Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract (1990) [1 ed.] 9780203713358, 9781351364331, 9781351364324, 9781351364348, 9781138105652, 9781138558960

This book provides an up-to-date summary of the large body of data regarding gastrointestinal hormones and growth factor

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Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract (1990) [1 ed.]
 9780203713358, 9781351364331, 9781351364324, 9781351364348, 9781138105652, 9781138558960

Table of contents :

Section 1: General mechanisms of cell proliferation and differentiation 1. Hormonal regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation: cellular mechanisms 2. Polyamines and cell and tissue growth 3. Receptors of the gastrointestinal hormones and their development. Section 2: Exocrine pancreas 1. Fetal and neonatal development of the exocrine pancreas 2. Pancreatic adaptation to diet 3. Regulation of specific enzyme synthesis 4. Pancreatic regeneration. Section 3: Stomach 1. Growth and maturation of the gastric mucosa 2. Neurohormonal regulation of gastric mucosal growth 3. Regeneration following gastric injury. Section 4: Intestine 1. Fetal and postnatal development of the small and large intestine: patterns and regulation 2. Regulation of intestinal mucosal growth. Section 5: Growth factors 1. Inhibitory regulation of gastrointestinal organ growth 2. Hormonal effects on gastrointestinal cancer growth.

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Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract: Gastrointestinal Hormones and Growth Factors Editors

Jean Morisset, Ph.D. Professor Department of Biology Faculty of Sciences University of Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada

Travis E. Solomon, M.D., Ph.D. Professor Kansas University Medical Center Kansas City, Kansas Associate Chief of Staff for Research Medical Research Service VA Medical Center Kansas City, Missouri

First published 1991 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 Reissued 2018 by CRC Press © 1991 by Taylor & Francis CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.cop3 right.com(http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organiza-tion that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 91104709 Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. Disclaimer The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and welcomes correspondence from those they have been unable to contact. ISBN 13: 978-1-138-10565-2 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-203-71335-8 (ebk) Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

PREFACE Cell proliferation and differentiation are key elements in the ability of the gastrointestinal tract to respond to physiologic and disease-induced demands on digestive and absorptive functions. To meet the changing needs for efficient assimilation of nutrients, the gastrointestinal tract has the capability of replacing many of its secretory and absorptive cells and altering the relative proportions of digestive enzymes during postnatal development, pregnancy, lactation, and intake of diets with varying macronutrient composition. Many diseases may also affect these responses or may be due in part to disordered patterns of growth and differentiation. In the past 20 years, much work has been done to increase our understanding of the factors which regulate the growth responses of the gastrointestinal tract. The patterns of cellular proliferation and differentiation in response to many physiologic stimuli have been characterized, and some knowledge about intracellular mechanisms which mediate growth responses in the gastrointes­ tinal tract is beginning to accumulate. Considerable information about the effects of gastroin­ testinal hormones on growth and differentiation of the many specialized cell types in the gastrointestinal tract is now available. This book will provide an up-to-date summary of this large body of data for investigators working in the area, as well as for gastroenterologists and basic scientists who are interested in many topics related to gastrointestinal function. For the stomach, small intestine, colon, and pancreas, regulation of growth and differentiation is reviewed by experts in developmental and adult physiology and in pathophysiology of diseases involving each organ. The goal is to provide an in-depth yet readable collection of reviews which will have broad interest to many scientists and physicians.

EDITORS Jean Morisset, Ph.D., is Professor of Endocrinology in the Department of Biology at the University of Sherbrooke in Quebec, Canada. He is also Director of the Centre de Recherche sur les Mécanismes de Sécrétion of the University of Sherbrooke. Dr. Morisset received his B.Sc. degree from the University of Sherbrooke in 1965. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 1968 at the same university. After doing post-doctoral work at the Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, from 1968 to 1970, he was appointed Associate Professor of Biology at the University of Sherbrooke in 1970. He became an Associate Professor in 1974 and Professor in 1979. Dr. Morisset is a member of the American Physiological Society, American Gastroenterol­ ogical Association, Canadian Gastroenterological Association, American Pancreatic Associa­ tion, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, and the European Pancreatic Club. He is also an Associate Editor for the Canadian Journal o f Physiology and Pharmacology and the International Journal o f Pancreatology. Dr. Morisset has been the recipient of research grants from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council and Medical Research Council of Canada, from the Ministere de 1’Education du Quebec, and the Canadian Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. His current research interests are in hormonal control of growth and maturation of gastrointestinal tract organs and in control of pancreatic enzyme secretion. Dr. Morisset is the author of more than 100 papers on pancreatic physiology. Travis E. Solomon, M.D., Ph.D., is Professor of Medicine and Physiology at the Kansas University Medical Center in Kansas City, Kansas and Associate Chief of Staff for Research at the Kansas City VA Medical Center in Kansas City, Missouri. Dr. Solomon received his Ph.D. and M.D. from the University of Texas Medical School at Houston in 1973 and 1974. After an internship in Medicine at the University of Missouri, he did post-doctoral work at Y ale University and UCLA. In 1977 he was appointed Assistant Professor of Medicine at UCLA. He moved to the University of Missouri in 1981 to become Associate Professor of Medicine and Physiology and Associate Chief of Staff for Research at the Truman VA Hospital. He became Vice-Chairperson for Research in the Department of Medicine in 1985 and Professor of Medicine and Physiology in 1986. In 1987 he moved to his present positions. Dr. Solomon is a member of the American Physiological Society, the American Gastroen­ terological Association, the American Pancreatic Association, and many other groups. He has served on the editorial board of the American Journal o f Physiology, Pancreas, the Scandi­ navian Journal o f Gastroenterology, and other journals. Dr. Solomon has received grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Veterans Administration Research Service. His major research interests are regulation of normal and abnormal growth of gastrointestinal tissues, pancreatic secretory function, and the physiology and pathophysiology of gastrointestinal hormones.

CONTRIBUTORS Raymond Calvert, Ph.D. Professor Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology Faculty of Medicine University of Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada Chris N. Conteas Department of Internal Medicine Wayne State University School of Medicine Harper-Grace Hospitals Detroit, Michigan J. C. Dagorn, D.Sc. Director Unité de Recherches de Physiologie et Pathologie Digestives INSERM U.315 Marseille, France H. P. Elsässer, Ph.D. Research Associate Department of Cell Biology and Cell Pathology University of Marburg Marburg, FRG D. Giorgi, Ph.D. Unité de Recherches de Physiologie et Pathologie Digestives INSERM U.315 Marseilles, France F. Halter, M.D. Professor and Head Gastrointestinal Unit University Hospital Bern, Switzerland H. F. Kern Professor Department of Cell Biology and Cell Pathology University of Marburg Marburg, FRG

Murray Korc, M.D. Associate Professor Section of Endocrinology Department of Internal Medicine and Biochemistry The University of Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Arizona Emanuel Lebenthal, M.D. Director International Institute for Infant Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Disease Children’s Hospital and Professor of Pediatrics State University of New York at Buffalo Buffalo, New York Ying-kit Leung, M.D. Assistant Professor of Pediatrics State University of New York at Buffalo and Attending Physician Children’s Hospital of Buffalo Buffalo, New York Gary M. Levine, M.D. Head Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition Albert Einstein Medical Center and Professor of Medicine Temple University School of Medicine Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Gordon D. Luk Chief Department of Internal Medicine Wayne State University School of Medicine Harper-Grace Hospitals Detroit, Michigan

Adhip P. N. Majumdar, Ph.D., D.Sc. Senior Research Biochemist Research Service Veterans Administration Medical Center Allen Park, Michigan and Department of Medicine and Department of Nutrition and Food Science Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan Peter P. McCann, Ph.D. Director Scientific Administration Merrell Dow Research Institute and Professor of Anatomy and Cell Biology University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Cincinnati, Ohio Daniel Ménard, Ph.D. Professor Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology Faculty of Medicine University of Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada

Ann L. Silverman Department of Internal Medicine Wayne State University School of Medicine Harper-Grace Hospitals Detroit, Michigan Pomila Singh, Ph.D. Professor Department of Surgery The University of Texas Medical Branch Galveston, Texas Travis E. Solomon, M.D., Ph.D. Professor Kansas University Medical Center Kansas City, Kansas and Associate Chief of Staff for Research Medical Research Service VA Medical Center Kansas City, Missouri James C. Thompson, M.D. Professor and Chairman Department of Surgery The University of Texas Medical Branch Galveston, Texas

Jean Morisset, Ph.D. Professor Department of Biology Faculty of Sciences University of Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada

Courtney M. Townsend, Jr., M.D. Professor Department of Surgery The University of Texas Medical Branch Galveston, Texas

Jeffrey A. Moshier Department of Internal Medicine Wayne State University School of Medicine Harper-Grace Hospitals Detroit, Michigan

G. Willems, M.D., Ph.D. Professor Cancer Research Unit Faculty of Medicine Vrije Universiteit Brussel Brussels, Belgium

TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL MECHANISMS OF CELL PROLIFERATION AND DIFFERENTIATION Chapter 1 Hormonal Regulation of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation: Cellular Mechanisms..........3 Murray Korc Chapter 2 Polyamines and Cell and Tissue G row th....................................................................................35 Chris N. Conteas, Ann L. Silverman, Jeffery A. Moshier, Peter P. McCann, and Gordon D. Luk Chapter 3 Receptors of the Gastrointestinal Hormones and Their Development....................................45 Jean Morisset EXOCRINE PANCREAS Chapter 4 Fetal and Neonatal Development of the Exocrine Pancreas.....................................................73 Emanuel Lebenthal and Ying-kit Leung Chapter 5 Pancreatic Adaptation to Diet — Regulation of Specific Enzyme Synthesis.........................89 J. C. Dagorn and D. Giorgi Chapter 6 Pancreatic Regeneration............................................................................................................ 105 H. P. Elsässer and H. F. Kern STOMACH Chapter 7 Growth and Maturation of the Gastric M ucosa.......................................................................119 Adhip P. N. Majumdar Chapter 8 Neurohormonal Regulation of Gastric Mucosal Growth........................................................131 G. Willems Chapter 9 Regeneration Following Gastric In ju ry ................................................................................... 143 F. Halter INTESTINE Chapter 10 Fetal and Postnatal Development of the Small and Large Intestine: Patterns and Regulation............................................................................................................................159 Daniel Ménard and Raymond Calvert

Chapter 11 Regulation of Intestinal Mucosal Growth................................................................................ 175 Gary M. Levine GROWTH FACTORS Chapter 12 Inhibitory Regulation of Gastrointestinal Organ G row th...................................................... 193 Jean Morisset Chapter 13 Hormonal Effects on Gastrointestinal Cancer G row th...........................................................207 Courtney M. Townsend, Jr., Pomila Singh, and James C. Thompson IN D EX ........................................................................................................................................ 225

General Mechanisms of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation

3 Chapter 1

HORMONAL REGULATION OF CELL PROLIFERATION AND DIFFERENTIATION: CELLULAR MECHANISMS Murray Korc

TABLE OF CONTENTS I.

Introduction........................................................................................................................... 4

II.

The Cell Cycle.......................................................................................................................4

III.

Cell Differentiation.............................................................................................................. 6

IV.

Cell Proliferation...................................................................................................................7

V.

Epidermal Growth Factor as a M odel................................................................................ 8 A. The EGF Receptor......................................................................................................8 B. EGF Binding............................................................................................................. 10 C. EGF Processing........................................................................................................11 D. Mechanism of Action of EGF................................................................................. 12 1. Kinase A ctivity.............................................................................................. 12 2. Calcium ........................................................................................................... 14 3. Gene Activation............................................................................................. 16 4. Differentiation/Growth Inhibition................................................................ 17

VI.

Sum m ary............................................................................................................................. 19

References......................................................................................................................................19

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Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract

I. INTRODUCTION The eukaryotic cell is a very complex structure that can perform a large variety of specialized functions. There are more than 200 different types of eukaryotic cells in vertebrate animals. These range from the pluripotential hematopoietic stem cell to the highly specialized nerve cell. These different types of cells are grouped into integrated units that make up the various tissues and organs. For example, the gastrointestinal tract in humans consists of different types of absorptive and secretory epithelial cells, muscle cells, immune cells, nerve cells, endothelial cells, connective tissue cells, and endocrine cells. Many of these cell types are short lived. In order to function properly, every organism must be able to replace lost cells. This regenerative capacity is highly variable from tissue to tissue, is tightly regulated in most circumstances in order to allow the new cells to assume their proper differentiated functions, but is altogether nonexistent in certain cell types in the adult organism. The present chapter will delineate some of the biochemical and molecular mechanisms that allow cells to proliferate in response to hormonal stimuli in a manner that leads to coordinately regulated growth and differentiation. It is not possible within the scope of a brief review chapter to cover in full detail the large number of hormones and growth factors that have been implicated in this regulation. Instead, this chapter will focus on recent advances in our understanding of the biomolecular regulation of the cell cycle and cellular proliferation, and some of the complex pathways that are activated by hormones and growth factors. Special emphasis will be placed on describing the mechanisms of action of epidermal growth factor (EGF). Other hormones and growth factors, that also act via receptors and second messengers to activate effector pathways that lead to cell proliferation and differentiation, will be mentioned briefly.

II. THE CELL CYCLE In the healthy adult human many thousands of cells are undergoing mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) every second. Cytoplasmic division is followed by a new cell cycle which consists of three successive stages that together are called the interphase. During the first stage of interphase (Gj), the cell exhibits a renewed high rate of protein synthesis. Gj is followed by the S phase, during which DNA synthesis occurs. When the DNA content of the nucleus has doubled, the cell enters into the last stage of interphase (G2). At the end of this stage the cell again undergoes mitosis and cytokinesis. Although different cell types divide at different rates, the mitotic process itself lasts only 1 to 2 h. The differences in the cell cycle time between different cell types are due mainly to the duration of the phase.1An elegant example of cells that are located in close proximity to each other and that exist in different stages of the cell cycle can be found in the lining of the small intestine of mammals. This lining consists of a sheet of single epithelial cells that exhibits multiple infoldings which are called crypts.2 Cell division occurs only within a confined area at the bottom of the crypts.3 Here, there is a small population of slowly dividing stem cells which give rise to the more rapidly dividing cells. The latter cells migrate upwards, leading to the formation of villi in which cell division does not occur.4The cells at the top of the villus are shed after a few days and are replenished by cells that have previously divided and which are coming up the migratory pathway. The exact biochemical and molecular mechanisms that dictate when and why a eukaryotic cell divides are not known. It is established, however, that cells which are not actively dividing are usually growth arrested in the G {phase.4When a cell is quiescent, this phase of the cell cycle is also called the Go phase,5 implying that the cell is in a sort of dormant state. Although the distinctions between Goand Gx have not been clearly delineated, once a cell has gone through the late stages of the Gj phase (the so-called restriction point), it will proceed through the other phases of the cell cycle toward increased DNA synthesis and subsequently cell division 46 It appears that both negative and positive control mechanisms modulate the ability of

5 eukaryotic cells to traverse their restriction points. These include environmental and nutritional factors, intracellular regulatory pathways, and hormones and peptide growth factors. Examples of environmental factors include the density and ambient temperature in which the cells are growing. Examples of nutritional factors include the availability of amino acids and trace elements. Examples of intracellular pathways include the increases during the S phase of the cell cycle in the activities of many enzymes that modulate DNA synthesis.7 These cycle-specific enzymes include such important proteins as topoisomerase I, which exhibits a 2- to 4-fold increase in activity prior to cell division,8 and dihydrofolate reductase9 and thymidine kinase10 which exhibit a 10- to 20-fold increase in activity. After completion of the S phase, the activity of these enzymes decreases back to baseline levels. The molecular basis for the periodic increase in the activity of S-phase specific enzymes is complex. In the case of thymidine kinase, an enzyme that transfers a phosphate group onto thymidine to form its monophosphate derivative, quiescent cells in culture which have been stimulated to proliferate by the addition of serum exhibit parallel increases in thymidine kinase protein and mRNA levels.11,12 Thus, control of thymidine kinase activity appears to occur at a transcriptional level in these cells. In contrast, in actively cycling cells such as proliferating HeLa cells, the levels of thymidine kinase mRNA exhibit a 3-fold increase during each S phase of the cell cycle, whereas the corresponding protein levels increase 15-fold.13 This marked increase in protein levels associated with increased thymidine kinase enzyme activity is due to a greater efficiency of translation of the corresponding mRNA.13Further, the decrease in enzyme activity that occurs following completion of DNA synthesis is due to the rapid proteolysis of the thymidine kinase polypeptide in association with a marked decrease in the rate of synthesis of the enzyme.13Thus, in cells that are actively cycling the increase in activity of thymidine kinase during the S phase appears to be due to post-transcriptional regulation. Another major cell-cycled, regulated enzyme that acts to transfer a phosphate onto its target substrate is histone HI kinase.14 The enzyme is activated in many different kinds of dividing eukaryotic cells during their transition from the G2 phase into mitosis.15 The kinase activity of this enzyme preferentially phosphorylates histone H 1 in a manner that may allow it to be directly involved in chromatin condensation;14it is dependent on magnesium, can utilize either ATP or GTP, and is independent of calcium, calmodulin, diacylglycerol, or cyclic nucleotides.16 Histone HI kinase appears to be directly involved in chromatin condensation17and initiation of mitosis18 and may be closely related or identical to the M-phase promoting factor (MPF). The latter enzyme induces several mitosis related events, including the breakdown of the nuclear membrane, organization of the mitotic spindle, and chromosome condensation during mitosis.14 A major component of MPF is the cdc2 complex, which is activated during the G2/M transition and which may be responsible for initiating the process of mitosis in human cells.19 The cdc2 complex is itself a kinase, which in human cells exists as a 34 kilodalton (kDa) protein that is complexed to a 13 kDa and 62 kDa protein.20'22 This complex is activated in a cell cycle dependent manner as a result of the rearrangement of its subunits and the phosphorylation of the 34 kDa protein, which occurs predominantly on tyrosine residues.20 22Tyrosine phosphorylation is a relatively uncommon biological phenomenon that is effected physiologically by a small group of growth promoting polypeptides and that is believed to be important in the regulation of cell growth.23The critical role of kinases in general and tyrosine kinases in particular in many signal transduction pathways will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Certain genes which exhibit an oncogenic potential may also be directly involved in the regulation of cell proliferation. The concept of protooncogenes has arisen from studies with transforming retroviruses as well as with DNA transfection experiments. These studies have pointed out the existence of a group of genes that are capable of giving rise to the malignant phenotype and in the absence of certain specific aberrations primarily have important regulatory functions in eukaryotic cells.2425 One gene that has been extensively studied in this regard is the c-myc protooncogene. In tumor cell lines, overexpression of the protein product of this cellular

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homologue to the avian myelocytomatosis virus (MC29) oncogene has been shown to occur as a result of gene amplification.26 28In contrast, following mitogenic stimulation of quiescent cells such as lymphocytes,29 hepatocytes,30 and fibroblasts,31 there is a marked increase in c-myc mRNA levels. The increase in c-myc mRNA levels occurs early in the Go/Gj phase of the cell cycle and is observed following stimulation with such diverse agents as platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), concanavalin A, and serum.2932 In the basal state, c-myc mRNA levels are low as a result of marked degradation of this mRNA species.33 Conversely, the marked elevation in the levels of c-myc mRNA following mitogenic stimulation is due mainly to an inhibition of its degradation.34 The interactions of the c-myc protein product with the protein products of other oncogenes and their role in the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation will be discussed later in this chapter. Yet another mechanism through which genes may regulate the cell cycle relates to the ability of their protein products to inhibit cell proliferation.35 Further, there appear to be certain genes that are active only during the Go phase of the cell cycle. Some of these genes may function to sustain the growth-arrested state of the cells. Others, however, may function to inhibit cell growth. The existence of growth-arrest-specific genes that inhibit cell proliferation has been recently reported.36 The expression of these genes is inhibited following induction of cell growth, and the product of at least one of these genes appears to be cell-cycle controlled.36 In order for a eukaryotic cell to divide, it has to replicate its genome during the S phase of the cell cycle.1Several lines of evidence indicate that DNA polymerase alpha is one of the principal enzymes that is involved in the regulation of DNA replication. Thus, aphidicolin, a specific inhibitor of this enzyme, inhibits DNA replication.37Monoclonal antibodies against the enzyme also inhibit DNA synthesis.3839Enhanced activity of the enzyme correlates with enhanced DNA synthesis.40 A cell line that exhibits a temperature-sensitive defect in DNA replication is also a DNA polymerase alpha mutant.41 Although there is a slight increase in the expression of this enzyme prior to the S phase, and a slight decrease through the G2phase, the enzyme is generally constitutively expressed throughout the cell cycle.42 Nonetheless, the regulation of the expres­ sion of this enzyme is believed to occur at the transcriptional level.42 Taken together, these observations indicate that enzymes which are involved in the regulation of cell proliferation are not necessarily active only during a specific phase of the cell cycle and that a variety of intracellular factors probably interact with cell cycle specific enzymes to regulate the exact timing of the proliferative response.

III. CELL DIFFERENTIATION Differentiation is a complex process whereby a cell acquires a specific set of specialized functions. In the absence of differentiation, every cell in a particular multicellular organism would exhibit the same phenotype, have the same complement of metabolic pathways, possess the same mRNAs, and produce the same proteins as every other cell in that organism. This hypothetical organism would not have any specialized tissues and would therefore exhibit limited functional capabilities. However, the cells of multicellular organisms have developed the capacity to differentiate and to exhibit numerous specialized functions. In spite of the resultant functional and phenotypic diversity, it had been accepted that all of the cells within any given eukaryotic organism possess a complete set of genetic information which is identical with the genetic material that was originally present in the fertilized egg that gave rise to this organism. We now realize, however, that the genetic make-up of certain cells and tissues within an organism may be altered as a result of processes such as gene amplification and gene rearrangement43 Our whole embryological development would not be possible without the process of differentiation. However, one of the consequences of differentiation is the loss of cellular plasticity.44 This means that the acquisition of certain differentiated functions by a particular

7 progenitor cell most often precludes it from acquiring other differentiated functions. For example, in the case of the red blood cell, a pluripotential stem cell divides to produce either additional stem cells or proerythroblasts. The proerythroblast, through a series of intermediate stages, is committed to become a mature red blood cell and cannot assume other pathways of differentiation.45 In contrast to the red blood cell, many other differentiated cells retain the capacity to undergo mitosis and to produce identically differentiated daughter cells. Further, in some instances the daughter cells regain a certain degree of plasticity and exhibit new differentiated functions — a phenomenon that has been called metaplasia or transdifferentia­ tion.46 In general, the phenotypic characteristics of a differentiated cell are those that allow it to perform its specialized functions. Thus, a pancreatic acinar cell exhibits the typical polarized morphology of exocrine secretory cells and synthesizes digestive enzymes that are packaged into zymogen granules which are ultimately released into the digestive tract; a nerve cell exhibits a cell body, dendrites, and an axon which serves to carry nerve impulses; an adipocyte exhibits the bag-like appearance of a cell that has accumulated numerous droplets of triacylglycerol while serving its function to store energy. In addition to their own typical morphological features, many differentiated cells exhibit certain common features. These may include the ability to form tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes; to exhibit contact inhibition of cell proliferation; to express specific cell surface antigens and specific cytosolic proteins; to exhibit cell-type specific gene expression; and to be highly responsive to specific hormones and neurotransmitters as a result of the expression of genes coding for these receptors and their effector pathways. The complex processes that allow for this kind of specialized cellular differentiation to occur are believed to be dependent on the differential recruitment and activation of many diverse genes.47

IV. CELL PROLIFERATION Many hormones and growth factors have been implicated in the regulation of cell prolifera­ tion and differentiation. In some instances, a hormone appears to exert its trophic effects on one or two cell types. Thus, thyroid stimulating hormone, or TSH, exerts trophic effects on the thyroid.48 Similarly, erythropoietin acts directly on the red blood cell precursors to direct both their proliferation and differentiation toward mature erythrocytes.49 In addition, several differ­ ent hematopoietic growth factors have been described which direct progenitor cells to multiply and orchestrate their commitment toward differentiation into specific types of cells, including different subsets of lymphocytes, polynuclear cells, and macrophages.50 52 It is also possible for the same hormone or growth factor to regulate the proliferation of many different types of cells. For example, insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) has been shown to enhance the proliferation of a variety of cells.5354 In the case of gastrointestinal hormones, gastrin,55 cholecystokinin (CCK),56 and bombesin57 are known to enhance the proliferation of specific types of cells. These same hormones and growth factors also regulate a variety of cellular processes which are not directly linked to mitogenesis, but which allow the cells to carry out their differentiated and highly specific functions. It is likely that the major determinants of cellular proliferation and differentiation that are found in serum are polypeptide growth factors. Studies of the phenomenon whereby serum initiates DNA synthesis in quiescent cells showed that in most instances hormones such as insulin are only able to assist in this proliferative response and that this response is primarily due to the actions of growth factors that are present in serum.58'61 In general, factors such as PDGF render a cell competent to respond to subsequent mitogenic stimuli.5859Competence is achieved following a relatively brief exposure to PDGF, and the cell remains in a competent state even if the growth factor is removed from the incubation medium.59 Many other factors that are present in serum, including epidermal growth factor (EGF) and IGF-I, are termed progression

8

Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract

factors and allow competent cells to proceed toward initiation of DNA synthesis.59'61 However, the distinction between competence factors and progression factors is probably less well demar­ cated than was initialy suggested. The remainder of this chapter will focus on EGF and the basic mechanisms through which its regulatory actions are exerted and modulated.

V. EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR AS A MODEL Epidermal growth factor, or EGF, was initially called “tooth-lid” factor because the injection of extracts from the salivary glands of newborn mice into young mice resulted in precocious incisor eruption and eyelid opening.62 The name was subsequently changed to EGF because it was found that this heat-stable polypeptide induced epidermal proliferation.63 EGF was also found to increase the activity of ornithine decarboxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in the polyamine pathway.6364 The primary amino acid sequence of mouse EGF was reported 10 years after its discovery.65The protein was determined to have a molecular weight of 6045 daltons and to be trypsin resistant.66 However, when extracted from the mouse submaxillary glands, it consists mainly of a high molecular weight form of 74 kDa that dissociates under acidic conditions into two EGF molecules and two binding proteins.67 EGF exerts both short and long term regulatory effects on numerous cellular processes. In some cells, EGF causes rapid elevations in the levels of cytosolic free calcium;68 within 2 h of its addition to quiescent cells, EGF causes increased cation, sugar, and amino acid uptake;69'71 within 12 h, EGF increases protein and RNA synthesis;72 after 20 h, DNA synthesis is increased in preparation for mitosis.7173 The pleiotypic effects of EGF and its important role in regulating cell proliferation in a variety of tissues and cell types render it both a useful and an important model for analyzing the various mechanisms of action of peptide hormones and growth factors. A. THE EGF RECEPTOR Human EGF exhibits considerable homology with mouse EGF, mimics its biological actions, and cross-competes in radioreceptor assays.74Most studies of the biological actions of EGF have therefore been carried out with the more readily available mouse EGF. These studies have indicated that EGF binds to a specific cell surface receptor that is a 170 kDa glycosylated phosphoprotein.7576 It is autophosphorylated at tyrosine residues through a kinase that is an integral component of the receptor.75'77 Tyrosine phosphorylation of the EGF receptor appears to be important in the mediation of the proliferative response to EGF.78 Receptor auto­ phosphorylation on tyrosine residues also occurs when insulin,79 IGF-I,80 PDGF,81 and colony stimulating factor-I (CSF-I)82 bind to their respective receptors. As in the case of many other cell-surface receptors, the EGF receptor consists of an extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain.83The extracellular portion of the receptor represents the ligand binding domain. It can be viewed as consisting of four segments.84Two of these segments are cysteine rich,83and the region between them appears to represent the major receptor binding region that dictates the specificity of the receptor toward EGF.84 The transmembrane domain is highly hydrophobic and permits the receptor to anchor itself within the cell membrane.83'85The intracellular domain contains three tyrosine phosphoryla­ tion sites, an ATP binding domain, and the kinase region that catalyzes the autophosphorylation process.85 87 Analysis of the primary amino acid sequence of the EGF receptor indicates that it exhibits a strong sequence homology with the protein product of the avian erythroblastosis virus w-erb B oncogene.88 The latter protein, in essence, is a truncated EGF receptor that is devoid of most of the extracellular ligand-binding domain, as well as of a 34 amino acid sequence of the intracellular carboxy-terminal region.88 This observation suggested that the extracellular bind­ ing domain may exert a negative constraint on the intracellular domain and that the potential of the y-erb B oncogene to induce the malignant phenotype derived from the absence of this negative constraint. However, recent studies indicate that when \-erb B is combined with the

9 extracellular and transmembrane domains of the human EGF receptor, this chimer retains the ability to transform the cells to a malignant phenotype.89Further, the transforming ability of the chimer is increased in the presence of EGF.89 Similarly, EGF induces transformation in NIH3T3 cells that are transfected with the complete EGF receptor gene, but only when the number of EGF receptors is markedly increased.90 Therefore, it would appear that the overabundance, per se, of normal EGF receptors is sufficient to induce the transformed phenotype in these transfection experiments. Several lines of evidence suggest that overexpression of the EGF receptor is also an important oncogenic stimulus in vivo. An increased number of EGF receptors is associated with enhanced metastatic potential in human breast cancer91 and enhanced tumor invasiveness in human bladder cancer.92 Primary biopsy specimens from several different types of malignancies in humans have been reported to exhibit increased number of EGF receptors. These include glial,93 pulmonary,94gastric,95breast,96and colonic95carcinomas. Similarly, a variety of cultured human carcinoma cell lines have been shown to have increased EGF receptor number.97103 Studies with A43177and other cell lines9394 indicate that in some instances the increase in EGF receptor number is associated with an increase in the number of copies of the gene coding for this receptor. This gene has been localized to the short arm of chromosome 7 in humans.104 Overexpression of the EGF receptor in clonal lines of A431 cells is most often, but not always, associated with a chromosomal translocation in this region.104 These translocations have been correlated with EGF receptor gene rearrangements and with the production of aberrant EGF receptor mRNAs.105 Structural or numerical alterations of chromosome 7 also occur in several different types of clinically important malignancies, including melanomas97 and pancreatic103 and pulmonary106carcinomas. There are many additional examples of the potential importance of clonal chromosomal abnormalities in human malignancies. These include a variety of translo­ cations in different leukemias, lymphomas, and carcinomas.107109 Further, a possible role for clonal chromosomal abnormalities in solid tumors of the gastrointestinal tract is supported by the finding that colorectal cancers are monoclonal in origin,110that many of these tumors exhibit a loss of the short arm of chromosome 17,110 and that an increased number of copies of chromosome 7 may occur in premalignant Barrett’s esophagus mucosa.111 These observations represent only a few of the many examples in which genetic information may be altered in some of the daughter cells of a given individual. The above findings also serve to emphasize the importance of the EGF receptor in the regulation of normal and abnormal cellular proliferation and the potential importance of the overexpression of the EGF receptor in the etiology or growth advantage of certain malignancies. The molecular mechanisms whereby cells overexpress the EGF receptor have therefore been investigated extensively. Although these regulatory steps have not been fully elucidated, the findings to date have delineated some of the pathways that may modulate the expression of a number of important growth regulating genes. In general, the promoter regions of genes regulate the transcriptional activation of these genes and contain regions that are called TATA or CCA AT boxes.112 These DNA sequences are important sites that function to regulate both the site of initiation of gene transcription and the rate of transcriptional synthesis.112 However, unlike many other genes, the promoter region of the EGF receptor gene does not have the classical TATA or CCAAT boxes.113Instead, in the case of the EGF receptor gene, the promoter region is rich in guanine and cytosine and contains multiple transcription initiation sites.113There appear to be at least eight nuclear protein binding areas within these sites, and these are potentially the target of proteins that are involved in the transcriptional activation of the gene.114 These DNA binding proteins are also called trans-acting factors because they are coded for by genes that are not necessarily in proximity to the genes whose transcription they regulate.115 In the case of the EGF receptor, a specific 270 kDa protein has been shown to activate EGF receptor gene transcription.113 A similar regulatory effect on EGF receptor gene transcription has also been demonstrated with several other DNA binding proteins, including the Sp-1 trans-acting

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factor.113The GC richness of the promoter region, the absence of either TATA or CCAAT boxes, and the presence of multiple transcription initiation sites is a characteristic feature of certain cellular oncogenes such as the ras genes,116117 housekeeping genes such as dihydrofolate reductase,118 and DNA tumor viruses such as human hepatitis B.119 The transcriptional regula­ tion of the gene coding for transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-a) also exhibits many of these features, but appears to be initiated from a single site.120 B. EGF BINDING The first step in the initiation of EGF action is represented by the binding of the ligand to its specific cell-surface receptor.121 Following binding and receptor autophosphorylation,65'67 the EGF-receptor complex translocates through the membrane and internalizes into the cell by a process called receptor-mediated endocytosis,122 a phenomenon which is also observed with many other peptide ligands. EGF binding is decreased by incubating cells with EGF.123This process of down-regulation is also observed with other hormones and growth factors. It is the consequence of the internalization and degradation of the cell-surface receptors following their occupation by the respective ligands and may represent a mechanism for dampening the actions of these ligands. The binding and subsequent endocytosis of peptides are also modulated by a variety of signals that are not related to the down-regulation phenomenon. In the case of EGF, binding is decreased by a l I24and ß l 125adrenergic agents, PDGF,126 CCK,127 carbachol,127caerulein,127 bombesin,127 vasopressin,128 fibroblast-derived growth factor (FGF),129 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3130and interleukin-1.131 The inhibitory effect of adrenergic agents is believed to be mediated through cyclic AMP (cAMP).125 In contrast, the inhibitory action of CCK is probably mediated through a rise in cytosolic free calcium,127as well as through the activation of protein kinase C,132 a calcium-activated, phospholipid-dependent enzyme.133 A variety of nonphysiological agents also modulate EGF binding. Foremost among these is tetradecanoyl-phorbol acetate (TPA), a compound that directly activates protein kinase C.133135 Presumably, protein kinase C decreases the affinity of the EGF receptor for EGF by phosphorylating the receptor on a threonine residue at position 654 close to the inner surface of the plasma membrane.136 This hypothesis is supported by the observation that, following conversion of the threonine residue at position 654 by site-directed mutagenesis into an alanine residue, the receptor is no longer modulated by TPA.137However, the mutated receptor is readily down-regulated by EGF, indicating that EGF-mediated inhibition of EGF binding is not dependent on activation of protein kinase C.137The importance of protein kinase C in modulating hormone-mediated signal transduction is also illustrated by the ability of this enzyme to induce the phosphorylation of several other hormone receptors, including the transferrin138 and ßadrenergic139receptors, and to cause the rapid internalization and degradation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.140 In contrast to the previous compounds, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß),141estro­ gen,142 glucocorticoids,143144 thyroxine,145 growth hormone,146 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TN F-a)147 increase EGF binding. In the case of TGF-ß, the stimulatory effect on EGF binding is preceded by a transient inhibitory effect.148Further, in cultured human gingival fibroblasts TNF decreases EGF binding.131 Thus, EGF receptor transmodulation can be activated by a variety of ligands in many different cell types. Further, modulation of EGF binding may result in altered responsiveness of target cells to subsequent action by EGF. However, in many instances, the exact relationship between the regulation of EGF binding and the subsequent biological response to EGF has not been completely delineated. In addition to binding EGF with a high affinity, the EGF receptor also binds TG F-a149 and vaccinia growth factor.150151 This ability of a cell-surface receptor to bind more than one ligand represents a mechanism whereby activation of cellular responses can be accomplished by more than one extracellular signal, even when these signals are acting through the same receptor. Another example of several hormones activating the same receptor is represented by the ability

11 of insulin, IGF-I and insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) to bind and activate the insulin receptor.152 Further, insulin binds and activates the IGF-I receptor.152 In many instances, the mitogenic effects of insulin are due to the activation of the IGF-I receptor and are not mediated via the insulin receptor.152 In contrast to the insulin/IGF-I relationship, there is no evidence for the existence of a distinct receptor for TGF-a. Instead, the biological activities of TGF-a are believed to be due exclusively to its ability to bind and activate the EGF receptor.153 154 TGF-a is a peptide growth factor that shares only a 35% homology with EGF.155156 However, it possesses six cysteine residues in the same relative positions as EGF.155156 The three-dimen­ sional configuration of the receptor binding domain of TGF-a is believed to be very similar to that of EGF, enabling TGF-a to readily bind to the EGF receptor and to phosphorylate it on tyrosine residues.157 As expected, EGF and TGF-a exert similar biological effects in a variety of cell types both in vitro and in v/vo.153-160 However, there are many exceptions to this rule. Thus, TGF-a exerts a greater stimulatory effect than EGF with respect to angiogenesis in the hamster cheek pouch model,161 calcium mobilization from fetal rat bones,162 arterial blood flow in the dog,163 skin wound healing,164 formation of keratinocyte megacolonies,165 induction of cell ruffling,166 and anchorage-independent growth of cultured human pancreatic carcinoma cells.167Further, TGFa is a more potent inhibitor of the proliferation of RL95-2 human endometrial carcinoma cells than EGF.168In addition to these quantitative differences, there are some examples of qualitative differences between the actions of the two growth factors. Thus, the inhibitory effect of TGFa on norepinephrine-induced contraction in arterial strips is not diminished following repeated exposure of the strips to TG F-a.163 In contrast, under the same experimental conditions, the response to EGF is greatly attenuated. Similarly, in primary lung carcinoma cells TGF-a enhances, whereas EGF inhibits cell proliferation.169Further, the chicken EGF receptor exhibits a higher affinity toward human TGF-a than toward murine EGF, and TGF-a is 100-fold more potent than EGF in stimulating DNA synthesis in 3T3 cells that express the chicken EGF receptor than in 3T3 cells that express the human homolog.170 Although the mechanisms underlying these various differences are not known, these observations raise the possibility that the two ligands acting via the same receptor may activate different effector pathways and second messengers. The binding of EGF to target cells may be altered under several physiological conditions and in certain disease states. For example, the differentiation of the granulosa cell in the rat is associated with changes in EGF binding.171 In this cell type, follicle stimulating hormone appears to maintain the increase in EGF receptor number and this effect is counterbalanced by leutinizing hormone and human chorionic gonadotropin.171 Similarly, EGF binding is increased in placental membranes during pregnancy and this effect is maximal at term.172173 This increase in EGF binding is due mainly to an increase in the low affinity binding sites and is abrogated in insulin-deficient diabetes.174Insulin deficiency is also associated with a decrease in EGF binding in the pancreas175 and liver.176 However, hyperinsulinemic diabetes is also associated with decreased hepatic binding of EGF.177 It is likely, therfore, that either the hyperglycemia per se or the associated metabolic changes cause the observed decreases in EGF binding. Presumably, in all these situations TGF-a binding is also altered, in parallel with the changes in EGF binding. C. EGF PROCESSING The way cells process peptide hormones and growth factors may potentially represent an important aspect of the regulation of growth control. The fate of cell-bound peptides has therefore been extensively studied in a variety of cell systems. In the case of EGF,122 as in the case of insulin,178 the internalized ligand is rapidly degraded within lysosomes or other acidic organelles. EGF degradation is initiated by the sequential removal of carboxy-terminal amino acids, and ultimately the ligand can no longer bind to its receptor.179 Ostensibly, degradation proceeds very rapidly following dissociation of the truncated ligand from its receptor within the

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Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract

acidic milieu of the lysosomal compartment. There is an increasing number of exceptions to this general scheme. Thus, EGF is not readily degraded in normal pancreatic acini,180 PANC-I human pancreatic carcinoma cells,181 and Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells.182 Similarly, endothelial cells bind and internalize insulin, but do not degrade this ligand.183 Therefore, the general dogma that peptide hormones and growth factors are always degraded following binding and internalization in target cells is no longer tenable. In the case of MDCK cells, limited EGF processing is associated with vectorial transcytosis of the ligand.182In the case of PANC-I cells, there is considerable recycling of the ligand between the intracellular and extracellular compartments, a phenomenon which may allow one EGF molecule to induce the internalization and degradation of numerous EGF receptors.180 Although it is possible that the limited degradation of EGF may also allow it to exert specific intracellular functions, the evidence in this regard is very limited. In contrast, several lines of evidence indicate that insulin, once internalized into certain target cells, may exert direct effects on their nuclei.184Thus, there is an increasing number of exceptions to the concept that only steroid hormones act directly at the level of the nucleus and that the actions of peptide hormones are mediated solely through their cell-surface receptors. D. MECHANISM OF ACTION OF EGF As in the case of many other pleiotypic peptides, EGF regulates cellular growth and differentiation through a variety of mechanisms. These include rapid changes in the phosphoryla­ tion of endogenous proteins, modulation of cytosolic free calcium levels and intracellular pH, and modulation of the expression of specific genes. 1. Kinase Activity The state of phosphorylation of many cellular proteins dictates whether these proteins are biologically active or inactive. Therefore, it is likely that alterations in the state of protein phosphorylation represent a general mechanism whereby hormones and growth factors elicit their biological actions, including their effects on cell proliferation and differentiation.185 187The enzymes that mediate the transfer of a phosphate group onto a protein are called kinases, whereas those that mediate the removal of a phosphate group are called phosphatases. In general, protein kinases that have been implicated in hormonally mediated regulation of cellular processes can be classified as belonging to two categories. One group of kinases phosphorylates proteins on tyrosine residues,188 as is the case for the growth factor receptors discussed earlier. The other phosphorylates proteins on threonine and serine residues. Both groups of kinases are dependent on the availability of ATP as their phosphate source, but some kinases preferentially use GTP. In addition to the hormone and growth factor receptors which possess tyrosine kinase activity, the protein products of certain oncogenes are known to undergo tyrosine auto­ phosphorylation.20 Thus, the oncogene product of the Rous sarcoma virus, pp60vsrc, is autophosphorylated at its carboxy-terminal end on tyrosine 416, and this phosphorylation is believed to be critical for the ability of the protein to exhibit protein kinase activity and to confer onto transfected cells the transformed phenotype.189 In contrast to the tyrosine kinases, the serine-threonine kinases are more heterogeneous and their activity is regulated by a variety of second messengers and other intracellular modulators that include cAMP, cyclic GMP (cGMP), calcium, calmodulin, arachidonic acid, polyamines, and phospholipids. There are at least five groups of calcium-calmodulin protein kinases, which have been classified as type I, II, or III, phosphorylase kinase, and myosin light-chain kinase.190 Type III calcium-calmodulin protein kinase phosphorylates elongation factor 2 and is stimulated by a number of mitogenic hormones and growth factors.191 Another kinase is known as the S6 kinase, which phosphorylates the S6 ribosomal protein.192 This kinase is also activated by a variety of mitogenic hormones and growth factors, including EGF, as well as by pp60vsrc.192 Another important kinase is the ubiquitous calcium-phospholipid dependent protein kinase,

13 also known as protein kinase C. This enzyme has been implicated in the regulation of gene expression and differentiated functions, cell proliferation, cellular differentiation in vitro, and embryonic development in v/vo.193-195 Sequence analysis of cloned cDNAs corresponding to the mRNAs coding for this enzyme indicate that there are several distinct but highly homologous forms of the enzyme, which are differentially expressed in various tissues.196198 In addition to diacylglycerol, certain unsaturated fatty acids such as arachidonic acid activate protein kinase C in either the presence or absence of phospholipid or calcium.199 Further, lysophosphatidylcholine activates protein kinase C at low concentrations, but inhibits it at high concentra­ tions.200 The importance of protein kinase C in the regulation of cell growth is dramatically underscored by the observation that its overexpression may be associated with altered prolifera­ tion and enhanced tumorigenicity.201-202 In addition to being a substrate for protein kinase C, the EGF receptor modulates the activities of a variety of kinases. The first kinase that is activated after EGF binds to its receptor is the kinase intrinsic to the receptor.75'77’85 87188 This results in tyrosine autophosphorylation of the EGF receptor at position 1173, which is believed by most investigators to activate the tyrosine kinase activity of the receptor toward other substrates. This activation may be the consequence of the removal of an inhibitory constraint that in the unstimulated state prevents the receptor from binding to its substrates.203,204EGF receptor tyrosine autophosphorylation is calcium- and cyclic nucleotide-independent, but requires the presence of either magnesium or manganese.205These divalent cations enhance tyrosine autophosphorylation by lowering the Kmfor the phosphate donor.205 Manganese is somewhat more potent than magnesium in contributing to the activation of the intrinsic kinase activity of the EGF receptor.206 However, when the EGF receptor is isolated in the presence of detergent in its monomeric form, the EGF dependence of the tyrosine kinase activity requires the presence of 0.25 M ammonium sulfate in addition to manganese.207 In contrast, the intrinsic kinase activity of the monomeric EGF receptor is activated by magnesium in the absence of ammonium sulfate.207 Although the role of ammonium sulfate has not been elucidated, these observations suggest that a single EGF receptor molecule is capable of being activated by EGF and that divalent metal cations may be directly involved in this activation process.207 Nonetheless, EGF receptor dimerization appears to be important in the physiological activation of its kinase activity.208209 In contrast to the EGF receptor, the insulin receptor exhibits an absolute requirement for manganese.210211 The importance of manganese in the regulation of certain phosphorylation reactions is also exemplified by the existence of specific manganese-dependent kinases in the stomach,212brain,213 and HL-60 cells.214Further, manganese activates cytosolic casein kinase II, an enzyme that is inhibited by heparin and stimulated by spermidine and that phosphorylates a 110 kDa protein as well as other endogenous proteins.215 Inasmuch as both EGF and insulin enhance the activity of casein kinase II,216these observations raise the possibility that manganese may modulate the signal transduction pathways activated by certain growth factors and hormones.217 Phosphorylation of the EGF receptor also occurs at other tyrosine sites, as well as on serine and threonine residues. It is believed that the resultant covalent modifications represent an important mechanism for modulating the biological actions of the receptor, as well as for dictating its intracellular distribution and ultimate fate.218 Consequently, activation of the EGF receptor by EGF results in the phosphorylation of a number of endogenous proteins. The potential of the activated EGF receptor to act as a kinase is illustrated by the rapidity of the phosphorylation reactions,219 as well as by the diversity of the phosphorylated proteins. In A431 cell membranes, the major protein phosphorylated by EGF is a 35 kDa protein variably known as calpactin II or lipocortin I.220’221 In different cell types EGF also phosphorylates proteins with molecular weights of 120 kDa, 95 kDa, 42 kDa, 36 kDa, 34 kDa, and 22 kDa.222 229 Activation of the EGF receptor also results in the activation of protein kinase C, as well as other kinases.230231 In addition, the EGF receptor can phosphorylate angiotensin II,232 the glu­

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Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract

cocorticoid receptor,233 gastrin,234growth hormone,235 and the protein product of the erb B-2/neu oncogene.236,237 The latter protein is a 185 kDa receptor (pl85"eM) which shares significant homology with the EGF receptor.238239 Its discovery represents the first example of the charac­ terization of a receptor whose ligand is unknown. p\S5neu exhibits tyrosine activity and appears to be very important in modulating the growth of certain cancer cells.240,241 The ability of the EGF receptor to modulate the phosphorylation of the glucocorticoid receptor and of p\85neu is illustrative of the many examples in which distinct hormones and growth factors modulate the actions of each other and interact through a variety of mechanisms. The most direct evidence that activation of the EGF receptor tyrosine kinase is a crucial step for transmitting the mitogenic signal that is initiated following the binding of EGF to its receptor is based on studies in which the receptor has been altered by site-directed mutagenesis. These studies have evaluated mutant EGF receptors possessing a point mutation at the ATP binding site of the tyrosine kinase domain (Lys-721),242'244an insertional mutation within the consensus sequence of this domain,245 or point mutations at both Lys-721 and Thr-654.246 The resultant mutated receptors do not have intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity. Further, when the EGF receptor is altered at the primary tyrosine site for in vivo autophosphorylation (Tyr-1173) its tyrosine kinase activity in response to low levels of EGF is markedly attenuated.247Cells transfected with tyrosine kinase deficient EGF receptors lose their responsiveness to EGF with respect to proliferation and with respect to the activation of a variety of cellular functions that are modulated by EGF.218242'246 Further, the half-life of the EGF receptor in these cells is markedly prolonged as a result of either enhanced recycling or attenuated endocytosis and degradation of the receptor.242248In contrast, a mutated EGF receptor containing tyrosine kinase activity but deficient for the carboxy-terminal phosphorylation sites undergoes normal endocytosis in response to EGF.248 Similarly, a subclone of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells transfected with a variant EGF receptor that is also deficient for all three carboxy-terminal tyrosine residues still exhibits a proliferative response to EGF.249 Other types of experiments indicate that specific inhibitors of the EGF receptor tyrosine kinase block the ability of EGF to induce cell proliferation.250 Further, dephosphorylation by prostatic acid phosphatase of EGF receptors obtained from DU 145 prostatic cancer cells results in attenuated tyrosine kinase activity.251 However, partial proteolysis of the EGF receptor yields a trypsin resistant 40 kDa moiety that contains the functional tyrosine kinase domain.252253 Taken together, these observations suggest that ligand induced endocytosis and mitogenesis occur even when the tyrosine kinase activity of the receptor is directed at tyrosine sites other than those located at the carboxy-terminal end of the receptor, that this tyrosine kinase activity may be liberated in an active form within the cell during the process of intracellular degradation of the receptor, that complete inactivation of the tyrosine kinase activity abolishes the ability of the EGF receptor to transmit its mitogenic signals, and that endogenous phosphatases may modulate EGF receptor bioactivity in vivo. The tyrosine kinase deficient insulin receptor also fails to transmit insulin-activated sig­ nals.254 256 Similarly, other mutations within different regions of a number of hormone and growth factor receptors have helped elucidate their structure-function relationship.87 As the number of peptide hormones and growth factors that are being implicated in the regulation of cell proliferation continues to grow (Table 1), it is likely that additional tyrosine kinase dependent and independent mechanisms will be delineated. The growth-promoting roles of many of these peptides have been recently reviewed.257 -263 2. Calcium Calcium is an important second messenger that participates in the regulation of important cellular processes, including cell proliferation and differentiation.264,265The level of intracellular free calcium within a cell is dependent on basal calcium influx and efflux, on effector systems that act to modulate calcium influx and calcium mobilization from intracellular stores, and on

15 TABLE 1 Growth and Differentiation Regulating Peptide Factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Insulin Insulin-like growth factor I Insulin-like growth factor II Relaxin Epiderm al growth factor V accinia growth factor Platelet-derived growth factor A Platelet-derived growth factor B Platelet-derived growth factor AB Transform ing growth factor Bj Transform ing growth factor B2 Transform ing growth factor B 3 Inhibin A Inhibin B M ullerian inhibitory substance Bom besin Cholecystokinin

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

Gastrin Nerve growth factor K aposi’s sarcom a heparin-bound growth factor Erythropoietin Throm bopoietin Granulocyte-m acrophage colony stim ulating factor G ranulocyte colony stim ulating factor Interleukin-1 Interleukin-2 Interleukin-6 Tumor necrosis facto r-a Tum or necrosis factor-ß Interferon-a Interferon-ß Interferon-gam m a Acidic fibroblast growth factor Basic fibroblast growth factor

the buffering capacity of intracellular organelles that act to sequester the cation.266267Physiologi­ cal mobilization of intracellular calcium by peptide hormones, growth factors, and neurotrans­ mitters occurs following activation of phospholipase C.268 This enzyme induces the hydrolysis of membrane associated phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate, resulting in the generation of inositol trisphosphate (Ins-1,4,5-P3) and diacylglycerol, the putative endogenous activator of protein kinase C.269 Ins-1,4,5-P3 raises cytosolic free calcium levels by releasing calcium from intracellular stores, most notably from the endoplasmic reticulum where it ostensibly binds to a specific receptor.270'272 Ins-1,4,5-P3 is either converted by a phosphomonoesterase to a metabolically inactive isomer or by Ins-l,4,5-P3-kinase to inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (Ins-1,3,4,5-P4).273 276 Ins-1,3,4,5-P4 may act together with Ins-1,4,5-P3 to enhance receptormediated calcium influx.277'279 It is also possible that Ins-1,4,5-P3 acts directly to increase calcium influx.280 282 In addition, other phosphoinositides appear to be generated, and these compounds may also be important in modulating cellular calcium homeostasis.283284 The activation of Ins-1,4,5-P3-kinase may be modulated by calcium,285'287 whereas the regu­ lation of calcium deposition and release in the Ins-l,4,5-P3-mobilizable compartment may be modulated by GTP and protein kinase C, respectively.288 290Further, Ins-1,4,5-P4 may also act to sequester cytosolic calcium.291 These observations suggest that the rise in cytosolic free calcium levels that occurs following activation of phospholipid hydrolysis may be controlled by complex feedback mechanisms and that these regulatory pathways may contribute to the oscillations in the levels of cytosolic free calcium that occur following receptor activation with a variety of ligands.292Irrespective of the complexity of these biochemical pathways, it is evident that the dual stimulation of two key regulatory steps (calcium and protein kinase C) that accompanies receptor-mediated phospholipid hydrolysis has the potential to initiate a cascade of intracellular reactions and modulate many cellular processes. The role of calcium in mediating many of the effects of hormones such as cholecystokinin and bombesin has been recognized for a long time.293'295 In contrast, the importance of this divalent cation in mediating the actions of EGF has been only recently documented in an unequivocal manner. Thus, in A431 cells and other cells that overexpress the EGF receptor, EGF has been shown to rapidly enhance 45Ca2+influx, stimulate the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate, and induce rapid increases in the levels of Ins-1,4,5-P3 and Ins-1,3,4,568,296^he marked and prolonged activation of the phosphatidylinositol cycle in A431 cells by EGF may be dependent on the tyrosine phosphorylation of a protein which then activates phospholipase C.297 However, there does not appear to be concomitant activation of protein

16

Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract

kinase C in these cells.298 To further complicate matters, a subclone of the MDA-468 human breast cancer cell line is absolutely dependent on EGF for growth, and this requirement is abrogated by pertussis toxin.299 It is therefore likely that the effects of EGF on the growth of certain cell lines that overexpress the EGF receptor is mediated, in part, via G-proteins.300 Inasmuch as these proteins are also believed to participate in the regulation of receptor-mediated calcium mobilization,301 it is possible that EGF may regulate cellular calcium homeostasis by acting through G-proteins. In addition to acting via phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis, ligands can modulate intracellular free calcium levels by inducing calcium influx as a result of their ability to activate voltagedependent and nonvoltage-dependent calcium channels.302303 Both types of channels can be activated by phosphoinositides, protein kinase C, or G proteins.304305 Often, there are concomi­ tant rapid stimulatory effects on the sodium-hydrogen antiport system that is located in the cell membrane, leading to increased sodium influx and increased intracellular pH.306EGF is known to activate the sodium-hydrogen antiport system307 309 and this effect is mimicked by activation of protein kinase C.310 It is believed, therefore, that EGF and growth factors induce cellular alkalinization by activating protein kinase C.310However, the sodium-hydrogen antiport system is also activated by a rise in cytosolic free calcium levels,311raising the possibility that EGF may also be acting via calcium to induce cellular alkalinization. Irrespective of the mechanisms, the actions of EGF and other growth factors on intracellular pH appear to be a component of a number of early signals generated following ligand binding that ultimately lead to initiation of cell proliferation.312313 In addition to inhibiting EGF binding and endocytosis in certain cells, calcium activates an intracellular protease that can degrade the EGF receptor at neutral pH.314 The protease acts to cleave off a portion of the cytosolic domain of the receptor, raising the possibility that it may modulate EGF receptor number and function in intact cells.315 Further, EGF regulates prolactin gene expression via calcium316 and retards keratinocyte differentiation through unknown mechanisms that may be modulated by calcium.317318Thus, when keratinocytes are grown in the presence of low levels of extracellular calcium their rate of differentiation is slowed.319The cells fail to stratify and lose the capacity to form desmosomes.320 Concomitantly, the cells exhibit a marked increase in EGF binding.318 Taken together, the above observations suggest that some of the actions of EGF are modulated by calcium, whereas others are mediated by calcium, and that EGF-induced alterations in cellular calcium homeostasis may be dependent on the ability of EGF to increase the tyrosine kinase activity of the EGF receptor. 3. Gene Activation It is widely recognized that steroid hormones act at the level of the nucleus to modulate gene expression.321 323 In recent years it has become evident that many peptide hormones and growth factors also regulate the expression of specific genes by directly altering their rate of transcrip­ tion. In addition, hormones and growth factors can modulate the levels of specific mRNAs indirectly, by controlling the rate of efflux from the nucleus of a particular mRNA, by increasing or decreasing the half-life of the mRNA, and by directing the splicing of a particular precursor mRNA. For example, insulin increases amylase mRNA levels in the rat exocrine pancreas,324 enhances albumin gene transcription in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes,325 decreases mRNA levels for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase in rat hepatoma cells,326 and increases c-fos mRNA levels in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts.327 IGF-I, which regulates both cell differentiation and proliferation, acts at the transcriptional level to modulate the expression of certain genes and regulates the stability of the transcripts of other genes that are constitutively expressed.328PDGF, a growth factor that makes cells competent for subsequent cell division, appears to act by rapidly inducing the activity of a number of important growth regulating genes which include c-fos, cmyc, KC, JE, and JB.329 332 EGF and TGF-a also stimulate c-fos and c-myc.33X334These nuclear oncogenes appear to have

17 a crucial role in the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation. The viral homolog of cfo s, v-fos, was originally identified as a transforming gene in the FBJ-murine osteosarcoma virus.335 Both v- and c-fos form a complex with a 39 kDa protein,336 which is now known to be the protein product of the c-jun oncogene.337 339 The latter oncogene is the normal cellular homolog of a transforming gene that was originally isolated from avian sarcoma virus 17.340 Its name derives from the fact that 17 in Japanese is “ju-nanna.”340 The c-jun protein product has been determined to be identical to the AP-1 transcription factor.341342 AP-1 was originally characterized as a DNA-binding protein that recognizes a specific sequence on the human metallothionein IIA gene and SV40 virus.342343 This regulatory binding site, TGACTCA, is present in many other genes and is also recognized by the DNA binding domain of the yeast transcription factor GCN4.341342344 346Further, the amino acid sequence of this domain is similar to those of c-jun and c-fos .344 All three proteins have amino terminal ends that are rich in basic amino acids and carboxy-terminal ends that have five to six leucine residues which are separated by sequences of six amino acids, indicating that these structural features are functionally important.346 Indeed, activation of genes that are regulated by the AP-1 regulatory elements occurs following the binding of the protein products of c-jun and c-fos, which in turn is dependent on the ability of these proteins to form a dimeric complex.346 Formation of this complex occurs as a result of an interaction between opposing leucine residues on the two proteins, a phenomenon which has been called the leucine zipper.346 349 EGF also enhances the transcription of c-jun.350Thus, the rapid activation of c-fos and c-jun by EGF and other mitogenic growth factors and differentiation agents, which occurs by both transcriptional and posttranscriptional mechanisms, results in intranuclear regulatory interactions between their protein products.346'358 This mechanism ostensibly allows for the precise activation of the transcription of specific growth regulating genes.346'358 The exact mechanisms whereby EGF induces the transcription of c-myc and c-fos are not known. It is established, however, that in Swiss 3T3 cells this effect is independent of protein kinase C activation.359 In contrast, in the same cells, the effects of bombesin c-myc and c-fos induction appear to be mediated via protein kinase C.359 Similarly, the induction by EGF of the proliferation-associated VL-30 gene in mouse AKR-2B cells occurs via a C-kinase independent mechanism.360 EGF also increases the transcription of the EGF receptor gene in several cell lines.361364 In the liver, this induction phenomenon appears to be mediated by mechanisms that are both C-kinase dependent and independent.363 The actions of EGF on gene expression are most likely modulated by a variety of factors. Thus, the ability of EGF to enhance transin mRNA expression is antagonized by TGF-ß.365 Similarly, the actions of EGF on EGF receptor gene induction are modulated by gammainterferon.364 It is also probable that many hormones and growth factors act through a variety of mechanisms to modulate the expression of genes that are also modulated by EGF. For example, C-kinase activation can induce c-jun transcription,359 thereby potentially modulating the action of EGF. Similarly, TGF-ß modulates the actions of EGF on phosphatidylinositol metabolism and cellular calcium homeostasis,366 thereby potentially altering the effects of EGF on gene transcription. 4. Differentiation/Growth Inhibition In addition to its mitogenic effects, EGF modulates a variety of differentiated functions that range from regulation of smooth muscle contraction to the maintenance of cell survival.163’367’368 EGF also has an important role in fetal development, as well as in the postnatal development of certain tissues. In the fetus, EGF participates in the regulation of palate growth and differentia­ tion,369 pulmonary development and maturation,370371 and gastrointestinal mucosa matura­ tion.372 In the postnatal period EGF may also have an important role in the further maturation of a number of tissues.373374 It is also possible that milk-borne EGF may be especially important during this early neonatal period.375 The EGF ingested by the suckling may act locally on

18

Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract

enterocyte development376 and systemically following absorption through the immature intestine.377It is possible that the actions of EGF on intestinal maturation are mediated, in part, through its effects on polyamine synthesis.378 EGF has also been implicated in the regulation of cellular differentiation and maturation in a number of tissues and cell types.121,317318,379 383 In some cell types, the differentiation-inducing actions of EGF are not associated with any changes in cell proliferation, indicating that the two processess are not necessarily linked. Thus, in cultured term trophoblasts, EGF induces the fusion of cytotrophoblasts into differentiated syncytiotrophoblasts without inducing cellular proliferation.383 Conversely, in some cell types EGF prevents the process of differentiation. Thus, in BC3H1 mouse smooth muscle cells, EGF is both a mitogen and an inhibitor of cellular differentiation.384In this cell line EGF also blocks the expression of muscle specific proteins.384 The importance of EGF in the inhibition of cellular differentiation is also underscored by the observation that in some cell types EGF receptors are no longer expressed as the cells acquire a terminally differentiated state.385 Similarly, the regenerating liver386 and pancreas387 exhibit a decrease in EGF binding that coincides with maximal mitotic activity, raising the possibility that in these tissues EGF is a differentiation inducing agent and that the differentiation signal is attenuated during mitogenesis as a result of the decrease in EGF binding. In support of this hypothesis, the in vivo administration of EGF to Sprague Dawley rats is associated with decreased pancreatic DNA synthesis and modulation of differentiated acinar cell functions.388,389 EGF is also known to inhibit the proliferation of many different types of cultured cells. Thus, EGF inhibits the growth of A431 human vulvar carcinoma cells,390,391 several human mammary and squamous carcinoma cells,392,393 RL95-2 human endometrial cancer cells,394 a human hepatoma cell line,395two types of rat pituitary tumor cells,396,397 and R IE -1 rat intestinal cells.398 The growth inhibitory effects of EGF have been most extensively studied in A431 cells. These studies suggested that the inhibitory actions of EGF were due to the presence of a large number of EGF receptors in this cell line, which are reported to range from one to six million receptors per cell.399 EGF appears to act at two levels in the cell cycle in A431 cells; it blocks their entry into mitosis and it impedes their progression from Gt into the S phase of the cycle.400 It was initially proposed that the inhibitory effect of EGF was due to excessive kinase stimulation which ostensibly depletes cellular energy stores.399In support of this hypothesis, concentrations of EGF that are suboptimal for full kinase activation (3 to 100 pM) are mitogenic in this cell line.401 It was also suggested that the stimulatory effect of EGF in these cells, as in the case of other cell types, may be mediated by a small group of high affinity receptors.401,402 It has been suggested that EGF-induced changes in the cytoskeleton interefere with the mitotic process, thereby causing EGF to inhibit cell growth.403 However, several of the cell lines cited above do not overexpress the EGF receptor, and a clonal line of A431 cells undergoes marked morpho­ logical changes in the presence of EGF but is not growth-inhibited.404 These observations suggest that the EGF receptor number per se does not necessarily dictate the biological response to EGF and that the morphological actions of EGF are not directly linked to its growth-inhibitory effects. The growth of RL95 -2 and R 1E-1 is inhibited by EGF when the cells are plated at low seeding densities, but is enhanced by EGF when the cells are plated at high seeding densities.168,398 It is therefore likely that postreceptor events, including cell density and other factors, contribute to the ultimate responsiveness of the cell to EGF. It has been suggested that EGF-mediated growth inhibition may occur following activation of a critical ratio of high- and low-affinity receptors in susceptible cell types.168 Although both high- and low-affinity EGF receptors are expressed in transfection experiments in which a single EGF receptor cDNA was used,218 the two classes of receptors exhibit certain functional differences. Thus, the number of high-affinity binding sites is markedly decreased by protein kinase C activators and is increased by sphingosine through protein kinase C independent mechanisms, whereas the low-affinity binding sites are not similarly regulated.405,406Further, the lateral mobility of the low-affinity receptors within the

19 membrane is greater than that of the high-affinity receptors, even though this lateral mobility appears to be independent of most of the cytoplasmic domain of the receptor.407Therefore, it is conceivable that different effector pathways are activated by the high- and low-affinity binding sites. Irrespective of the underlying mechanisms, these findings lend further support to the hypothesis that growth factors may act as bifunctional regulators of cell growth.257

VI. SUMMARY The regulation of the proliferative response of eukaryotic cells is very complex and is dependent on the activation of multiple intracellular processes by both intracellular and extracellular signals. The extracellular signals are provided numerous hormones, growth factors, neurotransmitters, and a variety of nutrients. The actions of these extracellular signals are modulated in complex ways and are modified by various components in the extracellular matrix.408 The resultant interactions lead to the activation of many cellular processes that include the induction of phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis, regulation of ion fluxes, phosphorylation of numerous proteins, activation of a variety of genes including protooncogenes, and specific intranuclear interactions between many nuclear trans-binding proteins. The ultimate response of a eukaryotic cell to this tremendous input of complex signals is often dictated by its differentiated state and may be different from cell type to cell type. As illustrated in this review with respect to EGF, instead of relying on the activation of just one regulatory pathway, hormones and growth factors often activate a cascade of intracellular reactions the complexity of which is yet to be fully understood. In many instances this regulation is modulated further by a variety of autocrine and paracrine mechanisms, whose importance in the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation in both normal and disease states is still being unraveled.

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