibility of approach, creative problem solving and close and ongoing

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collaborations between academics, advisory staff and administrators in the design of courses and modes of assessment, together with robust evaluation of impact (Sect. 6.4 in Chap. 6). It is not self-evident to me that this is easily achievable in the short term: while most HE institutions are now disability aware, whether or not they are all disability confident is another matter. The academic achievements of students from minority ethnic (Stuart 2009; Stevenson 2012; Stevenson et al. 2019) and lower socio-­ economic backgrounds (Crozier and Reay 2011; Mountford-Zimdars et al. 2015) have also been of both longstanding and very current concern to governments, HEIs and all those who lobby for social justice and equality (see Sect. 5.10 in Chap. 5). Ensuring that clear messages about the availability of academic learning guidance are disseminated during student induction (Sect. 4.6 in Chap. 4) and regularly reinforced, including by academic staff when they give feedback on assessed work, are very important in helping to address inequality of outcome. Any stigma or self-stigma that deters student from seeking help also need to be proactively addressed (Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3).

2.8 A  ddressing the Personal Factors that can Impede Academic Success Barriers to achievement can arise from personal circumstances or challenges. Counselling and mental health services play a very important role in in promoting good living habits and helping students at all levels of study to overcome the personal tendencies such as perfectionism, procrastination, lack of confidence and imposter syndrome (the feeling of lack of worth that is thought to affect female students and academics in particular) that can be detrimental to academic success (Packman 2016; Vaughn et al. 2019). Close working relationships between student learning advisory staff, counsellors and mental health advisers facilitates cross-­ referral for those whose achievements and confidence are being held back by a combination of factors. Learning advisors can be in a unique position to alert academic staff to high levels of demand for advice that

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suggest some courses are proving to be more than usually challenging academically or even emotionally. If this is fed back to those who have designed and deliver the courses, the latter may be able to rethink their approaches. Stress due to content overload, assessment requirements and pressure to succeed has been identified in subjects such as medicine and veterinary science. Unfortunately, fear of the impact of mental ill-health or physical or other difficulties on judgments of students fitness to practice (see Sect. 5.7 in Chap. 5) have been found to inhibit student disclosure and help seeking (Winter et al. 2017; Siquiera Drake et al. 2012; Rhind and Grant 2017; Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3). Getting to the bottom of what will make a fundamental and lasting impact on unnecessary achievement differences is not likely to be easy, nor are the causes of difference straightforward to define. Mountford-­Zimdar and colleague’s (2015) report for HEFCE identified several levels of influence at play within the HE environment. Among the explanatory factors identified were the importance of a sense of belonging (see also Sect. 4.8 in Chap. 4) and the extent to which students feel supported and encouraged. These are areas where both academic advisory and other student services staff have much to offer in respect of the academic, social and personal dimensions of students’ lives, as I hope this book demonstrates.

2.9 Peer Support for Learning Professional advisory staff are not the only source of academic advice within the HE environment. Students have always sought guidance from each other, and they are increasingly being encouraged to learn with their peers in structured settings. In approximately half the submissions made in response to the consultation on the initial proposals for the sector’s Teaching Excellence and Student Outcomes Framework (TEF), the responding universities reported that formal peer assisted learning (PAL) support mechanisms were operating within their institutions. These are likely to have included a range of different models of implementation, including timetabled sessions or optional add-on classes, often facilitated by senior students who have been trained and are supported by academic staff or learning advisers. The peer support model known in the US and

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Australia as Supplemental Instruction (SI) or Peer Assisted Study Sessions (PASS) respectively, has been implemented widely internationally including in the UK (Arendale 2002). There have been many attempts made to evaluate the effectiveness of SI in enhancing student outcomes: Dawson et  al.’s (2014) literature review demonstrated that despite the different methodologies used in the research they analysed, there is evidence to suggest that SI can have academic benefit. However, most studies reported poor or declining attendance despite the evidence for better outcomes for those who stayed the course, although this latter may only indicate that it is the most motivated or able students who keep going. The greatest successes appear to have been in subjects such as mathematics and physics that many find very challenging, especially at the start of their courses. Finding ways to encourage attendance at voluntary events whether these be peer support for academic subject learning, taught language classes for non-native English speakers, or even quasi-compulsory meetings with personal tutors remains an ongoing concern for universities despite the evidence of their beneficial impact on student degree outcomes. However, peer learning initiatives should not be measured solely in terms of grade improvement. Writing groups for postgraduate students that bring together those who otherwise work alone, can help to combat the attendees’ feelings of isolation, improve motivation and overcome writing blocks. When they include students from a range of research disciplines, the cross-disciplinary contact may stimulate participants to transcend their subject boundaries and spark off new approaches and ideas not previously considered (Jeremy Schildt, pers. com). Paloyo and colleague’s (2016) study also drew attention to the potential value of peer learning activities in improving participants’ confidence, assertiveness and effective group working. Less formal peer support such as one-to-one language buddies and ‘conversation cafes’ where native and non-native speakers meet together regularly in informal settings also help new international students to improve their English and integrate socially: a student who responded to the internal institutional survey discussed in Sect. 4.8 in Chap. 4 commented: I am from Mongolia and still have not met any Mongolian [here]. However, my language buddy, Helen, our conversation in English, our relationship and

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exchange of friendship, culture and language make my life complete in England. The language buddy programme is the best contributing activity besides my main course study.

Comments made by the native English speakers involved were also very positive: It actually turned out better than I could have imagined, not only am I able to assist another student but we have become very good friends, so I am extremely happy to have assisted in this volunteering programme.

Participation in such voluntary activities helps students to develop their confidence, their cultural awareness and their ‘employability’, the subject of the final sections of this chapter.

2.10 Preparing for the Future It is not surprising that both UK and US studies have shown that major sources of concern for students were not only academic performance and pressure to succeed but also post-graduation plans (Beiter et  al. 2014; Grant 2002). Careers Services are the oldest of the specialist advisory services in higher education. The University of Oxford’s service was established in 1892  in recognition of the expanding range of opportunities available to graduates outside the narrow confines of the church, the civil service and teaching (Sect. 1.5  in Chap. 1). Today, they are the most extensive and probably best financed element of the UK student advisory sector, supported by a long-established Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services (AGCAS) with over 3000 members.12 Their role in guiding and helping to prepare students for their futures inevitably makes them the most outward facing of all student services, sitting as they do between their institutions and the world of work. This positioning ­however means that they are effectively the servants of four masters, the government, the graduate employer, the university and of course the 12

 https://www.agcas.org.uk.

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student, each with their own priorities and demands intricately intertwined with those of the other players. The scale and scope of the role of the work of careers services in the HE context is far too wide-reaching and complex to do justice to here and what follows is a brief and selective sketch of some aspects of the important roles that careers advisers play.

2.11 Government and Employer Expectations Chapter 1 briefly outlined the aspirations that successive governments have had for higher education to contribute to the UK’s economic growth. Evidence of this transparently instrumental approach was evident in the Enterprise in Higher Education (EHE) initiative of the late 1980s and early 1990s  (Scott 1993). This was conceived by what was then the government’s training agency, in response to the continuing decline of the British economy and concerns that higher education was not adequately equipping graduates with the skills and experiences required to boost economic productivity. All HEIs were invited to bid for grants of up to a million pounds for five-year projects that would embed the development of enterprise within and across institutions, create working partnerships with employers and increase the effectiveness of higher education in preparing students for their working life. Fifty-six institutions were successful in gaining funding, each taking a slightly different approach in line with their own cultures and missions, although the use of the funds awarded was very carefully monitored (Coffield 1990). Subsequent evaluation of the initiative concluded that EHE changed the mindset of HEIs to include employability and enterprise as legitimate concerns and that this was most evident in institutions that had been successful in their bid for funding (Burniston et al. 1999; see also Sect. 6.5 in Chap. 6). Despite the initial expressions of hostility to the very idea that promoting enterprise could have any relevance in an academic context, and to be honest, my own initial scepticism, my involvement led me to conclude that there was a meaningful positive impact on the development of teaching practices that achieved broad EHE aims but at the same time had significant academic and ‘employability’ benefit for students, particularly when new ways of assessment integrated both academic and

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employment-related skills development and were fully embedded within the curriculum (Somervell 1993). One example of a straightforward but very effective project was the brainchild of a professor of chemistry. He had become very concerned that his students’ lack of self-confidence was only too evident when they were asked to contribute to discussions or speak in front of others. He was worried that this would disadvantage talented students in their search for employment or postgraduate study opportunities. His solution was to include a compulsory presentation as one of the formal assessment tasks for all students in each year of their undergraduate study. At the beginning of the project, red-faced first year students stumbled onto the lecture theatre stage in front of an audience of their peers, together with a few interested others, myself  included. They mumbled their brief presentations to their feet and then shot off at high speed while the name of the next ‘sufferer’ was called. Three years later, the same students, many scarcely recognisable, walked with far more confidence onto the stage and delivered a summary of the findings of their final year projects as if to a scientific conference audience. They were clapped as they walked off the platform, pleased and relieved that it was all over, but happy with what they had, with the encouragement and guidance of their professor, been able to achieve. ‘Employability’ is a term often used as a proxy for the skills, knowledge and understanding, and the capabilities, attitudes and personal strengths believed to improve an individual’s chances of securing employment and help them to cope with changing employer expectations as they advance through their careers (Tamkin and Hillage 1999). I am not certain that all of those who make so much of its importance in the HE context really understand how best to provide sufficient and sufficiently creative opportunities for their students to develop the graduate identities that employers are looking for, even if these could be decisively defined given the diversity of the world of work and the roles that employers look to graduates to fulfil. What employers are perhaps most in search of is potential and capability rather than a ready formed set of skills, although those most often mentioned—communication, teamwork, initiative and problem solving together with personal attributes such as self-awareness, confidence and resilience are undoubtedly of value to both graduates and their employers. One of the weakness of the current employability

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rhetoric is that it risks resulting in top-down approaches to the ‘delivery’ of employability rather than offering opportunities that allow students to grow their own confidence and relevant skills. One recent paper has drawn attention to the potential for a wider use of what the authors refer to as ‘authentic assessment’, an approach that aligns academic assessment with what graduates do in a work setting (Villarroel et al. 2020). The use of Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCEs) to test clinical skills in health sciences is a good example although here a clear career path has been established for most students involved and the work that graduates are likely to do is well understood. This is not the case for most humanities and social sciences subjects in particular, although within the archives of the EHE projects of the past, there are many examples of approaches to learning and assessment developed by academics across all disciplines that helped students to develop what has been described by Hinchliffe and Jolly (2011) as ‘functioning employability skills’. Robinson (2005) has also highlighted the importance of understanding the ethical dimensions of business and professional life in  preparing students for graduate employment (Sect. 5.2 in Chap. 5). The contact HE careers services establish with employers provides an important conduit for improving institutional understanding of the changing employment market, including job opportunities and skills shortages. Graduate employers rely on careers advisors to facilitate their contact with students through fairs held on campus and dissemination of information about graduate employers and their vacancies. Employer organisations, including the Association of Graduate Recruiters (AGR) and the more recent Institute of Student Employers (ISE) are also important players. Some of their reports offer feedback on their members’ perceptions of the HE sector, and this is not always positive. In the past they have voiced concerns about the devaluing of degree standards (Alderman 2010), grade inflation (also a matter of concern to HE regulatory bodies (OfS 2018)) and the skills and experiences graduate recruiters are looking for to meet their workforce requirements but failing to find in applicants. A recent blog from the ISE’s chief research officer (Hooley (2019a) challenged the commonly held assumption that employers are only interested in graduates who have achieved at least a 2:1 degree class. Hooley pointed to the decreasing proportion of employers whose initial sorting of

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applicants is based on academic performance, as they view this as effectively outsourcing hiring decisions to others. Such employers are preferring to use their own decision-making tools, including psychometric assessments and online interviews, or setting work-related tasks for applicants as an alternative to relying on academic grades (Hooley 2019b). At the time of writing, reports from the organisations funded by the most prestigious and wealthy employers were painting a positive picture of graduate opportunities particularly in the financial and commercial sectors (AGR 2018). However, the employment market can be very volatile but the HE sector’s ability to respond rapidly can be hampered by the complexity of institutional processes for new course development and approval and Competition and Markets Authority (CMA)13 restrictions and requirements.

2.12 Institutional Expectations Graduate career outcomes are currently an important component of some of the HE performance league tables discussed in Sect. 6.2 in Chap. 6. One recently repurposed sector-wide survey14 asks graduates to report their current employment circumstances, including their salaries, and to reflect on how their education has contributed to their situation 15 months after graduation. Other league table and degree value comparisons use linked educational and tax data to summarise graduates’ earnings up to 10 years after graduation (Morris 2017; Williams 2018). The EHE initiative was criticised by many across the sector as taking a far too instrumental approach to higher education, however the current development of methodologies that use alumni employment earnings to judge the value of a degree programme is of a very different order of instrumentalism, and even more remotely within the direct control and influence of HEIs. One positive outcome of employer and governmental concern is that the profile of careers services within universities has grown over the last 13 14

 https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/competition-and-markets-authority/about.  https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/graduate-outcomes-leo-outcomes-in-2016-to-2017.

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decades and many have seen a significant growth in their funding. In return, HEIs may expect their careers services to pay increased attention to activities that are believed to improve their league table positions. This may be very difficult to achieve unless there are close and meaningful relationships and ongoing dialogue between careers advisers  and other advisory staff, the academic staff who are responsible for the planning and delivery of courses, current students and recent graduates.

2.13 The Student Perspective There can be little doubt that most students wish to be able to start on a career path as soon as possible after graduation and this may mean finding an interesting and satisfying occupation that pays enough for them to be able to stand on their own feet and live independently of their parents without feeling poorer than they did when they were studying. The routes to such employment are very varied for the diverse individuals who now graduate with a higher education degree. For some, the goal is to be a city financier and if they are initially successful, they might start on a graduate trainee programme with a good salary, and for some, their student debt paid off as a golden handshake. If all goes well, they may continue along a career path that they find satisfying and interesting, and which ultimately leads to a very well-paid senior role. The ambitions of others may be to live a life that is less influenced by the size of their salary and their worldly goods. Some decide to train as teachers, become researchers or work in the public or voluntary sector. The starting point for the latter may even have to be to work for a time as an un- or low-paid volunteer or administrator in order to gain experience before they can find a more responsible job in the competitive but often poorly funded voluntary sector. Educationalists have long argued that schooling and by extension higher education should not merely be considered as ‘learning for earning’ but should also aim to develop individuals’ citizenship and stimulate social change for the benefit of all (Simon 1987). Many students and graduates work that out for themselves: students’ priorities and motivations are changing at a societal level with more preferring to work in contexts where environmental concerns are at the forefront, where they

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are able to make a tangible impact on the lives of others or where their passion for the subject they chose to study can be satisfied. From the student perspective, broadening horizons, personal development, meeting people and having a good social life may be as important as thinking about their career prospects, particularly when they are going through important and sometimes challenging periods of transition at the start and completion of their HE studies. If the sector continues to promote value-laden messages about the kinds of subjects that they wish students to study, and the employment they want students to be interested in and prepared for so that they can rise up league tables, we risk further elevating students’ stress levels, particularly for those studying courses they are told by government and media are not highly valued, or by pressuring them to choose a course that they are not enthusiastic about but have been told will lead to a well-paid job (Sect. 2.2). In practice, employers look at more than their applicants’ academic outcomes: they are looking for graduates with enthusiasm and commitment, not only to their academic endeavours but also their engagement with activities outside the academic, including voluntary work, playing music, sports team and club leadership and work experience. Despite the pressure that many feel about their future career prospects and the efforts HEIs make to encourage them to make early contact with their institutional careers service, often more or less soon as they begin their courses, there remains amongst many a reluctance to fully engage with preparing for their lives beyond graduation until the last years or even months of their degree courses. This is neither a recent nor solely a UK phenomenon: a survey of c. 35,000 college and university students in the US found that for over 80 percent of the respondents, improving their career skills was an important motivating factor in their decision to enroll in a course of tertiary education, but nonetheless 40 percent had never used any of their institution’s careers resources, neither face to face nor online (Strada-Gallup 2018). There is a danger that sending too many messages about employability can have negative rather than positive impacts on some students’ behaviours, although, a more recent study indicates that over the last three years there has been an increase in students’ engagement with their institutions’ careers service (Hewitt 2020, p. 43).

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2.14 Inequality in Career Progression and the Benefits of Collaborative Approaches Students can do a great deal themselves to help prepare for a life beyond graduation. The value of volunteering is well-attested (Williams 2018) as is taking on leadership roles in sports clubs and societies and other positions of responsibility. Unfortunately, even these opportunities are not easily accessible or available to all, particularly those who are constrained by a disability or other personal circumstances, including their financial situation. Many students are forced to take on part-time and often low paid employment or fulfil family responsibilities that give them little or no time for the other activities that could add value to their university experience and help them find satisfying work in the future. For those fortunate enough to find them, the internships offered by increasing numbers of employers help students and recent graduates gain an experience of working life that can help to clarify what might interest them in the future, make connections with potential future employers and enhance their CVs. Inevitably, most of these are based in large metropolitan areas, particularly London, where the cost of temporary accommodation and travel can be prohibitive. Even more divisive is that a significant proportion of work experience placements are offered via personal connections and are not openly advertised or are unpaid or so poorly paid that only those with financial backup can take advantage of what is on offer. This was highlighted in two reports on internships undertaken for the Sutton Trust, the charity whose interest in social mobility has already been mentioned (Sect. 2.2). Their research confirmed the value of work experience and the expansion of the number of opportunities now available, but also drew attention to the very small proportion that were openly advertised. The authors highlight the need for greater clarity on the legality of not paying interns or of paying below the minimum wage (Montacute 2018; Cullinane and Montacute 2018). Detailed analyses of career destination statistics have identified other inequalities in respect of graduates’ social backgrounds, the university attended (Sect. 1.3  in Chap. 1), entry qualifications, subjects studied,

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ethnicity and age (Brennan and Shah 2003). A 2016 report from the Sutton Trust highlighted the under-representation of those from less advantaged backgrounds in many of the UK’s leading professions, including the law, medicine and politics, where there is a disproportionate number of those who have been educated in public schools and Oxbridge or Cambridge (Kirby 2016). Sadly, but unfortunately not necessarily surprisingly, the academic disadvantage of those from the most deprived backgrounds is reflected in graduate career outcomes, despite growing interest in recruiting diverse labour forces amongst employers (Hooley 2019c). Pay differences demonstrate disadvantage even for those who might be considered to be amongst the most privileged. An analysis of the salaries of recent male and female graduates identified that the largest mean pay gap was to be found between graduates of the Russell Group universities. (see Sect. 1.3 in Chap. 1). Female graduates from these institutions were earning 17 percent less than their male peers while the gender pay gap in pre-1992 institutions was only 5 percent (Cornell et al. 2020). Gender differences in students’ and academics’ confidence in speaking or asking questions in seminars and lectures are thought be one factor in explaining the attrition of women in academic life and a consequent shortage of female role models for young students (Carter et al. 2018). In response, some HEIs have invested significant resources in self-development courses for their female UG and PG students, aiming to find ways to address gaps between men and women in respect of both academic performance (Sect. 2.7) and earnings post-graduation. One professional development course for women, SPRINT, is the result of a collaboration between HEIs and employers15 and demonstrates the potential for more extensive employer/ HEI collaboration across the sector. The Athena SWAN Charter, a global initiative launched in 2005 and now adopted widely across the UK HE sector, provides a framework for action to address gender equality in academic life, particularly, although not exclusively in the sciences but the impact on the sector and on the student experience is as yet to be systematically researched and evaluated (Tsouroufli 2019, p. 50). There is clearly 15  https://www.springboardconsultancy.com/product/sprint-professional-development-programmefor-women/.

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much work to be done in order to understand and address inequality of outcome in all its manifestations. The world of work can be rather less sensitive to disability than the HE sector. Some students who have done well in the university environment find it difficult to secure suitable employment unless the employer is willing to accommodate their difficulties and provide appropriate support. Many students, with or without guidance from SpLD and disability specialists at university, develop ways of minimising the impact of the challenges they might face in the workplace and thus overcome any potential employer prejudice. Several years ago, a colleague who worked in a university’s press and publicity department as a journalist contacted me to let me know that while he was a student, he had discovered he was dyslexic but had never felt confident enough to disclose this to any of his subsequent employers or work colleagues. His very successful strategy included making sure that there was always someone he could turn to and trust to proofread his press releases and other writing before they were sent off for publication or dissemination. It is a sign of those times—the late 1990s— that he had not felt able to disclose the challenges he had faced and effectively overcome until he was about to change jobs and institution. Unfortunately, disclosure still remains a matter of much concern for many, particularly at the start of their careers. Meeting the career needs of students with disabilities, including encouraging and guiding those who have concerns about when and how to disclose health or other difficulties to a prospective employers are key roles for careers advisory staff and likely to benefit from close collaboration between disability advisers, SpLD specialists and careers advisers. Graduates with dyslexia are the most likely group of neurodiverse students to find full-time employment on graduation. Those with social or communication difficulties are the least likely. At a national level, un- and under-employment of autistic adults is shockingly high: the National Autistic Society’s 2016 survey found that only 16 percent of their respondents were in fulltime employment and only a further 16 percent in any kind of employment at all.16 Graduates fare slightly better than the general population, but the latest available statistics indicate that only 40  percent of autistic students  https://www.autism.org.uk/get-involved/media-centre/news/2016-10-27-employment-gap.aspx.

16

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completing UG degrees and 55 percent with postgraduate qualifications progress to fulltime employment, with further but smaller percentages in part time work (Allen and Coney 2019). This should be a matter of great concern for the HE sector given the increasing numbers of neurodiverse students studying in UK universities, many of whom do very well academically but much less well in the workplace unless recruiters understand both their potential value as employees and how to support them. One very large employer in the global software development sector has invested significant resources in supporting graduates and other employees with autism as part of a strong  commitment to diversity in their workforce. They very publicly state their belief that diversity in respect of cultural and racial backgrounds, age, gender, sexual orientation and physical and mental abilities makes them stronger as an organisation and encourages innovation.17 There are signs that more employers are recognising the value of creating a work environment that promotes diversity and supports a healthy work-life balance: some of the most prestigious and commercially competitive companies have policies that ensure all relevant staff have Mental Health First Aid training18 in recognition of the benefits to all of being able to support and retain valued staff through periods of difficulty. Future career advantage is a key motivation for the hundreds of thousands of students who travel to the UK to study, including, for those who are non-native English language speakers, improving the fluency in spoken and written in English required for job applications and interviews. Collaborative working relationships between careers and international student advisory staff are invaluable when students are navigating the stormy seas of UK visa regulations and work restrictions and wish to stay on to work in the UK or are preparing for a return to their home country and a different graduate work environment. When students, indeed most of us, are seeking advice they are most likely to turn first to those they know best, including family and friends and the institutional staff with whom they have the closest contact (Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3). While any advice offered will no doubt be well-meaning 17 18

 https://www.sap.com/corporate/en/company/diversity.html.  https://mhfaengland.org.

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it may not necessarily be the best informed when it concerns a rapidly changing employment market and graduate recruitment strategies and expectations, including the best ways to present an applicant’s knowledge, aptitudes and experience for a job application or interview. Regular contact between careers advisers and academic staff, especially when the latter hold a personal tutor role, is vitally important: the latter need to be clear about the career services offered when they encourage their tutees to seek advice about their future plans. Dissemination of inaccurate information risks discouraging student confidence in and engagement with specialist careers advisory services (Grant 2007, p.  59). Collaboration between lecturers and careers advisers can also benefit students who are considering postgraduate courses or a future career in academia or commercial research (Mellors-Bourne et al. 2016).

2.15 Final Thoughts The knowledge and skills needed to achieve academically and prepare for a future career are not separate but closely related, something that many students realise. A recent investigation of students’ views of employability skills found that those they believed to be of most value for their futures were the critical thinking, communication, teamwork planning and organisation that are also key for academic success. Overall, respondents put a higher value on critical thinking and presentation skills than on careers support (Cengage 2019, p. 22). Employers, HEIs and students are expecting more and more from careers advisory services as government pressure on universities to demonstrate their contribution to economic growth continues to increase, but it is important to recognise that study guidance, the empowerment of students with disabilities and SpLDs, and sound mental health and resilience (Sect. 3.9 in Chap. 3) also contribute to positive career outcomes. The factors that contribute to students’ academic and career success cannot be neatly separated from the personal and emotional challenges and successes in their lives. The next chapter, Chap. 3, specifically addresses student wellbeing.

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References AGR. 2018. The Graduate Market in 2018. London: Association of Graduate Recruiters. Alderman, Geoffrey. 2010. Why University Standards have Fallen. The Guardian, March 10. Allen, Mark, and Keren Coney. 2019. What Happens Next? 2019: A Report on the First Destinations of 2017 Disabled Graduates. Sheffield: Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services. Andrews, R., C.  Torgerson, S.  Beverton, A.  Freeman, T.  Locke, G.  Low, A. Robinson, and D. Zhu. 2006. The Effect of Grammar Teaching on Writing Development. British Educational Research Journal 32 (1): 39–55. Arendale, David. 2002. History of Supplemental Instruction (SI): Mainstreaming of Developmental Education. In Histories of Developmental Education, ed. Dana Brit Lundell and Jeanne Higbee, 15–27. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, University of Minnesota. Beiter, R., R. Nash, M. McCrady, D. Rhoades, M. Linscomb, M. Clarahan, and S. Sammut. 2014. The Prevalence and Correlates of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in a Sample of College Students. Journal of Affective Disorders 173: 90–96. Birnie, Jacqui, and Annie Grant. 2001. Providing Learning Support for Students with Mental Health Difficulties Undertaking Fieldwork. Gloucester: The Geography Discipline Network. Brennan, John, and T.  Shah. 2003. Access to What? Converting Education Opportunity into Employment Opportunity. London: UK Centre for Higher Education Research and Information. Burniston, Stephen, John Rodger, and James Brass. 1999. Enterprise in Higher Education—Changing the Mindset. Sheffield: Department for Education and Employment. Carter, Alecia J. Alyssa Croft, Dieter Lukas, Gillian M. Sandstrom, and Cassidy Rose Sugimoto. 2018. Women’s Visibility in Academic Seminars: Women Ask Fewer Questions than Men. PLOS ONE 13 (9): e0202743. Cengage. 2019. Student Voices. Andover: Cengage. Chalkley, Brian, and James Waterfield. 2001. Providing Learning Support for Students with Hidden Disabilities and Dyslexia Undertaking Fieldwork and Related Activities. Gloucester: The Geography Discipline Network.

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Coffield, Frank. 1990. From the Decade of the Enterprise Culture to the Decade of the TECs. British Journal of Education and Work 4 (1): 59–78. Cornell, Bethan, Rachel Hewett, and Bahram Bekhradnia. 2020. Mind the (Graduate Gender Pay) Gap. HEPI Report 135. Crozier, Gill, and Diane Reay. 2011. Capital Accumulation: Working-class Students Learning How to Learn in HE. Teaching in Higher Education 16 (2): 145–155. Cullinane, Carl, and Rebecca Montacute. 2018. Pay as You Go? Internship Pay, Quality and Access in the Graduate Jobs Market. London: The Sutton Trust. Dawson, P., J. van der Meer, J.  Skalicky, and K.  Cowley. 2014. On the Effectiveness of Supplemental Instruction: A Systematic Review of Supplemental Instruction and Peer-Assisted Study Sessions Literature between 2001 and 2010. Review of Educational Research 84 (4): 609–639. Dearing, Ron. 1997. Higher Education in the Learning Society: The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Edwards, Martin, and Michael Clinton. 2019. A Study Exploring the Impact of Lecture Capture Availability and Lecture Capture Usage on Student Attendance and Attainment. Higher Education 77 (3): 403–421. Evans, T., L. Bira, J. Belttran Gastelum, L.T. Weiss, and N. Vanderford. 2018. Evidence for a Mental Health Crisis in Graduate Education. Nature Biotechnology 38: 282–284. Gardner, Vince, and Naseem Anwar. 2001. Providing Learning Support for Students with Mobility Impairments Undertaking Fieldwork and Related Activities. Cheltenham: Geography Discipline Network. GMC. 2013. GMC Position Statement on the Requirements for Medical Students and Doctors in Training Gaining Competence in Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. London: General Medical Council. Grant, Annie. 2002. Identifying Students’ Concerns: Taking a Whole Institutional Approach. In Students’ Mental Health Needs: Problems and Responses, ed. Nicky Stanley and Jill Manthorpe, 83–105. London: Jessica Kingsley. ———. 2007. Personal Tutoring and Student Services. In The Personal Tutor’s Handbook, ed. Lindsey Neville, 59–78. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Griffiths, Sam, and Julie Henry. 2018. New Oxford Exam Times Help Women. The Sunday Times, January 21. London.

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Hayes, Niall, and Lucas Introna. 2005. Cultural Values, Plagiarism and Fairness: When Plagiarism Gets in the Way of Learning. Ethics and Behaviour 15 (3): 213–231. Hewitt, Rachel. 2020. Getting On: Graduate Employment and its Influence on UK Higher Education. HEPI Report 126. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute. Hinchliffe, Geoff, and Adrienne Jolly. 2011. Graduate Identity and Employability. British Educational Research Journal 37: 563–584. Hooley, Tristram. 2019a. Graduate Employers’ Attitudes Towards Diversity Revealed. London: Luminate. ———. 2019b. Satisfying Employers’ Appetite for Graduates. HEPI Blog. https://www.hepi.ac.uk/2019/09/16/satisfying-­e mployers-­a ppetite-­f or-­ graduates/ ———. 2019c. Why Employers Don’t Care about Qualifications. HEPI Blog. https://www.hepi.ac.uk/category/blog/2019 Kirby, Philip. 2016. Leading People 2016. London: The Sutton Trust. Lea, Mary R., and Brian Street. 1998. Student Academic Literacies Approach. Studies in Higher Education 23 (2): 157–170. Macfarlane, Bruce. 2017. The Moral Panic over Student Cheating Must End. Times Higher Education, September 12. Magyar, Anna. 2012. Plagiarism and Attribution: An Academic Literacies Approach? Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education (4). https:// doi.org/10.47408/jldhe.v0i4.141. Mellors-Bourne, Robin, Anna Mountford-Zimdars, Paul Wakeling, Julie Rattray, and Ray Land. 2016. Postgraduate Transitions. Exploring Disciplinary Practice. York: Higher Education Academy. Montacute, Rebecca. 2018. Internships—Unpaid, Unadvertised, Unfair. Research Brief, 20. London: The Sutton Trust. Morgan, J. 2019. Website Offers ‘Complete PhD Service’ for £36K. Times Higher Education, January 24. Morris, David. 2017. A Beginner’s Guide to Longitudinal Education Outcomes (LEO) Data. WONKHE Policy Watch webpage 12.06.17. https://wonkhe. com/blogs/a-­beginners-­guide-­to-­longitudinal-­education-­outcomes-­leo-­data Mountford-Zimdars, A., D. Sabri, J. Moore, S. Sanders, S. Jones, and L. Higham. 2015. Causes of Differences in Student Outcomes. Bristol: Higher Education Funding Council for England. Neves, Jonathan, and Nick Hillman. 2017. 2017 Student Academic Experience Survey. York: Higher Education Academy/Higher Education Policy Institute.

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OfS. 2018. Analysis of Degree Classifications Over Time: Changes in Graduate Attainment. London: Office for Students. Packman, Anna. 2016. The Imposter Phenomenon in Higher Education: Incidence and Impact. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice 16 (1): 51–60. Paloyo, A.R., S.  Rogan, and P.  Siminski. 2016. The Effect of Supplemental Instruction on Academic Performance: An Encouragement Design Experiment. Economics of Education Review 55: 57–69. Reay, Diane. 2001. Finding or Losing Yourself?: Working-class Relationships to Education. Journal for Educational Policy 16 (4): 333–346. Reay, Diane, Miriam E. David, and Stephen Ball. 2001. Making a Difference?: Institutional Habituses and Higher Education Choice. Sociological Research Online 5 (4): 14–25. Reay, D., Miriam E. David, and Stephen Ball. 2005. Degree of Choice, Social Class, Race and Gender in Higher Education. London: Trentham Books Limited. Rhind, Susan M., and Andrew Grant. 2017. From Studying the Rain to Studying the Umbrella: Mental Health and Well-Being of Veterinary Medical Students and Graduates. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education Medical Education 44 (4): 1–2. Robinson, Simon. 2005. Ethics and Employability. Learning and Employability Series 2. York: The Higher Education Academy. Scott, William. 1993. Editorial Introduction to the Enterprise in Higher Education Initiative. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 18 (3): 163–165. Simon, Joan. 1987. Vygotsky and the Vygotskians. American Journal of Education 9 (4): 609–613. Siquiera Drake, Adrianna, McArthur Hafen Jr., Bonnie Rush, and Allison Reisbig. 2012. Predictors of Anxiety and Depression in Veterinary Medicine Students: A Four-Year Cohort Examination. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 39 (4): 322–330. Slight, Claire. 2017. Postgraduate Research Experience Survey 2017. Experiences and Personal Outlook of Postgraduate Researchers. York: Higher Education Academy. Somervell, Hugh. 1993. Issues in Assessment, Enterprise and Higher Education: The Case for Self-Peer and Collaborative Assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 18 (3): 221–223. Stevenson, Jacqueline. 2012. Black and Minority Ethnic Student Degree Retention and Attainment. York: The Higher Education Academy.

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Stevenson, Jacqueline, Joan O’Mahony, Omar Khan, Farhana Ghaffar, and Bernadette Stiell. 2019. Understanding and Overcoming the Challenges of Targeting Students from Under-Represented and Disadvantaged Ethnic Backgrounds. London: Office for Students. Strada-Gallup. 2018. 2017 College Student Survey. Washington, DC: Gallup Inc. Stuart, Mary, et al. 2009. The Impact of Social Identity and Cultural Capital on Different Ethnic Student Groups at University: Full Research Report ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-2485. Swindon: Economic and Social Research Council. Swainson, Mary. 1977. The Spirit of Counsel. The Story of a Pioneer in Student Counselling. London: Neville Spearman. Tamkin, P., and J. Hillage. 1999. Employability and Employers: The Missing Piece of the Jigsaw. Brighton: Institute for Employment Studies. Tsouroufli, Maria. 2019. An Examination of the Athena SWAN Initiatives in the UK: Critical Reflections. In Strategies for Resisting Sexism in the Academy. Higher Education, Gender and Intersectionality, ed. Gail Crimmins, 35–54. London: Palgrave Macmillan. United Nations. 2008. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Geneva: The United Nations. Vaughn, Ashley R., Gita Taasoobshirazi, and Marcus L. Johnson. 2019. Impostor Phenomenon and Motivation: Women in Higher Education. Studies in Higher Education 45 (4): 780–795. Villarroel, Veronica, David Boud, Susan Bloxhame, Daniela Bruna, and Carola Bruna. 2020. Using Principles of Authentic Assessment to Redesign Written Examinations and Tests. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 57 (1): 38–49. Williams, Joy. 2018. Volunteering: It Makes a Difference. Institute of Employment Studies Blog. https://www.employment-­studies.co.uk/news/ volunteering-­it-­makes-­difference Winter, Peter, Andrew Rix, and Andrew Grant. 2017. Medical Student Beliefs about Disclosure of Mental Health Issues: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 44 (1): 147–156.

3 Health and Wellbeing

3.1 Introduction This chapter addresses institutional and sector-wide approaches to and responsibilities for promoting students’ health and wellbeing, focusing in particular on those experiencing mental health difficulties. Possible reasons for an increase in sector-wide and international concern about student wellbeing are discussed, together with the possible causes of mental distress in the student population. The importance of understanding students’ help seeking behaviours and the role of peer support are also addressed. The chapter highlights the benefits and challenges of shifting the balance from reactive to proactive approaches in response to students’ concerns, and the importance of encouraging and supporting them to strengthen their emotional intelligence, robustness, resilience and self-­ determination. A case is made for a holistic approach through cross-­ institutional involvement and collaboration with statutory and voluntary organisations.

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3.2 Mental Health and Wellbeing Concern about mental wellbeing is widespread and reported from schools and universities in the UK and across the globe. We live in a difficult and challenging world in which potentially destabilising news and information is spread extremely fast. Our highly consumerised society puts pressures on us all, and especially on those who may not yet have developed a strong sense of self-identity and confidence in themselves and lack the well-established supportive social structures that can help them to manage their anxiety and stress. Mental distress can be a symptom of serious illness such as bi-polar disorder, schizophrenia and psychosis but can also be situational in origin, resulting from physical illness, disability, accident, drug and alcohol abuse, the breakdown of a relationship, bereavement, adverse family circumstances and also academic, financial and other day to day pressures. The concept of wellbeing has been variously defined but usually implies an overall sense of contentment. It is not necessarily directly related to an individual’s state of health and may exist even in those who are, in clinical terms, physically or mentally unwell. The government’s ‘New Horizons’ report defined wellbeing as ‘a positive state of mind and body, feeling safe and being able to cope, with a sense of connection with people, communities and the wider environment’ (DOH 2009). It is important to understand that the impact of mental illness or distress on an individual’s sense of wellbeing can range from mild to acute and may be long-lasting, brief or episodic, and is not necessarily permanent. Despite government calls for action, concerns about the mental health of the UK population and the ability of the national statutory services to respond effectively continue to grow. It is clear that this a global and not just a UK problem: The World Health Organisation (WHO) has estimated that 4.4 percent of the world’s population is affected by depression and 3.6 percent by anxiety, with significant variation by gender, age and country (WHO 2017).

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3.3 Mental Ill-health in the Student Population For some time here has been a growing concern about the wellbeing of the HE student body in response to a reported rise in the numbers of individuals seeking institutional help in respect of their feelings of depression, anxiety and stress (Flatt 2013; Peake and Mullings 2016). If there has been a decline in mental wellbeing of those from whom the student population is drawn, it is not surprising that this is reflected within HE. What is being experienced in the higher education sector is a phenomenon also affecting schools and young people who are not in higher education. Some mental disorders first manifest themselves in those between the ages of 18 and 24 and this is likely to be another explanatory factor. Concerns about student mental wellbeing are by no means limited to the Western and Anglophonic worlds: similar concerns are reported from HEIs in countries as far afield as Turkey (Çebi and Demir 2019), Korea (Nam et  al. 2015) and Pakistan (Jumani et  al.  2013). Current demand for psychological advice in US and Canadian universities (Peake and Mullings 2016) has resulted in student counselling services reporting that their role has moved from one to one counselling to crisis management, echoing the experiences of many colleagues in the UK. Claims have been made that there is a greater incidence of mental health difficulties in students than in the age-matched non-student population although this view has been challenged by others (Blanco et al. 2008). The HE environment differs in many ways from that of secondary schools or the world of work and it is perhaps unsurprising that some studies of the incidence of mental distress in HE student populations have suggested differences with that of age-matched non-students. Systematic review of the international literature on the incidence of depressive disorders concluded that students were more prone to experience depression than the general population, although the authors also drew attention to the lack of consistency in methodologies used in the many studies of student wellbeing, including sample selection and the validity of the diagnostic tools used (Ibrahim et al. 2013). Global statistics mask large differences between groups in respect of the causes and

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levels of the distress experienced and the likelihood of the admission of difficulty: this is particularly evident in respect of gender, gender identity, and sexuality (Przedworski et al. 2015; see 3.6). Some have claimed a higher incidence of suicide amongst students than in the age-matched non-student population although attempts to test this hypothesis have been challenged by inconsistences and changes over time in the recording of suicide statistics by coroners, but more robust statistics have been available since 2007. National statistics for 2014, showed a rise in the number of deaths by suicide or undetermined intent in the full-time over-18 student population in England and Wales from 75 in 2007 to 130 in 2014, the majority (75%) of whom were male. However, recent analysis has shown that student suicide rates are lower than in the age matched general population.1 Unfortunately, there remain many difficulties in drawing firm conclusions from suicide data, particularly in respect of time trends given the relatively small numbers concerned, the ongoing changes in the size and diversity of student cohorts and the variable length of time that it can take for a coroner’s inquest to be completed and a suicide registered. The latest available Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) data show an increase from the 1.8 percent of 2014 in the proportion of UK domiciled new entrants to full-time first degrees who declared an existing mental health difficulty on their HE application forms to 3.5 percent in 2017.2 However, despite reassurance from HEI admissions departments and mental health professionals that mental ill-health, if effectively managed, does not provide any barrier to entry, many still fear discrimination if they declare their difficulties. It is more or less certain that a proportion of new entrants will not have disclosed their mental or physical health difficulties on their university application form; it is also likely that some of the increase in the number of those who do declare can at least in part be explained by the success of efforts to destigmatise mental ill-health at HE and societal levels together with a greater trust in what is provided for them on arrival (see Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1). 1  https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/articles/estimatingsuicideamonghighereducationstudentsenglandandwalesexperimentalstatist ics/2018-06-25#analysis-on-higher-education-student-suicides-in-england-and-wales. 2  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/students/table-15.

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Other statistics have been derived from the numbers of those who apply for and meet the eligibility criteria  for a Disabled Students’ Allowance (DSA). However, as the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) explains, these are not the best proxy for the number of students who might benefit from additional support or advice as they move through their courses, although they may be the most robust and comprehensive data currently available. The numbers of DSAs awarded to eligible students show a steady year-on-year increase in the full-time UK-domiciled undergraduate population from 1.5 percent in 2001/2 to 7.0 percent in 2014/5.3 These figures do not of course include those who are experiencing difficulties which are neither of the type nor severity that meet DSA criteria, but  nonetheless seek and benefit from advice and support. Academic and clinical research on the extent of student mental distress and ill-health have been hampered by the wide range of methodologies used, making comparisons very difficult (Ibrahim et al. 2013). Research undertaken in 1998 and 2001 as part of the work of the Student Psychological Health project (Grant 2002a), one of the initiatives in receipt of UK funding council support in the 1996–1999 rounds of disability initiatives (Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1 and Sect. 6.5 in Chap. 6), produced what was planned to stand as a clinically informed base-line for the better understanding of student mental wellbeing. The research findings were based on the completion of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) by 2739 undergraduates most of whom were in their second year of undergraduate study. The BSI is a well-validated self-report instrument extensively used in research and clinical settings to provide an initial evaluation of the mental health of the participants (Derogatis and Melisaratos 1983; Hayes 1997). Unfortunately this methodology does not seem to have been repeated at a comparable scale in any other UK HE setting, sadly a lost opportunity for the sector. If the research were to be repeated on a comparable student population it could provide a measure of both the current incidence of mental health difficulties and demonstrate change over the last 20 or so years (Sect. 6.5 in Chap. 6).  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/performance-indicators/widening-participationsummary.

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If there is as yet no firm evidence to demonstrate change in the incidence of clinically defined mental illness in the UK student population there is some evidence of increasing complexity of problems, including comorbidity with other health or disability-related difficulties (Williams et al. 2015, p. 73). It also appears unarguable that across the sector there has been a pronounced rise in the level of demand for advice and support in respect of students’ difficulties in coping with feelings of depression and anxiety and the pressures of study and life in general. Students seeking help include not only those with recognised mental illness or disability as defined by DSA criteria but also those who are not eligible for funding but are nonetheless stressed or distressed and asking for support from their institutions and/or their doctors. It is not surprising to find confirmation of the negative impact of mental ill-health on academic engagement and success (Peake and Mullings 2016; Peelo and Wareham 2002. Other research has indicated that lifestyle choices such as drug and alcohol use can be detrimental to both wellbeing and academic performance (Lynskey and Hall 2000; Sect. 4.14 in Chap. 4). Within the higher education context, addressing the academic impact of mental ill-health and alcohol and drug abuse must remain priorities although this should surely not be to the detriment of the funding of other advisory services and initiatives to improve the overall student academic and social experience, as these are also likely to have significant benefit to student wellbeing and achievement.

3.4 How Has the Sector Responded? Concerns about student mental wellbeing are by no means new, and it is important to look at what has already been learned from past initiatives when considering what else might be done in future, a general point I make several times in this book. I return to Mary Swainson’s reflections on her experiences as a student counsellor over the three decades from the mid-1940s onwards. She reported that by the late 1950s and early 1960s there was widespread interest in student mental health and as a

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consequence, an expansion of counselling services across the sector (Swainson 1977, p.  89): by the 1990s they could be found in almost all HEIs. The growth of the professional student services and of bodies such as AMOSSHE, AUCC and HUCS during the 1970s (Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1) gave much louder voice at national level to the growing number of counsellors and advisory staff who were concerned about student wellbeing and expressed their concerns in a number of influential publications (Rana et  al. 1999; CVCP/SCOP 2000; AMOSSHE 2001). Funding Council initiatives of the mid 1990s and early 2000s referenced above and in Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1 supported a significant change in the institutional support for students with disabilities. Three of the funded projects specifically addressed students’ mental health, aiming to improve access to HE for those experiencing difficulties and improve on-course support. One of the immediate outcomes was the employment of two of the first ‘mental health advisors’ in the sector. These worked in a different way to counsellors and broadened the range of therapeutic approaches and advice services available to an increasingly diverse HE student population. A key objective of these disability initiatives was to encourage wide dissemination of project outcomes. Key players in the further development and dissemination of practice were the professional student service organisations, AMOSSHE, AUCC, HUCS and other sector groups and organisations including UMHAN, whose members have a specific remit for mental wellbeing. In 2000, a ‘Mental Wellbeing in Higher Education Working Group’ (MWBHE) was established by a small group of counsellors and advisory staff with a self-imposed remit to influence policy and practice at national level and enhance collaboration with the National Health Service (NHS) and other relevant agencies. It was and remains an important player through the organisation of regular conferences and guidance materials, the latest of which was published in 2015 (MWBHE 2015). Other publications from the first decades of the millennium include a report by the Royal College of Psychiatrists on student mental health (RCP 2003) which was revised and updated in 2011 (RCP 2011); UUK guidance on suicide prevention (Grant 2002b) and the outcomes of another project that aimed to improve understanding of the causes of

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student suicide and offer guidance on how HEIs might respond (Stanley et al. 2007). More recently, UUK has continued its work on suicide prevention through further guidance on minimising the risk of student suicide (Clarke et al. 2019) and by developing a framework to help HEIs to become ‘mentally healthy’ institutions (de Pury and Dicks 2020). Comparison between the current state of sector-wide provision for students with disabilities, sensory impairments and physical and mental health difficulties with what was available and understood in the mid-­1990s demonstrates clearly that these early initiatives to make universities places that welcomed and were able to support a rapidly growing and more diverse student body were very successful in setting the foundations of knowledge and experience for focussed provision across the sector. In 2015 HEFCE commissioned a series of reports that examined the effectiveness of current policy and practice in making HE more accessible to disadvantaged and disabled applicants and develop a framework for the evaluation of their interventions (Williams et al.  2015, p. 2). This latter report provides a particularly useful summary of some of the key issues and approaches to improving student mental wellbeing. Sector-­wide concern about the wellbeing of students and staff has also stimulated the development of many individual institutional initiatives and a proliferation of conferences on student mental health, some organised within the sector and many by private companies (Sect. 5.12 in Chap. 5).

3.5 U  nderstanding the Causes of Mental Distress and Stress in the Student Population With an overall increase in the incidence of mental distress in the general population (3.2), it is not surprising to find that HE institutions are recruiting school leavers and more mature adults who have already experienced mental health difficulties. Research undertaken by UNITE, one of the private providers of student accommodation (Fagence et al. 2017),

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included applicants as well as students in their survey population. Their findings indicated that the incidence of declared mental health difficulties amongst those applying for university places was at a similar level to that of those already on course. Applications from those who have already experienced mental distress have doubtless been encouraged by the developments that have made the HE sector much more suitable and sympathetic for students experiencing difficulties than in the past: this is likely to be a further factor in explaining increasing demand for mental health advice. Points of transition can be particularly stressful for any of us. Recent school leavers, who comprise the majority of those who begin undergraduate courses, are likely to be going through their own existential transition from adolescence to adulthood at the same time as moving away from home and their existing friendship networks. Adjusting to a very different academic and social environment can be challenging for all new students but even more so for those who have been receiving treatment or therapy for existing difficulties and need to establish a new professional support network inside and outside their universities. The key aims of the Leicester HEFCE-funded student mental health project (3.3) were not only to provide a base line survey of the mental health of a student population but also to identify those factors that were having the greatest impacts on their stress levels. The survey instruments developed included a section adapted from one used for a similar research project undertaken at Columbia University in the US in the mid 1980s (Bertocci et al. 1992). The survey instrument included a section of sixty-­ one questions that asked respondents to rate the impact on their levels of stress of factors that included academic study, career preparation, general health, sexual health, gender identity, interpersonal relationships, self-­ confidence and family problems. Most of the those identified by at least 50 percent of respondents as having a ‘very important’ or ‘crucial’ impact on their stress levels related to academic study and career progression (concentration, study skills, ability to manage and complete course work, setting priorities and managing time, examination anxiety, clarifying and meeting career goals and overcoming fears about finding a job). Another very interesting finding from this project is that there was a significant degree of similarity between the Leicester and Columbia university

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findings despite the two research studies having been undertaken over a decade apart and in two very different institutions. This suggests that at least some of the causes of student stress and distress are not necessarily related to a particular HEI or even geographic location but to the academic environment in general and/or a young adult population (Grant 2002a). Flatt’s (2013) paper on the North American ‘mental health crisis’ identified the factors she considered were contributing to the increase in demand for advice and support in Canada and the USA as including academic pressure, financial burden, increased accessibility of higher education, use of technology, social media and changes in student lifestyle. Her findings also chime with research on UK student populations and the reported experiences of staff working directly with them. Among the changes in the UK HE environment that are likely to be key in respect of this discussion include the significant increase in overall student numbers together with the competitive cultures that have arisen since the introduction of fees and league table rankings (Sect. 6.2 in Chap. 6). The higher education unit of resource has not kept up with rising student numbers: across the sector as a whole there has been a significant decline in academic staff:student ratios affecting the size of lecture classes and seminar and other teaching groups, and the number of tutees for whom each personal tutor has responsibility. It is  not ­surprising that the success of widening access initiatives has increased demand for advice from those very advisory services developed specifically to support a more diverse student body. Unless the expansion and funding of student services keeps pace with the growth and changes in the student population, increased demand and longer waiting times for appointments are inevitable. Other changes in the composition of the student population of many HEs include larger numbers of international students. Adjusting to what can be experienced as a very unfamiliar and even alien academic and social environment far away from their families and established support networks can be very stressful (Sect. 2.5 in Chap. 2). The increasing proportion of women in the undergraduate student population noted in in Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1 is likely to be another factor

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in the explanation of rising demand for mental health and other specialist services. Almost all research undertaken on the matter demonstrates higher levels of reported distress amongst women than men. Levels of demand from female students are likely to be influenced by the greater ease that many women find in expressing their feelings, making them more likely than men to seek help, not because men are less likely to experience mental distress (Ang et al. 2004; Biddle et al. 2004; McCarthy and Holliday 2004; see also 3.6). The transition from a home to a university environment inevitably brings about many changes in student lifestyle, particularly for those who have previously been living in a parental home. For some, establishing a regular pattern of study, leisure and sleep can be difficult, particularly if their courses involve relatively few contact hours but require much individual study and self-motivation (Sect. 2.2 in Chap. 2). Sleep patterns can be disrupted when deadlines for coursework submission or exams loom and students stay up into the night to complete their assignments or revise. The student ‘day’ can be 24 hours long: pubs and clubs are open through to the early morning and extended or even 24-hour library opening hours are now common in the sector. This latter has been welcomed and well-exploited by many students who appreciate the benefits of being able to avoid times of peak library usage, make last minute changes to their coursework, or, particularly for international students, contact friends and family living in different time zones. There are though inevitably downsides including the disincentive to adopt healthy study habits and a good sleep schedule. Many people, and especially the younger generation feel a need to be, as Payam Akhavan (2017) has put it, ‘electronically hyper-connected.’ This can be reassuring for some but can also have negative consequences. Studies of students’ use of their mobile phones showed that many sleep with them beside them, preferring to risk being disturbed or woken up during the night by messages than not responding instantly to their friends (Vorderer et  al. 2016). Anecdotally, academic staff report that amongst the common reasons given by students for non-attendance at lectures or tutorials are their sleeping difficulties. I suspect that the potential negative impacts of students’ poor sleeping habits may not yet have been given sufficient attention given their impact on academic

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performance, stress and mental wellbeing, and their identification as one of the risk factors for suicide. Other negative outcomes from students’ use of social media and other lifestyles choices include cyber-bullying and alcohol and drug misuse and abuse (Singleton and Wolfson 2009; Sects. 4.12 and 4.14 in Chap. 4). The introduction of student tuition fees in the UK in 1993 (Sect. 1.2 in Chap. 1) has had profound impact on students’ lives. Fees have risen and so have living costs for those in university and private accommodation. Rents tend to be particularly high in London and other major conurbations. Those studying in big cities often have to make the difficult choice between paying more to live close to their institutions or finding cheaper accommodation but paying more to travel and risking social isolation by living further away (Sect. 4.4 in Chap. 4). The student debt accumulated by a current English, Welsh or Northern Irish student studying a three-year undergraduate degree could easily amount to around £50,000. This figure is lower for Scottish residents studying in Scotland and for those entitled to a means tested ‘Young Students’ Bursary’ or one of the institutional bursaries that some but by no means all HEIs offer.4 For those wishing to study at masters or doctoral level, funding can be very difficult to find. Student loans for fees and living costs may be available, but a non-trivial funding gap often remains. Many students graduate not only with a large debt to a student loans company but with additional debts to their banks and credit card providers. There is little doubt that financial worries can have an important impact on student wellbeing. This was the case even when fees were much lower or had not yet been introduced. Over 50 percent of the undergraduate respondents to the Leicester survey reported that their concerns about managing inadequate finances were having a crucial or very important impact on their stress levels (Grant 2002a). The National Union of Students’ critique of changes to the funding of higher education in the first decade of the millennium claimed that between 1996 and 2006 there had been a 54 percent increase in the number of students who were  Fee and loan arrangements are constantly being reviewed and changed and are different in Scotland from the rest of the UK. The Which? University guide provides up-to-date information on student finances at: https://university.which.co.uk/advice/student-finance/student-fees-andfinance-for-where-you-live#england. 4

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working in term time, of whom 40 percent reported that working had affected their studies, 30 percent that they had missed lectures, and 20 percent had failed to submit course work due to work commitments (NUS 2008). Debt and financial worries do not affect all students equally. It is not surprising to learn that negative attitudes to debt and financial worries tend to be greatest amongst those from the least affluent backgrounds and older students whose lives and existing financial commitments can be complex (Callender 2008). These students are also more likely to be living in their own homes or with their parents in order to minimise the need to borrow money and avoid accumulating debt. The latter however can bring their own set of stresses and challenges (see Sect. 4.5 in Chap. 4). The impact of student debt on completion rates is not yet firmly established. Such research as has been undertaken suggests that debt impact is neither simple nor single, despite a ready assumption by many that it is a major cause of student dropout. A survey of the international research literature on the impact of debt on student wellbeing found a strong relationship between financial concerns and poor mental health, but a consistent finding was that it was not the size of the debt that had the greatest impact but students’ perceptions of and attitudes to being in debt (Nissen et al. 2019, p. 248). A separate study of the intercultural experiences of international students found that their major worry prior to their departure and three months later was the state of their finances. Overall, their level of concern about finance was reported to be even higher than that concerning their academic performance (Gu et al. 2010, p.  14). In some institutions, the financial advice offered to students is restricted to providing information about the grants and loans available, but others recognise the importance of advice that goes well beyond this and includes guidance on financial management. When student finance advisors are integrated within an institution’s professional advisory service they can make a significant contribution to student wellbeing by helping to improve students’ financial situation, budgeting and debt management and, through cross-referral to other advisory colleagues, address related concerns that are also impacting on their wellbeing (Sect. 1.7 in Chap. 1).

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Family worries and pressures inevitably impact on students’ mental wellbeing. Young adulthood is a time when it is not uncommon to be faced with a first experience of the death of a close relative, often a grandparent or other family member of that generation. Dealing with one’s own grief and supporting family and friends who were also close to the deceased while trying to keep up with lectures and seminars and meeting coursework deadlines can be immensely stressful and distressing. I have found it to be not uncommon for students’ parents to choose to end a marriage that had been held together ‘until the children leave home’ without perhaps considering the importance for young adult students of having a solid base to return to during vacations and when they need a break from the pressures of university life. Parental and more general societal expectations can also elevate students’ stress levels. There is now a very strong expectation from schoolteachers, parents, friends and society in general that those who progress to 6th form level and do well academically will automatically wish to move on to higher education and will continue to do well once they are there. If students have not made that choice themselves or are not certain that they are studying a course that truly interests them and as a result lack motivation and commitment,  the challenges of a new academic environment may become difficult to manage (see Sect. 2.2 in Chap. 2). Even for those who are happy about the choices they have made, for many the pressure to succeed is higher than ever. Any final grade lower than a 2:1 (upper second class) may be viewed as a failure by the student themselves, their families and, they fear, employers, although this latter can be somewhat of a misconception (Sect. 2.11  in Chap. 2; Hooley 2019). The media do not help when they promote scare stories about mental health crises or characterise the current student cohort as a ‘lost generation’ which will find it very difficult to find jobs that meet their aspirations. The pressures on international students who have often been financed by their families, government or even their local communities can be enormous and their fear of the consequences of failure a constant concern (see Sect. 5.11 in Chap. 5). Thus far I have focused on the impact of mental health difficulties and SpLDs (Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2) on students’ university experiences, but this is not to ignore the many challenges faced by students with mobility,

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sensory and physical health difficulties. These latter include diabetes, epilepsy and other serious illnesses which may not be immediately obvious to teaching and advisory staff or even friends, but can have a profound effect on students’ wellbeing (see for example Sect. 4.8 in Chap. 4). Most institutions’ student services include professional disability advisers whose role is to  offer the ongoing guidance and support required and ensure that relevant adjustments to the physical, learning and social environments are made, ideally in advance of students’ arrivals to begin their courses. However, many institutions, particularly those designed and built before it became a priority to make public buildings as accessible as possible, have found it very difficult to make their physical estate fully disability friendly, although much progress has been made by many. University finances are often stretched in all directions; cuts to disabled students’ allowances have moved a larger proportion of the financial burden of making some of the adjustments and advisory provision needed or desired from the state to the institution, potentially undermining institutions’ ability or even commitment to fully address students’ requirements. There are many individuals and institutions that could undoubtedly benefit from the more generous resources once available through the DSA5 funding to help meet additional costs (Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1). Some students who would in the past have been awarded a DSA no longer meet the stricter eligibility requirements introduced a few years ago. Funding matters are further discussed in Williams and colleagues’ (2015) review of institutional provision for students with intensive support needs (pp.  126–33). The crucial importance of consideration of accessibility and inclusivity in respect of the institutional estate, the teaching and learning environment, student services provision and in planning and implementing institutional policies and procedures needs to be firmly implanted within institutional mindsets if the causes of stress and distress in the student population are to be fully addressed.

 https://www.gov.uk/disabled-students-allowance-dsa.

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3.6 Disclosure and Help Seeking Many students thrive in the academic environment and achieve their goals despite significant health or personal difficulties, even without institutional help; others can be significantly disadvantaged if the challenges they face are having an ongoing negative impact on their wellbeing and academic engagement. This is particularly the case if they do not or cannot access timely advice, guidance and support, either because it is not readily available when most needed, or because of a reluctance to disclose personal difficulties to others because they fear being stigmatised or criticised as a result (Wallin et  al. 2018). It should never be assumed that those who are the most likely to benefit from advice and are most at risk are those who make the greatest demands on advisory services: often the opposite can be the case (Ciarrochi et al. 2002; Rickwood et al. 2005; Rickwood et al. 2007). Those from older generations, including perhaps the parents and grandparents of some current students, grew up in a world that had little understanding of or even sympathy for those with longstanding mental illnesses or who experienced periods of mental health difficulty and distress. A harsh and discriminatory vocabulary was in common usage in the past, but I have more recently also witnessed the expression of prejudicial terminology and attitudes to mental illness even by students. Significant efforts  to promote better understanding and reduce stigmatising attitudes have been made by HE student services and students’ unions, and by external organisations and charities such as Student Minds6 and Students Against Depression7 who have a particular interest in student wellbeing. From the  1990s onwards the BBC and other broadcasters, script writers and film makers have made more consistent attempts to be proactive in monitoring the ways they portray mental distress. Media coverage of Prince Harry’s admission that he had sought professional help after many years of shutting down the emotions that followed the death of his mother, Princess Diana, specifically encouraged others to follow his example and talk about their problems (Furness 2017). Despite such  https://www.studentminds.org.uk.  https://www.studentsagainstdepression.org.

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efforts, unsympathetic and ignorant attitudes can still be found among those of all generations and cultural backgrounds and remain for some major deterrents seeking help. Applicants are strongly encouraged to declare their disabilities and health difficulties on their university application forms so that they can be informed in advance of the support that would be available to them if they were to be offered a place. They may be invited to meet institutional advisory staff so that adjustments to the teaching or living environment can be put in place in advance of their arrival. Nonetheless, my analyses of student help-seeking data have shown a poor correlation between those who have declared their difficulties on application and those who seek help once they begin their course. Some who have declared their difficulties choose to manage without institutional support while others, despite all the reassurances given, remain concerned that disclosure will have a negative impact on their application for a university place and so choose not to do so until after they have begun their studies, or perhaps not at all. This cautions against making any assumptions that the numbers of those who declare a difficulty prior to entry can be an accurate measure of likely demand on advisory services or of the incidence of ill-­ health and disability within a student population (see 3.3 above). Religious belief can be protective in respect of mental distress and for many of those with a strong faith, their religious leader is their first port of call when problems arise. However, in some cases religious and cultural attitudes create barriers to disclosure. UK institutions often have ­multifaith centres or chaplaincies that play an important advisory and support role alongside other professional services (Sect. 4.7 in Chap. 4). However, some faith leaders can feel uncomfortable about offering neutral and non-judgemental advice in respect of the specific concerns of, for example LGBTQ+ students, or those who find that they are unexpectedly pregnant with a child they do not wish to  give birth to. A clash between a student’s religious beliefs and their perhaps hidden identity and life choices can be a strong disincentive for some to seek help within their pre-­existing support groups. This is likely to be among the factors accounting for the elevated levels of stress, depression or anxiety identified in those from some minority communities (Przedworski et al. 2015).

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Men brought up to view the traditional male gender role as associated with success and self-reliance can also be reluctant to admit to difficulty in managing their feelings (McCarthy and Holliday 2004). This self-­ expectation can be particularly prevalent amongst some groups of international students. A study of the experiences of young African students in a Scottish university found negative attitudes to counselling were linked to both stigmatising attitudes to mental illness in their home communities and a fear of being judged to be weak and so feel the need to act as if they are’ fine and happy’ (Sachpasidi and Georgiadou 2018, p. 22). One of the very saddest cases of suicide that I encountered during my working life with students was that of a West African PhD student who had almost completed the writing up of his thesis. His work was highly regarded by his supervisor, who was as profoundly shocked and surprised by his death as were his fellow students and flat mate, none of whom had an inkling of any mental distress or suicidal intentions; nor could the coroner’s investigations find any explanation for his action. Studies of suicide have shown that help-negation is very common amongst those who take or have attempted to take their own lives. It is frequently discovered after the event that those concerned have not consulted a doctor, professional counsellor or advisor in the months prior to their death or suicide attempt (Valach et al. 2002; Wilks et al. 2019). This has also been the case in respect of many of my own experiences of student suicide. Suicide is concern of global dimensions (WHO 2014) and the research literature extensive, but it is far too important and complex a matter to attempt to summarise here. New guidance for the HE sector offers a framework for the development of institutional harm reduction strategies (Clarke et al. 2019) and it is to be hoped that these may have positive impact in reducing risk and also in helping the friends of those who knew the deceased  to  manage their grief and overcome the  often inevitable but usually unjustified feelings of guilt that they could have done something to prevent the death. Denial of difficulty and refusal or reluctance to seek or accept help is common amongst those who have serious eating disorders. Involvement in sport can promote mental wellbeing, but some attempt to control their Body Mass Index (BMI) not only by limiting their calorie intake, but also through excessive exercise (Bryant et al. 2012; Russell et al. 2010). 

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In response, Student Minds has collaborated with the British Universities and Colleges Sport association (BUCS) to provide guidance for HE sports staff and students involved in running sports clubs on recognising and responding to students whose involvement in sport may be masking serious difficulties (Student Minds n.d.). For those who do seek help, the first and often most difficult hurdle they may have had to cross is their self-admission that they are experiencing feelings that they are not able to deal with on their own; the next is to begin to talk to others. For most of us, friends and family are the first and most important source of advice and support; next for students may come personal tutors and/or professional institutional advisory staff (Grant 2002a; Goodwin et al. 2016). Martin’s (2010) exploratory study of university students with mental health difficulties found many did not disclose their difficulties to academic staff, primarily due to a fear of discrimination during their studies and when seeking employment. I have encountered many who sought the help of student services in preference to their tutors because they viewed the former as separate from the academic environment and thus more independent and, crucially, would offer confidentiality (5.5). Some students of human and veterinary medicine and other health professions can be very cautious about talking to their academic advisors because they fear that a disclosure of their problems might influence judgements about their fitness to practice and consequently impede their career progression or even lead to their being withdrawn from their courses. Academic staff can play their part by being proactive in making it clear that they are willing to listen to students who want to talk about their concerns and will respect any request for confidentiality other than when there is clear risk of harm to self or a breach of relevant professional standards (Goodwin et al. 2016; Winter et al. 2017; Sect. 5.7 in Chap. 5) A ‘one stop shop’ approach (Sect. 1.7 in Chap. 1) that provides a single and direct pathway to all professional advisory services helps to reduce any fear of stigma that might deter some from engaging with counselling and mental health services. For some, crossing the threshold of a door that says ‘Counselling’ or ‘Mental Health’ can be personally challenging. I often observed students walking backwards and forwards in front of unfamiliar (to them) student services buildings in order to get a sense of what

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is happening inside and how open and friendly the atmosphere appears to be, before finally plucking up the courage to come through the door themselves. ‘Trying out’ an advisory service by coming in to ask for some general information, or resolve a simple query is a strategy I have also witnessed in those who are building up their confidence before they feel able to disclose their concerns to others. The location (preferably central and on a ground floor) and internal layout of advisory services premises are also important but unfortunately not always sufficiently considered factors when planning institutional advisory services premises. Many counselling and mental health advisory services as well as charities such as Student Minds and Students Against Depression (3.4) have developed online resources as an adjunct to their one to one provision or as an alternative or a starting point for those who understand that they might benefit from help but do not yet have the confidence to seek it faceto-face. A review of research literature on young people’s (under 25 year olds) use of online resources indicated that preferences for help seeking may vary not only from person to person, but also for individuals at different times in their lives Preserving confidentiality and retaining autonomy were important for some who chose to use online provision (Pretorius et al. 2019). Another study demonstrated a general preference for face-toface interventions when seeking advice other than for those whose mental health problems were self-judged to be stigmatising (Wallin et al. 2018). Inaccurate information about the services provided, ignorance of advisory and counselling practice, reports from others of poor experiences or discouragingly long waiting lists can also contribute to students’ reluctance seek help. Accurate information about the availability of all sources of student advice needs to be well-disseminated and regularly reiterated. My experience of and informal research on the value of introductory talks at student induction events has been that many pay only scant attention to any information that does not appear to have immediate relevance at the time, and thus it may be forgotten when most needed (Sect. 4.6 in Chap. 4). A further key factor in the growth in demand for services may be that many young adults are finding it easier to talk about their concerns than was the case in the past, facilitated by their access to social media and peer support groups (see 3.10) and also the availability of locations where they

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feel safe in sharing their personal feelings. However, to what extent any of the increasing pressure on advisory provision is due to the possible factors discussed above and in Sect. 3.5 is impossible to quantify. I feel very strongly that a sound understanding of students’ help-­ seeking behaviours and their motivations for doing so is fundamental to the success of all initiatives designed to improve mental wellbeing, and to our understanding of the factors that may be having negative or indeed positive impacts on students’ academic and career success and their satisfaction with their lives. This requires a comprehensive review of relevant research and, crucially, analysis of institution-specific data on students’ use of professional advisory services and their engagement with their personal tutors. Such analyses can help to identify and respond to the particular pressures felt by students and identify periods of  elevated  stress during the academic year. It can also identify the students who are not seeking help from professional services and may benefit from proactive approaches (see also Rickwood et  al. 2005; Rickwood et  al. 2007; Rickwood and Thomas 2012). One example is the outcome of a preliminary analysis of a single institution’s undergraduate usage of the financial, academic and mental health advisory provision within a broadly-based integrated student advisory service over a 12-month period. This compared the help-seeking behaviours of students from each of the institution’s academic departments. The numbers of those making and attending at least one individual appointment with a specialist adviser demonstrated differences not only in the overall proportions of those who sought help, but also in their reasons for seeking help. The largest proportion (31%) of any individual department’s students who had sought mental health advice were studying chemistry, followed by international studies (28%) pharmacy (24%) and economics (19%) while only 3% of mathematics and media studies students had sought such advice. The patterns of usage of financial and academic study advice also differed across subject areas, but often in different ways. Further analysis of such data by personal characteristics such as gender, age and ethnicity and by fee status reveals a great deal more that could inform the development of proactive approaches to enhancing student wellbeing and academic progress, as well as identifying periods of peak and low concern and demand.

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3.7 Postgraduate Wellbeing Within the sector and in the research literature on student wellbeing the focus has tended to be on the mental wellbeing of undergraduate students. However, there is growing interest in postgraduates and the challenges that their particular circumstances can create. Some of these have been already been touched on (Sect. 2.5 in Chap. 2) and are also addressed in a later chapter (Sect. 5.9 in Chap. 5) where I draw attention to the complexity of the relationships between research students and their supervisors. A recent international survey of graduate students used validated clinical scales to measure anxiety and depression levels—a very welcome but sadly uncommon methodology (see Sects. 3.4 and 6.4 in Chap. 6). The researchers concluded that the incidence of depression in the postgraduate community they surveyed was significantly higher than in the general population. They also found that only a third only of those with elevated anxiety and/or depression scores felt that their supervisors provided sufficient support (Evans et al. 2018). It is of vital importance that advisory services are specifically promoted to postgraduates as they may miss out on the extensive induction briefings provided for new undergraduates and do not always understand that the institutional student services are available to all students and not just undergraduates.

3.8 W  hat Can Be Done to Minimise Student Stress? HEIs are not, nor should they be expected to be, therapeutic communities specifically responsible for the overall health and wellbeing of all their students: they rarely have the clinical expertise, funding or facilities to do so, and their primary task must be other. Institutions must however be responsible to the students who engage in the education that they offer and from whom they accept considerable amounts of money in the form of tuition fees and, in many cases rents for student accommodation. The imperative must surely be to strive to ensure that what is provided for students has been designed and delivered so that to the fullest  extent

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possible it is for their individual and community benefit and not just for institutional reputation, league table position or income generation to support developments that have no evident student benefit. It is not unreasonable to expect that all HEIs accept an explicit responsibility for identifying the stressors within their academic learning environment, whether these relate to teaching and assessment methods, administrative systems (see Sect. 5.6 in Chap. 5), finances, accommodation, disciplinary procedures and so on, and then consider what might be done to reduce or minimise any that are not strictly necessary or fully justifiable. This is not to say that the aim should, or even could be to remove all causes of stress within HE. Some level of stress is inevitable and in the right circumstance can have a beneficial impact by helping to strengthen resilience (Robertson 2017; Luthar et al. 2000; see Sects. 3.5 and 3.9). Time-limited unseen examinations are commonly used to assess undergraduate and masters level students and are inherently stressful for many, but they have always impacted more on some individuals than others (Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2). Over a period of several decades changes in approaches to assessment have seen a reduction in the proportion of unseen examinations required in favour of a wider range of other assessment methods including coursework (essays, lab reports, short tests) oral presentations and open book exams, although some institutions have begun to shift the balance back to assessments completed in formal examination conditions due to their concerns about the incidence of plagiarism in student essays (Sect. 2.4 in Chap. 2). A wide range of approaches can be found across the sector and this aspect of learning has been of particular interest to some of the Advance HE National Teaching Fellows who have been involved in projects to evaluate and broaden the range of assessment techniques employed (Pugh n.d.). Sitting exams in large and impersonal examination halls can be particularly stressful as many of us will remember from our own school and university days. In response, some HEIs have produced guidelines for invigilators to help them respond effectively and compassionately to students who have panic attacks or become frozen during the exams and/or allow some to write their papers in less stressful environments (see Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2). The study skills advice discussed in Chap. 2 plays an important role in helping students to overcome or manage many of the stresses of the

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academic learning environment. Learning advisory staff do much to help build students’ skills, understanding and confidence in all aspects of learning and assessment, including revision and examination techniques, and managing time effectively. It is also an institutional responsibility to recognise and minimise the stress created by, for example, bunched deadlines or inadequate library resources. Compassionate procedures for responding to legitimate deadline extension requests and other concessions help to take the pressure off those experiencing exceptional or particularly challenging circumstances (Sect. 5.6 in Chap. 5). In some disciplines, particularly although not exclusively in professional subjects such as human and veterinary medicine, dentistry and law, very competitive cultures have been identified that may have a serious negative impact on student wellbeing. The General Medical Council’s guidance on student mental health (GMC 2013/15) highlights the support that medical schools are now expected to offer and also acknowledges that aspects of the medical school culture, including a perceived stigma associated with mental illness, can contribute to the reluctance of many students to admit to their difficulties and seek the help that could be beneficial (Grant et al. 2013). Research on the wellbeing and attainment of students training to be vets has also highlighted the impact of content overload in the veterinary medical curriculum and the challenges faced by that those who are sent on placements in remote locations for part of their study. In response, proactive measures have been put into place to help reduce these and other stressors and ensure that support is available (Drake et al. 2012; Jackson and Armitage-Chan 2017; Rhind and Grant 2017). Students on any course requiring time to be to be spent away from their institution and without the usual easy access to academic and professional advisers can feel isolated and even forgotten when they find themselves in difficult situations (Boath et al. 2018). Some common exchange or placement destinations for UK students, including the US, Canada and Australia, have well-established student advice and guidance services but these are rather less common in countries where the majority of students attend a local university and live with or close to their own families (Ludeman and Schreiber 2020). Most of those working in student services will have witnessed the impact of some of the challenges that students studying abroad have faced, whether these concern their

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mental or physical health or their safety and security. They may also have also discovered how difficult and frustrating it can be to help students to find a solution to their problems at a distance (see Sect. 5.3 in Chap. 5). When student demand is high and resources stretched it can be extremely difficult to shift from reactive responses to proactive approaches, but when staff and financial resources are available there is much potential for the development, trialling and implementation of a wide range of alternative approaches to enhancing student wellbeing, particularly in respect of relieving stress and counteracting depression. Many UK counselling and wellbeing services offer mindfulness courses to help promote psychological health and encourage self-help amongst their student body: such approaches have been found to be particularly valuable in the treatment of anxiety and depression (Azam et al. 2016; Hejeltnes et al. 2015; Shonin et al. 2015). Regular exercise can have a positive effect on mental health, particularly for those experiencing the symptoms of depression (Mammen and Faulkner 2013; Teychenne et al. 2008). Most UK HEIs provide sport and exercise facilities on or close to their campus although encouraging students to become involved in physical activities is not necessarily easy. Those who are depressed can find it difficult to motivate themselves to go out, even to attend their university classes (Roshanaei-Moghaddam et al. 2009). Excessive exercise also presents risks: one study suggested that more than six hours per week was associated with a higher mental health burden while 2 to 5 hours a week appeared to be beneficial (Chekroud et al. 2018). Involvement in team sports offers mental health benefits but may also bring its own risks of bullying and other anti-social behaviours (Sect. 3.6; Sect. 4.12 in Chap. 4). There is much anecdotal evidence that animal petting can lower students’ stress levels, and a recent randomised trial of US university students provides some robust encouragement to provide such opportunities, perhaps in collaboration with students’ unions (Pendry and Vandagriff 2019). Social prescribing, that is referring patients with ongoing mental health or other difficulties to community activities, has been used as an adjunct to primary care services in the UK for several years (Chatterjee et al. 2018). The HE environment and local community can offer a wide range of opportunities for involvement in musical, creative and practical

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activities through students’ union clubs and societies and volunteering opportunities, all of which may help students to develop their sense of self-worth and improve their mental wellbeing. The time to develop, implement and, most importantly evaluate the effectiveness and unconsidered risks of any new initiative is difficult to find when advisory staff are under pressure, but this is an area where the student services’ professional organisations such as AMOSSHE can step into play through their support of collaborative research and project development (see Sect. 6.3 in Chap. 6).

3.9 S  hifting the Balance: Promoting Personal Strength and Responsibility The current generation of young adults has been characterised as a ‘snowflake’ generation, less resilient and more prone to taking offence than previous generations. This rather patronising description has nonetheless brought the concept of resilience as a protective factor in respect of mental wellbeing to greater prominence, although it has been explored for well over three decades by psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers as part of their efforts to shift their own focus from reactive to proactive and preventative strategies (Fonagy et al. 1994). Broadly speaking, resilience can be defined as the ability to manage the ups and downs of life. Factors that contribute to a person’s resilience have been found to include a sense of emotional and physical security, self-worth, self-esteem and self-efficacy, that is being able to take control while also understanding one’s own strengths and limitations; emotional competence can also be an important component. Those working with young adult students are increasingly turning to an exploration of the concept of resilience in seeking to explain and ameliorate the incidence of debilitating stress levels in student populations. A study of the vulnerability to stress of a sample of 18–24 year old French Masters students showed that around three quarters had symptoms of psychological distress, anxiety and depression (Saleh et al. 2017). What is particularly interesting in respect of this research is that statistical analysis

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showed that the most important correlates in those reporting high levels of stress included low self-esteem, pessimism and poor self-efficacy. This research reinforces other findings on student resilience undertaken in the UK and North America, highlighting a growing concern amongst student services professionals about the lack of robustness and self-reliance they find in some of the students who seek their help (Dusselier et al. 2005; Ecclestone and Lewis 2014; Ecclestone 2020; Fagence et al. 2017; Hartley 2011; McIntosh and Shaw 2017; Saleh et al. 2017; Wisker and Robinson 2013). Concerns about student independence and resilience are not new. In her in her 1965 essay, ‘The Problem That Has No Name’, the pioneering American feminist, Betty Friedan, wrote of the sense of dissatisfaction common amongst the American women of her generation who were tied to the home. She identified a concerning impact that this had on children who had become so dependent on their ever available and protective mothers that they lacked sufficient resilience and self-reliance to step out on their own. She quotes a university dean who spoke of the battle they were fighting to help new students ‘assume manhood’ (Friedan 2018, p. 21). This theme was picked up fifty years later by Lukianoff and Haidt (2019) in their book ‘The Codling of the American Mind’ and is also echoed in Thompson and Vailes’ (2019) book for parents on ‘How to Grow a Grownup’. Grout (2019) also refers to the important role of parents in helping their children develop their self confidence in the face of adversity during childhood and adolescence (see also Cui et  al. 2019; Sect. 5.9 in Chap. 5). If HEIs are to be effective in their efforts to improve student wellbeing, it seems vital that there is explicit recognition of the likelihood, even certainty, that some of the young people beginning their HE studies may not have previously been offered sufficient opportunity to feel confident in their own ability to thrive independently and take action to resolve the difficulties they meet, including seeking guidance. Perhaps one of the most effective ways forward in addressing the sector’s concerns about student mental wellbeing is an acceptance of a responsibility to be more proactive and offer students opportunities to help them to recognise their existing strengths and build on these within a supportive framework that avoids patronisation and does not judge inexperience and insecurity as

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character weaknesses nor risk victim blaming (McIntosh and Shaw 2017). The locus of responsibility for improving student mental wellbeing must surely be one that is shared between students, advisory staff, academics and the HE institution as a whole (see also Ecclestone and Lewis 2014). Helping students to normalise unpleasant feelings may be as effective as showing sympathy and compassion, although these too are of course vital. I know that I am not alone in my concerns that we may be taking risks with the futures of our students if we do not explicitly recognise the need to help them to develop the insights and personal strengths that will prepare them for a future in an increasingly uncertain and challenging world. If the stress of preparing for and siting examinations and the often acute but understandable distress caused by homesickness and other challenging personal circumstances and events are pathologised as symptoms of mental ill-health, then we may ultimately find ourselves at risk of encouraging those who are understandably, but one hopes only temporarily, feeling low or stressed of believing that they are mentally ill. Helping students to normalise such feelings should be included in a package of advice and concern offered by institutions as well as respecting and supporting those whose difficulties cannot be easily overcome. Ecclestone (2020) and Ecclestone and Lewis (2014) have also challenged a too easy acceptance of definitions of students as ‘vulnerable and ‘at risk’. The underlying aim of institutional advisory services and enshrined within their approaches to advice and guidance must surely be to demonstrate sympathy, compassion and respect but at the same time aim to empower students to help themselves and not become dependent on sources of advice and support that are very unlikely to be easily available once they graduate.

3.10 Staff Training Institutional staff, particularly those who fulfil personal tutor or research supervisor roles are often very concerned about how they should fulfil their non-academic responsibilities to their students and where the boundaries lie between providing advice and support themselves or ­referring on to professional advisory  staff. Assessing risk is a difficult

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task and certainly not one that should be left to academic staff or even to student services professionals other than those who have the relevant specialist training and experience to be able to judge whether or not urgent action is required. What is key is that all who have close contact with students are able to recognise the signs and behaviours of those of who might be experiencing mental distress and feel confident in their ability to respond appropriately. They also need accurate knowledge and a sound understanding of the appropriate referral points for professional support. Despite the reluctance of some students to seek help on personal matters from their personal tutor or research supervisor (3.6), these staff nonetheless play a vital role. Their teaching and tutorial responsibilities provide opportunities to interact and chat informally with students, often placing them in a unique position to notice changes in students’ behaviours or concerning absences (Sect. 1.9 in Chap. 1). Student advisory staff are often responsible for providing staff training opportunities in respect of student wellbeing. In my experience, the most effective guidance and training is delivered face to face and allows for discussion and debate that can both provide reassurance and at the same time challenge misconceptions and unjustified prejudices. Academic staff usually find reassurance in knowing where the boundaries of their responsibilities lie and where they can access authoritative and confidential advice when they are unsure about the action they should take. It is probably unrealistic to expect that all staff whose work includes regular contact with students will be able to attend events that allow the optimum in-depth exploration of these matters, although best efforts should be made to offer briefing sessions to as many as possible, with academic staff prioritised. Paper and web-based guidance on how to respond to students in difficulty have been developed both within the sector (Grant and Woolfson 2001) and by external bodies such as the Charlie Waller Memorial Trust,8 Student Minds9 and via Mental Health First Aid training programmes.10 Student services staff may also take on the responsibility for updating guidance materials and ensuring that contact details  http://learning.cwmt.org.uk/e-learning/higher-education/.  https://www.studentminds.org.uk/universitystaff.html. 10  https://mhfaengland.org. 8 9

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remain correct and that they are routinely provided to all new staff including those working in libraries, administrative offices, university estates and buildings and all other student-facing services (see Sect. 5.13 in Chap. 5). Security staff and cleaners in halls of residence can be among the first to notice students who are experiencing difficulties, but they can be forgotten when training programmes are developed and delivered. The risk factors for serious mental or physical health crises and the warning signs that signal that a student may be in danger of immediate harm need to be well understood by all institution staff. The risk of harm can be greatly reduced if the whole community is aware of these warning signs  and know how to react, whom to contact and, if there appears to be a clear risk of serious imminent harm, feel confident enough to break confidentiality (see Sect. 5.5 in Chap. 5).

3.11 Peer Support Peer support and other student-led activities play a very important role in enhancing wellbeing. Many students and students’ unions are involved in or even take responsibility for institutional mental health promotion events by organising formal and informal support groups for those experiencing mental and physical health challenges and providing one-to-one buddying and mentoring for their peers. Some volunteer for mental health charities, including Nightline,11 a student-run organisation that in many HEIs provides an overnight listening services for any student who wants to talk or otherwise communicate with a fellow human or find the answer to a query they may have. In practice, student concerns may range from worries about their or their friends’ mental health to finding out where they can buy a pizza. Nightline services are usually hosted by HEIs but staffed by trained student volunteers. One of the most important benefits of such peer support is that it can help to normalise students’ feelings of stress and anxiety within the academic context. Studies have shown that those who were aware that their close friends had sought either formal or informal help were much more likely to seek help  https://www.nightline.ac.uk.

11

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themselves, and that this was particularly the case for male participants (Disabato et al. 2018). Peer supporters often offer important and sometimes unique perspectives on the difficulties students face and may have valuable insights into the ways that these might be most effectively addressed. Giving voice to those who offer peer support through membership of relevant institutional committees or working groups, particularly those responsible for planning, implementing and monitoring the impact of mental wellbeing policies and practices, can be extremely valuable (Sect. 1.10 in Chap. 1). However, involvement in peer support activities can also bring its own challenges and stresses for the supporters. These may themselves need ‘fast track’ access to institutional support, and guidance on how to manage the impact of supporting others who are very stressed, distressed or even suicidal on their own wellbeing. An understanding of the appropriate boundaries of their role and when confidentiality may need to be broken is also vital.

3.12 Working with the Statutory and Voluntary Sectors One of the aims of HEFCE sponsored research on students with mental health concerns and intensive support needs (Williams et al. 2015) was to investigate how institutions perceived the balance between in-house support and that offered by external agencies, and in particular the National Health Service (NHS). This is a very important matter but not easy to clarify. The HEFCE research was largely qualitative, conducted through interviews with student service advisers from across the sector. The comments quoted in the report include those who were very clear that they were not to be considered as a substitute for medical services or the NHS but that their role was to help students manage the barriers they face and help HEIs to understand those barriers (p. 65), a view that is very close to my own. Responses to the question ‘whose responsibility?’ highlight a matter that remains of ongoing relevance and concern. The NHS has very many of its own challenges to meet in respect of the

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ever-growing demand for all aspects of its provision. Some university campuses include independent NHS health practices that provide primary care for current and former students and staff; others develop close relationships with their local community practices. A predominately young adult student population, including many who are away from parental supervision and support for the first time, can make rather different demands on GPs (General Practitioners) and other NHS services than the permanent residents of a local community. GP practices whose patient lists include only a small proportion of the elderly and those with serious ill-health can also be disadvantaged by the complex NHS funding models. There are significant advantages for an institution’s students—and in my experience for the professional advisory staff—if strong collaborative relationships can be established with their local GP practice. Medical staff with a sound understanding of the academic environment and the particular circumstances of their student patients, including the impact of transition from living at home to living quasi-independently the demands made on students and the pressure many are under to meet tight assessment deadlines are better able to situate students’ health concerns within the context of their daily lives. Universities need to understand how NHS funding operates when they develop regulations that require students to provide evidence of illness or other difficulty as GPs may not be able to claim for providing certificates that are medically unnecessary. Tensions may also arise when GP appointment slots become clogged up with students who are quite capable of managing their own periods of ill-health but need to see a doctor solely to obtain a certificate to support their requests for coursework extensions, deferred examination arrangements or breaks in study on health grounds (see Sect. 5.6 in Chap. 5). It is very important that HEIs understand that GP practices may also be overwhelmed by increasing numbers of both student and non-student patients seeking help for depression and anxiety and other mental health difficulties and illness. Students who are away from home for the first time, or whose home countries provide health care services that are very different from those of the UK may make demands that have an unfortunate impact not only on GPs but also local ambulance services and NHS Accident and Emergency

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departments (A&E). These can experience a high incidence of unnecessary night-time calls from students worried about relatively minor illnesses or seriously intoxicated students clogging up the emergency facilities. Over the years, I have received complaints from both ambulance services and hospital A&E departments who are very concerned about what they view as inappropriate student demand. This is clearly something that HEIs wish and do try to help to avoid though induction briefing sessions and other information dissemination, although their power to regulate the private lives and behaviours of adult students is limited (Sect. 5.12 in Chap. 5). In the past some HEIs provided 24-hour Sick Bays staffed by qualified nurses. They provided a place where resident students could be cared for while recovering from brief periods of physical or mental ill-health and, if possible, continue their studies. Very few HEIs now provide sick bays with overnight accommodation but they were a wonderful resource for individual students and for the student services staff and local GPs, who could be reassured that students of concern would be well looked after while they recovered from short periods of acute ill-health or waited for their families to collect them and take them home to recover. Even with GP support, finding a hospital bed for an ill student who has no family members nearby or even a place in a mental hospital for a student experiencing a serious psychotic episode can be very challenging.  These can sometimes involve very difficult discussions with hospital staff about the boundaries between their and the university’s responsibilities. I have had to raise my own concerns about the release of students from (A&E) departments in the middle of the night on the often mistaken assumption that they will be returning to a place where they can be monitored and cared for: student residences are certainly not to be considered as convalescence homes. I have also had to challenge hospital consultants who were planning to discharge to shared accommodation student patients who had been sectioned as a result of acute psychotic breakdown, but were not yet stable. The solution to all such difficulties and misconceptions is working in partnership to enhance a mutual understanding and respect that avoids tensions and clarifies the boundaries of responsibility, ensuring that students do not fall between the cracks, but are also made aware of their duty to behave responsibly.

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For new students with pre-existing conditions when they move away from home, the transfer of care within the NHS can be challenging, especially for those who had previously been accessing services designed for children and adolescents but are likely to be referred on to unfamiliar adult services at the start of their courses. A new student may have to adjust to a completely new educational environment and at the same time find that they are being offered support from a less well-funded NHS service at the same time as experiencing the psychological challenges of late adolescence. The mental health charity, Student Minds, has anticipated some of these difficulties and provide on-line resources to help prepare final year secondary school students who have pre-existing mental health difficulties for their transition to university (Kutcher n.d.). It is not only in respect of mental health that the transition to higher education brings challenges that may need be anticipated and addressed in advance of arrival. The same can be the case of those with some of the ‘hidden’ physical illnesses such as diabetes and epilepsy. A good example of mutually beneficial collaboration between one HEI and local NHS specialists was an initiative designed to support the transition of students with type 1 diabetes. This project was undertaken by a multi-disciplinary team of specialist clinicians together with HE advisory staff,  and was stimulated by concerns about the incidence of poor self-management among some of their student patients. The clinicians’ assumption had been that the major factor was inadequate transfer of care from one NHS region to another together  and  the absence of parental support. What they had not factored in was the academic and in particular the social impact of the new environment, including the peer pressure to conform to a lifestyle that made it more challenging be self-disciplined in controlling food and alcohol intake and eating and sleeping patterns (see Sect. 4.14  in Chap. 4). The outcome of this collaborative project was a ‘University Toolkit’ for students and their consultants that reflects a broader perspective on diabetes control in the student environment (Joanne Kellett, pers. com.). Other examples of mutually beneficial collaboration between universities and their local NHS providers include local GP contributions to student induction briefings, their specialist provision for student sexual health, guidance on self-care and collaborative responses to cases of reportable illnesses and the need to ensure that affected students are isolated and quarantined.

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A number of references have been made to the important contribution made by the voluntary sector to student mental wellbeing. Further examples include Student Minds’  ‘Time to Change’12 initiative, which asks employers, communities and other organisations, including HEIs, to commit to changing their community’s attitudes to mental ill health and challenging discrimination by becoming mental health champions. Student Minds has recently released a mental health charter, the 93 page outcome of an extensive and comprehensive piece of collaborative work involving a large team of researchers, clinicians, mental health professionals and student volunteers (Hughes and Spanner 2019). The charter defines many valuable principles for good practice in addressing wellbeing at a whole institutional level. Student Minds expects that universities will put in place the approaches they recommend and then apply for a ‘Student Minds Charter Award’. My only concern is that this might result in further pressure being put on advisory and other institutional staff already weighed down by the burden of meeting other targets being set by governments, sector organisations and agencies, and by current student demands for advice and support. It is also important that we do not forget and build on what has been learned from other initiatives, including the longer-established ‘whole institutional’ approaches to wellbeing taken by those HEIs who are part of the global movement that includes the ‘UK Healthy Universities Network’.13 This movement has aspired and taken action to create learning environments that enhance ‘health, wellbeing and sustainability’. Its guiding principles influenced UUK ‘s ‘Step Change’ call to action which also asked institutions to develop a whole institutional approach to student and staff wellbeing (de Pury and Dicks 2020 (see also Grant 2002a).

3.13 Final Thoughts Concerns about student wellbeing are long-standing, but they have become a matter of significantly increased attention over the last three decades or so. The influence of the press and other social media has in 12 13

 https://www.time-to-change.org.uk.  https://healthyuniversities.ac.uk/about-the-network/.

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many respects been beneficial in promoting understanding and challenging stigma, but a tendency for scare-mongering headline writers to exploit anything that might be considered ‘bad news’ have not always been helpful and may have sometimes made matters seem worse than they are by reporting so-called evidence of incidence that is not confirmed by robust research. Much has been done over the years to improve provision and meet student demand for mental health advice and counselling, but it seems worth questioning why the many earlier initiatives that were so successful in setting the mental wellbeing ball rolling in the right direction have been abandoned or their funding reduced, leaving the sector somewhat ill-prepared for the current situation. Before we try again to reinvent wheels it might be worth examining more carefully the research undertaken and the insights gained in the past and looking at what was previously successful to ensure that we are always building on the firmest of foundations (Sect. 6.5 in Chap. 6). There are very many factors at play which make understanding and responding to student difficulties complex. The UK environment has changed a great deal over recent years as student populations have increased and diversified and at the same time per-capita resources and staff:student  ratios have declined. There has also been a tightening of regulatory frameworks that can make it difficult for HEIs to be flexible in adapting quickly or offering individual responses to changing and unforeseen circumstances. In response to growing demand for advice, many institutions are investing additional resources in their mental health provision and adopting a greater diversity of approaches, including increasing the numbers of counsellors and integrating mental health advisory staff within faculty structures. As yet, there appear to be few if any well researched evaluations of the impact of the different models and approaches. Assessing effectiveness is vital if we are to address the growth in student demand for help and advice and ensure that any attempts at remedying the situation do not distort the allocation of funding by increasing numbers of mental health advisers to the detriment of the other advisory services such as those offering academic, practical and personal advice that also have a significant beneficial impact on student wellbeing. The more detailed the

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information collected on students’ use of advisory services is, the better targeted and nuanced the responses can be. ‘Mental health difficulties’ or other similar blanket terms risk conflating very many different concerns and feelings that range from acute homesickness, academic stress and anxiety, depression and personal loss to alcoholism, drug addiction and clinically defined mental illness, each of which are very likely to require different responses. More robust research is required in order to provide an accurate, nuanced and context-specific understanding of the incidence of student mental health difficulties and distress and how being at university can impact, positively and negatively on student wellbeing. Most institutions have well-developed student support services and personal tutor provision, or its equivalent, and one priority must be to encourage all those who are most likely to benefit from the support offered to seek it out early on before their problems escalate. Addressing stigma and reluctance to disclose difficulties, ensuring that support services are appropriately funded and well promoted and that what they offer is evidence-based and well understood by students and staff  must  remain priorities for all HEIs. Looking beyond reactive approaches in response to mental distress and taking steps to build student resilience and self-confidence alongside reducing or eliminating unnecessary sources of stress are approaches that would benefit from ongoing attention in institutional wellbeing strategies. We should also be careful to ensure that we do not forget the good news: the majority of students enjoy and derive many benefits from their university experience, including long term mental health benefits (Bynner et al. 2003; Baldwin et al. 2017). Allowing the bad news about higher education to overwhelm accounts of the positive aspects of student life and the academic and social benefits that accrue for the majority does a disservice to those who work so hard to create an environment where students can develop and thrive, and to those students who overcome their difficulties and emerge stronger and more positive about the future ahead of them. The focus of next chapter, Chap. 4, is the broader institutional environment and the importance of creating an inclusive and safe university community that promotes and supports student wellbeing, success and personal growth and confidence.

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Rickwood, Debra, Frank Dean, and Coralie Wilson. 2007. When and How Do Young People Seek Professional Help for Mental Health Problems. Medical Journal of Australia 187 (7): S35–S39. Robertson, Ian. 2017. The Stress Test: Can Stress Ever Be Beneficial? Journal of the British Academy 5: 163–176. Roshanaei-Moghaddam, Babak, Wayne Katon, and Joan Russo. 2009. The Longitudinal Effects of Depression on Physical Activity. General Hospital Psychiatry 31 (4): 306–315. Russell, Graeme, Duncan Moss, and Joe Miller. 2010. Appalling and Appealing: a Qualitative Study of the Character of Men’s Self-Harm. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 83: 91–109. Sachpasidi, Christina, and Lorena Georgiadou. 2018. Mental Health and Wellbeing of Global Access Students. Research Into the International Student Experience in the UK 2017–18. London: UKCISA/Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh. Saleh, Dalia, Nathalie Camart, and Lucia Romo. 2017. Predictors of Stress in College Students. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(19). https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2017.00019. Shonin, Edo, W.  William Van Gordon, and Mark Griffiths. 2015. Does Mindfulness Work? BMJ 351: h6919. Singleton, Royce, and Amy Wolfson. 2009. Alcohol Consumption, Sleep, and Academic Performance Among College Students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 70 (3): 355–363. Stanley, Nicky, S.  Mallon, J.  Bell, S.  Hilton, and J.  Manthorpe, eds. 2007. Responses and Prevention in Student Suicide (RaPSS). Preston: University of Central Lancashire and PAPYRUS. Student Minds. (n.d.). University Sport & Mental Health. Oxford: Student Minds. http://www.studentminds.org.uk/uploads/3/7/8/4/3784584/university_sport___mental_health_resource.pdf. Swainson, Mary. 1977. The Spirit of Counsel. The Story of a Pioneer in Student Counselling. London: Neville Spearman. Teychenne, Megan, Kylie Ball, and Jo Salmon. 2008. Physical Activity and Likelihood of Depression in Adults: A Review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 46 (5): 397–411. Thompson, Dominique, and Fabienne Vailes. 2019. How to Grow a Grown-up. Prepare your Teen for the Real World. London: Vermillion.

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Valach, Ladislav, Konrad Michel, Pascal Dey, and Richard Young. 2002. Self-­ confrontation Interview with Suicide Attempters. Counselling Psychology Quarterly 15 (1): 1–22. Vorderer, Peter, Nicola Krömer, and Frank Schneider. 2016. Permanently Online  – Permanently Connected: Explorations into University Students’ Use of Social Media and Mobile Smart Devices. Computers in Human Behavior 63: 694–703. Wallin, Emma, Pernilla Maathz, Thomas Parling, and Timo Hursti. 2018. Self Stigma and the Intention to Seek Psychological Help Online Compared to Face-to-face. Journal of Clinical Psychology 74: 1207–1218. WHO. 2014. Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative. Geneva: World Health Organisation. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/131056/9789241564779_eng.pdf;jsessionid=2B62981E964E82 BCA85758C59D50BB37?sequence=1. ——— 2017. Depression and Other Common Mental Disorders. Global Health Estimates. Geneva: World Health Organisation. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254610/WHO-­MSD-­MER-­2017.2-­eng.pdf;jsessioni d=BBA095E93728FBE52B1DD75EB90C5A15?sequence=1. Wilks, Chelsey, Sin Yee Ang, Xiyao Wang, Vinushini Arunagiri, and Erin Ward-­ Ciesielski. 2019. Exploring Preference to Avoid or Seek Help in Person and Online Among College Students with Suicidal Ideation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 38 (10): 811–835. Williams, Matthew, Pam Coare, Rosa Marvell, Emma Pollard, Anne-Marie Houghton, and Jill Anderson. 2015. Understanding Provision for Students with Mental Health Problems and Intensive Support Needs. Report to HEFCE by the Institute for Employment Studies (IES) and Researching Equity, Access and Participation (REAP): Bristol: Higher Education Funding Council for England/Brighton: Institute of Employment Studies. Winter, Peter, Andrew Rix, and Andrew Grant. 2017. Medical Student Beliefs About Disclosure of Mental Health Issues: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 44 (1): 147–156. Wisker, Gina, and Gillian Robinson. 2013. Doctoral ‘Orphans’: Nurturing and Supporting the Success of Postgraduates Who Have Lost their Supervisors. Higher Education Research & Development 32 (2): 300–313.

4 Building Community in Higher Education Settings

4.1 Introduction Bishop Fleming articulated a vision of a university as a learning community during his sermon at a service held to celebrate the establishment of one of the then new 1960s universities (Sanderson 2002, p. 117). This chapter re-visits that concept more than 50  years on, focusing on the contribution to student achievement and wellbeing of the ‘non-academic’ aspects of student life. It stresses the crucial importance of cross-­ institutional partnership in creating an inclusive and supportive institutional environment by giving close attention to students’ living arrangements, induction to their university and their social integration through the provision of facilities and opportunities that respect the diversity of their cultural backgrounds and beliefs and promote a sense of belonging and citizenship. The chapter also addresses student safety and security and institutional responsibilities to challenge bullying and assault, inappropriate sexual mores and behaviours, harassment, discrimination and the negative impact of alcohol and drug abuse on individuals and the HE and broader local community.

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4.2 The Institutional Context The size, layout and location of a university—city centre with dispersed buildings and residences, campus institution located outside or tucked within an urban centre, multi-site and so on are inevitably major influences on students’ university experiences. An HEI of many thousands has a very different feel to that of a small specialist institution or a larger but collegiate university. Inevitably, creating a sense of community presents different challenges for each institution. An environment and an institutional ethos that helps students to develop their confidence in themselves, enhances their understanding of citizenship, social justice and personal and environmental responsibility and encourages creativity and open mindedness can stretch students’ personal as well as their academic ambitions and is likely to have a beneficial impact on their overall wellbeing. The most recent published data available for the UK at the time of writing are for the 2019/201 academic year, when just over 600,000 UK domiciled students began their first year of a full-time undergraduate degree in one of the 160 or so UK universities (Sect. 1.3 in Chap. 1). The majority of these were recent school leavers who had left behind their familiar worlds of family, friends and school and local communities; others were older students who had completed their secondary education some years earlier. A further quarter of a million new students had chosen to study part-time, perhaps in order to juggle study with paid work or family responsibilities or because they had health difficulties or other personal circumstances that made full-time study impossible for them. UK resident students were joined by thousands of international and EU students from a very wide range of countries across the world. Each new HE cohort, not forgetting  another  300,000 or so new masters’,  PhD  and other postgraduate students, was likely to be entering what was, to varying degrees, an unfamiliar study and social environment. Over the following years, if all had gone well for them, their university would have become much more than a place for learning and a stepping-­stone along a career path but a home where they could to grow and develop intellectually, professionally and personally through the  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/students/whos-in-he.

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connections they made with each other and with those who taught, supervised and guided them. They would have encountered people from backgrounds, cultures and ethnicities very different from their own, challenging and expanding their own belief sets and values. Some of their fellow students would become lifelong friends or even partners, husbands or wives, and the positive impact and memories of their time spent at university would stay with them for the rest of their lives. Unfortunately, such a positive outcome is not a given for all: some students graduate with a degree that does not reflect their academic ability or leave before they have completed their course. Their memories may be of a time spent that failed to live up to their expectations, rewarded with a large debt to be paid off over the next 30 or so years of their lives. Institutions cannot be held responsible for everything that might go wrong for those whose expectations were unrealistic, who were not yet emotionally ready to leave their home environment, encountered insuperable difficulties or found that after all, they did not want to spend their next few years tied down to attending lectures and classes, meeting coursework deadlines and sitting exams. HEIs do have a responsibility to be aware of the potential hazards that might trip up their students along their way and act rapidly to remove or reduce them by striving to ensure that they make a successful transition into their new environment and overcome any challenges they face as they progress through and complete their courses.

4.3 Student Living Arrangements Most UK HEIs provide or facilitate access to student accommodation: the tradition in England and to a lesser extent in other parts of the UK is for new full-time students to move away from their home environment to an institution in another location, making the provision of student accommodation necessary (Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1). This is not the case in much of Europe and in other countries where many, if not most students choose their local university and live in and travel from their parental home throughout their university years. The advantages of moving away are the opportunities provided to for students to be independent, make

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their own choices about what they do, eat, and drink and how they behave, and develop their own views and opinions away from the eyes and ears of their parents and local community. The disadvantages include the cost of accommodation and some of the day-to day living expenses, and the emotional and social impact of the transition from a familiar to an unfamiliar living and study environment. The UK pattern is changing now with increasing numbers of new students choosing an institution near their home. Explanations offered to account for this include the changing demographics of student populations resulting from widening participation initiatives and the rising costs of embarking on a university course (Sects. 1.2 and 1.4 in Chap. 1). It is not surprising that many of those who do not have family or other financial backing are concerned about the size of the debt that they will accumulate to cover tuition fees, accommodation and other essential costs. Some researchers have also suggested that students may decide to live at home because they feel that they would be more comfortable remaining closely connected to an environment with which they are familiar (Sect. 2.2 in Chap. 2), or are from communities where family ties, interconnections and responsibilities are very strongly felt (Neves and Hillman 2017, para. 8.4). Those with health, sensory or mobility difficulties may also be anxious about moving away from their established support structures. Where students live, and in what circumstances inevitably impact on their overall experiences. The layout of many of the new campus universities of the 1960s post-Robbins expansion (Sect. 1.2  in Chap. 1) was explicitly designed to facilitate and encourage interconnections and often included student residences in the heart of the estate. Other institutions without the advantages of starting from scratch with a new build have endeavoured to centralise key buildings and provide accommodation as close as possible to their main teaching, library, sporting and other recreational facilities. One of the consequences of the expansion of the sector is that many institutions, even those which were initially compact, have been forced to build and/or use student accommodation at some distance from their administrative and teaching hubs. Despite an expansion of purpose-built institutional and private student accommodation across the sector, increasing student numbers have maintained pressure on residential places and has resulted in some students having to live at some

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distance from their institution, even in their first year. These, and all other ‘commuting’ students can become isolated from their peers, missing out on opportunities to create and cement their own friendship and support networks. Distance can also impact on educational engagement: a student who has to make a long, inconvenient or costly journey may decide not to go to their university on days when there is only a single lecture or seminar scheduled, hoping to catch up via lecture notes on line, even though this is rarely more than a just-about-adequate substitute for the interactive experience of a live teaching session and meeting and talking to fellow students over a coffee or making a visit to the library afterwards.

4.4 The Residential Experience Those who do move away from home are likely to expect some level of pastoral care to be provided within their student accommodation although it is now rare to find resident wardens or academic staff living and eating with their students as was common in the past (Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1). Most student residences now have self-catering rather than communal dining facilities and, other than in collegiate institutions, hall wardens have often  been replaced by experienced ‘senior’ student residents, who play an important role in helping new students to settle in and meet each other at the start of the academic year and provide ongoing advice and information. Many also organise social activities for their fellow residents throughout the year, helping to create a sense of community within the residential environment. When large numbers of young students, a majority of whom may not have previously lived away from home, are living together in residences with shared facilities it is inevitable that problems and emergencies will arise from time to time. The most common of these tend to be noise nuisance, often associated with the consumption of alcohol. These are usually relatively straightforward, although not always pleasant, to manage. Other far more serious and challenging problems do arise from time-­ to-­time. Senior residents may be called on to respond to students who are experiencing a serious psychotic episode, or threatening suicide or

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self-harming, and they may have to manage the situation on their own before more senior professional staff can step in. The training to take on such important responsibilities is likely to include mental health awareness, mental and physical first aid and conflict resolution. Such training is often the responsibility of the student services staff who also ensure that senior residents have ongoing support and are appropriately monitored. They frequently work in close collaboration with institutional security staff who may be needed as first respondents and a backup when serious situations arise. I have had the privilege of working with excellent security staff and with many senior residents who have displayed outstanding maturity and commitment. They could be trusted to make wise judgements about whether or not they had the skills and knowledge to respond to a problematic situation themselves, should seek advice or reassurance on the actions to be taken, or immediately summon statutory emergency services or other backup. Senior student residents and the security teams they worked with were for me the unsung heroes of the university community. Over the past two or three decades there has been growth in purpose-­ built private student accommodation. Some providers operate in close collaboration with their local institution and may offer similar levels of out of hours support to those found in institutionally owned and/or managed residences. In others, student occupants might find only a very basic night-time security provision, or, in those institutions that host them, a Nightline presence (Sect. 3.11 in Chap. 3). Otherwise the residents are left to deal with any non-critical difficulties themselves or by calling on the statutory services. There does not seem to be any sector-­ wide norm for out of hours provision in student residential buildings, whether these are university or privately owned, but when the majority of occupants are recent school leavers, peer support systems can be highly effective in helping young and relatively inexperienced occupants to bridge the gap between living at home and establishing themselves as independent and responsible adults. One recent study explored if and why students had ever considered dropping out: their responses highlighted the positive benefits of having someone to talk to within their residences and of good integration with flatmates (Fagence et al. 2017, pp. 28–33).

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University accommodation may be available only for first year students and those who are prioritised due to their personal circumstances (for example, disability or ill-heath). Many students in their second or later years of their studies or studying at postgraduate level find homes in the private rental sector, often in houses or flats shared with established friends, although this latter is less likely to be the case for new postgraduates. HEIs do not always have the capacity to house all their first-year students as the numbers of those who have achieved the exam grades that guarantee a place cannot be precisely predicted. This may result in some first year students being forced unwillingly to find accommodation in the private sector, isolated from the majority of their peers. Students who gain their places through the mid-August ‘clearing and adjustment’ process that takes place once the A-level and other university entrance exams results have been announced may decide to accept a place a university they have not even had the opportunity to visit. This situation is most likely to arise when an applicant has not achieved their expected grades and the offer of a place is withdrawn, or has been awarded much higher grades than expected and decides to accept a place at a ‘better’ institution, perhaps one where they were previously rejected. The few weeks in late August and early September before the start of the new academic year may be all the time there is to make the necessary, arrangements for the start of their course, including finding accommodation. Most institutions or their student unions provide private accommodation advice, including lists of approved landlords, contract checking and guidance and advocacy when things go wrong. Some help to reduce travel costs by collaborating with local bus companies to offer subsidised passes, or priority car-parking places for those who would otherwise be reliant on irregular and expensive bus services. Nonetheless, social isolation remains a risk for any new student who lives at a distance from their institution and they are likely to benefit from proactive and targeted orientation and induction activities at both institutional and departmental level (see Sect. 4.6). It is important that all students who do not have easy access to the peer and/or senior resident support provided in halls of residence are given information about whom they can contact, day and night, if they experience difficulties that they feel unable to resolve by themselves.

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4.5 Living at Home It might be assumed that students who live with their parents or in other family environments would be well supported and have little need for many of their institution’s advice and guidance services. However, this is not necessarily the case and in some circumstances the opposite can be true. My analyses of relevant data have shown that the level of demand for professional advice from those living in their own homes is not dissimilar to that of students who have moved away from home. Living at home can create its own challenges: some students may not have their own room or quiet place for study,  and travel costs, public transport timetables and institutional parking restrictions may limit their access to the full range of institutional opportunities and resources. Some have significant daytoday responsibility for their own children, younger siblings or older, sick or disabled relatives or find themselves under pressure to fulfil other family expectations, including adherence to strict codes of behaviour based on cultural or religious beliefs and traditions. Others may find that as their expectations and interests develop and change through their exposure to different influences, a gulf begins to open up between themselves and their families and their pre-existing friendship groups that create in inter-family or-friendship tensions. In some of the worst, but thankfully relatively rare cases I have encountered, students were being subjected to verbal, physical and/or sexual abuse and coercive control. A HEPI survey also found that those living at home may not be benefitting fully from their student experience. Their findings emphasise not only the potential social isolation and the particular importance that many attached to good connections, but also their relatively high levels of dissatisfaction with their course choice in comparison to the survey population as a whole (Neves and Hillman 2017, p. 22). I suspect that for some at least, the real locus of their discontent may have been a sense of disappointment with their overall university experience that is not necessarily only, or even primarily, located in the course they had chosen, but due to feelings of isolation from the mainstream of university life. Part-time students can also feel detached from their institution and find it difficult to establish strong relationships with their peers and

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tutors. My encounters with these students showed that some of those constrained by their personal circumstances or responsibilities to study part-time can feel that they are expected just to slot into existing structures and may even be viewed by their institutions as somewhat of a nuisance. This can certainly be a risk in HEIs for whom full-time students have been the primary focus of their course design and delivery, although it is less likely to be the case for those studying at institutions  that  have specifically designed their courses for part time study. Negative experiences, together with the high costs of part-time study and loan restrictions may account for the steady decline in part-time student numbers over recent years (see Hillman 2015; Butcher 2020) and their relatively high non-completion rates.2

4.6 Student Arrival and Induction Students begin their courses with very diverse expectations of what they will encounter academically and socially. These will have been shaped by schoolteachers, family members and friends, social and other media, and by institutional marketing departments who in an increasingly competitive environment try to hard sell their university in order to attract the best qualified applicants (Sect. 5.11 in Chap. 5). If students arrive with expectations which are not fulfilled by what they find in their first weeks and months, there is an almost inevitable risk of disillusion and discouragement that can for some result in lack of commitment, low achievement, and even early withdrawal. The most important institutional priority at the start of each academic year is to welcome all new students, ensure that those who have left their homes are quickly settled into their new accommodation, and provide them with an induction programme that starts to align their expectations with the reality of what they are about to experience by helping them to make the connections that are so crucially important for their wellbeing. There can be little doubt that social integration is a very positive factor for student retention, and none of an institution’s diverse range  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/news/07-03-2019/non-continuation-summary.

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of students should be neglected in the planning of arrivals, induction and ongoing orientation processes. New students can be at their most nervous and disorientated when they first arrive and if they are international students, they are also likely to feel very tired, jetlagged and somewhat confused. The arrival experience can be just as important as any of the subsequent induction events and, like most other institutional processes and procedures, benefit from regular evaluation and review. A small grant from the UK Council for International Students’ Affairs (UKCISA) provided the funding to employ a former international student to observe and evaluate a student arrivals and induction process, including interviewing a sample of the new students and the student helpers involved. We learned much from his report, which among other valuable suggestions, highlighted the need for improved cultural awareness briefings for both the arrivals helpers and the speakers at induction lectures. An easy way for new students to contact their homes as soon as they arrived was highlighted as one of the most important and reassuring facilities requested. The research also provoked a re-evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of asking new international students to arrive before new home students. The findings of this research initiative also stimulated the development of a broader research project to examine the social experiences of international students (Sect. 4.8). Despite all the best efforts made by institutions, some students experience such acute homesickness and anxiety in their first days that all they want to do is to catch the next train or plane home. Sympathetic non-­ judgemental advisers readily on hand over the first weeks can reassure distressed students that their feelings are quite normal, and that many others who look as if they are happy and confident are experiencing the same internal agony and homesickness as they are. Their advice and reassurance can be all that is required to help students over this first hurdle. However, unless all new students know that this is on offer, some may just pack up and leave. Even if students do seek help, they do not always change their minds about staying, but being able to mull matters over and see their decision as a positive choice and not a failure on their part can make it easier to manage the consequences for themselves, including the reactions of their friends and families, and begin to plan their next steps.

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I am not a fan of extended periods of induction where the main foci, other than the completion of essential administrative processes, are activities largely tailored to the stereotypical young student who likes to drink and party with their own age group. The inclusion of academic activities—after all these are the primary purpose of university life—is vital. Even the shyest and most uncertain student might find it possible to creep into the back of an introductory and ideally interactive lecture on the subject they have come to study, and thus find themselves speaking to the person sitting next to them who is also feeling the need for connection and friendship. Mature, local and part-time students often need to feel confident that their participation in anything other than activities they perceive as of direct relevance to them in particular will be worth their investment of time and resources, whether these be loss of earnings from part-time work, or travel or childcare costs. Several thousand students in the three main university towns of Norway were asked about their satisfaction with their induction, their attitude to the role of alcohol in induction events and their feelings of social and emotional loneliness. Those most likely to have participated in the induction programmes were the young single students who had moved to the student cities from elsewhere. Those who did not drink alcohol were much less likely to have attended, as were mature students and those already living close to their university. However, students who had attended the induction had more friends and were less likely to report feelings of loneliness than those who had not (Myrtveit et al. 2016). The Norwegian findings reinforce my own view that a one-size-fits all approach to induction is very unlikely to meet the needs of all new students. Focussed induction events, including some that do not involve or encourage heavy drinking, may need to be provided for specific groups of students, including those mentioned above who are living at a distance from their university, and mature or other students who have restricted availability and need to be very strategic about their use of time. Mature students may benefit from targeted programmes that recognise the value of their being able to make connections with others of similar age or circumstances,  who  can offer reassurance that they are not alone in their concerns about starting out again. The inclusion of refresher study skills

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guidance can also help to build the confidence of those who were last in an educational environment many years before. Another of the student groups whose potential isolation may not be immediately anticipated are those who begin their courses in their mid-­ twenties, a few years after leaving secondary education. They may not yet have established firm roots in a community or family environment but no longer find much in common with recent school-leavers and their social preferences. One research study showed surprisingly high levels of stress amongst such students (Grant 2002). Inductions need to include activities specifically designed to facilitate student connection and integration across their institutional community. One example of a proactive community-enhancing project with the potential to involve a very diverse range of students and institutional staff is the KU (Kingston University) Big Read project. The aim is to help students to feel a part of their institutions, encourage engagement and improve first year retention through a shared reading experience. Copies of a carefully chosen book are sent to all new students pre-arrival, and a wide range of related activities is organised for the start of term. The Kingston project has been successful despite the large size of their first-­ year student cohort (c. 4500). Much of its success is due to careful planning, prior academic research and robust evaluation as the project has evolved. Institutional support has been another important factor: this has come from senior management and the many academic and administrative staff who promoted the book and ran the discussion sessions and other book-related activities (Baverstock et al. 2016, 2017). Other institutional approaches include ‘field trails’, planned circuits intended as self-guided walks for groups of students that aim to help them to connect with their peers at the same time as learning about the city and campus that will be their home for the next few years. Student engagement can be encouraged by including questions on the buildings, cultural and entertainment venues and the other locations featured in the trail or offering a prize to the student group with the most correct answers. The trail developed by one institution focused on the history of the local town. It was promoted to all new students but made a compulsory induction activity for groups of archaeology students who completed the trail accompanied by their personal tutors. This opportunity for informal

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contact with academic staff helped to establish one of the most important connections for the participants for the duration of their course. There are very many other examples of imaginative approaches to induction, but the point to emphasise here is that investing institutional resources in getting the context, scope, and length of induction processes right, providing activities that actively engage new students and take account of their varied personal circumstances can help them to meet others and feel a part of their university. Induction events that require participants to be actively involved are far more likely to sustain student interest and attention than asking them to sit for too long in lecture theatres where well-meaning heads of department, administrators and student service providers—and I was one of the latter and speak from experience—deliver important fact-based information which unfortunately the audience will soon stop paying attention to in favour of their mobile phones. New students cannot be expected to absorb all the essential information they need at the same time as they are settling into an unfamiliar environment, feeling homesick and, for many international students, adjusting to studying and socialising in a language they have not yet fully mastered. Timing and constant reinforcement are crucial: information is most likely to be absorbed and acted on if it is delivered when it could be of most value. This may require a drip-feeding approach that could extend throughout a student’s university career.

4.7 C  reating an Inclusive Community: Involving the Whole Institution There is much within the control of HEIs that can establish an institutional ethos which promotes inclusion, engagement and interconnection. An environment that feels welcoming to and respectful of all students requires all members of staff, whether they be academics, administrators, facility providers or student services professionals, to be aware of and sensitive to the diversity of their student body and committed to promoting social as well as academic inclusion. Collaborative partnerships between advisory staff and estates managers provide opportunities to

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remind the latter of the realities of student life and reinforce the importance of building residences with effective sound insulation, of making all teaching and social spaces fully accessible for those with disabilities and sensory impairments, ensuring that there are gender-neutral toilet facilities in all buildings, providing spaces and facilities that meet the prayer customs of diverse faith groups, designing buildings to house advisory services that are accessible, centrally located and create an open and welcoming and atmosphere (Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3) and including spaces for social and academic interaction in all residential and teaching buildings: in short, making the institutional environment as student-centred and welcoming as possible. One of the consequences of the growth in student numbers has been the decline in the number of small academic departments through amalgamations that create larger units for administrative efficiency and cost-­ saving. Departmental common rooms where undergraduate, postgraduate students and staff with shared interests have day to day opportunities to interact informally are sadly disappearing as they are converted to offices and teaching spaces. The departmental secretary who once knew everyone and was the ‘go to’ person for all enquiries and concerns has in many HEIs become a generalist administrator with much less direct contact with students or staff. It is harder for students to experience that sense of being part of an academic community that was once a key element of the higher education experience for students (and for staff) when the most frequent contact with fellow students is in large lecture rooms or online. On the positive side, many university libraries have undergone significant change over the last decade or so, broadening their role as a repository of books and other resources that support formal academic learning and research to a resource that actively facilitates collaborative learning and where advice may be found on matters that might include information management, study skills and the resolution of IT problems. Spaces have been created within university libraries where students no longer have to maintain the traditional ‘hallowed’ silence but can work together on group projects, discuss their lectures and assessment tasks or take a coffee break together in the library cafe. Institutional catering facilities provide important spaces for students and staff to meet in an informal setting. However, if all are to feel

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welcomed and included, the food on offer needs to pay respect to the preferences of omnivores, vegetarians and vegans, the taste preferences of those of different cultures, those with food intolerances and those whose faith requires strict adherence to specific dietary rules. It is not enough to assume that Jewish and Muslim students will feel welcomed and respected if the only alternatives to non-kosher or halal meat are vegetarian options. Practicing Muslims and indeed any alcohol abstainer may self-exclude if institutional cafeterias have alcoholic drinks on display at all times of the day. Some HEIs have a specifically Christian ethos enshrined in their founding principles while others have no formal religious affiliation and may have been established as specifically secular institutions, but most provide buildings or spaces where students can meet, pray together or seek guidance from faith representatives. Such spaces are particularly necessary in institutions located outside city centres where access to churches, mosques, synagogues, temples, gurdwaras and other buildings of importance to a religiously diverse student body is difficult or impossible during the teaching day. Religious centres on campus have often been called Chaplaincies but this is a word which for many has specifically Christian connotations, even if in practice students of all faiths and beliefs are openly welcomed. In one institution renaming the Chaplaincy as the ‘Multifaith Centre’ resulted more or less immediately in a notable increase in the numbers and diversity of the students who individually and in groups became regular users, even though what was offered (spaces for communal and individual prayer, advice from faith leaders representing all the main world religions, a large social area, weekly meetings for Christians, Jews, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and more) remained effectively unchanged. The new name made the building appear more accessible, welcoming and friendly to all, believers and non-believers alike. Students began to use the building for timetabled meetings and prayers and as a welcoming and non-judgemental space where they could find others to talk to, pray with, discuss their faith, or absence of it, share a simple lunch or just sit quietly. A ‘sacred’ space in which none of the furniture or symbols of individual religions (altars, prayer mats, icons etc.) were permanently visible but could be quickly moved into place when required was vital in helping students to feel respected and included.

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The faith leaders worked together respectfully, providing role models for those of diverse faiths and beliefs. In many institutions, faith representatives work closely with student advisory staff and encourage cross referral and signposting for students looking for specialist advice. They also collaborate to provide community-enhancing projects such as the celebration of major religious festivals, and host lectures and discussion groups. Such arrangements are to be found in HEIs across the UK, but in some, what are advertised to students as multi-faith facilities are, as I discovered through an informal sector-wide survey undertaken a few years ago, staffed by chaplains representing different Christian denominations with few, if any, representatives from other world religions, other than via telephone contact numbers. Institutions whose buildings were designed many decades ago have often  struggled to find and make available the large and appropriately furnished spaces necessary for Friday lunchtime communal prayer and the meals at the end of each day of fasting during Ramadan that are essential for many Muslims. Quite understandably students may not be very happy if all that they are offered are spaces that are otherwise used as common rooms, music rooms, exam halls or even squash courts and  other  sports facilities and do not have clean floor coverings and appropriate washing facilities close by. Institutional timetabling needs to acknowledge their students’ religious duties by, for example, avoiding the scheduling of essential teaching events and research seminars on Friday lunchtimes, or for Jewish students, in the latter part of Friday afternoons or on Saturdays. An assumption that needs to be vigorously challenged when planning institutional prayer facilities is, as has been forcibly expressed to me on a number of occasions, that ‘we are a Christian society’. In my experience of surveying students, it is very likely that if you ask the survey population to indicate their religious background or faith, a majority of those who respond may say that they are Christian, but when a second question is added that asks respondents if they regularly attend a place of worship, the result can be very different. In one survey only 20 percent of those identifying as Christians answered this second question in the affirmative in contrast to 50 percent of Muslims. There is no doubt that meeting the religious needs of a large student community can be challenging, particularly when it comes to timetabling and finding

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suitable spaces for communal acts and individual prayer, but as the size and diversity of student populations have changed, this has become more and more important (see also Sect. 4.10). Students’ unions typically provide many of the social opportunities of university life. Their buildings are often a hub for a wide range of activities and events, including facilities for the clubs and societies that are promoted at ‘Fresher Fairs’ at the start of the academic year. These provide the opportunities for students to meet others with shared interests, learn new skills and make friends outside their existing social circles. Unfortunately, despite evidence of a greater sensitivity to the need to move away from a focus on activities that involve excessive alcohol consumption, this remains an expectation for many students, especially those who have left home for the first time (Sect. 4.14).

4.8 Inclusion and Belonging The social and academic isolation that those who have to spend parts of their courses on placement in hospitals, surgeries, schools or other work settings where they may be separated from their friends and in an unfamiliar environment has been mentioned in Sect. 3.8 in Chap. 3, but social isolation is not simply a matter of physical distance. When new students first arrive, it is very likely that they will have no close personal connections with anyone else in their institution even if, as many do, their university sets up social media groups to link prospective students who expect to be living in the same residences or studying the same subject. Multiple and diverse opportunities designed to help students make connections with others with shared interests help them to develop and reinforce their own identity and sense of themselves in their new environment. A sense of belonging, of being in the right place and able to be who they really are and to live in harmony with their own values can be vital if students are to thrive in their university environment. Most of us belong to range of different community and friendship groups. In a university setting these might be created through shared academic interests, enjoyment of sport or other recreational and creative activities, shared ethnicities, religious affiliations, countries of origin, gender identity or

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sexual orientation, or their experiences of difficulties, differences or other challenges. Social integration is not only important for wellbeing but is one of the key determinants of academic persistence and retention (Hartley 2011). Whether or not students, or indeed any of us, feel at home and comfortable is down to a combination of many different factors, including personality, educational and cultural background, prior experiences and personal circumstances. While not wishing to stereotype, there are some students who may find it very difficult, initially at least, to find a place within their student community where they feel at home: it is important that this is recognised, and that appropriate action is taken in response. Universities were once largely the province of the white male middle classes, but this is no longer the case (Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1). Of the many thousands of UK domiciled students who began full or part-time courses at UG or PG level in 2019, 24 percent declared their ethnicity as Black, Asian or other Minority Ethnic (BAME).3 This is a nationwide statistic and does not reflect the significant diversity across the sector, nor indeed the populations of their local towns. I have worked in institutions where a large proportion of their local population are from BAME backgrounds and in others which are predominantly white, as were the majority of the student population. Two Black students, who had been brought up in a multi-ethnic environment in London and had just started their degree course in a city that had a very different ethnic mix, told me that when they first arrived, they were very surprised to find that, as they put it, ‘there was no one here that looked like us’. Gamsu and colleague’s (2017) investigation of ethnic diversity using 2014/15 data draws attention to the variation in ethnic mix across and within HEIs. The most diverse institutions were to be found in London and the Midlands but also within certain subject cohorts: for example, the least diverse subjects included history, philosophy, languages and veterinary medicine. Applicants may be unaware of the ethnic and gender composition of those with whom they will be studying when they make their applications, although this is certainly not to say that it would create any difficulty. ‘My’ two students told me that they had quickly adjusted to  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/students/whos-in-he.

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their new environment, were greatly enjoying their university life and had made many friends. Others have not found it so easy to find a supportive peer group. An alumna from a ‘top’ institution, reflecting on her experience as a Black international student two decades ago, wrote of her sense of separateness and lack of support from peers ‘like herself ’. Today, due to the efforts made by the university and its students, the situation is improving. Black students now receive institutional support to organise an annual dinner event at which prominent Black alumni are invited to speak to current students. One student reported that through the organisation of the event a ‘special moment’ was created where students felt that they ‘belong’. Students with health difficulties and disabilities may also find it hard to find their comfort zone. Those who declare their difficulties on their application forms are often given priority in the allocation of accommodation and signposted to relevant peer support networks and other useful resources before their arrival (for example, Kutcher n.d.). Unfortunately, despite all the efforts made by institutions to reassure students that declaration of difficulty will not prejudice their chances of admission, some chose not to make this disclosure and may never disclose them, even to their peers. The research study on the transition to HE for students with type 1 diabetes referred to in Sect. 3.12 in Chap. 3 found that one of the key reasons for the poor self-management of their diabetes was that they took risks with their food, drink consumption and sleep hygiene in order to be able to join in with the activities of their friends: their fear was prejudice from their peers (Khinswe Myint, pers. com.). Fitting in if you feel you are in any way different from your peer group is not always easy and peer pressure to conform with an assumed norm of student life can be very hard to resist, particularly for the many young people who have not yet had the opportunity to be fully independent and develop their own self-confidence. Some neurodiverse students (Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2) may also struggle to establish close social relationships and find acceptance, leaving them isolated and distanced from institutional social life. This can be the case too for those who experience acute fatigue, depression, low mood and social anxiety or find it difficult to motivate themselves to join in with the activities on offer. For some, a crowded venue or strobe lighting is impossibly

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challenging. Those with mobility difficulties or sensory impairments may find that entertainment venues and even lecture and seminar rooms are not fully accessible to them. Such problems can be avoided or minimized if they are anticipated by institutions and their students’  unions when campus facilities and social events and other opportunities are planned (Sect. 4.7). The move away from home and parental supervision can provide the right moment for some to ‘come out’ for the first time and publicly acknowledge a sexuality or gender identity that they had previously kept hidden. Many universities have well-established LGBTQ+ groups and promote the online guidance available to them on managing their first weeks.4 In institutions  which  have recognised the importance of an explicit demonstration of a culture of acceptance, there are likely to be a range of well-promoted peer support networks, gender neutral toilets and straightforward protocols for those who wish to change their names and gender identity on official university documents. These can reassure students that discussions of gender and sexual identity are welcomed. Unfortunately, they may not remove the risk of bullying behaviours from other students nor fully overcome students’ feelings of alienation. Institutions need to be on the alert not only for overt harassment but also unconscious or thoughtless bias in institutional language and even their teaching and the content of their curricula (see also Sect. 4.12). Other students who may find it difficult to feel fully included in the life of their institution are those whose financial resources limit their ability to participate in activities that have a cost attached or would result in a loss of earnings from part time employment. An extensive US study of the impact of financial and social status on the experiences and career progression of students from different backgrounds demonstrated the profound effects of financial disadvantage, which for many have an impact on not only their university experiences but also their career progression (Armstrong and Hamilton 2013). One of the UK respondents to the student socialising survey further discussed below gave the following response to a question that asked them about the challenges they faced in making friends:  https://www.grb.uk.com/blog/8-essential-tips-for-any-lgbt-fresher.

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I have not been able to afford to take part in any of the social activities because I have had much less funding than other students. It’s been difficult enough having to get into debt with my bank and grovel to the university for help just to be able to afford to pay my tuition fees, rent, bills and food. Socialising hasn’t been an option because every penny I spend is another penny of debt. Having coffee with my friend on a Saturday is the only regular socialising I have been able to do since starting uni. I tried joining clubs and societies… but ‘socialising’ always involved going to pubs and/or clubs which I cannot afford to do.

Students who have been brought  up  outside the UK, including those from the Anglophonic world, can find fitting into the UK social environment challenging and even discouraging. The barriers to inclusion are not only academic (Sect. 2.5 in Chap. 2) but also rooted in cultural differences, and for non-native English speakers, the social impact of language difficulties. One study identified that understanding British jokes and humour and making friends with British people were among the most challenging barriers to their integration (SpencerOatey and Xiong 2006, p. 6). Others have suggested that the reasons international students tend to socialise mainly with each other is that those who are still having difficulties with speaking English feel more confident when talking to others who do not speak perfect English either. In the light of the findings that having British friends was so important to students’ language development (Sect. 2.9 in Chap. 2) a further piece of research was undertaken to help understand students’ friendships and intercultural relationships. Over a thousand UK, EU and international students responded to an online survey that focused on social integration and friendship. Key findings included the importance for all students of being on the same course or living together as a way of making friends. It also demonstrated relatively low participation by international students in sports clubs and societies, other than those with a specific national focus. Most respondents, whatever their nationality, were very positive about the benefits of studying and socialising with friends from different backgrounds, although a few UK respondents remarked that it had not been easy to make friends across national boundaries and felt that international students ‘stick

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together with people of their own nationality’. Negative perceptions of the British were also expressed: Brits for the most part live up to the stereotype of not being the most warm and friendly. I’ve never felt unwelcome, but there is almost a sense of ambivalence amongst British students. If they don’t have a reason to talk to you, they won’t, even if you’re sitting next to them week after week.

Overall, most respondents were positive about the value of cross-­ cultural interactions of all kinds. As one student expressed it: I think it has made me a different person who does not see things ‘black and white anymore. It has made my life more exciting—even though I am not travelling I get to meet many different nationalities and learn about their countries. I hope that my friends, both English and international will be coming to my country after we graduate, and I’ll get to visit them and we will keep in touch.

Survey respondents also made clear that there is much scope for institutions to continue to be proactive in their approaches. Some of the suggestions made included rethinking the allocation of rooms in residential accommodation; working with the students’ unions to expand the range of social activities that do not involve alcohol consumption; advertising and explaining what clubs and societies are for and how to be involved (many have no experience of this kind of social interaction within a university context); establishing buddying schemes and ‘world café’ events; sharing language practice sessions; organising cross-departmental events to broaden the nationality mix, celebrating national and international festivals, and more … (Grant n.d.) Some institutions locate their advisory provision for international students in a separate ‘international’ office. The rationale may lie in a desire for their marketing and recruitment divisions to establish and maintain ongoing contact with countries from which  they hope to continue to recruit students (see also Sect. 5.11 in Chap. 5). They can also become a locus for expertise in matters relating to immigration and visa regulations. Unfortunately, this approach risks labelling international students as different and setting them apart from the rest of the student body, and

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it may have a detrimental impact on international students’ confidence in seeking help for personal or academic difficulties from more broadly-­ based advisory services. International students are better viewed as an integral part of the whole student body: their views, experiences and requirements are both as similar and as diverse as those of all other students. Students from outside the UK come to take advantage of different educational opportunities, develop their language skills, experience the UK culture and make friends across all nations. They may well require specialist advice in some areas, most obviously in respect of immigration matters and language and study skills development (Sect. 2.5 in Chap. 2), but when specialist international student advisory staff are integrated within a more broadly-based student advisory service, they may feel more comfortable when seeking help for all the other concerns they may have, including their accommodation, finances, health, adapting to university life and so on, matters that can affect all students regardless of nationality. An international student’s concern is not necessarily an ‘international’ matter but a concern that is important to them as an individual.

4.9 Community Engagement and Citizenship Universities are not islands standing in isolation from their surroundings. For students who move away from home to study, a different environment can enrich their experiences and provide new opportunities, but it may also bring challenges. Students bring many benefits to university towns, stimulating the local economy and contributing to the life of the community through student voluntary work and their participation in local events and creative and musical activities that might not otherwise be viable and sustainable. Students have often taken the lead in promoting environmental and political awareness in their local towns: many organise major fundraising activities for local and national charities. One institution has supported a community action project for over 60 years: their students are involved in mentoring and befriending disadvantaged youngsters and organising and participating in social activities for isolated older local residents. Another institution set up partnerships with local schools to facilitate classroom visits by their international students

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who talk to primary school students about their backgrounds, cultures, traditions and music, thus helping to promote intercultural understanding amongst the young. Student involvement in voluntary and charitable activates also plays an important part in helping students to develop a sense of themselves as citizens and demonstrate to their local community the contribution that a university presence within their town can make. Nonetheless, ‘town: gown’ relationships are not always positive: in many university towns and cities there are concentrations of student housing in areas where homes which were previously owner-occupied have been bought up to rent out to students. Concentrations of student-rented housing can result in complaints from permanent residents about noise nuisance, rubbish disposal, neglected gardens and car parking. Problem resolution is not always straightforward: perceptions of the locus of responsibility can be hotly disputed and resolution may require collaborative working involving institutions (often via the student advisory staff who field the angry calls from those whose sleep has been disturbed or have other concerns), students’ union community officers, local councillors, MPs, environmental health officers, residents’ associations and even the police, each of whom is likely to have their own perspective. Students can feel—often quite reasonably—that they are being blamed for the inevitable difficulties arising from poor sound insulation between their rented house and the one next door; others can behave quite disgracefully with no regard for the feelings of their neighbours and claiming their right as adults paying rent in a private capacity to behave as they wish. In such situations neither the institutional power and authority nor their responsibilities are entirely clear-cut. One can understand but not necessarily condone the reluctance of some landlords to threaten to evict their tenants and consequently lose their rental income, but it can be very helpful when they do get involved. The outcome of a collaborative initiative by UUK, GuildHE and the NUS (MacLeod 2010) was a report that offers guidance and many exemplars of initiatives that have enhanced relationships between HEIs and their local community and provided multiple opportunities for students to develop their own identity and self-respect as citizens in a context that extends well beyond the narrow confines of their HE institutions.

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4.10 Keeping the Community Safe All HEIs have measures in place to protect their students, staff and estate. Many of these are overseen by security staff (Sect. 4.4) whose responsibilities are often much wider than the physical security of the institutional buildings and  grounds. They may be involved in proactive initiatives to promote student safety, including offering cycle safety and security advice, encouraging students to keep their rooms locked and valuable items out of view, organising fire drills, preventing drug suppliers from dealing near student residences and watching out for those who have drunk too much and need to be escorted to their rooms where someone can be found to monitor them until they sober up. Finding someone to sit up at night to check that a flatmate does not come to any harm is rarely difficult: those who are accustomed to drinking seem to arrive at university already aware of how to put their intoxicated friends onto their sides in the recovery position! Nonetheless, institutions need to be very cautious in respect of the boundaries of their responsibilities and their duty of care to students who choose to consume large quantities of alcohol on and off institutional premises (Sect. 5.3 in Chap. 5). Many others within and outside institutions play a role in making HEIs as safe and supportive as possible for their students and staff, including housekeeping staff who are often the first to notice students who are absent, unwell or involved in illegal activities. An approach taken by one institution was to establish a student safety group, chaired by their head of student advisory services and with a membership that included representatives from the campus security staff, the local police force, the students’ union, the estates division, the faith centre, those responsible for student residences and peer support within residences and, when relevant, representatives of the university health service, the local fire and ambulance services and the bus company that served the campus. Many proactive initiatives came out of discussions within the group, and some were implemented collaboratively. In my experience, good relationships between institutional advisory and security staff and the local police force have been enormously beneficial in circumstances that range from

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responding to crises, spotting problems early, putting measures in place to stop them escalating, and in safeguarding students in many other ways.

4.11 Discrimination, Religion and Belief Universities and all other workplaces have a legal duty articulated in the 2010 Equality Act to protect their community from discrimination (see Sect. 1.2 in Chap. 1). In response, they have developed policies and procedures that state their commitment to proactive initiatives to promote inclusion, challenge discrimination and guide their actions when evidence of discriminatory behaviour is encountered. Further legislation, first introduced within the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015,5 was specifically focused on educational institutions and schools. The ‘Prevent’ duty requires HEIs to ‘have a due regard for the need to prevent people from being drawn into terrorism’. Universities’ compliance with the prescribed duties are currently monitored by the Office for Students.6 While the Prevent legislation applies to all potentially violent and extremist groups in society, including those on the far right, many have perceived the legislation’s main focus as radical Islam and have raised concerns that it may increase societal stigmatisation of Muslims (Busher et  al. 2017). Misunderstandings of Islam and ignorance of what it means to be a Muslim or from a Muslim background are common in the UK and can result in isolation for students and their families within their university and their local community. In one predominantly white university city, Muslim women and their children, the families of students from the Middle East, used a local park as a place to meet after they collected their children from the nearby school. Unfortunately, there they became the target for abusive and aggressive behaviours by the unhappy teenagers and unemployed residents of the local community. Despite constant complaints to the police and local councillors by student advisory staff on

 https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/6/contents/enacted.  https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/media/3e9aa5d3-21de-4b24-ac21-18de19b041dc/ ofs2018__35.pdf. 5 6

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behalf of the affected students and their families it took well over a year before the problem was resolved. John Berger’s essay, ‘Seven Levels of Despair’ was written in response to the still unresolved Palestinian situation. It posed what was for him a crucial question: what makes someone a martyr for their religion? His belief was that it is fuelled by despair, and a sense that your life and that of others like you have no importance (Berger 2007, p. 3). This was written long before the major terrorist attacks that took place in New York, London, Paris and Manchester, but his plea for understanding, of imagining the terrorists’ situation and feelings and, I would add, finding some element of compassion for their desperation, remains relevant today. A former member of the international radical Islamic group Hizb-ut-Tahrir who was called as a witness by the Parliamentary Committee on the ‘Roots of violent radicalisation’ spoke of his experiences of violent racism when he was a teenager, of being stabbed by members of a neo-Nazi group and falsely arrested by police (Home Affairs Committee 2012, p. 10). What was described in the 2012 Home Affairs report as one of the few clear conclusions that the committee was able to draw about what drove radicalisation was a sense of grievance (para 22). The close relationship I had established with my institution’s Islamic Society became notably strained when the first iterations of the Prevent legislation, with its obligations to monitor and report those suspected to be exhibiting ‘radical’ behaviours or at risk of being radicalised were introduced. It was particularly galling to them as only a few years before they had discovered that one of their fellow Muslims was a member of Hizb-ut-Tahrir and had enrolled on a very part-time professional course in order, it was suspected, to gain student status. The head of the student Islamic society immediately reported this to me and asked for my help in preventing the distribution of materials about this radical organisation and its aim to create a global Islamic caliphate. The effectiveness of Prevent measures in a university context seems to me to be predicated on the level of trust and mutual respect existing between institutions and their student groups. Proactive measures to build such trust may be required if institutions are to remain safe, welcoming, supportive and non-discriminatory environments for all their community, including

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ensuring that what is necessary to fulfil the requirements of their faith are understood and provided for (see Sect. 4.7 above). Those of other faiths, including Jewish students can also be the target of very hurtful behaviours and outright hostility (Klaff 2018). If multifaith centres or chaplaincies are to justify their presence within secular institutions it seems to me that they need to have an explicit commitment to the promotion of interfaith harmony, respect for those of all faiths and none, and actively tackle all faith-based hate crime and harassment in support of community cohesion. Another important role is to protect vulnerable students from the proselytising external groups which tend to appear, uninvited, on or near HEI campuses at the beginning of each academic year in the hope that they will be able to recruit new members to their congregations or meetings. Some have relevant credentials, but this is not always the case. A faith centre that is likely to offer the best protection against the possibility of any exploitation of the potentially vulnerable or radical is one which is well integrated within the university whose population it serves, and is staffed by representatives of all the main world faiths who have been recruited with full regard to institutional safeguarding procedures (Sect. 5.3 in Chap. 5) and operates in line with a set of explicit aims, objectives and practices.

4.12 Bullying and Harassment Institutional policies will normally make clear the actions they will take if formal complaints are made in respect of bullying or abusive behaviours (see also Sect. 5.12 in Chap. 5). They should also include information about the sources of advice and support available within their institutions. Unfortunately, such policies cannot always protect students from what are termed microaggressions, the thoughtless or deliberate small acts or comments that make the receiver feel uncomfortable, hurt or stigmatised but are unwitnessed or often too subtle to provide a basis for formal action. We have become a culture when blame, criticism and messages of hatred are only too frequently and swiftly—thanks to the internet—thoughtlessly disseminated. In a world of largely unregulated social media, cyberbullying is by no means uncommon and can be very

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hurtful, even resulting in increased risk of suicide or suicidal ideation (Schenk and Fremouw 2012). Depending on the seriousness of the incident, sometimes the most effective ways of resolving and preventing any inter-student bullying behaviour reoccurring can be mediation rather than through a formal complaint that could involve a lengthy process and not necessarily achieve the desired outcome. As long as all agree to engage fully in the process, mediation may result in longer-term benefits for both the victim and alleged aggressor: sometimes, merely confronting the matter directly can be enough. Sadly, bullying and harassment are by no means confined to the social sphere of university life but can also be experienced within the academic environment, including between students and their teachers—in either direction—where it is even less acceptable and more challenging to address (Sect. 5.8 in Chap. 5). University clubs and societies have enormous individual and community benefits but can also have a negative side if the behaviour of their members is not well regulated. Sports clubs can earn a reputation for heavy drinking and sexist or ‘laddish’ behaviours (Jackson and Sundaram 2018). The student sport association BUCS,7 the NUS (Phipps and Young 2013) and UUK (2016) have all been involved in addressing the matter in different ways, in the context of widespread concerns about sexism and sexual harassment, but it is the responsibility of individual HEIs to ensure that their recommendations are implemented. One student union’s well-intentioned policy of allowing their alumni to become or remain members of their student societies after graduation went very badly wrong when it was discovered that a former student who had graduated some years before had apparently taken advantage of this opportunity to attend an Asian international students’ society’s events to make contact with the much younger female student members, and had been inappropriately contacting them and inviting them to his home over a period of several years. While there was no evidence of any unwished for physical contact, the students concerned  felt extremely uncomfortable about these invitations which they found very difficult to refuse without being made to feel rude. None of those affected had felt able to make a complaint until one student, encouraged by a much more  https://www.bucs.org.uk/report-an-initiation/what-is-a-problem-initiation.html.

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confident friend, did come forward. While neither she nor her friends were ultimately prepared to make a formal complaint, the matter was dealt with informally but conclusively by a senior member of the university’s student services. This incident drew attention to the need for a comprehensive review of cross institutional safeguarding duties and transparent and well-promoted policies to clarify to whom incidents can be reported, how confidentiality could be protected and what action would be taken in response (Sect. 5.3 in Chap. 5).

4.13 Sexual Mores and Behaviours Attitudes to sexual relationships are very different today from those of my generation when, despite all the myths about the so-called swinging sixties, it was not uncommon for there to be gender segregation in student accommodation and other restrictions on students’ private lives. Women might even be expelled, temporarily or permanently, if they were found to have entertained a member of the opposite sex in their room overnight or, worse, had become pregnant. Today, few institutions provide segregated accommodation or place any restrictions on visiting hours other than requiring permission for non-resident guests to stay overnight, primarily for fire safety reasons. Sexual freedom is something many although certainly not all young people now expect and is reinforced by what they see around them and in films and TV programmes. Contraception is readily available: prophylactics may even be provided free of charge on campus via students’ unions as part of sexual health campaigns. The risks arising from sexual intercourse have also been perceived to be lessened by the possibility of abortion or ‘day after’ medicine and much more effective treatment for sexually transmitted diseases. It is certainly not the case that all parents or even students think that mixed gender accommodation is a progressive development. Phone calls from some parents who have discovered that their daughter’s student flat is shared by men and women and there is no blanket prohibition against members of the opposite or same sex staying the night in each other’s rooms, have sometimes made their concern and disapproval very clear. Students raised in communities with very different cultural or religious

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norms can also find UK students’ attitudes to sex surprising, disconcerting and even shocking. A liberal environment has both advantages and disadvantages for students, but it certainly creates challenges and responsibilities for HE institutions. Tackling sexual harassment and assault is a vitally important and currently much discussed societal concern: no one reading this book can be unaware of the up-swell of outrage and anger that has crystallised in the #MeToo movement and now having global impact though the dissemination of its message of female empowerment thorough social media. Initially, most of the widespread publicity associated was concerned with sexual misconduct in the workplace context, but this has now spread to the university sector. Action in the US has been insisted on since 19728 and enforced through Title IX of the US Education Amendments legislation. The UK HE sector was initially some years behind the US in developing its own responses and approaches, but action has now been taken at sector and institutional level, guided by sector-level reports (UUK 2016) and encouraged by the Office for Students’ Catalyst funding opportunities (Baird 2017; AdvanceHE 2018; see also Sect. 5.14 in Chap. 5). Print and online media and conference organisers seem to have viewed this growing interest and public dismay as an opportunity for their headline writers and commercial activities, but it really is not helpful to anyone to overplay the dangers of student life, particularly in order to recruit conference delegates. Some might not unreasonably be accused of scare tactics when they promote their events, as some have, with references to an ‘epidemic’ scale of rape and sexual assault in universities, and make other exaggerated claims. The measured approach taken in UUK’s (2016) guidance to HEIs and the conferences they run for the sector are likely to be far more effective, empowering and reassuring than the sense of panic and confusion elicited by the dissemination of conflicting statistics resulting from surveys administered to diverse groups of students, using widely differing methodologies—sample size and selection, definitions and phrasing of questions and data analytical methods (see Sect. 6.4 in Chap. 6). Undoubtedly, a very real problem exists in society as a whole and is having a serious  https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/tix_dis.html.

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impact on some of those studying in higher education. The UK HE tradition brings together in shared housing young adults released from the restraining influence of parents or schools, often for the first time. Their hormones are urging them to procreate, and they are looking for new friendships and partners and a sense of belonging and closeness. These are surely factors that need to be considered in responses to sexual assault in the university sector. At the same time, the university environment provides many opportunities for dissemination of clear and unambiguous messages about the behaviours expected of students and the consequences that are likely to result should they be ignored (see Sect. 5.12 in Chap. 5). It would be naïve and neglectful not to consider the relationship between sexual assault and harassment and alcohol use and abuse. Even modest levels of consumption can free inhibitions and change perceptions of what is allowable or has been agreed to (Abbey 2002; Aicken et al. 2010; Bird et al. 2016; Mohler-Kuo et al. 2004). Alcohol and drug use and abuse are further addressed below (Sect. 4.14). The support afforded to women must also be available to men and trans students as these may also be the victims of sexual bulling and assault, although this is rather less frequently acknowledged in current debates and publicity. Under-reporting by men is likely to be at least as high as that by women and may even be higher: some of the prevailing myths that surround male rape together with homophobic and other prejudicial attitudes can be just as strong or even stronger deterrents to male help seeking than those inhibiting women from coming forward (McLean 2013); (see also Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3). Nor should we forget that those identifying as both men and women can be the victims of sexual abuse by women, again a subject rarely discussed. Messages need to be explicitly inclusive and avoid vilification or exaggeration or giving the impression that only women will be listened to and supported sympathetically. HEIs have duties of care in respect of all their students, including the suspected perpetrators of breaches of internal disciplinary procedures and the law (Sect. 5.14  in Chap. 5). Much of the current concern in the HE context has focused on sexual bullying and harassment, but as was pointed out in the preface to the UUK update on the progress made in the sector’s efforts address sexual misconduct (Baird 2017, p.  3) all forms of hate crime and hate-based harassment and

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bullying must be addressed if we are to make universities places that are welcoming and safe for all.

4.14 Alcohol and Drug Use and Misuse Alcohol has articulated British social life for centuries, impacting on all levels of society from rich to poor, although patterns of drinking (quantities, beverage types, location, social context and so on) have varied considerably across time and space. Why and when the habit of heavy student drinking developed as a perceived cultural norm in the UK is difficult to track down although it is clearly not a new phenomenon. By the fifteenth century, Oxbridge tutors’ responsibilities included moderating student behaviour in order to protect their welfare and the reputation of their university college (Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1). Drunken students roaming the streets of university cities is clearly not a new phenomenon, although the expansion of higher education, and the growth of the private rental market has placed the living quarters of students and those of permanent residents cheek by jowl, increasing the incidence of noise nuisance and other antisocial behaviour in many university towns (Sect. 4.9). Nonetheless there is a longstanding tolerance to excessive alcohol consumption despite its significant negative impact on both individual and community wellbeing. I have for very many years been of the opinion that alcohol abuse is the greatest, but least discussed and addressed, avoidable harm to student mental and physical wellbeing and academic achievement (Grant 2004). Do not get me wrong—my mission is not to ban alcohol on campus but to ensure that its negative impact within an HE context is recognised and addressed. In the USA they take matters much more seriously than in the UK: there is a national Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Drug Misuse Prevention and Recovery9, a very large body of research concerning students’ drinking behaviours and much guidance on approaches to reducing harmful drinking. Action to minimise alcohol-related harm in the UK higher education sector as a whole has been very much less  https://hecaod.osu.edu.

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vigorous. This may be due to different societal attitudes and the higher legal drinking limit of 21 years in many US states. In the UK, effective institutional responses seem to have been hindered by implicit if not explicit acceptance that some level of alcohol abuse is an inevitable and indeed expected part of the UK student experience: ‘We all got drunk when I was a student and it didn’t do us any harm, did it?’ is a view I have heard articulated by senior members of UK institutions and only rarely forcibly challenged in either word or action. I came across one HEI’s recruitment site which included a page promoting the local student nightlife: the list of 10 suggested ‘best’ places to go for ‘a good night out’ included eight bars, clubs or other types of entertainment venues where, as the information reassured readers, they could also buy alcoholic drinks, the assumption being that a good night out was scarcely possible without alcohol. National data gathered through the General Lifestyle (GLS) Surveys10 indicates that alcohol consumption figures have been declining since the first half of the twentieth century, but this is not a consistent trend over all age groups and other demographics, and students are not separately identified. The data analysed are almost without exception based on self-­ reports and likely to be under-estimates, particularly given the changes that have taken place in beverage industry practices. Many drink types have become stronger, and the size of glasses used in bars and restaurants larger, making it much easier to drink more without being fully aware of the volume of alcohol consumed. Another factor is that young people’s drinking preferences have shifted away from wine and beer to spirits whose alcohol content may be as high as 50 percent. At an individual level, the impact of excessive alcohol consumption includes damage to physical health (alcohol consumption is a leading risk factor for death from illness or accident amongst the global population of 15–49  year olds), their mental wellbeing, their academic performance though sleep disturbance, missed lectures or submission deadlines, physical assault by peers on drunken nights, sexual assault, and for those who 10  https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/personalandhouseholdfinances/incomeandwealth/compendium/generallifestylesurvey/2013-03-07/chapter2drinkinggenerallife stylesurveyoverviewareportonthe2011generallifestylesurvey.

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resist pressures to drink, social exclusion or bullying. The combination of alcohol consumption and access to social media can create a toxic cocktail that wipes out the capacity for empathy and understanding of the impact on others of thoughtless words and behaviours. At an HE community level the cost can be very high, including nuisance caused by drunken and uninhibited behaviours that affect fellow students in shared accommodation and their non-student neighbours (Sect. 4.9). It also impacts on ambulance and hospital services. Resources designed for those who are seriously ill may have to be diverted to those whose ill health or injury is self-inflicted. Over the years I have received complaints from senior hospital managers about the clogging up of their emergency departments by intoxicated students who have injured themselves or each other and exasperated ambulance services who would rather be responding to calls from the victims of strokes and heart attacks than to drunken students (Sect. 3.12 in Chap. 3). Many research studies on alcohol consumption have found that price and availability are key factors to address when developing alcohol harm reduction strategies (Stockwell et al; Stockwell et al. 2012; Scribner et al. 2009; Wechsler and Nelson 2008). Unfortunately, these cannot be easily controlled as alcohol outlets are ubiquitous in UK towns and cities and if they are not to be found on students’ doorsteps, can certainly be located via the internet. A common practice amongst those living together is to buy their preferred drinks online, sometimes at a heavily discounted price, and have them delivered directly to their student residences. It is all too easy and relatively cheap to ‘front load’ before going out for an evening, but this makes it difficult for the drinkers to control their drinking, even if this is their intention. Some students’ unions (SU), operating on tight budgets, have come to rely on alcohol sales with their relatively high profit margins to fund their social and advisory services, clubs and societies and as a result may find themselves in an unenviably compromised position. Many student union social activities involve alcohol consumption, particularly the ‘freshers’ and ‘returners’ events organised at the start of each academic year. SU bars can play an important role in helping students to broaden their friendship groups beyond their house mates and those on the same course, but they can be alienating environments for others. All bars provide soft

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drinks and many students drink in only modest quantities, but for those who do not drink at all they are not necessarily comfortable or welcoming spaces and may be considered haram (forbidden) for Muslim students. There is fairly consistent evidence from general population surveys for an increase in the proportion of the young adult population who do not drink at all or do so only rarely and in modest amounts. Unfortunately, this does not mean that abstinent students are unaffected by the drinking behaviours and attitudes of their peers. There is little as socially alienating as being sober amongst a group of increasingly intoxicated friends and acquaintances. In an environment where regular, and sometimes very heavy social drinking is normalised it may be perceived as an unavoidable behaviour for those who are members of some clubs and societies: the pressure to join in and be fully accepted can be difficult to resist. In Sect. 3.12 in Chap. 3, I noted the health risks for those with type 1 diabetes who drink more than they should in order to be able to join in with their peers’ social activities. Some of the respondents to the student socialising survey referred to above (Sect. 4.8) also commented on the negative impact of student drinking on their social life: It’s the drinking culture of most UK students that limits me from socialising with them, i.e. not socialise as I would with other students. (International student) There is an emphasis, which I don’t think is unique to [this university] that drinking is the only way to socialise and it is hard to meet people who don’t want to do that. There seems to be a stigma attached to not being interested in clubbing or drinking. (UK student)

The death in September 2018 of a first year student who appears to have been pressured into consuming a large amount of alcohol during a student society initiation that was taking place off-campus, offers a salutary warning of the dangers of alcohol consumption, and of the power of peer pressure and the need for better understanding of cultures that encourage young people to drink to the point when they can lose all sense of the risks they are taking in order to keep up with their friends. Many HEIs specifically ban such events on campus, but it is more difficult to prevent them from taking place off their premises. Peer pressure is a very powerful force and social media all too effective in disseminating

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criticism and blaming those who blow the whistle on dangerous or oppressive behaviour, or do not conform to perceived social norms. One positive outcome of the media attention given to the tragedy of this death is a UUK report (Haigh and de Pury 2019) which highlights the need for proactive approaches to discourage inappropriate initiation and other activities that promote excessive drinking. After what has seemed to be decades of tolerance to and ignorance of the impact of UK student drinking, including denial that it is a matter of importance, the last decade has begun to see some shift in attitudes in the UK. In 2014, a collaborative NUS/Home Office Alcohol Impact project brought together a diverse membership of interested bodies from inside and outside the HE sector to begin to give serious attention to the matter. The project made a good start: HEIs who signed up at the beginning, trialled new approaches and embedded these within their institutional practices, but sadly, like far too many short-term funded projects (Sect. 6.5 in Chap. 6), it ran out of central funding. The NUS has continued to maintain some information about the project on their website. This encourages institutions to learn from the experiences of those initially involved, trial their own approaches and apply for institutional accreditation. Unfortunately, many of the reports and resources originally developed are no longer freely available other than to those who sign up to the project. However, the current institutional cost of doing so is high and very likely to discourage participation.11 This is surely an important enough matter to warrant sector-wide funding so that all HEIs and their students can benefit? We have much to learn from the US, whose interest in and knowledge of their student’s drinking behaviours, their individual and community impact and effective alcohol harm reduction initiatives are far more extensively researched, and many, if not most of the research undertaken and resources produced are freely available. One well-used approach, social norms marketing, is based on a premise that an individuals’ drinking behaviour is influenced by their, potentially inaccurate, perceptions of their friends’ drinking habits. This approach has both its supporters and its detractors in the US (Robinson et al. 2014; Findings 2017) and 11

 https://sustainability.unioncloud.org/take-part/alcohol-impact.

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some have tested its impact in a UK student context (Wood et al. 2012). Whether or not the social norms approach does reduce harmful drinking and is transferable to the UK HE context, the research conducted has without doubt enhanced understanding of student drinking behaviours and motivations. Eliminating students’ problem drinking will never be easy, any more than it has been at societal level. There are and will remain significant difficulties in addressing a problem where the locus of responsibility is the individual who decides willingly or under pressure to drink at levels that may be harmful to themselves and may impact on others around them. Nonetheless, if we are to fulfil our duty of care to our students, alcohol harm reduction must remain a goal that I believe is achievable, as long as it is tackled as an ongoing and appropriately funded HE responsibility, addressed by policy and practices that are backed up by robust research. Many institutions have written well-intentioned alcohol harm reduction policies, but these are highly unlikely to succeed unless they have been allocated a sustainable resource to implement them: there seems little point in having a policy which may achieve some valuable short-term results if these cannot be maintained in the longer term (Sect. 6.5 in Chap. 6). Alcohol use and abuse tend to be met with a certain level of tolerance in the UK despite their known negative societal impact. In contrast, there is very little tolerance afforded to drug use. At an individual level, illegal drug use presents very real dangers, including long-term harm to health, risk of overdose and death, impact on academic performance, course failure or dismissal, arrest and incarceration. For obvious reasons it is very difficult to obtain accurate figures on students’ use of even the most commonly used controlled substances such as cannabis, heroin, cocaine and ecstasy, nor of the non-medical use of prescription drugs (NPD) including analgesics, sedatives and stimulants. Amongst the rather small body of reliable published research on student drug use in the UK is a large study undertaken in the late 1990s (Webb et  al. 1997), a time when, according to Home Office statistics, overall UK drug use was significantly higher than is currently being reported. Webb and colleagues’ research found that 63 percent of their 3700 HE student respondents had tried drugs at least once or twice and that cannabis was overwhelmingly the main drug involved. Particularly interesting was that for over two thirds

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of the students surveyed, their first experience of drugs had been prior to starting university. The second important finding was that drug usage varied significantly across academic disciplines. Reported regular cannabis usage ranged from 29 and 26 percent respectively for arts and social sciences students to 11 and 9 percent for medical/dentistry and veterinary students. There can be little doubt that this relatively low use, or admission of use, amongst those studying professional health-related courses is strongly influenced by the potential severity of the consequences if their drug taking is discovered (Sect. 5.7 in Chap. 5). At societal level, the most widely used and, it appears, easily available, illegal drug is cannabis, as has been the case amongst the 16–24 year age group for very many years. Drug use is subject to changing fashions amongst users and also dependent on local availability, both of which fluctuate over time and location. The UK government produces an annual report on their extensive household survey: according to the most recent available data (Home Office 2018) there has been an overall decline in drug use since a peak in the 1990s with 20.3  percent saying they had taken a drug in the last year, a drop from 29.7 percent in 1996. However, the overall trend since 2013/14 has been upwards.12 In the adult population as a whole, reported drug usage was higher for men than women, for those who regularly visited nightclubs or bars, for those living in urban areas, and those whose self-reported levels of happiness were relatively low. This suggests the possibility that young adult student drug use could be higher the national average for their age group. Further findings of relevance for understanding drug use in the HE context was the ease of obtaining drugs. Drug supply was the focus of a recent large scale student survey (Bennet and Holloway 2019). Approximately 24  percent of respondents claimed to have used drugs during the previous year, half of whom had obtained their drugs from friends while others used solely external markets and a further proportion a mixture of both; only third said that they had sold drugs but sharing drugs with friends appeared to be a common distribution mechanism.  Some of these psychoactive drugs were legal until recently but were added in 2016 to those controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 by the Psychoactive Substances Act http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/2/contents/enacted/data.htm. 12

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An apparently growing problem in the UK, not yet fully addressed in the currently published Home Office analyses, is the non-medical use of prescription drugs (NPD) such as stimulants, analgesics, tranquillisers and sedatives. Such drug abuse amongst college students has been of significant concern in North America for several years, but concern is now growing in the UK. Much of the research undertaken has demonstrated that for many, the main motive for students’ use of such drugs is not for recreational purposes but to enhance their academic performance and alertness during exams and tests and overcome the impact of sleep deficit for those who stay awake for long periods to study or revise for exams (Bennet and Holloway 2017). Usage has been reported as being most prevalent amongst students whose grades were relatively low and who may also experience difficulties with planning and goal directed behaviours. However, most studies of the impact on users’ grade averages (for example Monro et  al. 2017; Mazanova et  al. 2013; Arria et  al. 2017, 2018) demonstrated a lack of any significant improvement of grades relative to non-users. This is inevitably a very challenging area for research as it involves gaining permission for access to student grades and accurate information on their drug use; meanwhile the myths prevail. In my own, inevitably limited understanding of student misuse of prescription drugs, supply chains included web orders from countries with looser regulations, inter-HEI ‘lines’ to distribute the drugs, the sharing of legitimately prescribed medicine with friends for whom they were not intended and students’ abuse of their own medically prescribed drugs, on one occasion tragically resulting in a student death. Given the prevalence of drug taking in the young adult population I have little doubt that drug sharing or dealing occurs at very many campuses, although institutional responses vary. Cannabis use in student accommodation is often detected by senior residents, fellow students or cleaners who have noticed the distinctive smell or other evidence of usage. This can often be nipped in the bud by prompt warnings and reminders of the disciplinary consequences of being caught again. More serious incidents, including organised dealing, do occur from time to time but in my experience, these were rare, or at least well hidden. Some did come to light including a student found to be making the highly addictive stimulant drug crystal meth (methamphetamine) in his student room. Another student was found to be

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growing cannabis in the space below his bed in his hall of residence, thus also creating a fire hazard from the lights he installed to create a good growing environment for the plants. Another was found to be regularly importing prescription drugs from the USA for non-medical use, this latter reported by vigilant staff in the institutional post room. A significant concern for HEIs in respect of drug use on their premises is the fulfilment of their legal responsibilities as landlords13 and ensuring that their institutional security staff are alert to the possibility that drug dealers might be present on or near campus, especially before and after student social events and gigs. There is an important role to play through proactive harm reduction initiatives, including openly addressing student drug use and its risks, challenging misinformation about the supposed benefits, especially those of prescription drugs, and promoting the availability of study advice with a focus on time management, exam techniques and effective revision planning in periods leading up to examinations and other assessments. Specific reference to the misuse of prescription as well as to classified drugs could be included within all drug and disciplinary policies. Partnership working with charities who provide drug and alcohol services and with the local police forces who are usually aware of the activities of local drug dealers, can also contribute to safer university environments for students. Where institutional responsibilities lie in respect of the behaviours of students living in privately owned or rented premises is much harder to define, particularly if there is no clear evidence of detrimental impact to the university community itself (see Sect. 5.9 and footnote 9). Nonetheless, this does not mean that students living off campus should be ignored when information about drug and alcohol use and abuse and other messages that relate to the wellbeing and behaviours of the student community are circulated.

 If tenants are found to be using illegal drugs, landlords, including HEIs, have responsibilities under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, Section 8 to take appropriate action or risk prosecution. 13

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4.15 Final Thoughts The focus of this chapter has been an exploration of the various ways in which universities can create a safe, supportive and welcoming institutional environment that is inclusive and respectful of its diverse student population and encourages and supports the achievement of their academic and personal goals. The inclusion of a relatively long section on alcohol and drug abuse reflects my sense that these are important matters in respect of students’ academic success and their safety and security that have not been given sufficient attention, perhaps because HEIs fear that this might result in reputational damage  that  may impact on student recruitment. In the next chapter I address another aspect of contemporary higher education that is also too rarely discussed: its moral and ethical values.

References Abbey, Antonia. 2002. Alcohol-related Sexual Assault: A Common Problem among College Students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol Supplement 14: 118–128. AdvanceHE. 2018. Evaluation of Safeguarding Students Catalyst Fund Projects: Thematic Analysis Report 1. London: Office for Students. Aicken, Catherine, Nardone Anthony, and Catherine Mercer. 2010. Alcohol Misuse, Sexual Risk Behaviour and Adverse Sexual Health Outcomes: Evidence from Britain’s National Probability Sexual Behaviour Surveys. Journal of Public Health 33 (2): 262–271. Armstrong, Elizabeth, and Laura Hamilton. 2013. Paying for the Party. How College Maintains Inequality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Arria, Amelia, Kimberly Caldeira, Kathryn Vincent, Kevin O’Grady, Dolores Ciminic, Irene Geisner, Nicole Fossos-Wong, Jason Kilmer, and Mary Larimer. 2017. Do College Students Improve their Grades by Using Prescription Stimulants Nonmedically? Addictive Behaviors 65: 245–249. Arria, Amelia, Irene Geisner, Dolores Ciminic, Jason Kevin, Kimberly Caldeira, Angelica Barrall, Kathryn Vincent, et al. 2018. Perceived Academic Benefit is Associated with Nonmedical Prescription Stimulant Use among College Students. Addictive Behaviors 76: 27–33.

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Baird, Helen. 2017. Changing the Culture: One Year On. An Assessment of Strategies to Tackle Sexual Misconduct, Hate Crime and Harassment Affecting University Students. London: Universities UK. Baverstock, Alison, Jackie Steinitz, and Laura Bryars. 2017. What Were the Process and Response of University Staff and Students to the Availability of a Shared Reading Scheme for Those Embarking on a University Education?: A Case Study. Logos 27 (4): 29–44. Baverstock, Alison, Jackie Steinitz, Laura Bryars, Michael Kerin, Naomi Peel, Rachel Stohler, and Elle Waddington. 2016. The Implementation of a Shared Reading Programme in a University: A Case Study. Logos 27 (2): 48–61. Bennet, Trevor, and Katy Holloway. 2017. Motives for Ilicit Prescription Drug Use among University Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. International Journal of Drug Policy 44: 12–22. ———. 2019. How Do Students Source and Supply Drugs? Characteristics of the University Illegal Drug Trade. Substance Abuse and Misuse 54 (9): 12–22. Berger, John. 2007. Seven Levels of Despair. In Hold Everything Dear. Dispatches on Survival and Resistance, 3–5. London: Verso. Bird, Elizabeth, Amanda Gilmore, William George, and Melissa Lewis. 2016. The Role of Social Drinking Factors in the Relationship between Incapacitated Sexual Assault and Drinking before Sexual Activity. Addictive Behaviours 52 (Jan.): 28–33. Busher, Joel, Tufal Choudhury, and Paul Thomas. 2017. The Prevent Duty is Two Years Old. What’s Really Going on in Schools and Colleges? Democratic Audit. https://www.democraticaudit.com/2017/07/04/the-­prevent-­duty-­is-­ two-­years-­old-­whats-­really-­going-­on-­in-­schools-­and-­colleges/ Butcher, John. 2020. Unheard: The Voices of Part-time Adult Learners. HEPI Reports 124. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute. Fagence, Sam, Josephine Hansom, Ian Neale, and Laura Piggott. 2017. Student Resilience: Unite Student Insight Report 2016. Bristol: Unite Students. Findings. 2017. Perceived Peer Drinking Norms and Responsible Drinking in UK University Settings. Drug and Alcohol Findings, March 29. Gamsu, Sol, and Michael Donnelly. 2017. Diverse Places of Learning? Home Neighbourhood Ethnic Diversity and Ethnic Composition of Universities. Bath: Institute for Policy Research. Grant, Annie. 2002. Identifying Students’ Concerns: Taking a Whole Institutional Approach. In Students’ Mental Health Needs: Problems and Responses, ed. Nicky Stanley and Jill Manthorpe, 83–105. London: Jessica Kingsley.

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5 Setting a Moral Compass

5.1 Introduction This chapter addresses some of the moral duties and ethical challenges that inevitably confront higher education institutions and in particular their professional advisory services. They include the fulfilment of the institutional duty of care to students and staff, confidentiality, disciplinary processes, ethical student recruitment, achieving equality of outcome, policy development and other important and challenging matters. Given the focus of this book it is inevitable that many such matters have already been highlighted or touched on in earlier chapters (see, for example, Sects. 2.4, 2.7, 2.14 in Chap. 2, Sects. 3.8, 3.10 in Chap. 3 and Sect. 4.1 in Chap. 4). My primary aim here is to stimulate further debate and discussion by drawing attention to some of the moral and ethical challenges that present themselves in the higher education context and posing what I consider to be important questions although not necessarily providing the answers.

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5.2 T  he Moral and Ethical Values of UK Higher Education Government-funded policy documents of the past, including the Robbins (1963) and Dearing (1997) reports, made much of the moral values that they believed should stand as the fundamental underpinning of higher education. I have failed to find recent government policy documents with statements comparable to those found in the Dearing report which highlights the importance of shared values, the ethical implications of practices (p. 79) and higher education’s central contribution to civic virtue, (p. 81), or place equivalent emphasis on higher education as a force for public good. As Rabbi Sir Jonathan Sacks said in his introduction to the BBC Radio 4 programme on contemporary morality, shared values and ideals seem to be out of fashion (Sacks 2018). It seems to be the case that once the key drivers for the sector became finances, league table rankings, audit regimes and meeting external expectations, broad matters of moral and ethical principle with general relevance to the sector and its students have rarely been openly debated and scarcely even mentioned. When such matters are discussed, this is usually in the context of academic research activities or the teaching of subjects such as philosophy, theology and law, and those addressing health, wellbeing and social care. Overall, there has been relatively little debate or guidance at sector level to offer a clear ethical steer for institutional policy makers and those faced with the kinds of challenging moral and ethical responsibilities and dilemmas I highlight in this book. Robinson and Katulushi’s (2005) edited book on values in higher education and the report ‘Ethics Matter’ (CIHE 2005) are rare exceptions, but they are now over 15  years old. ‘Ethics Matter’ was the outcome of a partnership between university and business organisations and aimed to offer guidance on how to tackle ethical matters across HE institutions. The background research undertaken for the report confirmed a lack of coherence in documenting ethical policy. I am not reassured that much progress has been made since in developing transparent ethical frameworks to underpin policies and practices outside the academic research and professional health and wellbeing contexts. The corporate plans of many institutions

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state their missions and broad values, but they do not always make it clear how their confident rhetoric will be translated into meaningful action. At an individual level, authors who include (Collini 2012, 2013, 2018) and MacFarlane (2004, 2016, 2020) continue to address the ethics and values of higher education and in particular their concerns about the impact of neo-liberalism on the integrity of the sector. Their perspectives are those of academic teachers and researchers while Robinson (2005) and (Hooley et al. 2017) for example, draw attention to the ongoing importance of understanding professional and business ethics for student employability. In the USA, a much higher profile is given to ethical and moral standards including the ethical dimension of student service practice. High schools and universities promote honour codes to discourage plagiarism and other cheating behaviours, the quarterly ‘Journal of College and Character’ publishes scholarly articles on ethics, values and character development, and examines the impact of higher education on the moral and civic engagement of students. Regularly updated NASPA student services handbooks include chapters on values and ethical professional practice to guide their members (Schuh et al. 2016; McLellan et al. 2009) while other publications address ethical considerations in specific contexts, including, of current interest, responding to pandemic disease (Lemon et al. 2007). It is not that guidance documents do not exist in the UK, but their range and scope tend to be restricted to more specific matters such as supporting students with learning differences or those who are experiencing mental health difficulties (Cowen 2010; MWBHE 2015) or addressing equality of academic outcome (see Sects. 2.7, 2.14 in Chap. 2 and Sect. 5.10 below). Doing right by a large and diverse student community is an enormously difficult task and there are many dilemmas faced by all institutions that are far from easy to resolve. These include knowing where to tread on the narrow pathway between promoting inclusion and accepting responsibility for the wellbeing of students who may be a risk themselves or may present a risk to others; offering flexibility in adjusting learning and assessment norms to avoid disadvantaging some while maintaining transparent academic standards for all; balancing the rights of an individual with those of others within their university community; sharing information or concerns about a student’s wellbeing while maintaining

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appropriate confidentiality and respect and so on. Often there are no clearly right or wrong solutions but only good or not so good ones, a good one  perhaps one that leads  to the best possible outcome for the student(s) concerned without significantly disadvantaging others. What institutions and their student advisory staff often face is what have been defined in a different context by Rittel and Webber as ‘wicked’ problems (1973, p. 155). They point to the impossibility of objectively defining equality, or creating policies concerning social problems that result in ‘optimal’ solutions, or even finding definitive solutions at all. Wicked problems are however the daily diet of those responsible for professional advisory services. Policies, protocols and guidelines are often developed to guide responses to situations that are likely to reoccur, if only infrequently. Student death is one such example: a protocol to guide an institution’s responses and ensure that they are sensitive and compassionate and avoid as much as possible inappropriate actions or omissions that could inadvertently cause further distress can be vital. Nonetheless, in my experience they are likely to need review each and every time they are used. No two cases or sets of circumstances are ever identical and a protocol that has been shown to be appropriate in the past might well have to be modified or added to in response to circumstances that had not previously been anticipated: unique circumstances usually require individually nuanced responses. As Rittel and Webber define them, wicked problems cannot be solved by trial and error as each is unique and every attempt to solve them counts (p. 163). The discussion that follows aims to illustrate some of responsibilities to be fulfilled and the difficulties and dilemmas faced in the increasingly complex world of higher education.

5.3 Duty of Care One of the defining responsibilities of universities is their duty of care to their students and of course their members of staff. The definition of duty of care as a legally enforceable requirement in respect of the wellbeing of adults is imprecise and probably cannot be other, given the multitude of exceptions and pitfalls that would emerge were precision to be attempted. A useful summary of the recent legal position can be found in the

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MWBHE good practice guide on promoting student mental health. The section on negligence and duty of care states that this area of law is largely untested but that it is reasonable to assume that common law requires HEIs to take reasonable steps to protect the health and safety of their students (MWBHE 2015, p. 43). Equality legislation requires HEIs to make ‘reasonable adjustments’ to the academic, physical and social environment to ensure that no student is put at any substantial disadvantage as a result of their gender, disability and other ‘protected characteristics’ (Sect. 1.2 in Chap. 1), but as I note elsewhere (Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2), in many circumstances it is by no means easy to define what is ‘reasonable’. The institutional duty of care extends well beyond students’ mental health: the same requirement would apply to the duty to ensure that, for example, the financial, study and career advice given to students is accurate and appropriate to their circumstances. Additional statutory obligations to students include adherence to the Human Rights Act 1998, the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, the Counter Terrorism and Security Act 2015 (Sect. 4.11 in Chap. 4) and the Data Protection Act of 2018.1 Formal safeguarding procedures must be in place for all under 18-year old students, and although this latter requirement does not apply to the majority of those legally adult, all students, regardless of their age, have the right to be protected from abuse and poor practice. There is also an enhanced safeguarding responsibility for those who are over the age of majority but as a consequence of their health, disabilities or other circumstances are judged to be at elevated risk of harm or disadvantage.

5.4 In loco parentis? UK HEs have not been held to be in loco parentis, that is with quasi-­ parental responsibilities in respect of their adult students, since the age of majority was lowered to 18 in 1970 (Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1). The implicit assumption, generally welcomed by all, including students, is that as adults they have rights to a significant level of self-determination in  https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/12/contents/enacted.

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respect of the choices they make and the lives they lead. The corollary might not unreasonably be seen to be that this independence brings with it responsibilities to take steps to engage actively with their studies, be proactive in resolving any problems they experience—including making good use of the advisory and health services available to them on and off campus—and behave in ways that do not threaten their own safety or that of others. Inevitably, it is not quite as simple as this: some may not have the confidence, experience or ability to take on such responsibilities, particularly at the start of their courses, or they may be too unwell or disabled to do so. There are some students who have been brought up in care or are estranged from their families and may derive particular benefit from advice in respect of the practicalities of their lives, including their finances and accommodation (Jackson et al. 2005). On the other hand, some students who may on paper appear to require support have developed robust strategies for managing independently and make few or no demands on advisory services. This is an area where we all need to be careful to avoid making assumptions that risk patronisation or stereotyping. The moral duty of care is even more difficult to define as society has significantly divided views. There is no doubt that in the current climate the concept of adulthood and what being ‘at risk’ or ‘vulnerable’ might mean or imply (see Sect. 3.9 in Chap. 3) have become increasingly difficult to define, and expectations can be rather fluid. Safeguarding policies and procedures for those under 18 need to make clear both the additional provision that can be offered and what cannot be guaranteed in the fundamentally adult environment of an HE institution. A parent of a legally adult student who has not previously been away from home on their own, has never managed his or her own budget, used public transport, or even taken full responsibility for getting up in the morning in time to get to school may feel very anxious about their offspring’s ability to survive on their own in the first weeks or even months at university and thus hope or even demand that their university will take on a quasi-parental responsibility for him or her. This is a very tall order when their child is one of many thousands of new students. One might argue that the job of preparing a prospective student for a life away from parental or equivalent support and influence lies with the latter, paralleling the

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responsibility that schools and colleges have for preparing prospective students for the academic challenges of study at tertiary level (Sect. 3.9 in Chap. 3). Fortunately, many of the parents with whom I have spoken hold that view themselves and their contact with the university has not been to complain about what is not being done, but to find out more about what is available so that they can encourage their sons and daughters to take responsibility for seeking appropriate help, whether this be by making an appointment with their personal tutor, a student services advisor or their GP. Others can be very demanding and have much less understanding of the realities of the HE environment (Sect. 5.9). In 2018 the then universities minister suggested in a speech to launch a new package of mental health support that universities should be expected to act in loco parentis for their students particularly when they are first away from home.2 When under 18-year olds were technically minors and the student population very much smaller, single sex accommodation was common, and students could be required to sign in and out of their halls of residence in the evenings. There might also have been limitations on the times when visits by members of the opposite sex were allowed (see Sect. 4.13 in Chap. 4). It is hard to imagine what could be put in place today if HEIs were expected to have responsibilities equivalent to those of boarding schools, and I very much doubt that many students would welcome a return to such paternalistic control. In Sect. 3.2 in Chap. 3, the difficulties that can be faced by students who undertake placements or periods of study away from their home institutions are highlighted. The institutional responsibility here is clear, although it may be shared with the placement provider. There can also be little argument about the duty of care HEIs owe to international students who leave a familiar social and academic environment to study in the UK. However, exactly where the onus of responsibility lies in respect of UK-resident students who undertake periods of study or on placements abroad can be less straightforward to define and undertake. Institutional staff and their students need to be reassured that what is in place in the host country is adequate and appropriate, whom their main contacts in  https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-package-of-measures-announced-on-studentmental-health.

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both the host and home institutions will be and who should be contacted in an emergency or when advice is needed. In some countries student advisory provision is minimal or non-existent, but in others there are very stringent requirements in respect of their definitions of their duty of care. Students on exchange schemes with the US can find themselves unwillingly sent to local psychiatric hospitals when they are discovered to have self-harmed in the past, and/or are experiencing a period of depression. Approaches to suicide prevention in the US can include the compulsory removal from campus of those expressing suicidal ideation or who have previously made suicide attempts, although this approach has been challenged by Pavela (2012), who has long argued for better ways of supporting such students on course. Resolving student difficulties at a distance can be very challenging and may involve four-way negotiations between the student, their parents and the UK and host institutions, all of whom may have very different views about the solution to the situation that the students have found themselves in. In the US, approaches to the duty of care owed to students experiencing mental health difficulties may also vary state by state. The important point is that when we send our students out of the UK on student exchange programmes or to undertake research projects or work placements away from the university, we need to ensure that we have the means to make immediate and direct contact with a senior member of staff responsible for student matters in the host institution or placement provider. It is prudent to have undertaken risk assessments and put relevant arrangements in place for all students, not just those who have declared disabilities or pre-existing health difficulties. The same care and attention needs to be given to the safeguarding of students who undertake fieldwork activities, whether these take place inside or outside the UK (Chalkley and Waterfield 2001; Simm and McGuinness 2004) and, as Tucker and Horton (2018) point out, to the staff responsible who may be experiencing their own difficulties. Institutional responsibilities in respect of on-campus services provided by organisations such as Nightline and other charitable bodies and religious groups, also need to be carefully considered to ensure that these organisations have robust safeguarding protocols in place, however well-meaning they may appear to be. The same is the case for student union societies,

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particularly those who permit membership for non-students (see Sect. 4.12 in Chap. 4).

5.5 Confidentiality Transparent confidentiality and personal data protection policies are a requirement for all HEIs, but student services may wish to specify their own approach to confidentiality within an overall institutional framework. They may need to clarify when and in what circumstances advisory staff might have to consider breaching confidentiality or sharing information with colleagues, including the NHS and other external specialists, even when data sharing protocols have been established and agreed to. It is vital that students feel confident that what they wish to be confidential will remain so, other than in exceptional circumstances. Despite anonymous marking of academic work, data protection legislation and other institutional confidentiality protocols, some students can remain surprisingly reluctant to disclose personal information to those with whom they have an academic connection, even when a strong and mutually respectful relationship has been established. One example concerns a student who came to my office to ask for an urgent meeting with me in order to gain support for an extension of just a few days to his coursework deadline. There was of course an administrative process in place to facilitate consideration of such requests (see Sect. 5.6), but this required evidence to be presented before the request could be considered. The student had an excellent relationship with his personal tutor but was adamant that I was the only person to whom he was prepared to disclose the reason for his request for additional time. I was convinced by the information and details he gave me that there were very sound reasons for allowing him an extension—indeed I asked if he would like even more time to come to terms with his situation and/or would like to talk to one of the institution’s counsellors. He said that he was already receiving appropriate help and advice and was insistent that all he needed was a promise of complete confidentiality and an extra few days to complete his essay. By virtue of the role I held in the university I was able to vouch for the validity of his request and gain the requested extension without revealing  any  personal details. Protocols which allow for

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exceptional circumstances to be addressed individually can be vital for some students, including, for example, for those who are on witness protection programmes or may have other compelling reasons to keep their true identity or circumstances hidden—in my experience such situations  are not as rare as one might expect. In practice, there are relatively few occasions when it is appropriate to promise absolute confidentiality: most policies include a rider that states that if there is clear risk of harm to self or others, then those who are in a position to take relevant action to protect individuals and/or the community from harm may or even must be informed. In most circumstances it is preferable to request a students’ permission before disclosing what would normally be considered to be confidential, but if this is not possible or forthcoming, those concerned should, if at all possible, be informed of the action intended and given details of exactly what will be disclosed, to whom and for what purpose. Concerns about mental wellbeing and the rise in the number of student suicides over the last few years (Sect. 3.3 in Chap. 3) have questioned where the boundaries of confidentiality should be drawn, particularly in respect of the young adult population. I tend to agree with those who think that now may be the right time to think carefully about the circumstances that would allow an institution to contact parents or guardians to inform them of their concerns before these meet a very tight criterion of ‘serious risk of harm to self or others’. Nonetheless, a blanket policy could be unwise: sometimes parents are the cause of and not the solution to a student’s difficulties and informing parents or other close relations or friends could put the student at increased risk. Opt-in policies seem to be the safest way forward, as long as students are fully informed of the circumstances that could lead to their named contact being approached. Other safeguards might include proactive annual renewal of permission and the right for students to change their minds at any time without being asked to give a reason. I can think of only two occasions when I felt it vital to break a student’s confidentiality and inform a parent of my grave concerns. In neither was it possible to gain the students’ permission in advance but I was able to speak to them afterwards and explain why I had taken the action I did. Other than being frustrated that it was not possible for  me to talk to

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them before I contacted their parents, I have no regrets about the actions I took at the time, although I have often reflected on them: such decisions are rarely taken lightly. Formal confidentiality policies provide a vital framework to guide decision making but in practice an individual judgement that takes full account of the particular circumstances is usually necessary. One of the advantages of an integrated student services structure (see Sect. 1.7 in Chap. 1) is that they may be able to operate within a transparent confidentiality framework that, unless a student vetoes this, permits an exchange of information between specialist staff within the service. One of the advantages is that it can speed up cross-referral for those who appear to be in difficulty in respect of more than one aspect of their lives or help to identify students of particular concern. Concerns about wellbeing, finance, housing, academic progression, physical health and disability are frequently interrelated. Students who consult advisers for one reason often reveal other and sometimes more serious concerns, especially when a trusting relationship has been established. In such cases, information may be revealed that advisers feel is outside their area of expertise and  they may thus wish to consult their colleagues for guidance on the most appropriate action to take or advice to offer. In many cases such discussions between colleagues or with academic staff who are concerned about their students can provide information and reassurance without any need to name or otherwise identify the students involved. Institutional and student service confidentiality policies need to be well publicised to students, academics and all other institutional staff, and include the contact details for a member(s) of advisory staff from whom guidance can be sought by those concerned about where the boundaries of confidentiality lie. This became very clear to me many years ago when I was asked to investigate a particularly upsetting student suicide on campus. It had a devastating impact not only on the student’s family but also on the academic staff who knew him and the fellow students who discovered his body. I spoke individually to several people who had been in contact with the student at some point during the preceding year: these included a student counsellor he had spoken to, his personal

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tutor and other teaching staff, the organiser of his placement abroad, his friends and a member of administrative staff who had received a doctor’s certificate from him stating that he was now fit to return to study after a period of mental distress which had caused him to leave his placement abroad prematurely. All those I spoke to admitted that they had had concerns, but none had felt that these were serious enough to share with others. The counsellor had felt constrained by her uncertainty that they were sufficient to allow her to breach the institution’s confidentiality policy and, even more important for her, that of her professional body. The personal tutor assumed that as his tutee had been allowed to return to restart the year there were no immediate reasons to be worried. The administrator had thought that the medical certificate submitted looked slightly odd but did not alert anyone else: on subsequent investigation of his computer by the police it emerged that the student had forged the certificate himself. His friends had been worried about him as they had known that he had abandoned his placement, but they were relieved and reassured to know that he had returned, apparently with his doctor’s permission. Tragically, it was when they went to visit him in his university room to welcome him back that they discovered his body. Had all the available information been put together the student would not have been allowed to resume his course without further medical advice and support. Whether or not this suicide could have been prevented is unknowable, but had relevant information been shared and, as would have likely been the case, he had been advised to take some more time out before a return to the university with appropriate support in place, the students who found his body would not have had that trauma to live with for the rest of their lives, nor would the others involved have been left with feelings of guilt that they should have been able to do more to help him. Such feelings can linger for a very long time, if not for life, even when there is no reason for self-blame.

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5.6 P  olicy Development: Concessions and Extenuating Circumstances The desire of successive governments to keep UK higher education sector under their thumbs is visible in increasing numbers of externally imposed regulatory and quality assurance procedures that in their turn have stimulated a proliferation of administrative processes designed to control the relationships that HEIs have with their students, and indeed their academic staff. They include regulations concerning attendance at teaching events, coursework submission, requests for deadline extensions, opportunities to re-sit examinations, and the penalties imposed for suspected plagiarism or breaches of codes of personal and professional behaviour and more. One example of the impact of institutional policies on students and student advisory staff relates to the submission of assessed coursework. Not so very many years ago, negotiating an extension to a submission date was a matter of discussion between a student and the academic who had set the task. This had both advantages and disadvantages, the most serious of the latter being the risks of inconsistency and favouritism. If students adhere to the set deadlines it is much easier for submitted work to be marked quickly and consistently and returned with the feedback that can make an important contribution to their learning. Encouraging students to meet deadlines, even if they are experiencing personal difficulties, can be beneficial for their wellbeing by helping them to spread their academic load, make sustained progress and build their confidence and resilience (Sect. 3.9 in Chap. 3). Nonetheless, effective time management is a skill that many of us have still failed to fully master and unforeseen circumstances may also make it impossible or extremely difficult for work to be completed on time. Institutions tend to discourage late submission through the imposition of penalties, including the deduction of marks—sometimes an immediate 10 percent for work submitted even a minute after the deadline, but most also have procedures that allow students to request an extension to submission dates, or a concession to other requirements by reporting their ‘extenuating’ or ‘mitigating’ circumstances for consideration by panels of academics/and or administrators. The procedures for approving such requests are often

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based on an assumption that treating everyone the same ensures fairness and equity, but if this is taken at face value it can risk the opposite outcome. This has been largely accepted in respect of neurodiverse students and those with some disabilities, but it also has relevance in respect of the consideration of the circumstances that impact on students’ opportunities and abilities to complete their academic work or perform well under pressure (see Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2). In practice, there can be no common starting point or level playing field in the higher education context given the differences in individuals’ personal circumstances and backgrounds, prior educational experiences, English language fluency, the nature and number of assessments tasks set for each discipline and course, the availability of essential reading and research materials, the timing and spacing of deadlines and so on. I feel very uneasy about fee paying students being obliged to provide ‘evidence’ before requests for concessions are considered, particularly when what is asked for is a death certificate or other similarly intrusive and potentially upsetting documentation to ‘prove’ their bereavement or difficulty and provide a basis for judgements about how long and how much they would be affected by a death or other challenging or traumatic circumstance: x days for the death of partner, parent or sibling, y days for a grandparent, z days for an aunt or cousin and none or very few for a close friend? This does not fit well with institutional personnel policies that allow the staff who are paid for what they do to self-certificate for periods of ill-health or bereavement and may not be required to submit sensitive information to their human resources departments. Requests for medically unnecessary certificates also put untoward pressure on GP services (Sect. 3.12 in Chap. 3) and on hard-pressed counsellors and advisory staff who are frequently asked for advice by students about applying for concessions and for written confirmation of their difficulties. The personal lives of many students will inevitably be complex. It can be vital for student wellbeing that the processes to consider requests for, for example, deadline extensions, a delayed exam sitting or resit, or a period of temporary withdrawal from study are designed so that decision-­ making can be very rapid, and all unnecessary stress and distress avoided. A system that allows students experiencing exceptional difficulties to reveal very sensitive details to a named member(s) of the professional

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advisory service, as in the case outlined above (Sect. 5.5), offers a compassionate and speedy alternative to submitting a form that requires information to be given to administrators and concessions panel members. This also avoids the risk that the details provided inadvertently identify those concerned or lead to prejudiced decision-making. Consistency is clearly a very an important starting principal but if the possibility of flexibility is not built into systems and processes that impact on students’ academic attainment and their personal and even financial circumstances, the outcome may not be one that could be considered to be morally fair. The overarching aim must surely be to make decisions that are as just and compassionate as possible after consideration of all relevant factors, and these will not be the same for all those within in a diverse student population. This is far more important than rigid adherence to protocols, especially when their impact and effectiveness may have not been robustly tested and regularly evaluated (Sect. 6.4 in Chap. 6). I would rather see processes in place that demonstrate an institutional respect for and trust of students, encourage honesty and openness and provide support through difficulty so that they are able to complete the required work as soon as possible and avoid further stress and distress. If a few choose to lie about their circumstances and are given a concession or extra time they don’t merit, they will, nonetheless, still have to complete the required work. Other than when students’ marks are norm-­ referenced, the marks one individual is awarded is unlikely to impact on the academic outcomes of their peers.

5.7 Fitness for Study and Professionalism In some cases, the cause of student non-engagement with study or other concerning behaviour is suspected to be the result of a health or other serious personal difficulty that is impacting on their wellbeing or their ability to cope with institutional life. In such  cases, the imposition of academic or disciplinary penalties may not be the most compassionate or effective way forward. Increasing concern about the appropriateness of formal penalties for students who are unwell or experiencing exceptional difficulties  has stimulated the development of institutional fitness for

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study processes. These have been designed to help students to manage their difficulties within a supportive framework that by-passes any punitive approach. If a student is willing to accept that they could benefit from a break in their studies or focussed institutional support, the outcome of a fitness hearing, which in many HEIs will involve professional advisory staff, can be very positive. Judgements of ‘fitness’ clearly need to focus on the wellbeing of  the students of direct concern but if their behaviours are impacting on others, the wellbeing of the latter may have to be taken into account or even take precedence. Sharing accommodation or campus facilities with those whose distress leads to evident self-­ harm, threats of suicide, aggressive, disruptive or dangerous behaviour can be very frightening, distressing for others. Swift and decisive action may be needed for the protection of all. If students resist the advice of their institutions to take a break in their studies or engage with medical or student advisory services, an element of compulsion may be required. In such cases, decision-making may not be easy for either the student or the institution. Sympathy, compassion and the offer of support for those who are unwell is vital, but illness cannot be used as an excuse for behaviours that put others at risk of harm, whether this be physical or psychological. This does not appear to be a view shared by all: the response to complaints made by an anonymous (for obvious reasons) contributor to the Times Higher Education (THE) magazine described the lecturer’s experience of persistent racial abuse from one of their students. This had not been addressed by the institution on the grounds that the student was known to have mental health difficulties (Anonymous 2019). Whatever the particular circumstances of this case, it demonstrates that views about the appropriate response to such situations can differ. The aim of fitness to study procures is to arrive at a decision that is appropriately balanced, fair and compassionate and offers a package of support for the student of concern, with clear boundaries established in respect of what is and is not acceptable, even for those who are unwell. If a period of temporary withdrawal is decided on, the expectation should be that this will be beneficial and restorative for all concerned and that any support or advice that could be helpful when the student returns to their studies will be readily available. When fitness to study hearings are held it is also important that those involved are aware of the likely negative

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impacts of temporary withdrawal from a course of study, whether this was requested by the student or the institution, and that these are carefully considered before final decisions are made. Existing friendships and support mechanisms can be seriously disrupted if students take a long break that necessitates a return to study with an unfamiliar student cohort. Returning students may find it difficult to find suitable accommodation, particularly when they come back part way through an academic year. Temporary withdrawal may also lead to financial hardship, especially for those who do not have parental or other backing or have not been well enough to work. Unfortunately, the Dearing committee’s (1997, p.  5) recommendation that access to social security benefits be restored for those who temporarily withdraw due to illness was not accepted by the government at the time and this remains the case today. Students who take a break in their studies, willingly or by compulsion, are still considered to be students and as such are not able to claim benefits other than those they may have been entitled to while they were actively pursuing their courses.3 They may also find themselves tied-in to private rental agreements that they can no longer afford and do not immediately need. A ‘fitness’ judgement should not be been seen as the end of the matter: a ‘return to study’ protocol can ensure that those returning after withdrawal on health grounds have fully recovered or can be appropriately supported, personally, academically and in some cases financially on their return. I have made reference elsewhere (Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3) to the requirements for students studying medicine and other health or professional courses to adhere to the high standards of behaviour and academic engagement expected by their professional bodies (GMC 2016). This is one area where the academic and the personal are more or less inseparable and can prove challenging for some, particularly at the beginning of their courses. The General Medical Council (GMC) requires students to behave professionally and with integrity not only in respect of their relationships with patients and colleagues (GMC 2016) but also in what others would consider to be their private life, setting them apart from 3  h t t p s : / / w w w. t u r n 2 u s . o r g . u k / Be n e f i t - g u i d e s / Fu l l - t i m e - s t u d e n t s - a n d - b e n e f i t s / Benefits-during-time-out-from-study#guide-content.

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fellow students studying most other subjects. Non-attendance at teaching events, signing in for others who are not present, plagiarism, breaching institutional disciplinary codes, being found to be drunk and disorderly on and off campus are rightly  likely to be taken much more seriously when a medical or other health profession student is involved than might be the case for a student studying, for example, history or biology, although these latter may still be penalised. Students on professional courses are required to disclose any physical or mental health difficulties that might impact on their competence as professionals in training: nondisclosure and other behavioural breaches risk referral to ‘Fitness to Practice’ panels, which in respect of the most serious breaches can result in compulsory course withdrawal or a report to the GMC, which may have a negative impact on their career progression. A student who finds themselves uncertain about their position in respect of their professionalism may welcome dispassionate advice from advisory staff. If the matters reported are serious enough, the adviser may have to tell the student that unless he or she informs the department’s professionalism lead, they will be obliged to break confidentiality and inform the latter themselves. Here the professional duty of care owed to future patients or clients must trump that to individual students: such situations can push advisory staff right up against the boundaries of their confidentiality protocols.

5.8 P  ostgraduate Research Students and Their Supervisors Institutional responsibilities to protect undergraduate students from what they perceive as bullying or harassment have been discussed in Sect. 4.12 in Chap. 4 and in general terms these of course also apply to postgraduates. However, the nature of postgraduate research (PGR) study involves relationships between students, their institutions and their research supervisors that are different from those normally experienced by undergraduate and even taught masters’ students. Although in a minority within the sector as a whole, postgraduates number well over ten thousand and in some institutions, they comprise a significant

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proportion of the student body.4 Their experiences and wellbeing are rather less frequently discussed and the particular challenges they may face in completing a research degree perhaps less well understood, although this is changing, largely through the work of the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE).5 One of the most difficult and potentially undermining situations that PGR students can find themselves facing is a breakdown in their relationship with their supervisor. Over the years I have encountered students who have felt bullied by their supervisors or by other students in their research group, neglected in respect of feedback on their work or the frequency of meetings, refused access to what the student considers to be the necessary research facilities and materials, denied support to attend conferences and had their research published without appropriate acknowledgement. Such cases are relatively rare but when they do arise the strength of feeling engendered may have significant detrimental impact on students’ academic progress, their mental wellbeing and even their physical health. Many institutions insist that students are supervised by research teams rather than a single supervisor and/or have access to the equivalent of a personal tutor who is not immediately involved with their research and can be turned to when problems arise. Even with supportive and robust policies in place, difficult situations can still occur that cause students to feel so concerned about confidentiality that they do not wish to talk to anyone in their department, as they do not trust them to be truly independent. Some fear, rightly or wrongly, that if their supervisor knew of their concerns, they might not write fair references in the future, or would create other difficulties that could have a negative impact on the progress of their research and their future careers. The resolution of student/supervisor difficulties can be very challenging in an environment where power imbalances exist, and inter-colleague loyalty is strong. Hierarchies of power and influence are to some degree inevitable, but exactly where research students sit is not always self-­evident or indeed comfortable. On the one hand they may be allowed or even positively encouraged to take on part-time teaching duties, and in respect of  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/news/27-01-2021/sb258-higher-education-student-statistics/numbers.  http://www.ukcge.ac.uk/about-ukcge/ukcge.aspx.

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this role they are treated as staff with employment rights (although these are often quite weak) and responsibilities to the students they are teaching or tutoring. On the other hand, as students themselves, they have a different set of priorities and responsibilities within a hierarchy of knowledge, experience and influence. Here, the primacy of the teacher or supervisor is in principle clear, but some students may be older than their supervisors and have broader life and even prior work experiences relevant to the research being undertaking. Any of these factors can challenge a supervisor’s sense of his or her own position and authority, particularly when they are relatively inexperienced. Other difficulties can arise in respect of the ownership of research findings and the pace of progress, especially when a PGR student is funded from a large grant that covers several different but crucially interconnected elements of a single project, each with its own vital deadline. In such circumstances, the pressure to complete the main research project may have an impact on the wellbeing of the PGR students funded to complete their part of the research at the same time as writing their own theses. Unfortunately, the pressures that the grant holders are themselves under to complete their projects on time can result in what research students may experience as inappropriate bullying and harassment. Recent research on the UK’s science research culture sponsored by the Wellcome Trust demonstrated that sector wide pressure to produce research outputs appeared to be impacting on those at all levels, from PhD students to post-doctoral and mid- to late-career researchers. The published analysis of this research reported that many researchers believed that competition for grants and jobs was having a negative impact on collegiality and was ‘creating conditions ripe for aggressive, unkind behaviour’ (Shift-Learning 2020, p. 15; see also Sect. 5.10). Difficulties may arise for PGR students who have family or other responsibilities that prevent them from participating in the expected social life and camaraderie that can develop within a research environment, particularly amongst those who work together in a laboratory setting. A mismatch between the lifestyles, experiences and backgrounds of research students, post-doctoral researchers and supervisors can be a further factor in the testing or breakdown of supervisory relationships. One PhD student who sought my advice described how she felt bullied and criticised by her supervisor and the other members of her research group

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as not serious enough about her work because she usually left the laboratory around 4.30 pm, and never joined them for after-work visits to the pub. What her supervisor and the others working with her did not realise, and she was too diffident to explain—and in any case felt that it was none of their business—was that she was a single parent who had to go home promptly each day to cook for and spend time with her teenage son. What her colleagues also did not know was that long after they had all left, she frequently returned to the lab to continue her research. Academic staff can also become distressed and feel at a loss when faced with difficulties in their professional relationships with their students, and they too may seek help and advice from student advisory services on how best to proceed. Specialised advice and additional resources are now available for research supervisors through the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) (Taylor 2018), but nonetheless, supervisory problems can remain very difficult to resolve. The Wellcome research specifically addressed science research cultures, but examples of bullying and supervisory neglect can be found within any academic discipline. Institutions have a duty to the research students who unwittingly find themselves within such environments to ensure that there is impartial advice available and a transparent and just means to address the impact on those who are low down in institutional structures of power and influence. Unfortunately, there is always a risk that the views of academic staff, especially those whose ‘star’ status offers high financial and reputational value to their institutions, will be unjustly privileged and a fair outcome may not be achieved.

5.9 R  esponding to External Pressures and Setting Clear Boundaries HEIs fearful of being accused of dereliction of their duty of care and consequent reputational damage may become over cautious and take actions that imply an acceptance of responsibilities that are neither appropriate nor possible to fulfil for a student population of many thousands. The primary role and priority of universities must remain the provision

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of education and not a substitute for underfunded NHS and other related services (see Sect. 3.12 in Chap. 3). Nonetheless HEIs can find themselves between a rock and a hard place in respect of the locus of responsibility for student wellbeing when NHS provision, particularly in respect of mental health, is so significantly underfunded. Students are entitled to the same health and social services as any other member of their age group and if they can be encouraged to take on a responsibility for managing their own health and wellbeing, including accessing NHS and community services whenever appropriate and possible, they are likely to find themselves better prepared for a future life when these may be the only resources available to them. However, this may not be the view of those parents who wish HEIs to take on a quasi-parental role and request or even demand exceptions to be made for their children, sometimes threatening legal action or negative publicity if their demands are not met. Unfortunately, such threats are more likely to reach the ears of senior managers than those of the many who express more balanced views when they have concerns. When individual parental complaints result in ad hominem decision-making that cuts across established institutional principles and procedures, there is a risk of setting precedents that cannot be honoured for all those who subsequently demand the same or equivalent treatment. It can be hard to find the appropriate response to anxious or discontented parents or the journalists who are only too eager to search out ‘culprits’ to expose and blame. Nonetheless, explicitly or implicitly accepting responsibility for what universities do not have the means, expertise or remit to fulfil can be even more dangerous than any detrimental comments made in the press or social media: fortunately, these latter tend to have a short life, particularly if they are poorly founded. Clear ethical frameworks to guide policy and practice (CIHE 2005) in response to challenging situations help protect institutions from taking ill-considered and possibly risky action, even when this is well-intended. There is little doubt in my mind that alongside other more general societal changes, the introduction of fees has had a significant impact on the expectations of the parents and guardians of prospective and current HE students, as well as on the students themselves. Parents today are far more likely than those of previous generations to wish to be closely

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involved in application choices, attend open days with their offspring and to try to maintain a level of control while their children are studying. There has also been a notable increase in parental contact with advisory services, usually by phone but sometimes in person, to demand checks on their children’s wellbeing merely on the grounds that there has been no contact from them for 24 hours. Others believe that they have a right to be given personal information, challenge marks or demand special favours because, as some have told me in no uncertain terms, they are the ones paying the institutional fees. ‘Helicopter’ parenting, as such levels of continuing close involvement in the lives of adult children is sometimes called, and other parenting styles including ‘parental indulgence’ (Cui et al. 2019) have been the subject of a growing body of research. Schiffrin and colleagues’ (2014) paper includes a summary of research that demonstrated a negative impact of over-controlling parents on young adults’ self-confidence and ability to manage stress. Their own research suggested that those who had low perceptions of their autonomy were much more likely to experience depression and poor life satisfaction (p. 554). Parental over-involvement can be very time-wasting for institutions and their advisory staff and can undermine initiatives to promote student resilience and independence (Sect. 3.9 in Chap. 3). It can also be demoralising and embarrassing for the students whose parents make such demands, as I have witnessed on many occasions. Setting clear boundaries and discouraging dependency is also important in respect of the relationships that students have with academic staff (Grant 2007). It is not appropriate for teaching or advisory staff to give students their private phone numbers other than in the most exceptional of circumstances. HEIs and their staff do not have a responsibility to provide on-tap out of hours responses to student concerns, whether these be academic or personal. Making it clear to students that they should respect the personal time of institutional staff and not expect immediate responses to emails or other online queries helps to encourage good time management and self-reliance. Nevertheless, it is vital that all HEIs have a 24-hour institutional point of contact to be used when the safety of students and staff is at risk. On one memorable occasion my sleep was disturbed by a call from one of the university’s security officers to report that he had just received an urgent call concerning a student nurse on

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placement in an African country. Civil war had suddenly and unexpectedly broken out, there was fighting in the streets and the road to airport was blocked. The need here for immediate involvement and action to help the parents gain access to those on the ground who might be able to help was unchallengeable.

5.10 Inequality: Retention and Achievement Completion rates are of much concern to the higher education sector and constitute one of the performance measures used in most league table calculations, quality assurance measures and funding models (Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1 and Sect. 6.2 in Chap. 6). According to available figures from 2018,6 the proportion of those who began a full-time undergraduate degree in England but did not progress to the following year averaged 6.3 percent for young and 11.9 for mature students, with significant variation by institution, course, gender, ethnicity, background and prior educational experience. Overall non-continuation rates are low in the UK in comparison to those in many other countries (OECD 2017) but this does not justify complaisance. Quantitative and qualitative research addressing student retention continues to be a UK priority at sector and institutional levels. It is also clear that many who do stay the course consider withdrawal and remain at risk of non-completion throughout their courses, or of graduating with a degree outcome that does not reflect their true ability and may limit their future career choices and earning power (see Sect. 2.10 in Chap. 2). It is perhaps inevitable that for some new students, the mismatch between their expectations of higher education and what they experience when they first arrive can feel impossible to resolve. Rather than too readily accepting some early withdrawal as inevitable, if it were to trigger a re-examination of the initial experiences of those who leave shortly after arrival, including the welcome and induction offered, how well promoted institutional advisory services are and all other factors that might be relevant, ways might be found to encourage new students to give themselves  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/news/07-03-2019/non-continuation-tables.

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a little more time and thought before making the decision to leave (see Sect. 4.6 in Chap. 4). For most institutions, the improvement of student retention statistics is undoubtedly a complex challenge to address. HEIs cannot be responsible for difficult personal circumstances or a student’s lack of commitment to study, but if a student withdraws or fails because the institution has not offered the support and advice that might help a struggling or disillusioned student to reconsider the pros and cons of the action they are considering, that is another matter. The impact of non-continuation at any point prior to completion of an undergraduate or postgraduate course is likely to be both personally and financially damaging: fees and accommodation bills will have been paid, long-term debts often incurred, and the potential career advantage of the degree hoped for may have vanished. The loss of self-respect and feelings of having let down others can also be very difficult to face up to. On a somewhat surprising number of occasions, I was called on to speak to parents who had arrived on campus, sometimes having travelled from other continents, in order to attend what they expected to be their child’s graduation, only to find that there was no ticket waiting for them. This was not because of an administrative error, but because  the student whose success they had come to celebrate had failed their course or had chosen to withdraw some time before and had not been able to admit this to their families. Their disbelief, distress, embarrassment and sometimes anger when they discovered the truth of the matter was entirely understandable. For all those who leave before completing their courses and for whatever reason, be it choice, necessity, ill-health, unresolvable personal or financial difficulties or course failure, it seems to me to be an important institutional responsibility to ensure that they can be directed to someone who will show compassion and, listen and talk through the next steps that might be possible, including how they might best inform their family and friends. Course withdrawal should not necessarily be equated with failure, at least not that of the individual concerned: deciding to withdraw voluntarily can for some be a brave and positive step. Some years ago, I was asked by an academic colleague if I would see a 3rd year student who was doing very well on her course and was only 6 months away from completing her degree. She had however, just announced to him that she was

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going to withdraw from the course. Her tutor was of course very surprised and also concerned about the wisdom of this course of action and wondered if there was advice or support that could be put in place to help change her mind. She came very willing to see me and I did of course talk though her decision with her and encouraged her to reconsider and keep going for the very short time that remained. She said that she had enjoyed the course but was adamant that withdrawing was the right decision for her. She explained that she came from a very successful academic family and had felt dominated by them all her life. She said she had been pushed into going to university when this was not at all what she had wanted to do. She explained that after years of struggle with her parents and with herself, she had finally found the strength to take control of her own destiny. In respect of her feelings of self-worth and confidence, carrying through a decision to withdraw was far more important to her than being awarded a degree that she had never wanted. At the end of our discussion, I wished her all the very best for a fine future of her own choosing. This was not the outcome her tutor had wanted, and I too felt sorry that she had been put in this position, but I believe that it was the right outcome for her at the time: I am optimistic that in respect of her self-confidence and future life it was a good decision. Such conversations between students and advisory staff are not unusual, although the particular circumstances of this case are. I remember another conversation with a PhD student whose relationship with her supervisor had become so challenging for her that she had become physically and mentally unwell. We talked about possible ways forward to resolve this situation but also about why she had wanted to embark on a PhD in the first place. In response she spoke passionately of her deep love for science. Despite long discussion and consideration of ways forward that might have made it possible for her to continue her research, her choice was to withdraw and consider other possible scientific careers for the future. I bumped into her some time afterwards: her health was restored and she was clearly delighted to have been offered a place to train as secondary school science teacher, as this would make it possible for her to pursue a career that would allow her to inspire others to understand and feel as passionate about science as she did.

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A few years ago, a Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) initiative7 followed up former students who had left their courses before completion. Amongst those contacted there were many who had later returned to complete or restart a degree or had found employment or another satisfying life trajectory. The stories told were not always happy ones though. This project and my own research on student withdrawal have elicited some heart-breaking stories. One respondent felt that she had, to use her words, ‘just faded away’ as no one had even seemed to notice her absence nor offered the opportunity to talk through her concerns. This is a situation that any compassionate institution should proactively seek to avoid by de-stigmatising the ‘shame’ of failure and ensuring that there are opportunities available to talk over options for the future. It is not only student retention that is of concern to the sector and to society in general. As I have already noted (Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2), ongoing research demonstrates significant differences in the undergraduate degree classes achieved when analysed by, for example, student age, disability status, ethnicity, gender and postcode area HE participation rates (Sect. 1.4  in Chap. 1). One of the recent reports on outcome inequalities addresses the achievement gaps between white and BAME students: comparisons of the proportions of those achieving a first- or second-class degree revealed a gap of 13 percent in favour of white students UUK/ NUS 2019, p. 12) Earlier research had already drawn attention to such differences and also highlighted the complexity of making simple comparisons without looking more deeply at the very many potential influencing factors. These range from a shortage of BAME role models among institutions’ academic staff, differences in students’ education and social backgrounds, the expectations of their school teachers and families, their own school achievements and aspirations, and perhaps crucially, little evidence of open and honest discussion of achievement differentials at institutional level (see for example Stevenson et al. 2019; Stevenson 2012).

 Sadly the once readily accessible reports on this project and on a similar Scottish initiative are no longer available, although there is a holding statement for the latter at http://www.backoncourse. ac.uk/research/. 7

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Detailed analysis of the broad BAME data reveals important variation: there are, for example, higher than average participation rates per capita and higher attainment levels for some ethnic groups than for white British students (Stuart 2009). A recent analysis of responses to the Advance HE Student Engagement Survey found that black students demonstrated levels of engagement with study that were higher than for all other ethnic groups, including white students (Neves and Hillman 2019, p.  12). Achieving equality of outcome is one of the most important challenges the sector currently faces, but it is definitely a wicked problem and will require concerted efforts, ‘out of the box’ thinking and challenging all examples of prejudicial language and action through a wide range of high-profile activities. The sector may also need to be more conscious of avoiding patronisation in its use of the language of widening participation and achievement. We cannot assume that the challenges an individual student faces, nor their strengths and abilities to overcome any difficulties can be in any way predicted by their home postcode (Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1), ethnic background or other personal characteristics or circumstances. Nor can it be assumed that those who come from supposedly privileged backgrounds may not also find the university environment difficult to adjust to and thrive in (Sect. 2.7 in Chap. 2).

5.11 T  he Marketisation of Higher Education and Ethical Recruitment I sometimes wonder what a Deering committee committed to a belief that higher education has an important role in enhancing social, moral and spiritual life would have made of the current state of UK HE and its move into a sphere of economic activity where educational goods and services are bought and sold. This is not merely an outcome of the introduction of fees, but also of the quite deliberate attempts by governments to create a competitive culture within the sector and, through the imposition of measures which purport to rate success, encourage the ranking of institutional quality and achievement in league tables, as if HEIs were football teams, moving up or down the rankings on the basis of year by

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year ‘performance’ (see 6.2). Many, including Brown and Scott (2009; Collini 2013, 2018; McGettigan 2013; Sandel 1998) have voiced their grave concerns about the ethical and moral implications of market-­ orientated approaches to HE and I shall not repeat their very valuable and I hope influential views here. I do however wish to touch on the impact of market forces on institutional advisory services and the students who seek their advice. As higher education has become increasingly marketised, competition for students seems inevitable. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the international student recruitment arena. Even the most prestigious and well-funded institutions need the additional tuition fees that international students bring with them. At one ‘elite’ institution, international undergraduates are charged approximately £10,000 more per  annum than UK students to study for an arts or social sciences degree, £20,000 more for science degree and £40,000 or more to study medicine or veterinary science.8 Even for institutions somewhat further down the league table rankings, the annual fee differentials are likely to be around £6000, £9600 and £9000 to £33,000 respectively. In a climate of declining government funding, regulated tuition fees and, depending on the particular government policy in place at any one time, capped numbers for UK students, the profits from non-EU fees have become an essential funding stream for the majority of HEIs. At the time of writing, 42 percent of the total number of postgraduate students studying the UK were from outside the EU with 79 percent of these pursuing masters’ level qualifications.9 Without this income stream, the number of viable master’s programmes that could be sustained by UK student fees alone would be radically reduced, restricting the  choices offered to all who wish take advantage of such additional qualifications: international students are effectively subsidising and expanding the opportunities offered to UK resident students, at postgraduate level in particular. The global growth in the sector’s need for international students may be nearing a point when the number of university places available is in danger of outstripping the supply of suitably qualified applicants.  Fee amounts quoted were derived from institutional websites in 2017 xx, and are subject to change.  https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/students/where-from.

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Concerns have been raised that the consequent recruitment pressures may tempt some HEIs to accept students whose academic qualifications and English language competences do not meet the usual standards for entry. In 2015 the Independent Commission against Corruption of New South Wales, Australia (ICAC) produced a report on managing the risks associated with international recruitment, offering guidance on the actions that institutions could take to manage the corruption risks created by their international student businesses (ICAC 2015, p. 5). The research undertaken for this report was not limited to Australia and the findings are important for all Anglophonic nations who rely on the global student market, and for the academic and advisory staff responsible for teaching and supporting students who struggle to attain the language and academic skills and knowledge required once they begin their courses. In Sect. 2.4 in Chap. 2 I suggested that international students might be more likely than home students to be accused of plagiarism as a consequence of their English language proficiency. This view was supported by the research undertaken by ICAC: they believe that there is no simple way of eliminating the gap between the capabilities of the students and the academic demands of their universities, and no easy way to eliminate the corruption pressures created by this gap in view of the inevitable internal tension between a university’s academic standards compliance function and its business development function (p. 11). The report’s authors fear that this has resulted in the lowering of the entry standards in English language proficiency for many entrants across the Anglophonic world. Research into the language and academic challenges faced by International students has highlighted important differences between the experiences of those who entered with IELTS language proficiency scores of 7 or above and those accepted with lower grades (Grant 2009; see also Sect. 2.5 in Chap. 2). Unfortunately, those who risk losing the most are the students who have to meet the demands of the course and the stress living with potentially very serious consequences if they were to fail or achieve a poor final grade (see below). Specialist advisory staff can find themselves under considerable pressure for language and writing support from both students and from teachers and research supervisors who are concerned for students whose language abilities are so far below what is

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needed to achieve their academic goals that they might require months of intensive teaching to catch up. A member of academic staff who responded to an international student language survey (Grant 2009) wrote of his admiration for the hard work that most of his students put in, but added: still their lack of English has greatly held them back. Much as I admire their efforts, I end up feeling bad for them when they have been allowed to come here to study with such an insufficient grasp of English, as they inevitably end up with incredibly poor grades: this doesn’t seem fair to them.

Another perspective was provided by an international student studying a course with a large cohort of other international students: if the number of people speaking English as a second language get too huge then it will be very difficult for us to develop efficient skills in the language.

There are important questions to consider in a world of such forceful market pressures. Is it morally acceptable to take fees from those we fear will not be able to achieve the level of language competence that will make it possible for them to graduate with a degree that reflects their academic ability, even if they are provided with institutional support? What is our responsibility to students whom we come to realise are unlikely to be awarded a PhD but will be dismissed from their academic jobs if they return home with a lesser or no qualification? Should we be recruiting students who have been given grants by their governments that must be paid back in full if they fail, or achieve a poor outcome? An international student arrived at my office unannounced and insisted on seeing me: he was in state of some considerable distress. He explained that he had not previously felt able to seek help (see Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3) but had come to a point when he now felt certain that he would fail his master’s course. The reason for his highly distressed state became evident when he explained that he been required to offer a surety when he accepted his government grant to study in the UK and the only possibility for him or his family was his parents’ house. Returning home without a degree would oblige him to repay his grant but with no assets large enough to cover this debt, the only possibility would be the sale of

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the house his parents lived in. This was not an isolated incident: over the years I have encountered other international students who have risked being dismissed or demoted if they failed to gain their intended qualification. I have also known supervisors who have effectively rewritten their students’ PhD theses in order to make the English comprehensible, because the consequences of their failure were too distressing to contemplate. Some might say that it is the student’s responsibility to make the effort to develop their English, but many students are surprised that despite being accepted by a UK university with what they have been told is an acceptable IELTS grade, they find that while they may be able to read English they struggle to speak, understand and write fluently (see Sect. 2.5  in Chap. 2). The effort required to fulfil the frequently unfamiliar academic demands of an intense one-year master’s course at the same time as attending language classes and adjusting to a new and unfamiliar social environment are considerable. In the case above, the student did seek help although only at the very last minute and it was fortunately possible to unpick and remedy the causes of the student’s problems. With the relevant advice and the support of his academic tutor, he was offered the time and opportunity to resubmit his work. He was awarded his degree and his parent’s house was saved. Not all students who find themselves in such difficulties are so fortunate. The pressure on students and on their teachers, supervisors and the English language advisory staff who are trying to help non-native English speakers to develop the skills they need can be enormous and should be better understood when non-native English speakers are being recruited, and as they continue through their courses. The responsibilities of institutional marketing and recruitment departments usually come to an end once students are enrolled; the responsibility for fulfilling the promises made in marketing materials and by recruitment agents is then handed over to teaching and advisory staff who may not have had any say in the initial decision making. Difficult admission decisions may need to be made in respect of applicants who declare health difficulties or disabilities that put them at risk to themselves or others within the university environment. The professional advisory and academic staff who would be responsible for providing

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relevant support, advice and facilities are usually consulted and involved in discussions about whether such students could be appropriately supported, but decision-making in some circumstances can be very difficult. Equality legislation requires that applicants should not be disadvantaged by reason of their disabilities or health difficulties, but at the same time ensuring their safety and that of others may stretch the scale and scope of the adjustments needed well beyond what might be considered to be reasonable (1.4). Each case usually has to be judged on its own merits and may require consideration of the views of teaching staff, external health professionals, health and safety experts as well as those of the applicant. Balancing the needs of the individual with those of the university community as a whole and making sure that the academic requirements of the course can be fulfilled and that other students will not be adversely affected can be challenging, even when applicants declare the full extent of their difficulties, which is not always the case. Until 2019, UCAS, the university and college admissions service,  required all those with unspent criminal convictions to declare  them  on their application forms. The UCAS requirement has now been dropped other than for regulated courses such as medicine, other health-related programmes and teaching and social work,  for which  there is usually a requirement for all applicants to have undergone  a Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) check. For most other courses, institutions must now rely on the honesty of the applicants and make admission decisions on the basis of the information they provide, asking for corroborating evidence when appropriate. My own views on this matter have in general been that if an applicant has served his or her debt to society and, in cases when a sentence has been served, demonstrated that they have adjusted to life outside a prison environment and pose no demonstrable or likely threat to the university community, it is not appropriate for a university to punish them further by denying them the opportunity of an education that could radically improve their future life prospects. This view is not universally held, but there has been more open debate about the matter following the change in UCAS policy. UCAS, together with three HEIs, are collaborating in a project supported by a national charity, Unlock, to provide guidance for the sector. If successful and widely adopted this may encourage fairer, more open and less

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prejudiced approaches and improve relevant advice and support when this is needed (Unlock 2019).

5.12 Student Discipline The origins of current approaches to student discipline lie in the statutes introduced by the early universities to regulate student behaviour and protect their relationships with local communities (Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1) and they have changed and developed as the sector itself has grown. University student discipline is a complex, controversial and important matter, worthy of far more attention than can be given here. My intention is only to outline some sector-wide and personal concerns that relate to student non-academic disciplinary practices and approaches: academic disciplinary matters are mentioned in Sect. 2.4 in Chap. 2 and further discussion is to be found in Sects. 4.12 and 4.13 in Chap. 4. In 2018, the then newly-established Office for Students published a ‘good practice’ framework for both academic and non-academic disciplinary procedures, the latter concerning behaviours that cause damage or disadvantage directly or indirectly to members of the university community or the institution itself (OFS 2018). The OfS document provides a framework within which individual institutions are encouraged to define the standards of conduct they expect of their students, the regulations that outline the behaviours that could be considered to be breaches of these codes, the penalties that might be imposed should a student be found guilty of misconduct and the processes to be used to record, investigate and make judgements. Breaches of non-academic codes of conduct may include, for example,  persistent noise nuisance and disruption, minor or more serious theft, breaches of health and safety regulations, wilful or negligent damage to property, verbal and cyber bullying, smoking in prohibited locations, alcohol and drug abuse, physical and sexual assault and bullying, including homophobic, transphobic and religious abuse. The vast majority of breaches occur on or near university premises, often in student residences or during social and sporting events. In my experience, the consumption of alcohol is frequently an aggravating factor (Sect. 4.14 in Chap. 4).

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Most student misconduct does not reach the level of seriousness that would necessitate police involvement and can often be dealt with internally and if at all possible, informally by staff with responsibility for student wellbeing and behaviour in residences (Sect. 4.4  in Chap. 4). However, in some circumstances, there is an overlap in the boundaries of and intersections between institutional disciplinary procedures and the laws that apply to the population as a whole. This had been a sector concern for many years and resulted in the commissioning of what became known as the Zellick report (1994), until recently viewed as the bible for institutional disciplinary policy development and implementation, particularly when the alleged misconduct might also constitute a criminal offence. This guidance has now been revisited as a consequence of a significant increase in the incidence of reports of sexual assault and harassment, also experienced on US campuses (Anderson 2020; Sulfaro and Gill 2019; Sect. 4.13  in Chap. 4). One of the additional catalysts for sector action was a report from the NUS (2015) which expressed their concerns that the Zellick guidance was no longer fit for purpose. In 2015, UUK established a taskforce to report on violence against women and hate crime (UUK 2016) and also commissioned a review of the Zellick guidance from a legal perspective (Bradfield 2016). This latter offers clarification in respect of some of the areas that had become contentious. Bradfield makes clear the distinction between internal disciplinary processes, which are a civil matter, and criminal processes. Her opinion is that institutions may make findings about matters that could be considered as a breach of internal disciplinary regulations, but they may not make judgements as to whether a criminal offence such as a rape has been committed. Bradfield (p. 10) recommends that all students involved be offered advice as the findings and potential outcomes of an internal hearing or a full police investigation action, and the punishments that may be imposed are likely to be very different. Sexual assault and rape are very serious crimes and can result in profound and long-lasting negative consequences for those concerned. Getting to the truth of a matter when the students or others involved have differing views and there is no clear evidence to support either viewpoint is extremely difficult. The law can be far from perfect and there are currently very long delays in scheduling court hearings, including rape cases, that are likely to lead

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to significant distress on all sides (Skinner and Smith 2015). Nonetheless, do the inadequacies of the current UK justice system justify replacing it with an alternative institutional investigation and a judgement made by panels whose members and those who advise the students concerned may have limited relevant training and experience? The risks of a poor decision are very high: it could leave innocent students without the degree they believed would be the start of a fulfilling career and a huge debt, much of it accumulated as a result of money paid directly to the institution that makes a decision to exclude them. If the decision goes the other way, the risk could be a complainant denied a justice they rightly seek and unable to find a way of coming to terms with a traumatic event that has left them with long-term negative and distressing emotions. They may even face the possibility of an accidental encounter with their abuser on campus, if their institution has not taken effective measures to minimise or prevent this possibility. My own feeling is that decision-making about matters that could have such serious consequences for the future lives of others need to be made by those whose professional training, experience and dispassionate approach are likely to lead to the best possible decision in light of the evidence available. I am not entirely convinced that all those internal staff and student representatives called on to serve on institutions’ disciplinary panels are likely to be well-enough equipped to investigate and make judgements that could risk serious misjustice for one or other of the parties involved. Malcolm Gladwell’s (2019) ‘Talking to Strangers’ addresses the challenges that we all have in judging those we do not know, and how our impressions of their character and integrity can be quite wrong. His case study of the many wrong decisions made by very experienced US judges as to whether those standing before them to request bail were likely to reoffend before their cases came to full trial makes very salutary reading (pp.  36–43). Gladwell’s writings have a power that encourages his readers to re-examine their opinions, address their prejudices and avoid the trap of an easy acceptance of a judgement based on appearances or the views of others, particularly when cultures of political correctness may discourage the expression of divergent opinions. All those who find themselves serving on disciplinary panels or other bodies should be encouraged to read and reflect on Gladwell’s writings.

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Institutions have a responsibility to be open and transparent about the moral standards and behaviours expected of their adult students and to take all appropriate action to deter those who breach them (see Sect. 4.12 in Chap. 4). What seems to me unarguable is that a key focus should be on proactive and preventative initiatives, including promoting strong community values, actively challenging ‘lad’ cultures and behaviours, providing training for both men and women on how to manage their relationships with those to whom they are sexually attracted, empowering all who find themselves involved in or observing potentially risky and unwanted situations to take action, dispassionately guiding and supporting the reporters and the accused of sexual assault and other inappropriate behaviours, challenging prejudicial attitudes, avoiding fuelling victim mentalities and making it clear where all those involved in internal or external disciplinary or court proceedings can seek confidential and non-­ judgemental advice and support, preferably from those with relevant training and significant experience. In respect of internal student disciplinary matters, this may be the time to return to first principles and look at the matter from a new starting point. The sector needs to be clear and explicit about why they believe it is appropriate for institutions to take punitive action against members of their own community. Do we have disciplinary procedures because that is what seemed necessary when the majority of students were minors? Are they all appropriate now that the vast majority of students are legally adults who are investing large amounts of money which their institutions rely on for their financial survival? What are the key purposes of institutional disciplinary processes and have they been clearly enough defined, and their effectiveness evaluated? The German criminal lawyer Ferdinand von Schirach presented some of the theories of punishment in his book ‘Crime and Guilt’. They include deterrence, protection, the avoidance of future repetition and counteracting injustice (von Schirach 2012, p. 16). Each or all of these can have relevance in an HE context, but the key purpose(s) should be clarified within institutional disciplinary policies and surely cannot be punishment for its own sake. The most compelling justification is perhaps to discourage future repetition and thus protect the university community. However, without evaluation strategies in place to demonstrate impact, HEIs may be on rather weak ground

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if they cannot show that their disciplinary policies and practices do have such positive impact. Some disciplinary policies make reference to protecting institutions from reputational damage, but recent thinking and case law has suggested that an institution attempting to pursue a claim against a student or member of staff on the grounds that they had damaged its reputation would be likely to fail on the grounds that only those without a vested interest could make such a judgement.10 The most common disciplinary penalties for the less serious but nonetheless disrupting behaviours such as noise nuisance tend to be fines, a requirement for those concerned to move to different rooms in halls of residence, or in more serious cases, banning students from institutional residences altogether. The problem with fining students or imposing any other penalty that has financial consequences is that they are likely to have a disproportionate impact on the less well-off. If a financial penalty has relatively little impact on the student(s) involved, it may not be a sufficient incentive for them to change their behaviours. Alternative approaches to be considered in an HE context might include mediation, restorative justice and community service. For those whose drinking or drug misuse is a contributing factor to their misbehaviour, compulsory referral to alcohol or drug programmes can also be an appropriate response. It should be clear in all key documents and induction guidance that drunkenness or hangovers will not be accepted as excuses for poor behaviour or non-attendance at teaching events, late submission of course work, and any other breaches of institutional regulations and codes of behaviour. If students are suspected of breaches of the law, there should surely need to be a compelling reason why they should not be treated in the same way as any other adult who is suspected of committing an equivalent crime, student or non-student. There are advantages for all if mutually respectful relationships with local police forces are established and include joint working on preventative initiatives to reduce the incidence of the minor misdemeanours such as food theft in communal  See https://www.matrixlaw.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/29_01_2014_10_41_18_ KHS_Universities-­Online.pdf. 10

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kitchens—a fairly common problem—or drunken behaviours that are technically breaches of the law but whose investigation in a university town or city could place a disproportionate burden on the local police force. However, the days when students were protected from some of the consequences of their actions by special relationships made between HEIs and their local police forces, as was the case when I was a student, are surely no longer appropriate. Why should students have the option of the investigation of an accusation of sexual assault conducted within her or his institution,  even  when  the outcome cannot be imprisonment or a criminal record but could still lead to the accused being unjustly expelled from the university with consequences that may impact on them for the rest of their lives? Is there sound and sufficient justification to privilege students over their non-student peers? If we cannot provide convincing answers to these and other related questions, then we may find ourselves standing on rather shaky foundations. One student came to my attention as he had attended a social event at his student union the previous evening. After having had rather too many alcoholic drinks he had, apparently unprovoked, viciously attacked two fellow students, one of whose injuries were serious enough to require hospital treatment and leave potentially permanent scars on his face. The police were called, he was arrested, charged and sent to court. The person the judge saw before him was a polite and articulate young man dressed in a suit, supported by his parents and a barrister, and with a glowing character reference from his personal tutor. The latter had of course never seen him other than sober. The judge handed down a light community service order, saying that he did not want to mar the student’s future prospects by giving him a custodial sentence. I did privately wonder at the time what the outcome would have been if the young man before the judge had been from the very deprived estate less than a half a mile from the university, did not possess any smart clothes, had no parental or other support and had had to leave school at 16 to find a job despite good exam results and the ambition to continue his education. What would his future prospects have been if he had been given a custodial sentence? If we are seriously committed to promoting equality and respect for others, then this commitment surely cannot be confined to those who are already

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privileged by their access to higher education and other personal circumstances.

5.13 Supporting the Supporters Any institution mindful of its moral responsibilities will be conscious of its duty of care not only to its students but also to its staff, including those taking on student advisory and personal tutor roles (Sect. 3.10 in Chap. 3). There can be no automatic presumption that training or prior experiences will fully protect them from the personal impact of their contact with students who are very distressed, angry or unwell, are self-harming or threatening suicide, or of having to witness and respond with compassion to the raw grief of bereaved parents, partners, friends and others affected by a student death. Even for those trained in grief counselling or crisis management, little other than experience can even begin to prepare someone adequately for the impact of a student death and its emotional and practical consequences. Student advisory service responsibilities can range from informing all who need to know, a harrowing task in itself, helping to make practical arrangements, supporting and comforting grieving families and friends and in some circumstances, appearing as a witness under oath in a Coroners’ court and facing hostile questioning and accusations of institutional neglect in front of grieving parents and family members. Thankfully such situations are relatively infrequent, but the emotional impact of taking on the responsibility for the institutional response to the death of a student and its consequent repercussions are rarely, if ever, forgotten. Other challenges and stresses that come with professional advisory roles include finding ways to meet ever increasing demand, discouraging student dependency, supporting similarly overwhelmed colleagues, responding to hostile parents and even institutional staff who demand that advisory staff take over responsibility for dealing with difficult and problematic situations that may be way beyond the latter’s control or influence. I am certainly not complaining nor asking for sympathy for those who work as student advisors, just recognition that their wellbeing should not be taken for granted and they too may require ready access to

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their own networks of support in order to be able to be effective in supporting others. Nor should the emotional impact on academics, particularly those who are asked to take on personal tutor roles be forgotten. I do not believe it is appropriate to expect staff recruited primarily for their teaching and research skills to be asked to become amateur mental health advisers: this can be very upsetting for academics who are presented with situations they are emotionally unprepared for and may risk unintended but inappropriate responses to student concerns (Grant 2007, pp.  64–67). It seems very reasonable to ask personal tutors and supervisors to watch out for their students and be proactive in making it clear that they are available to listen without judging and will offer help in accessing any professional advice that might be beneficial. If academic staff are to be expected to act as first responders to those who may be seriously unwell, then there is surely an obligation to provide clear routes to timely practical advice, and when required, emotional support from staff counselling services or other readily available resources. This is particularly important at a time when concerns are being raised about the detrimental impact of academic and administrative workloads, performance management, short-term contacts and micromanagement (Morrish 2019; Murugessu 2019; Weale 2019). The Universities and Colleges Union (UCU) have responded by providing a range of web-based resources and a helpline for members who are experiencing work-based stress and anxiety11 but this does not relieve HEIs of their own responsibilities in respect of staff wellbeing. It is no surprise that an analysis of the results of the 2019 HEPI/ Advance HE ‘Student Academic Experience Survey’ demonstrated a strong positive relationship between students’ views of the helpfulness of their teaching staff and their anxiety levels and life satisfaction scores (Blackman 2020). It is unlikely that stressed academic staff will be able to respond most effectively to distressed students if they do not have access to relevant guidance and support themselves.

 https://www.ucu.org.uk/media/5922/Supporting-members-with-mental-health-conditions-and-­ issues-­UCU-branch-toolkit/pdf/ucu_supportingmembers-mentalhealthconditions.pdf.

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5.14 Further Thoughts Mona Siddiqui’s ‘Thought for the Day’ on BBC Radio 4 on 13 March 2018 was a reflection on higher education in the context of a strike of academics in protest against proposed pension changes. She speculated that there might be more behind their discontent than concerns about their future pension income. Professor Siddiqui follows in the footsteps of Robbins and Dearing in her view that education is a moral endeavour that should be about self-betterment and the transformation of society for the common good. Many of today’s students have grown up in a world that has tended to focus on personal rights (‘because you’re worth it’12) more than responsibilities, and where the gaps in wealth and privilege between rich and poor are ever growing. Very many students resist these pressures and choose to train as doctors, nurses, vets, social workers and teachers in preparation for a lifetime of service to others; many spend their free time undertaking a wide range of socially valuable voluntary work or raising money for charities. Others seem to be more likely to complain about their rights than embrace their responsibilities as citizens and moral beings. I have sometimes  reflected on the  rarity  of explicit acknowledgement by students and their unions of the many opportunities and advantages that higher education affords them, including their access to services that are not available to their age matched non-student peers. Yes, they are of course are paying for such privileges through their fees, but there are many others who are more than capable of benefitting from a university education but do not have the means or option to do so. It does not seem to me unreasonable to suggest that students have a reciprocal responsibility to fully engage with the opportunities provided and take an active part as members of a community and not merely as individuals concerned only with their rights. The moral education of the young has been much debated in respect of primary and secondary school education and is now part of the UK’s national curriculum, although it is up to individual schools whether or not to include it in their teaching (White et al. 2017). Explicit articulation of the moral and ethical values that can bind HE institutions together as a community and encourage  The slogan for L’Oréal beauty products since the late 1990s.

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the development of citizenship are not so easy to find (see Sect. 6.3 in Chap. 6). The student population has become more diverse, not only in respect of the demographics that are easily measurable but also in respect of their motivations, values, health, stamina, and so on. Unfortunately, in its attempts to make institutions more efficient and supposedly fair, the sector is risking reductionism, replacing individual and nuanced responses by administrative procedures that control and regulate cross institutional relationships, including those with students. Responding fairly and appropriately to a diverse student population requires well informed and creative thinking in order to achieve morally sound and humane solutions to the many challenges that being a student, or indeed a member of staff, within a mass higher education system presents. Unless a degree of individuality is acknowledged and both academic and advisory staff are trusted to make judgements about how students are taught, assessed and supported, based on their direct experiences of working with and for students, some of the latter risk being caught in systems and procedures that are not truly student-centred, and their levels of satisfaction and wellbeing and their academic outcomes may suffer as a result. The future lives of graduates will be enhanced if they can complete their university courses, as very many do, feeling proud of themselves as adults able to enjoy the privileges that democracy affords and accepting their responsibilities as citizens and not merely consumers demanding their rights. This may not be a view that is often expressed but know that I am not alone in my concerns that we may be taking risks with the futures of our students if we do not shift our focus from the reactive to the proactive and work to create opportunities that help them to develop the values, insights and personal strengths that will prepare them for a future in what appears to be an increasingly uncertain and challenging world. In the next and final chapter, I pick up some of the threads that have run through earlier discussions, including league tables, measuring impact and effectiveness, building on what has been learned in the past, and most important given the overall focus of this book, the currently and future role of student advisory services in UK higher education.

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References Anderson, Greta. 2020. U.S.  Publishes New Regulations on Campus Sexual Assault. Inside Higher Ed. Washington, DC: Inside Higher Ed. Anonymous. 2019. Concern for Student Welfare Must Never Excuse Racism. Times Higher Education, August 28. Blackman, Tim. 2020. What Effects Student Wellbeing? HEPI Policy Note 21. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institution. Bradfield, Nicola. 2016. Guidance for Higher Education Institutions. How to Handle Alleged Student Misconduct Which May Also Constitute a Criminal Offence. London: Pinsent Masons. Brown, Roger, and Peter Scott. 2009. The Role of the Market in Higher Education. Higher Education Policy Institute Report. https://www.hepi.ac. uk/2009/03/18/the-­role-­of-­the-­market-­in-­higher-­education/ Chalkley, Brian, and Judith Waterfield. 2001. Providing Learning Support for Students with Hidden Disabilities and Dyslexia Undertaking Fieldwork and Related Activities. Chelmsford: Geography Discipline Network. http://gdn. glos.ac.uk/disabil/hidden/toc.htm. CIHE. 2005. Ethics Matter. Managing Ethical Issues in Higher Education. London: Council for Industry and Higher Education. Collini, Stefan. 2012. What are Universities For. London: Penguin Books. ———. 2013. From Robbins to McKinsey. London Review of Books 33 (6): 9–14. ———. 2018. In UK Universities There is a Daily Erosion of Integrity. The Guardian online: Tuesday April 24. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/apr/24/uk-­universities-­erosion-­integrity-­bologna-­statement Cowen, Michelle. 2010. Dyslexia, Dyspraxia and Dyscalculia: A Toolkit for Nursing Staff. London: Royal College of Nursing. Cui, Ming, Julia Graber, Alllison Metz, and Carol Darling. 2019. Parental Indulgence, Self Regulation, and Young Adults’ Behavioural and Emotional Problems. Journal of Family Studies 25 (3): 233–249. Dearing, Ron. 1997. Higher Education in the Learning Society: The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Gladwell, Malcolm. 2019. Talking to Strangers. London: Allen Lane. GMC. 2016. Achieving Good Medical Practice: Guidance for Medical Students. London: General Medical Council. Grant, Annie. 2007. Personal Tutoring and Student Services. In The Personal Tutor’s Handbook, ed. Lindsey Neville, 59–78. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

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———. 2009 (unpublished). Internal Report on a Survey of the Academic Experiences of International Students. Hooley, Tristram, Ronald Sultana, and Rie Thomsen, eds. 2017. Career Guidance for Social Justice: Contesting Neoliberalism. London: Routledge. ICAC. 2015. Learning the Hard Way: Managing Corruption Risks Associated with International Students at Universities in NSW. Sydney, NSW: Independent Commission Against Corruption. Jackson, Sonia, Sarah Ajayi, and Margaret Quigley. 2005. Going to University from Care. London: London Institute of Education, University of London. Lemon, Stanley, Margaret Hamburg, Frederick Sparling, Eileen Choffnes, and Alison Mack, eds. 2007. Ethical and Legal Considerations in Mitigating Pandemic Disease: Workshop Summary. Washington: The National Academies Press. Macfarlane, Bruce. 2004. Teaching with Integrity: The Ethics of Higher Education Practice. London: RoutledgeFalmer. ———. 2016. Academic Double Standards: Freedom for Lecturers, Compliance for Students. Times Higher Education, September 29. ———. 2020. The Neoliberal Academic: Illustrating Shifting Academic Norms in an Age of Hyper-performativity. Educational Philosophy and Theory  53 (5): 1–10. McGettigan, Andrew. 2013. The Great University Gamble: Money, Markets and the Future of Higher Education. London: Pluto Press. McLellan, George, Jeremy Stringer, and Associates, eds. 2009. The Handbook of Student Affairs Administration. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morrish, Liz. 2019. Pressure Vessels: The Epidemic of Poor Mental Health among Higher Education Staff. HEPI Occasional Paper 20. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute. Murugessu, Jason. 2019. Academics Need Greater Help in Addressing the Mental Health Problems of Their Students. Times Higher Education, October 17. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/academics-­need-­greater-­ help-­addressing-­mental-­health-­problems-­their-­students MWBHE. 2015. Student Mental Wellbeing in Higher Education. Good Practice Guide. London: Universities UK/Working Group for the Promotion of Mental Wellbeing in Higher Education. Neves, Jonathan, and Nick Hillman. 2019. Student Academic Experience Survey 2019. York: Higher Education Policy Institute. NUS. 2015. How to Respond to Complaints of Sexual Violence: The Zellick Report. NUS Briefing Paper. London: National Union of Students 2017.

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https://universityappg.co.uk/sites/default/files/field/attachment/NUS%20 Zellick%20report%20briefing.pdf OECD. 2017. Education at a Glance. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. OFS. 2018. Disciplinary Procedures, Part B: Non-academic Disciplinary Procedures. https://www.oiahe.org.uk/resources-­a nd-­p ublications/good-­p ractice-­ framework/disciplinary-­p rocedures/part-­b -­n on-­a cademic-­d isciplinary-­ procedures/ Pavela, Gary. 2012. Reconsidering Mandatory “Self-harm” Withdrawals. The Pavela Report Monthly, April. Rittel, Horst, and Melvin Webber. 1973. Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Policy Sciences 4: 155–169. Robbins, Lionel. 1963. Higher Education. Report of the of the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister under the Chairmanship of Lord Robbins 1961–63. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Robinson, Simon. 2005. Learning and Employability Series 2 Ethics and Employability. York: The Higher Education Academy. Robinson, Simon, and Clement Katulushi, eds. 2005. Values in Higher Education. Leeds: Aureus Publishing Limited on behalf of the University of Leeds. Sacks, Jonathan. 2018. Morality in the 21st Century. BBC Radio 4. https://www. bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0bh7jkp Sandel, Michael. 1998. What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets. The Tanner Lectures on Human Values. https://tannerlectures.utah.edu/_ documents/a-­to-­z/s/sandel00.pdf Schiffrin, Holly, Miriam Liss, Haley Miles-McLean, Katherine Geary, Mindy Erchull, and Taryn Tashner. 2014. Helping or Hovering? The Effects of Helicopter Parenting on College Students’ Well-Being. Journal of Child and Family Studies 23: 548–557. Schuh, John, Susan Jones, and Vasti Torres, eds. 2016. Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession. 6th ed. San Francisco: Wiley. Shift-Learning. 2020. What Researchers Think About the Culture They Work In. London: Welcome Trust. Simm, Dave, and Mark McGuinness. 2004. Crisis Resolution of Student-led Research Projects at Distant Localities. Planet 13: 8–11. Skinner, Tina, and Olivia Smith. 2015. Court Responses to Rape and Sexual Assault in the UK. IPR Policy Brief. Bath: Institute for Policy Research, University of Bath.

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Stevenson, Jacqueline. 2012. Black and Minority Ethnic Student Degree Retention and Attainment. York: The Higher Education Academy. Stevenson, Jacqueline, Joan O’Mahony, Omar Khan, Farhana Ghaffar, and Bernadette Stiell. 2019. Understanding and Overcoming the Challenges of Targeting Students from Under-represented and Disadvantaged Ethnic Backgrounds. London: Office for Students. Stuart, Mary. 2009. The Impact of Social Identity and Cultural Capital on Different Ethnic Student Groups at University: Full Research Report ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-2485. Swindon: ESRC. Sulfaro, Valerie, and Rebecca Gill. 2019. Title IX: Help or Hindrance? Journal of Women, Politics and Policy 40 (1): 204–227. Taylor, Stan. 2018. Enhancing Practice in Research Supervision. Lichfield, Staffordshire: UK Council for Graduate Education. Tucker, Faith, and John Horton. 2018. “The show must go on!” Fieldwork, Mental Health and Wellbeing in Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences. Area 51 (1): 1–10. Unlock. 2019. Developing a Fair Approach to Applicants with Criminal Records. A Toolkit for Higher Education Providers. Maidstone, Kent: Unlock. UUK. 2016. Changing the Culture. Report of the Universities UK Taskforce Examining Violence against Women, Harassment and Hate Crime Affecting University Students. London: Universities UK. UUK/NUS. 2019. Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic Student Attainment at UK Universities: #Closing the Gap. London: Universities UK/National Union of Students. von Schirach, Ferdinand. 2012. Crime and Guilt. London: Vintage Books. Weale, Sally. 2019. Higher Education Staff Suffer ‘Epidemic’ of Poor Mental Health. The Guardian, May 23. London: The Guardian. White, Clarissa, Jen Gibb, Jo Lea, and Cathy Street. 2017. Developing Character Skills in Schools: Qualitative Case Studies. Final Report—August 2017. London: Government Social Research. Zellick, Graham. 1994. Student Disciplinary Procedures. London: Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals.

6 League Tables, the Future Role of Student Services and the Importance of Measuring Impact and Effectiveness

6.1 Introduction The UK’s long-established elite higher education system was transformed into a mass system only five or so decades ago. The student body is now more diverse ethnically and socially and in respect of age, health, financial status, educational background and preparedness for learning than ever before. Despite the UK’s success in providing higher education opportunities for approximately half of its young adult population, a declining unit of resource has resulted in a significantly lowered staff: student ratio across much of the sector and required a rethinking of teaching methods and the way that pastoral and other personal support is delivered. These circumstances are not unique to the early twenty-first century. I have made several earlier references to Mary Swainson’s (1977) reflections on her experiences of the higher education sector from the 1930s onwards, when she was first employed as a lecturer, to her retirement as a teacher and counsellor in 1972, five decades which include one of the periods of major HE expansion (Sect. 1.3 in Chap. 1). She wrote of her students’ need for help and advice and the negative impact of institutional © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Grant, The Role of Student Services in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81439-7_6

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expansion on their sense of belonging and their relationships with their tutors. She also drew attention to tutors’ concerns that the time available to them for informal talks with students and even their own colleagues was reducing as a result of increasing administrative demands on their time (Swainson 1977, p. 11). I could have copied her words verbatim and no one would have known that they were written over 40  years ago. Academic staff today are being put under constant internal and external pressure to meet demands that include publishing highly rated research papers, teaching larger groups of students with diverse backgrounds and motivations, undertaking routine tasks that were once the responsibility of trained administrators and at the same time guiding and supporting their tutees in respect of their academic and career success and their personal wellbeing. One institution’s surveys of their students’ experiences of the personal tutoring system elicited many similar answers to the questions that explored why some respondents had not sought their tutor’s advice. The common response was that they had not sought help because they knew that that he or she was very busy, and they did not wish to disturb them. While this concern is touching, no tutorial system is likely to work well if staff are not given sufficient time to devote to their tutees or do not feel confident in so doing. It certainly should not be the students who suffer the consequences by feeling reluctant to ‘bother’ their tutors. What has also changed since Swainson’s time has been a very significant growth in the professional central advisory services of the sector, in which the pioneering work of Swainson played no small part (Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1). Their contribution to the achievement and wellbeing of students and their understanding of the realities of students’ lives has been the focus of this book. I return to a reflection on their current role and their potential future development in the final sections of this chapter.

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6.2 M  easuring and Ranking HEIs: ‘Quality’ Control and League Tables Ever since the introduction of student fees, successive governments have been trying to shift the balance of HE funding from the state to the individual and at the same time demonstrate that private and public money are being well spent. One outcome is that the HE sector has become subject to increasing levels of scrutiny and measurement and, as was hoped by some governments, more competitive (Sect. 1.2 in Chap. 1). The Quality Assurance Agency’s (QAA)1 Quality Codes provide frameworks for judgements about UK higher education providers through regular institutional reviews. The QAA also provides data for the Office for Students (OFS)2 which in 2018 took over from the funding councils as the primary regulatory body for higher education. Its mission is ‘for every student to have a fulfilling experience of higher education that enriches their lives and careers … by promoting quality, choice, competition and value for money in higher education, with a particular remit to ensure access, success and progression for underrepresented and disadvantaged groups of students’.3 Once processes were implemented that resulted in measurements being taken, student achievement and career success recorded, staff: student ratios calculated, and ‘quality’ judgements made, it was more or less inevitable that tables of relative performance would follow. There are now several higher education league tables produced each year, the most influential of these financed by the ‘quality’ press. The three key UK tables are The Times & Sunday Times Good University Guide,4 the Guardian University Guide5 and the independent Complete University Guide,6 all available online, although some only to subscribers. Each league table  https://www.qaa.ac.uk.  https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/about/who-we-are/. 3   OFS Insight 6, https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/media/0fb736eb-ba54-472f-849bf3c81ad2e03d/the-national-student-survey-consistency-controversy-and-change.pdf. 4  The Times & Sunday Times Good University Guide. 5  Guardian University Guide. 6  https://www.thecompleteuniversityguide.co.uk/league-tables/rankings. 1 2

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compiler uses slightly different data sets, weightings and algorithms to produce their rankings. The data used can range from institutions’ academic research ratings, National Student Survey (NSS) outcomes, graduate career successes, institutional spend on facilities, staff:student ratios, student entry qualifications, final degree classifications, completion rates and so on (see Turnbull (2018) for a discussion of UK league tables, their methodologies and strengths and weaknesses). Those HEIs ranked in the top ten or twenty institutions are often referred to as ‘top’ institutions, although the order in the listings of those who achieve this status is not the same in all tables, even if some, including Oxford and Cambridge, have fairly consistently appeared in the top 10. Given the wide range of UK institutions and course options available it is not surprising that applicants are influenced by these tables when making their university choices, despite the fact that some of the data used in the construction of the rankings may have only very indirect impact on students’ lived experiences over their years of study. The National Student Survey (NSS)7 introduced in 2005 does ask final year undergraduates direct questions about their academic experiences. Unfortunately, in common with most other surveys, it does not ask students to offer a view on the advice, guidance and counselling provided by professional advisory services, despite the evidence for the growing demand for such services and the importance of ensuring that they are effective (Sect. 6.4). The most important exception is the Student Experience Survey undertaken by the THE magazine. This asks undergraduates to rate the impact of 21 elements typical of most student’s university experiences. These range from the quality of academic staff to the campus environment, accommodation, sports facilities and ‘good support/welfare’, which I take to encompass both departmental support and that of the professional advisory services. This is a welcome start but unfortunately rather too imprecise to provide much of value in informing strategies for student service improvement.8 It is interesting to note that the THE’s top ten institutions are not the same as those in the tables discussed above: only three of the HEIs in the most recent Complete  https://www.thestudentsurvey.com/about.php.  https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/news/student-experience-survey-2018-results.

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University Guide’s top ten9 were in the THE survey’s top rankings based on student ratings. Despite these and many other concerns, league tables still influence decisions made by prospective students, graduate employers and others outside the sector. Crucially, they also influence the actions taken by institutions to improve their ratings. Institutions across the sector continue to devote time and energy trying to shift resources and priorities to improve their league table positions, although they do not necessarily result in improved quality from a student experience perspective. Would it, they might ask themselves, be more effective to improve the student: staff ratio or invest in library facilities? How much more value would we gain from increasing spend on career services and providing internships or investing in teaching resources? How might we encourage academics to be generous in their marking of coursework and exams so that degree outcomes improve? Given how little attention has been afforded to professional advisory services in the data collected and used for the most influential league tables, it is perhaps not surprising that they may not always be prioritised when decisions are made about strategic resource allocation to improve reputation (Sect. 1.8 in Chap. 1). Graduate career outcomes (Sect. 2.10 in Chap. 2) are included in some league table calculations, and in the light of current sector-wide concerns, both careers and mental health and counselling services may be exceptions and prioritised for funding. The danger is that this may result in cuts in funding to some of the other specialist services discussed in this book that also have a key impact on student success and wellbeing. Optional surveys of taught (PTES) and research (PRES) postgraduate students were introduced in 2011/14 and 2007 respectively, and a ‘Student Academic Experience Survey in 2006. This latter is run collaboratively by Advance HE10 and the Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI),11 the independent think tank responsible for what in my view is some of the most valuable thinking on HE policy and practice currently available. One of HEPI’s most recent ‘Policy Notes’ (Blackman 2020)  https://www.thecompleteuniversityguide.co.uk/league-tables/rankings?year=2018.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Education_Academy. 11  https://www.hepi.ac.uk. 9

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demonstrates the often-unexplored value of a more sophisticated use of survey data. For example, the author’s multivariate analysis of the data concerning students’ perceptions of their life satisfaction and their anxiety levels demonstrated the influence of students’ ethnicity, gender and such other important factors. While this survey and its analysis demonstrated the beneficial impact of helpful teachers on respondents’ anxiety levels and life satisfaction, from my perspective it missed an important opportunity to also examine the impact of professional advisory services. Many other student surveys are regularly undertaken by bodies that range from the NUS to commercial accommodation providers, but unfortunately their quality is not always of the highest in respect of sampling strategies, the phrasing of questions—leading questions are common—and the analysis of the data gathered, making their reliability uncertain and comparison of their findings sometimes impossible. Unfortunately, some these have fuelled unhelpful media headline reporting of mental health ‘crises’ and ‘epidemics’ of sexual assault amongst the student body (see Sect. 3.3 in Chap. 3 and Sect. 4.13 in Chap. 4).

6.3 T  he Current and Future Roles of UK Student Services When Dearing and his colleagues recommended that institutions focus on student learning skills, they raised the profile of student need for guidance at sector-wide level but wisely, in my view, they left it to individual HEIs to respond in the ways that they considered to be most appropriate for their particular circumstances and student demographics. As yet, there are thankfully no sector-wide templates or instructions about the how and what of, for example, learning enhancement provision or of other specialist advisory services, nor external regulatory frameworks to determine policy and procedures in respect of overall advisory provision. As is the case for all the specialist student services within the HE sector, the major driving forces have been bottom up (see for example, Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1 and Sect. 3.4 in Chap. 3). In very many respects, this has had significant benefits for their development, which has largely been

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informed by the realities of student life as seen by and reported directly to advisory staff and not distorted by the views of those whose only substantive student experience is likely to have been their own and from a time when things were very different. So far at least, this seems to have protected student services from at least some of the instrumentalism of managerialism and quality reviews and other regulatory measures now imposed on HE, although whether this will continue to be the case remains to be seen (Sect. 6.6). This should not be seen to imply that advisory services do not function in an appropriately professional manner. What has happened is in fact the opposite: each specialist area (see Sect. 1.5 in Chap. 1) has developed its own professional identity, values and codes of ethics, training courses, dissemination events, and in some cases opportunities for staff to obtain appropriate professional certification. AGCAS, for example, is currently in the process of further developing its own quality standards.12 HE counselling services and their staff are subject to the same strict professional requirements as those working as counsellors outside the HE sector and are supported in this by the Heads of University Counselling Services (HUCS), a division of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP) supporting counsellors working in higher and further education. A feature of both the AGCAS and counselling approaches is the importance attached to self-reflection and self-­evaluation and the clear statements of their underpinning ethical values. AMOSSHE is currently in the process of developing a new professional framework for its organisation and members. The largest, longest established and best funded organisations are inevitably able to offer more to their members than the smaller organisations, as in most cases a major source of their funding is membership subscriptions, supplemented by conference and training event profits and sometimes sponsorship from external bodies with related interests. Institutional advisory services often have to use their own budgets to pay for society membership fees, which can mean that for those many services with restricted budgets (Sect. 1.8 in Chap. 1) it may be neither possible to pay for membership for all staff, nor the travel costs and conference fees for 12

 https://www.agcas.org.uk/AGCAS-Membership-Quality-Standard.

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all those who might benefit from such opportunities. Conferences, particularly those that include sufficient time for discussion and debate, stimulate new ideas and disseminate information about effective practice, but such information does not necessarily reach  all those  whose work with students might benefit. Time to research and reflect is also likely to be at a premium for many if not most student advisory staff. Research papers and new policy and guidance materials risk remaining unread on desks or book-marked on the computers of those who despite the best of intentions are too busy responding to increasing and sometimes overwhelming student and administrative demands to be able to prioritise such activity. You only have to look to the US for an example of what a sector that is well-funded, respected and fully integrated within the mainstream of its higher education system could look like and achieve. NASPA, the USA’s association of student advisory professionals, was established a century ago and now has over 15,000 members, mainly in the US but including some from 25 other countries, including a few UK institutions.13 It organises national, regional and special interest conferences, publishes a wide range of student service-related books, a quarterly “Leadership Exchange Magazine” and the “Journal of College and Character”. It supports professional interest and knowledge groups as well as providing Masters and PhD programmes for its members. The theoretical foundations, philosophy and research underpinnings of US student affairs practice are much discussed in a very extensive literature (e.g. Hamrick et  al. (2002), Keeling (2006), Komives and Woodard (2003) and Lake (2011). A significant proportion of this literature has been written by student service leaders and practitioners or by academic staff holding roles that cross-cut academic and student services contexts and approaches. These are not easily found in UK HEIs. US examples include “The Handbook of Student Affairs Administration” (McClelland et  al. 2016) and the 640 page comprehensive ‘Student Services’ ‘handbook’ first published in the 1980s and now in its 6th edition (Schuh et  al. 2016). The editors and other contributors to these multi-authored works include many who have backgrounds as  https://www.naspa.org.

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practitioners but are now professors of student affairs, senior directors of academic programs and directors of academic integrity, such titles identifying their holders as respected academic members of their institutions and giving importance to the work they do in both academic and student services contexts. AMOSSHE,14 the UK student services organisation,  has a much shorter history and around 700 individual members, although almost all UK universities have at least one representative AMOSSHE member. Its financing is on a very different scale from that of NASPA and what it is able to offer to its members inevitably more limited, although nonetheless very valuable, particularly as many of the resources developed are freely available on its website. Such other UK literature of relevance and value to advisory services is largely restricted to reports from HE bodies and academic papers by educational researchers, sociologists and psychologists, although unfortunately their research has often failed to involve or even consult those who are fulfilling student advisory roles, to the potential detriment of their findings. The main exception is the literature on counselling and wellbeing, a proportion of which has a specific student focus and has been written by those who work directly with students in HE contexts (for example, Bell 1996; Mair 2016; MWBHE 2015 and more recently Barden and Caleb (2019)). Some of the growing literature on personal tutoring has included discussion of the interrelationships between the academic and advisory roles, and is written from the advisory perspective (for example, Grant 2006, 2007). Nonetheless, UK student services are admired internationally for their approaches and what they have been able to achieve. For many years AMOSSHE has run a reciprocal exchange scheme with NASPA to facilitate cross-Atlantic visits by groups of advisers from the US and the UK in order to share and discuss their experiences and practices. A chapter on UK student services (Grant 2008) was commissioned for one of NASPA’s influential publications (Osfield 2008). European and African countries have looked to the UK for guidance in establishing and developing their student advisory provision. AMOSSHE members are invited to speak at conferences and training events to help in the development of a student 14

 https://www.amosshe.org.uk/about.

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services provision in countries seeking to ensure that what they provide is appropriate and is based on current best practice. There is no doubt that AMOSSHE and its members have achieved a very great deal, although the ongoing increase in student demand is still trapping many members into a reactive mode they have been trying to escape from for the last two decades and more, a complaint voiced nearly a decade ago by Thomas (2002, p. 17) in a paper on student retention.

6.4 Measuring Impact and Effectiveness Student services have also been criticised for not having provided enough hard evidence of their effectiveness in enhancing student success and wellbeing or in  improving student retention rates. Such criticism has come from researchers and report writers (Thomas et al. 2002; Williams et al. 2015) and from government representatives, as was the case when one ministerial speaker at a conference on the future role of the student advisory sector was very forceful in her criticism of the lack of clear evidence for impact. Her comments were not themselves strongly evidence based and might  be interpreted as little more than a thinly disguised justification for not increasing the funding available to support cash-­ limited student services and their professional organisations. Some, while noting the scarcity of robust measurement of effectiveness, have been more sympathetic to the challenges faced in so doing (Williams et al. 2015, p. 6). I too have drawn attention to the need for hard evidence to justify the funding allocated to advisory services (Grant 2003) but I am nonetheless absolutely convinced that professional advisers and counsellors play a vitally important role in both enhancing achievement and helping students who would otherwise have been at risk of failing or dropping out, to continue their studies, as I hope this book helps to demonstrate. It is of course unlikely that they are the only sources of support and influence. Teaching staff, family, peers, doctors and more are also likely to play a part, making it very difficult to isolate the specific impact of student services in ways that might convince those who have a number of times in the past made it clear to me that they would much prefer to allocate their resources elsewhere. The unique contribution is

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patently obvious to those who work in and understand the sector and to the very many students who patently benefit. If sufficiently well-funded they are able to offer timely access—and this is very important—to one-­ to-­one advice, guidance and counselling from knowledgeable, experienced and unjudgmental staff who understand the context of students’ difficulties and the academic, social and other pressures they are under, and how these might be addressed. This is one of the reasons that I am opposed to the outsourcing of services that could and should be more effectively delivered in-house (see Sect. 1.7 in Chap. 1). If paymasters are to be convinced, demonstrating impact and value requires more than providing individual case study examples. Quantifying impact remains one of the challenges most student services face within their own institutions and sector-wide, and I am not certain that this will be possible  in all circumstances. The AMOSSHE (2011) ‘Value and Impact’ initiative, which drew much from US approaches, gives examples of pilot projects undertaken in some in UK institutions, but there is still much more to be done to create a robust framework for further development. In the US, the higher education sector has been subject to similar pressures to demonstrate accountability and impact, but its larger resource base has allowed its responses to be more sophisticated than the broad-­ brush UK league table approach I discuss above (Sect. 6.2). Here, what in the UK is referred to as ‘evaluation’ but ‘assessment’ in the US and not to be confused with the assessment of students’ academic work, is a vital underpinning of all their student affairs strategic planning and practice. Crucially, it is conceptualised as a whole institutional endeavour involving partnership working across individual HEIs (Keeling et  al. 2013). Developing and adopting such approaches in the UK, would, and in my view should, require changing institutional mindsets and serious investment in the framing and delivery of new professional development opportunities together with ensuring that staffing levels give both advisory and academic staff sufficient opportunity to take advantage of them. Student service professionals need to be given time to undertake research to inform their own practice and their understanding of their student populations so that they are able to develop proactive initiatives in response. I have given examples of some such research projects in previous chapters (for example, Sect. 2.5 in Chap. 2, Sect. 3.5 in Chap. 3 and

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Sect. 4.6 in Chap. 4) that had palpable impact. The outcome for the UK of a serious strategic investment could ultimately result in the delivery of much better targeted, nuanced and effective approaches in tune with the diversity of individual institutions’ goals and missions and their student bodies. These are very likely to have positive impacts on student achievement and ultimately save resources, or at least ensure better use of what is currently invested. New and effective ways forward would be very likely to emerge if the knowledge and experiences of advisory staff from all relevant specialist areas were to be brought together with academic researchers that include statisticians, behavioural psychologists, psychiatrists, mental health specialists and other relevant social sciences, together with university data managers. Breaking into HE knowledge and status silos and facilitating cross fertilisation are key, as is penetrating the fire walls that limit access to research literature for those whose institutions do not pay the  relevant journal subscriptions or membership fees for advisory staff, potentially inhibiting access to much valuable research and practice. I have never fully understood why HEIs have so rarely approached the development of their teaching, administrative and advisory provision with the same rigour they must apply to their academic research activities, whether these are in STEM subjects, the humanities or the health and social sciences. A disjunction between academic research and the ways that institutions run themselves is sadly commonplace. Better ways need to be found for operationalising research findings and gathering and analysing robust data that have the potential to benefit both students and staff. I drew attention to the importance of understanding students’ help-­ seeking behaviours in Sect. 3.6 in Chap. 3 although extracting meaning from such data is not necessarily easy unless it is appropriately detailed. We cannot measure impact merely by counting demand. If a student has a meeting with an adviser and does not return for a further appointment, does this mean that their concern was resolved or that they found their initial meeting unhelpful and decided not to come again? Are students who seek advice repeatedly experiencing serious difficulties or becoming too dependent on their advisers? However, when we look at trends in patterns of demand and examine differences by gender, age, subject of study and more, and then correlate these with other institutionally held data

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on, for example, student’s academic and career success—anonymised of course—there is much that can be learned that could be of considerable value in informing approaches to improving the wellbeing and success of current and future students. Data protection regulations can be a reason but should not become an excuse for failing to undertake the research that is required to help evaluate impact and improve higher education for the future. It could be very valuable if all institutional student services could agree to some level of consistency in their student data collection so that cross institutional comparisons could be made. An AMOSSHE-funded project made a start by comparing the methods used to measure student use of advisory services in seven of their member institutions in the East of England (AMOSSHE 2014). The project drew attention to the value of data on service use but also demonstrated a crucial weakness by showing how little common ground there was in the approaches and methodologies being used at the time by the institutions involved, highlighting this as an important area for further attention. This, and other AMOSSHE-­ funded ‘Insight’ projects15 have demonstrated clearly the will and potential for the professional advisory sector to undertake the research that will ensure that its practices are have a sound underpinning. We do however need to be very clear about why, when and where we use surveys and student data. Is it to make HEIs ‘accountable’ for what they do and measure and judge institutional performance, as is the case for much of the current sector-wide data collected and then used to construct league tables? If this is the case, is it really appropriate to formulate judgements about the performance of staff without asking students to rate the effort they have put into their studies? Is it ethical to question students about their mental wellbeing, or ask them whether or not they have suicidal thoughts without knowing for certain that they will have rapid and easy access to help or other resources to improve their wellbeing? Surveying students with the clear and achievable aim of improving provision and practice, as has been the case for many small scale AMOSSHE-funded projects and the internal surveys referred to in other chapters of this book (Sect. 2.5 in Chap. 2, Sect. 4.8 in Chap. 4 and Sect. 6.1) is much easier 15

 https://www.amosshe.org.uk/projects.

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to justify than those whose aim is to assess ‘quality’ but also to grade HEIs and stimulate unhealthy inter-institutional competition. One of the HEFCE-funded mental health projects mentioned in Sect. 3.3  in Chap. 3 used some of their funds to conduct an extensive and clinically validated survey of student wellbeing that aimed to provide a benchmark for the sector. Sadly, despite some interest in the UK and the US, it appears that only a very few other institutions (I am aware of only one in the UK) attempted to replicate this methodology. Instead, too many researchers have used a wide range of other survey methodologies, making robust cross-institutional comparisons of their research findings impossible and thus missing important opportunities to better understand changes in the mental wellbeing of HE students and the factors that have been having the greatest impact on student stress and distress over the last two or so decades. Longitudinal data could have been extremely valuable in informing and guiding institutional and sector responses to current concerns about student wellbeing and achievement.

6.5 Avoiding the Reinvention of the Wheel As I have written this book, I have become increasingly aware of the circular nature of HE strategies and the short-term memories of those responsible for policy development and implementation. The sector’s filing cabinets and digital archives are filled with reports of apparently successful initiatives that addressed concerns still relevant today but were not allocated sufficient resources and attention to sustain and embed them as ongoing institutional or sector priorities. I have found it extremely difficult to track down some valuable project reports that I know must exist somewhere but seem no longer to be easily recoverable, even in this digital age. They even include some UUK and HEFCE reports from a relatively few years ago. This not only wastes financial resources, but also, and perhaps more shamefully, the ideas, experiences and commitment of the many staff, academic and advisory, who have devoted their time and best efforts to improving the success and wellbeing of students in the past; it

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also disrespects the students who generously offered their views and allowed their experiences to be recorded. A literature search is the key starting point of any academic research, but when I crossed the divide between the academic and ‘non-academic sides’ of the HE sector I was surprised to find that many of the approaches being adopted by the latter did not appear to be data-driven nor otherwise evidence-based and were not always well founded in an understanding of previous research and practice. The often rapid turnover of Vice-Chancellors and other HE senior staff, students’ union chief executives and student officers, and government ministers of education, does not help. Perhaps inevitably, each new occupant of such roles may wish to add their name to the rolls of achievement by launching ‘new’ initiatives but neglecting to take account of what has already been understood and achieved. Unfortunately, in a market driven environment, competition between institutions and individual academic researchers  can be more evident in some spheres of activity than collaboration, although the latter can be far more effective in raising standards. If the sector is to continue to make progress in promoting student success it needs to look not only at what has been effective in the past, but also what made this possible. Despite Mary Swainson’s attempts in the 1940s to raise her concerns about the wellbeing being of her students (Swainson 1977), it took until the 1990s before serious and concerted action was taken to develop and expand counselling and mental wellbeing provision sector-wide. The university funding councils’ pump-priming grants to improve provision for students with SpLDs, disabilities and mental health difficulties referred to in Sect. 1.4 in Chap. 1, and Sects. 3.3 and 3.4 in Chap. 3 were highly effective in providing the means for student services staff, academics and librarians and others whose work necessitated regular contact with students, to step back from their day to day responsibilities. Having the time to reflect and draw on their own experiences helped staff to better understand those they were working with and the challenges they faced, stimulating new approaches that were better tailored to the needs of their students.  In many cases these were sustained through absorption within ongoing provision and practice. The external evaluation of these 1996–99 HEFCE-funded projects commented that an important factor in  the  overall success of  several projects was that they  were based on

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enhancing existing practice and located within a student services setting where additional financial resources were able to support, stimulate and further develop existing activity, making implementation and sustainability easier to achieve (THECG and CHEMS 2000). The reviewers concluded that overall, even with a relatively small investment there were considerable gains to be made using this approach (p. 6). A few years earlier, another funding opportunity, the Enterprise in Higher Education initiative, encouraged HEIs to bid for resources to help them to develop integrated and creative approaches to improving students’ employability skills and their institution’s relationships with graduate employers. Burniston et al.’s (1999) evaluation of these projects was also very positive about their achievements, including their progress in bringing about change in institutional mindsets in respect of attitudes and approaches to enhancing students’ employability (see Sect. 2.11 in Chap. 2). They concluded that the EHE initiative demonstrated that setting ambitious and challenging objectives can produce significant change. Despite the success of these initiatives and the lessons learned about the ways that change can be achieved, in the years that followed, the catalyst funding model became less popular as a way of stimulating change in the HE sector. HEFCE returned to this model for its initiative to help tackle sexual harassment on campus16 and in 2018 HEFCE’s successor, the Office for Students, launched what it called a ‘Challenge Competition’17 for funding to undertake projects to enhance transition to HE and on-­ course support for students experiencing mental health difficulties (OfS 2019). However no mention was made of any requirement to consider and build on the achievements the earlier HEFCE-funded projects, including those which had had very similar aims. There are many challenges to be faced in managing projects that have financial security for a limited time, including, crucially, retaining staff on short-term contracts until project completion. Unless the outcomes are recognised as having long term value for the institutions involved and they are willing to absorb them as part of normal practice, their findings  http://www.hefce.ac.uk/funding/safeguarding/.  https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/publications/ofs-challenge-competition-achieving-a-step-changein-mental-health-outcomes-for-all-students/.

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may soon be forgotten. The evaluation of the success of all projects funded on a competitive basis should surely include an assessment of the depth of penetration of positive outcomes across the sector as a whole, and not just for those directly involved. It should also be remembered that is not necessarily easy to judge success in the short term as Harrison’s (2012) cautionary tale of the failure of the Aim Higher project, the government’s flagship widening  participation  project of 2004–11 demonstrates. His view is that the demise of this project was not due to a lack of success in widening access, but the late adoption of a poor outcome measure that underestimated improvement. In looking back it is of course important that we do not assume that projects that were successful in the past have contemporary relevance, any more than that students’ expectations, backgrounds and behaviours today are the same as those of students even 10 or 20 years ago. These factors need to be taken into account when re-evaluating both successful and unsuccessful practices that might be built on and learned from before starting again. Nonetheless if new developments do not begin by reviewing what is already known or has been tried and had its effectiveness tested, the sector will risk continuously going around in circles.

6.6 Final Thoughts The primary aim for this book has been to offer an insight into the aspirations, challenges and lives of early twenty-first century students through the eyes of those who provide institutional student information, advice, guidance and counselling services. At the same time, I have sought to draw attention to the breadth and depth of the role that the professional student advisory services now play in the HE higher education sector. Easy access to informed and impartial advice and guidance in addition to that offered within the academic context should no longer be seen as an optional but an integral part of higher education and something that students now expect of HE. One of the questions asked of students in the 2017 HEPI survey was: ‘in which areas would you least prefer your university to save money?’ The options offered range from spending less on

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buildings, social and sports or learning facilities, or increasing class sizes. Of the ten given, the one selected as the least preferred option for institutional money saving was that of reducing student support services (Neves and Hillman 2017, p.  48). Inadequate funding will almost inevitably remain the major barrier to the development and improvement of this element of the UK HE sector. One of the tragedies of the last decades has been the significant loss of trust by governments and their agencies in the sector’s ability do their job well and with commitment, and to self-regulate. Governments have been only too willing to point to weaknesses, which of course exist, and expose them but they seem only rarely to praise the considerable strengths of the HE sector, based on centuries of experience of development and change, and significant staff commitment. A desire to reduce government expenditure remains a major driving force, and as part of this, to be in greater control. I fear that HEIs have been far too willing to accept—even if reluctantly—top down managerial approaches and a weakening of the democratic structures that have in the past played such an important role in the growth of higher education in the UK. Instead of being opened up to embrace the creativity that might have been released as an outcome of the increasing diversity of its staff and students, HE has become more and more tightly tied down and restricted in its ability to be flexible and respond quickly to changing circumstances. I wonder how much government and students’ money has been invested in administrative and ‘quality’ assurance processes that could have been used to fund research, teaching, student guidance and overall institutional development? How much research has been undertaken to measure the impact (positive and negative) on staff and students of the imposition of managerial cultures and efforts to ‘measure’ quality? (I suspect that the answer is ‘not much or enough’). Perhaps more so than at any other time in the history of UK higher education, the student body is very diverse and individuals start off on their higher education journey from very different places and with very different expectations and prior experiences. In a mass higher education system, transparency and appropriate levels of consistency are certainly very important but they should not restrict the possibility of flexibility when circumstances merit them and of regular review of procedures, and the rewriting policies when they are found not to have had the

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wished-for impact and  achieved the natural justice that must  surely always be their goal. Mair, an experienced HE student counsellor, speculated that compassion might be the ‘missing value’ in higher education (Mair 2016). He asked whether students see the managerial systems to which they are subject as compassionate. His view is that when students understand the value of compassion, they can develop a healthier acceptance of their own imperfections, a greater tolerance towards others and ultimately the emotional resilience so important in this world of uncertainty. I find myself very much in agreement with him but would go further and ask all institutions to regularly question whether each and every policy, process, protocol and procedure that concerns their students and staff and their inter-relationships with each other would pass a compassion test. Sadly, at present the direction of travel seems rather too firmly established, with increasing consumerism and tighter and regulation looking unstoppable for the foreseeable future. Fortunately, resistance and challenge continue, including that in the writings of those I have referred to elsewhere including Collini (2012; 2018), Furedi (2012), Neary (2016) and others, and to which I add some of my concerns in this book. This is not a matter of importance to the UK sector alone. Newfield’s (2016) ‘The Great Mistake: How We Wrecked Public Universities and How We Can Fix Them’, is a critique of the impact on US higher education of the application of business models of management and neoliberalism. There is much in his book of direct relevance to the UK. There are many uncertainties in any speculations about the future. How much of university teaching will move online? Will government funding continue to decline or will there be any significantly increased investment in the sector? Will universities continue to be rewarding places to work in when staff are constantly judged and rated in all that they do by their students and external agencies, with little right of response? Will this make them better or more dispirited teachers and advisers? Education is not and never should be treated as a commodity to be bought and sold, nor a political football to be kicked about as governments come and go. There are some positive signs that the UK HE sector is becoming more conscious of the contribution that student services make: the ‘Enabling

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Student Achievement, Advice and Guidance’ element of the latest QAA Quality Code18 now includes reference to the importance of personal as well as academic support and asks review teams to question whether: “The provider has sufficient and appropriate facilities, learning resources and student support services to deliver a high-quality academic experience.” (QAA 2018). This is of course a very positive addition, but one of my greatest fears is that if student services raise their heads too far above the parapet, they will begin to feel the tightening grip of the powerful forces that seek to control and regulate. In my long experience, UK student services are staffed by committed and reflective advisers and counsellors who should be valued and respected. The practitioners who have been responsible for creating and developing the sector as it is today will continue to improve their contribution to student achievement, retention and wellbeing,  and their future lives if they are properly understood, listened to and supported by their institutions, governments and external agencies and allowed to maintain an important measure of control over the development of the student services they provide. Guided and supported by their professional organisations they can in my view be trusted to ensure that the advice they provide is compassionate, egalitarian, well-informed, evidence-based and underpinned by transparent policies, as long as they are well understood and respected, given voice and fully integrated within their institutions, and of course appropriately funded. If this is the future direction of travel, the beneficiaries will undoubtedly be the students and graduates of the future.

References AMOSSHE. 2011. Value and Impact Toolkit: Assessment the Value and Impact of Services that Support Students. London: AMOSSHE. ———. 2014. AMOSSHE Insight: Making a Difference with Data. London: AMOSSHE. Barden, Nicola, and Ruth Caleb, eds. 2019. Student Mental Health and Wellbeing in Higher Education. A Practical Guide. London: Sage. Bell, Elsa. 1996. Counselling in Further and Higher Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.  https://www.qaa.ac.uk//en/quality-code/advice-and-guidance/enabling-student-achievement.

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Blackman, Tim. 2020. What Affects Student Wellbeing? HEPI Policy Note 21. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute. Burniston, Stephen, John Roger, and James Brass. 1999. Enterprise in Higher Education—Changing the Mindset. DfEE Research Brief. Sheffield: York Consulting. Collini, Stefan. 2012. What are Universities For? London: Penguin Books. ———. 2018. In UK Universities There is a Daily Erosion of Integrity. The Guardian Online Tuesday April 24. Furedi, Frank. 2012. Satisfaction and its Discontents: The National Student Survey. Times Higher Education, March 8. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/satisfaction-­and-­its-­discontents/419238.article Grant, Annie. 2003. Where is the Evidence? Association for University and College Counselling Journal 2003 (Winter): 11–13. ———. 2006. Personal Tutoring: A System in Crisis? In Personal Tutoring in Higher Education, ed. Liz Thomas and Paula Hixenbaugh, 11–20. Stoke-on-­ Trent: Trentham Books. ———. 2007. Personal Tutoring and Student Services. In The Personal Tutor’s Handbook, ed. Lindsey Neville, 59–79. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ———. 2008. United Kingdom. In, Internationalization of Student Affairs and Services. ed. Kenneth Osfield and Associates, 169–182. Washington, DC: NASPA. Hamrick, Florence, Nancy Evans, and John Schuh. 2002. Foundations of Student Affairs Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Harrison, Neil. 2012. The Mismeasure of Participation: How Choosing the Wrong Statistic Helped Seal the Fate of Aim Higher. Higher Education Review 45 (1): 30–61. Keeling, Richard P., ed. 2006. Learning Reconsidered 2: A Practical Guide to Implementing a Campus-wide Focus on the Student Experience. Washington, DC: ACPA. Keeling, Richard, Andrew Wall, Ric Underhile, and Gwendolyn Dungy, eds. 2013. Assessment Reconsidered. Institutional Effectiveness for Student Success. Washington, DC: NASPA. Komives, Susan, and Dudley Woodard. 2003. Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lake, Peter. 2011. Foundations of Higher Education Law and Policy. Washington, DC: NASPA. Mair, David. 2016. Compassion: The Missing Value in Higher Education? University and College Counselling 4 (4, Jan.): 22–23.

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McClelland, George, Jeremy Stringer and Associates. 2016. The Handbook of Student Affairs Administration. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/NASPA. MWBHE. 2015. Student Mental Wellbeing in Higher Education. Good Practice Guide. London: Working Group for the Promotion of Mental Wellbeing in Higher Education and Universities UK. Neary, Mike. 2016. Teaching Excellence Framework: A Critical Response and an Alternative Future. Journal of Contemporary European Research 12 (3): 660–695. Neves, Johnathan, and Nick Hillman. 2017. 2017 Student Academic Experience Survey. York: Higher Education Academy/Higher Education Policy Institute. Newfield, Christopher. 2016. The Great Mistake: How We Wrecked Public Universities and How We Can Fix Them. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. OfS. 2019. Mental Health. Are All Students Being Properly Supported? Insight Brief 5. London: Office for Students. Osfield, Kenneth, ed. 2008. Internationalisation of Student Affairs and Services: An Emerging Global Perspective. Washington, DC: NASPA. QAA. 2018. UK Quality Code, Advice and Guidance: Enabling Student Achievement Quality Assurance Agency. https://www.qaa.ac.uk//en/quality-­ code/advice-­and-­guidance/enabling-­student-­achievement https://www.qaa. ac.uk//en/quality-­code/advice-­and-­guidance/enabling-­student-­achievement Schuh, John, Susan Jones, and Vasti Torres, eds. 2016. Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession. 6th ed. San Francisco: Wiley. Swainson, Mary. 1977. The Spirit of Counsel. The Story of a Pioneer in Student Counselling. London: Neville Spearman. THECG and CHEMS. 2000. Evaluation of the 1996–99 HEFCE/DENI Disability Special Initiative. A report by the Higher Education Consultancy Group (THECG) and the Commonwealth Higher Education Management Service (CHEMS). Bristol: Higher Education Funding Council. Thomas, Liz. 2002. Student Retention in Higher Education: The Role of Institutional Habitus. Journal of Educational Policy 17 (4): 423–442. Thomas, Liz, Josey Quinn, Kim Slack, and Lorraine Casey. 2002. Student Services: Effective Approaches to Retaining Students in Higher Education. Stoke-­ on-­Trent: Institute for Access Studies, University of Staffordshire. Turnbull, Sally. 2018. A Guide to UK League Tables in Higher Education. HEPI Report 101. Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute. Williams, Matthew, Pam Coare, Rosa Marvell, Emma Pollard, Ann-Marie Houghton, and Jill Anderson. 2015. Understanding Provision for Student Mental Health Problems and Intensive Support Needs. Bristol: Institute for Employment Studies.

Index1

NUMBERS AND SYMBOLS

#Metoo, 157 See also Harassment; Sexual assault; Sexual mores A

Abuse, see Bullying; Harassment; Sexual abuse Academic achievement, 28, 35–74, 159 See also Inequality Academic staff, 27–29, 62, 74, 90, 99, 101, 108, 109, 117, 138, 179, 181, 183, 184, 193, 211–213, 222 collaboration with, 59 demands on, 38, 39, 60, 195, 224 guidance and training for, 109 student advisory role, 229 See also Tutors

Academic subject, 43 Accessibility, 95, 140, 146 See also Disability Accident and emergency services (A&E), 113 emergency departments, 161 See also Statutory services Accommodation, 103, 133, 135, 224 institutional, 18 private, 92, 133 See also Home, living at Adjusting to higher education, see Transition Alcohol, 137, 151 abstinence, 137, 141, 162 abuse, 86, 127, 158, 160, 167, 206 harm reduction, 161, 163, 164 See also Drinking behaviours Ambulance, 112, 113, 151, 161

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

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© The Author(s) 2021 A. Grant, The Role of Student Services in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81439-7

243

244 Index

Anti-social behaviour, see Bullying; Harassment Anxiety, 82 Anxiety, student, 58, 59, 83, 86, 97, 102, 105, 106, 110, 112, 117, 136, 145, 213, 226 Asperger syndrome, 52 impact on career progression, 52 See also Autism spectrum; Neurodiversity Assessment methods, 103 Assessment of project outcomes, see Evaluation Assessment of student achievement impact of, 232 See also Examinations; Inequality Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services (AGCAS), 20, 63, 227 Association of Managers of Student Services in Higher Education (AMOSSHE), xi, 20, 22, 40, 87, 106, 227, 229–231, 233 Augar report, see Government policy reviews Autism spectrum impact on career progression, 52, 73 support for students, 52 See also Neurodiversity B

BAME (black, Asian and ethnic minority) students, 14, 15 achievement, 16, 200

proportion of student population, 144, 199 role models for, 199 Belonging, sense of, 61, 127, 143, 158, 222 Boundaries, establishing, 188 Browne report, see Government policy reviews Buddhism, see Multifaith centres; Religious belief Buddying, 110, 148 See also Peer support Bullying, 82, 86, 92, 105, 127, 134, 146, 154, 155, 158–161, 164, 166–168, 177, 188, 190, 192, 193, 206 See also Harassment C

Cambridge, University of, 2, 11, 17, 19, 224 Cannabis, 164–167 See also Drugs, use of Careers, 19, 23, 25, 37, 38, 63, 69, 89 advice, 177 expectations of HEIs, 67–68 expectations of students, 10, 27, 237 outcomes, 16, 28, 67, 71, 74, 196, 225 See also Employability skills; Employers Catering facilities, 140 Chaplaincy, see Multifaith centres Charlie Waller Memorial Trust, 109 Cheating, 44–47, 175 See also Plagiarism

 Index 

Christianity, 141, 142 See also Multifaith centres; Religious belief Clubs, see Sport; Students’ unions (SU) Collaboration with external agencies, 111 with external organisations, 71, 87, 99, 100, 111–115, 150, 151, 157 within HE institutions, 73, 205 Committees, representation on, 29 Community creating a sense of, 128, 131 local, student impact on, 128, 150, 206 See also Anti-social behaviour Commuting students, 137 See Home, living at Compassion, 108, 188, 197 importance of, 19, 239 Completion rates, 16, 38, 93, 196, 224 See also Retention Confidence, viii, xi, 26, 41, 43, 45, 51, 53, 60, 62, 63, 65, 71, 74, 100, 104, 128, 138, 149, 178, 185, 198 Confidence, student, viii, 26, 41, 43, 45, 46, 51, 53, 60, 63, 65, 71, 74, 100, 128 Confidentiality, 99, 100, 109, 111, 156, 173, 176, 181–184, 190, 191 Consumerism, 7, 215, 239 See also Marketisation Counselling, 19, 20, 23–25, 60, 83, 87, 98–100, 105, 116, 212, 213, 224, 225, 227, 229, 231, 235, 237

245

Counter terrorism, see Prevent; Radicalisation Criminal convictions, 205 D

Data protection, 181, 233 See also Confidentiality; Responsibilities, of universities Dearing report, see Government policy reviews Debt impact on students, 92, 93, 197 levels of, 93, 130 Degree outcome, 16, 41, 58, 62, 196, 225 importance of to employers, 225 use of in league tables, 225 Demand, 90 Demand, for advice and guidance growth in, 25, 41, 100 See also Disclosure of concerns; Help-seeking Department of Education for Northern Ireland (DENI), 12 See also Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) Depression, 82, 83, 86, 97, 102, 105, 106, 112, 117, 145, 180, 195 Diabetes, 55, 95, 114, 145, 162 Disability, 12, 18, 70, 72, 204 adjustments/allowances for, 13, 54–56, 95, 97, 205 Disabled Students’ Allowances (DSA), 12, 86 discrimination legislation, 12 guidance for students, 13 social model of, 53

246 Index

Disabled Students’ Allowance (DSA), 12, 85, 86, 95 Discipline, 103, 207, 209, 210 Discipline, approaches to, 18, 49, 54, 104, 206–212 See also Restorative justice Disclosure of concerns, 28, 72, 97 See also Help-seeking Discrimination, 84, 99, 115, 127, 152–154 See also Jewish students; Muslim students Dissemination of practice, 87 Diversity, 139, 141 of HE sector and universities, x, 18, 73, 223, 226, 227, 235, 236, 238, 239 of staff, 15 of students, 8, 15, 16 (see also BAME (black, Asian and ethnic minority) students) commuting students, 131 ethnicity, 10, 11, 14, 26, 71, 144 gender, 26, 73, 144 gender identity, 14, 26, 84, 143 international students, 14, 50 mature students, 10, 15 social background of, 10, 70 postgraduate students, 35, 50–52, 55, 140, 190–193, 201, 225 of Universities, 8 Drinking behaviours, 159, 162–164, 210 See also Alcohol Drop out, see Retention

Drugs, 44, 210 supply of, 151, 165, 166 use of, 158–167 See also Cannabis; Non-medical use of prescription drugs (NPD) Duty of care, 193, 213 See also University responsibilities Dyslexia, 72 See also Specific learning difficulties (SpLDs) E

Employability, 63–65, 69, 74, 175, 236 Employability skills, 66, 74, 236 Employer, graduate, 63, 66, 225, 236 expectations, 64–67 relationships with, 236 See also Careers Employers, 35, 63–67, 69–74, 94, 115, 225, 236 Engagement, 139 student, 58, 138 English language, 41, 73, 186, 202, 204 skills, 21, 46, 47, 50, 51, 62, 149, 202–204 See also International English Language Testing System (IELTS) Enterprise in Higher Education (EHE), 64, 66, 67, 236 See also Employability Epilepsy, 55, 95, 114 Equality of achievement, 35, 58, 60, 200 of opportunity, 12

 Index 

Equality legislation, 177, 205 Essay mills, 44 See also Cheating; Plagiarism Estates managers, 139 Estate, university, vii Ethical approaches, 66, 194, 201 See also Morality, institutional; University responsibilities Ethics, 15, 175, 227 Ethnicity, 14, 26, 71, 101, 129, 143, 144, 196, 199, 226 See also BAME (black, Asian and ethnic minority) students Evaluation, ix, 56, 59, 64, 88, 116, 136, 138, 209, 231, 235–237 Evaluation, of effectiveness, 62, 88, 106, 116, 187, 209 Examinations, 9n7, 42, 53, 54, 58, 59, 89, 103, 104, 108, 112, 167, 185 See also Assessment methods Exchange programmes, 50, 180 Exercise, impact of, 98, 105 See also Sport Expectations, 15, 52, 129, 135 of parents/family, 46, 134, 194 of students, 1, 4, 7, 9, 10, 20, 27, 31, 38, 43, 94, 135, 143, 196, 199, 237, 238 of universities, 39 See also Parents Extenuating circumstances, 185–187 F

Failure, 41, 50, 52, 94, 136, 164, 197, 199, 204, 237 Failure, impact of, 38, 50, 52, 94, 136, 164, 197, 199, 204, 237

247

Faith, see Religious belief Family expectations, 46, 134 See also Parents Fees, 4 impact of, 6, 7, 92, 194 introduction of, 4, 7, 40, 92, 194, 200, 223 Fieldwork, 55, 56, 180 Finance, 189 institutional, 95, 193, 224 student, 46, 63, 93, 103, 149, 178, 183, 223 See also Debt; Fees Fines, see Discipline Fitness for study, 187–190 Fitness to Practice, 61, 99, 190 See also Professionalism G

Gender, 111 balance, 13, 14 identity, 14, 26, 89, 143, 146 See also LGBTQ+; Transgender General Medical Council (GMC), 56, 57, 104, 189, 190 General Practitioner (GP), 18, 24, 112, 113, 179, 186 collaboration with, 112 Government policy reviews, 4–6, 12, 30, 40, 41, 174 Augar, P., 6, 7n3 Browne, Edmund, 5, 6 Dearing, Ron, 4, 6, 30, 40, 174, 214, 226 expectations, 64 Robbins, Lionel, 2–4, 6, 130, 174, 214 GuildHE, 9, 20, 150

248 Index H

Harassment, 86, 92, 127, 134, 146, 154–160, 164, 166–168, 177, 188, 190, 192, 206, 207, 236 See also Bullying Hate crime, 154, 158, 207 Healthy Universities Network, 115 Helicopter parenting, see Parents Help seeking, 23, 61, 81, 96–101, 158, 232 See also Disclosure of concerns Hidden disabilities, 55 See also Diabetes; Epilepsy Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE), 20, 236 funded projects, 13 HE role, 20, 235 See also Office for Students (OfS) Higher Education Policy Institution (HEPI), 37, 134, 237 Home, living at, 112, 131, 132, 134–135 See also Accommodation; Induction Homesickness, 108, 117, 136, 139

In loco parentis, 17, 177–181, 194 See also Responsibilities, of universities; Tutors Integration, 132 of students, 127, 135, 138, 147 of student services, 183 Integrity, 45 student, 45, 175 International English Language Testing System (IELTS), 46–48, 47n5, 62, 202, 204 See also English language, guidance International students, 14, 46–48, 50, 51, 62, 90, 94, 136, 139, 147, 201, 204 challenges experienced, 46 fees for, 4, 14, 101, 201 See also English language, guidance; Learning enhancement services Internships, 70, 225 See also Careers Ireland, 2 Islam, see Muslim students Isolation, social, 92, 133, 134, 143 J

I

Inclusion, promoting, 139, 152, 175 Induction, 21, 60, 100, 102, 113, 114, 127, 133, 135–139, 196, 210 Induction, for new students, 133, 135–137, 139, 196 See also Transition Inequality, 60, 70–74, 196–200 Inequality, in achievement, 13, 196–200

Jewish students discrimination against, 154 facilities for, 142 L

Language skills guidance, 21, 50, 51 See also International English Language Testing System (IELTS)

 Index 

League tables, 28, 67, 69, 90, 103, 196, 200, 225 Learning enhancement services role of, 226 Legislation, equality, 205 See also Disability LGBTQ+, 97, 146 See also Gender, identity, Harassment; Hate crime, homophobia; Hate crime, transphobia Library, 40, 42–44, 50, 91, 104, 110, 131, 140, 235 university, 140 Living arrangements, 18, 127, 129–131 See also Accommodation; Home, living at M

Marketing, 7, 135, 148, 163, 204 Marketisation, 200–206 impact of, 200 Masters’ students, 4, 43, 92, 103, 106, 128, 190, 201, 204 Mature students, 10, 15, 38, 137, 196 Mediation, 155, 210 See also Bullying; Discipline; Harassment Medical school students, 56, 66, 99, 104, 190, 237 See also General Medical Council (GMC); Professionalism Mental health, 194 Mental health advisers, 60, 116, 213 Mindfulness, 105

249

Mobile phone use, impact of, 91 Morality, institutional, 174 See also Ethics; Sacks, Jonathan; Robbins, Lionel Multifaith centres, 24, 97, 141, 154 See also Religious belief; Prayer facilities Multifaith facilities, 142 Muslims, 142, 152 Muslim students, 141, 152, 162 prayer facilities for, 142 See also Counter terrorism; Multifaith centres; Prevent N

NASPA (Student Affairs Professionals, USA), 175, 228, 229 National Health Service (NHS), 87, 111, 112, 114, 181, 194 See also General Practitioner (GP) National Union of Students (NUS), 150 Neurodiverse, 13 Neurodiversity, 13, 20 impact on employment prospects, 55 support for students, 57 See also Asperger syndrome; Autism spectrum; Disability; Specific learning difficulties (SpLDs) Nightline, 110, 132, 180 See also Peer support Non-medical use of prescription drugs (NPD), 164, 166 See also Drugs

250 Index

Non-native English speakers, see English language, skills; International English Language Testing System (IELTS); International students; Writing development Northern Ireland, see Department of Education for Northern Ireland (DENI) Numbers, students in HE, 52, 112 Numeracy, guidance for, 40 O

Office for Students (OfS), x, 11, 66, 152, 157, 206, 223, 236 Online resources, 40, 41, 100 Outsourcing, of guidance services, 24 Oxbridge, 18, 159 See also Cambridge, University of Oxford, University of, 2, 11, 17, 17n17, 19, 58, 59, 63, 224 careers service, 18 See also Careers, advice P

Parents, 195 expectations, 46, 94, 194, 198 ‘helicopter parents,’ 195 Participation of local areas (POLAR), 11n9 See also Social background; Widening participation (WP) Part-time study, 10, 135, 137 Peer pressure, 114, 145, 162

Peer support, 26, 40, 61–63, 81, 100, 110–111, 132, 145, 146, 151 See also Buddying; Nightline Personal tutors, see Academic staff; Tutors PhD (doctoral) students, 92, 198 See also Postgraduates Placements, 70, 104, 143, 179, 180, 184, 196 See also Exchange programmes; Fieldwork Plagiarism, 44–47, 50, 103, 175, 185, 190, 202 See also Cheating; Essay mills Police, 150–153, 167, 184, 207, 210, 211 Police, collaboration with, 151, 167, 210 Postgraduates, 62, 98, 190, 192, 201 research, 191 supervision of, 52, 108, 191–193 support for, 50–52, 102, 108, 190–193, 198, 202, 204 wellbeing, 102 Prayer facilities, 142 See also Multifaith centres; Religious belief Prejudice, 45, 52, 53, 56, 57, 72, 109, 145 See also Discrimination Pressure external pressure, 193–196, 222 of peers, 114, 145, 161, 162 on staff, 57, 106, 202, 204 of student demand, 25–27, 38, 39, 57, 83, 90, 91, 101, 106, 113, 115, 186, 204, 222 on students, 6, 63, 94, 101, 204

 Index 

Prevent, 152, 153 Proactive initiatives, 101, 107 importance of, 25 Professional bodies, 20, 29, 57n11, 184, 189 See also Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services (AGCAS); Association of Managers of Student Services in Higher Education (AMOSSHE); NASPA (Student Affairs Professionals, USA) Professionalism, 36 advisory staff, 20, 28, 40, 53, 61, 112, 188 of students (see Medical school students; Veterinary students) Punishment, see Discipline Q

Quality assurance, 8, 38, 40, 185, 196, 238 Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), 56, 223, 240 R

Radicalisation, 152, 153 See also Counter terrorism; Prevent Rape, see Sexual assault Recruitment, of students, 47, 168, 173, 201 See also Marketing; Non-native English speakers

251

Religious belief, 16, 97, 134, 140–143, 151, 154 See also Multi-faith facilities; Prayer facilities Research skills, 43, 213 Residences, student, see Accommodation Resilience, 65, 74, 81, 103, 106, 107, 117, 185, 195 enhancing students, 81, 103, 106–108, 117 Responsibilities for HE, 157 Responsibilities, of universities, 193, 194 data protection, 177, 181, 233 duty of care, 151, 164, 176–177, 212 in loco parentis, 17, 177–181 safeguarding, 177, 180 Restorative justice, 210 See also Discipline Retention, 9, 13, 16, 21, 28, 37, 93, 135, 138, 144, 196–200, 230, 240 Retention of students, 9, 13, 16, 21, 135, 196, 197, 199, 230 See also Student withdrawal Robbins, Lionel, 2–4, 6, 9, 14, 174, 214 Robbins review, 4 See also Government policy reviews Russell Group, 9, 71 See also Diversity, of HE sector and universities

252 Index S

Sacks, Jonathan, 174 Safeguarding, see Responsibilities, of universities Safety, 105, 127, 151, 156, 168, 177, 178, 195, 205, 206 See also Security staff; Senior residents Scotland, x, 2, 4, 4n2, 92, 92n4, 98 Security staff, 110, 132, 151, 167, 195 Self-doubt, see Confidence Self-harm, 188 See also Suicide Senior residents, 131–133, 166 See also Accommodation; Wardens Sensory disabilities, see Disability Sexual abuse, 86, 127, 134, 158, 160, 167, 206, 208 Sexual assault, x, 157, 158, 160, 206, 207, 209, 211, 226 Sexual harassment, 155, 157, 236 Sexual health, 89, 114, 156 Sexual mores, 127, 156–159 Sexual orientation, 12, 26, 73, 144 See also LGBTQ+ Short-term initiatives/projects, 163 Sleep patterns, 91 Social background, 39, 70, 199 See also Participation of local areas (POLAR); Widening participation (WP) Social facilities, 238 Social justice, 60, 128 Social media, impact of, 88, 90, 92, 100, 115, 154, 157, 161, 162 Societies, students’ union, 143, 155

Specific learning difficulties (SpLDs), 20, 52, 54, 55, 57 guidance for students, 72 impact of, 94 Sport, 69, 70, 98, 99, 105, 106, 142, 143, 147, 148, 155, 160–162, 224, 238 Statutory services, see Accident and emergency services (A&E); Ambulance; Fire service; General Practitioner (GP); National Health Service (NHS); Police Stress, 92, 95, 110 Student Minds, 96, 99, 100, 109, 114, 115 See also Voluntary sector Students Against Depression, 96, 100 See also Voluntary sector Student services, 111 funding, 25–27 future development, ix status, 1, 21–23 structures, 23–25 See also NASPA (Student Affairs Professionals, USA) Students’ unions (SU), 30, 96, 110, 133, 151, 161 bars, 161 collaboration with, 105 societies, 106, 147 sports clubs, 147 Student withdrawal, 199 Study advice, 137 See also Learning enhancement services Subjects, 37, 62

 Index 

Suicide, 84, 87, 88, 92, 98, 132, 155, 180, 182–184, 188, 212 See also Self-harm Supervisors, 191, 198 academic, 102, 108, 190–193, 198, 202, 204 research, 109 See also Postgraduates Supplemental Instruction (SI), 61, 62 See also Peer support Swainson, Mary, x, 19, 38, 86, 87, 221, 222, 235 T

Time management, 36, 42, 43, 46, 51, 54, 104, 167, 185, 195 Training, staff, 108–110 See also Academic staff; Tutors Transgender facilities and support for, 146 See also LGBTQ+ Transition, 17, 35–38, 43, 47, 50, 69, 89, 91, 112, 114, 129, 130, 145, 236 Transition, to university, 114 See also Induction, for new students Tuition fees impact of, 7, 40, 90, 92, 130, 147, 194, 200 introduction of, 92 Tutors, 27, 28, 181 academic staff, 38 advice and training for, 28, 108–110

253

collaboration with, 28–29 role of, 18, 19, 28, 74, 108, 212, 213, 222 See also Academic staff; Personal tutors U

Universities diversity, 8–9 growth in, 2 Universities UK (UUK), viii–ix, 9, 20, 87, 88, 115, 150, 155, 157, 163, 207, 234 University responsibilities, ix, 150, 151, 164, 173, 176–180, 190, 212 V

Veterinary medicine, 99, 104, 144 study pressure, 61, 104 See also Placements; Professionalism Veterinary students, 56, 104, 190, 237 Voluntary sector, 68, 111–115 Voluntary sector, working with, 111–115 See also Students Against Depression; Student Minds Voluntary work, 69, 149 Volunteering, 63, 70, 106 W

Wales, x, 2, 4, 84 Wardens, 18, 131

254 Index

Wicked problems, 176, 200 Widening participation (WP), 11, 16, 37, 39, 130, 200 Withdrawal from course, 196, 197 permanent, 45, 156 temporary, 186, 188, 189 See also Failure

Working part-time, impact of, 70, 137 Writing development, 46, 47, 62, 204 See also Learning enhancement services Z

Zellick report, 207