Laboratory Manual for Anatomy and Physiology [4 ed.] 0470598905, 9780470598900

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Contents
Introduction
Exercise 1 Anatomical Language
A. Anatomical Terms
B. Directional Terms
C. Body Planes and Sections
Exercise 1 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 1 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 2 Organ Systems and Body Cavities
A. Overview of Organ Systems
B. Identification of Major Organs on a Torso Model
C. Body Cavities
D. Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
E. Serous Membranes
F. Organ Systems, Body Cavities, and Serous Membranes in the Rat
Exercise 2 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 2 Using Your Knowledge
Integumentary System
Exercise 7 The Integumentary System Structure and Function
A. Major Divisions of the Skin
B. Accessory Structures of the Skin
Exercise 7 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 7 Using Your Knowledge
Skeletal System and Joints
Exercise 8 Bone Structure and Function
A. Classification of Bones
B. Gross Features of Long Bones
C. Microscopic Structure of Compact and Spongy Bone Tissue
D. Role of Collagen and Mineral Salts in Osseous Tissue
Exercise 8 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 8 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 9 Axial Skeleton
A. The Skull
B. Hyoid Bone
C. Vertebral Column
D. Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage)
Exercise 9 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 9 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 10 Appendicular Skeleton
A. The Pectoral Girdle
B. The Upper Limb
C. Bones and Selected Bone Markings of the Pelvic Girdle
D. Bones and Selected Bone Markings of the Lower Limb
Exercise 10 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 10 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 11 Joints and Synovial Joint Movements
A. Structural and Functional Classification of Joints
B. Basic Structure of Synovial Joints
C. The Knee Joint
D. Types of Movement at Synovial Joints
E. Six Types of Synovial Joints
Exercise 11 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 11 Using Your Knowledge
Muscular System: Skeletal Muscles
Exercise 12 Skeletal Muscle Structure
A. Skeletal Muscle Tissue and Connective Tissue Coverings
B. Skeletal Muscle Fibers
C. The Sarcomere
D. The Neuromuscular Junction
Exercise 12 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 12 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 13 Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
A. Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
B. Influence of Muscle Fiber Type on Skeletal Muscle Contraction
C. Control of Muscle Tension
D. Isotonic and Isometric Contractions
E. Recording Force Generated by Skeletal Muscle
Exercise 13 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 13 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 14 Skeletal Muscles and Their Actions
A. Criteria for Naming Skeletal Muscle
B. Skeletal Muscle Identification and Action
Exercise 14 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 14 Using Your Knowledge
Surface Anatomy
Exercise 15 Surface Anatomy
A. Anterior Surface of the Head
B. Lateral and Posterior Surfaces of the Head
C. Anterior Surface of the Neck
D. Anterior and Posterior Triangles of the Neck
E. Surface Anatomy of the Chest
F. Surface Anatomy of the Back
G. Surface Anatomy of the Abdomen
H. Surface Anatomy of the Shoulder
I. Surface Anatomy of the Arm and Elbow
J. Lateral Surface of Arm and Elbow
K. Surface Anatomy of the Antecubital Region
L. Anterior Surface of the Wrist and Hand
M. Dorsal Surface of the Wrist and Hand
N. Surface Anatomy of the Buttocks
O. Anterior Surface of the Thigh
P. Surface Anatomy of the Popliteal Region
Q. Anterior Surface of the Knee
R. Anterior Surface of the Leg and Ankle
S. Posterior Surface of the Leg and Ankle
T. Dorsal Surface of the Foot
Nervous System
Exercise 16 Nervous Tissue
A. Overview of Nervous System
B. Structure of Nervous Tissue
C. Classification of Neurons
D. Myelination of Axons
E. Gray and White Matter in the CNS
F. Synapses between Neurons
Exercise 16 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 16 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 17 Spinal Cord Structure and Function
A. Protective Structures and Spinal Meninges
B. External Features of the Spinal Cord
C. Transverse Section of the Spinal Cord
D. Dissection of the Spinal Cord
Exercise 17 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 17 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 18 Spinal Nerves
A. Connective Tissue Coverings of Spinal Nerves
B. Rami of the Spinal Nerves
C. Spinal Nerve Divisions and the Four Spinal Plexuses
D. Major Nerves from the Cervical and Brachial Plexuses
E. Major Nerves from the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses
Exercise 18 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 18 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 19 Somatic Reflexes
A. Reflex Arcs
B. Reflex Testing
Exercise 19 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 19 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 20 Brain Structure and Function
A. Major Brain Regions
B. The Brain Stem
C. The Cerebellum
D. The Diencephalon
E. The Cerebrum
F. Protection of the Brain
G. Sheep Brain Dissection
Exercise 20 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 20 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 21 Cranial Nerves
A. Name and Location of Cranial Nerves
B. Testing Cranial Nerve Functions
Exercise 21 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 21 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 22 Autonomic Nervous System Structure and Function
A. Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
B. Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
C. Autonomic Reflexes
Exercise 22 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 22 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 23 General Senses
A. Sensory Receptors
B. Sensory Pathways
C. Tactile Sensitivity of Different Body Areas
D. Adaptation of Sensory Receptors
E. Referred Pain
Exercise 23 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 23 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 24 Special Senses
A. Structure of the Eye and Vision
B. The Ear, Hearing, and Equilibrium
C. The Nose and Olfaction
D. Taste Buds and Gustation
Exercise 24 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 24 Using Your Knowledge
Endocrine System
Exercise 25 Endocrine Structure and Function
A. Identification of Major Endocrine Glands
B. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
C. Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
D. Adrenal Glands
E. Pancreas
F. Ovaries, Testes, Pineal Gland, and Thymus
G. Hormone Functions
H. Animal Dissection
Exercise 25 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 25 Using Your Knowledge
Cardiovascular System
Exercise 26 Blood Components and Blood Tests
A. Components of Blood
B. The Structure and Function of Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, and Platelets
C. Microscopic Examination of the Formed Elements
D. ABO and Rh Blood Typing
E. Blood Tests
Exercise 26 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 26 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 27 Heart Structure and Function
A. Surface Features of the Heart
B. Great Vessels of the Heart
C. Internal Features of the Heart
D. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations
E. Coronary Circulation
F. Pericardium and Layers of Heart Wall
G. Dissection of a Sheep Heart
Exercise 27 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 27 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 28 Cardiac Cycle
A. Stimulation of Cardiac Muscle Contraction
B. Opening and Closing of Heart Valves
C. Length of the Cardiac Cycle
Exercise 28 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 28 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 29 Blood Vessel Structure and Function
A. Blood Vessel Structure
B. Blood Pressure
Exercise 29 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 29 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 30 Blood Vessel Identification
A. Systemic Arteries
B. Systemic Veins
C. Pulmonary Circulation
D. Fetal Circulation
Exercise 30 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 30 Using Your Knowledge
Lymphatic and Immune Systems
Exercise 31 Lymphatic System Structure and Immune System Function
A. Lymph and Lymphatic Vessels
B. Lymphatic Organs and Tissues
C. Structure of the Lymph Node
D. Structure of the Thymus
E. Structure of the Spleen
F. Immune Cells Involved in Body Defense
Exercise 31 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 31 Using Your Knowledge
Respiratory System
Exercise 32 Respiratory System Structure and Function
A. Gross Anatomy of the Respiratory Organs
B. Microscopic Anatomy of the Respiratory System
C. Animal Dissection
Exercise 32 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 32 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 33 Pulmonary Ventilation
A. Pulmonary Ventilation
B. Lung Volumes and Capacities
C. Control of Pulmonary Ventilation: The Role of Carbon Dioxide
Exercise 33 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 33 Using Your Knowledge
Digestive System
Exercise 34 Digestive System Structure and Function
A. Organs of the Digestive System
B. Layers of the Gastrointestinal Tract and the Peritoneum
D. Length of GI Tract and Transit Time
E. Accessory Digestive Organs
F. Histology of the Digestive System
G. Animal Dissection of Digestive System
Exercise 34 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 34 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 35 Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
A. Mechanical Digestion
B. Chemical Digestion
C. Bile Emulsification
Exercise 35 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 35 Using Your Knowledge
Urinary System
Exercise 36 Urinary System Structure and Function
A. Location and Gross Anatomy of Urinary System Organs
B. Structure of the Nephron
C. Blood Flow Through the Kidneys
D. Dissection of a Pig (or Sheep) Kidney
E. Animal Dissection of the Urinary System
F. Histology of the Urinary System
Exercise 36 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 36 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 37 Urine Formation and Urinalysis
A. Function of the Nephron
B. Urinalysis
Exercise 37 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 37 Using Your Knowledge
Reproductive Systems
Exercise 38 Male Reproductive System Structure and Function
A. Male Reproductive Organs
B. Accessory Structures
C. Microscopic Anatomy of the Testes
D. Animal Dissection
Exercise 38 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 38 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 39 Female Reproductive System Structure and Function
A. Female Reproductive Organs
B. Oogenesis and Microscopic Anatomy of the Ovary and Uterus
D. Animal Dissection
Exercise 39 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 39 Using Your Knowledge
Human Development and Heredity
Exercise 40 Human Development
A. Embryonic Period
B. Fetal Period
Exercise 40 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 40 Using Your Knowledge
Exercise 41 Heredity
A. Basic Genetic Language
B. Monohybrid Crosses and the Punnett Square
C. Incomplete Dominance
D. Codominance in Monohybrid Crosses
E. Sex-Linked Inheritance
Exercise 41 Reviewing Your Knowledge
Exercise 41 Using Your Knowledge
Answer Key
Appendix A: Word Roots
Appendix B: Skeletal Muscle Origins and Insertions
Photo Credits
Index

Citation preview

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HELPING TEACHERS AND STUDENTS SUCCEED TOGETHER

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I dedicate this book to my faithful and devoted husband, Jim, who patiently endured the many hours I’ve spent on this book and continued to encourage and inspire me. —CONNIE ALLEN I dedicate this book to my children, Scott and Kate, who have taught me so much, and to my husband Chuck who has supported me emotionally, made dinner, done laundry, and helped with the children. —VALERIE HARPER

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Laboratory Manual for Anatomy and Physiology Fourth Edition

CONNIE ALLEN Edison State College

VALERIE HARPER Mesa State College

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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VP & EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER EXECUTIVE EDITOR PROJECT EDITOR PROGRAM ASSISTANT EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER PRODUCTION MANAGER SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR SENIOR DESIGNER SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR PHOTO MANAGER SENIOR MEDIA EDITOR MEDIA SPECIALIST

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Kaye Pace Bonnie Roesch Lorraina Raccuia Lauren Morris Clay Stone Dorothy Sinclair Suzanne Ingrao of Ingrao Associates Wendy Lai Anna Melhorn Hilary Newman Linda Muriello Svetlana Barskaya

Cover photos (left to right): Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen; ©Copyright SOMSO® Modelle Coburg/Germany, www.somso.com; Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida This book was typeset in 10/12 Times Roman by Aptara and printed and bound by Courier Kendallville Press. The cover was printed by Courier Kendallville. This book is printed on acid free paper. ⬁ Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons. Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship. The procedures in this text are intended for use only by students with appropriate faculty supervision. In preparing the text, care has been taken to identify potentially hazardous steps and to insert safety precautions where appropriate. The authors and publisher believe the procedures to be useful tools if performed with the materials and equipment specified, in careful accordance with the instructions and methods in the text. However, these procedures must be conducted at one’s own risk. The author and publisher do not warrant or guarantee the safety of individuals using these procedures and specifically disclaim any and all liability resulting directly or indirectly from the use or application of any information contained in this book. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be, addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 070305774, (201) 748-6008, website www.wiley.com/go/permissions. “Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative.”.

ISBN-13 978-0470-59890-0 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Preface

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natomy and physiology is a challenging course, and this laboratory manual is written to help students meet that challenge. It is written for students interested in allied health fields, such as nursing; physical, respiratory, cardiovascular, or occupational therapy; radiology; and dental hygiene. This manual may be used with any two-semester anatomy and physiology textbook. The design of this laboratory manual is based on the authors’ experience as anatomy and physiology instructors and uses three learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. When students label diagrams, they focus on the structure rather than just the dot at the end of a line. Writing out the structure’s name and pronouncing it reinforces learning. Also, having students become subjects of laboratory exercises personalizes the learning process. Animal dissections give students an opportunity to physically manipulate structures, comparing location and texture, and to observe how structures are supported, protected, and attached by connective tissue. Special features incorporated in this laboratory manual include:

• Just enough text is provided to introduce concepts in each section and to set up and support the laboratory section. The exercises are written so students do not need their textbooks to complete the laboratory activities. • New material is divided into small segments, starting with simple diagrams, illustrating the basic concepts and building up to more complex diagrams. Subsequent activities add to the students’ knowledge in a stepwise fashion. This is especially noticed in the skeletal and muscular exercises. • Each exercise contains a list of objectives, materials needed for the exercise, and easily identifiable laboratory activity sections. • Unlabeled four-color drawings, photographs, and photomicrographs are included for students to label either at

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home or in the laboratory. Students first write out the name of the structure to help learn it. Then the completed diagrams will be used to identify structures on models. Word derivatives for bolded terms are given in the text. Phonetic pronunciation is included as new words are introduced. Physiology experiments use students as subjects and can be completed with either simple, inexpensive equipment or more complex setups. Experimental report sections after physiology experiments where students are asked to make predictions, collect and analyze data, and write simple lab reports. Discussion Questions are within the activities to make the students think about the material presented. An Answer Key is provided at the end of the laboratory manual for the activities in each exercise. Students receive immediate feedback, and they are not dependent on the instructor for the correct answers. “Reviewing Your Knowledge” and “Using Your Knowledge” sections follow the activities at the end of each exercise. “Reviewing Your Knowledge” provides a thorough review of the material in the exercise, whereas “Using Your Knowledge” requires students to apply information learned. Either or both of these sections may be handed in to the instructors for a grade, because neither section has answers in the back of the laboratory manual. Answers to these two sections are in the online Instructor’s Manual.

Other New Features: • New activities on Fingerprinting, Myelination of Axons, GI Transit Time and Red-green colorblindness. • More Cadaver photos are integrated into the exercises. • New simplified lab activities that can be used in a variety of ways have been added. These experiments can be performed by students at home, if they are taking an online course or used in the laboratory.

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PREFACE

The New Edition is Integrated with PowerPhys 2.0 Each Lab Manual contains online access to PowerPhys 2.0 for students. PowerPhys 2.0 is physiological simulation software for the A & P laboratory that allows students to explore physiology principles through 11 self-contained activities. Each activity contains objectives with illustrated and animated review material, pre-lab quizzes, prelab reports, data collection and analysis, and a full lab report with discussion and application questions. Experiments contain real data that is randomly generated, allowing users to experiment multiple times, but still arrive at the same conclusions. These activities focus on core physiological concepts and reinforce techniques experienced in the laboratory. References to PowerPhys 2.0 are marked with this icon. www.wiley.com/college/powerphys. • New Activity: Homeostatic Imbalances of Thyroid Function. • This clinical experiment allows students to discover how the functions of the endocrine glands affect hormone balance. • Fully revised and updated laboratory report questions. • Laboratory reports that are offered in PDF and Word formats, for more flexibility.

Dissection Manuals • Depending on your needs, a Cat Dissection Manual or Fetal Pig Dissection Manual is available to accompany the main lab manual. Both dissection manuals contain dissection activities for use in the lab accompanied by full color photos and figures.

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WileyPLUS and You WileyPLUS for Anatomy and Physiology is an innovative, researchbased online environment designed for both effective teaching and learning. Utilizing WileyPLUS in your lab course provides your students with an accessible, affordable, and active learning platform and you tools and resources to efficiently build presentations for a dynamic laboratory experience and to create and manage effective assessment strategies. The underlying principles of design, engagement, and measurable outcomes provide the foundation for this powerful, new release of WileyPLUS.

Design • New research-based design helps students manage their time better and develop better study skills • Course Calendars help track assignments for both students and teachers • New Course Plan makes it easier to assign pre- and post-lab activities and assessment. Simple drag-and-drop tools make it easy to assign the course plan as-is or in any way that best reflects your course syllabus. The new design makes it easy for students to know what it is they need to do, boosting their confidence and preparing them for greater engagement in lab.

Engagement • • • • • •

Complete online version of the lab manual for seamless integration of all content Online version of the lab manual includes interactive figure labeling exercises for students Relevant student study tools and learning resources ensure positive learning outcomes Immediate feedback boosts confidence and help students see a return on investment for each study session Resources like Cadaver Videos, Anatomy Drill and Practice help students study for laboratory practicals Course materials, including editable PowerPoint stacks and Wiley’s Visual Library for Anatomy and Physiology, help you personalize lessons and optimize your time

Concept mastery in this discipline is directly related to students keeping up with the work and not falling behind. The new Concept Modules, Activities, Self Study and Progress Checks in WileyPLUS will ensure that students know how to study effectively so they will remain engaged and stay on task.

Measurable Outcomes • Progress check enables students to hone in on areas of weakness for increased success • Self-assessment and remediation for all learning objectives lets students know exactly how their efforts have paid off • Instant reports monitor trends in class performance, use of course materials, and student progress towards learning objectives • New gradable versions of the PowerPhys 2.0 laboratory reports allow you to assign and grade these within WileyPLUS With new detailed reporting capabilities students will know that they are doing it right. With increased confidence, motivation is sustained so students stay on task, and success will follow. Please contact your Wiley representative for details about these and other resources or visit our website at www.wiley.com/college/sc/aandp and click on the laboratory text cover to explore the assets more fully.

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Real Anatomy Mark Nielsen and Shawn Miller, University of Utah Real Anatomy is 3-D imaging software that allows you to dissect through multiple layers of a three-dimensional real human body to study and learn the anatomical structures of all body systems.

• Dissect through up to 40 layers of the body and discover the relationships of the structures to the whole. • Rotate the body as well as major organs to view the image from multiple perspectives.

• Use a built-in zoom feature to get a closer look at detail. • A unique approach to highlighting and labeling structures does not obscure the real anatomy in view.

• Related Images provide multiple views of structures being studied.

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• Snapshots can be saved of any image for use in PowerPoints, quizzes, or handouts.

• View histology micrographs at varied levels of magnification with the virtual microscope.

• Audio pronunciation of all labeled structures is readily available.

Virtual Dissection—100% Real

NEW! THE PERFECT COMPANION TO COMPLETE YOUR STUDY OF ANATOMY

Photographic Atlas of Human Anatomy, First Edition Mark Nielsen and Shawn Miller, University of Utah This new atlas filled with outstanding photographs of meticulously executed dissections of the human body has been developed to be a strong teaching and learning solution, not just a catalog of photographs. Organized around body systems, each chapter includes a narrative overview of the body system followed by detailed photographs that accurately and realistically represent the anatomical structures. Histology is included. Photographic Atlas of Human Anatomy will work well in your laboratories, as a study companion to your lab manual and as a print companion to the Real Anatomy DVD.

Like the respiratory and digestive systems, the urinary system is an environmental exchange system. Like all the exchange systems of the body, the urinary system forms an immense interface with the cardiovascular system for the single purpose of regulating the homeostatic balance of the water environment (extracellular matrix) that surrounds every cell in the body. To make this exchange possible a large network of microscopic urinary tubes form an intimate nary system consists of two blood processing centers called the kidneys, two transport tubes called the ureters, which move the urine, that serves as a storage organ to hold the urine, which is being constantly produced in the kidneys. When it is convenient to remove the stored urine from the body, it leaves the bladder through a single drainage tube called the urethra. In order to survive, every body cell requires a water environment that is similar to the composition of the oceans in neys help maintain this water environblood and regulating its contents so the blood can help maintain the correct composition of the extracellular ing the amount of water in the plasma and the various plasma constituents, which are either conserved for the body or eliminated in the urine, the kidneys are able to maintain water and electrolyte balance within the very narrow range compatible with life, despite wide variations in intake and losses of these constituents through other avenues.

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Resources That Power Success Anatomy Drill and Practice in WileyPLUS

Anatomy Drill and Practice lets you test your knowledge of structures with simple-to-use drag and drop labeling exercises, or fill-in-the-blank labeling. You can drill and practice on these activities using illustrations from the text, cadaver photographs, histology micrographs, or anatomical models, so you can practice labeling these models outside of the lab.

Student and Instructor Companion Websites www.wiley.com/college/allen Resources for Students:

Resources for Instructors:

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• Anatomy and Physiology Visual Library • Editable PowerPoints that for all figures from the lab manual • All tables from the lab manual in PowerPoint • All images from the Cat Dissection Manual • All images from the Pig Dissection Manual • Answer Keys for “Reviewing Your Knowledge” • Answer Keys “Using Your Knowledge,” • Interactions Review Sheets • Real Anatomy Review Sheets

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Audio Glossary Rat Dissection video Pig Dissection video Answer s to figure questions Biology Newsfinder Interactions Review Sheets Real Anatomy Review Sheets Lab Safety Guidelines

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PREFACE

Acknowledgments We deeply appreciate the support, instruction, and encouragement from the members of our editorial, production, and marketing team at Wiley: Bonnie Roesch, Lorraina Raccuia, Lauren Morris, Hilary Newman, Anna Melhorn, Suzanne Ingrao, Wendy Lai, and Clay Stone. We also wish to thank Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson for producing a wonderful textbook that provided many illustrations and ideas for our laboratory manual. A special thank you to Susan Baxley for reviewing all the exercises, making suggestions and to Bob Clemence for allowing us to use his figure of the Respiratory Volumes and Capacities. Thank you to William Benyak and for photographing the fetal pig dissection. We also wish to thank Donalie Benyak for her technical assistance with the dissection photography. A special thanks to Charles Harper for answering many clinical questions. Many thanks to Michael Ross and his assistant Todd Barnash from the University of Florida for answering our histology questions and providing photomicrographs for the laboratory manual. We also wish to thank Kierstan Hong at Imagineering Art for the artwork she provided for our laboratory manual. Thank you to our colleagues at Edison State College: Paul Monigan, Bob Clemence, Sue Pilbeam, Colleen Swanson, Jody Gootkin, Richard McCoy, Jeff Davis, Florence Levin, John Berte, Dick Felden, Lyman O’Neil, Kitty Gronlund, Ken Laser, Greg Stancel, Tony Contino, Cheryl Black, and Jed Wolfson who encouraged us, answered our questions, and provided critiques of exercises. We also wish to thank Sheila Stancel and James Newton for their encouragement and Nicole Yarbrough Goerge for her critique of the skeletal muscle chapter. Thank you to Chaim Jay Margolin of Regional Radiology Associates and David Michie of Clinical Physiology Associates for providing images for this manual. Special thanks to SOMSO for providing images for our online Anatomy Drill and Practice: Anatomical Models section. Thanks to contributors Susan Baxley, Evelyn Biluk, Chippewa Valley Technical CollegeRiver Falls, Terry Thompson, Wor-Wic Community College, and Janice Yoder Smith, Tarrant County College.

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Reviewers and Survey Respondents A special thank you to all the reviewers. Their suggestions were extremely helpful in developing this laboratory manual. Sarah Bales, Moraine Valley Community College Evelyn Biluk, Chippewa Valley Technical College- River Falls Lu Anne Clark, Lansing Community College Juville Dario-Becker, Central Virginia Community College Peter Daempfle, SUNY Delhi Robert Dudock, Charles S. Mott Community College Ewa Gorski, Community College of Baltimore County-Catonsville Ronald Keiper, Valencia Community College Thomas Kober, Cincinnati State Technical and Community College Brenda Leady, University of Toledo Jennifer Mansfield-Jones, University of Toledo Lori McGowan, Harrisburg Area Community College Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College Javanika Mody, Anne Arundel Community College Kevin Morkel, Bohecker College-Columbus Necia Nicholas, Calhoun Community College Brent Odson, Bohecker College-Columbus Deborah Palatinus, Roane State Community College Mary Puglia, Central Arizona College Saeed Rahmanian, Roane State Community College Dan Ropek, Columbia Gorge Community College Deborah Schmidt, Central Ohio Technical College Jeffrey Spencer, University of Akron Mark Strazynski, Western University of Health Sciences Cynthia Surmacz, Bloomsburg University Heather Walker, Clemson University Delon Washo-Krupps, Arizona State University Cheryl Watson, Central Connecticut State University

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Contents

Preface / v

Introduction Exercise 1 • Anatomical Language / 1 Exercise 2 • Organ Systems and Body Cavities / 13

Surface Anatomy Exercise 15 • Surface Anatomy / 233

Nervous System

Integumentary System

Exercise 16 • Nervous Tissue / 253 Exercise 17 • Spinal Cord Structure and Function / 267 Exercise 18 • Spinal Nerves / 277 Exercise 19 • Somatic Reflexes / 287 Exercise 20 • Brain Structure and Function / 297 Exercise 21 • Cranial Nerves / 321 Exercise 22 • Autonomic Nervous System Structure and Function / 331 Exercise 23 • General Senses / 343 Exercise 24 • Special Senses / 357

Exercise 7 • The Integumentary System Structure and Function / 83

Endocrine System

Cell and Tissues Exercise 3 • Compound Light Microscope / 23 Exercise 4 • Cell Structure and Cell Cycle / 31 Exercise 5 • Transport Across the Plasma Membrane / 41 Exercise 6 • Tissues / 51

Exercise 25 • Endocrine Structure and Function / 389

Skeletal System and Joints Exercise 8 • Bone Structure and Function / 95 Exercise 9 • Axial Skeleton / 105 Exercise 10 • Appendicular Skeleton / 137 Exercise 11 • Joints and Synovial Joint Movements / 159

Cardiovascular System Exercise 26 Exercise 27 Exercise 28 Exercise 29 Exercise 30

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Blood Components and Blood Tests / 409 Heart Structure and Function / 429 Cardiac Cycle / 449 Blood Vessel Structure and Function / 461 Blood Vessel Identification / 477

Muscular System: Skeletal Muscles Exercise 12 • Skeletal Muscle Structure / 173 Exercise 13 • Contraction of Skeletal Muscle / 185 Exercise 14 • Skeletal Muscles and Their Actions / 197

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Lymphatic and Immune Systems Exercise 31 • Lymphatic System Structure and Immune System Function / 505

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CONTENTS

Respiratory System

Reproductive Systems

Exercise 32 • Respiratory System Structure and Function / 525 Exercise 33 • Pulmonary Ventilation / 543

Exercise 38 • Male Reproductive System Structure and Function / 625 Exercise 39 • Female Reproductive System Structure and Function / 641

Digestive System Exercise 34 • Digestive System Structure and Function / 559 Exercise 35 • Mechanical and Chemical Digestion / 587

Urinary System Exercise 36 • Urinary System Structure and Function / 595 Exercise 37 • Urine Formation and Urinalysis / 613

Human Development and Heredity Exercise 40 • Human Development / 659 Exercise 41 • Heredity / 673 Answer Key to Activities / 687 Appendix A: Word Roots / 709 Appendix B: Skeletal Muscle Origins and Insertions / 711 Photo Credits / 717 Index / 721

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E X E R C I S E

Anatomical Language Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • • •

1 Describe the anatomical position 2 Use anatomical and directional terms correctly

human models or anatomical charts apples (1 per group) and plastic knives or scalpels plastic tubing (1-foot piece per group) 5 sheep brains (for class demonstration)

3 Identify body planes and sections on models, charts, or preserved specimens

A

natomical terms describe body positions,

body regions, specific body areas, and landmarks. Most of these words are derived from Latin or Greek and are often part of the names of muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels. Learning these terms at this time will help you throughout the course.

A. Anatomical Terms The anatomical position is the reference position anatomists and people in medical fields use to describe the location of body parts or regions. In the anatomical position, the body is erect (vertical) and facing forward; the arms are straight and at the sides of the body with the palms facing forward; the legs are straight with the feet facing forward and flat (Figure 1.1). In the supine position, the body is horizontal and lying on the back. In the prone position, the body is horizontal and lying on the stomach.

Body regions refer to specific areas of the body. There are common misperceptions about the boundaries of a few body regions. Two common misconceptions are that the arm is the area between the shoulder and wrist and that the leg includes the thigh. Actually, the arm is located between the shoulder and elbow, and the forearm is located from the elbow to wrist. The thigh is located between the groin and knee, and the leg is located between the knee and ankle. The chest is the area of the trunk between the neck and diaphragm and contains the heart and lungs. The abdomen is the area of the trunk between the diaphragm and hip bones and contains the digestive organs. The pelvis is the area of the trunk below the hip bones and contains internal reproductive organs and the urinary bladder. The groin is the area on the anterior (front) surface marked by a crease where the lower limb attaches to the pelvis.

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ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

Many anatomical terms have one or more word roots with a prefix and/or a suffix added. For example, in the word antecubital, ante- is a prefix meaning before or in front of; the word root cubit- means elbow; -al is a suffix meaning pertaining to. Table 1.1 contains anatomical terms with four different suffixes all of which mean pertaining to. These suffixes are: -al, -ic, -ar, and -ary. When suffixes like these are added to word roots they form adjectives, whereas nouns have different endings such as -um, -us, -is, and -a. For example, stern- is a word root meaning chest; sternum is the noun and sternal is the adjective. Anatomical terms and their definitions are found in Table 1.1. Word roots and their definitions are found in Appendix A, as well as nouns and adjectives formed from the word roots.

TABLE 1.1

ACTIVITY 1 Anatomical Terms Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 1.1 with the appropriate anatomical terms for each body region or area. Refer to Table 1.1. 2 Refer to Appendix A to review how word roots, suffixes, and prefixes are combined to form nouns and adjectives. Lab Activity 1 Use anatomical terms to identify the specific body regions or areas on models or anatomical charts.

Anatomical Terms

TERM

DEFINITION

TERM

DEFINITION

AXIAL

Pertaining to the central part of the body, the head and trunk Pertaining to the head Pertaining to the portion of the skull surrounding the brain Pertaining to the face Pertaining to the forehead Pertaining to the eye Pertaining to the ear Pertaining to the nose Pertaining to the cheek Pertaining to the mouth Pertaining to the chin Pertaining to the back of head Pertaining to the neck Pertaining to the chest Pertaining to the breast bone Pertaining to the chest Pertaining to the breast Pertaining to the abdomen Pertaining to the navel Pertaining to the hip Pertaining to the pelvis Pertaining to the genital area Pertaining to the back Pertaining to the shoulder blade region Pertaining to the spinal column Pertaining to the area of the back between the lowest rib and buttocks.

APPENDICULAR

Pertaining to the extremities or limbs

Cephalic (se-FAL-ik) • Cranial

• • • • • • • • •

Facial Frontal Orbital Otic (OH-tik) Nasal Buccal (BUCK-al) Oral Mental Occipital (ox-SIP-i-tal)

Cervical Thoracic • Sternal • Pectoral • Mammary Abdominal • Umbilical (um-BIL-ih-cal) • Coxal (COX-al) Pelvic • Pubic (PYOO-bik) Dorsal • Scapular • Vertebral (ver-TEE-brul) • Lumbar

Upper Limb (Appendage) • Acromial (a-KROM-ee-al) • Axillary (AX-il-ary) • Brachial (BRAY-key-ul) • Antecubital (an-tehKYOO-bi-tul) • Olecranal (oh-LEK-ra-nul) • • • •

Antebrachial Carpal Manual Palmar

• Digital Lower Limb (Appendage) • Inguinal (ING-won-ul)

• Gluteal (GLUE-tee-ul) • Femoral (FEM-or-ul) • Patellar (pa-TEL-ur) • Popliteal (pop-lih-TEE-ul) • Crural (CROO-rul) • Fibular (FIB-you-lur) or peroneal (peh-RONE-ee-ul) • Sural (SIR-ul) • • • • •

Tarsal (TAR-sul) Pedal Plantar Calcaneal (kal-KANE-ee-ul) Digital

Pertaining to the highest point of the shoulder Pertaining to the armpit Pertaining to the arm Pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the elbow Pertaining to the posterior (back) surface of the elbow Pertaining to the forearm Pertaining to the wrist Pertaining to the hand Pertaining to the palm of the hand Pertaining to the digits (fingers) Pertaining to the groin where the thigh attaches to the pelvis Pertaining to the buttocks Pertaining to the thigh Pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the knee Pertaining to the posterior (back) surface of the knee Pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the leg Pertaining to the lateral side of the leg Pertaining to the posterior (back) surface of the leg Pertaining to the ankle Pertaining to the foot Pertaining to the sole of foot Pertaining to the heel Pertaining to the digits (toes)

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ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

3

17 18

1

19 2

20

32

21

3

22

4

23 24

5

33

25 26

6 7

34 27

8

35

28

41

9 29 11 12

10

36 13

30

14

37

38 39

15

16

31 (a) Anterior view

40 (b) Posterior view

42

(b) Posterior View

(a) Anterior View 1 _________________________

12 _________________________

23 _________________________

32 _________________________

2 _________________________

13 _________________________

24 _________________________

33 _________________________

3 _________________________

14 _________________________

25 _________________________

34 _________________________

4 _________________________

15 _________________________

26 _________________________

35 _________________________

5 _________________________

16 _________________________

27 _________________________

36 _________________________

6 _________________________

17 _________________________

28 _________________________

37 _________________________

7 _________________________

18 _________________________

29 _________________________

38 _________________________

8 _________________________

19 _________________________

30 _________________________

39 _________________________

9 _________________________

20 _________________________

31 _________________________

40 _________________________

10 _________________________

21 _________________________

41 _________________________

11 _________________________

22 _________________________

42 _________________________

FIGURE 1.1

Anatomical terms.

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ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

B. Directional Terms Directional terms are used to describe the location of body structures relative to other structures. An example of a directional term is inferior, which means below. It would be correct to say that the neck is inferior to the head but incorrect to say that the neck is inferior. The directional terms are listed in Table 1.2, along with an example of how they are used. Note that opposite terms are paired. The directional terms proximal and distal apply to the point of attachment of a limb to the torso or the point of origin of a structure such as a blood vessel or nerve. These terms refer to the location of structures relative to the point of attachment or point of origin, whether they are closer (proximal) or farther away (distal). More than one directional term can apply to describe the location of a body structure. For example, the ears are posterior and lateral to the nose.

1

2

3

4

5

6

•

anterior or ventral

1 ________________________

•

distal

2 ________________________

ACTIVITY 2 Directional Terms

•

inferior

3 ________________________

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Complete the sentences using the appropriate directional term from Table 1.2. Refer to the anatomical terms in Table 1.1 and Appendix A as needed. a. The sternum is ______________ to the vertebrae.

•

posterior or dorsal

4 ________________________

•

proximal

5 ________________________

•

superior

6 ________________________

FIGURE 1.2

Directional terms.

b. The orbit is ______________ to the oral cavity. c. The heart is ______________ to the lungs. d. The carpus is ______________ to the brachium. e. The right lung and right kidney are _____________ . f. The skin is ______________ to the bones.

TABLE 1.2

g. The nose is ______________ and ______________ to the eyes. 2 Label Figure 1.2 with the directional terms from the bulleted list by writing the term in the appropriate numbered blank.

Directional Terms

DIRECTIONAL TERM

DEFINITION

EXAMPLE OF USE

Superior Inferior Anterior (Ventral) Posterior (Dorsal) Medial Lateral Intermediate

Above Below Closer to front of body Closer to back of body Closer to midline of body Farther from midline of body Between two structures

Ipsilateral Contralateral Proximal

On same side of body On opposite sides of body Nearer to point of attachment of limb to trunk Farther from point of attachment of limb to trunk Closer to surface of body Farther from surface of body

The head is superior to the neck. The neck is inferior to the head. The lips are anterior to the teeth. The teeth are posterior to the lips. The nose is medial to the eyes. The eyes are lateral to the nose. The elbow is intermediate between the shoulder and wrist. The right arm and right leg are ipsilateral. The right arm and left arm are contralateral. The elbow is proximal to the wrist.

Distal Superficial Deep

The wrist is distal to the elbow. The skin is superficial to the muscles. The muscles are deep to the skin.

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ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

C. Body Planes and Sections Planes are flat surfaces that divide the body or organs in order to expose internal structures (Figure 1.3). The exposed surfaces produced by planes are called sections. Sagittal (sagitta = arrow) planes pass vertically through the body or organs and divide them into right and left sections (sagittal sections). If a plane passes vertically through the midline and divides the body into equal right and left halves, the plane is a midsagittal plane, but if a plane divides the body into unequal right and left portions, it is a parasagittal plane. A frontal or coronal plane passes vertically through the body or organs and produces anterior and posterior sections (frontal sections). A transverse plane passes horizontally through the body and produces superior and inferior sections (transverse sections or cross-sections). Oblique planes pass through the body at an angle forming oblique sections. We often look at sections of individual organs, such as blood vessels, intestines, or long bones. Sections that are produced by a plane running along the long axis of a long narrow structure are called longitudinal sections. Sections that are produced by a plane running perpendicular to the long axis are called cross-sections. Because blood vessels and intestines twist and bend, one body plane may produce longitudinal sections, cross-sections, and oblique sections of these structures.

1

3

4

5 2

(a) Right anterolateral view

CLINICAL NOTE: Transverse sections observed with computed tomography (CT) scans or magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs) are called axial sections.

ACTIVITY 3 Body Planes and Sections Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the planes in Figures 1.3(a) and the sections in Figure 1.3(b) with the terms in the accompanying bulleted list by writing the term in the appropriate numbered blank. 2 Identify the type of sections of the human brain in Figure 1.4.

6

7

(b) Longitudinal and cross-sections

•

cross-section

1 ________________________

•

frontal plane

2 ________________________

•

longitudinal section

3 ________________________

•

midsagittal plane

4 ________________________

•

oblique plane

5 ________________________

•

parasagittal plane

6 ________________________

•

transverse plane

7 ________________________

FIGURE 1.3

Body planes and sections.

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ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

(b)

(a)

•

frontal

•

midsagittal

•

transverse

a _____________________________________________________ b _____________________________________________________ c _____________________________________________________

(c)

FIGURE 1.4

Human brain sections.

Lab Activity 1 Observe sagittal, frontal, and transverse sections using an apple. • Working in a group, draw a face on the apple. • Cut sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes through the apple to make sagittal, frontal, and transverse sections. • Observe the appearance of the apple core in each section. • Keep sections together to form a whole apple to show to your instructor. 2 Observe longitudinal sections and cross-sections using plastic tubing. • Observe a demonstration provided by your instructor of a tube cut along its longitudinal axis to produce a longitudinal section and a tube cut perpendicular to its longitudinal axis to produce a cross-section. • Obtain a 1-foot section of plastic tubing and twist it so you can visualize one plane that would simultaneously divide one area of the tube into a longitudinal section and another area into a cross-section.

• Do not cut the tube unless instructed to do so. • Show your instructor where a cut would produce both a longitudinal section and a cross-section. 3 Identify sagittal, frontal, transverse, and oblique sections on sheep brains. • Your instructor will display five sheep brains—one whole brain and four brains that have been cut into different sections. • Determine the anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior surfaces of the brains. • Decide which brain has been cut into sagittal, frontal, transverse, or oblique sections. • Compare the appearance of the different sections. Brain 1—Whole brain Brain 2 _______________ section Brain 3 _______________ section Brain 4 _______________ section Brain 5 _______________ section

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

1

E X E R C I S E

A. Body Regions Complete the following sentences. ______________________ 1. The leg is to the lower limb as the ____ is to the upper limb. ______________________ 2. The arm is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb. ______________________ 3. The armpit is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb. ______________________ 4. The tarsal bones are to the lower limb as the ____ bones are to the upper limb. ______________________ 5. The elbow is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb. ______________________ 6. The shoulder is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb. ______________________ 7. True or False. The hand includes the wrist and fingers and the foot includes the ankles and toes. ______________________ 8. True or False. The bones of the face are also part of the skull.

B. Anatomical Terms Write the anatomical terms that the phrase or word describes. Phrases or words referring to nouns are indicated. All other phrases refer to adjectives. ______________________ 1. Navel (noun) ______________________ 2. Pertaining to the area between the neck and abdomen ______________________ 3. Pertaining to the ear ______________________ 4. Pertaining to the palm of hand ______________________ 5. Pertaining to the high point of the shoulder ______________________ 6. Pertaining to the anterior surface of the elbow region ______________________ 7. Pertaining to the face; anterior portion of the head ______________________ 8. Pertaining to the nose ______________________ 9. Pertaining to the neck

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______________________ 10. Pertaining to the posterior surface of the knee ______________________ 11. Wrist (noun) ______________________ 12. Pertaining to the area between the elbow and wrist ______________________ 13. Back (noun) ______________________ 14. Armpit area (noun) ______________________ 15. Pertaining to the mouth ______________________ 16. Pertaining to the anterior surface of the knee ______________________ 17. Breast bone (noun) ______________________ 18. Pertaining to the hip ______________________ 19. Pertaining to the side of the leg ______________________ 20. Pertaining to the calf ______________________ 21. Pertaining to the area between the shoulder and elbow ______________________ 22. Pertaining to the fingers or toes ______________________ 23. Pertaining to the hand ______________________ 24. Pertaining to the breast ______________________ 25. Pertaining to the cheek ______________________ 26. Pertaining to the heel ______________________ 27. Pertaining to the sole of the foot ______________________ 28. Pertaining to the groin where the thigh attaches to the pelvic region ______________________ 29. Pertaining to the head ______________________ 30. Pertaining to the chin ______________________ 31. Pertaining to the foot ______________________ 32. Pertaining to the eye ______________________ 33. Pertaining to the genital area ______________________ 34. Pertaining to the area between the hip and knee ______________________ 35. Pertaining to the area that includes the bones enclosing the brain ______________________ 36. Pertaining to the forehead ______________________ 37. Pertaining to the spinal column

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______________________ 38. Pertaining to the inferior back of the head ______________________ 39. Pertaining to the anterior surface of the leg ______________________ 40. Pertaining to the area of the lower back or loin ______________________ 41. Pertaining to the trunk below the abdomen ______________________ 42. Pertaining to the area of the back that contains the shoulder blades ______________________ 43. Pertaining to the posterior surface of the elbow ______________________ 44. Arm (noun)

}

______________________ 45.

Pertaining to the chest

______________________ 46.

C. Body Planes and Sections Write the name of the plane that the phrase describes. ______________________ 1. Divides body or organ into unequal right and left sections ______________________ 2. Divides body or organ into anterior and posterior sections ______________________ 3. Divides body or organ into superior and inferior sections ______________________ 4. Divides body into right and left halves

}

______________________ 5.

Which planes when passed through the body would result in two sections, with each ______________________ 6. section containing a piece of the heart and a piece of each lung?

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ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

SUPERIOR

SUPERIOR Skull Cranial portion Facial portion Pectoral (shoulder) girdle Clavicle Scapula Thorax Sternum Ribs

Vertebral column

Vertebral column

Upper limb (extremity) Humerus

Pelvic (hip) girdle

Pelvic (hip) girdle

Ulna Radius Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Lower limb (extremity) Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges (a) Anterior view

FIGURE 1.5

Human skeleton.

D. Directional Terms Complete the sentences using directional terms. Use Figure 1.5 for reference. 1. The clavicle is ______________ to the ribs. 2. The ribs are ______________ to the sternum. 3. The humerus is ______________ to the radius. 4. The ulna is ______________ to the radius. 5. The tibia is ______________ to the femur. 6. The right humerus and the right radius are ______________ . 7. The pelvic girdle is ______________ to the ribs. 8. The sternum is ______________ to the vertebral column. 9. The scapula is ______________ to the clavicle. 10. The right fibula and left fibula are ______________.

(b) Posterior view

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

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E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Body Regions, Anatomical Terminology, and Directional Terms 1. A 55-year-old male presented with an irregularly shaped and abnormally pigmented mole in the left scapular region, just lateral to the vertebrae. Indicate on Figure 1.6 where this mole is likely to be found. 2. A 37-year-old female presented to the emergency room with a severe burn (3rd degree) on the right brachial region just proximal to the antecubital region. Indicate on Figure 1.6 where the laceration is likely to be found. 3. A 19-year-old female was identified by a tattoo on the fibular surface of the right leg just proximal to the tarsal region. Indicate on Figure 1.6 where the tattoo is likely to be found.

(a) Anterior view

FIGURE 1.6

(b) Posterior view

Body regions, anatomical language, and directional terms.

Questions 4–8 have italicized words that are derived from word roots used to form the adjectives in Table 1.1. Using the locations suggested by the italicized words, answer questions 4–7. 4. Is the popliteal artery proximal or distal to the femoral artery? 5. Is the pectoralis major muscle anterior or posterior to the subscapularis muscle?

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ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

6. Is the sternocleidomastoid muscle superior or inferior to the rectus abdominis muscle? 7. Are the thoracic vertebrae medial or lateral to the scapulae?

B. Body Planes and Sections Figure 1.7 contains three different sections through the thorax. Indicate which section (view a, b, or c) is a 8. Frontal section ______ 9. Sagittal section ______ 10. Transverse (axial) section ______ (a)

Right lung

Liver

Vertebral column

(b)

Left Intestine kidney

Liver

Vertebra

(c)

Spinal cord

FIGURE 1.7

Sections through the thorax.

Vertebral column

Heart Trachea

Sternum

Stomach

Spleen

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E X E R C I S E

2

Organ Systems and Body Cavities Objectives After completing this exercise, you should be able to: 1 Name the organ systems and describe the functions of each 2 Name the major organs of each organ system and identify them on models or charts 3 Describe the location of the body cavities and name the organs they contain 4 Describe the structure and location of the serous membranes 5 Identify the abdominopelvic quadrants and the organs found in each

Materials

• •

human torso models or charts

• • • •

articulated skeleton

• •

markers

male and female human reproductive models or charts one-gallon zippered plastic bags (2 per group) masking tape roll of paper or plastic large enough to outline student torsos rat dissection video in WileyPlus

6 Identify the abdominopelvic regions and the major organs found in each

O

rgan systems are like different departments

within a company. Within a company, departments work together to keep the company functioning and within the body, organ systems work together to keep the body alive. In this exercise, you will learn the basic function and location of each organ system.

A. Overview of Organ Systems An organ system is a group of organs performing a common function. All organ systems cooperate to maintain an optimal environment for body cells through a process called homeostasis (homeo- = same; stasis = standing). Failure to maintain homeostasis results in disorders, disease, and possibly death.

ACTIVITY 1 Identifying Organ Systems Pre-Lab Activity 1 Observe the organs in Figures 2.1(a) and (b). Refer to your textbook for a list of organ systems, their function, and the major organs in each organ system. 2 Write each labeled organ under the appropriate organ system. There may be organ systems that don’t have any organs in these figures, and some organs may function with more than one system.

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ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BODY CAVITIES

Trachea

Body Systems Cardiovasecular System

Aorta Lung

Digestive System Heart Diaphragm

Endocrine System Liver

Large intestines

Integumentary System

Small intestine

Lymphatic System

Muscular System

(a) Superficial organs

Trachea

Nervous System

Lung

Bronchus

Esophagus

Aorta

Reproductive System

Spleen

Respiratory System

Kidney

Skeletal System

Stomach Pancreas (posterior to stomach)

Ureter

Urinary Bladder (b) Deeper organs

FIGURE 2.1

Selected organs and organ systems.

Urinary system

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EXERCISE 2

B. Identification of Major Organs on a Torso Model You will be identifying organs from anterior to posterior on a torso model and answering questions concerning their position relative to the organs around them.

ACTIVITY 2 Identification of Organs Lab Activity 1 Identify the following organs on the anterior surface of a torso model. Identify all the organs without removing any organs from the model. • brain • trachea • heart • lungs • liver • stomach (torso’s left side) • small intestine • large intestine (colon) 2 Remove the lungs, heart, liver, and stomach. Locate the gallbladder on the inferior surface of the liver. 3 Identify the following organs on the human torso model or chart: • esophagus • bronchi (right and left) • inferior vena cava • pancreas (posterior to stomach) • spleen 4 Remove the small intestine and large intestine. Locate the appendix at the inferior right end of the large intestine. 5 Identify the following organs on the human torso model: • abdominal aorta • adrenal glands (superior surface of kidneys) • kidneys • ureters • urinary bladder 6 Identify the female reproductive organs on a female reproductive model or chart. Observe the position of the urinary bladder relative to the uterus. • ovaries • uterus • urinary bladder 7 Identify the male reproductive organs on a male reproductive model or chart. • penis • scrotum (skin covering testes) • testes

ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BODY CAVITIES

15

8 Answer the following questions about the position of each organ on the torso model. 1. The stomach is _______ to the small intestine. a. superior b. inferior c. medial d. lateral 2. The liver is _______ to the lungs. a. superior b. inferior c. medial

d. lateral

3. The lungs are _______ to the heart. a. superior b. inferior c. medial

d. lateral

4. The trachea is _______ to the esophagus. a. medial b. inferior c. anterior d. posterior 5. The pancreas is _______ to the stomach. a. superior and medial b. superior and anterior c. anterior and lateral d. posterior and inferior 6. The gallbladder is _______ on the surface of the liver. a. superior b. inferior c. posterior d. lateral 7. The stomach is _______ to the spleen. a. lateral b. medial c. superior d. inferior 8. The abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava are _______ to the kidneys. a. medial b. lateral c. superior d. inferior 9. The kidneys are _______ to the small intestine. a. anterior b. posterior c. superior d. inferior 10. The urinary bladder is _______ to the uterus. a. posterior and superior b. anterior and inferior c. medial and superior d. lateral and posterior

ACTIVITY 3 Organ Location Lab Activity 1 Using the paper or plastic provided by your instructor, draw the outline of a full-size torso. 2 Using a marker, draw life size outlines of all superficial organs in the appropriate place on the paper torso.

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ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BODY CAVITIES

C. Body Cavities Many of the body’s organs are found within body cavities. The cranial cavity contains the brain, and it is continuous with the vertebral (vertebra = back) canal that contains the spinal cord. The thoracic cavity is a space enclosed by the ribs, sternum, and vertebral column. This cavity contains three small cavities: the pericardial cavity (peri- = around; -cardia = heart) and two pleural cavities (pleuro- = side or rib). The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, and each pleural cavity contains a lung. The mediastinum (media- = middle; -stinum = partition), a central area within the thoracic cavity, extends from the neck to the diaphragm and from the sternum to the vertebral column. The organs located in the mediastinum are the heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea, blood vessels, and bronchi. The pleural cavities are located on either side of the mediastinum. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity consists of two continuous cavities: the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity. The abdominal cavity is the superior portion located between the diaphragm and the brim of the pelvis (hip bones). This cavity contains the stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, small intestine, kidneys, appendix, and part of the large intestine. Within the abdominal cavity is the

peritoneal cavity. Although most abdominal organs are positioned within the peritoneal cavity, a few organs are retroperitoneal (retro- = backward), or located posterior to the peritoneum. These organs are the pancreas, kidneys, adrenal glands, and portions of the large intestine, small intestine, aorta, and inferior vena cava. The pelvic cavity is the inferior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity contains part of the large intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, female reproductive organs (ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina), and male reproductive organs (prostate, and part of ductus deferens). It is important to note that the testes and penis are not located in the pelvic cavity but are located inferior to it.

ACTIVITY 4 Body Cavities Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the major body cavities and the diaphragm on Figure 2.2(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Locate the major body cavities on a skeleton and torso model. Identify the organs located in each body cavity. 2 Locate the mediastinum (meed-ee-uh-STINE-um) on a torso model. Identify the organs located within the mediastinum.

1

• • • • • •

2

3 4

abdominal cavity cranial cavity diaphragm pelvic cavity thoracic cavity vertebral canal

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________

5

6

(a) Right lateral view

FIGURE 2.2

Body cavities.

(b) Anterior view

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EXERCISE 2

D. Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants Anatomists divide the abdominopelvic cavity into nine regions using two vertical and two horizontal lines in a tic-tactoe grid so that the location of any organ is simple to describe. The two vertical lines are drawn mid-clavicular (mid-collar bone) and just medial to the nipples, beginning at the diaphragm and extending inferiorly through the pelvic area. The upper horizontal line is drawn across the abdomen, inferior to the ribs and across the inferior portions of the liver and stomach. The lower horizontal line is drawn slightly inferior to the superior portion of the pelvic bones. These nine regions from the top right to the lower left are: right hypochondriac (hypo- = under; chondro- = cartilage), epigastric (epi- = upon; gastro- = stomach), left hypochondriac, right lumbar (lumbar = loin), umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal, or iliac (inguinal = groin), hypogastric or pubic, and left inguinal or iliac. Clinicians are more apt to divide this cavity into four quadrants that are formed by transverse and sagittal planes running through the umbilicus (navel). These quadrants are useful clinically when one is trying to describe abnormalities or to determine which organ may be the cause of pain. The four quadrants are: right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).

ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BODY CAVITIES

3 Using four pieces of masking tape, divide the abdominopelvic cavity of a human torso into regions. 4 Using the torso model, identify in which abdominopelvic region each organ is primarily located. a. appendix

_______________

b. gallbladder

_______________

c. left ovary

_______________

d. bifurcation of the abdominal aorta

_______________

e. spleen

_______________

f. stomach (majority of)

_______________

NOTE: Right and left always refer to the model’s or specimen’s own right and left

ACTIVITY 5 Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Pre-Lab Activity 1 Draw lines on Figure 2.3(a) separating the abdominopelvic cavity into quadrants and label the quadrants. 2 Draw lines on Figure 2.3(b) separating the abdominopelvic cavity into regions and label the regions. Lab Activity 1 Using two pieces of masking tape, divide the abdominopelvic cavity of a human torso into quadrants. 2 Using the torso model, identify in which abdominopelvic quadrant(s) each organ is primarily located. Use the abbreviations RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, and LLQ. a. appendix _______________ b. large intestine or colon _______________ c. liver _______________ d. ovaries _______________ e. pancreas _______________ f. small intestine _______________ g. spleen _______________ h. stomach _______________

17

(a) Quadrants

(b) Regions

FIGURE 2.3

Abdominopelvic cavity.

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ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BODY CAVITIES

E. Serous Membranes Most of the organs in the ventral body cavity are covered with serous (serum = any clear, watery fluid) membranes, which are composed of two layers: a visceral layer and a parietal layer. The visceral (viscera = internal organs) layer covers the organ, whereas the parietal (paries = wall) layer attaches to and covers the ventral body wall. These two layers comprise one continuous sheet that folds to form a sac. Between the two layers is a small amount of serous fluid secreted by the membranes. The clear, watery serous fluid prevents friction as the organs move within the ventral body cavity. For example, the heart has movement within the thoracic cavity as it fills with and ejects blood. Serous membranes are named for the cavities they surround. Thoracic serous membranes include the pleura, which covers the lungs, and the pericardium, which covers the heart. The serous membrane that covers the abdominal organs is the peritoneum (peri- = around; teinein = to stretch).

2 In the same bag, what is the name of the simulated outer serous membrane layer?

3 What does the water represent?

4 Was it easier to push a fist into the bag with no water or into the bag with water?

5 Based on your observations, does the presence of serous fluid make it easier for organs to move? Explain.

ACTIVITY 6 Serous Membranes Lab Activity 1 Make a replica or model of a serous membrane with your lab group. (This may be done as a demonstration by your instructor.) • Obtain a 1-gallon zippered plastic bag. • Add about 40 to 50 mL of water to the bag and then push out the extra air before sealing the bag. • Make sure all the air is out of the bag and then re-zip the bag. • Have a lab partner place a fist (simulating an organ) on the bottom edge of the bag and push up into the bag. • Obtain another 1-gallon zippered plastic bag. • Make sure all the air is out of the second bag and then re-zip the bag. Do not add water. • Now have the same lab partner place a fist (simulating an organ) on the bottom edge of the first bag and push up into the bag. • Answer the discussion questions with your lab partners.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: SEROUS MEMBRANES 1 In the bag with water, what is the name of the simulated serous membrane layer that is touching the fist (organ)?

F. Organ Systems, Body Cavities, and Serous Membranes in the Rat The organ systems, body cavities, and serous membranes of the rat are similar to those of humans. The rat dissection will allow you to see the relationship of organs to each other, organ location within body cavities, and serous membranes.

ACTIVITY 7 Rat Dissection Video Go to WileyPlus to view the rat dissection video.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

2

E X E R C I S E

A. Functions of Organ Systems Identify the organ system by its function as described below. ______________________ 1. Maintains blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels ______________________ 2. Controls muscles and glands by electrical impulses; helps control homeostasis ______________________ 3. Causes movement of bones ______________________ 4. Waterproof barrier that blocks the entrance of pathogens into the body and prevents the loss of water from the body ______________________ 5. Transports nutrients, oxygen, and carbon dioxide throughout the body ______________________ 6. Changes food into absorbable nutrients; expels wastes ______________________ 7. Regulates composition of blood by eliminating nitrogenous wastes, excess water, and minerals ______________________ 8. Uses hormones to control cell function; helps control homeostasis ______________________ 9. Provides framework for the body and protects body organs ______________________ 10. Produces gametes (sperm and egg) ______________________ 11. Returns fluid to the bloodstream and provides protection against pathogens that have entered the body

B. Organ Identification Identify the correct organ system for the following organs. ______________________ 1. spleen ______________________ 2. liver ______________________ 3. trachea

______________________ 4. blood vessels ______________________ 5. hair ______________________ 6. kidney

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ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BODY CAVITIES

______________________ 7. uterus

______________________ 12. large intestine

______________________ 8. pituitary gland

______________________ 13. pancreas (2 systems)

______________________ 9. spinal cord

______________________ 14. adrenal gland

______________________ 10. testes (2 systems)

______________________ 15. thyroid

______________________ 11. prostate gland

C. Body Cavities Identify all the cavities for each organ as follows: cranial (C), vertebral (V), thoracic (T), pleural (PL), pericardial (PC), peritoneal (PT), abdominal (A), or pelvic (P). ______________________ 1. brain

______________________ 7. spinal cord

______________________ 2. small intestine

______________________ 8. liver

______________________ 3. heart

______________________ 9. kidneys

______________________ 4. lungs

______________________ 10. uterus

______________________ 5. bronchi

______________________ 11. urinary bladder

______________________ 6. stomach

______________________ 12. ovaries

D. Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Name the quadrant(s) (RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, and LLQ) and/or region(s) (right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal or iliac, hypogastric or pubic, and left inguinal or iliac) that the following organs predominantly occupy. ______________________ 1. liver

______________________ 5. appendix

______________________ 2. stomach

______________________ 6. left kidney

______________________ 3. spleen

______________________ 7. right ovary

______________________ 4. gallbladder

______________________ 8. uterus

E. Serous Membranes Write the term the phrase describes. ______________________ 1. Attaches the heart to the body cavity ______________________ 2. Covers the surface of the lungs ______________________ 3. Covers the surface of abdominal organs ______________________ 4. The lubricating liquid in serous cavities ______________________ 5. Circle the organs that are found within the peritoneal cavity: pancreas, liver, kidney, spleen, adrenal glands, abdominal aorta, inferior portions of vena cava, stomach

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

2

E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Homeostatic Imbalances of Organ Systems Using your textbook, identify the organ system that is homeostatically imbalanced in the following diseases or disorders. ______________________ 1. muscular dystrophy ______________________ 2. hypothyroidism ______________________ 3. myocardial ischemia ______________________ 4. infectious mononucleosis

B. Body Cavities and Serous Membranes Identify all the cavities entered for each procedure, beginning with the largest cavity and ending with the most specific body cavity. Use these abbreviations for the body cavities: Abdominal (A); cranial (C); pelvic (P); pericardial (PC); pleural (PL); peritoneal (PT); thoracic (T); and vertebral (V). ______________________ 5. coronary bypass surgery ______________________ 6. cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal) ______________________ 7. spinal tap

C. Abdominopelvic Quadrants –––– 8. A 44-year-old male went to the emergency room complaining of severe pain in his RLQ. The doctor palpated the area and determined that the pain was originating from an organ in that quadrant. Which organ might be involved? (a) liver (b) appendix (c) gallbladder (d) spleen (e) stomach –––– 9. A 23-year-old female went to the doctor with the chief complaint of RLQ pain. Which organ is most likely the cause? (a) adrenal gland (b) ovary (c) gallbladder (d) pancreas (e) kidney

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ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BODY CAVITIES

D. Organ Identification Identify the organs in the color-enhanced medical images in Figure 2.4.

16

10 15

17

11

(c) MRI of abdomen, anterior view

(a) MRI of head and neck, sagittal view

12

13

14

18

(b) Radiograph of thorax, anterior view

19

20

(d) Radiograph of abdomen and pelvis, anterior view

10 _________________________________

14 _________________________________

18 _________________________________

11 _________________________________

15 _________________________________

19 _________________________________

12 _________________________________

16 _________________________________

20 _________________________________

13 _________________________________

17 _________________________________

FIGURE 2.4

Identification of organs on medical images.

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E X E R C I S E

3

Compound Light Microscope Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

compound light microscopes, lens paper, immersion oil

1 Describe and demonstrate how to carry, clean, use, and store a compound light microscope

• • • •

prepared slides of the letter “e”

2 Identify the parts of a compound light microscope and describe their function 3 Demonstrate how to view an object with the microscope using all magnifications 4 Calculate total magnification

thin, clear plastic rulers prepared slides of the trachea (or other organ) wet mount of cheek cells; clean microscope slides, coverslips, lens paper, flat toothpicks, and dropper bottle of dilute methylene blue, 0.9% saline solution, 10% bleach solution

5 Demonstrate how to measure the field of view 6 Measure the diameter of a cell

A

compound light microscope is used to observe

small structures such as cells and tissues. The term compound refers to the two types of lenses (ocular and objective) that are used simultaneously to magnify the image. The term light refers to the necessity of using a light source to view the object. Most human cells must be magnified to be seen by the unaided human eye. The compound light microscope can magnify images up to approximately 1,000 times, depending on the magnifying power of the lenses. Microscopic examination of cells and tissues allows students to observe how cell and tissue structure determines function. Changes in normal cell and tissue structure cause changes in organ function that lead to a disorder or disease. Tissue biopsies are performed to observe whether normal cellular structure has changed, which would indicate the absence or presence of a disorder or disease.

A. Transporting the Microscope The compound light microscope is an expensive, precision instrument that must be handled appropriately. Demonstrate care in transporting, cleaning, using, and storing the microscope. • Pick up the microscope with two hands, one holding the arm and the other supporting the base with the cord in a secure position. • Carry the microscope upright so that a lens or eyepiece does not fall out, and carefully place the microscope on the lab table in front of you.

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COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

B. Parts of the Microscope • Base—The wide bottom part that supports the microscope. • Arm—The straight or curved vertical part that connects the base to the head. • Head (or body tube)—The upper part of the microscope that extends from the arm and contains the ocular lens(es) and the rotating nosepiece with the objective lenses. NOTE: All other microscope parts attach to the base, arm, and head—the three basic parts of the framework.

• Ocular lens(es)—Removable eyepieces used to observe the microscope slide. Microscopes with one ocular lens are called monocular (mono- ⫽ one; ocu- ⫽ eye), and those with two ocular lenses are called binocular (bi- ⫽ two). Typically, these lenses magnify an object tenfold (10⫻). Look at an ocular lens and record the magnification power. _______ One of the ocular lenses may have a pointer used to identify a specific area on the slide. A micrometer, used to measure the field of view and object size, may also be present in one ocular lens. State whether your microscope has a pointer and/or a micrometer. If it has a pointer or micrometer, give the ocular lens (right or left) in which each is found. Pointer _______ Micrometer _______ • Objective lenses—A microscope will usually have three or four objective lenses mounted on a revolving nosepiece. Most microscopes have objective lenses that magnify an object 4⫻ (scanning), 10⫻ (low-power), 40⫻ (high-dry), and 100⫻ (oil immersion). List the magnification powers of the objective lenses on your microscope. ___________________ As the barrel of the objective lens increases in length, the magnifying power also increases. • Stage—The flat platform located beneath the objective lenses on which the microscope slide is placed. The stage has a hole in the middle, the light aperture, through which light is focused on the slide. The slide may be held onto the stage with either two spring clips or a mechanical stage clamp. Does your microscope have 2 spring clips or a mechanical stage? _______ • Mechanical stage—Holds the slide securely in place with a spring clamp for viewing and can be moved with precision by using the adjuster knobs. One knob moves the slide side to side, and the other forward and backward. • Coarse focus knobs—On each side of the microscope toward the base is a large knob or dial that may or may not have a smaller knob in the middle. Only one of the large knobs needs to be used, depending on whether one is right- or left-handed.

• •

•

•

The large knob is used for coarse focusing and either moves the stage up and down quickly or moves the objective lenses up and down quickly. This knob is to be used with scanning or low-power lenses. Does your stage or objective lens move? _______. Fine focus knob—The smaller knob on each side of the microscope that is used for precision focusing. Condenser—Located just below the stage is a lens that condenses light through the specimen on the slide above. If the condenser has an adjustment knob that raises and lowers the condenser, it usually needs to be in the highest position to focus the most light on the specimen. Iris diaphragm—Located beneath the condenser, the iris diaphragm works similarly to the iris of the eye. By adjusting its lever, the aperture changes diameter and regulates the amount of light that passes through the condenser. Decreasing the aperture size decreases the amount of light on the specimen and increases contrast. Substage light—The light source is usually built into the base of the microscope and typically has a dial or sliding bar on one side to control the light intensity.

ACTIVITY 1 Parts of the Microscope Lab Activity 1 Identify the parts of your microscope as shown in Figure 3.1. 2 Compare your microscope with the one in Figure 3.1 and identify any differences with your lab partner.

C. Calculating Magnification Total magnification is determined by multiplying the ocular lens power times the objective lens power. Example: Ocular lens power ⫽ 10⫻; Objective lens power ⫽ 4⫻; Total magnification ⫽ 40⫻.

ACTIVITY 2

Calculating Magnification

Lab Activity 1 Calculate the total magnification by multiplying the magnifying powers of your microscope lenses. scanning lens _____ ⫻ ocular lens _____ ⫽ _____ total magnification low-power lens _____ ⫻ ocular lens _____ ⫽ _____ total magnification high-dry lens _____ ⫻ ocular lens _____ ⫽ _____ total magnification oil immersion lens _____ ⫻ ocular lens _____ ⫽ _____ total magnification

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EXERCISE 3 Ocular lens

COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

25

Camera attachment tube

Revolving nosepiece Objective lens

Head

Mechanical stage Stage Condenser Iris diaphragm Condenser adjustment knob Substage light

Arm Light switch Light intensity knob Mechanical stage adjustor knob Fine focus knob Coarse focus knob Base

FIGURE 3.1

Parts of the microscope.

D. Using the Microscope • Clean up your lab area and put nonessentials away so you will have plenty of room to use the microscope. • Unwind the cord and plug it in. • Clean the ocular, objective lenses, and condenser lenses only with the special lens paper (optical safe) provided by your instructor. Whenever the image on the slide cannot be focused clearly, it may be that the ocular, objective lens, or slide is dirty and needs additional cleaning. If all else has failed, consult your instructor. • Turn on the light and adjust it to the lowest light setting feasible for good visibility and color to reduce eye strain. The scanning (4⫻) and low-power (10⫻) lenses will not need as much light as the high-dry (40⫻) and oil immersion (100⫻) lenses. • Trouble-shooting: If no light comes on initially, check two things before consulting your instructor. (a) Turn the light dial to a higher setting. (b) Check the safety switch on the electrical outlet by pushing in the reset button. If the light still does not work, plug your microscope into an outlet that you know works.

ACTIVITY 3 Using the Microscope Lab Activity 1 Move the scanning objective lens into place so it is over the light aperture on the stage. This objective lens has the shortest barrel. Make sure you feel the lens click into position or your field of view will be black. 2 Obtain a prepared slide with the letter “e” from your instructor and place it on the stage, securing it with either the mechanical stage clamps or slide clips. Draw the letter “e” as it appears on the stage without looking in the ocular lens. _______ 3 Without looking into the ocular lens, practice moving the slide from side to side in addition to backward and forward using the mechanical stage knobs (or your hands if your stage has slide clips). 4 Using the mechanical stage knobs (or your hands if your stage has slide clips), position the letter “e” over the light hole in the stage. 5 Check to see that the condenser lens is raised completely up to the stage.

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COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

6 If your stage is moveable, the coarse focus knob will move the stage. Raise the stage as far as it will go. If your objective is moveable, use the coarse focus knob to lower the objective lens until it stops. The slide and the scanning objective lens will not actually touch. 7 If you have a binocular microscope, adjust the two ocular lenses as you would a pair of binoculars so that the two lenses are a comfortable distance apart for your eyes. 8 Look through the ocular lens(es) and adjust the light. Use the coarse focus knob to focus in the letter “e.” Complete the focusing process by using the fine focus knob. 9 The working distance is the distance a specimen is from the bottom of the objective lens. Use a millimeter ruler to measure the distance between the bottom of the scanning objective lens and your specimen. _________ mm 10 Using the mechanical stage knobs, bring the letter “e” directly into the center of the field of view (the lighted circular area you see as you look through the ocular lenses). 11 Draw the letter “e” as it appears through the microscope. Compare the appearance to your initial drawing. _______ 12 While observing the letter “e” through the ocular lens(es), describe the movement that you observe as you move the slide: • to the left __________________________ • to the right _________________________ • forward ____________________________ 13

14

15

16

• backward __________________________ Reposition the letter “e” directly in the middle of the field of view and switch to the low-power objective lens. Most microscopes are parfocal so that when you move to a different magnification the specimen is almost, but not quite, in focus. You will need only the fine focus knob to focus the image. Center the specimen because the previously centered object is usually not in the center. What is the working distance from the bottom of the low-power objective lens to your specimen? _________ mm Use the iris diaphragm lever to adjust the amount of light and improve the contrast of your image.

CAUTION: Do not use the coarse focus knob with high-dry or oil immersion lenses.

17 Repeat the above procedure with the high-dry objective lens. Be sure to focus only with the fine focus knob. 18 What is the working distance from the bottom of the high-power objective lens to your specimen? _________ mm 19 Describe the change in diameter of the field of view as one switches from the scanning lens to the low-power lens and then to the high-power lens. NOTE: Most slides used in anatomy and physiology do not need the magnification of the oil immersion lens. Your instructor will inform you if and when you will use this objective lens. Only use the oil immersion lens if instructed to do so.

20 Center the area you want to view and then obtain a container of immersion oil made especially for the oil immersion lens. 21 Focus the slide with the high-power lens. Move the objective lens out of the way and apply a drop of oil directly on the part of the slide you wish to study. 22 Click the oil immersion lens into place, open the iris diaphragm as needed, adjust the light, and focus with only the fine focus knob. 23 What is the working distance from the bottom of the oil immersion lens to your specimen? _________ mm 24 When you finish, move the scanning power objective lens back into place. 25 Move the stage as far from objectives as possible by either lowering the stage or raising the objectives. Remove the slide and clean the oil from the oil immersion lens with lens paper. (Also clean the high-dry objective lens if you passed it through the oil.) Your instructor may ask you to use an additional cleaner. 26 Clean the slide with a new lens paper. If necessary, clean the stage as well.

E. Measuring the Field of View The field of view is the area on the slide that is being observed and is inversely proportional to the magnification (the field of view decreases in size with increasing magnification). Once you know the diameter of the field of view in millimeters (mm) at various magnifications, you will be able to estimate the size of cells or other structures in the field of view. The object being viewed should be in the center of the field of view when you are switching to a higher objective lens (higher magnifying power). Measuring the field of view at different magnifications demonstrates the advantage of scanning at a lower magnification to find a structure of interest before working up to a higher magnification.

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EXERCISE 3

ACTIVITY 4 Measuring the Field of View and Estimating Object Size Lab Activity 1 Move the scanning objective lens in place. 2 Place a clear plastic ruler over the light opening in the stage, or use the micrometer in the ocular lens, or grid slide. 3 Look through the ocular lens and move the ruler or grid slide so that a line touches the left edge of the field and count the number of millimeter intervals that can be seen. Record. _________ mm 4 Switch to the low-power objective lens and repeat this procedure to count the number of millimeter intervals that can be seen. Record. _________ mm 5 Switch to the high-dry objective lens and repeat this procedure to count the number of millimeter intervals that can be seen. Record. _________ mm. The closeness of this lens to the slide may not allow a ruler to be added. 6 Move the scanning power objective lens in place and move the stage as far as possible from the objectives before removing the ruler. 7 Obtain a prepared slide with the letter “e” and place it on the stage. Using the scanning power objective lens, estimate the diameter of the letter e. If it occupies 1⁄2 of the field of view, then it is 1⁄2 times the measured diameter of the field of view of the scanning objective lens. Record the diameter of the letter “e.” _________ mm 8 Move the stage as far as possible from the objectives before removing the ruler.

COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

27

F. Microscopic Structure of an Organ An organ is comprised of a variety of cells and tissues. This activity starts with an observation of a section of a whole organ with the scanning lens to get the “big picture,” and then moves to higher magnifying powers to see additional detail.

ACTIVITY 5 Observation of an Organ Lab Activity 1 Obtain a prepared slide of the trachea or other organ supplied by your instructor. 2 Begin your observation using the scanning lens. Center and focus the organ and note that you can see several different tissues (stained different colors) present at this magnifying power. 3 Switch to the low-power lens. Center and focus and note the additional tissue detail that can be discerned at this magnifying power. 4 Switch to the high-power lens. Center and focus and note that you can now observe the cells that comprise the various tissues in this organ. 5 Estimate the diameter of 3 different types of cells. _________ mm _________ mm _________ mm 6 Move the scanning power objective lens in place and move the stage as far as possible from the objectives before removing the slide.

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G. Wet Mount of Cheek Cells Cells that line the interior of the mouth fit closely together like floor tiles and form a thick layer of thin cells that protect the underlying tissue from abrasion and microbes (bacteria and viruses). The superficial cells continually slough off and are replaced by underlying cells. Gently scraping the lining of the cheek removes the superficial cells that are about to slough off.

ACTIVITY 6

Wet Mount of Cheek Cells

Lab Activity 1 Prepare a cheek smear slide and observe it under the compound microscope. • Obtain a toothpick, a clean microscope slide, and a coverslip. • Place a drop of 0.9% saline on the microscope slide. • Gently scrape the flat end of the toothpick (no blood, please!) on the inner lining of your cheek only one time. Do not scrape hard enough to hurt. Cells folded over

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Overlapping cells

2 3 4 5

• To apply the cells to the slide, rotate the toothpick between your thumb and forefinger to dislodge the cells into the saline. • Dispose of the toothpick as your instructor directs. • Add one drop of dilute methylene blue to the cells on your slide. • Cover the sample with a coverslip as directed by your instructor. • Using low-power, locate the blue-stained cells. Switch to high-power to observe more cellular detail. Compare the cells on your slide with Figure 3.2(a). Draw a picture of your cells in Figure 3.2(b). Estimate the diameter of the cheek cells. _________ mm Move the scanning power objective lens in place and remove the slide. Place microscope slides in a 10% bleach solution as your instructor directs. Clean your lab top with a 10% bleach solution.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: CHEEK SMEAR 1 Why was stain added to the cheek cells?

2 What cellular structures did you observe?

400⫻

H. Storing the Microscope

(a) Photomicrograph

It is important to put the microscope away properly.

(b) Student drawing

FIGURE 3.2

Cheek cells.

• Check that the scanning objective lens is in place and that the slide is removed from the stage. • Depending on the type of microscope, either lower the stage or raise the objective to put maximum distance between the objective and the stage. • Center the mechanical stage. • Turn off the substage light. The bulb life is extended if it cools before moving the microscope. • Clean the ocular and objective lenses with lens paper. • Coil the cord neatly according to your instructor’s directions. • Place the dust cover over the microscope. • Using both hands and the proper carrying technique, return the microscope to the appropriate cabinet.

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

3

E X E R C I S E

A. Care and Use of the Microscope Correct each statement by crossing out the incorrect word(s) and inserting the correct word(s). 1. One hand is to be used to transport the microscope.

2. Tissue paper can be used to clean the microscope lenses and prepared slides.

3. The microscope should be put away with the high-dry lens in position.

4. The coarse focusing knob should be used when using the high-dry lens.

5. The iris diaphragm should be completely open to obtain maximum contrast.

6. The condenser should be in the lowest position (far from the stage) to focus the most light on the specimen.

B. Parts of the Microscope Write the term that the phrase describes. ______________ 1. Large knob that moves the stage or objective lens a great distance. Used with scanning or low-power objective lenses only. ______________ 2. Flat platform beneath the objective lens on which the microscope slide is placed.

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______________ 3. Removable lenses that you look through to observe the microscope slide. ______________ 4. Small knob that moves the stage or objective lens a very small distance and is used for precision focusing. ______________ 5. Extends from the arm and contains the ocular lenses and rotating nosepiece. ______________ 6. Lens that condenses light through the specimen and is located below the stage. ______________ 7. Light from specimen passes through these lenses first. These lenses are located in the rotating nosepiece. ______________ 8. Wide bottom part that supports the microscope. ______________ 9. Regulates the amount of light passing through the condenser. ______________ 10. Vertical portion that connects the base to the head.

C. Total Magnification and Field of View 1. Calculate the total magnification of an object viewed with a 10⫻ ocular and a 60⫻ objective lens.

2. Does the size of the field of view increase or decrease when going from a lower- to higher-power objective lens?

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4

Cell Structure and Cell Cycle Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

model or diagram of a cell

• •

3-dimensional models of mitosis

1 Identify cellular components on a model or diagram 2 Describe the function of the plasma membrane and cellular organelles 3 Identify cells and observable cellular structures on prepared microscope slides 4 Identify the stages of mitosis 5 Describe the events of each stage of mitosis

T

he human body contains over a trillion cells.

These cells form the organs of the human body and are responsible for organ function. Cells take in nutrients delivered to them by the blood and use these nutrients to make carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Cells use these macromolecules to make cellular and extracellular structures, repair themselves, and to perform the tasks required for organ function.

compound microscopes and lens paper prepared slides of human skeletal muscle cells, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium (trachea), nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli (small intestine), motor neurons, sperm, and blood whitefish blastula slides

and functions of cellular organelles are described in Table 4.1.

ACTIVITY 1 Cell Structure Lab Activity 1 Point to each cell structure shown in Figure 4.1 on a cell model or chart. 2 Describe the function of each organelle as you point to it.

A. Cell Structure Cells are the smallest structural and functional units of living organisms. They are enclosed by a plasma membrane which controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. The interior of the cell is filled with cytoplasm that contains cytosol (a viscous fluid) and organelles (little organs). Like an automobile, a cell has different parts or organelles that perform different functions. A “generalized” animal cell is shown in Figure 4.1,

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: CELL STRUCTURES 1 Which cell structures from Table 4.1 are not found in most human cells?

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9 10 11 12

14

13

7

15 (gel-like fluid) 6 5

16

4 17 (Small dot) 3

18

2 1

(a) Sectional drawing

1 2 3 4 5 6

mitochondrion peroxisome smooth endoplasmic reticulum lysosome plasma membrane centrioles

7 8 9 10 11 12

microvillus flagellum cilium secretory vesicle chromatin nuclear membrane

13 14 15 16 17 18

nucleolus nucleus cytoplasm rough endoplasmic reticulum ribosome Golgi complex

Nucleus Vesicle

Mitochondria

Golgi complex Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Centrioles

Mitochondria (b) Transmission electron micrograph

FIGURE 4.1

Generalized animal cell.

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EXERCISE 4

TABLE 4.1

CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL CYCLE

Function of Cell Structures

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION

Plasma Membrane Microvilli

Controls movement of substances into and out of the cell Folds of the plasma membrane that increase the surface area of the cell to increase absorption or secretion Contains DNA molecules and nucleolus Assembly site for ribosomes Long thin strands within nucleus. Each strand composed of one DNA molecule and associated proteins. Area of the cell that includes the cytosol and organelles Fluid portion of cytoplasm that surrounds organelles

Nucleus Nucleolus Chromatin Cytoplasm Cytosol Organelles • Mitochondria • Ribosomes • Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) • Golgi complex • Secretory vesicles • Lysosomes • Peroxisomes • Cytoskeleton • Centrosomes (centrioles) • Cilia • Flagella

33

Makes ATP via aerobic cellular respiration Site of protein synthesis Processes and transports proteins made at attached ribosomes; synthesizes phospholipids Fatty acid and steroid synthesis; detoxifies toxic substances Receives and modifies proteins from RER; sorts and transports them Secrete substances outside the cell by exocytosis Enzymes digest and recycle worn out organelles and substances entering the cell; can digest the cell Produce hydrogen peroxide; detoxify harmful substances Three kinds of protein filaments; maintain cell shape and involved in cell movement and movement of organelles Form mitotic spindle; needed to form cilia and flagella Abundant, hair-like cell projections that move fluids and particles along the cell surface Long cell projection; whip-like motion moves sperm

B. Cell Specialization The human body contains over 200 different types of cells with different functions. These differences in function are reflected in cell structure. Cells of the human body differ from the generalized animal cell in shape, size, or number and type of organelles present. In the next activity you will observe cells of skeletal muscle, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli, motor neurons, sperm, and blood. • Skeletal muscle cells are long, cylindrical cells that contain specialized proteins (contractile proteins) that enable them to contract (shorten in length) to move bones. The contractile proteins are organized into repeating units that can be observed in the light microscope as striations. • Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells have cilia that move substances like mucus along the surface of the cells. Mucus is produced by specialized cells called goblet cells.

• Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli. Microvilli increase the surface area of the plasma membrane which provides a larger area for absorption of nutrients along the gastrointestinal tract or secretion of product from glands. • Motor neurons are nervous tissue cells with many processes (cell extensions) that receive information from other neurons and send electrical signals to muscle cells causing them to contract. • Sperm cells (sperm) are small, oval cells with a flagellum that propels them through the female reproductive tract. • Red blood cells do not have a nucleus (anucleate) but contain large amounts of hemoglobin, a red pigment that binds oxygen. • White blood cells have nuclei with different shapes and defend the body from pathogens and cancerous cells.

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c. motor neuron: ______________________________

Cell Specialization

Lab Activity 1 Using a compound microscope, observe each prepared slide (skeletal muscle, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, motor neuron, sperm, blood cells, and nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli) and identify the cells and cell components shown in Figure 4.2. 2 Describe each cell’s shape and list the cell structures that can be seen with the light microscope in each cell type.

d. sperm cell: _________________________________ e. red blood cell _______________________________ f. white blood cell _____________________________ g. nonciliated simple columnar epithelium: ___________________________________________

a. skeletal muscle cell: _________________________ b. pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cell: ___________________________________________ Width of skeletal muscle cell

(a) Skeletal muscle cells

Nucleus

(d) Sperm cells

FIGURE 4.2

Nucleus

400⫻

Flagellum

400⫻

Cell specialization.

Goblet cell

Nucleus

Cilia

(b) Ciliated cells (Pseudostratified 400⫻ ciliated columnar epithelium)

Red blood cells

(e) Blood cells

Nucleus of white blood cell

400⫻

Cell body Nucleus

Processes

(c) Motor neuron

Nucleus

350⫻

Microvilli

(f ) Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli

400⫻

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EXERCISE 4

8 hours INTERPHASE S phase DNA replicated.

se

hase

e

as

ph

ha

op

Te lo

4–6 hours

G2 phase Cell growth continues; enzymes and other proteins are synthesized; centrosome replication completed.

Pr

G1 phase Cell metabolically active; duplicates organelles and cytosolic components; centrosome replication begins.

Metap

Somatic (soma- ⫽ body) cell division occurs when one cell divides to produce two genetically identical cells. Cell division is needed for growth of the individual and cell replacement. The cell cycle, a period during which a cell grows and divides into two genetically identical cells (daughter cells), begins when a cell is produced by cell division and ends when the cell divides (Figure 4.3). The length of the cell cycle differs according to the type of cell, with some cells dividing more frequently than others. The cell cycle can be divided into two basic periods: interphase, a long period during which the cell conducts its normal activity, grows, and prepares for cell division; and the mitotic phase, when the cell is dividing. The mitotic phase consists of mitosis, or nuclear division, and cytokinesis, or cytoplasmic division. The four stages of mitosis are: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (Table 4.2). To observe interphase and the stages of mitosis, you will examine a prepared microscope slide containing several sections of a whitefish blastula. The blastula is an early embryonic stage in which cells are dividing rapidly, providing many cells in different stages of mitosis.

2 Obtain a prepared whitefish blastula slide and hold it up to the light. Notice that there are many blastula sections on each slide. It will be necessary to view several of these sections to find all of the phases. 3 Using a compound microscope, begin looking at your slide with the low-power objective lens. Use the highpower objective lens to identify interphase, the four stages of mitosis, and cytokinesis.

8–10 hours

C. Somatic Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

35

CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL CYCLE

Anaphase

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MITO TIC ( M ) P H ASE

ACTIVITY 3 Mitotic Phases Pre-Lab Activity 1 Using Table 4.2, identify interphase, each phase of mitosis, and cytokinesis in Figure 4.4(a)–(e).

FIGURE 4.3

The cell cycle.

Lab Activity 1 Observe the 3-dimensional models of the mitotic phases, noting the changes in each phase.

TABLE 4.2

Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle

PHASE

DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITY

Interphase (inter- ⫽ between) Mitotic Phase Mitosis (mitos- ⫽ thread) • Prophase (pro- ⫽ first)

Normal cell work; cell metabolically active and growing; DNA replicates

• Metaphase (meta- ⫽ next) • Anaphase (ana- ⫽ apart) • Telophase (telo- ⫽ end) Cytokinesis (cyto- ⫽ cell; kinesio- ⫽ movement)

Cell division Nuclear division Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear; chromatin condenses into chromosomes; centrioles move to opposite poles; spindle fibers form Chromosomes line up at metaphasal plate; spindle fibers attach to centromeres of chromatids Chromatids of chromosomes separate; move to opposite poles Cell reverses prophase activities Cytoplasmic division into two genetically identical daughter cells

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Chromatin in nucleus

Nuclear membrane

Chromosomes forming Plasma membrane

(b)

(a) Spindle fiber

Chromosomes

Centriole

Centriole

Chromosomes

Spindle fiber

(d)

(c) Chromosomes

Spindle fibers

(e)

FIGURE 4.4

Mitotic phases.

Cleavage furrow

•

anaphase (AN-a-faze)

a ________________________

•

interphase (IN-ter-faze)

b ________________________

•

metaphase (MEH-ta-faze)

c ________________________

•

prophase (PRO-faze)

d ________________________

•

telephase and cytokinesis (TELL-o-faze and cyto-kihNEE-sis)

e ________________________

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

4

E X E R C I S E

Reviewing Your Knowledge

A. Cellular Structure Fill in the blank with the name of the cell structure that fits the description. ______________________ 1. short, hair-like projections for movement of substances along cell surface ______________________ 2. intracellular fluid ______________________ 3. site of energy production by cellular respiration ______________________ 4. site of protein synthesis ______________________ 5. site of steroid and fatty acid synthesis ______________________ 6. small vesicle with digestive enzymes ______________________ 7. organelles needed to form cilia and flagella ______________________ 8. thread-like strand of DNA with associated proteins ______________________ 9. site of secretory and membrane protein synthesis ______________________ 10. site where protein products are stored, packaged, and exported ______________________ 11. contains DNA that control cellular activities ______________________ 12. site of ribosome synthesis ______________________ 13. gives the cell shape, support, movement, and holds organelles in position ______________________ 14. controls movement of substances into or out of the cell ______________________ 15. folds of the plasma membrane that increase the cell’s surface area ______________________ 16. detoxifies harmful substances, produces hydrogen peroxide, and oxidizes amino acids ______________________ 17. double membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm ______________________ 18. a small membranous sac that delivers proteins to the plasma membrane to exit the cell

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B. Phases of the Cell Cycle Write the phase of the cell cycle that the phrase describes. ______________________ 1. cytoplasmic division

______________________ 2. cell performing normal functions; longest phase

______________________ 3. nuclear division

______________________ 4. chromatid pairs line up at equatorial plate

______________________ 5. chromatin condenses into chromosomes

______________________ 6. spindle fibers break up; nucleus reappears

______________________ 7. centromeres divide; chromosomes move to opposite poles

______________________ 8. nuclear membrane disassembles and disappears

______________________ 9. chromosomes unravel to form chromatin

______________________ 10. mitotic spindle forms

______________________ 11. DNA replicates

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

4

E X E R C I S E

A. Cellular Organelles and Their Function Write the letter for the correct answer in the blank. ____ 1. A cell makes and secretes a protein-based hormone. This particular cell would have a great amount of RER and: (a) SER (b) Golgi complex (c) mitochondria (d) lysosomes ____ 2. Testes and ovaries that make steroids (lipids) would have a larger amount of: (a) SER (b) RER (c) mitochondria (d) lysosomes ____ 3. Muscle cells that need large amounts of ATP would have many: (a) Golgi complexes (b) ribosomes (c) SER (d) mitochondria ____ 4. Cells that line the small intestine are specialized for absorption and secretion. The plasma membrane structure they have to accomplish this is: (a) centrioles (b) cilia (c) flagella (d) microvilli ____ 5. Immune cells that destroy bacteria with chemicals need an abundance of: (a) SER (b) ribosomes (c) lysosomes (d) centrioles

B. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis Answer each question with a short answer. 6. Explain the role of somatic cell division as a person ages from infancy to adulthood.

7. Explain the role of cell division in wound healing.

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8. List the cell structures involved in mitosis.

9. Can red blood cells undergo mitosis? Explain.

10. Sperm and eggs have one-half the number of chromosomes of the somatic cells that divided to form them. Are sperm and eggs formed by mitosis? Explain. 11–14. Which cellular organelles are membrane bound? 11. ______________________

13. ______________________

12. ______________________

14. ______________________

15–17. Which cellular organelles are not membrane bound? 15. ______________________ 16. ______________________ 17. ______________________ 18–20. Identify the three structures indicated in Figure 4.5. 18. ______________________ 19. ______________________ 20. ______________________ 18

19 20

FIGURE 4.5

Transmission electron micrograph of a cell.

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E X E R C I S E

5

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

Diffusion: 2 agar Petri dishes per group, small millimeter rulers, forceps, methylene blue crystals, potassium permanganate crystals

•

Diffusion and Osmosis Across a Dialysis Membrane (per group): dialysis tubing 12 cm long, 2 dialysis clips, scissors, Congo red or red food coloring, 40% sucrose solution, 500-mL beakers, distilled water, gram scale

•

Osmosis in Living Red Blood Cells: animal blood (uncoagulated), disposable gloves, clean microscope slides and coverslips, 4 medicine droppers per group, compound microscope, filter paper

1 Describe diffusion and osmosis 2 Distinguish between and define hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions

T

he plasma membrane with its unique design is

responsible for discriminately allowing substances into and out of a living cell. Active processes require cellular energy (ATP) to transport substances against their concentration gradients across the plasma membrane. Passive processes do not require the cell to expend energy because the kinetic energy of the particles causes them to move from an area of their higher concentration to an area of their lower concentration. In this exercise, we will look at the passive processes of diffusion and osmosis.

A. Passive Transport–Diffusion Diffusion can occur in solids, liquids, or gas, and across the plasma membrane. The net movement of substances from a region of their greater concentration to a region of their lesser concentration is called moving substances “down the concentration gradient.” A concentration gradient indicates there is a difference in the concentration of molecules or ions inside the cell (intracellular) compared to outside the cell (extracellular). In the following activity, diffusion of two crystals through a solid (agar) will be studied. Methylene blue has a molecular weight of 320, and potassium permanganate has a molecular weight of 158. The two crystals move at different rates through the agar, which is made up mostly of water.

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ACTIVITY 1 Experiment: Diffusion Lab Activity 1 Prediction: With your lab group, predict which crystal will move faster. (Hint: Use the molecular weights.) Circle your answer: methylene blue or potassium permanganate. 2 Materials: Obtain the materials for diffusion. 3 Data Collection: Measure the diffusion rates of methylene blue and potassium permanganate. • Decide who will set up the experiment, who will time, who will measure, and who will record. • Carefully using forceps, place a large crystal of methylene blue on the surface of an agar Petri dish (Figure 5.1). Be careful not to drop any extra crystals on the agar surface.

• Using the same technique, place a similar sized crystal of potassium permanganate on the other side of the Petri dish. • Using a millimeter (mm) ruler, measure the crystals’ diameter of diffusion at 15-minute intervals for at least 1 hour (or longer if desired). • After each observation, record the diffusion diameter of each crystal in millimeters (mm) in Table 5.1. 4 Clean up as directed by your instructor. 5 Data Analysis: Calculate the diffusion rates for each time period for the two crystals using Table 5.1. 6 Complete the Experimental Report with your lab group.

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: DIFFUSION Results: Which substance moved faster?

Methylene blue dye crystal

Potassium permanganate dye crystal

Discussion: Discuss why the diffusion rates of the two substances differed.

Conclusion: State how molecular weight affects diffusion rate.

FIGURE 5.1

Diffusion in agar plate setup.

TABLE 5.1 TIME (MIN)

15 30 45 60 75

Diffusion Results DIFFUSION OF METHYLENE BLUE (DIFFUSION DIAMETER IN MM)

DIFFUSION OF POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE (DIFFUSION DIAMETER IN MM)

DIFFUSION RATE MM/MIN

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B. Diffusion and Osmosis Across a Dialysis Membrane Osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent (dissolving medium which is water in living organisms) across a selectively permeable membrane that occurs in response to differences in solute (substance dissolved in solvent) concentrations. Water diffuses from an area of higher water concentration (lower solute concentration) to an area of lower water concentration (higher solute concentration). Osmosis is a passive process. In the following activity, a sucrose solution is added to a dialysis membrane bag (semipermeable membrane) which is placed in distilled water. Dialysis membranes contain small pores that allow water and small solutes to cross. If water enters the bag, the weight of the bag will increase and if water leaves the bag, its weight will decrease. The dialysis membrane used in this experiment contains pores that are large enough to allow diffusion of sucrose and red dye molecules into and out of the dialysis membrane bag.

• Pushing the air out of the bag, fold over the end of the bag and clip it with a dialysis clip. The dialysis bag now looks like a large “cell.” • Check to see that no liquid is leaking out of either end of the dialysis bag. • Rinse the bag to remove excess sucrose solution, dry the bag, and weigh it. Record the beginning weight in Table 5.2. • Submerge the dialysis bag in a beaker of distilled water. • Record the time in Table 5.2. • Dry and weigh the dialysis bag after 15-minute, 30-minute, and 45-minute intervals. If your lab lasts longer, you may also do a 60-minute measurement. • Record each measurement in Table 5.2. 4 Clean Up: Clean up as directed by your instructor.

ACTIVITY 2 Experiment: Osmosis and Diffusion Across a Dialysis Membrane

1

Distilled water

2

Dialysis clip

NOTE: This experiment should be set up at the beginning of class, so that changes can be observed and recorded throughout the lab time. The results become more dramatic the longer this experiment runs.

Sucrose solution

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 5.2. Lab Activity 1 Prediction: With your lab group, predict the direction of water and sucrose movement in Figure 5.2 by circling the correct italicized choice. • The net movement of water (measurable by weight) will be into or out of the dialysis bag (see Figure 5.2). • The net movement of sucrose will be into or out of the dialysis bag (see Figure 5.2). 2 Materials: Obtain materials for osmosis and diffusion across a dialysis membrane. 3 Data Collection: Observe osmosis and diffusion through a dialysis membrane and record your results in Table 5.2. • Decide who will set up the experiment, who will time, who will weigh and observe the color, and who will record. • Cut a 12-cm piece of dialysis tubing and soak the bag in water for 3 minutes to make it easier to open. • Fold over one end of the dialysis tubing and secure it with a dialysis clip. • Rub the open end of the dialysis tubing between your thumb and finger to separate the sides, and fill the dialysis tubing more than three-quarters full with the red 40% sucrose solution.

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Dialysis clip

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Dialysis tubing

• hypertonic solution • hypotonic solution

FIGURE 5.2

0 min 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min

2 ________________________

Dialysis bag setup.

TABLE 5.2 TIME (MIN)

1 ________________________

Dialysis Bag Results

COLOR OF BEAKER WATER

CHANGE IN WEIGHT OF SUCROSE SOLUTION (GRAMS)

Start weight:

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EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: DIALYSIS BAG Results: 1. Describe how the weight of the bag changed over time.

2. Describe how the color of the beaker water changed over time.

Discussion: 1. Identify the solutes and solvent in this experiment.

2. Why was the red dye added to the sucrose solution?

3. Which direction did osmosis occur?

4. Which direction did diffusion of solutes occur?

5. Did net osmosis and diffusion of solutes stop? Did the two solutions become isotonic? Explain.

C. Osmosis Across a Living Plasma Membrane Osmosis results in movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from a solution with a lower solute concentration (hypotonic) into a solution with a higher solute concentration (hypertonic). The terms hypotonic (hypo- ⫽ deficient; -tonos ⫽ stretching) solutions or hypertonic (hyper- ⫽ excessive) solutions are used only when two solutions are compared. A solution’s tonicity is a measure of the solution’s ability to change the volume of a cell by changing water content. Water will move into the hypertonic solution until the solute concentrations of the two solutions equalize to become isotonic solutions (iso- ⫽ same) or if enough pressure is applied to stop the flow of water. Red blood cells (RBCs) are good examples to use for this osmosis experiment because their shape changes dramatically when they are exposed to hypotonic or hypertonic solutions. Their normal shape is a round biconcave disc with a smooth plasma membrane. The plasma membrane does not allow salts in the RBC cytoplasm to leave the cell, but water can freely enter or leave the cell through the plasma membrane. Under the microscope, RBCs look two-toned, with the center being lighter because of its concavity and thinness. If the cell loses most of its water by osmosis when put in a hypertonic solution, it becomes crenated or shriveled with spiked edges. If the cell gains a significant amount of water by being placed in a hypotonic solution, it swells and may eventually burst—a process called hemolysis (hemo- ⫽ blood; -lysis ⫽ break down). As a basis for comparing various solutions to blood, the salt content (NaCl) of blood is 0.9% and is the same salt content as a physiologic saline solution. NOTE: Remember . . . salt shrivels and water swells (a cell).

SAFETY NOTE: Wear safety glasses and disposable gloves when handling body fluids or animal blood.

6. In this experiment, what represented the plasma membrane, intracellular fluid, and extracellular fluid?

Conclusion: State what drives the osmosis and diffusion of solutes, and when does the net movement of both stop?

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3 Prediction: With your lab group, predict the net movement of water in all three types of solutions. Circle your answer, from the italicized choices, for all three situations: • In the isotonic solution, the RBCs will swell, crenate, or not change shape. • In the hypotonic solution, the RBCs will swell, crenate, or not change shape. • In the hypertonic solution, the RBCs will swell, crenate, or not change shape. 4 Materials: Obtain materials to observe osmosis in RBCs.

ACTIVITY 3 Experiment: Osmosis in Living RBCs 1 With your lab group, discuss and identify which solutions for this experiment are hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic to the RBCs (Figure 5.3). The isotonic solution is also called physiologic saline. The arrows in Figure 5.3 indicate the direction of water movement. • 0.9% saline solution __________________________ • 5% saline solution ____________________________ • distilled water _______________________________ 2 In Figure 5.3, identify the shape of the RBC (normal, swollen, or crenated) and the type of solution into which the RBC is immersed (isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic).

Solute molecules

Water molecules

(a) shape ___________ solution ___________ (b) shape ___________ solution ___________ (c) shape ___________ solution ___________ (a)

2000X

2000⫻

FIGURE 5.3

Osmosis in RBCs.

(b)

2000X

2000⫻

45

(c)

2000X

2000⫻

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5 Data Collection: • Decide who will set up and initially observe each slide. Every member of your group should observe each slide. Slide #1: 0.9% saline solution • Place a drop of animal blood on a slide with a medicine dropper and cover with a coverslip. With a different medicine dropper, add a drop of 0.9% saline solution to the blood. Tilt the slide to intermix the two solutions, and cover with a coverslip. • Using high power, observe the slide for changes in cell shape. Blood cells are very tiny and difficult to see under low power. • Record shape of RBCs and type of solution into which they were placed. shape ____________ type of solution ____________ Slide #2: 5% saline solution • Place a drop of animal blood on a second slide and cover with a coverslip. Observe the RBCs using high power. On one side of the coverslip, add one drop of 5% saline solution with a clean medicine dropper. Place filter paper or a small piece of paper towel on the opposite side of the coverslip to absorb the liquid and pull the 5% saline solution into the RBCs. • Immediately observe the second slide under high power and watch for changes in cell shape. You may have to wait a few minutes for cell changes to occur. • Record shape of RBCs and type of the solution into which they were placed. shape ____________ type of solution ____________

6 Clean Up: • Place blood-stained items (slides, coverslips, and droppers) in a 10% bleach solution or as directed by your instructor. • Place gloves in an autoclavable bag or location indicated by your instructor. • Wash down the lab counters with 10% bleach solution in a squirt bottle and wipe with paper towels wet with 10% bleach solution. Allow to air dry. • Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the lab area.

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: OSMOSIS IN LIVING RBCS Results: Describe how the RBC shape changes when placed in each solution. • 0.9% saline solution __________________________ • 5% saline solution ____________________________ • distilled water ________________________________ Discussion: 1. Describe how extracellular solute concentration affects osmosis across the plasma membrane.

2. Describe how water movement affects the cell shape. Slide #2 again: distilled water • Using slide #2 again, add one drop of distilled water to the same edge of the coverslip that was used for the saline solution. • Hold a piece of filter paper at the opposite edge of the coverslip, observe the paper absorb the saline solution, and watch as the distilled water is drawn under the coverslip and into the RBCs. • Immediately observe the slide under high power and watch if the RBCs change shape. • Record shape of RBCs and type of solution into which they were placed. shape ____________ type of solution ____________

Conclusion: State which solution(s) caused osmosis in RBCs.

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

5

E X E R C I S E

A. Transport Across the Plasma Membrane Match the definition with the term. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

to shrink or shrivel water moving through selectively permeable membrane substance dissolved in a solution to burst a red blood cell difference between solute concentrations across a membrane same solute concentration on both sides of membrane lower concentration of solutes than in cytosol of cell a fluid that can contain dissolved substances higher concentration of solutes than in cytosol of cell random movement of particles from their greater concentration to their lesser concentration

____ 1. concentration gradient ____ 2. crenate ____ 3. diffusion ____ 4. hemolysis ____ 5. hypertonic solution ____ 6. hypotonic solution ____ 7. isotonic solution ____ 8. osmosis ____ 9. solute ____ 10. solvent

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B. Diffusion Select the correct lettered answer. ____ 1. In the dialysis bag experiment, sucrose and red dye molecules are: (a) solutes (b) solvents ____ 2. If there is no concentration gradient, a substance will not have net movement. (a) true (b) false ____ 3. Passive processes use ____ to move substances across a plasma membrane. (a) ATP (b) kinetic energy

C. Osmosis Select the correct lettered answer. ____ 1. An isotonic solution will ____ an RBC. (a) crenate (b) hemolyze (c) cause no change to ____ 2. A hypertonic solution will ____ an RBC. (a) crenate (b) hemolyze (c) cause no change to ____ 3. A hypotonic solution will ____ an RBC. (a) crenate (b) hemolyze (c) cause no change to

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

5

E X E R C I S E

A. Diffusion Select the correct lettered answer in questions 1–3. ____ 1. White blood cells engulf bacteria. This is an example of diffusion. (a) true (b) false ____ 2. Food cooking on the stove in the kitchen can be smelled in the living room. This is an example of diffusion. (a) true (b) false ____ 3. Oxygen in the lungs moves into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction. This is an example of diffusion. (a) true (b) false

B. Osmosis Select the correct lettered answer in questions 4–8. ____ 4. A test tube with blood in it has a particular solution added to it. After several minutes, the solution is not clear anymore, but becomes red. Which solution was added to the blood to obtain this result? (a) 0.9% saline (b) 5% saline (c) distilled water ____ 5. A 0.8% saline solution would be ____ to the cytosol of a cell. (a) hypotonic (b) hypertonic (c) isotonic ____ 6. If a 50% sugar solution had been used in the dialysis bag in Activity 2, there would be a faster rate of osmosis. (a) true (b) false ____ 7. If you placed a peeled apple or potato in a 5% salt solution, it would ____ (a) gain weight (b) lose weight (c) stay the same weight

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____ 8. A person’s hands become wrinkled after spending a long, relaxing time in the tub. Tub water does not have as many solutes in it compared with the human body. The hands look wrinkled because ____. (a) (b) (c) (d)

the tub water is hypotonic to body cells and water enters the cells the tub water is hypotonic to body cells and water leaves the cells the tub water is hypertonic to body cells and water enters the cells the tub water is hypertonic to body cells and water leaves the cells

C. Application 9. When a person becomes dehydrated, the amount of water in extracellular fluids such as blood decreases, causing the solute concentration of these fluids to increase. State whether osmosis results in water entering or leaving cells.

10. Severe vomiting and diarrhea causes a loss of water and solutes from extracellular fluids. If a person was only given water, what effect would this have on the solute concentration of extracellular fluids? Would osmosis result in water entering or leaving cells?

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6

Tissues Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

compound microscope and lens paper

•

prepared connective tissue slides: areolar (spread), reticular, adipose, dense regular (tendon), dense irregular (skin), elastic, hyaline cartilage (trachea), elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage, dried compact bone, cancellous (spongy) bone, and blood

•

prepared muscle tissue slides: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

• •

prepared motor neuron slide

1 Name the four primary tissue types 2 Compare and contrast primary tissue structure and function 3 Identify examples of epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue types on prepared microscope slides and describe their location and function

T

here are four primary tissue types in the human

body: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissue covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands. Connective tissue, the most abundant primary tissue in the body, connects different tissues, provides a framework, resists pulling forces, and protects other tissues. Muscle tissue causes movement, and nervous tissue receives and generates nerve impulses. Organs are formed from two or more different tissues working together to perform a specific function. Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues.

colored pencils prepared epithelial tissue slides: whole mount of mesothelium, simple squamous (lung), simple cuboidal (kidney), simple columnar nonciliated (small intestine), stratified squamous nonkeratinized (esophagus), transitional (relaxed urinary bladder), and ciliated pseudostratified columnar (trachea)

1 fresh chicken leg per group, dissecting pan, pointed dissecting probes, forceps, scalpel, dissecting microscope, compound microscope, and lens paper

A. Epithelial Tissue Epithelial tissues or epithelia (epithelium, sing.) exhibit cellularity; that is, most of the tissue consists of cells packed together in an orderly fashion with little extracellular material (matrix) between cells. Epithelial tissues are avascular and receive nutrients from the vascular underlying connective tissue. A basement membrane separates epithelial and connective tissues.

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TISSUES

Surface view of epithelial cell Side view of epithelial cell Nucleus of epithelial cell

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

(a)

Basement membrane Stratified Connective tissue Nucleus of connective tissue cell

FIGURE 6.1

Epithelial tissue lining the mouth. Simple

There are two categories of epithelial tissues: covering and lining epithelia, and glandular epithelia. Covering and lining epithelia cover the surface of the body and some organs, and line all hollow body structures. Tight junctions between neighboring cells enable this type of epithelium to form barriers that protect and control what substances can cross into adjacent tissues. Glandular epithelia form glands that produce and secrete products needed by the body. Covering and lining epithelia face exterior or interior spaces. The epithelial cell surface adjacent to the space is called the apical (apex  tip) surface, whereas the epithelial cell surface adjacent to the basement membrane is the basal surface. When viewed from the apical surface, one can observe how epithelial cells fit together like floor tiles to form a lining or barrier (Figure 6.1). When viewed in cross-section (side view of cells), one can observe differences in structure of the apical and basal surfaces. The differences in structure are associated with differences in function. Epithelial tissue types are classified according to the shape of the cell in the apical cell layer and the number of epithelial cell layers. Epithelial tissue function is determined by the cell type and number of cell layers. Epithelial cells have four shapes: squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and transitional. Cell shapes are best seen in side views of the cells [Figure 6.2(a)]. Squamous cells are the thinnest cells, and they have a flattened nucleus. Cuboidal cells are cube-like with a round nucleus in the center of the cell. Columnar cells are tall with an oval nucleus close to

(b)

FIGURE 6.2

Epithelial tissue classification.

the base of the cell. Transitional cells change shape; the apical cells are cuboidal when the tissue is relaxed and squamous when the tissue is stretched. Epithelial tissue with only one cell layer is simple epithelium, while epithelial tissue with two or more cell layers is stratified epithelium [Figure 6.2(b)]. Simple epithelium provides a selective barrier allowing diffusion, filtration, secretion, or absorption of selected substances. There are three types of simple epithelium: simple squamous, simple cuboidal, and simple columnar. Stratified epithelium is thicker, subject to wear and tear, and forms a protective barrier. Multiple cell layers make the tissue more resistant to damage, thereby preventing pathogens and foreign materials from crossing into underlying tissues. There are four types of stratified epithelium: stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, and transitional. Pseudostratified (pseudo-  false) columnar epithelium gives the illusion of several different layers of cells but is only one cell layer thick. All the cells touch the basement membrane, although not all cells reach the apical surface. Therefore, there are cells of different shapes and heights, and their nuclei are at different levels. The tallest cells are narrow where they touch the basement membrane, but have a columnar shape toward the outer surface, while the shorter cells do not reach the apical surface.

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NOTE: Observe each tissue first with a scanning or lowpower objective lens, focusing with the coarse focus knob. Before switching to a more powerful objective lens, move the slide so that the area you want to observe is in the center of the field of view. After changing to a more powerful lens, use the fine focus knob only to bring the tissue into focus. Use this procedure with all tissue slides.

ACTIVITY 1 Microscopic Examination of Epithelia Pre-Lab Activity 1 Examine the photomicrograph of a surface view of simple squamous epithelium from mesothelium in Figure 6.3. • This photomicrograph shows cells viewed from the apical surface. • Observe how the epithelial cells fit close together to form a good barrier. • Label the photomicrograph. 2 Review the location and function for each epithelial tissue type in Tables 6.1–6.6. Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared microscope slide of a whole mount of mesothelium. Use Figure 6.3 to help you locate the major structures. Draw the tissue in the space provided and label the major structures. 2 Examine the photomicrographs of cross-sections of epithelial tissue types in Figures 6.4–6.9. Stratified

TISSUES

53

cuboidal and stratified columnar are not included because they are less common. • On the survey photomicrograph (40⫻) for each tissue: • Observe that the epithelial and connective tissue layers stain differently. • Locate where the basement membrane forms the border between the epithelial and connective tissue layers. • Note whether there is one epithelial cell layer (simple epithelium) or two or more epithelial cell layers (stratified epithelium). • On the higher magnification photomicrograph (400⫻) for each tissue: • Examine the shape of the epithelial cell at the apical surface. This determines the tissue type as squamous, cuboidal, or columnar epithelium. • Note any structural differences between apical surface and basal surface of epithelial tissue. • Label the photomicrographs. 3 Examine prepared microscope slides showing tissue cross-sections. Use the survey photomicrographs in Figures 6.3–6.9 to help you locate the epithelia at low power. Use the photomicrograph at 400⫻ to help you locate the major structures in each tissue. Draw each tissue in the space provided and label the major structures. 4 Go online to your WileyPlus course and complete the Visual Anatomy exercises for Tissues.

1

2 3

LM

Simple squamous epithelium

• cytoplasm • nucleus • plasma membrane

243x Student drawing

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.3

Surface view of mesothelium.

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TISSUES Alveoli

Pleura

Student drawing

165, H&E (a) Survey photomicrograph 1 2 3

4

400, H&E, human (b) Simple squamous epithelium

• connective tissue • nucleus of simple squamous epithelial cell in alveolar wall • nucleus of simple squamous epithelial cell in visceral layer of pleura • simple squamous epithelium

Student drawing

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.4

Sectional view of lung.

TABLE 6.1

Location and Function of Selected Simple Squamous Epithelia

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Mesothelium (epithelial layer of serous membranes)

Secretion of serous fluid into serous cavity.

Alveoli (air sacs of lungs)

Single layer of squamous cells creates a short distance for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Glomerular capsule (part of filtration membrane in kidney)

Filtration of blood to form urine filtrate (substance that is converted into urine).

Endothelium of capillaries

Single layer of squamous cells creates a short distance for diffusion of substances between blood and interstitial fluid (tissue fluid).

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Glomerulus Lumen of kidney tubule

40 (a) Survey photomicrograph

Student drawing

1 2 3 4 400, H&E, human (b) Simple cuboidal epithelium

• • • •

Student drawing

apical surface of simple cuboidal epithelial cell lumen of kidney tubule nucleus of simple cuboidal epithelial cell simple cuboidal epithelium

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.5

Sectional view of kidney tubules.

TABLE 6.2

Location and Function of Selected Simple Cuboidal Epithelia

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Walls of kidney tubules

Modify urine filtrate by absorption of substances from the filtrate and secretion of other substances into the filtrate.

Glands

Secretion of products made by the simple cuboidal epithelial cells.

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Villus Lumen

40 (a) Survey photomicrograph

Student drawing

Goblet cell 1 2 3 4

400, H&E, human (b) Simple columnar epithelium

Student drawing

• connective tissue • microvilli on apical surface of simple columnar epithelial cell • nucleus of simple columnar epithelial cell • simple columnar epithelium

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.6

Sectional view of small intestine.

TABLE 6.3

Location and Function of Selected Simple Columnar Epithelia

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Lining of stomach and intestines

Secretion of digestive juices by simple columnar cells and secretion of mucus by goblet cells. In the small intestine the simple columnar epithelial cells have microvilli (micro-  small; villi  shaggy hair) to increase surface area for absorption.

Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes)

Simple columnar epithelial cells have cilia that help move the egg to the uterus.

Central canal of spinal cord

Ciliated cells move cerebrospinal fluid.

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Mucous glands

Lumen Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Smooth muscle 40 (a) Survey photomicrograph

Student drawing

1

2

3 4 200, H&E, human (b) Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

• • • •

connective tissue nucleus of epithelial cell in basal layer of epithelium nucleus of squamous epithelial cell stratified squamous epithelium

Student drawing

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.7

Sectional view of esophagus.

TABLE 6.4

Location and Function of Selected Stratified Squamous Epithelia

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Surface of skin (keratinized stratified squamous epithelium)

Epithelial layer of skin is a tough, dry, waterproof outer surface that forms a protective barrier.

Lining of mouth, esophagus, anus, and vagina (nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium)

Moist epithelial layer that forms a protective barrier in areas subject to abrasion and friction.

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Lumen

Connective tissue Smooth muscle

Epithelial tissue

40 (a) Survey photomicrograph

Student drawing

Lumen

1

2

400, H&E, human (b) Transitional epithelium

• • • •

4

Student drawing

3

connective tissue nucleus of transitional epithelial cell in apical layer nucleus of transitional epithelial cell in basal layer transitional epithelium

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.8

Sectional view of a relaxed urinary bladder.

TABLE 6.5

Location and Function of Transitional Epithelia

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Lining of urinary bladder and parts of the ureters and the urethra

Provides a protective barrier that permits distension.

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59

Epithelial tissue

Lumen

Connective tissue

40 (a) Survey photomicrograph

Student drawing

goblet cell 1

2

3

4

Student drawing

400, H&E, human (b) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

• • • •

cilia on apical surface of columnar epithelial cell connective tissue nucleus of ciliated columnar epithelial cell pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.9

Sectional view of the trachea.

TABLE 6.6

Location and Function of Selected Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelia

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi

Secretion of mucus by goblet cells. The columnar cells have cilia which move mucus toward the pharynx.

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B. Connective Tissue Connective tissue is the most abundant primary tissue in the body and has a variety of functions. It connects epithelial tissue to other tissues, forms the internal framework for soft organs, and forms tendons (connect muscle to bone) and ligaments (connect bone to bone). Bone, the hardest connective tissue, protects body organs and provides a framework for movement of muscles. Adipose tissue (fat) insulates body tissues and stores lipids, and blood provides a liquid medium for transportation of substances throughout the body. Connective tissues are not very cellular, containing more extracellular matrix than cells (Figure 6.10). Connective tissue function is determined by the properties of the extracellular matrix components. Extracellular matrix consists of fibers and ground substance that are synthesized and secreted by connective tissue cells. The three major types of fibers are collagen fibers (which provide strength), elastin fibers (which provide strength and elasticity), and reticular fibers (fine, branching fibers which provide a net-like framework). The number and type of fibers present contribute to the strength, elasticity, and structure of the extracellular matrix. The ground substance may be fluid, semi-fluid, gelatinous, or hard. It secures connective tissue cells and fibers in the extracellular matrix and is the medium through which interstitial fluid diffuses between blood and cells and through which macrophages and white blood cells move. Mature connective tissues include loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood. The connective tissue types have different connective tissue cells that form the extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix of loose and dense connective tissues is formed by fibroblasts (-blast  early, developing stage); the extracellular matrix of cartilage is formed by chondroblasts (chondro-  cartilage) and maintained by chondrocytes; and the extracellular matrix of bone is formed by osteoblasts (osteo-  bone) and maintained by osteocytes. Cell Fiber Blood vessel Cell Fiber

Collagen fiber

FIGURE 6.10

Cell

Ground Cell substance

Connective tissue (areolar).

Plasma is the extracellular matrix in which blood cells and platelets are suspended; however, plasma is not made by these cells.

1. Loose Connective Tissue Loose connective tissue includes areolar, reticular, and adipose tissues. In loose connective tissue, the fibers in the extracellular matrix are loosely arranged. Collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers in this tissue provide strength, elasticity, and support. Ground substance is semi-fluid (viscous), but interstitial fluid can easily diffuse through it. Fibroblasts and adipocytes (lipid-storing cells) permanently reside in the tissue. Cells that are involved in body defense, such as macrophages, mast cells, and white blood cells, enter connective tissue from blood vessels that traverse through the extracellular matrix. Areolar connective tissue is the most abundant connective tissue. It contains fibroblasts, all three fiber types, a semi-fluid (viscous) ground substance, and a variety of cells involved in body defenses. Reticular (reticulo-  net-like) fibers are the dominant fiber type in reticular connective tissue. Reticular cells synthesize the reticular fibers and the ground substance. Reticular cells are actually fibroblasts, but they synthesize more reticular fibers than collagen fibers. Adipose (adipo-  pertaining to fat) tissue, like areolar connective tissue, contains fibroblasts, fibers, ground substance, and adipose cells. However, adipose tissue has a greater number of adipocytes (lipidstoring cells) and very little extracellular matrix. Lipid within the adipose cells occupies most of the cell volume and pushes cytoplasm and organelles to the periphery. Some slides do not have the lipid stained, or the lipid has been removed during tissue preparation. In those slides, the nucleus and cytoplasm are stained, and the space inside the cell normally occupied by lipid appears “empty.”

2. Dense Connective Tissue The extracellular matrix of dense connective tissue is packed with fibers and contains very little ground substance and few fibroblasts. In dense regular connective tissue, the extracellular matrix is packed with parallel bundles of collagen fibers that run in the direction of the pulling forces applied to the tissue. Fibroblasts are squeezed between the bundles, and the cytoplasm extends between and around collagen bundles. Collagen fibers give unstained tissue a silvery white appearance, which is why this tissue is often called white fibrous tissue. Dense irregular connective tissue, like dense regular connective tissue, has little ground substance and few fibroblasts. The extracellular space is also packed with bundles of collagen fibers with fibroblasts squeezed between these bundles. In dense irregular connective tissue, however, the bundles of collagen fibers are irregularly arranged.

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This reflects the direction of the pulling forces to which this tissue is exposed, usually from many different directions. In elastic connective tissue, the extracellular matrix is packed with elastic fibers, and fibroblasts are found in the spaces between these fibers. Elastic fibers allow the tissue to be stretched and then regain its original size and shape (recoil).

TISSUES

61

two types of osseous tissue differ in the amount and size of spaces present. The extracellular matrix of compact bone is organized into repeating structural units called osteons. In the center of each osteon is a large central canal. Spongy bone has large spaces compared to compact bone and does not have osteons. Instead, the extracellular matrix of spongy bone is arranged in trabeculae (little beams)—flat plates with a lattice-like network of thin, bony columns.

3. Cartilage Cartilage is a specialized form of connective tissue. Its extracellular matrix consists of collagen and elastic fibers embedded in a firm gelatinous ground substance. Collagen fibers give the tissue its strength, and the ground substance, which binds water to form a firm gel, gives cartilage its resiliency. Chondroblasts (chondro-  cartilage) secrete the fibers and ground substance, become isolated in spaces called lacunae (little lakes), and transform into chondrocytes. Since the tissue is avascular, the chondrocytes receive their nutrients through diffusion from adjacent vascular tissues. There are three types of cartilage: hyaline (hyalos  glass), elastic, and fibrocartilage. These cartilage types differ in the amount and kinds of fibers and ground substance molecules present in their extracellular matrix. Hyaline cartilage is the most predominant cartilage in the body and contains fine collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix. This cartilage type appears glassy to the naked eye, and under the compound microscope its matrix looks smooth and homogeneous. It contains collagen fibers that are thin and not visible with a compound microscope. The matrix of hyaline cartilage is resilient and firm. Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage, except the matrix is packed with elastic fibers. The many elastic fibers allow this cartilage to be much more flexible. Fibrocartilage has fewer lacunae and chondrocytes, and its extracellular matrix is packed with thick collagen fibers that give it tensile strength similar to dense connective tissue. Under the microscope, collagen fibers are the most prevalent structures seen.

4. Bone Bone is the hardest of the connective tissues. The extracellular matrix is organized in layers called lamellae and consists of collagen fibers, ground substance, and inorganic salts. Inorganic salts, especially calcium salts, give bone its hardness; collagen fibers provide strength and flexibility. Osteocytes (mature bone cells) are trapped in spaces called lacunae. Small canals called canaliculi connect lacunae to each other and to larger canals that contain blood vessels. Nutrients diffuse from a blood vessel through the canaliculi to the osteocytes, and waste materials diffuse back to the blood vessel for removal. The two types of bone tissue are compact (cortical) bone and spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone. These

5. Blood Blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. Plasma is the extracellular matrix, and its fibers are produced and observed only during blood clotting. Red blood cells obtain their red color from hemoglobin, and the mature cells do not contain a nucleus (anucleate). White blood cells, which appear white or clear on unstained slides, are nucleated. Platelets, anucleate fragments of cells that are much smaller than red blood cells, participate in blood clotting. SAFETY NOTE: Use disposable gloves when handling fresh tissue specimens.

ACTIVITY 2 Microscopic Examination of Connective Tissue Types Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label and examine the photomicrographs of the connective tissue types in Figures 6.11–6.22. • Observe the extracellular matrix in each tissue. • Compare the amount of fibers and ground substance. • Identify the connective tissue cells. 2 Review the location and function for each connective tissue type in Tables 6.7–6.11. Lab Activity 1 Examine prepared microscope slides of the different connective tissue types. Use Figures 6.11–6.22 to help you locate the major structures in each tissue. Draw each tissue in the space provided and label the major structures. 2 Identify the type of fibers. Collagen fibers are the thickest fibers. Elastic fibers are long, thin, dark fibers. Reticular fibers are short, thin, branching fibers. 3 Go online to your WileyPlus course and complete the Visual Anatomy exercises for Tissues.

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1

3 2

Mast cell 400, Verhoeff Orange Safrin, human

• collagen fiber • connective tissue cells (fibroblasts or lymphocytes) • elastic fiber

Student drawing

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.11

Areolar connective tissue spread of mesentery.

1 2

400, human

• reticulocyte • reticular fiber

FIGURE 6.12

Student drawing

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ Sectional view of reticular tissue of the lymph node.

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1 2

400, H&E, human

Student drawing

• lipid storage area • nucleus of adipocyte

FIGURE 6.13

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________

Sectional view of adipose tissue.

TABLE 6.7

Location and Function of Loose Connective Tissues

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE TYPE

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Areolar

Beneath all epithelial tissues

Binds epithelium to underlying tissues and allows nutrients to diffuse to epithelial cells.

Reticular

Liver, spleen, lymph nodes

Forms support (framework) of these soft organs.

Adipose

Under skin and surrounding organs

Stores lipids for fuel and thermal insulation; cushioning organs.

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Skeletal muscle fibers

1 2

400, H&E, human

Student drawing

• collagen fiber bundle • fibroblast

FIGURE 6.14

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________

Sectional view of dense, regular connective tissue-forming tendons.

1 2

3

400, H&E, human

• collagen fiber bundles running in different directions • fibroblast • parallel collagen fiber bundles

Student drawing

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.15

Sectional view of dense, irregular connective tissue in skin.

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2

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3

Student drawing 400, human

• bundle of elastic fibers • fibroblast • individual elastic fiber

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.16

Sectional view of elastic connective tissue in the wall of the aorta.

TABLE 6.8

Location and Function of Dense Connective Tissues

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE TYPE

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Dense regular

Forms ligaments (connects bone to bone), tendons (connects muscle to bone), and aponeuroses (sheet like tendons that connect muscle to muscle or muscle to bone)

Resists pulling forces at attachment points.

Dense irregular

Skin

Resists pulling forces from many different directions that would tear skin when skin is stretched.

Elastic

Lungs, trachea, and bronchi Aorta and other elastic arteries

Allows respiratory organs to recoil after inhalation. Recoil of elastic tissue helps push blood through cardiovascular system.

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1 2 3

400, H&E, human

Student drawing

• extracellular matrix • lacuna (la-KOO-na) • nucleus of chondrocyte

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.17

Sectional view of hyaline cartilage in the wall of the trachea.

1

2

3

Student drawing 400

• elastic fibers • lacuna • nucleus of chondrocyte

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.18

Sectional view of elastic cartilage of the ear.

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1 2 3

400

Student drawing

• chondrocytes • collagen fibers • lacuna

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.19

Sectional view of fibrocartilage of tendon.

TABLE 6.9

Location and Function of Cartilage

CARTILAGE TYPE

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Hyaline cartilage

Ends of long bones (articular cartilage) Trachea and bronchi Anterior ends of ribs (costal cartilage) Embryonic skeleton

Smooth surface that is resilient and reduces friction at joint.

Intervertebral discs

Provide strength to discs that form joints between vertebrae and act as shock absorbers. Provide cushioning for bones forming knee joints. Forms strong, flexible joint between hip bones.

Fibrocartilage

Cartilage pads in knee Pubic symphysis Elastic cartilage

External ear Auditory tube Epiglottis of larynx

Provide support and flexibility to ensure an open airway. Connect ribs to sternum with flexible joint (breastplate). Provides template for bone formation.

Provides support and maintains shape of external ear. Provides support and elasticity to auditory tube as it changes diameter to equalize pressure in middle ear (ear pops). Provides support and elasticity to epiglottis as it folds to block entrance to trachea while swallowing food and liquid.

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3

4

Student drawing 400, unstained, human

• • • •

1 _____________________________________________________

canaliculus central canal lamella lacuna

2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.20

Sectional view of dried compact bone.

1

2

Student drawing Red marrow cell 400

• osteocyte • trabecula

FIGURE 6.21

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ Sectional view of spongy bone.

TABLE 6.10

Location and Function of Osseous Tissue

TYPE OF OSSEOUS TISSUE

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Compact

Exterior of bones

Support, protection, storage of minerals.

Spongy

Interior of bones

Support, protection, storage of minerals.

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2

TISSUES

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3

Student drawing 400, H&E, human

• red blood cells • nucleus of white blood cell • platelet

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.22

Blood smear.

TABLE 6.11

Location and Function of Blood Components

BLOOD COMPONENT

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Plasma

Liquid part of blood in arteries, capillaries, veins

Transport of nutrients, blood gases, wastes, chemical messengers, blood cells and platelets.

Red blood cells

Formed element of blood in arteries, capillaries, veins.

Transport of blood gases.

White blood cells

Formed element of blood in arteries, capillaries, veins. WBCs can also leave blood vessels and enter infected tissues.

Attack pathogens and other substances that invade the body.

Platelets

Formed element of blood in arteries, capillaries, veins

Participate in blood clotting.

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C. Muscle Tissue Overview Muscle tissue is very cellular, with most of the tissue consisting of muscle cells (Figure 6.23). All muscle tissues are highly vascularized and are innervated. Muscle cells are elongated cells called fibers that shorten (contract) when stimulated, causing movement. There are three types of muscle tissue—skeletal, cardiac, and smooth—with each type having a distinct appearance. Skeletal muscle cells are large, multinucleated, cylindrical cells. Cardiac muscle cells are smaller, branching cells with one or two centrally located nuclei per cell. Intercalated discs are dark bands where cardiac muscle cells connect end to end. Skeletal and cardiac muscle cells exhibit striations (light and dark bands). Smooth muscle cells are small, spindleshaped (tapered at both ends) cells that are uninucleated and nonstriated.

Nerve

Blood vessel

Nucleus of skeletal muscle cell

Striation

ACTIVITY 3 Muscle Tissue

FIGURE 6.23

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label and examine the photomicrographs of muscle tissue in Figures 6.24–6.26. • Compare the size of the three types of muscle fibers, their shape, and the number of nuclei. • Look for striations in skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers. 2 Review the location and function for each muscle tissue type in Table 6.12.

Lab Activity 1 Examine prepared microscope slides of the different muscle tissue types. Use Figures 6.24–6.26 to help you locate the major structures in each tissue. Draw each tissue in the space provided and label the major structures. 2 Go online to your WileyPlus course and complete the Visual Anatomy exercises for Tissues.

TABLE 6.12

Skeletal muscle tissue.

Location and Function of Muscle Tissue Types

MUSCLE TISSUE TYPE

LOCATION

FUNCTION

Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle

Attached to bones and skin Wall of heart Walls of digestive tract organs Walls of arteries and veins

Movement of bones and skin. Contraction generates heat. Movement of blood through cardiovascular system. Movement of food through digestive tract. Contraction and relaxation controls blood flow and blood pressure. Movement of urine through urinary tract.

Walls of ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra Intrinsic muscles of eye

Contraction and relaxation controls pupil size.

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3

Student drawing 400, H&E, human

• nucleus • striation (stry-AY-tion) • width of individual muscle fiber

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.24

1

2

Sectional view of skeletal muscle fibers.

3

4

Student drawing 400, iron H&E

• • • •

branches of cardiac muscle fiber intercalated discs nucleus width of cardiac muscle fiber

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.25

Longitudinal view of cardiac muscle fibers.

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Smooth muscle layers Connective tissue Epithelial lining Lumen

Student drawing

60 (a) Survey photomicrograph

1

2

Student drawing 400 (b) Smooth muscle fibers in cross-section and longitudinal section

• nucleus of smooth muscle fiber in cross-section • nucleus of smooth muscle fiber in longitudinal section

FIGURE 6.26

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________

Sectional view of smooth muscle in wall of the ureter.

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EXERCISE 6

D. Nervous Tissue Overview Nervous tissue, which forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, is very cellular (Figure 6.27). Two basic categories of nervous tissue cells are neurons and neuroglia (neuro  nerve; glia  glue). Neurons receive and send information, whereas neuroglia support the neurons and help them to function. Neurons have one or more processes (cellular extensions) that receive or send information as nerve impulses. Dendrites (dendro  tree) are processes that receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons. An axon is a process that sends signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. Neurons have one axon but may have many dendrites. The main part of the cell where the nucleus is located is called the cell body. In the following activity you will observe only multipolar neurons, which are neurons with many processes.

TISSUES

73

Dendrites

Neuron cell body Nucleus Neuroglial cell Neuroglial cell Axon Neuroglial cell Blood vessel

FIGURE 6.27

Nervous tissue.

ACTIVITY 4 Nervous Tissue Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label and examine the photomicrograph of nervous tissue in Figure 6.28. Compare the sizes of the neuron and neuroglia.

Lab Activity 1 Examine prepared microscope slides of nervous tissue containing multipolar neurons. Use Figure 6.28 to help you locate the major structures. Draw each tissue in the space provided and label the major structures.

Neuroglia 1 2 3  LM 260

• cell body of multipolar neuron • nucleus • processes

Student drawing

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 6.28

Photomicrograph of nervous tissue.

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ACTIVITY 5 Observation of Fresh Tissue in Chicken Leg Lab Activity 1 Obtain a fresh chicken leg, dissecting pan, forceps, pointed dissecting probes, blunt dissecting probe, scalpel, dissecting microscope, compound microscope, and lens paper. 2 Observe the appearance of epidermis. • Epidermis of chicken skin is a waterproof layer composed of stratified epithelial tissue. • Notice the “goosebumps” on the surface of the epidermis. These goosebumps are formed when the chicken feathers are plucked out. • The goosebumps contain a follicle that produces a feather. 3 Observe the appearance of areolar connective tissue • Using the forceps, slowly pull the skin away from the muscle. Notice the very thin areolar connective tissue that holds the skin to the muscle tissue. 4 Observe the ability of dense, irregular connective tissue to resist pulling from different directions • The dermis of the skin (layer of skin deep to the epidermis) contains dense irregular connective tissue. • Stretch the skin in different directions and observe how difficult it is to pull the skin apart. 5 Observe the appearance of adipose tissue. • Use a scalpel to cut a very small piece of adipose tissue from the proximal end of the leg bone or from under the skin, place it on a clean slide, and observe it under a dissecting microscope. • Using two pointed probes, tease small droplets of fat apart from the edge of the tissue. • If teased enough, you can observe that the adipose tissue is made of many tiny fat globules adhering together. • Using a compound microscope, observe the same tiny fat droplets under 4 and then 10. Compare their appearance with what you observed using the dissecting microscope. 6 Observe the appearance of the dense, regular connective tissue forming a tendon. • Use a scalpel to cut a very thin piece of tendon from the end of a muscle and place it on a clean slide. • Under the dissecting microscope, first notice the regular arrangement of collagen fibers that appear

7

8

9

10 11

as horizontal “wrinkles” perpendicular to the length of the tendon. • As you tease the fibers apart with two dissecting probes, you will notice the deeper fibers run longitudinally in the tendon. • Observe the collagen fibers under 4 in the light microscope. Observe the appearance of hyaline cartilage covering the ends of the leg bone. • Use a scalpel to cut a very thin piece of cartilage from the proximal or distal end of the bone and place it on a clean slide. • Tease small pieces of cartilage with two probes using a dissecting microscope. Notice that this tissue looks very different from the others and the surface of the cartilage looks like the surface of the moon. • Examine the slide under 4 in the light microscope. Observe skeletal muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. • Observe the thin layer of connective tissue covering skeletal muscles. This layer is composed of dense regular connective tissue and is called fascia. • Remove fascia from muscle and, using a blunt probe, separate the individual muscles. • Look for blood vessels and nerves between muscles. Blood vessels are brownish-red hollow tubes while nerves are white, thread-like structures. Cut the blood vessel to observe it in cross-section. Coagulated blood may be found within the blood vessel. Observe the appearance of skeletal muscle tissue. • Use your dissecting probe to separate a small piece of skeletal muscle and place it on a microscope slide. • Add a drop of methylene blue stain. • Cover the microscope slide with a cover slip. • Use the scanning objective lens (4) to center the muscle in the field of view and to bring the muscle in focus. Switch to the low-power objective (10) to find muscle cells. Switch to the high-power objective (100) to observe the muscle cells. • Observe the shape of the muscle cells, nuclei, and striations. Compare the appearance of each of these tissues with their prepared microscope slides. Clean Up: • Clean dissection equipment and laboratory surfaces. • Dispose of tissue according to your instructor’s directions. • Wash your hands with soap and water.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

6

E X E R C I S E

Reviewing Your Knowledge

A. Primary Tissue Structure and Function Name the primary tissue type (epithelial, connective, muscle, or nervous) that is described. _______________ 1. Cells contain processes that receive and generate electrical signals to communicate with other cells. _______________ 2. Tissue has elongated cells that shorten and cause movement. _______________ 3. Tissue contains more extracellular matrix than cells. _______________ 4. Cells either form a barrier that controls passage of molecules or form glands. _______________ 5. ⎫ _______________ _______________

⎪ ⎪ 6. ⎬ Primary tissue types that exhibit cellularity. ⎪ ⎪ 7. ⎭

_______________ 8. ⎫

⎪ ⎪ _______________ 9. ⎬ Cells determine function of these primary tissue types. ⎪ ⎪ _______________ 10. ⎭ _______________ 11. The extracellular matrix determines function of this primary tissue. Identify the primary tissue types in Figure 6.29.

12 _____________________ FIGURE 6.29

13 _____________________

14 _____________________

15 _____________________

Photomicrographs of primary tissues.

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B. Epithelial Tissues Write the name of the epithelial tissue type that matches each description. An epithelial tissue type may be used more than once. ______________________ 1. Lines the mouth and protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion. ______________________ 2. Located in the alveoli (the air sacs of the lung) and provides a short distance for the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. ______________________ 3. Forms kidney tubules and is involved in absorption and secretion. ______________________ 4. Lines the nasal cavities and moves substances over the epithelial surfaces. ______________________ 5. Forms the mesothelium of the peritoneum and secretes serous fluid into the peritoneal cavity. ______________________ 6. Lines the stomach and its microvilli; increases surface area for absorption and secretion ______________________ 7. Lines the bladder and ureter and is distensible.

C. Connective Tissues Write the name of the connective tissue type that matches each description. A connective tissue can be used more than once. ______________________ 1. Contains elastic fibers and is found in the lungs. This tissue allows the lungs to inflate during inhalation and return to their original shape after exhaling. ______________________ 2. Packed with parallel bundles of collagen fibers and found in tendons. This tissue resists pulling forces applied by muscles. ______________________ 3. Has a firm, gelatinous ground substance containing collagen fibers. This tissue is found in the tracheal wall to support and prevent the trachea from collapsing. ______________________ 4. Found under covering and lining epithelium. Its extracellular matrix contains a loose arrangement of fibers, and its viscous ground substance facilitates the flow of interstitial fluid containing nutrients to epithelial tissues. It also cushions and supports epithelia. ______________________ 5. Contains many elastic fibers in a firm gelatinous ground substance. Located in external ear, auditory tube, and epiglottis. ______________________ 6. Hard extracellular matrix forms trabeculae. ______________________ 7. Forms a framework in the spleen, bone marrow, and lymph nodes. It contains fine, branching fibers. ______________________ 8. Is packed with bundles of collagen fibers running in different directions. It is found in skin and allows skin to resist pulling forces from many different directions. ______________________ 9. Fluid extracellular matrix used to transport substances throughout the body. ______________________ 10. Contains a large number of lipid-storing cells. It is found throughout the body, cushions and insulates organs, and stores lipids for future energy needs. ______________________ 11. Hard extracellular matrix containing osteons; involved in protection and support.

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______________________ 12. Firm gelatinous ground substance packed with bundles of collagen fibers. This tissue is found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and knee meniscus. ______________________ 13.⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 14.⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 15.⎪⎪ ⎬ Fibroblasts produce extracellular matrix for these connective tissue types. ______________________ 16.⎪⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 17.⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 18.⎭ ______________________ 19.⎫⎪ ⎬ Osteoblasts produce extracellular matrix. ______________________ 20.⎪⎭ ______________________ 21.⎫

⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 22.⎬Chondroblasts produce extracellular matrix. ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 23.⎭ ______________________ 24. Fibers not present unless injury occurs. Extracellular matrix not produced by cells present in this tissue.

D. Muscle and Nervous Tissue Write the name of the tissue that matches each function. For muscle tissue, write the name of the muscle tissue type. ______________________ 1. Movement of urine through the urinary tract ______________________ 2. Movement of bone and/or skin ______________________ 3. Movement of blood through the heart and into arteries ______________________ 4. Receives and sends information ______________________ 5. Movement of food through the digestive tract ______________________ 6. Controls blood flow through arteries and veins and controls blood pressure

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E. Epithelial and Connective Tissue Identification Identify the epithelia and connective tissues types in Figure 6.30. 1. _____________________________________________

10. _____________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________

11. _____________________________________________

3. _____________________________________________

12. _____________________________________________

4. _____________________________________________

13. _____________________________________________

5. _____________________________________________

14. _____________________________________________

6. _____________________________________________

15. _____________________________________________

7. _____________________________________________

16. _____________________________________________

8. _____________________________________________

17. _____________________________________________

9. _____________________________________________

18. _____________________________________________

FIGURE 6.30

1

2

3

4

5

6

Identification of epithelial and connective tissue types.

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FIGURE 6.30

TISSUES

79

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Identification of epithelial and connective tissue types, continued.

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F. Muscle and Nervous Tissue Identification Identify the muscle tissue types and the nervous tissue in Figure 6.31. 1. _______________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________

FIGURE 6.31

1

2

3

4

Muscle and nervous tissue identification.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

6

E X E R C I S E

A. Genetic Diseases and Tissue Function Each of the following diseases is due to a gene mutation and the production of an abnormal protein. Look up the diseases in your textbook or other resource. For each disease (1) identify the abnormal protein and (2) state how the abnormal protein affects the function of the tissue. Cystic Fibrosis and Epithelial Tissue 1. Abnormal protein:

2. The effect of the abnormal protein on tissue function:

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 3. Abnormal protein:

4. The effect of the abnormal protein on tissue function:

B. Nutritional Deficiencies and Tissue Function Nutritional deficiencies interfere with cell metabolism and tissue structure. Look up scurvy in your textbook or other resource and (5) describe how rickets affects the extracellular matrix of bone and (6) describe how this change in extracellular matrix causes the symptoms of rickets. Scurvy and Connective Tissue 5. Nutritional deficiency:

6. Extracellular matrix changes and symptoms:

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C. Tissues Forming Organs Name the tissue types that form the wall of each organ in questions 7–10. Use your textbook as a reference and list the tissues in order from lumen to outer surface. 7. esophagus: ________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. small intestine (within peritoneal cavity): _______________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. trachea: _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. ureter: __________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________

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7

The Integumentary System Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

integumentary system model or chart

•

ink pad for fingerprinting or demonstrating of fingerprints

•

Eccrine Gland Density: 1 cm  1 cm squares of bond paper (4 per student); Betadine-soaked cotton swabs; surgical tape, scissors

•

Fingerprinting: ink pad, 3”  5” index cards (2 per student), towelettes, magnifying glasses, data collection sheet

1 Describe the structure and function of the integumentary system 2 Identify the layers of the epidermis and dermis, and locate the hypodermis on models or microscope slides 3 Identify the accessory structures of the skin on models or microscope slides 4 Describe the function of the epidermal accessory structures 5 Compare eccrine sweat gland density on the forehead, forearm, palm, and anterior leg

T

he integumentary system (inte-  whole;

-gument  body covering) consists of organs including the skin, hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands, and associated muscle and nervous tissue. This system provides a protective barrier for the body, contains cutaneous sensory receptors, aids in the production of vitamin D, is important in regulating body temperature, and plays a minor role in excretion and absorption. The skin is classified as an organ because it has many types of tissues that work together to perform specific functions. The skin is also known as the integument or cutaneous membrane.

compound microscopes and lens paper prepared microscope slides: thick skin, thin skin with hair (scalp)

A. Major Divisions of the Skin The skin has two major divisions: the superficial epidermis and the deep dermis. The epidermis (epi-  above), the outer layer of the skin, is composed of epithelial tissue. The dermis is the connective tissue layer that is firmly attached to the epidermis by a basement membrane, provides the avascular epidermis with nutrients, and connects the epidermis to the underlying hypodermis. Although it is not a part of the integumentary system, the hypodermis (hypo-  below) or subcutaneous layer (subQ) is located below the skin and is usually discussed with the skin. The hypodermis is a major storage site for adipose tissue.

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THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

1. Epidermis

2. Dermis

The epidermis is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. This is a very thick epithelial layer in comparison with other epithelial layers of the body. Four types of cells are found in the epidermis: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Keratinocytes (keratino-  horn-like; -cytes  cells) comprise 90% of the cells of the epidermis and produce keratin, a tough fibrous protein that protects the skin and deeper tissues from chemicals, microbes, and heat. These cells also produce granules which secrete a lipidrich product that helps to waterproof the skin. Melanocytes (melano-  black) comprise 8% of the epidermal cells and produce and secrete the pigment melanin. Langerhans cells are immune system cells that attack pathogens that enter the skin. Merkel cells are the least abundant cell type and are found only in the deepest layer of the epidermis. These cells function as touch receptors and are associated with sensory neurons. The layers of the epidermis are in order from deepest to most superficial: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum. The stratum basale (strata  layers; basa-  base) or stratum germinativum (germ-  sprout), a single row of cells attached to the basement membrane, contains stem cells that divide to form new keratinocytes. As new cells are formed, the older cells are pushed toward the surface and undergo a process called keratinization, which produces tough, dead cells in the superficial layer. Melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells are also found within the stratum basale. The stratum spinosum (spinos-  thorn-like) contains 8 to 10 rows of cells, mainly keratinocytes. In prepared slides, cells in this layer have thorn-like projections caused by the tissue preparation process. Granules are observed within keratinocytes in the stratum granulosum (granulos-  little grains). This layer contains 3 to 5 rows of flattened keratinocytes that are beginning to die. No dividing cells are present in this layer or in more superficial layers. The stratum lucidum (lucid-  clear) contains 3 to 5 rows of flat, dead keratinocytes. This layer is translucent in specimens of fresh skin, but in prepared slides it may be clear or stained. The outermost layer, the stratum corneum (corn-  hard or hoof-like) is a very thick layer containing 25 to 30 or more rows of dead, squamous-shaped keratinocytes. This layer is tough and water-repellent. These cells continually slough off and are replaced by cells in the adjacent layer. The epidermis differs in thickness in thin and thick skin. Thick skin is found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet and has all five strata. Thin skin, which covers the rest of the body, does not have a visible stratum lucidum and has a thinner stratum corneum than thick skin.

The dermis consists of two regions: the papillary (papilla  nipples) region and the reticular (reticul-  net-like) region. The papillary region is a thin layer of areolar connective tissue that is deep to the stratum basale of the epidermis and the basement membrane. Dermal papillae are finger-like projections of the papillary region that extend into the epidermis. In the palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the dermal papillae cause genetically determined whorls in the epidermis called epidermal ridges that increase surface area, friction, and grip. Sweat glands deposit their secretions onto these ridges, resulting in fingerprints when these ridges touch surfaces. The reticular layer is the deeper and much thicker region of the dermis. It is composed mainly of dense, irregular connective tissue whose collagen fibers provide the skin with strength and whose elastic fibers provide elasticity. Some adipose tissue is also found in the reticular region. The dermis is highly vascularized, allowing nutrients to diffuse from the dermis into the avascular epidermis. Hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands are all derived from epithelial tissue and extend into the dermis. Nerves and lymphatic vessels are also found in this layer.

ACTIVITY 1 Major Divisions of the Skin Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the skin structures in Figures 7.1 and 7.2. Observe where the basement membrane separates the epidermis and dermis. 2 Label the layers of the epidermis in thick skin in Figure 7.3. Lab Activity 1 Identify the skin structures in Figures 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3 on a model or chart. 2 Examine a microscope slide of thick skin. • Using the scanning or low-power objective, identify the structures in Figure 7.2. • Using the high-power objective, identify the layers of the epidermis in Figure 7.3. Observe the different cell shapes in the various layers of the epidermis. • Observe the areolar connective tissue in the papillary layer of the dermis, the dense irregular connective tissue in the reticular layer of dermis, and the adipose tissue in the hypodermis.

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• • • •

dermal papillae epidermis hypodermis papillary layer of dermis • reticular layer of dermis

1 5 2

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________

3

4

FIGURE 7.1

Diagram of the skin.

1 1 2 3

2 3

4

4

5 5

6 LM

30⫻

• epidermis (EPI-derm-is) • dermal papillae (puh-PILL-ee) • hypodermis (HY-poh-der-mis) • papillary (PAP-il-lary) layer of dermis • reticular layer of dermis FIGURE 7.2

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________

Photomicrograph of the skin.

• dermis • stratum basale (bay-SAL) • stratum corneum (kor-NEE-um) • stratum granulosum (gran-you-LOW-sum) • stratum lucidum (LOU-sih-dum) • stratum spinosum (spy-NO-sum) FIGURE 7.3

240x

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________

Photomicrograph of the epidermal layers.

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THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

B. Accessory Structures of the Skin The accessory structures of the skin include hairs, hair follicles, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, ceruminous glands, and mammary glands. All of these are derived from epidermal tissue and extend into the dermis.

1. Sudoriferous and Sebaceous Glands Sudoriferous glands (sudori-  sweat; -ferous  bearing), or sweat glands, secrete a watery substance that is important in excretion and body temperature regulation. There are two types of sudoriferous glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. Eccrine glands (eccrine  sweating outwardly) are the most common type of sudoriferous gland and are found on most areas of the body. Ducts from the eccrine glands deposit their secretions, called sweat, on the epithelial surface. Apocrine glands are found only in the axilla, genital area, and pigmented area around the nipples (areolae). Apocrine glands produce a secretion similar in composition to sweat but more viscous. This secretion, which is deposited on the distal end of the hair root, is odorless until broken down by bacteria. Ceruminous glands and mammary glands are modified sudoriferous glands. Ceruminous glands (ceri-  wax) are found in the ear canal and secrete a waxy substance called cerumen that prevents foreign substances (including insects) from entering the auditory canal. Mammary glands are found in the breasts and synthesize and secrete milk after appropriate hormonal stimulation. Sebaceous glands (sebace-  greasy), or oil glands, are found surrounding hair follicles and deposit sebum, an oily substance that lubricates the skin and hair, into the neck of the follicle.

2. Hair and Hair Follicles Hairs are found all over the body with the exception of the palms, soles, lips, and parts of the external genitalia. Hair consists of dead, keratinized epithelial cells and has two main sections: the shaft, which projects from the skin surface, and the root, which extends into the dermis of the skin and sometimes the hypodermis. The hair follicle, which surrounds the hair root, is formed from epidermal layers that project into the dermis. The expanded base of the hair follicle, the hair bulb, contains the papilla of the hair and the matrix. The papilla of the hair is a projection of connective tissue into the hair follicle and contains blood vessels that provide nutrients to the dividing cells of the matrix. The matrix, which is derived from the stratum basale of the epidermis, forms new hair cells that are added to the base of the hair root. Surrounding the hair follicle is a connective tissue sheath comprised of dermal tissue.

The arrector pili (arrect-  to raise; pili  hair) is a bundle of smooth muscle cells attached to the connective tissue sheath around the hair follicle. Contraction of the arrector pili muscle moves the hair from its normal angle to a 90 angle (perpendicular) with the skin surface, elevating the skin surrounding the hair shaft and causing goose bumps. Arrector pili muscles contract in response to stress (including cold temperature). Examination of the hair in cross-section shows three layers: the cuticle (outer layer), the cortex (middle layer), and the medulla (inner layer). The cuticle, the layer of hair that we see, is a thin layer of dead, flattened, keratinized cells that overlap each other like shingles on a roof. Split ends occur when the free ends of these cells are pulled away from each other. Cells in the cortex and medulla contain pigment granules that give hair its color. The shape of hair in cross-section indicates whether the hair is curly, wavy, or straight. Curly hair is flat in cross-section, wavy hair is oval, and straight hair is round.

ACTIVITY 2 Hair, Hair Follicles, Sebaceous Glands, and Sudoriferous Glands Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the diagram of the skin and accessory structures in Figure 7.4. 2 Label the photomicrograph in Figure 7.5. Lab Activity 1 Point to the structures in Figure 7.4 on a microscope slide, model, or chart of the integumentary system. 2 Examine a slide of hairy skin and identify the structures in Figure 7.5. 3 Observe the fingerprints your instructor has as a demonstration or use an ink pad to make your own fingerprints. Examine the fingerprints of several students to observe the variety of whorl patterns. 4 Examine a strand of hair with the compound microscope. • Pull out one strand of scalp hair and lay the hair horizontally on the stage over the light source. • Observe the dark cuticle and lighter medulla of the hair shaft with the 4 objective lens. Switch to the low- and high-power lenses and look for the cells of the cuticle overlapping each other. Observe the root end of the hair. What differences do you see between the root end and the shaft area? • If someone is willing to donate hair with “split ends,” compare the cuticle of a hair with split ends with undamaged hair.

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1

• • • • • • • • •

apocrine (AP-oh-krin) sweat gland arrector pili (PIE-lee) muscle eccrine (EK-rin) sweat gland hair bulb hair follicle hair root hair shaft papilla (puh-PILL-uh) of hair sebaceous (se-BAY-shus) gland

2 Corpuscle of touch (Meissner’s)

Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscle

3 4

1 _______________________________________________

5 6 7 8

3 _______________________________________________

9

5 _______________________________________________

2 _______________________________________________

4 _______________________________________________

6 _______________________________________________ 7 _______________________________________________ 8 _______________________________________________ 9 _______________________________________________

FIGURE 7.4

Diagram of the skin and accessory structures.

• • • • •

1

hair bulbs hair follicle hair root papilla of hair sebaceous gland

2

1 _______________________________________________

3

2 _______________________________________________ 3 _______________________________________________ 4 _______________________________________________

4

5 _______________________________________________

5

10⫻

FIGURE 7.5

Photomicrograph of the skin and accessory structures.

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ACTIVITY 3 Experiment: Eccrine Gland Density

glands/cm2 for each subject dividing by the number of subjects. • Record the average value in Table 7.1.

Lab Activity 1 Prediction: List the eccrine gland density of the following body areas from highest to lowest: forehead, anterior forearm, palm, anterior leg.

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: ECCRINE GLAND DENSITY

• _____________________ (highest) • _____________________

Results: 1. State which area has the highest average eccrine gland density and which has the lowest.

• _____________________ • _____________________ (lowest) 2 Materials: Obtain materials for the eccrine gland density experiment (see Materials list). 3 Data Collection: Count eccrine gland density in different body areas and record your results in Table 7.1. • Decide who will be the subject and who will do each of the following tasks: apply Betadine and tape, time experiment, remove tape, count blue-black dots, and record data. • Find areas on your forehead, right anterior forearm, right palm, and right anterior leg that do not have large crease lines. You should use areas of your body where you normally sweat. If room is cool and students are not producing enough sweat, this experiment may not work. • For each location, use a cotton swab to apply Betadine to an area slightly larger than the paper square. Let Betadine thoroughly dry. • Securely tape a paper square over the Betadinecovered area at each location. • After 20 minutes, remove the tape and paper squares, and count the blue-black dots on each square. Each blue-black dot is an active sweat gland. Remove Betadine from skin by washing the area with soap and water. • Record the number of dots per cm2 in Table 7.1. 4 Clean Up as directed by your instructor. 5 Data Analysis: • Collect the individual eccrine gland density value for each body area from the subject for each group. • Calculate the average eccrine gland density for each body area by adding the number of

TABLE 7.1

2. Discuss how eccrine gland density correlates with the amount of sweat that appears on these body areas during exercise or nervousness. Base this on your own observations and experiences.

Conclusion: 1. Write a sentence that postulates a correlation between average eccrine gland density and the amount of sweat produced by an area.

2. Write a sentence that postulates why eccrine gland density per area varied or did not vary among individuals.

E C C R I N E S W E A T G L A N D D E N S I T Y ( N O . O F G L A N D S / C M 2)

Individual Value Forehead Right anterior forearm

Right anterior leg

Discussion: 1. Discuss the variation in sweat gland density for a given area among individuals.

Eccrine Sweat Gland Density

BODY AREA

Right palm

2. State whether variation in eccrine gland density per body area was observed among subjects.

Class Average

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3. Nails

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ACTIVITY 4 Nail Structure

Nails, which are found on the distal ends of the digits, assist in grabbing and manipulating objects, and protect the digits. The nail consists of a nail body, a free edge, and a root. The nail body is the part of the nail that is visible, the free edge extends beyond the digit, and the root is within the fold of skin at the proximal end of the nail body. The lunula (lunula  little moon) is the crescent-shaped area of the nail body distal to the nail root. The cuticle or eponychium (epi-  above; -onych  nail) is the thickened epithelial tissue along the proximal border of the nail body. The hyponychium (hypo-  below) or nail bed is deep to the free edge and attaches the nail to the fingertip. The nail matrix is the epithelial tissue deep to the nail root that divides to produce new cells that are added to the nail body as it grows.

5

6

7 8

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the nail structures on the diagram in Figure 7.6. 2 Identify nail structures on your own nails.

4. Fingerprints Fingerprints are useful for identifying unknown bodies, missing children, adults with amnesia or Alzheimer’s, or criminals. The practice of using fingerprints to identify someone is called dactyloscopy. Fingerprints develop from dermal papillae that form epidermal ridges in the 3rd and 4th fetal month of development. The ridge arrangement on every finger of every human being is unique and does not alter with growth or age. Superficial injuries do not affect the ridge structure or alter the dermal papillae, and the original 9

1 2

10

3 4

11 Epidermis Dermis Phalanx (finger bone)

(a) Dorsal view

(b) Sagittal section through finger

(a) Dorsal view • eponychium (eh-poh-NICK-ee-um) • free edge • lunula • nail body

1 _________________________________________________________

(b) Sagittal section through finger • eponychium • free edge • hyponychium (hypo-NICK-ee-um) • lunula (loon-you-luh) • nail root • nail body • nail matrix

4 _________________________________________________________

2 _________________________________________________________ 3 _________________________________________________________

5 _________________________________________________________ 6 _________________________________________________________ 7 _________________________________________________________ 8 _________________________________________________________ 9 _________________________________________________________ 10 _________________________________________________________ 11 _________________________________________________________

FIGURE 7.6

Nail structures.

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4

(a) Arch

(b) Loop

(c) Plain whorl

5 FIGURE 7.7

Main types of fingerprint patterns.

pattern is duplicated in any new skin. An injury that destroys the dermal papillae, however, will permanently destroy the ridges. The epidermal ridges of thick skin in the distal pads of phalanges (fingers and toes) are dotted with openings for oil and perspiration glands that transfer the image of the ridges onto a surface. The fatty acid and amino acid secretions leave invisible fingerprints that can be on a nonporous or a porous surface, and those same prints can be visible if there is any dirt or additional material on the fingertips. Fingerprints are categorized into 3 generally recognized patterns, as shown in Figure 7.7: loops, whorls, and arches. Loops constitute about 65% of the total fingerprint patterns, whorls make up about 30%, and arches account for the other 5%. Forensic detectives acquire more details about the pattern area, including bifurcations, ridge endings, and islands. They also use the size of the patterns and the position of the patterns on the finger for further identification. The United States FBI further divides the basic 3 fingerprint classifications into 8 subclassifications.

ACTIVITY 5 Fingerprinting Lab Lab Activity 1 For each person in your group, obtain an ink pad, two 3  5 index cards, 34 transparent tape, magnifying glass, and towelettes. Have the subject wash and dry the hands. 2 Using the lined side of the index card, write the subject’s name and R or L hand. 3 The subject should stand, extending the arm, and relax while the lab partner stands to the side of the subject and with both hands holds onto the index finger. Roll the finger, from the pad to at least the first joint, from side to

6 7

8

9

10

side in the ink pad and then carefully roll the inked finger the same way onto the index card. If the fingerprint smears, or is too light or dark, repeat the procedure. Repeat the same process with the middle finger, but when applying the print to the same card, roll the finger in the opposite direction so the index print doesn’t get smeared. Clean your fingers with a towelette. Repeat the procedure with the other hand and use the 2nd card. Switch subjects and repeat with your lab partner. Classify your prints into one of the recognized pattern groups of loops, whorls, or arches and mark your classification on the back of the cards. Exchange fingerprint record cards with another group and compare classifications of your prints as well as identifying which two fingerprint cards belong to the same individual. If the other group agrees with your classification, give your instructor your fingerprint classification. Your instructor will collect all fingerprint classification data from the class and write the results on the board, giving the class percentages of loops, whorls, and arches. Make a bar graph of the class classification data and compare with the norms for the 3 recognized patterns: 65% loops (look like hairpins), 30% whorls (circles), 5% arches (hills)

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: FINGERPRINTS 1 Are the prints from your index and middle fingers on the same hand similar? Are those fingerprints similar compared to your other hand?

2 What classification pattern do you have?

3 How does your class compare with the total percentages of the 3 recognized patterns?

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

7

E X E R C I S E

A. Skin Layers and Structures Write the name of the skin layer or structure that fits the description. ______________________ 1. Layer of epidermis where there is the most rapid cell division. ______________________ 2. Tough, water-repellent epidermal layer; contains dead squamous-shaped cells. ______________________ 3. Areolar connective tissue layer beneath basement membrane. ______________________ 4. Projections of dermis that cause epidermal ridges. ______________________ 5. Translucent layer found in thick skin, absent in thin skin. ______________________ 6. Appears to have thorn-like projections in prepared slides. ______________________ 7. Thick dermal layer containing dense, irregular connective tissue. ______________________ 8. Epidermal layer containing visible granules. ______________________ 9. Epidermal layer with stem cells. ______________________ 10. Dermal layer with hair follicles and glands.

B. Cells of the Epidermis Write the name of the epidermal cell type that fits the description. ______________________ 1. Defends skin against microbes. ______________________ 2. Produces keratin. ______________________ 3. Produces the pigment melanin which shields cell nuclei from ultraviolet (UV) radiation. ______________________ 4. Associated with sensory neurons and functions in sensation of touch. ______________________ 5. Compose about 8% of epidermal cells. ______________________ 6. Compose about 90% of epidermal cells. ______________________ 7.⎫⎪ ⎬ Compose about 2% of epidermal cells. ⎪ ______________________ 8.⎭

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C. Accessory Structures of the Skin Write the name of the accessory structure that best fits the description. ______________________ 1. Sudoriferous glands located in axillary and genital areas; become active after puberty. ______________________ 2. Connective tissue projection; provides blood supply for hair matrix. ______________________ 3. Secures nail to digit. ______________________ 4. Epithelial layer that surrounds hair root. ______________________ 5. Secretes sebum onto hair and skin. ______________________ 6. Part of nail that is visible. ______________________ 7. Part of nail that extends beyond digit. ______________________ 8. Part of hair that contains the matrix. ______________________ 9. Sudoriferous glands that deposit sweat onto epidermal ridges causing fingerprints. ______________________ 10. Part of hair in epidermis and extending beyond skin surface. ______________________ 11. Moves hair shaft perpendicular to skin; causes goose bumps. ______________________ 12. Thickened epithelial tissue at proximal end of nail body. ______________________ 13. Crescent-shaped area of nail body near cuticle. ______________________ 14. Part of hair within dermis. ______________________ 15. Part of nail within skin. ______________________ 16. Part of nail deep to nail root that produces new cells, causing the nail to grow.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

7

E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

Identification of Skin from Different Body Locations Observe diagrams of skin from different body locations in Figure 7.8. Based on number of epithelial layers and skin accessory structures, determine if skin is from the axillary area, forearm, or sole of foot. 1. ____________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________

1

2

3

FIGURE 7.8 Identification of skin from different body locations.

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Answer the following questions in the space provided. 4. Cortisone is a steroid that is applied to the skin to reduce inflammation. Cortisone acts on cells within the dermis and can travel through unbroken epidermis to reach cells in the dermis. If the epidermis is such a good barrier, how can cortisone easily travel through it?

5. Explain how dandruff is formed.

6. Joey has a splinter in his finger. His mother pulled the skin away from the splinter with a sterile needle and removed the splinter. Joey did not feel pain and did not bleed. Explain.

7. Identify the epidermal layer(s) in which the following cancers arise: (a) basal cell carcinoma; (b) malignant melanoma; (c) squamous cell carcinoma.

8. Name the part(s) of the skin that “peel(s)” off after a minor sunburn.

9. As we age, our skin wrinkles due to changes in collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis and a decrease in their production. Explain why topical application of collagen and elastic fibers would not eliminate wrinkles.

10. Permanent tattoos are made by injecting pigment into the skin. Into which part of the skin is the pigment injected, the epidermis or dermis? (You can answer this without research, just use your knowledge.)

11. If you had a third-degree burn on your scalp, would you expect for your hair to grow back in that area? Explain.

12. Pulling a hair out of your head hurts, but cutting your hair doesn’t. Explain the difference.

13. How do vitiligo and albinism differ? How are they similar?

14. What structure of skin helps you grip a wet glass?

15. Describe the mechanism for acquiring a suntan.

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8

Bone Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

disarticulated bones for bone classification

•

Microscopic Structure of Bone: compound microscope and lens paper, prepared slides of cross-section of ground compact bone and cancellous (spongy) bone

•

Collagen and Mineral Salts: 3 chicken thigh or leg bones: 1 raw, 1 baked for 2 hours or more at 250ºF, and 1 soaked in an acidic solution (vinegar or nitric acid) for 5 to 7 days

1 Identify bones as either long, short, flat, irregular, or sesamoid 2 Describe the gross structure of a long bone and identify the parts on a real bone or chart 3 Describe the difference between compact (cortical) and spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone 4 Identify microscopic structures of compact and spongy bone on drawings and slides 5 Describe the effect of collagen and mineral salts on bone hardness and flexibility

B

ones are organs composed of a complex

arrangement of several tissues. A typical bone has compact and spongy osseous tissues, connective tissues, cartilage, and adipose tissue. In addition, bones contain blood vessels and nerves.

A. Classification of Bones Human bones have different shapes and distinct gross anatomical features. Bones are placed in five classifications according to their shapes: long, short, flat, irregular,

Observation of Human Long Bone: human long bone cut longitudinally and transversely; Observation of Fresh Long Bone: dissecting microscope, dissecting tray and instruments (blunt probe and forceps); disposable gloves, fresh chicken leg or thigh bone, fresh beef long bone sectioned longitudinally.

and sesamoid. Long bones are longer than they are wide, with a thick compact bone exterior. Distribution of spongy bone in long bones is covered in detail later in this exercise. Short bones are almost equal in length and width and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered by a thin veneer of compact bone. Flat bones are relatively flat, but may be curved, and contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin veneer of compact bone. Irregular bones are self-explanatory and do not easily fit into any of these categories. Sesamoid bones (sesame ⫽ seed) are small bones that develop in tendons (e.g., patella) for protection against wear and tear.

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ACTIVITY 1 Classification of Bones According to Shape

4 1 5

Lab Activity 1 Classify each of the bones your instructor has displayed according to shape. 2 Discuss with the rest of the class which bones are difficult to classify and why.

6 7 8

B. Gross Features of Long Bones The enlarged proximal and distal ends of long bones are called epiphyses (epi- ⫽ above, over; -physis ⫽ growing), and the middle shaft area is called the diaphysis (dia- ⫽ through). Compact bone forms the exterior (or cortex) of long bones and most of the diaphysis. A small layer of spongy bone lines the interior of the diaphysis. Spongy bone also forms the interior of the epiphyses. The metaphyses are the areas in an adult bone where the epiphyses and diaphysis join. In a growing bone, the metaphyses contain a layer of hyaline cartilage called the epiphyseal plate. Division of cartilage allows the bone to grow in length. Bone growth stops when the epiphyseal plate cartilage becomes ossified and forms a bony structure called the epiphyseal line. Articular cartilage (articul- ⫽ joint), composed of hyaline cartilage, covers both epiphyses; and the rest of the bone exterior is covered with a tough, connective tissue membrane, the periosteum (peri- ⫽ around; osteo- ⫽ bone). The hollow center of the bony diaphysis is called the medullary cavity (medulla ⫽ marrow, pith), and a small amount of spongy bone is found in this cavity. The medullary cavity is lined with a connective tissue membrane called the endosteum (endo- ⫽ within). The endosteum also lines the cavities within the spongy bone of the epiphyses. Both the periosteum and the endosteum contain osteoblasts (-blast ⫽ builder) and osteoclasts (-klasis ⫽ breaking) for bone formation, bone tissue repair, and bone remodeling. Yellow marrow is a fatty substance found within the medullary cavity. Red marrow is found within the cavities of spongy bone and produces blood cells. The nutrient artery is a large artery that enters compact bone near the middle of the diaphysis. The nutrient artery immediately branches into proximal and distal portions which supply blood to the inner layer of compact bone, spongy bone, and red marrow. The nutrient foramen is the foramen through which the nutrient artery enters.

ACTIVITY 2 Gross Features of a Human Long Bone Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 8.1.

9 10 2

11

12 3

Longitudinal section

• • • • • • • • • • • •

articular cartilage compact bone diaphysis (die-AF-ih-sis) distal epiphysis (e-PIF-ih-sis) endosteum (en-DOS-tee-um) epiphyseal (ep-i-PHY-zee-al or ee-PIF-ih-seal) line medullary (MED-yoo-lar-y) cavity nutrient artery periosteum (peri-OS-tee-um) proximal epiphysis spongy bone yellow marrow

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________ 10 ________________________ 11 ________________________ 12 ________________________

FIGURE 8.1

Features of an adult long bone.

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Lab Activity 1 Identify the items from Figure 8.1 on a human long bone that is partially sectioned longitudinally and transversely. 2 Use a dissecting microscope to observe spongy bone in the epiphyses and lining the medullary cavity.

SAFETY NOTE: Wear gloves when using fresh tissue!

ACTIVITY 3 Observation of a Fresh Long Bone Lab Activity 1 Using gloves, examine a fresh chicken tibia (leg bone) or femur (thigh bone). • Note the shiny appearance of the articular cartilage. • Use a blunt probe and forceps to loosen the periosteum, ligaments, or tendons. • Locate the center of the diaphysis and look for the nutrient artery passing through a hole (nutrient foramen) in the compact bone. 2 Examine a longitudinal section of fresh beef bone. • Find the epiphyseal line or the epiphyseal plate. • Note the difference between the yellow and red bone marrow. 3 Clean Up: • Wash dissecting equipment and laboratory surfaces as directed by your instructor. Be careful not to wash bits of tissue down the drain. • Dispose of fresh tissue as directed by your instructor.

C. Microscopic Structure of Compact and Spongy Bone Tissue Compact (cortical) bone is composed of repeating units of osteons, with each unit having a central (Haversian) canal running longitudinally. The central canal contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that serve compact bone tissue. The blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves travel from the periosteum, dense regular connective tissue covering the bone surface, to the central canal through perforating (Volkmann) canals. These canals run horizontally in compact bone and connect with the central canal. The main feature of each osteon is the concentric rings, or concentric lamellae (lamella ⫽ small plate or ring), which look similar to the rings of a tree trunk cut in cross-section. When viewed on a stained slide of

BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

97

compact bone, there are dark areas with thin lines extending between the lamellae. The dark areas are lacunae (lacuna ⫽ little lake) that are found between concentric lamellae, and the thin lines are canaliculi (small channels) that connect the lacunae. Osteocytes are mature bone cells that reside in the lacunae, and osteocyte processes extend through the canaliculi. Canaliculi allow nutrients from the blood vessels in the central canal to diffuse to the osteocytes embedded in the solid bone material. The canaliculi are also the route by which waste materials are removed from these cells. Interstitial lamellae (inter- ⫽ between; -stitial ⫽ to stand) fill in the spaces between the osteons. Spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone does not contain osteons but instead has trabeculae (little beams)—flat plates with a lattice-like network of thin, bony columns lined with endosteum. The trabeculae have lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi. Spongy bone has many spaces filled with red marrow. Blood vessels within the red marrow provide the osteocytes with nutrients. This fragile spongy bone needs the protection of an outer layer of compact bone. Spongy bone is found in the epiphyses of long bones and in the interior of short, flat, and irregular bones.

ACTIVITY 4 Microscopic Structure of Ground Compact Bone and Spongy Bone Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figures 8.2(a) and (b), and Figure 8.3(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared slide of a cross-section of ground compact bone. Blood vessels, osteocytes, and periosteum cannot be observed on ground bone slides. • Using the low-power objective lens, identify an osteon, a central canal, concentric lamellae, and interstitial lamellae. Count the number of osteons in one field of view. • Using the high-power objective lens, identify canaliculi and lacunae. 2 Examine a prepared microscope slide of spongy bone. Note that on slides of spongy bone, the preparations are generally demineralized (mineral salts removed) and do not show the lamellae and canaliculi as depicted in the drawing in Figure 8.2(b). • Using the low-power objective lens, identify the trabeculae. • Using the high-power objective lens, identify the lacunae, which appear as darker areas in the trabeculae.

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Compact bone Spongy bone

Medullary cavity 3

Periosteum

4 2 6

7

5 Medullary cavity

Osteon

8

9 1

10 11 (a) Osteons (Haversian systems) in compact bone and trabeculae in spongy bone 13

14

Space for red bone marrow 12

Osteoblasts aligned along trabeculae of new bone

(b) Enlarged aspect of spongy bone trabeculae

(a) • blood vessels • canaliculus (can-a-LIK-yoo-lus) • central canal • compact bone • concentric lamellae (la-MEL-lee) • lacuna (la-COO-na) • osteocyte (OS-tee-o-site) • perforating canal

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________ 7 _________________________ 8 _________________________

FIGURE 8.2

Microscopic features of bone.

• periosteum (per-ee-OS-tee-um) • spongy bone • trabeculae (trah-BEKyoo-lee) of spongy bone covered with endosteum (b) • interstitial lamellae • osteocyte in lacuna • trabeculae covered with endosteum

9 _________________________ 10 _________________________ 11 _________________________

12 _________________________ 13 _________________________ 14 _________________________

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(a) • compact bone • medullary cavity • metaphysis • proximal epiphysis • spongy bone

1

2

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________

3

3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 4

5 ________________________

5

(a) Longitudinally sectioned femur (thigh bone)

(b) • canaliculi • central canal • concentric lamella • lacuna

6 7

6 ________________________ 8

7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________

9 LM 285⫻ (b) Cross-section of ground compact bone

Red marrow cell 10

(c) • osteocyte • trabecula 10 ________________________ 11 ________________________

11

LM 200⫻ (c) Photomicrograph of spongy bone

FIGURE 8.3

Gross and microscopic features of compact and spongy bone.

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D. Role of Collagen and Mineral Salts in Osseous Tissue The properties of osseous tissue are determined by its extracellular matrix, which contains approximately 25% water, 25% collagen fibers, and 50% mineral salts. Collagen fibers are a fibrous protein that provide tensile strength and flexibility so that bone does not break with normal stress. The mineral salts consist mainly of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate salts, giving the “backbone” or hardness to bone. As we age, the collagen content of osseous tissue decreases, causing bones to become brittle and break more easily. Decreased mineral content of bone, as occurs with rickets, causes bones to be soft and to bend due to body weight.

ACTIVITY 5 Role of Collagen and Mineral Salts in Osseous Tissue Lab Activity 1 With your group, examine a chicken thigh or leg bone baked at about 250ºF for a minimum of 2 hours or until brittle. Compare what happens when you try to bend a treated and untreated bone. 2 Examine a chicken thigh or leg bone that has been soaked in an acidic solution (vinegar or nitric acid) for 5 to 7 days. Try bending the bone and compare this with an untreated bone and the baked bone.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: COLLAGEN AND MINERAL SALTS 1 Compare the flexibility of the untreated, baked, and acid-treated bones.

2 Which bone is brittle?

3 What substance has been damaged in the brittle bone? _______________________ Why would this increase bone breakage?

4 Which bone is the softest?

5 What substance has been leached from the soft bone? _______________________ What clinical disorder is this bone simulating?

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Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

8

E X E R C I S E

A. Gross Features of Long Bones Write the answer in the space provided for questions 1-5. 1. What area of the long bone is covered with cartilage? __________________________________ 2. What type of cartilage is articular cartilage? __________________________________ 3. What area (epiphysis or diaphysis) is made up of a thin layer of compact bone and a thick spongy bone? __________________________________ 4. What area (epiphysis or diaphysis) is made up of a thick layer of compact bone and a very thin layer of spongy bone? __________________________________ 5. The long bone in Figure 8.1 is from an adult. If this figure were from a child, what structure would be present instead of the epiphyseal line? __________________________________

B. Microscopic Features of Long Bones Identify the term that describes the phrase about long bones. ______________________ 1. bone cell found in lacunae ______________________ 2. vertical canal in an osteon ______________________ 3. cavity that contains yellow marrow in adults ______________________ 4. bone shaft ______________________ 5. spaces where the osteocytes are located ______________________ 6. horizontal canal in an osteon

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______________________ 7. small canal connecting lacunae ______________________ 8. membrane lining medullary cavity ______________________ 9. membrane covering surface of bone ______________________ 10. thin bony columns in spongy bone

C. Comparison of Compact and Spongy Bone Identify whether the statements below describe compact bone, spongy bone, or both. ______________________ 1. composed of osteons ______________________ 2. contains osteocytes and lacunae ______________________ 3. has lamellae ______________________ 4. has trabeculae ______________________ 5. has perforating canals ______________________ 6. located in the epiphyses ______________________ 7. located in the diaphysis ______________________ 8. has a central canal ______________________ 9. spaces filled with red marrow ______________________ 10. has canaliculi

D. Chemical Composition of Bone Fill in the blanks with the correct term. ______________________ 1. The hardness of bone is due to _____________. ______________________ 2. The flexibility and tensile strength of bone are due to _____________. ______________________ 3. What type of a macromolecule (carbohydrate, lipid, protein) is collagen? ______________________ 4. A bone that has the collagen removed is flexible or inflexible? ______________________ 5. A bone that has calcium removed is flexible or inflexible?

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Section ______________________________

8

E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Bone Tissue Fill in the blanks with the correct term. 1. Two bone cells located in the periosteum and endosteum are ____________ and ____________. 2. Which type of bone tissue, compact bone or spongy bone, significantly degenerates first in osteoporosis? _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. As we age, the amount of collagen in the extracellular matrix of bone decreases and bones become more brittle. Identify the osseous tissue cell that secretes collagen. ____________________ 4. Explain the importance of the integumentary system to bone formation.

B. Bone Images Identify the structures indicated on Figure 8.4 and Figure 8.5.

7

5

8

6

5 _____________________________________________________

7 _____________________________________________________

6 _____________________________________________________

8 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 8.4

FIGURE 8.5

Longitudinal section of a long bone.

X-ray of a child’s knee joint.

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BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

9. Observe the bones in Figure 8.6(a) and (b). Identify the child’s hand and the adult’s hand. (a) ____________________________________________ (b) ____________________________________________

(b)

(a)

FIGURE 8.6

X-rays of the child and adult hand.

10. Observe Figure 8.7(a) and (b). Identify the normal bone and osteoporotic bone. (a) ____________________________________________ (b) ____________________________________________

SEM 30⫻ (a)

FIGURE 8.7

Normal and osteoporotic bone tissue.

SEM 30⫻ (b)

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9

Axial Skeleton Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

articulated skeleton

•

articulated vertebral column with intervertebral discs

•

small plastic straws (coffee stirrers) or pipe cleaners for pointers

1 Identify the 3 main parts of the axial skeleton 2 Identify the major bones of the axial skeleton 3 Identify selected bone surface markings and sutures on the axial skeleton 4 Identify paranasal sinuses and bones of the nasal septum, hard palate, and orbit of eye

disarticulated skeleton articulated skulls, Beauchene (disarticulated) skull, and fetal skull

5 Identify the fontanels in the fetal skull 6 Identify the parts of a typical vertebra 7 Compare the 3 individual types of vertebrae and the identifying features of each 8 Compare and contrast the normal and abnormal curvatures of the vertebral column 9 Identify the bones of the thoracic cage and selected surface markings

T

here are 206 named bones in the adult skeleton

which can be separated into the axial and the appendicular divisions. The axial skeleton is composed of 80 bones located along a vertical line, the longitudinal axis of the body. Its bones support and protect the organs of the head, neck, and torso. The appendicular skeleton (appendere ⫽ to hang upon) is composed of 126 bones that make up the upper limbs (or extremities), lower limbs, and the bones of the girdles that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. The appendicular skeleton will be studied in the next exercise.

The axial skeleton includes the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage (rib cage). Smaller bones included in this division are the ear ossicles (bones).

A. The Skull The major bones of the skull include the cranial and facial bones. The cranial bones form a bony cavity that harbors and protects the brain and houses organs of hearing and equilibrium. Facial bones provide the shape of the face, house the teeth, and provide attachments for all the muscles

105

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of facial expression. Other major features of the skull include sutures, orbit of eye, bone markings, paranasal sinuses, nasal septum, hard palate, and fontanels in the fetal skull.

1. Cranial Bones There are a total of 8 bones in the cranium, 2 paired and 4 single bones. • (2) parietal bones (paries ⫽ wall)—superior lateral walls of cranial cavity • (2) temporal bones—inferior lateral walls of cranial cavity; house organs of inner ear • (1) frontal bone—anterior portion of cranial cavity • (1) occipital bone (occipit- ⫽ atlas)—posterior wall of cranial cavity • (1) sphenoid bone (sphen- ⫽ wedge; -eidos ⫽ form)—floor of cranial cavity posterior to ethmoid • (1) ethmoid bone (ethmos ⫽ sieve)—floor and anterior wall of cranial cavity

2. Sutures Sutures are immovable joints between bones of the skull. The 4 main sutures in the skull are the: • coronal (corona ⫽ crown)—joins frontal and parietal bones • sagittal (sagitta- ⫽ arrow)—joins parietal bones • lambdoid (shape of the Greek letter lambda)—joins both parietal bones with occipital bone • (2) squamous (squama ⫽ scale)—join temporal and parietal bones

3. Facial Bones

• (2) inferior nasal conchae (concha ⫽ shell or scroll-shaped) or turbinate—forms lateral walls of nasal cavity • (2) palatine bones (palatum ⫽ palate)—fused bones that form posterior part of hard palate • (1) mandible (mandere ⫽ to chew)—lower jaw bone • (1) vomer (vomer ⫽ plowshare)—inferior portion of nasal septum NOTE: BE ACCOUNTABLE FOR THE CARE OF SKULLS AND BONES. Please be careful not to use pencils, pens, or markers as pointers while you are studying the skull and other bones. Thin bones can be broken, and all bones can be permanently marked. Your instructor will provide a small plastic straw, pipe cleaner, or other suitable pointer.

ACTIVITY 1 Cranial Bones, Facial Bones, and Sutures Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the cranial bones, facial bones, and sutures on the photographs in Figures 9.1–9.5. Lab Activity 1 Identify these bones and sutures on an articulated skull and a Beauchene (disarticulated) skull. 2 Palpate as many of the cranial and facial bones as you can on your own skull and say their names. 3 Palpate the joint between the temporal and mandibular bone (temporomandibular joint, or TMJ) by putting your fingers on either side of your jawbone just anterior to the ears. Open and close your mouth to feel this joint.

There are a total of 14 facial bones, 6 paired and 2 single bones. • (2) maxillae (mala ⫽ jaw)—fused upper jaw bones • (2) zygomatic bones (zygoma ⫽ yoke or bar)— cheek bones • (2) lacrimal bones (lacri- ⫽ tear)—portion of orbit of eyes near nasal bones • (2) nasal bones—bridge of nose

CLINICAL NOTE: A dislocated or defective TMJ has a history of causing clinical problems characterized by pain, tenderness, dysfunction, and clicking noises.

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107

Frontal bone Coronal suture Sphenoid bone Parietal bone Ethmoid bone Squamous suture Lacrimal bone

Temporal bone

Nasal bone Zygomatic bone

Lambdoid suture

Maxilla Occipital bone

Mandible

Hyoid bone

7 1 8 2 9

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

coronal (cor-RONE-al) suture ethmoid bone frontal (FRON-tal) bone lacrimal (LAK-rih-mal) bone lambdoid (LAMB-doid) suture mandible maxilla (ma-XIL-la) nasal bone occipital (oc-CI-pi-tal) bone parietal (pa-RYE-e-tal) bone sphenoid (SFEE-noid) bone squamous (SQUAY-mus) suture temporal (TEM-por-ul) bone zygomatic (zy-go-MA-tic) bone

3

10 11

4 5

12

13

6

14

1 __________________________________

6 __________________________________

11 __________________________________

2 __________________________________

7 __________________________________

12 __________________________________

3 __________________________________

8 __________________________________

13 __________________________________

4 __________________________________

9 __________________________________

14 __________________________________

5 __________________________________

10 __________________________________

FIGURE 9.1

Lateral view of skull.

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Frontal bone

Coronal suture

Sagittal suture

Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Posterior

1 2

• • • • • •

3

coronal suture frontal bone lambdoid suture occipital bone parietal bone sagittal suture

1 _________________________________________________ 4

2 _________________________________________________ 3 _________________________________________________ 4 _________________________________________________ 5

5 _________________________________________________

6

6 _________________________________________________ FIGURE 9.2

Superior view of skull.

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109

Anterior

Maxilla

Palatine bone

Zygomatic bone View Vomer Sphenoid bone

Temporal bone Parietal bone

Occipital bone

Posterior

1 5 6

2 3

• • • • • • • 7

maxilla occipital bone palatine (PAL-a-tin) bone sphenoid bone temporal bone vomer (VOH-mer) zygomatic bone

1 ___________________________________ 2 ___________________________________

4

3 ___________________________________ 4 ___________________________________ 5 ___________________________________ 6 ___________________________________ 7 ___________________________________

FIGURE 9.3

Inferior view of skull.

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View

Anterior Transverse plane

Frontal bone Ethmoid bone

Sphenoid bone

Temporal bone

Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture Occipital bone

Posterior

3

4

5

6

• • • • • • •

ethmoid bone frontal bone lambdoid suture occipital bone parietal bone sphenoid bone temporal bone

1 ___________________________________ 1

2 ___________________________________ 3 ___________________________________

2 7

4 ___________________________________ 5 ___________________________________ 6 ___________________________________ 7 ___________________________________

FIGURE 9.4

Superior view of floor of cranial cavity.

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111

Frontal bone Parietal bone

Temporal bone Sphenoid bone Ethmoid bone

Nasal bone

Lacrimal bone

Zygomatic bone

Inferior nasal concha

Sphenoid bone

Maxilla

Vomer Mandible

Ethmoid bone

1

7

• ethmoid bone • frontal bone • inferior nasal concha (CON-cha) or turbinate • lacrimal (LAC-ri-mal) bone • mandible (MAN-di-ble)

• • • • • • •

maxilla nasal bone parietal bone sphenoid bone temporal bone vomer zygomatic bone

1 __________________________________ 2 3

8

4

9

2 __________________________________ 3 __________________________________ 4 __________________________________ 5 __________________________________

10

5

6 __________________________________ 11

6

7 __________________________________ 8 __________________________________ 9 __________________________________ 10 __________________________________

12

11 __________________________________ 12 __________________________________

FIGURE 9.5

Anterior view of skull.

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4. Orbit of the Eye The orbit of the eye is a mosaic of 7 different bones, 3 cranial bones (frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid), and 4 facial bones (maxilla, zygomatic, lacrimal, and palatine). The piece of the palatine bone that is part of the orbit is small and not readily observable in Figure 9.6.

ACTIVITY 2 Orbit of the Eye Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the bones forming the orbit of the eye in Figure 9.6. Lab Activity 1 On a skull, locate the 6 bones that comprise the orbit of the eye. Palatine bone is difficult to see.

SUPERIOR

1 2 4 5 6 3

INFERIOR

• • • • • •

ethmoid bone frontal bone lacrimal bone maxilla sphenoid bone zygomatic bone

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________

FIGURE 9.6

Orbit of the eye.

5. Selected Bone Surface Markings of the Skull The bones of the skull are not totally smooth but have depressions, openings, and projections. These bone surface markings have specific functions. Depressions and openings form joints or passageways for blood vessels and nerves. Processes form joints or points of attachment for ligaments or tendons. The major types of bone markings found on the axial skeleton are listed in Table 9.1 along with their descriptions and functions. Selected bone surface markings are listed below. Cranial Bones: Selected Bone Surface Markings 1. Frontal bone (1) • supraorbital foramina (supra- ⫽ above; orbit ⫽ wheel rut; foram- ⫽ opening)—1 opening located above the orbit of each eye for supraorbital nerve and artery • supraorbital ridges or margins—thickening of frontal bone superior to orbit of each eye 2. Temporal bone (2)—Each temporal bone has one of each structure listed below: • external auditory meatus (meatus ⫽ passageway)— tube-like opening for the ear canal • mastoid process (mastoid ⫽ breast-like)—rounded projection posterior to external auditory meatus; attachment for muscles • styloid process (stylo- ⫽ point)—long, thin projection on inferior skull surface; attachment for muscles and ligaments of tongue and neck • zygomatic process—projection that articulates with the zygomatic bone • mandibular fossa—depression in mandible for articulation with condylar process (mandibular condyle) • foramen lacerum (lacerare ⫽ torn or lacerated)— jagged opening filled with cartilage in a living person • carotid foramen (canal)—foramen for internal carotid artery • jugular foramen ( jugula ⫽ throat)—foramen for jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, and XI • stylomastoid foramen—opening for an artery and cranial nerve VII • internal auditory meatus—opening for cranial nerve VIII

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TABLE 9.1

AXIAL SKELETON

113

Bone Markings

MARKING

DESCRIPTION

PURPOSE

Narrow slit or cleft in a bone Opening or hole (foramina, pl.) Shallow depression (fossae, pl.) Tube-like passageway or opening (meati, pl.)

Opening for blood vessels and nerves Opening for blood vessels and nerves Muscle attachment or articulation ( joint) Passageway or canal for blood vessels and nerves

Smooth, rounded articular process A small branch (rami, pl.) Pointed process

Articulation Articulation Articulation

Depressions or Openings 1. 2. 3. 4.

Fissure (FISH-er) Foramen (for-AY-men) Fossa (FOS-sa) Meatus (me-AY-tus)

Processes 5. Condyle (CON-dile) 6. Ramus (RAY-mus) 7. Spine

3. Occipital bone (1) • foramen magnum (magnum ⫽ large)—opening through which spinal cord connects to lower brain • hypoglossal foramina—openings for cranial nerves XII • occipital condyles—rounded processes that articulate with the atlas (C1) 4. Ethmoid bone (1) • cribriform plates (cribr- ⫽ sieve)—one on either side of crista galli; form roof of nasal cavity • crista galli (crist- ⫽ crest; galli ⫽ rooster)— projection for attachment of membranes covering brain • olfactory foramina (olfact- ⫽ smell)—tiny holes in cribriform plates for cranial nerve I • perpendicular plate—forms superior part of nasal septum • middle nasal conchae—scroll-like projections on each lateral wall of nasal cavity • superior nasal conchae—scroll-like projections on each lateral wall of nasal cavity 5. Sphenoid bone (1) • foramina ovale (ovale ⫽ oval)—openings for mandibular branch of cranial nerve V • foramina rotundum—openings for maxillary branch of cranial nerve V • sella turcica (sella ⫽ saddle; turcica ⫽ Turkish)— bony projection that surrounds and protects pituitary gland • greater and lesser wings—form anterior and lateral floor of cranial cavity • optic foramina—openings for cranial nerve II • inferior orbital fissures—openings for blood vessels and nerves

• superior orbital fissures ( fissure ⫽ cleft)— openings for blood vessels and cranial nerves III, IV, V, and VI (ophthalmic branch) • pterygoid processes (medial and lateral) (pterygoid ⫽ wing-shaped)—wing-like projections on the base of the skull in the middle section of the sphenoid bone Facial Bones: Selected Bone Surface Markings 1. Maxillae (2) • alveoli (alve- ⫽ socket)—tooth sockets (alveolus, sing.) • palatine process—fused processes that form the anterior part of hard palate 2. Mandible (1) • alveoli—tooth sockets • body—curved, anterior portion of mandible • mental foramina (menta ⫽ chin)—openings in chin for nerves and blood vessels • rami—posterior branches, one on either side of the body of mandible • condylar processes (mandibular condyles)—rounded processes on rami that articulate with temporal bone at the mandibular fossa to form the TMJ • coronoid processes—triangular projections of rami anterior to the condylar processes 3. Lacrimal bone (2) • lacrimal fossa—canal that houses lacrimal sac; formed from the maxilla and lacrimal bone 4. Zygomatic bone (2) • temporal process—projects posteriorly; temporal process of zygomatic bone and zygomatic process of temporal bone form the zygomatic arch

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ACTIVITY 3 Bone Surface Markings Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the bone markings listed in Figures 9.7–9.10. Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on an articulated skull and an unarticulated (Beauchene) skull, if available. 2 Using two small plastic straws, poke each straw into an orbit of the eye and through an optic foramen. Observe the straws in the superior view of the cranial floor and notice that the straws cross above the sella turcica. This simulates the crossing of the optic nerves, called the optic chiasma.

3 Palpate the supraorbital ridges of the frontal bone and the body, ramus, and condylar process of the mandible. 4 Palpate the mastoid process of the temporal bone by placing your fingers on the projection inferior and posterior to the external auditory meatus. 5 Palpate the condylar process by placing fingers anterior to the external auditory meatus and opening and closing your mouth.

Supraorbital foramen Supraorbital margin Superior orbital fissure

Orbit

Inferior orbital fissure Middle nasal concha

Perpendicular plate of ethmoid

Mental foramen

6

1

7

• • • • • • • •

inferior orbital fissure mental foramen middle nasal concha orbit of eye perpendicular plate of ethmoid superior orbital fissure supraorbital (supra-OR-bi-tal) foramen supraorbital margin

1 __________________________________

2

2 __________________________________

3 4

8

3 __________________________________ 4 __________________________________ 5 __________________________________ 6 __________________________________

5

7 __________________________________ 8 __________________________________ FIGURE 9.7

Anterior view of skull.

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115

Lacrimal fossa Zygomatic process of temporal bone

Coronoid process

Condylar process (mandibular condyle) Body of mandible

External auditory meatus

Ramus of mandible

Mastoid process Hyoid bone

Styloid process

• body of mandible • condylar (CON-dih-lur) process (mandibular condyle) • coronoid process • external auditory meatus • lacrimal fossa • mastoid (MAS-toid) process • ramus of mandible • zygomatic process of temporal bone 1 ________________________

1 2

3

2 ________________________

4

3 ________________________

5 6

4 ________________________

7 8

5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ 8 ________________________

FIGURE 9.8

Lateral view of skull.

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Palatine process of maxilla Hard palate Palatine bone

Pterygoid processes Foramen lacerum

Foramen ovale Mandibular fossa Carotid foramen Jugular foramen Occipital condyle Hypoglossal foramen

Styloid process External auditory meatus Stylomastoid foramen Mastoid process Foramen magnum

• carotid foramen (canal) • foramen lacerum (LA-sir-um) • foramen magnum • foramen ovale (o-VAL-ee) • hard palate • hypoglossal foramen • jugular foramen

Posterior ANTERIOR

1

• mandibular fossa • mastoid process • occipital (ox-CI-pital) condyle • palatine bone • palatine process of maxilla • pterygoid processes • stylomastoid (sty-loMAS-toid) foramen

1 ____________________________________________

3

2 ____________________________________________ 2

3 ____________________________________________

4

4 ____________________________________________ 5 9 10 11 12 13

6 7 8

14

5 ____________________________________________ 6 ____________________________________________ 7 ____________________________________________ 8 ____________________________________________ 9 ____________________________________________ 10 ____________________________________________ 11 ____________________________________________ 12 ____________________________________________ 13 ____________________________________________

POSTERIOR

FIGURE 9.9

Inferior view of skull.

14 ____________________________________________

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117

Anterior Transverse plane

Crista galli Olfactory foramina Cribriform plate Lesser wing of sphenoid Foramen rotundum

Optic foramen Sella turcica

Foramen ovale

Greater wing of sphenoid

Internal auditory meatus

Foramen lacerum

Hypoglossal foramen

Jugular foramen

Foramen magnum

• cribriform (CRIBri-form) plate • crista galli (CRIS-ta GAL-li) • foramen lacerum • foramen magnum • foramen ovale • foramen rotundum • greater wing of sphenoid

Posterior

• internal auditory meatus • jugular foramen • lesser wing of sphenoid • olfactory foramina • optic foramen • sella turcica (SEL-la TUR-si-ca)

1

1 ________________________________________

(Holes) 2 3

2 ________________________________________ 8 9 10

4 5

11 12

3 ________________________________________ 4 ________________________________________ 5 ________________________________________ 6 ________________________________________

6

7 ________________________________________ 13

8 ________________________________________ 9 ________________________________________

7

10 ________________________________________ 11 ________________________________________ 12 ________________________________________ 13 ________________________________________ FIGURE 9.10

Superior view of floor of cranial cavity.

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6. Paranasal Sinuses Paranasal (para- ⫽ next to; nasal ⫽ nose) sinuses (sinu⫽ hollow) are cavities lined with mucous membranes that are located near and have openings into the nasal cavities. The ethmoid, frontal, maxillary, and sphenoid bones contain paranasal sinuses.

1 2 3 4

7. Nasal Septum The nasal septum (saeptum ⫽ wall or partition) is comprised of 2 bones and cartilage. The vomer is inferior to the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. The septal cartilage is anterior to the 2 bones.

8. Hard Palate The hard palate, or roof of the mouth, is formed by the fusion of 4 bones: 2 palatine processes of the maxillary bones and 2 palatine bones. Approximately threefourths of the hard palate is composed of the palatine processes of the maxillary bones, and one-fourth is the palatine bones. CLINICAL NOTE: A cleft palate is a common congenital malformation of the hard palate. This defect is the result of bones of the palate failing to fuse along the midline during embryonic development. The cleft can be partial or complete.

ACTIVITY 4 Paranasal Sinuses, Nasal Septum, and Hard Palate Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the 4 paranasal sinuses in Figure 9.11. 2 Label the bones and cartilage of the nasal septum and hard palate in Figure 9.12. Lab Activity 1 Locate the paranasal sinuses on a skull. 2 Identify the structures of the nasal septum on an articulated skull (and a Beauchene skull, if available). 3 Locate the bones of the hard palate on a skull. 4 Palpate your nasal septum to find the junction of the nasal bones and nasal cartilage. 5 Palpate your own palate with your tongue or finger, noting the junction of the hard and soft palates.

(a)

• • • •

(b)

1 _______________________________

ethmoidal sinus frontal sinus maxillary sinus sphenoidal sinus

2 _______________________________ 3 _______________________________ 4 _______________________________

FIGURE 9.11

Paranasal sinuses.

Crista galli

Sella turcica

Sphenoidal sinus

Frontal sinus Nasal bone

1 2 3

• perpendicular plate of ethmoid • septal cartilage • vomer

FIGURE 9.12

Nasal septum.

1 _______________________ 2 _______________________ 3 _______________________

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9. Fetal and Newborn Skull The newborn skull is not completely ossified but has membranous sections composed of fibrous connective tissue called fontanels ( fontaine ⫽ fountain) or “soft spots.” Fontanels allow the cranial bones to compress during the journey through the birth canal, and they also permit rapid growth of the brain and skull during the early years. At birth, the physician or midwife can tell how the baby is presenting itself in the birth canal by palpating the fontanel. If the fontanel is a diamond shape, the baby is presenting the frontal bone first and is face down. If the fontanel is triangular in shape, the baby is presenting the occipital bone and is face up. These membrane templates that are present at birth eventually ossify.

AXIAL SKELETON

119

ACTIVITY 5 Fetal Skull and Major Fontanels Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the fontanels in Figures 9.13(a)–(c). Lab Activity 1 Identify the fontanels on a fetal skull (if available). 2 Compare the location of the fontanels and sutures in the fetal skull with adult sutures. 3 Compare the size of the facial bones in the fetal skull with the adult skull.

Anterior Fontanel Future coronal suture Frontal bone

Parietal bone Future squamous suture Posterior Fontanel

Anterolateral Fontanel Sphenoid bone

Posterolateral Fontanel Occipital bone

Temporal bone (a) Right lateral view

3 Parietal bone

Parietal bone Frontal suture

Future coronal suture 1 Future squamous suture Sphenoid bone Temporal bone

4 Perpendicular plate

Future lambdoid suture Occipital bone

Maxilla

2

Mandible (b) Right anterolateral view

• • • •

Future sagittal suture

Frontal bone

anterior (frontal) fontanel (fon-ta-NEL) anterolateral (sphenoidal) fontanel posterior (occipital) fontanel posterolateral (mastoid) fontanel

(c) Posterior view

1 _______________________________________________ 2 _______________________________________________ 3 _______________________________________________ 4 _______________________________________________

FIGURE 9.13

Major fontanels of the fetal skull.

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B. Hyoid Bone

1. Regions and Normal Curvatures of the Vertebral Column

The hyoid bone is not attached to the axial skeleton but is included with the axial skeleton because of its midline location and proximity to the mandible and vertebral column. This bone is U-shaped and has the distinction of not articulating with any other bones. It is secured in place by ligaments and muscles, including many muscles of the tongue and neck. It is located in the anterior neck region between the mandible and larynx. (This is the bone that is crushed during strangulation.)

The 5 regions of the vertebral column and the number of vertebrae in the adult, from superior to inferior, are: cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1), and coccygeal (1). To remember the number of vertebrae in the first 3 groups, students say they eat “breakfast at 7, lunch at 12, and dinner at 5.” There are 4 normal curvatures that correspond with the regions of the vertebral column: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral (pelvic) curvatures. A newborn has a single anteriorly concave primary curve that will become the thoracic curve and sacral curve (Fig. 9.14). Two anteriorly convex secondary curves—the cervical and lumbar—develop several months later. The cervical curve develops when the baby can hold its head erect, while the lumbar curve develops when the baby can stand.

ACTIVITY 6 Hyoid Bone Pre-Lab Activity 1 Locate the hyoid bone in Figure 9.8. Lab Activity 1 Identify the hyoid bone on an articulated skeleton and on a disarticulated skeleton. 2 Palpate your hyoid bone by placing the thumb and middle finger of one hand on either side of the neck about 1 inch inferior to the mandible. This bone can be moved laterally (from side to side).

C. Vertebral Column The vertebral column protects the spinal cord and provides attachment points for back and abdominal muscles. The curved vertebral column (backbone) is a flexible structure that can be bent, twisted, and rotated, especially in the cervical region. The vertebral column consists of cervical (cervic- ⫽ neck), thoracic (thorac- ⫽ chest), and lumbar (lumb- ⫽ loin) vertebrae, the sacrum (sacer ⫽ sacred), and coccyx (coccyx ⫽ cuckoo’s beak). The sacrum consists of 5 sacral vertebrae that are fused in the adult. The coccyx (tailbone) is usually composed of 4 small, fused coccygeal vertebrae. An infant has 33 individual vertebrae, and the adult has 26 due to fusion of the sacral and coccygeal vertebrae. The vertebral column articulates with the skull, the ribs, and the pelvis.

Single curve in fetus

FIGURE 9.14 column.

Four curves in adult

Fetal and adult curves of the vertebral

ACTIVITY 7 The Vertebral Column Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the 5 regions of the vertebral column in Figure 9.15. 2 Label the 4 normal curvatures in Figure 9.15 Lab Activity 1 Identify the 5 regions on an articulated skeleton or vertebral column model. 2 Identify the 4 curvatures on an articulated skeleton or vertebral column.

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121

AXIAL SKELETON

ANTERIOR

POSTERIOR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2

7

9 10

10

11

11

12

12

1

1 Intervertebral disc

2

2

3

3

3 Intervertebral disc

6

4

Intervertebral foramen

5

8

4 5

9 4

5

• • • • • • • • •

cervical curve cervical vertebrae (VER-te-bray) coccyx (COCK-six) lumbar curve lumbar vertebrae sacral curve sacrum (SAY-crum) thoracic curve thoracic vertebrae

1 _________________________________ 2 _________________________________ 3 _________________________________ 4 _________________________________ 5 _________________________________ 6 _________________________________ 7 _________________________________ 8 _________________________________ 9 _________________________________

FIGURE 9.15

Normal spinal curvatures of the vertebral column.

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2. Parts of a Typical Vertebra

• vertebral foramen—large opening formed by the vertebral arch that protects the spinal cord • superior and inferior articular processes (with facets)—extend from the vertebra at the junction of the pedicle and lamina to articulate with a superior and inferior vertebra, respectively

The cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae have similar as well as different structures. The similarities are studied in this activity, and the differences will be studied in the next activity. • body—located anteriorly; is the largest part of the vertebra • pedicle (pediculus ⫽ little foot)—attached to and extends posteriorly on either side of the body • transverse process—extends laterally from each pedicle • lamina (lamin- ⫽ plate)—connects transverse processes to the spinous process • spinous process —projects posteriorly from fused lamina • vertebral arch—formed by the fusion of pedicles and laminae

ACTIVITY 8 Parts of a Typical Vertebra Pre-Lab Activity 1 Locate the parts of a vertebra shown in Figure 9.16. Lab Activity 1 Identify the parts on a disarticulated thoracic vertebra. 2 Palpate the spinous processes of your vertebral column.

POSTERIOR

Facet of superior articular process

Spinous process

Spinal cord

Transverse process Vertebral arch: Lamina

Vertebral foramen

Pedicle

Facet for head of rib

Body

ANTERIOR

FIGURE 9.16

Parts of a typical vertebra.

3. Comparison of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae The first two of the seven cervical vertebrae look different from the others as seen in Figure 9.17(a). The atlas is the first cervical vertebra (C1) and is named for the mythical Greek god who held up the world on his shoulders. The large superior articular facets of the atlas articulate with the occipital condyles of the skull and allow the head to tilt up and down in a nodding motion. The axis, C2, has a superior tooth-like protuberance called the dens (dens ⫽ tooth in Latin) or odontoid process (odous ⫽ tooth in Greek). The dens extends superiorly into the vertebral foramen of the atlas and allows the atlas to pivot laterally in a “no” type motion. Some head

traumas push the head onto the vertebral column, and the dens is shoved into the medulla oblongata (brain stem). This is the cause of death in such head injuries. C3 through C6 have bifurcated (forked) spinous processes. In Figure 9.17(a), observe the vertebra prominens (C7) which has a prominent single spinous process that protrudes at the base of the neck and can be seen and palpated. A whiplash, which occurs in some rear-ended auto accidents, causes partial or complete dislocation of the cervical vertebrae. The easiest way to distinguish any cervical vertebra is by its three foramina (pl.; foramen, sing.)—a vertebral foramen plus two transverse foramina. The transverse foramina, found only in cervical vertebrae, allow passage of the vertebral arteries, veins, and sympathetic nerves to and

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from the brain. Since the cervical vertebrae do not carry much weight, they are lightweight and have small bodies. A thoracic vertebra has a medium-sized body and usually a long, narrow spinous process that commonly slants inferiorly at a sharp angle. Thoracic vertebrae also have facets ( facette ⫽ little face) on the transverse processes and demifacets (demi- ⫽ half) on the bodies, both of which articulate with ribs. Lumbar vertebrae have the largest bodies to support more weight and thick, hatchet-shaped spinous processes that extend horizontally. Intervertebral discs can be found between the bodies of vertebrae from C2 to the sacrum. As you recall, they are made of fibrocartilage to give strength, permit movement, and absorb shock. The outer portion of the disc is called the annulus fibrosus (annulus ⫽ ring-like) and consists of tough fibrocartilage. The inner part, the nucleus pulposus (pulposus ⫽ pulp-like), is soft and pulpy. A herniated or slipped disc occurs when the fibrocartilage of the annulus is stressed and torn or cracked. In this situation, the inner pulp-like center protrudes outward and causes pressure on the spinal cord or a spinal nerve. A laminectomy (removal of the lamina and sometimes spinous process of the vertebra) relieves the pressure.

Atlas (C1)

AXIAL SKELETON

Intervertebral foramina are formed between adjacent vertebrae when vertebrae are stacked on one another. Spinal nerves exit the vertebral column through these foramina.

ACTIVITY 9 Comparison of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the specific parts of an atlas, axis, and cervical vertebra in Figure 9.17(b), (c), and (d). 2 Identify the specific parts of a thoracic vertebra in Figure 9.18(a) and (b) and a lumbar vertebra in Figure 9.19(a) and (b). 3 Identify the parts of articulated vertebrae in Figure 9.20(a) and a herniated disc in (b). Lab Activity 1 Using disarticulated vertebrae, place all three types side by side and note their differences. Mix them up and identify each type of vertebra with a partner. 2 Palpate your own spinous process of C7 (vertebra prominens). 3 Identify structures in Figure 9.20(a) and (b) on a model.

SUPERIOR Dens of axis

Axis (C2)

Typical cervical vertebra

C1 (atlas)

Groove for vertebral artery and first cervical nerve

C2 (axis) C3

POSTERIOR

C4

ANTERIOR

C5

C6

C7 (vertebra prominens)

Location of cervical vertebrae INFERIOR

(a) Posterior view of articulated cervical vertebrae

FIGURE 9.17

Cervical vertebrae.

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AXIAL SKELETON Posterior

1

Transverse foramen

3

2 Anterior (b) Superior view of the atlas (C1)

Posterior

Bifurcated spinous process

6 4

Transverse process

5

Dens

Anterior (c) Superior view of the axis (C2) Posterior

Bifurcated spinous process

9

Lamina

Superior articular facet 10

Pedicle Anterior

7 8

(d) Superior view of a typical cervical vertebra (C3)

(b) Atlas • superior articular facet • transverse foramen • transverse process (c) Axis (Note: The transverse foramen cannot be seen in this photo.) • dens (odontoid process) • lamina • spinous process (d) Typical cervical vertebra • bifurcated spinous process • body • pedicle • transverse process

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________ 5 _____________________________________________________ 6 _____________________________________________________ 7 _____________________________________________________ 8 _____________________________________________________ 9 _____________________________________________________ 10 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 9.17

Cervical vertebrae (continued ).

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125

POSTERIOR

1 2 3 Facet for articular part of tubercle of rib 4 Superior demifacet

ANTERIOR (a) Superior view

(a) Superior view SUPERIOR

Superior demifacet Superior articular facet

7 5

Inferior demifacet

8

6 (b) Right lateral view

POSTERIOR

ANTERIOR (b) Right lateral view

(a) Superior view • facet for articular part of tubercle of rib • superior articular facet • superior demifacet • transverse process

1 ______________________________________________________

(b) Right lateral view • facet for articular part of tubercle of rib • inferior demifacet • slanted spinous process • superior demifacet

4 ______________________________________________________

2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________

5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________ 7 ______________________________________________________ 8 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 9.18

Thoracic vertebrae.

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AXIAL SKELETON SUPERIOR

POSTERIOR

2 3 6 4

1

7

POSTERIOR

5

ANTERIOR (b) Right lateral view

ANTERIOR (a) Superior view

(a) Superior view • body • pedicle • superior articular process • transverse process • vertebral foramen

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________

(b) Right lateral view • hatchet-shaped spinous process • inferior articular facet

6 _________________________ 7 _________________________

4 _________________________ 5 _________________________

FIGURE 9.19

Lumbar vertebrae.

Posterior

1 Posterior

Anterior Spinal cord 2 4

Spinal nerve

3

5 6 7 Anterior (a) Right lateral view of articulated vertebrae with intervertebral disc

(a) Articulated vertebrae • annulus fibrosus • intervertebral disc • intervertebral foramen • nucleus pulposus

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________

FIGURE 9.20

Intervertebral discs.

(b) Superior view of herniated disc

(b) Herniated disc • annulus fibrosus • herniation • nucleus pulposus

5 _________________________ 6 _________________________ 7 _________________________

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4. Sacrum and Coccyx

AXIAL SKELETON

127

either side of the opening of the sacral canal. The lateral surfaces of the sacrum, the auricular surfaces, are roughened to articulate with the iliac portion of the os coxa on each side, forming sacroiliac joints. The vertebral column ends with a small coccyx, or tailbone. The tiny, fused vertebrae of the coccyx are attached to the sacrum with ligaments.

The sacrum is formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae and has a slightly curved, triangular shape. The broad superior portion is called the base and the two lateral winglike projections are called alae (ala, sing.). The sacral promontory (promontory ⫽ a projecting part) which protrudes anteriorly from the base is an important landmark in females during labor and delivery. The sacrum has sacral foramina that provide exits for spinal nerves. From the posterior view, the opening of the sacral canal, a continuation of the vertebral canal, is located just posterior to the body of the sacrum. The inferior opening of the sacral canal, the sacral hiatus, is due to failure of the lamina of the 5th sacral vertebrae (and sometimes the 4th) to fuse. (Note: On many plastic models, the sacral canal is closed.) Two superior articular processes with facets that articulate with the fifth lumbar vertebra are located on

ACTIVITY 10 Sacrum and Coccyx Pre-Lab Activity 1 Locate the parts of the sacrum and coccyx in Figure 9.21. Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on a model of the sacrum and coccyx.

Superior

Superior articular process

Superior articular facet Sacral canal

Sacral ala Base of sacrum Sacral promontory S1

Auricular surface

S2 S3 S4 S5

Inferior 6 1

7

2 3

8 S1

4 S2 S3 S4 S5

9 5

(a) Anterior view

(a) • base • coccyx • sacral ala • sacral foramen • sacral promontory

(b) • auricular surface (for sacroiliac joint) • sacral canal • sacral hiatus • superior articular facet

(b) Posterior view

1 _________________________

6 _________________________

2 _________________________

7 _________________________

3 _________________________

8 _________________________

4 _________________________

9 _________________________

5 _________________________ FIGURE 9.21

Sacrum and coccyx.

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AXIAL SKELETON

D. Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage)

5. Abnormal Vertebral Curvatures Three abnormal curves of the vertebral column are scoliosis, kyphosis, and lordosis. The vertebral column bends laterally in scoliosis (scolio- ⫽ crooked). Kyphosis is an exaggerated thoracic curve that results in a hunched back with rounded shoulders. Lordosis is an exaggerated lumbar curve that appears as a swayback with the abdomen protruding anteriorly.

ACTIVITY 11 Abnormal Curves of the Vertebral Column Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the 3 different types of abnormal curves in Figure 9.22(a), (b), and (c).

(a)

• kyphosis • lordosis • scoliosis

(b)

(c)

a _________________________ b _________________________ c _________________________

FIGURE 9.22

Abnormal curves of the vertebral column.

The bony cage that encircles the chest is called the thoracic cage, or rib cage, and is composed of the sternum, ribs, costal cartilages, and thoracic vertebrae. The sternum is a narrow flat bone that is composed of three fused bones: the manubrium, the body of the sternum, and the xiphoid process. The manubrium (handle), the superior portion of the sternum, has a concave superior surface called the suprasternal notch or jugular notch. Between the body of the sternum and the manubrium is the sternal angle, an important clinical landmark indicating the attachment of the second rib, below which is the second intercostal space. The manubrium and body articulate (articul- ⫽ pertaining to a joint) with the costal cartilages of the ribs. The xiphoid process (sword-like) is the inferior portion of the sternum that is shaped like a small sword. There are 12 pairs of ribs in both males and females. The first 7 pairs are called the true ribs or vertebrosternal ribs because their costal (rib) cartilages have a direct attachment to the sternum. The last 5 rib pairs (8–12) are called false ribs. Rib pairs 8 through 10 are vertebrochondral ribs (vertebro ⫽ ribs; chondral ⫽ cartilage) because their costal cartilages do not have a direct attachment to the sternum, but attach to the costal cartilage of the seventh rib instead. Rib pairs 11 and 12 do not have any attachment to the sternum or cartilage and are called floating ribs or vertebral ribs. The space between the ribs is called the intercostal space. The main parts of a rib are the head, neck, tubercle, and body. The head projects from the posterior part of the rib and articulates with demifacets on the bodies of thoracic vertebrae. The neck is the constricted part lateral to the head. The tubercle is a small, knob-like projection close to the neck that articulates with the facet of a transverse process. The body is the main part of the rib.

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4 Palpate the suprasternal notch and then move your fingers inferiorly until a ridge (sternal angle) is reached. Move your fingers laterally until the 2nd rib can be palpated. Palpate the body of the sternum inferior to the sternal angle. Palpate down the sternum until you reach the inferior point of the xiphoid process.

ACTIVITY 12 Thoracic Cage and Rib Articulations Pre-Lab Activity 1 Locate the parts of the thorax in Figure 9.23. Lab Activity 1 Identify these parts on an articulated thorax or skeleton. 2 Locate the parts of a rib in Figure 9.24(a) and its articulation with vertebrae in (b). 3 Identify the four parts of a rib and its articulations on a skeleton.

7 SUPERIOR

Clavicular notch Clavicle

Scapula

1 1 2 3 2 4

3

8

5 5 4 6

T9

6

T10 7 T11

11 8

T12

9 12

9

10

10

INFERIOR

• • • • • • • • • •

body of sternum costal cartilage false ribs floating ribs manubrium sternal angle sternum suprasternal notch ( jugular notch) true ribs xiphoid process

FIGURE 9.23

Thoracic cage.

1 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

7 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

8 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

9 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

10 ___________________________________

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AXIAL SKELETON Head Superior facet

Nonarticular part of tubercle

Inferior facet

Articular part of tubercle

Body

Costal angle

Costal cartilage POSTERIOR

2 1

3

(a) Superior view • articular part of tubercle • facet for articular part of tubercle • head of rib • tubercle (nonarticular part) 1 ______________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________

4

3 ______________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________

ANTERIOR (a) Superior view

(b) Right lateral view • body of rib • head of rib • inferior demifacet of vertebra • intervertebral foramen • superior demifacet of vertebra • tubercle (nonarticulating)

SUPERIOR 6

5 ______________________________________________

7

6 ______________________________________________

8

7 ______________________________________________

9

5

10

8 ______________________________________________ 9 ______________________________________________ 10 ______________________________________________ FIGURE 9.24

ANTERIOR

POSTERIOR

Rib and its articulation with thoracic vertebrae.

(b) Right lateral view

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

9

E X E R C I S E

A. Cranial Bones and Bone Surface Markings Identify the cranial bones that have the following bone markings. ______________________ 1. Middle nasal concha ______________________ 2. Foramen magnum ______________________ 3.⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Alveoli (2 bones) ______________________ 4.⎪⎭ ______________________ 5. Sella turcica ______________________ 6. External auditory meatus ______________________ 7. Crista galli ______________________ 8. Greater wing ______________________ 9. Mastoid process ______________________ 10. Occipital condyle ______________________ 11. Optic foramen ______________________ 12. Mandibular fossa ______________________ 13. Olfactory foramina ______________________ 14. Supraorbital ridges ______________________ 15. Lacrimal fossa ______________________ 16. Zygomatic process ______________________ 17. Styloid process ______________________ 18. Palatine process ______________________ 19. Mental foramina ______________________ 20. Carotid foramen (canal) ______________________ 21. Condylar processes (mandibular condyle)

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AXIAL SKELETON

Identify the bone surface marking(s) that have the following function: ______________________ 22. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬Form the TMJ (2 bones) ______________________ 23. ⎪⎭ ______________________ 24. Opening for carotid artery ______________________ 25. Opening for the ear canal ______________________ 26. Holes for cranial nerve I (olfactory nerves) ______________________ 27. Holes for cranial nerve II (optic nerve) ______________________ 28. Opening through which the spinal cord connects to lower brain ______________________ 29. Anterior part of hard palate ______________________ 30. Rounded processes on skull that articulate with the atlas ______________________ 31. Tooth sockets ______________________ 32. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬Form zygomatic arch (2 bones) ______________________ 33. ⎪⎭ ______________________ 34. Protects the pituitary gland

B. Vertebral Column and Thorax Write the name of the structure that is described. ______________________ 1. Softens jolts to the vertebral column ______________________ 2. Opening for spinal nerve exit ______________________ 3. Bony protection for thoracic organs ______________________ 4. First cervical vertebra ______________________ 5. Second cervical vertebra ______________________ 6. Articulates with rib posteriorly ______________________ 7. Tailbone ______________________ 8. Encloses and protects the spinal cord ______________________ 9. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬Primary curvatures ______________________ 10. ⎪⎭ ______________________ 11. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬Secondary curvatures ______________________ 12. ⎪⎭ ______________________ 13. Formed by the fusion of pedicles and lamina

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AXIAL SKELETON

______________________ 14. Passageway for vertebral arteries in cervical vertebrae ______________________ 15.⎫

⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 16.⎪ ⎪ ⎬ Name the 4 parts of the thoracic cage ______________________ 17.⎪⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 18.⎪⎭ ______________________ 19.⎫ ⎪⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 20.⎬ Name the 3 bones of the sternum ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 21.⎪⎭ ______________________ 22. Concave depression in superior surface of manubrium ______________________ 23. False ribs ______________________ 24. True ribs ______________________ 25. Floating ribs ______________________ 26. Space between ribs ______________________ 27. A special feature present on the transverse process of cervical vertebrae ______________________ 28.⎫ ⎪⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 29.⎬ Special features present on the thoracic vertebrae for rib articulations ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 30.⎪⎭ ______________________ 31. A part of the rib that articulates with the body of the thoracic vertebrae ______________________ 32. A part of the rib that articulates with the transverse process of the thoracic vertebrae ______________________ 33. The odontoid process is a part of which bone?

C. Other Major Features of the Axial Skeleton Identify the major skull feature or structure that is described. ______________________ 1. The suture that joins the occipital bone to the parietal bones. ______________________ 2. The facial bone that contains a paranasal sinus. ______________________ 3. The articulation between the mandible and skull. ______________________ 4. Neck and tongue muscles are attached to this bone. ______________________ 5. This structure allows the baby’s cranial cavity to compress during childbirth. ______________________ 6. Name the superior bone of the nasal septum. ______________________ 7. Name the inferior bone of the nasal septum.

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AXIAL SKELETON

D. Skull Bones and Bone Markings Identify the bones and bone markings in Figure 9.25(a) and (b).

(a) 1. ___________________ 2. ___________________

9

1

3. ___________________ 4. ___________________

2

5. ___________________ 6. ___________________

3

7. ___________________ 10 11

4 5

8. ___________________ 9. ___________________

12 13 14

10. ___________________

6 7

11. ___________________ 12. ___________________

8

13. ___________________

15

14. ___________________ 15. ___________________ (b) 1. ___________________

(a) Anterior view

2. ___________________ Anterior

3. ___________________ 4. ___________________

1

11

5. ___________________

12 13

6. ___________________ 7. ___________________ 8. ___________________

(Bone marking) 2 3 (Bone) 4 (Foramen) 5 6 (Foramen) 7 (Foramen) 8 9

9. ___________________ Foramen lacerum 14 15 (Opening) 16 (Bone marking) 17

10. ___________________ 11. ___________________ 12. ___________________ 13. ___________________ 14. ___________________

10

18 19

15. ___________________ 16. ___________________ 17. ___________________ 18. ___________________

Posterior (b) Inferior view

FIGURE 9.25

Skull bones and bone markings.

19. ___________________

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

9

E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Identifying Bones and Bone Markings on Radiographs of Skull Identify the structures in Figure 9.26(a). 1 ______________________ (bone marking) 2 ______________________ (bone) 3 ______________________ (bone) 4 ______________________ (bone) 1

5 ______________________ (bone) 2 3 4 5 (a) Anterior view of skull.

Identify the structures in Figure 9.26(b). 6

6 ______________________ (bone marking)

7

7 ______________________ (bone marking) 8

8 ______________________ (bone marking)

9

9 ______________________ (bone marking)

10 (b) Lateral of skull and vertebral column.

FIGURE 9.26

10 ______________________ (space between bones)

Radiographs of skull.

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AXIAL SKELETON

B. Identifying Bones and Bone Markings on CT Scans Identify the structures in Figure 9.27(a). 11 ______________________ (bone)

11

12 ______________________ (bone) 13 ______________________ (sinus) 14 ______________________ (bone marking in sphenoid)

13

12 14

15 ______________________ (opening) 15

ANTERIOR 17

(a) Lateral view of skull.

16

18

19

Identify the structures in Figure 9.27(b). 16 ______________________ (bone marking)

20

17 ______________________ (bone marking) Occipital condyles

Dens

18 ______________________ (bone sinus) 19 ______________________ (bone marking) 20 ______________________ (bone)

POSTERIOR (a) Thansverse section through skull at the level of the atlas.

FIGURE 9.27

CT scans of skull.

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E X E R C I S E

Appendicular Skeleton Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

1 Identify the bones of the appendicular skeleton and be able to identify selected bones as right or left

articulated skeletons disarticulated skeletons small plastic straws (coffee stirrers) or pipe cleaners for pointers

2 Identify the principal bone markings of the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the upper limb 3 Describe the articulation of the pectoral girdle with the humerus 4 Describe the articulation of the humerus with the forearm bones 5 Identify the bone markings of the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs 6 Describe the articulation of the bones of the pelvic girdle with the femur 7 Describe the articulation of the femur with the leg bones

T

he appendicular skeleton (appendere ⫽ to hang

upon) has larger bones than the axial skeleton and bears more weight. The bones of this division are separated into four main areas: the pectoral girdles ( pectus ⫽ breast; girdle ⫽ encircles), the upper limbs

(extremities), the pelvic girdle ( pelvis ⫽ basin), and the lower limbs. The bone markings include sites of muscle attachment and articulations with other bones to form a joint. Bone surface markings that pertain to the appendicular skeleton are given in Table 10.1.

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TABLE 10.1

11:14 AM

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Selected Bone Surface Markings of the Appendicular Skeleton

MARKING

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Foramen Fossa Crest Condyle Epicondyle Head

7. 8. 9. 10.

Line Trochanter Tubercle Tuberosity

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DESCRIPTION

PURPOSE

Opening or hole Shallow depression Prominent ridge Smooth, rounded articular process Projection above a condyle Rounded articular projection supported on the neck of a bone Long, narrow ridge (less prominent than a crest) Very large projection Small, rounded projection Large, roughened projection

Opening for blood vessels and nerves Muscle attachment or articulation Muscle attachment Articulation Muscle attachment

A. The Pectoral Girdle There are 2 pectoral girdles, and each attaches an upper limb to the axial skeleton. Each pectoral (or shoulder) girdle is composed of a scapula and a clavicle (clavicle ⫽ key) (Figure 10.1). Clavicle (collar bone) • sternal end—blunt, medial end • acromial end (acrom- ⫽ topmost)—broader, flat, roughened, lateral end Scapula (shoulder blade) • spine—sharp ridge located on posterior side • acromion—flattened process at lateral end of spine • glenoid cavity (glene ⫽ joint socket) or fossa— depression inferior to acromion • coracoid process (coracoid ⫽ crow’s beak)—superior and medial to glenoid cavity; projects anteriorly • supraspinous fossa (supra- ⫽ above; spinous ⫽ spine)—depression superior to spine • infraspinous fossa (infra- ⫽ below)—depression inferior to spine • subscapular fossa (sub- ⫽ under)—depression on anterior surface of scapula • lateral or axillary border—margin near axilla • medial or vertebral border—margin near vertebral column

Articulation Muscle attachment Muscle attachment Muscle attachment Muscle attachment

To form the pectoral girdle, the acromial end of the clavicle articulates with the acromion (acromial process) of the scapula laterally. The pectoral girdle is attached to the axial skeleton by the articulation of the sternal end of the clavicle with the manubrium of the sternum. The scapula does not articulate directly with the axial skeleton but is attached to it with muscles.

ACTIVITY 1 The Pectoral Girdle Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the parts of the clavicle and scapula in Figure 10.2(a), (b), and (c). Lab Activity 1 Locate these structures on disarticulated bones. 2 Palpate these structures on your own body: clavicle, acromion (process), spine of scapula, and muscles located in the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae. 3 Distinguish between right and left scapula. • Spine of scapula is superior and posterior. • Glenoid cavity is laterally located.

Pectoral girdle: Clavicle

Clavicle

Scapula

Scapula

(a) Anterior view

FIGURE 10.1

Pectoral girdle.

(b) Posterior view

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1

(a) Clavicle, inferior view

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

139

2

SUPERIOR

Acromion

Acromion

Supraspinous fossa

Coracoid process

Spine

Glenoid cavity

Glenoid cavity

Subscapular fossa Infraspinous fossa Lateral (axillary) border Medial (vertebral) border

LATERAL

LATERAL

MEDIAL SUPERIOR

SUPERIOR

11

3

4 12 13

9 Superior angle

5

10

7 6 8

MEDIAL

LATERAL

Inferior angle (b) Scapula, anterior view

(a) Clavicle • acromial (a-CROHM-ee-al) end • sternal end (b) Scapula, anterior view • acromion (a-CROW-mee-yon) or acromial process

• • • • •

coracoid (COR-a-coid) process glenoid (GLEN-oid) cavity or fossa lateral (axillary) border medial (vertebral) border subscapular (sub-SCAP-u-lar) fossa

(c) Scapula, posterior view

(c) Scapula, posterior view • acromion or acromial process • glenoid cavity • infraspinous (in-fra-SPINE-us) fossa • spine of scapula • supraspinous (su-pra-SPINE-ous) fossa

1 __________________________________

6 __________________________________

11 __________________________________

2 __________________________________

7 __________________________________

12 __________________________________

3 __________________________________

8 __________________________________

13 __________________________________

4 __________________________________

9 __________________________________

5 __________________________________

10 __________________________________

FIGURE 10.2

The right pectoral girdle.

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B. The Upper Limb The upper limb consists of the humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. Of the 30 bones in each upper limb, 1 is in the arm, 2 in the forearm, and the other 27 are in the hand (includes wrist).

1. Humerus (Arm Bone) • head—rounded, proximal end • anatomical neck—constriction immediately distal to head • greater tubercle (tuber ⫽ swelling)—lateral projection distal to anatomical neck • lesser tubercle—smaller, anterior projection distal to anatomical neck • intertubercular sulcus—groove between the two tubercles • surgical neck—constriction distal to the tubercles • deltoid tuberosity—raised area on lateral side between the proximal and distal ends of humerus • trochlea (trochlea ⫽ pulley)—spool-shaped medial condyle on distal end • capitulum (caput ⫽ head)—rounded, knob-like condyle lateral to trochlea • medial epicondyle (epi- ⫽ upon)—rough projection above trochlea • lateral epicondyle—rough projection above capitulum; smaller than medial epicondyle • radial fossa—anterior depression that receives the radial head with flexed forearm • coronoid fossa (corona ⫽ crown)—shallow anterior depression on distal end • olecranon fossa (olekranon ⫽ tip of the elbow)— largest depression on posterior, distal end

2. Ulna (Medial Bone of Forearm) • olecranon—large, curved, lip-like projection on posterior side of proximal end • coronoid process—smaller, curved, lip-like projection on anterior side of proximal end; distal to olecranon • trochlear notch—deep, curved area between olecranon and coronoid process • styloid process (stylos ⫽ pole; -oid ⫽ like)— slender, pointed projection on distal end • radial notch—depression on proximal end where head of radius articulates with ulna

3. Radius (Lateral Bone of Forearm) • head—flat, disc-shaped proximal end • radial tuberosity—rough, anterior projection on medial side just distal to the head • styloid process—slender, pointed projection; distal end

4. Shoulder and Elbow Joints The shoulder joint that connects the upper limb to the pectoral girdle is formed by the head of the humerus (humeri ⫽ shoulder), articulating with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The elbow joint is formed by the articulation of the coronoid process and olecranon process of the ulna into the coronoid and olecranon fossae of the humerus and by the trochlea of the humerus with the trochlear notch of the ulna. At the elbow joint, the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and with the radial notch of the ulna at the proximal radioulnar joint.

ACTIVITY 2 The Upper Limb Bones and Bone Markings Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the parts of the humerus in Figure 10.3(a) and (b) and the ulna and radius in Figure 10.4(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Locate these bones and their bone markings on disarticulated bones. 2 Palpate the following bone parts on your own body: medial and lateral epicondyle of the humerus, olecranon of the ulna, and styloid processes of the radius and ulna. 3 Distinguish between the right and left humerus. • The trochlea and the capitulum are on the anterior surface of the distal end of the humerus. • The olecranon fossa is on the posterior surface of the distal end of the humerus. • The head is medially located on the proximal end of the humerus.

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141

Anatomical neck Lesser tubercle Greater tubercle

Greater tubercle Anatomical neck

Head Surgical neck

Intertubercular sulcus (groove)

Scapula Humerus Deltoid tuberosity

(a) Anterior view • anatomical neck • capitulum (ca-PIT-u-lum) • coronoid (COR-a-noid) fossa • deltoid tuberosity (tu-ber-OS-ity) • greater tubercle (TU-ber-cul) • head • intertubercular (in-ter-tu-BERcue-lar) sulcus • lateral epicondyle (epi-CON-dile) • lesser tubercle • medial epicondyle • trochlea

Body (shaft) Radial fossa Lateral epicondyle Capitulum

Olecranon fossa

Coronoid fossa

Lateral epicondyle Olecranon

Medial epicondyle Trochlea Coronoid process

Head Radius

Radius Ulna

(a) Anterior view

1 _______________________________

(b) Posterior view

SUPERIOR

SUPERIOR

2 _______________________________ 6

1 2 3

3 _______________________________

7

4 _______________________________

Surgical neck

5 _______________________________ 6 _______________________________ 7 _______________________________

8

8 _______________________________ 9 _______________________________ 10 _______________________________ 11 _______________________________ (b) Posterior view • lateral epicondyle • medial epicondyle • olecranon (o-LEH-cra-non) fossa

12

Radial fossa

12 _______________________________ 13 _______________________________ 14 _______________________________ FIGURE 10.3

Right humerus.

9 10 11

4 5 LATERAL

14

13

LATERAL

MEDIAL (a) Anterior view

(b) Posterior view

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Humerus

Capitulum Head of radius Neck of radius

Olecranon fossa Olecranon Head of radius Neck of radius Radius

Coronoid fossa Trochlea Coronoid process Ulnar tuberosity Radial tuberosity

Radius

Ulna Interosseous membrane Head of ulna Styloid process of ulna Carpals

Styloid process of radius

Medial

Lateral

(a) Anterior view

(a) Anterior view • coronoid process • head of radius • olecranon (process) • radial notch • radial tuberosity • styloid (STY-loid) process of radius • styloid process of ulna • trochlear notch (semilunar)

Styloid process of radius

Lateral

(b) Posterior view

SUPERIOR

SUPERIOR

4 5 6

1

7

2

1 _______________________________ 2 _______________________________ 3 _______________________________ 4 _______________________________ 10

9

5 _______________________________ 6 _______________________________ 7 _______________________________ 8 _______________________________ (b) Posterior view • radius • ulna

LATERAL

LATERAL

MEDIAL 8

3

9 _______________________________ 10 _______________________________ FIGURE 10.4

Right ulna and radius.

(a) Anterior view

(b) Posterior view

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5. Carpus (Wrist)

7. Phalanges (Fingers)

The carpus is composed of 8 short bones of the wrist, the carpal bones, which are lined up to form a proximal and a distal row of bones. Two of the carpal bones articulate with the radius, but there is no articulation of the carpal bones with the ulna.

The phalanges (phalanx, sing.) make up the fingers or digits. The fingers are also numbered I to V from the thumb ( pollex) to the little finger. The thumb has 2 phalanges, proximal and distal. Digits II through V each have proximal, middle, and distal phalanges ( phalanx ⫽ closely knit row).

6. Metacarpus (Palm of Hand)

ACTIVITY 3 The Hand

The metacarpus is composed of 5 metacarpal bones that make up the palm of the hand. They are numbered as Roman numerals I to V from the metacarpal of the thumb (lateral side) to the little finger side. The metacarpals articulate with the carpals proximally and with the phalanges distally.

Radius

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the parts of the hand in Figure 10.5. For each phalanx, include the Roman numeral. Lab Activity 1 Locate the bones of the hand on an articulated hand or skeleton. 2 Locate and palpate these bones on yourself.

Ulna

Ulna Lunate Triquetrum Pisiform Hamate

Capitate Scaphoid Trapezium Trapezoid

Radius

Carpals I

I II III IV V

Metacarpals

V IV III II

Proximal Phalanges

Middle Distal

Lateral

Lateral

Medial Palm anterior

Palm posterior

1

I

II

III IV

V

2

3

• • • • •

carpals distal phalanx (FAY-lanx) V metacarpals (meta-CAR-puls) middle phalanx V proximal phalanx V

4

1 _______________________________

5

2 _______________________________ 3 _______________________________

LATERAL

MEDIAL

Anterior view

FIGURE 10.5

Right hand and wrist.

4 _______________________________ 5 _______________________________

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C. Bones and Selected Bone Markings of the Pelvic Girdle The pelvic girdle (pelvis ⫽ basin) is composed of 2 hip (coxal) bones called the ossa coxae (os- ⫽ bone; cox- ⫽ hip) that attach the lower limb to the axial skeleton. Each os coxa is formed by the fusion of 3 separate bones: the ilium (ilia ⫽ flank), ischium (ischion ⫽ hip joint), and pubis (pub- ⫽ grown up or adult) bones. These 3 bones are identifiable as separate bones in children.

1. Os Coxa ilium—largest and most superior of the three components of os coxa • iliac crest—superior border of ilium • anterior superior iliac spine—anterior end of iliac crest • anterior inferior iliac spine—below the anterior superior iliac spine • posterior superior iliac spine—posterior end of iliac crest • posterior inferior iliac spine—below the posterior superior iliac spine • greater sciatic notch—large notch on posterior side • iliac fossa—depression on anterior surface ischium—inferior, posterior portion of os coxa • ischial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on posterior and inferior edge • ischial spine—posterior projection between greater and lesser sciatic notches • lesser sciatic notch—smaller indentation between ischial spine and ischial tuberosity pubis—anterior inferior portion of os coxa • pubic symphysis (symphysis ⫽ growing together)— joint where the two pubic bones join anteriorly bone markings formed by ilium, ischium, and pubis • acetabulum (acetabulum ⫽ little saucer)—deep indentation, or cup, for head of the femur • obturator foramen—largest foramen in the skeleton

2. Pelvis • pelvic brim—divides the false pelvis from the true pelvis; begins at the sacral promontory and extends laterally and inferiorly to end at the pubic symphysis

• false pelvis—portion of pelvis superior to pelvic brim; wide area extending to top of iliac crest • true pelvis—portion of pelvis inferior to pelvic brim; surrounds the pelvic cavity • pelvic inlet—superior opening of true pelvis; bordered by pelvic brim • pelvic outlet—inferior opening of true pelvis; bordered by the coccyx, ischial spines, and ischial tuberosities There are definite anatomical differences between the male and female pelves (pl.). The bones of the male are typically heavier and rougher, with larger bone markings than the female. The male pelvis is more vertical and narrower, has a pelvic inlet that is heart-shaped, and has a 90⬚ or less pubic arch angle. The female pelvis generally has more space in the true pelvis for childbirth and is tilted backward and flared. The pelvic inlet is round or oval, the angle of the pubic arch is generally greater than 90⬚, and the angle of the sciatic notch is wider. The pelvic girdle articulates with the axial skeleton at the sacroiliac joints (sacro- ⫽ sacrum; iliac ⫽ ilium). The sacroiliac joints are located where the articulated ossa coxae unite posteriorly with the sacrum.

ACTIVITY 4 Os Coxa and Pelvis Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the bone markings of an os coxa in Figure 10.6. 2 Identify the bone markings of the pelvis in Figure 10.7. Lab Activity 1 Locate the markings on a disarticulated os coxa and on an articulated pelvis. 2 Distinguish between the right and left os coxa. • The iliac crest is on the superior part of the os coxa. • The ischium is the inferior and posterior part of the os coxa. • The pubic bone is on the anterior and medial part of the os coxa. • The acetabulum is on the lateral part of the os coxa. 3 Palpate the iliac crest, the anterior superior iliac spine, and the pubic symphysis on your own body. 4 Locate these markings on an articulated pelvis or skeleton. 5 Identify the differences between male and female pelves on models or articulated skeletons.

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145

Iliac crest

Anterior superior iliac spine

Ilium

Posterior superior iliac spine

Anterior inferior iliac spine

Posterior inferior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch

Acetabulum

Ischial spine

Pubis

Lesser sciatic notch

Obturator foramen

Ischial tuberosity Ischium

SUPERIOR 10 POSTERIOR

1

(Bone)

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

acetabulum (asa-TAB-u-lum) anterior inferior iliac spine anterior superior iliac spine greater sciatic (sigh-A-tic) notch iliac crest ilium (IL-lee-um) ischial (ISH-ee-ul) spine ischial tuberosity (tu-ber-OS-ity) ischium (ISH-ee-um) lesser sciatic notch obturator (OB-tur-a-tur) foramen posterior inferior iliac spine posterior superior iliac spine pubis (PYU-bis) 1 _______________________________________

11

2 _______________________________________

2

3 _______________________________________ 3

12

5 _______________________________________

4 5

4 _______________________________________

(Bone)

6 _______________________________________ 13

6

7 _______________________________________

7

8 _______________________________________ 9 _______________________________________

8

14 (Bone)

9

12 _______________________________________ 13 _______________________________________

Lateral view

FIGURE 10.6

10 _______________________________________

Right os coxa.

14 _______________________________________

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Ilium

Iliac crest Iliac fossa

False pelvis

Anterior superior iliac spine

Sacrum

Pelvic brim Ischial spine

Coccyx

Acetabulum

True pelvis

Obturator foramen

Ischium Pubis

Pubic symphysis Pubic arch

POSTERIOR

10 6

1

11 (Bone) 2

12 9

13

3

14

7 4

15 (Bone)

8 (Bone)

5

ANTERIOR

ANTERIOR (b) Superior view of male pelvis

(a) Superior view of female pelvis

(a) Female pelvis • false pelvis • iliac crest • ilium • ischial spine

• pelvic brim • pubic symphysis (PYU-bic SYM-fah-sis) • pubis • true pelvis

(b) Male pelvis • coccyx (COCK-six) • false pelvis • ischial spine • pubis

• sacroiliac (say-crow-ILL-eeac) joint • sacrum (SAY-crum) • true pelvis

1

5

9

13

2

6

10

14

3

7

11

15

4

8

12

FIGURE 10.7

Pelvis.

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D. Bones and Selected Bone Markings of the Lower Limb The lower limb consists of bones of the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and the phalanges. Of the 30 bones in each lower limb, 4 are in the thigh and leg, and the other 26 are in the foot (including ankle).

1. Femur (Thigh Bone) The femur is the largest and strongest bone in the human skeleton. This bone is bowed anteriorly in a slight curve. • head—large, rounded, knob-like proximal end • neck—narrower, constriction distal to head • greater trochanter (trochanter ⫽ runner)—large and roughened superior projection; lateral to neck • lesser trochanter—smaller, posterior-medial prominence distal to greater trochanter • medial condyle—rounded, medial process on posterior side of distal end • lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on lateral side • intercondylar fossa—deep fossa between medial and lateral condyles • medial epicondyle—bump-like projection superior to medial condyle • lateral epicondyle—bump-like projection superior to lateral condyle; a little smaller • gluteal tuberosity—posterior surface of body of femur; roughened projection inferior to lesser trochanter • linea aspera—vertical ridge on posterior surface

2. Patella (Kneecap) This small, triangular bone has an anterior surface that is smoother than the posterior surface. Shallow, irregularshaped articular facets are on the posterior surface that articulate with the condyles of the femur.

3. Tibia (Leg Bone) The tibia is the weight-bearing bone of the 2 leg bones and is medially located. • medial condyle—flattened, expanded medial projection on proximal end • lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on lateral side • tibial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on anterior surface, inferior to condyles • anterior border (crest)—slender ridge on anterior surface; shin

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

147

• medial malleolus—medial process on distal end, forms medial bump of ankle

4. Fibula (Leg Bone) The slender fibula is the lateral leg bone that is important for muscle attachment but not for bearing weight. The lateral malleolus is distal and articulates with the talus laterally. • head—proximal end • lateral malleolus—distal end, forms lateral bump of ankle

5. Hip and Knee Joints The hip or coxal joint is formed by the acetabulum articulating with the head of the femur to form a ball-and-socket joint. There is a strong ligament that connects these two structures deep inside the joint itself. The knee joint is formed by the articulation of the medial and lateral condyles of the femur with the medial and lateral condyles of the tibia. The patella articulates with the condyles of the femur. The fibula does not form part of the knee joint; however, the head of the fibula articulates with the tibia but not the femur.

ACTIVITY 5 The Thigh and Leg Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the bones and bone markings of the femur in Figure 10.8(a) and (b) and the patella, tibia, and fibula in Figure 10.9(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Locate the bones and bone markings on disarticulated bones as well as on an articulated skeleton. 2 Distinguish between the right and left femur. • The head is on the proximal end and faces medially. • The medial and lateral condyles are on the anterior surface of the distal end of the femur (the medial condyle is larger). 3 Distinguish between the right and left tibia. • The tibial tuberosity is anterior and superior to the anterior crest. • The medial malleolus is on the medial surface of the distal end of the tibia. 4 Palpate these bone markings on your own body: greater trochanter, medial and lateral epicondyles, patella, head of the fibula, tibial tuberosity, anterior crest (shin) of the tibia, medial malleolus of the tibia, and lateral malleolus of the fibula.

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Head Fovea capitis Greater trochanter

Hip bone Greater trochanter

Head Greater trochanter

Neck

Neck

Intertrochanteric line crest Lesser trochanter Lesser trochanter

Gluteal tuberosity

Femur Linea aspera Body (shaft)

Patella

Lateral epicondyle Intercondylar fossa Lateral condyle

Tibia

Fibula

Medial epicondyle

Lateral epicondyle

Medial condyle

Lateral condyle Fibula

(a) Anterior view

(b) Posterior view

SUPERIOR

• • • • • • • • •

greater trochanter (tro-CAN-ter) head of femur lateral condyle (CON-dile) lateral epicondyle (epi-CON-dile) lesser trochanter linea aspera (LIN-ee-uh ASP-er-uh) medial condyle medial epicondyle neck

1 2 3 4 Gluteal tuberosity

7

(a) Anterior view 1 ____________________________________ 2 ____________________________________ 3 ____________________________________ 4 ____________________________________ 5 ____________________________________ 6 ____________________________________

8

(b) Posterior view

5

Intercondylar fossa

7 ____________________________________

6

9

8 ____________________________________

MEDIAL

9 ____________________________________ FIGURE 10.8

Right femur.

(a) Anterior view

(b) Posterior view

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Femur Intercondylar eminence

Patella Lateral condyle Head

Lateral condyle Head

Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity

Tibia

Fibula

Interosseous membrane Anterior border (crest)

Lateral malleolus

Fibula

Medial malleolus Talus Calcaneus

(a) Anterior view

Lateral malleolus

(b) Posterior view SUPERIOR Intercondylar eminence 5

1

• • • • • • • •

fibula (FIB-u-la) head of fibula lateral condyle lateral malleolus (mal-LAY-e-lus) medial condyle medial malleolus tibia tibial tuberosity

6

2

Anterior border (Bone) 3 7 (Bone)

1 ____________________________________ 2 ____________________________________ 3 ____________________________________ 4 ____________________________________ 5 ____________________________________ 6 ____________________________________

8

4

MEDIAL

7 ____________________________________ 8 ____________________________________ FIGURE 10.9

Right tibia, fibula, and patella.

(a) Anterior view

(b) Posterior view

149

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6. Tarsus (Ankle) The tarsus is composed of 7 tarsal bones of the foot, with 2 of them being larger than the rest. The largest tarsal bone is the calcaneus (calcaneum ⫽ heel), also known as the heel bone. The other large tarsal bone is the talus (talus ⫽ ankle), which articulates with the medial malleolus of the tibia and lateral malleolus of the fibula.

7. Metatarsus The metatarsus is composed of 5 metatarsal bones (meta- ⫽ after or next) that are analogous to the metacarpals in the hand. They are numbered the same way, I to V, from the great toe to the little toe.

(hallux) to the little toe. The great toe is made of 2 phalanges (proximal and distal), and digits II to V have 3 bones each—proximal, middle, and distal phalanges.

ACTIVITY 6 The Foot Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 10.10(a) and (b). For each phalanx, include the Roman numeral. Lab Activity 1 Locate the bones of the foot on an articulated foot. 2 Palpate these parts on your own body: lateral malleolus, calcaneus, and talus.

8. Phalanges (Toes) The phalanges (toes or digits) are similar to the phalanges in the hand. The toes are numbered I to V from the great toe

Calcaneus POSTERIOR

Talus

Tarsals

MEDIAL

LATERAL

1

Navicular Cuboid Lateral cuneiform

2

Intermediate cuneiform Medial cuneiform

Metatarsals

6

Head Proximal Phalanges Middle Distal

(a) Superior view • calcaneus (cal-CANE-ee-us) • distal phalanx II (FAY-lanx) • middle phalanx II • metatarsals (meta-TAR-suls)

V IV III

• • • •

I

phalanges proximal phalanx II talus (TA-lus) tarsals (TAR-suls)

7

3 4 5

1

5

2

6

3

7

4

8

FIGURE 10.10

II

Bones of the right foot.

ANTERIOR (a) Superior view

8

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(b) Lateral view • calcaneus • lateral malleolus of fibula • tibia

• • • •

metatarsals phalanges talus tarsals

9 _______________________

13 _______________________

10 _______________________

14 _______________________

11 _______________________

15 _______________________

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

151

10 11 12

9

12 _______________________

13

FIGURE 10.10

14 (b) Lateral view

15

Bones of the right foot, continued.

ACTIVITY 7 Assembly of a Complete Disarticulated Skeleton Lab Activity 1 Obtain a disarticulated skeleton from your instructor. 2 With your lab partners, assemble the skeleton. 3 Have your instructor check it to see that you have assembled it properly.

ACTIVITY 8 Determining Gender and Height Using Femur Measurements 1 Determining gender: The diameter of the head of a femur is a very accurate way of determining gender. • Use a femur from a disarticulated or articulated skeleton. • Use a tape measure to measure in cm the circumference of the head of the femur. Record your value in Table 10.2.

TABLE 10.2

• Calculate the diameter of the femur using the following equation. Circumference (cm) 3.14 Record your value in Table 10.2. • Males have a diameter greater than 4.5 cm (45 mm) and females have a diameter less than 4.3 cm (43 mm).1 Record gender in Table 10.2. 2 Estimating height: • Measure the longest possible length of the femur in cm. Record your values in Table 10.2. • Use the appropriate equation for each bone (male or female) to estimate height in cm.2 Record your value in Table 10.2. Male: Height (cm) ⫽ (1.88 ⫻ length of femur in cm) ⫹ 81.306 Female: Height (cm) ⫽ (1.945 ⫻ length of femur in cm) ⫹ 72.844 • To convert height in cm to height in inches, divide height in cm by 2.54. Record your value in Table 10.2. Diameter (cm) ⫽

Determining Gender and Height from a Femur

ESTIMATING GENDER

ESTIMATING HEIGHT

Femur circumference (cm)

Femur length (cm)

Femur diameter (cm)

Height (cm)

Gender

Height (in)

1

Institute for Algorithmic Medicine. The Medical Algorithms Project. Chapter 38: Forensic Medicine; Determination of Gender from Physical Remains; Determination of Gender of Measurement of the Femur. www.medal.org (accessed September 27, 2007).

2

Institute for Algorithmic Medicine. The Medical Algorithms Project. Chapter 38: Forensic Medicine; Estimation of Body Height from Physical Remains; Pearson’s Formulas for Estimating Adult Body Height from Length of Long Bones. www.medal.org (accessed September 27, 2007).

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ACTIVITY 9 Estimating Your Height from Bone Length Lab Activity 1 Estimate your height from length of radius: • With the hand in anatomical position, palpate the lateral epicondyle of your humerus and then move your hand just a little distally to the head of the radius. Slowly pronate and supinate your forearm to feel the rotation of the disc-shaped head of the radius. To find the styloid process of the radius, palpate the lateral side of your wrist. • Measure the length of the radius in inches from the head to the styloid process. Record the value in Table 10.3. • Use the appropriate formulas to calculate your height in inches.3 Record the value in Table 10.3. Males: Height (in) ⫽ (length of radius in inches ⫻ 3.3) ⫹ 34 Females: Height (in) ⫽ (length of radius in inches ⫻ 3.3) ⫹ 32 2 Estimate your height from length of humerus: • Palpate the head of your humerus as you rotate your arm in the shoulder socket. Then locate the medial epicondyle by palpating this “bump” just above the elbow hinge. • Measure the length of the humerus in inches from the head of the humerus to the medial epicondyle.

3 Scientific American Frontiers, “Science Safari Teaching Guide: The First People,” Scientific American Frontiers Archives (Fall 1990 to Spring 2000). www.pbs.org/safarchive/4_class/45_pguides/pguide_702/4572_ firstpeople.html (accessed September 27, 2007).

• Use the appropriate formulas to calculate your height in inches.3 Record your value in Table 10.3. Males: Height (in) ⫽ (length of humerus in inches ⫻ 2.9) ⫹ 27.8 Females: Height (in) ⫽ (length of humerus in inches ⫻ 2.8) ⫹ 28.1 3 Measure your height in inches and record the value in Table 10.3. 4 Compare the calculated and measured values.

TABLE 10.3

Estimating Your Height from Bone Length

RADIUS

Length of radius (in) Calculated height (in) Measured height (in) HUMERUS

Length of humerus (in) Calculated height (in) Measured height (in)

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

10 E X E R C I S E

Reviewing Your Knowledge

A. Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder) Fill in the blank with the correct term. ______________________ 1. The acromion (process) articulates with what bone? ______________________ 2. Is the clavicle anterior or posterior compared to the scapula? ______________________ 3. The clavicle articulates medially with which bone? ______________________ 4. The humerus articulates with what bone marking of the scapula? ______________________ 5. Is the subscapular fossa located anterior or posterior to the supraspinatus and infraspinatus fossae? ______________________ 6. Name the two bones that make up the pectoral girdle.

B. Upper Limb Fill in the blank with the correct term. ______________________ 1. What part of the radius articulates with the humerus? ______________________ 2. What part of the ulna fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus? ______________________ 3. The coronoid process articulates with what depression on the distal end of the humerus? ______________________ 4. Is the ulna medial or lateral compared with the radius? ______________________ 5. What are the bones called that make up the fingers? ______________________ 6. What are the bones called that make up the palm of the hand? ______________________ 7. What is the name of the lateral condyle on the humerus? ______________________ 8. What is the name of the medial condyle on the humerus? ______________________ 9. What is the name of the slender, pointed projection on the distal end of the radius? ______________________ 10. What is the name of the slender, pointed projection on the distal end of the ulna?

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C. Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis Fill in the blank with the correct term. ______________________

1. When you put your hands on your hips, which bone marking of each os coxa are you touching?

______________________ 2. With your hands on your hips, you can feel a point of the pelvis protruding out anteriorly just above your thigh. Name this bone marking. ______________________ 3. Name the 2 bones that form the pelvic girdle. ______________________ 4. What prominent bone marking on each os coxa do you sit on? ______________________ 5. Name the bones of the ossa coxae that articulate anteriorly. ______________________ 6. The female pelvis has smoother bone markings than the male. True or False? ______________________ 7. Name the anterior joint between pubic bones. ______________________ 8. Deep indentation formed by fusion of ilium, ischium, and pubis. ______________________ 9. Largest foramen in the skeleton. ______________________ 10. The pelvic outlet is larger in females. True or False?

D. Lower Limb Fill in the blank with the correct term. ______________________ 1. Is the fibula medial or lateral to the tibia? ______________________ 2. What is the correct term for the process at the distal end of the tibia that forms the medial bump of the ankle? ______________________ 3. What is the heaviest and strongest bone of the leg (not thigh)? ______________________ 4. Name the thigh bone. ______________________ 5. The fibula is a weight-bearing bone. True or False? ______________________ 6. Name the tarsal bone that articulates with the tibia. ______________________ 7. Name the heel bone. ______________________ 8. Name the bones of the distal part of the instep. ______________________ 9. Bone marking that is commonly called the shin. ______________________ 10. Bone that is commonly called the kneecap. ______________________ 11. Processes on the femur and tibia that form the knee joint. ______________________ 12. Name of the bone marking of the femur that articulates with the pelvic girdle. ______________________ 13. Does the fibula form part of the knee joint? ______________________ 14. Name the phalanges in the great toe. ______________________ 15. The number of metatarsal bones.

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E. Bones and Bone Markings of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Identify the bones and bone markings in Figure 10.11. 10

1. ____________________________________ 2. ____________________________________

11 12

3. ____________________________________ 4. ____________________________________ 5. ____________________________________ 6. ____________________________________

13

7. ____________________________________ 8. ____________________________________ 9. ____________________________________ 10. ____________________________________ 11. ____________________________________ 12. ____________________________________ 13. ____________________________________ 14. ____________________________________ 15. ____________________________________ 16. ____________________________________ 17. ____________________________________ 18. ____________________________________ 19. ____________________________________ 20. ____________________________________

Anterior view

FIGURE 10.11

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F. Bones and Bone Markings of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Identify the bones and bone markings in Figure 10.12. 1. ____________________________________

1

2. ____________________________________ 2

3. ____________________________________

3 4 5

4. ____________________________________ 13 14

5. ____________________________________ 6. ____________________________________ 7. ____________________________________ 8. ____________________________________ 9. ____________________________________

6

10. ____________________________________ 11. ____________________________________ 12. ____________________________________ 13. ____________________________________ 14. ____________________________________

7

15

8 9

16 17

10

15. ____________________________________ 16. ____________________________________ 17. ____________________________________ 18. ____________________________________ 19. ____________________________________

11

20. ____________________________________ 18

21. ____________________________________ 22. ____________________________________

19 12 20

21

22 Anterior view

FIGURE 10.12

Pelvic girdle and lower limb.

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Date _________________

Section ______________________________

10 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Upper Limb Identify the bones and bone markings of the upper limb as shown in Figure 10.13(a), (b), and (c).

1

2

3

4

5

1 ______________________ (bone marking) 2 ______________________ (bone marking) 3 ______________________ (bone marking) 4 ______________________ (bone) FIGURE 10.13a Radiograph of the shoulder joint, posterior view.

6

7 8 9 Epiphyseal plate

5 ______________________ (bone) 6 ______________________ (bone) 7 ______________________ (bone) 8 ______________________ (bone marking) 9 ______________________ (bone marking) FIGURE 10.13b the elbow joint.

Radiograph of

10

11

10 ______________________ (bone marking) 11 ______________________ (bone) 12 ______________________ Draw a band on the specific bone where the wedding ring is worn. 13 ______________________ Name the bone the ring is on. FIGURE 10.13c the left hand.

Radiograph of

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B. Lower Limb

17

18

14

15

19

16

14 ___________________________________ (bone marking) 15 ___________________________________ (bone marking) 16 ___________________________________ (bone marking) FIGURE 10.14a pectoral girdle.

20

Surface anatomy of the upper limb and

17 ___________________________________ (bone marking) 18 ___________________________________ (bone) 19 ___________________________________ (bone marking) 20 ___________________________________ (bone marking) FIGURE 10.14b and lower limb.

Surface anatomy of the hip

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E X E R C I S E

Joints and Synovial Joint Movements Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

articulated skeleton

• • •

dissection tray, instruments, disposable gloves

1 Describe the 3 major structural categories of joints and give examples of each 2 Distinguish between the 3 major functional categories of joints and give an example of each 3 Describe the basic structure of a typical synovial joint

whole and longitudinally cut fresh, frozen, or glycerinated mammalian synovial joint model or chart of a knee joint compound microscope, lens paper, prepared slides of hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage

4 Describe the structure of the knee joint 5 List 6 different types of synovial joints and give an example of each 6 Describe the types of movements of synovial joints and demonstrate them

A

joint or articulation (articulare ⫽ to divide into

joints) connects a bone with another bone, cartilage, or tooth. Joints are commonly classified according to their structure and function.

A. Structural and Functional Classification of Joints The structural classification of joints depends on the type of connective tissue forming the joint and on whether or not there is a space or synovial cavity between the bones.

Fibrous joints have dense fibrous connective tissue with strong collagen fibers that hold the joints firmly together with no synovial cavity. This type of joint permits little to no movement. Examples are the skull joints, teeth sockets, and the distal joint between the tibia and fibula. Cartilaginous joints have either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage connecting the bones with no synovial cavity. Usually, there is a small degree of movement with this type of joint. Examples are the intervertebral joints, the pubic symphysis, and the joint between the manubrium and body of the sternum. Synovial joints (syn- ⫽ together; ovum ⫽ egg) have a small synovial cavity (space) between the two

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bones that permits a greater amount of movement than fibrous or cartilaginous joints. The term synovial comes from the synovial fluid present in the synovial cavity that resembles the albumin of an uncooked egg, only more viscous. Dense fibrous connective tissue on the exterior of the joint holds the bones together. The majority of the joints in the human body are synovial joints—for example, the shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee joints. The functional classification of joints is made on the basis of the amount of movement the joint allows. Immovable joints or synarthroses (syn- ⫽ union; arthro- ⫽ joint) include the sutures between the skull bones and the teeth sockets. Intervertebral joints, the tibiofibular joint, and the pubic symphysis are examples of slightly movable joints or amphiarthroses (amphi- ⫽ on both sides). Most of the joints in the body, about 90%, are freely movable joints, or diarthroses (di- ⫽ apart; away from). As you can see from the description of structural and functional joints, there are similarities in the amount of movement and certain types of structural joints. Most of

the fibrous joints, such as sutures and teeth sockets, are immovable joints. However, the fibrous tibiofibular joint is a slightly movable joint. Most of the cartilaginous joints are slightly movable joints, such as the intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis. The cartilaginous epiphyseal plates of long bones, however, are immovable joints. All synovial joints are diarthroses.

ACTIVITY 1 Structural Classification of Joints Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structural and functional category of each joint in Figure 11.1 (two answers for each joint). Lab Activity 1 Identify these joints on an articulated skeleton. 2 Point out these joints and palpate the ones you can on your own body.

6

7 1

8

• • • • • •

2

9

3

amphiarthrosis (amphi-ar-THROW-sis) cartilaginous (car-tih-LA-jih-nous) joint diarthrosis (die-ar-THROW-sis) fibrous joint synarthrosis (syn-ar-THROW-sis) synovial (sih-NO-vee-ul) joint 1 __________________________________________ 2 __________________________________________

4

3 __________________________________________ 4 __________________________________________ 5 __________________________________________

10

6 __________________________________________ 7 __________________________________________ 8 __________________________________________ 11

5

9 __________________________________________ 10 __________________________________________

(a) Anterior view

FIGURE 11.1

Structural classification of joints.

(b) Tooth in alveolus

11 __________________________________________

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B. Basic Structure of Synovial Joints

161

SAFETY NOTE: If you are using fresh or frozen joints, wear protective gloves. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water after the dissection.

Although synovial joints vary in structure, they have several common features as follows: • synovial cavity—small space between the two articulating bones • articular cartilage—hyaline cartilage covering the ends of the bones in the synovial cavity • articular capsule—structure that encloses the synovial joint and synovial cavity; has two layers: the fibrous capsule and synovial membrane • fibrous capsule—outer dense fibrous connective tissue layer of the articular capsule that is continuous with the periosteum of the bone; also forms ligaments when fibrous bundles are parallel • synovial membrane—inner layer of the articular capsule; composed of areolar connective tissue containing elastic fibers and adipocytes • synovial fluid—secreted by the synovial membrane; lubricates the articular cartilages to reduce friction

ACTIVITY 2 Typical Synovial Joint and Dissection Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the simple synovial joint in Figure 11.2

Lab Activity 1 Dissect a whole synovial joint following the dissection instructions. • After placing your synovial joint in a dissecting tray, observe the external white articular capsule that holds the bones together. Note that the articular capsule is continuous with the periosteum of the bone. • Using a scalpel, cut open the joint capsule. Feel the slippery synovial fluid between your fingers. • Try to detect the difference between the outer fibrous capsule layer and the inner synovial membrane layer of the articular capsule. • Note the synovial cavity or space between the articular bones. • Observe the ends of the joint bones for the articular cartilage. Cut out a small piece of hyaline cartilage to observe its thickness. 2 Observe a longitudinally cut synovial joint. Repeat the dissection steps above, but do not cut the joint with a scalpel. 3 Clean Up: • Dispose of any dissection material and gloves as directed by your instructor. • Wash the dissection pan, instruments, and your hands with soap and water. • Clean up your lab space and wash the countertops with disinfectant.

Frontal plane Periosteum

5

1

7 6

• • • • • • •

articular (ar-TIH-ku-lar) bone articular capsule articular cartilage fibrous capsule synovial cavity synovial fluid synovial membrane

(Liquid) 2

1 _____________________________________________________

(Space) 3

2 _____________________________________________________

4

3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________ 5 _____________________________________________________ 6 _____________________________________________________ Frontal section

FIGURE 11.2

Typical synovial joint.

7 _____________________________________________________

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C. The Knee Joint

• posterior cruciate ligament or PCL—intracapsular ligament; stabilizes joint posteriorly • patellar ligament—extension of tendon from quadriceps muscle; connects patella to tibial tuberosity and stabilizes the joint anteriorly • infrapatellar fat pad (infra- ⫽ beneath)—cushion between patellar ligament and synovial capsule • bursa—reduces friction; 13 bursae in knee

The knee joint is specifically studied here because it has the distinction of being the most complex and highly stressed joint, as well as being the location of many joint injuries. The knee joint is classified as a hinge joint, but when flexed it also demonstrates gliding and rotation movements. Several ligaments (tough, dense tissue that holds bone to bone) are found in the knee joint. • medial meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions knee joint • lateral meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions knee joint • medial (tibial) collateral ligament—extracapsular ligament; adds strength to joint medially • lateral (fibular) collateral ligament—extracapsular ligament; adds strength to joint laterally • anterior cruciate ligament (cruci- ⫽ cross) or ACL—intracapsular ligament; attaches the femur and tibia anteriorly

ACTIVITY 3 Major Synovial Joints Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the parts of the knee joint in Figure 11.3. Lab Activity 1 Identify the parts on a model or chart of the knee.

SUPERIOR 1

5

2 3

Femur Suprapatellar bursa

Sagittal plane

4

Semimembranosus muscle

6

Subcutaneous fat

7

Skin

Tendon of quadriceps femoris muscle Patella Articular cartilage Infrapatellar fat pad Prepatellar bursa Patellar ligament Infrapatellar bursa

Gastrocnemius muscle Tibia (a) Anterior deep view

• • • • • • •

POSTERIOR

(b) Sagittal section

articular cartilage of femur anterior cruciate (KRU-she-ate) ligament lateral (fibular) collateral ligament lateral meniscus (meh-NIS-cus) medial (tibial) collateral ligament medial meniscus posterior cruciate ligament

1 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

7 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________ FIGURE 11.3

Knee joint.

ANTERIOR

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D. Types of Movement at Synovial Joints

ACTIVITY 4 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints

Skeletal muscle contraction causes bone movement at synovial joints. Professionals in kinesiology and physical therapy use particular terms to describe the movements of these joints. Many movements are grouped to demonstrate opposite movements. The four main categories of synovial joint movements are gliding, angular, rotation, and special movements (Table 11.1).

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the movements illustrated in Figures 11.4–11.8.

TABLE 11.1

Lab Activity 1 Demonstrate each movement with a partner(s). 2 Use an articulated skeleton to demonstrate each movement. During pronation, observe the radius crossing over the ulna. 3 Pronate forearm to feel the radius crossing over the ulna.

Types of Movement at Synovial Joints

MOVEMENT

DESCRIPTION

A. GLIDING

Nearly flat bone surfaces slide or glide over each other.

B. ANGULAR Flexion (flex- ⫽ to bend)

Decrease in the angle between bones of a joint; usually occurs on a sagittal plane.

Extension (exten- ⫽ to stretch out

Increase in the angle between bones of a joint; restore to anatomical position.

Hyperextension (hyper- ⫽ excessive)

Excessive extension movement beyond normal anatomical position.

Abduction (ab- ⫽ away; duct- ⫽ to lead)

Move appendage away from the midline.

Adduction (ad- ⫽ toward)

Move appendage toward midline.

Circumduction (circ- ⫽ circle)

Move a distal part of an appendage in a circle.

C. ROTATION (rota- ⫽ revolve)

Turn on a pivot with a circle.

D. SPECIAL JOINT MOVEMENTS Elevation

Upward movement raising body part vertically.

Depression

Downward movement lowering body part vertically.

Protraction (pro- ⫽ in front of; trahere ⫽ to draw)

Move a body part forward or anterior on a horizontal plane.

Retraction (retractare ⫽ to draw back)

Move a body part backward or posterior.

Supination (supine ⫽ lying on the back)

Turn palm of the hand to face forward, or, if arm is outstretched, turn palm upward.

Pronation (pronate ⫽ lying face downward)

Turn palm of the hand to face backward, or, if arm is outstretched, turn palm downward.

Inversion

Turn the sole of the foot inward.

Eversion

Turn the sole of the foot outward.

Dorsiflexion

Point your toes upward; stand on your heels.

Plantar Flexion

Point your toes downward; raise your heels.

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2 3

1

7 4

6

8

5

(a) Atlanto-occipital and cervical intervertebral joints

(b) Shoulder joint

9

(c) Elbow joint

16

14

12 10

13 15 11 (d) Wrist joint

(e) Hip joint

(f) Knee joint

• extension • flexion • hyperextension (b)

(a)

(c)

1 __________________________________

4 __________________________________

7 __________________________________

2 __________________________________

5 __________________________________

8 __________________________________

3 __________________________________

6 __________________________________ (e)

(f)

9 __________________________________

12 __________________________________

15 __________________________________

10 __________________________________

13 __________________________________

16 __________________________________

11 __________________________________

14 __________________________________

(d)

FIGURE 11.4

Angular joint movements of flexion, extension, and hyperextension.

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JOINTS AND SYNOVIAL JOINT MOVEMENTS Lateral

165 Medial

1

2

4

3 (b) Hip joint

(a) Shoulder joint

5 (c) Right wrist joint

6 8 9

7 (d) Shoulder joint

(e) Hip joint

10

(f) Metacarpophalangeal joints of the fingers (not the thumb)

• abduction (ab-DUK-shun) • adduction (ad-DUK-shun) • circumduction (sir-cum-DUC-shun) (b)

(a) 1 __________________________________

3 __________________________________

(e)

6 __________________________________

FIGURE 11.5

4 __________________________________ 5 __________________________________

2 __________________________________

(d)

(c)

(f)

7 __________________________________

9 __________________________________

8 __________________________________

10 __________________________________

Angular joint movements of abduction, adduction, and circumduction.

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• lateral rotation • medial rotation • rotation

1

1 ________________________________________ 2 ________________________________________ 3 ________________________________________

2

(b) Shoulder joint

(a) Atlanto-axial joint

FIGURE 11.6

Joint movements of rotation.

3

1 (a)

5

2 (b)

Temporomandibular joint Palm anterior

Palm posterior

• • • • • •

(c)

Temporomandibular joint

(d)

1 _____________________________________

depression elevation pronation (pro-NAY-shun) protraction (pro-TRAC-shun) retraction (re-TRAC-shun) supination (soup-in-NAY-shun)

2 _____________________________________ 3 _____________________________________ 4 _____________________________________

6

5 _____________________________________

(e) Radioulnar joint

FIGURE 11.7

4

6 _____________________________________

Special joint movements.

1

2

3

4 (a)

• • • •

dorsiflexion eversion inversion plantar flexion

FIGURE 11.8

Intertarsal joint

(b)

(c) Ankle joint

1 ____________________________________

3 ____________________________________

2 ____________________________________

4 ____________________________________

Special joint movements of the foot.

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TABLE 11.2

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167

Types of Synovial Joints

NAME OF JOINT

ARTICULAR SURFACE DESCRIPTION

MOVEMENT

Planar (gliding) Hinge

Flat or slightly curved plane Convex bone surface articulates with a concave bone surface Rounded or pointed projection articulates with ring formed by bone and ligament Oval convex projection articulates with oval concave depression Saddle-shaped depression articulates with projection that fits into the saddle Ball-shaped head articulates with cup-shaped socket

Gliding motion back and forth and/or side to side Flexion and extension

Pivot Condyloid Saddle Ball-and-socket

E. Six Types of Synovial Joints There are 6 types of synovial joints based on the structure of the articulating bone surfaces at the joints (Table 11.2). The joint structure determines the movement of the joint.

ACTIVITY 5 Palpation of Synovial Joint Movements Lab Activity 1 Palpate the following synovial joints on your body and use an articulated skeleton to observe the structure of the joint. • Planar joint (gliding)—flex your arm up and feel the gliding movement at the acromioclavicular joint. • Hinge joint—flex and extend your elbow and your knee as you feel this joint type. Note how this joint type only moves by flexion and extension.

Rotation Flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, circumduction Same as condyloid joint, except more exaggerated Freely movable joint; flexion and extension; abduction and adduction; circumduction; rotation

• Pivot joint—feel the proximal part of your forearm until you locate the head of the radius. Rotate the radioulnar joint as you palpate this rotation movement. • Condyloid joint—feel the joint between the 2nd metacarpal and the 2nd proximal phalanx. Extend and flex, abduct and adduct, and circumduct this joint. • Saddle joint—the thumb joint is the only saddle joint in the body. Feel the movement of trapezium bone (carpal bone) with the 1st metacarpal as you move this joint on two different axes. • Ball-and-socket joint—feel your shoulder joint as you move your arm in different motions. Make a full circle with your shoulder joint. 2 Identify the joints listed above on an articulated skeleton and note the shape of the articulating surfaces. Refer to Table 11.2. 3 Identify the bones involved in these joints with your lab group.

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

11 E X E R C I S E

A. Structural and Functional Classification of Joints Fill in the blank with the most appropriate term: cartilaginous, fibrous, synovial, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis, or synarthrosis. _______________________ 1. Functional category that has the greatest amount of movement. _______________________ 2. Functional category that has the least amount of movement. _______________________ 3. Functional category that is slightly movable. _______________________ 4. Structural category that has an articular (joint) capsule. _______________________ 5. Structural category that has cartilage joining the ends of the articulating bones. _______________________ 6. Structural category with a joint cavity. _______________________ 7. Structural category that is tightly held together by fibrous connective tissue.

B. Basic Structure of Synovial Joints Fill in the blank with the correct answer. _______________________ 1. Name the type of cartilage that covers the articular ends of bones. _______________________ 2. Name the fluid that lubricates, reduces friction, and gives nutrition to a joint. _______________________ 3. Name the tissue at the end of a bone that reduces friction in a joint. _______________________ 4. Identify the sac-like structure in a synovial joint that is sometimes present to reduce friction. _______________________ 5. Identify the structure that secretes synovial fluid.

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C. Types of Synovial Joints There are six different types of synovial joints. Fill in the blank with the correct type. ______________________ 1. The type of synovial joint between the atlas and axis. ______________________ 2. The type of synovial joint between the humerus head and the glenoid cavity at the shoulder (between scapula and humerus). ______________________ 3. The type of synovial joint at the knee. ______________________ 4. The type of synovial joint between the scapula and clavicle. ______________________ 5. The type of synovial joint between the trapezium (carpal bone) and the 1st metacarpal. ______________________ 6. The type of synovial joint between the metacarpal and proximal phalanx.

D. Movement at Synovial Joints Fill in the blank with the correct term for the type of movement of the synovial joint. ______________________ 1. Moves appendage toward the midline ______________________ 2. Increases the angle of a joint ______________________ 3. Downward movement, lowering the body part vertically ______________________ 4. Palm of hand faces forward or upward ______________________ 5. Pointing toes downward; raising the heel, on your tiptoes ______________________ 6. Decreases the angle of a joint ______________________ 7. Moves an appendage away from the midline ______________________ 8. Turns on a pivot with a circular motion ______________________ 9. Movement that raises mandible ______________________ 10. Move body part forward along horizontal plane ______________________ 11. Turn sole of foot inward

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

11 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Synovial Joints Identify the synovial joint structures (and the bone markings) of the synovial joint in Figure 11.9(a), (b), and (c). SUPERIOR LATERAL Frontal plane

MEDIAL

Acromion of scapula

Supraspinatus muscle

1

1 _____________________________ 2 _____________________________

(space) 2

Scapula

3 _____________________________

Subscapularis muscle 3

INFERIOR (a) Right shoulder joint, frontal section

SUPERIOR Articular (joint) capsule

Sagittal plane

5 Trochlea of humerus 4 _____________________________

Subcutaneous bursa

Articular capsule

4 Ulna

5 _____________________________

Head of radius ANTERIOR

POSTERIOR INFERIOR (b) Right elbow joint, frontal section

FIGURE 11.9

Synovial joints.

171

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Frontal plane 9 (bone)

(bone marking) 6

10 (bone marking) (space) 7 Acetabular labrum

Ligament of the head of the femur

(bone marking) 8

Articular capsule

Subcutaneous fat

LATERAL

MEDIAL (c) Frontal section

6 _____________________________

9 _____________________________

7 _____________________________

10 _____________________________

8 _____________________________ FIGURE 11.9

Synovial joints, continued.

B. Synovial Joint Movements Identify the joint movements involved in walking that are described in the sentences below. Use the following terms dorsiflex, plantar flex, flex, and extend to describe the movement of the right leg. First you flex the thigh, (6) the leg at the knee, and (7) the foot. Then you (8) the leg at the knee, (9) the thigh, and (10) the foot. 11. _____________________________ 12. _____________________________ 13. _____________________________ 14. _____________________________ 15. _____________________________

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Skeletal Muscle Structure Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

prepared microscope slides of skeletal muscle tissue and neuromuscular junction

• •

compound microscopes and lens paper

1 Describe the structure of skeletal tissue and skeletal muscle fibers

model of 3-D skeletal muscle fiber(s)

2 Identify the connective tissue structures in skeletal muscle on a microscope slide or photomicrograph 3 Describe the structure of the sarcomere 4 Describe the structure of the neuromuscular junction

S

keletal muscles are organs comprised of skele-

tal muscle tissue and connective tissue. These organs also contain nerves and blood vessels. The skeletal muscle fibers within skeletal muscles contract (shorten) and cause movement of our skeleton or skin. The signal for contraction is carried by neurons that innervate each skeletal muscle fiber. We consciously control contraction of skeletal muscles, so the contraction is called voluntary.

A. Skeletal Muscle Tissue and Connective Tissue Coverings Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are striated and multinucleated. The striations are light and dark stripes along the muscle cell. A skeletal muscle fiber is actually many embryonic cells that have fused together to form one large cell with multiple nuclei.

Individual skeletal muscle fibers are surrounded by a layer of areolar connective tissue called endomysium (endo- ⫽ within; mys ⫽ muscle). Skeletal muscle fibers are grouped into bundles called fascicles that are surrounded by a layer of dense regular connective tissue called perimysium (peri- ⫽ around). A muscle is formed from a number of fascicles that are surrounded by a dense regular connective tissue layer called epimysium (epi- ⫽ on; upon). Tendons, connective tissues that attach the muscle to bone, are formed from endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium that extend beyond each skeletal muscle fiber. The connective tissues surrounding skeletal muscle fibers separate and electrically insulate these cells. Therefore, electrical impulses that initiate contraction in one skeletal muscle fiber are not spread to another fiber. Recall that two or more tissues working together form an organ. Because skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissues form a skeletal muscle, each skeletal muscle can be considered an organ.

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Lab Activity

ACTIVITY 1 Skeletal Muscle Tissue and Connective Tissue Coverings

1 Examine a prepared slide of skeletal muscle. • Using the low-power objective, locate a crosssection through the muscle showing a fascicle. Identify the perimysium surrounding the fascicle and an endomysium surrounding a skeletal muscle fiber. • Locate a section of skeletal muscle fiber in longitudinal section. • Using the high-power objective, identify nuclei and striations.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figures 12.1 and 12.2(a) and (b). 2 Observe the structures within a muscle fiber in Figure 12.2(c).

Tendon Transverse plane Belly

Periosteum

Tendon

Bone

Skeletal muscle 1

1 _________________________________

2

3 _________________________________

3

4 _________________________________

4

5 _________________________________

5 6 7 Somatic motor neuron Blood capillary 8 Nucleus

Fascicle

Skeletal muscle • endomysium (endo-MY-zee-um) • epimysium (epi-MY-zee-um) • fascicle (FAS-i-kul) • muscle fiber • myofibril • perimysium (peri-MY-zee-um)

2 _________________________________

6 _________________________________ Fascicle • endomysium • filament • muscle fiber • myofibril • perimysium • sarcolemma

9

7 _________________________________ Striations Transverse sections

Components of a skeletal muscle

FIGURE 12.1

Skeletal muscle.

Sarcoplasm 10

8 _________________________________ 9 _________________________________

11

10 _________________________________

12

11 _________________________________ 12 _________________________________

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3

(a) Cross-section of a fascicle

• • • •

5

4

400⫻, H&E, human

endomysium fascicle perimysium skeletal muscle fiber in cross-section

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________

SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE 6

(b) Longitudinal section of muscle fibers

400⫻, H&E, human

5 _____________________________________________________ 6 _____________________________________________________ 7 _____________________________________________________

4 _____________________________________________________

Mitochondria

Myofibrils

Nucleus Endomysium

(c) Cross-section of one muscle fiber at higher magnification

Sectional views of skeletal muscle fibers.

7

• nucleus • striation (stry-AY-tion) • width of skeletal muscle fiber

3 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 12.2

175

TEM

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B. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Skeletal muscle tissue contains elongated cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers have specialized features important to their function. The plasma membrane, called the sarcolemma (sarco ⫽ flesh; lemma ⫽ sheath) in muscle fibers, can conduct an electrical signal called an action potential. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is endoplasmic reticulum that is specialized to store calcium ions. Muscle cells contain thick and thin filaments or myofilaments (myo ⫽ muscle) that contain different contractile proteins. Movement of the myofilaments causes muscle shortening or contraction. The sarcolemma has tube-like invaginations called T tubules (transversetubules) that transmit the action potential deep inside the fiber to widened areas of the sarcoplasmic reticulum called terminal cisternae. The arrangement of two terminal cisternae with a T tubule between them is called a triad. An action potential traveling down the T tubules causes calcium to be released from the terminal cisternae into the cytoplasm of the muscle fiber. Thick and thin filaments, which are bundled into myofibrils, occupy 80% of the volume of the fiber. Each myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres, the smallest structural and contractile unit of a muscle myofibril. Sarcomeres are com-

(a) Muscle fiber • myofibril (myo-FY-bril) • sarcolemma (sar-co-LEM-ma) • sarcoplasmic reticulum (sar-co-PLAZ-mic re-TIC-u-lum) • terminal cisterna of sarcoplasmic reticulum (cis-TER-nee) • triad • T tubule

posed of an orderly arrangement of thin and thick filaments and shorten when the muscle fiber is stimulated to contract. Thin filaments contain actin, tropomyosin, and troponin molecules. Actin molecules comprise the majority of the thin filament and contain a binding site for the myosin molecules of the thick filament. A strand of tropomyosin molecules is nestled between the actin molecules. Several troponin molecules bind at precise intervals along the tropomyosin strand. Thick filaments are composed of myosin molecules. A myosin molecule resembles two golf clubs twisted together. The tails of many myosin molecules form the thick filament, whereas the heads project toward the thin filaments. When the myosin-binding sites on the actin molecules are uncovered, myosin heads attach and pull the thin filaments past the thick filaments. When myosin heads attach to actin, they are called crossbridges.

ACTIVITY 2 Skeletal Muscle Fibers Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the skeletal muscle fiber in Figure 12.3.

(b) Thick and thin filaments • sarcomere • thick filament • thin filament

(c) Contractile proteins • actin • myosin (MY-oh-sin) heads • myosin tails • tropomyosin (tro-poh-MY-o-sin) • troponin

1 _________________________________

7 _________________________________

10 _________________________________

2 _________________________________

8 _________________________________

11 _________________________________

3 _________________________________

9 _________________________________

12 _________________________________

4 _________________________________

13 _________________________________

5 _________________________________

14 _________________________________

6 _________________________________ FIGURE 12.3

Skeletal muscle fiber.

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1

Mitochondrion 2

3

6

5

4

(a) Muscle fiber 7

Z disc

8

9

M line

(b) Thick and thin filaments

10

11

12

13

14 Myosin tail

(c) Contractile proteins

FIGURE 12.3

Skeletal muscle fiber, continued.

Myosin heads

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C. The Sarcomere The regular arrangement of thin and thick filaments in the sarcomeres gives the myofibrils and the skeletal muscle fibers light and dark bands (Figure 12.4). Lighter color bands with a dark stripe down the middle are the I bands. The I bands contain only thin filaments, and the stripes are Z discs which secure the thin filaments. A bands are darkcolored bands that extend the length of the thick filaments. In the A band of relaxed muscle, thin filaments overlap the thick filaments except in the middle of the A band, the H zone, which appears lighter. The M line is found in the middle of the H zone and secures the thick filaments. Muscle fibers shorten because myosin heads on the thick filaments attach to the thin filaments and pull the thin filaments past the thick filaments toward the M line. This action increases the overlap of thin and thick filaments (Figure 12.4). As these filaments slide past each other in each sarcomere within each myofibril, the ends of the muscle fiber are brought closer together, the I bands decrease in length, and the H zone (lighter area) disappears. The increase in overlap of thin and thick filaments can be readily observed in sarcomeres of skeletal muscle.

4 Does the H zone length change when a muscle contracts? Explain.

5 Is the sarcomere in Figure 12.5 most likely from a fully contracted or fully relaxed skeletal muscle cell? Explain.

I band

H zone

I band

H zone

I band

Z disc

M line

Z disc

M line

Z disc

ACTIVITY 3 The Sarcomere Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the electron micrograph of the sarcomere in Figure 12.5.

A band

A band

Sarcomere

FIGURE 12.4

1

Sarcomere

Sarcomere structure.

2

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: SARCOMERE STRUCTURE 1 Do the lengths of the thin or thick filaments change when a muscle contracts? Explain. 3 4

5

4

Sarcomere

2 Does the A band length change when a muscle contracts? Explain.

3 Does the I band length change when a muscle contracts? Explain.

• • • • •

A band H zone I band M line Z disc

TEM 21,600⫻

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________

FIGURE 12.5 Transmission electron micrograph illustrating sarcomere structure.

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D. The Neuromuscular Junction

ACTIVITY 4 Neuromuscular Junction

Each skeletal muscle fiber is stimulated to contract by a motor neuron. A motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates are a motor unit. Within the muscle, the axon of a motor neuron divides into many branches or axon terminals, each of which forms a neuromuscular junction with a skeletal muscle fiber. At the neuromuscular junction, each axon terminal divides into synaptic end bulbs. Within the synaptic end bulbs are synaptic vesicles filled with acetylcholine (neurotransmitter molecules). When a nerve impulse reaches the synaptic end bulb, acetylcholine is released and diffuses across the synaptic cleft (the space between the synaptic end bulb and the sarcolemma). Acetylcholine molecules bind to receptors in the motor end plate, the region of the sarcolemma directly across from the synaptic end bulb. If enough acetylcholine binds, an action potential is generated, stimulating the skeletal muscle fiber to contract.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the neuromuscular junction in Figure 12.6. 2 Label the photomicrograph in Figure 12.7. Lab Activity 1 Examine a microscope slide of the neuromuscular junction and identify the structures listed in Figure 12.7.

Spinal cord

Nerve Motor unit 2

Motor unit 1

Motor neuron axon

Motor neuron cell body

1 Muscle fibers 2 Muscle

1

2

3

3

4 (Space) 5 6

• • • • • •

axon terminal motor end plate receptors synaptic cleft synaptic end bulb synaptic vesicle with acetylcholine

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________

FIGURE 12.6

Structure of the neuromuscular junction.

365⫻

• skeletal muscle fibers • axon terminal with synaptic end bulbs • motor neuron axon

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________

FIGURE 12.7 Section of skeletal muscle showing axon terminals and synaptic bulbs.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

12 E X E R C I S E

A. Skeletal Muscle Structure Number the following nestled, cylindrical structures in order from largest (1) to smallest (5). ____ myofibril

____ muscle fiber

____ fascicle

____ muscle

____ filaments

B. Skeletal Muscle Structural Terms Identify the structure that matches the description. ________________________ 1. Connective tissue covering surrounding a fascicle ________________________ 2. Finger-like invaginations of plasma membrane; extend into interior of fiber and surround myofibrils ________________________ 3. Plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fiber ________________________ 4. Connective tissue covering surrounding the muscle ________________________ 5. Smallest contractile unit within individual muscle fibers ________________________ 6. Stores calcium within muscle fiber ________________________ 7. Connective tissue covering surrounding individual muscle fibers ________________________ 8. Two terminal cisternae and a T tubule ________________________ 9. Rod-like structures within skeletal muscle fiber that contain thin and thick filaments organized into sarcomeres

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C. Sarcomere Structure and the Sliding Filament Mechanism of Contraction Write the name of the sarcomere structure defined. A structure may be used more than once, and a definition may apply to more than one structure. _______________________ 1. Length does not change when sarcomere shortens. _______________________ 2. This area is the length of thick filaments. _______________________ 3. Center point of attachment for thick filaments. _______________________ 4. Length decreases when sarcomere shortens. _______________________ 5. This area only contains thin filaments. _______________________ 6. Point of attachment for thin filaments. _______________________ 7. This area only contains thick filaments. _______________________ 8. This area contains overlapping thin and thick filaments. _______________________ 9. The area from Z disc to Z disc. _______________________ 10. This area disappears in a fully contracted muscle.

D. The Neuromuscular Junction Write the name of the structure(s) described. ________________________ 1. Found in synaptic end bulbs of axon terminal; contains neurotransmitter molecules ________________________ 2. Area of sarcolemma across from synaptic end bulbs of axon terminal; contains neurotransmitter receptors ________________________ 3. Space between synaptic end bulbs of axon terminal and sarcolemma ________________________ 4. Divides into synaptic end bulbs at neuromuscular junction ________________________ 5. Parts of axon terminal that form neuromuscular junction

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

12 E X E R C I S E

1. With age, the collagen-containing connective tissue coverings of skeletal muscles increase, and the number of muscle fibers decreases. Is meat from an older or a younger animal more tender? Explain.

2. Weight training increases muscle fiber size by increasing the number of myofibrils. Explain.

3. The diaphragm is a muscle that controls inspiration. Is control of the diaphragm voluntary, involuntary, or both? Explain.

Using your textbook or another reference, for each condition below, indicate which part of the neuromuscular junction is affected: the motor end plate or the axon terminal. _______________________ 4. Myasthenia gravis _______________________ 5. Curare poisoning _______________________ 6. Botulinum toxin poisoning

Put a check mark next to the muscles that are skeletal muscles. Hint: Consider location and whether muscle contraction is voluntary or involuntary. _______________________ 7. Arrector pili _______________________ 8. Tongue _______________________ 9. Muscle in gallbladder _______________________10. Muscles that control movement of the eyeball

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11–13. In Figure 12.8, identify which transmission electron micrograph shows skeletal muscle as: relaxed, partially contracted, or totally contracted.

11.

12.

13. FIGURE 12.8

Skeletal muscle contraction.

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E X E R C I S E

Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

3 Describe how skeletal muscles achieve a smooth, sustained contraction

Role of ATP in Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers: ATP-glycerinated muscle kit from biological supply house and the following items per group: 1 Petri dish, 3 test tubes, marker, 2 teasing needles or straight pins, watchmaker forceps, sharp scissors, 3 microscope slides, 1 millimeter ruler, and 3 plastic transfer pipettes. Dissecting microscope, compound microscope, and coverslips are optional.

•

4 Describe how skeletal muscles vary the force of contraction

Control of Muscle Tension—Rulers and ankle weights (students may bring them from home).

•

Complete PowerPhys Experiments: • Twitch Contractions and Summation • Recruitment and Isometric and Isotonic Contractions

•

Optional–Recording Frog Skeletal Muscle Contractions: frogs, needle probes, dissecting equipment, Ringer’s solution in squeeze bottle, femur clamp, recorder, stimulator, force transducer.

•

Optional–Recording Human Skeletal Muscle Contractions: Alcohol wipes or cotton balls and 70% alcohol, electrodes and electrode paste, equipment for recording EMGs.

1 Describe the role of ATP in skeletal muscle contraction 2 Describe the three muscle fiber types and their influence on contraction

5 Describe and compare isotonic and isometric contractions 6 Define threshold stimulus, maximal stimulus, recruitment, fatigue, and explain how to observe them

M

uscle cells have the ability to convert the

chemical energy of ATP into mechanical energy of contraction. All muscles (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth), in turn, exert force and produce movement. The following activities focus on skeletal muscles at the molecular and cellular level of contraction.

A. Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Three main events occur in contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber—electrical excitation of a muscle fiber, excitation-contraction coupling, and muscle fiber contraction due to the sliding filament mechanism.

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CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

• Electrical excitation of a muscle fiber. Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) can be stimulated either by a motor neuron in the body or by a voltage stimulator in the lab. Stimulation given by either method results in a depolarization of the sarcolemma. If the depolarization reaches threshold, an action potential (electrical signal) is initiated. • Excitation-contraction coupling. The action potential is transmitted along the sarcolemma and down the T-tubules. This action causes calcium ions to be released from the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Calcium ions couple electrical excitation to muscle fiber contraction by binding to troponin, which is attached to the actin filament and tropomyosin. Troponin changes shape and pulls tropomyosin away from the myosinbinding sites on the actin filament. • Muscle fiber contraction. A muscle fiber contracts (shortens) when thin filaments (actin) slide past the thick filaments (myosin). Each contraction cycle shortens each muscle fiber about 1% of its resting length. The 4 steps of the contraction cycle are: 1. ATP hydrolysis. Myosin heads contain an ATPbinding site and an ATPase. When ATP binds to the ATP-binding site, the ATPase hydrolyzes ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate. Hydrolysis of ATP energizes the myosin head. 2. Attachment of myosin to actin to form crossbridges. Energized myosin heads bind to the unblocked myosin-binding site on actin and the inorganic phosphate is released from the myosin head. 3. Power stroke. The release of the inorganic phosphate starts the power stroke, which is the rotation of the myosin head that pulls the thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere. During the power stroke, ADP is released from the myosin head, but the myosin head remains attached. 4. Detachment of myosin from actin. Another ATP molecule binds to the myosin ATP-binding pocket, releasing the myosin head from actin, and the contraction cycle begins again. The contraction cycle continues as long as intracellular calcium levels remain high. As the intracellular calcium levels drop, tropomyosin blocking of the myosin-binding sites on actin returns, energized myosin is prevented from binding, and the muscle fiber relaxes. The amount of shortening that occurs when a muscle is stimulated to contract depends on how long the contraction cycle continues. With each contraction cycle, sarcomeres shorten a little more until maximal contraction of a sarcomere is reached. Muscle fibers can shorten up to 40% of their resting length. Exposure of skeletal muscle fibers to glycerin creates holes in the sarcolemma allowing ions and ATP to diffuse

into and out of the muscle fiber. Glycerination also disrupts the troponin-tropomyosin complex so that calcium is not needed to bind to troponin and pull tropomyosin to unblock the myosin-binding sites on the actin molecules. Although calcium is not needed for contraction of glycerinated muscle fibers, other ions are needed to ensure the proper functioning of enzymes. In this activity, you will observe contraction in glycerinated skeletal muscle fibers.

ACTIVITY 1 Experiment: Role of ATP in Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Lab Activity 1 Prediction: With your lab group, predict which solution will cause muscle fiber shortening by selecting one of the choices below. • 0.25% ATP in distilled water • 0.25% ATP, 0.05M KCl, and 0.001M MgCl2 in distilled water • 0.05M KCl and 0.001M MgCl2 in distilled water, no ATP 2 Materials: Obtain materials for Role of ATP in Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers. 3 Data Collection: Measure muscle length of glycerinated skeletal muscle fibers before and after exposure to the different solutions. • Decide who will: mix the solutions, prepare the muscle strands, apply the solutions to the muscle strands, and time, measure and record. • Label test tubes and microscope slides 1, 2, and 3. • Place the following in the appropriate test tube: Test tube 1 (0.25% ATP in distilled water)— 5 drops from dropper bottle labeled 0.25% ATP in distilled water Test tube 2 (0.25% ATP in salt solution)— 5 drops from dropper bottle labeled 0.25% ATP, 0.05M KCl, and 0.001M MgCl2 in distilled water Test tube 3 (salt solution, no ATP)—5 drops from dropper bottle labeled 0.05M KCl and 0.001M MgCl2 in distilled water • Obtain a Petri dish containing a 2-cm length piece of glycerinated skeletal muscle in a small amount of glycerin from your instructor. • Using teasing needles or straight pins, separate the skeletal muscle (in the Petri dish) into at least 9 strands not more than 0.2 mm in diameter (2-4 muscle fibers per strand). • Using forceps, place 3 (of the 9) thin strands of muscle fibers on a microscope slide. Arrange the strands so they are straight and parallel. Do not cover the strands with a cover slip. Note: The amount of glycerol that is transferred with the strands should be

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enough to keep them moist. Add a small drop of glycerol only if the strands are exposed to heat from the microscope lamp for a sustained period. • Measure the length of each muscle strand with a millimeter ruler and record the value in Table 13.1. Measurements can be made using a dissecting microscope, if desired. • Using a clean transfer pipette, transfer all the solution from test tube 1 to the microscope slide and measure the length of the strands after 40 seconds. Record the results in Table 13.1. • Repeat the above steps for the solutions in test tubes 2 and 3 using 3 new muscle strands, transfer pipettes, and microscope slides for each solution. Record the results in Table 13.1. • Optional—Save all 3 slides to observe striations. See instructions below. 4 Observation of Striations in Skeletal Muscle Fibers (optional): • Place a coverslip over each microscope slide. • Using a compound microscope, observe one microscopic slide with the low-power objective lens and note the striations on each strand.

CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

• Switch to the high-dry objective lens. Identify the light-colored I bands and the dark-colored A bands. • Compare the distance between the bands. • Repeat for each slide. 5 Clean Up: • Dispose of materials as directed by your instructor. • Wash instruments and your hands with soap and water. • Clean up your lab space and wash the countertops with disinfectant. 6 Data Analysis: • Calculate the percent of contraction by dividing the length after exposure to the solution by the resting length. • Average the values for each solution and record in Table 13.1.

T A B L E 1 3 . 1 Role of ATP in Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers TEST TUBE 1 0.25% ATP DISTILLED WATER

Muscle Strand 1 Length before solution Length after solution % Contraction Muscle Strand 2 Length before solution Length after solution % Contraction Muscle Strand 3 Length before solution Length after solution % Contraction Average % contraction

187

TEST TUBE 2 0.25% ATP 0.05M KCl 0.001M MgCl2

TEST TUBE 3 0 ATP 0.05M KCl 0.001M MgCl2

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CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: ROLE OF ATP IN CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS Results: • Name the solution(s) that caused muscle strand contraction.

• State the average percent contraction for each solution.

Discussion: • Estimate the number of contraction cycles that occurred in the contracted muscle fibers.

• Discuss whether the sarcomere length increased, decreased, or stayed the same in muscle fibers from each solutions.

• Explain what limits the amount of shortening that is observed in the skeletal muscle fibers.

• Discuss why calcium was not needed to cause muscle contraction in glycerinated muscle fibers.

• Discuss the role of KCl and MgCl2 in the experiment.

Conclusion: • State how adding ATP to the glycerinated muscle fibers affected muscle fiber and sarcomere length.

B. Influence of Muscle Fiber Type on Skeletal Muscle Contraction There are 3 types of skeletal muscle fibers: slow oxidative (SO), fast oxidative-glycolytic (FOG), and fast glycolytic (FG). These muscle fiber types differ in diameter, myosin ATPase, and methods of ATP production.

1. Muscle Diameter and Force of Contraction Fast glycolytic fibers have the largest diameter of the muscle fiber types and develop more force than slow oxidative fibers which have the smallest diameter of the three muscle types. Muscle fibers with a larger diameter develop more force because they have more myofibrils and, therefore, more myosin heads that can attach to actin. The amount of force a muscle fiber develops is dependent on the number of myosin heads attached to actin.

2. Myosin ATPase and Speed of Contraction Fast glycolytic fibers and fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers have a myosin ATPase that breaks down ATP faster than the myosin ATPase in slow oxidative fibers. The speed at which the contraction cycle can occur is determined by how fast myosin ATPase can break down ATP. The faster the myosin ATPase, the greater the speed at which the contraction cycle can occur, and the faster the muscle can contract.

3. Methods of ATP Generation and Fatigability Fibers with fast myosin ATPase need ATP to be produced quickly to achieve a fast contraction cycle. Fast glycolytic fibers produce the majority of ATP by glycolysis, while slow oxidative fibers use aerobic cellular respiration to produce ATP. Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers use both ATP production methods. Glycolysis produces ATP quickly, but cannot produce large amounts of ATP over time. Therefore, muscle fibers that primarily use glycolysis fatigue quickly. Glycolysis requires large glycogen (glucose source) stores, and muscle fibers that primarily use glycolysis to make ATP are paler due to lower myoglobin content and less blood supply. Aerobic cellular respiration produces ATP slowly, but can produce large amounts of ATP over time if there is a sufficient blood supply and myoglobin (red pigment that stores oxygen) stores. Therefore, muscle fibers that use aerobic respiration take longer to fatigue. These muscle

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fibers have lower glycogen stores, are darker due to higher myoglobin content, and have a greater blood supply. These fibers also have greater numbers of mitochondria because the enzymes for aerobic cellular respiration are located in the mitochondria.

CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

189

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: INFLUENCE OF MUSCLE FIBER TYPE ON SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION

4. Recruitment of Muscle Fiber Types

1 Discuss why fast glycolytic fibers develop more force than slow oxidative fibers.

Skeletal muscles contain all 3 fiber types. The proportion of muscle fiber types in a muscle type differs depending on muscle action. Slow oxidative fibers are stimulated first. If more force is needed, then the fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers are stimulated and finally the fast glycolytic fibers.

2 Discuss why fast glycolytic fibers have a greater contraction velocity than slow oxidative fibers.

ACTIVITY 2 Influence of Muscle Fiber Type on Skeletal Muscle Contraction Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the muscle fiber types in Figure 13.1. This slide has been stained so that the different muscle fiber types can be easily identified. Lab Activity 1 Observe a cross-section of skeletal muscle. Are all the muscle fibers the same diameter?

1

3 Discuss why slow oxidative fibers are more fatigueresistant than fast glycolytic fibers.

4 Discuss why slow oxidative fibers have more capillaries and mitochondria than fast glycolytic fibers.

5 Discuss why fast glycolytic fibers have more glycogen stores than slow oxidative fibers.

2 3

LM

• fast glycolytic fiber • fast oxidative-glycolytic fiber • slow oxidative fiber

440⫻

6 Weight training causes fast glycolytic fibers to hypertrophy (increase in diameter). Explain why this increases strength.

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________

FIGURE 13.1 Cross-section of skeletal muscle showing all three fiber types.

7 Identify which muscle fiber types would be recruited for each of the following functions. Explain your answer. a. walking b. standing c. lifting a heavy object and immediately putting it down

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CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

C. Control of Muscle Tension Muscle contraction results in development of tension or force, usually measured in grams. The muscle tension developed by a contracting muscle is determined by the frequency of stimulation of motor units and the number of motor units stimulated.

1. Frequency of Stimulation and Muscle Tension The minimal stimulus that results in a muscle twitch is called the threshold stimulus. A threshold stimulus applied to a motor nerve or directly to the muscle results in a single contraction called a twitch contraction. The amount of force developed by this threshold stimulus is dependent on the number of motor units that are stimulated to contract. The 3 phases of a twitch contraction are the latent period, the contraction period, and the relaxation period. The latent period lasts about 2–10 msec (milliseconds) and is the time between stimulation of muscle cells and force generation. The contraction period lasts about 10–100 msec and is the period during which force (measured in grams) is increasing, whereas the relaxation period, which lasts 10–100 msec, is the period when force is decreasing. Normal muscle contractions are not twitch contractions, but are sustained contractions of varying force. If the contracting motor unit(s) are stimulated again before the relaxation phase of a muscle twitch is complete, then the next contraction will produce a greater force or tension. This is called wave summation. Increasing the frequency of muscle stimulation produces sustained force generation. Unfused tetanus (tetan ⫽ rigid) occurs when there is a partial relaxation between muscle twitches. Fused tetanus is a sustained contraction with no relaxation observed between twitches. Most sustained voluntary skeletal muscle contractions are unfused tetanic contractions with different motor units stimulated at different times (asynchronous contractions). The asynchronous contractions delay muscle fatigue, which is an inability to contract caused by long periods of muscle contraction.

2. Number of Motor Units Stimulated and Muscle Tension Increasing the number of motor units contracting at the same time, motor unit recruitment, also increases force generated. Lifting a feather requires fewer motor units than lifting your anatomy and physiology textbook. Slow oxidative motor units are recruited first and if more force is needed, fast oxidative-glycolytic motor units are also recruited. If maximal force is required, fast glycolytic motor units are recruited.

Maximal force development occurs when all motor units of a muscle are stimulated and all muscle fibers are contracting. In the lab, the stimulus that produces maximal force is called the maximal stimulus. Therefore, a stimulus to the muscle greater than maximal does not produce a greater force.

ACTIVITY 3 Control of Muscle Tension Lab Activity 1 Draw a twitch contraction that has a latent period of 2 msec, a contractile period of 10 msec with a maximum force of 2 g, and a relaxation period of 10 msec. Use the graph in Figure 13.2. Add an arrow for the stimulus. 2 Observe unfused tetanus, motor unit recruitment, and fatigue in the muscles that cause bending of the knee. • In your lab group, decide who will be the subject, observer, and recorder. • Have the subject stand while holding onto the lab bench for support. Have subject bend the left leg to a 90-degree angle and hold this position. The hamstring muscles on the posterior thigh are used to bend the leg. • Observe the unfused tetanic contraction. Start timing. • Time how long it takes for the muscle to fatigue, which is demonstrated by any vertical movement in the leg. • Time until fatigue: ______ min. • Place a 5-lb ankle weight on the subject’s right ankle and repeat the steps. • Time until fatigue: ______ min. 3 Complete PowerPhys Experiment: Twitch Contractions and Summation.

4

force (grams)

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3

2

1

5

FIGURE 13.2

10

15 time (msec)

20

25

Student drawing of twitch contraction.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: CONTROL OF MUSCLE TENSION 1 Explain why you can maintain contraction of the hamstring muscles over time.

2 Explain why you can sustain the same contraction with a 5-lb weight attached to the ankle.

CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

191

ACTIVITY 4 Isotonic and Isometric Contractions Lab Activity 1 Recalling Activity 3, as the subject bent a knee and held it at 90 degrees, state which action was an isotonic contraction and which was an isometric contraction.

3 Explain why the hamstring muscles fatigue faster with the 5-lb ankle weight.

2 Is the isotonic contraction observed when the hamstrings contracted a concentric isotonic contraction or an eccentric isotonic contraction? What would you ask the subject to do to observe the other type of isotonic contraction?

4 State the order of recruitment of muscle fiber types.

3 Complete PowerPhys Experiment: Recruitment and Isometric and Isotonic contractions

D. Isotonic and Isometric Contractions

E. Recording Force Generated by Skeletal Muscle

Muscle contraction results in development of tension or force usually measured in grams. Muscles will shorten if they develop more force than the force that is opposing them. For example, contracting muscles in our arm will shorten and allow us to lift a book if the force developed by the muscles is greater than the weight (force) of the book. The weight of the book is also called load because it is a force against which the muscle is contracting. If a muscle is generating a constant force to move a load, that contraction is called an isotonic contraction. There are two types of isotonic contraction: concentric and eccentric isotonic contractions. In concentric isotonic contraction, the muscle is shortening while it is contracting. An example of this is using the biceps brachii (large anterior muscle of arm) to lift a book off the table. In eccentric isotonic contraction, the muscle is lengthening while it is contracting. This occurs when you slowly lower your arm to return the book to the table. The biceps brachii is still contracting, but it is lengthening while it is contracting. This enables you to lower the book in a controlled manner. Isometric contractions are contractions in which the muscle is developing force but not shortening and no visible movement is seen. In this case, the force developed by the muscle equals the force (load) it is contracting against. An example of this would be holding a book in the same position. Isometric muscle contractions are maintaining the position against the weight (load) of the book, but the biceps brachii muscle is not moving the book because it is not generating a force greater than the weight (force) of the book.

Polygraphs amplify and record physiological changes that are detected by various sensors. Examples of sensors include those that detect changes in pH, force, temperature, and pressure. A myograph is a type of polygraph used to record the force generated by muscle contractions along with the following equipment: 1. A stimulator stimulates skeletal muscle fibers to contract, and the stimulus strength is measured in volts. The frequency of stimulation is the number of stimuli per second. Increasing the frequency of stimulation increases the frequency of contractions. 2. A transducer, which is a sensor that converts the force generated by a contracting muscle into an electric signal (current), is attached to the muscle. 3. An amplifier increases the amplitude of the transducer signal and transmits it to a recorder channel. 4. The recorder uses the electric signal from the transducer to move a pen across a sheet of paper that is moving at preset speed. This allows students to observe if the force changes over time. Computers can also act as recorders and display the pen deflections as lines moving across the computer screen. The visual displays can be saved and printed.

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Recorders can have more than one channel, allowing several different measurements to be recorded at one time. For example, an electrode can be attached to the muscle and channel 1 of a recorder to record the electric signal or action potential of a stimulated muscle, while a force transducer connected to channel 2 records the force of contraction (myogram). Time and event markers of recorders are pens that mark the time when events occur, such as stimulation of a muscle. To calculate the force recorded from a contracting muscle, the transducer must be calibrated before attaching it to the muscle. Different gram weights are attached to the transducer to observe the electric signal or pen deflection for each weight (or force). Pen deflection is adjusted so that each gram of force will result in a pen deflection of a known length. Figure 13.3 illustrates the use of equipment to record a myogram (recording of force generated by a frog gastrocnemius muscle).

ACTIVITY 5 Recording Skeletal Muscle Contractions Lab Activity 1 Measure the force generated in grams and the length of the latent, contraction, and relaxation periods in milliseconds on the myogram in Figure 13.4 and record your results on the figure. 2 With your group, discuss how you would measure threshold stimulus, maximal stimulus, and maximal force in the frog gastrocnemius preparation. 3 Optional—Recording frog skeletal muscle contractions. Follow the instructions supplied by your instructor to prepare and conduct the experiment. 4 Optional—Recording human skeletal muscle contractions. Follow the instructions supplied by your instructor to prepare and conduct the experiment.

To amplifier

force (grams)

2

1

0

From stimulator S-hook Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon Gastrocnemius muscle

Stimulus

Transducer

50

100

200

Force of contraction =

g

Latent period

=

msec

Contraction period =

msec

=

msec

Relaxation period

FIGURE 13.3 Apparatus used to measure force generated in frog gastrocnemius muscle.

150

250

time (msec)

Femur clamp

FIGURE 13.4 contraction.

Myogram of frog gastrocnemius muscle

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

Section ______________________________

13 E X E R C I S E

A. Role of ATP in Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Write T for true or F for false for the following statements. ____ 1. ATP causes the detachment of myosin from actin. ____ 2. Glycerinated skeletal muscle fibers need calcium in order to contract. ____ 3. Glycerinated skeletal muscle fibers need ATP in order to contract.

B. Influence of Muscle Fiber Type on Skeletal Muscle Contraction Name the fiber type—slow oxidative (SO), fast oxidative-glycolytic (FOG), or fast glycolytic (FG)—that matches each fiber characteristic. Questions may have more than one answer. ______________________ 1. largest diameter ______________________ 2. is pink in color ______________________ 3. myoglobin content is low ______________________ 4. has the fastest contraction velocity ______________________ 5. has many capillaries ______________________ 6. is red in color ______________________ 7. generates ATP by aerobic respiration ______________________ 8. has the slowest myosin ATPase ______________________ 9. has glycogen stores ______________________ 10. smallest diameter ______________________ 11. recruited first ______________________ 12. recruited last

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C. Control of Muscle Tension Name the term that matches each definition. ______________________ 1. Inability of muscle fibers to contract after a long period of contraction ______________________ 2. Time between muscle fiber stimulation and measurement of force generation ______________________ 3. Motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates ______________________ 4. Period of force generation ______________________ 5. Type of wave summation with partial relaxation observed between twitches ______________________ 6. Increasing the number of motor units that are stimulated to contract ______________________ 7. Stimulus that results in maximal force generation ______________________ 8. Lowest stimulus that results in force generation ______________________ 9. Single contractile event in response to single action potential ______________________ 10. Period during which more crossbridges detach than reattach to thin filaments ______________________ 11. Type of wave summation with no observable relaxation between twitches

D. Isotonic and Isometric Contractions Identify the following contractions of the biceps brachii muscle (large anterior muscle of forearm) as concentric isotonic, eccentric isotonic, or isometric. ______________________ 1. Lifting a glass off the table ______________________ 2. Holding a glass in the same position ______________________ 3. Lowering a glass to the table

E. Recording Force Generated by Skeletal Muscle Contractions Name the equipment described. ______________________ 1. Increases the amplitude of the transducer signal and transmits it to a recorder channel ______________________ 2. Makes skeletal muscle fibers contract ______________________ 3. Amplifies and records physiological changes detected by sensors ______________________ 4. Uses the electric signal from a transducer to make a tracing on moving paper ______________________ 5. Machine that records force generated by muscle contractions ______________________ 6. Sensor that converts force generated by a contracting muscle into an electric signal

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Using Your Knowledge

Section ______________________________

13 E X E R C I S E

Answer the following questions with a short answer. 1. Explain why muscles are stiff (contracted) when rigor mortis occurs.

2. Large muscles, such as the muscles of the leg, have more muscle fibers than small muscles, such as the muscles of the finger. Explain why the muscles of the finger cannot develop as much force as the muscles of the leg.

3. Which type of muscle would fatigue faster, one that has many blood vessels, or one that has fewer blood vessels? Explain.

Using your textbook or another reference, for each contraction below, indicate whether it is an example of a muscle twitch, unfused tetanus, or fused tetanus. ______________________ 4. muscle spasm ______________________ 5. facial muscle tic ______________________ 6. cardiac fibrillation ______________________ 7. smiling The percentage of each muscle fiber type in any given muscle of your body is genetically determined. Also, physical activity can cause slight changes in muscle fiber type. Discuss the relative amount of each muscle type in the thigh muscles of Olympic athletes participating in the following events: 8. marathon

9. weight lifting

10. 100-meter dash

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E X E R C I S E

Skeletal Muscles and Their Actions Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

muscle models, charts, and/or cadaver photographs

•

colored pencils (for the review)

1 Identify major skeletal muscles on models or charts 2 Describe the function of major skeletal muscles

T

here are approximately 700 skeletal muscles

in the human body, and most of these originate and/or insert on an area of the skeleton. Because most muscles or their tendons cross a joint, muscle contractions cause skeletal movement at the joint.

A. Criteria for Naming Skeletal Muscle Learning the criteria used to name skeletal muscles will assist you in identifying and learning the function of these muscles. Skeletal muscles are named for their orientation relative to the midline of the body, size, shape, action, number of origins, location, or origin and insertion. The muscle attachment points, the origin and insertion, are usually skin or bone. The origin is the nonmoving point of attachment when a muscle contracts, and the insertion point moves toward the origin. The larger region of the muscle between the origin and the insertion is called the belly. For characteristics used to name skeletal muscles, refer to your textbook.

A Photographic Atlas of the Human Body by Gerard J. Tortora, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons

B. Skeletal Muscle Identification and Action When many skeletal muscles contract, they pull their point of insertion on a bone toward their point of origin. For the muscles of facial expression, this action moves the skin on the face and allows us to express emotion. In the appendages, muscles that perform similar functions are surrounded by fascia, forming compartments that are served by the same major blood vessels and nerves. Also, within a location some muscles are grouped according to whether they are superficial or deep. Sometimes muscles will work in groups when they are involved in multifaceted movements. Smaller muscles assist or enhance the action of larger muscles. Based on their function in a group, these muscles can be categorized as: an agonist (prime mover), an antagonist (working against the agonist, or a synergist (helps the agonist).

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1. Muscles of the Head and Neck Muscles of Facial Expression and Mastication Muscles located in the head include those involved in facial expression, mastication, blinking, and eye movements. Their origins are found in the superficial fascia beneath the skin and attached to skull bones, while their insertions are in the skin of the face. Muscles that insert on the exterior of the eyeball and move the eye will be studied in the exercise on Special Senses—The Eye. Muscles That Move the Head and Neck Muscles that flex the head and neck are found in pairs on the anterior and lateral surface of the neck, while muscles that extend the head and neck are found on the posterior surface of the neck. However, the levator scapulae, a posterolateral neck muscle, elevates the scapula but does not move the neck. The sternocleidomastoid muscle, a muscle that runs diagonally from the sternum and the clavicle to the mastoid process of the temporal bone, divides each side of the neck into an anterior and posterior triangle. The anterior triangle includes the carotid artery and the internal jugular vein, while the posterior triangle includes the external jugular vein and part of the subclavian artery.

suprahyoid muscles are located superior to the hyoid bone and elevate the hyoid bone, floor of the oral cavity, and tongue while swallowing. The infrahyoid muscles are located inferior to the hyoid bone and depress the hyoid bone and larynx while swallowing and talking.

ACTIVITY 1 Muscles of the Head and Neck Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 14.1(a), (b), and (c) and Figure 14.2(a), (b), and (c). Lab-Activity 1 Use Figures 14.1 and 14.2, and Table 14.1, to point to the muscles on models, diagrams, and/or cadaver photographs. 2 Locate the superficial muscles on yourself and perform the action indicated in Table 14.1. Palpate each muscle while performing the action. 3 Use Appendix B to locate the origin and insertion on an articulated skeleton. Pull the insertion toward the origin to simulate muscle action.

Muscles That Move the Hyoid Bone and Larynx Muscles that move the hyoid bone and larynx include the suprahyoid muscles and the infrahyoid muscles. The

TABLE 14.1

Muscles of the Head and Neck

MUSCLE

LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION Occipitofrontalis muscle

(ACTION IN ITALICS) Combination of frontalis and occipitalis muscles connected by an aponeurosis (a flat, broad tendon). Lies over frontal bone. Raises eyebrows and wrinkles forehead. Lies over occipital bone. Pulls scalp posteriorly. Circular muscle that encircles the eye. Closes eye. Between zygomatic bone and corner of mouth; inferior to zygomatic minor. Raises corners of mouth (smiling). Between zygomatic bone and corner of mouth. Raises upper lips, exposing upper teeth. Circular muscle that encircles the mouth. Closes and purses lips. Wide, flat muscle that covers lower mandible and entire anterior neck, and ends on chest. Tenses neck skin; depresses mandible (pouting).

Frontal belly Occipital belly Orbicularis oculi (orbicularis  little circle; oculi  eye) Zygomaticus major (zygoma  bar) Zygomaticus minor Orbicularis oris (oris  mouth) Platysma ( platy  flat)

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Epicranial aponeurosis

Frontalis Nasalis Orbicularis oculi

Levator labii superioris

Zygomaticus major Zygomaticus minor

Risorius

Orbicularis oris Depressor labii inferioris Depressor anguli oris Platysma Mentalis

Epicranial aponeurosis 4

1

Levator labii superioris 5 6

2

Depressor anguli oris

• frontalis (fron-TA-lis) • orbicularis oculi (or-bikyoo-LAR-is OC-yoo-lie) • orbicularis oris (OR-is) • platysma (pla-TIZ-ma) • zygomaticus (zy-goMAH-tu-kus) major • zygomaticus minor 1 _____________________________ 2 ______________________________

3

Thyrohyoid

3 ______________________________

Sternocleidomastoid Thyroid cartilage

Trapezius

4 ______________________________ 5 ______________________________

(a) Anterior superficial view

FIGURE 14.1

Selected muscles of the head.

6 ______________________________

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TABLE 14.1

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Muscles of the Head and Neck (continued) LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLE

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION Superficial Muscles Temporalis (tempora = temples) Masseter (maseter = chewer) Deep Muscles Buccinator (bucca = cheek)

Lateral pterygoid (pterygoid = like a wing)

Medial pterygoid

Lies over temporal bone. Elevates and retracts mandible. Anterior to ear between zygomatic arch and posterior portion of mandible. Elevates and retracts mandible. Deep to masseter. Fibers run transversely and form fleshy part of cheek. Presses cheeks inward to whistle, blow, and suck. Helps hold food between teeth while chewing. Deep to masseter and superior to medial pterygoid. Transverse muscle fibers between pterygoid process of sphenoid and mandible. Protracts mandible, depresses mandible (opening mouth), and moves it sideways. Deep to masseter and inferior to lateral pterygoid. Verticle muscle fibers between pterygoid process of sphenoid and mandible. Elevates and protrudes mandible and moves it sideways.

8 Epicranial aponeurosis Frontalis 9

Orbicularis oculi

Occipitalis

Zygomaticus minor Zygomaticus major

Masseter

Buccinator Orbicularis oris

Platysma

7

Nasalis 10

Parotid gland Sternocleidomastoid Trapezius

11 12 13 Thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple) Sternohyoid

(b) Right lateral superficial view

• buccinator • frontalis • masseter

• • • •

occipitalis (ok-si-pi-TA-lis) orbicularis oculi orbicularis oris zygomaticus major

7 _______________________

10 _______________________

8 _______________________

11 _______________________

9 _______________________

12 _______________________ 13 _______________________

FIGURE 14.1

Selected muscles of the head, continued.

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201

Temporalis

Lateral pterygoid Medial pterygoid

Buccinator Orbicularis oris

14 15 16

Mandible (cut)

• • • • •

buccinator lateral pterygoid (TER-ih-goid) medial pterygoid orbicularis oris temporalis (tem-por-A-lis)

17

14 _________________________________________

18

15 _________________________________________ 16 _________________________________________ 17 _________________________________________

(c) Right lateral deep view

FIGURE 14.1

Selected muscles of the head, continued.

18 _________________________________________

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TABLE 14.1 MUSCLE

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Muscles of the Head and Neck (continued) LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE HEAD AND NECK Anterior and Lateral Muscles Sternocleidomastoid (sterno-  Strap-like muscle on anterior and lateral neck. Fibers run diagonally across the breastbone; cleido  clavicle; neck from the sternum and clavicle to the mastoid process. mastoid  mastoid process) Bilateral contraction flexes head (prayer muscle). Unilateral contraction laterally flexes head and rotates head to opposite side (as in saying no). Scalenes (scalenos  uneven) Three muscles—anterior, middle, and posterior scalenes—located in lateral neck deep to sternocleidomastoid muscle. Bilateral contraction flexes head and elevates 1st and 2nd ribs during deep inspiration. Unilateral contraction laterally flexes head and rotates head to opposite side (as in saying no). Posterior Muscles Splenius capitis Posterior neck deep to trapezius. Extends head when both muscles contract. Laterally flexes and rotates head to same side as contracting muscle when only one muscle contracts. Trapezius (superior portion) Superficial muscle of the upper back and posterior neck. Extends head and elevates scapula. MUSCLE THAT ONLY MOVES THE SCAPULA Levator scapulae Posterior to sternocleidomastoid; runs diagonally from posterior head to (levare  to raise) scapula. Elevates scapula and rotates it downward; stabilizes scapula. MUSCLES THAT MOVE HYOID BONE Suprahyoid Muscles Digastric (di-  two; gastric  belly) Anterior belly Strap-like muscle under chin that is parallel to midline of chin and extends from posterior belly. Elevates hyoid bone and depresses mandible (as in opening mouth). Posterior belly Runs along posterior border of chin. Elevates hyoid bone and depresses mandible (as in opening mouth). Stylohyoid Chin muscle, medial to posterior belly of digastric. Elevates hyoid bone and moves it posteriorly. Mylohyoid Deep muscle of chin extending from right side of mandible to left side. Elevates hyoid bone and floor of oral cavity and depresses mandible. Infrahyoid Muscles Omohyoid Lateral to sternohyoid. Depresses hyoid bone. Sternohyoid (sterno  sternum) Runs along midline of anterior neck. Depresses hyoid bone.

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Sternocleidomastoid Splenius capitis Trapezius Levator scapulae Scalene Platysma

Occipitofrontalis (frontal belly)

Epicranial aponeurosis

Orbicularis oculi

• levator scapulae (lee-VAY-tor SKA-pyoo-lee) Levator labii superioris • scalene • splenius capitis Zygomaticus major • sternocleidomastoid Buccinator (ster-no-kli-do-MAS-toid) Orbicularis oris • trapezius (tra-PEE-zee-us)

Nasalis

Occipitofrontalis (occipital belly)

1 2

1 __________________________ 2 __________________________ Thyroid cartilage

3 4 5

Sternohyoid (a) Lateral superficial view

FIGURE 14.2

Selected muscles of the chin and neck.

3 __________________________ 4 __________________________ 5 __________________________

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Mylohyoid 6 7

Digastric: Anterior belly

8

Posterior belly

9

Stylohyoid 10

Sternohyoid

11

Omohyoid Sternocleidomastoid

12

(b) Anterior view with platysma removed

13 Masseter Mylohyoid Hyoid bone Levator scapulae Thyrohyoid Sternothyroid 14

Cricothyroid

15

Scalene muscles (2 of 3)

(c) Anterior deep view

(b) • digastric, anterior belly • digastric, posterior belly • mylohyoid • omohyoid • sternocleidomastoid • sternohyoid • stylohyoid

6 ___________________________ (c) • levator scapulae 7 ___________________________ • mylohyoid • scalenes (SKAY-leens) 8 ___________________________ 9 ___________________________ 10 ___________________________ 11 ___________________________ 12 ___________________________

FIGURE 14.2

Selected muscles of the chin and neck, continued.

13 ___________________________ 14 ___________________________ 15 ___________________________

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2. Muscles of the Trunk Muscles That Move the Arm These muscles originate on the anterior or posterior trunk and insert on the humerus. Muscle contraction pulls the humerus toward the insertion, resulting in movement of the humerus at the shoulder joint. Because of the structure of the shoulder joint and the way these muscles surround the humerus, contraction can cause a full range of motion at a synovial joint—flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, and rotation. The rotator cuff muscles are deep muscles that move the arm and surround the shoulder joint like a sleeve cuff and help strengthen and stabilize the shoulder joint. They include the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor. Muscles That Move the Scapula Movements of the scapula include elevation, depression, abduction (protraction), adduction (retraction), and rotation. Shrugging the shoulders or lifting an object over the head elevates the scapula. Depression of the scapula occurs when doing a pullup. Performing a “pushup” abducts the scapula, and standing at attention adducts the scapula. Muscles That Move the Abdominal Wall and Vertebral Column Muscles on the anterior surface of the abdomen (abdominal muscles) flex the vertebral column, while the muscles of the back extend it. However, because the transversus

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205

abdominis muscle runs horizontally it cannot flex the vertebral column. Muscles Used in Breathing Muscles of inspiration increase the diameter or length of the thoracic cavity when they contract, while muscles of expiration decrease the diameter or length of the thoracic cavity. In this activity we will be examining the diaphragm, external intercostals, and internal intercostals. All muscles involved in breathing will be examined together when studying the respiratory system.

ACTIVITY 2 Muscles of the Trunk Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 14.3(a), (b), (c), (d), and (e) and Figure 14.4(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Use Figures 14.3 and 14.4 and Tables 14.2 and 14.3 to point to the muscles on models, charts, and/or cadaver photographs. 2 Locate each muscle on yourself and perform the action indicated in Tables 14.2 and 14.3. Palpate each muscle while performing the action. 3 Identify the rotator cuff muscles on Figures 14.3 and 14.4. 4 Use Appendix B to locate the origin and insertion on an articulated skeleton. Pull the insertion toward the origin to stimulate muscle action.

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Muscles of the Anterior Trunk

MUSCLE

LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE SHOULDER JOINT Superficial Muscles Deltoid (delta  triangle) Large, rounded, triangular shoulder muscle. Anterior fibers: flex and medially rotate arm. Lateral fibers: abduct arm. Posterior fibers: extend and laterally rotate arm. Pectoralis major (pectus  chest) Large muscles on superior, anterior chest between sternum and arm. Whole muscle adducts and medially rotates arm, clavicular head only flexes arm, and sternocostal head only extends arm. Deep Muscle Subscapularis On ventral side of the scapula in the subscapular fossa. Medially rotates arm. MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE SCAPULA Serratus anterior (serratus  saw-toothed) Pectoralis minor

Serrated-looking muscles on the lateral trunk inferior to arms and rib. Abducts scapula and rotates it upward. This occurs when throwing a punch and is often called the boxer’s muscle. Deep to pectoralis major attaching to 3rd through 5th ribs. Abducts scapula and rotates it downward; elevates 3rd through 5th ribs during forced inspiration.

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ABDOMINAL WALL Superficial Muscles Rectus abdominis (rectus  parallel Midline abdominal muscles located between sternum and inguinal ligament. fibers) Flexes vertebral column and compresses abdomen. Does not laterally flex vertebral column. External oblique Lateral and anterior sheet-like abdominal muscles whose fibers run obliquely down toward the midline (linea alba). Bilateral contraction flexes vertebral column and compresses abdomen. Unilateral contraction laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column to the opposite side. Deep Muscles Internal oblique Abdominal muscles deep to external oblique whose fibers run obliquely up toward linea alba. Bilateral contraction flexes vertebral column and compresses abdomen. Unilateral contraction laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column to the same side. Transversus abdominis Abdominal muscles deep to internal oblique whose fibers run transversely. Compresses abdomen and stabilizes trunk. MUSCLES USED IN BREATHING Deep Muscles External intercostals (inter-  between; costal  ribs) Internal intercostals

Diaphragm

Oblique muscles located between ribs superficial to internal intercostals. Fibers run obliquely down toward the midline. Increase thoracic diameter by elevating ribs during inspiration. Oblique muscles located between ribs deep to external obliques. Fibers run obliquely up toward the midline. Decrease thoracic diameter by depressing ribs during forced expiration. Dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Contains openings for the esophagus, aorta, and vena cava. Flattens, increasing length of thoracic cage, during normal inspiration.

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Sternocleidomastoid

Platysma

Trapezius Clavicle

Pectoralis major

Pectoralis minor

Latissimus dorsi Internal intercostals

Serratus anterior

External intercostals Linea alba Internal oblique

External oblique

Transverse abdominis Rectus sheath Rectus abdominis Inguinal ligament Inguinal ring (superficial) (a) Anterior superficial view

(b) Anterior deep view

Trapezius

Sternocleidomastoid

1

Clavicle

3 2 Third rib

4

5

• • • • •

deltoid external oblique pectoralis (pek-tor-AL-lis) major pectoralis minor rectus abdominis (REK-tus ab-DOM-in-is) • serratus (ser-RAY-tus) anterior 1 ______________________________ 2 ______________________________ 3 ______________________________

6

4 ______________________________ 5 ______________________________ (a) Anterior superficial view

FIGURE 14.3

(b) Anterior deep view

Muscles of the anterior trunk.

6 ______________________________

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External intercostals Seventh rib

Seventh rib

Internal intercostals

External oblique

Rectus abdominis Internal oblique

Rectus abdominis (c) Right anterolateral superficial view

FIGURE 14.3

Transverse abdominis (d) Right anterolateral deep view

(e) Right anterolateral deeper view

Muscles of the anterior trunk, continued .

TABLE 14.3

Muscles of the Posterior Trunk

MUSCLE

LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE SHOULDER JOINT Superficial muscles Deltoid (delta ⫽ triangle) Large, rounded, triangular shoulder muscle. Posterior portion of deltoid extends and laterally rotates arm. Infraspinatus (infra- ⫽ below; Located in infraspinous fossa (inferior to spine of scapula) and partially spinatus ⫽ spine of scapula covered by deltoid. Laterally rotates and adducts arm. Teres minor (teres ⫽ long and Inferior to infraspinatus and partially covered by deltoid. round) Laterally rotates, extends, and adducts arm. Teres major Inferior to teres minor and partially covered by deltoid. Extends, adducts, and medially rotates arm. Latissimus dorsi (latissimus ⫽ Main large, flat muscle of middle and lower back that runs laterally and widest; dorsum ⫽ back) attaches to superior portion of humerus. Extends, adducts, and medially rotates arm (if arm is elevated over head, it brings it down). Deep muscles Supraspinatus (supra- ⫽ above) Located in supraspinous fossa (superior to spine of scapula) and totally covered by deltoid. Assists deltoid muscle in abducting arm. MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE SCAPULA Superficial muscle Trapezius (trapezoides ⫽ trapezoid shape)

Deep muscles Levator scapulae (levare ⫽ to raise)

Rhomboid minor

Rhomboid major

Diamond-shaped muscle of posterior neck and upper back that extends from the skull and vertebral column to spine of scapula and lateral clavicle. Superior portion elevates scapula and extends head, middle portion adducts scapula, inferior portion depresses scapula. Posterior to sternocleidomastoid and runs diagonally from posterior head to scapula. Elevates scapula and rotates it downward. Deep to trapezius in upper back located between the vertebrae and scapula, and superior to rhomboid major. Elevates and adducts scapula and rotates it downward, stabilizes scapula. Deep to trapezius in upper back located between the vertebrae and scapula, and inferior to rhomboid minor. Elevates and adducts scapula and rotates it downward, stabilizes scapula.

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209

Splenius capitis Sternocleidomastoid

Levator scapulae

Trapezius Rhomboid minor Rhomboid major Deltoid

Supraspinatus

Infraspinatus

Infraspinatus

Teres minor Teres major

Teres minor

Latissimus dorsi

Teres major

External oblique (a) Anterior superficial view

(b) Anterior deep view

4 5 6

1

Acromion of scapula Greater tubercle of humerus 7

2

• deltoid • infraspinatus (in-fra-spi-NAY-tus) • latissimus dorsi (la-TIS-i-mus DOR-sigh) • levator scapulae • rhomboid (ROM-boid) major • rhomboid minor • supraspinatus (soo-pra-spi-NAY-tus) • teres (TEH-rez) major • teres minor • trapezius (tra-PEE-zee-us) 1 _________________________________ 2 _________________________________

8

Teres Major

9

3 _________________________________

10

4 _________________________________

Triceps brachii

5 _________________________________ 3

6 _________________________________ 7 _________________________________ (a) Posterior superficial view

(b) Posterior deep view

8 _________________________________ 9 _________________________________ 10 _________________________________

FIGURE 14.4

Muscles of the posterior trunk.

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TABLE 14.3

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M u s c l e s o f t h e P o s t e r i o r T r u n k (c o n t i n u e d ) LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLE

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN Erector spinae (erector  erect posture; Group of muscles next to the vertebral column deep to the trapezius, spinae  spine) latissimus dorsi, and scapula. consists of iliocostalis, longissimus, and Extend vertebral column and maintain erect posture when both muscles spinalis groups contract. Laterally flexes vertebral column when only one muscle.

Semispinalis capitis Spinalis capitis

Longissimus capitis

Splenius capitis Spinalis cervicis

Longissimus cervicis

Semispinalis cervicis

Longissimus thoracis

Iliocostalis thoracis

Semispinalis thoracis Spinalis thoracis

Iliocostalis lumborum

(c) Deep erector spinal muscles of the back

FIGURE 14.4

Muscles of the posterior trunk, continued.

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3. Muscles of the Arm These muscles have their origin on the humerus or scapula, cross the elbow joint, and insert on the bones of the forearm. When these muscles contract, they flex or extend the forearm at the elbow joint or cause movement at the radioulnar joints. The muscles that have origins on the scapula can also move the arm at the shoulder joint. Muscles of the limbs that perform similar functions often are surrounded by fascia-forming compartments. Muscles in the anterior compartment of the arm, such as the biceps brachii and brachialis muscles, flex the forearm, whereas those in the posterior compartment, the triceps brachii, extend the forearm. Muscles of the Forearm Muscles located in the forearm flex or extend the hand or cause movement at the radioulnar joint. The muscles that move the hand cross the wrist and insert on the carpals, metacarpals, or phalanges. These muscles are found in the anterior (flexor) compartment and posterior (extensor) compartment of the forearm. The muscles of the superficial anterior compartment of the forearm from lateral to medial are: flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor carpi ulnaris, and flexor digitorum superficialis. The flexor digitorum superficialis is actually deep to the other three muscles. These muscles flex the hand or digits and originate on the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Muscles of the superficial posterior compartment of the forearm from medial to lateral are: extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor digi-

TABLE 14.4

SKELETAL MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS

torum minimi, extensor digitorum, extensor carpi radialis brevis, and extensor carpi radialis longus. These muscles extend the hand and digits and originate on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. Flexor and extensor muscles near the lateral surface of the forearm may also abduct the wrist, whereas those near the medial surface may adduct it. Other muscles located in the forearm include the brachioradialis, pronator teres, and supinator, which move the forearm at the radioulnar joint.

ACTIVITY 3 Muscles of the Arm and Forearm Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 14.5(a) and (b) and Figure 14.6(a), (b), (c), and (d). Lab Activity 1 Use Figures 14.5 and 14.6 and Tables 14.4 and 14.5A and B to point to the muscles on models, charts, and/or cadaver photographs. 2 Locate each muscle on yourself and perform the action indicated in Tables 14.4 and 14.5. Palpate each muscle while performing the action. 3 Use Appendix B to locate the origin and insertion on an articulated skeleton. Pull the insertion toward the origin to stimulate muscle action.

Muscles of the Arm

MUSCLE

LOCATION AND ACTION

ANTERIOR SURFACE Biceps brachii (biceps  2 heads; brachii  arm)

Large muscle with 2 heads. Flexes and supinates forearm, and flexes arm.

Brachialis POSTERIOR SURFACE Triceps brachii

211

Deep to biceps brachii and anterior to humerus. Flexes forearm. Large muscle with three heads. Long head: Superficial muscle on medial side. Medial head: Deep muscle on medial side. Lateral head: Lateral side. All three heads extend forearm and help extend arm.

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Subscapularis

Teres major

Biceps brachii

Brachialis

Coracoid process of scapula

Supraspinatus

Greater tubercle of humerus

2

3

1

• • • • 4

biceps brachii (BI-ceps BRAY-key-eye) subscapularis teres major brachialis (BRAY-key-AL-is)

1 ________________________________________ 2 ________________________________________ 3 ________________________________________

(a) Anterior view

FIGURE 14.5

Muscles of the arm.

4 ________________________________________

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Triceps brachii long head

Triceps brachii lateral head

Triceps brachii medial head

Spine of scapula Greater tubercle of humerus

Infraspinatus

Teres minor

Teres major 5 6 7

• triceps brachii, lateral head • triceps brachii, long head • triceps brachii, medial head 5 ________________________________________ Medial epicondyle of humerus

Olecranon of ulna

(b) Posterior view

FIGURE 14.5

Muscles of the arm, continued.

6 ________________________________________ 7 ________________________________________

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TABLE 14.5A MUSCLE

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Muscles of the Anterior Forearm LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE RADIUS AND ULNA Superficial muscles Brachioradialis (brachi-  arm; Large, superficial lateral muscle. radialis  radius) Flexes forearm and pronates and supinates forearm to neutral position. Pronator teres ( pronare  to bend Lateral to brachioradialis with oblique muscle fibers that cross antecubital forward; teres  long, cylindrical) fossa. Pronates and weakly flexes forearm. Deep muscle Supinator (supinate  supine; palm Anterior portion is deep to brachioradialis. upward) Supinates forearm. MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE HAND Superficial muscles of anterior (flexor) compartment (Lateral to medial ) Flexor carpi radialis (carpi-  wrist) Medial and inferior to pronator teres and medial to brachioradialis in forearm. Flexes and abducts hand. Palmaris longus ( palma  palm) Medial to flexor carpi radialis. Weakly flexes wrist. Flexor carpi ulnaris Small part of muscle is seen anteriorly; most medial muscle of posterior forearm. Flexes and adducts hand. Flexor digitorum superficialis Deep to tendons of flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, and flexor carpi ulnaris. Flexes hand and proximal and middle phalanx of each finger. Deep muscle of anterior (flexor) compartment Flexor pollicis longus Inferior and lateral to flexor digitorum superficialis. Flexes distal phalanx of thumb.

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215

Biceps brachii Brachialis Medial epicondyle of humerus 1

Pronator teres Brachioradialis

2

Flexor carpi radialis

3

Palmaris longus

4

Flexor carpi ulnaris

5

Flexor digitorum superficialis Flexor pollicis longus Abductor pollicis brevis

Pisiform bone

Flexor pollicis brevis

Flexor digiti minimi brevis

Abductor digiti minimi

Adductor pollicis (a) Anterior superficial view

Supinator

6

Flexor digitorum profundus

7

Flexor pollicis longus

8

Carpal tunnel

Opponens digiti minimi Dorsal interossei

(b) Anterior deep view

(a) • brachioradialis • flexor carpi (KAR-pee) radialis • flexor carpi ulnaris • palmaris (pall-MARE-is) longus • pronator (PRO-nay-tor) teres FIGURE 14.6

1 _____________________________ 2 _____________________________ 3 _____________________________ 4 _____________________________

(b) • flexor digitorum profundus • flexor pollicis (POL-ih-kis) longus • supinator

5 _____________________________

Muscles of the forearm, wrist, and hands, continued .

6 _____________________________ 7 _____________________________ 8 _____________________________

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Muscles of the Posterior Forearm LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLE THAT MOVES THE RADIUS AND ULNA Supinator Posterior portion is deep to lateral muscles of posterior forearm. Supinates forearm. MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE HAND Superficial muscles of posterior (extensor) compartment (Medial to lateral ) Extensor carpi ulnaris Lateral to flexor carpi ulnaris. Extends and adducts hand. Extensor digitorum minimi Lateral to extensor carpi ulnaris. Extends hand and proximal phalanx of 5th digit. Extensor digitorum Lateral to extensor digitorum minimi. Extends hand and proximal, middle, and distal phalanges. Extensor carpi radialis brevis Lateral to extensor digitorum. Extends and abducts hand. Extensor carpi radialis longus Lateral to extensor radialis brevis. Extends and abducts hand. Deep muscle of posterior (extensor) compartment Extensor pollicis longus Deep to lateral extensor muscles on posterior forearm. Extends distal phalanx of thumb and first metacarpal of thumb and abducts hand.

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Medial epicondyle

Extensor carpi radialis longus

9

Extensor carpi ulnaris

Flexor carpi ulnaris

217

SKELETAL MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS

10

Extensor carpi radialis brevis

11

Extensor digitorum

12

Extensor digiti minimi

13

Abductor pollicis longus

14

Extensor pollicis brevis Extensor retinaculum

(c) Posterior superficial view

(c) • extensor carpi radialis brevis • extensor carpi radialis longus • extensor carpi ulnaris • extensor digitorum • extensor digiti minimi • flexor carpi ulnaris

9 _____________________________________

12 _____________________________________

10 _____________________________________

13 _____________________________________

11 _____________________________________

14 _____________________________________

Supinator

15

Abductor pollicis longus Extensor pollicis longus Extensor pollicis brevis

(d) • extensor pollicis longus • supinator (SOUP-ih-nay-tor) 15 ___________________________ 16 ___________________________ (d) Posterior deep view

FIGURE 14.6

Muscles of the forearm, wrist, and hands, continued.

16

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4. Muscles of the Thigh

ACTIVITY 4 Muscles of the Thigh

Muscles of the thigh flex, extend, abduct, adduct, circumduct, and rotate the thigh. Muscles that move the thigh have origins on the pelvis or vertebrae and insertions on the femur or tibia. Those with origins on the pelvis move the thigh at the hip joint and the leg at the knee joint, whereas those with origins on the femur only move the leg at the knee joint. Muscles of the anterior compartment of the thigh, the quadriceps femoris group, extend the leg. The rectus femoris muscle of this group also flexes the thigh. The sartorius, which runs diagonally from the hip to the medial tibia, marks the boundary between the anterior and medial compartments. Muscles of the medial compartment are: pectineus, adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, and gracilis. These muscles adduct and flex the thigh. Muscles of the posterior compartment are the hamstring muscle group, which flex the leg and extend the thigh.

TABLE 14.6

ANTERIOR SURFACE (Lateral to medial) Tensor fasciae latae (tensor  to stretch; fascia  band; latus  wide) Quadriceps femoris (quad-  four; cep-  head or origins) Rectus femoris Vastus lateralis Vastus medialis Vastus intermedius Sartorius (sartor  tailor)

Iliopsoas Psoas major ( psoas  loin) Iliacus (iliacus  ilium) Pectineus ( pecten  comb)

Adductor magnus

Adductor brevis Gracilis

Lab Activity 1 Use Figure 14.7 and Table 14.6 to point to the muscles on models, diagrams, and/or cadaver photographs. 2 Locate the muscles on yourself and perform the actions indicated in Table 14.6. Palpate the muscles while performing the action. 3 Use Appendix B to locate the origin and insertion on an articulated skeleton. Pull the insertion toward the origin to simulate muscle action.

Muscles of the Thigh

MUSCLE

Adductor longus

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 14.7(a), (b), and (e).

LOCATION AND ACTION

Small lateral hip muscle with fascia lata (deep fascia) that extends down thigh. Flexes and abducts thigh. Group of 4 muscles on anterior thigh. Located along midline of thigh. Extends leg and flexes thigh. Lateral to rectus femoris. Extends leg. Medial to rectus femoris. Extends leg. Deep to rectus femoris and intermediate to vastus laterali and vastus medialis. Extends leg. Diagonal muscle. Extends from anterior superior iliac spine to medial surface of tibia. Flexes leg and flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh (allows us to flex and cross our legs). Combination of psoas major and iliacus. A small portion of these muscles are observed in anterior/medial compartment of thigh inferior to inguinal ligament. Together flex thigh, rotate thigh laterally, and flex trunk. Medial to iliopsoas. Adducts and flexes thigh. Medial to pectineus. Adducts and flexes thigh and medially rotates thigh. Observed medial and inferior to adductor longus. A larger portion of this muscle is deep to the adductor longus. Adducts and medially rotates thigh. Anterior portion flexes thigh and posterior portion extends thigh. Deep to adductor longus, it is totally covered by superficial muscles in Figure 14.7. Adducts and flexes thigh and medially rotates thigh. Medial to adductor magnus; straight muscle on inside of thigh. Adducts thigh and medially rotates thigh. Flexes leg.

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219

Anterior superior iliac spine 1 2

Psoas major Iliopsoas Iliacus

3 Pubic symphysis

Tensor fasciae latae Sartorius Rectus femoris (cut) Iliotibial tract Vastus lateralis Vastus intermedius

Pectineus

7 4 8

Adductor longus Gracilis Adductor magnus

5

9 10

Vastus medialis 6

11

Patella (a) Anterior superficial view

(a) • adductor longus • gracilis (grah-SIL-us) • iliacus (il-ee-AK-us) • pectineus (pek-tin-EE-us) • psoas (SO-us) major • rectus femoris (FEM-or-is) • sartorius (sar-TOR-ee-us) • tensor fasciae latae (FA-schee LA-tee) • vastus intermedius • vastus lateralis • vastus medialis

1 ___________________________________

7 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

8 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

9 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

10 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

11 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

Iliacus

Psoas major

Inguinal ligament Obturator externus Gracilis

Tensor fasciae latae

Adductor brevis

Femur

Adductor magnus

Obturator externus 12 13

Adductor longus (cut)

(b) • adductor brevis • adductor magnus • gracilis

Vastus lateralis

12 _____________________________

Tendon of quadriceps femoris

13 _____________________________

Patella

14 _____________________________

(b) Anterior deep view

FIGURE 14.7

Muscles of the thigh.

14

Medial condyle of femur

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M u s c l e s o f t h e T h i g h (c o n t i n u e d ) LOCATION AND ACTION

MUSCLE

POSTERIOR SURFACE Gluteus maximus

Largest buttocks muscle. Extends and laterally rotates thigh. Observed superior to gluteus maximus but is partially covered by it. Abducts and medially rotates thigh. Deep muscle covered by gluteus medius. Abducts and medially rotates thigh. Deep muscle inferior to gluteus minimus; important landmark for sciatic nerve which passes deep to piriformis. Laterally rotates and abducts thigh. Three muscles on posterior thigh. Most lateral hamstring. Flexes leg and extends thigh. Medial to biceps femoris and superficial to semimembranosus. Flexes leg and extends thigh. Most medial of the hamstrings; (remember ’m’ for medial). Flexes leg and extends thigh.

Gluteus medius Gluteus minimus Piriformis (pirum  pear; -forma  shape) Hamstrings Biceps femoris Semitendinosus (semi-  half or part; tendinosus  long tendon) Semimembranosus (membranosus  partly membrane)

Gluteus medius (cut) Gluteus maximus (cut)

Gluteus medius

Gluteus minimus Piriformis Gluteus maximus

Coccyx

Greater trochanter Sciatic nerve Gluteus maximus (cut)

Adductor magnus Gracilis Iliotibial tract Semitendinosus Semimembranosus Long head Biceps femoris Short head

(c) Posterior superficial view

FIGURE 14.7

Muscles of the thigh, continued.

(d) Posterior deep view

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15 16 Superior gemellus Obturator internus

18

Inferior gemellus

Quadratus femoris Adductor minimus

Vastus lateralis (covered by iliotibial tract)

Adductor magnus

19 17 20

Popliteal fossa

Deep

Superficial (e) Posterior view

• • • • • •

biceps femoris gluteus maximus gluteus medius piriformis semimembranosus semitendinosus

15 ________________________________________ 16 ________________________________________ 17 ________________________________________ 18 ________________________________________ 19 ________________________________________ 20 ________________________________________

FIGURE 14.7

Muscles of the thigh, continued.

221

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5. Muscles of the Leg and Foot Palpate the tibia of your leg to find the anterior crest and the lateral and medial borders of the tibia. Observe that the muscles on the anterior surface of the tibia are located lateral to the anterior crest of the tibia. The anterior and lateral superficial muscles are in order starting at the anterior crest just below the knee and moving laterally: tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, and the fibularis (peroneus) longus. The tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum are muscles of the anterior compartment of the leg. These muscles dorsiflex the foot and also extend the toes if they insert on the phalanges. Muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg include the gastrocnemius, soleus, and flexor digitorum longus. These muscles plantar flex the foot and also flex the toes if they insert on the phalanges. Eversion of the foot is due to contraction of muscles near the lateral surface of the leg, whereas inversion is due to contraction of muscles near the medial surface of the leg.

TABLE 14.7

ACTIVITY 5 Muscles of the Leg and Foot Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 14.8(a), (b), (c), and (d). Lab Activity 1 Use Figure 14.8 and Table 14.7 to point to the muscles on models, diagrams, and/or cadaver photographs. 2 Locate each muscle on yourself and perform the action indicated in Table 14.7. Palpate each muscle while performing the action. 3 Use Appendix B to locate the origin and insertion on an articulated skeleton. Pull the insertion toward the origin to simulate muscle action.

Muscles of the Leg and Foot

MUSCLE

LATERAL AND ANTERIOR SURFACES (Superficial muscles) Tibialis anterior Extensor digitorum longus Fibularis (peroneus) longus POSTERIOR SURFACE (Superficial muscles) Gastrocnemius Soleus (Deep muscles) Flexor digitorum longus Flexor hallucis longus

LOCATION AND ACTION

Lateral to the anterior crest of the tibia. Dorsiflexes and inverts foot. Lateral to tibialis anterior. Dorsiflexes foot and extends toes. Lateral to the extensor digitorum longus. Plantar flexes and everts foot.

Large superficial muscle on posterior leg. Plantar flexes foot and flexes leg. Deep to gastrocnemius and posterior to fibularis (peroneus) longus. Plantar flexes foot only. Deep to soleus, medial muscle (not shown on Figure 14.8). Plantar flexes foot and flexes toes. Deep to soleus, lateral muscle. Plantar flexes foot and flexes great toe.

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Patella Patellar ligament

Tibialis anterior Extensor digitorum longus Fibularis (peroneus) longus Fibularis (peroneus) brevis

Tibia Gastrocnemius

1 2

Soleus 3 Flexor digitorum longus

4

Tendon of extensor hallucis longus

Fibularis tertius

223

(a) • extensor digitorum longus • fibularis (peroneus brevis) • fibularis (peroneus) longus • tibialis anterior 1 ____________________________ 2 ____________________________ 3 ____________________________ 4 ____________________________

(a) Anterior superficial view

Patella Lateral condyle of femur Patellar ligament 5 6

Plantaris

7

Gastrocnemius

8 Soleus

9

Fibularis (peroneus) longus

Fibularis brevis

Extensor digitorum longus

Fibularis tertius Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon Extensor hallucis longus

Tibialis anterior

Lateral malleolus of fibula

(b) • extensor digitorum longus • fibularis (peroneus) longus • gastrocnemius (gas-trok-NEE-mee-us) • soleus • tibialis anterior 5 ____________________________ 6 ____________________________ 7 ____________________________ 8 ____________________________

(b) Lateral superficial view

FIGURE 14.8

Muscles of the leg, ankle, and foot.

9 ____________________________

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(c) • gastrocnemius • soleus Plantaris

10 __________________________________ 11 __________________________________

Gastrocnemius 10 Soleus Fibularis (peroneus) longus

11

Flexor hallucis longus Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon

(c) Posterior superficial view

(d) • flexor digitorum longus • flexor hallucis (HAL-a-kis) longus 12 __________________________________ 13 __________________________________

Tibialis posterior

Flexor digitorum longus

12

Flexor hallucis longus

13

(d) Posterior deep view

FIGURE 14.8

Muscles of the leg, ankle, and foot, continued.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

14 E X E R C I S E

Reviewing Your Knowledge A. Anatomy Review For Figures 14.9 (a) and 14.9 (b), write the name of the skeletal muscle next to the number. Color with colored pencils. 24 25

1

26 2 27 28 29 30

3 4

31 32

5 6

33

7

34

8 35

9

36 37 10

38

11

39

12 Extensor pollicis longus

Abductor pollicis longus

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Patellar ligament 40 41

21

Tibia 22

23

Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon

(a) Anterior view

FIGURE 14.9

Superficial skeletal muscles.

225

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53 54

42

55

43

56 44

45 57 58 59 60

46 47

61 62 63 64 65

48 49 Abductor pollicis longus

66

Extensor pollicis brevis

67

68 69 70 71 72 50

51

73 74 Flexor hallucis longus Extensor digitorum longus

52

(b) Posterior view

FIGURE 14.9

Superficial skeletal muscles, continued.

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SKELETAL MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS

B. Muscle Function Identify the muscles that perform each function. Muscles of the Head and Neck a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

masseter orbicularis oculi orbicularis oris sternocleidomastoid temporalis trapezius zygomaticus major

____ 1. Smiling muscle ____ 2. Kissing muscle ____ 3. Closes eyelid ____ 4. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Two muscles that close mouth ____ 5. ⎪⎭ ____ 6. Paired muscle that flexes head and rotates head to side ____ 7. Extends head Muscles of the Anterior Trunk a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

deltoid external oblique internal oblique pectoralis major rectus abdominis serratus anterior transversus abdominis

____ 8. Adducts and flexes arm ____ 9. Anterior portion flexes arm; lateral portion abducts arm ____ 10. Abducts scapula and rotates it upward (boxer’s muscle) ____ 11. Flexes vertebral column and compresses abdomen ____ 12. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Two muscle pairs that flex vertebral column, compress abdomen, and laterally flex vertebral column ____ 13. ⎪⎭ ____ 14. Compresses abdomen only

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Muscles of the Posterior Trunk a. b. c. d. e.

deltoid erector spinae latissimus dorsi teres major trapezius

____ 15. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Extends, adducts, and medially rotates arm ____ 16. ⎪⎭ ____ 17. Posterior portion extends arm; lateral portion abducts arm ____ 18. Superior portion elevates scapula, middle portion adducts scapula, inferior portion depresses scapula ____ 19. Paired muscle that extends vertebral column, maintains erect posture, and laterally flexes vertebral column Muscles of the Arm and Forearm a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

biceps brachii brachialis brachioradialis extensor carpi radialis extensor carpi ulnaris extensor digitorum flexor carpi radialis flexor carpi ulnaris palmaris longus triceps brachii

____ 20. Extends forearm at elbow and extends arm ____ 21. Flexes forearm at elbow and flexes arm ____ 22. Flexes forearm ____ 23. Flexes forearm and pronates and supinates forearm ____ 24. Flexes and abducts hand ____ 25. Flexes and adducts hand ____ 26. Weakly flexes hand ____ 27. Extends hand and extends phalanges ____ 28. Extends and adducts hand ____ 29. Extends and abducts hand Muscles of the Thigh a. b. c. d.

adductor magnus, longus, brevis biceps femoris gluteus maximus gluteus medius

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e. gracilis f. rectus femoris g. sartorius h. semimembranosus i. semitendinosus j. tensor fasciae latae k. vastus intermedius l. vastus lateralis m. vastus medialis ____ 30. Extends leg at knee and flexes thigh at hip ____ 31. ⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ____ 32. ⎬ Three muscles that extend leg only ⎪ ⎪ ____ 33. ⎭ ____ 34. Flexes leg and flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh (allows us to flex and cross our legs) ____ 35. Adducts thigh and flexes leg ____ 36. Group of muscles that adducts and flexes thigh ____ 37. Abducts thigh ____ 38. Flexes and abducts thigh ____ 39. Extends thigh ____ 40. ⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ____ 41. ⎬ Three muscles that flex leg and extend thigh ⎪ ⎪ ____ 42. ⎭ Muscles of the Leg a. b. c. d. e. f.

extensor digitorum longus fibularis (peroneus) longus flexor digitorum longus gastrocnemius soleus tibialis anterior

____ 43. Plantar flexes and everts foot ____ 44. Plantar flexes foot and flexes toes ____ 45. Plantar flexes foot only ____ 46. Plantar flexes foot and flexes leg ____ 47. Dorsiflexes foot and extends toes ____ 48. Dorsiflexes and inverts foot

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

14 E X E R C I S E

Identify the muscles and/or actions in the following questions. 1. Identify the muscles of the head that you use when you whistle.

2. Identify the muscles of the head used to blink.

3. Identify the major thigh and leg muscles you use when you kick a ball.

4. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 3.

5. Identify the forearm muscles you use when you turn a key in a lock.

6. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 5.

7. Identify the major arm muscles you use when you lift a glass to drink from it.

8. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 7.

9. Identify the neck muscles you use when you look both ways to cross a street.

10. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 9.

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11. Identify the abdominal muscles you use when you do the dance called the “twist.”

12. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 11.

13. Identify the muscles used to move the upper limb when you do jumping jacks.

14. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 13.

15. Identify the muscles that move the lower limb when you do jumping jacks.

16. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 15.

17. Identify the muscles used to bend the trunk when you touch your toes.

18. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 17.

19. Identify the upper limb muscles used to play the cymbals in a band.

20. Give the action of each muscle listed in question 19.

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15

E X E R C I S E

Surface Anatomy Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

1 Define and describe the importance of surface anatomy

hand mirror articulated skeleton skeletal muscle models or charts

2 Locate and identify important anatomical landmarks on the external surface of the body 3 Identify the borders of the anterior and posterior triangles of the neck and the femoral triangle

S

urface anatomy is the study of anatomical land-

marks observed on the external surface of the body. These landmarks can be used to locate underlying structures by palpation. Palpation (palpare ⫽ to touch gently) is a technique that uses the hands or fingers to locate internal body structures and to determine the size and texture of the structures. This exercise is a review and can be completed at home or in the lab.

ACTIVITY 1 Surface Anatomy of the Head and Neck 1 Read the location and description of each structure. 2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.1(a), (b), and (c). 3 Palpate the designated structures on your body.

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A. Anterior Surface of the Head

B. Lateral and Posterior Surfaces of the Head

Structures located in Figure 15.1(a).

Structures located in Figure 15.1(b).

• frontalis muscle—Lies over the forehead. Palpate the frontalis muscle with fingers while raising eyebrows. • supraorbital margins—Superior borders of the frontal bone that border the eye orbits. Palpate the supraorbital margins. • nasal bone—Forms the bridge of the nose. Place fingers along the bridge of the nose to feel nasal bones. Find the anterior border of the nasal bones and palpate the nasal cartilage inferior to nasal bones. • zygomaticus major muscle—Originates on the zygomatic bone and inserts on the corner of the mouth. Palpate this muscle near the zygomatic bone while smiling. • body of mandible—Horizontal portion of the lower jawbone. Palpate this main part of the mandible that includes the chin. • mental protuberance—Palpate this anterior tip of the chin.

(a) Anterior view of head • body of mandible • frontalis muscle • mental protuberance • nasal bone • supraorbital margin • zygomaticus major muscle 1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________ 5 _____________________________________________________ 6 _____________________________________________________

• temporomandibular joint (TMJ)—Located anterior to the external auditory meatus of the ear. Palpate the joint while opening and closing the mouth. • ramus of mandible—Vertical process of mandible. Palpate ramus inferior to the TMJ. The rounded condylar process (mandibular condyle) at the posterior portion of the ramus articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone to form the TMJ. • masseter muscle—Located anterior to ramus of the mandible. Palpate the masseter muscle while closing the mouth and clenching your teeth. • temporalis muscle— Located superior to the ear. Palpate the temporalis muscle while closing the mouth and clenching your teeth. • mastoid process—Rounded projection on the inferior portion of the temporal bone posterior to the ear. Palpate area of the skull inferior and posterior to external auditory meatus of ear. • external occipital protuberance—Rounded projection superior to foramen magnum of the occipital bone. Palpate the base of the skull near the midline. Lateral to the external occipital protuberance are two curved ridges called the superior nuchal lines which mark the boundary between the head and neck. • occipitalis muscle—Lies over the inferior portion of the occipital bone. Firmly palpate the posterior surface of the skull immediately above the neck as you raise and lower eyebrows. (b) Right lateral view of head • external occipital protuberance • masseter muscle • mastoid process • occipitalis muscle • ramus of mandible • temporalis muscle • temporomandibular joint 7 _____________________________________________________ 8 _____________________________________________________ 9 _____________________________________________________ 10 _____________________________________________________ 11 _____________________________________________________ 12 _____________________________________________________ 13 _____________________________________________________

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1

4

Orbicularis oculi muscle

5 2

Orbicularis oris muscle

Depressor labii inferioris muscle

6

3 (a) Anterior view of the head

7 8 12 13

9

10

11

(b) Right lateral view of the head

FIGURE 15.1

Surface anatomy of the head and neck.

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C. Anterior Surface of the Neck Structures located in Figure 15.1(c). • hyoid bone—Located in the anterior neck between the mandible and larynx. With the head in anatomical position, palpate the hyoid bone by placing the thumb and middle finger of one hand on either side of the neck about 1 inch inferior to the mandible. This bone can be moved laterally from side to side. • thyroid cartilage—Largest cartilage of the larynx that has a prominence called the Adam’s apple. Located in anterior neck inferior to hyoid bone. Move fingers 1 inch inferiorly from the hyoid bone until a firm structure is reached. Swallow to feel this cartilage move superiorly. • cricoid cartilage—Located inferior to the thyroid cartilage and used as a landmark when locating the trachea during a tracheostomy. Move your fingers down the thyroid cartilage. There is a depression between the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid cartilage. Palpate the cricoid cartilage inferior to this depression. • thyroid gland—Located inferior to the larynx on either side of trachea. Palpate by placing fingers on neck inferior and lateral to the thyroid cartilage and feeling for a soft mass. • sternocleidomastoid muscle—Originates on the sternum and clavicle and inserts on the mastoid process of the temporal bone. Look into a mirror while turning your head to the side. Observe the sternal and clavicular heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscle and palpate the muscle. • trapezius muscle—Located in the posterior and lateral neck. Inflammation of trapezius muscle may result in “stiff neck.” Place fingers on the posterior portion of the lateral neck and palpate while flexing and extending the neck.

• • • • • • •

common carotid artery cricoid cartilage hyoid bone sternocleidomastoid muscle suprasternal (jugular) notch thyroid cartilage trapezius muscle

• common carotid arteries—Located in the lateral neck between the trachea and the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Branch into the external and internal carotid arteries at the superior border of the larynx. Palpate the right common carotid artery by placing your fingers on the right side of the neck just lateral to the trachea. • external jugular vein—Located lateral to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. To observe this vein, look in the mirror while clenching your teeth as in anger or placing fingers on the skin above the clavicle and pressing firmly to prevent blood from draining the external jugular vein. • suprasternal (jugular) notch—Located at the base of the neck between the sternal heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscles and just superior to the sternum. Palpate the sternum and move the fingers superiorly to feel the suprasternal notch.

D. Anterior and Posterior Triangles of the Neck Structures located in Figure 15.1(d). • anterior triangle—Superiorly bounded by the inferior margin of the mandible, anteriorly by the midline of the neck, and posteriorly by the sternocleidomastoid. The carotid artery and internal jugular vein are located in this triangle. Palpate to identify the triangle’s borders and palpate your carotid pulse in the anterior triangle. • posterior triangle—Anteriorly bordered by the sternocleidomastoid, posteriorly by the trapezius, and inferiorly by the clavicle. Palpate to identify the triangle’s borders. The brachial plexus and external jugular vein are located in this triangle.

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________ 7 ______________________________________________________

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3 1

External jugular vein

4 Thyroid gland

5

2

6

Subclavian artery Clavicle

7

(c) Anterior view of the neck

Internal jugular vein

External jugular vein

Common carotid artery Sternocleidomastoid

(d) Anterior and posterior triangles of the neck

FIGURE 15.1

Surface anatomy of the head and neck, continued.

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ACTIVITY 2 Surface Anatomy of the Trunk 1 Read the location and description of each structure. 2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.2(a), (b), and (c). 3 Palpate the designated structures on your body.

E. Surface Anatomy of the Chest Structures located in Figure 15.2(a). • manubrium of the sternum—Superior part of the sternum between the suprasternal notch and body of the sternum. Palpate by placing fingers at suprasternal notch and moving them inferiorly until a ridge (sternal angle) is reached. • sternal angle—Raised area that can be felt at border of manubrium and sternum. The trachea divides into the right and left bronchi at the level of the sternal angle. The sternal angle is located at the level of the second rib. Palpate the sternal angle and move fingers laterally until the second rib can be felt. Move fingers inferiorly counting each rib and each intercostal space between the ribs.

• ribs—The ribs can be palpated lateral to the sternum. The location of the second to the sixth rib is used to identify the location of the heart. • costal margin—Anterior edge of costal cartilage of ribs 7–10. The liver and gallbladder are located inferior to the right costal margin. • body of sternum—Palpate area of the sternum inferior to the sternal angle. • xiphisternal joint—Joint between body of the sternum and xiphoid process of the sternum. Palpate the costal margin. Move fingers anteriorly along the costal margin until they reach the superior edge of the costal margin. Medial to this point is the xiphisternal joint. The heart rests on the diaphragm deep to the xiphisternal joint. • xiphoid process of sternum—Inferior portion of the sternum. Palpate the xiphoid process inferior to the xiphisternal joint. • pectoralis major muscle—Major muscle of the chest. In males the inferior border can be observed as a curved line under the breasts. This line is at the level of the fifth rib. Bend over your lab bench and push yourself up with one limb. Use your opposite hand to palpate the pectoralis major muscle. • serratus anterior muscle—Located on the lateral chest wall, extending from the ribs under the arm to the scapula. Flex your forearm and abduct your elbow. Use your opposite hand to palpate the serratus anterior muscle as it abducts the scapula. If you move too far posteriorly, you will be palpating the latissimus dorsi instead.

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Suprasternal notch 1

Clavicle

2 3

5

Anterior axillary fold

6 7

4 Rib 8

(a) Anterior view of the chest

• • • • • • • •

body of sternum costal margin manubrium of sternum pectoralis major muscle serratus anterior muscle sternal angle xiphisternal joint xiphoid process of sternum

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________ 7 ______________________________________________________ 8 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.2

Surface anatomy of the trunk.

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SURFACE ANATOMY

F. Surface Anatomy of the Back Structures located in Figure 15.2(b). • trapezius muscle—Large muscle of the posterior neck and middle of back. • scapula (spine and vertebral border)—With left arm at your side, run the fingers of your right hand medially from the point of the left shoulder to feel the spine of the scapula. Draw left shoulder back and run the fingers of your right hand just lateral to the midline on the left side to feel the vertebral border of the scapula. Notice that the scapula moves depending on position of the upper limb. • infraspinatus muscle—Located inferior to the spine of the scapula. Palpate area inferior to the spine of the scapula to feel this muscle.

• teres major muscle—Located inferior to the infraspinatus muscle. • latissimus dorsi muscle—Broad muscle located between the lumbar region and axillary region. Together with teres major muscle forms the posterior axillary fold. • triangle of auscultation—Triangular region of the back formed by the latissimus dorsi, trapezius, and vertebral border of scapula. This region is not covered by superficial muscles enabling respiratory sounds to be heard with a stethoscope. • erector spinae muscle—Large muscle of lower back. Bend over and palpate this muscle while extending the vertebral column. • spinous processes of vertebrae—Located along the midline of the back. Run your fingers along midline to feel the spinous processes.

Vertebra prominens 1

5

2 3 Posterior axillary fold

6

7

4

8

(b) Posterior view of the back

• • • • • • • •

erector spinae muscle infraspinatus muscle latissimus dorsi muscle spinous processes of vertebrae teres major muscle trapezius muscle triangle of auscultation vertebral border of scapula

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________ 7 ______________________________________________________ 8 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.2

Surface anatomy of the trunk, continued.

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G. Surface Anatomy of the Abdomen Structures located in Figure 15.2(c). • rectus abdominis muscle—Longitudinal muscles lateral to the linea alba. Lie back in your chair and palpate these muscles as you sit up. • external oblique muscle—Inferior to serratus anterior muscles. Palpate while twisting trunk toward the opposite side. • umbilicus—Most notable feature of the abdomen and a common incision site. The umbilicus is located between L3 and L4. The abdominal aorta bifurcates at the level of L4 to form the common iliac arteries. • linea alba—Tendinous raphe between the xiphoid process and pubic symphysis forming a vertical groove along the midline. This is a common incision site because there is little damage to muscles and little bleeding. • tendinous intersection—Transverse grooves across rectus abdominis muscles that are observable in muscular individuals.

SURFACE ANATOMY

241

• linea semilunaris—Lateral margin of rectus abdominis that is observable in lean people as a groove. The gallbladder is located deep to the spot where the linea semilunaris crosses the costal margin of the rib cage. • iliac crest—Marks the inferior border of the abdomen. Palpate the iliac crest by placing your hands on your hips. • anterior superior iliac spine—Located at the anterior end of the iliac crest. Palpate the iliac crest with your fingers and move your fingers medially until you feel the “bump” at the anterior end of the iliac crest. • McBurney’s point—The appendix is deep to McBurney’s point, which is located along the line between the umbilicus and the right anterior superior iliac spine, about 1 to 2 inches away from the latter. During appendicitis, pressure on McBurney’s point results in tenderness. This is the most common site of incision for an appendectomy. • pubic symphysis [not shown in Figure 15.2(c)]— Anterior joint between os coxae (hip bones). Palpate midline of the inferior pelvic area.

5 6 1

7

2

8 9

3

10

4 (c) Anterior view of abdomen

• • • • • • • • • •

anterior superior iliac spine external oblique muscle iliac crest linea alba linea semilunaris McBurney’s point rectus abdominis muscle serratus anterior muscle tendinous intersection umbilicus

1 ____________ __________________________________________ 2 ____________ __________________________________________ 3 ____________ __________________________________________ 4 ____________ __________________________________________ 5 ____________ __________________________________________ 6 ____________ __________________________________________ 7 ____________ __________________________________________ 8 ____________ __________________________________________ 9 ____________ __________________________________________ 10 ____________ __________________________________________

FIGURE 15.2

Surface anatomy of the trunk, continued.

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ACTIVITY 3 Surface Anatomy of the Upper Limb 1 Read the location and description of each structure. 2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.3(a), (b), (c), and (d). 3 Palpate the designated structures on your body.

H. Surface Anatomy of the Shoulder Structures located in Figure 15.3(a). • spine of scapula—The ridge across the posterior surface of the scapula is the spine. Trace this bone, marking with your fingers from its medial border to its lateral border. The spine is easier to palpate on a lean body.

• acromion of scapula—The acromion is the flattened lateral end of the spine and is located at the peak of the shoulder. Palpate this prominent projection. • clavicle—Starting at the manubrium of the sternum, trace the clavicle’s S-shaped curvature laterally to its acromial end. Palpate the acromioclavicular joint just posterior to the acromial end of the clavicle as you thrust your shoulder joint anteriorly. • deltoid muscle—This large, triangular muscle forms the rounded protrusion of the shoulder. It is used as a site for intramuscular injections. Palpate this muscle as you flex, abduct, and extend the arm to locate the deltoid’s anterior, lateral, and posterior portions. • greater tubercle of humerus—This bony landmark can be palpated through the deltoid muscle on the lateral part of the shoulder. As you bend your forearm at the elbow and abduct your arm, move your fingers a little anteriorly to feel the intertubercular groove where the proximal tendon of the long head of the biceps traverses. The greater tubercle is just posterior to this groove.

Acromioclavicular joint 1

4

2

5

3

(a) Right lateral view of the shoulder

• • • • •

acromion of scapula clavicle deltoid muscle greater tubercle of humerus spine of scapula

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.3

Surface anatomy of the upper limb.

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I. Surface Anatomy of the Arm and Elbow

SURFACE ANATOMY

243

muscular arm with definition, all three heads of the triceps can be distinguished.

2. Elbow

Structures located in Figure 15.3(b).

1. Arm (from Shoulder to Elbow) • biceps brachii muscle—Flex your forearm and tighten the biceps brachii as you palpate this muscle on the anterior surface of your arm. • groove for brachial artery—Palpate the medial border of the flexed biceps brachii muscle. You can feel your brachial pulse if you press into this groove with your fingers. • triceps brachii muscle—This muscle can be palpated on the posterior surface of the arm when the forearm is flexed against resistance. If a person has a

• tendon of biceps brachii muscle—The distal tendon of the biceps brachii can best be palpated with the forearm flexed. The tendon is located in the middle of the anterior arm and runs from just proximal of the cubital fossa, through the cubital fossa, to insert on the radial tuberosity. • olecranons of ulna—With the forearm flexed, palpate this prominent point at the elbow. Extend and flex the forearm as you feel this bony landmark. • medial epicondyle of humerus—Move your fingers medially from the olecranon to feel the medial epicondyle. The groove between the olecranon and the medial epicondyle has the ulnar nerve that you can palpate when the forearm is extended.

Deltoid muscle

1 2

Anterior axillary fold Axilla

3

Posterior axillary fold

4 5

6 (b) Medial view of the arm and elbow

• • • • • •

biceps brachii muscle groove for brachial artery medial epicondyle of humerus olecranon of ulna tendon of biceps brachii muscle triceps brachii muscle

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.3

Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

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J. Lateral Surface of Arm and Elbow

the arm. This vein is discernible under the skin of lean people. • cubital fossa—This triangular-shaped concavity is on the anterior surface of the elbow joint. • median cubital vein—This superficial vein diagonally crosses the anterior surface of the elbow in the cubital (antecubital) fossa. This vein connects the lateral cephalic vein with the medial basilica vein. The median cubital vein is a typical site for drawing blood or for inserting an intravenous (IV) catheter. • brachioradialis muscle—As its name indicates, this muscle originates in the distal arm (brachium), borders the lateral side of the cubital fossa, and extends to the proximal forearm to insert on the radius. Observe and palpate this muscle as you flex your forearm against resistance.

Structures located in Figure 15.3(c). • Lateral epicondyle of humerus—Move your fingers lateral of the olecranon to palpate the lateral epicondyle of the humerus.

K. Surface Anatomy of the Antecubital Region Structures located in Figure 15.3(d). • cephalic vein—This superficial vein can be viewed on the lateral side of the anterior forearm and ascends to the arm. This vein is discernible under the skin of lean people. • basilic vein—This superficial vein is seen on the medial side of the anterior forearm and ascends to

Biceps brachii muscle

Groove for brachial artery

1

Acromion of scapula

Deltoid muscle

5

2

6

3

1 2

4

Lateral

Medial

(d) Anterior view of the right cubital fossa 3

4

(c) Right lateral view of the arm and elbow

• • • •

biceps brachii muscle lateral epicondyle of humerus olecranon of ulna triceps brachii muscle

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ FIGURE 15.3

Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

• • • • •

basilic vein brachioradialis muscle cephalic vein (used twice) cubital fossa median cubital vein

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________

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L. Anterior Surface of the Wrist and Hand The muscles of the forearm are difficult to differentiate from surface anatomy, but four of the muscle tendons are readily discernible in the anterior forearm. See Figure 15.3(e). • flexor carpi radialis tendon—Make a fist to observe and palpate this laterally located tendon. • radial artery—Note the location of the radial artery just lateral to the flexor carpi radialis tendon. With three fingers, press down on the radial artery and feel your pulse. • palmaris longus tendon—Make a fist to observe and palpate this center-most tendon that is located just medial to the flexor radialis tendon.

SURFACE ANATOMY

• flexor digitorum superficialis tendon—Make a fist to observe and palpate this tendon located medial to the palmaris longus tendon. • flexor carpi ulnaris tendon—Make a fist to palpate this most medially located tendon. Tendon is not readily apparent. • pisiform bone—Located on the medial side just distal to the wrist crease. Palpate this small bone that feels like a bump. • hypothenar eminence—Palpate this small hand pad located medially just distal to the pisiform bone. • thenar eminence—Palpate this larger elevation located between the wrist crease and the thumb.

Tendon of palmaris longus muscle Tendon of flexor digitorum superficialis muscle

Tendon of flexor carpi radialis muscle Radial artery Wrist crease

Tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle

Thenar eminence

Pisiform bone Hypothenar eminence

(e) Anterior aspect of the right wrist and hand

FIGURE 15.3

Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

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SURFACE ANATOMY

M. Dorsal Surface of the Wrist and Hand Structures located in Figure 15.3(f). NOTE: Remember that the directional terms refer to the anatomical position.

• head of ulna—Palpate this distal end of the ulna on the medial side of the wrist. • styloid process of ulna—Palpate just distal to the head of the ulna.

• styloid process of radius—Palpate this distal end of the radius on the lateral side of wrist. • cephalic vein and dorsal venous arch—The dorsal venous arch on the dorsum of the hand drains into the cephalic vein. The plexus of veins in the dorsal venous arch is also a site for drawing blood and inserting an IV catheter. • anatomical snuffbox—Palpate this depression located on the dorsum of the hand between the tendon of the extensor pollicis longus muscle and the tendon of the extensor pollicis brevis muscle. • tendons of extensor muscles—Extend the fingers and palpate the tendons of the extensor digitorum muscles.

Head of ulna Styloid process of ulna Cephalic vein Styloid process of radius “Anatomical snuffbox”

Dorsal venous arch

Tendon of extensor pollicis brevis muscle

Tendons of extensor digitorum muscle

Tendon of extensor pollicis longus muscle

(f) Dorsum of the right wrist and hand

FIGURE 15.3

Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

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ACTIVITY 4 Surface Anatomy of the Lower Limb

•

1 Read the location and description of each structure. 2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.4(a), (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f). 3 Palpate the designated structures on your body. •

N. Surface Anatomy of the Buttocks

•

Structures located in Figure 15.4(a). • • iliac crest—Superior boundary of the ileum. The iliac crest can be palpated when you “put your hands on your hips.” • gluteus maximus muscle—Most students are familiar with these muscles that make up the largest

• •

SURFACE ANATOMY

247

portion of the buttocks. Palpate this prominent muscle as you extend your thigh. gluteus medius muscle—These muscles are inferior to the iliac crests in the upper, outer quadrant of the buttocks. Palpate this muscle as you shift your weight onto the palpated leg, causing the gluteus medius to contract. These muscles are the site of intramuscular (IM) injections. greater trochanter—Palpate this bony landmark on the lateral side of your hip. Flex and extend your thigh to feel this structure move with the joint action. ischial tuberosity—Sit down to palpate this structure that is near the gluteal folds of the inferior buttocks. This is the bony prominence of the hipbone that you sit upon. gluteal (natal) cleft—A midline crevice between the buttocks. sacrum—Superior to the gluteal cleft, palpate the medial sacral crest (fused spinous processes). coccyx—The tip of the coccyx can be palpated in the superior portion of the gluteal cleft.

5 1 6

2 3

7 8

4 Gluteal fold

(a) Posterior view of the buttocks

• • • • • • • •

coccyx gluteal cleft gluteus maximus muscle gluteus medius muscle greater trochanter iliac crest ischial tuberosity sacrum

FIGURE 15.4

1 ________________________________________

5 ________________________________________

2 ________________________________________

6 ________________________________________

3 ________________________________________

7 ________________________________________

4 ________________________________________

8 ________________________________________

Surface anatomy of the lower limb.

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O. Anterior Surface of the Thigh

•

Structures located in Figure 15.4(b). • • sartorius muscle—Anteriorly located, this muscle diagonally spans the area between the anterior superior iliac spine laterally and the medial region of the knee. This muscle forms the lateral border of the femoral triangle. • adductor longus muscle—Located in the superior part of the thigh in the femoral triangle, just medial to the sartorius. • rectus femoris muscle—Located in the anterior compartment of the thigh, lateral to the sartorius.

•

•

This muscle is in the midline and is the most superficial of the quadriceps femoris muscle group. vastus lateralis muscle—Large muscle of the quadriceps femoris group located on the lateral surface of the thigh. vastus medialis muscle—Large muscle of the quadriceps femoris group located on the medial surface of the thigh. gracilis muscle—Located in the inner thigh region, medial to the femoral triangle. This muscle has fibers that run longitudinally from the pubic bone to the knee. femoral triangle—Triangle of the medial thigh bordered laterally by the sartorius and medially by the gracilis. The femoral artery, vein, and nerve traverse through this triangle. Palpate your femoral artery to feel your pulse.

Tensor fasciae latae muscle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(b) Anterior view of the right thigh

• • • • • • •

adductor longus muscle femoral triangle gracilis muscle rectus femoris muscle sartorius muscle vastus lateralis muscle vastus medialis muscle

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________ 7 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.4

Surface anatomy of the lower limb, continued.

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P. Surface Anatomy of the Popliteal Region

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249

• semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles— Medial hamstring muscles. Palpate these muscles while flexing the knee. Move your fingers inferiorly until you feel the tendon of semitendinosus muscle that crosses the knee joint.

Structures located in Figure 15.4(c). • popliteal fossa—A depression located on the posterior of the knee. • biceps femoris muscle—Lateral hamstring muscle. Palpate muscle while flexing the knee. Move your fingers inferiorly until you feel the rope-like biceps femoris tendon that crosses the knee joint.

1

2

3

4

5

Gastrocnemius muscle (medial and lateral heads)

(c) Posterior view of the left popliteal fossa

• • • • •

biceps femoris biceps femoris tendon popliteal fossa semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles tendon of semitendinosus

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.4

Surface anatomy of the lower limb, continued.

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Q. Anterior Surface of the Knee • Structures located in Figure 15.4(d). • • patella—The patella or kneecap is the most anterior bone of the knee. Place your fingers on the patella and move it slightly. • tibial tuberosity—Palpate this bump on the anterior surface of the proximal tibia just inferior to the patella. • patellar ligament—The quadriceps femoris tendon extends beyond the patella as the patellar ligament and inserts on the tibial tuberosity. Press your fingers

•

•

on the tendon between the patella and the tibial tuberosity to palpate the patellar ligament as you extend and flex the leg at the knee. lateral condyle of femur—Palpate the bump or projection on the distal femur lateral to the patella. medial condyle of femur—Palpate the bump or projection on the distal femur medial to the patella. lateral condyle of tibia—Palpate the bump or projection on the proximal tibia lateral and inferior to the patella. medial condyle of tibia—Palpate the bump or projection on the proximal tibia medial and inferior to the patella.

Vastus lateralis muscle Vastus medialis muscle

1 4 2 3

5 6 7

Tibialis anterior muscle (d) Anterior view of the right knee

• • • • • • •

lateral condyle of femur lateral condyle of tibia medial condyle of femur medial condyle of tibia patella patellar ligament tibial tuberosity

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________ 6 ______________________________________________________ 7 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.4

Surface anatomy of the lower limb, continued.

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R. Anterior Surface of the Leg and Ankle

• • • • •

Structures located in Figure 15.4(e). • anterior border of tibia (shin)—With your fingers on the tibial tuberosity, slide down the anterior border of the tibia, better known as the shin. • tibialis anterior muscle—Move your fingers laterally from the anterior border of the tibia. Palpate this muscle as you dorsiflex your foot. Note the thick tendon of this muscle as it crosses medially at the ankle to insert on the medial cuneiform bone and the first metatarsal. • fibularis (peroneus) longus muscle—This lateral muscle of the leg is superficial to the fibula and can be palpated as you plantar flex the foot. Its tendon inserts on the plantar surface of the foot. • lateral malleolus of fibula—Palpate the projection at the lateral side of the ankle. This bump is formed by the lateral malleolus of the fibula. • medial malleolus of tibia—Palpate the projection on the medial side of the ankle. This bump is formed by the medial malleolus of the tibia.

SURFACE ANATOMY

anterior border of tibia lateral malleolus of fibula medial malleolus of tibia fibularis (peroneus) longus muscle tibialis anterior muscle

1 ______________________________________________________ 2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________ 5 ______________________________________________________

Tibial tuberosity

1

Gastrocnemius muscle Soleus muscle

2

3 5 4

(e) Anterior view of the leg and ankle

FIGURE 15.4

Surface anatomy of the lower limb, continued.

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S. Posterior Surface of the Leg and Ankle

T. Dorsal Surface of the Foot Structures located in Figure 15.4(g).

Structures located in Figure 15.4(f).

• dorsal venous arch—Palpate the dorsal venous arch on the dorsum of the foot. • tendons of the foot—Palpate the tendons of the extensor digitorum longus muscle and the tendon of the extensor hallucis longus muscle on the dorsum of the foot as you extend your toes.

• gastrocnemius muscle (medial and lateral heads)— Two large bellies of the calf muscles that form most of the superior portion of the calf. To palpate these two heads, extend the knee and place your fingers over the medial and lateral heads of the gastrocnemius. Plantar flex the foot. • soleus muscle—The flatter calf muscle that lies deep to the gastrocnemius. This muscle extends laterally from the gastrocnemius and its tendon is in the midto-distal portion of the calf. Palpate the soleus as you plantar flex the foot. • calcaneal (Achilles) tendon—The tendons of both the gastrocnemius and the soleus merge to insert on the calcaneus bone of the foot. Palpate this thick tendon as you alternately plantar flex and dorsiflex the foot. • calcaneus—Heel bone of the foot.

Medial malleolus of tibia Lateral malleolus of fibula

Dorsal venous arch Tendons of extensor digitorum longus muscle Tendon of extensor hallucis longus muscle

Popliteal fossa (g) Dorsum of foot 1

FIGURE 15.4 continued.

Surface anatomy of the lower limb,

2

3

• • • •

calcaneal (Achilles) tendon calcaneus gastrocnemius muscle (medial and lateral heads) soleus muscle

4

1 ______________________________________________________ (f) Posterior view of the leg and ankle

FIGURE 15.4 continued.

Surface anatomy of the lower limb,

2 ______________________________________________________ 3 ______________________________________________________ 4 ______________________________________________________

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E X E R C I S E

Nervous Tissue Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

models or charts of the nervous system

• • • • • •

section of brain (human or animal)

1 Describe the functions of the nervous system 2 Name the 2 major divisions of the nervous system and their organs 3 Explain the difference in function between neurons and neuroglia 4 Identify neuron structures and describe their functions 5 Describe the difference between myelinated and unmyelinated axons 6 Identify where the gray and white matter are located in the brain and spinal cord

models or charts of a neuron and neuroglia compound microscope, lens paper, prepared slides of astrocytes, motor neurons, dorsal root ganglia, cerebral cortex, and teased, myelinated nerve fibers section of spinal cord (human or animal) zippered 1-gallon plastic bag (1 per group) long new pencils (one per group) small lima or pinto bean (1 per group) Complete PowerPhys Activity: Graded and Action Potentials

7 Describe how neurons are classified structurally and functionally 8 Identify unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons on photomicrographs or prepared slides

N

ervous tissue is found in the organs of the

nervous system—the nerves, brain, and spinal cord—and contains cells that enable the nervous system to generate and transmit electrical signals called nerve impulses or action potentials.

A. Overview of Nervous System The nervous system senses changes in our internal and external environments, coordinates and integrates this data, and initiates and transmits action potentials. It is organized

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into two basic components: the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS contains an afferent division composed of sensory receptors and sensory neurons, and an efferent division composed of motor neurons. Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment and transmit this information along sensory or afferent nerves to the CNS. The CNS coordinates and integrates information received from sensory receptors and initiates responses that are transmitted by neurons to effectors (neurons, muscle cells, or glands). Motor nerves transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors in the PNS. The nervous system is streamlined to send rapid signals from cell to cell to maintain homeostasis and coordinate body organs and functions.

B. Structure of Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue is located in the brain, spinal cord, ganglia, and nerves, and is composed of 2 types of cells: neurons and neuroglia. Neurons conduct action potentials and are the structural and functional units of nervous tissue. Neuroglia (neuro- ⫽ nerve; -glia ⫽ glue) are cells that support, protect, and furnish nutrients to neurons, and augment the speed of neuron transmission.

1. Neuroglia Neuroglial cells are generally smaller and more abundant than neurons. Although they do not create action potentials, neuroglial cells have important roles in the nervous system. Of the 6 types of neuroglial cells, 4 are in the CNS and 2 are in the PNS. The 4 neuroglial cells in the CNS are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells. Astrocytes (astro- ⫽ star; -cyte ⫽ cell) have many processes that make them look star-shaped. Their perivascular ( peri- ⫽ around; vascular ⫽ vessel) feet wrap around and cover neurons and blood vessels to keep

TABLE 16.1

neurons in place. Astrocytes also guide neurons during development and control the composition of the chemical environment of the neurons by forming a blood-brain barrier. This barrier allows only certain substances to enter the nervous tissue at the blood vessel sites. Oligodendrocytes (oligo- ⫽ few; dendro- ⫽ tree) support the CNS neurons and have processes that form myelin sheaths around axons to increase the speed of nerve impulses. Microglia (micro- ⫽ small) are the phagocytes (phago- ⫽ to eat) of the CNS that engulf debris, necrotic tissue, and invading bacteria or viruses. Ependymal cells (epen- ⫽ above; dym- ⫽ garment) line all 4 ventricles (spaces or cavities) of the brain, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. These cells form cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and their cilia move the CSF through the ventricles. The 2 neuroglial cells in the PNS are Schwann cells and satellite cells. Schwann cells are flattened cells that wrap around the axons in the PNS. Many Schwann cells form the myelin sheath around one axon. The myelin sheath increases nerve impulse speed and aids in the regeneration of PNS axons. Satellite cells have processes that are flattened and surround the sensory neuron cell bodies located in ganglia in the PNS. They give support to these neurons and regulate their chemical environment.

ACTIVITY 1 Neuroglia Pre-Lab Activity 1 Complete Table 16.1 using the following list of cells. Under the “Location” heading, circle CNS or PNS. • astrocyte • ependymal cell • microglia • oligodendrocyte • satellite cell • Schwann cell 2 Label the neuroglial cells in Figure 16.1(a) and (b).

Neuroglia

CELL TYPE

LOCATION

FUNCTION

1. ____________________

CNS or PNS

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

CNS or PNS CNS or PNS CNS or PNS CNS or PNS CNS or PNS

Entire cell forms myelin sheath around a segment of an axon; helps regeneration of axons. Lines four brain ventricles; forms and circulates CSF. Engulfs invading microbes; clears debris; migrates to injured nerves. Maintains environment around neurons; forms blood–brain barrier. Covers sensory neuron cell bodies; maintains neuron environment. Processes from cell form myelin sheaths around axons of neurons.

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

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Cells of pia mater 1 Node of Ranvier 2 Myelin sheath Neuron

Axon

Blood capillary 3

Neurons

4 Microvillus Cilium (a) CNS Neuron cell body in a ganglion 5

• • • •

astrocytes (AS-troh-cytes) ependymal (ee-PIN-dih-mahl) cell microglial (my-CROG-lee-al) cell oligodendrocyte (OL-ih-go-DEN-droh-site) • satellite cell • Schwann (shh-WAN) cell (a) CNS 1 ________________________________ 2 ________________________________

6

3 ________________________________ 4 ________________________________ (b) PNS

Axon

5 ________________________________ 6 ________________________________

(b) PNS

FIGURE 16.1

Neuroglia of the CNS and PNS.

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2. Structure of a Neuron The longest cells in the body are neurons, which can be over 3 feet long. Think about one neuron being long enough to reach from your spinal cord to the tips of your fingers or toes. There are 3 basic parts to any neuron: dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. Both the dendrites and the single axon are processes (extensions) of the neuron cell body. Dendrites receive information from receptors or other neurons and send it as a change in membrane potential to the neuron cell body or soma (soma ⫽ body). Neuron cell bodies have most of the organelles that are present in other types of cells. There is usually a triangular or coneshaped area of the cell body called the axon hillock (hillock ⫽ small hill). The axon (axon ⫽ axis), a longer process than the dendrites, extends from the axon hillock. Changes in membrane potential travel to the axon hillock where they are integrated to determine whether an action potential will be initiated in the axon. The first part of the axon is known as the trigger area (initial segment), where the action potential begins. The axon may be a single process, or it may have side branches called axon collaterals. Axons and axon collaterals conduct action potentials along their full lengths to end at fine processes called axon terminals. Neurotransmitter molecules are released from axon terminals and transmit signals across a synapse to other neurons or to effectors such as muscles or glands.

ACTIVITY 2 Comparison of a Neuron and an Astrocyte Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify and label the structures in Figure 16.2(a) and (b). Note the magnification of the cells in these figures. 2 Identify and label the structures in Figure 16.3. Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared slide of astrocytes. • Using the low-power objective, find an astrocyte and center it in the field of view. • Using the high-power objective, identify the cell body and processes. • Note the size of the astrocytes. 2 Examine a prepared slide of motor neurons. • Using the low-power objective, find a large motor neuron and center it in the field of view. • Using the high-power objective, identify the cell body, nucleus, and dendrites. The axon is difficult to distinguish. • Note the size of the motor neuron and the numerous small, dark-stained neuroglial cells near the neuron. 3 With your lab group compare the size of astrocytes and motor neurons.

3

1

Blood capillary

4 5 6 7

2

(a) Astrocyte

LM 700⫻

(a) • cell body • processes

1 ______________________________________

FIGURE 16.2

Neuroglia

2 ______________________________________

Photomicrographs of nervous tissue cells.

(b) Motor neuron

(b) • axon • axon hillock • cell body • dendrites • nucleus

LM 260⫻

3 _________________

6 _________________

4 _________________

7 _________________

5 _________________

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6 7

5 (yellow)

4 9

3

8 Mitochondrion

Nucleus Nucleolus

10 Nucleus of Schwann cell

Neurolemma of Schwann cell 2

Cytoplasm

• • • • • • • • • •

axon (AX-on) axon collateral axon hillock (HILL-ock) axon terminal cell body or soma (SO-mah) dendrites myelin (MY-e-lin) sheath node of Ranvier (RON-vee-ay) Schwann cell trigger zone (initial segment) 1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________ 7 _________________________ 8 _________________________

1 Synaptic end bulb

FIGURE 16.3

Parts of a motor neuron.

9 _________________________ 10 _________________________

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C. Classification of Neurons 1. Structural Classification of Neurons Neurons are classified both structurally and functionally. The number of processes that project from the cell body of the neuron determine its structural classification. The multipolar neurons have numerous processes, with many dendrites and one axon. Motor neurons and interneurons (association neurons) are multipolar neurons and comprise most of the CNS neurons. Bipolar neurons have 2 processes—1 dendrite and 1 axon—on either side of the cell body and are found in the special senses like the retina of the eye, the olfactory cells of the nose, and the inner ear. Unipolar neurons have only 1 process, an axon, leading to and from the neuron cell body. The dendrites are small and attach to the axon instead of the neuron cell body. Unipolar neurons are sensory neurons that bring sensory information from the skin, muscles, and organs to the spinal cord.

2. Functional Classification of Neurons There are 3 classifications of neurons based on their functions: sensory, interneuron (association neuron), and motor neuron. Changes in the environment produce a stimulus that is detected by the receptors associated with the dendrites of a sensory (afferent) neuron. This neuron changes the stimulation into an action potential or nervous impulse that travels along the axon to the spinal cord. General sensory neurons are structurally unipolar neurons. In the spinal cord, the axon of the sensory neuron synapses 1

(a) Dorsal root ganglia, unipolar neurons

(a) • neuron cell body • nucleus • process • satellite cells

2

3

with either a motor neuron or an interneuron. The interneuron (association neuron) is structurally a multipolar neuron and comprises about 90% of the neurons in the CNS. In the spinal cord, the interneuron can synapse with a chain of interneurons that sends the signal to the brain, and/or it can synapse with a motor (efferent) neuron that takes the impulse out of the spinal cord via a spinal nerve to an effector (muscle or gland). Motor neurons are structurally multipolar neurons.

A C T I V I T Y 3 Structural and Functional Classifications of Neurons Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify and label the neurons in Figure 16.4(a) and (b). 2 Identify and label the structures listed in Figure 16.5(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Examine prepared microscope slide of dorsal root ganglia. • Using the low-power objective, locate a neuron and place it in the center of the field of view. • Identify the neuron cell body, nucleus, and processes. 2 Examine a prepared microscope slide of cerebral cortex. Follow the same steps as above.

4

LM 300⫻

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________

5

(b) Cerebral cortex, multipolar neurons

(b) • axon • dendrites • neuron cell body

4 ________________________ FIGURE 16.4

6

Sectional views of the dorsal root ganglion and cerebral cortex.

7

LM 575⫻

5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 7 ________________________

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2

1

259

3

(a) Structural classification of neurons

4 neurons conduct signals from receptors to the CNS

5 neurons are confined to CNS

6 neurons conduct signals from the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands Peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system

(b) Functional classification of neurons

(a) Structural classifications • bipolar neuron • multipolar neuron • unipolar neuron

(b) Functional classifications • interneuron (association neuron) • motor neuron (efferent) • sensory neuron (afferent)

1 _____________________________________________________

4 _____________________________________________________

2 _____________________________________________________

5 _____________________________________________________

3 _____________________________________________________

6 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 16.5

Structural and functional classifications of neurons.

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D. Myelination of Axons

ACTIVITY 4 Myelination of Axons

Two neuroglial cells, the oligodendrocytes (CNS) and the Schwann cells (PNS), form insulated wrappings called myelin sheaths around axons. As Schwann cells wrap around axons, their cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery and is called neurolemma. The multiple layers of myelin that surround the axons are composed of lipoprotein (about 80% lipids and 20% protein), similar to the makeup of plasma membranes. The high amount of lipid in the myelin sheath gives the axons a whitish appearance. Because babies and children do not have the complete myelin coverings encircling the axons, their need for dietary fat is different from that of an adult and is necessary for proper nervous system development. There is not a continuous myelin sheath around the axon, and gaps do exist between the cells. Gaps in the myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier and are more numerous in the PNS than in the CNS. The myelin sheath provides protection and insulation for the axon, and also increases the speed of conductivity of the nervous impulse (action potential). Myelinated axons are also called myelinated fibers. The axons that are not myelinated are called unmyelinated fibers. They still have neuroglial cells but possess only a thin coating of the Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte plasma membrane covering the axons. Unmyelinated fibers conduct impulses slower than myelinated fibers.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures on Figure 16.6(a) and (b) and identify (a) and (b) as myelinated or unmyelinated axons. 2 Label the structures in the photomicrograph of a teased myelinated nerve fiber in Figure 16.7. Lab Activity 1 Examine a microscope slide of a teased myelinated nerve fiber. • Using the low-power objective, locate a nerve fiber and place it in the center of the field of view. • Using the high-power objective, identify the nodes of Ranvier, myelin sheath, axon, and neurolemma. 2 Simulation of a Schwann cell and axon. • Obtain a 1-gallon zippered plastic bag (sandwich size may be used) and a new pencil. • Add 15 ml (1 tablespoon) water to the bag and push out all the air. • Add a small bean to the bottom of the bag and re-zip the bag. • Starting at the bottom of the bag, wrap the plastic bag around and around the pencil, watching the bean being pushed toward the zippered end.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: MYELINATION OF AXONS 1 What do the bag and the pencil represent?

4

2 What do the water and bean represent?

3 6

2 1

5

3 Where do the water and the bean end up after the bag is totally wrapped around the pencil? (a)

(b)

(a) • axon • myelin sheath • node of Ranvier • Schwann cell cytoplasm

(b) • axons • Schwann cell cytoplasm

1 ________________________

6 ________________________

5 ________________________

2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ FIGURE 16.6

Myelinated and unmyelinated axons.

4 Why is it preferable to use a 1-gallon bag versus a sandwich-size plastic bag?

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2

3

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261

4

• • • •

axon myelin sheath (surrounding axon) neurolemma (ner-oh-LEM-ma) node of Ranvier

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________ FIGURE 16.7

Teased myelinated nerve fiber.

E. Gray and White Matter in the CNS

brain, the spinal cord has an outer layer of white matter and a central H-shaped area of gray matter.

Myelin sheaths are white in color, giving nervous tissue with many myelinated axons a white color. Nervous tissue with few myelinated axons appears gray, the color of nervous tissue cells. Groups of myelinated axons in the CNS form tracts and are called white matter whereas unmyelinated areas comprised of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals, and neuroglia are called gray matter. In the brain, there is an outer area or cortex of gray matter, with an inner layer of white matter. There are also deeper areas within the brain that have isolated areas of gray matter; these are called nuclei of the brain and also contain neuron cell bodies and their dendrites. Unlike the

ACTIVITY 5 Gray and White Matter Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label gray and white matter in Figure 16.8(a) and (b). Note: Figure 16.8(b) has a stain that makes the white matter darker than the gray matter. Lab Activity 1 Examine a section of brain and spinal cord and identify the gray and white matter.

Frontal plane

1 Transverse plane

2

(a) Sectional view of brain

• gray matter in brain and spinal cord • white matter in brain and spinal cord

FIGURE 16.8

Gray and white matter of brain and spinal cord.

(b) Transverse view of spinal cord

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________

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F. Synapses between Neurons

ACTIVITY 6 Synapses

We have previously discussed a type of chemical synapse at the neuromuscular junction where the synaptic end bulb released a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft to the receptors in the sarcolemma. Now we will study communication between neurons at a chemical synapse that is similar, except the signal transmission is between two neurons. The neuron sending the neurotransmitter is the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron receiving the chemical is the postsynaptic neuron. The postsynaptic neuron produces a type of graded potential called a postsynaptic potential. The postsynaptic neuron converts the postsynaptic potential into an electrical signal. There are three types of neuron-to-neuron synapses that are named according to where the presynaptic neuron anatomically forms a synapse with the postsynaptic neuron. Most synapses are either axoaxonic (from axon to axon), axodendritic (from axon to dendrite), or axosomatic (from axon to the cell body). In Activity 6, identify the 3 types of synapses and then follow the graded potential and action potential down the axon.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the type of synapse (# 1 through 3) using the bulleted list. • axosomatic 1. _______________________ • axoaxonic

2. _______________________

• axodendritic 3. _______________________ 2 Write the number 4 through 8 shown in Figure 16.9 next to the phrase that describes what happens there. ________

action potential started on postsynaptic neuron

________

graded potential sent toward trigger zone

________

action potential reaches axon terminal

________

action potential travels down axon

________

dendrites receive neurotransmitter at synapse

1

2 4

6

Dendrites 5

Cell body Axon

3

7

8

FIGURE 16.9

Types of neuron-to-neuron synapses.

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Reviewing Your Knowledge

16 E X E R C I S E

A. Organization of Nervous System Fill in the blanks with the correct term chosen from the following: afferent effectors efferent

motor peripheral receptors

If you touch a hot stove with your hand, the sensory (1) ________________ in your hand send a signal of pain to the CNS through the (2) ________________ nerve fibers of the (3) _______________ nervous system. When the information reaches the CNS and is processed, a(n) (4) ________________ response is sent through the (5) ________________ nerve fibers of the PNS system to skeletal muscles that are (6) ________________.

B. Nervous Tissue Cells Write the name of the nervous tissue cell described. ______________________ 1.⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Supporting cells of PNS ______________________ 2.⎪⎭ ______________________ 3.⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 4.⎪ ⎪ ⎬ Supporting cells of CNS ______________________ 5.⎪⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 6.⎪⎭ ______________________ 7.⎫⎪ ⎬ Form myelin sheaths ______________________ 8.⎪⎭ ______________________ 9.⎫⎪ ⎬ Regulate chemical environment of neurons ______________________ 10.⎪⎭

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NERVOUS TISSUE

______________________ 11. Generate and transmit nerve impulses ______________________ 12. Line cavities of brain and spinal cord; form and move CSF ______________________ 13. Phagocytes that destroy debris, dead tissue, and pathogens

C. Structural Classification of Neurons Identify the neuron type described. ______________________ 1. Many processes associated with the cell body ______________________ 2. Has two cell processes ______________________ 3. One short process extends from the cell body and divides ______________________ 4. Neuron is rare and is the sensory neuron in the eye and nose

D. Functional Classification of Neurons Identify the neuron type described. ______________________ 1. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Functional neuron types that are structurally multipolar neurons ______________________ 2. ⎪⎭ ______________________ 3. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Neuron types whose cell bodies are in the spinal cord (CNS) ______________________ 4. ⎪⎭ ______________________ 5. Neuron type that is structurally either a unipolar neuron or bipolar neuron whose cell body is found in the PNS ______________________ 6. Functional neuron type most prevalent in the CNS

E. Myelination of Axons and Gray and White Matter Match the description to the appropriate term. a. b. c. d. e.

gray matter white matter myelinated fibers unmyelinated fibers nodes of Ranvier

____ 1. Contains myelinated fibers

____ 4. Nerve fibers that are gray in color

____ 2. Contains neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers

____ 5. Gaps in the myelin sheath

____ 3. Nerve fibers that are white in color and conduct nerve impulses faster

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Using Your Knowledge

Section ______________________________

16 E X E R C I S E

A. Conduction of a Nervous Impulse Write the following parts of a multipolar neuron in the correct order (1–8) of receiving and sending the nerve impulse. Start with the dendrites as number one. ____ 1. axon ____ 2. axon hillock ____ 3. axon terminal ____ 4. cell body ____ 5. dendrites ____ 6. second neuron or effector ____ 7. synapse ____ 8. trigger zone

B. Nervous Tissue and Diseases Using your textbook or other references, identify the nervous tissue cell(s) that is (are) involved in the following diseases: 9. Multiple sclerosis

10. Epilepsy

C. Overview of Communication within the Nervous System Match the numbers in Figure 16.10 with the description of what is happening at that site. Start with number 1. ____ 1

Graded potential starts in a sensory receptor in the skin.

____

A synapse in the thalamus creates a graded potential followed by an action potential in a secondary interneuron which reaches the cerebral cortex.

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____

The graded potential triggers an action potential in a sensory neuron.

____

The lower motor neuron forms a neuromuscular synapse with the hand muscles which causes the muscles to contract as he writes the letter.

____

In another synapse, the neurotransmitter creates a graded potential which triggers an action potential in the lower motor neuron.

____

A primary interneuron forms an action potential and crosses to the opposite side of the brain.

____

A stimulus from the brain causes a graded potential and then an action potential to form in an upper motor neuron (which crosses back to the original side of the body).

____

At a synapse, a presynaptic sensory neuron stimulates the postsynaptic interneuron to form a graded potential in its cell body.

Right side of brain

Left side of brain Cerebral cortex

5 Brain

Interneuron Upper motor neuron Thalamus 6 4

3 Interneuron

Sensory neuron

7

Lower motor neuron

2

Spinal cord

Key: Graded potential Nerve action potential Muscle action potential 1 Sensory receptor

8

Neuromuscular junction

Skeletal muscles

FIGURE 16.10

Overview of nervous system communication.

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Spinal Cord Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

models or charts of the complete spinal cord, transverse section of the spinal cord, and vertebral column with spinal cord

•

compound microscope, lens paper, and prepared microscope slides of spinal cord transverse section

•

preserved or fresh spinal cord with meninges (for demonstration)

• •

dissection equipment and trays

1 Describe the protective structures of the spinal cord 2 Identify the external features of the spinal cord on a model or chart 3 Identify the anatomical features of a spinal cord transverse section on a microscope slide, model, or chart

T

he spinal cord and the brain comprise the cen-

tral nervous system. Being continuous with the brain, the spinal cord begins at the foramen magnum and terminates between vertebrae L1 and L2. It is suspended within the vertebral canal, an area formed by the vertebral foramina of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae. The spinal cord has 2 functions: (1) it carries sensory information to the brain and motor output to nerves, and (2) it mediates spinal reflexes. Spinal reflexes process sensory input from and convey motor output to the spinal nerves.

disposable gloves

A. Protective Structures and Spinal Meninges The spinal cord is protected by the bony vertebrae, adipose tissue, spinal meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid. Adipose tissue cushions the spinal cord and is found within the space between the vertebrae and the meninges known as the epidural space. The 3 meninges (meninx, sing.) or connective tissue membranes cover the spinal cord and are continuous with the cranial meninges that protect the brain. Dura mater, the outer meninx, is a tough, single-layered membrane that is deep to the epidural space and superficial to the spider web-like arachnoid mater. The inner meninx, the pia mater, is delicate and hugs the spinal cord. Denticulate ligaments are lateral extensions of pia mater that fuse with arachnoid mater and secure the spinal cord. Between the pia and arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space that contains cerebrospinal fluid, which also cushions the spinal cord.

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1

2

Spinous process of vertebra 3

4 5

Denticulate ligament

• • • • •

Body of vertebra

dura mater epidural space pia mater subarachnoid space web-like projection of arachnoid matter

1 ____________________________________ 2 ____________________________________ 3 ____________________________________ 4 ____________________________________ 5 ____________________________________

FIGURE 17.1

Transverse section of spinal cord showing meninges.

ACTIVITY 1 Spinal Meninges Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify and label the structures in Figure 17.1. Lab Activity 1 Identify the spinal meninges on a spinal cord model or chart.

The inferior lumbar enlargement is located at levels T9 through T12 and contains nuclei for the lower extremities. The spinal cord ends inferiorly as the conus medullaris between vertebral levels L1 and L2. Nerves arising from the inferior portion of the spinal cord continue inferiorly as a group called the cauda equina (cauda  tail; equin-  horse), or “horse’s tail.” An extension of the pia mater continues past the conus medullaris as the filum terminale ( filum  filament; termin-  terminal) and connects the inferior end of the spinal cord to the coccyx.

B. External Features of the Spinal Cord

ACTIVITY 2 External Features of the Spinal Cord

The long, cylindrical spinal cord has 31 pairs of spinal nerves attached to it, with each pair of spinal nerves arising from a different segment of the cord. The cord is wider in the cervical and lumbar regions, forming two enlargements. The cervical enlargement is located at levels C3 or C4 through T1. This bulge designates the location of nuclei (collection of neuron cell bodies) for the upper extremities.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify and label the structures in Figure 17.2. Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on a spinal cord model or chart.

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269

SUPERIOR

Conus medullaris Dura mater Posterior (dorsal) rami of spinal nerves

Cauda equina 1

Sacrum

Filum terminale Right coccygeal nerve 2

INFERIOR

3

(b) Posterior view of inferior portion of spinal cord 4

• • • • •

cauda equina (CAU-da ee-QUI-na) cervical enlargement conus medullaris (CO-nus med-u-LAR-is) filum terminale (FI-lum ter-min-AL-ee) lumbar enlargement

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________

5

4 _____________________________________________________ (a) Posterior view

FIGURE 17.2

Posterior view of longitudinal spinal cord.

5 _____________________________________________________

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C. Transverse Section of the Spinal Cord The most obvious parts of the spinal cord in cross-section are the anterior median fissure, the posterior median sulcus, and the gray and white matter. The anterior median fissure is a wide, deep groove on the anterior surface of the spinal cord, and the posterior median sulcus is a narrow groove on the posterior surface. The gray matter looks like a butterfly or a modified “H” and is more centrally located than the white matter. The gray matter is divided into the anterior, lateral, and posterior gray horns and consists of nerve cell bodies and dendrites. Somatic motor neuron cell bodies are located in the anterior (ventral) gray horns, whereas the lateral gray horns (not present in cervical cord segments) contain cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons. The posterior (dorsal) gray horns contain neuron cell bodies that receive impulses from sensory neurons. The gray commissure is a narrow bridge of gray matter that connects the right and left sides of gray matter in the middle of the spinal cord. The central canal is in the center of the gray commissure and contains cerebrospinal fluid. White matter surrounds the gray matter and forms the anterior, lateral, and posterior white columns. These columns or funiculi are made up of white, myelinated fibers (axons) that are either sensory or motor fibers. A spinal nerve is formed from a posterior (dorsal) root and an anterior (ventral) root. Roots are collections of axons that are going to and leaving the spinal cord. The posterior (dorsal) root carries sensory fibers,

whereas the anterior (ventral) root carries motor fibers. Because the sensory and motor roots merge to form the spinal nerve, these nerves are called mixed nerves. Near the spinal cord, there is a bulge in the posterior (dorsal) root called the posterior (dorsal) root ganglion. The posterior (dorsal) root ganglion consists of somatic sensory neuron cell bodies that synapse onto interneuron and/or motor neuron cell bodies in the spinal gray matter.

ACTIVITY 3 Transverse Section of Spinal Cord Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figures 17.3 and 17.4. 2 Label the photomicrograph of a transverse section of the spinal cord in Figure 17.5. Lab Activity 1 Identify these parts on a transverse section model or chart of the spinal cord. 2 Examine a prepared slide of a transverse section of the spinal cord. • Using the low-power objective lens, identify the structures listed in Figure 17.5. • Using the high-power objective, observe myelinated axons in the white matter and unmyelinated processes, neuron cell bodies, and neuroglia in the gray matter.

Posterior White matter

4

5

3 2

anterior median fissure anterior (ventral) root central canal posterior (dorsal) root posterior (dorsal) root ganglion (GANG-li-on) • posterior median sulcus • spinal nerve • • • • •

6

1 Gray matter

7

Anterior rootlets

Anterior

FIGURE 17.3

Transverse section of spinal cord.

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 7 ________________________

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271

4

Posterior 5

3

6 7

2 1

Anterior

Transverse section of the thoracic spinal cord

• • • • • • •

anterior gray horn anterior white column gray commissure (COM-mis-sure) lateral gray horn lateral white column posterior gray horn posterior white column

FIGURE 17.4

1 _____________________________________

5 _____________________________________

2 _____________________________________

6 _____________________________________

3 _____________________________________

7 _____________________________________

4 _____________________________________

Transverse section of spinal cord with areas of gray and white matter.

1 2

3

5 6

4

Posterior

Anterior 7

• • • • • • • • •

anterior gray horn anterior median fissure anterior (ventral) root anterior white column central canal gray commissure lateral white column posterior (dorsal) root posterior (dorsal) root ganglion

FIGURE 17.5

8

9 10 11

• posterior gray horn • posterior white column • posterior median sulcus

12

1 __________________________

7 __________________________

2 __________________________

8 __________________________

3 __________________________

9 __________________________

4 __________________________

10 __________________________

5 __________________________

11 __________________________

6 __________________________

12 __________________________

Photomicrograph of transverse section of spinal cord with spinal nerve.

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D. Dissection of the Spinal Cord

SUPERIOR

Cerebellum of brain (cut) Fourth ventricle

Use either a preserved cow or sheep spinal cord or a fresh spinal cord from a butcher. Remember: If the specimen is preserved, it will be firmer and look different than a fresh specimen.

Occipital bone (cut) Posterior median sulcus Vertebral artery

SAFETY NOTE: Use safety glasses and gloves when handling preserved or fresh tissue. Always wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water when you are done.

Posterior rootlets Denticulate ligaments

ACTIVITY 4 Spinal Cord Dissection Lab Activity 1 Observe the posterior structures. Refer to Figure 17.6(a) and (b). • After putting on your gloves, place the spinal cord in the dissection pan. • Use a blunt probe or forceps to separate the spinal meninges. • Identify the dura and arachnoid mater. • Use a pointed dissection probe or pin to detach the pia mater from the spinal cord. • Identify the denticulate ligaments. • Peel back the meninges to uncover the posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) roots of the spinal nerve. Locate the rootlets. • Identify the posterior (dorsal) root ganglion. 2 Observe transverse section structures. Refer to Figure 17.4. • Cut a 1  4 inch to 1  2 inch section from your spinal cord specimen. • Use Figure 17.5 as a reference for the transverse section. • Identify the anterior median fissure, posterior median sulcus, central canal, gray commissure, gray horns, and white columns. 3 Clean Up: • Dispose of any dissection material and gloves as directed by your instructor. • Wash the dissection pan, instruments, and your hands with soap and water. • Clean up your lab space and wash the countertops with disinfectant.

Dura mater

INFERIOR (a) Posterior view

Denticulate ligament Spinal nerve Anterior (ventral) Ramus Posterior (Dorsal) Ramus Pedicle of vertebra (cut) Anterior (ventral) root Posterior (dorsal) root Spinal nerve Dura mater and arachnoid mater (b) Anterior view and oblique section of spinal cord

FIGURE 17.6

Spinal cord.

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Reviewing Your Knowledge

17 E X E R C I S E

A. Meninges Write the name of the structure described. ______________________ 1. Middle meninx; web-like ______________________ 2. Tough, outer meninx ______________________ 3. Space filled with adipose tissue ______________________ 4. Thin meninx intimate with spinal cord ______________________ 5. Contains cerebrospinal fluid ______________________ 6. Extension of pia mater attaching to dura

B. Spinal Cord Structures Write the terms that match the description. ______________________ 1. Contains neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated processes ______________________ 2. Shallow groove on dorsal side ______________________ 3. Connects right and left halves of gray matter in spinal cord ______________________ 4. Sensory branch of spinal nerve entering spinal cord ______________________ 5. Tapered end of spinal cord ______________________ 6. Motor branch of spinal nerve exiting spinal cord ______________________ 7. Contains sensory neuron cell bodies ______________________ 8. Collection of spinal nerves that arise from inferior end of spinal cord ______________________ 9. Contains myelinated axons

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______________________ 10. Contains somatic motor neuron cell bodies ______________________ 11. Space in center of spinal cord that contains cerebrospinal fluid ______________________ 12. Bulge in spinal cord containing cell bodies of motor neurons supplying upper limb ______________________ 13. Wide, deep groove on ventral side ______________________ 14. Extension of pia mater that attaches spinal cord to coccyx ______________________ 15. Bulge in spinal cord at T9–T12

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17 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Spinal Cord Transverse Section Label Figure 17.7. POSTERIOR 4 (meninx)

Spinous process of vertebra

Spinal cord 5 (meninx)

1

6

2 3 Spinal nerve Vertebral artery in transverse foramen

Transverse foramen Body of vertebra

1 ______________________________________________________

4 ______________________________________________________

2 ______________________________________________________

5 ______________________________________________________

3 ______________________________________________________

6 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 17.7

Photographic cross-section of spinal cord and cervical vertebra.

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B. Spinal Cord Questions 7. The polio virus can cause skeletal muscle paralysis by destroying neuron cell bodies. Identify the area of the spinal cord that is destroyed.

8. Shingles is a condition characterized by pain, discoloration of the skin, and eruption of skin blisters along a sensory nerve. It is caused by the herpes zoster virus, the same virus that causes chicken pox. Using your textbook or another source, identify the spinal cord structure to which herpes virus retreats after chicken pox. The virus remains dormant there until it is activated and causes a shingles outbreak.

9. Identify the structural class(es) of neurons whose cell bodies are present in the spinal cord—unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar.

10. Nerve fibers are classified according to diameter and presence or absence of a myelin sheath. Using your textbook or another reference, name the nerve fiber types (Type A, B, C) present in the: (a) anterior root (b) posterior root 11. When removing cerebrospinal fluid during a spinal tap, the needle is inserted below L2. Explain why spinal taps are not done above this level.

C. Pathway of Sensory and Motor Impulses Numbering 1–5, indicate the order of structures through which sensory impulses pass as they enter the spinal cord and travel toward the brain. ____ 12. posterior (dorsal) root ganglion ____ 13. posterior (dorsal) root ____ 14. posterior gray horn ____ 15. white column ____ 16. spinal nerve Numbering 1–4, indicate the order of structures through which motor impulses pass as they descend from the brain and leave the spinal cord. ____ 17. spinal nerve ____ 18. white column ____ 19. anterior (ventral) gray horn ____ 20. anterior (ventral) root

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Spinal Nerves Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

compound microscope and lens paper

2 Identify the rami that carry impulses to and away from the spinal cord

•

model or chart of vertebral column with spinal cord and spinal nerves

3 Describe the organization and distribution of spinal nerve divisions and the formation of the spinal plexuses

•

model or chart with major nerves of the upper and lower extremities

1 Describe the connective tissue coverings of the spinal nerves

prepared slide of peripheral nerve cross-section prepared slide of peripheral nerve longitudinal section

4 Identify the 4 spinal plexuses and the major nerves arising from each plexus

S

pinal nerves send information from peripheral

sensory receptors to the spinal cord and information from the spinal cord to effectors (muscles and glands). The 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from each side of the spinal cord through the intervertebral foramina and are named for the vertebral region and level from which they arise. Spinal nerves connect to the spinal cord via a posterior (dorsal) root and an anterior (ventral) root and are called mixed nerves because each nerve contains sensory and motor axons.

A. Connective Tissue Coverings of Spinal Nerves Each spinal nerve has 3 protective connective tissue layers: the epineurium (neuri- ⫽ nerve) that surrounds the whole nerve, the perineurium that encases each fascicle ( fasciculus ⫽ little bundle), and the endoneurium that covers myelinated and unmyelinated axons.

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ACTIVITY 1 Connective Tissue Coverings of Spinal Nerves Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figures 18.1 and 18.2. Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared slide of a cross-section of a spinal nerve. • Using the low-power objective lens, identify the epineurium, fascicles, and perineurium. • Using the high-power objective lens, identify the endoneurium, axons, and the myelin sheath of myelinated neurons.

B. Rami of the Spinal Nerves The spinal nerves branch lateral to the intervertebral foramen. These branches or rami (rami (pl.) ⫽ branches; ramus (sing.) ⫽ branch) are the posterior (dorsal) ramus, the anterior (ventral) ramus, the meningeal branch, and the rami communicantes. The posterior (dorsal) ramus curves around to the dorsal surface and innervates the skin and deep muscles of the back or trunk. The anterior (ventral) ramus supplies the muscles and skin of all four limbs, as well as the anterior and lateral parts of the body. The meningeal branch serves the vertebrae, vertebral ligaments, blood vessels of the spinal cord, and the meninges. The 2 rami communicantes (communicans ⫽ communicating) connect to the sympathetic ganglion (sympathein ⫽ to feel with) of the autonomic nervous system.

• • • • • •

1 2

axon (AX-on) endoneurium (endo-NEUR-i-um) epineurium (epi-NEUR-i-um) fascicle (FAS-i-cul) perineurium (peri-NEUR-i-um) spinal nerve

1 _____________________________________________________ 3

2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________

4

4 _____________________________________________________ 5

5 _____________________________________________________

6

FIGURE 18.1

1

6 _____________________________________________________

Transverse section of a spinal nerve with coverings and fascicles.

2

3

4

• • • •

axon endoneurium myelin sheath perineurium

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________ FIGURE 18.2

Photomicrograph of a transverse section through a fascicle of a spinal nerve.

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ACTIVITY 2 Rami of the Spinal Nerves Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 18.3. Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures from Figure 18.3(a) and (b) on a model or chart.

POSTERIOR Posterior (dorsal) root Anterior (ventral) root

3 2 1

• anterior (ventral) ramus (RAY-mus) • posterior (dorsal) ramus • rami communicantes (RAY-my com-mun-i-CAHN-tayce) • spinal nerve

Meningeal branch

4 Sympathetic ganglion

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________

ANTERIOR (a) Transverse section

6

• • • • •

anterior (ventral) ramus intervertebral foramen posterior (dorsal) ramus rami communicantes sympathetic ganglion

7 5 8

5 _______________________________________ 6 _______________________________________ 7 _______________________________________

9

8 _______________________________________ 9 _______________________________________ FIGURE 18.3

Spinal cord with branches of a spinal nerve.

(b) Lateral view

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C. Spinal Nerve Divisions and the Four Spinal Plexuses Of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves, there are 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Many spinal nerves join with other spinal nerves to form a braided network or plexus before they innervate body structures. This occurs in 4 regions of the body where the networks form the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses. The thoracic (intercostal) spinal nerves (T2–T12) do not form a plexus.

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

4

3

T7

ACTIVITY 3 Spinal Nerve Divisions and Spinal Plexuses Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal nerves in Figure 18.4. 2 Label the 4 spinal plexuses also in Figure 18.4. Lab Activity 1 Identify the spinal nerve divisions and plexuses from Figure 18.4 on a model or chart.

Medulla oblongata Atlas (first cervical vertebra) 5

6

• • • • • • • • •

T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 L1 L2

7

L3 2

3 __________________________________________

L5 S1

1

S5

1 __________________________________________ 2 __________________________________________

L4

S2 S3 S4

brachial plexus (PLEX-us) cervical nerves cervical plexus coccygeal (cox-sih-GEAL) nerve lumbar nerves lumbar plexus sacral nerves sacral plexus thoracic nerves

4 __________________________________________ 8

5 __________________________________________ 6 __________________________________________

9

7 __________________________________________ 8 __________________________________________ 9 __________________________________________ FIGURE 18.4

Posterior view of the four spinal plexuses.

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D. Major Nerves from the Cervical and Brachial Plexuses The cervical plexus is formed from the anterior (ventral) rami of C1–C5 on both the right and left sides of the spinal cord. An important paired nerve from this plexus is the phrenic nerve (phreni- ⫽ relating to the diaphragm), C3–C5, which innervates the diaphragm and is important for breathing. Remember the saying, “Cervical nerves 3, 4, and 5 keep the diaphragm alive.” Other cervical nerves mainly supply the scalp, neck, shoulders, and chest. The brachial plexus is formed from the ventral rami of C5–T1. This plexus serves the shoulders and upper limbs. The main nerves that arise from the brachial plexus are the axillary, median, musculocutaneous (musculo- ⫽ muscle; cutan- ⫽ skin), radial, and ulnar.

1 2 3

6

4

ACTIVITY 4 Major Nerves from the Cervical and Brachial Plexuses Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the phrenic nerve and the 5 main brachial plexus nerves in Figure 18.5 using the name of the nerve and the muscle(s) it innervates (Table 18.1) to assist in identification. Lab Activity 1 Identify the nerves from Figure 18.5 on a model or chart. 2 Test nerve conduction. • Flex your forearm to 90⬚. • Palpate a cord-like nerve between your medial epicondyle and olecranon process. • Place pressure on the nerve with your fingers until you feel a difference in your forearm, hand, and digits. • Describe what sensations you felt and what nerve was compressed. • Describe what digits are involved and what produced your symptoms.

5 (posterior to bone)

Anterior view

• axillary nerve • median nerve • musculocutaneous (mus-cu-lo-cu-TAYN-e-ous) nerve • phrenic (FREN-ic) nerve • radial nerve • ulnar nerve

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________

FIGURE 18.5 Major nerves from the cervical and brachial plexuses.

TABLE 18.1

Motor Function of Major Nerves from Cervical and Brachial Plexuses

NERVE

MUSCLES INNERVATED BY NERVE

Phrenic Axillary Musculocutaneous Ulnar Median

Diaphragm Deltoid and teres minor muscles Anterior muscles of the arm Flexor carpi ulnaris, medial-half of flexor digitorum profundis, and most hand muscles Muscles of anterior forearm (excluding flexor carpi ulnaris and other muscles supplied by ulnar nerve) and some of the muscles of the hand Muscles of posterior arm and forearm

Radial

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E. Major Nerves from the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses 1

The lumbar plexus is made up of anterior (ventral) rami from L1–L4. The lumbar plexus supplies the skin and muscles of the abdominal wall, external genitalia, and part of the lower limbs. The major nerves are the femoral and obturator nerves. The sacral plexus is formed from the anterior (ventral) rami from L4–S4. This plexus supplies the buttocks, perineum, and most of the lower limbs. Its major nerves are the pudendal and sciatic. The sciatic is composed of the tibial and common fibular (peroneal) nerves.

2 3 4

ACTIVITY 5 Major Nerves from the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses

5 6

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the nerves listed on Figure 18.6 using the name of the nerve, plexus of origin, and muscle innervation. Muscle innervation is described in Table 18.2. Lab Activity 1 Identify the nerves from Figure 18.6 on models or charts.

ANTERIOR

• femoral (FEM-o-rul) nerve • obturator (OB-tur-a-tor) nerve • common fibular (peroneal) • pudendal (pyoo-DEN-dal) • sciatic (sci-A-tic) • tibial

POSTERIOR

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________

FIGURE 18.6 plexuses.

TABLE 18.2

Major nerves of the lumbar and sacral

Motor Function of Nerves from the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses

NERVE

MUSCLES INNERVATED BY NERVES

Femoral Obturator Common fibular Pudendal Sciatic Tibial

Iliacus, quadriceps femoris, sartorius, pectineus Adductor longus, adductor brevis, and part of adductor magnus, gracilis Fibularis longus muscle, tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus Muscles of perineum Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus (hamstrings) Gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, plantaris, flexor hallucis longus

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Reviewing Your Knowledge

18 E X E R C I S E

A. Connective Tissue Coverings Identify the connective tissue covering. ______________________ 1. Covers unmyelinated or myelinated axons ______________________ 2. Covers fascicles ______________________ 3. Covers nerves

B. Rami of Spinal Nerves Identify the spinal nerve ramus. ______________________ 1. Branch that serves the deep muscles and skin of the back ______________________ 2. Branches that belong to the sympathetic nervous system ______________________ 3. Branch that forms nerves serving the limbs

C. Major Nerves of the Nerve Plexuses Identify the nerve plexus from which each nerve originates. ______________________ 1. femoral n. ______________________ 2. sciatic n. ______________________ 3. phrenic n. ______________________ 4. ulnar n. ______________________ 5. axillary n. ______________________ 6. tibial n. ______________________ 7. obturator n.

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______________________ 8. radial n. ______________________ 9. common fibular n. ______________________ 10. pudendal n.

D. Spinal Nerves Complete the sentences with the correct term about the spinal nerves. ⎪⎫ ⎬ ⎭⎪

1. The sciatic nerve is composed of two nerves, the _________________ 2. and the _________________. 3. There are ______ pairs of spinal nerves. 4. The nerve that supplies the posterior thigh and most of the leg and foot is the _________________. 5. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of coccygeal nerves. 6. If the anterior (ventral) ramus of a spinal nerve is severed, there is a _________________ (motor and/or sensory) loss. 7. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of thoracic nerves. 8. The nerve that supplies the anterior thigh is the _________________. 9. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of sacral nerves. 10. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of lumbar nerves. 11. If the posterior (dorsal) ramus of a spinal nerve is severed, the functional loss is _________________ (motor and/or sensory). 12. There is (are) ______ pair(s) of cervical nerves. 13. The _________________ nerve supplies the deltoid and teres minor muscles. 14. The _________________ nerve supplies the triceps brachii muscles and the extensor digitorum longus. 15. The _________________ nerve supplies the biceps brachii muscles. 16. The _________________ nerve supplies the diaphragm. 17. The _________________ nerve supplies most hand muscles. 18. The _________________ nerve supplies the flexor carpi radialis.

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Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

18 E X E R C I S E

Identify the correct nerve for each question. _______________________ 1. A broken forearm resulted in an inability to pronate the forearm and loss of finger movement in digits 1–3. Name the nerve that was injured. _______________________ 2. An injection into the shoulder results in an inability to extend the wrist and fingers. Name the nerve that was injured. _______________________ 3. Health care professionals are taught how to properly administer gluteal injections to avoid pain and injury caused by inadvertently striking a major nerve. Name the nerve to avoid. _______________________ 4. Hitting the medial epicondyle results in a tingling sensation in part of the hand. Name the nerve hit and the part of the hand that tingles. _______________________ 5. John Jones injured his spinal cord. He has use of his serratus anterior muscle, biceps brachii, and deltoid. However, he does not have movement in most muscles of his hand and digits 4 and 5. Where is his spinal cord injury? _______________________ 6. Following the birth of her daughter, Mary had trouble adducting her lower limbs. Which nerve was injured during childbirth? _______________________ 7. Charles broke his leg playing softball. The fracture was a compound fracture of the fibula. After the cast was removed, he experienced difficulty dorsiflexing his foot. Which nerve was affected?

Identify the nerve that would carry pain impulses from each of the following injured areas. _______________________ 8. Greenstick fracture of the tibia

_______________________ 9. Sunburn on the skin over deltoid muscles

_______________________ 10. Splinter in digit 5 of the hand

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E X E R C I S E

Somatic Reflexes Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

reflex hammer (with rubber head) cross-section spinal cord model

1 Identify and describe the five components of a somatic reflex arc

2 Describe how monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs differ

3 Test and describe somatic reflexes

R

eflexes are rapid, involuntary motor responses

to an environmental stimulus detected by sensory receptors. A nerve impulse travels from the receptor through a neural reflex arc pathway to an effector. If the motor response is contraction of skeletal muscle, the reflex is a somatic reflex. If the motor response involves cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or glands, the reflex is an autonomic (visceral) reflex. Reflexes mediated by spinal nerves are called spinal reflexes, whereas reflexes mediated by cranial nerves are called cranial reflexes. Most reflexes help our bodies maintain homeostasis and therefore have a protective function.

A. Reflex Arcs There are 5 components of a reflex arc: 1. Sensory receptor. If the stimulus to the sensory receptor is strong enough, an action potential is generated in the sensory neuron. 2. Sensory neuron. The sensory neuron propagates the action potential and synapses with neurons in the spinal cord or brain stem.

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3. Integrating center. The integrating center is located within the gray matter of the central nervous system (CNS), and transfers information from the sensory neuron to the motor neuron. The integrating center of a monosynaptic reflex arc is a single synapse between a sensory and motor neuron. In a polysynaptic reflex arc, the integrating center consists of multiple synapses involving one or more interneurons (association neurons) between a sensory and a motor neuron. 4. Motor neuron. The motor neuron carries the action potential initiated by the integrating center to the effector. 5. Effector. An effector can be skeletal muscle (somatic reflex), cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or glands (autonomic reflexes). A reflex is the response of the effector to stimulation by the motor neuron of the reflex arc. Reflex arcs that involve sensory receptors, sensory nerve fibers, motor neurons, and effectors all on the same side of the body are ipsilateral. Contralateral reflex arcs involve sensory receptors and neurons on one side of the body and motor neurons and effectors on the opposite side. Bilateral (consensual) reflexes involve both sides of the body simultaneously.

TABLE 19.1

ACTIVITY 1 Reflexes Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify whether the reflexes in Table 19.1 are somatic reflexes or autonomic reflexes, and whether a spinal nerve or a cranial nerve mediates it. Lab Activity 1 Label Figure 19.1 with your lab group. 2 Using the cross-section spinal cord model, trace the pathway of the reflex arc illustrated in Figure 19.1.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: REFLEX ARC 1 Is the reflex arc in Figure 19.1 monosynaptic or polysynaptic?

2 Is the reflex arc in Figure 19.1 ipsilateral or contralateral?

Types of Reflexes

REFLEX ACTION

Plantar flexion of foot when Achilles tendon is stretched Salivation in response to lemon juice on tongue Blinking in response to touching the cornea Flexing of arm in response to touching a hot object

SOMATIC OR AUTONOMIC REFLEX

SPINAL NERVE REFLEXES OR CRANIAL NERVE REFLEXES

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2 3

1 4 5

7

• • • • • • •

effector integrating center motor neuron cell body motor neuron axon sensory neuron cell body sensory neuron axon sensory receptor

FIGURE 19.1

6

1 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

7 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

Reflex arc components.

B. Reflex Testing A series of reflex tests are used clinically to evaluate the nervous system and to diagnose an abnormality or dysfunction that may cause an inhibition, exaggeration, or absence of reflexes.

1. Patellar Reflex (Knee Jerk) The patellar reflex is the extension of the knee that occurs when the quadriceps femoris tendon is stretched. A stretched tendon will stretch the muscle and cause it to contract. This reflex helps prevent injury by preventing muscles from overstretching. The stretch reflex helps maintain posture and equilibrium. The components of the patellar reflex arc are: • Sensory receptors: Muscle spindles located in the quadriceps femoris muscle group. Tapping the quadriceps tendon stretches this muscle group and stimulates muscle spindles (stretch receptors), initiating nerve impulses in axons of sensory neurons.

• Sensory neuron: Sensory axons carry nerve impulses to the integrating center (gray matter) in the spinal cord. • Integrating center: The monosynaptic integrating center (two neurons, one synapse) is located in the anterior gray horn of the spinal cord. The sensory axon synapses with and initiates nerve impulses in the motor neuron that innervates the quadriceps femoris muscle group. • Motor neuron: Axons of the motor neuron travel in the femoral nerve to the quadriceps femoris muscle group. • Effector: Quadriceps femoris muscle group (agonists) contracts and extends the leg when stimulated. The sensory neuron associated with the monosynaptic stretch reflex arc is also a component of a polysynaptic reflex arc that has 3 neurons and 2 synapses. This reflex arc inhibits the motor neuron to the antagonist muscle group and results in its relaxation. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation—stimulation of contraction in agonistic muscles with simultaneous inhibition of antagonistic muscles.

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• Although the grading is subjective, grade the extension of the leg: Results: ______________ 0 ⫽ no response (hypo-reflexive) ⫹1 ⫽ little response (hypo-reflexive) ⫹2 ⫽ normal response ⫹3 ⫽ above normal response ⫹4 ⫽ exaggerated reflex (hyper-reflexive) • Now ask the subject to clasp both hands in front of the chest and isometrically pull in opposite directions. This action leads to an enhancement of spinal reflexes causing a reinforced patellar reflex. • While the subject is pulling, strike the patellar tendon again and observe the distance of leg movement this time. • Reinforced patellar reflex results: ______________

ACTIVITY 2 Testing the Patellar Reflex Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the patellar reflex arc and reciprocal innervation in Figure 19.2. Lab Activity 1 Test the patellar reflex. • Have the subject sit on the edge of a table or a tall lab chair with his/her knee off the table or chair and the leg dangling and relaxed. • Palpate the patella and the tibial tuberosity; also palpate the patellar ligament located between these two structures. • With the tapered end of a reflex hammer, gently but firmly tap the patellar ligament, which includes a portion of fibers of the quadriceps femoris tendon.

3

+ 2 1

+

4

–

5

+

6 8

7

• • • • • • • •

effector for patellar reflex arc effector for reciprocal innervation integrating center for patellar reflex arc integrating center for reciprocal innervation motor neuron for patellar reflex arc motor neuron for reciprocal innervation receptor sensory neuron

1 _________________________________________ 2 _________________________________________ 3 _________________________________________ 4 _________________________________________ 5 _________________________________________ 6 _________________________________________ 7 _________________________________________ 8 _________________________________________ FIGURE 19.2

Patellar reflex arc.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: PATELLAR REFLEX 1 Is the patellar reflex ipsilateral or contralateral?

2 During the patellar reflex, are the motor neurons supplying the hamstrings stimulated or inhibited?

SOMATIC REFLEXES

291

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: BICEPS REFLEX 1 Name the nerve that carries the sensory and motor axons for this reflex arc.

2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by reciprocal innervation.

3 Describe the effect that clasping and pulling the hands has on the patellar reflex compared with the first patellar reflex.

3. Triceps Reflex (Triceps Jerk) The triceps reflex is the contraction of the triceps brachii muscle that occurs when the triceps brachii tendon is stretched.

2. Biceps Reflex (Biceps Jerk) The biceps reflex is the contraction of the biceps brachii muscle that occurs when the biceps tendon is stretched. Although the biceps brachii flexes the forearm, in this test you may only see the contraction or tension in the biceps brachii muscle because the forearm is resting on the table.

ACTIVITY 3 Testing the Biceps Reflex (Biceps Jerk) Lab Activity 1 Test the biceps reflex. • Have the subject stand with an arm completely relaxed and hanging down at the side. • Ask the subject to isometrically contract the biceps brachii so you can palpate the tendon in the antecubital fossa. • After locating the tendon, have the subject relax and place your thumb over the tendon. • Gently but firmly tap your thumb with the tapered end of the reflex hammer. • Biceps reflex results: ____________ 0 ⫽ no response ⫹1 ⫽ little response ⫹2 ⫽ normal response ⫹3 ⫽ above normal response ⫹4 ⫽ exaggerated reflex • If the reflex is absent, have the subject clench his/her teeth and try the reflex test again. • Reinforced biceps reflex results: ____________

ACTIVITY 4 Triceps Reflex (Triceps Jerk) Lab Activity 1 Test the triceps reflex. • Have the subject stand with an arm completely relaxed and hanging down at the side. • Palpate the triceps tendon (proximal to olecranon process) as the subject isometrically contracts the triceps muscles. • Keep your finger on the tendon and have the subject bend the arm across the front of the body. • Have the subject support the arm by holding it in his/her other hand. • Use the tapered end of the reflex hammer to tap the triceps tendon. • Triceps tendon reflex results: ____________ 0 ⫽ no response ⫹1 ⫽ little response ⫹2 ⫽ normal response ⫹3 ⫽ above normal response ⫹4 ⫽ exaggerated reflex • If the reflex is absent, have the subject clench his/her teeth and try the reflex again. • Reinforced triceps tendon results: ____________

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SOMATIC REFLEXES

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: TRICEPS REFLEX

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: ACHILLES REFLEX

1 Name the nerve that carries the sensory and motor axons for this reflex arc.

1 Name the nerve that carries the sensory and motor neurons for this reflex arc.

2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by reciprocal innervation.

2 Name the antagonistic muscles that are inhibited by reciprocal innervation.

4. Achilles Reflex (Ankle Jerk)

5. Plantar Flexion

The response of this reflex is plantar flexion when the Achilles (calcaneal) tendon is tapped with the reflex hammer.

Plantar flexion is a superficial cord reflex that is an important neurological test. This test stimulates the cutaneous receptors and involves the brain in addition to the spinal cord. In adults, plantar flexion and flexed (curled) toes occurs when the plantar surface of the foot is stroked. A reaction of dorsiflexion with extended flared toes (Babinski’s sign) is seen in infants because all the nerve fibers are not myelinated. The Babinski’s sign is abnormal in adults.

ACTIVITY 5 Achilles Reflex (Ankle Jerk) Lab Activity 1 Test the Achilles reflex. • Have the subject keep one foot on the floor and place the knee of the other leg on a chair with the foot dangling over the edge. • Ask the subject to slightly dorsiflex the foot to stretch the tendon a little, but be relaxed. • Tap the calcaneal tendon with the tapered end of a reflex hammer and observe the response of the foot. • Calcaneal reflex results: _____________ 0 ⫽ no response ⫹1 ⫽ little response ⫹2 ⫽ normal response ⫹3 ⫽ above normal response ⫹4 ⫽ exaggerated reflex

ACTIVITY 6 Plantar Flexion Lab Activity 1 Test the plantar flexion reflex. • Have the subject seated with a foot propped up and relaxed. • Using the metal end of the reflex hammer, stroke the plantar surface of the foot starting at the heel, extending up the lateral side of the foot, and crossing over to the great toe area. • Plantar flexion results: ______________ 0 ⫽ no response ⫹1 ⫽ little response ⫹2 ⫽ normal response ⫹3 ⫽ above normal response ⫹4 ⫽ exaggerated reflex 2 Name the nerve tested: ______________.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

Section ______________________________

19 E X E R C I S E

A. Reflex Arc 1. Name the 5 components of a reflex arc in order. a. ______________________ b. ______________________ c. ______________________ d. ______________________ e. ______________________ 2. How many neurons are in a monosynaptic reflex arc? _______ How many synapses are in the integrating center? _______ 3. How many neurons are in a polysynaptic reflex arc? _______ How many synapses are in a polysynaptic reflex arc containing two interneurons in the integrating center? _______ 4. Which type of neuron does the sensory neuron synapse with in a monosynaptic reflex arc? ______________________ 5. Which type of neuron does the sensory neuron synapse with in a polysynaptic reflex arc? _______________________

B. Reflex Tests Name the nerve that is tested in each of the following reflexes. 1. Achilles reflex ______________________ 2. Biceps reflex ______________________ 3. Patellar reflex ______________________ 4. Plantar flexion reflex ______________________ 5. Triceps reflex ______________________ 6. Is a Babinski’s sign normal in adults? ______________________

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C. Reflexes 1. Define reflex.

2. Describe the difference between a somatic and visceral reflex.

3. Describe the difference between a cranial and spinal reflex.

4. Describe the difference between an ipsilateral and contralateral reflex arc.

5. Define reciprocal innervation.

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Date _________________

Section ______________________________

19 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Flexor and Crossed Extensor Reflex You are walking along the beach barefoot and step on a sharp object with your right foot. You immediately flex the right leg and balance yourself by extending the left leg. Label the following neurons in Figure 19.3. 1. Sensory neuron

4. Motor neuron causing flexion

2. Interneuron sending impulses up and down the spinal cord

5. Motor neuron causing extension

3. Interneuron synapsing with motor neurons

+

+

+

+ +

Right leg

FIGURE 19.3

Left leg

Flexor and crossed extensor reflex arc.

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SOMATIC REFLEXES

For the reflex arc in Figure 19.3, name the: ______________________ 6. Nerve carrying motor information causing right leg flexion ______________________ 7. Nerve carrying motor information causing left leg extension ______________________ 8. Agonistic muscles for right leg flexion ______________________ 9. Agonistic muscles for left leg extension

B. Modification of Reflex Activity 10. Reflex activity can be modified by the cerebral cortex. For example, you are baking a roast in the oven. As you are moving the roast from the oven to the counter, hot juices splash you. Reflex activity would cause you to drop the pan, but you hold on to it. Explain how the cerebral cortex overrides the reflex.

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20

Brain Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • • •

1 Identify the major external and internal structures of the brain on a model or chart 2 Describe the basic functions of the principal structures of the brain

human brain models and charts preserved human brain ventricular system model sheep brain dissection—preserved sheep brains, skull, sheep brain models, dissecting instruments, dissection trays, disposable gloves, safety glasses

3 Identify the 3 main cranial fossae 4 Name the 3 meninges and describe their similarities and differences 5 Identify the 4 ventricles of the brain and describe their function 6 Trace the cerebrospinal fluid circulation 7 Compare the anatomy of the sheep brain with that of the human brain

T

he human brain simultaneously conducts and

coordinates a variety of incredible processes with which no computer is presently able to compete. The expansive development of the human brain distinguishes it from that of all other creatures. One of the largest organs in the human body, our brain is responsible for our memory, intellect, ideas, and behavior. The brain is the center for cataloging sensory information, integrating this information with previously recorded information, and producing actions based on the results of the information synthesis. The brain is well protected, located within the cranium of the skull. During development, the brain and skull are growing simultaneously, so the shape of the cranial cavity mirrors the shape of the brain.

A. Major Brain Regions The brain is composed of 4 main regions: the brain stem, cerebellum (cerebel- ⫽ little brain), diencephalons (di- ⫽ through; encephal- ⫽ brain), and cerebrum (cerebr- ⫽ brain). The brain stem is connected to the superior part of the spinal cord, the cerebellum is posterior to the brain stem, and the diencephalon is superior to the brain stem in the center of the brain. The large cerebrum is the dominant brain structure, with many folds and crevices enveloping the diencephalon.

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ACTIVITY 1 Identification of Major Brain Regions

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the terms in Figure 20.1. Lab Activity 1 Locate the structures on human brain models or charts.

Sagittal plane

CEREBRUM

Corpus callosum Fornix DIENCEPHALON: Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus Pineal gland BRAIN STEM: Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata

Infundibulum

CEREBELLUM

Pituitary gland

Spinal cord

POSTERIOR

ANTERIOR Sagittal section of brain, medial view SUPERIOR POSTERIOR

ANTERIOR

1

3

• • • •

brain stem cerebellum (cer-e-BELL-um) cerebrum (ce-REE-brum) diencephalon

4 2

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________

Spinal cord

4 _________________________ FIGURE 20.1

Four major brain regions.

INFERIOR

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B. The Brain Stem

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299

3. The Midbrain

The first brain structure, the medulla oblongata, is immediately superior to the spinal cord and is the most vital part of the brain because it houses the respiratory and cardiovascular control centers. The respiratory center controls the rate and depth of breathing, and the cardiovascular center is responsible for the rate and force of the heartbeat and blood pressure reflexes. Other reflex centers in the medulla are for coughing, vomiting, and sneezing.

The midbrain is a smaller area superior to the pons and inferior to the diencephalon, consisting of cerebral peduncles (ped- ⫽ foot) and the corpora quadrigemina (corpora ⫽ body; quad- ⫽ four; gemin- ⫽ twin; i.e., 4 twin bodies). The cerebral peduncles are white fibers that connect the upper and lower brain areas, and the corpora quadrigemina are composed of 2 superior colliculi (colliculus ⫽ small mound) and 2 inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi have reflex centers involved in eye, head, and neck movements with visual stimulation, whereas the inferior colliculi have reflex centers involved in auditory stimuli that result in head and trunk movements. The midbrain is observed best from a sagittal section, medial view. It spans from the dorsal to the ventral side of the brain stem.

2. The Pons

ACTIVITY 2 The Brain Stem

The brain stem is comprised of 3 structures: the medulla (medull- ⫽ marrow) oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain.

1. The Medulla Oblongata

The pons ( pons ⫽ bridge) is an expanded structure located superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum, and has respiratory centers that assist the medulla oblongata in controlling breathing. The pons also relays information to the diencephalon and the cerebellum.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures on Figure 20.2(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on a human brain model or chart.

ANTERIOR View Cerebrum Olfactory bulb CEREBRAL PEDUNCLE OF MIDBRAIN

Olfactory tract Pituitary gland Optic tract Mammillary body

PONS

Cerebellar peduncles

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Olive Pyramids Spinal nerve C1 Cerebellum

Spinal cord POSTERIOR Inferior aspect of brain

• cerebral peduncle • corpora quadrigemina (cor-POR-a quad-ri-GEM-i-na) • medulla oblongata • midbrain • pons

1 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________ 5 _____________________________________________________

FIGURE 20.2

Brain stem.

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ANTERIOR

Midbrain Pons Middle cerebellar peduncle

Brain stem

Medulla oblongata Spinal cord

POSTERIOR

• medulla oblongata (meh-DEW-la ob-lon-GAH-tah) • midbrain • pons • spinal cord

6

Middle cerebellar peduncle 7

6 ______________________________________

8

7 ______________________________________ 8 ______________________________________ 9 ______________________________________ FIGURE 20.2

Brain stem, continued.

9 (b) Inferior aspect of brain

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C. The Cerebellum The cerebellum (cerebellum ⫽ little brain) is second in size to the cerebrum and is located inferior to it and posterior to the medulla and pons. There are 2 cerebellar hemispheres, with a central area, the vermis, connecting them. When cut in sagittal section, gray matter can be observed on the exterior, with deeper white matter called the arbor vitae (arbor ⫽ tree; vitae ⫽ living) appearing as branches of a tree. The outer layer of gray matter is called the cerebellar cortex. Like the cerebral cortex, the cerebellar cortex has folds that increase the surface area allowing for more neuron cell bodies. The cerebellar folds are slender, pleated gyri or folia ( folia ⫽ leaves) that look similar to pages in a book. The cerebellum regulates posture and balance and, in addition, smoothes and coordinates skilled

BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

301

skeletal muscle movements. The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem by the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles. Do not confuse them with the cerebral peduncles.

ACTIVITY 3 Cerebellum Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 20.3(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on a human brain model, picture, or chart.

ANTERIOR

1 2

(a) Posterior view • cerebellar (cer-e-BELL-ar) hemispheres • folia (FO-lia) • vermis (VER-mis)

3

1 _________________________________ 2 _________________________________

POSTERIOR

3 _________________________________

(b) Sagittal view • arbor vitae (white matter) • cerebellar cortex (gray matter) • inferior colliculus • medulla oblongata • pons • superior colliculus 4 _________________________________

(a) Superior view

Cerebral peduncle Mammillary body

4 5

8

Cerebellum: 6

Fourth ventricle

7

9

5 _________________________________ 6 _________________________________ 7 _________________________________ 8 _________________________________ 9 _________________________________ FIGURE 20.3

The cerebellum.

(b) Midsagittal section

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D. The Diencephalon The diencephalon (di- ⫽ two; -cephalon ⫽ brain) is located in the brain’s central area and has 3 main regions: the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the epithalamus.

1. The Thalamus The thalamus (thala- ⫽ inner chamber) is composed of paired, egg-shaped bodies centrally located in the diencephalon and comprises approximately 80% of this structure. Each cerebral hemisphere contains half of the thalamus, which is connected by a small bridge called the intermediate mass. The thalamus is the brain’s “Grand Central relay station” because it is the principal relay station for sensory fibers and some somatic motor fibers. Sensory fibers that synapse in the thalamus are relayed to a particular area of the cerebral cortex to be interpreted, and other fibers relay messages to the somatic motor cortex. The thalamus also filters out unnecessary sensory information and is involved in consciousness, emotions, learning, and memory.

The hypothalamus includes the infundibulum and mammillary bodies. The infundibulum (infundibulum ⫽ funnel) is a stalk that connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus. The mammillary bodies (mammilla ⫽ nipple)—two small, round masses located just posterior to the infundibulum—are relay stations for smell and taste reflexes. Other structures that are observed in this area are the optic chiasm and the pituitary gland. The optic chiasm (chi ⫽ ␹, Greek letter chi, a crossing over), the area where the optic nerves cross, is anterior to the infundibulum. The pituitary gland looks like a large pea and is attached to the end of the infundibulum. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland.

3. The Epithalamus The epithalamus (epi- ⫽ above) is superior and posterior to the thalamus and includes the pineal ( pineas ⫽ pinecone) gland or body, a small endocrine gland that secretes the hormone melatonin.

ACTIVITY 4 The Diencephalon

2. The Hypothalamus The hypothalamus (hypo- ⫽ below) is located below the thalamus and is a quadrangular-shaped structure. The hypothalamus has important nuclei (a group of nerve cell bodies) that control many body functions and homeostasis. Some of the major functions include integrating and controlling the pituitary gland and hormonal functions, autonomic functions, emotions and behavior, body temperature, eating, and drinking.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the parts of the diencephalon in Figure 20.4(a), (b), and (c). Refer to Figure 20.1 if necessary. Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures listed on the human brain model.

CEREBRUM

1 2

4

3 BRAIN STEM: Midbrain

CEREBELLUM

(a) • diencephalon • hypothalamus (hypoTHAL-a-mus) • pineal (pi-NEE-al) gland (part of epithalamus) • thalamus

Pons

1 ________________________ Medulla oblongata Spinal cord

3 ________________________ (a) Sagittal section, medial view

FIGURE 20.4

2 ________________________

The diencephalon.

4 ________________________

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(b) • hypothalamus • infundibulum (in-fun-DIB-u-lum) • intermediate mass of thalamus • mammillary (MAM-mil-lary) body • pineal gland • pituitary gland • thalamus (THAL-a-mus)

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303

8 7

5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 6

7 ________________________

9

5

8 ________________________ 9 ________________________ 10 ________________________

Optic chiasm 10 11

11 ________________________

(b) Sagittal section, magnified

Longitudinal fissure

Cerebral cortex (gray matter)

12

(c) • hypothalamus • lateral ventricles • thalamus • third ventricles 12 ________________________ 13 ________________________

13 14 15 Optic tract

14 ________________________ 15 ________________________ FIGURE 20.4

The diencephalon, continued.

(c) Frontal section

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E. The Cerebrum The cerebrum is made up of right and left cerebral hemispheres and is the largest and most complex division of the brain. The cerebrum is superior to and surrounds the diencephalon and part of the brain stem. The cerebrum is the center of higher mental processes such as intelligence, communication, learning and memory, reasoning, and emotions. In addition, it interprets sensory input and initiates skeletal muscle contraction.

1. Organization of Cerebral Gray and White Matter The 3 main regions of the cerebrum are the cerebral cortex (cortex ⫽ bark), white matter, and the deep basal ganglia. The cerebral cortex (also known as the cortical area) is the superficial gray matter on the exterior of the cerebrum composed of nerve cell bodies and dendrites. The cerebral cortex integrates sensory information, initiates motor output, and is also involved in emotions and intellectual processes. Basal ganglia (ganglia ⫽ knot) are areas of gray matter composed of paired nuclei (clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS) that are found deep within each cerebral hemisphere. The basal ganglia control automatic skeletal muscle movement and are involved with the limbic system or emotional brain. White matter lies deep to the outer cortex and is comprised mostly of myelinated axons that give it the white

appearance. These axons are organized into three kinds of fiber tracts in the cerebrum that are named according to the direction of the fibers [Figure 20.5(a)]. Association fibers transmit nerve impulses within the same hemisphere, whereas commissural (commisura ⫽ connection) fibers transmit nerve impulses between the two hemispheres. Projection fibers are ascending and descending tracts that project nervous impulses from inferior to superior brain areas or vice versa. The corpus callosum (corpus ⫽ body; callosus ⫽ hard), a prominent commissural fiber tract that is readily observable in midsagittal sections of the brain, connects the two cerebral hemispheres. The fornix looks like a group of commissural fibers but is actually a tract of arched association fibers. The internal capsule, a large group of projection fibers, contains sensory and motor tracts that connect the cerebral cortex to the brain stem and spinal cord.

ACTIVITY 5 Organization of Gray and White Matter in Cerebrum Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 20.5(b). Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on a human coronal section of brain or brain model.

Commissural fibers (Corpus callosum) Association fibers

Projection fibers

Lateral ventricles Third ventricle

Cerebellum

(a) Frontal section

FIGURE 20.5

White fiber types.

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305

Cerebral cortex (gray matter) Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum

Internal capsule Caudate nucleus Fornix

Putamen

Thalamus

Basal nuclei

Globus pallidus Hypothalamus

Frontal section

Superior

SUPERIOR Frontal plane through brain

2 Anterior

3

Lateral ventricles Choroid plexus

4 1 5 6

Third ventricle

INFERIOR (b) Frontal section

(b) • basal nuclei (gray matter) • cerebral cortex (gray matter) • corpus callosum (commissural fibers) • fornix (association fibers) • internal capsule (projection fibers) • white matter FIGURE 20.5

1 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

Gray and white matter in the cerebrum, continued.

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2. Surface Features of the Cerebrum

• lateral cerebral sulcus—shallow groove separating frontal and temporal lobes • parieto-occipital sulcus—shallow groove separating parietal and occipital lobes • longitudinal fissure—deep groove separating the 2 cerebral hemispheres at the midline • transverse fissure—deep groove separating the cerebrum from the cerebellum in the posterior/inferior part of the brain

There are 4 lobes that compose the exterior of the cerebrum which are mainly named for the overlying cranial bones. These lobes are the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. An inner lobe, the insula, lies deep to the lateral cerebral fissure and is not visible from the exterior. Other obvious external anatomical features of the cerebrum include the following: • gyrus (gyros ⫽ circle; gyri, pl.)—elevation or fold in the cerebral cortex; increases the surface area for neuron cell bodies • sulcus (sulcus ⫽ furrow; sulci, pl.)—shallow groove between elevations • central sulcus—shallow groove separating frontal lobe from parietal lobe • precentral gyrus—elevation located just anterior to the central sulcus • postcentral gyrus—elevation located just posterior to the central sulcus

ACTIVITY 6 External Features of the Cerebrum Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures listed for Figure 20.6 and locate the longitudinal fissure on Figures 20.2(b) and 20.5(a). Lab Activity 1 Identify these features on a brain model or chart.

Central sulcus Precentral gyrus

Postcentral gyrus Parietal lobe (blue area)

Frontal lobe

Parieto-occipital sulcus

Insula (gold area)

Occipital lobe

Lateral cerebral sulcus

Transverse fissure Cerebellum

Temporal lobe

Right lateral view POSTERIOR

ANTERIOR 6

1 2

7

3

• • • • • • • • •

central sulcus frontal lobe insula occipital lobe parietal lobe postcentral gyrus precentral gyrus temporal lobe (cut) transverse fissure

1 ___________________________________ 2 ___________________________________ 3 ___________________________________ 4 ___________________________________

8 9

4

5 ___________________________________ 6 ___________________________________ 7 ___________________________________

5

8 ___________________________________

Cerebellum Right lateral view with temporal lobe cut away

FIGURE 20.6

External features of the cerebrum.

9 ___________________________________

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3. Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex The cerebral cortex is composed of 3 types of functional areas: motor, sensory, and association areas. Sensory areas receive and interpret impulses from sensory receptors, while motor areas initiate impulses to skeletal muscles. Association areas, which perform complex integrative functions, receive and send information to multiple areas of the cortex via association fibers. The majority of the cortex is composed of association areas. Motor Areas • primary motor area—located in the precentral gyrus of each frontal lobe; initiates impulses to skeletal muscles • Broca’s speech area—located superior to the lateral sulcus and anterior to the primary motor cortex, usually in the left hemisphere; initiates impulses that result in speech Sensory Areas • primary somatosensory area—located in the postcentral gyrus of each parietal lobe; receives nerve impulses for touch, proprioception, pain, and temperature • primary auditory area—located in each temporal lobe across the lateral sulcus from the gustatory area; receives impulses when the auditory receptors of the ear are stimulated

• • • • • •

Broca’s speech area (dotted area) central sulcus primary auditory area primary gustatory (GUS-tah-tory) area primary motor area primary somatosensory (so-ma-to-SEN-sory) area • primary visual area • Wernicke’s area (dotted area) 1 ______________________________________

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307

• primary gustatory area—in each postcentral gyrus, just superior to the lateral sulcus; receives impulses when the taste buds are stimulated • primary olfactory area—located on the medial side of each temporal lobe; cannot be seen from the lateral view; receives impulses when the olfactory receptors of the nose are stimulated • primary visual area—in the posterior occipital lobe; receives impulses from the thalamus when the retina is stimulated Selected Association Areas • Wernicke’s area—located in left temporal and parietal lobes; recognizes spoken words, translates words into thoughts, and possibly helps us sound out strange or new words • somatosensory, visual, and auditory association areas—larger areas adjacent to the corresponding sensory cortex; integrate sensory information from the sensory cortex with past experiences allowing us, for example, to identify objects by touch or to identify sound as music or speech

ACTIVITY 7 Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the brain cortical area with its function in Figure 20.7.

3

4

5

2

1

2 ______________________________________ 3 ______________________________________ 6

4 ______________________________________ 5 ______________________________________ 6 ______________________________________

7 ANTERIOR

7 ______________________________________ 8 ______________________________________ FIGURE 20.7

Functional areas of the cerebral cortex.

Left lateral view

8

POSTERIOR

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F. Protection of the Brain The brain is protected both physically and chemically by cranial bones, the blood-brain barrier, the cranial meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.

1. Cranial Bones The cranial bones form a vault called the cranium, which surrounds and protects the brain. The floor of the cranium contains depressions—the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae—which support parts of the brain. The anterior cranial fossae support the frontal lobes of the cerebrum; the middle cranial fossae support portions of the temporal and parietal lobes of the cerebrum and the diencephalon; the posterior cranial fossae support portions of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes of the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.

2. Cranial Meninges There are 3 cranial meninges (connective tissue membranes): the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater (dura ⫽ hard; mater ⫽ mother) is the first meninx (sing.) located deep to the cranial bones. It is comprised of 2 layers: the periosteal layer, which is a tough membrane attached to the cranial bones, and the meningeal layer, which is exterior to the arachnoid mater. The 2 dural layers split to form the dural sinuses that eventually drain cranial blood into the jugular veins. The superior sagittal sinus, located superior to the longitudinal fissure, is one of the main dural sinuses. The doublelayered dura mater extends deep into the longitudinal

fissure forming the falx ( falx ⫽ sickle-shaped) cerebri, into the transverse fissure forming the tentorium (tent) cerebelli, and between the cerebellar hemispheres forming the falx cerebelli. The arachnoid (arachnoid ⫽ spider-like) mater is the 2nd meninx located deep to the dura mater. Projections of the arachnoid mater into the dural sinuses are called arachnoid villi (villi ⫽ tiny projections). The pia (pia ⫽ delicate) mater is the thin, inner meninx. It hugs and overlays the cerebral cortex, following each gyrus and sulcus. Between the arachnoid and pia is the subarachnoid space.

ACTIVITY 8 Cranial Bones and Cranial Meninges Pre-Lab Activity 1 Observe the cranial meninges in Figure 20.8(a). 2 Label the structures in Figure 20.8(b). Lab Activity 1 Identify the cranial fossae in the cranial floor of the skull. 2 Observe the slight depressions in the anterior cranial fossa. These depressions mirror the gyri of the frontal lobes. 3 Using a preserved human brain, identify the meninges. 4 Using a brain model or preserved human brain, show where the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli would be found.

Frontal plane

Superior sagittal sinus Skin Parietal bone of cranium Subarachnoid space

CRANIAL MENINGES: Dura mater Arachnoid mater

Pia mater Cerebral cortex

Falx cerebri

(a) Frontal section

FIGURE 20.8

Cranial meninges.

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• • • • • • • • • •

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1 _______________________________________

arachnoid mater (a-RAK-noid MAH-ter) arachnoid villus (VIL-us) cerebral (ce-REE-bral) cortex dura mater falx cerebri (FAL-x ce-REE-bree) parietal bone pia (PEE-ah) mater subarachnoid (sub-a-RAK-noid) space superior sagittal (SA-jih-tahl) sinus white matter

2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________ 6 _______________________________________ 7 _______________________________________ 8 _______________________________________ 9 _______________________________________ 10 _______________________________________

Frontal plane

5 Skin 6

1

7 8 9

2

10

3 4

(b) Frontal section through skull.

FIGURE 20.8

Cranial meninges, continued.

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3. Cerebrospinal Fluid and Ventricles of the Brain Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) constantly bathes the brain and spinal cord with oxygen, nutrients, and vital chemicals. Although different in content, CSF is made from blood plasma that leaks out of specialized, tiny blood vessels (capillaries) called the choroid plexus (choroid ⫽ membranelike; plexus ⫽ pleated), and passes through ependymal cells into 4 small brain cavities or ventricles. The ependymal cells have cilia that move the CSF in one direction. There are choroid plexuses in the roof of all four ventricles. A lateral ventricle is located in each cerebral hemisphere with a thin membrane, the septum pellucidum (septum ⫽ partition; pellucid ⫽ transparent), separating the 2 ventricles anteriorly. Each arched lateral ventricle has an interventricular foramen that opens medially into the third ventricle. The third ventricle is medially located between the paired masses of the thalamus and is narrower and smaller than the other ventricles. Connecting the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle is a thin tube, the cerebral aqueduct (aqua ⫽ water; duct ⫽ way; i.e., waterway). The fourth ventricle is located between the pons and the cerebellum. Lateral and median apertures or openings allow the CSF to flow from the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid space surround-

ing the brain and the spinal cord. CSF also flows through the central canal of the spinal cord and back out into the subarachnoid space. Just as CSF enters the brain ventricles from the bloodstream, it is returned to the blood by reabsorption through the arachnoid villi (tiny projections) located in the dural sinuses, especially the superior sagittal sinus.

ACTIVITY 9 CSF Circulation Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 20.9(a), (b), and (c). 2 Refer to Figure 20.5(a) and (b) to observe the lateral and third ventricles and the choroid plexus in a frontal section of the brain. Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on a human brain model or chart. 2 With your laboratory partner, trace a drop of CSF from its origin in a lateral ventricle through the other ventricles and subarachnoid space, and follow it until it is reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

Superior sagittal sinus (blue)

5 Falx cerebri Corpus callosum

1 2

Septum pellucidum 6

Cerebrum 3

7

Cerebellum

Tentorium cerebelli LATERAL APERTURE

4

MEDIAN APERTURE

Frontal

SPINAL CORD

• • • • • • •

cerebral aqueduct arachnoid villus choroid plexus fourth ventricle lateral ventricle subarachnoid space third ventricle

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________

plane SUBARACHNOID SPACE (surrounding spinal cord) View

3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________ 6 _______________________________________

(a) Frontal section of brain and spinal cord

FIGURE 20.9

Ventricles of the brain and cerebral spinal fluid.

7 _______________________________________

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• • • • • •

BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

central canal of the spinal cord cerebral aqueduct (AH-que-duct) fourth ventricle interventricular (in-ter-ven-TRIK-u-lar) foramen lateral ventricles third ventricle

311

8

9 10

8 _______________________________________ 9 _______________________________________

11

10 _______________________________________

12

11 _______________________________________ 13 Spinal cord

12 _______________________________________ 13 _______________________________________

(b) Right lateral view (ventricles superimposed)

14 15 16

17 18 19

• • • • • • • • •

arachnoid villus (a-RACH-noid VIL-us) central canal cerebral aqueduct choroid plexus (CHOR-oid PLEX-us) fourth ventricle lateral ventricle subarachnoid (sub-ah-RAK-noid) space superior sagittal sinus third ventricle

20 21

22

14 _______________________________________ 15 _______________________________________ 16 _______________________________________ 17 _______________________________________ 18 _______________________________________ 19 _______________________________________ 20 _______________________________________ 21 _______________________________________ 22 _______________________________________ FIGURE 20.9

(c) Sagittal section of brain and spinal cord

Ventricles of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid, continued.

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G. Sheep Brain Dissection SAFETY NOTE: Use disposable gloves, safety glasses, and a lab coat when handling preserved material.

Remember that preserved material does not look like a fresh specimen. Usually more detail may be observed in a preserved brain because the tissue is firmer.

ACTIVITY 10 Dissection of Sheep Brain Lab Activity 1 Rinse the sheep brain to remove preservative. 2 Observe meninges and main brain regions. • Examine the brain to see if the tough, outer dura mater is present. If present, note the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli. Carefully remove the dura mater. • Now look for the stringy, web-like arachnoid mater beneath and adhering to the dura mater. Deep to this membrane is the very thin pia mater that follows the contours of the gyri and sulci. • Compare the sheep brain with the main external regions of the human brain. Identify the cerebrum, brain stem (medulla and pons), and cerebellum. 3 Identify dorsal structures (Figure 20.10). • With the dorsal side up, identify the cerebral hemispheres, gyri, sulci, longitudinal fissure, and transverse fissure. • Identify the 4 main lobes of the brain—frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. • At the longitudinal fissure, gently separate the 2 parts and look down between them for the thick band of white fibers, the corpus callosum. 4 Identify ventral structures (Figure 20.11). • Place the sheep brain ventral side up. • Identify the olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, optic nerve, optic chiasm, and optic tract. Why are the olfactory tracts not called olfactory nerves?

5

6

7

8

• Posterior to these structures, locate the one large mammillary body. How does the human mammillary body look different from the sheep? • If present, identify the infundibulum and pituitary gland. • Look at the three parts of the brain stem—the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. How do these compare with the human brain? • The large trigeminal nerves (V) are located laterally at the junction of the pons and medulla. • The small abducens nerves (VI) are found medial and slightly posterior to the trigeminal nerves, arising from the pons. Identify deep dorsal structures (Figure 20.12). • Carefully pull the cerebellum away from the cerebrum. Identify the pineal body, superior colliculi, and inferior colliculi. Identify midsagittal section structures (Figure 20.13). • Using a sharp knife or scalpel, carefully make a midsagittal section. • Locate the brain stem components: the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. Compare this with your human brain model. • Identify the arbor vitae in the cerebellum. Does this structure look similar to or different from the human brain? • Note the cerebral aqueduct and the fourth ventricle. • Identify the thalamus, corpus collosum, septum pellucidum, fornix, and lateral ventricles. Observe coronal and transverse sections. • Observe the coronal section your instructor may have as a demonstration. Note the gray matter, white matter, longitudinal fissure, corpus callosum, thalamus, lateral ventricles, and third ventricle. • Observe the transverse or horizontal section your instructor may have as a demonstration. Identify the gray matter, white matter, and ventricles. Clean Up: • Dispose of tissue and clean your dissection tools, tray, and lab surface as directed by your instructor. • Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water when you are done.

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Frontal lobe

Left cerebral hemisphere

Right cerebral hemisphere

Parietal lobe

Sulci Longitudinal fissure Occipital lobe Cerebellar hemispheres

Gyri Vermis of cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

Spinal cord

FIGURE 20.10

Dorsal view of the sheep brain.

Olfactory bulb Olfactory tract

Optic chiasm Optic tract

Optic (II) nerve Infundibulum (pituitary gland removed) Mammillary body

Cerebral peduncle

Trigeminal nerve (V)

Pons Abducens nerve (VI) Medulla oblongata

Spinal cord

FIGURE 20.11

Ventral view of the sheep brain.

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Cerebrum

Occipital lobe Pineal body Inferior colliculi

Superior colliculi

Cerebellum

FIGURE 20.12

Posterior view of the sheep brain.

Pineal body Lateral ventricle

Thalamus Fornix

Cerebrum

Transverse fissure Corpus collosum

Superior colliculus Cerebellum

Optic chiasm

Fourth ventricle Pituitary gland

Pons Mammillary body

FIGURE 20.13

Midsagittal section of the sheep brain.

Medulla oblongata

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

20 E X E R C I S E

Reviewing Your Knowledge

A. Brain Structure Label the structures in Figures 20.14(a) and (b). (a) 1 ________________________________________ 11

1 4

3 ________________________________________ 3

4 ________________________________________ 5 ________________________________________

5 8

2 ________________________________________

2

6

12

7

6 ________________________________________ 7 ________________________________________

9

8 ________________________________________

10 POSTERIOR (a) Sagittal section, medial view ANTERIOR

ANTERIOR

9 ________________________________________ 10 ________________________________________ 11 ________________________________________ 12 ________________________________________

13 14

(b)

15

13 ________________________________________

16

14 ________________________________________

17

15 ________________________________________

18

16 ________________________________________

19

17 ________________________________________ 18 ________________________________________

20

19 ________________________________________ 20 ________________________________________

21

21 ________________________________________

22

22 ________________________________________ POSTERIOR (b) Inferior aspect of brain

FIGURE 20.14

Brain Structure.

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B. Functions of Brain Regions Give the brain region for the functions described. ______________________ 1. Contains vital centers that regulate heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, vomiting, coughing ______________________ 2. Smoothes and coordinates skilled skeletal muscle movement; also posture and balance or equilibrium ______________________ 3. Secretes melatonin that controls the sleep-wake cycle ______________________ 4. Controls and integrates the autonomic nervous system; regulates hormones, emotional behavior, temperature, eating, and drinking behavior ______________________ 5. Interprets sensory input, controls skilled skeletal muscle movements, and is involved in emotional and intellectual processes ______________________ 6. Helps control breathing; conducts impulses to and from the cerebellum, midbrain, and medulla ______________________ 7. Relays all sensory input to the cerebral cortex; involved in skeletal muscle actions and memory processing ______________________ 8. Coordinates visual and auditory reflexes ______________________ 9. Coordinates gross, automatic muscle movements; also involved with the limbic system ______________________ 10. White fiber tracts communicating between hemispheres

C. Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid Fill in the numbered blanks with the name of the structure that corresponds with the number in the following paragraph. Fluid for the CSF is derived from the bloodstream. The sites of CSF formation are the (1), special tiny capillaries located in the walls of (2), (3), and (4). Cells that line the ventricles have cilia that move the CSF and are called (5). The two lateral ventricles are separated by a thin membrane called the (6). CSF flows by cilia movement from the two lateral ventricles through the interventricular foramen to the (7). From here, the CSF flows through the (8) into the fourth ventricle. The CSF leaves the fourth ventricle through three openings: the median aperture and two lateral apertures. CSF is now located in the (9) space around the brain, and circulates all around the cerebrum and cerebellum. CSF continues to flow into the inner part of the spinal cord by flowing through the tiny (10) of the spinal cord, as well as around the exterior of the spinal cord in the (11) space. Because CSF is continually being made at the rate of about 20 mL/hr, it has to exit back into the bloodstream by being reabsorbed through the (12) that protrude into the dural venous sinuses. The venous sinus that overlies the brain superiorly is called the (13). 1. _____________________________

5. _____________________________

9. _____________________________

2. _____________________________

6. _____________________________

10. _____________________________

3. _____________________________

7. _____________________________

11. _____________________________

4. _____________________________

8. _____________________________

12. _____________________________ 13. _____________________________

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Date _________________

Section ______________________________

20 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

1 2 3 4 5

FIGURE 20.15

Midsagittal section of the human brain, CT scan.

A. CT Scan of the Human Brain Identify the structures in Figure 20.15, midsagittal view. 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ 4. ________________________________________________ 5. ________________________________________________

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Superior

Transverse plane through brain

Anterior Superior

ANTERIOR

Transverse plane through brain

Anterior

6

7 8 9

10

POSTERIOR

FIGURE 20.16

Human brain, transverse section.

B. Transverse Section of a Human Brain Identify the structures in Figure 20.16, a transverse section. 6. ________________________________________________ 7. ________________________________________________ 8. ________________________________________________ 9. ________________________________________________ 10. ________________________________________________

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BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Sagittal plane through brain

Anterior SUPERIOR

14 Anterior 15

11

12 13

ANTERIOR

POSTERIOR INFERIOR Sagittal section

FIGURE 20.17

Human brain, sagittal section.

C. Sagittal Section of Human Brain Identify the structures in Figure 20.17, sagittal section. 11. ________________________________________________ 12. ________________________________________________ 13. ________________________________________________ 14. ________________________________________________ 15. ________________________________________________

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BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION SUPERIOR 19 20

16

17

18 Spinal cord Body of cervical vertebra

POSTERIOR

ANTERIOR

INFERIOR Right lateral view

FIGURE 20.18

Human brain, lateral view.

D. Brain Injury Match the brain injury to the appropriate change in function. Use Figure 20.18 to locate the area injured. a. b. c. d. e.

cessation of breathing loss of equilibrium loss of use of left arm loss of vision loss of pain localization in the shoulder

________ 16. The effect of a blow to the back of the head that damages this area. ________ 17. The effect of alcohol on this area. ________ 18. The effect of a head injury (i.e., from diving into a pool) that forces the dens into this area. ________ 19. The effect of a stroke that damages this area. ________ 20. The effect of a stroke that damages this area.

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21

Cranial Nerves Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • • • • • •

1 Identify the 12 pairs of cranial nerves by name and Roman numeral on brain models and/or preserved human brains 2 State the function of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves 3 Test cranial nerve function 4 Identify specific cranial nerves on the sheep brain

T

he 12 pairs of cranial nerves are part of the pe-

ripheral nervous system. They are numbered from anterior to posterior with Roman numerals I-XII. Cranial nerves originate from various ventral areas of the brain and exit the cranial cavity through foramina to reach their destinations, which are primarily in the head and neck.

A. Name and Location of Cranial Nerves The cranial nerve’s name sometimes indicates the structure it innervates or its function. The names of the cranial nerves I–XII are in order as follows: olfactory (olfactus ⫽

human brain models or charts preserved human brain (if available) skull with or without cranial nerves preserved sheep brain dissection equipment and trays disposable gloves and safety glasses materials for testing cranial nerve function—spice or aromatic oil, penlight, cotton, ice water, sugar, quinine or Epsom salt solution, tuning fork, tongue depressors

sense of smell), optic, oculomotor (oculo- ⫽ eye; -motor ⫽ mover), trochlear (trochlea ⫽ pulley), trigeminal (tri- ⫽ three; -gemini ⫽ twins), abducens (ab- ⫽ away; -ducens ⫽ to lead), facial, vestibulocochlear (vestibulo- ⫽ vestibule of ear/equilibrium; -cochlear ⫽ cochlea of ear/hearing), glossopharyngeal (glosso- ⫽ tongue; -pharyngeal ⫽ throat), vagus (vagus ⫽ wandering), accessory, and hypoglossal (hypo- ⫽ below; -glossal ⫽ tongue). The vagus nerve has the distinction of being different from the other 11 cranial nerves in its distribution. As its word derivative states, it is the “wandering nerve” that branches extensively and innervates the viscera of the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

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You may want to use the following mnemonic device to help remember the names of the cranial nerves in order: “On Old Olympus’ Towering Top A Friendly Viking Grew Vines And Hops.” The bold first letter of each word matches with the first letter in the name of the cranial nerve. The olfactory nerves are very small and will not be seen in Figure 21.1. The olfactory bulbs and tracts can be observed and are marked instead. When locating the foramen for the cranial nerves, note that cranial nerves III, IV, VI, and the ophthalmic division of V, all exit the same foramen, the superior orbital fissure. Cranial nerves IX, X, and XI all exit the jugular foramen. Each of the other 7 foramina has one cranial nerve exiting.

TABLE 21.1 NUMBER

ACTIVITY 1 Name and Location of Cranial Nerves Pre-Lab Activity 1 Learn the mnemonic for recalling the names of the cranial nerves. 2 Label the cranial nerves on Figure 21.1. 3 In Figure 21.2, identify the cranial nerve(s) that exit each foramen. 4 Learn the Roman numeral, name, and function of each cranial nerve. Lab Activity 1 Identify each cranial nerve on a human brain model or chart. 2 Locate the foramen for each cranial nerve on a skull with or without cranial nerves. Refer to Table 21.1 and Figure 21.2. 3 Quiz your lab partner with cranial nerve names and functions.

Foramen of Cranial Nerves NAME

FORAMEN

I

Olfactory

Olfactory foramina of cribriform plate

II

Optic

Optic foramen

III

Oculomotor

Superior orbital fissure

IV

Trochlear

Superior orbital fissure

V

Trigeminal

Ophthalmic—Superior orbital fissure Maxillary—Foramen rotundum Mandibular—Foramen ovale

VI

Abducens

Superior orbital fissure

VII

Facial

Stylomastoid foramen

VIII

Vestibulocochlear

Internal auditory meatus

IX

Glossopharyngeal

Jugular foramen

X

Vagus

Jugular foramen

XI

Accessory

Jugular foramen

XII

Hypoglossal

Hypoglossal canal

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ANTERIOR View

Cerebrum

Olfactory bulb Olfactory tract Pituitary gland CEREBRAL PEDUNCLE OF MIDBRAIN

Optic tract Mammillary body

PONS

Cerebellar peduncles

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Olive Pyramids Spinal nerve C1 Spinal cord

Cerebellum

POSTERIOR Inferior aspect of brain

• • • • • • • • • • • •

abducens (ab-DUE-senz) accessory facial glossopharyngeal (gloss-oh-fah-RIN-jeal) hypoglossal (hypo-GLOSS-al) oculomotor (ok-u-low-MO-tor) olfactory (OHL-fac-tory) tract optic trigeminal (tri-GEM-i-nal) trochlear (TROH-klee-ur) vagus (VAY-gus) vestibulocochlear (ves-tib-u-lo-COKE-lee-ur)

CRANIAL NERVES: 1 2 3

1 _____________________________________

4

2 _____________________________________

5

3 _____________________________________

6

4 _____________________________________

7

5 _____________________________________

8

6 _____________________________________ 9

7 _____________________________________ 10

8 _____________________________________

11

9 _____________________________________

12

10 _____________________________________ 11 _____________________________________ 12 _____________________________________ FIGURE 21.1

Cranial nerves of the human brain.

Inferior aspect of brain

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Axons pass through olfactory foramina

Location of optic foramen

Location of superior orbital fissure

Hypoglossal canal

Foramen rotundum

Foramen ovale

Stylomas foramen Int au

Cerebellum Posterolateral view of dissected brain with cranial nerves

1. foramen ovale _________________ 2. foramen rotundum _________________ 3. hypoglossal canal _________________ 4. internal auditory meatus _________________ 5. jugular foramen _________________ 6. Axons pass through olfactory foramina _________________ 7. optic foramen _________________ 8. stylomastoid foramen _________________ 9. superior orbital fissure _________________ FIGURE 21.2

Cranial nerves and Foramina.

a. b. c. d. e. f.

abducens accessory facial glossopharyngeal hypoglossal oculomotor

g. h. i. j. k. l.

olfactory optic trigeminal trochlear vagus vestibulocochlear

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B. Testing Cranial Nerve Functions Not all cranial nerves function in the same way. Some cranial nerves are primarily special sensory in function, others are primarily motor in function, and still others have both sensory and motor fibers. A mnemonic device for recalling the function of cranial nerves is: “Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Bad Business Marry Money.” The 3 types are: S ⫽ sensory; M ⫽ motor; B ⫽ both sensory and motor (mixed nerve). Motor nerves also have sensory proprioceptors located in the muscles they innervate, but their main function is motor. Cranial nerve VIII has been shown

TABLE 21.2

I II III

Olfactory Optic Oculomotor

IV V

Trochlear Trigeminal

VI VII

Abducens Facial

VIII IX

Vestibulocochlear Glossopharyngeal Vagus

XI

Accessory

XII

Hypoglossal

325

to have some motor activity, but its main function is sensory. Two of the cranial nerves have branches. The trigeminal nerve (V) has 3 branches: ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular. The accessory nerve (XI) has a cranial portion and spinal portion. In addition to somatic motor fibers, cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X also have parasympathetic motor fibers. An easy way to remember the names of the cranial nerves that innervate the eyeball is by using the following formula: LR6SO4 ⫽ the lateral rectus muscle (LR) is innervated by cranial nerve VI; the superior oblique muscle (SO) is innervated by cranial nerve IV; the other 4 external muscles of the eyeball are innervated by cranial nerve III.

Cranial Nerve Function, Distribution, and Action

NUMBER AND NAME

X

CRANIAL NERVES

DISTRIBUTION

ACTION

Nasal mucosa Eye Levator palpebrae superioris; four extrinsic eye muscles (inferior oblique, superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus); ciliary muscle (intrinsic eye muscle); iris muscles of eye (intrinsic eye muscles) Superior oblique muscle of eyeball Ophthalmic branch (eye and forehead) Maxillary branch Mandibular branch Lateral rectus muscle of eyeball Anterior 2/3 of tongue; facial, scalp, and neck muscles; lacrimal glands; salivary glands Semicircular canals and cochlea of ear Posterior 1/3 of tongue; pharyngeal muscles; parotid gland Pharyngeal muscles and epiglottis; smooth muscles of thorax and GI tract; cardiac muscle; glands of GI tract

Smell Vision Movement of eyelid; movement of eyeball; accommodation of lens; pupillary constriction

Cranial portion—muscles of pharynx, larynx, and soft palate Spinal portion—sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles Tongue muscles

Movement of eyeball Cutaneous sensations from ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular areas; chewing Movement of eyeball Taste; facial expression; secretion of tears; salivation Equilibrium and hearing Taste; swallowing and speech; secretion of saliva Taste and somatic sensation from pharynx and epiglottis; swallowing, coughing, and voice production; smooth muscle contraction of GI tract; slows heart rate; secretion by digestive glands Swallowing Movement of head and shoulders Speech and swallowing

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ACTIVITY 2 Testing Cranial Nerve Function Lab Activity 1 Perform the cranial nerve tests to determine if function is normal, consulting Table 21.2 for each nerve action. Record results in Table 21.3 by circling either normal (N) or abnormal (A) for each nerve.

TABLE 21.3

SAFETY NOTE: INSTRUCTIONS FOR TESTING CRANIAL NERVE FUNCTION Anything that was used in the mouth (tongue depressor or cotton-tipped swab or applicator) needs to be immediately placed in an autoclavable bag after use. Do not place these used items on your lab bench.

Testing Cranial Nerve Function

NUMBER

CRANIAL NERVE QUICK TEST

RESULTS

I

• Sniff aromatic oil, spice, or coffee grounds (ability to smell is normal)

N

A

II

• Read a Snellen eye chart at 20 ft. (ability to read is normal)

N

A

III, IV, VI

• Observe eyelids (eyelid not drooping is normal) • Look up, down, medially, laterally, upper lateral, lower lateral (ability to move eyeball is normal) • Shine penlight on pupils (constriction is normal)

N N

A A

N

A

• Lightly touch the cornea of the subject with a wisp of cotton (blinking is normal) • Subject bites down on tongue depressor; try to pull it out (good resistance to pulling is normal)

N

A

N

A

• Have subject smile, raise eyebrows, whistle, and close the eyes (ability to do these actions is normal) • Check tip of tongue for taste with sugar (ability to taste is normal)

N

A

N

A

VIII

• Use a tuning fork to check hearing in each ear (ability to hear is normal) • Have the subject stand straight with eyes closed (absence of swaying is normal)

N N

A A

IX, X

• Have subject say, “Ah”; check uvula position with mouth open (midline is normal) • Using a cotton-tipped applicator, gently touch the subject’s uvula to elicit a gag reflex (gag response is normal) • The posterior 1/3 of tongue can be tested with cotton applicator dipped in quinine (taste is normal)

N N

A A

N

A

XI

• Have subject shrug shoulders against resistance as you are holding them down (both sides having equal strength is normal)

N

A

XII

• Ask your lab partner to stick out and retract his/her tongue (tongue not deviating to one side is normal)

N

A

V

VII

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

21 E X E R C I S E

Reviewing Your Knowledge

A. Cranial Nerve Numbers Give the Roman numeral for the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. ____ 1. Abducens

____ 7. Olfactory

____ 2. Accessory

____ 8. Optic

____ 3. Facial

____ 9. Trigeminal

____ 4. Glossopharyngeal

____ 10. Trochlear

____ 5. Hypoglossal

____ 11. Vagus

____ 6. Oculomotor

____ 12. Vestibulocochlear

Identify the cranial nerves by writing the name in the blank. ANTERIOR

1 ____________________________ 2 ____________________________ 3 ____________________________ CRANIAL NERVES: 1

4 ____________________________

2

5 ____________________________

3 4

6 ____________________________

5

7 ____________________________

6

8 ____________________________

7 8

9 ____________________________ 10 ____________________________

9 10

11 ____________________________ 12 ____________________________

11 12

POSTERIOR

FIGURE 21.3

Cranial nerves.

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B. Cranial Nerve Function Identify if each cranial nerve is mainly sensory, motor, or both. S ⫽ sensory

M ⫽ motor

B ⫽ both sensory and motor

____ 1. Olfactory

____ 7. Facial

____ 2. Optic

____ 8. Vestibulocochlear

____ 3. Oculomotor

____ 9. Glossopharyngeal

____ 4. Trochlear

____ 10. Vagus

____ 5. Trigeminal

____ 11. Accessory

____ 6. Abducens

____ 12. Hypoglossal

C. Cranial Nerve Action—Matching Choose the action of the cranial nerve and write the letter next to the cranial number. ____ I.

A. Movement of lateral rectus muscle

____ II.

B. Speech and swallowing—tongue muscles

____ III.

C. Taste; facial expression; tears; salivation

____ IV.

D. Equilibrium and hearing

____ V.

E. Smell

____ VI.

F. Movement of superior oblique muscle

____ VII.

G. Movement of head and shoulders—sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles

____ VIII.

H. Vision

____ IX.

I. Posterior 1/3 of tongue; taste, swallowing and speech; secretion of saliva

____ X.

J. Cutaneous sensations from ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular areas; chewing

____ XI.

K. Taste; pharynx and epiglottis sensations; swallowing, coughing; voice production; smooth muscle of GI tract; secretion of digestive glands; slows heart rate

____ XII.

L. Movement of 4 extrinsic eye muscles; accommodation of lens; pupillary constriction

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

21 E X E R C I S E

A. Normal Cranial Nerve Function Give the Roman numeral of the cranial nerve(s) involved with the following functions or activities. _______________ 1. Hearing the crack of a bat hitting a baseball _______________ 2. Smelling dinner cooking _______________ 3. Being dizzy after going on a Tilt-a-Whirl ride at the fair _______________ 4. Lifting your shoulders while doing warm-up exercises _______________ 5. Chewing a tender steak _______________ 6. Swallowing the tender steak _______________ 7. Salivation and crying _______________ 8. Reading a book _______________ 9. Seeing a sunset _______________ 10. Looking cross-eyed _______________ 11. Smiling _______________ 12. Moving your head from side to side _______________ 13. Feeling a hot curling iron touching the forehead _______________ 14. Decreased heart rate _______________ 15. Rolling your eyes _______________ 16. All of the cranial nerves that are involved with the digestive system in some way, starting with the mouth _______________ 17. Speaking

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B. Cranial Nerve Injury Write the name of the cranial nerve(s) involved. 18. Injury to this cranial nerve causes Bell’s palsy—a loss of taste, decreased salivation, and loss of the ability to close the eyes, even during sleep. Name this nerve.

19. Injury to this cranial nerve causes a loss of taste sensation, decreased salivation, and difficulty in swallowing. Name this nerve.

20. Injury to this cranial nerve causes paralysis of the vocal cords, interferes with swallowing, interrupts sensations from many organs, and causes the heart rate to increase. Name this nerve.

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22

Autonomic Nervous System Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

spinal cord model or chart with autonomic ganglia

•

millimeter rulers, temperature strips (forehead), or temple temperature thermometer

1 Compare and contrast the anatomical components of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) 2 Name and locate the ganglia of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems on models or charts

T

he autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the divi-

sion of the peripheral nervous system that operates without conscious control in most individuals. The ANS has autonomic sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors in visceral organs and blood vessels to the central nervous system (CNS), and autonomic motor neurons that carry nerve impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands (effectors). There are 2 autonomic motor neurons between the spinal cord and the effectors. The first motor neuron (preganglionic) synapses with the second motor neuron (postganglionic) in ANS ganglia.

brain model or chart showing the cranial nerves transverse section model or chart of the spinal cord with white and gray rami communicantes

The ANS has 2 different motor divisions, the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. Most ANS effectors are innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, which have opposing actions. Activation of the sympathetic division occurs during exercise, emergencies, excitement, and embarrassment and results in a series of physiological responses that together are called the fight-or-flight response. The fight-or-flight response includes activities that promote mental alertness, vision, and skeletal muscle activity. Activation of the parasympathetic division promotes rest, reading, restoration, and repair.

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A. Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division 1. Preganglionic and Postganglionic Motor Neurons Cell bodies of preganglionic neurons are located in the gray matter of the lateral horn of spinal cord segments T1–L2. Because the nerve impulses from the sympathetic preganglionic neuron originate in the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal cord, the sympathetic division is also called the thoracolumbar division. Axons of the first motor neurons of this division, preganglionic neurons, exit the spinal cord in the anterior (ventral) root of the spinal nerves and travel with somatic motor neurons in the spinal nerves a short distance. These myelinated preganglionic axons quickly leave the spinal nerve as white rami communicantes that connect with sympathetic trunk ganglia, paired chains of ganglia that lie parallel to the spinal cord. In these ganglia, the axons either synapse with postganglionic cell bodies, or they pass through the sympathetic trunk ganglia without synapsing, emerging to form splanchnic nerves (splanchnic ⫽ viscera) in the abdominopelvic region. Nerve cell bodies of the second motor neuron, the postganglionic neuron, are located in the sympathetic ganglia. Preganglionic axons synapse with postganglionic neuron cell bodies in the ganglia. Some of the axons of postganglionic neurons return to the spinal nerve at the same level via the gray rami communicantes. Postganglionic axons are longer than preganglionic axons because they travel a greater distance to innervate the effectors.

2. Sympathetic Ganglia The sympathetic division has 2 groups of ganglia: the sympathetic trunk (chain) ganglia and the prevertebral (collateral) ganglia. • sympathetic trunk (chain) ganglia—These paired ganglia chains lie parallel to the spinal cord. Postganglionic neurons from these ganglia innervate organs superior to the diaphragm. • prevertebral (collateral) ganglia: celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric—These 3 single ganglia lie anterior to the abdominal aorta, and their postganglionic neurons innervate organs inferior to the diaphragm. Preganglionic axons traveling in splanchnic nerves synapse with postsynaptic neuron cell bodies in the prevertebral ganglia or in the adrenal medullae.

ACTIVITY 1 Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 22.1. 2 Identify the following structures on a chart showing the sympathetic nervous system: right and left sympathetic trunk ganglia, prevertebral ganglia, splanchnic nerves, and preganglionic and postganglionic motor neurons. Lab Activity 1 Identify the sympathetic trunk ganglia on a longitudinal spinal cord model. 2 Identify the rami communicantes and the sympathetic trunk ganglia on a transverse section spinal cord model or chart.

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Trachea

Arch of aorta

left sympathetic trunk ganglia prevertebral ganglia right sympathetic trunk ganglia splanchnic nerves

1 ______________________________________ 2 ______________________________________

1 Left primary bronchus Esophagus

2

Thoracic aorta

3

Diaphragm

4

Left kidney

Abdominal aorta

Anterior view

FIGURE 22.1

• • • •

333

Location of sympathetic motor ganglia and nerves.

3 ______________________________________ 4 ______________________________________

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B. Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division Cell bodies of the preganglionic motor neurons of this division are located in the nuclei of 4 cranial nerves in the brain stem and in the lateral horns of spinal cord segments S2–S4. Because the outflow is from these areas, this division is also known as the craniosacral division. Axons of the cranial preganglionic neurons exit the brain in cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X and synapse with postganglionic neurons in terminal (intramural) ganglia located near their target organs in the head region. The major terminal ganglia in the head region are: ciliary, pterygopalatine, submandibular, and otic ganglia. Axons of the sacral preganglionic neurons leave the spinal cord in the anterior (ventral) roots, form nerves called pelvic splanchnic nerves, and synapse with postganglionic neurons in terminal ganglia that are within the wall of the target organ.

Nerve cell bodies of postganglionic neurons (2nd motor neurons) are in the terminal ganglia. Axons of postganglionic neurons are short because they travel a short distance to their effectors.

ACTIVITY 2 Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the terminal ganglia in Figure 22.2. Use the name of the ganglia to find the location. Lab Activity 1 Identify the following structures on a model or chart showing the parasympathetic nervous system: terminal ganglia, pelvic splanchnic nerves, and preganglionic and postganglionic motor neurons.

Oculomotor nerve (III)

2

Facial nerve (VII) Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Vagus nerve (X)

3

Trigeminal nerve (V) (Mandibular branch) 1 Superior cervical sympathetic ganglion 4

• • • •

ciliary ganglion otic ganglion pterygopalatine ganglion submandibular ganglion

Cervical sympathetic trunk

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________

FIGURE 22.2

Parasympathetic nerves and ganglia.

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C. Autonomic Reflexes

335

1. Pupillary Light Reflex When photoreceptors in the retina of the eye are stimulated by light, nerve impulses are sent via the optic nerve to integrating centers in the brain. Interneurons from the integrating centers send impulses to motor neurons in the midbrain. Axons from these preganglionic motor neurons travel along cranial nerve III (oculomotor nerve) to the ciliary ganglion where they synapse with the postganglionic motor neuron. The postganglionic axons travel a short distance to smooth muscles in the iris of the eye. When these muscles contract, the pupil constricts.

Autonomic reflexes control many body functions such as blood pressure, respiration, and digestion. The autonomic reflex arc contains the same components as the somatic reflex arc: receptor, sensory neuron, integrating center, motor neurons, and effector. Although most autonomic sensory receptors are located in visceral organs, some autonomic reflexes are responses to changes in the external environment. Autonomic integrating centers are polysynaptic and most are located in the hypothalamus and brain stem. However, the autonomic reflex arcs that control urination and defecation have integrating centers in the spinal cord. ANS reflex arcs have 2 motor neurons—preganglionic and postganglionic neurons—which synapse in the autonomic ganglia. ANS effectors are cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands. Most ANS effectors receive motor neurons from both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic branches of the ANS. Since sympathetic and parasympathetic responses usually oppose each other, the hypothalamic integrating center determines which response is appropriate.

ACTIVITY 4 Pupillary Light Reflex Lab Activity 1 Test the pupillary light reflex. • This experiment works best if conducted in a dimly lit room using a subject with light colored eyes. • Have the subject cover his or her right eye by holding a hand over the eye. • Using a penlight, shine a light into the subject’s left eye. Observe the pupil and describe what happens. _______________ • Uncover the right eye and observe the size of the right pupil. What happens to the right pupil? _______________ • Now cover the left eye and shine the light in the right eye. Observe the pupil and describe what happens to the right pupil. _______________ • Uncover the left eye and record what happens to the left pupil. _______________

ACTIVITY 3 Autonomic Reflex Arc Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the parts of the autonomic reflex arc in Figure 22.3.

1

2

3

Stimulus

Response Central nervous system (brain or spinal cord) 4

• autonomic ganglion (sympathetic or parasympathetic) • axon of postganglionic motor neuron • axon of preganglionic motor neuron • axon of sensory neuron (afferent) • interneuron • sensory receptor • visceral effector FIGURE 22.3

Autonomic reflex arc.

5

6

7

1 _________________________________

5 _________________________________

2 _________________________________

6 _________________________________

3 _________________________________

7 _________________________________

4 _________________________________

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: PUPILLARY LIGHT REFLEX 1 Is this reflex a somatic or autonomic reflex?

2 Identify the nerve that is carrying the sensory information from the eye to the brain.

3 Identify the cranial nerve carrying the preganglionic parasympathetic axons to the ciliary ganglia.

4 Is this a monosynaptic or polysynaptic reflex?

5 Is the pupillary light reflex ipsilateral, contralateral, or both?

2. The Effect of Higher Brain Centers on ANS Functions The cerebral cortex, limbic system (emotional brain), and thalamus can also alter the ANS responses. For example, when some people tell a lie, the limbic system causes the following ANS responses: dilation of the blood vessels in the face and neck area resulting in redness, constriction of the pupils, and an increase in breathing rate, heart rate, and/or blood pressure. However, detection of autonomic changes by observation is a subjective exercise. Also, some people can lie without feeling emotion, avoiding ANS responses.

ACTIVITY 5 Lie Detector Test and the ANS Lab Activity 1 Decide who will be the subject, the interrogator, the observer, and the pulse-taker.

2 Use 10 of the questions below or other questions that the group devises and has the instructor’s approval. Assign each question a number (1–10) indicating the order in which the questions are to be asked. How old are you? _______ You were born in what city and state? _______ How many brothers and sisters do you have? _______ When driving a car, do you purposely exceed the speed limit over twice a week? _______ Have you ever flunked a college or university class? _______ Are you single or married? _______ Do you like this anatomy and physiology class? _______ Do you study for this class as much as you should? _______ Are you getting the grade in this class that you want? _______ What is your major? _______ Have you ever cheated on your income taxes? _______ What is your weight? _______ What is your height? _______ Have you ever cheated on an exam? _______ 3 Have the subject privately write down which three questions are going to be lies. In a real polygraph test, the subject sees all questions before the test commences. 4 Perform the lie detector test. • Have the observer obtain baseline information on: the subject’s redness of face and neck, pupil size, pulse rate in 15 seconds, nervousness of hands or fingers, or any other nervous changes that might indicate lying. You may take the temperature on the forehead with temperature strips, if available. Record the results in Table 22.1. • Have the interrogator ask the 10 chosen questions. • Observe ANS changes after each question and record in Table 22.1 before continuing to the next question. 5 Based on the collected data, have the experimenters privately predict which three questions the subject lied about, and then ask the subject to give the answers that were lies. • Question numbers that experimenters predict the subject is lying about. _______________ • Actual question numbers the subject did lie about. _______________ • Number of correct predictions chosen by experimenters in your group. _______________ • Pool your data with all the lab groups. What is the average number of correct predictions? _______________

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TABLE 22.1

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ANS Responses and Lie Detector Test

PRE-QUESTION OBSERVATIONS

ANS RESPONSES

Color ______________

Color No Change (N) or Redness (R)

Pupil Size (mm) _______

Pupil Size No Change (N), Increased (I), or Decreased (D)

Pulse Rate (beats/15 sec) _______

Pulse Rate (beats/15 sec) N, I, or D

Temperature (ºF or ºC) _______

Temperature (ºF or ºC) N, I, or D

1

2

ANS RESPONSES FOR QUESTION 3 4 5 6 7 8

Nervousness Yes (Y) or No (N) Prediction: Was the answer the Truth (T) or a Lie (L)?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: LIE DETECTOR TEST 1 Based on the pooled class data, give reasons why using this type of lie detector test to solve a crime may or may not be advantageous.

Chest movement during respiration Abdominal movement during respiration Skin conductance

2 A professional polygraph test is administered by someone who is trained to perform the test and lasts 2–3 hours, with additional time to analyze the results. Four reactions are recorded by four sensors attached to a person’s body that record chest movement during respiration, abdominal movement during respiration, skin conductance (sweating), and heart rate/blood pressure (Figure 22.4). Note the response (truthful answer) on the left side of the figure, compared with the response (lie) on the right side.

3 Give reasons why the use of a polygraph test given by a professional may or may not reveal if the person is telling the truth.

Heart rate and blood pressure

FIGURE 22.4

Polygraph test reactions.

9

10

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22 E X E R C I S E

A. Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Answer each of the following questions: 1. Compare the number of motor neurons in a somatic and autonomic reflex arc.

2. Compare the effectors of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

B. Comparison of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions Match the terms with the appropriate ANS division: P ⫽ parasympathetic division Use one or both choices to answer the question.

S ⫽ sympathetic division.

________ 1. two motor neurons ________ 2. short preganglionic axons ________ 3. long preganglionic axons ________ 4. innervates adrenal medullae ________ 5. terminal ganglia ________ 6. trunk or chain ganglia ________ 7. prevertebral ganglia ________ 8. craniosacral division ________ 9. thoracolumbar division

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________ 10. activated during exercise, fighting or fleeing ________ 11. rami communicantes ________ 12. promotes digestion ________ 13. short postganglionic axons ________ 14. long postganglionic axons

C. Autonomic Reflex Arc Answer each of the following questions: 1. List the components of the autonomic reflex arc. Compare with somatic reflex arc.

2. Where are autonomic integrating centers located?

3. Are the autonomic integrating centers monosynaptic or polysynaptic?

4. Can the autonomic integrating centers be influenced by higher brain area?

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22 E X E R C I S E

A. Sympathetic Division Refer to a sympathetic nervous system chart (or textbook) to answer questions 1–6. Brittany was visibly upset that a class she needed to take was cancelled because of low enrollment. Jim observed that her eyes were dilated. Trace the sympathetic pathway from the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord to the iris of her eye. 1. Identify the spinal cord area (cervical or thoracic) that the preganglionic axons exit in the anterior (ventral) root.

2. Name the sympathetic ganglia in which the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons synapse.

Paul ate a big lunch and then decided to jog a mile, which was not a very good idea. His digestive system was put “on hold” while his sympathetic nervous system was stimulated to run. Trace the sympathetic pathway from the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord to the stomach. 3. Identify the nerve that the preganglionic axons form.

4. Name the effector (the tissue within the organ that is innervated by the postganglionic neuron).

Burke is in the final 100 yards of a race with an opponent at his heels. His sympathetic nervous system is stimulating his adrenal medullae. Trace the sympathetic pathway from the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord to the adrenal medulla. 5. Name the sympathetic ganglia in which the preganglionic axons synapse.

6. What is different about these postganglionic cells?

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B. Parasympathetic Division Refer to parasympathetic nervous system chart (or textbook) to answer questions 7–10. Tom had anesthesia for surgery and was unable to void for a short time after awakening. Trace the normal parasympathetic pathway from the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord to the urinary bladder. 7. Name the spinal cord segments that the preganglionic axons exit in the anterior (ventral) root.

8. Name the effector (the tissue within the organ that is innervated by the postganglionic neuron).

Michael just ate lunch and his salivary glands are responding with secretions. Trace the parasympathetic pathway from the medulla oblongata to the salivary glands. 9. Name the two nerves that carry the preganglionic axons to the parasympathetic ganglia.

10. Name the parasympathetic ganglia in which the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons synapse.

C. Functions of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems Choose the correct division of the ANS that generates the following results: S ⫽ sympathetic ________ 11. sweaty palms ________ 12. blushing ________ 13. urination ________ 14. stomach churning ________ 15. salivary gland secretion ________ 16. constriction of pupils ________ 17. increased blood pressure ________ 18. increased respiration ________ 19. decreased heart rate ________ 20. digestive enzyme secretions

P ⫽ parasympathetic.

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23

General Senses Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

skin model

•

tactile sensitivity activity: toothpicks or calipers or aesthesiometer, millimeter rulers, sandpaper, velvet or synthetic fur, smooth surface such as glass

•

adaptation of temperature receptors: 3 fingerbowls or 1,000-mL beakers, water (10C, 25C, 45C), thermometer

•

adaptation to light touch: 4 pennies per group

1 Describe the pathway from the sensory receptor to the cerebral cortex 2 Identify areas of the body that have the greatest tactile discrimination 3 Observe adaptation of sensory receptors 4 Observe the phenomenon of referred pain

S

ensory receptors provide information about the

environment outside and within our body. General sensory information originates either from somatic sensory receptors (skin and skeletal muscle) or visceral sensory receptors (visceral organs). Special sensory information originates from special sense organs (eye, inner ear, nasal mucosae, or taste buds).

cross-section model of spinal cord compound microscope, lens paper, prepared microscopic slides of corpuscles of touch (Meissner’s corpuscles) and lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles

A. Sensory Receptors Structural classes of general sensory receptors include: free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings, or specialized receptor cells. Free nerve endings are dendrites of sensory nerves that convey to the brain the general sensations of pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations. Encapsulated nerve endings are dendrites of sensory neurons enclosed by a connective tissue capsule that convey the general sensations of touch and pressure to the brain. Sensory receptors of special sense organs are receptor cells that form synapses with sensory neurons.

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ACTIVITY 1 General Sensory Receptors Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify the somatic sensory receptors in Figure 23.1(a) and (b). Figure 23.1(a) shows somatic sensory receptors found in hairless skin and skin with hair follicles. Refer to Table 23.1, which identifies location, structure (free or encapsulated nerve ending), and stimuli of somatic sensory receptors.

Lab Activity 1 Point to the sensory receptors identified in Figure 23.1(a) on a model or anatomical chart. 2 Examine prepared microscope slides of cutaneous sensory receptors.

Nociceptor (pain receptor) 1 Epidermis

2

6 Dermis

Connective tissue capsule

3

4

5

7

Subcutaneous layer

Connective tissue capsule (a) Sensory receptors in the skin

(a) • corpuscle of touch • hair root plexus • lamellated corpuscle • type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor • type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor FIGURE 23.1

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________

Somatic sensory receptors.

(b) Proprioceptors

(b) • muscle spindle • tendon organ

6 ________________________ 7 ________________________

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TABLE 23.1

GENERAL SENSES

345

Somatic Sensory Receptors

RECEPTOR

LOCATION

STRUCTURE

STIMULI

Corpuscles of touch (Meissner’s corpuscles)

Dermal papillae of hairless skin

Encapsulated nerve endings

Touch and pressure

Hair root plexuses

Surrounds hair follicles

Free nerve endings

Touching hair

Lamellated (Pacinian corpuscles)

Subcutaneous and submucosal tissue, joints, tendons, and muscles

Encapsulated nerve endings

Touch and pressure

Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Merkel discs)

Associated with Merkel cells in stratum basale layer of epidermis

Free nerve endings

Touch and pressure

Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Ruffini’s corpuscles)

Dermis, ligaments, and tendons

Encapsulated nerve endings

Stretching of digits and limbs

Muscle spindles

Found within most skeletal muscles

Encapsulated nerve endings

Respond to changes in muscle length

Tendon organs

Found at junction of tendons and muscles

Encapsulated nerve endings

Respond to changes in joint position and movement

Warm receptors

Dermis

Free nerve endings

Thermoreceptor; responds to temperatures between 32 and 48C (90–118F)

Cold receptors

Stratum basale of epidermis

Free nerve endings

Thermoreceptor; responds to temperatures between 10 and 40C (50–105F)

Nociceptors

Every body tissue

Free nerve endings

Pain receptors; respond to harmful stimuli

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B. Sensory Pathways Sensations that are consciously perceived include touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and some proprioception. These sensations have sensory pathways consisting of a chain of 3 neurons (first-, second-, and third-order neurons) that terminate in the cerebral cortex. Sensory neurons (first-order neurons) located in the peripheral nervous system synapse with an association neuron (second-order neuron) in the spinal cord or brain. Secondorder neurons synapse with third order neurons in the thalamus. Third-order neurons transmit information to the primary somatosensory area of the cerebral cortex. These sensory pathways cross to the opposite side of the CNS somewhere during their ascent. Sensations that do not reach the cerebral cortex are not consciously perceived, and include some proprioception and information from visceral sensory receptors. These pathways do not contain third-order neurons.

ACTIVITY 2 Sensory Pathways Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the sensory pathways in Figure 23.2(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Point out the pathway of the first- and second-order neurons in Figure 23.2(a) and (b) on a cross-section spinal cord model or chart.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: SENSORY PATHWAYS Refer to Exercise 16: Nervous Tissue, if necessary. 1 Are sensory neurons from general sensory receptors unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar neurons? 2 Where are the cell bodies for the sensory neurons (firstorder neurons) located?

Where are their axon terminals located?

3 Where are the cell bodies for the second-order neurons located?

Where are their axon terminals located?

4 Where are the cell bodies for the third-order neurons located?

Where are their axon terminals located?

5 Where does the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway cross the opposite side of the CNS?

6 Where does the anteriolateral (spinothalamic) pathway cross to the opposite side of the CNS?

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Primary somatosensory cortex 4

Midbrain

5

2 Medulla

6 Dorsal root ganglion

Dorsal root ganglion

Posterior column

Anterolateral (spinothalmic) tract

3 Corpuscle of touch

Cold receptor (a) Anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway

(b) Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway

(a) • first-order neuron • second-order neuron • third-order neuron

(b) • first-order neuron • second-order neuron • third-order neuron

1 ______________________________________________________

4 ______________________________________________________

2 ______________________________________________________

5 ______________________________________________________

3 ______________________________________________________

6 ______________________________________________________

FIGURE 23.2

Selected sensory pathways.

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C. Tactile Sensitivity of Different Body Areas Some areas of the skin have greater tactile sensitivity than others. The greater the number of cutaneous receptors in an area (touch receptor density), the greater the tactile sensitivity of that area. The size of the somatosensory cortex area receiving sensory information from a specific body area is directly proportional to the cutaneous receptor density. The two-point discrimination test is an indirect measure of cutaneous touch receptor density. A subject is touched by 2 closely spaced points and asked if he or she can feel both points. The objects are moved farther apart until 2 points can be felt. An area of skin with a greater density of touch receptors is more sensitive to touch and can discriminate between 2 points closer together than an area with a lower density of touch receptors.

ACTIVITY 3 Experiment: Tactile Sensitivity: Two-Point Discrimination Lab Activity 1 Prediction: List the cutaneous receptor density of the following body areas (cheek, fingertip, palm, forearm, back of leg) from the greatest to the least.

2 Materials: Obtain materials for the tactile sensitivity experiment (see Materials list) 3 Data Collection: Perform the two-point discrimination test on the different body areas and record your results in Table 23.2. • Decide who will be the activity coordinator, subject, data collector, and data recorder. • Have the subject’s eyes closed during the experiment. • Put the 2 caliper points (or toothpicks) together. • Place caliper points on skin area to be tested. Touch both caliper points to the skin at the same time. • Ask the subject if 1 or 2 points of the caliper can be felt. • Increase the distance between caliper points. For the fingertip and palm, increase the distance 1 mm. For the cheek, forearm, and back of leg, increase the distance by 2 mm. • Continue to increase the distance between the caliper points until the subject can feel 2 points. This distance is the two-point discrimination distance and is to be measured with a millimeter ruler. Record this value in Table 23.2. 4 With eyes closed, have the subject feel objects of different textures (sandpaper, velvet or synthetic fur, smooth surface such as glass) with fingertips, posterior surface of forearm, and side of leg. 5 Clean Up: Clean up as directed by your instructor.

• ________________ (greatest) • ________________ • ________________ • ________________ • ________________ (least)

TABLE 23.2

AREA TESTED

Cheek Fingertip Palm Forearm Back of leg

Tactile Sensitivity: Two-Point Discrimination TWO-POINT DISCRIMINATION DISTANCE (mm)

RECIPROCAL (mm)

CLASS AVERAGE TWO-POINT DISCRIMINATION DISTANCE (mm)

CLASS AVERAGE RECIPROCAL (mm)

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6 Data Analysis: 1 • Calculate the reciprocal  of two-point distance the two-point discrimination distance for each area and record the value in Table 23.2. The reciprocal represents the portion of the somatosensory cortex that receives information from sensory receptors for a given body area. Areas with high-sensory receptor density are represented by a corresponding greater area of cerebral cortex. • Collect the individual two-point discrimination distance and reciprocal values for each body area from each lab group. • Calculate the average two-point discrimination distance and reciprocal for each body area and record in Table 23.2. • Create a bar graph with the body areas on the X axis and the class averages of the reciprocals on the Y axis. Use the graph in Figure 23.3.

冢

冣

GENERAL SENSES

349

• State which body area tested had the least and most sensitivity to different textures.

Discussion: • Which body area tested was represented by the largest area of cerebral cortex? Discuss the reason for your conclusion.

• Which body area tested was represented by the smallest area of cerebral cortex? Discuss the reason for your conclusion.

• Discuss why cutaneous receptor density varied or did not vary among individuals.

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: TACTILE SENSITIVITY

Conclusion:

Results: • State which body area tested has the highest average of cutaneous receptor density and which has the lowest.

• State whether variation in tactile sensitivity per body area was observed among subjects.

FIGURE 23.3

• Write a sentence that postulates a correlation between the average two-point discrimination and the number of cutaneous receptors (receptor density) in a body area.

• Write a sentence that states which body area has the greatest and the least density of cutaneous receptors.

Tactile sensitivity of different body areas.

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D. Adaptation of Sensory Receptors Adaptation (or fatigue) occurs when the continued stimulus of sensory receptors results in a decrease in nerve impulse generation in the sensory neuron(s) associated with the receptors. This phenomenon may occur with the length of time a stimulus is given and with the stimulus intensity. Receptors may adapt rapidly or slowly to continued stimulation. During this adaptation, conscious awareness dissipates. In this exercise, we will examine adaptation of temperature receptors that are initially rapidly adapting, but maintain some response to stimuli.

ACTIVITY 4 Adaptation of Temperature Receptors Lab Activity 1 Part 1: Observe adaptation for warm temperature receptors. • Choose a subject, a timer, and a data collector and recorder. • Obtain a bowl or 1,000-mL beaker of 45C warm water.

TABLE 23.3 BODY AREA

Adaptation of Temperature Receptors TIME

Part 1 Left hand

Immediate (45C) 1 minute (45C)

Right hand

Immediate (45C)

Part 2 Left hand

Immediate (45C) 1 minute (45C) Immediate (25C)

Right hand

• Have the subject immerse the left hand into the water and record the immediate sensations in Table 23.3. • Keep the left hand immersed for 1 minute; then also immerse the right hand into the same water. Now record the temperature sensation of both hands in Table 23.3. • In which hand did adaptation occur? ________ • Have the subject wash hands in room temperature water and then wait for 5 minutes before beginning the next procedure. 2 Part 2: Observe adaptation for warm and cold temperature receptors. • Obtain 3 bowls or 1,000-mL beakers of water: one room temperature (25C), one warm (45C), and one ice water (10C). • Have the subject place the left hand in 45C warm water, and the right hand in 10C ice water simultaneously. Record the immediate temperature sensation of each hand in Table 23.3. • Record the sensations of each hand after 1 minute. • Have the subject simultaneously put both hands into the room temperature (25C) bowl. Record the immediate temperature sensation of each hand in Table 23.3. 3 Clean up as directed by your instructor. 4 Discuss the results with the class.

Immediate (10C) 1 minute (10C) Immediate (25C)

TEMPERATURE SENSATION

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: ADAPTATION OF TEMPERATURE RECEPTORS 1 How long did it take for the cold and warm temperature receptors to adapt for the subject in your group?

2 When sensory receptors adapt, does the cerebral cortex receive an increased or decreased number of sensory nerve impulses?

3 Indicate whether each of the following general sensory receptors adapt quickly, slowly, or not at all. Use your own experience. a. Cutaneous touch receptors (stimulated when skin is touched by an object, for example, when clothes touch the skin).

b. Cutaneous pressure receptors (stimulated when pressure is applied to skin, for example, the pressure applied to skin when coins are stacked on the forearm).

GENERAL SENSES

351

ACTIVITY 5 Adaptation to Light Pressure Lab Activity 1 Observe adaptation for light pressure receptors. • Rest your forearm on the desk and close your eyes. Your lab partner will place one penny on the anterior surface of your forearm. Determine the length of time that the pressure sensation persists and record. • Duration of pressure sensation  ________ sec • Your lab partner will now stack 3 more pennies on top of the first penny. • Does the pressure sensation return? ________ Determine the length of time that this new pressure sensation persists and record. • Duration of pressure sensation  ________ sec 2 Discuss your results with the class.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: ADAPTATION OF LIGHT PRESSURE 1. How long did it take for the light temperature receptors to adapt to one penny versus 4 pennies on the forearm of your subject?

2. How did these results differ from other lab groups? Was there a very large difference in adaptation time? c. Proprioceptors associated with skeletal muscles and tendons that are important for balance (proprioceptors maintain muscle contraction needed for standing erect and keeping head erect).

d. Pain receptors.

3. Discuss what the difference is between the stimulation of one penny versus the stimulation of 4 pennies. What do you conclude from the results?

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E. Referred Pain Pain that is felt in areas that are not injured or stimulated is called referred pain. Sometimes this pain originates in visceral organs and is perceived in the skin that is innervated by the same spinal segments. The pain of a heart attack is usually felt in the skin over the heart and down the left arm.

ACTIVITY 6 Referred Pain Lab Activity 1 Observe referred pain in the elbow. • Choose a subject, a timer, and a data collector and recorder. This experiment works best on a subject who has thin arms. The subject will be asked to immerse his/her elbow in ice water and describe the sensation (pain, discomfort, or tingling) and where the sensation is located. • Obtain a bowl of ice water (10C). • Have the subject immerse an elbow in ice water and immediately describe the sensation and where it is located. Record results in Table 23.4. Have the subject keep the elbow in the water until directions indicate to remove it. • After 1 minute, ask the subject to describe the sensation and where it is located. Record results in Table 23.4.

TABLE 23.4

• After 2 minutes, ask the subject to describe the sensation and where it is located. Have the subject remove elbow from water. Record results in Table 23.4. 2 Clean up as directed by your instructor.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: REFERRED PAIN 1 The location of the sensation changed over time. Name—in order—the areas where the sensation was felt.

2 Which nerve supplies the areas where the sensation occurred?

Referred Pain

TIME (MIN)

Immersion of elbow (0 min)

1 minute after immersion

2 minutes after immersion

SENSATION

LOCATION OF SENSATION

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Reviewing Your Knowledge

23 E X E R C I S E

A. Sensory Receptors 1. Describe the function of sensory receptors.

2. Identify general sensory receptors that belong to each structural class. (a) Free nerve endings (b) Encapsulated nerve endings

B. Sensory Pathways Match each term to the correct numbered phrase. cerebral cortex first-order neuron posterior (dorsal) root ganglion second-order neuron thalamus third-order neuron ______________________ 1. Receives input from third-order neurons; sensory information is consciously perceived. ______________________ 2. Cell body located in spinal cord or brain stem. ______________________ 3. Gateway to cerebral cortex; location of synapse between second- and third-order neurons. ______________________ 4. Neuron associated with sensory receptor. ______________________ 5. Relays sensory nerve impulses from thalamus to cerebral cortex. ______________________ 6. Cell body for first-order neuron located here.

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C. Tactile Sensitivity 1. Describe correlation between tactile density of a body area and the size of the cerebral cortex receiving information from those receptors.

D. Adaptation 1. Define adaptation.

2. Do warm receptors adapt quickly? Explain.

3. Do cold receptors adapt quickly? Explain.

E. Referred Pain 1. Define referred pain.

2. After the subject’s elbow had been immersed in water for 2 minutes, where was the referred pain located? Explain.

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23 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

Questions 1–3. Figure 23.4 shows a map of the specific areas of the primary somatosensory cortex that represent areas of the body. The cerebral cortex localizes the precise area of the body that sends sensory nerve impulses. Based on the size of the area represented on the cortex and the size of the body area, circle which body area has the greatest density of receptors: 1. The lips or the hip. 2. The tongue or the toes.

m ear For lbow E Arm Shoulder Head Neck Trunk Hip

3. The foot or the hand.

Leg Foot Toes Genitals

No

W H ris Lit and t R tl Mi ing e Indddle Th ex Ey umb e

se

Fa c Upp e er l Lips ip Lowe r Teeth lip , gum s, an d jaw Tongue x n y r a Ph aIntr minal o abd

FIGURE 23.4

Somatosensory cortex.

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Answer the following Questions. 4. Using your knowledge, compare the size of the somatosensory cortex representing the fingertips for a visually impaired person who reads Braille (increased tactile sensitivity) to that of someone with normal vision who has normal tactile sensitivity.

5. Leprosy often results in loss of pain to infected body areas. Describe the hazards of this.

6. When a hair on your head is moved, the hair follicle touch receptors are stimulated. If a person put his or her hair in a ponytail, what would be the result if there was no adaptation to these touch receptors?

7. When you hit your funny bone (olecranon), where do you experience referred pain? Hint: What nerve would you hit?

8. (a) When a person experiences a heart attack, why is there pain down the left arm? (b) Why would pain persist even after the stimulus is removed?

Using your textbook or other reference, trace the sensory pathway from proprioceptors located in the quadriceps muscle to the spinocerebellar tract traveling to the cerebellum. 9. Identify the nerve carrying the axon of the first-order neuron and the levels where the first-order neuron enters the spinal cord.

10. (a) Do the cerebellar hemispheres receive proprioceptive nerve impulses ipsilaterally or contralaterally? (b) Using your knowledge, is proprioception consciously perceived by the cerebellum?

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24

Special Senses Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

The Eye and Vision eye models or charts

The Eye and Vision

• •

1 Identify the accessory structures of the eye and the structures of the eyeball on models or charts

•

2 Identify the 3 principal layers of the retina on prepared slides or photomicrographs

dissection equipment and trays, cow eyes, and disposable gloves

•

Snellen eye chart, ophthalmoscope, metric ruler

3 Perform visual tests that are used to determine distance visual acuity, near point of vision, and astigmatism

The Ear, Hearing, and Equilibrium 1 Identify the structures of the external, middle, and internal ear on models or charts 2 Identify the major structures of the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals on models or charts

compound microscope, lens paper, prepared slides of an eyeball

The Ear, Hearing, and Equilibrium

• • •

ear models or charts

•

swivel chair or stool

skull, tuning forks, cotton balls compound microscope, lens paper, and prepared slides of the cochlea, macula, and crista

The Nose and Olfaction

3 Perform tests that are used in determining the cause of hearing loss

• •

4 Perform tests that exhibit the function of the receptors for dynamic and static equilibrium

The Taste Buds and Gustation

The Nose and Olfaction 1 Identify the location of receptors for olfaction 2 Examine the structure of the receptors for olfaction

skull, stopwatch, cotton balls clove oil, peppermint oil, or cinnamon oil

•

compound microscope, lens paper, prepared slides of taste buds

•

mirror, 1/2-inch cubes of apple, banana, cheese, carrot, and raw potato

3 Determine time of adaptation for olfactory receptors

The Taste Buds and Gustation 1 Identify the location of receptors for taste 2 Examine the structure of the receptors for taste 3 Observe the influence of smell and texture on taste

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A. Structure of the Eye and Vision 1. Accessory Eye Structures Accessory structures of the eye include the eyebrows, eyelids or palpabrae, eyelashes, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and the extrinsic eye muscles. The conjunctiva is the thin, protective mucous membrane that covers the anterior eye and folds to cover the inner eyelid. The conjunctival fold forms a pocket that keeps contacts from moving toward the posterior part of the eyeball. The palpebral conjunctiva covers the interior of the eyelid, and the bulbar conjunctiva covers the anterior part of the white of the eye, but not the cornea. The lacrimal apparatus (lacrim- ⫽ tears) is a group of structures involved in producing and draining tears. The lacrimal gland produces and secretes tears onto the eye surface, and the lacrimal canals drain the tears from the

eyes into the enlarged lacrimal sac. The enlarged nasolacrimal duct receives tears from the lacrimal sac and drains the tears into the nasal cavity. The extrinsic eye muscles are six skeletal muscles that insert on the exterior of the eyeball to move the eyeball in all directions. The superior, inferior, medial, and lateral rectus muscles are parallel to the long axis of the eyeball. The superior and inferior oblique muscles attach to the eyeball at an angle.

ACTIVITY 1 Accessory Structures of the Eye Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the parts of the conjunctiva in Figure 24.1(a) and structures of the lacrimal apparatus in (b). 2 Label the extrinsic eye muscles in Figure 24.2.

1 2

4 5

3

6 7

(a) Lateral view of eyeball

(a) • bulbar conjunctiva (con-junk-TIE-va) • conjunctival fold • palpebral (PAL-pub-bral) conjunctiva FIGURE 24.1

1 _______________________ 2 _______________________ 3 _______________________

Accessory structures of the eye.

(b) Lacrimal apparatus

(b) • lacrimal (LAK-rih-mal) canals • lacrimal gland • lacrimal sac • nasolacrimal duct

4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________ 7 _________________________

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Lab Activity 1 Identify all the accessory structures of the eye, including all parts of the lacrimal apparatus, on an eye model or chart. 2 Identify the extrinsic eye muscles on an eye model. 3 Determine how each muscle moves the eye by observing where it inserts on the eye and how the eye would move if the insertion is moved toward the origin.

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4 Write the function of each extrinsic eye muscle in Table 24.1. Choose one of the following eye movements for each muscle: moves eye superiorly, inferiorly, medially, laterally, superiorly and laterally, or inferiorly and laterally.

Optic nerve Levator palpebrae superioris

Annular ring 1

2

3 4 Trochlea

6

5

(a) Lateral view of right eyeball

• • • • • •

inferior oblique inferior rectus lateral rectus medial rectus superior oblique superior rectus

FIGURE 24.2

1 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

Extrinsic eye muscles.

TABLE 24.1

Function of the Extrinsic Eye Muscles

EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLE

Inferior oblique Inferior rectus Lateral rectus Medial rectus Superior oblique Superior rectus

(b) Superior view of left eyeball

FUNCTION

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2. Structure of the Eyeball The wall of the eyeball has 3 layers: the outer fibrous tunic, the middle vascular tunic, and the inner retina. The fibrous tunic is composed of the cornea and sclera. The cornea is the transparent anterior portion that covers the iris and pupil, and the sclera (scler- ⫽ hard) is the tough, white part of the eye that forms the majority of the eyeball. The scleral venous sinus (canal of Schlemm) is an opening found at the junction of the cornea and the sclera. The middle vascular tunic is composed of the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. The iris is the most anterior portion of the vascular tunic and contains pigmented cells. It is made of circular smooth muscle and controls the pupil size. The pupil is the opening in the middle of the iris that allows light to enter the eyeball and changes size in response to the intensity of light. The ciliary body begins posterior to the iris at the junction of the cornea

and sclera and consists of the ciliary muscle and ciliary processes. The ciliary muscle is a circular smooth muscle that contracts to control the shape of the lens. Ciliary processes are folds that protrude from the ciliary body toward the lens. They contain capillaries that secrete aqueous humor, the fluid in the anterior chamber of the eyeball. Suspensory ligaments (zonular fibers) are thin fibers that attach the lens to these processes. The choroid is the most posterior part of the vascular tunic that lines most of the interior of the sclera. It contains many blood vessels that nourish the retina. The retina (sensory tunic) is the inner coat that begins at the ora serrata, the serrated boundary between the ciliary muscle and the retina. The retina continues posteriorly, lining the interior of the choroid. The pigmented layer of the retina is the outer portion, and the neural layer is the inner portion that contains photoreceptors and associated neurons. 8 9 10

1

4

11 Lens

2 3

12

5 6 7

• • • • • • • • • • • •

choroid ciliary (SIL-ee-air-ee) body ciliary muscle ciliary process cornea (KOR-nee-ah) iris ora serrata (ser-RAH-tah) pupil retina sclera (SKLER-ah) scleral venous sinus suspensory ligament (zonular fibers)

FIGURE 24.3

Structure of the eyeball.

1 ___________________________________

7 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

8 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

9 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

10 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

11 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

12 ___________________________________

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ACTIVITY 2 Structure of the Eyeball Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the eyeball structures in Figure 24.3. Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on an eye model or chart.

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361

vitreous chamber is the larger, posterior cavity located between the lens and the retina. This cavity is filled with a gel-like substance called the vitreous body (humor) that holds the retina flat against the choroid. CLINICAL NOTE: GLAUCOMA is caused by an increase in pressure within the eye called intraocular pressure. Blockage of the scleral venous sinus prevents drainage of aqueous humor, increasing the amount in the anterior cavity that causes increased intraocular pressure.

3. Interior of the Eyeball The interior of the eyeball contains the lens, anterior cavity, and vitreous chamber. The lens divides the interior of the eyeball into an anterior cavity and a vitreous chamber (posterior cavity). The anterior cavity is a space between the cornea and the lens that is filled with watery aqueous humor (aqua ⫽ water; humor ⫽ moist). This cavity is subdivided into an anterior chamber (between the cornea and the iris) and a posterior chamber (between the iris and the lens). The scleral venous sinus (canal of Schlemm) is an opening found at the junction of the cornea and sclera that drains aqueous humor back into the bloodstream. The

3

ACTIVITY 3 Anterior and Posterior Cavities of the Eye Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the interior spaces and structures of the eyeball in Figure 24.4. Lab Activity 1 Identify these spaces and structures on a model or chart.

1 2

4

6

5

• • • • • •

anterior cavity anterior chamber lens posterior chamber scleral venous sinus vitreous chamber

FIGURE 24.4

1 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

Anterior and posterior cavities of the eyeball.

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ACTIVITY 4 Dissection of Cow Eye SAFETY NOTE: Wear safety glasses and gloves when using preserved or fresh tissue. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water when you are done.

Lab Activity 1 Obtain a laboratory tray, blunt probe, scalpel, scissors, and disposable gloves. 2 Using gloves, obtain a cow eye and rinse it to remove excess preservative. 3 The posterior portion of the eye may be encased in adipose tissue. Carefully remove the adipose tissue protecting the optic nerve. 4 Identify the external eye structures: cornea, sclera, optic nerve, and extrinsic eye muscles. Refer to Figure 24.5(a). The preservative causes the cornea to change from being transparent and smooth to opaque and wrinkled. 5 Using the point of a scalpel, punch an opening 1⁄4-inch posterior to the cornea through the very tough sclera. Be careful not to squeeze the eyeball too tightly or liquid may squirt out. Use the scissors to cut an incision all the way around the eyeball, separating it into two parts. 6 Carefully separate the anterior and posterior parts of the eyeball so the vitreous body remains in the posterior part of the eyeball and the lens in the anterior part.

7 Carefully remove the lens, noting the transparent suspensory ligaments that are attached to the lens. 8 Using Figure 24.5(b), identify the following structures in the anterior portion of the eyeball: pupil, iris, and ciliary muscle. 9 Carefully remove the vitreous body from the posterior portion of the eyeball. Refer to Figure 24.5(b) to identify the structures in the posterior portion of the eyeball. The retina, a thin beige layer, will probably separate from the choroid. The only point of attachment of the retina to the wall of the eyeball is at the optic disc. 10 Pull the retina away from the choroid, the dark middle layer of the eyeball that contains the pigment melanin. The choroid of the cow’s eye has an iridescent reflecting surface called the tapetum lucidum that is not found in humans. The tapetum lucidum reflects light within the eye and enables animals to see in low light conditions. 11 Separate the choroid from the sclera. Observe how the three coats or tunics—the retina, choroid, and sclera—form the wall of the eyeball. 12 Clean Up: • Discard the eye as directed by your instructor. • Wash dissecting tray and equipment and return to the proper place. • Wash your hands and lab surfaces thoroughly.

Retina

Extrinsic eye muscles

Optic disc Cornea

Optic nerve

Choroid

Sclera

Sclera

Ciliary muscle Pupil Iris

(a) External structures

FIGURE 24.5

Cow eye dissection.

(b) Anterior and posterior sections

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4. Anatomy of the Retina The neural portion of the retina is an outgrowth of the brain and contains three layers of neurons: the photoreceptor layer (deepest cell layer), the bipolar cell layer (middle layer), and the ganglion cell layer (the superficial cell layer). The photoreceptor cell layer contains the rods and cones. Rods are used in night vision and respond to low levels of light, allowing us to perceive shades of gray, black, and white. Visual acuity with rods is low. Cones require brighter light for stimulation, but allow us to see color and provide high visual acuity. The rods and cones synapse with the bipolar neurons in the bipolar cell layer, which synapses on the ganglion cells in the ganglion cell layer. Axons from the ganglion cells extend through the optic disc and leave the eyeball as the optic nerve. The optic disc does not contain photoreceptors and forms the blind spot of the retina. It is also the site where the central retinal artery and vein enter and leave the retina, and the only place where the retina is secured to the other layers of the eyeball. The macula lutea (macula ⫽ flat spot; lutea ⫽ yellow), the site of macular degeneration, is in the center of the neural portion of the retina. In the middle of the macula lutea is the central fovea (fovea centralis). This area of the retina has the highest density of cones of any area of the retina and is not covered by ganglion and bipolar cell layers. Therefore, this area has the highest visual acuity (sharpness of vision) of any area of the retina. When we look at an object, the light rays reflected from the object are focused onto the central fovea. The retina can be viewed with an ophthalmoscope. The ophthalmoscope illuminates the interior of the eye, and the retina appears red from the many blood vessels. Blood vessels

blood vessel central fovea macula lutea optic disc

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________

FIGURE 24.6

Normal retina viewed with an ophthalmoscope.

363

can be seen branching from the optic disc while the circular macula lutea appears dark because of the absence of blood vessels. The central fovea is in the middle of the macula lutea.

ACTIVITY 5 Anatomy of the Retina Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the retina as observed with an ophthalmoscope in Figure 24.6. 2 Label the structures of the eyeball in Figures 24.7(a), and (b). 3 Label the microscopic of the retina in Figures 24.8(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Examine a slide of a cross-section through an eyeball. • Using the low-power objective lens, find the posterior surface of the eyeball and identify the sclera, choroid, and retina. Place the retina in the center of the field of view and switch to the high-power objective lens. • Using the high-power objective lens, identify the pigmented epithelium of the retina and the neural layer of the retina. Within the neural layer of the retina, identify the ganglion layer, the bipolar layer, and the photoreceptor layer. 2 Optional—View the retina with an ophthalmoscope. Instructions will be provided by your instructor.

1

• • • •

SPECIAL SENSES

2

3

4

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(a) • central fovea • central retinal artery • central retinal vein • optic disc • optic nerve 1 _____________________________________________________ 1 2

2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________

3

5 _____________________________________________________

(b) • choroid • ciliary body • cornea • iris • lens • optic disc • optic nerve • pupil • retina • sclera

4

5

(a) Transverse section of eyeball

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

6 _____________________________________________________ 7 _____________________________________________________ 8 _____________________________________________________ 9 _____________________________________________________ 10 _____________________________________________________ 11 _____________________________________________________ 12 _____________________________________________________ 13 _____________________________________________________ 14 _____________________________________________________ 15 _____________________________________________________ FIGURE 24.7

Section of eyeball.

13 14 15 (b) Photomicrograph of eyeball, 5⫻

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1 2

(a) • bipolar cell layer • ganglion cell layer • neural portion of retina • optic nerve fibers (axons) • photoreceptor layer • pigmented epithelium of retina 1 _____________________________________________________

5 3

4

2 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________ 6

4 _____________________________________________________ 5 _____________________________________________________ 6 _____________________________________________________

(a) Microscopic structure of retina

7

10

(b) • bipolar cell layer • ganglion cell layer • neural portion of retina • photoreceptor layer • pigmented epithelium of retina

8

9 11

7 _____________________________________________________ 8 _____________________________________________________ 9 _____________________________________________________

Choroid

Sclera

10 _____________________________________________________ 11 _____________________________________________________ FIGURE 24.8

Microscopic anatomy of the retina.

450⫻ (b) Photomicrograph of retina

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ACTIVITY 6 Locating Blind Spot Lab Activity 1 Looking at Figure 24.9, hold the lab manual in both hands and extend both arms in front of you. Close your left eye. Keep your right eye open and focus on the dot. Slowly move the figure toward you. The X will disappear when it crosses your blind spot, but if you move the figure too fast, you will miss it. 2 Have a lab partner measure the distance the book is from your face when this happens. Then move the figure closer to your face, and the dot will reappear. Blind spot distance for right eye: __________________ 3 Close your right eye. Keep your left eye open and focus on the X. Slowly move the figure toward you until the dot disappears. Measure the distance. Blind spot distance for left eye: __________________ 4 Explain why the dot disappears and reappears.

FIGURE 24.9

Blind spot test.

5. Visual Acuity Tests Visual acuity tests measure the ability of the lens to focus light reflected from an object on the central fovea of the retina. The lens can accommodate or change shape to bend light rays to focus them on the central fovea. At 20 feet, light rays from an object are nearly parallel and do not have to bend as much to focus on the central fovea. At this distance, the lens is flattened and the refractive power (ability to bend light rays) of the lens is lowest. To observe objects closer than 20 feet, the lens must change shape or accommodate to focus the light rays on the central fovea. The lens bulges to increase the refractive power. Individuals who have normal distance vision and near vision are emmetropic, individuals who have normal distance vision but blurry near vision are hyperopic (farsighted), and individuals who have blurry distance vision but normal near vision are myopic (nearsighted). As we age, the ability of the lens to accommodate diminishes and the ability to focus on very close objects decreases, a condition called presbyopia (presby- ⫽ old). The near point of vision is the closest distance that a person can focus on an object. The average near point of

vision is 10 cm for a young adult, 20 cm for an adult in their 40s, and 80 cm for someone in their 60s. Astigmatism is caused by irregularities in the curvature of the cornea or lens. This causes parts of an image to be blurry.

ACTIVITY 7 Visual Acuity Tests Lab Activity 1 Distance visual acuity is measured using a Snellen eye chart (provided by your instructor). If you wear eyeglasses or contact lenses, remove them to determine visual acuity without correction or wear them to determine visual acuity with correction. • Have the subject stand 20 feet from the Snellen eye chart that is placed in a well-lighted area, and cover the left eye with a hand. • Have the subject read the smallest line of letters without squinting. If the subject can correctly read half of the letters or more, then ask the subject to read the letters on the next, smaller line. • Record the number of the line with the smallest size letters read with half or greater accuracy in Table 24.2. • Have the subject cover the right eye and repeat the procedure. • A value of 20/20 indicates that the subject has normal vision. A value of 20/40 indicates that the subject sees at 20 feet what a person who has normal vision sees at 40 feet. This is not as good as normal vision. A value of 20/15 indicates that the subject sees at 20 feet what a person with normal vision sees at 15 feet. This is better than normal vision. 2 Near visual acuity is measured using a Snellen acuity card (Fig. 24.10). • Have the subject hold the Snellen acuity card 14 inches from his or her face. The card should be illuminated with the light source either behind or above the subject. Instruct the subject to cover the left eye with his or her hand. • Repeat the steps used to measure distance visual acuity. Start with the second bulleted step. CLINICAL NOTE: To obtain an accurate acuity test, professionals also count the number of letters a patient missed on the line recorded as the best vision. For example, if the best vision was 20/40, and the patient missed two letters on that line, it would be recorded as 20/40 (⫺2). If a patient read two letters on the 20/15 line, it would be recorded as 20/15 (⫹2).

3 Measure the near point of vision and compare it with the average for the age of your subject. • Have the subject hold the Snellen visual acuity card (Figure 24.10) 14 inches from his or her face. • Have the subject cover the left eye and read letters from a line above his or her near visual acuity.

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• Instruct the subject to slowly move the chart closer to his or her face until the letters are blurry. • Measure the distance from the card to the subject’s eye in centimeters. • Record the value in Table 24.2.

T A B L E 2 4 . 2 Visual Test Results RESULTS TEST

LEFT EYE

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367

4 Determine whether you have astigmatism. • Remove corrective lenses. • Cover the right eye and look at the center of the astigmatism chart in Figure 24.11. • If all the radiating lines are equally sharp and dark, you do not have astigmatism. However, if some lines are lighter or less distinct than others, you have astigmatism. • Cover the left eye and repeat the procedure.

RIGHT EYE

11

12

1

Distance visual acuity 10

2

Near visual acuity 9

Near point of vision Astigmatism

Yes or No

3

Yes or No 8

4 7

FIGURE 24.11

6

5

Astigmatism chart.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: VISUAL TESTS 1 Why must the subject stand 20 feet from the Snellen eye chart to test distance vision?

2 Why must the subject hold the Snellen acuity card close to his or her eyes to test near vision?

FIGURE 24.10

Snellen acuity card.

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6. Red-Green Color Blindness Red-green color blindness in an inherited disorder and is the most common form of color blindness. This form of color blindness is due to the absence of either red or green cones. There are 3 types of cones in the human retina, and these cones differ in the type of photopigment present. The approximate distribution of cones are 64% red, 34% green, and 2% blue. Perception of different colors occurs when different wave lengths of color selectively activate different photopigments. In order to differentiate between red and green, both red and green cones must be present.

ACTIVITY 8 Red-Green Color Blindness Tests Lab Activity 1 Look at Figure 24.12(a) and (b) to see if you may have red-green color blindness. 2 Record the number of students in your class that have: • normal color vision ________ • red color blindness ________ • green color blindness ________ • total color blindness ________

What did you see? Those with normal color vision see a 74. Those with red green color blindness see a 21. Those with total color blindness see spots.

(a) Ishihara Color Blindness Test Plate 7

What did you see? Those with normal color vision should see a 26. Red color blind people will see a 6. Green color blind people will see a 2.

(b) Ishihara Color Blindness Test Plate 16

FIGURE 24.12

Red-Green Color Blindness Test.

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B. The Ear, Hearing, and Equilibrium The ear is divided into 3 regions: the external (outer) ear, the middle ear, and the internal (inner) ear. The external ear, consisting of the auricle, external auditory canal, and tympanic membrane, extends from the auricle to the tympanic membrane. The auricle, the flexible external structure that is commonly called the ear, collects sound waves and directs them toward the external auditory canal. The rim of the auricle is called the helix and the fleshy, inferior portion is the lobule. The external auditory canal conducts sound waves from the auricle to the tympanic membrane. The tympanic membrane (tympan- ⫽ drum) or eardrum converts sound waves to vibrations that are transferred to middle ear structures. The middle ear is an air-filled cavity within the temporal bone that extends from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. Middle ear structures include: auditory ossicles, oval window, round window, and auditory tube. Auditory ossicles are small bones within the cavity that are connected by synovial joints. These bones transfer vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. The malleus is the

ACTIVITY 9 Anatomy of the External and Middle Ear Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the external and middle ear in Figure 24.13. Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on a model or chart. 2 Identify the area of the temporal bone that houses the middle and internal ear on the skull.

8

3

369

outermost bone and is attached to the tympanic membrane. The incus is the middle bone and connects to the stapes. The innermost bone is the stapes which connects to the incus and oval window. The oval window is the membrane-covered opening that separates the middle and inner ear and transfers vibrations to the inner ear. The round window is a membrane-covered opening between the middle ear and cochlea. The auditory tube (pharyngotympanic or Eustachian tube) connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx (part of the throat near the nasal cavity), and equalizes the air pressure of the middle ear with atmospheric air.

1. Anatomy of the Ear

5

SPECIAL SENSES

6

9

7

4

2 11

1

auditory tube auricle external auditory canal external ear helix (HEE-liks) incus (INK-us) internal ear lobule malleus (MAL-ee-us) middle ear stapes (STAY-peez) attached to oval window • tympanic (tim-PAN-ik) membrane • • • • • • • • • • •

FIGURE 24.13

12

10

1 ___________________________________

7 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

8 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

9 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

10 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

11 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

12___________________________________

Anatomy of the external and middle ear.

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The internal ear is housed within the temporal bone. It consists of cavities within the bone called the bony labyrinth that encloses a series of connected membranous sacs, the membranous labyrinth. The bony labyrinth contains a fluid called perilymph that surrounds the membranous labyrinth. Endolymph is the fluid within the membranous labyrinth. The bony labyrinth has 3 main regions: the vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea. The vestibule is the middle area of the bony labyrinth that encircles 2 sections of membranous labyrinth, the utricle and the saccule. The utricle (utricle ⫽ little bag) is the posterior section of the membranous labyrinth within the vestibule, and it houses equilibrium receptors. The saccule (saccule ⫽ little sac) is the anterior section of the membranous labyrinth within the vestibule. The saccule is continuous with the utricle and also houses equilibrium receptors. Semicircular canals are 3 bony canals posterior to the vestibule that project posteriorly, laterally, and superiorly from the vestibule. Each canal is at right angles to the other two. Semicircular ducts are sections of membranous labyrinth within the semicircular canals which contain equilibrium receptors and connect with the utricle. The ampulla is the widened end of each semicircular canal and duct.

The cochlea is the spiral area of the bony labyrinth anterior to the vestibule. The cochlear duct is the section of membranous labyrinth within the cochlea. The cochlear duct contains the hearing receptors and is connected to the saccule. Hearing and equilibrium receptors initiate nerve impulses which are carried by the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII) to the brain. The vestibulocochlear nerve has two branches: the vestibular branch that carries nerve impulses generated by equilibrium receptors and the cochlear branch that carries nerve impulses generated by the hearing receptors.

ACTIVITY 10 Anatomy of the Internal (Inner) Ear Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the internal ear in Figure 24.14. Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on a model or chart.

1

2

Vestibulocochlear nerve

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

11 12

10

• • • • • • • • • • • •

ampulla of semicircular canal and duct anterior semicircular canal cochlea (COKE-lee-uh) cochlear duct lateral semicircular canal membranous semicircular duct oval window posterior semicircular duct round window saccule (SAK-yool) utricle (YOU-trih-cul) vestibule

FIGURE 24.14

1

7 ___________________________________

2 ___________________________________

8 ___________________________________

3 ___________________________________

9 ___________________________________

4 ___________________________________

10 ___________________________________

5 ___________________________________

11 ___________________________________

6 ___________________________________

12 ___________________________________

Anatomy of the internal ear.

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2. Microscopic Anatomy of the Cochlea and the Spiral Organ of Corti The cochlea is a spiral cavity that resembles the space within a snail shell. The cochlea makes 3 turns around a bony core. A section through the cochlea shows 3 channels: the scala vestibuli, the cochlear duct (scala media), and the scala tympani. The scala vestibuli is part of the cochlea and is superior to the cochlear duct. It is separated from the cochlear duct by the vestibular membrane. The scala tympani is also part of the cochlea and is posterior to the cochlear duct. It is separated from the cochlear duct by the basilar membrane. The scala vestibuli and scala tympani are continuous with one another and are filled with perilymph. The cochlear duct, part of the membranous labyrinth, houses the spiral organ of Corti and is filled with endolymph. The spiral organ of Corti sits on the basilar membrane. It contains hair cells (receptors for hearing) and supporting cells. The hair cells have a hair bundle composed of stereocilia at their apical end. Superior to and in contact with the stereocilia is the tectorial membrane (tector ⫽ covering). The basal end of the hair cells synapse with sensory and motor neurons from the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve. Movement of the basilar membrane, caused by perilymph movement, forces the hair bundle into the tectorial

SPECIAL SENSES

371

membrane and bends the stereocilia. This results in a generation of nerve impulses in the sensory neurons.

ACTIVITY 11 Microscopic Anatomy of the Cochlea and Spiral Organ of Corti Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the cochlea and spiral organ of Corti in Figure 24.15. Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on a model or chart. 2 Examine a slide showing a cross-section through the cochlea. • Using the low-power objective, identify the basilar membrane, cochlear duct, spiral organ of Corti, scala tympani, scala vestibuli, and vestibular membrane. • Using the high-power objective, identify the basilar membrane, hair bundle, hair cells, and tectorial membrane.

1 7

2

8 9

10 11

3 4 5 6

20⫻ (a) Cross-section through cochlea

(a) • basilar (BAY-sih-lur) membrane • cochlear duct • scala (SCAY-lah) tympani • scala vestibuli • spiral organ of Corti • vestibular membrane

110⫻ (b) Cross-section through spiral organ of Corti

(b) • basilar membrane • cochlear duct • hair cells • tectorial membrane • vestibular membrane

1 ____________________________________________________

7 ____________________________________________________

2 ____________________________________________________

8 ____________________________________________________

3 ____________________________________________________

9 ____________________________________________________

4 ____________________________________________________

10 ____________________________________________________

5 ____________________________________________________

11 ____________________________________________________

6 ____________________________________________________ FIGURE 24.15

Photomicrographs of the cochlea and spiral organ of Corti.

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3. Microscopic Anatomy of the Equilibrium Receptors of the Internal Ear There are 2 types of equilibrium receptors, the maculae (macula, sing.) located in the utricle and saccule, and the cristae (crista, sing.) located in the membranous semicircular ducts within the ampullae. The maculae provide information on head position (static equilibrium), as well as linear acceleration and deceleration, a type of dynamic equilibrium. The maculae consist of hair cells with hair bundles and supporting cells. The hair bundles are in contact with a gelatinous membrane, the otolithic membrane (oto ⫽ stone), which contains calcium carbonate crystals called otoliths. Movement of the head causes movement of the otoliths and otolithic membrane, which bends the hair bundles. The direction of movement will determine if the hair cells release more or less neurotransmitter to the associated sensory neurons. 1

The crista (ampullaris) detects rotational acceleration and deceleration, a type of dynamic equilibrium. Each crista consists of hair cells and supporting cells. The hair bundles of the hair cells are covered by a gelatinous structure called the cupula. When the head moves, movement of endolymph pushes the cupula causing the hair cells to bend. Bending of the hair bundles results in generation of nerve impulses in the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve.

ACTIVITY 12 Microscopic Anatomy of the Macula and Crista Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the macula and crista in Figure 24.16. Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on a model or chart. 2 Examine the demonstration slide showing a crosssection through the crista with the high-power objective lens. Identify the cupula and hair cells.

2

3 Flow of endolymph

4 6 7 8 Nerve fibers 5 Direction of body movement (a) Macula

(b) Crista

(a) • hair cell • otoliths (OH-toe-liths) • otolithic membrane • stereocilium in hair bundle • vestibular branches of vestibulocochlear nerve

(b) • cupula (KYou-pyul-uh) • hair bundle • hair cell

1 _______________________________________________________

6 _______________________________________________________

2 _______________________________________________________

7 _______________________________________________________

3 _______________________________________________________

8 _______________________________________________________

4 _______________________________________________________ 5 _______________________________________________________ FIGURE 24.16

Microscopic anatomy of the macula and crista.

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4. Auditory and Equilibrium Tests Hearing loss can be described as either conduction deafness or sensorineural deafness. Conduction deafness occurs when there is a decreased ability to conduct the energy of sound waves through the external and middle ear to hearing receptors in the inner ear. Ear wax buildup, damage to the tympanic membrane, or fusion of auditory ossicles may cause conduction deafness. Sensorineural deafness is caused by damage to hearing receptors, damage to the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve, or damage of the neural pathways to the auditory cortex. Equilibrium receptors provide information that enables the body to maintain balance. There are two types of equilibrium receptors, static and dynamic. Static equilibrium receptors provide information about body position relative to the force of gravity (standing upright vs. being upside down). Dynamic equilibrium receptors provide information about body position in response to sudden movement such as rotation, acceleration, and deceleration (spinning, going faster, stopping). Inflammation of or injury to equilibrium receptors results in an inability to maintain body position, vertigo, and/or dizziness. Vertigo is the sensation of circular motion either of oneself or external objects, while dizziness is often used to describe faintness, unsteadiness, or lightheadedness. Severe vertigo may be accompanied by nystagmus—rapid, involuntary movement of eyeballs.

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ACTIVITY 13 Auditory and Equilibrium Tests Lab Activity 1 Test for unilateral (one side only) deafness using the Weber test. • Choose a subject from your group. Have the subject sit with the head erect and facing forward. • Strike a tuning fork (middle C preferably) and place it medially on the subject’s forehead (bone conduction). • Ask the subject if the sound is equally loud in both ears or louder in one ear. Circle the result in Table 24.3. • If the sound is equally loud in both ears, the subject either has normal hearing or bilateral deafness (equal hearing loss in both ears). If the subject hears the sound louder in one ear, then the subject may have unilateral deafness (either conduction deafness in that ear or sensorineural deafness in the opposite ear). • If the subject has unilateral deafness, conduct the Rinne test to determine if hearing loss is conduction deafness. • Optional—Mimic unilateral conduction deafness by placing a cotton ball (or finger) in one external auditory canal and repeat the Weber test.

NOTE: In the Weber test, sound is louder in the ear with conduction deafness. This is not a typo error. Research this and you will find several explanations from simple to complex. This simplest explanation is that bone conducts sound better than air. The ear with conduction deafness hears only sound conducted through bone, whereas the normal ear hears sound conducted through air in the external ear canal and sound conducted through bone. In the normal ear, the sound conducted through air in the external ear canal acts like background noise.

T A B L E 2 4 . 3 Results of Weber, Rinne, and Barnay Tests TEST

RESULTS (CIRCLE YOUR RESULTS)

Weber test

Equal loudness in both ears ⫽ normal hearing or equal hearing loss in both ears or Sound is louder in right ear ⫽ conduction deafness in right ear or sensorineural deafness in left ear or Sound is louder in left ear ⫽ conduction deafness in left ear or sensorineural deafness in right ear

Rinne test

Conduction deafness or no conduction deafness

Balance test

Static equilibrium receptors: functioning or not functioning

Barnay test

Head slightly forward: Head toward shoulder: Head on chin:

Direction of eye movement

Name semicircular canal stimulated

lateral or vertical or rotational lateral or vertical or rotational lateral or vertical or rotational

lateral or anterior or posterior lateral or anterior or posterior lateral or anterior or posterior

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2 Test for conduction deafness using the Rinne test. • This test will be conducted on the ear that may have conduction deafness as indicated by the Weber test. • Have the subject sit with head erect and facing forward. • Strike a tuning fork and place it on the subject’s mastoid process to test hearing by bone conduction. • Ask the subject to tell you when the sound can no longer be heard. Immediately place the still-vibrating tuning fork close to the subject’s ear to test hearing by air conduction. If the subject can hear the tuning fork again when it is placed next to his or her ear, the subject does not have conduction deafness in that ear. If the subject cannot hear the tuning fork again, then the subject may have conduction deafness in that ear. • Circle the results in Table 24.3. If the subject does not have conduction deafness, the test is complete. • To verify conduction deafness, test the same ear again. This time you are testing hearing by air conduction first. • Strike the tuning fork again and place the tuning fork close to the subject’s ear. • Ask the subject to tell you when the sound can no longer be heard, then place the tuning fork on the subject’s mastoid process (bone conduction). If the subject hears the sound again, there is conduction deafness in that ear. Record whether the subject has conduction deafness or no conduction deafness in that ear by circling the results in Table 24.3. 3 Conduct a balance test to evaluate static equilibrium receptors. • Have the subject stand in front of a whiteboard or chalkboard with arms at the sides. The subject may not lean against the wall or support him- or herself in any manner. • Tell the subject to stand perfectly still. Mark the outline of the shoulders to help determine when he or she sways. • Tell the subject to close his or her eyes. Observe movement in the subject’s shoulders. Notice that, although the subject may sway slightly, posture is always corrected. Signals from the static equilibrium receptors are helping the subject to maintain posture. If the static equilibrium receptors are not functioning,

the subject will not be able to maintain posture and will exhibit large swaying movements or will fall. Be prepared to support the subject if necessary. • Record the results in Table 24.3. 4 Conduct the Barany test to evaluate function of semicircular canals and dynamic equilibrium receptors. • Choose a subject from your lab group who does not readily experience dizziness or become nauseated when rotated. If the subject experiences nausea during the demonstration, immediately stop rotation. • Provide the subject with a chair or stool that can be rotated. Have the subject sit on the chair and hold on to the arms or seat for safety. Decide how the subject will position his or her legs during rotation to ensure safety and prevent interference. Position 3 to 4 students around the chair with their feet firmly against the legs of the chair to prevent the chair from tipping over or the subject from falling off. • Tell the subject to slightly tilt his or her head forward, focus on a distant object, and keep both eyes open during the rotation. • Carefully turn the chair or stool clockwise (to the right). Complete 10 turns, one turn per 2 seconds, and stop suddenly. Be prepared to support the subject until vertigo and/or dizziness has passed. The subject will still experience rotation, indicating that the semicircular canals are functioning. Endolymph continues to move within the membranous semicircular ducts for a short time after rotation has stopped. • Observe which way the subject’s eyeballs are moving immediately after stopping rotation. Record direction in Table 24.3. • Lateral movement of the eyes indicates stimulation of the dynamic equilibrium receptors in the lateral semicircular canals. • Vertical movement of the eyes indicates stimulation of the dynamic equilibrium receptors in the anterior semicircular canals. • Rotational movement of the eyes indicates stimulation of the dynamic equilibrium receptors in the posterior semicircular canals. • Repeat the demonstration with the subject’s head tilted toward one shoulder, and then again with the subject’s chin resting on his or her chest.

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C. The Nose and Olfaction The nose contains the receptors for the sense of smell or olfaction (olfact- ⫽ smell). Olfactory receptors are found within the olfactory epithelium, a specialized area of the epithelium lining the nasal cavity. The olfactory epithelium covers the inferior surface of the cribriform plate, the superior nasal concha, and the upper part of the middle nasal concha. The olfactory epithelium contains olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, basal stem cells, and ducts of olfactory glands. The olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons whose dendritic end is embedded in the mucus layer covering the surface of the olfactory epithelium and whose axons form the olfactory nerves. The olfactory receptors are located on olfactory hairs that project from the dendrites of the olfactory receptor cells. Olfactory nerves pass through olfactory foramina in the cribriform plate and synapse on neurons in the olfactory bulb. Nerve impulses then travel along the olfactory tract

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to the lateral olfactory area of the cerebral cortex. Olfactory receptors adapt to odors very quickly. This explains why when we are trying to determine the source of an odor we often lose the smell before we find it. If we leave the area and return, we can smell the odor again.

ACTIVITY 14 Structure of the Olfactory Epithelium Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the olfactory epithelium in Figure 24.17. Lab Activity 1 Identify the following areas on a skull: location of olfactory epithelium and the olfactory foramina in the cribriform plate.

1 2

4

3

5

(a) Sagittal section through head showing olfactory structures

Mucus layer

6 (b) Olfactory epithelium

(a) • cribriform (CRIB-ri-form) plate • olfactory (OHL-fak-tore-ee) bulb • olfactory tract

(b) • olfactory hair • olfactory nerve • olfactory receptor cell

1 _______________________________________________________

4 _______________________________________________________

2 _______________________________________________________

5 _______________________________________________________

3_______________________________________________________

6 _______________________________________________________

FIGURE 24.17

Olfactory structures.

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ACTIVITY 15 Olfactory Adaptation

D. Taste Buds and Gustation

Lab Activity 1 Choose a subject, a timer, an experimenter (holds vial under subject’s nose), and a recorder. 2 Have the subject plug one nostril with cotton and close both eyes. 3 Noting the time, hold a container of cloves just under the open nostril and ask the subject to inhale through the open nostril and exhale through the mouth. 4 Ask the subject to tell you when the odor has disappeared, note the time, and record in Table 24.4. Instruct the subject to immediately pull out the cotton in the other nostril and inhale (vial still under nose). 5 Ask the subject if he or she can smell cloves. Record the result in Table 24.4. 6 Repeat the experiment with another distinct smell, such as peppermint or cinnamon. Avoid irritating odors. 7 Clean Up: • Dispose of materials as directed by your instructor.

Taste buds, which are found on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx (throat), and larynx, are microscopic, onionshaped structures that contain gustatory cells, gustatory hairs, and supporting cells. Each gustatory (gust- ⫽ taste) cell has one gustatory hair that projects through an opening, the taste pore, on the apical end of the taste bud. Gustatory receptors are located on the gustatory hairs. The basal end of gustatory cells synapse onto the dendritic end of sensory neurons. Axons from the sensory neurons contribute fibers to the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), or vagus nerve (X), depending on the location of the taste bud. Taste buds on the tongue are located in papillae, elevated structures that give the tongue its rough appearance. There are 4 types of papillae: vallate (circumvallate), fungiform, foliate, and filiform. Vallate (circumvallate) papillae are the largest papillae and form an inverted V at the posterior of the tongue. Fungiform papillae are mushroomshaped and are scattered over the surface of the tongue. Foliate papillae are present mostly in children and are located in lateral margins of the tongue. Filiform papillae are slender, pointed projections that cover the surface of the tongue and give the tongue a rough texture. These papillae have tactile receptors but no taste buds. Taste buds are found in vallate, fungiform, and foliate papillae.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: OLFACTORY ADAPTATION 1 Is the time of adaptation the same for all odors?

2 After the nostril was unplugged, explain why the subject was able to smell the odor again.

T A B L E 2 4 . 4 Results of Olfactory Adaptation Experiment CAN SUBJECT SMELL ODOR AFTER ODOR

Cloves Peppermint Cinnamon

TIME TO ADAPTATION (SEC)

NOSTRIL UNPLUGGED?

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There are 4 primary taste sensations: sweet, bitter, salty, and sour, and a possible fifth, MSG (monosodium glutamate). Gustatory receptors most sensitive to sweet and salty sensations are found on the tip of the tongue, while bitter sensations are in the back and sour sensations are on the sides of the tongue. Other taste sensations are a mixture of these four. Smell, temperature, and texture (tactile sensation) contribute to our sense of taste. A person with a cold often has a loss of taste due to a loss of smell. Cold French fries are not as tasty as hot ones, and mushy apples are not as good as crisp ones.

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ACTIVITY 16 Gustatory Structures and Sensations Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the gustatory structures in Figure 24.18(a), (b), and (c). Lab Activity 1 Examine a microscope slide of a vallate papilla. • Using the low-power objective lens, identify the taste bud in the wall of the papilla. • Using the high-power objective lens, identify the taste pore, gustatory hairs, and gustatory receptor cells forming the wall of the taste bud. 5

Epiglottis

6

Palatine tonsil

7

Lingual tonsil 1

3 4

8

2

(b) Details of papillae

9 10 (a) Dorsum of tongue showing location of papillae

11

Stratified squamous epithelium

12

Connective tissue (c) Structure of a taste bud

(a) • filiform papilla • foliate papilla • fungiform papilla • vallate (circumvallate) papilla

(b) • filiform papilla • fungiform papilla • taste bud • vallate papilla

(c) • gustatory hairs • gustatory receptor cell • sensory axons • taste pore

1 __________________________________

5 __________________________________

9 __________________________________

2 __________________________________

6 __________________________________

10 __________________________________

3 __________________________________

7 __________________________________

11 __________________________________

4 __________________________________

8 __________________________________

12 __________________________________

FIGURE 24.18

Gustatory structures.

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2 Use a mirror to identify fungiform and filiform papillae on your tongue. Try to see vallate papillae on the back of the tongue. 3 Examine the contribution of texture and smell to the sense of taste. Since many labs do not allow eating or drinking, this activity may need to be done in another area or at home. • Choose a subject, an experimenter (who will give the food cubes to the subject), and a recorder. The subject will first try to identify food by texture only (rolling food on surface of tongue), then by taste (chewing food increases the amount of chemicals dissolved in saliva and capable of interacting with taste receptors), and finally with the addition of smell. • Place 1⁄2-inch cubes of carrot, banana, apple, raw potato, and cheese on a plate. • Have the subject pinch both nostrils, close both eyes, and open his or her mouth. Randomly choose one of the cubes and place it in the subject’s mouth. • Instruct the subject to roll the food around the surface of the tongue and attempt to identify the food. If identification is correct, check the “texture only” column next to the food in Table 24.5.

• Instruct the subject to chew the food and attempt to identify the food. If identification is correct, check “texture and taste” column in Table 24.5. • Instruct the subject to open both nostrils and attempt to identify the food. If identification is correct, check the “texture, taste, and smell” column in Table 24.5. • Repeat procedure with the other food cubes.

DISCUSSION QUESTION: GUSTATORY STRUCTURES AND SENSATIONS 1 Compare the number of foods identified by texture, identified by taste, and identified by the sense of smell.

T A B L E 2 4 . 5 Results of Experiment: Contribution of Texture and Smell to Taste FOOD

Carrot Banana Apple Raw potato Cheese

TEXTURE ONLY

TEXTURE AND TASTE

TEXTURE, TASTE, AND SMELL

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

Section ______________________________

24 E X E R C I S E

A. Accessory Eye Structures Name the structure that corresponds to each statement. _______________ 1. drains tears into nasal cavity _______________ 2. produces tears _______________ 3. membrane that covers the inner surface of eyelid _______________ 4. tears from surface of eye drain into here _______________ 5. membrane that covers the anterior surface of the sclera _______________ 6. drains tears into the nasolacrimal duct

B. Extrinsic Eye Muscles Name the muscle that applies to each statement. _______________ 1. moves eyeball superiorly _______________ 2. moves eyeball laterally _______________ 3. moves eyeball inferiorly _______________ 4. moves eyeball medially _______________ 5. moves eyeball laterally and inferiorly _______________ 6. moves eyeball laterally and superiorly

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C. Eye Structures Choose the structure that applies to each statement. More than one structure may apply to a statement, and a structure may be used more than once. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

anterior cavity anterior chamber choroid ciliary body ciliary muscle ciliary process cornea iris lens

j. ora serrata k. posterior chamber l. pupil m. retina n. sclera o. scleral venous sinus p. suspensory ligaments q. vitreous chamber

________ 1. produces aqueous humor ________ 2. structures that are part of vascular tunic ________ 3. contains photoreceptors ________ 4. controls the size of the pupil ________ 5. drains aqueous humor from the anterior chamber ________ 6. structures that are part of the fibrous tunic ________ 7. most anterior part of the eyeball ________ 8. anterior boundary of retina ________ 9. attaches lens to ciliary body ________ 10. changes shape to focus light on retina ________ 11. location of aqueous humor ________ 12. white, tough outer layer of eyeball Answer the following questions: 13. Why can the retina pull away from the back of the eyeball?

14. Name the instrument used to view the retina during a physical exam.

15. Name the two layers of the retina.

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D. Anatomy of the Retina Choose the structure that corresponds to each statement. a. b. c. d.

bipolar cell layer central fovea cones ganglion cell layer

e. f. g. h.

macula lutea optic disc photoreceptor layer rods

________ 1. has the highest density of cones in the retina ________ 2. axons form optic nerve ________ 3. does not contain photoreceptors; blind spot ________ 4. photoreceptor that allows us to see color ________ 5. contains rods and cones ________ 6. the center of the neural portion of the retina ________ 7. photoreceptor used in night vision ________ 8. rods and cones synapse on these cells

E. Visual Acuity Tests Answer the following questions: 1. Define accommodation.

2. A 10-year-old patient’s distance visual acuity was tested and determined to be 20/80. (a) Explain what that means.

(b) Is 20/80 better or worse than 20/20? Explain.

3. A 60-year-old man has to hold his newspaper at arm’s length to read it. What condition does he have? 4. A person with _______________ has blurry near vision but normal distance vision. 5. A person with _______________ does not see everything within a visual field clearly; some parts are blurry. 6. A person with _______________ has normal near vision but blurry distance vision.

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F. External and Middle Ear Structures Choose the structure that applies to each statement. More than one structure may apply to a statement, and a structure may be used more than once. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

auditory tube auricle external auditory canal external ear helix incus lobule

h. malleus i. middle ear j. oval window k. stapes l. round window m. tympanic membrane

________ 1. auditory ossicle attached to tympanic membrane ________ 2. equalizes air pressure in middle ear with external air pressure ________ 3. external ear structures ________ 4. ear drum ________ 5. external feature of ear that contains the helix and lobule ________ 6. stapes is attached to this membrane-covered opening ________ 7. middle auditory ossicle ________ 8. small bones of middle ear that are connected by synovial joints

G. Internal Ear Structures Choose the structure that applies to each statement. More than one structure may apply to a statement, and a structure may be used more than once. a. b. c. d. e. f.

ampulla cochlea cochlear duct endolymph oval window perilymph

g. h. i. j. k. l.

round window saccule semicircular canals semicircular ducts utricle vestibule

________ 1. interconnected components of membranous labyrinth ________ 2. fluid found within all bony labyrinth structures ________ 3. sections of the membranous labyrinth found within vestibule ________ 4. section of the membranous labyrinth that contains hearing receptors ________ 5. sections of the membranous labyrinth that contain equilibrium receptors ________ 6. interconnected components of bony labyrinth

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H. Microscopic Anatomy of the Cochlea, Spiral Organ of Corti, Macula, and Crista Choose the structure that applies to each statement. More than one structure may apply to a statement, and a structure may be used more than once. a. b. c. d. e.

basilar membrane cochlear duct crista cupula hair bundle

f. g. h. i. j.

hair cells macula otolithic membrane scala tympani scala vestibuli

k. l. m. n.

spiral organ of Corti supporting cells tectorial membrane vestibular membrane

________ 1. receptor for hearing ________ 2. receptor(s) that contain(s) hair bundles, hair cells, and supporting cells ________ 3. components of macula ________ 4. membrane separating the superior chamber of cochlea from cochlear duct ________ 5. structure(s) that bend(s) stereocilia of hair cells ________ 6. spiral organ of Corti sits on this membrane ________ 7. equilibrium receptors ________ 8. contains endolymph ________ 9. contains perilymph ________ 10. equilibrium receptor found within ampullae of semicircular canals

I.

Auditory and Equilibrium Tests

Answer the following questions: 1. What causes nystagmus?

2. What causes conduction deafness?

3. What causes sensorineural deafness?

4. If a vibrating tuning fork is placed on the mastoid process, who would “hear” the sound—someone with normal hearing, someone with conduction deafness, or someone with sensorineural deafness? Circle all that apply. 5. Inability to maintain posture while standing still would indicate a problem with which equilibrium receptor?

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J. Olfaction Choose the structure that applies to each statement. a. b. c. d. e.

cribriform plate superior portion of nasal cavity olfactory hair olfactory nerve olfactory receptor cells

________ 1. bipolar neurons ________ 2. part of olfactory receptor cell that contains the olfactory receptors ________ 3. formed of bipolar neuron axons ________ 4. olfactory nerves pass through this structure before synapsing onto olfactory bulb ________ 5. location of the olfactory epithelium

K. Taste Choose the structure that applies to each statement. More than one structure may apply to a statement, and a structure may be used more than once. a. b. c. d. e.

filiform papillae fungiform papillae pharynx soft palate gustatory cell

f. g. h. i. j.

gustatory hair supporting cell taste buds taste pore vallate papillae

________ 1. contain taste buds ________ 2. part of gustatory cell that contains gustatory receptor ________ 3. opening in taste bud through which gustatory hair projects ________ 4. components of taste bud ________ 5. mushroom-shaped projections on tongue ________ 6. projections that form inverted V on back of tongue Answer the following questions: 7. Identify where on the tongue the receptors most sensitive to each of the four taste sensations usually are located.

8. What other sensations contribute to the sensation of taste?

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

24 E X E R C I S E

A. The Eye and Vision 1. Strabismus, a misalignment of the eyeball caused by an imbalance in the extrinsic eye muscles, is also called lazy eye or wandering eye. Identify the extrinsic eye muscle that would cause lateral strabismus of the right eye.

2. Why do photographers use a red in the darkroom when developing film?

3–4. Name all the accessory eyeball structures, fluids, and retinal layers that light passes through before it hits the photoreceptors.

5. Explain why the retina can detach from the eyeball with just a blow to the back of the head.

6. Is the retinal area in Figure 24.19 the macula lutea, fovea centralis, or optic disc? Explain your choice.

Retina Choroid Sclera

FIGURE 24.19

Retinal area.

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(a) Normal

FIGURE 24.20

(b) Abnormal

Visual fields.

7. Explain why a pituitary tumor may affect vision.

8. A 10-year-old boy has 20/20 distance vision, and 20/60 near vision. What refraction abnormality does he have?

9. Using your textbook or another source, research how and why glaucoma and macular degeneration affect vision. Compare Figure 24.20(a) and (b) and identify whether the visual field in (b) is representative of a person with macular degeneration or glaucoma.

10. Explain why the condition represented in Figure 24.19(b) causes loss of vision in the center of the field of vision and blurriness in the periphery.

11. What structure keeps a contact lens on the cornea and prevents it from becoming lodged on the posterior surface of the eyeball?

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B. The Ear, Hearing, and Balance 12–13. Sound waves enter the external auditory canal and cause vibrations in structures and fluids of the ear. Identify in order the structures and fluids that vibrate in the pathway from the external auditory canal to the spiral organ of Corti.

14. Diving to the bottom of a deep pool will sometimes cause discomfort in the middle ear. Explain the cause of this discomfort.

15. What do the receptor cells for hearing, static equilibrium, and dynamic equilibrium have in common?

16. Would the receptors for equilibrium work in space at zero gravity?

17. Describe a series of movements that would stimulate all semicircular duct receptors and if repeated may cause vertigo. (Hint: Think of a carnival ride that causes vertigo.)

C. Olfaction and Gustation 18. Why do we sniff when we wish to smell something better?

19. When you lick ice cream off an ice cream cone, which papillae are involved in scraping the ice cream off the cone?

20. Licking cold ice cream off an ice cream cone stimulates a variety of sensory receptors associated with the tongue. Name all the sensory receptors involved.

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25

Endocrine Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

human torso (with a dissectible brain)

•

preserved cats or fetal pigs, disposable gloves, dissecting equipment, and safety glasses, accompanying cat or fetal pig dissection manual

• • •

PowerPhys Experiment: Blood Glucose Regulation

1 Identify each major endocrine gland on models or charts 2 Name the main hormones secreted by each major endocrine gland 3 Identify selected endocrine tissue on microscope slides

T

he endocrine system (endo- ⫽ within; krinein ⫽

to secrete) has many glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. These chemicals are transported throughout the body in blood and bind to target cells that have cell membrane receptors for a specific hormone. Hormones cause changes in activity in these target cells and direct a variety of cellular activities to keep the body in homeostasis.

A. Identification of Major Endocrine Glands

compound microscope, lens paper, prepared slides of selected endocrine glands: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas

PowerPhys Experiment: Thyroid Function Measurement of Blood Glucose: Glucometer, alcohol wipes, lancet, test strips, other material specified by lab group’s experimental protocol.

ACTIVITY 1 Identification of the Major Endocrine Gland Pre-Lab Activity 1 Use your textbook to label the major endocrine glands in Figure 25.1. Lab Activity 1 Identify these 10 major endocrine glands on a human torso and a brain model.

The selected, major endocrine glands that we study in this exercise are shown in Figure 25.1. From the head inferiorly, they are the pineal gland (body), hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

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ENDOCRINE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 5 1

6

2 (behind #7)

• • • • • • • • • •

adrenal (a-DREE-nul) glands hypothalamus (hypo-THAL-a-mus) ovaries pancreas parathyroid (para-THY-roid) glands pineal (pie-NEE-ul) gland pituitary gland or hypophysis (hy-POF-ih-sis) testes (TES-teez) thymus (THY-mus) thyroid gland

7

8

3

1 ________________________________________ 2 ________________________________________ 4

3 ________________________________________ 4 ________________________________________ 5 ________________________________________ 9 (in female)

6 ________________________________________ 7 ________________________________________

10 (in male)

8 ________________________________________ 9 ________________________________________

Anterior view

10 ________________________________________ FIGURE 25.1

Major endocrine glands.

B. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland Located inferior to the thalamus in the brain, the hypothalamus is an important component of both the nervous and endocrine systems and couples these two regulatory systems together. Although in the past the pituitary gland was called the “master gland,” it is now known that the hormones produced by the hypothalamus regulate the pituitary gland. The hypothalamic hormones and several of the anterior pituitary hormones are called tropic hormones because they target another endocrine gland to be active. The pituitary gland is also called the hypophysis (hypo- ⫽ under; phyein ⫽ to grow; translated as “to grow under the hypothalamus”) and is comprised of the anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis (adeno- ⫽ gland) and the posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis (neuro- ⫽ nerves). An intermediate lobe is present in the fetus but

atrophies during fetal development. The infundibulum is the stalk that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland and contains a direct blood supply to the pituitary. The anterior pituitary is composed of glandular epithelial tissue that makes and secretes seven hormones: human growth hormone (hGH) or somatotropin, thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and melanocytestimulating hormone (MSH). Secretory or inhibitory hormones secreted by the hypothalamus either stimulate or inhibit secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. The posterior pituitary is composed of nervous tissue that stores and releases into the blood two hormones that are not synthesized in the posterior pituitary: antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT). These two hormones are synthesized within cell bodies of hypothalamic neurons, are packaged into vesicles, and travel down axons that pass through the infundibulum to the posterior pituitary gland.

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ACTIVITY 2 Pituitary Gland Pre-Lab Activity 1 Examine and label the drawing and photomicrographs of the pituitary gland in Figure 25.2(a), (b), and (c). Lab Activity 1 Observe a slide of the anterior and posterior pituitary with a compound microscope and identify the structures listed with Figure 25.2(c).

Mammillary body

• anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis (a-den-oh-hy-POF-ih-sis) • hypothalamus (hypo-THAL-uh-mus) • infundibulum (in-fun-DIB-u-lum) • posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis (neur-oh-hy-POF-ih-sis)

2

Optic chiasm 3

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 1

3 _______________________________________

4

4 _______________________________________

Sphenoid bone (sella turcica)

5

(a) Hypothalamus and pituitary gland 9

6

10

7

8

90⫻

10⫻ (b) Survey photomicrograph of infundibulum and pituitary

• • • •

anterior pituitary hypothalamus infundibulum posterior pituitary

5 ______________________ 6 ______________________ 7 ______________________ 8 ______________________

FIGURE 25.2

The pituitary gland.

(c) Photomicrograph of the anterior and posterior pituitary

• anterior pituitary • posterior pituitary

9 ______________________ 10 ______________________

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C. Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

ACTIVITY 3 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

The thyroid gland has two lobes with a connecting isthmus and lies on both sides of the trachea near the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) of the larynx. The thyroid gland has a striking microscopic structure with large follicles that are filled with a protein colloid (large insoluble molecules). Simple cuboidal or simple columnar cells called follicular cells form the follicular walls. Follicle cells synthesize thyroglobulin, a thyroid hormone precursor stored in colloid. Two thyroid hormones (TH), thyroxine (T4) or tetraiodothyronine (tetra- ⫽ four; iodo- ⫽ iodine) and triiodothyronine (T3), are produced from thyroglobulin. Located between the follicles are parafollicular cells or C cells, which synthesize and secrete calcitonin. Embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are typically four small, round parathyroid glands. Two types of epithelial cells are found in the parathyroid glands: the principal cells and the oxyphil cells. The principal cells, which produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), are more numerous and smaller than the oxyphil cells whose function is unknown.

Trachea

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the thyroid and parathyroid glands in Figure 25.3(a) and (b). 2 Label the photomicrographs of the sections of thyroid and parathyroid glands in Figure 25.4(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Place your fingers on each side of the trachea, three fingers’ breadth superior to the suprasternal (jugular) notch, and feel the thyroid gland move upward as you swallow. 2 Observe a slide of the thyroid and parathyroid glands, and identify the structures listed in Figure 25.4(a) and (b).

DISCUSSION QUESTION: THYROID AND PARATHYROID GLANDS 1 Examine Figure 25.4. Thyroglobulin is stored in the colloid, and calcitonin and PTH are stored in the parafollicular and principal cells, respectively. Compare the storage space for thyroglobulin (TH precursor) to the storage space for calcitonin and PTH.

Thyroid gland

(a) • isthmus of thyroid gland • left lobe of thyroid gland • right lobe of thyroid gland • thyroid cartilage of larynx • trachea

2 5 1

1 ______________________________

3 4

2 ______________________________ 3 ______________________________ 4 ______________________________ 5 ______________________________

FIGURE 25.3

The thyroid and parathyroid glands.

(a) Anterior view of thyroid gland

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10

Parathyroid glands (behind thyroid gland) Trachea

11

6 7 8

9

(b) Posterior view

6 _______________________________________

(b) • isthmus of thyroid gland • left lobe of thyroid gland • left parathyroid glands • right lobe of thyroid gland • right parathyroid glands • trachea

7 _______________________________________ 8 _______________________________________ 9 _______________________________________ 10 _______________________________________ 11 _______________________________________

FIGURE 25.3

The thyroid and parathyroid glands, continued. 1

3

2

FIGURE 25.4

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________

5

(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland

(a) Survey photomicrograph of thyroid and parathyroid glands

(a) • parathyroid gland • thyroid gland

4

(b) • colloid (COL-oid)-filled follicle • follicular (fohl-LIK-u-lar) cell • parafollicular (para-fohl-LIK-u-lar) cell or C cell

Sectional views of the thyroid and parathyroid glands.

3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________

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D. Adrenal Glands The adrenal glands (ad- ⫽ addition to; renal ⫽ kidneys) are also known as the suprarenal glands because of their location on the superior part of the kidneys. Each adrenal gland is surrounded by a capsule and is composed of an outer cortex and a central medulla. The cortex and medulla are formed of different tissue types, and therefore produce and secrete different types of hormones. The adrenal cortex is glandular and can be divided histologically into three layers, each layer secreting a different hormone. The zona glomerulosa (zona ⫽ belt; glomerulosa ⫽ little ball) is the outermost layer whose cells are arranged in little columns. The middle layer, the zona fasciculata (fasciculata ⫽ little bundle), has long cords and is the largest layer. The zona reticularis (reticul- ⫽ network) is the innermost layer and has branching cords. Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens (gonadocorticoids). The zona glomerulosa secretes mineralcorticoids, with aldosterone being the main hormone secreted. The zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids, with cortisol being the main hormone secreted. In males and females, the zona reticularis mainly secretes a small amount of the male androgen DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) which

Diaphragm

Adrenal glands

Inferior vena cava

Descending aorta

FIGURE 25.5

The adrenal glands.

has weak hormonal effects. Androgens (andros ⫽ man) are hormones that increase male characteristics. Some of the peripheral target tissues of DHEA convert this hormone to a more powerful hormone, testosterone, while other peripheral target tissues convert DHEA into estrogen. The adrenal medulla is comprised of nervous tissue that is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to secrete two hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE). Like the posterior pituitary gland, the chemicals secreted by this nervous tissue are called hormones because they are secreted into the blood and travel to another part of the body to target cells.

ACTIVITY 4 Adrenal Glands Pre-Lab Activity 1 Observe the location of the adrenal glands in the cadaver photos in Figure 25.5. 2 Label the terms in Figure 25.6(a), (b), and (c). Lab Activity 1 Observe a slide of the adrenal cortex and medulla and identify the structures listed with Figure 25.6(c).

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Adrenal glands

Kidney 2

1

3

(a) • kidney • left adrenal gland • right adrenal gland 1 _________________________________ 2 _________________________________ 3 _________________________________

(a) Anterior view

4 5 6

7

(b) Section through left adrenal gland

(b) • adrenal cortex • adrenal medulla • capsule (c) • adrenal cortex • adrenal medulla • capsule • zona fasciculata (ZOH-na fah-sick-you-LAH-ta) • zona glomerulosa (glow-mare-you-LOH-sa) • zona reticularis (reh-tik-you-LAIR-is)

4 ___________________________________ 5 ___________________________________

12

6 ___________________________________ 7 ___________________________________

9

8 ___________________________________ 9 ___________________________________ 10 ___________________________________ 11 ___________________________________ 12 ___________________________________

FIGURE 25.6

8

The adrenal glands.

10 11 65⫻ (c) Photomicrograph of the adrenal gland

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E. Pancreas

ACTIVITY 5 Pancreas

The pancreas is composed of a head, body, and tail. Its head is cradled in the curvature of the duodenum, and the body and tail are inferior and posterior to the stomach near the spleen. The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine (exo- ⫽ outside; literally “to secrete outside”) functions. The exocrine or acini (acinus ⫽ grape-like) cells vastly outnumber the endocrine cells. Exocrine enzymes are secreted into the duodenum of the small intestine through a duct called the pancreatic duct and function in digestion. Endocrine cells, called pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), are located as little islands among the clusters of acini cells. The alpha or A cells in the pancreatic islets secrete glucagon, and the beta or B cells secrete insulin.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Observe the location of the pancreas in the cadaver photo in Figure 25.7. 2 Label the structures on the drawing in Figure 25.8(a). 3 Using the labeled line drawing in Figure 25.8(b), label the structures in (c). Lab Activity 1 Observe a slide of the pancreas and identify the structures listed in Figure 25.8(c).

Liver

Diaphragm

Spleen

Gallbladder

Tail of pancreas Pancreatic duct

Body of pancreas Head of pancreas

Duodenum (cut open)

Anterior view

FIGURE 25.7

The pancreas.

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(a) • body of pancreas • head of pancreas • tail of pancreas 1 ___________________________ 2 ___________________________ 3 ___________________________

3

(a) • exocrine or acini (AS-ih-nur) cells • pancreatic islet (EYE-let)

Spleen (elevated) 2

4 ___________________________ 5 ___________________________

Duodenum 1 (a) Anterior view 4

5

Blood capillary Exocrine acinus Alpha cell (secretes glucagon) Beta cell (secretes insulin)

(b) Pancreatic islet and surrounding acini

FIGURE 25.8

450⫻ (c) Photomicrograph of pancreatic islet and acini cells

The pancreas.

F. Ovaries, Testes, Pineal Gland, and Thymus Ovaries are female gonads that not only produce and house the ova as they mature, but are also endocrine organs that produce two major hormones: estrogen and progesterone. These two hormones and the microscopic anatomy of the ovary will be studied further in the Exercise 39. The testes are male gonads that not only produce sperm, but also produce and secrete androgens, primarily testosterone. These hormones and the

microscopic anatomy of the testes will be studied in Exercise 38. The pineal gland (pinea- ⫽ pinecone) or pineal body is a small, cone-shaped gland that is located in the brain posterior to the thalamus and superior to the cerebellum. This gland secretes melatonin in darkness and, to a lesser degree in daytime, helps set the body’s biological clock. The thymus plays a role in immune function and is located anterior and superior to the heart (Figure 25.9). This gland is much larger in babies and children and regresses in size as a person ages. The main hormone produced by this gland is thymosin.

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G. Hormone Functions

ACTIVITY 6 Hormone Functions

Hormones act by changing target cell activity. Changes in target cell activity include:

Lab Activity 1 Using Table 25.1, review the hormone(s) produced by each gland and the target cells and function of each hormone. 2 On a human torso, brain model, or endocrine system chart, point to each endocrine gland and name the hormones it secretes. 3 For each hormone, point to and name its target cells on a torso model, and describe how the hormone stimulates target cell activity. 4 Complete PowerPhys Experiment: Blood Glucose Regulation. 5 Complete PowerPhys Experiment: Thyroid Function.

• Synthesis of molecules within the cell (example: estrogen) • Changing plasma membrane permeability (example: aldosterone) • Altering cellular metabolism (example: thyroxin) • Secretion of cell products (example: thyroid stimulating hormone) • Contraction of smooth muscle (example: oxytocin) • Contraction of cardiac muscle (example: epinephrine)

TABLE 25.1

Endocrine Glands, Hormones, Target Cells, and Hormone Function

GLAND

HORMONE

LOCATION OF TARGET CELLS

HORMONE FUNCTION

Anterior pituitary

1. _____________________

Cartilage, bone, skeletal muscle, liver, and other body tissues Thyroid gland

Stimulates secretion of hormones that stimulate body growth and metabolism. Stimulates growth of thyroid gland and secretion of its hormones. Stimulates sperm production. Stimulates oocyte production and estrogen secretion. Stimulates secretion of testosterone. Triggers ovulation and stimulates secretion of estrogen and progesterone. Stimulates production and secretion of milk. Stimulates secretion of hormones by adrenal cortex. Darkens skin pigmentation.

2. _____________________

Posterior pituitary

Thyroid gland

Parathyroid glands

Adrenal cortex

3. _____________________

Testes Ovaries

4. _____________________

Testes Ovaries

5. _____________________

Mammary gland

6. _____________________

Adrenal cortex

7. _____________________

Skin

1. _____________________

Kidneys

2. _____________________

Uterus and mammary glands

1. _____________________

Most body cells

2. _____________________

Most body cells

3. _____________________

Osteoclast cells in bones

______________________

Osteoclast cells in bones

1. _____________________

Kidneys

2. _____________________

Liver, muscle, and cells involved in body defenses

3. _____________________

Uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in secondary sex characteristics

Decreases water lost in urine by returning water to the blood. Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during suckling. Increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate (BMR). Increases metabolism and BMR. Decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts. Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone matrix. Decreases sodium and water loss in urine by returning sodium and water to the blood. Increases resistance to stress, increases blood glucose levels, and decreases inflammation. Insignificant in males; increases sex drive in females.

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ENDOCRINE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Endocrine Glands, Hormones, Target Cells, and Hormone Function (Continued)

GLAND

HORMONE

LOCATION OF TARGET CELLS

HORMONE FUNCTION

Adrenal medulla

1. _____________________

Promotes fight-or-flight response.

1. _____________________

Body cells involved in fight-orflight response Body cells involved in fight-orflight response Most body cells

2. _____________________

Liver

1. _____________________

Uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in female sexual characteristics Uterus, mammary glands and other body cells involved in female sexual characteristics Testes, muscle, and other body cells involved in male sexual characteristics

2. _____________________ Pancreas

399

Promotes fight-or-flight response.

Testes

_____________________

Pineal Gland

_____________________

Brain

Decreases blood glucose levels by transporting glucose into body cells. Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating liver to break down glycogen into glucose. Stimulates development of female sex characteristics; helps regulate menstrual cycle. Stimulates development of female sex characteristics; helps regulate menstrual cycle. Stimulates development of male sex characteristics; stimulates male sex drive; regulates sperm production. Helps to set biological clock.

Thymus

_____________________

T cells (type of white blood cell involved in immune response)

Promotes the maturation of T cells for the immune response.

Ovaries

2. _____________________

ACTIVITY 7 Measurement of Blood Glucose Pre-Lab Activity 1 Devise an experiment with your group or with the whole class that will show a change in blood glucose levels. This experiment is to be done during lab. 2 Things to consider: • Amount of class time available to complete the experiment • Time since last meal or snack • Relative amount of carbohydrate, fat, and protein in last meal or snack • Variable that can be changed in lab that will either increase or decrease blood glucose • Time required for variable to change blood glucose • When and how often blood glucose should be measured Lab Activity 1 Review the experimental protocol with your group or class. 2 Decide who will be the subjects and who will record the data. 3 Read the instructions for your glucometer. 4 Take baseline blood glucose measurement.

5 Take a glucometer, a test strip, a lancet, and an alcohol wipe to your lab area. • Wash your hands thoroughly to prevent infection. • Decide which finger you will use to obtain blood. • Turn on the glucometer. When the glucometer is ready, insert the test strip. Watch the indicator for placing the blood to the strip. • Wipe the fingertip you will pierce with an alcohol wipe. • Using the lancet, pierce your fingertip. • Apply blood to the test strip according to the instructions for your glucometer. • Record the blood glucose reading when it appears. 6 Complete experiment protocol and record your data. 7 Explain your results to the class.

H. Animal Dissection If you are dissecting a cat or fetal pig to observe blood vessels, refer to the appropriate accompanying dissection manual. The blood vessels of a cat or fetal pig are similar to those of the human. The dissection will illustrate how blood vessels are enfolded in connective tissue and dive deep to disappear between skeletal muscles. Sometimes you will discover that an artery, vein and nerve will be traveling together and will separate to journey to separate destinations.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

Section ______________________________

25 E X E R C I S E

A. Hormone Abbreviations Write the name of the hormone next to the abbreviation. 1. ACTH ____________________________________ 2. ADH

____________________________________

3. DHEA ____________________________________ 4. FSH

____________________________________

5. hGH

____________________________________

6. LH

____________________________________

7. NE

____________________________________

8. OT

____________________________________

9. PRL

____________________________________

10. PTH

____________________________________

11. T3

____________________________________

12. T4

____________________________________

13. TSH

____________________________________

14. MSH

____________________________________

15. TH

____________________________________

401

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B. Main Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones Write the name of the endocrine gland that secretes the following hormones. Hormone

Endocrine Gland

1. ACTH

____________________________________

2. ADH

____________________________________

3. aldosterone

____________________________________

4. androgens (DHEA)

____________________________________

5. calcitonin

____________________________________

6. cortisol; cortisone

____________________________________

7. epinephrine/NE

____________________________________

8. estrogen; progesterone

____________________________________

9. FSH

____________________________________

10. glucagon

____________________________________

11. hGH

____________________________________

12. insulin

____________________________________

13. LH

____________________________________

14. melatonin

____________________________________

15. OT

____________________________________

16. PRL

____________________________________

17. PTH

____________________________________

18. T3 and T4

____________________________________

19. testosterone

____________________________________

20. TSH

____________________________________

21. thymosin

____________________________________

22. MSH

____________________________________

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C. Hormone Function Write the name of the hormone that matches its function. ACTH ADH aldosterone androgens calcitonin cortisol epinephrine estrogen FSH

glucagon hGH insulin LH melatonin MSH NE OT PRL

progesterone PTH T3 T4 testosterone thymosin TSH

Hormone Function 1. Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during suckling. ___________________________ 2. Stimulates secretion of hormones by the adrenal cortex. ___________________________ 3. Decreases water loss by increasing reabsorption of water into blood and decreasing urine production. ___________________________ 4. Increases sex drive in females. ___________________________ 5. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬Increases metabolism and BMR. ___________________________ 6. ⎪⎭ ___________________________ 7. Triggers ovulation and stimulates secretion of estrogen and progesterone. ___________________________ 8. Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclast activity. ___________________________ 9. ⎫ ⎪ ⎬Promotes fight-or-flight response. ___________________________ 10. ⎪⎭ ___________________________ 11. Stimulates production and secretion of milk. ___________________________ 12. Increases resistance to stress, increases blood glucose levels, and decreases inflammation. ___________________________ 13. Helps to set the biological clock. ___________________________ 14. Darkens skin pigmentation. ___________________________ 15. Stimulates secretion of hormones that stimulate body growth and metabolism. ___________________________ 16. Decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts. ___________________________ 17. Promotes the maturation of T cells for the immune response. ___________________________ 18. Stimulates oocyte production and estrogen secretion. ___________________________ 19. Decreases blood glucose levels by transporting glucose into body cells.

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___________________________ 20. Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to break down glycogen into glucose. ___________________________ 21. ⎫ ⎪Stimulates development of female sex characteristics and helps regulate ⎬ ___________________________ 22. ⎪⎭menstrual cycle. ___________________________ 23. Regulates sperm development, stimulates development of male sex characteristics, and stimulates male sex drive. ___________________________ 24. Stimulates secretion of testosterone. ___________________________ 25. Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones. ___________________________ 26. Stimulates sperm production. ___________________________ 27. Increases reabsorption of sodium and water into blood and decreases urine output.

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

25 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. Endocrine Glands of the Thorax Label the structures in Figure 25.9. For question 3, name the hormone secreted by the endocrine gland named in question 2. 1. _____________________________

SUPERIOR

2. _____________________________ 1

3. _____________________________

2

INFERIOR

FIGURE 25.9

Neck and thorax region, anterior view.

B. Hormone Imbalances Using your textbook or another reference book, identify the gland and hormone(s) affected by each of the following operations or conditions. 4. Oophorectomy

5. Orchiectomy

6. Cushing’s disease

405

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C. Hormones Answer the following questions: 7. Name two hormones that are also neurotransmitters.

8. Explain why hormones are only able to affect certain cells and not other cells.

Sometimes more than one tropic hormone is involved in a cascade of events involved in negative feedback regulation. In Figures 25.10 and 25.11, a stimulus disrupts homeostasis and initiates release of hormones in a specific order to return to homeostasis. Answer the questions associated with each figure.

9. _______________ Identify endocrine gland 2.

Stress causes low levels of glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) to stimulate the release of

10. _______________ Identify hormone 2. Hypothalamus (Endocrine Gland 1)

CRH.

Corticotropin releasing hormone (Hormone 1)

Endocrine Gland 2

Hormone 2

Endocrine Gland 3 (Hormone 3)

Increases glucose metabolism and stress resistance

FIGURE 25.10

Hypothalamus and tropic hormones.

11. _______________ Identify endocrine gland 3. 12. _______________ Identify hormone 3. 13. _______________ ⎫ ⎪ Name the 2 ⎬ tropic hormones 14. _______________ ⎪⎭

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15. _______________ Identify endocrine gland 2.

Low metabolic rate stimulates the release of

16. _______________ Identify hormone 2. Hypothalamus (Endocrine Gland 1)

TRH.

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (Hormone 1)

Endocrine Gland 2

Hormone 2

Endocrine Gland 3 Hormone 3

Increases metabolic rate

FIGURE 25.11

Hypothalamus and tropic hormones.

17. _______________ Identify endocrine gland 3. 18. _______________ Identify hormone 3. 19. _______________ ⎫ ⎪ Name the 2 ⎬ tropic hormones 20. _______________ ⎪⎭

407

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26

Blood Components and Blood Tests Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

prepared slides of normal human blood (with Wright’s stain)

•

prepared slides of abnormal blood (allergies or infections)

• •

compound microscopes, lens paper, hand counter

•

Blood Typing: blood typing kit or antisera (anti-A; anti-B; anti-D), new test cards or glass slides (two per student), toothpicks, wax marking pencil, Rh warming tray

•

Hematocrit: human or animal blood, heparinized capillary tubes, sealing clay, microcentrifuge, mm rulers (or hematocrit reader)

•

Hemoglobin: human or animal blood, Tallquist paper or hemoglobinometers

•

Coagulation Time: human or animal blood, nonheparinized capillary tubes, small metal file

1 Describe the functions of blood 2 Name the components of blood 3 Describe the structure, characteristics, and function of red blood cells (RBCs), each type of white blood cell (WBC), and platelets 4 Identify RBCs, each type of WBC, and platelets on prepared blood smear slides 5 Describe how blood is typed and perform ABO and Rh blood typing 6 Describe the importance of and perform the following blood tests: differential WBC count, ABO and Rh blood typing, hematocrit, hemoglobin, and coagulation time

T

he adult cardiovascular system contains approx-

imately 5.5 liters (1.5 gallons) of blood. Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to body tissues and transports carbon dioxide, heat, and metabolic

materials needed if using human or animal blood: biohazardous waste container; sharps container; safety glasses; disposable gloves; 10% bleach solution in spray bottle; sterile, disposable lancets or Autolets; alcohol swabs; cotton balls

wastes away from body tissues. It regulates pH, body temperature, and cell water content and also provides protection from blood loss through clotting and against disease through phagocytic white blood cells and antibodies.

409

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A. Components of Blood When centrifuged, blood in a heparinized tube separates visually into two main components: plasma and formed elements. The clear, straw-colored liquid is called plasma and the dark-red and buff-colored portions are the formed elements (Figure 26.1). The formed elements include red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets (cell fragments). RBCs are also called erythrocytes (erythro- ⫽ red; -cytes ⫽ cells), WBCs are known as leukocytes (leuko- ⫽ white), and platelets are known as thrombocytes (thrombo- ⫽ clot). The formed elements constitute approximately 45% of

whole blood volume, and plasma composes about 55%. Plasma is about 91.5% water and 8.5% solutes. The solutes are mostly plasma proteins, but also include nutrients (glucose, amino acids, and lipids), blood gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), electrolytes, hormones, enzymes, and waste materials. Serum is plasma minus clotting proteins. It is the watery fluid created when blood is allowed to sit and clot in an unheparinized tube.

B. The Structure and Function of Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, and Platelets 1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes or RBCs) Erythrocytes are small, anucleate (without a nucleus) biconcave cells that contain hemoglobin, a large molecule used to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. About 33% of the total weight of RBCs is composed of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin contains a red pigment called heme that gives blood its red color. Blood is bright red when oxygen-rich and darker red when oxygen-poor. Characteristics of RBCs are given in Table 26.1. There are approximately 4.5 to 5 million RBCs per microliter of blood; females have lower amounts and males have higher amounts. An abnormally high number of RBCs is called polycythemia ( poly- ⫽ many; cyto- ⫽ cells; -emia ⫽ blood), and an unusually low number of RBCs is one type of anemia.

Uncentrifuged Centrifuged (a) Plasma and formed elements

(b) Serum and formed elements

FIGURE 26.1

Components of blood in a normal adult.

2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes or WBCs) WBCs, nucleated cells that are typically larger than RBCs, attack pathogens and other foreign substances in the body. There are five kinds of leukocytes that are divided into two categories: granular and agranular. Granular leukocytes have discernible vesicles (granules) in the cytoplasm that can be seen after staining, and agranular leukocytes also have granules, but they cannot be observed with the light microscope. These WBCs were named agranular because the microscopes that were used at that time were not powerful enough to distinguish the granules. Granular leukocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Agranular leukocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes. Characteristics of WBCs are given in Table 26.1. There are normally 5,000 to 10,000 WBCs per microliter of blood. An abnormally high number of WBCs is called leukocytosis (-osis ⫽ an increase in a pathological condition), and a decrease in the number of WBCs is called leukopenia (-penia ⫽ deficiency).

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3. Platelets (Thrombocytes; thrombo- ⴝclot) Platelets are formed in red bone marrow from large, multinuclear cells called megakaryocytes (mega- ⫽ large; karyo- ⫽ nucleus). Large megakaryocytes break into tiny cytoplasmic fragments called platelets that do not have

TABLE 26.1 FORMED ELEMENT

411

nuclei and are not considered to be cells. Characteristics of platelets are given in Table 26.1. These special cell fragments protect the body by forming a platelet plug to stop bleeding when blood vessels rupture and by secreting chemicals that aid in blood clotting. Thrombocytopenia is a deficiency in the number of circulating platelets.

Characteristics of RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets (Wright’s Stain) SIZE

NUCLEUS

GRANULES

COLOR OF CYTOPLASM

RBCs

7–8 micrometer (␮m) diameter

No nucleus

No granules

Light pinkish-red

Neutrophils (neutr ⫽ neutral; -phil ⫽ loving)

10–12 ␮m diameter

Multilobed nucleus with 2–5 or more lobes connected by threads.

Small, nondistinct pale lilac to neutral-staining granules

Usually pink but, depending on the stain used, sometimes has a reddish tinge that makes students mistake these cells for eosinophils

Eosinophils (eosin- ⫽ red, acidic dye)

10–12 ␮m in diameter

Bi-lobed nucleus (occasionally 3 lobes)

Many medium, red-orange granules (some stains make them look very dark brownish-red-orange)

Pink

Basophils (baso- ⫽ dark blue, basic dye)

8–10 ␮m in diameter

Nucleus is large, varied in shape; generally obscured by large granules

Lymphocytes (lymph cell)

Small lymphocyte: 6–9 ␮m in diameter Large lymphocyte: 10–14 ␮m in diameter

Large, round, or slightly indented nucleus that stains very dark purple

Granules not obvious with light microscope

Monocytes (mono⫽ one; pertains to having only one nucleus)

Very large cell; 12–20 ␮m in diameter

Large kidney bean or horseshoe-shaped lacy nucleus; sometimes oval and indented

Granules not obvious with light microscope

Platelets

2–4 ␮m in diameter; small cell fragments

No nucleus

Dark purple granules

Large, dark bluepurple granules

Purple

Light sky-blue cytoplasm; small cells have only a rim of cytoplasm; more cytoplasm in larger lymphocytes Light blue-gray

Difficult to see because of dark purple granules

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C. Microscopic Examination of the Formed Elements Blood cells are difficult to see at low magnifications because the cells are so small. The erythrocytes are the most numerous (700:35:1 ratio of RBCs:platelets:WBCs) and are small, pinkish cells. The WBCs are conspicuous because their nuclei stain dark blue to dark purple with Wright’s stain. The majority of WBCs are larger than the RBCs. RBCs are used as a standard to compare the size of WBCs. When looking at WBCs in normal blood cells, the majority of WBCs that you will see are neutrophils (60 to 70% of WBCs). Lymphocytes make up 20 to 25% of WBCs, monocytes 3 to 8%, eosinophils 2 to 4%, and basophils 0.5 to 1%. Often it is difficult to find basophils in normal blood smears. The platelets, which are much smaller than RBCs, stain dark purple and may just look like an extra stain on the slide. Keep in mind that blood cells and their nuclei have a three-dimensional spherical shape. You will not always find the nucleus appearing as described or as seen in photomicrographs because of the various views that are possible. Figure 26.2 depicts the three-dimensional structure of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.

Red blood cell

Platelet

SEM about 3000⫻

White blood cell (small lymphocyte)

FIGURE 26.2 Scanning electron micrograph of the formed elements of blood.

ACTIVITY 1 Identification of RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared blood slide using the low-power lens to locate RBCs and WBCs. See Figure 26.3. • Using the high-power or oil-immersion lens, locate WBCs and platelets. • When you begin your identification, the obvious thing you will notice is there are many, many neutrophils found everywhere. The next prevalent WBC type is the lymphocyte. In fact, you may tire of seeing so many of these two types of cells, but the other three types of WBCs are a little more elusive, but can be found with diligent searching. The percentages represent what percentages specific WBCs are out of the total number of WBCs. Use the size of the RBCs (7–8 um) to estimate the size of the WBCs. Step 1 Identify the most numerous WBC—the Neutrophil—60–70% of WBCs (multi-lobed nucleus; neutral to pink granules; 10–12 um) Step 2 Identify the next numerous WBC—the Lymphocyte—20–25% of WBCs (smallest WBC; nucleus is 90% of cell; small lymphocyte is 6–9 um) Step 3 Identify the largest WBC—the Monocyte—3–8% of WBCs (horseshoe shaped nucleus; light blue cytoplasm; 12–20 um) Step 4 Identify the red granular WBC—the Eosinophil—2–4% of WBCs (Small red granules; bi-lobed nucleus; 10–12 um) Step 5 Identify the blue granular WBC—the Basophil—0.5–1% of WBCs (large blue-purple droplets; nucleus is obscured by granules; 8-10 um)

CLINICAL NOTE: Neutrophils have a multilobed nucleus that gives them the nickname polymorphonuclear leukocytes, or PMNs. Neutrophils are also called “segs” because of the segmented look of the nucleus.

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(a) Neutrophils

(b) Eosinophils

(d) Lymphocytes

(e) Monocytes

FIGURE 26.3

413

(c) Basophils

LM all 1000⫻

Photomicrographs of variations of white blood cells.

D. ABO and Rh Blood Typing Blood typing is critical for blood transfusions, transplantations, and maternal-fetal compatibility, but is also used in genetic studies, forensic studies, legal medicine, and anthropology. Although there are many different systems for classifying human blood, we will be studying the ABO and Rh systems, because they are most commonly used. Blood typing is based on the antigenic (agglutinogens) molecules that are on the surface of the RBC membranes. An antigen is a substance that is able to produce an immune response and will react with a specific antibody. Antibodies are plasma proteins that combine with a specific antigen to inhibit or destroy it. In the ABO system, there are two types of antigens (A and B) that can be present as surface membrane molecules on RBCs. If the plasma membrane of your RBCs have only the A antigen present, you have type A blood; correspondingly, if you have only B antigens present, you have type B blood. If you have both antigens A and B present you have type AB blood, and if you do not have either A or B antigen present, you have type O blood (Figure 26.4).

ABO antibodies appear in babies’ blood a few months after birth. If you have type A blood, you do not have its corresponding anti-A antibody. If the two are mixed, they will form a detrimental antigen-antibody complex and cause clumping. People with type A blood have anti-B antibodies that will become cross-linked and agglutinate (clump) if type B blood is given to them (Figure 26.5). Agglutination is followed by the activation of another plasma protein that attaches to the recipient’s RBCs and hemolyzes or bursts them, releasing hemoglobin that can cause kidney damage. ABO antibodies do not cross the placenta because of their large size. The Rh blood system is different from the ABO system, but has some similarities. If you have the Rh antigen as a surface membrane molecule on your RBCs, you are Rh⫹. If you do not have the Rh antigen, you are Rh⫺. An Rh⫺ person does not spontaneously develop the anti-Rh antibody (as in the ABO system) and does not obtain this antibody until the person is exposed to the Rh antigen from Rh⫹ blood. This can happen through a blood transfusion, by sharing hypodermic needles, or by an Rh⫺ mother carrying an Rh⫹ child. During delivery, the baby’s blood can

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leak from the placenta into the mother’s bloodstream, causing the mother’s body to make Rh antibodies. The first baby would not be affected, but subsequent pregnancies with Rh⫹ fetuses can result in the small Rh antibodies crossing the placenta and causing hemolysis in the fetuses’ blood. This condition is called hemolytic disease of the newborn. Rh⫺ mothers are typically given RhoGAM so they will not make Rh antibodies. The following activity will use antisera (antiserum, sing.), which can be artificial serum or serum from an animal or human containing antibodies against A, B, or D (Rh) antigens. Serum is blood plasma without clotting proteins. If anti-A serum clumps a particular blood sample, the blood is type A because of an antibody-antigen complex formed with the A antigens on the RBCs.

ACTIVITY 2 ABO and Rh Blood Typing Pre-Lab Activity 1 Complete Table 26.2 by writing in the antigen present on the RBCs, and the antibody present in plasma for each blood type. Also, determine each compatible and incompatible donor for each blood type. Lab Activity 1 Your instructor will tell you whether you will be using sterile blood, your own blood, or simulated blood. 2 Procedure for obtaining blood sample. • Thoroughly wash hands with soap and dry with a clean paper towel. • Thoroughly clean the tip of index finger with an alcohol swab. • Open a new, sterile blood lancet exposing the sharp tip only (or use an Autolet). Lance just to the side of the finger pad with the new lancet. Never reuse a lancet, even your own.

SAFETY NOTE: When using human or animal blood samples, you must protect yourself from any blood-borne infectious disease (hepatitis, HIV, etc.). Wear gloves and safety goggles while performing blood tests. If a blood spill occurs, cover the spill with paper towels soaked in 10% bleach solution and immediately inform your instructor.

BLOOD TYPE

TYPE A

TYPE B

A antigen

B antigen

Both A and B antigens

Neither A nor B antigen

Anti-B antibody

Anti-A antibody

Neither antibody

Both anti-A and anti-B antibodies

TYPE AB

TYPE O

Red blood cells

Plasma

FIGURE 26.4

Antigens and antibodies of the ABO blood types.

TABLE 26.2

Summary of ABO Blood Group Interactions

BLOOD TYPE

Antigen on RBCs Antibody in plasma Compatible donor blood types (no hemolysis) Incompatible donor blood types (hemolysis)

A

B

AB

O

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• Deposit the used lancet in the sharps container for biohazardous materials only. • Wipe away the first drop of blood with cotton ball and dispose in biohazard waste container. Gently squeeze one drop of blood on each side of a clean prepared slide. 3 Perform ABO blood typing according to the procedure below using Figure 26.5 as a guide. • Obtain a clean glass slide (test cards if using a typing kit), two new toothpicks, a wax marking pencil, and anti-A and anti-B sera. • Divide the glass slide in half with a wax pencil. Mark A on the left side and B on the right side. Place one drop of anti-A serum on the left side and one drop of anti-B serum on the right side. • Place one drop of blood on sides A and B of slide. • Using separate new toothpicks, mix each sample of blood with the corresponding antiserum. • Results may take up to 2 minutes. Observe each sample for agglutination or the appearance of granulation (Figure 26.5); interpret the results. • Record your results in Table 26.3 by writing “Yes” if clumping occurs and “No” if clumping does not occur. • Write your results on the board to pool class data for comparison. • Record percentage of ABO blood types for your class in Table 26.3. 4 Perform Rh blood typing according to the procedure below. • Obtain a clean glass slide and antiserum D (Rh). • Place one drop of anti-D on the glass slide and add a drop of blood. • Mix the two liquids with a new toothpick. • Place slide on the warm Rh typing box and rock gently to mix. Rh typing requires a higher temperature than ABO typing does. • Results may take up to 2 minutes. Observe your sample for clumping or the appearance of granulation (Figure 26.5); interpret the results. • Sometimes, it is more difficult to obtain positive results with the anti-Rh serum, depending on the supply and delivery situations. • Record your results in Table 26.3 for each sample you tested. • Write your results on the board to pool class data for comparison. • Record percentage of Rh blood types for your class in Table 26.3.

BLOOD COMPONENTS AND BLOOD TESTS

415

5 Clean Up: • Place all lancets in the sharps container for biohazardous materials only. Place blood slides and toothpicks in a biohazardous container according to your instructor’s directions. • Wash tabletops thoroughly with 10% bleach solution at the completion of this activity. • Wash your hands with soap and water.

Blood only

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FIGURE 26.5

Serum agglutination results.

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Blood Typing Results

SERUM AGGLUTINATION RESULTS

STUDENT BLOOD SAMPLE

UNKNOWN 1

UNKNOWN 2

UNKNOWN 3

UNKNOWN 4

Clumping with anti-A Clumping with anti-B Clumping with anti-D (Rh) ABO blood type Rh type

BLOOD TYPES

CLASS BLOOD TYPES (PERCENTAGE)

A B AB O RH⫹ RH⫺

E. Blood Tests 1. Complete White Blood Count A complete blood count (CBC), a vital diagnostic tool, screens for abnormalities in the number or structure of formed elements. The CBC includes: a total RBC count,

total WBC count, platelet count, differential WBC count, hematocrit, and hemoglobin concentration. The CBC is used along with a battery of blood chemistry tests to put together a comprehensive profile of a person’s general level of health based on blood values. Consult Exhibit 26.1 to observe the complexity of a CBC.

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E X H I B I T 2 6 . 1 Complete Blood Count Form PATIENT: ACCOUNT NO: MEDICAL RECORD NO.:

DOCTOR: REPORT FOR LOCATION: HEMATOLOGY

DAY: DATE: TIME:

WBC RBC HGB HCT MCV MCH MCHC RDW PLT MPV NEUT% LYMPH% MONO% EO% BASO% NEUT# LYMPH# MONO# EO# BASO#

⫺1 AUG 20 1000

8.0 4.12 14.4 41.6 101 34.8 34.5 13.1 265 8.2 47 .7 41.0 6.5 4.3 0.5 3.90 3.30 0.5 0.3 0.0

04 REFERENCE

4.5–11.0 4.70–6.10 14.0–18.0 42.0–52.0 83–99 28–34 31.0–37.0 11.0–15.5 150–450 7.4–10.4 49.0–90.0 22.0–51.1 0.0–13.0 0.0–7.0 0.0–3.0 1.50–7.06 0.70–3.00 0.0–1.4 0.0–0.8 0.0–0.3

L L H H

L

H

UNITS

⫻103/UL ⫻106/UL G/DL % FL PG % % ⫻103/UL FL % % % % % ⫻103/UL ⫻103/UL ⫻103/UL ⫻103/UL ⫻103/UL

COAGULATION DAY: DATE: TIME:

PROTIME: PTT:

⫺1 AUG 20 1000

11.4 28.3

04 REFERENCE

10.9–13.3 25.9–35.3

UNITS

sec sec

WBC ⫽ white blood cell; RBC ⫽ red blood cell; HGB ⫽ hemoglobin; HCT ⫽ hematocrit; MCV ⫽ mean corpuscular volume; MCH ⫽ mean corpuscular hemoglobin; MCHC ⫽ mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; RDW ⫽ red blood cell distribution index; PLT ⫽ platelet; MPV ⫽ mean platelet volume; NEUT% ⫽ neutrophil percent; LYMPH% ⫽ lymphocyte percent; MONO% ⫽ monocyte percent; EO% ⫽ eosinophil percent; BASO% ⫽ basophil percent; NEUT# ⫽ neutrophil number; LYMPH# ⫽ lymphocyte number; MONO# ⫽ monocyte number; EO# ⫽ eosinophil number; BASO# ⫽ basophil number; L ⫽ low; H ⫽ high; PTT ⫽ partial thromboplastin time.

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2. Differential White Blood Cell Count A differential WBC count is performed to determine the percentage of each of the five types of WBCs in a blood sample. When attempting to learn which WBCs are normally present from the greatest to least percentages, it is helpful to remember the following mnemonic: “Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas” (N ⫽ neutrophils; L ⫽ lymphocytes; M ⫽ monocytes; E ⫽ eosinophils; and B ⫽ basophils). Because the normal percentage of each WBC type is known, any significant abnormality in these percentages, elevated or depressed, can be indicative of particular disorders. Numerical values for the normal range of WBCs may vary depending on the reference source. SAFETY NOTE: When using human or animal blood samples, you must protect yourself from any blood-borne infectious disease (hepatitis, HIV, etc.). Wear gloves and safety goggles while performing blood tests. If a blood spill occurs, cover the spill with paper towels soaked in 10% bleach solution and immediately inform your instructor.

ACTIVITY 3 Differential WBC Count Lab Activity 1 Complete a differential WBC count using a prepared slide of normal blood. • Complete this activity individually or with a lab partner as your instructor directs. If done together, one person will identify each WBC with the microscope and call out the type to the lab partner. The other person will mark the type of cells encountered by using tally marks (IIII II) and also keep track of the total number of cells. • Using a prepared, normal blood slide, focus using the low-power objective lens and then switch to a

higher power objective lens as directed by your instructor. • To avoid recounting any WBCs, begin at one end of the slide that has a good separation of cells and slowly scan systematically, moving the slide down and over, then up and over, and repeat as seen in Figure 26.6. • If you encounter a cell that you cannot identify or are not sure of, do not count it and continue on. • Continue this pattern until you have found and recorded 100 WBCs in Table 26.4. • Because you are counting 100 cells, the total number of each type of WBC counted is its percentage in the blood sample (i.e., 26 lymphocytes means 26% of the WBCs are lymphocytes). • Write your results on the board to pool class data. 2 Complete a differential WBC count using a prepared slide of abnormal blood, if available. • Follow the instructions for a differential WBC using normal blood (listed above). • Record your tally counts and totals in Table 26.4. • Determine the disorder by consulting Table 26.5 and record in Table 26.4. • Write your results on the board to pool class data for comparison.

FIGURE 26.6 count.

Procedure for scanning WBC differential

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Results of Differential WBC Count

A. Normal Differential WBC Count TYPE OF WBC

OBSERVATION TALLY

% OF TOTAL WBCs

CLASS AVERAGE (% OF TOTAL WBCs)

NORMAL PERCENTAGE OF WBCs

Neutrophil

60–70%

Lymphocyte

20–25%

Monocyte

3–8%

Eosinophil

2–4%

Basophil

0.5–1%

Total WBCs B. Pathological Differential WBC Count Neutrophil

60–70%

Lymphocyte

20–25%

Monocyte

3–8%

Eosinophil

2–4%

Basophil

0.5–1%

Total WBCs Type of Disorder

__________________________________________________________________

TABLE 26.5

Significance of Elevated and Depressed WBC Counts

WBC TYPE

HIGH COUNT MAY INDICATE

LOW COUNT MAY INDICATE

Neutrophils

Bacterial infection, burns, stress, inflammation

Lymphocytes

Viral infections, some leukemias

Monocytes

Viral or fungal infections, tuberculosis, some leukemias, other chronic diseases Allergic reactions, parasitic infections, autoimmune diseases Allergic reactions, leukemias, cancers, hypothyroidism

Radiation exposure, drug toxicity, vitamin B12 deficiency, systemic lupus erythematosus Prolonged illness, immunosuppression, treatment with cortisol Bone marrow depression, treatment with cortisol

Eosinophils Basophils

Drug toxicity, stress Pregnancy, ovulation, stress, hyperthyroidism

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3. Hematocrit (Packed Red Cell Volume) A hematocrit determines the volume of RBCs described as the percentage of RBCs in a whole blood sample. A capillary tube of blood is centrifuged to pack the red cells at the outer end of the tube, separating them from the WBCs, platelets, and plasma. After measuring the length of the RBC column and the total length of the blood column, the percentage of RBCs can be calculated. The normal hematocrit range for females is approximately 38 to 46% and for males it is 40 to 54%. An abnormally high hematocrit (generally 65% or above) is indicative of polycythemia, and a hematocrit with RBCs below the normal level indicates a type of anemia.

•

•

• •

•

ACTIVITY 4 Hematocrit

•

Lab Activity 1 Calculate the hematocrit for blood in the capillary tubes in Figure 26.7. • Use a millimeter ruler to measure (in mm) the length of the whole column (the length of packed RBCs, WBCs, and plasma) and record it in Table 26.6. • Measure the length (in mm) of the RBCs and record in Table 26.6. • Use the following formula to calculate the percentage of RBCs (the hematocrit) in whole blood:

Q

•

•

•

Length of RBCs in mm R ⫻ 100 Length of the whole column in mm

•

• Record the hematocrit in Table 26.6. 2 Calculate the hematocrit on a blood sample if equipment is available. • After reviewing the Safety Note before Activity 3 on using blood, obtain two heparinized capillary tubes, sealing clay, a lancet or Autolet, alcohol swabs, and two cotton balls. • After a finger is cleaned with an alcohol wipe, lance it with a new, sterile lancet, and discard the lancet in the sharps container for biohazardous material only. • Touch the red-lined end of a heparinized (prevents blood from coagulating) capillary tube to the blood air

plasma

and hold the tube at a downward angle. Taking care that no air is allowed to enter while the tube fills by capillary action, fill the capillary tube about threefourths full if possible. Hold a finger over the end of the tube so blood cannot drain out. Place the blood end of the tube into sealing clay to plug the end. Place the sealed tube in a microhematocrit centrifuge with the sealed end on the rubber gasket pointing outward and away from the center. Prepare a second tube in the same manner. Place the second sealed tube in the centrifuge opposite the first tube for balance. Always keep the centrifuge balanced. If others are using the centrifuge, make a note of the groove numbers of your tubes. Secure the inside and outside covers of the centrifuge and set the timer for 4 to 5 minutes. After the centrifuge has stopped, remove your tubes. Note that the RBCs are packed at the bottom near the sealing clay, the WBCs (and platelets) are buff colored next to them, and the clear plasma is on the top. Use a microhematocrit reader or a millimeter ruler to measure the length of the whole column, the length of the packed RBCs, WBCs, and plasma in millimeters (Figure 26.7). Record the whole column length (in mm) and the RBC length (in mm) in Table 26.6. Use the following formula to calculate the percentage of RBCs (the hematocrit) in whole blood:

Q

Length of RBCs in mm R ⫻ 100 Length of the whole column in mm

• Record the hematocrit in Table 26.6. 3 Clean Up: • Place all lancets in the sharps container for biohazardous materials only. • Place hematocrit capillary tubes in a biohazardous container according to your instructor’s directions. • Wash tabletops thoroughly with 10% bleach solution. • Wash your hands with soap and water.

buffy coat

red blood cells

clay

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 26.7

Capillary tubes for calculating a hematocrit.

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Hematocrit Results

HEMATOCRIT CAPILLARY TUBES

RBC COLUMN (mm)

WHOLE COLUMN (mm)

HEMATOCRIT (PERCENTAGE OF RBCs/TOTAL BLOOD)

FEMALE CLASS AVERAGE

NATIONAL AVERAGE FOR MALES

NATIONAL AVERAGE FOR FEMALES

40–54%

38–46%

Hematocrit a Hematocrit b Hematocrit (your blood) MALE CLASS AVERAGE

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: HEMATOCRIT 1 For the capillary tubes in Figure 26.7, is the hematocrit normal, low, or high? If abnormal, do values indicate anemia or polycythemia?

2 Is the class average hematocrit for males higher than females?

3 How does your class compare with the national averages?

4. Determining Hemoglobin Content of Blood Hemoglobin (Hb) is a protein that carries oxygen in the RBCs. Therefore, hemoglobin concentration in blood determines the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. It is possible for you to have a normal hematocrit or RBC volume and still be anemic due to low hemoglobin concentration. Normal values are 12 to 15 g hemoglobin/100 mL blood in females and 13 to 16 g/100 mL in males. In severe anemia, the hemoglobin content can be less than 7 g/100 mL. Clinically, the relationship of the hematocrit (%) is compared with the hemoglobin reading (g/100 mL) and is generally a ratio of 3:1. Two of the several techniques for determining the hemoglobin content of blood are discussed here. The Tallquist measurement is the simpler, but older method that does not always produce accurate results. Hemoglobinometers are accurately calibrated instruments but are more expensive.

ACTIVITY 5 Determining Hemoglobin Content of Blood Lab Activity 1 Follow the Tallquist procedure for determining hemoglobin content, or if using a hemoglobinometer, follow the procedure given in its instruction booklet. Procedure for Tallquist Method • After reviewing the Safety Note before Activity 2 on using blood, obtain a blood sample provided by your instructor or your own blood using methods described previously. • Place one drop of blood on the absorbent Tallquist paper. Be sure the blood spot is large enough to be seen in all the chart holes simultaneously. • Allow blood to dry until it is no longer shiny, but not so dry as to turn brownish. Match its color with the color scale provided. • Record the results as grams of hemoglobin/100 mL of blood in Table 26.7. 2 Clean Up: • Place all lancets in the sharps container for biohazardous materials only. • Place material with blood in a biohazardous container according to your instructor’s directions. • Wash tabletops thoroughly with 10% bleach solution. • Wash your hands with soap and water.

TABLE 26.7

Hemoglobin Content

HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT

Tallquist method: ______ g/100 mL Hemoglobinometer: ______ g/100 mL

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT OF BLOOD 1 Compare your hematocrit results with your grams of hemoglobin/100 mL. Calculate the ratio. _________ Is this close to the normal ratio? (yes/no) 2 To measure the hemoglobin content, RBCs are hemolyzed. How would the results be different if you did not completely hemolyze the RBCs? Would the hemoglobin concentration be higher or lower?

3 Within your class, are there any students who have the same hematocrit, but different hemoglobin concentrations? Explain why this can occur.

5. Coagulation Time The process of blood clotting or coagulation prevents excessive blood loss. There are many blood clotting factors present in the plasma. Other factors are released by injured tissues and platelets to initiate the chemical chain reaction that forms a blood clot. Fibrin is a long, insoluble thread-like protein strand that forms a mesh to trap platelets. Fibrin is formed from soluble fibrinogen molecules during clotting. The coagulation time is the time it takes for clotting to take place when blood is removed from the body. Normal clotting time is within 2 to 6 minutes.

ACTIVITY 6 Coagulation Time Lab Activity 1 Observe the demonstration of clotting blood. • Your instructor will place animal or sterile human blood into two test tubes, one with and one without an anticoagulant. • Observe the clot form and settle to the bottom of the tube without anticoagulant. Observe the strawcolored serum above the clot. • Compare the tube with the blood clot to the blood in the test tube with an anticoagulant. 2 Determine coagulation time. • After reviewing the Safety Note before Activity 2 for using blood, obtain a blood sample from your instructor, alcohol swabs, a nonheparinized capillary tube, a lancet, cotton balls, and a small metal file.

• If using your own blood, use an alcohol swab on a clean finger and prick the finger with a clean, sterile lancet. Have a free flow of blood. • Hold the nonheparinized capillary tube at an angle to collect the blood and put the upper end in the drop of blood. • Fill the tube a minimum of two-thirds full and record the time started. Time: __________ • Lay the tube on a paper towel. • After 30 seconds, scratch the glass with the metal file close to an end of the tube. Holding the tube close to each side of the scratch, gently break the tube away from you. • Gently pull the tube apart and observe the blood to see if a fibrin thread is present. • Repeat this process every 30 seconds until fibrin occurs. Record the amount of time required for coagulation in Table 26.8. • Write results on the board to pool class data. Calculate average coagulation time for your class and record in Table 26.8. 3 Clean Up: • Place all lancets in the sharps container for biohazardous materials only. • Place the capillary tube in a biohazardous container according to your instructor’s directions. • Wash tabletops thoroughly with 10% bleach solution. • Wash your hands with soap and water.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: COAGULATION TIME 1 Would a person with hemophilia have higher or lower than normal clotting times?

2 How would coagulation time be affected if a heparinized capillary tube was used?

TABLE 26.8

Coagulation Time

YOUR COAGULATION TIME

CLASS AVERAGE OF COAGULATION TIME

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

26 E X E R C I S E

A. Characteristics of the Formed Elements and Blood Abnormalities Fill in the blank with the term that fits the description. ______________________ 1. The oxygen and carbon dioxide carrying cell ______________________ 2. Help the body fight infections and foreign substances ______________________ 3. Form a clot to help the body stop bleeding ______________________ 4. Another name for red blood cells ______________________ 5. Another name for platelets ______________________ 6. Another name for white blood cells ______________________ 7. Large cells that develop into platelets ______________________ 8. A deficiency in number of RBCs or decreased hemoglobin content of blood ______________________ 9. An abnormal increase in RBCs ______________________ 10. An abnormal increase in WBCs ______________________ 11. A deficiency in WBCs ______________________ 12. A deficiency in platelets

423

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B. White Blood Cell Structure and Characteristics Fill in the blank with the term that fits the description. Terms may be used more than once. ______________________ 1. 60–70% of all WBCs ______________________ 2. 2–4% of all WBCs ______________________ 3. 0.5–1% of all WBCs ______________________ 4. 20–25% of all WBCs ______________________ 5. 3–8% of all WBCs ______________________ 6. 10–12 ␮m; nucleus with 2–5 connected lobes; pale lilac granules ______________________ 7. 10–12 ␮m; nucleus with 2 or 3 lobes; red-orange granules ______________________ 8. 8–10 ␮m; nucleus difficult to see; large deep blue-purple granules ______________________ 9. 6–9 ␮m; round nucleus that is dark purple; sky blue cytoplasm, no visible granules ______________________ 10. 12–20 ␮m; kidney-shaped nucleus; blue-gray cytoplasm, no visible granules ______________________ 11. Abbreviation for polymorphonuclear leukocytes ______________________ 12. General name for all of the WBCs ______________________ 13.⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Nicknames for neutrophils ______________________ 14.⎪⎭

C. White Blood Cells Write the name of the white blood cell that matches the description. Terms may be used more than once. ______________________ 1.⎫

⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 2.⎬ granulocytes ⎪ ⎪ ______________________ 3.⎭ ______________________ 4.⎫ ⎪ agranulocytes ⎬ ______________________ 5.⎪⎭ ______________________ 6. most numerous leukocyte ______________________ 7. least numerous leukocyte

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D. ABO and Rh Blood Typing Name the antigens present on the RBCs and the antibodies present in plasma of each blood type. Antigens on RBCs

Antibodies in Plasma

1. O⫹

____________

____________

2. A⫺

____________

____________

3. B⫺

____________

____________

4. AB⫹

____________

____________

5. Based on what you know about antigens and antibodies, what blood type is the universal donor? ____________ Explain.

6. What blood type is the universal recipient? ____________ Explain.

E. Hematocrit 1. Define hematocrit.

2. What is the anticoagulant used in this type of blood test? __________ 3. Ron has a hematocrit of 47%. Is this within the normal range? (yes/no) 4. Janey has a hematocrit of 58%. Is this within the normal range? (yes/no)

F. Hemoglobin Content and Coagulation Time 1. Do the hematocrit and hemoglobin content of blood measure the same thing? _________________ Explain.

2. What is the importance of coagulation time?

3. Would a hemophiliac have an above or below normal coagulation time?

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

26 E X E R C I S E

A. White Blood Cell Functions 1. Ken has a bacterial infection with inflammation. What type of WBC increases in number first to help him fight the infection? Which WBC arrives second to help?

B. Differential White Blood Cell Count 2. Lindsey had a differential WBC count that showed 60% neutrophils, 10% eosinophils, 1% basophils, 22% lymphocytes, and 7% monocytes. What could have caused this?

C. Blood Typing 3. Blake’s doctor found out that, although Blake is Rh⫺, he received Rh⫹ blood for the first time. Will he have a transfusion reaction? Explain.

4. Jim has type AB⫹ blood. What type(s) of blood can he receive in a transfusion?

5. If Brittany is blood type O⫺ and her husband is blood type AB⫺, what effect can the Rh factor have on their second child?

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6. Michael is type O⫺. He is donating blood today and wants to know what blood types can accept his blood. What would you tell him?

7. Staci has antibody A in her blood with no Rh antibody. What blood type does she have?

8. Leslie has AB⫹ blood and had a blood transfusion with AB⫺ blood. Could this be a life-threatening situation?

Why or why not?

D. Hematocrit 9. Michaela is an athlete who has been training for several years only in Florida. She had an annual physical, and the doctor read her hematocrit as 59%. What could this reading potentially tell the doctor?

E. Hemoglobin 10. Using your textbook or another reference, determine what type of anemia could cause a reduced hemoglobin level, while the person still has a normal hematocrit.

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27

Heart Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

human heart model

• • • • • • •

model or chart of the coronary circulation

1 Identify the major heart structures on models or charts 2 Explain the differences in structure and function of the two types of heart valves 3 Describe the changes that take place in the heart after birth 4 Trace the flow of a drop of blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations, listing the vessels, chambers, and valves 5 Identify the major vessels involved in coronary circulation on models or charts

human torso or chart showing the heart/pulmonary/systemic circulations red, blue, and purple pencils prepared microscope slides of cardiac muscle gallon plastic zip bags (one per group) index cards small removable labels preserved sheep heart (or other mammalian heart), dissecting instruments, trays, disposable gloves, 5-inch blade knife

6 Describe the microscopic structure of cardiac muscle 7 Name and describe the two layers of the pericardium and the three layers of the heart wall 8 Identify the selected heart structures on a dissected sheep heart

T

he heart is a small double pump that simultane-

ously pumps blood to and from body cells through the systemic circulation and to and from the lungs

through the pulmonary circulation. The blood vessels that carry blood from the heart are called arteries and the blood vessels that carry blood to the heart are called veins.

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A. Surface Features of the Heart The heart is about the size of a fist and lies in the thoracic cavity within the mediastinum (mediastinus ⫽ midway), an area bounded by the lungs laterally, the sternum anteriorly, and the thoracic vertebrae posteriorly. The base of the heart is the wide superior portion of the heart from which the great vessels emerge, and the apex of the heart is the inferior pointed end. The base faces the right shoulder and the apex points to the left hip. The apex of the heart is located in the 5th intercostal space. Like all mammalian hearts, the human heart has four chambers and is divided into right and left sides. Each side has an upper chamber called an atrium and a lower chamber called a ventricle. The two atria form the base of the heart, and the tip of the left ventricle forms the apex. Auricles (auricle ⫽ little ear) are pouch-like extensions of the atria. From the exterior, the auricles look like flaps with wrinkled edges. Coronary blood vessels and adipose tissue are found in the sulci or grooves that externally mark the boundaries between the four heart chambers. Although a considerable amount of external adipose tissue is present on the heart surface for protection and padding, most heart models do not show this. The coronary sulcus is a deep sulcus that

externally shows the separation of the atria and the ventricles. The anterior interventricular sulcus and the posterior interventricular sulcus are shallow grooves that depict the surface boundaries between the two ventricles.

A C T I V I T Y 1 Surface Features of the Heart and Location Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 27.1(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Identify each term from Figure 27.1(a) and (b) on a model or chart. 2 Identify the four boundaries of the heart by placing small removable labels on the following locations on a skeleton: superior border of the 3rd right costal cartilage at its attachment to the rib; inferior border of the 2nd left costal cartilage at its attachment to the rib; 5th left intercostal space (midclavicular); 5th right costal cartilage a little to the right of the sternum.

• • • • • • • •

1

anterior interventricular sulcus apex of heart auricle of left atrium auricle of right atrium base of heart coronary sulcus left ventricle right ventricle 1 ___________________________________

5

2 ___________________________________ 3 ___________________________________

2 3 (groove)

6 (groove)

4 ___________________________________ 5 ___________________________________ 6 ___________________________________

7

7 ___________________________________ 8 ___________________________________

8

4

(a) Anterior view

FIGURE 27.1

Surface features of the heart.

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9 14

10 (groove) 11 12 13 (groove)

15

(b) Posterior view

• • • • • • •

adipose tissue coronary sulcus left auricle left ventricle posterior interventricular sulcus right auricle right ventricle

9 ___________________________________ 10 ___________________________________ 11 ___________________________________ 12 ___________________________________ 13 ___________________________________ 14 ___________________________________ 15 ___________________________________

FIGURE 27.1

Surface features of the heart, continued.

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B. Great Vessels of the Heart The great vessels of the heart either return blood to the atria or carry blood away from the ventricles. The superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus return oxygenpoor blood to the right atrium. The superior vena cava returns blood from the head, neck, and arms; the inferior vena cava returns blood from the body inferior to the heart; and the coronary sinus is a smaller vein that returns blood from the coronary circulation. Blood leaves the right atrium to enter the right ventricle. From here, blood enters the pulmonary trunk, the only vessel that removes blood from the right ventricle. This large artery divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries that carry blood to the lungs, where it is oxygenated. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium through two right and two left pulmonary veins. The blood then passes into the left ventricle, which pumps blood into the large aorta. The aorta distributes blood to the systemic circulation. The aorta begins as a short ascending aorta, curves to the left to form the aortic arch, descends posteriorly, and continues as the descending aorta.

1

The fetal heart contains a short, temporary vascular channel, the ductus arteriosus (ductus ⫽ duct; arteriosus ⫽ artery), which connects the pulmonary trunk and the aorta. This right heart to left heart shunt re-routes some of the blood destined for the lungs to the systemic circulation via the aorta. In fetal life, oxygen is obtained through the placenta from the mother and not from the lungs. Therefore, it is not detrimental to the baby’s health for blood to bypass the lungs. The ductus arteriosus changes into a ligament after birth and remains as the ligamentum arteriosum.

A C T I V I T Y 2 Great Vessels of the Heart Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the great vessels of the heart in Figure 27.2(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Identify each great vessel on a model or chart.

7 8

2

9 3

10 11

4 5

• • • • • • • • • • •

aortic arch ascending aorta descending aorta inferior vena cava left pulmonary artery left pulmonary veins ligamentum arteriosum pulmonary trunk right pulmonary artery right pulmonary veins superior vena cava 1 ______________________________________ 2 ______________________________________ 3 ______________________________________ 4 ______________________________________ 5 ______________________________________ 6 ______________________________________ 7 ______________________________________

6

8 ______________________________________ 9 ______________________________________ (a) Anterior view

10 ______________________________________ 11 ______________________________________

FIGURE 27.2

Great vessels of the heart.

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12

17

13

18

14 19 15 20

16

21 (b) Posterior view

• • • • • • • • • •

aortic arch ascending aorta coronary sinus inferior vena cava left pulmonary artery left pulmonary veins ligamentum arteriosum right pulmonary artery right pulmonary veins superior vena cava

12 ____________________________ 13 ____________________________ 14 ____________________________ 15 ____________________________ 16 ____________________________ 17 ____________________________ 18 ____________________________ 19 ____________________________ 20 ____________________________ 21 ____________________________

FIGURE 27.2

Great vessels of the heart, continued.

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C. Internal Features of the Heart The myocardium of the anterior wall of the right atrium has a honeycombed appearance, and these myocardial ridges, called pectinate muscles (pecten ⫽ comb-like), continue into the auricles. The walls of the right and left atria are separated by the thin interatrial septum. In the fetus, there is a hole in the interatrial septum called the foramen ovale. The foramen ovale allows blood to bypass the lungs and go from the right atrium to the left atrium, forming another right heart to left heart shunt. The fossa ovalis, a connective tissue membrane, forms over and closes the fetal foramen ovale after birth. The ventricles have ridges of muscles called trabeculae carneae (trabecula ⫽ little beam; carnea ⫽ flesh). The larger of these muscles, the papillary muscles, have stringlike cords attached to them called the chordae tendineae (tendinous strands). The opposite ends of these cords are attached to the valves between the atria and ventricles (atrioventricular valves). The interventricular septum is a thick wall that separates the right and left ventricles. The heart has four valves that control the one-way flow of blood through the heart: two atrioventricular (AV) valves and two semilunar valves (semi- ⫽ half; lunar ⫽ moon). Blood passing between the right atrium and the right ventricle goes through the right AV valve, the tricuspid valve (tri- ⫽ three; cusp ⫽ flap). The left AV valve, the bicuspid valve, is between the left atrium and the left ventricle. This valve clinically is called the mitral valve (miter ⫽ tall, liturgical headdress) because the open valve resembles a bishop’s headdress. The two AV valves are structurally similar, except the tricuspid valve has three cusps or flaps and the bicuspid valve has two cusps or flaps that prevent blood from flowing back into the atria when the valves are closed. Blood in the right ventricle goes through the pulmonary (semilunar) valve to enter the pulmonary trunk

(artery). The aortic (semilunar) valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta. These two semilunar valves are identical, with each having three pockets that fill with blood, preventing blood from flowing back into the ventricles when the valves are closed. The thinner-walled atria receive the blood returning to the heart from veins. The pressure of blood in the atria opens the AV valves, and most of the blood flows into the ventricles. Both atria then contract simultaneously to pump the remaining blood into the ventricles. The larger, thick ventricular walls are double pumps that also contract simultaneously. When the ventricles contract, the papillary muscles contract and tighten the chordae tendineae. The chordae tendineae prevent the AV valve flaps from opening into the atria. During ventricular contraction, the force of blood in the ventricles pushes the semilunar valves open. Once the semilunar valves open, blood from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary circulation as blood from the left ventricle simultaneously flows into the systemic circulation. As the ventricles relax, some blood flows back toward the ventricle, causing the semilunar valves to close. The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle because the left side requires more force to pump blood throughout the systemic circulation.

ACTIVITY 3 Internal Features of the Heart Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 27.3. Lab Activity 1 Identify each term on a model or chart.

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Frontal plane

1 9

2

10 Fossa ovalis 3

11 12

4

13

5 14 6

15

7

16

8

Frontal section

• aortic (semilunar) valve • bicuspid valve (mitral) • chordae tendineae (CHOR-dee ten-DIN-ee) • coronary sinus opening • inferior vena cava opening • interventricular (inter-venTRIC-u-lar) septum • left atrium • left ventricle

FIGURE 27.3

• papillary (PAP-ih-lary) muscle • pulmonary (semilunar) valve • pulmonary vein openings • right atrium • right ventricle • superior vena cava opening • trabeculae carneae (tra-BEC-u-lee CAR-nee) • tricuspid valve

Internal features of the heart.

1 ________________________

9 ________________________

2 ________________________

10 ________________________

3 ________________________

11 ________________________

4 ________________________

12 ________________________

5 ________________________

13 ________________________

6 ________________________

14 ________________________

7 ________________________

15 ________________________

8 ________________________

16 ________________________

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D. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations As you trace a drop of blood through the heart to the lungs and then to the rest of the body, you will be examining the pulmonary and systemic circulations. The pulmonary circulation takes blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium. The systemic circulation takes blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues and back to the right atrium. Note that each circulation begins and ends at the heart, and each circulation is composed of arteries, capillaries, and veins.

ACTIVITY 4 Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations Pre-Lab Activity 1 In Figure 27.4, color the vessels that are carrying oxygenpoor blood blue and the vessels carrying oxygen-rich blood red, being careful to note the color switch in the pulmonary vessels. Color the four capillary beds purple. 2 Trace the pathway of blood in Figure 27.4 through the pulmonary circulation with one color of arrows and the systemic circulation with another color of arrows, starting and ending with the right atrium. 3 Indicate whether the following blood vessels contain oxygen-poor or oxygen-rich blood: • aorta • pulmonary arteries • pulmonary trunk • pulmonary veins • venae cavae Blood vessels with oxygen-poor blood

4 In the blanks, trace a drop of blood through the heart and lung by listing in order all vessels, heart chambers, and valves through which the blood passes, starting and ending with the right atrium: • aorta • aortic (semilunar) valve • bicuspid (mitral) valve • left atrium • left ventricle • pulmonary arteries • pulmonary capillaries • pulmonary (semilunar) valve • pulmonary trunk • pulmonary veins • right atrium • right ventricle • systemic arteries • systemic capillaries • systemic veins • tricuspid valve • venae cavae and coronary sinus right atrium 1. __________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________ 4. __________________________________________ 5. __________________________________________ 6. __________________________________________ 7. __________________________________________ 8. __________________________________________ 9. __________________________________________

a. __________________________________________

10. __________________________________________

b. __________________________________________

11. __________________________________________

c. __________________________________________

12. __________________________________________

Blood vessels with oxygen-rich blood

13. __________________________________________

d. __________________________________________

14. __________________________________________

e. __________________________________________

15. __________________________________________ 16. __________________________________________ 17. __________________________________________ 18. __________________________________________

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Lab Activity 1. Make flash cards from the list of structures given in PreLab Activity 4. 2 Mix up all the cards and assemble them in order, tracing a drop of blood through the heart and lungs and then out

HEART STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

the systemic circulation. Start and end with the right atrium. 3 Check your answers with the class.

Systemic capillaries of upper body

Systemic veins from upper body

Systemic arteries to upper body

Right pulmonary artery Pulmonary capillaries of right lung

Pulmonary capillaries of left lung Left pulmonary veins

Systemic veins from lower body

Systemic arteries to lower body

Systemic capillaries of lower body

FIGURE 27.4

Systemic and pulmonary circulations.

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E. Coronary Circulation The walls of the heart have their own blood supply and circulation, the coronary (corona ⫽ crown) circulation. These vessels encompass the heart similar to a crown. The endothelium lining the heart chambers is too thick for blood in the chambers to supply nutrients to cardiac muscle tissue. Coronary blood vessels supply blood to cardiac muscle tissue. On the anterior surface of the heart, the right and left coronary arteries branch off the base of the ascending aorta just superior to the aortic semilunar valve. These small arteries are supplied with blood when the ventricles are resting. When the ventricles contract, the cusps of the aortic valve open to cover the openings to the coronary arteries. If the coronary arteries were not covered, they would not be able to withstand the blood pressure and would burst like an overinflated balloon. The left coronary artery is shorter than the right coronary artery. As the left coronary artery passes the base of the left auricle, it branches into the anterior interventricular branch (left anterior descending branch, or LAD) and the circumflex branch. The anterior interventricular branch (LAD) supplies both ventricles with oxygen-rich blood and lies within the anterior interventricular sulcus, a shallow depression between the two ventricles. The anterior interventricular branch is commonly occluded and can result in a myocardial infarct and at times death. The circumflex branch continues around the left side of the heart, lying within the coronary sulcus (atrioventricular sulcus), and supplies blood to the left ventricle and left atrium. The circumflex branch forms anastomoses (connections) with the posterior interventricular branch near the posterior interventricular sulcus.

The right coronary artery, located in the coronary sulcus, continues inferiorly to the right and branches into the marginal branch and posterior interventricular branch. The marginal branch supplies the anterior right side of the right ventricle. The posterior interventricular branch lies in the posterior interventricular sulcus on the posterior surface of the heart, supplying oxygen-rich blood to both ventricles. Arteries branch into smaller vessels, called arterioles, which penetrate the heart muscle and divide into narrower vessels, called capillaries, which deliver oxygen to the cardiac muscle. Capillaries drain into venules which exit the heart muscle and connect to veins that receive oxygen-poor blood, returning it to the heart. The great cardiac vein is the principal vein of the coronary circulation, draining the left anterior portion of the heart. It lies near the anterior interventricular branch in the interventricular sulcus. The small cardiac vein drains the right anterior portion of the heart. The middle cardiac vein, which lies next to the posterior interventricular branch of the right coronary artery in the posterior interventricular sulcus, drains the posterior portion of the heart. Both of these veins empty into a large, thin-walled venous sinus called the coronary sinus, which is located on the posterior surface of the heart. The coronary sinus empties its oxygen-poor blood into the right atrium.

ACTIVITY 5 Coronary Circulation Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 27.5 (c) and (d). Lab Activity 1 Identify each vessel on a model or chart.

Arch of aorta Ascending aorta

Left pulmonary artery Pulmonary trunk Left auricle

Right auricle

Great cardiac vein

Right coronary artery

Left coronary artery Circumflex branch Left marginal branch

Anterior cardiac vein Right ventricle

Left ventricle

Marginal branch Anterior interventricular branch

Tributary to great cardiac vein (a) Anterior view

FIGURE 27.5

Coronary circulation.

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HEART STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Superior vena cava

Left pulmonary artery

Right pulmonary artery

Left atrium

Right pulmonary veins Right atrium

Left pulmonary veins Oblique vein

Inferior vena cava

Circumflex branch of left coronary artery

Middle cardiac vein

Coronary sinus

Right ventricle

Left ventricle

Posterior interventricular branch Posterior veins of the left ventricle (b) Posterior view

4 5 3

6 7 9

2 1

8 10

(c) Coronary arteries, anterior view

• • • • • • • • • •

anterior interventricular branch (LAD) circumflex branch coronary sinus great cardiac vein left coronary artery marginal branch middle cardiac vein posterior interventricular branch right coronary artery small cardiac vein

FIGURE 27.5

(d) Coronary veins, posterior view

1 __________________________________

6 __________________________________

2 __________________________________

7 __________________________________

3 __________________________________

8 __________________________________

4 __________________________________

9 __________________________________

5 __________________________________

10 __________________________________

Coronary circulation, continued

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F. Pericardium and Layers of Heart Wall

layer of the pericardium. The majority of the heart is the myocardium or cardiac muscle tissue. The endocardium is a thin layer of endothelium deep to the myocardium that lines the inside chambers of the heart and the valves.

In the mediastinum, the heart is surrounded and protected by the pericardium (peri- ⫽ around). The pericardium consists of an outer, tough, fibrous pericardium and an inner, delicate, serous pericardium. The fibrous pericardium attaches to the diaphragm and also to the great vessels of the heart, securing the heart in the mediastinum. Like all serous membranes, the serous pericardium is a double membrane composed of an outer parietal layer and an inner visceral layer. Between these two layers is the pericardial cavity filled with serous fluid. The serous fluid reduces friction as the heart moves. The outer parietal (paries ⫽ wall) pericardium is attached to the fibrous pericardium, and the inner visceral (viscera ⫽ internal organs) pericardium covers the cardiac muscle. The wall of the heart has three layers: the outer epicardium (epi- ⫽ on, upon; cardia ⫽ heart), the middle myocardium (myo- ⫽ muscle), and the inner endocardium (endo- ⫽ within, inward). The epicardium is the visceral

ACTIVITY 6 The Pericardium and Layers of the Heart Wall Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figures 27.6(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Make a simulation of the pericardium using a 1-gallon zippered plastic bag. • Add a small amount of water to the bag and push out the extra air before sealing the bag. • Have a lab partner place a fist (simulating the heart) at the bottom of the bag and push into the bag. • Discuss with your partner and then with the class what the outer layer of the bag and the water represents.

PERICARDIUM Heart wall 5

1 2

3 1 2

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________

Coronary blood vessels (space)

6

4

(a) Heart in the mediastinum, anterior view

• diaphragm • fibrous pericardium (peri-CAR-dee-um)

Trabeculae carneae

(b) Pericardium and layers of heart wall

• • • •

endocardium fibrous pericardium myocardium parietal layer of serous pericardium • pericardial cavity • visceral layer of serous pericardium (epicardium)

3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________ 7 _________________________ 8 _________________________

FIGURE 27.6

Pericardium and layers of the heart wall.

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Cardiac muscle fibers in the myocardium are striated, branching cells with one or two nuclei. The ends of adjacent cardiac muscle fibers are connected by intercalated discs. The intercalated discs contain desmosomes that hold cardiac fibers together and gap junctions. Gap junctions enable action potentials to spread quickly from cell to cell, allowing cardiac muscle to contract as a unit.

HEART STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

441

ACTIVITY 7 Histology of Cardiac Muscle Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the photomicrograph of cardiac muscle fibers in figure 27.7. Lab Activity 1 View a prepared slide of cardiac tissue 2 Draw the tissue in the space provided and label your drawing.

1

2

3

LM

• • • •

branching cardiac fibers cardiac muscle fiber intercalated (in-TER-cal-ated) discs nucleus

4

Student drawing

700⫻

1 ______________________________________ 2 ______________________________________ 3 ______________________________________ 4 ______________________________________

FIGURE 27.7

Photomicrograph of cardiac muscle fibers.

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G. Dissection of a Sheep Heart The sheep heart is similar to the human heart in both structure and size. It provides students the opportunity to observe the flexibility of the valves and tissues. SAFETY NOTE: Wear safety glasses and gloves when using preserved tissue. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water when you are done.

ACTIVITY 8 Dissection of a Sheep Heart Pre-Lab Activity 1 Read dissection text before class. Lab Activity 1 Obtain a dissecting tray, tools, disposable gloves, and a sheep heart. 2 Observe the pericardial sac surrounding the sheep heart. The outer surface of the pericardium is the fibrous pericardium. Carefully cut through the pericardial sac and remove the outer fibrous pericardium. The parietal layer of the serous pericardium lines the fibrous pericardium. The visceral layer of the serous pericardium (epicardium) will remain on the surface of the heart. Identify the fibrous pericardium, parietal layer of serous pericardium, and the epicardium. 3 Carefully remove adipose tissue so you can identify surface features of the heart.

4 Identify the anterior and posterior surfaces of the sheep heart. 5 Examine the anterior surface of the heart. Great vessels are often cut close to the base of the heart and may be difficult to find. Refer to Figure 27.8(a) and (c) and a heart model to identify the following structures: • epicardium • base • apex • right auricle • left auricle • right ventricle • left ventricle • pulmonary trunk 6 Examine the posterior surface of the heart using Figure 27.8(b) and (d) and identify the following structures: • coronary sulcus • left auricle • left ventricle • right auricle • right ventricle 7 Insert a blunt probe into the collapsed superior vena cava and into the right atrium. Maneuver the probe to find the interior opening of the inferior vena cava in the right atrium and push the probe out into this vessel.

Ligamentum arteriosum Aorta

Opening of superior vena cava

Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary veins Superior vena cava

Pulmonary trunk Left auricle Opening of inferior vena cava

Right auricle

Right auricle Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Right ventricle Coronary vessels in anterior interventricular sulcus

Apex (a) Anterior view

FIGURE 27.8

Sheep heart.

(b) Posterior view

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Right auricle

443

Pulmonary trunk

Left auricle

Adipose tissue

Anterior interventricular sulcus

Right ventricle

Left ventricle

Apex of heart

(c) Anterior view

Aortic arch Right auricle

Left atrium Coronary sulcus Adipose tissue

Left ventricle

Right ventricle

(d) Posterior view

FIGURE 27.8

Sheep heart, continued.

8 Examine the interior of the heart by making a coronal section of the heart. Using a knife with about a 5-inch blade, make a coronal cut of the sheep heart starting at the apex and cutting toward the base [Figure 27.8(e)]. Cut through both auricles (to ensure cutting through both

atria) but not all the way through the base and the great vessels, so the two halves do not get separated. This cut allows you to observe both atria and both ventricles simultaneously (similar to a heart model) and easily compare the size of the walls of the right and left ventricles.

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9 Using Figure 27.8(e), identify the following interior structures on the right side of the heart: • myocardium • endocardium • right atrium • right auricle • pectinate muscle • opening of superior and inferior vena cava • opening of the coronary sinus • tricuspid valve • right ventricle • chordae tendinae • papillary muscles • moderator band (cord between the two walls of the right ventricle) • interventricular septum • pulmonary trunk • pulmonary semilunar valve 10 In the right atrium, insert a blunt probe in the small opening of the coronary sinus that is inferior to the opening of the inferior vena cava. Observe the movement of the probe in the coronary sinus from the posterior view of the heart. 11 In the right ventricle, insert a blunt probe into the opening of the pulmonary trunk and push it through to the superior end of the vessel. Remove the probe and take a scalpel to cut the wall of the pulmonary trunk longitudinally to expose the pulmonary semilunar valve. Count the three cusps. How does this valve differ from the tricuspid valve?

12 Continue identifying structures on the left side of the heart: • left atrium • left auricle • bicuspid valve • left ventricle • aortic semilunar valve • aorta 13 How many cusps does the bicuspid valve have? ______ Does this valve look similar otherwise to the other AV valve? ______ Are there chordae tendineae and papillary muscles? ______ Does the left ventricle have a greater or smaller number of papillary muscles compared with the right side? ______ Compare the thickness of the right and left ventricles. Which one is thicker?______ Why? ____________________ 14 Look just above the cusps of the aortic valve for the openings to the right and left coronary arteries. Use the blunt probe to push into these small vessels. 15 Clean Up: • Dispose of any dissection material and gloves as directed by your instructor. • Wash the dissection pan, instruments, and your hands with soap and water. • Clean up your lab space and wash the countertops with disinfectant.

Ascending aorta Left atrium

Right auricle

Aortic valve

Right atrium

Bicuspid valve

Wall of right ventricle

Chordae tendineae

Tricuspid valve

Wall of left ventricle Papillary muscle

Interventricular septum

Trabeculae carneae Apex (e) Coronal section

FIGURE 27.8

Sheep heart, continued.

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Reviewing Your Knowledge

27 E X E R C I S E

A. Major Heart Structures and Great Vessels Fill in the blank with the term that fits the description. ______________________ 1. Arteries that supply blood to cardiac muscle ______________________ 2. Layer of heart wall containing cardiac muscle ______________________ 3. Extensions of the atria ______________________ 4. Heart is located here (area between the lungs) ______________________ 5. Lines the heart chambers ______________________ 6. Pointed inferior part of the heart ______________________ 7. Two heart pumps; lower heart chambers ______________________ 8. Superior heart chambers ______________________ 9. Another name for visceral pericardium ______________________ 10. Wide superior part of the heart ______________________ 11. Blood pumped by right ventricle (oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor) ______________________ 12. Blood pumped by left ventricle (oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor) ______________________ 13. Enlarged muscles in ventricles attached to chordae tendinae ______________________ 14. Muscle ridges in ventricles ______________________ 15. Ridges in anterior wall of right atrium ______________________ 16. Strings attached to AV cusps ______________________ 17. Blood vessel that returns blood from the body inferior to the heart ______________________ 18. The valve located between the left ventricle and the aorta ______________________ 19. A membrane between the atria that closes after birth ______________________ 20. The valve located between the right atrium and right ventricle

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B. Coronary Circulation—Blood Vessels After reviewing the coronary circulation in Figure 27.5, fill in the blank with the word that fits the description. ______________________ 1. Anterior branch of the left coronary artery; lies in anterior interventricular sulcus ______________________ 2. Posterior branch of the right coronary artery; lies in posterior interventricular sulcus ______________________ 3. Branch of the left coronary artery that curves around left side and lies in the coronary sulcus ______________________ 4. Branch of right coronary artery that supplies the anterior right ventricle ______________________ 5. Branch of left coronary artery that supplies both ventricles ______________________ 6. Shorter coronary artery that is hidden anteriorly by pulmonary trunk ______________________ 7. Vein that drains coronary circulation into right atrium ______________________ 8. Vein that drains most of anterior ventricles ______________________ 9. Vein that drains the posterior ventricles ______________________ 10. Vein that drains the right anterior side

C. The Heart and Pulmonary Circulation Place the following structures in order, tracing the blood flow from the superior vena cava to the heart, to the pulmonary circulation, and out of the heart to the systemic circulation. Start with superior vena cava as number 1. • • • • •

aorta aortic valve bicuspid valve left atrium left ventricle

• • • • •

pulmonary capillaries right atrium right ventricle pulmonary arteries pulmonary trunk

• • • •

pulmonary valve pulmonary veins superior vena cava tricuspid valve

1. ____________________________________________

8. ____________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________

9. ____________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________

10. ____________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________

11. ____________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________

12. ____________________________________________

6. ____________________________________________

13. ____________________________________________

7. ____________________________________________

14. ____________________________________________

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27 E X E R C I S E

Using Your Knowledge

A. The Heart 1. What is the function of the pericardial fluid? 2. If a person has pulmonary valve prolapse, which circulation is affected the most: pulmonary, systemic, or cardiac circulation? 3. A blood clot (thrombus) in which artery of the coronary circulation would be more likely to cause sudden death? (Circle your answer.) Explain your choice. a. right coronary artery

b. posterior interventricular branches

c. circumflex branch

d. anterior interventricular branch

4. The pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries are colored blue in all of the figures. Why are they colored blue like most veins? 5. If the foramen ovale does not fully close after birth, what will happen? 6. If a person has endocarditis, myocarditis, or pericarditis, what areas (in order) are infected? a. ___________________________

b. ___________________________

c. ____________________________

7. Athletes have thicker heart walls than non-athletes. Which layer of the heart enlarges? Explain: 8. Atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves have different structures. Explain if high pressure from above or below each type of valve opens the valves. Atrioventricular valves Semilunar valves

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9. Which ventricular wall is thicker? What is the significance of this?

10. The heart has many anastomoses. What benefit are these to the heart?

11. What is the significance of the difference in the vessel wall thickness between the aorta and the pulmonary trunk?

12. Using your knowledge, explain why mitral valve prolapse occurs more often than tricuspid prolapse.

13. How would heart function be affected if the AV valves did not completely close during ventricular contraction?

B. Coronary Circulation—Tracing Blood Flow Trace a drop of blood from the ascending aorta to the right coronary artery and trace the blood back into the heart again. • • • •

ascending aorta coronary sinus middle cardiac vein posterior interventricular branch

14. ____________________________________________

15. ____________________________________________

16. ____________________________________________

17. ____________________________________________

18. ____________________________________________

19. ____________________________________________

20. ____________________________________________

• right atrium • right coronary artery • right ventricular capillaries

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28

Cardiac Cycle Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

model or chart of the heart

• •

Heart Sounds: stethoscope, alcohol swabs

•

Complete PowerPhys Activity: Effect of Exercise on Cardiac Output

1 Identify the parts of the cardiac conduction system on models or charts 2 Describe the pathway of action potentials through the cardiac conduction system and explain its association with contractions of the atria and ventricles 3 Describe the association of electrocardiogram (ECG) tracings with electrical events occurring in the heart

Electrocardiography: ECG recording equipment (if available), electrodes, cream or jelly Length of Cardiac Cycle: stethoscope, alcohol swabs, stopwatch or clock with second hand, calculators

4 Identify the components of a normal ECG 5 Identify normal sinus rhythm, tachycardia, and bradycardia on an ECG 6 Describe the relationship of auscultated heart sounds, pulse rate, and heart rate 7 Calculate changes in length of cardiac cycle with exercise and discuss significance

E

ach cardiac cycle, or one complete heart beat,

consists of atrial and ventricular systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation). The generation of an action potential by special cardiac muscle cells initiates atrial systole followed by ventricular systole. During systole,

blood pressure within the heart chamber increases and blood is ejected. Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. During diastole, blood pressure within the heart chambers is low and blood fills the chambers. Flow of blood through the heart is controlled by opening and closing of the AV and semilunar valves.

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A. Stimulation of Cardiac Muscle Contraction Your heart beats without any stimulation from nerves and if removed from your body, the heart would still beat. The internal stimulation that makes the heart beat by itself is called intrinsic (intrinsic ⫽ inside) stimulation and is caused by specialized, noncontractile cells called autorhythmic cells (causing a rhythm by themselves).

ACTIVITY 1 Cardiac Conduction System Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the conduction system in Figure 28.1. Lab Activity 1 On a model or chart, identify the location of conduction system structures.

1. Electrical Conduction System of the Heart Autorhythmic cells belong to the intrinsic conduction system (nodal system) that (1) initiates the action potential that results in contraction of cardiac muscle fibers, and (2) provides a pathway for conducting the action potential to all cardiac muscle fibers. The autonomic nervous system and hormones, known as extrinsic (extrinsic ⫽ on the outside) stimulation, only increase or decrease the intrinsic pace. The parts of the conduction system are: 1. Sinoatrial (SA) node—called the pacemaker because it initiates action potentials first; located in the wall of the right atrium just inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava; stimulates the atria to contract. 2. Atrioventricular (AV) node—receives action potentials from the atrial muscle fibers; located in the lower interatrial septum anterior to the opening of the coronary sinus; sends the action potentials to the AV bundle (bundle of His). 3. AV bundle (bundle of His)—located in a membranous septum between the atria and ventricles superior to the interventricular septum; this is the electrical connection between the atria and ventricles; sends action potentials to the bundle branches. 4. Right and left bundle branches—located in the interventricular septum; sends action potentials to the Purkinje (conduction) fibers. 5. Purkinje (conduction) fibers—located in the apex of the myocardium, as well as in the lateral walls of the right and left ventricles; sends action potentials to the ventricular cardiac muscle fibers and papillary muscles and stimulates them to contract.

5 4 3 2 6 7 1

• • • •

atrioventricular (AV) node AV bundle (bundle of His) left bundle branch Purkinje (conduction) fibers in left ventricle • Purkinje (conduction) fibers in right ventricle • right bundle branch • sinoatrial (SA) node

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________ 7 _________________________

FIGURE 28.1

Cardiac conduction system.

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2. Electrocardiography The conduction of action potentials throughout the heart can be detected as electrical currents. An instrument called an electrocardiograph is used to record the electrical changes in the heart. The chart recording of the electrical events that occur before each heartbeat is called an electrocardiogram (ECG; originally called an EKG). The electrical events that are recorded are from the entire heart muscle (i.e., the atria and the ventricles) and not just the conduction system activity. The ECG records only voltage changes over time, and not the force of contraction. Cardiac muscle will contract after the action potential has occurred. ECGs are usually recorded by indirect leads, with electrodes placed on the skin of the subject’s arms and legs rather than on the heart itself. The electrical impulses generated by the depolarization and repolarization of the atria and ventricles are detected on the body surface due to the conductivity of the ions in extracellular fluid. Clinically, 12 standard leads are used to record an ECG for diagnosing abnormalities of the conduction system, myocardial infarctions, and other clinical situations. However, in anatomy and physiology classes, usually a three-standard lead ECG is examined (Figure 28.2). The main parts of a typical three-lead ECG are:

CARDIAC CYCLE

451

In addition to these three waves, an ECG also contains intervals or segments between the waves: • P-Q interval—the interval between the beginning of the P wave until the beginning of the Q (in the QRS wave); some texts call this the P-R interval; it represents the time it takes for the electrical conduction (excitation) to travel through the atria and AV node to the Purkinje (conduction) fibers. • S-T segment—the segment from the end of the S (in QRS wave) to the beginning of the T wave; it represents the time the ventricular fibers are fully depolarized. • Q-T interval—the interval that begins at the Q (in the QRS wave) to the end of the T wave; it represents the time from the beginning of ventricular depolarization until the end of ventricular repolarization. Lead II

Lead I

• P wave—first wave; small, curved upward deflection; represents atrial depolarization that spreads from the sinoatrial (SA) node just before the atria contract. • QRS complex—short downward deflection (Q); tall upward deflection (R); medium downward deflection (S); represents ventricular depolarization that spreads from the AV node, AV bundle, right and left bundle branches, and to the Purkinje (conduction) fibers just before the ventricles contract.

–

–

Lead III

–

+

+ +

NOTE: ATRIAL REPOLARIZATION takes place during the QRS complex, but gets overshadowed by the more prominent ventricular depolarization.

• T wave—medium, curved upward deflection; represents ventricular repolarization and occurs just before the ventricles relax.

Ground

FIGURE 28.2

Three-standard lead positions.

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ACTIVITY 2 Electrocardiography Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the terms for an ECG in Figure 28.3, a normal ECG. Lab Activity 1 Record an ECG at rest and after exercise if equipment is available. • Do this activity with a lab partner. Choose who will be the subject and who will do the recording. • Swab the skin where the electrodes will be placed with alcohol, and then apply electrode paste, jelly, or cream to the same area (see Figure 28.2). • Attach the electrodes to the anterior surface of each wrist and to the inside area of each ankle. • Connect the patient cables to the electrodes and also to the recording instrument. • Follow your instructor’s directions for recording the ECG with your equipment. • Label the P wave, QRS complex, T wave, P-Q interval, S-T segment, and Q-T interval on the recorded ECG.

3

Millivolts (mV)

1.0 0.5

4

0

–0.5

2 6

0

• • • • • •

P wave P-Q interval QRS complex Q-T interval S-T segment T wave

0.2

0.4 Seconds

0.6

0.8

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________

FIGURE 28.3

In an adult, a heart rate of 60 to 100 beats/min is a normal sinus rhythm (NSR). A heart rate above 100 beats/min is called tachycardia, but in young children, this rate would be considered normal. Heart rates below 60 beats/min are normal for highly conditioned individuals, but in other adults, heart rates below 60 beats/min are called bradycardia. Neither condition is considered to be pathological. Prolonged tachycardia can develop into ventricular fibrillation, rapid uncoordinated heart contractions that do not pump blood.

ACTIVITY 3 Heart Rate Calculations Lab Activity 1 Calculate the heart rate for the ECGs in Figure 28.4(a), (b), and (c). • Heart rate can be easily calculated from an ECG. Standard ECGs are printed on paper moving at a paper speed of 25 mm/sec. Therefore, the distance of 5 mm (1 large square on standard ECG paper) is equivalent to 0.20 sec and the distance covered by 30 large squares is equivalent to 6 sec. • Count the number of P waves or R waves in 30 large squares. Multiply this number by 10 to obtain the number of contractions (heartbeats) per minute. This gives you an approximate heart rate. NOTE: The heart rate calculated using the number of R waves is the ventricular rate, while the heart rate calculated using the number of P waves is the atrial rate. In normal sinus rhythm (NSR), the atrial rate equals the ventricular rate.

5

1

3. Determining Heart Rate Using an ECG

Section of a normal ECG, Lead II.

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Figure 28.4(a) ⫽ ______ beats/min Figure 28.4(b) ⫽ ______ beats/min Figure 28.4(c) ⫽ ______ beats/min 2 Determine which ECG in Figure 28.4 illustrates the following heart rates and write the term next to the figure letter.

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 28.4

Tracings of ECGs, Lead II.

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• normal sinus rhythm Figure 28.4(a) ____________ • tachycardia Figure 28.4(b) ____________ • bradycardia Figure 28.4(c) ____________ 3 Calculate the heart rate before and after exercise on the ECGs your lab group recorded in Activity 2. • Heart rate before exercise ⫽ ___________ beats/min • Heart rate after exercise ⫽ ___________ beats/min

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B. Opening and Closing of Heart Valves Opening of the atrioventricular (AV) valves occurs when the blood pressure in the atria exceeds the blood pressure in the ventricles. This occurs during atrial and ventricular diastole. The semilunar valves open during ventricular systole at the point when the blood pressure in the ventricles exceeds the blood pressure in the pulmonary trunk and aorta. Closing of the AV valves is due to the flow of blood back toward the atria that occurs at the beginning of ventricular systole. Closure of the semilunar valves is due to the flow of blood back toward the ventricles at the beginning of ventricular diastole. Closure of the AV and semilunar valves causes the heart sounds heard by auscultation. Auscultation (auscult⫽ listening) means listening to body sounds, typically using a stethoscope. Two particular heart sounds can be detected during one heartbeat. These sounds occur after the heart valves quietly close and blood strikes against the closed valve, causing turbulence that we can hear with a stethoscope. Although there are four sounds generated during one heartbeat, only the first and second sound can easily be heard without additional amplification. The first sound, lubb, is a little longer and louder than dupp (or dubb), the second sound that occurs shortly after the first. The first sound (S1) occurs with blood turbulence from the closure of the two atrioventricular (AV) valves at ventricular

systole. The second sound (S2) is at ventricular diastole when the two semilunar valves close. The sounds that you will hear are lubb-dupp, pause…lubb-dupp, pause. Remember that these two heart sounds, lubb-dupp, equal one heartbeat.

CLINICAL NOTE: HEART MURMURS are abnormal heart sounds caused by the restriction of blood flow or backflow of blood that typically indicate an abnormality in valve structure or function. It usually takes special training and a very quiet room to be able to detect heart murmurs.

ACTIVITY 4 Heart Sounds Pre-Lab Activity 1 Go to your WileyPlus course and click on Exercise 28 to listen to heart sounds. 2 On yourself, find the location to auscultate the bicuspid (mitral) valve (5th intercostal space just left of the nipple) and the aortic value (2nd intercostal space just right of the sternum). Refer to Figure 28.5. Lab Activity 1 On an articulated skeleton, place a sticker on the location where you will auscultate the mitral valve and a sticker on the location where you will ausculate the aortic valve.

1 2 3 Aortic valve 4

Tricuspid valve 5 6

FIGURE 28.5

Locations for auscultation of the heart.

Pulmonary valve Bicuspid valve

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2 Preparation for auscultation of heart sounds. • Obtain a stethoscope and alcohol swabs. • Clean the earpieces with an alcohol swab and let air dry. • Earpieces should be pointed forward when placed in the external ear canal to facilitate hearing the heart sounds. • Put the earpieces in place and gently tap the bell to check that you can hear sounds. 3 Auscultate the mitral valve. • You may auscultate the heart sounds on your own chest or that of your lab partner while either is in a sitting position. • To clearly hear the first heart sound (lubb), you will auscultate the mitral valve. Place the large bell of the stethoscope at the apex of the heart. This is located in the 5th intercostal space just left of the nipple (Figure 28.5). • If the heart sound is difficult to hear, have the subject bend forward to tip the heart against the anterior thoracic wall and try the auscultation again. 4 Auscultate the aortic valve. • Palpate the suprasternal (jugular) notch and then the sternal angle (marks the insertion of the 2nd rib). • Now drop down another 1 inch on the sternum from the sternal angle and then move right 1 inch. • You should be in the 2nd intercostal space just to the right of the sternum where you can clearly hear dupp, or the second heart sound (Figure 28.5).

DISCUSSION QUESTION: HEART SOUNDS 1 At rest, which heart sound is louder, lubb or dupp? Explain.

C. Length of the Cardiac Cycle Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per minute. Each heartbeat represents one cardiac cycle, which includes atrial and ventricular systole (contraction) and atrial and

TABLE 28.1

CARDIAC CYCLE

ventricular diastole (relaxation). The heart rate can be measured by counting the number of heartbeats per minute or by the number of pulses per minute. A pulse is the blood pressure wave that travels through the arteries when the ventricles contract. Pulses are commonly felt in the radial and carotid arteries. The number of heartbeats per minute (heart rate) will be very close to, but not necessarily equal to, the number of pulses per minute. The length of one cardiac cycle in seconds can be calculated by dividing 60 seconds by the heart rate (heartbeats/min). Therefore the length of the cardiac cycle varies with heart rate.

ACTIVITY 5 Experiment: Changes in Length of Cardiac Cycle with Exercise Pre-Lab Activity 1 Locate the radial and carotid pulses on yourself. • Radial pulse: Locate the groove in your lab partner’s wrist between the radius and the tendon just medial to the radius. Palpate the radial artery by pressing down with your index and middle fingers. Because the thumb has a noticeable pulse of its own, it is not used. • Carotid pulse: Locate your lab partner’s Adam’s apple (thyroid cartilage of larynx). Using your index and middle fingers again, palpate the carotid artery on either side of the larynx. Lab Activity 1 Prediction: Exercise causes the length of the cardiac cycle (seconds) to increase or decrease. (Circle the correct choice in italics.) 2 Materials: Obtain materials for Length of Cardiac Cycle (see Materials list). 3 Data Collection: Measure heart rate and pulse rate at rest and after exercise and record your results in Table 28.1. • Decide who will be the subject, who will count heartbeats and pulses, and who will be the recorder and the timer. The subject should not have heart problems and should be in good health. • Locate the radial and carotid pulses on the subject and decide which pulse will be used for this experiment.

Heart Rate and Pulse Rate Before and After Exercise

ACTIVITY

Heart rate at rest Pulse rate at rest Heart rate after exercise Pulse rate after exercise

BEATS IN 15 SEC

455

BEATS/MIN

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Count heart beats and pulses at rest • Listen for the subject’s heartbeat and count the number of heartbeats in 15 seconds. Record your data in Table 28.1. • Count the number of pulses in 15 seconds and record your data in Table 28.1. Count heart beats and pulses after exercise • Have the subject run in place for 2 minutes. • Immediately count the number of heartbeats and pulses in 15 seconds and record your data in Table 28.1. • Repeat the pulse count every minute until the pulse rate returns to the initial resting rate. Record the time for recovery: ______________ minutes. 4 Data Analysis: • Calculate heart rate by multiplying the number of heartbeats in 15 seconds by 4 to calculate the heart rate per minute. Calculate the resting and exercising heart rates (beats/min) and record them in Table 28.1. • Calculate pulse rate by multiplying the number of pulses in 15 seconds by 4 to calculate the pulse rate per minute. Calculate the resting and exercising pulse rates (pulses/min) and record them in Table 28.1. • Calculate the length of the cardiac cycle (seconds) by dividing 60 by the heart rate. • Calculate resting and exercising cardiac cycle lengths and record them in Table 28.2. 60 sec ᎏᎏ ⫽ length of 1 cardiac cycle in sec # of heartbeats/min • Calculate the length of diastole and systole at rest and record in Table 28.2. At rest, systole ⫽1/3 of cardiac cycle. At rest, diastole ⫽ 2/3 of cardiac cycle. The change in length of systole and diastole with exercise cannot be calculated with a simple formula. The length of systole and diastole both decrease with exercise. • If graph paper is available, graph your results. 5 Clean up: Put away all materials as directed by your instructor. 6 Complete PowerPhys Activity: Effect of Exercise on Cardiac Output.

TABLE 28.2 AT REST

Cardiac cycle Systole Diastole AFTER EXERCISE

Cardiac cycle

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: LENGTH OF CARDIAC CYCLE Results: • State whether heart rate and pulse rate increase or decrease immediately after exercise. • State whether heart rate and pulse rate at rest are the same and whether exercising heart rate and pulse rates are the same. • State the time for recovery after exercise. • State whether the length of the cardiac cycle increases or decreases immediately after exercise.

Discussion: • Discuss why heart rate and pulse rate change with exercise. • Discuss why heart rate equals pulse rate at rest and after exercise. • Discuss the implications of the change in cardiac cycle length with exercise. • Discuss factors that affect pulse rate recovery time.

Conclusion: • Write a statement that describes the correlation between heart rate, length of the cardiac cycle, and length of diastole.

Cardiac Cycle Length at Rest and After Exercise LENGTH IN SECONDS

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

28 E X E R C I S E

A. Heart Sounds Fill in the blank with the correct term. 1. The first heart sound heard is _______________ that is due to blood hitting against the _______________ valves. 2. The second heart sound heard is _______________ that is due to blood hitting against the _______________ valves. 3. What is a heart murmur? 4. Which heart sound is the loudest sound when auscultated, the lubb or dupp? Why? 5. Valerie’s radial pulse rate is 70/min. Assuming her heart and arteries are in good health, what is her approximate heart rate/min? 6. Jaxton’s heart rate is 68/min. What is the length of his cardiac cycle/sec?

B. Electrical Conduction System of the Heart Circle True or False for the following questions. 1. The heart beats without extrinsic stimulation from the autonomic nervous system. True or False 2. Autorhythmic cells are located only in the interventricular septum. True or False 3. Each heart chamber contracts separately, first the right atrium, then the right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle. True or False 4. The ECG records the electrical stimulation of cardiac muscle by the conduction system and not the contraction of the muscle itself. True or False 5. The normal pacemaker of the heart is the AV node. True or False 6. Number the following structures of the cardiac conduction system in the normal order of depolarization (1 to 5). _______________ AV bundle (of His) _______________ AV node _______________ Purkinje (conduction) fibers _______________ Right and left bundle branches _______________ SA node

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C. Electrocardiography Match the following descriptions with the correct terms. A term may be used more than once. bradycardia fibrillation P wave QRS complex T wave tachycardia ______________________ 1. depolarization of the atria ______________________ 2. depolarization of the ventricles ______________________ 3. fast heartbeat above 100 beats/min ______________________ 4. repolarization of the atria ______________________ 5. repolarization of the ventricles ______________________ 6. slow heartbeat below 60 beats/min ______________________ 7. uncontrolled, rapid heart contractions Measurements Using the ECG Using the ECG tracing in Figure 28.4(b), calculate the: 8. QRS complex length: __________________ sec 9. P-Q interval: __________________ sec 10. Q-T interval: __________________ sec 11. Heart rate: __________________ beats/min

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

28 E X E R C I S E

A. Auscultations of Heart Sounds 1. Sam counted his lab partner’s heartbeats as 12 beats in 15 seconds. What is the lab partner’s heart rate? What other information would you like to have about Sam’s lab partner to decide if this heart rate is abnormal?

B. Electrical Conduction System 2. Larry had damage to his SA node. What will happen now that the “pacemaker” is not functional?

3. In a normal cardiac cycle, what two chambers of the heart contract first?

4. What two structures directly receive an electrical impulse from the SA node?

5. Valerie’s heart rate is 80 beats/min. What is the length of one cardiac cycle?

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C. Electrocardiography 6. Fibrillation is an asynchronous contraction of cardiac muscle fibers. Is atrial fibrillation or ventricular fibrillation more serious? Explain.

7. If a myocardial infarction damaged the left bundle branch, how would this affect the spread of the action potential?

8. How would damage to the left bundle branch affect blood flow in the systemic circulation?

An abnormal ECG tracing is shown in Figure 28.6. 9. Does the atrial rate equal the ventricular rate in this ECG tracing? Explain.

10. Would you be able to feel a pulse during atrial systole only? Explain.

P

FIGURE 28.6

P

P

P

Tracing of abnormal ECG, Lead II.

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Blood Vessel Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

compound microscope, lens paper, prepared microscope slide of transverse section through artery and vein

•

Blood Pressure Measurements: sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, alcohol wipes, meterstick, exercise mat

• •

stopwatch or watch with second hand

•

Complete PowerPhys Activity: Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure and Vascular Resistance.

1 Compare and contrast the structure of arteries, capillaries, and veins 2 Identify layers or tunics present in a transverse section of an artery and vein 3 Measure systolic and diastolic blood pressure at rest and after exercise 4 Discuss how exercise and body position affect blood pressure

A

rteries carry blood away from the heart and di-

vide into smaller vessels called arterioles that branch into the tiniest vessels called capillaries. At the capillary level, an exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gases occurs between blood and interstitial fluid (fluid surrounding tissue cells). Capillaries join to form small venules that will merge to form larger veins that carry blood back to the heart. The structure of these vessels reflects their functions. There are two main circulatory routes within the body: the systemic circulation and the pulmonary circulation. In the systemic circulation, arteries carry oxygen-rich blood to the body tissues, and veins return oxygen-poor blood to the heart where it will then enter the pulmonary circulation. In the pulmonary circulation, arteries carry oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where gas exchange occurs, and veins return oxygen-rich blood back to the left atrium.

Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure: sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, alcohol wipes, stopwatch or watch with second hand, graph paper

A. Blood Vessel Structure 1. Arteries Arterial walls have three layers or tunics: the tunica externa, tunica media, and tunica interna. The outer tunica externa is composed mainly of elastic and collagen fibers (proteins) that provide support and protection. The tunica media is the middle and thickest layer that contains elastic fibers and smooth muscle fibers (cells) encircling the diameter of the vessel. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the diameter of the blood vessel by innervating smooth muscle fibers. Contraction of smooth muscle fibers causes a decrease in lumen diameter or vasoconstriction, whereas relaxation causes vasodilation, an increase in lumen diameter. Elastic fibers in the tunica media allow the vessel to be stretched and return to its original shape. The tunica interna (intima) contains simple squamous epithelium

461

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(endothelium), a basement membrane, and elastic tissue (internal elastic lamina) that is adjacent to the tunica media. The endothelium lines the lumen of all blood vessels and forms a smooth, slick barrier that promotes blood flow. Damage to the endothelium causes platelets to stick to the blood vessel wall, forming plaques that narrow the lumen and impede blood flow. The thickness and exact composition of each tunic varies according to vessel type. Elastic arteries, such as the aorta, are large diameter arteries that have more elastic fibers in their tunica media than other arteries. Elastic fibers stretch under greater pressure when blood is pumped into them during systole. During diastole, the recoiling of elastic fibers in elastic arteries continues blood flow. Muscular arteries, smaller in diameter than elastic arteries, have more smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers in their tunica media than elastic arteries. However, they have a layer of elastic tissue, the external elastic lamina, between the tunica externa and the tunica media. Muscular arteries distribute blood to different areas of the body (e.g., brachial artery distributes blood to arm) and control blood flow to these areas by vasoconstriction or vasodilation. Muscular

arteries branch into smaller and smaller arteries that eventually form arterioles, small blood vessels from which capillaries branch. Arterioles have a tunica media containing mainly smooth muscle and few elastic fibers. These vessels control blood flow into capillaries and play a large role in controlling blood pressure.

2. Veins Blood flows from capillaries into venules (venule ⫽ little vein) that drain into veins. Venule walls contain a tunica interna of endothelium only and a tunica media with a few smooth muscle fibers. The walls of veins contain a tunica interna, a tunica media, and a tunica externa. Compared with arterial vessels, the tunica interna and tunica media are thinner, and the tunica media contains fewer smooth muscle fibers and elastic fibers. Veins lack an internal and external elastic lamina. The tunica externa is the thickest of the three layers and like arterial vessels is composed of elastic and collagen fibers. The lumen of veins is larger than arteries and often appears collapsed in tissue sections.

NE added Tunica externa Tunica media Tunica interna

0.5mm

Tunica media

Lumen

Tunica interna Tunica externa 25␮ (a)

FIGURE 29.1

Transverse sections through a frog arteriole.

(b)

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The blood pressure gradient in the veins is very small and often is not enough to overcome gravity. Muscular activity squeezes the veins and pushes blood toward the heart while venous valves, found in many veins, prevent the backflow of blood, especially in the limbs. Valves are tunica interna folds whose flap-like cusps point toward the heart. Faulty or incompetent valves allow backflow of blood and result in pooling of blood in veins, a condition called varicose veins.

ACTIVITY 1 Structure of Blood Vessels Pre-Lab Activity 1 In Figure 29.1 compare the lumen diameter, thickness of tunics, and shape of tunica interna in two sections of a frog arteriole. Norepinephrine (NE) was applied to one area of the arteriole to induce vasoconstriction. Identify which cross-section is vasoconstricted, (a) or (b). 2 Label the components of a muscular artery wall in Figure 29.2. 3 Label the components of the wall of a vein in Figure 29.3.

1

2 3 5 6

463

3

4

1 2 4 5

7

8 6

• • • • • • • •

basement membrane endothelium external elastic lamina internal elastic lamina smooth muscle tunica externa tunica interna tunica media

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________

• • • • •

basement membrane endothelium tunica externa tunica interna tunica media (smooth muscle) • valve

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________

5 _________________________

5 _________________________

6 _________________________

6 _________________________

7 _________________________ 8 _________________________ FIGURE 29.2

Structure of a muscular artery.

FIGURE 29.3

Structure of a vein.

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3. Capillaries

ACTIVITY 2 Arteries and Veins Pre-Lab Activity 1 Identify and label the tunics of the blood vessels in Figure 29.4. Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared microscope slide containing a transverse section of a small artery and vein. • Using the low-power objective lens, focus and center one blood vessel in the field of view and switch to high power. • Using the high-power objective lens, focus with fine adjustment knob only and examine the three tunics in the vessel. Note the thickness of the tunica media. • Repeat procedure with other blood vessel. • Decide which vessel is the artery and which is the vein.

1

• • • • • • • •

2

3

lumen of artery lumen of vein tunica externa of artery tunica externa of vein tunica interna of artery tunica interna of vein tunica media of artery tunica media of vein

4

5

6

7

8

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________ 7 _________________________ 8 _________________________

FIGURE 29.4 and vein.

Transverse section through small artery

Capillaries have the smallest diameter and thinnest walls of any blood vessels. Their lumen is so small that red blood cells can pass through only one at a time. Capillary walls are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells (simple squamous endothelium) supported by a basement membrane. The endothelial cells of capillaries can exhibit: • tight junctions—fusion of plasma membranes of adjacent cells • intercellular clefts—spaces between cells • fenestrations ( fenestra ⫽ window)—holes in plasma membrane covered by a diaphragm (thin membrane) • vesicles Only substances that are lipid soluble or have membrane carriers can cross capillary walls with tight junctions between cells. However, many other substances can cross capillary walls containing fenestrations, intercellular clefts, and vesicles. The size of the fenestrations and intercellular clefts between endothelial cells determines which molecules can cross. Molecules can also be transported across capillary walls by vesicles, a process called transcytosis (trans- ⫽ across; cyto ⫽ cell). Hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure) at the arterial end of the capillaries causes plasma to be filtered across the capillary wall into the interstitial fluid. The filtered plasma containing nutrients, hormones, and other substances is called interstitial fluid once it leaves the capillaries and enters the space around tissue cells. Blood osmotic pressure draws interstitial fluid into the venous end of the capillary (reabsorption) bringing fluid, metabolic wastes, hormones, or other substances into the blood. The combination of these opposing pressures causes some filtered plasma to remain in the interstitial fluid to bathe the tissue cells.

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1

ACTIVITY 3 Capillaries Pre-Lab Activity 1 Examine the blood vessels in Figure 29.5. Identify the arteriole and a capillary. Hint: look at the thickness of the wall and the blood cells in the lumen. 2 Observe the capillaries in Figure 29.6(a) and (b) and label the electron micrographs as exhibiting a tight junction, fenestrations, an intercellular cleft, or vesicles.

250⫻

• arteriole • capillary

FIGURE 29.5 network.

1

2

35,000⫻

1 _________________________ 2 _________________________ Photomicrograph showing capillary

3

19,000⫻

(a)

(b)

• fenestration • intercellular cleft • vesicles involved in transcytosis

1 _________________________________________________________ 2 _________________________________________________________ 3 _________________________________________________________

FIGURE 29.6

Transmission electron micrographs showing capillary walls.

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B. Blood Pressure Blood pressure, the pressure exerted by blood against blood vessel walls, is highest in the aorta and large elastic arteries, and decreases as the arteries branch and blood travels farther from the heart. Blood pressure drops significantly in the arterioles and steadily decreases through capillaries, venules, and veins, and drops to zero in the right atrium. The difference in blood pressure between two areas of the circulatory system is the blood pressure gradient. The blood pressure gradient between the aorta and right atrium causes blood to flow through the systemic circulation, and the blood pressure gradient between the pulmonary trunk and the left atrium causes blood to flow through the pulmonary circulation. With each ventricular contraction, blood pressure fluctuates in the large arteries (i.e., the aorta, pulmonary trunk, and other elastic and large muscular arteries). Blood pressure during ventricular systole, systolic blood pressure, is higher than blood pressure during ventricular diastole, or diastolic blood pressure. These fluctuations diminish within the arterioles, and little or no fluctuations in blood pressure between systole and diastole are observed in the capillaries and venous vessels. The blood pressure gradient between veins and the right atrium is low, making it difficult for venous blood flow to overcome the force of gravity. Therefore, when standing with arms hanging down, blood may pool in the large veins of the limbs.

1. Blood Pressure Measurements Arterial blood pressure is reported in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) and can be measured directly by inserting a pressure transducer into a large artery or indirectly with a sphygmomanometer. A sphygmomanometer (SFIG-moemah-NOH-meh-ter), or blood pressure cuff, can be used to measure systolic and diastolic blood pressure in any large artery. Clinically, the brachial artery is used most often. The sphygmomanometer contains a pressure gauge attached to an inflatable rubber cuff that is connected by a rubber tube to a hand pump (rubber bulb) or automatic pump. Clinically, it is important to use the right size cuff— pediatric, standard, or large arm—to obtain an accurate reading. The pump is used to inflate the rubber cuff to a pressure greater than the systolic pressure. This puts pressure on the artery, flattens it, and stops blood flow in the artery. A stethoscope is placed over the brachial artery in the antecubital area, and the pressure in the cuff is slowly released by opening a valve. When blood pressure is greater than the pressure in the cuff, the artery opens and blood flow returns. The examiner listens for the sound caused by the turbulent flow of blood that can be heard until blood flow returns to normal. These sounds are called the

Korotkoff (koh-ROT-koff) sounds. Although there is a range of values considered normal, the average normal systolic pressure (the first sound heard) is 120 mm Hg, and normal diastolic pressure (the last, faint sounds heard) is 80 mm Hg, usually written as 120/80. Venous blood pressure can also be measured directly with a pressure transducer inserted into a venous vessel or indirectly. Indirect measurement of venous pressure, described in Activity 4, is an estimate at best, because blood pressure in veins is very low. The average venous blood pressure is 16 mm Hg.

ACTIVITY 4 Blood Pressure Measurements Lab Activity 1 Measure resting systemic arterial blood pressure. • Work in teams of two, alternating who will be the subject and who will measure blood pressure. • The subject should sit and rest for 5 minutes before blood pressure is measured. • Wipe the earpieces of the stethoscope with alcohol and completely deflate the blood pressure cuff. • Place the cuff of the sphygmomanometer around the arm as shown in Figure 29.7. If the cuff does not fit the arm, the blood pressure measurements will probably be inaccurate. The inflatable portion of the cuff should be over the anterior surface of the arm. If there is an arrow on the cuff, place it over the brachial artery. The brachial artery is located in the anterior arm, immediately superior to the antecubital fossa and lateral to biceps brachii. The bottom of the cuff should be approximately 1 inch above the elbow. • Close the valve on the rubber bulb. • Insert earpieces; place the large bell of the stethoscope over the brachial artery inferior to the cuff, and listen for the brachial pulse. • Inflate the cuff to 160 to 180 mm Hg. • Immediately use the valve on the hand pump to slowly release air to deflate the cuff, and listen for the first sound. • The first sound, the systolic pressure, is the return of blood flow through the partially occluded brachial artery. Watch the pressure gauge and continue to listen; the sound will increase, then muffle, and stop. The diastolic pressure is the pressure when the last, faint sound is heard. • Record blood pressure measurements in Table 29.1. • Deflate cuff and have subject rest for 2 minutes before repeating the blood pressure measurement. Record second value in Table 29.1.

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Inflate cuff to 160–180 mm Hg Brachial artery closes; no audible sounds

Pressure in cuff 120; First Korotkoff sound audible

Pressure in cuff 80; Last faint Korotkoff sound audible

180 120

80

Brachial artery

(a)

FIGURE 29.7

(b)

(c)

(d)

Measuring arterial blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer.

TABLE 29.1

Resting Blood Pressures

SUBJECT

SYSTOLIC PRESSURE

DIASTOLIC PRESSURE

PULSE PRESSURE

MAP

VENOUS PRESSURE

Subject 1

1.

1.

1.

1.

1.

2.

2.

2.

2.

2.

Avg.

Avg.

Avg.

Avg.

Avg.

1.

1.

1.

1.

1.

2.

2.

2.

2.

2.

Avg.

Avg.

Avg.

Avg.

Avg.

Subject 2

2 Calculate pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure. • The pulse pressure is the difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The larger the pulse pressure, the greater the volume of blood ejected from the ventricle. Mean arterial pressure (MAP or MABP) is the average blood pressure (BP) over the course of the cardiac cycle.

• Pulse pressure ⫽ systolic pressure ⫺ diastolic pressure. Record values in Table 29.1. • Mean arterial pressure (MAP) ⫽ ( pulse pressure) . diastolic BP ⫹ 3 • Record values in Table 29.1

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3 Estimate systemic venous pressure. • Decide who will be the subject, the observer, and the recorder. • Have the subject stand with arms hanging at the side. Observe the blood pooling in the veins on the dorsal surface of the hands. • Have the subject abduct one arm and observe the veins become smaller in size and flatten (collapse) as the arm is raised above the level of the right atrium. When the force of gravity exceeds venous pressure, the blood in the veins drains away quickly and does not exert enough pressure on the walls of the veins to keep them open. • Lower the arm to pool blood in the veins of the hand again. • Have the subject stand in front of a white (or black) board. With hands at the sides, locate the level of the right atrium (approximately 2 inches above the nipple). Mark on the board where the hand touches the board. • Have the subject abduct the arm and hand until the veins on the surface of the hand flatten (collapse). Mark where the hand touches the board. Using a meterstick, measure the vertical distance above the right atrium that the hand has traveled in millimeters (1 cm ⫽ 10 mm): ___________ mm. Each 12.88 mm elevation of the hand above heart level represents an approximately 1 mm rise in Hg. • Venous pressure (mm Hg) ⫽ mm measured ⫽ mm Hg 12.88 mm elevation/mm Hg • Repeat measurement and record in Table 29.1. 4 Observe the effect of body position on blood pressure. • Decide who will be the subject, who will do the measuring, and who will record. • Have subject lie on a mat (supine position) for 2 minutes. Measure BP and heart rate (HR). Record in Table 29.2. • Have subject stand and immediately measure BP and HR. Record in Table 29.2.

TABLE 29.2 SUBJECT

Supine Immediately after standing After standing for 2 minutes

• Take the BP and HR again after subject has been standing for 2 minutes. Record in Table 29.2. • After standing for 2 minutes, measure subject’s BP and HR. Record in Table 29.2.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS 1 Did the subject’s BP change when altering body position? 2 Did the subject’s HR change when altering body position? 3 Explain what happens in regard to BP when a person changes from a supine to a standing position. Why does this occur?

2. Regulation of Blood Pressure The body maintains blood pressure (BP) to ensure adequate blood flow to body tissues (tissue perfusion). If blood pressure is too low, tissue perfusion may not be sufficient to provide oxygen and nutrients to cells, especially brain neurons, or to remove metabolic wastes. If blood pressure is too high, it may cause damage to capillaries and the endothelial lining of blood vessels. Eye exams can often detect early hypertension. Damaged retinal vessels can be observed with an ophthalmoscope. Mean arterial blood pressure increases when cardiac output increases and when resistance to blood flow increases. Blood viscosity, total blood vessel length, and blood vessel diameter affect resistance to blood flow. However, blood vessel diameter is the only variable that can be changed to make immediate changes in blood pressure. Increasing blood vessel diameter (vasodilation) decreases resistance and lowers BP, while decreasing blood vessel diameter (vasoconstriction) increases resistance and BP rises.

Effect of Body Position on Blood Pressure SYSTOLIC/DIASTOLIC BP (mm Hg)

HR

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ACTIVITY 5 Experiment: Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure Lab Activity 1 Prediction: Circle the correct choice (in italics) in each statement. • Exercise will cause systolic and diastolic BP to increase or decrease. • Exercise will cause pulse pressure to increase or decrease. • Exercise will cause MAP to increase or decrease. 2 Materials: Obtain materials for the Regulation of Blood Pressure experiment from Materials list. 3 Data Collection: • Decide who will be the subject, who will measure BP and HR, and who will be the recorder and timer. The subject should not have heart problems and should be in good health. • Measure the effect of exercise on BP and record the results in Table 29.3. BP and HR at rest • Have the subject stand still at rest for 2 to 3 minutes. • Measure systolic and diastolic BP and record the results in Table 29.3. • Measure the number of heartbeats (or pulses) in 15 seconds and multiply by 4 to obtain HR. Record the results in Table 29.3. BP and HR immediately after exercise • Have the subject run in place for 5 minutes. • Immediately measure systolic and diastolic BP and record the results in Table 29.3. • Immediately count the number of heartbeats (or pulses) in 15 seconds and multiply by 4 to obtain HR. Record the results in Table 29.3.

TABLE 29.3

Subject At rest Post-exercise Class Average At rest Post-exercise

4 Data Analysis: • Calculate resting and post-exercise pulse pressures and MAP. Record in Table 29.3. • Pool heart rate and MAP class data, calculate averages, and record in Table 29.3. • If graph paper is available, graph your data. 5 Clean Up your lab area as directed by your instructor. 6 Complete the PowerPhys Experiment: Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure and Vascular Resistance.

EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BLOOD PRESSURE Results: • State whether systolic and diastolic BP increased or decreased after exercise. • State whether pulse pressure and MAP increased or decreased after exercise. • State whether HR increased or decreased after exercise. Discussion: • Why was the resting blood pressure taken standing rather than sitting? • Discuss how the body changes BP during exercise. • Discuss why the body changes BP during exercise. Conclusion: • Write a statement that postulates how increasing levels of exercise affect BP, pulse pressure, and MAP.

Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure SYSTOLIC BP (mm Hg)

DIASTOLIC BP (mm Hg)

469

HR

PULSE PRESSURE (mm Hg)

MAP (mm Hg)

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

29 E X E R C I S E

A. Structure of Arteries and Veins Name the components of each blood vessel tunic. More than one term may apply to each description and terms may be used more than once. smooth muscle endothelium elastic fibers collagen fibers ________________________ 1. Tunica media of arteries ________________________ 2. Tunica media of veins ________________________ 3. Tunica interna of arteries ________________________ 4. Tunica interna of veins ________________________ 5. Tunica externa of arteries ________________________ 6. Tunica externa of veins Circle True or False for the following questions. If false, underline and change word(s) that are incorrect to make the statement true. 7. The tunica media of veins is thicker than the tunica media of arteries. True or False 8. The tunica media of elastic arteries contains more elastic fibers than muscular arteries. True or False 9. Venous valves are folds of the tunica externa. True or False 10. Venous valves prevent backflow of blood. True or False 11. Walls of veins are thicker than the walls of arteries of the same size. True or False 12. The lumen of a vein is larger than the lumen of an artery of the same size. True or False

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B. Structure of Capillaries Match the term to the correct description. More than one term may apply to each description. Terms may be used more than once. fenestrations intercellular clefts tight junctions transcytosis ________________________ 1. Holes in plasma membrane through which molecules pass across capillary walls ________________________ 2. Fusion of plasma membranes of adjacent endothelial cells; forms very selective barrier ________________________ 3. Vesicles transport substances across capillary wall ________________________ 4. Spaces between cells through which substances pass Circle True or False for the following questions. If false, underline and change word(s) that are incorrect to make the statement true. 5. Capillary walls are composed of an endothelium and a basement membrane only. True or False 6. Hydrostatic pressure forces plasma across capillary walls at venous end of capillary, and interstitial fluid enters arterial end of capillary by osmotic pressure. True or False

C. Blood Pressure Fill in the blank with the correct term. ________________________ 1. Term used for arterial pressure during ventricular systole ________________________ 2. Term used for arterial pressure during ventricular diastole ________________________ 3. Device used to measure arterial blood pressure in the brachial artery ________________________ 4. Average normal adult arterial blood pressure ________________________ 5. Average venous blood pressure ________________________ 6. Sounds of turbulent blood flow that occur when blood flow resumes in an artery that has been occluded Circle True or False for the following questions. If false, underline and change word(s) to make the statement true. 7. The blood pressure gradient from the aorta to the capillaries is greater than the blood pressure gradient from the venules to the right atrium. True or False 8. The blood pressure gradient from the aorta to the capillaries is less than the blood pressure gradient from the arterial end of the capillary to the venous end of the capillary. True or False 9. Kate’s systolic blood pressure is 115 and diastolic is 72. Her pulse pressure is 47. True or False 10. Scott’s blood pressure is 126/83 and his MAP is 97. True or False

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473

D. Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow Circle True or False for the following questions. If false, underline and change word(s) that are incorrect to make the statement true. 1. Increasing heart rate increases blood pressure. True or False 2. Systemic vasoconstriction decreases blood pressure. True or False 3. Increasing arterial blood pressure increases blood flow. True or False 4. Recoil of muscular arteries maintains blood flow during ventricular diastole. True or False 5. Muscular arteries control the blood flow to different body areas. True or False 6. Vasoconstriction of the renal arteries (arteries supplying blood to kidneys) would decrease blood flow to the kidneys. True or False 7. Blood pressure is higher in the supine position than in the standing position. True or False 8. Blood pressure decreases when going from a supine to standing position. True or False 9. The greater the pulse pressure, the lower the pressure gradient driving blood from the aorta through the systemic circulation. True or False 10. Exercise increases MAP. True or False

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Using Your Knowledge

Section ______________________________

29 E X E R C I S E

A. Blood Vessel Structure and Function 1. In coronary bypass surgery, a section of vein is used to replace (bypass) occluded coronary arteries. Over time, the vein wall becomes more like an arterial wall. Describe the changes that would occur in the vein wall.

2. The smooth muscle fibers within the wall of an artery do not receive their nutrients from the blood within the lumen of the artery. Why not?

3. Blood flow within the capillaries is slower than within arterial or venous vessels. Explain why this is important.

4. Blood flow to the skeletal muscles increases with exercise. Explain how the autonomic nervous system mediates the increase in blood flow to skeletal muscles.

5. Explain how blood flow to the kidneys is decreased with exercise.

6. Explain why the differences in the amount of elastic fibers and smooth muscle fibers in the tunica media of elastic arteries and muscular arteries is important to their function.

7. Why does the tunica interna of the vasoconstricted section of the arteriole in Figure 29.1 exhibit folds?

8. Capillaries within the brain have tight junctions, whereas capillaries within the anterior pituitary and other endocrine glands contain fenestrations, intercellular clefts, and vesicles for transcytosis. Explain how these structural differences are important to the function of the brain and the anterior pituitary.

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9. Compare the strength of arterial and capillary walls.

10. Marfan’s syndrome is an inherited genetic disorder that results in malformed elastic fibers that are weak. What effect would this have on the aorta?

B. Blood Pressure Homeostasis Use the terms in bulleted list to complete the schematic diagram of blood pressure homeostasis in Figure 29.8. • • • •

ADH aldosterone blood pressure blood volume

• cardiac output • hormones • sympathetic nerves HOMEOSTASIS Normal BP and Volume

Stimulation

Decreased BP and Volume

Nervous System (short term)

(long term)

4

Stimulation of baroreceptors and chemoreceptors Renin (Kidney) Stimulation of cardiovascular center

5 (Posterior pituitary)

EPO Erythropoietin (Kidney)

Angiotensin ll activation RBC production

stimulation

1

6

Adrenal gland

Peripheral vasoconstriction

2

7

Blood Pressure

3

Homeostasis Restored

FIGURE 29.8

Blood pressure homeostasis.

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30

Blood Vessel Identification Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

•

models or charts showing human arteries, veins, and circulatory pathways

•

preserved cats or fetal pigs, disposable gloves, dissecting equipment, and safety glasses

•

accompanying cat or fetal pig dissection manual

1 Identify the major arteries and veins of the systemic circulation on models or charts 2 Identify the major vessels of the cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis), pulmonary circulation, hepatic portal system, and fetal circulation on models or charts 3 Trace blood flow through the cardiovascular system 4 Identify selected blood vessels on the cat or fetal pig

A

rteries carry blood from the heart to capillar-

ies where gas and nutrient exchange occurs, while veins carry blood back to the heart. There are two circulatory routes within the body: the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation. In the pulmonary circulation, arteries carry oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where gas exchange occurs, and veins carry oxygen-rich blood back to the left atrium.

In the systemic circulation, arteries carry oxygen-rich blood to body tissues, and veins return oxygen-poor blood to the heart where it enters the pulmonary circulation. Anastomoses provide alternative routes or detours for blood flow in case the main route is blocked or damaged. Arterial anastomoses are blood vessels that connect arteries, while venous anastomoses connect veins.

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A. Systemic Arteries

divides to form the right common carotid and right subclavian arteries. The left and right vertebral arteries branch off their respective subclavian arteries.

All major arteries of the systemic circulation branch off the aorta. These arteries transport blood to different regions of the body where blood is distributed to smaller arteries and finally to arterioles that connect to capillaries.

ACTIVITY 1 Major Arteries of the Ascending Aorta and Aortic Arch

1. Major Arteries of the Ascending Aorta and Aortic Arch

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Review the arteries in Figure 30.1(a). 2 Observe the location of these arteries in Table 30.1 3 Label the arteries in Figure 30.1(b) using the location described in Table 30.1.

Blood is ejected from the left ventricle and into the ascending aorta. The right and left coronary arteries branch off the ascending aorta near its origin and travel to the heart. The ascending aorta curves superiorly toward the left and becomes the aortic arch. Three major arteries branch off the aortic arch in the following order from right to left: the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery, and the left subclavian artery. The brachiocephalic trunk

Lab Activity 1 Point to the arteries on a model or chart.

Right common carotid

Left common carotid

Right subclavian

Left subclavian

Brachiocephalic trunk

Aortic arch

Ascending aorta

Left coronary

Right coronary Thoracic aorta Intercostal Diaphragm

Left gastric Celiac trunk

Left suprarenal Splenic

Common hepatic

Superior mesenteric Right suprarenal

Left renal

Right renal

Left gonadal

Right gonadal

Abdominal aorta Inferior mesenteric Left common iliac

Internal iliac External iliac Femoral

(a)

FIGURE 30.1

Major arteries of the ascending aorta and aortic arch.

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TABLE 30.1

BLOOD VESSEL IDENTIFICATION

Major Arteries of the Ascending Aorta and Aortic Arch

ARTERY

LOCATION

Ascending aorta

Begins at left (aortic) semilunar valve and becomes the aortic arch at the level of the sternal angle Branch off ascending aorta just superior to the left aortic valve and end when they divide into their respective arterial branches Begins at the level of the sternal angle and becomes the thoracic aorta at the level of the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth vertebrae First branch off aortic arch, divides into right subclavian artery and right common carotid artery at level of sternoclavicular joint Formed from division of brachiocephalic trunk and divides into the right external and right internal carotid arteries at the superior border of the larynx Formed from division of brachiocephalic trunk and is renamed axillary artery within axillary region Second branch off aortic arch, divides into the left external and left internal carotid arteries at the superior border of the larynx Third branch off aortic arch, renamed axillary artery within the axillary region

Right and left coronary arteries Aortic arch Brachiocephalic trunk Right common carotid artery Right subclavian artery Left common carotid artery Left subclavian artery

Larynx

1

4 Trachea

Left vertebral 5

2

6 3 Left primary bronchus Esophagus 7 Diaphragm Inferior vena cava (b)

• • • • • • •

479

aortic arch ascending aorta brachiocephalic trunk left common carotid left subclavian right common carotid thoracic aorta

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________ 6 _______________________________________ 7 _______________________________________

FIGURE 30.1

Major arteries of the ascending aorta and aortic arch, continued.

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2. Major Arteries Supplying the Head (Including Circle of Willis) The common carotid arteries branch to form the internal and external carotid arteries. The internal carotid arteries travel through the neck and enter the skull through the carotid canal within each temporal bone and supply structures within the skull. Each internal carotid artery branches to form an anterior cerebral artery and a middle cerebral artery that supply blood to these areas of the brain. The external carotid arteries ascend along the lateral surface of the neck and terminate as two arteries near the temporomandibular joint that supply structures external to the skull. There are two vertebral arteries, one branching off each subclavian artery. The vertebral arteries travel superiorly through the transverse foramen of the cervical vertebrae and then through the foramen magnum to reach the base of the brain where they merge to form the basilar artery. The posterior cerebral artery is a branch of the basilar artery supplying the posterior part of the brain. Blood supply to the brain is vital, and the configuration of the blood vessels supplying the brain ensures continuous blood flow even when blockage occurs in a blood vessel. The cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis) is a ring of

TABLE 30.2

blood vessels formed by three anastomoses—the anterior communicating artery and the right and left posterior communicating arteries. The anterior communicating arteries connect the two anterior cerebral arteries, and the posterior communicating arteries connect the internal carotid arteries to the posterior cerebral arteries.

ACTIVITY 2 Major Arteries Supplying the Head Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the arteries in Figure 30.2(a) using the location described in Table 30.1 and Table 30.2. 2 Label the arteries forming the cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis) in Figure 30.2(b) using the location described in Table 30.2. Lab Activity 1 Identify the arteries on a model or chart. 2 Palpate the right common carotid artery pulse by placing your fingers just lateral to the larynx.

Major Arteries Supplying the Head

ARTERY

LOCATION

External carotid arteries

Begin as terminal branches off the common carotid arteries near the superior border of the larynx, anterior to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and end within the parotid gland Begin as terminal branches off the common carotid arteries and divide into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries below the inferior surface of the brain Branch off internal carotid arteries that pass anterior to the optic chiasma and run along the midline of the base of the brain Branch off internal carotid arteries that run toward the lateral surface of the base of the brain First major branch off subclavian artery that ends near inferior surface of brain where it forms the basilar artery Formed when right and left vertebral arteries merge along the inferior surface of the medulla oblongata and divides to form the right and left posterior cerebral arteries near the superior border of pons along the base of the brain Formed when basilar artery divides and travels along the base of the brain toward the posterior surface of the cerebrum Connects right and left anterior cerebral arteries anterior to the optic chiasma Connect posterior cerebral arteries and internal carotid arteries

Internal carotid arteries Anterior cerebral arteries Middle cerebral arteries Vertebral arteries Basilar artery

Posterior cerebral arteries Anterior communicating artery Right and left posterior communicating arteries

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• • • • •

BLOOD VESSEL IDENTIFICATION

brachiocephalic trunk common carotid external carotid internal carotid vertebral 1 _______________________________________

Right internal carotid

2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________

1

5 _______________________________________ 3

2 4 5

(a) Right lateral view of major arteries of the head and neck

6 13

7 8 9

• • • • • • • •

anterior cerebral anterior communicating basilar internal carotid middle cerebral posterior cerebral posterior communicating vertebral 6 _______________________________________ 7 _______________________________________

10

8 _______________________________________

11

9 _______________________________________ 10 _______________________________________ 12

11 _______________________________________ 12 _______________________________________ 13 _______________________________________ (b) Inferior view of brain showing cerebral arterial circle

FIGURE 30.2

Arteries of the head and neck.

481

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3. Major Arteries of the Upper Extremities The subclavian artery is renamed the axillary artery within the axilla and continues as the brachial artery as it enters the arm. As the brachial artery enters the forearm, it divides to form the radial artery and the ulnar artery. The superficial palmar arch and the deep palmar arch, both of which supply blood to the fingers and palms, connect the radial and ulnar arteries at their distal ends and are examples of arterial anastomoses.

ACTIVITY 3 Arteries of the Upper Extremities Pre-Lab Activity 1 Review the arteries in Figure 30.1(a). 2 Observe the location of these arteries in Table 30.3. 3 Label the arteries in Figure 30.3(b) using the location described in Table 30.3. Lab Activity 1 Identify the arteries on a model or chart. 2 Palpate the radial artery by placing the second and third fingers medial to the distal end of the radius.

Subclavian artery Axillary artery

Brachial artery

Radial artery

Ulnar artery

Femoral artery

FIGURE 30.3

Arteries supplying the upper extremities.

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TABLE 30.3

BLOOD VESSEL IDENTIFICATION

483

Arteries Supplying the Upper Extremities

ARTERY

LOCATION

Axillary arteries

Continuation of subclavian artery that begins at the outer border of first rib and is renamed the brachial artery as it enters the arm Continuation of axillary artery that begins near the tendon of the teres major muscle and ends just distal to the elbow where it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries Terminal branch of brachial artery that runs along lateral surface of forearm into the wrist and hand Terminal branch of brachial artery that runs along medial surface of forearm into the wrist and hand Anastomoses that connect radial and ulnar arteries; located deep to the tendons of flexor muscles and proximal to superficial palmar arch Anastomoses that connect radial and ulnar arteries; located superficial to flexor tendons and distal to deep palmar arch

Brachial arteries Radial arteries Ulnar arteries Deep palmar arch Superficial palmar arch

• • • • •

1 2 3

axillary brachial radial subclavian ulnar

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________

4 5

Deep palmar arch Superficial palmar arch

FIGURE 30.3

Arteries supplying the upper extremities, continued.

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4. Major Arterial Branches of the Descending Aorta The diaphragm divides the aorta into thoracic and abdominal sections. The thoracic aorta lies to the left of the midline, just anterior to the vertebral column, and has branches that supply thoracic structures. Nine pairs of posterior intercostal arteries branch off the thoracic aorta to follow the ribs. The abdominal aorta is also anterior to the vertebral column but closer to the midline. It supplies the abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities. The major branches of the descending aorta are the celiac trunk (which divides into the left gastric artery, splenic artery, and common hepatic artery), the superior mesenteric artery, the paired suprarenal arteries, the paired renal arteries, the paired gonadal arteries (ovarian arteries in females and testicular arteries in

Diaphragm

Inferior vena cava Right adrenal (suprarenal) gland Right kidney 1

males), the inferior mesenteric artery, and four pairs of lumbar arteries. Within the pelvis, the abdominal aorta divides into the common iliac arteries that are the terminal branches of the abdominal aorta.

ACTIVITY 4 Major Arterial Branches of the Descending Aorta Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the arteries in Figures 30.4 and 30.5 using the location described in Table 30.4. Lab Activity 1 Identify the arteries on a model or chart.

• • • Hepatic veins • Esophageal hiatus • • 5 • • 6 • • 7 8

abdominal aorta celiac trunk common hepatic inferior mesenteric right common iliac right external iliac right internal iliac left renal splenic superior mesenteric 1 ____________________ 2 ____________________

9

3 ____________________ 4 ____________________

10 2 3 4

Ureter

5 ____________________ 6 ____________________ 7 ____________________ 8 ____________________ 9 ____________________ 10 ____________________

FIGURE 30.4

Descending aorta and major arterial branches.

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• • • •

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485

celiac trunk common hepatic left gastric splenic

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 1 2 3 4

FIGURE 30.5

Anterior view of celiac trunk and its arterial branches.

TABLE 30.4

Major Arterial Branches of the Descending Aorta

ARTERY

LOCATION

Thoracic aorta

Continuation of aortic arch that starts at the level of the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae and becomes the abdominal aorta at the diaphragm Continuation of the thoracic aorta that begins at the diaphragm and ends at the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra where it divides into the right and left common iliac arteries Short branch off abdominal aorta just inferior to the diaphragm that immediately divides into three arteries: the left gastric, splenic, and common hepatic arteries Smallest of the three celiac trunk branches, it comes off the left anterior side and courses to the left toward the esophagus and stomach Largest of the three celiac trunk branches, it comes off the left anterior side and courses to the left toward the spleen and branches into three arteries: the pancreatic artery, the left gastroepiploic artery, and the short gastric artery Intermediate of three celiac trunk branches, it comes off the right anterior side and courses toward the right and branches into three arteries Arises off the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta just inferior to the celiac trunk at the level of the first lumbar vertebra; it has many anastomoses and branches into five arteries Branch off the lateral surface of the abdominal aorta at the level of the first lumbar vertebra and course toward the adrenal glands Branch off the lateral surface of the abdominal aorta at the level of the second lumbar vertebra and course toward the kidneys Branch off the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta inferior to the renal arteries; ovarian arteries course toward the ovaries and testicular arteries pass through the inguinal canal toward the testes Branches off the abdominal aorta at the level of the third lumbar vertebra; it has many anastomoses and branches into three arteries Begin at division of abdominal aorta at level of fourth lumbar vertebra and terminate into internal and external iliac arteries

Abdominal aorta Celiac trunk Left gastric artery Splenic artery

Common hepatic artery Superior mesenteric artery Right and left suprarenal arteries Right and left renal arteries Right and left gonadal arteries Inferior mesenteric artery Right and left common iliac arteries

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5. Major Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Extremities The common iliac arteries divide into the internal iliac and external iliac arteries. The internal iliac arteries are medial terminal branches off the common iliac arteries just anterior to the lumbosacral joint. They course posteriorly to the pelvis. The external iliac artery, the larger of the two arteries, becomes the femoral artery as it enters the thigh. The femoral artery descends along the middle of the anterior two-thirds of the thigh and travels to the posterior thigh, becoming the popliteal artery as it enters the posterior knee area. The popliteal artery divides into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries. The anterior tibial artery travels to the anterior surface of the leg and descends to the ankles where it becomes the dorsalis pedis artery. The posterior tibial artery descends along the posterior aspect of the leg and terminates at the ankle where it divides into the medial and lateral plantar arteries. The fibular (peroneal) artery branches off the posterior tibial artery and travels down the lateral side of the leg to the foot.

TABLE 30.5

ACTIVITY 5 Major Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Extremities Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the arteries in Figure 30.6 using the location described in Table 30.5. Lab Activity 1 Identify the arteries on a model or chart. 2 Palpate the femoral artery pulse by placing two fingertips over the inguinal area. 3 Palpate the popliteal artery pulse by placing two fingertips on the posterior surface of the knee. 4 Palpate the pulse of the dorsal artery of the foot (dorsalis pedis artery) by placing two fingertips over the dorsal surface of the medial side of the foot near the ankle.

Major Arteries of the Pelvis and the Lower Extremities

ARTERY

LOCATION

Internal iliac arteries

Terminal branches of common iliac arteries that begin at the level of the intervertebral disc between vertebrae L5 and S1 and travel posteriorly until they divide in the pelvis Terminal branches of common iliac arteries that run along the psoas major muscles and become femoral arteries posterior to the inguinal ligaments Begin posterior to inguinal ligaments; descend along the midline of the anterior two-thirds of the thighs; travel to the posterior thigh and become the popliteal arteries in the popliteal region of the lower extremity Continuation of femoral arteries that begin in the popliteal region and end in the upper leg where they divide into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries Terminal branches of popliteal arteries that begin in the upper posterior leg and travel to the anterior leg; end in the ankles where they become the dorsal arteries of the foot (dorsalis pedis arteries) Continuation of anterior tibial arteries that begin in the ankles and form branches within the foot

External iliac arteries Femoral arteries

Popliteal arteries Anterior tibial arteries

Dorsal arteries of the foot (dorsalis pedis arteries) Posterior tibial arteries Fibular (peroneal) arteries

Terminal branches of popliteal arteries that begin in the upper leg and terminate at the medial malleolus of the tibia where they divide into the medial and lateral plantar arteries Branch off the posterior tibial artery slightly distal to the point where the popliteal artery divides into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries; descends down the lateral surface of the leg, and terminates within the foot

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1 2 3

4

5

6 7

8

Medial plantar

9

Lateral plantar

(a) Anterior view

• • • • • • • • •

anterior tibial common iliac dorsal artery of the foot (dorsalis pedis) external iliac femoral fibular (peroneal) internal iliac popliteal posterior tibial

(b) Posterior view

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________ 6 _______________________________________ 7 _______________________________________ 8 _______________________________________ 9 _______________________________________

FIGURE 30.6

Major arteries of the pelvis and lower extremities.

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B. Systemic Veins

1. Veins Carrying Blood to the Right Atrium of the Heart

Veins carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart. Veins can be found under the skin (superficial veins) or deep within the body, typically near an artery. Veins that accompany arteries usually have the same name as the artery. Veins carrying blood from the lungs to the left side of the heart carry oxygen-rich blood and are part of the pulmonary circulation, whereas veins carrying blood from all other body tissues carry oxygen-poor blood and are part of the systemic circulation.

Three large veins carry oxygen-poor blood into the right atrium—the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava, and the coronary sinus.

CLINICAL NOTE: A thrombus in a deep vein can cause a pulmonary embolus if not treated with anticoagulant, whereas a thrombus in a superficial vein does not tend to form an embolus.

ACTIVITY 6 Veins Carrying Blood to the Heart Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the veins in Figure 30.7 using the location described in Table 30.6. Lab Activity 1 Identify the veins on a model or chart.

1

2

(posterior)

3

• coronary sinus • inferior vena cava • superior vena cava

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________

FIGURE 30.7

TABLE 30.6

Systemic veins carrying blood to the heart.

Veins Carrying Blood to the Heart

VEIN

LOCATION

Superior vena cava

Formed from the merger of the right and left brachiocephalic veins at the level of the first costal cartilage and ends where it enters the right atrium at the level of the third costal cartilage Formed from the merger of the great, middle, and small cardiac veins, located in the coronary sulcus, and empties into the right atrium Formed from the merger of the common iliac veins at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra and ascends behind the peritoneum just right of the midline and empties into the right atrium

Coronary sinus Inferior vena cava

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2. Major Veins Draining the Head and Neck

brachiocephalic external jugular internal jugular subclavian vertebral

489

ACTIVITY 7 Major Veins Draining the Head and Neck

Three large, paired veins—the internal jugular veins, the external jugular veins, and the vertebral veins—drain blood from the head and neck. The internal jugular veins run lateral to the internal carotid and common carotid arteries, the external jugular veins are superficial veins descending along the lateral surface of the neck, and the vertebral veins descend through the transverse foramina of the vertebral column with the vertebral arteries. The external jugular veins drain the scalp and face and empty into the subclavian veins. The internal jugular and subclavian veins join to form the brachiocephalic veins. The right and left brachiocephalic veins merge to form the superior vena cava.

• • • • •

BLOOD VESSEL IDENTIFICATION

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the veins in Figure 30.8 using the location described in Table 30.7. Lab Activity 1 Identify the veins on a model or chart.

1

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________

2

3

4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________ 4 5

FIGURE 30.8

Major veins of the head and neck

TABLE 30.7

Major Veins of the Head and Neck

VEIN

LOCATION

Internal jugular veins

Begin at the jugular foramina; run lateral to the internal carotid and common carotid arteries; merge with the subclavian veins to form the brachiocephalic veins Begin in the occipital region and the parotid gland; descend through the neck along the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and end near the middle of the clavicle where they drain into the subclavian veins Originate inferior to the occipital condyles; travel through the transverse foramina of the first through sixth cervical vertebrae, and drain into the area where the subclavian and internal jugular veins merge to form the brachiocephalic veins in the root of the neck

External jugular veins

Vertebral veins

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3. Major Veins Draining the Upper Extremities Superficial veins are visible running beneath the skin of the arm. As we age, these veins become more visible. The major superficial veins of the upper extremities are the basilic and the cephalic veins. Each arm has a cephalic vein that travels along the anteriolateral surface of the entire limb and merges with the axillary vein inferior to the clavicle. Each basilic vein travels along the medial surface of the forearm and the anterior surface of the arm. Each median cubital vein, a common site for obtaining blood samples, is an anastomosis anterior to the elbow that connects the basilic and cephalic veins. The major deep veins of the arm and forearm run along with arteries and are named for the arteries they accompany. The radial and ulnar veins, found in each forearm, merge to form the brachial veins. The brachial veins ascend the

arm and join with the basilic vein to form the axillary vein. The axillary vein becomes the subclavian vein as it leaves the axillary region.

ACTIVITY 8 Major Veins Draining the Upper Extremities Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the veins in Figure 30.9 using the description supplied for superficial veins in Table 30.8 and deep veins in Table 30.9. Lab Activity 1 Identify the veins on models or charts.

Right internal jugular

Right external jugular Right subclavian

4 5 6

1 Superior vena cava

2

Sternum 3

7 8

(a) Anterior view of superficial veins

(a) • basilic • cephalic • median cubital

1 ________________________________ 2 ________________________________ 3 ________________________________

(b) Anterior view of deep veins

(b) • axillary • brachial veins • radial veins • subclavian • ulnar veins

4 ________________________________ 5 ________________________________ 6 ________________________________ 7 ________________________________ 8 ________________________________

FIGURE 30.9

Major veins of the right upper extremity.

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TABLE 30.8

BLOOD VESSEL IDENTIFICATION

491

Superficial Veins Draining the Upper Extremities

VEIN

LOCATION

Cephalic veins

Begin at lateral edge of the dorsal venous arches (superficial veins of the hand); travel laterally along the anterior surface of the entire limb, and end inferior to the clavicle where they drain into the axillary vein Begin at the medial edge of the dorsal venous arches and travel medially along the posterior surface of the forearm and the anterior surface of the arm; in the middle of the arm, this vein travels deep and eventually merges with the brachial vein in the axillary region to form the axillary vein Travel laterally across the anterior surface of the elbow to connect the basilic and cephalic veins

Basilic veins

Median cubital veins

TABLE 30.9

Deep Veins Draining the Upper Extremities

VEIN

LOCATION

Radial veins

From venous palmar arches, travel along lateral forearm with the radial arteries, and end at brachial veins From superficial palmar venous arches, travel along medial forearm with ulnar arteries, and end at brachial veins From merger of radial and ulnar veins and run superiorly until merge with basilic veins to form axillary veins From merger of basilic and brachial veins and run with axillary arteries until they become subclavian veins at the border of first ribs Continuation of axillary veins that begin at the border of first ribs; end at the sternal end of the clavicle where they join with the internal jugular veins to form the brachiocephalic veins

Ulnar veins Brachial veins Axillary veins Subclavian veins

4. Major Veins Draining the Thorax, Abdomen, and Pelvis (Including Hepatic Portal Circulation) The azygos system of veins includes the azygos vein, the hemiazygos vein, and the accessory hemiazygos vein. These veins drain most thoracic structures and the abdominal wall. They also form anastomoses with the large veins draining the lower limbs and abdomen. Therefore, the azygos system can serve as a bypass if the inferior vena cava becomes obstructed. The internal and external iliac veins in the pelvis merge to form the common iliac veins that unite to form the inferior vena cava. The lumbar veins, gonadal veins, renal veins, suprarenal veins, and hepatic veins drain directly into the inferior vena cava. The veins draining the stomach, intestines, spleen, pancreas, and gallbladder do not drain directly into the inferior vena cava but enter the hepatic portal circulation first. The major veins of the hepatic circulation are the inferior mesenteric vein, the splenic vein, the superior mesenteric vein, and the hepatic portal vein. The inferior mesenteric vein, which drains blood from the large intestine, joins the

splenic vein, which carries blood from the stomach, pancreas, and spleen. The superior mesenteric vein drains blood from the small intestine and merges with the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein, which carries nutrient-rich blood to the liver for processing. The liver is drained by the hepatic veins that empty into the inferior vena cava.

ACTIVITY 9 Major Veins Draining the Thorax, Abdomen, and Pelvis Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the veins in Figure 30.10 using the description supplied in Tables 30.10 and 30.11. 2 Label the veins in Figure 30.11 using the location described in Table 30.11. Lab Activity 1 Identify the veins on models or charts

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accessory hemiazygos azygos hemiazygos hepatic veins inferior vena cava left brachiocephalic left common iliac left external iliac left gonadal left internal iliac left renal left suprarenal right brachiocephalic right common iliac right external iliac right gonadal right internal iliac right renal right suprarenal superior vena cava

1 2 3 4 13

5

14

6

15 16

7

1 __________________________________

8 17 9

2 __________________________________ 3 __________________________________ 4 __________________________________ 5 __________________________________

18

10 11

19

12

20

6 __________________________________ 7 __________________________________ 8 __________________________________ 9 __________________________________

13 __________________________________

17 __________________________________

10 __________________________________

14 __________________________________

18 __________________________________

11 __________________________________

15 __________________________________

19 __________________________________

12 __________________________________

16 __________________________________

20 __________________________________

FIGURE 30.10

Major veins draining the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.

TABLE 30.10

Veins Draining the Thorax

VEIN

LOCATION

Right and left brachiocephalic veins (brachi- ⫽ arm; cephalic ⫽ head) Azygos vein

Formed by the merger of the subclavian and internal jugular veins and unite to form the superior vena cava

Hemiazygos vein Accessory hemiazygos vein

Forms near the diaphragm; runs anterior and to the right of the vertebral column, and ends in the superior vena cava Begins below the diaphragm; runs anterior and to the left of the vertebral column, and ends at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra where it joins the azygos vein Superior to the hemiazygos vein; runs anterior and to the left of the vertebral column from the level of the second thoracic vertebra to the eighth, joining the azygos vein

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493

T A B L E 3 0 . 1 1 Veins Draining the Abdomen and Pelvis VEIN

LOCATION

Common iliac veins

Formed by the merger of the internal and external iliac veins near the sacroiliac joint and end when both common iliac veins form the inferior vena cava Begin near the greater sciatic notch and drain into the common iliac veins Continuations of femoral veins that are renamed within the inguinal region; drain into the common iliac veins Run adjacent to the gonadal arteries in the posterior abdomen; left gonadal veins drain into the left renal vein; right gonadal veins drain into the inferior vena cava Run anterior to renal arteries and drain into the inferior vena cava Run adjacent to the suprarenal arteries and drain into the inferior vena cava

Internal iliac veins External iliac veins Gonadal veins Renal veins Suprarenal veins

HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION

Inferior mesenteric vein Splenic vein Superior mesenteric vein Hepatic portal vein Hepatic veins

Formed from the fan-like network of veins from the inferior mesentery; drains into splenic vein and joins the splenic vein near the pyloric region of the stomach to form the hepatic portal vein Drains the spleen and joins the superior mesenteric vein near the inferior region of the stomach to form the hepatic portal vein Formed from the fan-like network of veins of the superior mesentery; joins the splenic vein near the inferior region of the stomach to form the hepatic portal vein Begins at merger of splenic vein and superior mesenteric vein and ends in the liver Multiple hepatic veins form in the liver and drain into the inferior vena cava slightly inferior to the diaphragm

1 Gastric veins 4

2

5 Vein network of inferior mesenteric vein

3

• • • • •

hepatic hepatic portal inferior mesenteric splenic superior mesenteric

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________

Vein network of superior mesenteric vein

4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________

FIGURE 30.11

Hepatic portal circulation.

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5. Major Veins Draining the Lower Extremities The great saphenous vein and the small (short) saphenous vein are the major superficial veins of the leg. The great saphenous vein is the longest vein in the body, running along the medial surface of the leg and thigh, and contains between 10 and 20 valves to prevent backflow of blood. The small saphenous vein ascends along the lateral posterior surface of the leg. Varicose veins are common in both of these veins. Deep veins of the leg ascend in the leg adjacent to the arteries of the same name. The anterior and paired posterior tibial veins ascend in the anterior and posterior leg, and unite inferior to the popliteal fossa to form the popliteal vein. The paired fibular (peroneal) veins travel superiorly along the lateral leg and join the posterior tibial

veins. The popliteal vein ascends along the posterior surface of the knee and becomes the femoral vein, which travels up the posterior thigh and becomes the external iliac vein in the pelvis.

ACTIVITY 10 Major Veins Draining the Lower Extremities Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the veins in Figure 30.12 using the description of veins in Table 30.12. Lab Activity 1 Identify the veins on models or charts..

(a) • • • • •

anterior tibial external iliac femoral great saphenous small saphenous

1

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________

2

6

3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________ 5

7

(b) • • • • • •

femoral fibular (peroneal) great saphenous popliteal posterior tibial small saphenous

3

8

10 11

4 9

6 _______________________________________ 7 _______________________________________ 8 _______________________________________ 9 _______________________________________ 10 _______________________________________ 11 _______________________________________ FIGURE 30.12

Veins of the right lower limb.

(a) Anterior view

(b) Posterior view

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Veins of the Lower Extremities

VEIN

LOCATION

Great saphenous veins

Superficial veins that form at the medial end of the dorsal venous arches (venous networks on dorsal surface of foot); run anterior to the medial malleolus; ascend along the medial leg and thigh, and drain into the femoral veins in the groin area Superficial veins that form at the lateral end of the dorsal venous arches; run posterior to the lateral malleolus; ascend along the lateral posterior leg, and empty into the popliteal veins Paired deep veins formed from plantar veins draining the foot posterior to the medial malleolus; ascend deep within the posterior leg accompanying the posterior tibial arteries, and merge with the anterior tibial veins just inferior to the popliteal fossa to form the popliteal veins Paired deep veins that run lateral to the posterior tibial veins; drain into the posterior tibial veins two-thirds of the way up the leg Form from the dorsal venous arch (venous network on dorsal surface of foot); travel up the anterior surface of the leg accompanying the anterior tibial arteries; merge with the posterior tibial veins to form the popliteal veins just inferior to the popliteal fossa Form from the merger of the anterior and posterior tibial veins just inferior to the popliteal fossa; become the femoral veins just superior to the knee Continuation of popliteal veins that begin just superior to the knee; accompany the femoral arteries up the posterior surface of the thigh; become the external iliac veins as they enter the pelvis

Small saphenous veins Posterior tibial veins

Fibular (peroneal) veins Anterior tibial veins

Popliteal veins Femoral veins

C. Pulmonary Circulation The pulmonary circulation carries oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the capillaries of the lung where oxygen is added and carbon dioxide is removed. The pulmonary trunk carries oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle and divides to form the right and left pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs. Oxygen-rich blood leaves the lungs via the pulmonary veins, which drain into the left atrium.

ACTIVITY 11 Major Blood Vessels of the Pulmonary Circulation Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the blood vessels in Figure 30.13. Lab Activity 1 Identify the blood vessels on models or charts.

• • • • • 1 3 4 5

2

left pulmonary artery left pulmonary vein pulmonary trunk right pulmonary artery right pulmonary vein

1 _______________________________________ 2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________

FIGURE 30.13

Blood vessels of the pulmonary circulation.

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D. Fetal Circulation

ACTIVITY 12 Fetal Circulation

Because the fetus cannot breathe or ingest food, the mother’s circulatory system provides the fetus with oxygen and nutrients, and eliminates carbon dioxide and other wastes from fetal blood. This exchange occurs across the placenta, which forms within the uterus during early pregnancy. Uterine blood vessels enter the placenta, and substances are exchanged by diffusion between maternal and placental capillaries without direct mixing of maternal and fetal blood. Two umbilical arteries carry oxygen-poor fetal blood to the placenta, and one umbilical vein carries the oxygen-rich blood back to the fetus. The ductus venosus allows blood to enter the inferior vena cava. Several circulatory modifications in the fetus allow blood to bypass the nonfunctioning fetal lungs and gastrointestinal tract (Table 30.13). The foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus allow blood to bypass the fetal lungs, and after birth, vascular changes occur to allow blood to enter the lungs.

Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 30.14 using the description in Table 30.13. Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on models or charts.

SAFETY NOTE: Wear safety glasses and gloves when using fresh or preserved tissue. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water when you are done.

T A B L E 3 0 . 1 3 Fetal Circulation STRUCTURE

LOCATION AND FUNCTION

STRUCTURAL MODIFICATION AFTER BIRTH

Umbilical arteries

Branch off internal iliac arteries; carry fetal blood to the placenta Formed at the placenta, and travels to the liver where it forms two branches, the ductus venosus and another vein that drains into the hepatic portal vein Major branch of umbilical vein that carries most of fetal blood from the placenta to the inferior vena cava Opening in atrial septum that allows blood to pass from right atrium to left atrium Arterial vessel that connects pulmonary trunk with the aorta

Close and fill with connective tissue and become the medial umbilical ligaments Vessel collapses and renamed ligamentum teres (round ligament)

Umbilical vein

Ductus venosus

Foramen ovale

Ductus arteriosus

E. Animal Dissection of Blood Vessels If you are dissecting a cat or fetal pig to observe blood vessels, refer to the appropriate accompanying dissection manual. The blood vessels of a cat or fetal pig are similar to those of the human. The dissection will illustrate how

Vessel collapses and renamed ligamentum venosum

Closes and becomes the fossa ovalis

Closes and becomes the ligamentum arteriosum

blood vessels are enfolded in connective tissue and dive deep to disappear between skeletal muscles. Sometimes you will discover that an artery, vein, and nerve will be traveling together and will separate to journey to separate destinations.

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1

2

3

4

5

(a) Fetal circulation

(a) • • • • • •

1 _________________________

ductus arteriosus ductus venosus foramen ovale placenta umbilical arteries umbilical vein

2 _________________________ 3 _________________________ 4 _________________________ 5 _________________________ 6 _________________________

FIGURE 30.14

Fetal circulation and modifications after birth.

(b) • • • • •

fossa ovalis ligamentum arteriosum ligamentum teres ligamentum venosum medial umbilical ligaments

7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________ 10 ________________________ 11 ________________________

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

30 E X E R C I S E

A. Arteries and Veins 1. Which arteries carry low oxygen blood, and which veins carry high oxygen blood?

2. What are the external arteries called when they pass the inguinal ligaments?

3. Varicose veins are common, but are there also varicose arteries? Why or why not?

4. What are the names of the paired veins that drain the head and neck?

5. In the arm and forearm, is it the deep veins or superficial veins that accompany arteries with the same names as the veins?

6. Which vein of the upper limb is typically used to draw a blood sample?

7. Where is the azygos vein located, and what area does it drain?

8. Usually arteries carry nutrient-rich blood, but there are veins that do also. What are their names?

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B. Review of Arteries Identify each artery in Figure 30.15 and write its name next to the number.

1

15

2

16

3

4 5

17 18

6

19 20

7

21

8

22 23

9 10

24 25 26

11 12 13

27 28 29 30 31 32

14

33

34

35 36

37

Principal branches of the aorta

FIGURE 30.15

Principal branches of the aorta.

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C. Review of Veins Identify each vein in Figure 30.16 and write its name next to the number. 1

2 3 4 5 6

16

7

17

8

18

9

19

10

20

11

21

12

22

13 14 15

23 24 25

26 27 28

29 30 31

32

Principal veins

FIGURE 30.16

Anterior view of the principal veins.

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D. Arterial Blood Distribution Complete the schematic diagrams of arterial blood distribution in Figure 30.17. Arch of aorta

1

Right subclavian

3

Right 5 vertebral

4

Left subclavian

2

6

Left 8 external carotid

7

Left axillary (gives rise to same branches as right axillary, except that arteries are labeled left instead of right)

9 10

13

Right 11 middle cerebral

12

14 15

Right superficial palmar arch

Right 16 posterior cerebral

Right deep palmar arch

(a) Arch of aorta; brain and upper limb Abdominal aorta

Left common iliac

17

18

Right internal iliac

19

20

21

22

Right dorsalis pedis (b) Pelvis and lower limb

FIGURE 30.17

Schematic diagram illustrating arterial blood distribution.

(gives rise to same branches as right common iliac, except that arteries are labeled left instead of right)

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Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

30 E X E R C I S E

A. Blood Vessel Identification 1. Balloon catheters are inserted into the femoral artery to unblock coronary vessels. Name all the arterial structures, in order, that the balloon catheter passes through from the right femoral artery to the right coronary artery.

2. Trace a drop of blood from the aorta to the small intestine and back to the right atrium. Include, in order, the major arteries and veins.

3. Trace a drop of blood from the aorta to the skin of the face and back to the right atrium. Include, in order, the major arteries and veins.

4. A blockage in the right internal carotid does not necessarily cause a loss of blood supply to the brain. (a) Identify the area of the brain supplied by the right internal carotid, and name the vessels that would supply blood to this area if there is a blockage in the right internal carotid artery.

(b) Is a thrombus in the external carotid life-threatening? Why or why not?

Identify the blood vessel that supplies blood to each of the following structures in questions 5–7: 5. Radius (bone) and radial nerve 6. Skin covering anterior thigh 7. Rectus femoris muscle

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Use the angiogram in Figure 30.18 to answer questions 8–10.

10

8

9

FIGURE 30.18

Angiogram.

8. Identify the blood vessel marked in the angiogram. (Note: Only one branch of the aorta can be seen. The other two cannot be observed because of the angle of the angiogram.)

9. Identify the blood vessel marked in the angiogram.

10. Identify the blood vessel marked in the angiogram.

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31

Lymphatic System Structure and Immune System Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

human torso or chart with lymphatic organs

•

preserved cats or fetal pigs, disposable gloves, dissection equipment, safety glasses, accompanying cat or fetal pig dissection manual

1 List the functions of the lymphatic system 2 Name the organs and tissues of the lymphatic system and list their functions 3 Describe lymph formation

compound microscope, lens paper, prepared slides of the lymph nodes and spleen

4 Describe the lymphatic vessels and the flow of lymph through the body 5 Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the lymph nodes and spleen 6 Identify the main lymphatic organs in the cat or fetal pig

T

he components of the lymphatic system are

lymphatic organs and tissues, lymphatic vessels, and lymph. The lymphatic system is the structural location where much of the immune response takes place. The lymphatic system also collects excess interstitial fluid and returns this fluid to the bloodstream. In addition, it delivers dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) absorbed from the small intestine to the bloodstream.

A. Lymph and Lymphatic Vessels Lymph, the fluid found within lymphatic vessels, is formed from blood plasma. As blood flows through blood capillaries, hydrostatic and osmotic pressures filter more plasma out of the blood capillary and into the interstitial

spaces than is drawn back inside. The excess fluid in the interstitial spaces (between blood capillaries and tissues) is now called interstitial fluid. When the interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries, which lie near blood capillaries and are closed at one end, it is called lymph. Interstitial fluid and lymph are identical in composition but different in location. Blood plasma, however, differs from both of these fluids in that plasma contains many plasma proteins (including albumin) that are too large to cross the blood capillary endothelium into the interstitial fluid. Lymph flows from lymphatic capillaries into many lymphatic vessels that take lymph toward the neck region. Lymphatic vessels follow the pathway of veins in the body and also have a similar structure, but they have thinner walls and more valves than veins. Just as a body massage is helpful for moving blood through the veins and toward the heart, a light massage is also helpful for moving lymph through the lymphatic vessels and nodes to cleanse the lymph.

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Lymphatic vessels flow into a series or chain of lymph nodes where lymph is filtered. Within a body region, the lymph vessels exiting the last lymph nodes in each chain of nodes merge to form lymph trunks. Lymph trunks merge to form two main ducts, the thoracic duct (left lymphatic duct) and the right lymphatic duct. In the abdominal area, lymph trunks merge to form a sac-like reservoir called the cysterna chyli. The long thoracic duct begins at the cysterna chyli and continues superiorly to drain the lymph from the legs, abdomen, left arm, and left side of the thorax, neck, and head into the left subclavian vein. The right lymphatic duct is the lesser and very short duct that drains lymph from the right arm via the right jugular trunk and right side of the thorax, neck, and head via the right subclavian trunk. Each duct enters the subclavian vein at its juncture with an internal jugular vein to drain lymph into venous blood.

5 Opening into lymphatic capillary 6 Anchoring filament Endothelium of lymphatic capillary 7

(b) Lymphatic capillary

• interstitial fluid • lymph in lymphatic capillary • tissue cell

ACTIVITY 1 Lymphatic Vessels Pre-Lab Activity

5 ________________________________ 6 ________________________________ 7 ________________________________

1 Label the structures in Figures 31.1(a) and (b) 31.2(a–c). 2 Examine the lymphatic vessel with valve in Figure 31.1(c).

3 Venule 1 Arteriole Blood

Closed valve 4

2 (a) Lymphatic and blood capillaries

• blood capillary • interstitial (inter-STIH-shul) fluid • lymphatic capillary • tissue cell

1 ______________________ 2 ______________________ 3 ______________________ 4 ______________________

FIGURE 31.1

Lymphatic capillaries.

(c) Photomicrograph of a lymphatic vessel and valve

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Right internal jugular vein Right jugular trunk

7

Right subclavian trunk

Left jugular trunk

1

6

8

Left subclavian vein 2 3 4

(b) Lymph drainage

Intestinal and lumber trunks

(a) • cisterna chyli • lymphatic vessel in arm • lymphatic vessel in leg • right lymphatic duct • thoracic duct draining into subclavian vein • thoracic duct in thorax

1 __________________________ 2 __________________________ 3 __________________________ 4 __________________________ 5 __________________________ 6 __________________________

5

(b) • area drained by right lymphatic duct • area drained by thoracic duct 7 __________________________ 8 __________________________

(a) Overview of lymphatic vessels

FIGURE 31.2

Lymphatic vessels.

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Thoracic duct Azygos vein

Diaphragm

Vena cava

Spleen Thoracic area, anterior view Left internal jugular vein

Right internal jugular vein 9

13

10

Left brachiocephalic vein

Right subclavian vein 11

Accessory hemiazygos vein Left bronchomediastinal trunk

Right brachiocephalic vein Right bronchomediastinal trunk

14

Superior vena cava Rib Hemiazygos vein

Intercostal muscle Azygos vein 12 Right lumbar trunk Inferior vena cava

Left lumbar trunk Intestinal trunk (c) Overall anterior view

• • • • • •

cisterna chyli right jugular trunk right lymphatic duct right subclavian trunk thoracic duct thoracic (left lymphatic) duct in thorax

9 _______________________________________ 10 _______________________________________ 11 _______________________________________ 12 _______________________________________ 13 _______________________________________ 14 _______________________________________

FIGURE 31.2

Lymphatic vessels, continued.

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B. Lymphatic Organs and Tissues Lymphatic organs and tissues are located throughout the body. Lymphatic organs are surrounded by a capsule and include the thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen. Lymphatic tissues are not surrounded by a capsule and are called lymphatic nodules. Because their functions differ, lymphatic organs and tissues are divided into two categories based on function: primary lymphatic organs, and secondary lymphatic organs and tissues. Primary lymphatic locations contain stem cells that produce lymphocytes and are the site where these lymphocytes become immunocompetent (recognize and mount immune system response). The two primary lymphatic organs are red bone marrow and the thymus. The thymus, which is located in the mediastinum just superior to the heart, is much larger in children and decreases considerably in size as they get older. Secondary lymphatic organs and tissues are sites for defense against invading agents and cancer cells and include the lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic nodules (follicles). Lymph nodes are named for their location in the body. Single lymphatic nodules located in the connec-

tive tissue of mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts are called mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). Aggregations of large nodules (follicles) include Peyer’s patches in the small intestine, lymphoid follicles in the appendix (appendix ⫽ appendage), five tonsils (one pharyngeal tonsil and paired palatine and lingual tonsils), and bronchial nodules located in the walls of the respiratory tract. The pharyngeal tonsil is located in the posterior nasopharynx, while the palatine tonsils are in the posterior portion of the oral cavity. The lingual tonsils are located under the tongue. All of these nodules protect the body from foreign substances that are ingested, inhaled, or otherwise enter body openings.

ACTIVITY 2 Lymphatic Organs and Tissues Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 31.3(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on a human torso or chart.

Sagittal plane

• lingual (LING-wal) tonsil • palatine (PAL-ih-tine) tonsil • pharyngeal (fuh-RIN-gee-al) tonsil 1 _______________________________________ 1

2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________

2

3

(a) Sagittal view

FIGURE 31.3

Lymphatic organs and tissues.

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4 5

Left internal jugular vein

Right subclavian vein

Left subclavian vein

6

10 11 12 13 Small intestine 14

7 Large intestine

• • • • • • • • • • •

15

8

• • 16

appendix (vermiform) axillary lymph node cervical lymph node iliac lymph node inguinal lymph node intestinal lymph node mammary lymph node Peyer’s patches (aggregated lymphatic follicles) red bone marrow spleen submandibular lymph node thoracic lymph node thymus (THY-mus) 4 __________________________ 5 __________________________ 6 __________________________ 7 __________________________ 8 __________________________

9

9 __________________________ 10 __________________________ 11 __________________________ 12 __________________________ 13 __________________________ 14 __________________________ 15 __________________________ 16 __________________________

(b) Anterior view

FIGURE 31.3

Lymphatic organs and tissues, continued.

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ACTIVITY 3 Flow of Lymph Pre-Lab Activity 1 Trace the flow of lymph from the thigh to the heart in Figure 31.4. Note that lymph moves upward. • brachiocephalic vein • cisterna chyli • iliac lymph nodes • inguinal lymph nodes

• • • • • •

511

junction of jugular and subclavian veins lumbar trunk lymphatic capillaries lymphatic vessels (use term twice) superior vena cava thoracic duct

14. heart __________________________________________ c 13. __________________________________________ c 12. __________________________________________ c 11. __________________________________________ c 10. __________________________________________ c 9. __________________________________________ c 8. __________________________________________ c 7. __________________________________________ c 6. __________________________________________ c 5. __________________________________________ c 4. __________________________________________ c 3. __________________________________________ c 2. interstitial __________________________________________ fluid c capillaries 1. blood __________________________________________

FIGURE 31.4

Flow of lymph.

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C. Structure of the Lymph Node

immune system cells (lymphocytes and macrophages) to attack pathogens, cancer cells, and foreign molecules. Enlarged lymph nodes could be caused by, but not limited to, infection, cancer, or scarring from a chronic lesion.

Lymph nodes are bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and are usually found in groups. Clusters of these nodes are generally found in different body regions (i.e., the cervical, axillary, and inguinal areas) and are named for their location. Each node has a capsule with extensions called trabeculae (trabecula ⫽ little beam) that compartmentalize the node. The nodes are composed of reticular (reticulum ⫽ process) tissue, with reticular fibers forming the net-like support for reticulocytes (specialized fibroblasts). Two main regions of lymph nodes are the cortex (superficial region) and medulla (deep region). There are many lightercolored oval lymphatic nodules in the outer cortex that contain many immune system cells. Lymph enters each node via many afferent vessels and travels through the following spaces, subcapsular sinus, trabecular sinuses, and medullary sinuses, and exits the node via fewer efferent vessels. The hilus (hilus ⫽ depression or pit) is the indented area of the node where the efferent vessels leave the node. This design causes the lymph to move slowly through the lymph nodes, allowing time for

ACTIVITY 4 Lymph Node Structure Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 31.5(a), (b), and (c). 2 Observe lymph nodes and lymphatic vessel in figure 31.6. Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared slide of a lymph node. • Using low power, identify the structures listed in Figure 31.5(b). • Using high power, identify the reticulocytes and reticular fibers of the lymph node [Figure 31.5(c)].

5

2

Germinal center in lymphatic nodule

1

• • • • • •

afferent vessels capsule cortex efferent vessels hilus medulla

• medullary sinus • subcapsular sinus • trabecular sinus • valve

1 ______________________________________ 6 7

3 4

2 ______________________________________ 3 ______________________________________

Trabecula 8

4 ______________________________________ 5 ______________________________________

9 10

6 ______________________________________ 7 ______________________________________ 8 ______________________________________ 9 ______________________________________

(a) Partially sectioned lymph node

FIGURE 31.5

Lymph node.

10 ______________________________________

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17 14 11 12 15

Blood vessel

13

16

Medullary sinus LM 17⫻

LM 400⫻

(b) Photomicrograph of a portion of a lymph node

(b) • capsule • cortex • germinal center in lymphatic nodule • medulla • trabecula

11 _______________________ 12 _______________________

(c) Photomicrograph of reticular tissue within a lymph node

(c) • reticular fiber • reticulocyte

13 _______________________ 14 _______________________ 15 _______________________

FIGURE 31.5

Lymph node, continued.

Inguinal ligament Femoral artery Sartorius Lymph nodes

Vastus lateralis

Lymphatic vessels Rectus femoris Great saphenous vein

FIGURE 31.6

Lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels of left thigh.

16 _______________________ 17 _______________________

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D. Structure of the Thymus

against microbes and foreign molecules that do not belong to your body.

The thymus is bi-lobed organ that is one of the primary lymphatic organs (see Figure 31.7a). It is located in the mediastinum between the sternum and the superior vena cava. The thymus is larger in infants and children and begins to atrophy during puberty and continues in adulthood. Not much active thymic tissue remains in an elderly person, and most of the thymus is infiltrated with fat. The main purpose of the thymus gland is to support and stimulate immature T lymphocytes (T cells) that migrate to this gland from their origin in red bone marrow. With the help of thymic hormones, thymosin and others, T cells go through a maturation process in the thymus that “educates” them to recognize and enable an immune response

ACTIVITY 5 Thymus Structure Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 31.7(b). Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared slide of the thymus. 2 Using low power, identify the structures listed in Figure 31.7(b).

Thyroid gland

Brachiocephalic veins

Trachea Right common carotid artery

Thymus

Superior vena cava

Parietal pericardium

Left lung

Right lung

Diaphragm (a) Thymus of adolescent Blood vessels 1 2 3 4 5

• • • • •

capsule cortex medulla thymic corpuscle trabecula

1 ______________________________________ 2 ______________________________________ 3 ______________________________________ 4 ______________________________________

LM

(b) Thymic lobules

FIGURE 31.7

Thymus.

30x

5 ______________________________________

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E. Structure of the Spleen

515

eign material, or debris. Red pulp stores platelets and contains reticular fibers that cannot be seen at this magnification. It stains a lighter color because its many red blood cells are anucleate. Many macrophages can also be found here to phagocytize foreign substances in the blood.

The largest lymphatic organ, the spleen, filters blood of foreign organisms and particles, eliminates aged erythrocytes, and is a blood reservoir for platelets. The spleen is the main organ that filters blood, similar to the lymph nodes being the main organs that filter the lymph. This highly vascular organ lies posterior and lateral to the stomach in the left upper quadrant (LUQ). The splenic artery enters the spleen and the splenic vein and efferent lymphatic vessels exit the spleen at the hilus. The spleen is an encapsulated organ with extensions of the capsule forming trabeculae. Histologically, the spleen has regions of white pulp and red pulp that are named for their appearance in fresh specimens. On prepared slides you will see stained specimens with different colors. White pulp resembles nodules with many lymphocytes and macrophages and appears dark purple when stained. Both B and T lymphocytes carry out immune functions here, and macrophages engulf any aged blood cells, for-

ACTIVITY 6 Structure of the Spleen Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 31.8(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared slide of the spleen. • Using low power, identify the capsule, trabecula, red pulp, and white pulp. • Using high power, identify reticular fibers, reticulocytes, and lymphocytes in white pulp and the reticular fibers, reticulocytes, and red blood cells (RBCs) in the red pulp.

SUPERIOR 2

1

Colic impression Gastric impression

(a) • hilus • splenic artery • splenic vein

3

1 _______________________________________ Renal impression

2 _______________________________________ 3 _______________________________________ (a) Gross structure 4

Red pulp

5

(b) • capsule • trabecula • white pulp 4 _______________________________________ 5 _______________________________________

Central artery

6 LM

(b) Portion of the spleen

FIGURE 31.8

The spleen.

25x

6 _______________________________________

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F. Immune Cells Involved in Body Defense The cells involved in body defense are the T cells (lymphocytes), B cells (lymphocytes), and macrophages (macro- ⫽ big; phago- ⫽ to eat). T and B cells are originally produced in red bone marrow from pluripotent stem cells, which are immature stem cells that can develop into various mature blood cells. B cells complete their maturation and become immunocompetent in the red bone marrow. Immature T cells migrate to the thymus through the bloodstream to complete maturization and become immunocompetent there. After being instructed and programmed for their work, mature T and B cells are now immunocompetent and are released into the bloodstream. They travel to secondary lymphatic organs and tissue to be activated and cloned in the immune response. Secondary lymphatic organs include the lymph nodes and the spleen. Lymphatic tissue (nodules) includes MALT, Peyer’s patches, appendix, tonsils, and bronchial nodules. When stimulated and activated by specific antigens, B cells transform into a specialized group of cloned plasma cells that make antibodies against foreign intruders. This type of immune response is called antibody-mediated immunity. B cells also make B memory cells that will become active if the same antigen is introduced into your body. T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity by bringing into play three types of T cells. When stimulated by specific antigens, helper T cells clone and activate both cytotoxic T cells and B cells. Cytotoxic T cells clone

directly attack foreign cells with toxic chemicals that destroy them. After B and T cells either destroy or render foreign cells and molecules inactive, macrophages phagocytize and clean up the fallout material. Memory T cells are also produced to become activated later on.

ACTIVITY 7 Cells Involved in Body Defenses Pre-Lab Activity 1 Observe a macrophage (pink) phagocytizing a bacterium (green) in Figure 31.9(a). 2 Identify where T and B cells are produced and programmed, and where active T and B cells are located in Figure 31.9(b).

G. Animal Dissection You may have already looked at the lymphatic organs in your previous dissections. As you dissected the blood vessels, you may have noticed small, 1/8- to 1/4-inch lymph nodes in the axillary or inguinal areas. Because the nodes are small, they are easy to miss if you do not know their structure or location. Consult the appropriate cat or fetal pig dissection manual for your dissection instructions.

Macrophages

Bacterium

(a) Phagocytosis by a macrophage, human lung

FIGURE 31.9

Cells of the lymphatic and immune system.

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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 1 Palatine tonsil

origin of T cells origin of B cells T cells become immunocompetent B cells become immunocompetent active T cells, B cells, and macrophages

2 Submandibular node 3 Cervical node

4 Thymus gland Axillary node 8

Spleen 9

Peyer's patches 10

5 Intestinal node

Iliac node 11 6 Appendix

Inguinal node 12

7 Red bone marrow

(b) Location of immune system cells

FIGURE 31.9

Cells of the lymphatic and immune system, continued.

517

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Name ___________________________________

Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

31 E X E R C I S E

A. Structure of Lymphatic Organs and Tissues Write the name of the organ or tissue that matches the description. Terms may be used more than once. ___________________________ 1. Regresses considerably with age

___________________________ 2. Largest lymphatic organ; red and white pulp

___________________________ 3. Bean-shaped; has efferent and afferent vessels ___________________________ 4.⎫⎪ ___________________________

⎪ ⎬ ⎪ 5.⎪⎭

___________________________ 6.⎫⎪ ___________________________

⎪ ⎬ ⎪ 7.⎪⎭

Primary lymphatic organs

Secondary lymphatic organs

___________________________ 8. Secondary lymphatic nodules associated with the nasal and oral cavities

___________________________ 9. Secondary lymphatic nodules located in connective tissue of mucous membranes

___________________________ 10. Secondary lymphatic nodules located in the small intestine

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B. Physiology of Lymphatic Tissues and Organs Write the name of the organ or tissue that matches the description. Terms may be used more than once. Peyer’s patches appendix (vermiform) lymph nodes mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) red bone marrow spleen thymus tonsils ___________________________ 1. Filters lymph ___________________________ 2. ⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ___________________________ 3. ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ___________________________ 4. ⎪ ⎪ ⎬ Sites for the immune response ___________________________ 5. ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ___________________________ 6. ⎪⎪ ⎪ ___________________________ 7. ⎪⎭ ___________________________ 8. Filters blood and contains red and white pulp ___________________________ 9. Programs T cells for immunocompetence ___________________________ 10. Programs B cells for immunocompetence

C. Formation of Lymph Write the name of the term that matches the phrase. blood interstitial fluid plasma ___________________________ 1. Fluid that becomes interstitial fluid ___________________________ 2. Fluid that becomes lymph ___________________________ 3. Interstitial fluid plus blood cells and large proteins

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D. Lymphatic Vessels Write the name of the vessel that matches the description. Terms may be used more than once. cisterna chyli lymphatic vessels right lymphatic duct thoracic duct lymphatic trunks ___________________________ 1. Sac-like vessel ___________________________ 2. Left lymphatic duct ___________________________ 3. Merge to form lymphatic trunks ___________________________ 4. Merge to form lymphatic ducts ___________________________ 5. The thoracic duct begins here ___________________________ 6. Drains the legs, abdominal area, and left side of the body ___________________________ 7. Drains the right side of thorax, arm, head, and neck ___________________________ 8. The longer lymphatic duct

E. Immune Cells Involved in Body Defense Write the name of the immune cells that matches the description. Terms may be used more than once. ___________________________ 1. Maturation and immunocompetency in red bone marrow ___________________________ 2. Maturation and immunocompetency in the thymus gland ___________________________ 3.⎫ ⎪ ⎬ Located in secondary organs and tissues ___________________________ 4.⎪⎭

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F. Cells of the Immune Response Complete the flow chart in Figure 31.10 with the correct terms from the bulleted list below. • • • • •

antibodies antibody-mediated immunity cell-mediated immunity cytotoxic T cells mature T cells

• • • • •

memory B cells memory T cells plasma cells thelper cells thymus

Red Bone Marrow

Pre-T cells

Mature B cells

1 7

8 (clone)

2 9 10 3

4 (clone)

5 (clone)

6

FIGURE 31.10

Cells of the immune response.

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Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

31 E X E R C I S E

A. Lymphatic and Immune Systems 1. How would the lymph that is leaving the cisterna chyli differ from lymph draining into the right lymphatic duct?

2. If you look into a child’s mouth, there are “golf balls” puffing from each side of the oral cavity. What are these structures?

3. How do lymphatic capillaries differ from blood capillaries?

4. If you dissected a fetal pig or a young cat, what difference would you expect in the thymus compared to the adult?

5. Why are the walls of lymphatic vessels thin, like veins?

6. Bacteria and viruses in infected tissues easily enter lymph vessels. Explain why.

7. If a woman had a radical mastectomy (removal of a cancerous breast, surrounding tissues with axillary lymph nodes, and anterior thoracic muscles), would you expect the arm on that side to be edematous (have edema)? Explain.

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8. Would you describe the flow of lymph through lymph nodes as being fast or slow, compared with blood capillaries? Explain.

9. What would be missing in lymph exiting a lymph node, compared with lymph entering the node?

10. A patient has enlarged right inguinal lymph nodes that are very tender to the touch. Examination of the feet reveals a small cut between the right 3rd and 4th toes, which are warm and red. What would your initial impression be, and why are the lymph nodes enlarged?

11. Figure 36.11 depicts a person with elephantitis. How does a person contract this disease?

12. How does this disease affect the lymphatic system?

FIGURE 31.11

Person with elephantitis.

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32

Respiratory System Structure and Function Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• •

models or charts with respiratory organs

1 Locate and identify the organs of the respiratory system on models or charts

•

2 Describe the structure and function of the respiratory system organs

compound microscope, lens paper, prepared slides of trachea and lung

•

preserved cats or fetal pigs, disposable gloves, dissection equipment, and safety glasses, accompanying cat or fetal pig dissection manual

3 Trace the path of air from the nose to the alveoli 4 Identify the main respiratory organs in the cat or fetal pig

T

he respiratory system provides an airway for

movement of air into and out of the body. It is also the site where atmospheric oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream to be delivered to all body cells, and carbon dioxide produced by these cells diffuses out of the bloodstream to be exhaled into the atmosphere. This gas exchange takes a coordinated effort of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

sagittal section model or chart of the human head, neck, and thorax; larynx model

A. Gross Anatomy of the Respiratory Organs The main organs of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Clinically, the nose and pharynx are organs of the upper airways, and the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs comprise the lower airways. Functionally the respiratory system is divided into the conducting zone (nose to the terminal bronchioles) and the respiratory zone (respiratory bronchioles to the alveoli).

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ACTIVITY 1 Structures of the Respiratory System Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the respiratory system in Figure 32.1. Lab Activity 2 Identify the structures on a model or an anatomical chart with respiratory organs.

1. Nose The framework of the nose is composed of bone and cartilage. Bones comprise the base of the nose, and hyaline cartilage the anterior portion. Two external nares (naris, sing.) are the openings for air to enter a space called the nasal cavity, which is lined with a mucous membrane. The nasal septum separates this cavity into right and left portions. The nasal septum is highly vascularized and is the site of nosebleeds. A deviated septum may result from trauma, such as a blow to the nose, and can cause difficulty in breathing. On either side of the nose, three curved bony structures extend into the nasal cavity: the superior,

4 5

1

6 7

• • • • • •

larynx (LAIR-inks) lungs nasal cavity nose pharynx (FAIR-inks) right primary bronchus (BRON-kus) • trachea (TRAY-key-a)

1 2

2

3 4

3

5

1 ________________________

6

2 ________________________

7

3 ________________________

8

4 ________________________

9

5 ________________________ 10

6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ FIGURE 32.1

Organs of the respiratory system.

Anterior view

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middle, and inferior nasal conchae (concha ⫽ shellshaped), or turbinates (turbinum ⫽ scroll-shaped). Beneath each nasal concha is a concavity called a meatus (meatus ⫽ passage) which increases surface area in the nose. When incoming air passes over the vascularized mucous membranes of the meatuses, the air is warmed and humidified. This is the reason that the pharynx gets dry if a person’s nose is stopped up and breathing is done through the mouth. The bony hard palate forms the floor of the nasal cavity. At the junction of the hard and soft palates are the internal nares, two openings that lead into the tubular nasal pharynx posteriorly. When the skull was discussed in the axial skeleton exercise, it was mentioned that the nasal cavity is surrounded by four paranasal sinuses. The frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal bones have mucous membrane-lined sinuses or cavities that also warm and moisten the air. These paranasal cavities have ducts that drain into the nasal cavity.

2

3

527

ACTIVITY 2 Nasal Structures Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the parts of the nose in Figure 32.2(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on a sagittal section model or an anatomical chart of the human head.

Frontal sinus

4 Frontal sinus

Ethmoidal sinus

Frontal bone 5

Sphenoid bone

10

Sphenoidal sinus

6 7

13

11 14

1 8 9

12 Maxillary sinus

(a) Sagittal section

1 ________________________

(a) • external naris (NEH-ris) • hard palate • inferior nasal concha or turbinate (CON-cha; TUR-bin-it) • inferior nasal meatus (mee-AY-tus) • internal naris • middle nasal concha or turbinate • middle nasal meatus • superior nasal concha or turbinate • superior nasal meatus FIGURE 32.2

2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________

Nasal structures within nasal cavity.

(b) Frontal section

(b) • • • • •

inferior nasal concha inferior nasal meatus middle nasal concha middle nasal meatus nasal septum

10 ________________________ 11 ________________________ 12 ________________________ 13 ________________________ 14 ________________________

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2. Pharynx The pharynx or throat is divided into three regions: the nasopharynx (naso- ⫽ nose), oropharynx (oro- ⫽ mouth), and laryngopharynx (laryngo- ⫽ larynx), corresponding to the anatomical structures nearby. The nasopharynx begins at the internal nares and ends at the soft palate. The oropharynx begins at the soft palate and extends to the level of the hyoid bone, and the laryngopharynx extends from the hyoid bone to the beginning of the esophagus. The soft palate is found in the pharynx as a posterior extension of the hard palate. The oval-shaped uvula dangles inferiorly as an extension of the soft palate. During swallowing, the soft palate pushes superiorly to close off the nasopharynx and to direct food toward the laryngopharynx. Two auditory tubes (Eustachian tubes) have openings from the middle ear into the nasopharynx, and the single pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) is located in its posterior wall. The oropharynx has two pairs of tonsils, the palatine

(palate) and lingual (tongue) tonsils. Note that the mucous membranes of the nose, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and middle ear are connected by ducts, which explains why infections can spread to any adjacent areas.

ACTIVITY 3 The Pharynx Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the three divisions of the pharynx in Figure 32.3(a). 2 Label the structures in Figure 32.3(b). Lab Activity 1 Identify the structures on a sagittal section model or an anatomical chart of the pharynx.

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1

529

Sagittal plane

2 3

(a) Pharyngeal structure

10

4 5 6

11

7

12

8 13

9 (b) Pharyngeal structure

(b)

(a) • laryngopharynx (la-rin-go-FAIR-inks) • nasopharynx • oropharynx (oro-FAIR-inks)

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________

• internal naris • laryngopharynx • lingual (LING-gwal) tonsils (2) • nasopharynx • opening of auditory tube (Eustachian) • oropharynx • palatine tonsils (2) • pharyngeal (fair-IN-gee-al) tonsil • soft palate • uvula (YOU-view-la)

4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________ 10 ________________________ 11 ________________________ 12 ________________________ 13 ________________________

FIGURE 32.3

The pharynx and associated structures.

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3. Larynx The larynx or voice box connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea. This organ consists of nine hyaline cartilages and houses the vocal cords. The larynx contains three paired cartilages—the arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate cartilages—which are small cartilages located in the posterior wall of the larynx; and three single cartilages— the thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and epiglottis— which comprise the main body of the larynx. The largest cartilage, the thyroid cartilage (thyroid ⫽ shield-shaped), is seen anteriorly and has a prominence called the Adam’s apple, which is made of hyaline cartilage. The cricoid cartilage (cricoid ⫽ ring-like), which is inferior to the thyroid cartilage, is larger on the posterior side than on the anterior side and consists of hyaline cartilage. As the term cricoid suggests, this is the only cartilage that is a complete ring in the larynx or trachea. The glottis is the opening that allows air into the larynx. The oval-shaped epiglottis (epi- ⫽ over; -glottis ⫽ tongue) is composed of elastic cartilage and closes over the glottis during swallowing. If you have food or drink in your mouth and start laughing, the glottis opens and you could aspirate these substances into the larynx with the air. Coughing forces the food or liquid back into the laryngopharynx. Lateral to the glottis are two pairs of

folds. The superior folds are the ventricular (little belly) folds (vestibular folds), or false vocal cords, while the vocal folds or true vocal cords are inferior and medial. The vocal folds attach via small muscles to the arytenoid (arytenoid ⫽ ladle-like) cartilage. The vocal folds, which contain elastic tissue, vibrate with phonation or speaking. If these folds become inflamed or have tumors, they cannot vibrate and hoarseness (laryngitis) results.

ACTIVITY 4 The Larynx Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures listed in Figure 32.4(a), (b), (c), and (d). Lab Activity 1 Locate these structures on a larynx model or an anatomical chart. 2 Palpate your thyroid cartilage. Swallow and feel the thyroid cartilage move upward.

1 Hyoid bone

4

2

Corniculate cartilage

5

Arytenoid cartilage

3

6

Thyroid gland

Tracheal cartilage

(a) Anterior view

(a)

1 ________________________

• cricoid (CRY-koid) cartilage • epiglottis • thyroid cartilage FIGURE 32.4

2 ________________________ 3 ________________________

The larynx and associated structures.

(b) Posterior view

(b) • cricoid cartilage • epiglottis • thyroid cartilage

4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________

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531

Sagittal plane

Posterior

Anterior

9 Hyoid bone Cuneiform cartilage Corniculate cartilage 10 11

7

12 13

8

14 15

(d) Superior

(c) Midsagittal

7 ____________________________

(c) • arytenoid (ar-ih-TEE-noid) cartilage • cricoid cartilage • epiglottis • thyroid cartilage • ventricular fold • vocal fold

8 ____________________________ 9 ____________________________ 10 ____________________________ 11 ____________________________ 12 ____________________________

FIGURE 32.4

The larynx and associated structures, continued.

(d) • glottis • ventricular fold • vocal fold

13 ____________________________ 14 ____________________________ 15 ____________________________

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4. Bronchial Tree Just as a tree has a trunk, branches, twigs, and fruit, the lower airways have a trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. If the trachea and bronchi were inverted, they would resemble the branches of a tree, hence the name bronchial tree. The trachea (trachea ⫽ sturdy) or windpipe is a tube-like conduit that conducts air from the larynx to the bronchi. It is located anterior to the esophagus and can be palpated on the anterior surface of the neck. When palpating the trachea, horizontal tracheal cartilages that keep the airway open can be felt as bumps one on top of the other. Tracheal cartilages are C-shaped, and a smooth muscle, the trachealis muscle, connects the open sides of the C-shaped cartilage. The trachealis muscle is on the posterior surface of the trachea and allows expansion of the esophagus into the trachea during swallowing. The trachea ends at the carina (carina ⫽ keel of a boat) inferiorly and branches into a shorter right and longer left primary bronchus, each serving the corresponding lung. Each primary bronchus branches into secondary (lobar) bronchi to supply a lobe of each lung. The right primary bronchus branches into three secondary bronchi, and the left primary bronchus branches into two secondary bronchi. The secondary bronchi further subdivide into tertiary (segmental) bronchi that enter bronchopulmonary segments within a lobe. Tertiary bronchi divide into bronchioles, each serving small compartments called lobules. Bronchioles further subdivide into terminal bronchioles, which branch into respiratory bronchioles that begin the respiratory zone of the lung. Respiratory bronchioles further divide into alveolar ducts that lead into clusters of alveoli called alveolar sacs. Alveoli bud off alveolar sacs like individual grapes in a grape cluster. Simple squamous alveolar cells and simple squamous blood capillary cells form the respiratory membrane, where gas exchange occurs. Several changes occur as the bronchi turn into bronchioles. The diameter of the airway diminishes, the epithelium changes, cartilage disappears early in the tertiary bronchi, and the bronchioles have only smooth muscle spiraled around them. Because smooth muscle in the bronchioles causes constriction, asthmatic inhalers with bronchial dilators cause the smooth muscle to relax during asthmatic attacks.

ACTIVITY 5 Bronchial Tree Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures in Figure 32.5(a) and (b) and Figure 32.6. Lab Activity 1 Locate the structures on a lung model. 2 Palpate the sternal angle to locate where the trachea divides into the primary bronchi. 3 Observe the sheep pluck demonstration with the bronchial tree dissected.

6 7

1

2 3

8

4

9 10

5

(a) Anterior view

(a) • bronchiole (BRON-key-ol) • carina (ka-RYE-na) • diaphragm • larynx • primary bronchus, left • primary bronchus, right • secondary bronchus, right • tertiary bronchus, left • trachea • tracheal cartilage

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________ 6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________ 10 ________________________

FIGURE 32.5

Bronchial tree.

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CLINICAL NOTE: The airways can be clinically divided into three areas according to size: Large airways—trachea and bronchi Medium airways—bronchioles and terminal bronchioles Small airways—respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli Respiratory medicine uses these terms to identify the location of diseases. Bronchitis is a large airway disease, asthma is a middle airway disease, and emphysema is a small airway disease.

Cartilage rings

Trachea

Cartilage plates

11

(b) • • • • • •

alveolar (al-VEE-oh-lur) sac primary bronchus respiratory bronchiole secondary bronchus terminal bronchiole tertiary bronchus

12

13

11 ____________________________________

Smaller bronchii

12 ____________________________________

Bronchiole

13 ____________________________________

14 15

14 ____________________________________

16

15 ____________________________________ (b) Bronchial branching

16 ____________________________________ FIGURE 32.5

Bronchial tree, continued.

Terminal bronchiole

1

• • • •

2

alveolar ducts alveolar sac alveoli respiratory bronchiole

1 ____________________________________ 2 ____________________________________ 3 ____________________________________

3 Visceral pleura 4

4 ____________________________________ FIGURE 32.6

Diagram of portion of lung lobule.

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5. Lungs The two lungs are divided into three lobes on the right side and two lobes on the left. The three right lobes are the superior, middle, and inferior lobes, and the left lobes are called the superior and inferior lobes. The rounded superior part of the lung is the apex, and the broader inferior part is the base, which rests on the diaphragm. The left lobe has a concave surface called the cardiac notch, which has the apex of the heart projecting into it. Each lung has a hilus, an area surrounded with pleura, where the bronchi, blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter or exit the medial side of the lung. The lungs are in the thoracic cavity and are separated from each other by the heart and the mediastinum. Parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity wall, and visceral pleura covers the surface of each

lung. The pleural cavity is the space between the two pleural layers that contains pleural fluid.

ACTIVITY 6 Lungs Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the parts of the lung in Figure 32.7(a), (b), (c), and (d). 2 Label the parts of the pleura in Figure 32.8(a) and (b). Lab Activity 1 Identify these structures on a lung model or an anatomical chart.

6

1

2

7

3 8 9 4

5

10 (a) Anterior right lung

(a) • • • • •

apex base inferior lobe middle lobe superior lobe

1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________

FIGURE 32.7

Lung structures.

(b) Anterior left lung

(b) • • • • •

apex base cardiac notch inferior lobe superior lobe

6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________ 10 ________________________

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15

(c)

(d)

• • • •

• • • •

hilus inferior lobe middle lobe superior lobe

535

cardiac notch hilus inferior lobe superior lobe

11

11 _________________________________ 12 _________________________________

16

13 _________________________________

12

17

14 _________________________________

13

18

15 _________________________________ 16 _________________________________

14

17 _________________________________ (c) Medial view of right lung

18 _________________________________

(d) Medial view of left lung

Lung structures, continued.

FIGURE 32.7

Transverse plane

Inferior view 1 2

9

5

(space) 3

6 7 8 4

(b) Transverse section through thorax (inferior view)

(a) Anterior view

(a) • • • •

diaphragm parietal pleura pleural cavity visceral pleura

1 ___________________________________ 2 ___________________________________ 3 ___________________________________ 4 ___________________________________

(b) • • • • •

left lung parietal pleura pleural cavity right lung visceral pleura

5 ___________________________________ 6 ___________________________________ 7 ___________________________________ 8 ___________________________________ 9 ___________________________________

FIGURE 32.8

Pleura.

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B. Microscopic Anatomy of the Respiratory System There are four basic types of epithelium in the respiratory system, with areolar connective tissue as the underlying tissue just beneath the epithelia. As can be seen in Table 32.1, the mucous membranes of the upper airways are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. This epithelium has goblet cells which secrete viscous mucus that traps dust and other particles. There are also cilia which beat to move mucus toward the pharynx to be swallowed. The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common areas for both the digestive and respiratory systems. Since abrasive food particles will travel through these two structures, they are lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The multilayers of this type of epithelium protect the underlying tissue. This epithelium continues into the upper part of the larynx. In the lower larynx, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium resumes and extends through the trachea and primary bronchi. Deeper into the bronchial tree, the epithelium gradually changes from high pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple columnar and finally to simple cuboidal, with an accompanying gradual loss of cilia. The respiratory zone structures (respiratory bronchioles to the alveoli) all have simple squamous epithelium that allows the highly vascularized alveoli to facilitate diffusion of respiratory gases, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.

TABLE 32.1

ACTIVITY 7 Microscopic Examination of Respiratory Tract Tissues Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the structures of the trachea and esophagus in Figure 32.9(a). Lab Activity 1 Examine a prepared slide of the trachea and esophagus. • Using the low-power objective lens, identify the structures listed in Figure 32.9(a). • Using the high-power objective lens, identify the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium lining the tracheal lumen and the hyaline cartilage within the tracheal wall. Identify a goblet cell within the epithelium. 2 Label the lung structures in Figure 32.9(b). 3 Examine a prepared slide of lung tissue. • Using the low-power objective lens, identify alveoli and, if present, the other structures listed in Figure 32.9(b). • Using the high-power objective lens, identify the simple squamous epithelium forming the alveolar walls.

Respiratory Epithelia

RESPIRATORY STRUCTURE

EPITHELIA

Nasal cavity Paranasal sinuses Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Larynx (vocal folds and above) Larynx (below vocal folds) Trachea Primary bronchi Secondary bronchi Tertiary bronchi End of tertiary bronchi Bronchioles, including terminal bronchioles Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Stratified squamous Stratified squamous Stratified squamous Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Simple columnar with fewer cilia Simple columnar; no cilia Simple cuboidal; no cilia Simple cuboidal; no cilia Begins as simple cuboidal; ends as simple squamous Simple squamous

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Lumen Esophagus

Trachea Epithelial lining

Trachealis muscle

Transverse plane

1

Terminal bronchiole

POSTERIOR

Blood vessel 6

2 3

7 8

4

9

5

10 Visceral pleura LM

ANTERIOR LM (2.6⫻) (a) Transverse section of trachea and esophagus

(a) • • • • •

1 ________________________

epithelial lining of trachea lumen of esophagus lumen of trachea tracheal cartilage trachealis muscle

2 ________________________ 3 ________________________ 4 ________________________ 5 ________________________

FIGURE 32.9

Sectional views of the trachea and lung.

(about 30⫻)

(b) Sectional view of lung

(b) • • • • •

alveolar ducts alveolar sacs alveoli respiratory bronchiole simple squamous epithelium

6 ________________________ 7 ________________________ 8 ________________________ 9 ________________________ 10 ________________________

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1 Which connective tissue type allows the lungs to expand and regain their original size and shape (recoil) during inhalation and exhalation?

2 Which connective tissue type in the bronchial tree provides the support to maintain an open airway?

3 Discuss the significance of the changing epithelia along the respiratory tree.

C. Animal Dissection If you are dissecting a cat or fetal pig to observe respiratory system structures, refer to the appropriate accompanying dissection manual. The respiratory system organs of a cat or fetal pig are similar to those of the human. This dissection will illustrate the structure of the larynx and trachea, the relationship of respiratory organs to other organs in the mediastinum, and the connective tissues surrounding these organs.

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Reviewing Your Knowledge

32 E X E R C I S E

A. Air Flow Trace the air flow through the respiratory system starting with the external nares. Number the structures 1 through 17. ____________ alveolar duct

____________ nasopharynx

____________ alveolar sac

____________ oropharynx

____________ alveolus

____________ primary bronchus

____________ bronchiole

____________ respiratory bronchiole

____________ external nares

____________ secondary bronchus

____________ internal nares

____________ terminal bronchiole

____________ laryngopharynx

____________ tertiary bronchus

____________ larynx

____________ trachea

____________ nasal cavity

B. Structural Changes in the Respiratory Tree Name three structural changes that occur in the bronchi as they branch into bronchioles. 1. ___________________________________________ 2. ___________________________________________ 3. ___________________________________________

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C. Structure and Function of the Respiratory System Write the name of the structure described. ______________________ 1. Tubular airways that begin the respiratory zone ______________________ 2. Connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea ______________________ 3. Tube-like structure that conducts air from the larynx to the bronchi ______________________ 4. Closes over the glottis during swallowing ______________________ 5. Keep the trachea from collapsing ______________________ 6. Division of the bronchi that enter bronchopulmonary segments ______________________ 7. Last division of the conducting zone ______________________ 8. Conducts air from the nasopharynx to the laryngopharynx ______________________ 9. Small, round sacs where gas exchange occurs ______________________ 10. Small conduction airway that serves a lobule

D. Location and Function of Epithelial Tissue Match the type of epithelium with its location in the respiratory system and its function. Epithelial Tissue a. pseudostratified ciliated columnar b. simple columnar c. simple cuboidal

d. simple squamous e. stratified squamous

Location ______________________ 1. Nasal cavity through nasopharynx ______________________ 2. Oropharynx through larynx above vocal cords ______________________ 3. Larynx below vocal cords through primary bronchi ______________________ 4. Secondary bronchi through tertiary bronchi ______________________ 5. Bronchioles through beginning of respiratory bronchiole ______________________ 6. End of respiratory bronchiole through alveoli Function ______________________ 7. Secretes mucus to trap and remove dust and debris ______________________ 8. Diffusion of respiratory gases ______________________ 9. Protects underlying tissues

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Name ___________________________________ Date _________________

Section ______________________________

Using Your Knowledge

32 E X E R C I S E

A. Anatomy of the Respiratory System Answer the following questions. 1. Explain how it is possible for a person to drink liquid and then have the liquid come out through the nose when the person laughs.

2. Explain how an infection in the nasopharynx can also result in an infection in the paranasal sinuses and/or the middle ear.

3. Asthma attacks are caused by smooth muscle spasms in the bronchial tree. These spasms can close the airway. What airway structures are closed? Why are these areas closed but not the rest of the bronchial tree?

4. Emphysema is characterized by destructive changes of alveolar walls resulting in large air-filled spaces due to overinflation. There is a loss of lung elasticity, decreased gas exchange, and large air-filled spaces. Pneumonia is an acute inflammation of the lungs with the alveoli and bronchioles becoming plugged with an exudate (fluid), and the alveolar cell membranes thicken. In Figure 32.10, identify which alveolar section came from a person with no lung disease (normal alveoli), with emphysema, or with pneumonia.

(a) ________________________________ FIGURE 32.10

(b) ________________________________

(c) ________________________________

Normal and diseased alveolar sections.

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Explain how the changes in alveolar structure cause a decrease in blood oxygen levels in: 5. Emphysema

6. Pneumonia

Identify the structures in Figures 32.11 and 32.12.

7

8

7 ______________________________________________ (include right or left) 8 ______________________________________________ (membrane) FIGURE 32.11

Thoracic cavity, cross-section. Epiglottis

9 10

9 ____________________________________________________ 10 ____________________________________________________ FIGURE 32.12

Bronchoscopic view of the larynx.

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33

Pulmonary Ventilation Objectives

Materials

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

• • •

models or charts with respiratory muscles

•

Formation of Bicarbonate and Hydrogen Ions: paper bag (lunch size), straws, 50-mL beakers, 100-mL beakers, 25-mL graduated cylinders, pH meter, squeeze bottle of deionized water, stopwatch or watch with second hand

•

Complete PowerPhys Activity: Respiratory Volumes and Regulation of Pulmonary Ventilation

1 Explain how changes in thoracic and lung volumes and lung pressures result in pulmonary ventilation 2 Define and measure or calculate lung volumes and capacities 3 Discuss the relationship between blood carbon dioxide levels and pulmonary ventilation

T

he respiratory system supplies oxygen needed

by body cells to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for metabolism and removes carbon dioxide produced by metabolic reactions. Respiration involves three steps and requires the cardiovascular system to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body. 1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs that occurs when we inhale (inhalation) and exhale (exhalation). 2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli. 3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into body cells and carbon dioxide from body cells into capillaries.

bell jar model of lungs Effect of Exercise on Lung Volumes and Capacities: handheld dry spirometer, disposable mouthpieces, 70% alcohol and cotton, or alcohol wipes

A. Pulmonary Ventilation During pulmonary ventilation, air moves from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower air pressure. Changes in air pressure in the lung (alveolar pressure) occur when lung volume changes. The relationship between pressure and volume is described by Boyle’s Law, which states that the pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container. Therefore, when lung volume increases, the pressure of the air inside decreases and air flows into the lungs. When lung volume decreases, the pressure of the air inside increases and air flows out of the lungs.

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1. Changing Thoracic and Lung Volumes When the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles contract or relax, they change the size of the thorax which in turn changes lung volume. Normal inhalation is caused mainly by contraction of the diaphragm. The diaphragm is dome-shaped when relaxed and flattens when contracted. When the diaphragm flattens, the length of the thoracic cavity and its volume increase. During quiet inhalation, contraction of the external intercostal muscles further increases the width of the thoracic cage by raising the ribs. Contraction of the sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis minor muscles cause a greater increase in thoracic volume during forced inhalation by elevating the rib cage and sternum, resulting in a greater volume of air inhaled. Normal exhalation is a passive process involving relaxation of the diaphragm and elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs. The diaphragm becomes dome-shaped and decreases the length of the thoracic cavity and thoracic volume. In forced exhalation, contraction of the internal intercostal muscles depresses the rib cage. Contraction of the abdominal muscles (external oblique, internal oblique, transverse abdominis, and rectus abdominis) pushes the diaphragm superiorly, fur-

TABLE 33.1

ther decreasing thoracic volume and resulting in a greater volume of exhaled air.

ACTIVITY 1 Respiratory Muscles and Volume Changes Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the respiratory muscles in Figure 33.1. Refer to Exercise 14: Skeletal Muscles and Their Actions or your textbook. Lab Activity 1 Identify the respiratory muscles on a model or an anatomical chart. 2 Pronounce the muscle names as you point to them. 3 Complete Table 33.1 and circle the correct choice in the column “Effect on Thoracic Dimensions.” 4 Examine the radiographs in Figure 33.2. Decide whether a radiograph was taken after inhalation or exhalation, and put your answer in the appropriate blank.

Respiratory Muscle Functions

MUSCLE

FUNCTION

EFFECT ON THORACIC DIMENSIONS (circle correct choice)

External intercostals

Elevate ribs

Increase or decrease diameter

Internal intercostals

Depress ribs

Increase or decrease diameter

Sternocleidomastoids

Elevate the sternum

Increase or decrease diameter

Scalenes

Elevate 1st and 2nd ribs

Increase or decrease diameter

Pectoralis minors

Elevate 3rd, 4th, and 5th ribs

Increase or decrease diameter

Diaphragm

Flattens when contracted

Increase or decrease length

Abdominal muscles

Compress abdominal contents, increase abdominal pressure, and force diaphragm superiorly

Increase or decrease length

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545

1 2 8 9

3

10 4 5

Linea alba 6

7

(a) Anterior superficial view

• • • • • •

diaphragm external intercostals external oblique internal intercostals internal oblique pectoralis (pek-tor-A-lis) minor

FIGURE 33.1

• rectus abdominis • scalenes (SKAY-leens) • sternocleidomastoid (ster-no-kli-doh-MAS-toid) • transverse abdominis

Respiratory muscles.

(b) Anterior deep view

1 _______________________

6 ________________________

2 _______________________

7 ________________________

3 _______________________

8 ________________________

4 _______________________

9 ________________________

5 _______________________

10 ________________________

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(a)

(b)

Indicate whether the view shows inhalation or exhalation. (a) ____________________________________________________ (b) ____________________________________________________ FIGURE 33.2

Radiographs of the thorax taken either after inhalation or exhalation.

2. Pressure Changes During Pulmonary Ventilation As the thorax expands, the parietal pleura attached to the internal thoracic wall is pulled outward. The pleural cavity slightly increases in volume causing a decrease in intrapleural pressure, the pressure between the pleural layers. The decrease in intrapleural pressure and the surface tension of pleural fluid cause the visceral pleura, and therefore the lungs, to be pulled outward. As the lungs increase in volume, the alveolar (intrapulmonic) pressure decreases to below atmospheric pressure, and air enters the lungs. When the thorax decreases in size the lungs recoil, causing intrapleural pressure and alveolar pressure to increase, and air leaves the lungs.

Lab Activity 1 Using the model lung (bell jar model), observe what happens when the rubber diaphragm at the base of the model is domed or flattened. 2 Complete Table 33.2 by circling the correct choice in the column “Movement of Diaphragm.”

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: BELL JAR (MODEL LUNG) DEMONSTRATION 1 (a) In the model lung demonstration, the glass jar is filled with air. What is in the pleural cavity in the thorax? (b) Compare the relative size of the pleural space in the model lung to that in the human lung.

ACTIVITY 2 Pressure Changes During Pulmonary Ventilation Pre-Lab Activity 1 Label the bell jar model lung in Figure 33.3.

2 (a) In the model lung, is the air in the glass jar at atmospheric pressure or subatmospheric pressure? (b) Is the pressure in the pleural cavity atmospheric or subatmospheric?

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3 (a) If the chest wall (including parietal pleura) is punctured, would the pressure in the pleural cavity increase or decrease? (b) Would lung size increase or decrease? (c) What is this condition called?

1 2

3

4 (a) In humans, is there one pleural cavity surrounding both lungs or two separate pleural cavities, one surrounding each lung? (b) Does this differ from the model lung?

4

5

5 In the model lung demonstration, air flows into the balloons through a rigid tube that divides once. Compare the rigidity and the number of branches of the conducting structures in the model to the rigidity and number of branches of the conducting structures in the human respiratory system.

6 In the model lung demonstration, the glass bell jar does not change in size. Describe the changes in the corresponding human respiratory system structures during inhalation and exhalation.

6

• bronchus • diaphragm • lungs covered with visceral pleura • parietal pleura and thoracic wall • pleural cavity • trachea

2 _______________________ 3 _______________________ 4 _______________________ 5 _______________________ 6 _______________________

FIGURE 33.3

TABLE 33.2

1 _______________________

Model lung (bell jar model).

Bell Jar (Model Lung) Demonstration MOVEMENT OF DIAPHRAGM

OBSERVATIONS

As Diaphragm Domes (circle correct choice)

As Diaphragm Flattens (circle correct choice)

Volume of air in bell jar

1. Increased or decreased

5. Increased or decreased

Pressure of air in bell jar

2. Increased or decreased

6. Increased or decreased

Balloon size

3. Inflated or deflated

7. Inflated or deflated

Direction of air flow

4. Into or out of balloons

8. Into or out of balloons

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B. Lung Volumes and Capacities

equations that were developed using RV values from many individuals.

Lung volumes and capacities are defined in Table 33.3. Notice that lung volumes are measured, and lung capacities are calculated by adding two or more volumes together. Both lung volume and lung capacity values vary according to gender, age, and height. Lung volume and some capacity values vary with exercise, but TLC and VC do not change.

1. Measuring and Calculating Lung Volumes and Capacities A spirometer is an instrument used to measure lung volumes. There are different types of spirometers depending on how they measure air volumes and capacities. Some spirometers measure only expiratory volumes and capacities while others measure both inspiratory and expiratory volumes and capacities. In the following activity, directions are given for using a dry, handheld spirometer. Exhale only into this type of spirometer. It does not measure inspiratory volumes. Spirometers that measure inspiratory air volumes must be cleaned or supplied with new filters when used by a different person to prevent spread of infection. Your instructor will supply you with instructions if you are using a different type of spirometer instead of the dry, handheld spirometer. Dry, handheld spirometers cannot be used to measure inspiratory volumes and capacities. However, IRV and IC can be calculated using values for TV, ERV, and VC. Clinically, FRC is measured indirectly with special equipment, and RV is calculated using values for FRC and ERV. In this activity, RV will be calculated with

TABLE 33.3

ACTIVITY 3 Experiment: Effect of Exercise on Lung Volumes and Capacities Lab Activity 1 Prediction: With your lab group, predict how exercise will affect TV, IRV, ERV, VC, and TLC. Circle your answer (in italics) below. • During exercise TV will increase, decrease, or stay the same. • During exercise IRV will increase, decrease, or stay the same. • During exercise ERV will increase, decrease, or stay the same. • During exercise VC will increase, decrease, or stay the same. • During exercise TLC will increase, decrease, or stay the same. 2 Materials: Obtain the materials for Effect of Exercise on Lung Volumes and Capacities given in the Materials list. 3 Data Collection: Measure lung volumes and capacities before and after exercise and record the values in Table 33.4. • Decide who will be the subject, who will prepare the spirometer, who will prepare and coach the subject, and who will be the timer and recorder. The subject should not have heart problems and should be in good health.

Lung Volumes and Capacities

VOLUME OR CAPACITY

ABBREVIATION

Tidal volume

TV

Inspiratory reserve volume

IRV

Expiratory reserve volume

ERV

Residual volume

RV

Inspiratory capacity Functional residual capacity Vital capacity

IC FRC VC

Total lung capacity

TLC

DEFINITION

The amount of air inhaled and exhaled during one normal breath Maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation Maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation Amount of air that remains in the lungs after a maximal exhalation IC ⴝ TV ⴙ IRV FRC ⴝ RV ⴙ ERV Maximum volume of air expelled after a maximal inhalation VC ⴝ IRV ⴙ TV ⴙ ERV TLC ⴝ IRV ⴙ TV ⴙ ERV ⴙ RV

AVERAGE RESTING VALUES

500 mL 3,100 mL 1,200 mL 1,200 mL 3,600 mL 2,400 mL 4,800 mL

6,000 ML

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TABLE 33.4 AT REST

TV

PULMONARY VENTILATION

549

Measured Lung Volumes and Capacities VALUE 1

VALUE 2

VALUE 3

N/A

N/A

N/A

VALUE 1

VALUE 2

VALUE 3

AVERAGE VALUE

ERV VC AFTER EXERCISE

AVERAGE VALUE

TV ERV VC

Preparing the spirometer • Wipe the nozzle of the spirometer with 70% alcohol. • Place a clean, disposable mouthpiece on the nozzle. • With use, water will condense inside the dial. Follow instructions included with your spirometer for removing condensation. Preparing and coaching the subject • Have the subject use a noseclip or fingers to close the nostrils to prevent air leaking out of the nose. • When blowing into the spirometer, it should be held in a horizontal position with the face of the dial upward. • Have subject practice breathing to measure TV, ERV, and VC. When measuring TV, the subject should breathe normally. When measuring ERV, the subject should take two or three breaths, then inhale normally and exhale as much air as possible. Verbally encourage the subject to exhale as much air as possible. When measuring VC, the subject should take two or three normal breaths, then completely fill the lungs with air and exhale as much air as possible. • Remind subject to exhale only into a handheld spirometer. Measuring TV, ERV, and VC at rest • Measure tidal volume (TV)—Reset the dial on the spirometer to 0. The subject should take two or three normal breaths and then inhale normally. The spirometer is then placed in the subject’s mouth and the subject is instructed to exhale normally into the spirometer. Repeat this process two more times, and do not reset the dial before each measurement. Divide the volume by 3 to obtain the average TV. Record the average TV in Table 33.4.

• Measure expiratory reserve volume (ERV)—Reset the dial to 0. The subject should take two or three normal breaths, and then inhale normally and exhale normally. Without taking another breath, place the spirometer to the subject’s mouth and have the subject exhale as much air as he or she can. Record the value for ERV in Table 33.4. Repeat this process two more times, resetting the dial to 0 before each measurement. • Measure vital capacity (VC)—Reset the dial to 0. Have the subject take two or three normal breaths, then inhale as much air as possible. Place the spirometer to the subject’s mouth and instruct the subject to exhale as much air as he or she can. Record the value for VC in Table 33.4. Repeat this process two more times, resetting the dial to 0 before each measurement. Measuring TV, ERV, and VC after exercise • The subject should not have heart problems and should be in good health. • Have the subject run in place for 5 minutes. • Measure tidal volume (TV)—Reset the dial on the spirometer to 0. Have the subject take two or three breaths, and then inhale normally. Place the spirometer to the subject’s mouth and instruct the subject to exhale normally into the spirometer. Record the value for TV in Table 33.4. Repeat this process two more times, but this time reset the dial before each measurement. • Measure expiratory reserve volume (ERV) as before. • Measure vital capacity (VC) as before. 4 Clean Up: Clean up as directed by your instructor.

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EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

5 Data Analysis: Calculate average ERV and VC and record in Table 33.4. Calculate IRC, IC, FRC, and TLC and record values in Table 33.5. Calculate average ERV and VC • Add the individual ERVs and divide by 3. Record the average ERV in Table 33.4. • Add the individual VCs and divide by 3. Record the average VC in Table 33.4. Calculate IRV and IC using average TV, ERV, and VC values • Use the equations for VC and IC in Table 33.3 to calculate IRV and IC. Rearrange the VC equation to formulate an equation to calculate IRV. • Calculate the values and record them in Table 33.5. Calculate RV, FRC, and TLC • Use the appropriate equation in Table 33.6 to calculate your RV based on gender and age, and record the RV in Table 33.5. • Calculate your FRC and TLC using the equations in Table 33.3 and record the value in Table 33.5. 6 Graphs: If graph paper is available, construct a bar graph that compares resting and exercising lung volumes and capacities. 7 Complete the Experimental Report. 8 Complete PowerPhys Activity: Respiratory Volumes.

TABLE 33.5

Results: State how the various lung volumes and capacities changed with exercise.

Discussion: 1 Refer to Table 33.7 to answer this question. If TLC and RV remain constant, indicate whether an increase in TV would cause the following volumes and capacities to increase, decrease, or remain the same. • IRV—increase, decrease, remain the same • ERV—increase, decrease, remain the same • IC—increase, decrease, remain the same • VC—increase, decrease, remain the same 2 Discuss why TV changed during exercise. 3 Discuss why the TV during exercise either changed or didn’t change the following lung volumes and capacities. • IRV • FRC • ERV

• VC

• IC

• TLC

Conclusion: In one or two sentences, state how exercise affects lung volumes and capacities.

Calculated Lung Volumes and Capacities

VOLUME OR CAPACITY

EQUATION

VALUE

IRV IC RV FRC TLC

TABLE 33.6

Equations for Calculating Residual Volume

GENDER

AGE

EQUATION TO PREDICT RV (LITERS)

Male or Female1 Female2 Male2

FVC ratio  0.61

Exercise 34 Figure 34.1 1. 2. 3. 4.

salivary glands pharynx esophagus liver

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

gallbladder large intestine mouth (oral cavity) stomach pancreas small intestine anus

Figure 34.2 1. 2. 3. 4.

mucosa submucosa serosa muscularis

Figure 34.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

retroperitoneal organs lesser omentum mesocolon mesentery greater omentum parietal peritoneum visceral peritoneum (serosa) peritoneal cavity falciform ligament greater omentum lesser omentum greater omentum (reflected) mesocolon mesentery

Figure 34.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

hard palate soft palate uvula cheek vestibule superior lip fauces palatine tonsil tongue gingivae (gums) inferior labial frenulum inferior lip

Figure 34.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

nasopharynx soft palate uvula fauces oropharynx laryngopharynx esophagus hard palate oral or buccal cavity tongue

Figure 34.6 1. lesser curvature 2. body

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ANSWER KEY

cardia lower esophageal sphincter esophagus fundus longitudinal muscle layer circular muscle layer oblique muscle layer greater curvature rugae pyloric antrum pyloric canal pyloric sphincter pylorus

Figure 34.7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

duodenum ascending colon jejunum ileum stomach transverse colon descending colon rectum right colic (hepatic) flexure ascending colon ileum ileocecal sphincter cecum appendix rectum transverse colon left colic (splenic) flexure descending colon teniae coli epiploic appendages haustra sigmoid colon anal canal anus rectum anal canal internal anal sphincter external anal sphincter anal column anus

Figure 34.8 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Page 704

parotid gland parotid duct opening of parotid duct opening of sublinguinal ducts sublinguinal gland submandibular duct submandibular gland crown neck root enamel

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

dentin gingiva blood supply pulp cavity with pulp cementum root canal periodontal ligament nerve apical foramen molars premolars cuspid incisors tongue lingual frenulum

Figure 34.9 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

right hepatic duct cystic duct gallbladder duodenum hepatopancreatic ampulla falciform ligament left lobe of liver left hepatic duct common hepatic duct common bile duct accessory pancreatic duct tail of pancreas body of pancreas pancreatic duct head of pancreas jejunum duodenal papilla hepatopancreatic ampulla common bile duct pancreatic duct quadrate lobe left lobe caudate lobe right lobe gallbladder

Figure 34.10 1. stratified squamous epithelium 2. lamina propria 3. circular layer of smooth muscle fibers 4. longitudinal layer of smooth muscle fibers 5. mucosa 6. submucosa 7. muscularis 8. serosa 9. gastric pit 10. simple columnar epithelium 11. lamina propria 12. gastric glands

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

simple columnar epithelium goblet cell villus lamina propria intestinal gland duodenal gland in submucosa acini pancreatic islet hepatocytes sinusoids central vein

Figure 34.11 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

bile canaliculus hepatic vein central vein sinusoids portal triad bile duct hepatocytes branch of hepatic portal vein branches of hepatic artery

Exercise 35 Activity 3 Discussion Questions: Bile Emulsification 1. Tube 2 2. No, enzymes catalyze a chemical reactions but bile emulsifies lipids. 3. Emulsification breaks up large aggregates of lipids into smaller ones, increasing the surface area available for lipases to digest the lipids.

Exercise 36 Activity 1 Discussion Questions: Location and Gross Anatomy of the Kidney 1. Ribs 11 and 12 2. Right kidney. Liver forces the right kidney lower. Figure 36.1 1. 2. 3. 4.

right kidney right ureter urinary bladder urethra

Figure 36.2 1. 2. 3. 4.

peritoneum right kidney renal capsule adipose capsule

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5. renal fascia 6. renal hilum 7. left kidney Figure 36.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

renal medulla renal cortex renal column renal capsule renal pyramid renal papilla minor calyx major calyx renal artery renal vein renal hilum renal pelvis in renal sinus

Figure 36.4 1. internal urethral sphincter 2. ureters 3. detrusor muscle of urinary bladder 4. ureteral openings 5. trigone 6. internal urethral orifice 7. urethra 8. external urethral sphincter 9. external urethral orifice Activity 2 Discussion Question: Urinary Bladder Answer: No, the urinary bladder is covered by visceral peritoneum. Figure 36.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

rectum anus ureter urinary bladder ureteral opening internal urethral orifice prostatic urethra membranous urethra spongy urethra external urethral orifice urogenital diaphragm rectum anus uterus urinary bladder internal urethral orifice urethra urogenital diaphragm external urethral orifice vagina

Figure 36.6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

glomerular capsule proximal convoluted tubule ascending limb of loop of Henle descending limb of loop of Henle distal convoluted tubule collecting duct papillary duct glomerulus glomerular capsule renal corpuscle peritubular capillary efferent arteriole afferent arteriole

Figure 36.7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

afferent arteriole efferent arteriole vasa recta peritubular capillaries interlobular artery arcuate artery interlobar artery segmental artery renal artery renal vein interlobar vein arcuate vein interlobular vein

Activity 4 Discussion Questions: Blood Flow through the Kidney 1. 2. 3. 4.

segmental arteries and veins interlobar arteries and veins arcuate arteries and veins interlobular arteries and veins, afferent and efferent arterioles, glomeruli, peritubular capillaries

3. 4. 5. 6.

lumen mucosa muscularis adventitia

Activity 7 Discussion Question: Histology of Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra 1. Stratified squamous epithelium offers more protection from external environment.

Exercise 37 Figure 37.2 1. filtration 2. major site of tubular reabsorption of water and solutes; secretion of solutes 3. water reabsorbed but not solutes 4. Na and Cl reabsorbed but not water 5. additional reabsorption of solutes and water 6. aldosterone increases reabsorption of Na and Cl and secretion of K as well as ADH increases reabsorption of water, additional reabsorption and secretion of solutes Table 37.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

same increased decreased decreased Change dependent on presence of ADH and/or aldosterone

Exercise 38

Figure 36.9

Figure 38.1

1. proximal and distal convoluted tubules (outer cortex) 2. glomerulus 3. loop of Henle and collecting ducts 4. glomerulus 5. parietal layer of glomerular capsule 6. capsular space

1. 2. 3. 4.

cremaster muscle dartos muscle scrotum tunica albuginea of testis

Figure 38.2

1. filtration 2. Microvilli increases surface area for Reabsorption

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Figure 36.10

Figure 38.3

1. lamina propria 2. transitional epithelium

1. ductus (vas) deferens 2. epididymis

Activity 6 Discussion Questions: Histology of the Kidney

705

efferent duct seminiferous tubules straight tubule rete testis tunica albuginea lobule septum

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3. spermatic cord 4. blood vessels and nerves Figure 38.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

ampulla of vas deferens ejaculatory duct prostate gland membranous urethra epididymis testis scrotum ductus (vas) deferens (in inguinal canal) prostatic urethra spongy (penile) urethra penis external urethral orifice

Figure 38.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

seminal vesicle prostate gland prostatic urethra membranous urethra ductus (vas) deferens ampulla of ductus deferens ejaculatory duct bulbourethral gland spongy (penile) urethra

Figure 38.6 1. seminal vesicle 2. prostate gland 3. bulbourethral gland Figure 38.7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Page 706

prostate gland prostatic urethra membranous urethra corpus spongiosum penis corpora cavernosa penis spongy (penile) urethra glans penis bulbourethral gland prepuce external urethral orifice corpora cavernosa penis corpus spongiosum penis spongy (penile) urethra

Figure 38.8 1. secretes 60% of semen volume; alkaline pH; prostaglandins 2. secretes 25% of semen volume; increases viability and motility of sperm 3. secretes mucus for lubrication of glans; alkaline pH 4. site of storage and maturation of sperm

5. organ that produces sperm 6. copulatory organ; passageway for urine and sperm 7. carries sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Activity 6 Discussion Question: Histology of the Testis, Spermatogenesis, and Sperm

Figure 39.3

1. 4 Figure 38.9 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

spermatogonium spermatozoa (n) spermatid (n) secondary spermatocyte (n) primary spermatocyte (2n) spermatozoa (sperm cell) late spermatid early spermatid secondary spermatocyte Sertoli cells primary spermatocyte spermatogonium basement membrane Leydig (interstitial) cells

Figure 38.10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

lumen tails of spermatozoa basement membrane Leydig (interstitial) cells interstitial space

Figure 38.11 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

acrosome nucleus mitochondria head midpiece tail (flagellum)

Exercise 39

vagina ovary round ligament cervix urinary bladder

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

uterine cavity endometrium myometrium perimetrium round ligament internal os cervical canal cervix rugae of vagina fundus broad ligament body of uterus external os vagina

Figure 39.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

anus vaginal orifice pubic symphysis mons pubis clitoris external urethral orifice labium minus labium majus

Figure 39.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

labia majora labia minora hymen anus mons pubis prepuce clitoris external urethral orifice vaginal orifice

Figure 39.6 Figure 39.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

infundibulum ampulla isthmus uterine tube fimbriae suspensory ligament ovary ovarian ligament broad ligament

Figure 39.2 1. uterine cavity 2. myometrium of uterus

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

lobule with alveoli mammary duct lactiferous sinus lactiferous duct adipose tissue areola nipple

Figure 39.7 1. Beat together to bring ovulated oocyte into uterine tube 2. Usual site of fertilization 3. Narrow area of uterine tube that opens into uterus

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4. Transports secondary oocytes toward uterus 5. Produces secondary oocytes; produces estrogen and progesterone 6. Layer of uterus that sheds during menstruation; implantation of zygote and development of fetus occurs here

Figure 39.10

Figure 39.8

Exercise 40

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

secondary oocyte sperm cell ovum zygote oogonium primary oocyte meiosis I 1st polar body 2nd polar body meiosis II

Activity 6 Discussion Questions: Oogenesis 1. The secondary oocyte is larger than the first polar body. The secondary oocyte receives most of the cytoplasm and organelles during meiosis. 2. Oogenesis produces 1 gamete while spermatogenesis produces 4. Activity 7 Discussion Questions: Histology of the Ovary 1. Secondary follicles and mature (graafian) follicles. 2. The corpus luteum is yellow, has a blood clot, and is larger than the corpus albicans. The corpus albicans is white, smaller, and scar-like. Figure 39.9 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

primordial follicles primary follicles secondary follicle secondary oocyte graafian (mature) follicle ovulated secondary oocyte corpus luteum corpus albicans primordial follicles primary follicle primary oocyte in primary follicle primary oocyte in secondary follicle primordial follicles ovarian cortex primary oocyte in primary follicle granulosa cells follicular fluid in antrum primary oocyte granulosa cells

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

endometrium endometrial glands stratum functionalis stratum basalis myometrium

Figure 40.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

secondary oocyte fertilization of secondary oocyte 2-cell stage 4-cell stage morula blastocyst, external view implantation of blastocyst, internal view

Figure 40.2 1. 2. 3. 4.

yolk sac amnion amnionic cavity bilaminar embryonic disc

Activity 2 Discussion Questions: Implantation, Primary Germ Layers, and Embryonic Membranes

707

3. yolk sac 4. connecting stalk 5. chorionic villus Figure 40.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

chorionic villi fetal blood vessels decidua basalis chorion umbilical arteries umbilical vein

Activity 3 Discussion Questions: Placenta and Umbilical Cord 1. Example: The placenta surrounds the fetus, supplying nutrients and removing wastes via blood vessels in the umbilical cord. 2. The umbilical cord is formed from the connecting stalk. The chorionic villi form the embryonic portion of the placenta and the decidua basalis forms the maternal side of the placenta. 3. The umbilical vein supplies oxygen and nutrient rich blood to the fetus while the umbilical arteries carry oxygen poor and waste laden blood back to the maternal side of the placenta.

1. The blastocyst adheres to the wall of the uterus at approximately 6 days after fertilization. The trophoblast of the blastocyst secretes enzymes that allow the blastocyst to bury itself in the endometrium. 2. Ectoderm: epidermis, glands, nervous tissue, and parts of the eye and ear Mesoderm: cartilage, bones, 3 muscle types, and blood. Endoderm: epithelial lining of digestive system organs, respiratory system organs, and other organs 3. Amnion: surrounds and protects the embryo. Yolk sac: membrane surrounding the former blastocyst cavity, contains nutrients for embryo while placenta is developing. Chorion: surrounds amnion, yolk sac, and allantois and forms the embryonic portion of placenta; chorion also forms connecting stalk which becomes the umbilical cord. Allantois: extension of the yolk sac into connecting stalk. Surrounds blood vessels that will become umbilical arteries and veins

Activity 4 Discussion Questions: Fetal Development

Figure 40.3

DD0; Dd4; dd0 DD0%; Dd100%; dd0% dimples4; no dimples0 dimples100%; no dimples0%

1. amniotic cavity 2. embryo

1. upper and lower limbs: upper and lower limb buds are observed in the 32-day embryo and actual limbs are observed in the 44-day embryo; future auditory meatus: otic placode observed in 44day embryo; eye: 52-day embryo; fingers and toes: 52-day embryo 2. The fetus should turn with its head inferior.

Exercise 41 Activity 1 1. hetZz, Tt; hombb, MM, cc, AA 2. frecklesFF, Ff; no frecklesff; attached earlobesEE, Ee; unattached earlobesee 3. homozygous widow’s peak =WW; heterozygous widow’s peak =Ww; straight hairlineee Figure 41.1

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ANSWER KEY

Figure 41.3

Figure 41.6

RR  1; Rr2; rr1 RR25%; Rr50%; rr25% Tongue-roller3; non-tongue roller1 Tongue-roller75%; non-tongue roller25%

AO50%; BO50%; AB0%; OO0% A50%; B50%; AB0%; O0%

Figure 41.4 CC0%; Cc100%, cc0% Curly hair0%; wavy hair100%; straight hair0%

Figure 41.8 HbSHbS50%; HbSHbA50%; HbAHbA0% Sickle-cell anemia50%; sickle-cell trait50%; Normal0% Activity 7

Figure 41.5 AO25%; BO25%; AB25%; OO25% A25%; B25%; AB25%; O25%

1.

XCXCnormal; XCXcnormal; XcXccolor blind; XCYnormal; XcYcolor blind

Activity 7 Discussion Questions: Sex-Linked Inheritance 1. 50% of the girls in Figure 41.12 would be carriers. 2. No boys would be a carrier. There are no male carriers for sex-linked inheritance because if they have the allele they would have the trait. Figure 41.10 XCXC25%; XCXc25%; XcXc0%; XCY25%; XcY25% Female normal25%; Female carrier = 25%; female color blind0%; male normal25%; male color blind25%

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Appendix A: Word Roots

WORD ROOT

DEFINITION

abdomin-

abdomen

acromiaxill-

high point of shoulder armpit

brachi-

arm

bucc-

cheek

calcane-

heel

carp-

wrist bones

cerviccox-

neck or neck-like structure hip

crani-

cranium

cubit-

elbow or ulna

digit-

finger or toe

dors-

back

faci-

face

fibul-

lateral leg

front-

forehead

glute-

buttocks

lumb-

lower back or loin

ment-

mind or chin

NOUNS AND/OR ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM WORD ROOT AND A SUFFIX

Noun: abdominis Adjective: abdominal Noun: acromion (sing.) Adjective: acromial Noun: axilla (sing.) and axillae (pl.) Adjective: axillary Noun: brachium (sing.) and brachia (pl.) Adjective: brachial Noun: bucca (sing.), buccae (pl.) Adjective: buccal Noun: calcaneus (sing.) and calcanei (pl.) Adjective: calcaneal Noun: carpus (sing.) and carpi (pl.) Adjective: carpal Noun: cervix (sing.) and cervices (pl.) Adjective: cervical Noun: coxa (sing.) and coxae (pl.) Adjective: coxal Noun: cranium (sing.), crania (pl.) Adjective: cranial Noun: cubitus (sing.), cubiti (pl.) Adjective: cubital Noun: digit and digitus (sing.) and digiti (pl.) Adjective: digital Noun: dorsum (sing.) and dorsa (pl.) Adjective: dorsal Noun: facies (sing.) Adjective: facial Noun: fibula Adjective: fibular Noun: frons (sing.) Adjective: frontal Noun: gluteus Adjective: gluteal Noun: lumbus (sing.) and lumbi (pl.) Adjective: lumbar Noun: mentum (sing.) Adjective: mental

WORDS FORMED BY COMBINING WORD ROOT WITH ANOTHER WORD ROOT, PREFIX AND/OR SUFFIX

abdominopelvic acromioscapular axillofemoral brachiocephalic, antebrachium buccinator calcaneofibular carpectomy cervicothorax, cervicectomy, cervicitis coxalgia craniosacral, craniofacial antecubital digitation dorsiflexion facioplasty fibulocalcaneal frontonasal gluteofemoral lumbago, lumbosacral mentalis muscle, mental foramen

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WORD ROOTS

WORD ROOT

DEFINITION

nas-

nose

occipit-

back of head

olecran-

or-

proximal projection of ulna mouth

orbit-

eye

otpalm patell-

ear flexor surface of hand kneecap

pector-

breast or chest

ped-

foot or child

pelvi-

pelvis, basin

plant-

sole of foot

pub-

pubis or genital area scapula (shoulder bone) chest

scapulstern-

thorac-

ankle bones or edge of eyelid chest

umbilic-

navel

vertebr-

vertebra, spinal column

tars-

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NOUNS AND/OR ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM WORD ROOT AND A SUFFIX

WORDS FORMED BY COMBINING WORD ROOT WITH ANOTHER WORD ROOT, PREFIX AND/OR SUFFIX

Noun: nasus (sing.) Adjective: nasal Noun: occipitis, occiput (sing.) Adjective: occipital Noun: olecranon (sing.) and olecrana (pl.) Adjective: olecranal

nasopharynx, nasosinusitis

Noun: oris (sing.) Adjective: oral Noun: orbit (sing ), orbitae (pl.) Adjective: orbital Adjective: otic Noun: palm and palma (sing.) and palmae (pl.) Adjective: palmar Noun: patella (sing.) and patellae (pl.) Adjective: patellar Noun: pectus (sing.) and pectora (pl.) Adjective: pectoral Noun: pes (sing.) and pedes (pl.) Adjective: pedal Noun: pelvis (sing.) and pelves (pl.) Adjective: pelvic Noun: planta (sing.) and plantae (pl.) Adjective: plantar Noun: pubis (sing.) Adjective: pubic Noun: scapula (sing.) and scapulae (pl.) Adjective: scapular Noun: sternum (sing.) Adjective: sternal Noun: tarsus (sing.) and tarsi (pl.) Adjective: tarsal Noun: thorax (sing.) and thoraces (pl.) Adjective: thoracic Noun: umbilicus (sing.) and umbilici (pl.) Adjective: umbilical Noun: vertebra (sing.) and vertebrae (pl.) Adjective: vertebral

oropharynx

occipitofrontal, occipitomental olecranarthropathy

orbitonasal otitis, otolaryngology palmature patellectomy pectoralgia pedicle, pedometer pelvioperitonitis, abdominopelvic plantarflexion, plantaris puberty scapulectomy sternocleidomastoid tarsometatarsal, tibiotarsal thoracolumbar umbilication vertebroarterial

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Appendix B: Skeletal Muscle Origins and Insertions

T A B L E B 1 Muscles of the Head and Neck MUSCLE

MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION Occipitofrontalis muscle Frontalis Occipitalis Orbicularis oculi Zygomaticus minor Zygomaticus major Orbicularis oris Platysma

ORIGIN

INSERTION

Galea (epicranial) aponeurosis Occipital bone and mastoid process of temporal bone Medial wall of orbit Zygomatic bone Zygomatic bone Muscle fibers surrounding mouth Fascia covering deltoid and pectoralis major

Skin superior to supraorbital margin Galea (epicranial) aponeurosis

Temporal bone Maxilla and zygomatic arch

Coronoid process and ramus of mandible Ramus and angle of mandible

Alveolar processes of maxilla and mandible Greater wing of sphenoid and lateral part of pterygoid process of sphenoid bone Medial part of pterygoid process of sphenoid bone and maxilla bone

Orbicularis oris

Skin around margin of orbit Upper lip Skin at angle of mouth and orbicularis oris Skin at corner of mouth Mandible, muscles around angle of mouth, and skin of lower face

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION Superficial Muscles Temporalis Masseter Deep Muscles Buccinator Lateral pterygoid

Medial pterygoid

Mandibular condyle; temporomandibular joint (TMJ) Ramus and angle of mandible

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE HEAD AND NECK Anterior and Lateral Muscles Sternocleidomastoid Scalenes Posterior Muscles Splenius capititis

Trapezius (superior portion)

Sternum and clavicle Transverse processes of vertebrae C3 through C7

Mastoid process of temporal bone Ribs 1 and 2

Ligamentum nuchae and spinous processes of vertebrae C7 through T4 Occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae, and spines of vertebrae C7 through T12

Occipital bone and mastoid process of temporal bone Clavicle, acromion (process) of scapula, and spine of scapula

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SKELETAL MUSCLE ORIGINS AND INSERTIONS

T A B L E B 1 (Continued) MUSCLE

ORIGIN

INSERTION

MUSCLE THAT ONLY MOVES THE SCAPULA Vertebrae C1–C5

Superior vertebral border of scapula

Body of hyoid bone

Posterior belly Stylohyoid Mylohyoid

Inner surface of inferior border of mandible Mastoid process of temporal bone Styloid process of temporal bone Inner surface of mandible

Infrahyoid Muscles Omohyoid Sternohyoid

Superior border of scapula Manubrium and medial end of clavicle

Body of hyoid bone Body of hyoid bone

Levator scapulae

MUSCLES THAT MOVE HYOID BONE Suprahyoid muscles Digastric Anterior belly

Body of hyoid bone Body of hyoid bone Body of hyoid bone

T A B L E B 2 Muscles of the Anterior Trunk MUSCLE

ORIGIN

INSERTION

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE SHOULDER JOINT Superficial muscles Deltoid

Pectoralis major

Deep muscle Subscapularis

Anterior fibers: acromial end of Deltoid tuberosity of humerus clavicle Lateral fibers: acromion of scapula Posterior fibers: spine of scapula Greater tubercle and intertubecular sulcus Clavicle (clavicular head), sternum, of humerus and costal cartilages of ribs 2–6 (sternocostal head) Subscapular fossa of scapula

Lesser tubercle of humerus

Serratus anterior

Ribs 1–9

Pectoralis minor

Ribs 2–5, 3–5, or 2–4

Vertebral border of scapula and inferior angle of scapula Coracoid process of scapula

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE SCAPULA

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ABDOMINAL WALL Superficial muscles Rectus abdominis

Pubic crest and pubic symphysis

External oblique

Ribs 5–12

Deep muscles Internal oblique Transversus abdominis

Cartilage of ribs 5–7 and the xiphoid process Iliac crest and linea alba

Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, and thoracolumbar fascia Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, lumbar fascia, and cartilage of ribs 7–12

Cartilage of ribs 9–12 and linea alba

Inferior border of rib superior to muscle Superior border of rib inferior to muscle Xiphoid process of sternum, costal cartilages of inferior six ribs, and lumbar vertebrae

Superior border of rib inferior to muscle

Xiphoid process, linea alba, and pubis

MUSCLES USED IN BREATHING Deep muscles External intercostals Internal intercostals Diaphragm

Inferior border of rib superior to muscle Central tendon

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T A B L E B 3 Muscles of the Posterior Trunk MUSCLE

ORIGIN

INSERTION

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE SHOULDER JOINT Superficial muscles Deltoid Infraspinatus Teres minor Teres major Latissimus dorsi

Posterior fibers: spine of scapula Infraspinous fossa of scapula Inferior lateral border of scapula Inferior angle of scapula Spines of T7–T12 vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, crests of sacrum and ilium, ribs 9–12

Deltoid tuberosity of humerus Greater tubercle of humerus Greater tubercle of humerus Intertubercular sulcus of humerus Intertubercular sulcus of humerus

Supraspinous fossa of scapula

Greater tubercle of humerus

Occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae, and spines of vertebrae C7–T12

Clavicle, acromion of scapula, and spine of scapula

Deep muscles Levator scapulae Rhomboideus minor

Vertebrae C1–C5 Spines of vertebrae C7 and T1

Rhomboideus major

Spines of vertebrae T2 –T5

Superior vertebral border of scapula Vertebral border of scapula superior to spine Vertebral border of scapula inferior to spine

Deep muscles Supraspinatus

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE SCAPULA Superficial muscle Trapezius

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN Erector spinae consists of iliocostalis, longissiumus, and spinalis groups

Large group of muscles with origins on ribs, iliac crest, and cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae

Skull, ribs, and cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae

T A B L E B 4 Muscles of the Arm MUSCLE

ORIGIN

INSERTION

Long head: tubercle superior to glenoid cavity of scapula Short head: coracoid process of scapula Anterior surface of distal humerus

Radial tuberosity of radius

Long head: inferior to glenoid cavity of scapula Medial head: posterior humerus inferior to groove for radial nerve Lateral head: posterior surface of lateral humerus superior to radial groove

All three heads insert on the olecranon of ulna

ANTERIOR SURFACE Biceps brachii

Brachialis

Ulnar tuberosity and coronoid process of ulna

POSTERIOR SURFACE Triceps brachii

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SKELETAL MUSCLE ORIGINS AND INSERTIONS

T A B L E B 5 Muscles of the Forearm MUSCLE

ORIGIN

INSERTION

Distal lateral border of humerus Medial epicondyle of humerus and coronoid process of ulna Medial epicondyle of humerus Medial epicondyle of humerus

Superior to styloid process of radius Midlateral surface of radius

ANTERIOR SURFACE Superficial muscles (lateral to medial ) Brachioradialis Pronator teres Flexor carpi radialis Palmaris longus Flexor carpi ulnaris

Flexor digitorum superficialis

Deep muscles Supinator

Flexor pollicis longus POSTERIOR SURFACE Superficial muscles (medial to lateral ) Extensor carpi ulnaris Extensor digitorum Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis

POSTERIOR SURFACE Deep muscles

Medial epicondyle of humerus and superior posterior border of humerus Medial epicondyle of humerus, coronoid process of ulna, and anterior surface of radius

2nd and 3rd metacarpals Flexor retinaculum and palmar aponeurosis Pisiform, hamate, and base of 5th metacarpal Middle phalanx of each finger

Lateral epicondyle of humerus and ridge near radial notch of ulna (supinator crest) Anterior surface of radius and interosseous membrane

Lateral surface of proximal one-third of radius

Lateral epicondyle of humerus and posterior ulna Lateral epicondyle of humerus Brevis: lateral epicondyle of humerus Longus: lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus

5th metacarpal

Base of distal phalanx of thumb

distal and middle phalanges of each finger 3rd metacarpal 2nd metacarpal

Supinator Extensor pollicis longus

Lateral epicondyle of humerus and ridge near radial notch of ulna Posterior surface of middle of ulna, and interosseous membrane

Lateral surface of proximal one-third of radius Distal phalanx of thumb

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T A B L E B 6 Muscles of the Thigh MUSCLE

ORIGIN

INSERTION

Iliac crest

Iliotibial tract (fascia) Patella (quadriceps tendon) and tibial tuberosity (patellar ligament)

ANTERIOR SURFACE (lateral to medial ) Tensor fasciae latae Quadriceps femoris Rectus femoris Vastus lateralis Vastus medialis Vastus intermedius Sartorius Iliopsoas Psoas major Iliacus Pectineus Adductor longus Adductor magnus Adductor brevis Gracilis

Anterior inferior iliac spine Greater trochanter and linea aspera of femur Linea aspera of femur Anterior and lateral surface of body of femur Anterior superior iliac spine Psoas major: Transverse processes and bodies of lumbar vertebrae Iliacus: Iliac fossa Superior ramus of pubis Pubic crest and pubic symphysis Inferior ramus of pubis and ischium to ischial tuberosity Inferior ramus of pubis Pubic symphysis and pubic arch

Medial surface of body of tibia Psoas major and iliacus insert together into lesser trochanter of femur Pectineal line of femur between lesser trochanter and linea aspera Linea aspera of femur Linea aspera of femur Proximal linea aspera of femur Medial surface of body of tibia

POSTERIOR SURFACE Gluteus maximus

Iliac crest, sacrum, and coccyx

Gluteus medius Gluteus minimus Piriformis

Ilium Ilium Anterior sacrum

Hamstrings Biceps femoris Semitendinosus Semimembranosus

Long head: ischial tuberosity Short head: linea aspera of femur Ischial tuberosity Ischial tuberosity

Greater trocanter of femur and iliotibial tract Greater trochanter of femur Greater trochanter of femur Superior border of greater trochanter of femur Head of fibula and lateral condyle of tibia Medial surface of proximal part of tibia Medial condyle of tibia

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SKELETAL MUSCLE ORIGINS AND INSERTIONS

T A B L E B 7 Muscles of the Leg and Foot MUSCLE

ORIGIN

INSERTION

Lateral condyle and body of tibia and interosseous membrane Lateral condyle of tibia, anterior fibula, and interosseous membrane Lateral condyle of tibia and head and body of fibula

1st metatarsal and 1st (medial) cuneiform (tarsal bone) Middle and distal phalanges 2–5

POSTERIOR SURFACE Superficial muscles Gastrocnemius Soleus

Lateral and medial condyles of femur Medial tibia and head of fibula

Calcaneus via calcaneal tendon Calcaneus via calcaneal tendon

POSTERIOR SURFACE Deep muscles Flexor digitorum longus Flexor hallucis longus

Posterior tibia Inferior fibula

Distal phalanges 2–5 Distal phalanx of great toe

ANTERIOR AND LATERAL SURFACE Superficial muscles Tibialis anterior Extensor digitorum longus

Fibularis (peroneus) longus

1st metatarsal and 1st (medial) cuneiform

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Photo Credits

Figure 1.4a

Figure 4.4b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.9a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.4c Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.9b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.4d Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.11 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.4e Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.12 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.5 Dr. Gopal Murti/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 6.13 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 5.3a David Phillips/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 6.14 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 5.3b David Phillips/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 6.15 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 2.4c Geoff Tompkinson/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 5.3c David Phillips/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 6.16 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 2.4d Inc.

CNRI/Photo Researchers,

Figure 6.3a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.17 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 3.1 Inc

Courtesy Olympus America,

Figure 6.4a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.18 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 3.2 Bruce Iverson/Photo Researchers

Figure 6.4b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.19 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.1b Dr. Gopal Murti/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 6.5a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.20 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.2a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.5b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.21 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.2b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.6a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.22 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.2c Carolina Biological/ Visuals Unlimited

Figure 6.6b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.24 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.2d M. Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 6.7a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.25 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.2e Michael Abbey/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 6.7b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.26a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.2f Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.8a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.26b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 4.4a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.8b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 6.28 Jan Leesma/Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.

Mark Nielsen

Figure 1.4b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 1.4c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 1.5a,b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 1.7a Simon Fraser/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 1.7b Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 1.7c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 2.1a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 2.1b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 2.4a

CNRI/Phototake

Figure 2.4b

©Benedet/Phototake

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Figure 6.29#12 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Table 8.3b

Figure 6.29-#13

Ed Reschke

Figure 6.29-#14

Ed Reschke

Figure 8.4 Don W. Fawcett/ Visuals Unlimited

Figure 6.29-#15

Ed Reschke

Figure 8.5

Mark Nielsen

Figure 8.3c

Mark Nielsen

L. Bassett/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 6.30-#1 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 8.6a Mehau Kulyk/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 6.30-#2 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 8.6b Scott Camazine & Sue Trainor/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 6.30-#3 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 8.7a Inc.

P. Motta/Photo Researchers,

Figure 6.30-#4

Ed Reschke

P. Motta/Photo Researchers,

Figure 6.30-#5

Ed Reschke

Figure 8.7b Inc.

Figure 6.30-#6 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 9.10

Mark Nielsen

Figure 9.2

Figure 6.30-#7 J. Kuntzman

Courtesy Andrew

Figure 9.3

Figure 6.30-#8

Ed Reschke

Figure 6.30-#9 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers Figure 6.30-#10

Ed Reschke

Figure 6.30-#11 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers Figure 6.30-#12

Ed Reschke

Figure 6.30-#13 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers

Figure 10.13b

©SIU/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 10.13c Mehau Kulyk/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 10.14a

Kevin Dodge/Masterfile

Figure 10.14b Dick Luria/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 11.3b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 11.4a-f Figure 11.5a

John Wilson White John Wilson White

Figure 11.5b

John Wilson White

Figure 11.5c

John Wilson White

Figure 11.5d

John Wilson White

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.5e

John Wilson White

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.5f

John Wilson White

Figure 9.4

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.6a

John Wilson White

Figure 9.5

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.6b

John Wilson White

Figure 9.6

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.7a,b

John Wilson White

Figure 9.7

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.7c,d

John Wilson White

Figure 9.8

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.7e

Figure 9.9

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.8a,b,c

Figure 9.1

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.9a

Mark Nielsen Mark Nielsen

John Wilson White John Wilson White

Figure 9.13b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.9b

Figure 9.13c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 11.9c Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 6.30-#14 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers

Figure 9.17a-c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 9.18a,b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 6.30-#15 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers

Figure 9.19a,b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 9.21a,b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 6.30-#16 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers

Figure 9.23

Figure 6.30-#17 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 9.26a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 9.24a,b

Mark Nielsen Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 6.30-#18 Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 9.26b AFIP/Science Source/Photo Researchers

Figure 6.31-#1 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 9.27a Courtesy Chaim J. Margolin

Figure 6.31-#2 Unlimited

Science VU/Visuals

Figure 10.2b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 10.2c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 6.31-#4

Ed Reshke

Figure 9.27b Courtesy Chaim J. Margolin

Figure 10.3

Mark Nielsen

Figure 6.31-#3 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 10.4a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 10.4b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 7.2 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 10.5

Mark Nielsen

Figure 7.3 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 10.6

Mark Nielsen

Figure 10.7

Mark Nielsen

Figure 7.5 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 10.8a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 10.8b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 7.7a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 10.9a,b

Figure 7.7b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 10.10a

Figure 7.7c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 8.3a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 10.13a Larry Mulvehill/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Mark Nielsen Mark Nielsen

Figure 12.2a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 12.2c MedImage/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 12.2b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 12.5 Courtesy Denah Appelt and Clara Franzini-Armstrong Figure 12.7 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 12.8 Courtesy Hiroyouki Sasaki, Yale E. Goldman and Clara FranziniArmstrong Figure 13.1 Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 14.1a Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.1b and 14.2 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.1c and 14.2 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.3b Dissection Nathan Mortensen and Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.3c Dissection Nathan Mortensen and Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen

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Figure 14.3d Dissection Nathan Mortensen and Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 16.7 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 24.19 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 16.8a ©Glauberman/ Photo Researchers

Figure 24.20a Science VU-NEINIH/ Visuals Unlimited

Figure 14.3e Dissection Nathan Mortensen and Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 16.8b John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 24.20b Science VU-NEINIH/ Visuals Unlimited

Figure 17.2b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 25.2b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 17.5 CABISCO/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 25.2c Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 14.4b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.5a Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.5b Dissection Nathan Mortensen and Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.7a Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.7b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.7e Dissection Nathan Mortensen and Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.8a Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 14.8b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 15.1a

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 17.6a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 17.6c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 17.7

Mark Nielsen

Figure 18.2 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 20.1 Figure 20.2a

Mark Nielsen Mark Nielsen

Figure 20.3 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 20.2b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 20.4 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 20.5b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 20.6 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

3

Figure 25.3a Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 25.3b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 25.4a Figure 25.4b Figure 25.5

Mark Nielsen Mark Nielsen Mark Nielsen

Figure 25.6 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 25.7 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 25.8c Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 25.9

Mark Nielsen

Figure 26.1a Martin M. Rotker/Photo Researchers, Inc

Figure 15.1b

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 15.1c

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.8 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 15.1d

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.10

Mark Nielsen

Figure 15.2a

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.11

Mark Nielsen

Figure 15.2b

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.12

Mark Nielsen

Figure 15.2c

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.13

Mark Nielsen

Figure 15.3a

©John Wiley & Sons ©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.16 A. Kieffer

Courtesy Stephen

Figure 15.3b

Figure 26.3a-#1 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 15.3c

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.17

Mark Nielsen

Figure 15.3d

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 20.18

Mark Nielsen

Figure 26.3a#2 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 15.3e

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 15.3f

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 21.1 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 26.3a-#3 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 15.4a

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 26.3b-#1 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 15.4b

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 21.2 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 15.4c

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 26.3b-#2 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 15.4d

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 24.5a Courtesy William Radke, University of Central Oklahoma

Figure 15.4e

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 24.5b Courtesy William Radke, University of Central Oklahoma

Figure 26.3b-#3 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 15.4f

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 15.4g

©John Wiley & Sons

Figure 24.6 Scott Camazine/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 26.3c-#1 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 16.2a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 24.7b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 26.3c-#2 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 16.2b Jan Leesma/Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.

Figure 24.8b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 26.3c-#3 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 16.4a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 24.15a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 26.3c-#4 John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 16.4b Unlimited

Figure 24.15b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 26.3d-#1 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Science VU/Visuals

Figure 26.1b Rapho Agence de Presse/Phototake Figure 26.2 From Lennart Nilsson, Our Body Victorious, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH. Reproduced with permission

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Figure 26.3d-#2 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 31.11 John Greim/Photo Researchers, Inc

Figure 38.4 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 26.3d-#3 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 32.4d Inc.

Figure 38.7 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 26.3d-#4 John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 32.8b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 26.3e-#1 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 32.9a John Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited

Figure 26.3-#2 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 32.9b Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 39.9c Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 26.3e-#3 John D. Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited

Figure 32.10 (left) Ed Reschke/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

Figure 39.9d

Figure 26.5 JC REVY/ISM/Phototake

Figure 32.10 (center) Martin Rotker/Phototake

Figure 26.7

James Hayden/Phototake

Figure 27.5a Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 27.5b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 27.7

Ed Reshke

CNRI/Photo Researchers,

Figure 32.10 (right) Phototake

Ida Wyman/

Figure 32.11 CNRI/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 32.12

CNRI/Phototake

Figure 33.2a

©SIU/Visuals Unlimited ©SIU/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 27.8a

Mark Nielsen

Figure 33.2b

Figure 27.8b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 27.8c

Mark Nielsen

Figure 34.1 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 29.1 From Phelps, P.C., and J. H. Luft. Am. J. Anat. 125:399, 1969

Figure 34.3b Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 29.4 Dr. Gladden Willis/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 34.6 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 29.5 T. Kuwabara-D. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 34.10a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 29.6a Unlimited

Figure 34.10b

Ed Reschke

Figure 34.10c

Willis/Visuals Unlimited

Don Fawcett/Visuals

Figure 29.6b Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 34.10d Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 30.1a Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 34.10e Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 30.3a

Figure 34.12 Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Mark Nielsen

Figure 30.4 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 30.18 Inc

CNRI/Photo Researchers,

Figure 34.13 CNRI/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 36.8 Courtesy Dr. William Benyak

Figure 31.1c Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 36.9a Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Figure 31.2c (top)

Figure 36.9b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida

Mark Nielsen

Figure 31.5b Leroy, Biocosmos/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 31.5c Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 31.6

Mark Nielsen

Figure 31.7b Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 31.8b

Mark Nielsen

Figure 31.9a Arnold Brody/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 36.10 Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida Figure 36.11 Clinical Radiology Dept.,/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure 37.3 Dr. Frederick Skvara/Visuals Unlimited Figure 38.2 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 38.3 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

Figure 38.1

Ed Reschke

Figure 39.4 Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen Figure 39.9b

Mark Nielsen

Mark Nielsen

Figure 39.9e Claude Edelmann/Photo Researchers, Inc. Figure Figure 39.10 Kuntzman

Andrew J.

Figure 40.6a Photo provided courtesy of Kohei Shiota, Congenital Anomaly Research Center, Kyoto University, Graduate School of Medicine Figure 40.6b Courtesy National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Figure 40.6c Courtesy National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Figure 40.6d Courtesy National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Figure 40.6e Courtesy National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Figure 40.6f Photo by Lennart Nilsson/Albert Bonniers Fîrlag AB, A Child is Born, Dell Publishing Company. Reproduced with permission. Figure 40.6g Photo provided courtesy of Kohei Shiota, Congenital Anomaly Research Center, Kyoto University, Graduate School of Medicine Figure 40.6h Photo provided courtesy of Kohei Shiota, Congenital Anomaly Research Center, Kyoto University, Graduate School of Medicine Figure 41.2a A. Lowrey/Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc. Figure 41.2b PhotoEdit

David Young-Wolff/

Figure 41.7 Dr. Stanley Flegler/Visuals Unlimited Figure 41.11a Photo

Custom Medical Stock

Figure 41.11b & Sons

Elyse Rieder/John Wiley

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Index

A A bands, 178, 178f Abdomen: body region, 1 MRI of, 22f radiograph of, 22f serous membranes in, 18 surface anatomy of, 241, 241f veins of, 491, 492f, 493t Abdominal (term), 2t Abdominal aorta, 241, 484f, 485t Abdominal cavity, 16 Abdominal wall, muscles controlling, 205, 206t, 207f Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants, 17, 17f Abducens nerve: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f sheep brain, 313f Abduction, 163t, 165f Abductor digiti minimi, 215f Abductor pollicis brevis, 215f Abductor pollicis longus, 217f Abnormal vertebral curvatures, 128, 128f ABO blood typing system, 413–415, 414f, 415f color dominance and, 677–678, 677f Accessory digestive organs, 559, 560f, 571–572, 572f, 573f, 574, 575f, 576f Accessory eye structures, 358, 358f Accessory hemiazygos vein, 491, 492f, 492t Accessory (cranial) nerve: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f Accessory pancreatic duct, 574, 575f, 576f Accessory reproductive structures, male, 630, 630f–633f A cells (alpha cells), 396, 397f Acetabulum, 144, 145f, 146f Acetylcholine, 179 Achilles reflex (ankle jerk), 292 Achilles (calcaneal) tendon, 252, 252f ACL (anterior cruciate ligament), 162, 162f Acromial (term), 2t Acromial end (clavicle), 138, 138f Acromioclavicular joint, 242f Acromion of scapula, 138, 139f, 171f, 242, 242f Acrosome, 634 ACTH, see Adrenocorticotropic hormone Actin, 176

Active processes, 41 Adaptation, of sensory receptors, 350–351 Adduction, 163t, 165f Adductor brevis, 218, 218t, 219f Adductor longus, 218, 218t, 219f, 248, 248f Adductor magnus, 218, 218t, 219f Adductor pollicis, 215f Adenohypophysis, 390, 391f, 398t ADH, see Antidiuretic hormone Adipocytes, 60, 63f Adipose capsule, 595, 597f Adipose tissue, 60, 63f Adrenal cortex, 394, 395f, 398t Adrenal glands, 389, 390f, 394, 394f–395f, 398t–399t Adrenal medulla, 394, 395f, 399t Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 390, 398t Adventitia, 606, 606f Aerobic cellular respiration, 188–189 Afferent arteriole, 600, 601f, 602f Afferent neurons, see Sensory neurons Afferent vessels, 512, 512f Afterbirth, 664 Agglutinated blood, 413 Agranular leukocytes, 410 Alae, 127, 127f Albuminuria, 618t Aldosterone, 394, 398t, 476f, 616, 616f Alimentary canal, see Digestive system Allantois, 662, 665f Alleles, 673–674 Alpha cells (A cells), 396, 397f Alveolar ducts, 532, 533f, 536t Alveolar sacs, 532, 533f Alveoli: mammary glands, 648, 648f respiratory system, 54f, 532, 533f tooth sockets, 160f, 171 Amino acids, 588 Amnion, 662, 663f, 665f Amniotic fluid, 665f Ampulla: ductus deferens, 628, 628f–630f, 630 ear, 370, 370f uterine tube, 642, 643f Amylases, 588 Anabolization, 588 Anal canal (anal column), 567, 569f Anaphase, of mitosis, 35, 35t, 36f

Anastomoses, 477, 491 Anatomical language: anatomical terms, 1–3, 3f body planes and sections, 5–6, 5f directional terms, 4, 4t Anatomical neck (humerus), 141, 141f Anatomical snuffbox, 246, 246f Anatomical terms, 1–3, 3f Androgens, 394, 398t Anemia, 410, 420 Angiogram, 504f Angular joint movement, 163t Animals. See also specific animals blood vessels of, 496 digestive system of, 580 endocrine system of, 399 respiratory system of, 538 urinary system of, 604 Ankle: Achilles reflex, 292 bones of, 150, 150f movement of joint, 166f surface anatomy of, 251–252, 251f, 252f Ankle jerk, 292 Annulus fibrosus, 123 ANS, see Autonomic nervous system Antebrachial (term), 2t Antecubital (term), 2t Antecubital region, 244, 244f Anteflexion position of uterus, 644 Anterior (directional term), 4t Anterior axillary fold, 239f Anterior border (crest) of tibia, 251, 251f Anterior cardiac vein, 438f Anterior cerebral arteries, 480, 480t, 481f Anterior chamber (eyeball), 361, 361f Anterior communicating artery, 480, 480t, 481f Anterior cranial fossae, 308 Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), 162, 162f Anterior gray horns, 270, 271f Anterior inferior iliac spine, 144, 145f Anterior interventricular branch (LAD), 438, 438f, 439f Anterior interventricular sulcus, 430, 430f sheep, 442f, 443f Anterior median fissure (spinal cord), 270, 270f, 271f Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis), 390, 391f, 398t

721

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INDEX

Anterior ramus, 278, 279f Anterior root, 270, 270f, 271f, 277 Anterior superior iliac spine, 144, 145f, 241, 241f Anterior tibial artery, 486, 486t, 487f Anterior tibial veins, 494, 494f, 495t Anterior triangle, 236, 237f Anterior white column (spinal cord), 270, 271f Anterolateral (spinothalmic) pathway, 347f Antibodies, 413, 516, 522f Antibody-mediated immunity, 516, 522f Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 390, 398t, 476f, 616, 616f Antigens, 413 Antigenic molecules, 413 Antisera, 414 Anus, 560f, 567, 569f, 646f Aorta, 14f, 432, 432f abdominal, 241, 484f, 485t ascending, 432, 432f, 433f, 478, 478f, 479t descending, 394f, 432, 432f, 433f, 484, 484f, 485f, 485t major arteries of, 478, 478f, 479t sheep heart, 442f, 444f thoracic, 479f, 484, 484f, 485t Aortic arch, 432, 432f, 438f major arteries of, 478, 478f, 479f, 479t sheep heart, 443f Aortic (semilunar) valves, 434, 435f, 454, 454f Apical foramen, 571, 573f Apical surface, epithelial tissues, 52 Apocrine glands, 86, 87f Appendicular (term), 2t Appendicular skeleton, 105, 137, 138t lower limbs, 137, 147, 148f–151f, 151–152, 151t pectoral girdle, 137, 138, 139f pelvic girdle, 137, 144, 145f, 146f upper limbs, 137, 140, 141f–143f, 143 Appendix, 509, 510f, 517f, 560f, 567, 569f surface anatomy, 241, 241f Aqueous humor, 361 Arachnoid mater, 267, 269f, 272f, 308, 308f, 309f, 310, 311f Arachnoid villi, 308, 309f, 310f Arbor vitae, 301, 301f Arches, fingerprint pattern, 90, 90f Arch of aorta, see Aortic arch Areola, 648, 648f Areolar connective tissue, 60, 60f, 62f, 62t Arm. See also Humerus; Upper limbs body region, 1 compartments of, 211 muscles, 205, 206t, 211, 211t, 212f–213f, 214t, 215f, 216t, 217f surface anatomy, 242f–244f, 243–244 Arrector pili, 86 Arteries, 429, 461–462, 463f, 464f, 477 aortic arch, 432, 432f, 443f, 478, 478f, 479t ascending aorta, 432, 432f, 433f, 478, 478f, 479f, 479t axillary, 482, 483t basilar, 480, 480t, 481f blood distribution schematic, 502f blood pressure in, 466 brachial, 243, 243f, 482, 483t carotid, 236, 237f, 478, 478f, 479t, 480, 480t, 481f cerebral, 480, 480t, 481f

communicating, 480, 480t, 481f coronary, 432, 432f, 433f descending aorta, 484, 484f, 485f, 485t dorsalis pedis, 486, 486t, 487f femoral, 486, 486t, 487f fibular (peroneal), 486, 486t, 487f gastric, 484f, 485f, 485t hepatic, 577, 580, 580f iliac, 484, 484f, 485t, 487f lower limbs, 486, 486t, 487f pelvic, 486, 486t, 487f popliteal, 486, 486t, 487f pulmonary, 495, 495f upper limbs, 482, 482f, 483t Arterioles, 462, 463 afferent, 600, 601f, 602f efferent, 600, 601f, 602f frog, 462f Articular capsule, 161, 161f Articular cartilage, 96, 96f, 161, 161f Articular facets, superior and inferior, 122, 122f, 123, 124f–126f Articulation (term), 159 Arytenoid cartilage, 530, 530f, 531f Ascending aorta, arteries of, 432, 432f, 433f, 438f, 478, 478f, 479f, 479t Ascending colon, 560f, 563f, 567, 568f, 569f Ascending limb (loop of Henle), 600, 601f, 604, 605f, 615 Association areas (cerebral cortex), 307, 307f Association fibers, 304, 304f Association neurons, 258, 259f, 266f, 346, 347f Asthma, 533 Astigmatism, 367, 367f Astrocytes, 254, 255f Asynchronous contractions, 190 Atlanto-axial joint, 166f Atlanto-occipital joint, 164f Atlas (vertebra), 123, 123f, 124f, 280f ATP, and muscle contraction, 186–189, 187t, 189f Atrial depolarization and repolarization, 451 Atrioventricular (AV) node, 450, 450f Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 434, 454, 454f Atrium, 430, 430f, 439f Auditory association area, 307 Auditory canal, external, 369, 369f Auditory ossicles, 369, 369f Auditory tube (Eustachian), 369, 369f, 528, 529f Auricles, 369, 369f, 430, 431f, 438f sheep heart, 442f–444f Auricular surfaces, 127, 127f Auscultation, 454, 454f Autonomic nervous system (ANS), 331 autonomic reflexes, 335–337, 335f, 337f parasympathetic motor division, 331, 334, 334f sympathetic motor division, 331, 332, 333f Autonomic reflexes, 287, 335f Autonomic reflex arc, 335, 335f Autorhythmic cells, 450 Autosomes, 673, 679, 679f AV bundle (bundle of His), 450, 450f Aveolar (intrapulmonic) pressure, 546 AV (atrioventricular) node, 450, 450f AV (atrioventricular) valves, 434, 454, 454f Axial (term), 2t Axial sections, 5

Axial skeleton, 105. See also Skull; Vertebral column hyoid bone, 120 thoracic (rib) cage, 128, 129f, 130f Axilla, 243f Axillary (term), 2t Axillary artery, 482, 482f, 483t Axillary folds (trunk), 239f, 240f Axillary nerve, 281, 281f, 281t Axillary node, 510f Axillary veins, 490, 490f, 491t Axis (vertebra), 123, 123f Axoaxonic synapses, 262 Axodendritic synapses, 262 Axon, 73, 255f, 258f, 278f in central nervous system, 255f, 256 myelination of, 260, 260f, 261f Axon collateral, 256, 257f Axon hillock, 256, 257f Axon terminals, 179, 179f, 256, 257f Axosomatic synapses, 262 Azygos system, 491 Azygos vein, 491, 492f, 492t, 508f B Babinski’s sign, 292 Back, surface anatomy, 240, 240f Backbone, see Vertebral column Balance test, 373t Ball-and-socket joint, 167f Barnay test, 373t Basal ganglia, 304, 305f Basal nuclei, 305f Basal surface, epithelial tissues, 52 Basement membrane, 51, 52f Basilar artery, 480, 480t, 481f Basilar membrane, 371, 371f Basilic veins, 244, 244f, 490, 490f, 491t Basophils, 410, 411t, 412, 413f, 419t B cells (beta cells), 396, 397f B cells (lymphocytes), 516, 517f Bell jar demonstration, 547f Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH), 598, 630 Bicarbonate ions, 552 Biceps brachii, 211t, 212f, 215f, 243, 243f Biceps femoris, 220f, 220t, 221f, 249, 249f Biceps reflex (biceps jerk), 291 Bicuspid valve (mitral), 434, 435f, 454f sheep heart, 444f Bifurcated spinous process, 124f Bilaminar embryonic disc, 662, 663f Bilateral reflexes, 288 Bile, 590 Bile canaliculi, 577, 580, 580f Bile ducts, 580, 580f Bile salts, 590 Bipolar cell layer, 365f, 366 Bipolar neurons, 258, 259f Blastocele, 660, 663f Blastocyst, 660, 661f Blastocyst cavity (blastocele), 660, 663f Blastomere, 660, 661f Blastula, 35 Blind spot, 366, 366f Blood, 60, 61, 69f, 69t. See also Platelets; Red blood cells; White blood cells ABO and Rh typing of, 413–415, 414f, 415f

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INDEX blood tests, 417–418, 417f–418f, 419t, 420–422 blood volume, 409, 476f cell specialization, 33, 34f components of, 69f, 410, 410f, 411t, 412f glucose level, 399 Blood-brain barrier, 254 Blood pressure: homeostasis, 476f measuring of, 466–469, 467f Blood vessels. See also Arteries; Capillaries; Veins of animals, 496 arterial blood distribution, 502f and blood pressure, 466–469, 467f fetal circulation, 496, 496f pulmonary circulation, 495, 495f structure, 461–464, 462f–465f systemic arteries, 478, 478f, 479f, 479t, 480, 480t, 481f–485f, 482, 483t, 484, 485t, 486, 486t systemic veins, 488–491, 488f–490f, 488t, 489t, 491t, 492f–494f, 493t, 494, 495t Body: of mandible, 234, 234f–235f of sternum, 238, 239f of stomach, 566f of uterus, 646f of vertebrae, 122, 122f, 126f Body cavities, see Organ systems and body cavities Body planes and sections, 5–6, 5f, 6f, 12f Body regions, 3f Body stalk, 662, 664f Bones, 60, 61, 103f, 104f. See also Appendicular skeleton; Axial skeleton classification of, 95 collagen and mineral salts and, 100 compact (cortical), 61, 68f, 68t, 97, 98f–99f long, 95, 96, 96f, 103f spongy (cancellous/trabecular), 61, 68f, 68t, 97, 98f–99f Bone markings: appendicular skeleton, 138t axial skeleton, 113t skull, 112–113, 113t, 114f–118f, 134f, 136f Bone marrow, 96, 96f, 509, 510f Bony labyrinth (internal ear), 370, 370f Bowman’s capsule, 54f, 600, 601f, 604, 605f Boyle’s Law, 543 BPH, see Benign prostatic hypertrophy Brachial (term), 2t Brachial artery, 482, 482f, 483t surface anatomy, 243, 243f Brachialis, 211t, 212f, 215f Brachial plexus, 236, 280, 280f, 281, 281f, 281t Brachial pulse, 243 Brachial veins, 490, 490f, 491t Brachiocephalic trunk, 478, 478f, 479f, 479t, 481f Brachiocephalic veins, 489, 489f, 489t, 492f, 492t, 511f, 514f Brachioradialis muscle, 214t, 215f, 244, 244f Bradycardia, 452 Brain, 297, 315f, 317f, 319f, 320f autonomic nervous system and, 336, 337f brain stem, 297, 298f–300f, 299 cerebellum, 297, 298f, 301, 301f, 304f, 306f

cerebral arterial circle in, 481f cerebrospinal fluid, 310, 615f cerebrum, 297, 298f, 304, 304f–307f, 306, 307 developing, 667f diencephalon, 297, 298f, 302, 302f–303f gray and white matter in, 261, 261f hypothalamus, 298f, 302, 302f–303f, 305f, 389, 390, 390f, 391t, 406f in nervous system, 266f planes and sections, 6f protection of, 308, 309f–311f, 310 regions of, 297, 298f sheep, 312, 313f, 314f ventricles of, 310, 310f–311f Brain stem, 298f–300f, 299 medulla oblongata, 298f–301f, 299 midbrain, 298f–300f, 299 pons, 298f–301f, 299 Breathing, see Respiratory system Broad ligament of uterus, 642, 643f, 644, 645f, 646f Broca’s speech area, 307, 307f Bronchial nodule, 509 Bronchial tree, 526f, 532, 532f, 533f Bronchii, 238 Bronchioles, 532, 532f, 533f, 536t Bronchitis, 533 Bronchopulmonary segments, 532 Brunner’s (duodenal) glands, 577, 579f Brush border, 577, 579f Buccal (term), 2t Buccal (oral) cavity, 563, 564f, 565f Buccinator, 200f, 201f Bulbar conjunctiva, 358, 358f Bulbospongiosus muscle, 629f Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands, 630, 630f–632f Bundle of His, 450, 450f Bursa, 171f Buttocks, surface anatomy, 247, 247f C Calcaneal (term), 2t Calcaneal ligament, 224f Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon, 252, 252f Calcaneus, 149f, 252, 252f Calcitonin, 392, 398t Calcium oxide crystals, 620f Calculi, 618t Calyces, major and minor, 596, 597f Canaliculi, 61, 97, 98f, 99f Canal of Schlemm, 360, 360f, 361, 361f Cancellous bone, see Spongy bone Capillaries, 462, 464, 465f central nervous system, 255f endothelium of, 462 lymphatic, 505, 506f, 511f peritubular, 600, 601f pulmonary, 437f Capillary clefts, 464, 465f Capitulum of humerus, 140, 141f, 142f Capsular space, 600, 601f, 605f Capsule: of adrenal gland, 394, 395f of thymus, 514f Carbon dioxide, 552 Carbonic acid, 552

723

Cardia, 565, 566f Cardiac cycle, 449, 455–456 opening and closing of valves, 454–455, 454f stimulation of muscle contraction, 450–452, 451f–453f Cardiac muscle tissue, 70, 70f, 70t, 71f Cardiac notch, 534, 534f, 535f Cardiac output, 476f Cardiac veins, 438f, 439f Cardiovascular system, 14f Carina, 532, 532f Carotid artery, 236, 236f–237f, 478, 478f, 479t, 480, 480t, 481f Carotid foramen (canal), 112, 116f Carotid pulse, 455 Carpals, 10f, 142f Carpal tunnel, 215f Carpus (wrist), 143, 143f joint movement, 164f, 165f surface anatomy, 245–246, 245f, 246f Cartilage, 60, 61 elastic, 61, 66f, 67f, 67t fibrocartilage, 61, 67f, 67t hyaline, 61, 66f, 67f, 67t Cartilage plates, 533f Cartilage rings, 533f Cartilaginous joints, 160, 160f Casts, 618t Catabolization, 587, 588 Cauda equina, 268, 269f Caudal (directional term), 4t Caudate nucleus, 305f CBC (complete blood count), 417, 417f C cells, 392, 393f Cecum, 560f, 567, 569f Celiac ganglia, 332 Celiac trunk, 484, 484f, 485f, 485t Cells: cell specialization, 33–34, 34f cell structures, 31, 32f, 33t somatic cell division, 35, 35f, 35t, 36f Cell body (soma), 73, 256, 257f Cell cycle, 35f Cell-mediated immunity, 516, 522f Cellularity, 51 Cementum, 571, 573f Central (Haversian) canal, 97, 98f, 99f Central canal (spinal cord), 270, 270f, 271f Central fovea, 364f, 366 Central nervous system (CNS), 254, 255f, 259f. See also Nervous system; Nervous tissue gray and white matter in, 261, 261f Central sulcus, 306, 306f Central vein, 577, 580 Centrioles (centrosomes), 32f, 33t Cephalic: anatomical term, 2t directional term, 4t Cephalic veins, 244, 244f, 246, 246f, 490, 490f, 491t Cerebellum, 298f, 301, 301f, 304f, 306f, 310 sheep brain, 314f Cerebral aqueduct, 310, 310f, 311f sheep brain, 314f Cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis), 480, 480t, 481f

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INDEX

Cerebral cortex, 301, 301f, 308f, 309f functional areas, 297, 297f, 307, 307f gray matter in, 301f, 304, 305f in nervous system, 266f Cerebral hemispheres, 301f, 304, 310, 311f sheep brain, 313f Cerebral peduncles, 299, 299f–301f sheep brain, 313f Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 254, 267, 310, 311f Cerebrum, 297, 298f cerebral cortex functional areas, 307, 307f gray and white matter in, 304, 304f, 305f sheep brain, 314f surface features, 306, 306f Ceruminous glands, 86 Cervical (term), 2t Cervical canal, 644, 645f Cervical enlargement, 268, 269f Cervical nerves, 280, 280f Cervical plexus, 280, 280f, 281, 281f, 281t Cervical region (vertebral column), 120, 121f, 123f, 269f, 275f compared to thoracic and lumbar, 122–123, 124f–126f joint movement, 164f Cervical spinal nerves, 281, 281f Cervix, 644, 644f–646f Cheeks, 563, 564f, 565f wet mount of cells, 28, 28f Chemical digestion, 587–588 Chemical synapse, 262 Chest: anterior view, 239f body region, 1 surface anatomy, 238, 239f Chicken, leg tissue of, 74 Chief (zymogenic) cells, 577, 578f Chondroblasts, 60, 61 Chondrocytes, 60, 61 Chordae tendineae, 434, 435f sheep heart, 444f Chorion, 662, 665f Chorionic villi, 664, 664f Choroid, 360, 360f Choroid plexus, 305f, 310, 310f, 311f Chromatin, 33t Cilia, 33t, 536 Ciliary body, 360, 360f Ciliary ganglia, 334, 334f Ciliary muscle, 360, 360f Ciliary processes, 360, 360f Ciliated columnar epithelium, 642 Circle of Willis, 480, 480t, 481f Circular folds (small intestine), 567 Circumcision, 631 Circumduction, 163t, 165f Circumflex branch, 438, 438f, 439f Cisterna chyli, 506, 507f, 508f, 511f Clavicle (collarbone), 129f, 138, 139f, 207f anterior and posterior views, 10f surface anatomy, 237f, 242, 242f Clavicular notch, 129f Cleavage, 660 Cleft palette, 18 Clitoris, 646, 646f, 647f CNS, see Central nervous system Coccygeal spinal nerves, 269f, 280, 280f

Coccyx, 120, 121f, 247, 247f Cochlea, 370, 370f, 371, 371f Cochlear branch, 370, 370f Cochlear duct, 370, 370f, 371, 371f Co-dominance in monohybrid crosses, 677–678, 677f, 678f Cold receptors, 344f, 345t Collagen, 100 Collagen fibers, 60 Collarbone, see Clavicle Collateral ganglia, 332, 333f Collecting ducts, 600, 601f, 604, 616 Colloid, 392, 393f Colon, see Large intestine Colonoscopy, 568 Color blindness: inheritance of, 679f red-green, 368, 368f Columnar epithelial cells, 52, 52f, 56f simple, 52, 56f stratified, 52 Commissural fibers, 304, 304f Common bile duct, 574, 575f, 576f Common carotid artery, 236, 236f–237f, 479f, 514f Common fibular (peroneal) nerve, 282, 282f, 282t Common hepatic artery, 485f, 485t Common hepatic duct, 574 Common iliac arteries, 241, 486t Common iliac veins, 491, 492f, 493t Communicating artery, 480, 480t, 481f Compact bone, 61, 68f, 68t, 97, 98f–99f Complete blood count (CBC), 417, 417f Compound light microscope: magnification in, 24 measuring field of view, 26–27 observation of organs, 27 parts of, 24, 25f transport and storage of, 23, 28 using, 25–26 wet mount of cheek cells, 28, 28f Concentration gradient, 41, 43 Concentric isotonic contractions, 191 Concentric lamellae, 97, 98f, 99f Conduction deafness, 373 Conduction (Purkinje) fibers, 450, 450f Condylar processes, 113, 115f, 234 Condyles, 113t, 138t Condyloid joint, 167f Cones, 366 Conjunctiva, 358, 358f Connecting (body) stalk, 662, 664f Connective tissue, 51, 60 blood, 60, 61, 69f, 69t bone, 60, 61, 68f, 68t cartilage, 60, 61, 66f, 67f, 67t dense, 60–61, 64f, 65t loose, 60, 60f, 62f, 63f, 63t Contraction of muscles, 185–192, 187t, 192f Contralateral (directional term), 4t Contralateral reflexes, 288 Conus medullaris, 268, 269f Convoluted tubules, 600, 601f, 604, 605f, 615, 616 Cornea, 360, 360f Corniculate cartilage, 530, 531f Coronal plane, 5 Coronal sutures, 106, 107f, 108f

Corona radiata, 660, 661f Coronary artery, 432, 432f, 433f, 438, 438f, 439f, 454f, 478, 478f, 479t Coronary sinus, 432, 433f, 438, 439f, 488, 488f, 488t Coronary sulcus, 430, 430f, 431f Coronary veins, 432, 432f, 433f Coronoid fossa of humerus, 140, 141f, 142f Coronoid process of humerus, 141f Coronoid process of ulna, 140, 142f Corpora cavernosa (penis), 629f, 631, 632f Corpora quadrigemina, 299, 299f Corpus albicans, 651, 651f Corpus callosum, 298f, 304, 304f, 305f sheep brain, 314f Corpuscles of touch (Meissner’s corpuscles), 87f, 344f, 345t, 347f Corpus luteum, 651, 651f Corpus spongiosum (penis), 629f, 631, 632f Cortex: of hair, 86 of lymph nodes, 512 of ovary, 651 of thymus, 514f Cortical bone, see Compact bone Cortical nephrons, 600, 601f Cortisol, 394, 398t Costal (rib) cartilages, 128, 129f Costal margin, 238, 239f Covering and lining epithelia, 52 Cow eye, 362f Cowper’s glands, 630, 630f–632f Coxal (term), 2t Coxal (hip) joint, 144, 147, 160 joint movement, 164f, 165f Cranial (term), 2t Cranial bones, 105, 106, 107f–110f, 116f, 117f, 308, 309f Cranial fossae, 308, 309f Cranial meninges, 308, 308f, 309f Cranial nerves: markings of, 112–113, 114f, 115f naming and location of, 321–322, 322t, 323f–324f testing functions of, 325, 325t, 326, 326t Cranial portion, of skull, 10f Cranial reflexes, 287 Craniosacral division, 334 Creatinine, 617 Cremaster muscle, 625–626, 627f Crenation, 44 Crest, 138t Cribriform plates, 113, 117f, 375, 375f Cricoid cartilage, 236, 236f–237f, 530, 530f, 531f Cricothyroid, 204f Crista (inner ear), 372, 372f Crista galli, 113, 117f, 118f Cromatin, 32f Crossbridges (myosin molecules), 176 Crossed extensor reflex, 295f Cross-sections of body plane, 5, 5f Crown, of tooth, 571, 573f Cruciate ligaments, 162, 162f Crural (term), 2t Crypts of Lieberkühn, 577, 579f CSF, see Cerebrospinal fluid

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INDEX Cubital fossa, 243, 244, 244f Cuboidal epithelial cells, 52, 52f simple, 52, 55f stratified, 52 Cuneiform cartilage, 150f, 531f Cupula, 372, 372f Curvature: of stomach, 566, 566f of vertebrae, 128, 128f Cutaneous mechanorectors (Merkel discs), 344t, 345t Cutaneous membrane, 83 Cuticle: of hair, 86 of nail, 89, 89f Cystic duct, 574, 575f, 576f, 580 Cytokinesis, 35, 35t, 36f Cytoplasm, 32f, 33t Cytoskeleton (of cell), 32f, 33t Cytosol, 31, 33t Cytotoxic T cells, 516, 522f D Dactyloscopy, 89 Dartos muscle, 625, 627f Decidua, 662 Deciduas basalis, 662, 664, 665f Deciduous (primary) teeth, 571 Deep (directional term), 4t Deep artery, penis, 632f Deep dorsal vein, penis, 632f Deep inguinal ring, 628, 628f Deep palmar arch, 482, 483t Defecation, 559 Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), 394 Deltoid muscles, 206t, 207f, 208t, 209f, 242, 242f, 243f Deltoid tuberosity of humerus, 140, 141f Demifacets, 123, 125f, 128 Dendrites, 73, 256, 257f, 258f Dens, 123, 123f, 124f Dense connective tissue, 60 elastic, 61, 65f, 65t irregular, 60–61, 64f, 65t regular, 60, 64f, 65t Denticulate ligaments, 267, 268f, 272f Dentin, 571, 573f Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 673 Depolarization, atrial and ventricular, 451 Depression (joint movement), 163t, 166f Depressor anguli oris, 199f Depressor labii inferioris, 199f, 235f Dermal papillae, 84, 85f Dermis, 83, 84, 85f Descending aorta, 394f, 432, 432f, 433f, 484, 484f, 485f, 485t Descending colon, 560f, 563f, 567, 568f, 569f Descending limb (loop of Henle), 600, 601f, 604, 605f, 615 Detrusor muscle, 598, 598f DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone), 394 Dialysis membrane, diffusion across, 43–44, 43f Diaphragm, 14f, 16, 205, 206t, 394f, 396f, 508f, 514f, 560f heart and, 440, 440f lung volume and, 544, 544t, 545f surface anatomy and, 238

Diaphysis, 96, 96f Diastole, 455 Diastolic blood pressure, 466 Diencephalon, 297, 298f, 302, 302f–303f epithalamus, 298f, 302, 302f–303f hypothalamus, 298f, 302, 302f–303f, 305f pineal gland, 298f, 302, 302f–303f thalamus, 298f, 302, 302f–303f, 305f Differential WBC count, 418, 419t Diffusion: across dialysis membrane, 43–44, 43f as passive process, 41–42, 42f Digastric anterior belly, 202t, 204f Digastric posterior belly, 202t, 204f Digestion, 587 bile emulsification, 590 chemical, 587–590 mechanical, 587 Digestive system, 14f accessory digestive organs, 559, 560f, 571–572, 572f, 573f, 574, 575f, 576f of animals, 580 chemical digestion, 559, 587–588 gastrointestinal tract and peritoneum layers, 561, 561f–563f gastrointestinal tract organs, 559, 560f, 563–565, 564f–566f, 567, 568f, 569f histology of, 577, 578f–580f, 580 intestinal section through thorax, 12f length of GI tract and transit time, 570–571, 570t mechanical digestion, 559, 587 overview of, 559, 560f Digital (term), 2t Dihybrid cross, 674 Dimples, inheritance of, 675f Diploid state, 674 Directional terms, 4, 4t, 17 Disaccharides, 588 Distal (directional term), 4t DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 673 Dominant (term), 674 Dorsal: anatomical term, 2t directional term, 4t Dorsal artery: of foot, 486, 486t, 487f of penis, 632f Dorsal gray horns, 270, 271f Dorsal interossei, 215f Dorsalis pedis, 486, 486t, 487f Dorsal ramus, 278, 279f Dorsal root, 270, 270f, 271f, 277 Dorsal root ganglion, 270, 270f, 271f Dorsal venous arch, 246, 246f, 252, 252f Dorsiflexion, 163t, 166f Ductus arteriosus, 432, 496, 496t, 497f Ductus deferens (vas deferens), 628, 628f–630f Ductus venosus, 496, 496t, 497f Duodenal (Brunner’s) glands, 577, 579f Duodenal papilla, 576f Duodenum, 396f, 563f, 566f, 567, 568f Dural sinuses, 308 Dura mater, 267, 268f, 269f, 272f, 308, 308f, 309f Dynamic equilibrium receptors, 373

725

E Ear: anatomy of, 369, 369f, 370 auditory and equilibrium tests, 373, 373t cochlea, 371, 371f equilibrium receptors, 372, 372f ossicles of, 105 spiral organ of Corti, 371, 371f Eccentric isotonic contractions, 191 Eccrine glands, 86, 87f, 88t ECG (electrocardiogram), 451, 451f–453f, 452 Ectoderm, 662 Effectors, 277, 288, 289f Efferent arteriole, 600, 601f, 602f Efferent lymphatic vessels, 512, 512f, 515, 515f Efferent neurons, see Motor neurons Efferent vessels, 512, 512f Ejaculatory duct, 628, 628f–630f Elastic arteries, 461–462 Elastic cartilage, 61, 66f, 67f, 67t Elastic dense connective tissue, 61, 65f, 65t Elastin fibers, 60 Elbow, 171f joint movement, 164f surface anatomy, 243–244, 243f Electrical conduction system of heart, 450, 450f Electrical excitation, of muscle fiber, 186 Electrocardiogram (ECG), 451, 451f–453f, 452 Electrolytes, 617 Elevation (joint movement), 163t, 166f Embryonic membrane, 662, 663f Embryonic period, of development, 659–662, 661f, 663f–665f, 664. See also Fetuses/newborns Emmetropic vision, 366 Emphysema, 533 Emulsification, 590 Enamel, 571, 573f Encapsulated nerve endings, 343 Endocardium, 440, 440f Endocrine system, 14f, 389, 390f adrenal glands, 389, 390f, 394, 394f–395f, 398t–399t of animals, 399 and hormone functions, 398, 398t–399t, 399 hypothalamus, 389, 390, 390f, 391t, 406f ovaries, 389, 390f, 397, 399t pancreas, 389, 390f, 396, 396f–397f, 399t parathyroid glands, 389, 390f, 392, 392f–393f, 398t pineal gland, 389, 390f, 397, 399t pituitary gland, 389, 390, 390f, 391f, 398t testes, 389, 390f, 397, 399t thymus, 389, 390f, 397, 399t thyroid gland, 389, 390f, 392, 392f–393f, 398t Endoderm, 662 Endolymph, 370, 370f Endometrial (uterine) glands, 653, 653f Endometrium, 644, 645f, 653f, 663f Endomysium, 173, 174f, 175f Endoneurium, 277, 278f Endosteum, 96, 96f Enzymes, 588 Eosinophils, 410, 411t, 412, 413f, 419t Ependymal cells, 255, 255f Epicardium, 440, 440f Epicondyle, 138t

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INDEX

Epicranial aponeurosis, 199f Epidermal ridges, 84, 85f Epidermis, 83, 84, 85f Epididymis, 626, 628, 628f, 629f Epidural space, 267, 268f Epigastric region, 17 Epiglottis, 377f, 530, 530f, 531f Epimysium, 173, 174f Epinephrine, 394, 399 Epineurium, 277, 278f Epiphyses, 96, 96f, 99f Epiphyseal line, 96, 96f Epiphyseal plate, 96 Epiploic appendages, 567, 569f Epithalamus, 298f, 302, 302f–303f Epithelial tissue, 51–52 columnar cells, 52, 52f, 56f covering/lining, 52 cuboidal cells, 52, 52f, 55f glandular, 52 pseudostratified columnar epithelia, 33, 34f, 52, 59f respiratory system, 536, 536t, 537f simple epithelia, 52, 54f–56f squamous cells, 52, 52f, 54f stratified epithelia, 52, 56f, 58f transitional cells, 52, 58f Eponychium (cuticle) of nail, 89, 89f Equilibrium: receptors, 372, 372f tests of, 373, 373t Erector spinae, 205, 210f, 210t, 240, 240f ERV, see Expiratory reserve volume Erythrocytes, see Red blood cells (RBCs) Esophagus, 14f, 560f, 565, 565f, 566f, 578f Estrogen, 397, 642 Ethmoidal sinus, 118, 118f, 527f Ethmoid bone, 106, 107f, 110f, 111f, 112, 112f, 113, 114f, 115f Eustachian tube, 369, 369f, 528, 529f Eversion (joint movement), 163t, 166f Excitation-contraction coupling, 186 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV), 494, 494t Extension, 163t, 164f Extensor carpi radialis brevis, 211, 216t, 217f Extensor carpi radialis longus, 211, 216t, 217f Extensor carpi ulnaris, 211, 216t, 217f Extensor digiti minimi, 217f Extensor digitorum, 211, 216t, 217f, 246, 246f, 252, 252f Extensor digitorum longus, 222, 222t, 223f, 224f Extensor digitorum minimi, 211, 216t Extensor hallucis longus, 252, 252f Extensor pollicis brevis, 217f Extensor pollicis longus, 216t, 217f Extensor retinaculum, 217f External anal sphincter, 567, 569f, 646f External auditory canal, 369, 369f External auditory meatus, 107f, 112, 115f External carotid artery, 116f, 480, 480t, 481f External ear, 369, 369f External elastic lamina, 462, 463f External iliac artery, 486, 486t, 487f External iliac vein, 491, 492f, 493t, 494, 494f External intercostal muscles, 205, 206t, 207f, 208f, 544, 544t, 545f

External jugular veins, 236, 237f, 489, 489f, 489t External nares, 526, 527f External oblique, 206t, 207f–209f, 241, 241f, 544, 544t, 545f External occipital protuberance, 234, 234f–235f External os, 644, 645f External respiration, 543 External urethral orifice, 598, 599f, 628, 629f, 631 External urethral sphincter, 598, 599f Extracellular matrix, 60 Extrinsic eye muscles, 358, 359f Eye and vision: accessory eye structures, 358, 358f cow eye, 362f eyeball structure, 358–359, 360f, 361f, 364f inheritance of color blindness, 679f orbit of, 106, 112, 112f pupillary light reflex, 335 retinal anatomy, 365f, 366, 385f visual acuity tests, 366–367, 366f, 367f visual fields, 386f F Facets, 122, 122f, 123 Facial (term), 2t Facial bones, 105, 106, 107f, 109f, 111f, 112f, 116f markings of, 113, 114f, 115f Facial muscles, 198, 198t, 199f–201f expressions and, 198, 199f Facial nerves: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f, 334f Facial portion of skull, 10f Falciform ligament, 561, 574, 575f, 576f Fallopian (uterine) tubes, 641–642, 643f, 646f False ribs, 128 Falx cerebelli, 308 Falx cerebri, 308, 308f, 309f Fascicles, 173, 174f, 175f, 277, 278f Fast glycolytic (FG) muscle fibers, 188, 189f Fast oxidative-glycolytic (FOG) muscle fibers, 188, 189f Fatty acids, 588 Fauces, 563, 564f, 565f Female pelvis, 144, 146f Female reproductive system: external genitalia, 646, 646f–647f histology of, 651, 651f–653f mammary glands, 648, 648f oogenesis, 650, 650f ovaries and uterine tubes, 641–642, 643f, 649f overview, 646f, 647f, 649, 649f uterus, 643f–645f, 644, 649f vagina, 644, 644f, 645f Female urinary system, 596f, 598, 598f, 599f Femoral artery, 486, 486t, 487f, 513f Femoral nerve, 282, 282f, 282t Femoral triangle, 248, 248f Femoral veins, 494, 494f, 495t Femur (thigh bone), 147, 148f, 149f, 151t, 250, 250f anterior and posterior views, 10f longitudinally sectioned, 99f

Fenestrations (capillary), 464, 465f Fertilization, 659, 660 Fetuses and newborns: blood circulation of, 496, 496f, 497f development period of, 659, 666, 666f–668f ductus arteriosus, 432 foramen ovale, 434, 496, 497f hemolytic disease of, 414 intermediate pituitary lobe, 390 skull, 106, 119, 119f vertebral column curves, 120f FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1 second), 551, 551t FG muscle fibers, see Fast glycolytic muscle fibers Fibroblasts, 60 Fibrocartilage, 61, 67f, 67t Fibrous capsule, 161, 161f Fibrous joint, 160, 160f Fibrous pericardium, 440, 440f Fibrous tunic, 360, 360f Fibula (leg bone), 147, 148f, 149f anterior and posterior views, 10f Fibular (term), 2t Fibular (peroneal) arteries, 486, 486t, 487f Fibularis (peroneus) brevis, 223, 224f Fibularis (peroneus) longus, 222, 223f, 223t, 224f, 251, 251f Fibular (peroneal) veins, 494, 494f, 495t Filiform papillae (tongue), 376, 377f Filtrate, 614 Filtration, 613 Filtration membrane, 614 Filum terminale, 268, 269f Fimbriae, 642, 643f, 646f Fingerprints, 89–90, 90f First polar body, 650, 650f Fissure (term), 113t Fixed macrophages, 577 Flagella, 32f, 33t Flat bones, 95 Flexion, 163t, 164f Flexor carpi radialis, 211, 214t, 215f, 245, 245f Flexor carpi ulnaris, 211, 214t, 215f, 245, 245f Flexor digiti minimi brevis, 215f Flexor digitorum longus, 222, 222t, 223f, 224f Flexor digitorum profundus, 215f Flexor digitorum superficialis, 211, 214t, 215f, 245, 245f Flexor hallucis longus, 222t, 224f Flexor pollicis brevis, 215f Flexor pollicis longus, 214t, 215f Flexor reflex, 295f Floating ribs, 128, 129f FOG muscle fibers, see Fast oxidativeglycolytic muscle fibers Folia, 301, 301f Foliate papillae, 376, 377f Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 390, 398t Follicular cells, 392, 393f Follicular fluid, 652f Fontanels, 106, 119, 119f Foot: dorsal surface, 252, 252f joint movement, 166f skeletal muscles of, 222, 222t, 223f–224f surface anatomy of, 252, 252f

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INDEX Foramen, 113t, 138t cranial nerves, 352t transverse, 123, 124f, 275f vertebral, 122, 122f, 123 Foramen lacerum, 112, 116f, 117f Foramen magnum, 113, 116f, 117f Foramen ovale, 113, 116f, 117f, 324f, 434, 496, 497f Foramina rotundum, 113, 117f, 324f Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), 551, 551t Forced vital capacity (FVC), 551, 551t Forearm (body region), 1 Formed elements, blood, 410, 410f Fornix, 298f, 304, 305f sheep brain, 314f of vagina, 646f Fossa, 113t, 138t Fossa ovalis, 434, 497f Fourth ventricle, 310, 310f, 311f sheep brain, 314f FRC, see Functional residual capacity Free edge, of nail, 89, 89f Free nerve ending, 343 Frog: arteriole, 462f gastrocnemius muscle, 192f Frontal (term), 2t Frontal bone, 106, 107f, 108f, 110f–112f, 112, 114f, 115f Frontalis, 198, 199f, 200f, 234, 234f–235f Frontal lobe, 306, 306f sheep brain, 313f Frontal plane, 6f Frontal section, 5 Frontal sinus, 118, 118f, 527f Front plane, 5, 5f FSH, see Follicle-stimulating hormone Functional residual capacity (FRC), 494, 494t Fundus: of stomach, 565, 566f of uterus, 644, 645f, 646f Fungiform papillae, 376, 377f Fused tetanus, 190 FVC, see Forced vital capacity G Gallbladder, 238, 241, 396f, 560f, 563f, 574, 575f, 576f, 580 Gametes, 625 Ganglia: basal, 304, 305f dorsal root, 270, 271f prevertebral, 332, 333f submandibular, 334, 334f sympathetic, 279f, 378 sympathetic trunk, 278, 279f, 332, 333f terminal, 334, 334f Ganglion cell layer, 365f, 366 Gastric artery, 484f, 485f, 485t Gastric glands, 577, 578f Gastric lipase, 588 Gastric pits, 577, 578f Gastric veins, 493f Gastrocnemius muscle, 222, 222t, 223f, 224f, 252, 252f frog, 192f

Gastrointestinal (GI) tract, 559. See also specific organs layers of, 561, 561f–563f organs of, 559, 560f, 563–565, 564f–566f, 567, 568f, 569f transit time and length of, 570–571, 570t Gender, determining with femur, 151t General senses, see Sensory receptors Genetics, see Heredity Genome, 673 Genotype, 674 Germinal epithelium, 651 Gingiva, 563, 564f, 565f, 571, 573f GI tract, see Gastrointestinal tract Glandular epithelia, 52 Glans (penis), 629f, 631, 632f Glaucoma, 361 Glenoid cavity, 138, 139f Gliding joint movement, 163t, 167t Globus pallidus, 305f Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule, 54f, 600, 601f, 604, 605f Glomerulus, 600, 601f, 605f Glossopharyngeal nerve: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f, 334f Glottis, 530, 531f Glucagon, 396, 399t Glucocorticoids, 394 Glucose, blood, 399 Glucosuria, 618t Gluteal (term), 2t Gluteal (natal) cleft, 247, 247f Gluteal tuberosity, 147, 148f Gluteus maximus muscle, 220f, 220t, 221f, 247, 247f, 269f Gluteus medius muscle, 220f, 220t, 221f, 247, 247f Gluteus minimus muscle, 220f, 221f Glycerination, 186 Glycerol, 588 Glycolysis, 188 Goblet cells: digestive system, 577, 579f respiratory system, 536 Golgi complex, 32f Gonadal arteries, 484, 484f, 485t Gonadal veins, 491, 492f, 493t Graafian follicle, 651, 651f Gracilis muscle, 218, 218t, 219f, 220f, 248, 248f Graded potential, 262 Granular cast, in urine, 620f Granular leukocytes, 410 Granulosa cells, 651, 652f Gray commissure, 270, 271f Gray matter, 261, 261f cerebrum, 304, 305f spinal column, 270 Gray rami communicantes, 332 Great cardiac vein, 438f Greater omentum, 560f, 561, 562f Greater sciatic notch, 144, 145f Greater trochanter, 147, 148f, 220f, 247, 247f Greater tubercle of humerus, 242, 242f Greater wings of sphenoid, 113, 117f Great saphenous veins, 494, 494f, 495t, 513f Groin (body region), 1

727

Ground substance, 60 Gustation, 376–377, 377f Gustatory hairs, 376, 377f Gustatory receptor cell, 376, 377f Gyrus, 306, 306f sheep brain, 313f H Hair, 86, 87f Hair bulb, 86 Hair bundle, ear, 371, 371f, 372, 372f Hair follicles, 86 Hair root plexuses, 344f, 345t Hamstring muscle group, 218, 220t Hand, 104f muscles that move, 214t, 215f, 216t, 217f surface anatomy, 245–246, 245f, 246f Haploid state, 674 Hard palate, 106, 116f, 118, 119f, 527, 527f, 563, 564f, 565f Haustra, 567, 569f Haversian (central) canal, 97, 98f, 99f hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), 662 Head: arteries of, 480, 480t, 481f MRI of, 22f skeletal muscles of, 198, 198t, 199f–202f, 200t, 202, 203f surface anatomy of, 234, 235f veins to, 489, 489f, 489t Head (term), 138t Heads (myosin molecules), 176 Hearing, tests of, 373–374, 373t Heart, 14f, 429. See also Cardiac cycle coronary circulation, 438, 439f great vessels of, 432, 432f, 433f internal features of, 434, 435f murmurs of, 454 pericardium and layers of heart wall, 440, 440f, 441f section through thorax, 12f sheep, 442, 442f–444f, 444 sounds of, 454–455 surface anatomy and, 238 surface features of, 430, 430f, 431f systemic and pulmonary circulations, 436, 437f valves of, 454–455, 454f veins to, 488, 488f, 488t Height, determining with femur, 151t Helix, 369, 369f Helper T cells, 516, 522f Hematuria, 618t Hemiazygos vein, 491, 492f, 492t Hemocrit, 420, 420f Hemoglobin, 410, 620f Hemolysis, 44 Hemolytic disease of the newborn, 414 Hepatic artery, 577, 580, 580f Hepatic ducts, 574, 575f, 576f, 580, 580f Hepatic portal circulation, 491, 492f, 493t Hepatic portal vein, 577, 580, 580f Hepatocytes, 577, 579f, 580, 580f Hepatopancreatic ampulla (sphincter of Oddi), 574, 575f, 576f Heredity, 673 co-dominance in monohybrid crosses, 677–678, 677f, 678f

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Heredity (Continued) genetic language, 673–674 incomplete dominance, 676, 676f monohybrid crosses and Punnett Square, 674–675, 675f sex-linked inheritance, 679, 679f Herniated disc, 126f Heterozygous trait, 674 hGH, see Human growth hormone Hilus: lung, 534, 535f lymph node, 512, 512f renal, 595, 597f spleen, 515 Hinge, 167t Hips: bones of, see Pelvic girdle coxal joint, 144, 147, 160 joint movement, 164f, 165f Homeostasis, 13, 476f Homologous chromosomes, 673 Homozygous trait, 674 Hormones, 390, 392, 398t, 616, 616f and blood pressure, 476f Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 662 Human development: embryonic period, 659–662, 661f, 663f–665f, 664 fetal period, 666, 666f–668f Human gene pool, 673 Human growth hormone (hGH), 390, 398t Humerus, 140, 141f, 142f, 243, 244f Hyaline cartilage, 61, 66f, 67f, 67t Hyaline cast, in urine, 620f Hymen, 646, 647f Hyoid bone, 120, 204f muscles that move, 198, 202t, 204f surface anatomy, 236, 236f–237f Hyperextension, 163t, 164f Hyperopic vision, 366 Hypertonic (term), 44 Hypodermis, 83, 85f Hypogastric (pubic) region, 17 Hypoglossal canal, 324f Hypoglossal foramina, 113, 116f, 117f Hypoglossal nerve: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f Hyponychium, of nail, 89, 89f Hypophysis, see Pituitary gland Hypothalamus, 298f, 302, 302f–303f, 305f, 389, 390, 390f, 391t, 406f Hypothenar eminence, 245, 245f Hypotonic (term), 44 H zone, 178, 178f I I bands, 178, 178f IC, see Inspiratory capacity Ileocecal sphincter, 567, 569f Ileum, 560f, 563f, 567, 568f, 569f Iliac arteries, 484, 484f, 485t, 487f Iliac crest, 241, 241f, 247, 247f Iliac fossa, 144, 145f Iliac lymph nodes, 511f Iliac region, 17 Iliacus, 218t, 219f

Iliac veins, 491, 492f, 493t Iliocostalis lumborum, 210f Iliocostalis thoracis, 210f Iliopsoas, 218t, 219f Iliotibial tract, 219f, 220f Immune cells, 516, 516f, 517f, 522f Implantation of blastocyst, 662, 663f Incisors, 571, 573f Incomplete dominance, 676, 676f Incus, 369, 369f Inferior colliculi, 299, 299f, 301f sheep brain, 314f Inferior mesenteric artery, 484, 484f, 485t Inferior mesenteric vein, 491, 493f, 493t Inferior nasal conchae, 106, 107f, 111f, 114f, 526, 527, 527f Inferior nasal meatus, 526, 527, 527f Inferior oblique eye muscle, 359f Inferior orbital fissure, 114f Inferior rectus eye muscle, 358, 359f Inferior vena cava, 394f, 432, 432f, 433f, 439f, 488, 488f, 488t, 491, 492f, 580f Infraorbital foramen, 107f Infraspinatus muscle, 205, 208t, 209f, 240, 240f Infundibulum, 298f, 302, 303f, 390, 391f sheep brain, 313f uterine tube, 642 Inguinal (term), 2t Inguinal canals, 628, 628f Inguinal ligament, 207f, 219f, 513f Inguinal lymph nodes, 511f Inguinal ring, 207f, 628, 628f Inner cell mass, 660 Insertion point of muscle, 197 Inspiratory capacity (IC), 494, 494t Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), 494, 548t Insula, 305f, 306, 306f Insulin, 396, 399t Integrating center, 288, 289f Integument, 83 Integumentary system, 14f, 83, 89f fingerprints, 89–90, 90f hair and hair follicles, 86, 87f nails, 89, 89f skin, 83–89, 85f sudoriferous and sebaceous glands, 86, 87f Interatrial septum, 434 Intercalated discs, 440 Intercellular (capillary) clefts, 464, 465f Intercondylar fossa, 147, 148f Interior (directional term), 4t Interior mesenteric ganglia, 332 Interior orbital fissures, 113 Interior triangle, 198 Intermediate (directional term), 4t Intermediate mass of thalamus, 303f Internal anal sphincter, 567, 569f Internal auditory meatus, 112, 117f, 324f Internal capsule, 304, 305f Internal carotid arteries, 480, 480t, 481f Internal elastic lamina, 461–462, 463f Internal iliac artery, 486, 486t, 487f Internal iliac veins, 491, 492f, 493t Internal intercostal muscles, 205, 206t, 207f, 208f, 544, 544t, 545f Internal jugular vein, 236, 237f, 489, 489f, 489t

Internal nares, 527, 527f Internal oblique muscles, 206t, 207f, 208f, 544, 544t, 545f Internal os, 644, 645f Internal respiration, 543 Internal sphincter, 567 Internal urethral orifice, 598, 598f Internal urethral sphincter, 598, 599f Interneurons (association neurons), 258, 259f, 266f, 346, 347f Interosseous membrane, 142f Interphase, in somatic cell division, 35, 35f, 35t, 36f Interstitial endocrinocytes, 634 Interstitial fluid, 505, 506f Interstitial lamellae, 97, 98f Interstitial spaces, 634, 636f Intertubercular sulcus of humerus, 140, 141f Interventricular foramen, 310, 311f Interventricular septum, 434, 435f sheep heart, 444f Intervertebral discs, 121f, 123, 126f Intervertebral foramina, 277, 279f Intervillus spaces, 664, 664f, 665f Intestines, see Large intestine; Small intestine Intramural ganglia, 334, 334f Intraorbital foramen, 115f Intrapleural pressure, 546 Intrinsic stimulation (heart), 450 Intrinsic tongue muscles, 571 Inversion, 163t, 166f Ipsilateral (directional term), 4t Ipsilateral reflex arc, 288 Irregular bones, 95 Irregular dense connective tissue, 60–61, 64f, 65t IRV, see Inspiratory reserve volume Ischial spine, 144, 145f Ischial tuberosity, 144, 145f, 247, 247f Ischium, 144, 145f Islets of Langerhans, 396, 397f, 577, 579f Isometric contractions, 191 Isotonic contractions, 191 Isotonic solutions, 44 Isthmus of uterine tube, 642, 643f J Jejunum, 560f, 563f, 567, 568f, 575f Joints. See also Synovial joints structural classification of, 159–160, 160f Jugular foramen, 112, 116f, 117f, 324f Jugular (suprasternal) notch, 128, 129f, 236, 236f–237f, 239f Jugular veins, 489, 489f, 489t, 511f Juxtamedullary nephrons, 600, 601f K Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, 84 Keratinocytes, 84 Ketonuria, 618t Kidneys, 14f, 595–596, 596f, 597f, 602, 602f blood flow through, 602, 602f histology of, 604, 605f section through thorax, 12f Knee, 103f, 162, 162f joint movement, 164f patellar reflex, 289, 290f surface anatomy of, 250, 250f

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INDEX Knee cap, see Patella Korotkoff sounds, 466 Kupffer’s cells, 577 Kyphosis, 128, 128f L Labial frenulum, 563, 564f, 565f Labia majora and minora, 646, 646f, 647f Lachrymal bones, 106, 107f, 111f, 112, 112f, 113, 114f, 115f Lacrimal canals, 358, 358f Lacrimal fossa, 113, 115f Lacrimal gland, 358, 358f Lacrimal sac, 358, 358f Lacteal, 577 Lactiferous ducts, 648, 648f Lactiferous sinuses, 648 Lacunae, 61, 97, 98f, 99f, 664 LAD, see Left anterior descending branch Lamboid suture, 106, 107f, 108f, 110f Lamella, 61 Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscle, 87f Lamina of vertebrae, 122, 122f Lamina propria, 577, 578f, 579f Laminectomy, 123 Langerhans cells, 84 Large intestine, 14f, 560f, 567, 568f, 569f Laryngopharynx, 528, 529f, 536t, 564, 565f Larynx, 14f, 198, 526f, 530, 530f, 531f, 536t, 542f Latent period, in muscle contraction, 190 Lateral (directional term), 4t Lateral aperture, 310, 311f Lateral cerebral sulcus, 306, 306f Lateral collateral ligament, 162, 162f Lateral condyle: of femur, 147, 148f, 250, 250f of tibia, 149f, 250, 250f Lateral epicondyle: of femur, 147, 148f of humerus, 140, 141f, 244, 244f Lateral gray horns, 270, 271f Lateral malleolus of fibula, 149f, 251, 251f, 252f Lateral meniscus, 162f Lateral pterygoid, 201f Lateral rectus eye muscle, 358, 359f Lateral ventricles, 303f–305f, 310, 310f, 311f sheep brain, 314f Lateral white column (spinal cord), 270, 271f Latissimus dorsi muscle, 207f, 208t, 209f, 240, 240f Left anterior descending branch (LAD), 438, 438f, 439f Left colic (splenic) flexure, 567, 569f Left hypochondriac region, 17 Left inguinal region, 17 Left lower quadrant (LLQ), 17 Left lumbar region, 17 Left upper quadrant (LUQ), 17 Leg: body region, 1 chicken, 74 skeletal muscles of, 222, 222t, 223f–224f surface anatomy of, 251–252, 251f, 252f Lesser omentum, 561, 562f Lesser sciatic notch, 144, 145f Lesser trochanter, 147, 148f Lesser wing of sphenoid, 113, 117f

Leukocytes, see White blood cells (WBCs) Levator labii superioris, 199f Levator scapulae, 202t, 204f, 208t, 209f Leydig cells, 634, 635f, 636f LH, see Luteinizing hormone Lie detector test, 337f Ligamentum arteriosum, 432, 432f, 433f, 497f sheep heart, 442f Ligamentum teres, 497f Ligamentum venosum, 497f Line (term), 138t Linea alba, 207f, 241, 241f Linea aspera, 147, 148f Linea semilunaris, 241, 241f Lingual frenulum, 571, 572f, 573f Lingual lipase, 588 Lingual tonsil, 377f, 509, 509f, 528, 529f Lips, 563, 564f, 565f Lipids, 588 Liver, 14f, 238, 396f, 560f, 563f, 574, 575f, 576f histology of, 577, 579f, 580f section through thorax, 12f LLQ (left lower quadrant), 17 Lobar bronchi, 532, 532f, 533f Lobes, of lungs, 534, 534f, 535f Lobule, 369, 369f, 577 Long bones, 95, 96, 96f, 103f Longissimus capitis, 210f Longissimus cervicis, 210f Longissimus thoracis, 210f Longitudinal fissure, 306, 306f Longitudinal section, 5, 5f Loops, fingerprint pattern, 90, 90f Loop of Henle, 600, 601f, 604, 605f, 615 Loose connective tissue, 60, 63t adipose, 60, 63f, 63t areolar, 60, 60f, 62f, 63t reticular, 60, 63t Lordosis, 128, 128f Lower esophageal sphincter, 566f Lower limbs, 137, 147, 148f–151f, 151–152, 151t, 486, 486t. See also Foot; Leg anterior and posterior views, 10f arteries of, 486, 486t, 487f veins of, 494, 494f, 495t Lower limb (term), 2t Lumbar (term), 2t Lumbar arteries, 484 Lumbar enlargement, 268, 269f Lumbar nerves, 280, 280f Lumbar plexus, 280, 280f, 282, 282f, 282t Lumbar trunk, 511f Lumbar vertebral region, 120, 121f, 269f compared to cervical and thoracic, 123, 124f–126f Lungs, 12f, 14f, 514f, 526f, 533f–535f, 534, 537f. See also Pulmonary ventilation Lunula, of nail, 89, 89f LUQ (left upper quadrant), 17 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 390, 398t Lymphatic system, 14f, 505, 517f immune cells, 516, 516f, 517f lymph and lymphatic vessels, 505–506, 506f–508f, 511f, 513f lymph nodes, 509, 510f, 512, 512f, 513f organs and tissues of, 509, 509f, 510f

729

spleen, 509, 510f, 515, 515f, 517f thymus, 514, 514f Lymphocytes, 410, 411t, 412, 413f, 419t Lymph trunks, 506, 507f, 508f, 511f Lysosome, 32f, 33t M McBurney’s point, 241, 241f Macrophages, 516, 517f Maculae (ear), 372, 372f Macula lutea, 363f, 366 Magnification, calculating microscope’s, 24 Major calyces, 596, 597f Major duodenal papilla, 574, 575f, 576f Male pelvis, 144, 146f Male reproductive system, 625 accessory structures, 630, 630f–633f duct system, 628, 628f, 629f penis, 625, 629f, 631f, 632f scrotum, 625–626, 626f, 627f sperm, 625, 634, 636f testes, 625–626, 626f–629f, 634, 635f, 636f Male urinary system, 598, 599f Malleus, 369, 369f MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue), 509 Mammary (term), 2t Mammary glands, 86, 648, 648f Mammillary body, 302, 303f sheep brain, 313f, 314f Mandible, 106, 107f, 111f, 113, 114f, 115f Mandibular fossa, 112, 116f Manual (term), 2t Manubrium, 128, 129f, 238, 239f Marginal branch, 438, 438f, 439f Masseter muscle, 200f, 204f, 234, 234f–235f Mastication, 563, 587 Mastoid process, 107f, 112, 115f, 116f, 234, 234f–235f Matrix: of hair, 86 of nail, 89, 89f Maxillae, 106, 107f, 109f, 111f, 112, 112f, 113, 114f, 115f Maxillary sinus, 118, 118f, 527f Maximal force, 190 Maximal stimulus, 190 Meatus, 113t, 527, 527f Medial (directional term), 4t Medial collateral ligament, 162, 162f Medial condyle: of femur, 147, 148f of tibia, 250, 250f Medial epicondyle, 215f, 217f femur, 147, 148f humerus, 140, 141f, 243, 244f Medial malleolus of tibia, 149f, 251, 251f, 252f Medial meniscus, 162, 162f Medial pterygoid, 201f Medial rectus eye muscle, 358, 359f Median aperture, 310, 311f Median cubital veins, 244f, 490, 490f, 491t Median nerve, 281, 281f, 281t Mediastinum, 16, 430, 440, 440f, 535f Medulla: of hair, 86 of lymph node, 512

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Medulla: (Continued) of ovary, 651 of thymus, 514f Medulla oblongata, 280f, 298f–301f, 299 sheep brain, 313f, 314f Medullary cavity, 96, 96f, 99f Medullary sinuses, 512, 512f Megakaryocytes, 411 Meiosis, 634, 635f, 650, 650f Meissner’s corpuscles, 87f, 344f, 345t, 347f Melanocytes, 84 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 390, 398t Melatonin, 397, 399t Membranous labyrinth, 370, 370f Membranous urethra, 598, 599f, 628, 629f, 630f, 632f Memory B cells, 516, 522f Memory T cells, 522f Mendel, Gregor, 674 Meninges, 267 Meningeal branch, 279f Meningeal layer, 308, 309f Meniscus, 162, 162f Mental (term), 2t, 114f Mental protuberance, 234, 234f–235f Merkel cells, 84 Merkel discs, 344t, 345t Mesentery, 561, 562f Mesocolon, 561, 562f Mesoderm, 662 Mesothelium, 53f, 54f Metabolic end products, 617 Metacarpals, 10f, 165f Metacarpus, 143, 143f Metaphase, of mitosis, 35, 35t, 36f Metaphyses, 96, 96f, 99f Metatarsals, 10f Metatarsus, 150, 150f Microglia, 254, 255f Microscope, see Compound light microscope Microscopic anatomy, 536, 536t, 537f Microvilli, 32f, 33t, 255f, 567, 577, 579f Micturition, 598 Midbrain, 298f–300f, 299 Middle cerebral arteries, 480, 480t, 481f Middle cranial fossae, 308 Middle ear, 369, 369f Middle nasal conchae, 113, 114f, 527, 527f Middle nasal meatus, 527, 527f Middle scalene, 202t Midsagittal plane, 5, 5f, 6f Mineralcorticoids, 394 Mineral salts, 100 Minor calyces, 596, 597f Mitochondria, 32f, 33t, 257f Mitosis, 35, 35f, 35t, 36f Mitral valve, see Bicuspid valve Mixed nerves, 270, 277 M line, 178, 178f Molars, 571, 573f Monocytes, 410, 411t, 412, 413f, 419t Monohybrid crosses, 674, 675f, 677–678, 677f, 678f Monosaccharides, 588 Monosynaptic integrating center, 289 Monosynaptic reflex arc, 288

Mons pubis, 646, 647f Morula, 660, 661f Motor areas, of cerebral cortex, 307, 307f Motor axons, 277 Motor end plate, 179, 179f Motor (efferent) neurons, 33, 34f, 179, 179f, 258, 259f, 266f, 288, 289f Motor unit, 179, 179f, 190 Mouth, 560f, 563, 564f, 565f Movement, at synovial joints, 163, 163f–166f MSH, see Melanocyte-stimulating hormone Mucosa, 561, 561f, 577, 578f, 606, 606f Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), 509 Mucous neck cells, 577 Multipolar neurons, 73, 258, 259f Muscles, see specific muscles Muscle fatigue, 190 Muscle spindles, 289, 344t, 345f Muscle tissues, 51, 70, 70f–72f, 70t, 75f, 80f. See also Skeletal muscles location and function types of, 70f Muscular arteries, 462, 463f Muscularis, 561, 561f, 577, 578f, 606, 606f Muscular system, 14f Musculocutaneous nerve, 281, 281f, 281t Myelinated fibers, 260, 260f, 261f Myelin sheaths, 254, 255f, 257f, 260, 260f, 278f Mylohyoid, 202t, 204f Myocardium, 440, 440f Myofibrils, 176, 177f Myofilaments, 176, 177f Myograph, 191 Myometrium, 644, 644f, 645f, 653f Myopic vision, 366 Myosin molecules, 176 N Nails, 89, 89f Nasal (term), 2t Nasal bones, 106, 107f, 111f, 114f, 115f, 118f, 234, 234f–235f Nasal cartilage, 234 Nasal cavity, 536t Nasal concha, 527, 527f Nasal septum, 106, 118, 118f, 526, 527f Nasolacrimal duct, 358, 358f Nasopharynx, 528, 529f, 536t, 564, 565f Natal cleft, 247, 247f NE, see Norepinephrine Near point of vision, 366 Neck: arteries, 480, 480t, 481f MRI of, 22f skeletal muscles of, 198, 200t, 202t, 203f, 204f surface anatomy of, 236, 237f veins, 489, 489f, 489t Nephrons, 596, 600, 601f, 613–616, 616f Nerves, see specific nerves, e.g.: Spinal nerves Nervous system, 14f, 253–254, 266f. See also Central nervous system (CNS); Nervous tissue Nervous tissue, 51, 73, 73f, 75f, 80f, 253–254 gray and white matter, 261, 261f myelination of axons, 260, 260f, 261f neuroglia, 73, 254, 254t, 255f neurons, 73, 255f, 256, 257f, 258, 259f

structure of, 254, 255f–257f, 256 synapses, 262, 262f Neural portion of retina, 360, 365f Neuroglia, 73, 254, 254t, 255f Neurohypophysis, 390, 391f, 398t Neurolemma, 260, 260f Neuromuscular junction, 179, 179f, 266f Neurons, 73, 255f classification of, 258, 259f structure of, 256, 257f synapses of, 262, 262f Neuron cell body, 255f, 258f Neutrophils, 410, 411t, 412, 413f, 419t Newborns, see Fetuses and newborns Nipple, 648, 648f Nociceptors, 344f, 345t Node of Ranvier, 255f, 257f, 260, 260f Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli, 33, 34f Norepinephrine (NE), 394, 399t Normal sinus rhythm (NSR), 452 Nose, 375, 375f, 526–527, 526f, 527f NSR (normal sinus rhythm), 452 Nuclear membrane, 32f Nucleolus, 32f, 33t Nucleus, 32f, 33t, 258f Nucleus pulposus, 123 Nutrient artery, 96, 96f Nutrient foramen, 96, 96f Nystagmus, 373 O Oblique plane, 5, 5f Oblique vein, 439f Obturator externus, 219f Obturator foramen, 146f, 413f Obturator nerve, 282, 282f, 282t Occipital (term), 2t Occipital bone, 106, 107f–110f, 113, 115f Occipital condyles, 113, 116f, 123 Occipitalis, 198, 199f, 200f, 234, 234f–235f Occipital lobe, 306, 306f sheep brain, 313f, 314f Oculomotor nerve, 335 function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f, 334f Odontoid process, 123 Olecranal (term), 2t Olecranon fossa of humerus, 140, 141f, 142f Olecranons of ulna, 140, 141f, 142f, 243, 244f Olfaction, 375, 375f Olfactory bulb, 375, 375f sheep brain, 313f Olfactory epithelium, 375, 375f Olfactory foramina, 113, 117f, 324f Olfactory hairs, 375, 375f Olfactory nerves, 375, 375f function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f Olfactory tract, 375, 375f sheep brain, 313f Oligodendrocytes, 254, 255f, 260, 260f Omohyoid, 202t, 204f Oocytes, 641–642 Oogenesis, 650, 650f Oogonia, 650, 650f

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INDEX Opponens digiti minimi, 215f Optic chiasm, 302, 303f sheep brain, 313f, 314f Optic disc, 364f, 366 Optic foramina, 113, 117f, 324f Optic nerve, 364f function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f sheep brain, 313f Optic tract, 305f sheep brain, 313f Oral (term), 2t Oral cavity, 563, 564f, 565f Ora serrata, 360, 360f Orbicularis oculi, 198, 199f, 200f, 235f Orbicularis oris, 198, 199f, 201f, 235f Orbital (term), 2t Orbit of the eye, 106, 112, 112f Organelles, 36f Organ systems and body cavities: abdominopelvic regions and quadrants, 17, 17f body cavities, 16, 16f organ identification, 15, 22f organs and organ systems, 13, 14f of rats, 18 serous membranes, 18 Origin, of muscle, 197 Oropharynx, 528, 529f, 536t, 564, 565f Os coxae, 144, 145f Osmosis: across dialysis membrane, 43–44, 43f across plasma membrane, 44–46, 45f Osseous tissue, see Bones Osteoblasts, 60, 96, 96f Osteoclasts, 96, 96f Osteocytes, 60, 61, 97, 98f, 99f Osteons, 61, 98f Osteoporosis, 104f OT, see Oxytocin Otic (term), 2t Otic ganglia, 334, 334f Otoliths, 372, 372f Otolithic membrane, 372, 372f Oval window, of ear, 369, 369f Ovaries, 641–642, 643f, 646f arteries, 484 endocrine system, 389, 390f, 397, 399t histology of, 651, 652f ligaments, 642, 643f Oviducts, see Uterine (fallopian) tubes Ovulation, 641–642 Ovum, 650, 650f, 660 Oxyphil cells, 392 Oxytocin (OT), 390, 398t P Pacinian corpuscle, 87f Pain: receptors of, 344f, 345t referred, 352 Palatine bones, 106, 107f, 109f, 116f, 118, 119f Palatine process, 113, 116f, 118, 119f Palatine tonsil, 377f, 509, 509f, 517f, 528, 529f, 563, 564f Palmar (term), 2t Palmaris longus, 214t

Palmaris longus tendon, 211, 215f, 245, 245f Palpabrae, 358, 358f Palpation, 233 Palpebral conjunctiva, 358, 358f Pancreas, 14f, 389, 390f, 396, 396f–397f, 399t, 560f, 574, 575f, 576f histology of, 577, 579f Pancreatic amylase, 588 Pancreatic duct, 396, 396f, 574, 575f, 576f Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), 396, 397f, 577, 579f Pancreatic lipase, 588 Papillae: of hair, 86 of tongue, 376, 377f, 571 Papillary ducts, 596, 600, 601f Papillary muscle, 434, 435f sheep heart, 444f Papillary region, of dermis, 84, 85f Parafollicular cells (C cells), 392, 393f Paranasal sinuses, 106, 118, 118f, 536t Parasagittal plane, 5, 5f Parasympathetic motor division, 331, 334, 334f Parathyroid glands, 389, 390f, 392, 392f–393f, 398t Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 392, 398t Parietal bones, 106, 107f–111f, 114f, 115f, 309f Parietal cell, 577, 578f Parietal layer, of serous pericardium, 18, 440, 440f, 514f Parietal lobe, 306, 306f sheep brain, 313f Parietal peritoneum, 561, 562f Parietal pleura, 534, 535f Parieto-occipital sulcus, 306, 306f Parotid ducts, 571, 572f Parotid glands, 571, 572f Passive processes, 41 Patella, 147, 149f, 250, 250f anterior and posterior views, 10f Patellar (term), 2t Patellar ligament, 250, 250f Patellar reflex (knee jerk), 289, 290f Pectinate muscles, 434 Pectineus, 218, 218t, 219f Pectoral girdle, 137, 138, 139f anterior and posterior views, 10f Pectoralis major muscle, 206t, 207f, 238, 239f Pectoralis minor muscle, 206t, 207f, 544, 544t, 545f Pedal (term), 2t Pedicle, 124f, 126f vertebrae, 122, 122f Pedocytes, 604 Pelvic (term), 2t Pelvic arteries, 486, 486t, 487f Pelvic bone, 17f Pelvic cavity, 16 Pelvic (hip) girdle, 137, 144, 145f anterior and posterior views, 10f Pelvic splanchnic nerves, 334 Pelvis, 144, 146f arteries of, 486, 486t, 487f body region, 1 radiograph of, 22f veins of, 491, 492f, 493t Penis, 625, 629f, 631f, 632f

731

Pepsin, 588 Pepsinogen, 588 Peptidases, 588 Peptides, 588 Perforating (Volkmann) canals, 97, 98f Pericardial cavity, 16 Pericardium, 18, 440, 440f, 441f Perilymph, 370, 370f Perimetrium, 644, 645f Perimysium, 173, 174f, 175f Perineurium, 277, 278f Periodontal ligament, 571, 573f Periosteal layer, 308, 309f Periosteum, 96, 96f, 97, 98f Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 254, 255f, 259f Peristalsis, 565, 567, 606 Peritoneal cavity, 561, 562f Peritoneal fluid, 561 Peritoneum, 18, 560f–563f, 561 Peritubular capillary network, 600, 601f Perivascular feet, 254 Permanent teeth, 571 Peroneal arteries, 486, 486t, 487f Peroneal veins, 494, 494f, 495t Peroneus brevis, 223, 224f Peroneus longus, 222, 223f, 223t, 224f, 251, 251f Peroxisome, 32f, 33t Perpendicular plate, 111f, 113, 114f, 118f Peyer’s patches, 509, 510f, 517f Phagocytes, 255 Phalanges, 10f, 143, 143f, 150, 150f Pharyngeal tonsil, 509, 509f, 528, 529f Pharynx, 526f, 528, 529f, 560f, 564, 565f Phenotype, 674 Photoreceptor cell layer, 365f, 366 Phrenic nerve, 281, 281f, 281t Pia mater, 255f, 267, 268f, 308, 308f, 309f Pigs, kidneys of, 603–604, 603f Pigmented layer of retina, 360, 360f, 365f Pineal gland, 298f, 302, 302f–303f, 389, 390f, 397, 399t sheep brain, 314f Piriformis, 220f, 220t, 221f Pisiform bone, 215f, 245, 245f Pituitary gland (hypophysis), 298f, 302, 303f, 389, 390, 390f, 391f Pivot joint, 167t Placenta, 664, 665f blood circulation and, 496, 497f Planes, see Body planes and sections Plantar (term), 2t Plantar flexion, 163t, 166f, 292 Plantaris, 223f, 224f Plasma, 60, 61, 69t, 410, 410f, 414, 414f Plasma cells, 516, 522f Plasma membrane, transport across, 32f, 33t active and passive processes, 43 diffusion and osmosis across dialysis membrane, 43–44, 43f osmosis across plasma membrane, 44–46, 45f Platelets (thrombocytes), 69t, 410 characteristics of, 411t structure and function of, 411, 412f Platysma, 198, 199f, 200f, 202t, 207f Pleura, 18, 535f Pleural cavity, 16, 534, 535f, 546 Plicae circularis, 567

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PNS, see Peripheral nervous system Polycythemia, 410, 420 Polygraphs, 191 Polysynaptic reflex arc, 288, 289 Pons, 298f–301f, 299, 310 sheep brain, 313f, 314f Popliteal (term), 2t Popliteal artery, 486, 486t, 487f Popliteal fossa, 249, 249f Popliteal region, 249, 249f Popliteal veins, 494, 494f, 495t Portal triad, 577 Postcentral gyrus, 306, 306f Posterior (directional term), 4t Posterior cavity (eyeball), 361, 361f Posterior cerebral arteries, 480, 480t, 481f Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway, 347f Posterior communicating arteries, 480, 480t, 481f Posterior cranial fossae, 308 Posterior cruciate ligament, 162f Posterior (dorsal) gray horns, 270, 271f Posterior inferior iliac spine, 144, 145f Posterior intercostal arteries, 484 Posterior interventricular branch, 439f Posterior interventricular sulcus, 430, 430f, 431f Posterior median sulcus, 270, 270f, 271f Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis), 390, 391f, 398t Posterior ramus, 278, 279f Posterior root, 270, 270f, 271f, 277 Posterior root ganglion, 270, 270f, 271f Posterior superior iliac spine, 144, 145f Posterior tibial artery, 486, 486t, 487f Posterior tibial veins, 494, 494f, 495t Posterior triangle, 198, 236, 237f Posterior white column (spinal cord), 270, 271f Postganglionic motor neurons, 331, 332, 333f, 334 Postsynaptic neuron, 262 Postsynaptic potential, 262 P-Q interval, in ECG, 451, 452f Precentral gyrus, 306, 306f Preganglionic motor neurons, 331, 332, 333f, 334, 334f Premolars, 571, 573f Prepuce, 631, 632f, 646, 647f Presbyopia, 366 Pressure, pulmonary ventilation and, 546–547, 547f Presynaptic neuron, 262 Prevertebral (collateral) ganglia, 332, 333f Primary auditory area, 307, 307f Primary follicles, 649, 651f, 652f Primary germ layers, of embryo, 662 Primary gustatory area, 307, 307f Primary lymphatic organs, 509 Primary motor area, 307, 307f Primary olfactory area, 307 Primary oocytes, 650, 650f, 651, 652f Primary somatosensory area, 307, 307f Primary spermatocytes, 634, 635f Primary teeth, 571 Primary visual area, 307, 307f Primordial follicles, 651, 651f, 652f Principal cells, of parathyroid, 392

Principle of segregation, 674 PRL, see Prolactin Progesterone, 397, 399t, 642 Projection fibers, 304, 304f Prolactin (PRL), 390, 398t Pronation, 163t, 166f Pronator teres, 214t, 215f Prone position, 1 Prophase, of mitosis, 35, 35t, 36f Proprioceptors, 344f Prostate gland, 628, 629f–632f, 630 Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), 630 Prostatic urethra, 598, 599f, 628, 629f, 632f Proteases, 588 Protraction, 163t Proximal (directional term), 4t PSA (prostate-specific antigen), 630 Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells, 33, 34f, 52, 59f Psoas major muscle, 218t, 219f Pterygoid processes, 113, 116f Pterygopalatine ganglia, 334, 334f PTH, see Parathyroid hormone Pubic (term), 2t Pubic region, 17 Pubic symphysis, 241, 629f, 646f, 647f Pubis, 144, 145f Pudendal nerve, 282, 282f, 282t Pudendum, 646 Pulmonary arteries, 438f, 439f Pulmonary circulation, 436, 437f, 461, 477, 495, 495f Pulmonary embolus, 488 Pulmonary (semilunar) value, 434, 435f Pulmonary veins, 439f Pulmonary ventilation, 543 carbon dioxide and, 552–553 lung and thoracic volumes, 544, 544t, 545f, 546f, 548, 548t, 550t, 551, 551t pressure changes during, 546–547, 547f Pulp cavity, 571, 573f Pulse, 455 Punnett Square, 674, 675f Pupil, 360, 360f Pupillary light reflex, 335 Purkinje fibers, 450, 450f Putamen, 305f P wave, in ECG, 451, 452f Pyloric antrum, 565, 566f Pyloric canal, 565, 566f Pyloric sphincter, 565, 566f Pylorus, 565, 566f Pyuria, 618t Q QRS complex, in ECG, 451, 452f Q-T interval, in ECG, 451, 452f Quadrants, abdominal pelvic regions and, 17, 17f Quadriceps femoris group, 218, 218t, 219f R Radial artery, 245, 245f, 482, 482f, 483t Radial fossa of humerus, 140, 141f Radial nerve, 281, 281f, 281t Radial notch, of ulna, 140, 142f Radial pulse, 455 Radial tuberosity, 140, 142f

Radial veins, 490, 490f, 491t Radius, 140, 141f, 142f anterior and posterior views, 10f Rami communicantes, 278, 279f Ramus, 113t of mandible, 115f, 234, 234f–235f of spinal nerves, 269f, 272f, 278, 279f Rats, organ systems and body cavities of, 18 RBCs, see Red blood cells Receptor cells, 343 Recessive (term), 674 Reciprocal innervation, 289 Rectum, 567, 568f, 569f, 629f, 646f Rectus abdominis, 206t, 207f, 208f, 241, 241f, 544, 544t, 545f Rectus femoris, 218, 218t, 219f, 248, 248f, 513f Rectus sheath, 207f Red blood cells (RBCs), 33, 34f, 61, 69t, 410 antigens and anti-bodies and, 414f characteristics of, 411t hemocrit and, 420, 420f osmosis in, 44–46, 45f structure and function of, 410, 412f in urine, 618t Red bone marrow, 96, 96f, 509, 510f Red-green color blindness, 368, 368f Red pulp, of lymphatic system, 515 Referred pain, 352 Reflex arcs, 287–288, 288f, 289f Reflex testing: Achilles reflex (ankle jerk), 292 biceps reflex (biceps jerk), 291 patellar reflex (knee jerk), 289, 290f plantar flexion, 292 triceps reflex (triceps jerk), 291 Regular dense connective tissue, 60, 64f, 65t Relaxation period, of muscle, 190 Renal arteries, 484, 484f, 485t Renal capsule, 595, 597f Renal columns, 596, 597f Renal corpuscle, 600, 601f, 614 Renal cortex, 595, 597f Renal fascia, 595, 597f Renal hilus, 595, 597f Renal medulla, 595, 597f Renal papilla, 596, 597f Renal pelvis, 596 Renal pyramid, 595, 597f Renal sinus, 596, 597f Renal veins, 491, 492f, 493t Reproductive systems, 14f. See also Female reproductive system; Male reproductive system Residual volume (RV), 494, 494t Respiratory membrane, 532 Respiratory system, 14f, 544t, 545f. See also Pulmonary ventilation of animals, 538 bronchial tree, 526f, 532, 532f, 533f larynx, 526f, 530, 530f, 531f, 542f lungs, 526f, 533f–535f, 534, 537f microscopic anatomy of, 536, 536t, 537f muscles and, 205, 206t, 207f, 544 nose, 526–527, 526f, 527f pharynx, 526f, 528, 529f structures of, 525, 526f trachea, 526f, 532, 532f, 533f, 537f

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INDEX Rete testis, 626, 627f Reticular connective tissues, 60, 63t Reticular fibers, 60 Reticular layer, of dermis, 84, 85f Reticular tissue, 512 Reticulocytes, 512 Reticuloendothelial (Kupffer’s) cells, 577 Retina, 360, 360f anatomy of, 363f, 365f, 366, 385f Retraction, 163t, 166f Retroperitoneal organs, 18, 561, 562f Rh blood typing system, 413–415, 414f, 415f Rhomboid major, 208t, 209f Rhomboid minor, 208t, 209f Rib cage, 128, 129f, 130f, 238 Ribosome, 32f, 33t Right colic (hepatic) flexure, 567, 569f Right hypochondriac region, 17 Right lower quadrant (RLQ), 17 Right lumbar region, 17 Right upper quadrant (RUQ), 17 Rinne test, 373t Risorius, 199f RLQ (right lower quadrant), 17 Rods, 366 Root: of hair, 86 of spinal nerves, 272, 272f of tooth, 571, 573f Root canal, 571, 573f Rotation, 163t, 166f Rotator cuff muscles, 205 Rough endoplasmic reticulum, 32f, 33t Round ligaments of uterus, 644, 644f, 645f Round window, of ear, 369, 369f Rugae: of stomach, 565, 566f of vagina, 644, 645f RUQ (right upper quadrant), 17 RV, see Residual volume S Saccule, 370, 370f Sacral canal, 127, 127f Sacral foramen, 127, 127f Sacral hiatus, 127, 127f Sacral nerves, 280, 280f Sacral plexus, 280, 280f, 282, 282f, 282t Sacral promontory, 127, 127f Sacral vertebral region, 269f Sacroiliac joints, 127, 127f, 144 Sacrum, 120, 121f, 127, 127f, 247, 247f, 269f Saddle joint, 167t Sagittal plane, 5 Sagittal suture, 108f Salivary amylase, 588 Salivary glands, 560f, 571, 572f, 573f SA node, see Sinoatrial node Sarcolemma, 176, 177f Sarcomeres, 176, 177f, 178, 178f Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 176, 177f Sartorius muscle, 218, 218t, 219f, 248, 248f, 513f Satellite cells, 254, 255f, 258f Scala tympani, 371, 371f Scala vestibuli, 371, 371f Scalenes, 202t, 544, 544t, 545f

Scapula, 129f, 138, 141f, 171f anterior and posterior views, 10f muscles that move, 202t, 205, 206t, 208t surface anatomy, 240, 240f Scapular (term), 2t Schwann cells, 254, 255f, 257f, 260, 260f Sciatic nerve, 220f, 282, 282f, 282t Sclera, 360, 360f Scleral venous sinus (canal of Schlemm), 360, 360f, 361, 361f Scoliosis, 128, 128f Scrotal septum, 625 Scrotum, 625–626, 627f, 629f Sebaceous glands, 86, 87f Secondary (lobar) bronchi, 532, 532f, 533f Secondary follicles, 651, 651f, 652f Secondary lymphatic organs, 509 Secondary oocytes, 650, 650f–652f, 661f Secondary spermatocytes, 634, 635f Secondary teeth, 571 Second polar body, 650, 650f Secretory vesicle, 32f, 33t Segmental bronchi, 532, 532f, 533f Segmentation, 567, 587 Segregation, principle of, 674 Sella turcica, 113, 117f, 118f Semen, 625, 628 Semicircular (ear) canals, 370, 370f Semicircular (ear) ducts, 370, 370f Semilunar valves, 434, 435f, 454, 454f Semimembranosus muscle, 220f, 220t, 221f, 249, 249f Seminal vesicle duct, 628, 628f–631f, 630 Seminiferous tubules, 626, 627f Semispinalis capitis, 210f Semispinalis cervicis, 210f Semispinalis thoracis, 210f Semitendinosus muscle, 220f, 220t, 221f, 249, 249f Senses, see Sensory receptors Sensoneural deafness, 373 Sensors, 191 Sensory areas, of cerebral cortex, 307, 307f Sensory axons, 277 Sensory (afferent) neurons, 258, 259f, 266f, 287, 289f, 346, 347f Sensory receptors, 266f, 287, 289f adaptation of, 350–351 and referred pain, 352 sensory pathways, 346, 347f somatic (general), 343, 344f, 345t special, 343 tactile sensitivity, 348–349 visceral, 343 Septa, 626, 627f Septal cartilage, 118f Septum pellucidum, 310 Serosa, 561, 561f, 577, 578f Serous fluid, 18, 440 Serous membranes, 18 Serous pericardium, 440, 440f Serratus anterior muscle, 206t, 207f, 238, 239f Sertoli cells, 634, 635f Serum, 410, 410f Sesamoid bones, 95 Sex chromosomes, 673, 679, 679f Sex-linked genes, 679

733

Sex-linked inheritance, 679, 679f Shaft, of hair, 86 Sheep: brain of, 312, 313f, 314f heart of, 442, 442f–44f, 444 kidneys of, 603–604 Short bones, 95 Shoulder: bones of, see Pectoral girdle joint movement, 164f–166f, 171f, 206t, 207f, 208t, 209f surface anatomy of, 242, 242f Shoulder blade, see Scapula Sickle-cell anemia, 678, 678f Sickle-cell trait, 678 Sigmoid colon, 560f, 563f, 567, 569f Sigmoidoscopy, 568 Simple epithelia: columnar, 52, 56f cuboidal, 52, 55f squamous, 52, 54f Sinoatrial (SA) node, 450, 450f Sinuses, see Paranasal sinuses Sinusoids, 577, 580, 580f Skeletal muscles, 33, 34f, 173 arm, 205, 206t, 211, 211t, 212f–213f, 214t, 215f, 216t, 217f connective tissue coverings, 173, 174f, 175f contraction of, 185–192, 187t, 192f control of muscle tension, 190–191 fibers of, 176, 176f–177f, 188–189, 189f force generated by, 191–192, 192f head, 198, 198t, 199f–201f, 200t, 203f isotonic and isometric contractions, 191 leg and foot, 222, 222t, 223f–224f naming criteria, 197 neck, 198, 200t, 202t, 203f, 204f neuromuscular junction, 179, 179f, 266f sarcomeres, 176, 177f, 178, 178f thigh, 218, 218t, 219f–221f, 220t tissue of, 70, 70f, 70t, 71f, 173, 174f, 175f trunk, 205, 206t, 207f–210f, 208t, 210t Skeletal system, 10f, 14f Skin, 87f, 93f dermis, 83, 84, 85f epidermis, 83, 84, 85f hypodermis, 83, 85f sensory receptors in, 344f Skull, 105, 135f anterior and posterior views, 10f bone markings, 112–113, 113t, 114f–118f, 134f, 136f cranial bones, 105, 106, 107f–110f, 116f, 117f facial bones, 105, 106, 107f, 109f, 111f, 112f, 116f fetal and newborn, 106, 119, 119f hard palate, 106, 118, 119f nasal septum, 106, 118, 118f orbit of the eye, 106, 112, 112f paranasal sinuses, 106, 118, 118f sutures, 106, 108f, 110f Slow oxidative (SO) muscle fibers, 188, 189f Small intestine, 14f, 560f, 567, 568f, 569f histology of, 577, 579f Small saphenous veins, 494, 494f, 495t Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 32f, 33t Smooth muscle tissue, 70, 70f, 70t, 72f

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Snellen acuity card, 367f Soft palate, 528, 529f, 563, 564f, 565f Soleus muscle, 222, 222t, 223f, 224f, 252, 252f Somatic cell division, 35, 35f, 35t, 36f Somatic reflexes, 287 reflex arcs, 287–288, 288f, 289f reflex testing, 289–292, 290f, 295f Somatic sensory receptors, 343, 344f, 345t Somatosensory cortex, 355f Somatotropin, 390, 398t SO muscle fibers, see Slow oxidative muscle fibers Special senses: ear and hearing/equilibrium, 369–374, 369f–372f, 373t eye and vision, 358–363, 358f–368f, 366–368 nose and olfaction, 375–376, 375f taste buds and gustation, 376–378, 377f Special sensory receptors, 343 Specific gravity, of urine, 617, 617t Sperm, 33, 34f, 625, 626, 634, 635f, 636f, 650f, 660, 661f Spermatic cord, 628, 628f Spermatic fascia, 626 Spermatids, 634, 635f Spermatogenesis, 626, 634, 635f Spermatogonia, 634, 635f Spermiogenesis, 634, 635f Sphenoidal sinus, 118, 118f, 527f Sphenoid bone, 106, 107f, 109f–112f, 112, 113, 114f, 115f Sphincter of Oddi, 574, 575f, 576f Sphygmomanometer, 466, 467f Spinal cord, 267, 272f, 298f dissection of, 272, 272f external features, 268, 269f protected structures and spinal meninges, 267, 268f section through thorax, 12f transverse section, 268f, 270, 270f–272f, 275f Spinalis capitis, 210f Spinalis cervicis, 210f Spinalis thoracis, 210f Spinal nerves, 270, 270f, 275f, 277, 278f, 279f from cervical and brachial plexuses, 281, 281f, 281t connective tissue coverings of, 277, 278f divisions and spinal plexuses, 280, 280f from lumbar and sacral plexuses, 282, 282f, 282t rami of, 278, 279f Spinal organ of Corti, 371, 371f Spinal plexuses, 280, 280f Spinal reflexes, 287 Spine, 113t. See also Vertebral column of scapula, 242, 242f Spinothalmic pathway, 347f Spinous process of vertebrae, 122, 122f, 124f, 126f, 240, 240f, 268f, 275f Spirometer, 548 Splanchnic nerves, 332, 333f Spleen, 14f, 396f, 508f, 509, 510f, 515, 515f, 517f section through thorax, 12f Splenic artery, 484f, 485f, 485t, 515, 515f Splenic vein, 491, 493f, 493t, 515, 515f Splenius capitis, 202t, 209f, 210f Spongy bone, 61, 68f, 68t, 97, 98f–99f

Spongy (penile) urethra, 598, 599f, 628, 629f, 630f, 632f Squamous epithelial cells, 52, 52f simple, 52, 54f stratified, 52, 56f Squamous sutures, 106, 107f Stapes, 369, 369f Starch, 588 Static equilibrium receptors, 373 Sternal (term), 2t Sternal angle, 128, 238, 239f Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 198, 202t, 204f, 207f, 236, 236f–237f, 544, 544t, 545f Sternohyoid, 202t, 204f Sternum, 128, 129f anterior and posterior views, 10f section through thorax, 12f Stomach, 14f, 560f, 563f, 565–566, 566f, 568f histology of, 577, 578f section through thorax, 12f Stratified epithelia, 52, 56f, 58f Stratified squamous epithelium, 536, 536t Stratum basale, 84, 653f Stratum corneum, 84, 85f Stratum functionalis, 653, 653f Stratum granulosum, 84, 85f Stratum lucidum, 84, 85f Stratum spinosum, 84, 85f Striations, in muscle tissue, 70, 175f S-T segment, in ECG, 451, 452f Stylohyoid, 202t, 204f Styloid process, 107f, 112, 115f, 116f radius, 140, 142f, 246, 246f ulna, 140, 142f, 246, 246f Stylomastoid foramen, 112, 116f, 324f Subarachnoid space, 267, 268f, 308, 308f–311f, 310 Subcapsular sinus, 512, 512f Subclavian artery, 237f, 478, 478f, 479f, 479t, 482, 482f, 483t Subclavian vein, 489, 489f, 489t, 490, 490f, 491t, 511f Sublingual glands, 571, 572f Submandibular ducts, 571, 572f Submandibular ganglia, 334, 334f Submandibular glands, 571, 572f Submucosa, 561, 561f, 577, 578f Suborbital foramen, 114f Suborbital margins, 234, 234f–235f Subscapularis muscle, 171f, 205, 206t, 207f Sudoriferous glands, 86, 87f Sulcus, 306, 306f sheep brain, 313f Superficial (directional term), 4t Superficial inguinal ring, 628, 628f Superficial palmar arch, 482, 483t Superior (directional term), 4t Superior cervical sympathetic ganglion, 334f Superior colliculi, 299, 299f, 301f sheep brain, 314f Superior mesenteric artery, 484, 484f, 485t Superior mesenteric ganglia, 332 Superior mesenteric vein, 491, 493f, 493t Superior nasal conchae, 113, 527, 527f Superior nasal meatus, 527, 527f Superior oblique eye muscle, 358, 359f Superior orbital fissures, 113, 324f

Superior rectus eye muscle, 358, 359f Superior sagittal sinus, 308, 308f, 309f, 310, 311f Superior vena cava, 432, 432f, 433f, 439f, 488, 488f, 488t, 489, 492f, 511f, 514f sheep heart, 442f Supination, 163t, 166f Supinator, 214t, 215f, 216t, 217f Supine position, 1 Supra-orbital foramina, 112 Supra-orbital ridges, 112 Suprarenal arteries, 484, 484f, 485t Suprarenal veins, 491, 492f, 493t Supraspinatus muscle, 171f, 205, 208t, 209f Suprasternal notch, 128, 129f, 236, 236f–237f, 239f Sural (term), 2t Surface anatomy, 233 abdomen, 241, 241f arm and elbow, 242f–244f, 243–244 back, 240, 240f buttocks, 247, 247f chest, 238, 239f foot, 252, 252f head, 234, 235f knee, 250, 250f leg and ankle, 251–252, 251f, 252f neck, 236, 237f popliteal region, 249, 249f shoulder, 242, 242f thigh, 248, 248f wrist and hand, 245–246, 245f, 246f Surgical neck, of humerus, 140 Suspensory ligaments: of eye, 360, 360f of uterus, 642, 643f Sutures, 106, 108f, 110f Sweat (sudoriferous) glands, 86, 87f Sympathetic ganglion, 278, 279f Sympathetic motor division, 331, 332, 333f Sympathetic nerves, 476f Sympathetic trunk (chain) ganglia, 332, 333f Synapses, 262, 262f Synaptic cleft, 179, 179f Synaptic end bulbs, 179, 179f Synaptic vesicles, 179, 179f Synovial cavity, 161, 161f Synovial fluid, 161, 161f Synovial joints, 160, 160f, 161, 161f, 171f, 172f. See also Joints knee, 162, 162f structure of, 161, 161f types of, 167f, 167t types of movement, 163, 163f–166f Synovial membrane, 161, 161f Systemic circulation, 436, 437f, 461, 477 Systole, 455 Systolic blood pressure, 466 T T3, see Triiodothyronine T4, see Thyroxine Tachycardia, 452 Tactile sensitivity, 348 Talus, 149f Tarsals, 10f Tarsal (term), 2t Tarsus, 150, 150f

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INDEX Taste buds, 376–377, 377f Taste pore, 376, 377f T cells (lymphocytes), 516, 517f, 522f Tectorial membrane, 371, 371f Teeth, 560f, 571, 572f, 573f Telephase, of mitosis, 35, 35t, 36f Temporal bone, 106, 107f, 109f–111f, 114f, 115f Temporalis muscle, 201f, 234, 234f–235f Temporal lobe, 306, 306f Temporal process, 113 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 166f, 234, 234f–235f Tendinous intersection, 241, 241f Tendons, 173, 174f Tendon of semitendinosus muscles, 249, 249f Tendon organs, 344f, 345f Teniae coli, 567, 569f Tensor fasciae latae, 218t, 219f Tentorium cerebelli, 308 Teres major muscle, 208t, 209f, 240, 240f Teres minor muscle, 205, 208t, 209f, 246 Terminal cisternae, 176, 177f Terminal (intramural) ganglia, 334, 334f Tertiary (segmental) bronchi, 532, 532f, 533f Testes, 625–626, 626f–629f endocrine system, 389, 390f, 397, 399t histology of, 634, 635f, 636f Testicular arteries, 484 Testosterone, 397, 399t, 634 Tetraiodothyronine, 392 TH (thyroid hormones), 392 Thalamus, 266f, 298f, 302, 302f–303f, 305f sheep brain, 314f Thenar eminence, 245, 245f Thick skin, 84 Thigh: body region, 1 lymph nodes and vessels, 513f skeletal muscles of, 218, 218t, 219f–221f, 220t surface anatomy of, 248, 248f Thin skin, 84 Third-order neurons, 346, 347f Third ventricle, 303f–305f, 310, 310f, 311f Thoracic (term), 2t Thoracic aorta, 479f, 484, 484f, 485t Thoracic cage, 128, 129f, 130f, 238 Thoracic cavity, 16, 16f serous membranes in, 18 Thoracic duct, 506, 507f, 508f, 511f Thoracic nerves, 280, 280f Thoracic vertebral region, 120, 121f, 269f compared to cervical and lumbar, 123, 124f–126f Thoracolumbar division, 332 Thorax: anterior and posterior views, 10f body sections through, 12f radiograph of, 22f veins of, 491, 492f, 492t Threshold stimulus, of muscles, 190 Thrombocytes, see Platelets Thrombocytopenia, 411 Thrombus, 488 Thymic corpuscle, 514f Thymosin, 397, 399t Thymus, 389, 390f, 397, 399t, 509, 510f, 514, 514f, 517f, 522f

Thyroglobulin, 392 Thyrohyoid, 204f Thyroid cartilage, 236, 236f–237f Thyroid gland, 236, 237f, 389, 390f, 392, 392f–393f, 398t, 514f Thyroid hormones (TH), 392 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 390, 398t Thyroxine (T4), 392, 398t Tibia, 147, 148f, 149f anterior and posterior views, 10f anterior surface, 251, 251f Tibialis anterior muscle, 222, 222t, 223f, 224f, 250f, 251, 251f Tibial nerves, 282, 282f, 282t Tibial tuberosity, 250, 250f Tidal volume (TV), 548, 548t Tight junctions, capillary, 464, 465f Tissues: of chicken leg, 74 connective, see Connective tissue epithelial, see Epithelial tissue muscle, see Muscle tissues nervous, see Nervous tissue TLC, see Total lung capacity TMJ, see Temporomandibular joint Tongue, 560f, 571, 572f, 573f, 675f Total lung capacity (TLC), 494, 494t Trabeculae: of bone, 61, 97, 98f, 99f of lymph nodes, 512 of spleen, 515, 515f of thymus, 514f Trabeculae carneae, 434, 435f sheep heart, 444f Trabecular bone, see Spongy bone Trabecular sinuses, 512, 512f Trachea, 14f, 514f, 526f, 532, 532f, 533f, 536t, 537f section through thorax, 12f Tracheal cartilage, 532f Trachealis muscle, 532 Transcytosis, 464, 465f Transitional epithelial cells, 52, 58f Transit time, digestive system, 570–571, 570t Transport across the plasma membrane: diffusion and osmosis across dialysis membrane, 43–44, 43f diffusion as passive transport, 41–42 osmosis across plasma membrane, 44–46, 45f Transverse colon, 560f, 563f, 567, 568f, 569f Transverse fissure, 306, 306f sheep brain, 314f Transverse foramina, 122, 123, 124f, 275f Transverse plane, 5, 5f, 6f Transverse process, 124f, 126f vertebrae, 122, 122f Transverse section, 5 Transversus abdominis, 206t, 207f, 208f, 544, 544t, 545f Trapezius muscle, 202t, 207f, 208t, 209f, 236, 236f–237f, 240, 240f Triad, 176, 177f Triangle of auscultation, 240, 240f Triceps brachii, 211t, 213f, 243, 243f Triceps reflex (triceps jerk), 291 Tricuspid valve, 434, 435f sheep heart, 444f

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Trigeminal nerve: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f, 334f sheep brain, 313f Trigger zone, 257f Trigone, 598, 598f Trihybrid cross, 674 Triiodothyronine (T3), 392, 398t Trilaminar embryonic disc, 662 Triple phosphate crystals, 620f Trochanter, 138t Trochlea of humerus, 140, 141f, 142f, 171f Trochlear nerve: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f Trochlear notch of ulna, 140 Trophoblast, 660, 661f, 662 Tropic hormones, 390 Tropomyosin, 176 Troponin molecules, 176 Trunk, skeletal muscles of, 205, 206t, 207f–210f, 208t, 210t Trypsin, 588 TSH, see Thyroid-stimulating hormone T tubules, 176, 177f Tubercle, 128, 138t of humerus, 140, 141f, 242, 242f Tuberosity, 138t, 142f Tubular reabsorption, 613, 615 Tubular secretion, 613 Tunica albuginea, 626, 627f Tunica externa, 461, 463f frog, 462f Tunica interna, 461, 463f frog, 462f Tunica media, 461, 463f frog, 462f Tunica vaginalis, 626, 627f, 628f TV, see Tidal volume T wave, in ECG, 451, 452f Twitch contraction, 190 Two-point discrimination test, 348 Tympanic membrane, 369, 369f Type AB blood, 413, 414f, 415f Type A blood, 413, 414f, 415f Type B blood, 413, 414f, 415f Type O blood, 413, 414f, 415f Tyrosine crystals, 620f U Ulna, 140, 141f, 142f, 243, 244f anterior and posterior views, 10f dorsal surface, 246, 246f Ulnar artery, 482, 482f, 483t Ulnar nerve, 243, 281, 281f, 281t Ulnar veins, 490, 490f, 491t Umbilical (term), 2t Umbilical arteries, 496, 496t, 497f Umbilical cord, 664, 665f Umbilical region, 17 Umbilical veins, 496, 496t, 497f Umbilicus, 17f, 241, 241f, 664 Unfused tetanus, 190 Unipolar neurons, 258, 259f Unmyelinated fibers, 260, 260f Upper esophageal sphincter, 565

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Upper limbs. See also Arm appendicular skeleton, 137, 140, 141f–143f, 143 arteries of, 482, 482f, 483t veins of, 490, 490f, 491t Upper limb (term), 2t Urea, 617 Ureters, 14f, 596, 598, 598f, 599f Ureteral openings, 598, 598f Urethra, 596, 598, 598f, 599f, 646f Uric acid, 617, 620f Urinalysis, 617–619, 617t–618t, 620f Urinary bladder, 14f, 596, 598, 598f, 599f, 629f, 646f Urinary system, 14f, 595, 596f of animals, 604 female organs, 596f, 598, 598f, 599f histology of, 604–606, 605f, 606f kidneys, 595–596, 596f, 597f, 602–603, 602f, 603f male organs, 598, 599f nephrons, 596, 600, 601f, 613–616, 616f ureters/urinary bladder/urethra, 596, 598, 598f, 599f urinalysis, 617, 618t, 620f, 624t urine formation, 613–616, 616f, 617t, 618t Urinary tract infection (UTI), 618t Urine: and function of nephrons, 613–616, 614f, 616f urinalysis, 617–619, 617t–618t, 620f Urogenital diaphragm, 599f Uterine cavity, 644, 644f–646f Uterine (fallopian) tubes, 641–642, 643f, 646f Uterus, 643f, 644, 644f, 645f, 649f histology of, 653, 653f UTI (urinary tract infection), 618t Utricle, 370, 370f Uvula, 528, 529f, 563, 564f, 565f V Vagina, 644, 644f–647f Vaginal canal, 644, 644f Vaginal orifice, 644, 647f Vagus nerve: function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f, 334f Vallate papillae, 376, 377f Vasa recta, 600, 601f, 602f Vascular tunic, 360, 360f Vas deferens, 628, 628f–630f Vasoconstriction, 461 Vasodilation, 461 Vastus intermedius muscle, 218t, 219f Vastus lateralis muscle, 218t, 219f, 248, 248f, 250f, 513f Vastus medialis muscle, 218t, 219f, 248, 248f, 250f VC, see Vital capacity Veins, 429, 461, 462–463, 463f, 464f, 488 abdomen, 491 blood pressure in, 466

cardiac, 438, 439f, 488, 488f, 488t coronary, 432, 432f, 433f cranial, 489, 489f, 489t hepatic, 491, 492f, 493f, 493t lower extremities, 494, 494f, 495t neck, 489, 489f, 489t pelvic, 491, 492f, 493t pulmonary, 495, 495f thoracic, 491, 492f, 492t upper extremities, 490, 490f, 491t valves, 463, 463f Vena cava, 432, 432f, 433f, 508f. See also Inferior vena cava; Superior vena cava sheep heart, 442f Ventral (directional term), 4t Ventral gray horns, 270, 271f Ventral ramus, 278, 279f Ventral root, 270, 270f, 271f, 277 Ventricles: of brain, 310, 310f–311f human heart, 430, 431f, 438f, 439f sheep heart, 442f–444f Ventricular depolarization, 451 Ventricular fibrillation, 452 Ventricular folds, 530, 531f Ventricular repolarization, 451 Venules, 461, 462 Vermis, 301, 301f sheep brain, 313f Vertebral (term), 2t Vertebral arteries, 480, 480t, 481f Vertebral column, 120, 135f abnormal curvatures, 128, 128f anterior and posterior views, 10f cervical, thoracic, lumbar compared, 122–123, 124f–126f muscles that move, 205, 210f, 210t regions and natural curvature, 120, 121f sacrum and coccyx, 127, 127f section through thorax, 12f vertebrae parts, 122, 122f Vertebral curvature, abnormal, 128, 128f Vertebral foramen, 122, 122f, 123 Vertebral vein, 489, 489f, 489t Vertebra prominens, 123, 123f Vertebrochondral ribs, 128 Vertebrosternal ribs, 128 Vertigo, 373 Vesicles: in capillaries, 465f secretory, 32f, 33t Vestibular membrane, 371, 371f Vestibule: of ear, 370, 370f of female external genitalia, 646 of mouth, 563, 564f, 565f Vestibulocochlear nerve, 370, 370f, 372f function, distribution, action of, 325, 325t, 326f location of, 321, 322t, 323f, 324f, 334f Villi, 567, 577, 579f

Visceral cavity, 534, 535f Visceral epithelial layer, 604 Visceral layer, 18 Visceral peritoneum, 561, 562f Visceral sensory receptors, 343 Vision, see Eye and vision Vital capacity (VC), 494, 494t Vitreous body, 361, 361f Vitreous chamber, 361, 361f Vocal folds, 531f Volkmann canals, 97, 98f Vomer, 106, 107f, 109f, 111f, 114f, 118f Vulva, 646 W Warm receptors, 344f, 345t Wave summation, 190 Waxy cast, in urine, 620f WBCs, see White blood cells Weber test, 373, 373t Wernicke’s area, 307, 307f Whiplash, 123 White blood cells (WBCs), 33, 34f, 61, 69t, 410, 413f characteristics of, 411t differential WBC count, 418, 418f, 419t structure and function of, 410, 412f in urine, 618t White fibrous tissue, see Dense connective tissue White matter, 261, 261f brain, 304, 305f, 309f spinal column, 270 White pulp, of lymphatic system, 515, 515f White rami communicantes, 332 Whorls, fingerprint pattern, 90, 90f Wrist, see Carpus X Xiphisternal joint, 238, 239f Xiphoid process of sternum, 128, 129f, 238, 239f Y Yellow marrow, 96, 96f Yolk sac, 662, 663f, 664f Z Z discs, 178, 178f Zona fasciculata, 394, 395f Zona glomerulosa, 394, 395f Zona pellucida, 660, 661f Zona reticularis, 394, 395f Zygomatic bone, 106, 107f, 109f, 111f, 112, 112f, 113, 114f Zygomatic process, 112, 115f Zygomaticus major muscle, 198, 199f, 200f, 234, 234f–235f Zygomaticus minor muscle, 198, 199f, 200f Zygote, 642, 650, 650f, 659, 660, 661f Zymogenic cells, 577, 578f