Emerging Contaminants Handbook [1 ed.] 9781138062948, 9781315161341, 9781351665063, 9781351665056, 9781351665070

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook [1 ed.]
 9781138062948, 9781315161341, 9781351665063, 9781351665056, 9781351665070

Table of contents :

Chapter 1 Introduction to Emerging Contaminants. Chapter 2 1,4-Dioxane. Chapter 3 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances. Chapter 4 Hexavalent Chromium. Chapter 5 1,2,3-Trichloropropane. Chapter 6 Considerations for Future Contaminants of Emerging Concern. Appendix A USEPA Candidate Contaminant List. Appendix B REACH Candidate List. Appendix C Emerging Contaminants and Their Physical and Chemical Properties. Appendix D NGI Preliminary List of Substances That Could Be Considered to Meet the PMT or vPvM Criteria. Appendix E.1 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Soil. Appendix E.2 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Groundwater. Appendix E.3 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Surface Water. Appendix E.4 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Drinking Water. Appendix E Notes.

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook

Emerging Contaminants Handbook

Edited by Caitlin H. Bell, Margaret Gentile, Erica Kalve, Ian Ross, John Horst, and Suthan Suthersan With foreword by Thomas K.G. Mohr

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-06294-8 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www. copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bell, Caitlin H., author. Title: Emerging contaminants handbook / Caitlin H. Bell, Erica Kalve, Ian Ross, John Horst and Margaret Gentile. Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa, plc, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2018036093 | ISBN 9781138062948 (hardback : acid-free paper) Subjects: LCSH: Pollutants—Handbooks, manuals, etc. Classification: LCC TD176.4 .B45 2018 | DDC 363.738—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018036093 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

In Memoriam

SUTHAN SUTHERSAN, PhD, PE

The idea for this book came from Dr. Suthan Suthersan, who sadly and unexpectedly passed away before the project could be completed. Throughout his 30-year career, Dr. Suthersan was an inspirational leader and trusted friend to many in the field of environmental remediation. His groundbreaking work and vision for the future showed us time after time why he was acknowledged as one of the most knowledgeable, energetic, and creative people in the field of remediation. Dr. Suthersan grew up in numerous rural villages across Sri Lanka because of his father’s frequent transfers working for the railways. Despite significant financial pressure, his parents unselfishly supported their children, both encouraging them and setting very high expectations for their educational progress. Dr. Suthersan’s engineering journey began at the Jaffna College and then the University of Sri Lanka, Peradeniya, where he obtained a degree in Civil Engineering. The political climate of Sri Lanka was tumultuous, and he endured multiple closings of the university during his four

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In Memoriam

years in Peradeniya. After a brief time at the National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Dr. Suthersan obtained scholarships to the Asian Institute of Technology in Bangkok, Thailand, and then the University of Toronto where he obtained his Masters and PhD degrees in Environmental Engineering and Waste Water Engineering. After graduation, Dr. Suthersan secured a short-term research and development position at the University of Wyoming. During his stay in Wyoming, Dr. Suthersan married his wonderful wife, Sumathy. In 1986, Dr. Suthersan became a consulting engineer with Groundwater Technology Inc. (GTI) at their corporate office in Norwood, Massachusetts. It was a special place at that time where many of the leading remediation practitioners were trained during those early years of the industry. In 1990, Dr. Suthersan joined the much-respected consulting company Geraghty and Miller (which later became Arcadis) where he came under the direct tutelage of David Miller, the founder of the company. In Dr. Suthersan’s own words, this move “began the most productive, enjoyable and rewarding portion of my engineering journey.” Until his passing in early 2017, Dr. Suthersan was Chief Technical Officer and Executive Vice President at Arcadis, where he tirelessly worked to make groundbreaking contributions toward technology development, and developing best practices and knowledge-sharing platforms. Over the years, Dr. Suthersan was awarded more than 20 technology patents and he authored four books: Remediation Engineering (1996), Natural and Enhanced Remediation Systems (2001), In Situ Remediation Engineering (2004), and the second edition of Remediation Engineering (2017). Dr. Suthersan also contributed to the groundwater remediation community through a regularly featured column in the journal of Ground water Monitoring and Remediation, which continues today. Throughout all of his success, Suthan maintained a passion for promoting and empowering young staff to “see beyond others”; mentoring them to embrace change and show courage and curiosity; and constantly reminding them that collaboration is the key to success. This is Dr. Suthersan’s final book. His motivation for starting the project came from a recognition of how the Information Age has had a profound effect on the speed with which new contaminants

In Memoriam

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make it into the public consciousness, such that the dialogue outpaces the science. He also recognized that the topic of emerging contaminants is vast, complex, and fraught with sensitivity. Consequently, rather than attempting something comprehensive, he envisioned a handbook that addresses a set of contaminants in the mainstream dialogue with information on contaminant sources, the status of toxicological research and regulations, and technologies for characterization and (mainly) groundwater treatment. We dedicate this book to him. His legacy will continue to inspire and guide engineers, scientists, regulators, students, and researchers around the world to advance our shared mission of improving the quality of life—today, tomorrow, and long into the future. He will be dearly missed.

Table of Contents List of Figures���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xv List of Tables�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xix Foreword�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxiii Acknowledgments��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxv Editors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxvii Contributors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxix Chapter 1 Introduction to Emerging Contaminants���������������������������������������������� 1 1.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 1.2 Who Identifies Emerging Contaminants?��������������������������������� 3 1.2.1 United States Environmental Protection Agency��������� 4 1.2.2 United States Department of Defense��������������������������6 1.2.3 United States Geologic Survey������������������������������������� 7 1.2.4 State Agencies in the United States�����������������������������7 1.2.5 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants���������������������������������������������������������������������� 8 1.2.6 European Union�����������������������������������������������������������9 1.2.7 Australian National Environment Protection Council����������������������������������������������������������������������� 10 1.3 What is the Life Cycle of an Emerging Contaminant?����������� 11 1.4 What are the Key Challenges Associated with Emerging Contaminants?�������������������������������������������������������� 15 1.5 The Need for Balance�������������������������������������������������������������� 17 1.6 This Book�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19 Acronyms��������������������������������������������������������������������������������25 Chapter 2 1,4-Dioxane���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 2.1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 2.2 Basic Information�������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 2.3 Toxicity and Risk Assessment������������������������������������������������� 32 2.3.1 Potential Noncancer Effects��������������������������������������� 33 2.3.2 Potential Cancer Effects���������������������������������������������34 2.4 Regulatory Status�������������������������������������������������������������������� 35 2.5 Site Characterization��������������������������������������������������������������� 38 2.5.1 Investigation Approaches������������������������������������������� 39 2.5.2 Analytical Methods���������������������������������������������������� 41 2.5.3 Advanced Investigation Techniques��������������������������� 48 2.6 Soil Treatment������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50 2.7 Groundwater Treatment����������������������������������������������������������� 51 2.7.1 In Situ Treatment�������������������������������������������������������� 51 2.7.1.1 In Situ Chemical Oxidation������������������������ 51 2.7.1.2 Bioremediation�������������������������������������������� 54 ix

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2.7.1.3 Phytoremediation���������������������������������������� 59 2.7.1.4 Thermal Treatment�������������������������������������60 2.7.2 Ex Situ Treatment and Dynamic Groundwater Recirculation�������������������������������������������������������������� 61 2.7.3 Natural Attenuation���������������������������������������������������� 62 2.8 Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment���������������������������� 65 2.8.1 Point-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment���������������66 2.9 1,4-Dioxane Treatment Technologies for Drinking Water Treatment and Ex Situ Groundwater Remediation������������������66 2.9.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes���������������������������������� 69 2.9.2 Bioreactors������������������������������������������������������������������ 71 2.9.3 Granular Activated Carbon and Other Sorbent Media������������������������������������������������������������ 73 2.9.4 Electrochemical Oxidation����������������������������������������� 75 2.10 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76 Acronyms�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83 Chapter 3 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances�������������������������������������������������� 85 3.1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85 3.2 PFASs Chemistry�������������������������������������������������������������������� 88 3.2.1 Ionic State������������������������������������������������������������������� 91 3.2.2 Linear and Branched Isomers������������������������������������ 91 3.2.3 Perfluoroalkyl Substances������������������������������������������92 3.2.3.1 Perfluoroalkyl Sulfonic Acids��������������������� 95 3.2.3.2 Perfluoroalkyl Carboxylic Acids����������������96 3.2.3.3 Perfluoroalkyl Phosphonic and Phosphinic Acids����������������������������������������96 3.2.3.4 Perfluoroalkyl Ether Carboxylates and Perfluoroalkyl Ether Sulfonates������������������97 3.2.4 Polyfluoroalkyl Substances���������������������������������������� 98 3.2.4.1 ECF-Derived Polyfluoroalkyl Substances�������������������������������������������������� 98 3.2.4.2 Fluorotelomerization-Derived Polyfluoroalkyl Substances����������������������� 100 3.2.5 Long- and Short-Chain PFASs��������������������������������� 105 3.2.6 Polymeric PFASs������������������������������������������������������ 106 3.2.7 Replacement PFASs������������������������������������������������� 107 3.2.8 Chemistry of PFASs in Class B Firefighting Foams������107 3.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties��������������������� 110 3.3.1 Biological Activity Towards PFASs������������������������� 112 3.3.2 Transformation of Polyfluoroalkyl Substances�������� 114 3.3.2.1 Abiotic Transformation����������������������������� 115 3.3.2.2 Biotic Transformation������������������������������� 115 3.4 PFASs Production and Use���������������������������������������������������� 119 3.4.1 Manufacturing Processes and Uses�������������������������� 120

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3.4.2 Electrochemical Fluorination����������������������������������� 120 3.4.3 Fluorotelomerization������������������������������������������������ 122 3.4.4 Oligomerization�������������������������������������������������������� 122 3.4.5 Uses�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123 3.4.5.1 Use as Surfactants������������������������������������� 123 3.4.5.2 Use as Surface Coatings��������������������������� 123 3.4.5.3 Other Uses������������������������������������������������ 123 3.5 Sampling and Analysis���������������������������������������������������������� 125 3.5.1 General Sampling Guidelines���������������������������������� 125 3.5.1.1 Soil and Sediment Sampling�������������������� 125 3.5.1.2 Surface Water and Groundwater Sampling��������������������������������������������������� 125 3.5.1.3 Storage and Hold Times��������������������������� 128 3.5.2 Chemical Analysis Methods������������������������������������ 128 3.5.2.1 Overview of Standard Methods���������������� 129 3.5.2.2 Advanced Analytical Techniques������������� 129 3.6 Health Considerations����������������������������������������������������������� 139 3.6.1 Exposure Routes������������������������������������������������������� 139 3.6.2 Distribution in Tissue����������������������������������������������� 139 3.6.3 Bioaccumulation������������������������������������������������������� 140 3.6.4 Elimination��������������������������������������������������������������� 142 3.6.5 Toxicologic and Epidemiological Studies���������������� 144 3.6.5.1 Acute Toxicity������������������������������������������� 144 3.6.5.2 (Sub)Chronic Toxicity������������������������������� 144 3.6.5.3 Epidemiological Studies��������������������������� 144 3.6.5.4 Polyfluoroalkyl Substance Toxicity���������� 145 3.6.5.5 Derivation of Reference Doses/ Tolerable Daily Intakes����������������������������� 146 3.6.5.6 Carcinogenic Effects�������������������������������� 146 3.7 Regulation������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 150 3.7.1 Regulation of PFASs������������������������������������������������ 150 3.7.1.1 Global Treaties and Conventions�������������� 150 3.7.1.2 United States of America�������������������������� 152 3.7.1.3 Europe������������������������������������������������������� 153 3.7.1.4 Australia���������������������������������������������������� 153 3.7.2 Regulation of Perfluoroalkyl Ethers������������������������� 154 3.8 Fate and Transport����������������������������������������������������������������� 154 3.8.1 PFAS Distribution in Environmental Matrices�������� 155 3.8.1.1 PFASs in Soils������������������������������������������ 156 3.8.1.2 Leaching��������������������������������������������������� 156 3.8.1.3 Transport and Retardation in Groundwater���160 3.8.1.4 Surface Waters and Sediments����������������� 165 3.8.1.5 Vapor Migration���������������������������������������� 166 3.8.1.6 Atmospheric Deposition��������������������������� 166 3.8.2 Detections and Background Levels in the Environment������������������������������������������������������������� 167

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3.8.3

Sites of Concern������������������������������������������������������� 180 3.8.3.1 CSM for Industrial Facilities..................... 181 3.8.3.2 CSM for Fire Training Areas and Class B Fire Response Areas����������������������������� 181 3.8.3.3 CSM for WWTPs and Biosolid Application Areas������������������������������������� 186 3.8.3.4 CSM for Landfills������������������������������������� 187 3.9 PFAS-Relevant Treatment Technologies������������������������������� 188 3.9.1 Biological Treatment������������������������������������������������ 191 3.9.2 Soil and Sediment Treatment����������������������������������� 191 3.9.2.1 Incineration����������������������������������������������� 192 3.9.2.2 Stabilization/Solidification����������������������� 193 3.9.2.3 Vapor Energy Generator Technology������� 194 3.9.2.4 Soil/Sediment Washing���������������������������� 196 3.9.2.5 High-Energy Electron Beam�������������������� 196 3.9.2.6 Mechanochemical Destruction����������������� 197 3.9.3 Water Treatment������������������������������������������������������� 198 3.9.3.1 Mature Water Treatment Technologies����� 198 3.9.3.2 Developing Treatment Technologies�������� 210 3.9.3.3 Experimental Treatment Technologies����� 212 3.10 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 217 Acronyms������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 257 Chapter 4 Hexavalent Chromium��������������������������������������������������������������������� 263 4.1

4.2 4.3

4.4

4.5

Basic Information������������������������������������������������������������������ 263 4.1.1 Geochemistry of Chromium������������������������������������ 263 4.1.2 Fate and Transport���������������������������������������������������� 265 4.1.3 Sources of Cr(VI)����������������������������������������������������� 267 Toxicity and Risk Assessment����������������������������������������������� 267 Regulatory Status������������������������������������������������������������������ 268 4.3.1 U.S. Federal Regulations������������������������������������������ 269 4.3.2 U.S. State Regulations���������������������������������������������� 269 4.3.2.1 California�������������������������������������������������� 269 4.3.2.2 North Carolina������������������������������������������ 270 4.3.2.3 New Jersey������������������������������������������������ 270 4.3.3 Other Countries�������������������������������������������������������� 270 Occurrence of Cr(VI)������������������������������������������������������������ 271 4.4.1 Naturally Occurring (Background) Cr(VI) in Groundwater��������������������������������������������������������� 271 4.4.2 Cr(VI) in Drinking Water���������������������������������������� 272 Site Characterization������������������������������������������������������������� 273 4.5.1 Investigation of Cr(VI) in Groundwater������������������� 273 4.5.2 Analytical Methods�������������������������������������������������� 274 4.5.3 Advanced Investigation Techniques������������������������� 277 4.5.3.1 Chromium Isotopes���������������������������������� 277 4.5.3.2 Mineralogical Analyses���������������������������� 277

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4.6

Groundwater Treatment��������������������������������������������������������� 279 4.6.1 In Situ Reduction������������������������������������������������������ 279 4.6.1.1 In Situ Chemical Reduction����������������������280 4.6.1.2 In Situ Biological Reduction���������������������284 4.6.1.3 Permeable Reactive Barriers�������������������� 288 4.6.1.4 Reoxidation of Cr(III) Formed by In Situ Reduction���������������������������������290 4.6.2 Ex Situ Treatment����������������������������������������������������� 290 4.6.3 Dynamic Groundwater Recirculation���������������������� 291 4.6.4 Natural Attenuation�������������������������������������������������� 291 4.6.4.1 Tier I��������������������������������������������������������� 291 4.6.4.2 Tier II�������������������������������������������������������� 292 4.6.4.3 Tier III������������������������������������������������������� 292 4.6.4.4 Tier IV������������������������������������������������������ 292 4.7 Drinking Water Treatment���������������������������������������������������� 292 4.7.1 Point-of-Entry and Point-of-Use Treatment������������� 293 4.8 Cr(VI) Treatment Technologies for Drinking Water Treatment and Ex Situ Groundwater Remediation���������������� 294 4.8.1 Reduction/Coagulation/Filtration with Ferrous Iron�������������������������������������������������������������� 294 4.8.2 Ion Exchange������������������������������������������������������������ 297 4.8.2.1 Weak Base Anion Resins�������������������������� 297 4.8.2.2 Strong Base Anion Resins������������������������ 298 4.8.3 Reverse Osmosis�������������������������������������������������������300 4.8.4 Bioreactors����������������������������������������������������������������300 4.8.4.1 Phytostabilization�������������������������������������302 4.8.4.2 Iron Media������������������������������������������������304 4.8.5 Reduction/Filtration via Stannous Chloride (RF-Sn[II])���������������������������������������������������������������304 4.9 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 305 Acronyms������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 312 Chapter 5 1,2,3-Trichloropropane��������������������������������������������������������������������� 315 5.1 5.2 5.3

5.4

5.5

Basic Information������������������������������������������������������������������ 315 Toxicity and Risk Assessment����������������������������������������������� 317 Regulatory Status������������������������������������������������������������������ 321 5.3.1 U.S. Federal Regulations������������������������������������������ 321 5.3.2 U.S. State Regulations���������������������������������������������� 322 5.3.3 International Guidance��������������������������������������������� 324 Site Characterization������������������������������������������������������������� 325 5.4.1 Investigation������������������������������������������������������������� 325 5.4.2 Analytical Methods�������������������������������������������������� 325 5.4.3 Advanced Investigation Techniques������������������������� 327 Groundwater Remediation Technologies������������������������������ 328 5.5.1 In Situ Treatment������������������������������������������������������ 328 5.5.1.1 In Situ Hydrolysis������������������������������������� 328

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5.5.1.2 In Situ Biological Treatment��������������������� 331 5.5.1.3 In Situ Chemical Reduction���������������������� 333 5.5.1.4 In Situ Chemical Oxidation���������������������� 336 5.5.2 Ex Situ Treatment����������������������������������������������������� 337 5.6 Water Treatment�������������������������������������������������������������������� 338 5.7 TCP Treatment Technologies for Drinking Water Treatment and Ex Situ Groundwater Remediation���������������� 338 5.7.1 Granular Activated Carbon�������������������������������������� 338 5.7.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes�������������������������������� 343 5.7.3 Air Stripping������������������������������������������������������������344 5.7.4 Other Processes�������������������������������������������������������� 345 5.8 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 345 Acronyms������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 351 Chapter 6 Considerations for Future Contaminants of Emerging Concern���������355 6.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 355 6.2 Categorizing Future Emerging Contaminants���������������������� 355 6.3 The Challenges Posed in Emerging Contaminant Management�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 359 6.3.1 Challenges Associated with Release to the Environment������������������������������������������������������������� 359 6.3.2 Challenges Associated with Assessing Toxicological Risk����������������������������������������������������360 6.3.3 Challenges Associated with Regulation������������������� 363 6.3.4 Challenges Associated with Characterization and Analysis�������������������������������������������������������������364 6.3.5 Challenges Associated with Treatment�������������������� 366 6.4 The Future of Emerging Contaminants��������������������������������� 367 Acronyms������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 372 Appendices Appendix A

USEPA Candidate Contaminant List������������������������������������������� 373

Appendix B

REACH Candidate List��������������������������������������������������������������� 377

Appendix C Emerging Contaminants and Their Physical and Chemical Properties�������������������������������������������������������������� 385 Appendix D NGI Preliminary List of Substances That Could Be Considered to Meet the PMT or vPvM Criteria�������������������������� 393 Appendix E.1 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Soil��������������������� 401 Appendix E.2 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Groundwater��������� 408 Appendix E.3 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Surface Water����������415 Appendix E.4 Summary of PFAS Environmental Standards: Drinking Water�����419 Appendix E.5 Notes�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 426 Index ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 430

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List of Figures Figure 1.1 Example definitions of emerging contaminants���������������������������������� 2 Figure 1.2 Emerging contaminants life cycle����������������������������������������������������� 12 Figure 2.1 Chemical structure of 1,4-dioxane ���������������������������������������������������� 27 Figure 2.2 1 ,4-Dioxane groundwater and drinking water standards and guidelines, by state ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37 Figure 2.3 V  isual representation of 1,4-dioxane high resolution investigation �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42 Figure 2.4 Propane biosparge mixing system ���������������������������������������������������� 57 Figure 2.5 1 ,4-Dioxane results from propane biosparge treatment at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California ���������������������������������������� 58 Figure 2.6 S  table isotope probing results from propane biosparge treatment at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California �������������������� 59 Figure 2.7 1,4-Dioxane breakthrough in various types of GAC ������������������������ 74 Figure 3.1 PFAS families and subgroups������������������������������������������������������������ 89 Figure 3.2 Structure of 6:2 FTS and PFOS���������������������������������������������������������90 Figure 3.3 Examples of branched and linear PFOS isomers������������������������������� 91 Figure 3.4 Naming convention for PFCAs and PFSAs���������������������������������������92 Figure 3.5 Chemical structure of the PFOS linear isomer���������������������������������� 95 Figure 3.6 Chemical structure of linear PFOA���������������������������������������������������96 Figure 3.7 Chemical structure of PFHxPA, PFOPA, and C8/C8 PFPiA�������������97 Figure 3.8 Chemical structure of ADONA, HFPO-DA, and HFPO-TA������������97 Figure 3.9 N  aming conventions for FASA-based and fluorotelomer-based PFASs.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99 Figure 3.10 Examples of long- and short-chain PFAAs�������������������������������������� 105 Figure 3.11 Published biotransformation pathways for fluorotelomers�������������� 117 Figure 3.12 P  ublished biotransformation pathways for polyfluoroalkyl sulfonamide-based PFSA precursors����������������������������������������������� 120 Figure 3.13 T  hree major PFAS manufacturing processes, starting material, intermediates, end products, and major uses ���������������������������������� 121

xv

xvi

List of Figures

Figure 3.14 PFAS uses and associated manufacturing processes as identified in literature and patent information �������������������������������� 124 Figure 3.15 E  xample water samples from a recent C6 fluorotelomer foam spill to surface water and analytical results using the pre-TOP and post-TOP Assay digest ������������������������������������������������������������� 130 Figure 3.16 PFAAs formed by TOP Assay of common precursors�������������������� 131 Figure 3.17 I nterpretation of TOP Assay results in five groundwater samples����������������������������������������������������������������������� 134 Figure 3.18 B  ranching in PFHxSaAm is retained in PFHxA after TOP Assay digest������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 137 Figure 3.19 C  omparison of AOF and TOP Assay using AFFF-impacted groundwater������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138 Figure 3.20 C  onceptual diagram of PFAS exposure to humans and the environment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140 Figure 3.21 E  volution of regulatory standards and awareness of PFASs over time.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151 Figure 3.22 TOP Assay distribution of PFASs in soils impacted by PFASs by AFFF������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 160 Figure 3.23 CSM for industrial sites������������������������������������������������������������������� 182 Figure 3.24 C  SM for evolution of PFAAs and their precursors from FTA source areas�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 183 Figure 3.25 CSM of class B fire response, fire training, nozzle testing, and storage areas������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185 Figure 3.26 CSM of waste management processes��������������������������������������������� 187 Figure 3.27 P  FAS treatment technologies for soil, range of practicality, and stage of development������������������������������������������������������������������������ 189 Figure 3.28 P  FAS treatment technologies for water, range of practicality, and stage of development����������������������������������������������������������������� 189 Figure 4.1 pe-pH stability diagram for the chromium-water system ���������������264 Figure 4.2 Solubility of Cr(III) ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 267 Figure 4.3 Redox potentials of common redox couples relevant to Cr(VI) reduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������280 Figure 4.4 Biogeochemical oxidation-reduction reactions relevant to biologically mediated Cr(VI) reduction, simplified������������������������284 Figure 4.5 M  aximum dissolved iron concentrations collected from dose response wells versus the distance from the injection well ������������ 286

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List of Figures

xvii

Figure 4.6 In situ biological reduction case study results��������������������������������� 288 Figure 4.7 Example reduction filtration with Fe(II) process flow diagram������ 297 Figure 4.8 Example WBA process flow diagram���������������������������������������������� 298 Figure 4.9 Example regenerable SBA process flow diagram���������������������������� 299 Figure 4.10 Example single-pass SBA process flow diagram����������������������������� 299 Figure 4.11 Example RO process flow diagram��������������������������������������������������300 Figure 4.12 Example submerged bioreactor process flow diagram�������������������� 301 Figure 4.13 Example membrane bioreactor process flow diagram���������������������302 Figure 4.14 I rrigation system used for treatment of Cr(VI) at the PG&E Hinkley Compressor Station in Hinkley, California����������������������� 303 Figure 4.15 Example RF-Sn(II) process flow diagram���������������������������������������304 Figure 5.1 1,2,3-Trichloropropane chemical structure�������������������������������������� 316 Figure 5.2 TCP detections by state in the US UCMR3 ����������������������������������� 316 Figure 5.3 Map of United States TCP standards����������������������������������������������� 322 Figure 5.4 Likely degradation pathways and intermediates for TCP ��������������� 328 Figure 5.5 TCP hydrolysis half-lives as a function of pH and temperature������ 329 Figure 5.6 M  ass normalized rate constants (k M) and surface-area normalized rate constants (kSA) for the reduction of TCP and other chlorinated compounds ��������������������������������������������������� 334 Figure 5.7 C  hange in TCP breakthrough time between Rapid Small Scale Column Tests (RSSCT) with 0.3 mg/L TOC and 1.3 mg/L TOC for various GAC types��������������������������������������������������������������������� 341 Figure 5.8 D  ifference in mass transfer zone between a typical VOC influent and a TCP-containing influent�������������������������������������������� 341 Figure 5.9 B  ed volumes before 30 percent breakthrough for VOCs and various GACs ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 342 Figure 5.10 V  OC breakthrough from pilot-scale adsorber �������������������������������� 343 Figure 6.1 E  xample routes of entry to the environment for emerging contaminants �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������360

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List of Tables Table 1.1 Contributing factors for selecting featured emerging contaminants����20 Table 2.1 Common sources of 1,4-dioxane and environmental relevance�����������28 Table 2.2 C  omparison of relative physical and chemical properties of 1,4-dioxane with other chemicals��������������������������������������������������������� 30 Table 2.3 S  ummary of toxicological reference values developed by USEPA and ATSDR for use in evaluating chronic oral and inhalation non-carcinogenic exposures to 1,4-dioxane along with the basis of their derivation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33 Table 2.4 S  ummary of USEPA’s oral cancer slope factor and inhalation unit risks for 1,4-dioxane and their derivation process�������������������������������� 35 Table 2.5 Federal guidelines and health standards for 1,4-dioxane��������������������� 36 Table 2.6 Summary of 1,4-dioxane groundwater analytical methods����������������� 43 Table 2.7 Detailed review of 1,4-dioxane groundwater analytical methods��������44 Table 2.8 S  ummary of chemical oxidant efficacy on 1,4-dioxane and common chlorinated compounds���������������������������������������������������������� 53 Table 2.9 Considerations for bioremediation of 1,4-dioxane������������������������������� 56 Table 2.10 Water treatment technologies and their application to 1,4-dioxane����� 67 Table 2.11 Comparison between commercially available ex situ AOPs���������������� 70 Table 3.1 Common perfluoroalkyl acids�������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Table 3.2 Selection of known polyfluoroalkyl substances��������������������������������� 101 Table 3.3a Concentrations of PFASs in electrochemical fluorination foams������� 108 Table 3.3b Concentrations of PFASs in fluorotelomer foams������������������������������ 109 Table 3.4 Degradation rates of PFAA precursors����������������������������������������������� 116 Table 3.5 Examples of biotransformation pathways������������������������������������������� 119 Table 3.6a Summary of acceptable sampling equipment and materials items for PFAS sampling������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 126 Table 3.6b Summary of sampling equipment and materials not recommended for PFAS site investigations���������������������������������������� 127 Table 3.7 M  olar yields of perfluoroalkyl carboxylates from precursors subjected to the TOP assay����������������������������������������������������������������� 133 Table 3.8 Sample TOP Assay data output���������������������������������������������������������� 135 xix

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List of Tables

Table 3.9 B  ioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification information for PFOS������������������������������������������������������������������������� 141 Table 3.10 Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification information for PFOA������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142 Table 3.11 Elimination half-lives of PFASs��������������������������������������������������������� 142 Table 3.12 Reported NOAELs and LOAELs������������������������������������������������������� 147 Table 3.13 The evolution of TDIs over time��������������������������������������������������������� 149 Table 3.14 Summary statistics for select PFASs measured by matrix����������������� 157 Table 3.15 Select properties of PFASs����������������������������������������������������������������� 162 Table 3.16 Retardation Factors of Select PFAAs ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 164 Table 3.17a Summary of detections and background concentrations of PFAAs and total PFASs measured in the environment���������������������� 168 Table 3.17b Summary of detections and background concentrations of other PFASs measured in air samples������������������������������������������������ 176 Table 3.17c Summary of detections and background concentrations of other PFASs measured in surf samples............................................... 177 Table 3.18 Technology screening table for water������������������������������������������������� 190 Table 3.19 Isotherm parameters for various types of GAC����������������������������������200 Table 3.20 Freundlich isotherm constants for resins��������������������������������������������205 Table 4.1 E  stimated Range of Kd values for Cr(VI) as a function of pH, extractable iron, and soluble sulfate ��������������������������������������������������266 Table 4.2 Summary of Cr(T) and Cr(VI) regulatory standards������������������������� 268 Table 4.3 S  ummary of naturally occurring Cr(VI) in groundwater in association with chromium rich deposits������������������������������������������� 271 Table 4.4 S  ummary of peak levels of Cr(VI) in drinking water sources detected under the California UCMR (CSWQCB 2014)�������������������� 273 Table 4.5 S  ummary of analytical methods to speciate chromium in soil and groundwater���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 275 Table 4.6 S  ummary of advanced mineralogical analyses relevant to Cr(VI) groundwater remediation�������������������������������������������������������������������� 278 Table 4.7 Summary of example in situ chemical reduction reagents����������������� 281 Table 4.8 Summary of example in situ biological reduction reagents���������������� 285 Table 4.9 Cr(VI) treatment selection considerations������������������������������������������ 295

List of Tables

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Table 5.1 S  ummary of occurrence of TCP in drinking water sources detected under the California UCMR������������������������������������������������ 317 Table 5.2 C  omparison of relative physical and chemical properties of TCP with other volatile organic compounds���������������������������������������������� 318 Table 5.3 S  ummary of toxicological reference values for chronic oral and inhalation noncarcinogenic exposures to TCP���������������������������� 319 Table 5.4 S  ummary of cancer slope factors and inhalation unit risks for TCP������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 320 Table 5.5 S  ummary of TCP regulatory standards and guidance levels for the United States of America and several U.S. states������������������������� 321 Table 5.6 Summary of analytical methods for TCP������������������������������������������� 326 Table 5.7 ZVZ properties����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 334 Table 5.8 PRB residence times for TCP concentration reduction���������������������� 335 Table 5.9 Summary of oxidants for chemical oxidation of TCP������������������������ 337 Table 5.10 Summary of case studies from California for TCP drinking water treatment�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������340 Table 5.11 Compounds in TCP GAC pilot influent���������������������������������������������� 343 Table 6.1 Example classes of emerging contaminants��������������������������������������� 357 Table 6.2 Comparison of emerging contaminant management strategies��������� 369

Foreword You hold in your hands the key to navigating the complex, transient, unsettled, and at times intimidating topic of emerging contaminants. In the face of conflicting information, wide-ranging and changing regulatory response, and absence of a regulatory requirement, it is understandable that you might be inclined to wait and see, rather than ride the roller coaster of changing and sometimes unreliable information on emerging contaminants. It is tempting to let others sort it out and defer action on emerging contaminants until there is greater certainty regarding contaminant origins and occurrence, toxicity, remedial technology, and regulatory policy. However, as this volume clearly demonstrates, there can be significant consequences to delaying action, including failure to contain a growing plume, failure to limit and manage your client’s liability exposure, and worst of all, failure to prevent exposure to toxic contaminants in drinking water. Taking the plunge into the murky waters of emerging contaminants has been an uninviting prospect, owing to the noisy nature of the information on this topic, and the significant challenge of acquiring actionable intelligence. When a “new” contaminant such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances or 1,4-dioxane is found at a site that has long been undergoing successful remediation for the target contaminants under an approved regulatory agreement, projects are derailed, and project managers may find themselves stymied to even identify the right questions to ask. In the Emerging Contaminants Handbook, the authors have faithfully carried the torch of Suthan Suthersan’s systematic and disciplined analysis, reflecting the organized thinking that unifies Suthersan’s previous definitive texts on remediation engineering. Rather than provide an encyclopedic treatment of an ever-expanding topic, the Emerging Contaminants Handbook examines a few of the most relevant emerging contaminants that are attracting attention in 2019 in detail, and most importantly, presents a template for the consideration and management of other emerging contaminants. The first chapter presents a clearly examined framework and background on the regulatory context of emerging contaminants in general. While the authors are based in North America, their work often includes overseas challenges, and so this book includes a great deal of information on how other nations and groups of nations are responding to emerging contaminants. This chapter is especially useful to remediation engineers, hydrogeologists, and others whose daily work rarely examines regulatory policy. The contaminant-specific chapters provide a succinct review of the most important features of each contaminant or class of contaminants. You will find the well-organized data and information tables to be especially useful in your work on emerging contaminants, as the authors have completed a tremendous amount of research and analysis, succinctly summarized in an accessible format. Another highly useful feature of the contaminant specific chapters is the case studies. The authors have selected a few examples from their extensive site investigation and xxiii

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remediation experience to illustrate and demonstrate the key characteristics of each profiled contaminant. The final chapter looks at the horizon to consider what’s next in the field of emerging contaminants, and expands the topic to include related emerging issues such as endocrine disrupting compounds, nanomaterials, cyanotoxins, and others. The authors round out the topic of emerging contaminants in the first and last chapters by discussing source management in the marketplace for new materials and chemicals. The future of emerging contaminants is profiled in the context of contaminant categorization, challenges and new developments in toxicity and risk assessment, challenges with developing a consistent framework for establishing and implementing regulation, challenges and solutions for laboratory analysis and site characterization, and a holistic approach to remediation engineering that anticipates and preempts the treatment challenge presented when a new contaminant requiring different treatment methods is detected at a site. The clear language, highly useful “super-summary” tables, and great case studies, as well as many insightful observations on emerging contaminants make the Emerging Contaminants Handbook a great addition to your bookshelf. Thomas Mohr Author of Environmental Investigation and Remediation: 1,4-Dioxane and Other Solvent Stabilizers Retired Hydrogeologist with the Santa Clara Valley Water District, California Past President of the Groundwater Resources Association of California

Acknowledgments Caitlin H. Bell would like to acknowledge Danielle Pfeiffer, Anthony Bonner, Erin Osborn, Joe Darby, James Collins, Richard Murphy, Olivia Marshall, Ellyn Gates, Jennifer Martin Tilton, Thomas Jensen, Anika Hall, Andy Lewandowski, and Dennis Capria for their contributions to various chapters. Particular thanks to Zachary S. Wahl and Ushna Nasir for all of their help in the last days. Margaret Gentile would like to thank Mike Hay for contributions, Frank Lenzo for review of the hexavalent chromium chapter, and Scott Murphy for contributions to the trichloropropane chapter. She would also like to thank Courtney Lenzo for her assistance with technical editing of the manuscript. Ian Ross would like to thank Donald, Veronica, and David for their unwavering support and encouragement over the years. Erica Kalve would like to send a heartfelt thank you to her family, Joe, Morgan, and Oskar, as this could not have happened without their loving support. Also a big thank you to her mother and sisters for always being there when she needed an extra set of hands. Finally, Erica and Ian would like to thank all those who helped complete the PFAS chapter. There are too many to list out here including Jeff Burdick, Joe Quinnan, Thomas Held, and Erika Houtz for their support and input throughout the process; to Jean Zodrow, Meredith Frenchmeyer, and Allie Folcik for their support with the health considerations section; to Yousof Aly, Katie Barry, Mimi Sarkar, Julia Vidonish, and Courtney Lenzo for other technical support; to Andy Lewandowski and Rachel Stevens for graphical support, and to Caitlin Bell for the additional coordination she provided throughout the process. We could not have done this without the help of all these incredibly talented individuals, as well as many other people helped out behind the scenes. John Horst would like to thank Caitlin Bell, Margy Gentile and Erica Kalve for their inspiring enthusiasm and commitment to completing this project; and to Dr. Paul Anderson for his thoughtful contributions and guidance on some of the more challenging topics. There have been a great many people involved, a big thank you to all those that have helped along the way. Finally, to Sumathy Suthersan – your husband was the inspiration that started the whole thing. God bless.

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Editors Caitlin H. Bell, PE, is a principal engineer and 1,4-Dioxane lead for Arcadis North America. Ms. Bell focuses on subsurface treatment of soil and groundwater using in situ techniques. Specifically, she focuses on in situ bioremediation applications for a variety of chemicals of concern, including emerging contaminants. She serves as a technical resource to clients on topics such as molecular biology tools, bioaugmentation, compound specific isotope analysis, and challenging bioremediation approaches for compounds like 1,4-dioxane. Ms. Bell was a member of the team that authored the Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council’s Environmental Molecular Diagnostics technical guidance document. Margaret E. Gentile, PE PhD, is an associate vice president at Arcadis. In her work as an environmental engineer, Dr. Gentile leads teams in the design and implementation of remediation systems. She specializes in biological treatment processes, large-scale remediation and remediation of metals, including hexavalent chromium. Dr. Gentile has published a number of papers on the microbial ecology of engineered biological treatment and metals remediation. She leads the In Situ Reactive Treatment technical group and is an active participant in the emerging contaminants team within Arcadis. Erica Kalve, PG, is a principal geologist with 18 years of experience in the environmental field conducting site investigation and remediation projects. She is the North American Emerging Contaminants Focus Group leader and team coordinator for the Global PFAS Team at Arcadis. In her current role Ms. Kalve focuses on emerging contaminant issues. Within Arcadis U.S., she leads the Technical Knowledge and Innovation group on emerging contaminants in the development of best practices to facilitate project excellence.

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John Horst, PE, is the executive director of Technical Knowledge and Innovation for North America at Arcadis. Mr. Horst is an expert in the development, application, and optimization of new and innovative environmental restoration technologies, and integrating multiple disciplines to address restoration challenges with significant scale and complexity. He studied Engineering at Drexel University, where he participated in a National Science Foundation pilot to produce more business-savvy graduates. Mr. Horst holds one technology patent and is corresponding author of Advances in Remediation Solutions published quarterly in Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation. He is also a co-author of Remediation Engineering: Design Concepts (2nd Edition). Ian Ross, PhD, is a senior technical director and Global, In Situ Remediation technical lead/Global PFAS lead at Arcadis from Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK. His focus since 2014 has been solely on PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) after initially working on options for PFOS management in 2005. He was part of the team authoring and reviewing the CONCAWE PFAS guidance document and has published several articles on PFAS analysis, site investigation, and remediation. Dr. Ross has focused on the bioremediation of xenobiotics for over 26 years as a result of three applied industrially sponsored academic research projects. At Arcadis he has worked to design and implement innovative chemical, physical, and biological remediation technologies.

Contributors Caitlin H. Bell Arcadis U.S., Inc. Seattle, Washington, USA

Brent Alspach Arcadis U.S., Inc. Oceanside, California, USA

Erica Kalve Arcadis U.S., Inc. San Rafael, California, USA

Paul Anderson Arcadis U.S., Inc. Chelmsford, Massachusetts, USA

Margaret Gentile Arcadis U.S., Inc. San Francisco, California, USA

Ian Ross Arcadis U.K. Frodsham, United Kingdom

Suthan Suthersan Arcadis U.S., Inc. Newtown, Pennsylvania, USA

Jonathan A. L. Miles Arcadis U.K. Leeds, United Kingdom

John Horst Arcadis U.S., Inc. Newtown, Pennsylvania, USA

Jeff McDonough Arcadis U.S., Inc. Portland, Maine, USA

Shandra Justicia-Leon Arcadis U.S., Inc. Guaynabo, Puerto Rico

Tessa Pancras Arcadis NL. Arnhem, Netherlands

Sarah Page City of Ann Arbor Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

Jake Hurst Arcadis U.K. Leeds, United Kingdom

Greg Imamura Arcadis U.S., Inc. Los Angeles, California, USA

Norman Forsberg Arcadis U.S., Inc. Clifton Park, New York, USA

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Introduction to Emerging Contaminants Caitlin H. Bell (Arcadis U.S., Inc., [email protected])

John Horst (Arcadis U.S., Inc., [email protected])

Paul Anderson (Arcadis U.S., Inc., [email protected])

1.1 INTRODUCTION The development of new technologies and the underlying science that makes them possible is the foundation of human progress. Technology has allowed for huge leaps forward in our quality of life. It has brought clean water, advanced medicines, improved techniques for agriculture, renewable sources of energy, more durable materials for housing, and an increased standard of living for nearly everyone around the globe. In this way, technology has increased our lifespans and has led us to ever more efficient ways of learning, communicating, traveling, and conducting other daily activities. These advancements often come with peripheral consequences that are not always immediately understood but must be managed as they emerge. For the purposes of this book, we focus on just one of these peripheral consequences: new chemicals or compounds that end up in the environment as a result of technology manufacturing or human use. Where unregulated compounds (or classes of compounds) are discovered to have been released to the environment and come to be seen as a potential threat to human health and the environment, they are often referred to as “emerging contaminants.” Alternatively, the term “constituents/chemicals/compounds/contaminants of emerging concern” (CECs) is also used. Selection of the terms “constituent” or “chemical” or “compound” or “contaminant” to precede “emerging concern” varies among stakeholders. Often, the terms constituent, chemical, or compound are preferred when the potential toxicity of the compounds is still being evaluated and there is a desire to avoid passing judgment on whether something is a contaminant until there is more information. For example, the state of California (discussed later in the chapter) has used either “constituent” or “chemical” instead of “contaminant” in its studies related to drinking water and recycled water (Anderson et al., 2010; Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 2012; Drewes et al., 2018). By comparison, the terms “emerging contaminants” and “contaminants of emerging concern” are used among groundwater remediation stakeholders, as occurrence in media requiring treatment is being evaluated. Given that this book is focused mainly 1

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Contaminants of emerging concern (also called chemicals of emerging concern or emerging contaminants in the literature) are chemicals that are not commonly monitored or regulated in the environment. (USGS, 2014)

A contaminant may be emerging because a new source or a new pathway to humans has been discovered or a new detecon method or treatment technology has been developed. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2017) An emerging contaminant “has a reasonably possible pathway to enter the environment; presents a potenal unacceptable human health or environmental risk; and does not have regulatory standards based on peerreviewed science, or the regulatory standards are evolving due to new science, detecon capabilies, or pathways.” (DoD, 2009)

An emerging contaminant is a chemical or material characterized by a perceived, potenal, or real threat to human health or the environment or by a lack of published health standards. A contaminant also may be “emerging” because of the discovery of a new source or a new pathway to humans. (USEPA, 2016)

Emerging environmental substances are not necessarily new chemicals. They are substances that have o€en long been present in the environment but whose presence and significance are only now being elucidated. (NORMAN, 2012) Emerging contaminants are compounds previously not considered or known to be significant to groundwater (in terms of distribuon and/or concentraon) which are now being more widely detected. More organic micropollutants are being detected in the aqueous environment due to improved laboratory techniques and monitoring. (Brish Geological Survey, 2011)

FIGURE 1.1  Example definitions of emerging contaminants: Examples of definitions of emerging contaminants from various entities.

on groundwater, it employs the latter two terms: “emerging contaminants” and “contaminants of emerging concern.” This diction is simply a term of art—whether and to what degree a compound poses a risk to humans or the environment depends on each specific compound and the situation being evaluated. There are as many definitions for “emerging contaminants” as there are groups that are focused on them (see examples in Figure 1.1). One thing that is common among them is that the term “emerging” reflects the overall developing state in our understanding of this class of compounds. Areas of developing understanding may include determining whether compound(s) have the potential to be harmful to humans or the environment and consequently to what extent they should be regulated, their occurrence in the environment, and techniques for treating environmental media to remove or transform them. These aspects are all interrelated and can take significant time frames to resolve. • An accurate understanding of the toxicology associated with emerging contaminants can take many years (decades, in fact) to develop. • Environmental occurrence may be poorly understood because chemical analysis is challenging and techniques for accurate detection and measurement are still developing. Or occurrence may not be understood because monitoring was not previously conducted or required and will take time (years) to complete.

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• Treatment can present challenges for water (drinking water, wastewater, groundwater, surface water) and other media depending on the nature of the compound, with effective technology requiring time and investment to develop. The concern surrounding various emerging contaminants can often outpace the amount of time required to fully understand and manage them. With this in mind, this handbook is intended to serve as a resource to anyone who wishes to become familiar with the topic of emerging contaminants, and provides an emphasis on several contaminants that are currently very relevant and are at different points within and beyond the emerging contaminant life cycle. For these, the handbook is not intended to be a comprehensive reference, but rather a primer to provide an understanding of the current state of the science at the date of this publication regarding the properties, behavior, toxicity, regulatory status, and ability to analyze, characterize, and treat emerging contaminants. We hope this information can serve along with other sources to support the management of such contaminants and challenges they pose. For the balance of this introductory chapter, we explore the following three questions: • Who identifies emerging contaminants? • What is the life cycle of an emerging contaminant? • What are the key challenges associated with emerging contaminants? Finally, we provide insight on the need for balance and the focus and purpose of this handbook with rationale for the specific compounds that are highlighted herein.

1.2  WHO IDENTIFIES EMERGING CONTAMINANTS? There are a number of ways that emerging contaminants are described (see Figure 1.1 for examples), identified, and prioritized. Various stakeholder groups around the world are working on identifying potential emerging contaminants and have developed systems for screening the potential candidates, prioritizing, and ultimately generating regulations to protect human health and the environment. Government environmental agencies, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the Australian National Environment Protection Council (Australian NEPC), and the German Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt [UBA]) are active in this process. Multinational bodies such as the European Union and United Nations and international treaties such as the Stockholm Convention also advance awareness and actions around chemical manufacturing and emerging contaminants in the environment. Additional government and private organizations also contribute to the identification of emerging contaminants, such as scientific organizations (e.g., U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], Norwegian Geotechnical Institute [NGI], a private foundation) and the military (e.g., U.S. Department of Defense [DoD]). The criteria for identifying and evaluating candidate compounds vary among these groups, and consequently various lists of potential contaminants are being developed. For example, Appendices A and B provide two example lists: the USEPA

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Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) and the lists of compounds identified under the European Union Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulations. Not every compound on these lists is an emerging contaminant. Some may not be considered emerging contaminants because they have not been released to the environment to cause significant exposure. Others are not considered emerging contaminants because of long-term awareness and programs/requirements to address them. For newer compounds, individual organizations have developed different methods for assessing them, determining which should have restricted manufacturing and use, and which are occurring in the environment and may deserve attention as emerging contaminants, as detailed in the following subsections. Appendix C provides a list of chemicals that are considered emerging contaminants at the time of this book’s publication, compiled from the lists of various organizations discussed in this section, and considering the current state of awareness and response. This list was considered relevant for the discussion in this book, but a different list with another focus could easily have been developed from the same (or different) starting point. These governmental and international organizations are often informed through the research of others (academics, industry groups, etc.), as well as through their own research. They then contribute to shaping the understanding of whether the compounds targeted deserve attention as an emerging concern and ultimately whether they qualify as contaminants that should be regulated and to what levels. The identification of new compounds for consideration as emerging contaminants is intertwined with the further and ongoing refinement of toxicological effects and the development of reliable and appropriate characterization and treatment methods. We explore the interplay between these various lines of development when we discuss the life cycle of an emerging contaminant later in this chapter, but for the balance of this discussion we focus on the various governmental and quasi-governmental organizations that play leading roles in the dialogue.

1.2.1  United States Environmental Protection Agency In the United States, the USEPA has a huge influence on identification, and later regulation, of emerging contaminants. The USEPA actively seeks to catalog unregulated compounds that may occur in public water supplies through the maintenance of the CCL. To further understand the frequency of occurrence and likelihood of public exposure, the USEPA specifies sampling of public water supplies in the Unregulated Contaminants Monitoring Rule (UCMR). In part, the UCMR and CCL are a catalog of emerging contaminants that could face future regulation. Occurrence data collected in the UCMR ultimately support regulatory determinations. Each of these elements of the USEPA process is discussed in further detail here. Developing the CCL is the USEPA’s first step in evaluating unregulated drinking water contaminants. The CCL is a list of contaminants that: • Are not regulated by the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. • Are known or anticipated to occur at public water systems. • May warrant regulation under the U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA).

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The list is compiled through consultation with technical experts, for example, representatives of the scientific community, the National Drinking Water Advisory Council, the National Academy of Sciences or the Science Advisory Board, as well as through solicitation of public input. In November 2016, the USEPA published the final CCL-4, the new drinking water priority contaminant list for regulatory decision-making and information collection. As summarized in Appendix A, the current CCL (CCL-4) contains 97 chemicals or chemical groups and 12 microbial contaminants and has been built over time from the historical CCLs (i.e., CCL-1 through CCL-3). Notable updates to the list were the removal of perchlorate and strontium, which are scheduled for regulation (so are no longer considered emerging). Under the SDWA, USEPA has implemented its UCMR since 2001 to evaluate the frequency and occurrence of emerging contaminants in public water supplies. USEPA’s selection of contaminants for a particular UCMR cycle is largely based on a review of the CCL. The UCMR program was developed in coordination with the CCL. Occurrence data are collected through UCMR to support the USEPA’s determination of whether to regulate particular contaminants in the interest of protecting public health. This program includes: • Monitoring no more than 30 contaminants every five years. • Monitoring large systems serving more than 10,000 people and a representative sample of small public water systems serving fewer than 10,000 people. • Storing analytical results in a National Contaminant Occurrence Database. Notable examples of compounds included in past UCMR programs include perchlorate, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), flame retardants, and pesticides. More recent additions include 1,4-dioxane, 1,2,3-trichloropropane (TCP), per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), hexavalent chromium, and drinking water disinfection by-products—all of which persist in the environment. Increased attention on the identification, characterization, and remediation of these contaminants has served to reopen a review of surface water and groundwater used for public drinking purposes. Finally, the SDWA requires the USEPA to make a regulatory determination for five CCL contaminants with sufficient health and occurrence data every five years. When making a “determination” to regulate a contaminant in drinking water, the law requires that USEPA determine whether it meets the following three criteria: • The contaminant may have an adverse effect on human health; • The contaminant is known to occur or there is substantial likelihood the contaminant will occur in public water systems with a frequency and at levels of public health concern; • In the sole judgment of the USEPA’s administrator, regulation of the contaminant presents a meaningful opportunity for health risk reductions for persons served by public water systems.

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Recently, the USEPA and the regulatory risk analysis programs have trended toward establishing health advisory levels (HALs), as opposed to adopting federal maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), with the potential recent exception of strontium. In the last regulatory determination, the USEPA made a preliminary determination in October 2014 to regulate strontium and develop a federal MCL given the potential adverse human health effects, known occurrence and likelihood of occurrence in public water systems at levels of concern, and the opportunity to meaningfully reduce health risks for those using public water supplies (Federal Register, 2014; 40 CFR Part 141 EPA-HQ-OW-2012-0155; FRL 9917-87-OW). After receiving comments on the draft ruling, the USEPA decided to delay the strontium determination to evaluate additional data on relative source contribution, that is, the relative exposure from drinking water versus other exposures such as food, ambient air, and soil (Federal Register, 2016; 40 CFR Part 141, EPA-HQ-OW-2012-0155; FRL-994064-OW). A final determination on strontium will be made after additional data on relative source contribution are evaluated.

1.2.2  United States Department of Defense The DoD is an example of another U.S. federal agency that is working proactively on emerging contaminants. The DoD’s Chemical and Material Risk Management Program focuses on identifying and managing risks associated with the chemicals and materials that the DoD uses, or plans to use, and implements a “scan, watch, action” approach. Consequently, it is important to note that this type of due diligence process casts a wide net, and as such mere inclusion on DoD’s watch list or action list does not automatically make something an emerging contaminant. In fact, many compounds reflected in these lists have been the subject of remediation and regulation for decades—so while such compounds may certainly be contaminants and they may no longer be emerging, there may be a reason for the DoD to look more closely at them and take some action based on how they are being used. The program concludes that something is an emerging contaminant only if it is ultimately demonstrated to have pathways to enter the environment, presents real or potential unacceptable human health or environmental risks, and either (1) does not have peerreviewed human health standards, or (2) has standards/regulations that are evolving due to new science, detection capabilities, or pathways (Yaroschak, 2016). In the first step of their process, DoD scans various sources, such as websites, journals, periodicals, newsletters, articles, and regulatory communications to identify compounds and risk-assessment policies likely to have changing guidance or standards on the international, federal, state, and/or local levels. This list of compounds is then screened to remove those not relevant to the DoD and to prioritize those that are. Each chemical is evaluated based on the five DoD functional areas: (1) health and safety; (2) readiness and training; (3) acquisition/research, development, testing, and evaluation; (4) production, operations, maintenance, and disposal of assets; and (5) environmental cleanup. Once the “watch list” is developed, qualitative Phase I impact assessments are conducted for each chemical. This identifies the compounds moved to the “action list,” from which they are further evaluated within the portfolio via quantitative

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Phase II impact assessment with risk management options generated to create strategic investment options for enterprise consideration. The creation of the DoD’s watch list and action list provides perspective for others in the industry regarding the emerging contaminants of interest to the DoD. For perspective on the program, as of early 2016 more than 580 compounds were screened via this process (Yaroschak, 2016). The watch list included compounds such as 1,4-dioxane, dioxin, nanomaterials, PFASs, several metals, flame retardants, hydrofluorocarbons, energetics, and others. Phase I assessments were completed for 39 compounds. Compounds that were moved from the watch list to the action list included 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine, also known as Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX), hexavalent chromium, lead, naphthalene, beryllium, sulfur hexafluoride, phthalates, and others. As mentioned earlier, not all of these would be considered emerging contaminants or CECs by other stakeholders. Phase II evaluations were completed for 11 chemicals on the action list. This effort resulted in implementation of 66 risk management actions to mitigate the identified risk associated with these chemicals. Some of these actions include RDX toxicity studies, funded research into perchlorate and hexavalent chromium, sulfur hexafluoride capture and recycling, and development of a naphthalene dosimeter for fuel handlers.

1.2.3  United States Geologic Survey The USGS is a third U.S. federal agency that plays a role in the evolving understanding of CECs, mainly through its research programs. The USGS has seven mission areas on which it focuses: climate and land use change, core science systems, ecosystems, energy and minerals, environmental health, natural hazards, and water resources. Within the environmental health mission area, the Toxic Substances Hydrology Program includes research on CECs in the environment. Rather than focusing on the listing of CECs, the USGS has focused its studies on understanding “the actual versus the perceived health risks to humans or wildlife due to low-level exposures from understudied chemical contaminants in the environment” (USGS, 2017). The USGS publishes the results of this work, which has ranged from broad nationwide reconnaissance of drinking water resources, to studies focused on specific compounds and exposure scenarios. These publications play a role in informing the broader dialogue around CECs.

1.2.4  State Agencies in the United States In the U.S., state agencies are also engaging in the dialogue over CECs. As an example, California’s Water Resources Control Board has sponsored three expert panels related to CECs. The state’s challenges with water availability and increasing reliance on recycled water is well known. Because of the potential for CECs to be present in such water, the state sponsored an expert panel in 2009 to focus on recycled water related human health risks (Anderson et al., 2010). In 2017, California convened a second panel to update the results of the first. The goal was to complete an update on the state of current scientific knowledge related to CECs, confirm the

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compounds that should be monitored in recycled water, and confirm the best methods for doing so. The report identifies approximately 500 CECs (Drewes et al., 2018). In addition, another panel was sponsored by the state of California in 2012 to focus on aquatic ecosystems (Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 2012). This panel was tasked to review existing scientific literature on CECs, determine the current state of knowledge regarding ecological risks, and provide recommendations for improving the understanding of CEC presence and protecting the environment. The 2010 and 2012 reports recommended a risk-based screening framework to identify CECs for recycled water monitoring, coupled with an adaptive monitoring approach that includes initial screening and comparison to benchmarks. These recommendations were incorporated into the California Recycled Water Policy and a monitoring pilot study that began in 2015 (Dodder et al., 2015). The allocation of resources and research being completed by states such as California represents a large investment related to CECs.

1.2.5  Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is an example of a global-level treaty that contributes to the catalog of emerging contaminants as new compounds are identified and added to the POP list. The Stockholm Convention on POPs is an international environmental treaty that originated from a request by the Governing Council of the United Nations Environmental Program in 1995 and recommendations from the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety in 1996. The Stockholm Convention was signed in 2001; it was effective as of 2004 and aims to eliminate or restrict production and use of POPs (Stockholm Convention, 2008). POPs, as defined by the Stockholm Convention, include organic compounds that: • remain intact and/or persist for long periods of time; • are widely distributed throughout the environment, via soil, water, or air and are present in locations far from their source; • are bioaccumulative in aquatic and other living organisms to a sufficient extent to be a concern (generally resulting in successively higher concentrations at higher levels of the food chain); and • have adverse effects or are otherwise toxic to humans or the environment. Approximately 30 POPs are identified in the Stockholm Convention. Some of these are actually derivatives of other chemicals or classes of compounds, which puts the total number of individual compounds at much more than 30. As with the DoD’s watch list, many contaminants listed in the Stockholm Convention have been the subject of remediation and regulation for decades, so while there may be a reason for their inclusion here based on how they have been used, such contaminants may already be phased out or no longer considered emerging. The POPs listed in the Stockholm Convention include pesticides, industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls or polychlorinated naphthalenes, or chemical by-products such as

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dioxins and chlorinated dibenzofurans. These are grouped into three categories for action: Annex A (elimination) where the intent is to eliminate production; Annex B (restriction) where the intent is to limit production and use; and Annex C (unintentional product) where the intent is to reduce unintentional release. Other compounds can also be proposed for listing and, as of the time of this writing, four were on the list for review, including perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (and its salts), which are discussed in detail in this book. More than 180 countries adopted the Stockholm Convention and several of these, such as Canada, Australia, and countries of the European Union, are using the definition of “POP” to guide their concept of emerging contaminants and associated regulation. This provides a useful starting point that allows for those countries to readily identify new emerging contaminants, such as those on the review list, but it does not cover all compounds for which focus may be warranted. The Stockholm Convention identifies a number of obligations that all parties should (or are encouraged to) undertake, including designating a national focal point; fostering information exchange; providing technical assistance; promoting and facilitating public awareness and participation; consultation and education; stimulating research and monitoring; and reporting at periodic intervals. These responsibilities include development of a National Implementation Plan that details how the signing party will meet the obligations set forth by the Stockholm Convention. These reports typically start with a profile of the country, including geographical, socioeconomic, and environmental information. They also identify the country’s applicable regulatory framework. Then, the majority of the National Implementation Plan includes an assessment of the current POP inventory in the country as well as a strategy and action plan for implementing the directives of the Stockholm Convention.

1.2.6 European Union The European Union has contributed to the discussion on the emerging contaminants, notably through the REACH regulation that went into effect on June 1, 2007, and applies to all chemical substances—meaning those used in industrial processes as well as those used in everyday products such as cleaners, paints, clothes, furniture, electrical appliances, etc. To comply with the regulation, companies must identify and manage the risks linked to the substances they manufacture and market in the European Union. They have to demonstrate to the European Chemical Agency how the substance can be safely used, and they must communicate the risk management measures to the users. If the risks cannot be managed, authorities can ban a substance, restrict its use, or make its use subject to special authorization (European Chemicals Agency, 2018a). As of May 2018, there were more than 500 substances on the REACH restriction list (European Chemicals Agency, 2018b). Additionally, there were over 200 substances on the REACH candidate list (European Chemicals Agency, 2018c). According to the “Roadmap for substances of very high concern identification and implementation of REACH Risk Management measures from now to 2020,” the European Union is committed to having all known substances of very high

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook

concern identified in the candidate list by 2020, so this list may get much longer and contribute further to identification of new emerging contaminants. This roadmap focuses on certain groups of substances based on the nature of their potential effects including carcinogens, mutagens, reprotoxicants (Categories 1A/1B); sensitizers; persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) or very persistent, very bioaccumulative (vPvBs) compounds; endocrine disruptors; and petroleum/coal stream substances with certain properties (European Chemicals Agency, 2018d). In addition, some countries within the European Union are looking to expand the criteria used in the assessment procedure to identify substances of very high concern. For example, the UBA issued a position paper (German Environment Agency, 2017) that seeks to establish persistent, mobile, and toxic (PMT) criteria, as well as very persistent and very mobile (vPvM) criteria to the PBT and vPvB criteria already included in order to protect sources of drinking water. The assessment process put forth by the UBA includes two steps: (1) comparison of candidate properties to the PMT and vPvM criteria; and (2) emission characterization. The consideration of toxicity and emissions or occurrence is common to the USEPA process of identifying contaminants for regulation, and the persistence criteria is similar to the Stockholm Convention. The inclusion of specific mobility criteria is a unique addition being considered by UBA. A preliminary assessment of the PMT/ vPvM criteria, known occurrence, and relative emissions rank was developed for UBA by the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, a private foundation (NGI, 2018). This preliminary assessment evaluated 9,741 REACH-registered substances and identified 240 potential PMT/vPvM substances. The preliminary, unofficial list of PMT/vPvM substances from the NGI assessment is provided in Appendix D. Fewer than 10 percent of these substances were detected in drinking water or groundwater in the studies referenced by the assessment and less than half had significant, known emissions, indicating which substances may become emerging contaminants as awareness progresses.

1.2.7 Australian National Environment Protection Council The Australian NEPC serves two primary functions: to make National Environment Protection Measures (NEPMs), and to assess and report on the implementation and effectiveness of NEPMs in participating jurisdictions (Commonweath of Australia, 2017). Among the NEPMs made, the Assessment of Site Contamination NEPM serves “to provide adequate protection of human health and the environment, where site contamination has occurred, through the development of an efficient and effective national approach to the assessment of site contamination” (National Environment Protection Council, 2013). Subsequent to this, a National Remediation Framework is being developed through the Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE) to provide practical guidance to practitioners and regulators. This includes identification of and development of guidance for CECs (CRC CARE, 2014). The first-tier priority contaminants were identified for CRC CARE at a forum held in February 2012. The first-tier priority contaminants include perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), PFOA, MTBE, benzo(a)pyrene, weathered hydrocarbons, and

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polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The 2014 report (CRC CARE, 2014) sought to review the available guidance related to site assessment and remediation of these CECs, while later work focused on filling in gaps in current knowledge, such as for PFOS/PFOA.

1.3  WHAT IS THE LIFE CYCLE OF AN EMERGING CONTAMINANT? The amount of time that a compound remains classified as an emerging contaminant varies widely from compound to compound but, as indicated earlier, is tied to our ability to clearly understand environmental occurrence and toxicity, and our ability to effectively treat or remove the compound from environmental media. Initially, an emerging contaminant may rise into the public awareness based on some combination of new toxicological information, the observation of occurrence in the environment and possible risks to receptors, and the often-limited capability for treatment. Typically, a compound no longer qualifies as an emerging concern once it has achieved some degree of uniform regulation matched by the capability for detection and treatment. If regulatory values for a given emerging contaminant remain widely variable (orders of magnitude), it is likely that the toxicology surrounding it continues to evolve, so the compound may still be an emerging concern to some. The same is true if the capability for treatment has not fully developed. In addition, new scientific information can spur the reconsideration of a “well-known” contaminant. In this way, the term “emerging contaminant” does not necessarily mean only newly introduced compounds. There are also “off-ramps” for emerging contaminants; for example, when it is determined that a compound has no adverse effect on human health or the environment, or when data collection concludes that the compound is not present in the environment to an extent that could adversely affect human or ecological receptors. The emerging contaminant life cycle can be broken down into four main categories, depicted in Figure 1.2, and summarized here. Each of these categories or areas of focus that follow must be resolved for an emerging contaminant to exit the life cycle. Awareness As previously noted, the awareness of any emerging contaminant often begins with a realization regarding its occurrence in the environment combined with the potential toxicity of the compound which together can pose a risk to human and ecological receptors. The toxicity of an emerging contaminant is often evaluated through surrogate organisms when human exposure data are not available, with the results from the surrogates extended to estimate human toxicity both in the short term (i.e., acute toxicity) and long term (i.e., chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity). Sometimes readily available studies for a chemical are all that is needed to confirm potential risks associated with a compound that has been recently detected in the environment and qualify it as an emerging contaminant. Alternatively, as new studies become available and our understanding of the human health and ecological effects of a particular compound improves, we can find that

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook

Public Concern Awareness

Toxicology Occurrence

Global Regulation

Analytical

Federal

Characterization Fate & Transport

State/Local

Screening

Management Management

Remediation Treatment

FIGURE 1.2  Emerging contaminants life cycle: A visual depiction of the various stages in the life cycle of an emerging contaminant. Each of the high-level stages (circles) may include several subsets (rectangles). While each of the high-level stages typically progress from one to another, an emerging contaminant can fall “backwards” in the life cycle as additional information becomes available. environmental concentrations previously thought to be safe may not be. This new understanding may lead to more stringent regulation and control of the compound involved. The opposite, however, is also possible: improved toxicological understanding may indicate a compound poses less risk than previously thought and less stringent standards and criteria may be appropriate. In this way, continuing developments in the toxicological understanding of various compounds determine their inclusion in the emerging contaminant life cycle.

Characterization As a compound is established as an emerging contaminant, there is understandably a corresponding focus on the ability to characterize its presence in the environment. This area of the life cycle includes (1) the advancement of laboratory analytical methods and, in some cases, field-screening methods to ensure the quality and representative nature of environmental data being collected; (2) a deeper

Introduction to Emerging Contaminants understanding of the fate and transport behavior of the emerging contaminant and linking that back to the development of analytical methods where appropriate; and (3) a better picture of the nature and extent of an emerging contaminant’s presence in the environment through the collective effort of many organizations to investigate and screen for it. Improvements in the ability to detect the occurrence of compounds in the environment, or simply an increased effort to measure the occurrence of compounds in the environment, is a driver for the identification of emerging contaminants. An example of this is the presence of PFASs in class B firefighting foams. Firefighting foams are commonly used at airports, defense installations, petroleum terminals, and other large facilities where they have played a critical role in safety to prevent catastrophic losses associated with large-scale fires. PFASs represent a class of compounds that includes thousands of individual chemicals. When PFASs came to light as a potentially harmful category of compounds, only a handful could be identified and quantified using available analytical techniques (e.g., USEPA Method 537 for drinking water). This analytical method was simply not able to detect or “see” the large number of other compounds in the PFAS family. Advances in analytical methods were needed to create a more accurate picture of PFAS occurrence, which also supported a better understanding of their fate and transport characteristics, and over time a better understanding of their prevalence.

Management The ability to manage or respond to the risks created by emerging contaminants becomes critical as awareness of them matures. This of course encompasses the treatment of water (drinking water, wastewater, etc.) as well as the treatment of other environmental media. For some emerging contaminants, well-established technologies can be found that are compatible with the compound’s unique physical and chemical characteristics. For other emerging contaminants, this is not as straightforward, and while there may be existing technologies that can work to some degree, a much more significant effort must be mounted to find and commercially develop technologies that are both more effective and efficient. The area of emerging contaminant management also involves product stewardship and the development of best management practices for manufacturing. Product stewardship programs have been developed to mitigate the impacts of commercial chemical products on humans and the environment and work to find replacements for compounds known to adversely affect the environment. In 1971, the President’s Council on Environmental Quality said, “We should no longer be limited to repairing damage after it has been done; nor should we continue to allow the entire population or the entire environment to be used as a laboratory” (Council on Environmental Quality, 1971). Although this statement represents a long-standing recognition that product stewardship is essential to ensure that the introduction of new products into society does not adversely affect human health and the environment, there continue to be examples over the last 50 years where various compounds became widely used without all of the potential risks being fully understood. Flame retardants are one example. Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) were used as flame retardants beginning about 1970. Production was quickly discontinued in the U.S. in the mid-1970s following an incident through which PBBs were inadvertently introduced directly into the food chain. This incident resulted in a better appreciation of their risk out of necessity (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2004). PBDEs

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook were then used in place of PBBs as flame retardants. As our understanding of PBDE environmental fate and potential risks has improved, they too are now regarded as emerging contaminants.

Regulation Finally, and as previously mentioned, a compound typically no longer fits in the category of an emerging concern once it has achieved some degree of uniform regulation matched by the capability for detection and treatment. In this sense, regulation is most often equated to the establishment of safe concentration limits that must be achieved in environmental media. However, regulation can also include banning the use of a particular compound. Although efforts to support regulation often move in parallel with the prior three areas of focus in the life cycle, the degree of regulation is also informed by them.

To illustrate how emerging contaminants come and go through the life cycle, it is helpful to look at some examples. The compounds trichloroethene (TCE) and MTBE are generally no longer considered to be emerging contaminants because they have effectively moved through each step of the emerging contaminant life cycle and are now regulated. Public awareness of MTBE as an emerging contaminant came to the forefront in the early 1990s (Deeb et al., 2004). As understanding of the human health and ecological effects of MTBE developed, approximately 20 states instituted regulation by 1999 (Deeb et al., 2004). This sparked a flurry of activity around the characterization of MTBE through the 2000s (Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, MTBE and Other Fuel Oxygenates Team, 2005). Air stripping was predominantly the treatment option of choice in the mid-1990s with granular activated carbon (GAC), advanced oxidation processes, and biological treatment approaches developed and applied by the early 2000s (Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, MTBE and Other Fuel Oxygenates Team, 2005). TCE goes back even further, with awareness as an emerging contaminant occurring in the early to mid-1980s (Russell et al., 1992), with the Phase I rule from the USEPA going into effect in 1989 (USEPA, n.d.). Analytical methods were initially developed in the mid-1980s with USEPA Methods 524.2 and 502.2, thus allowing for characterization of TCE. Treatment technologies began with air stripping in the early 1980s and continued with soil vapor extraction in the late 1980s. GAC gained popularity in the early 1990s, and in situ bioremediation approaches became more accepted later that decade (Russell et al., 1992). At that time, the risk management strategies associated with TCE were generally considered well established, and TCE passed out of the emerging contaminant life cycle. However, in 2011, new toxicological data came out related to the inhalation risk associated with TCE (USEPA, 2011). Consequently, vapor intrusion as a pathway for exposure to TCE gained attention. While the new developments do not revert TCE to emerging contaminant status, they show how improvements to our understanding of any contaminant can influence levels of interest, concern, and action at any point in time.

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15

In contrast to TCE and MTBE, 1,4-dioxane and PFASs are examples of emerging contaminants that are still firmly in the emerging contaminant life cycle because they have not yet resolved each of the life cycle focus areas. General awareness of 1,4-dioxane began as early as the mid-1980s (Environmental Health Division of Washtenaw County, 2017) with more focus in the early 2000s in California (Mohr et al., 2010) and in 2015 with completion of the UCMR sampling program from 2012 to 2015. State regulation of 1,4-dioxane began in 2004 in Colorado and, as of 2016, more than 30 states had drinking water or groundwater standards (Suthersan et al., 2016). USEPA Method 522 for quantification of 1,4-dioxane in drinking water was developed in 2008 and commonly used groundwater analytical methods (e.g., USEPA Methods 8260 and 8270) were augmented with selective ion monitoring to better quantify 1,4-dioxane. The laboratory analytical techniques associated with 1,4-dioxane are still evolving; thus the characterization area of focus in the emerging contaminant life cycle is still ongoing. Likewise, more efficient technologies for treatment are also still evolving, with the potential to engineer biological degradation gaining traction circa 2015. Relative to 1,4-dioxane, PFASs have only just started their journey in the emerging contaminant life cycle. These compounds entered into the mainstream public awareness through the UCMR program in the U.S. from 2012 to 2015, as well as through public media coverage. While a provisional HAL was issued in 2009, it has been updated since then (USEPA, 2017a). As of the time of this writing, there are a handful of U.S. states with drinking water or groundwater standards, while PFAS regulation is more firmly established in Europe and Australia. USEPA Method 537 was developed in 2009 to quantify a few PFASs (like PFOS and PFOA) in drinking water. However, the toxicology associated with PFASs, the ability to characterize them in the environment, the ability to treat contaminated media, and the replacements for these chemicals are all subjects of intense research. The list of what qualifies as an emerging contaminant will continue to be dynamic as new compounds are continuously being produced and science continuously improves our understanding of their potential toxicity and occurrence in the environment.

1.4 WHAT ARE THE KEY CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH EMERGING CONTAMINANTS? While the topic of emerging contaminants has been acknowledged as a highly popular area of research (Sauve and Desrosiers, 2014), the challenge associated with management and treatment of CECs remains a major opportunity for future innovation by the industrial, scientific, and consulting communities. Given the advancements in understanding how to tackle new contaminants, the life cycle for new emerging contaminants is likely to be shorter than for prior compounds, like TCE. The main difference today is the combination of issues that together can accelerate the process. As awareness of a new emerging contaminant heightens, the demand from the public increases pressure on all stakeholders to take

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook

action. On one hand this can be good in the sense that action is being taken where there is a potential risk to human health and the environment. On the other hand, the perceived need to respond can potentially outpace the state of the science. Some of the key challenges involved in the modern-day dynamic around emerging contaminants include the following: Visibility and Public Sensitivity In today’s digital age, information is instantly available to the general public. This is true regardless of the accuracy of the information or its potential for bias. When news can be shared this easily, it can achieve “viral” status where the rate of spread accelerates exponentially through Internet sharing, including various forms of social media. Such availability of information is a powerful driver, and the impact of emerging contaminants on the public water supply is a common topic of media stories, focused on raising public awareness. For example, within the broad category of PFASs, the specific compounds PFOS and PFOA have been the subject of increasing media attention with multiple news items every day for the last few years. A big reason for this is the story of Hoosick Falls, New York, which began in August 2014, when a local resident met with the village mayor to request that samples of water from the municipal water system be analyzed for the presence of PFOA (Village of Hoosick Falls, 2016). Water sampling conducted in the fall of 2014 of three water supply wells and the treated water from the municipal plant showed that PFOA was detected at concentrations ranging from 170 to 540 nanograms per liter (ng/L) (Village of Hoosick Falls, 2016), with several samples at concentrations above the (then) short-term exposure HAL of 400 ng/L (USEPA, 2012). Stories about Hoosick Falls first hit the newsstands in early 2015 when several residents spoke out about their concerns anonymously (Sanzone, 2015). Media coverage continued sporadically through 2015 until residents contacted the USEPA to raise concerns about whether they should drink, bathe in, or cook with their water (Village of Hoosick Falls, 2016). This prompted the governor of New York to issue an emergency regulation to classify PFOA as a hazardous substance, classify a local manufacturing facility as a State Superfund Site, and unlock state resources to address resident concerns. This action landed Hoosick Falls in the national media spotlight in January 2016. According to Google Trends, more than 1,700 news articles related to Hoosick Falls and PFOA were published in 2016. Much of this was early in the year when actions were being taken to provide residents with bottled water, install appropriate treatment at the municipal drinking water plant, and install hundreds of smaller treatment systems at residential water wells. During this time, the health-based standards related to PFOA were lowered (more than once) and the blood of local residents was tested to evaluate the impact to the public. In the case of Hoosick Falls, public visibility and sensitivity clearly played an important role in the response.

Uncertainty In spite of the powerful driver in visibility, there can be great uncertainty surrounding short-term decision-making due to both the evolving science and toxicology around emerging contaminants and the potential lack of effective treatment approaches. As alluded to earlier in this chapter, health-based treatment standards developed at the state level in the U.S. can vary widely and change over time—which results in a patchwork of regulation that is both difficult to understand and difficult to comply with. A treatment approach that works to meet one standard may no longer work when that

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standard is lowered. The disparity represents a challenge for industry and municipalities that are trying to do the right thing to protect human health and the environment. The challenges can be compounded by the fact that conventional technologies for water treatment and groundwater remediation may not be suitable for dealing with certain emerging contaminants. The implication is particularly significant as demands for balanced aquifer storage and recharge or replenishment increase.

Vulnerability Finally, there are the challenges with making longer-term management decisions and “future proofing.” The goal of most long-term decisions is to make the right decision now to carry into the future. Despite best efforts, this can be difficult. At the core of this vulnerability is not understanding the full spectrum of what may need to be managed. A great example of this is the earlier story of a flame-retardant replacement chemical that was thought to be safe, but turned out to be a risk to human health and the environment, similar to the chemical it replaced. Another example is the cooccurrence of 1,4-dioxane and chlorinated solvents. Historically, a common groundwater treatment technique employed for chlorinated solvents was groundwater extraction coupled with aboveground air stripping. While air stripping is effective at removing chlorinated solvents from groundwater, it is not effective at removing 1,4-dioxane from the same groundwater stream. When the awareness of the relationship between 1,4-dioxane and certain chlorinated solvents became known, it created a situation where sites that had been remediated for chlorinated solvents and that were close to regulatory closure found themselves needing to continue remedial efforts due to the presence of 1,4-dioxane. In other cases, expensive retrofits had to be made to remediation systems designs so that they would be effective for both chlorinated solvents and 1,4-dioxane. A final example of vulnerability is the ability to analyze and quantify the presence of PFASs, as a category of contaminants. Many of the thousands of individual compounds that comprise this category have the potential to bio-transform to a few end products, including PFOS and PFOA. Therefore, if a current characterization or monitoring strategy only includes quantification of PFOS and PFOA, it will not accurately capture the full mass of PFASs that may be an issue in the future.

Increased visibility/public sensitivity, increased uncertainty, and increased vulnerability can all create high-pressure conditions for regulators and responsible parties alike, underscoring a need for balance.

1.5  THE NEED FOR BALANCE Developing management strategies and implementing response actions in the face of an immature understanding of emerging contaminants is clearly challenging. In some circumstances, acting quickly to ensure protection of human health and the environment may be necessary. An example of this may be providing bottled water to communities where emerging contaminants are detected in drinking water. However, considering the long-term course of action once initial emergency response is complete is also important. As evidenced by the emerging contaminant life cycle (Figure 1.2), our understanding of a compound changes over time, illustrating the importance of incorporating provisions for change into the public awareness of how emerging contaminants are strategically managed.

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook

Developing an understanding of the range of toxicological effects of a compound takes time, effort, and the resources, both with regard to human health and the environment. While it may not take long to develop an understanding of the short-term acute toxicological effects of a chemical, estimating the long-term chronic effects is complex and requires more time. Although researchers have developed methods to characterize adverse effects, it is important to consider the assumptions inherent in those methods and whether they apply to a given compound, and to include an opportunity to update the methods when new data are available. While it is certainly more protective of human health and the environment to include conservative assumptions early on, it is then important to communicate effectively with the public, regulators, and other stakeholders when new data indicate those conservative assumptions can be modified and relaxed. As occurrence data for a new emerging contaminant are collected, the results may indicate that the compound is present in many types of environmental media: drinking water, groundwater, surface water, and more. This may raise concern with the public, regulators, and other stakeholders if it seems that the chemical is “everywhere.” However, the occurrence of a compound does not necessarily mean it is of human health or environmental concern. It may be that the compound is detected only at very low concentrations, concentrations that do not exhibit an effect on humans or the environment. An example of this is the presence of some pharmaceuticals in domestic wastewater, but at concentrations below the dose that elicits a response in the human body. When it comes to regulations, there may also be a tendency to adopt a more conservative approach when less is known about a new emerging contaminant. The USEPA issues HALs for new compounds to communicate to the public a potential concern regarding the effect a compound may have on human health. These are commonly issued early in the emerging contaminant life cycle and may change with time as new information becomes available. Many state regulatory agencies use HALs as a starting point for developing local standards or guidance. However, HALs are not promulgated, enforceable values that public water suppliers are held to: MCLs are required for that. The process for developing MCLs takes more time and balances occurrence data (e.g., UCMR results) with toxicological information (i.e., does it cause harm to humans) and other factors to be sure that the value chosen is protective and reasonable. Even after this process, there have been instances of changes in MCLs as new information becomes available (e.g., chromium). The challenges associated with finding a balanced and measured response to emerging contaminants are felt particularly strongly by the water supply industry. This industry is tasked with providing clean, safe drinking water to the public. Conventional water treatment processes were developed to remove a variety of compounds. However, as the list of chemicals that need to meet MCLs or state-specific standards grows, there is a need to determine if conventional techniques also address these new compounds, or a need to develop and install processes that do. In some cases, new methods for detecting these new chemicals are needed; in other cases, new treatment technologies are needed. These needs provide new opportunities for enhanced collaboration between the water supply industry, academia, and other industries. Now, more than ever, a multidisciplinary approach is needed to ensure clean, safe drinking water for the public.

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1.6  THIS BOOK The topic of emerging contaminants is vast and, as evidenced by the preceding discussion, can be complex and fraught with sensitivity. This book was by no means meant to be comprehensive. Instead, the intent was to create a handbook that could serve as a reference point reflective of the time in which it was written. Within the book, we have compiled up-to-date information related to the sources, human health toxicity, regulatory status, characterization, and treatment options for a subset of the contaminants found in Appendix C. We formatted the book to facilitate finding relevant information in practice. In many instances, it relies on the use of tables and figures to present information as resources for future reference. While the book aims to incorporate global perspectives associated with emerging contaminants, some topics are more focused on developments within the U.S. Most of the treatment discussions are focused on water, although some information on soil is also provided. It is also important to note that the discussions in this book center on several specifically selected compounds that affect groundwater and water supply (i.e., drinking water and wastewater); and that these discussions do not extend to biological contaminants. The compounds we specifically selected to expand on, each in their own chapters, are as follows: • • • •

1,4-dioxane (Chapter 2), PFASs (Chapter 3), hexavalent chromium (Chapter 4), and TCP (Chapter 5).

The chapters dedicated to each of these compounds touch on the toxicological research completed to date, regulatory status, and current status of technology to support characterization and treatment. Table 1.1 serves to provide the context for selecting these compounds with regard to occurrence, understanding of human health effects, and regulatory status. While hexavalent chromium is no longer an emerging contaminant, similar to the story previously given for TCE, it deserves focus given the emergence of new and evolving toxicology data and the evolving state of regulations. Treatment technologies to address hexavalent chromium in water have previously been established, but the development of new treatment techniques may be needed to achieve the lower levels being considered for new regulatory standards. By comparison, 1,4-dioxane is fairly advanced in the emerging contaminant life cycle, but it still exhibits considerable variability in levels of regulation and the availability of effective treatment options. Finally, PFASs and TCP deserve particular attention as they are emerging contaminants attracting more recent and accelerating regulatory focus for which many conventional treatment approaches are ineffective or have limited applicability. After focusing on these four specific contaminants, to round out the book, in the last chapter (Chapter 6) we touch on broader concepts for consideration relative to categorization and management of the wide range of other emerging contaminants that currently exist.

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TABLE 1.1 Contributing factors for selecting featured emerging contaminants

1,4-Dioxane

UCMR31: Detected in 21.9% of public water supplies tested with 6.9% above the reference concentration of 0.35 µg/L.

3

PFASs

UCMR31: – PFOS detected in 1.9% of public water supplies tested with 0.9% above the reference concentration of 0.07 µg/L – PFOA detected in 2.4% of public water supplies tested with 0.3% above the reference concentration of 0.07 µg/L.

Regulatory Status (Primarily in the United States)

Human health toxicological profile No federal MCL, but 1,4-dioxane is on the X developed in 2012–2013. Studies in 2014 CCL for possible future regulation. Many and 2017 elucidated new information on states have established drinking water mode of action for tumor growth and and groundwater guidance based on the suggested revisions to health-based 2012–2013 toxicity data. guidelines. There is extensive research on the sub Increased recognition of PFAS exposure X chronic effects of PFOS and PFOA on routes has led to stricter individual and humans. Results are conflicting in cumulative PFAS regulations, including terms of PFAS exposure and shorter-chain PFASs. USEPA has reproductive/developmental health. focused regulation on PFOS and PFOA, while many states have considered other PFASs.

Groundwater Remediation

2

Understanding of Human Health Effects

Wastewater

Occurrence

Drinking Water

Chemical(s)

X

X

X

X

Emerging Contaminants Handbook

Chapter

Concern for

Hexavalent Chromium

UCMR31: Detected in 89% of public water supplies with 1.8% of public water supplies tested above a concentration of 10 µg/L (2014 California MCL). California UCMR2: Detected in 12% of public water supplies above the 2014 California MCL of 10 µg/L.

5

TCP

UCMR31: Detected in 1.4% of public water supplies tested with 1.4% above the reference concentration of 0.04 µg/L California UCMR3: Detected in 891 of public water supply wells tested at a concentration greater than 0.005 µg/L (California MCL).

Regulatory Status (Primarily in the United States)

Updating the 1998 risk assessment, USEPA is considering establishing an MCL, X taking into consideration developments but is waiting the results of the updated risk in the literature on the carcinogenicity assessment. California set the first and only via ingestion. state drinking water standard specific to hexavalent chromium in 2014. In May 2017, the Superior Court of California granted a petition and ordered the MCL to be withdrawn and reestablished due to questions on the economic feasibility for small water systems. Classified as “reasonably anticipated to be There is no federal MCL, but TCP is on X a human carcinogen” by the United the CCL for possible future regulation States National Toxicology Program in California adopted an MCL of 2016. 0.005 µg/L MCL in 2017.

Groundwater Remediation

4

Understanding of Human Health Effects

Wastewater

Occurrence

Drinking Water

Chapter

Chemical(s)

X

Introduction to Emerging Contaminants

Concern for

X

21

Notes: 1 USEPA UCMR3 results, collected from 2012–2015; reference concentrations provided give context for detections above relevant human health risk criteria (USEPA, 2017b). 2 California UCMR results for hexavalent chromium from 2000 to 2012 (California State Water Resources Control Board, 2014). 3 California UCMR results for TCP from 2000 to 2012 (California State Water Resources Control Board, 2016). µg/L = micrograms per liter

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REFERENCES Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2004. Toxicological Profile for Polybrominated Biphenyls. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Anderson, P., N. Denslow, J. E. Drewes, A. Olivieri, D. Schlenk, and S. Snyder. 2010. “Monitoring Strategies for Chemicals of Emerging Concern in Recycled Water.” Final Report to the State Water Resources Control Board, 220. British Geological Survey. 2011. Science Briefing: Emerging Contaminants in Groundwater. British Geological Survey. California State Water Resources Control Board. 2016. 1,2,3-Trichloropropane Maximum Contaminant Level Development Process. July 20. Accessed June 11, 2017. www. waterboards.ca.gov/drinking_water/certlic/drinkingwater/documents/123-tcp/tcp_ mcl_presentation.pdf. —. 2014. Chromium-6 in Drinking Water Sources: Sampling Results. July 11. Accessed February 26, 2017. www.waterboards.ca.gov/drinking_water/certlic/drinkingwater/ Chromium6sampling.shtml. Commonwealth of Australia. 2017. National Environment Protection Council. Accessed May 24, 2018. www.nepc.gov.au/. Council on Environmental Quality. 1971. “Toxic Substances.” Staff House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, Legislative History of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA Legislative History) at 760 760 (Comm. Print 1976). 776. CRC CARE. 2014. Development of Guidance for Contaminants of Emerging Concern, CRC CARE Technical Report no. 32. Adelaide, Australia: CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment. Deeb, Rula A., Amparo E. Flores, Andrew J. Stocking, Scott E. Thompson, Michael C. Kavanaugh, Daniel N. Creek, and James M. Davidson. 2004. “Evaluation of MTBE Remediation Options.” A Report Written for: The California MTBE Research Partnership. Fountain Valley, CA: Center for Groundwater Restoration and Protection, National Water Research Institute, April. DoD. 2009. Emerging Contaminants. Instruction, Number 4715.18, United States of America Department of Defense. Dodder, Nathan G., Alvine C. Mehinto, and Keith A. Maruya. 2015. “Monitoring of Constituents of Emerging Concern (CECs) in California’s Aquatic Ecosystems—Pilot Study Design and QA/QC Guidance.” Technical Report 854 for Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Authority. Drewes, J. E., P. Anderson, N. Denslow, W. Jakubowski, A. Olivieri, D. Schlenk, and S. Snyder. 2018. “Monitoring Strategies for Constituents of Concern (CECs) in Recycled Water.” Recommendations of a Science Advisory Panel. Convened by the State Water Resources Control Board, 178. Environmental Health Division of Washtenaw County. 2017. CARD: Coalition for Action on Remediation of Dioxane. Accessed June 4, 2017. www.ewashtenaw.org/government/ departments/environmental_health/card. European Chemicals Agency. 2018a. Understanding REACH. Accessed May 24, 2018. https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach/understanding-reach. —. 2018b. Substances Restricted under REACH. Accessed May 24, 2018. https://echa.europa. eu/substances-restricted-under-reach. —. 2018c. Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern for Authorisation. Accessed May 24, 2018. https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-table. —. 2018d. SVHC Roadmap to 2020 Implementation. Accessed May 24, 2018. https://echa. europa.eu/svhc-roadmap-to-2020-implementation.

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Federal Register. 2016. “Announcement of Final Regulatory Determinations for Contaminants on the Third Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List.” 40 CFR Part 141, EPA– HQ–OW–2012–0155; FRL–9940–64–OW. Environmental Protection Agency, January 4. —. 2014. “Announcement of Preliminary Regulatory Determinations for Contaminants on the Third Drinking Contaminants on the Third Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List.” 40 CFR Part 141. EPA–HQ–OW–2012–0155; FRL–9917–87–OW. Vol. 79, no. 202. Environmental Protection Agency, October 20. German Environment Agency. 2017. Position: Protecting the Sources of Our Drinking Water. Dessau-Roblau, Germany: German Environment Agency. Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, MTBE and Other Fuel Oxygenates Team. 2005. “Overview of Groundwater Remediation Technologies for MTBE and TBA: MTBE-1.” Washington, D.C.: Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, February. Mohr, Thomas K.G., Julie A. Stickney, and William H. DiGuiseppi. 2010. Enviromental Investigation and Remediation: 1,4-Dioxane and Other Solvent Stabilizers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. National Environment Protection Council. 2013. National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contaminantion) Measure. May 15. Accessed May 24, 2018. www. nepc.gov.au/nepms/assessment-site-contamination. NGI. 2018. Technical Note: Preliminary Assessment of Substances Registered under REACH that could Fulfil the Proposed PMT/vPvM Criteria. Document no. 20160526-TN-01, Trondheim, Norway: Norwegian Geotechnical Institute. NORMAN. 2012. Emerging Substances. Accessed June 6, 2018. www.norman-network. net/?q=node/19. Russell, Hugh H., John E. Matthews, and Guy W. Sewell. 1992. “TCE Removal from Contaminanted Soil and Ground Water.” EPA Ground Water Issue. Washington, D.C.: Technology Innovation Office, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, United States Environmental Protection Agency, January. Sanzone, Danielle. 2015. “Hoosick Falls Residents Raise Concerns after Low Levels of Carcinogen Found in Water Supply.” Troy, The Record. January 24. www.troyrecord. com/article/TR/20150124/NEWS/150129787. Sauve, Sebastien, and Melanie Desrosiers. 2014. “A Review of What Is an Emerging Contaminant.” Chemistry Central Journal. Vol. 8, no. 15. Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. 2012. “Monitoring Strategies for Chemicals of Emerging Concern (CECs) in California’s Aquatic Ecosystems.” Technical Report 692, 215. Stockholm Convention. 2008. What Are POPs? Accessed June 4, 2017. http://chm.pops.int/ TheConvention/ThePOPs/tabid/673/Default.aspx. Suthersan, Suthan, Joseph Quinnan, John Horst, Ian Ross, Erica Kalve, Caitlin Bell, and Tessa Pancras. 2016. “Making Strides in the Management of ‘Emerging Contaminants’.” Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation, 15–25. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2017a. Drinking Water Health Advisories for PFOA and PFOS. April 14. Accessed June 4, 2017. www.epa.gov/ ground-water-and-drinking-water/drinking-water-health-advisories-pfoa-and-pfos. —. 2017b. “The Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR3): Data Summary, January 2017.” Accessed June 20, 2017. www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-02/ documents/ucmr3-data-summary-january-2017.pdf. —. n.d. Trichloroethylene Fact Sheet. Accessed June 4, 2017. https://safewater.zendesk.com/ hc/en-us/sections/202346177-Trichloroethylene. —. 2016. Technical Fact Sheets about Emerging Contaminants at Federal Facilities. May 5. Accessed June 6, 2018. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/fedfac/emergingcontaminants-and-federal-facility-contaminants-concern_.html.

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—. 2012. “Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. EPA 822-S-12001.” Washington, D.C.: Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. —. 2011. “Integrated Risk Information System: Chemical Assessment Summary: Trichloroethylene.” September 28. USGS. 2017. Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Environment. June 16. Accessed March 5, 2018. https://toxics.usgs.gov/investigations/cec/index.php. —. 2014. Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Ambient Groundwater in Urbanized Areas of Minnesota, 2009–12. Scientific Investigations Report 2014-5096, U.S. Department of the Interior. Village of Hoosick Falls, The. 2016. Municipal Water. Accessed June 4, 2017. www.villageofhoosickfalls.com/Water/timeline.html. Yaroschak, Paul. 2016. “DoD’s Emerging Contaminants Program.” Emerging Contaminants Summit. Winchester, CO.

Acronyms Australian NEPC CCL CECs CRC CARE DoD GAC HAL MCL MTBE NEPMs NGI ng/L PBBs PBDEs PBT PFASs PFOA PFOS PMT POPs REACH RDX SDWA TCE TCP UBA UCMR USEPA USGS vPvB vPvM

Australian National Environment Protection Council Contaminant Candidate List chemicals of emerging concern Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment United States Department of Defense granular activated carbon health advisory level Maximum Contaminant Level methyl tertiary butyl ether National Environment Protection Measures Norwegian Geotechnical Institute nanograms per liter polybrominated biphenyls polybrominated diphenyl ethers persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances perfluorooctanoic acid perfluorooctanesulfonic acid persistent, mobile, and toxic persistent organic pollutants Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine, also known as Research Department Explosive Safe Drinking Water Act trichloroethene 1,2,3-trichloropropane Umweltbundesamt, German Environment Agency Unregulated Contaminants Monitoring Rule United States Environmental Protection Agency United States Geological Survey very persistent, very bioaccumulative very persistent and very mobile

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2

1,4-Dioxane Caitlin H. Bell (Arcadis U.S., Inc., [email protected])

Norman D. Forsberg (Arcadis U.S., Inc., [email protected])

2.1 INTRODUCTION 1,4-Dioxane is an emerging contaminant that is most commonly known for its use as a stabilizer in some chlorinated solvents. As an environmental contaminant, 1,4-dioxane has been the focus of regulation and treatment since the early 2000s and was immediately recognized as both difficult to quantify via conventional laboratory analyses and difficult to treat using conventional techniques for chlorinated solvents. The associated science has come a long way since that time, but is still evolving on all fronts including quantification, toxicology, regulation, and treatment. These are intertwined, as 1,4-dioxane regulatory levels are low, creating further challenges for treatment.

2.2  BASIC INFORMATION 1,4-Dioxane (Figure 2.1) is most commonly known for its historical use as a stabilizer in the chlorinated solvent 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA). For the environmental consultant, this is probably the most common source of 1,4-dioxane to soil and groundwater. However, 1,4-dioxane is also used as a primary solvent, a manufacturing additive, and can be a by-product in the manufacturing of other commonplace chemicals. Table 2.1 provides a concise summary of 1,4-dioxane sources and the environmental considerations associated with each of them. While any of these sources could lead to the occurrence of 1,4-dioxane in the environment (or human/ ecological exposure), they can also lead to unintended cross contamination of samples being analyzed for 1,4-dioxane. For example, certain classes of surfactants that may be present in decontamination detergents contain sufficient amounts of 1,4-dioxane to create an issue. Use of these products in decontamination at environmental cleanup sites can lead to false-positive results when quantifying 1,4-dioxane.

O O

FIGURE 2.1  Chemical structure of 1,4-dioxane 27

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TABLE 2.1 Common sources of 1,4-dioxane and environmental relevance 1,4-Dioxane Source

Description/Additional Information Environmental Relevance

Chlorinated solvents

Used as stabilizer, particularly in TCA; TCA was commonly used present at 3.2 weight percent interchangeably with TCE, so many chlorinated solvent sites include 1,4-dioxane By-product of the esterification Releases from facilities can process result in environmental impacts

Terephthalate esters (polyester), resins, and associated manufacturing Ethoxylated surfactants/ By-product of the sulfonation reaction emulsions with alcohol ethoxylates Polyethylene glycol production

By-product of the glycol production process

Personal care products: detergents, shampoos, cosmetics, deodorants, etc. Wetting and dispersing agent Dye baths and stain printing Adhesives

Impurity in products that incorporate ethoxylated fatty alcohol sulfates (e.g., sodium laureth sulfate) Direct use as solvent

Pesticides, herbicides, and fumigants

Direct use as solvent Impurity in solvents used to facilitate spreading/drying Identified as inert ingredient; impurity of polyoxyethyleneamine

Lacquers, paints, varnishes, Additive in resin-related products as and paint/varnish remover well as impurity in the resin

Solvent for fats, oils, Direct use as solvent waxes, and natural/ synthetic resins Pharmaceutical Direct use as solvent in product manufacturing purification Reaction media for various Direct use as solvent organic synthesis reactions

Present in a large number of products that contain surfactants Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts; use of products (e.g., antifreeze and deicing fluids) can result in sources of environmental impacts Could be introduced to the environment through wastewater discharge Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts; use of products can result in sources of environmental impacts Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts; use of products can result in sources of environmental impacts Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts

29

1,4-Dioxane 1,4-Dioxane Source

Description/Additional Information Environmental Relevance

Cellulose acetate membranes

Used to fluidize manufacturing materials in reverse osmosis and kidney dialysis filters

Liquid scintillation cocktails Ink and printing operations Laboratory solvent Flame retardant production Food additives and products that include the following ingredients:

Releases from facilities can result in environmental impacts; waste disposal considerations Used in analyses related to the medical Waste disposal from facilities can and life sciences result in environmental impacts Used as a solvent in printing inks since Releases from facilities can the early 1950s result in environmental impacts Used in preservation, digestion, Waste disposal from facilities can purification drying, etc. result in environmental impacts Solvent used in production of Releases from facilities can brominated fire retardants result in environmental impacts Use and disposal of products can Alcohol ethyoxylate, alcohol result in sources of ethoxysulfate, polyoxyethylene, compounds with “laureth” in the name, environmental impacts; could be introduced to the environment sodium laureth sulfate, sodium lauryl through wastewater discharge ether sulfate (but not sodium lauryl sulfate), ammonium laureth sulfate, triethanolamine laureth sulfate, polyethylene glycol compounds, compounds with “ceteareth” in the name, compounds with “oleth” in the name, compounds with “xynol” in the name, polysorbates, propylene glycol, and compounds with the molecular structure (C2H4O)n

Source: Adapted from content in Mohr et al. (2010)

Regulation of 1,4-dioxane is relatively recent, but many states are now establishing action levels for soil, groundwater, and drinking water (see section 2.4 for more information on regulations). The following has become a common scenario: A facility that historically used chlorinated solvents, such as trichloroethene (TCE) and TCA, identified groundwater contamination and installed a remedial system to treat it. This remedial system likely included groundwater extraction with aboveground treatment (i.e., pump and treat [P&T]), perhaps coupled with reinjection of the groundwater into the subsurface. This P&T system probably had granular activated carbon (GAC) or an air stripper as the aboveground treatment. Groundwater concentrations decreased with time to below the applicable cleanup criteria. The facility initiates discussions with the regulatory agency regarding case closure. The regulatory agency requests that the facility sample the groundwater for 1,4-dioxane, likely for the first time. Laboratory analysis reveals the presence of 1,4-dioxane in groundwater at concentrations above the regulatory limit. Now the remedial system needs to be retrofitted to include a treatment process for 1,4-dioxane, and the site cannot reach closure at this time.

The reasons for this increasingly common scenario are the chemical and physical properties of 1,4-dioxane. A comparison table, shown in Table 2.2, describes

30

TABLE 2.2 Comparison of relative physical and chemical properties of 1,4-dioxane with other chemicals Physical or Chemical Property

Benzene

TCE

TCA

11DCE

1,4-Dioxane



C6H6

C2HCl3

C2H3Cl3

C2H2Cl2

C4H8O2

grams per mole

78.11

131.4

133.4

96.95

88.11

°C

80

87

74

32

101*

Water solubility

grams per liter

1.8 (Moderate)

1.1 (Moderate)

0.91 (Moderate)

5.06 (High)

Miscible

Vapor pressure

millimeters of mercury

95.2 (Moderate)

72.6 (Moderate)

124 (High)

234 (High)

38.1 (Low)

atmosphere × meter3/mole

5.48 × 10−3 (Moderate)

9.1 × 10−3 (Moderate)

1.6 × 10−2 (High)

5.8 × 10−3 (Moderate)

4.8 × 10−6 (Very Low)

unitless - as log Koc

1.92 (Moderate)

1.81 (Low)

2.18 (Moderate)

1.48 (Low)

0.54 (Very Low)

Molecular formula Molecular mass Boiling point

Henry’s law constant

Organic carbon partitioning coefficient

Source: Developed from data in Suthersan and Payne (2005). * 1,4-Dioxane forms an azeotrope with water in which 48.5 mole percent of 1,4-dioxane in water will boil at 87.59 °C (Schneider and Lynch, 1943).

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Units

1,4-Dioxane

31

the environmentally relevant properties of 1,4-dioxane, benzene, TCE, TCA, and 1,1-dichloroethene (11DCE). Of environmental relevance, 1,4-dioxane is less volatile (i.e., Henry’s law constant of 4.8 × 10 −6 atmosphere × meter3/mole [see also the note in Appendix C]; vapor pressure of 38.1 millimeters of mercury), less sorptive (i.e., log Koc of 0.54), and has a higher boiling point (i.e., 101 °C) than the chlorinated compounds with which it is typically colocated. This is why the GAC and air-stripping processes employed in the aforementioned scenario were not effective at removing 1,4-dioxane from groundwater. Specifically, GAC may be ineffective (when originally designed to remove chlorinated solvents), because the 1,4-dioxane will break through the GAC before the chlorinated solvents. Historically, 1,4-dioxane was not sampled as part of routine performance monitoring to know when this occurred. According to the manufacturing records available, 1,4-dioxane was a stabilizing agent added to TCA at approximately 3.2 weight percent (Mohr et al., 2010). Additionally, 1,4-dioxane is expected to have concentrated during chlorinated solvent usage in vapor degreasers up to 15 to 20 percent (Mohr et al., 2010). The Lewis base properties of 1,4-dioxane (i.e., has an electron pair to donate from the oxygen) allows it to react with, and passivate, metals and their salts, notably aluminum chloride, thus preventing the premature decomposition of TCA in metal tanks (Mohr et al., 2010). Therefore, 1,4-dioxane may be present in groundwater that also contains TCA; its abiotic dehydrohalogenation product, 11DCE; or its biological degradation product, 1,1-dichloroethane. These compounds can be used as chemical indicators for the presence of 1,4-dioxane. Despite a few historical patents that may suggest the use of 1,4-dioxane as a stabilizer in TCE (Morrison and Murphy, 2015), manufacturers do not identify 1,4-dioxane as a stabilizer for TCE (Mohr et al., 2010), largely because TCE is not as susceptible to the same metal reactions as TCA. Meta data evaluations (Adamson et al., 2014) identified 1,4-dioxane present at facilities where TCE was present. While TCE has been used historically as the dominant industrial solvent, TCA replaced it for a period of time until being banned in the 1990s. Therefore, the presence of 1,4-dioxane with TCE is likely attributed to the historical use of TCA and subsequent attenuation of TCA to nondetectable levels. The presence of 1,4-dioxane at chlorinated solvent sites continues to be a challenge due to the evolving and increasing regulation around 1,4-dioxane concentrations in environmental media, such as groundwater. More than 30 American states now have regulatory standards or guidelines for 1,4-dioxane. Most of these are related to drinking water or groundwater, but some states have provided standards or guidelines related to soil and soil vapor, as well. Regulation of 1,4-dioxane began in the late 1990s, but many of the initial values were put into place in the early 2000s with many of them updated in the 2010s as the toxicological understanding changed (see section 2.3 for more detail). Approximately half of the 1,4-dioxane regulatory values are enforceable (e.g., promulgated standards) while the other half are not (e.g., guidelines or screening levels). As the number of states with regulatory standards or guidelines for 1,4-dioxane increases, two strategies can be adopted relative to evaluating its presence in a portfolio: reactive or proactive. Under a reactive strategy, a facility may look for 1,4-dioxane only if requested by the regulatory agency, for example. A reactive management strategy may be attractive in situations where the contamination profile does not directly point to the potential for 1,4-dioxane, and there are no site characteristics that would

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increase the level of risk (e.g., no human health or ecological risk). A proactive management strategy may be attractive where the contamination profile strongly suggests the presence of 1,4-dioxane in the subsurface (i.e., TCA; 11DCE; 1,1-dichloroethane present) and there are site characteristics that could increase the level of risk such as potential receptors. Ultimately, the decision of which approach to take will depend on the risk management practices of the individual site owner. Another challenge associated with 1,4-dioxane is its already pervasive presence in drinking water supplies (United States Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA], 2017). Of the 4,915 public water supplies tested for 1,4-dioxane as part of the USEPA’s Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule 3 sampling conducted between 2012 and 2015, 21.9 percent of public water supplies (1,077 of 4,915) had detections of 1,4-dioxane and 6.9 percent (341 of 4,915) were above the reference concentration of 0.35 micrograms per liter (µg/L; USEPA, 2017). Additionally, the presence of 1,4-dioxane in public water supplies with groundwater sources were higher than those with surface water sources (Adamson et al., 2017). The presence of 1,4-dioxane in drinking water supply wells may come from groundwater remediation sites with known, or unknown, levels of 1,4-dioxane. It may also come from less-expected commercial sources, like those associated with car washes that use detergents containing 1,4-dioxane. The drinking water challenge may also be exacerbated by the discharge of 1,4-dioxane from household products to wastewater treatment plants, 1,4-dioxane passing through the treatment processes, and water supply intakes with influence from wastewater discharge.

2.3  TOXICITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT This section touches on the human health toxicity and risk associated with 1,4-dioxane. It is intended to identify the relevant exposure pathways (as well as the pathways that are not of concern). It also discusses the toxicity information that is the basis for the current 1,4-dioxane regulations. At the time of this writing, the industry’s understanding of 1,4-dioxane toxicity was still evolving and influencing the related regulatory standards or guidelines. Human health toxicity is evaluated from two perspectives: potential cancer effects and potential noncancer effects. The primary routes of human exposure to 1,4-dioxane include oral contact (i.e., ingestion), inhalation, and dermal contact. The absorption of 1,4-dioxane following oral or inhalation exposure is expected to be rapid and nearly complete and to occur via passive diffusion (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry [ATSDR], 2012). In contrast, absorption following dermal exposure is not expected to contribute significantly to systemic doses of 1,4-dioxane (Marzulli et al., 1981; ATSDR, 2012), and as such is not carried forward as a relevant exposure pathway. After exposure, humans metabolize 1,4-dioxane extensively (ATSDR, 2012; USEPA, 2013). While the exact metabolic pathway has not been fully resolved, substantial evidence indicates that 1,4-dioxane is metabolized primarily to β-hydroxyethoxyacetic acid (HEAA) by cytochrome P450 oxidases (USEPA, 2013; Dourson et al., 2014). At environmentally or occupationally relevant exposure levels, it is expected that most of a 1,4-dioxane dose will be excreted as HEAA in the urine (ATSDR, 2012; USEPA, 2013; Dourson et al., 2014). A summary

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of the relevant exposure pathways associated with potential cancer effects and potential noncancer effects, as evaluated by USEPA (2013) and ATSDR (2012), follows.

2.3.1  Potential Noncancer Effects USEPA (2013) and ATSDR (2012) both evaluated the toxicological profile of 1,4-dioxane and reached similar conclusions regarding the spectrum and magnitude of noncancer health effects. In deriving daily human exposure levels expected to be without appreciable risk of noncancer health effects, USEPA (2013) and ATSDR (2012) both identified the hepatotoxic effects reported by Kociba et al. (1974) as the critical effects associated with oral exposure to 1,4-dioxane (Table 2.3). While

TABLE 2.3 Summary of toxicological reference values developed by USEPA and ATSDR for use in evaluating chronic oral and inhalation non-carcinogenic exposures to 1,4-dioxane along with the basis of their derivation Parameter

USEPA (2013)

Toxicity Reference Value

Chronic Oral Exposure RfD, Chronic

Value POD POD type Critical effect

Key study Uncertainty factor Toxicity Reference Value POD POD type Critical effect

Key study Duration adjustment Human equivalent dosimetric adjustment factor Uncertainty factor

0.03 mg/kg/d 9.6 mg/kg/d NOAEL Degenerative effects in the livers of male rats at a LOAEL of 94 mg/kg/d Kociba, et al. (1974) 300 (UFA = 10, UFH = 10, UFD = 3)

ATSDR (2012) Minimal Risk Level, Chronic (≥365 days) 0.1 mg/kg/d 9.6 mg/kg/d NOAEL Liver degeneration, necrosis and signs of regeneration in male rats at a LOAEL of 94 mg/kg/d Kociba, et al. (1974) 100 (UFA = 10, UFH = 10)

Chronic Inhalation Exposure Reference Concentration Minimal Risk Level, Chronic (≥365d) 0.009 ppm (eq. to 0.03 mg/m3) 0.03 ppm 50 ppm 50 ppm LOAEL LOAEL Atrophy and respiratory Atrophy of the olfactory epithelium metaplasia of the olfactory in male rats epithelium in male rats Kasai, et al. (2009) Kasai, et al. (2009) Yes, 6/24 hours × 5/7 days Yes, 6/24 hours × 5/7 days 1 (default) 1 (default) 1,000 (UFA = 3, UFH = 10, UFL = 10, UFD = 3)

Sources: Adapted from USEPA (2013) and ASTDR (2012).

300 (UFA = 3, UFH = 10, UFL = 10)

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USEPA (2013) and ATSDR (2012) concluded that limiting exposure to 0.1 milligram per kilogram body weight per day (mg/kg/d) protects against development of hepatotoxic effects following exposure to 1,4-dioxane, USEPA (2013) concluded that an additional uncertainty factor of 3 was warranted to account for the lack of a multigeneration reproduction study, resulting in a reference dose (RfD) of 0.03 mg/kg/d. Thus, it is expected that chronic oral exposure to 1,4-dioxane at a dose between 0.03 and 0.1 mg/kg/d does not pose an appreciable risk of noncancer effects (including potentially sensitive subpopulations) over a lifetime of exposure. USEPA (2013) and ATSDR (2012) identified damage to the olfactory epithelium (Kasai et al., 2009) as the critical noncarcinogenic effect associated with inhalation exposure to 1,4-dioxane (Table 2.3). Limiting chronic inhalation exposures to less than or equal to 0.03 parts per million (ppm) 1,4-dioxane protects against adverse impacts to olfactory epithelium. However, as with the oral RfD, USEPA (2013) concluded that an additional uncertainty factor of 3 should be applied to the point of departure to account for the lack of a multigeneration reproduction study. Thus, limiting chronic inhalation exposures to concentrations less than 0.009 to 0.03 ppm is not expected to pose an appreciable risk of noncancer effects over a lifetime of exposure (including potentially sensitive subpopulations).

2.3.2  Potential Cancer Effects After updates to the USEPA assessment in 2010 and 2013, USEPA (2013) concluded that 1,4-dioxane is “likely to be carcinogenic to humans” and justified this conclusion based on inconclusive findings in humans and evidence of carcinogenicity in several two-year bioassays (Table 2.4). USEPA (2013) identified the two-year drinking water study performed by Kano et al. (2009) as the key study for deriving the oral cancer slope factor (CSF) for 1,4-dioxane (Table 2.4). USEPA (2013) identified increased incidence of liver tumors as the critical effect in rats and mice exposed to 1,4-dioxane in the Kano et al. (2009) study and derived a CSF of 0.1 (mg/kg/d)−1 using standard USEPA guidance and a default linear low-dose extrapolation approach. In regard to potential carcinogenic risks associated with inhalation exposures, USEPA (2013) identified the two-year inhalation study performed by Kasai et al. (2009) as the key study for deriving the inhalation unit risk factor (IUR) for 1,4-dioxane. Because chronic inhalation exposure to 1,4-dioxane was associated with development of multiple types of tumors at multiple sites, USEPA (2013) identified total tumors combined across all sites as the critical effect in rats (most sensitive species) and derived a IUR of 5 × 10 −6 per microgram per cubic meter (µg/m3)−1 using standard USEPA guidance and a default linear low-dose extrapolation approach. Although it is generally understood that 1,4-dioxane’s carcinogenicity is not mediated by a mutagenic mode of action (MOA), USEPA (2013) concluded that the MOA by which 1,4-dioxane produces liver tumors is “unknown, and available evidence in support of any hypothetical mode of carcinogenic action for 1,4-dioxane is inconclusive.” Thus, the USEPA (2013) proceeded to develop the conservative toxicity values described earlier using default linear low-dose extrapolation procedure. It is important to note that this conservative approach has resulted in state drinking water criteria in the subpart billion concentration range (see section 2.4). However, scientific

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TABLE 2.4 Summary of USEPA’s oral cancer slope factor and inhalation unit risks for 1,4-dioxane and their derivation process Parameter Toxicity Reference Value Value POD POD type

Critical effect Key study

Oral Exposures

Inhalation Exposures

CSF 0.1 (mg/kg/d)−1 4.95 mg/kg/d Benchmark dose, lower 95 percent confidence limit at 50 percent extra risk, human equivalent dose Hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma in female mice Kano et al. (2009)

5 × 10−6 (µg/m3)−1 19,500 µg/m3 Benchmark concentration, lower 95 percent confidence limit at 10 percent extra risk Tumors combined across all sites in male rats Kasai et al. (2009)

IUR

Source: Adapted from USEPA (2013).

investigations by Dourson et al. (2014; 2017) identified an MOA for the generation of tumors that was previously unknown. Importantly, the 2017 study by Dourson and others performed in collaboration with the Alliance for Risk Assessment and several state agencies, specifically sought to determine if data gaps identified by USEPA (2013) relating to 1,4-dioxane’s cancer MOA could be resolved. The work provides evidence supporting the conclusion that 1,4-dioxane’s cancer MOA has a threshold below which 1,4-dioxane does not accumulate in the liver and tumors do not form, thus supporting the use of a nonlinear low-dose extrapolation procedure rather than the default low-dose extrapolation procedure previously used. A threshold approach is similar to that taken by the European Union (European Communities, 2002) and Canada (Environment Canada/Health Canada, 2010). Application of the more relevant nonlinear low-dose extrapolation approach results in a risk-based drinking water criterion in the hundreds of parts-per-billion compared to the subparts-per-billion levels adopted to date. This is an area of ongoing discussion among toxicologists.

2.4  REGULATORY STATUS As of the time of this writing, USEPA had not issued a federal drinking water maximum contaminant level (MCL) for 1,4-dioxane. Traditionally, the USEPA’s MCL has been the basis of various regulatory standards or guidelines. Most drinking water standards or guidelines are set to the MCL. Likewise, for groundwater sources considered actual, or potential, drinking water sources, the MCL is also commonly the groundwater cleanup standard or guideline. Soil vapor and indoor air standards and guidelines may be developed via fate and transport models based on the groundwater standards or guidelines. Soil cleanup standards or guidelines may be calculated based on contaminant leaching into groundwater. Surface water standards or guidelines may be based on whether they feed drinking water supplies. Therefore, in the absence of a federal MCL, other approaches must be employed to develop relevant standards or guidelines.

BK-TandF-9781138062948_TEXT_BELL-180808-Chp02.indd 35

08/12/18 11:37 AM

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TABLE 2.5 Federal guidelines and health standards for 1,4-dioxane Guideline/Health Standard

Value (with units)

Drinking water concentration representing 0.35 µg/L a 10−6 cancer risk level1 0.46 µg/L Screening level in residential tap water, based on 10−6 cancer risk2 Lifetime health advisory 200 µg/L Soil screening levels: residential; 5.3 mg/kg; 24 mg/kg; 9.4 × 10−5 mg/kg industrial; and soil-to-groundwater Indoor air screening levels: residential; 0.56 µg/m3; 2.5 µg/m3 industrial

Source USEPA (2013) USEPA (2018) USEPA (2012) USEPA (2018) USEPA (2018)

Notes: The risk-based drinking water concentration considers the ingestion exposure route, adult exposure, and does not account for annual expected exposure duration. 2 The residential tap water screening value accounts for dermal, inhalation, and ingestion exposure routes, adjusts to consider both children and adults, and adjusts for annual expected exposure duration. 1

As described in section 2.3, a risk-based approach is a common method for developing standards or guidelines for 1,4-dioxane. These commonly consider the health-based advisories that are issued by various federal agencies (Table 2.5). As of the time of this writing, more than 30 states issued state-specific standards or guidelines for 1,4-dioxane. These values include several environmental media (i.e., soil, groundwater, etc.) and include both enforceable (e.g., promulgated standards) and unenforceable values (e.g., guidelines, screening levels). Due to the nature of chemical releases of 1,4-dioxane into the environment, as well as the fate and transport characteristics, many states focused on developing drinking water and/ or groundwater values. As seen in Figure 2.2, drinking water/groundwater values vary widely from state to state and span three orders of magnitude. This is largely due to state-specific application of the toxicity values discussed in section 2.3. States are also revising these values as new data become available. For example, Michigan implemented an emergency rule in 2016 (with promulgated new rule in 2017) to lower the allowable level of 1,4-dioxane in residential drinking water from 85 µg/L to 7.2 µg/L, three years after USEPA’s issuance of the revised toxicity values. The value of 7.2 µg/L was calculated based on the updated CSF of 0.1 (mg/kg/d)−1, a target risk level of 10 −5, and the calculation used by the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality to calculate the risk associated with drinking water ingestion (MCL 324.20120a[5]; R 299.10). Similarly, New Jersey’s groundwater quality criterion of 10 µg/L decreased to 0.4 µg/L (rounded up from 0.35 µg/L) in 2015. The NJ Department of Environmental Protection also used the updated CSF of 0.1 (mg/kg/d)−1, but calculated the updated groundwater quality criterion using a 10 −6 risk level and a

OR 0.46*

Z:\GISProjects\_ENV\US Base\US Map 1,4-DIOXANE V5.mxd 11/6/2018 4:28:05 PM Author: M Miller

0

150

ME 4

WA 0.438*

AK 4.6*

MT NA ID NA

300 Miles HI 0.46*

WY 0.897* NV 0.46*

UT NA

CO 0.35*

CA 1

1,000

NM 4.6*

2,000 Miles

MI 7.2

MN 1

WI 3

SD NA

IL 7.7*

KS 8.49* OK NA

MO 61*

LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 0.35 µg/L LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 3.5 µg/L LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 35 µg/L GREATER THAN 36 µg/L

STATE 1,4-DIOXANE STATE VALUE IN µg/L

NM 6.72

KY 0.46*

AL 0.46*

PA 6.4* WV 0.46* VA 0.46* NC 3*

TN 0.46*

AR 0.46*

GA NA

LA 6.1*

0

STATES COLOR CODED USING THE USEPA CANCER RISK LEVEL FOR 1,4-DIOXANE (0.35 µg/L) AS FOLLOWS NOT AVAILABLE

OH 6.7*

IN 4.6*

MS 6.09* TX 9.1*

NY 50

MI 7.2

IA 200*

NE 0.46*

AZ 0.46*

0

ND NA

VT 1.5* NH 0.32

NJ 0.4*

MA 0.3 RI NA CT 3

1,4-Dioxane

STATE-SPECIFIC 1,4-DIOXANE DRINKING WATER VALUES

DE 6.1 MD 0.46*

DC NA

SC 0.35

FL 3.2*

200

400 Miles

NOTES: *DRINKING WATER VALUE NOT AVAILABLE; STATE GROUNDWATER CLEANUP VALUE PROVIDED FOR REFERENCE -THE RENSSELAER COUNTY IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK HAS ADOPTED A COUNTY-SPECIFIC GROUNDWATER CLEANUP LEVEL OF 0.35 µg/L -µg/L = MICROGRAM PER LITER -NA = NOT AVAILABLE -THE NUMBERS PRESENTED ARE A COMPILATION OF ENFORCEABLE VALUES (e.g., PROMULGATED STANDARDS) AND NON-ENFORCEABLE VALUES (e.g., SCREENING LEVELS). THEY ARE FOR ILLUSTRATION PURPOSES ONLY, AND A STATE-SPECIFIC REVIEW SHOULD BE PERFORMED PRIOR TO CITING AN APPLICABLE NUMBER.

37

FIGURE 2.2  1,4-Dioxane groundwater and drinking water standards and guidelines, by state: The numbers presented are a compilation of enforceable values (e.g., promulgated standards) and non-enforceable values (e.g., screening levels). They are for illustration purposes only, and a state-specific review should be performed prior to citing an applicable number. Adapted from Suthersan et al. (2016).

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different set of default assumptions in the calculation (New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Water Monitoring and Standards, 2015). In addition to individual states, the USEPA developed a risk-based drinking water concentration of 0.35 µg/L representing a 10 −6 incremental cancer risk. Similarly, USEPA developed a 1,4-dioxane screening value of 0.46 µg/L for residential tap water (USEPA, 2018) as part of their regional screening levels (RSLs). These screening levels are a merger of USEPA Region 3’s Risk-Based Concentrations Table, Region 6’s Human Health Medium-Specific Screening Levels Table, and Region 9’s Preliminary Remediation Goals Table and is now used for all USEPA regions’ Superfund site screening, and is adopted by many of the states. The residential tap water screening value of 0.46 µg/L is greater than the risk-based drinking water concentration of 0.35 µg/L because it accounts for dermal, inhalation, and ingestion exposure routes, adjusts to consider both children and adults, and adjusts for annual expected exposure duration. The risk-based drinking water concentration of 0.35 µg/L only considers the ingestion exposure route, adult exposure, and does not account for annual expected exposure duration. Both standards and guidelines are expected to continue to change over time. This may be especially true if states adopt Dourson et al.’s (2014; 2017) proposed cancer MOA and updated RfD. Therefore, it is imperative to have an up-to-date understanding of the current regulatory guidance on 1,4-dioxane for a given site or state, as well as potential changes and current regulatory climate. Knowing the regulatory agencies involved, the state-specific guidance, applicable USEPA regional guidelines, and other regulatory factors up front can avoid project upsets and challenges down the road. However, despite the best up-front planning, these types of upsets and challenges may be unavoidable as the industry works toward a more unified view on regulating 1,4-dioxane. Outside of the United States, there are some guidelines associated with 1,4-dioxane at the time of this writing. As summarized at the 2016 Emerging Contaminants Summit (Westminster, Colorado, in March 2016), Germany has a precautionary guideline limit of 0.1 µg/L in groundwater. France has a potable water limit of 6.6 µg/L and a risk threshold of 37.5 µg/L. Japan has adopted the World Health Organization’s suggested threshold of 50 µg/L, and Australia has a groundwater cleanup level of 77 µg/L. The values being adopted outside of the United States are similar to those being adopted within the United States.

2.5  SITE CHARACTERIZATION Environmental sampling and laboratory analysis associated with site characterization of 1,4-dioxane can be challenging. This is largely due to its chemical and physical characteristics. Specifically, 1,4-dioxane is not compatible with some sampling techniques commonly employed (e.g., passive diffusion bags), there is potential for cross contamination from field decontamination detergents, and methods for accurate quantification are still evolving. For the purposes of this discussion, we will focus on two elements related to site characterization: investigation approach—including use of high-resolution site characterization—and analytical methods. Both of these are critical elements to

1,4-Dioxane

39

ensuring an accurate and representative understanding of the nature and extent of 1,4-dioxane presence in various environmental media. First, however, it is helpful to consider how the chemical and physical characteristics of 1,4-dioxane impact planning an investigation to confirm the presence of, or delineate the extent of, 1,4-dioxane. As described in Table 2.2 and Appendix C, 1,4-dioxane does not readily sorb to soil, nor does it volatilize significantly from water. This means it is expected to travel quickly along the groundwater flow path and remain in groundwater, rather than transfer to the vapor phase to cause vapor intrusion concerns. These tendencies become particularly important when 1,4-dioxane is present with chlorinated solvents. The chlorinated solvents will tend to sorb to soil and readily volatilize from groundwater. Based on these differences, it is reasonable to expect chlorinated solvents to produce smaller groundwater plumes with residual impacted soil mass while 1,4-dioxane would produce a larger, more dilute, plume without a significant soil mass source. This dichotomy is reminiscent of the differences between petroleum products and their fuel oxygenates, such as methyl tertiary butyl ether. Despite the above, as with all generalities there are exceptions to the rule and factors that can influence what is actually observed. The work by Adamson et al. (2014) evaluated >2,000 sites with both chlorinated solvents and/or 1,4-dioxane and revealed that only 21 percent of 1,4-dioxane plumes were larger than the colocated chlorinated solvent plume. This may be attributable to both physical and biological natural attenuation processes that are discussed in more detail in section 2.7.3, or it may be an artifact of incomplete delineation of the 1,4-dioxane plume extent. Consequently, it may be important to take a multifaceted approach to site characterization. This includes first sampling for 1,4-dioxane within the source area to identify if it is present and what the upper bounds of the groundwater concentrations are. If the groundwater plume is relatively old, the highest concentrations of 1,4-dioxane may be found downgradient of the source, as the center of mass will travel with time. To identify the downgradient extent of the 1,4-dioxane plume, it may be most efficient to first sample near the downgradient edge of the existing chlorinated solvent plume. If 1,4-dioxane is not detected, step upgradient toward the source area until the length of the 1,4-dioxane plume is delineated. If 1,4-dioxane is detected at the downgradient edge of the existing plume, it may be necessary to employ additional infrastructure to delineate the length of the 1,4-dioxane plume. A similar approach can be taken to define the lateral extents of the 1,4-dioxane in relation to the existing groundwater plume.

2.5.1 Investigation Approaches For facilities that already have monitoring infrastructure in place, and the presence of 1,4-dioxane in groundwater is being explored after the delineation of other chemicals, it is often most advantageous to begin the investigation by simply sampling that same infrastructure. The extent to which the existing monitoring well network can be used may quickly become limited because monitoring wells may not already be present to define the downgradient extent of 1,4-dioxane if the 1,4-dioxane plume has traveled farther downgradient than the chlorinated solvents it is associated with.

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook

1,4-Dioxane groundwater samples can be collected using most traditional methods (e.g., low-flow purge, HydraSleeveTM, Snap Sampler®, SUMMA canisters, etc.); however, passive diffusion bags are not suitable for 1,4-dioxane groundwater sampling because the molecule will not readily diffuse into the bag. An important consideration for field sampling is that of cross contamination. As mentioned in Table 2.1, 1,4-dioxane is present in many detergents, including those commonly used for decontamination of sampling equipment (e.g., Liquinox®). Particular care should be taken to use a decontamination method that will not produce false-positive results in analytical samples. The use of high-resolution site characterization can be highly effective at identifying the mass transport zones within the subsurface as well as the extent of contamination. This approach also applies to characterization of 1,4-dioxane and associated chlorinated solvents. As described in the case study to follow, cone penetrometer testing (CPT) was coupled with whole core soil sampling and vertical aquifer profiling (VAP). Soil and groundwater samples were analyzed in real time using an on-site laboratory equipped with direct sampling ion trap mass spectrometry (DSITMS). This investigation led to a three-dimensional understanding of the dominant groundwater flow paths, the chlorinated solvent source area, and the (larger) 1,4-dioxane impacts.

Case Study: High-Resolution Site Characterization of 1,4-Dioxane and Chlorinated Solvents A 30-acre facility was historically operated as a chemical manufacturing facility from the 1960s until 2012, and historical investigations led to the identification of chlorinated solvents and 1,4-dioxane in environmental media. High-resolution site characterization methods were used to efficiently map soil, groundwater, and hydrostratigraphy at the site. The approach combined dynamic, high-density soil and groundwater sampling with hydrostratigraphic interpretations and permeability mapping in three dimensions. By correlating high-resolution concentration data with hydrostratigraphy and permeability data, it was possible to map, and distinguish, mass transport zones from mass storage zones and classify the scales of variability that controlled transport in the source and distal segments of plumes in real time. The investigation was designed to evaluate the presence of chlorinated solvents in soil beneath former facility structures, evaluate the magnitude and extent of 1,4-dioxane and chlorinated solvents in the source area in both soil and groundwater at a high resolution, conduct detailed mapping of the site permeability to identify potential preferential pathways, and correlate chlorinated solvent and 1,4-dioxane distribution to geological features. This level of understanding was needed to develop a remedial approach that would target the area of highest chlorinated solvent and 1,4-dioxane concentrations. The investigation included the following: 23 CPT borings were installed to map the site hydrostratigraphy and identify groundwater sample intervals based on high relative permeability, 21 borings were advanced and samples were collected on approximately 0.6-meter

1,4-Dioxane

41

(2-foot) intervals for analysis of chlorinated solvents and 1,4-dioxane in soil and groundwater, 18 VAP borings were installed with 39 sample intervals based on review of the CPT data. Soil and groundwater samples were analyzed using an onsite laboratory with DSITMS, capable of analyzing approximately 80 samples per day, in the first commercial application of DSITMS for both chlorinated solvents and 1,4-dioxane, completed in 2014. Onsite laboratory results were verified by a subset of analytical laboratory analyses. During the site investigation, field and laboratory data were entered in real time into the three-dimensional modeling software Environmental Visualization System, developed by C Tech Development Corporation. The rendered three-dimensional models and related cross-sectional views generated in the software allowed for dynamic adjustment of the network of proposed sampling locations. For example, once the approximate extent of the source area was identified to the east, remaining borings further east were not advanced. The investigation resulted in a refined conceptual site model, with the following key conclusions. Previous data collection methods (soil borings) indicated primarily low-permeability intervals within the source area, previously described as primarily low-permeability silts and clays. Data generated from this work indicated that former investigations missed higher-permeability soils present within this zone that could act as potential transport pathways. Concentration data indicated transport of 1,4-dioxane occurred along the preferential flowpaths identified during the CPT investigation. The extent of chlorinated solvent and 1,4-dioxane source mass was identified (Figure 2.3). This information allowed for development of viable remedial alternatives that met the time frame of the pending sale of the property and focused on the areas of greatest mass flux.

2.5.2 Analytical Methods The ability to quantify 1,4-dioxane accurately is evolving, and as of the time of this writing several challenges existed, particularly with groundwater analysis. The groundwater analytical methods typically used include USEPA Method 8260 for volatile organic compounds (VOCs; but specifically with selected ion monitoring [SIM]), USEPA Method 8270 for semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs; also specifically with SIM), and USEPA Method 522 for 1,4-dioxane in drinking water. The challenges associated with these analytical methods are largely related to the matrix extraction method. For example, Chiang et al. (2016) summarized findings of an analytical comparability study that found significantly lower concentrations (up to a factor of three) when USEPA Method 8270 was used compared to USEPA Method 8260. However, USEPA Method 8270 typically gives lower laboratory reporting limits than USEPA Method 8260. Likewise, USEPA Method 522 is specifically designed for drinking water and may not always be appropriate for groundwater analysis. Table 2.6 summarizes various extraction methods, analytical methods, and the benefits and challenges associated with each of these; while, Table 2.7 goes into more detail on the topic. In summary, it may be necessary

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Emerging Contaminants Handbook

TCA

1,4-Dioxane

PLAN VIEW

PLAN VIEW

Fill 1.8 Meters bgs

Upper Silts and Clays Interbedded Zone Upper Silts and Clays 7.6 Meters bgs

Lower Silts and Sands 12.2 Meters bgs

SIDE VIEW

SIDE VIEW

FIGURE 2.3  Visual representation of 1,4-dioxane high resolution investigation: Distribution of 1,4-dioxane (right) and TCA (left) identified during high-resolution site characterization. Generalized geology is shown on the left based on the depth below ground surface (e.g., 1.8 meters bgs). Concentration shells are results from whole soil samples (i.e., soil and porewater) and represent greater than 10,000 µg/kg (pink); 1,000 to 10,000 µg/kg (red); 100 to 1,000 µg/kg (orange); 10 to 100 µg/kg (yellow); 1 to 10 µg/kg (green); and less than 1 µg/kg (blue).

to use different analytical methods depending on the data quality objectives. For example, a lower detection limit (e.g., USEPA Method 8270 with SIM) may be preferred when first looking for the presence of 1,4-dioxane in groundwater, when trying to define the extents of a groundwater plume, or when confirming concentrations have met regulatory criteria. Higher replicability (e.g., USEPA Method 8260 with SIM) may be preferred when 1,4-dioxane concentrations are elevated and active remediation is ongoing. Adjustment for matrix recovery via use of isotopic dilution by the analytical laboratory is an approach that mitigates many of the extraction- and concentration-related challenges, but is not widely available. Until a unified quantification method is developed for 1,4-dioxane, it is important to communicate with the analytical laboratory prior to sampling to understand their capabilities and reporting structure. The analytical challenges described in Tables 2.6 and 2.7 should also be considered when comparing data analyzed at different laboratories, or with different methods.

1,4-Dioxane

TABLE 2.6 Summary of 1,4-dioxane groundwater analytical methods Typical Extraction/Analytical Combinations

Advantages

Common VOC analysis: USEPA Method 5030B (purge and trap extraction) USEPA Method 8260C (VOC analysis)

–– Commonly used analytical method that can also identify 1,4-dioxane; could be used as a screening tool

VOC analysis with SIM: USEPA Method 5030B (purge and trap extraction) USEPA Method 8260C-SIM (VOC analysis with SIM)

–– –– –– ––

Common SVOC analysis: USEPA Method 3510C/3520C (liquid-liquid extraction) USEPA Method 8270D (SVOC analysis)

––

Challenges

–– Typically has high detection limits that do not meet regulatory requirements –– The presence of chlorinated VOCs causes interference with the 1,4-dioxane quantification –– The extraction method is not efficient at removing 1,4-dioxane from groundwater, so the results may be biased low Lower detection limits than 8260C full scan –– May have detection limits that do not meet regulatory SIM mode is specific for quantifying 1,4-dioxane, so there requirements; confirm with laboratory is no interference from chlorinated VOCs –– The extraction method is not efficient at removing May be more accurate than other methods at concentrations 1,4-dioxane from groundwater, so the results may be biased of 1,4-dioxane on the order of 100s or 1,000s µg/L low Request laboratory to utilize heated purge and trap –– May need to run separate analysis for quantification of extraction and isotopic dilution for improved extraction and other compounds, if needed quantification of losses –– Modifications to analytical method (e.g., isotopic dilution or heated purge and trap) may require regulatory approval for use Commonly used analytical method that can also identify –– May have detection limits that do not meet regulatory 1,4-dioxane; could be used as a screening tool requirements; confirm with laboratory –– The extraction and/or concentration step of the preparation method may result in loss of 1,4-dioxane, so the results may be biased low (Continued )

43

Typical Extraction/Analytical Combinations

44

TABLE 2.6  (Continued) Challenges

–– Typically has reporting limits that meet regulatory requirements, making it an attractive option for determining whether 1,4-dioxane is present at a site (i.e., initial investigation) –– Request laboratory to utilize isotopic dilution for improved quantification

Drinking water method: USEPA Method 522

–– Typically has lowest reporting limits of the methods discussed here, making it an attractive option for determining whether 1,4-dioxane is present at a site (i.e., initial investigation) or for routine analysis of 1,4-dioxane –– Extraction method does not incur significant losses of 1,4-dioxane from the sample (i.e., less bias) –– The method was developed specifically to quantify 1,4-dioxane

–– The extraction and/or concentration step of the preparation method may result in loss of 1,4-dioxane, so the results may be biased low –– May be less accurate than other methods at concentrations of 1,4-dioxane on the order of 100s or 1,000s µg/L –– May need to run separate analysis for other compounds, if needed –– May be subject to interferences when applied to groundwater (e.g., high levels of suspended solids, total organic carbon, and/or mineral content) that result in elevated reporting limits –– Use of a drinking water method may require regulatory approval for groundwater quantification –– Does not also quantify other compounds

TABLE 2.7 Detailed review of 1,4-dioxane groundwater analytical methods Method Description

Method Numbers

Advantages

Challenges

Extraction Methods—Used to remove/concentrate the target analyte(s) from the environmental matrix Purge and trap—conventional USEPA Method 5030B –– Commonly employed method –– Because of 1,4-dioxane’s low (bubbling an inert gas through water to volatility, it will not readily transfer transfer target analytes) from water to the purge gas, resulting in low recoveries

Emerging Contaminants Handbook

Advantages

SVOC analysis with SIM: USEPA Method 3510C/3520C (liquid-liquid extraction) USEPA Method 8270D-SIM (SVOC analysis with SIM)

Method Numbers USEPA Method 5030B

Liquid-liquid extraction (transferring target analytes from the water sample into an organic solvent, like methylene chloride) Solid phase extraction via cartridge (capture of target analytes on cartridge filter from water sample)

USEPA Method 3510C or 3520C

–– Commonly employed method –– 1,4-Dioxane is transferred into extraction solvent

Part of USEPA Method 522

–– Loss of 1,4-dioxane during the extraction is minimal

VOCs via GC/MS (analyte separation on GC with quantification using MS)

USEPA Method 5031 (azeotropic distillation) USEPA Method 5032 (vacuum distillation)

Advantages –– Enhanced extraction of 1,4-dioxane over conventional purge and trap (i.e., added heat helps transfer 1,4-dioxane from water to the purge gas) –– Azeotropic distillation is specifically identified as a useful extraction method for 1,4-dioxane

Analytical Methods—Quantifies the target analyte(s) USEPA Method 8260C –– Commonly employed method –– Simultaneously quantifies other VOCs

Challenges –– Inconsistent purge efficiency –– May not be available at all laboratories

1,4-Dioxane

Method Description Purge and trap—heated (heating and bubbling an inert gas through water to transfer target analytes) Distillation (increasing temperature to separate target analytes from water sample)

–– Not commonly employed by analytical laboratories –– Vacuum distillation is not effective due to 1,4-dioxane’s miscibility in water –– Low recoveries if the extraction solvent is concentrated above 101°C; 1,4-dioxane will boil off –– May be subject to interferences when applied to groundwater (e.g., high levels of suspended solids, total organic carbon, and/or mineral content) –– High levels of chlorinated solvents interfere with 1,4-dioxane quantification –– Reporting limits may not be low enough to meet regulatory criteria (typically 25 to 200 µg/L) –– Poor recovery during extraction step may bias results (Continued )

45

46

TABLE 2.7  (Continued) Method Numbers USEPA Method 8260C-SIM

Advantages –– Use of SIM increases ability to quantify 1,4-dioxane accurately –– Reporting limits typically 0.5 to 2 µg/L

USEPA Method 8270D

SVOCs via GC/MS with SIM (analyte separation on GC with quantification using MS; looks specifically for 1,4-dioxane)

USEPA Method 8270D-SIM

GC/MS/MS with SIM (analyte separation on GC with quantification using MS/MS; looks specifically for 1,4-dioxane) 1,4-Dioxane in drinking water via GC/ MS with SIM (analyte separation on GC with quantification using MS; looks specifically for 1,4-dioxane)

USEPA Method 8270E

–– Commonly employed method –– Reporting limits typically 2 to 5 µg/L –– Not affected by high levels of chlorinated compounds –– Use of SIM increases ability to quantify 1,4-dioxane accurately –– Reporting limits typically 0.2 to 1 µg/L –– Not affected by high levels of chlorinated compounds –– Very low reporting limits (e.g., 0.02 µg/L)

Toluene-d8, 4-bromofluorobenzene, and 1,2-dichloroethane-d

USEPA Method 522

Challenges –– Less commonly used method that may also cost more per sample –– Poor recovery during extraction step may bias results –– Reporting limits may not be low enough to meet regulatory criteria

–– Less commonly used method that may also cost more per sample

–– New technology with limited availability

–– Specifically designed to analyze for –– Drinking water method and may not 1,4-dioxane with optimized be applicable to groundwater (i.e., quantification interferences and regulatory –– Reporting limits typically 1,000 µg/L) Inhibitors (i.e., 11DCE or metals) are not present, or can be controlled Lines of evidence do not indicate the presence of microorganisms that can metabolically degrade 1,4-dioxane Addition of bioaugmentation culture is feasible and economical Design elements: Deliver adequate oxygen (e.g., >2 mg/L) Prepare for degradation stalling at lower 1,4-dioxane concentrations (e.g., 200 µg/L) Distribution of bioaugmentation culture Consider when: 1,4-Dioxane concentrations are in the 100s or 10s µg/L Addition of bioaugmentation culture is feasible and economical

Design elements: Deliver adequate oxygen (e.g., >2 mg/L) Prepare for degradation stalling at lower 1,4-dioxane concentrations (e.g., 200 µg/L) Cometabolic Biodegradation

Consider when: 1,4-Dioxane concentrations are in the 100s or 10s µg/L Lines of evidence indicate the presence of microorganisms that can cometabolically degrade 1,4-dioxane (e.g., propanotrophs) Design elements: Deliver adequate oxygen (e.g., >2 mg/L) Deliver adequate primary substrate (e.g., >100 µg/L propane) Provide additional nutrients that might be limiting (e.g., nitrogen or phosphorous)

Design elements: Deliver adequate oxygen (e.g., >2 mg/L) Deliver adequate primary substrate (e.g., >100 µg/L propane) Provide additional nutrients that might be limiting (e.g., nitrogen or phosphorous) Distribution of bioaugmentation culture

Note: The operational parameters suggested in this table are based on the author’s personal experience and may differ from one application to another.

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Biostimulation Approach

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1,4-Dioxane

Case Study: In Situ Biodegradation of 1,4-Dioxane via Propane Biosparging Chlorinated solvent use at a site on Vandenberg Air Force Base resulted in a comingled plume of chlorinated solvents and 1,4-dioxane. Starting circa 2013, several bioremediation demonstration projects were conducted, all focused on using an in situ propane biosparge injection system to facilitate cometabolic biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane. While the biodegradation mechanism was proven in bench-scale testing conducted prior to the first demonstration project, early field results were less straightforward in revealing the dominant mechanism for decreases in 1,4-dioxane concentrations (Lippencott et al., 2015). Therefore, SIP with carbon-13-labeled 1,4-dioxane was employed to better articulate the transformation mechanism. The pilot-scale propane and air injection system included an air compressor, compressed propane storage tank, an explosion-proof mixing system, and a lower explosive limit (LEL) meter to measure the concentration of propane mixed into the air line (Figure 2.4). Several safety measures were included to relay key operational information (e.g., LEL and pressures) to a

FIGURE 2.4  Propane biosparge mixing system: Photograph of the propane biosparge mixing system at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

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control panel that would shut down operation before hazardous conditions were reached. The mixed gas line fed a single sparge point in one of the pilot test areas. A propanotrophic bioaugmentation culture was injected into the sparge point, and dissolved diammonium phosphate was added as a nutrient source to facilitate growth of the propanotrophic bacteria. The propane biosparging system operated for more than two months, and concentrations of 1,4-dioxane in groundwater decreased approximately 45 to 85 percent in that time (Figure 2.5). BioTrapTM samplers amended with carbon-13-labeled 1,4-dioxane were deployed in monitoring wells near the sparge point. The carbon-13 acted as a tracer to identify how the 1,4-dioxane was transformed within the subsurface microbial system (see section 2.5.3 for more detail). The SIP testing quantified transformation of 1,4-dioxane into both carbon dioxide and microbial biomass (Figure 2.6). This confirmed the link between 1,4-dioxane concentration reductions and biodegradation. This in situ bioremediation approach will go full scale in 2019.

450 420

1,4-Dioxane Concentra on (µg/L)

400 350

330

300 250 200 200

200 170

150

140 110

100

78

50 0

24 3

1 mg/L). Propane was not detected above the laboratory reporting limit at the sample locations, shallow or lower. DNA-based analyses indicated potential for both sMMO and PPO production by indigenous microorganisms, with greater potential in the shallower plume. mRNA-based analyses identified sMMO production at most locations, but not PPO production (as expected based on the dissolved gas analyses). These results may provide an additional line of evidence in support of a natural attenuation approach, particularly within the shallow unit, and suggest feasibility in implementing a bioremediation approach in both shallow and lower units, using either methane or propane as the cometabolic substrate. When considering these lines of evidence, it is important to note that some studies have concluded cometabolic genetic targets, specifically sMMO, are ubiquitous in the environment and do not make for meaningful targets when evaluating biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane (Gedalanga et al., 2016; Sadeghi et al., 2016). CSIA can be a powerful tool to understand the influence of biodegradation on groundwater concentrations (see section 2.5.3). As of the time of this writing, the use of CSIA for 1,4-dioxane in evaluating environmental samples was still maturing. Analytical advancements and additional research are needed to better understand the isotopic signature of 1,4-dioxane at the time it is released to the environment (i.e., stock signature) as well as the influence of chemical and biological degradation on the isotopic signature. With those considerations in mind, it is notable that the CSIA results fell into two general categories: approximately −33‰ and approximately −30‰. CSIA results compare the carbon-13 content in the sample to an international standard. As biodegradation occurs, a sample will have a less negative (i.e., closer to zero) carbon-13 CSIA result. Therefore, the more negative group of values (i.e., approximately −33‰) are less enriched in carbon-13 and more likely to be similar to the stock signature; while, the more positive group of values (i.e., approximately −30‰) are more enriched in carbon-13 and more likely to be influenced by biodegradation mechanisms. Two locations included in the dissolved gas and qPCR analyses were also subject to CSIA. Results from these locations were enriched in carbon-13 (i.e., −31.30‰ and −30.90‰), further supporting the contribution of biodegradation as part of a natural attenuation approach.

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2.8  DRINKING WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT The primary objective of drinking water treatment is to remove substances that could result in acute human sickness or create unpalatable water. Therefore, drinking water treatment unit processes typically focus on removal of suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals such as iron and manganese. A review of the conventional water treatment process (i.e., coagulation, flocculation, settling, sand filtration, and disinfection) reveals a limited number of unit processes expected to remove 1,4-dioxane. Because of 1,4-dioxane’s low sorption tendency, it is not expected to be readily removed with suspended solids. Likewise, the disinfection process would not be expected to chemically destroy 1,4-dioxane. That said, the use of advanced unit processes in drinking water treatment, some of which are described in section 2.9, could provide beneficial treatment of 1,4-dioxane. The same thing holds true to conventional wastewater treatment. Conventional wastewater treatment plants that include separation, settling, aerobic/anaerobic biological treatment, clarification, and disinfection may not have many opportunities for destruction or removal of 1,4-dioxane. Again, due to its chemical characteristics, 1,4-dioxane is not expected to be removed during the physical treatment processes. The potential for destruction of 1,4-dioxane in the aerobic/anaerobic biological treatment processes is not well studied. Only about a 50 percent reduction in 1,4-dioxane has been observed from conventional biological wastewater treatment processes in the lab (Lee et al., 2014) and the field (Zenker et al., 2003). Further consideration of aerobic biological treatment in wastewater treatment plants suggests that unless there are indigenous 1,4-dioxane-degraders, or the presence of a substrate to facilitate cometabolic biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane (section 2.7.1.2), notable removal of 1,4-dioxane is not expected. Likewise, there aren’t many studies that support significant removal of 1,4-dioxane via anaerobic biological treatment processes. After investigating a variety of anaerobic 1,4-dioxane biodegradation pathways, Arve (2015) did not observe anaerobic biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane when it was provided as the sole electron donor. However, there was evidence of potential anaerobic biodegradation in the presence of other substrates. Conversely, Shen et al. (2008) observed biotransformation of 1,4-dioxane to carbon dioxide under iron-reducing conditions with a microbial culture originating from a wastewater treatment plant, thought to be the result of the presence of extracellular compounds that facilitated the reaction. Similar to the disinfection step in drinking water treatment, there is not expected to be an opportunity for chemical 1,4-dioxane destruction in wastewater treatment. Therefore, the most likely options for achieving significant decreases in 1,4-dioxane concentrations during wastewater treatment come from more advanced treatment processes, some of which are described in section 2.9. A quick note is needed here on the use of septic systems for removal of 1,4-dioxane. Similar to the preceding discussion regarding aerobic/anaerobic biological wastewater treatment, there is not expected to be significant removal of 1,4-dioxane via septic systems. While some biologically mediated degradation may occur, either via direct metabolism or cometabolism, a septic system is not specifically engineered for 1,4-dioxane removal. This could present a challenge due to the presence of 1,4-dioxane in many household soaps, detergents, and personal care products.

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2.8.1  Point-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment With the ever-growing number of instances of 1,4-dioxane present in private drinking water wells, the need for point-of-use (POU) and point-of-entry (POE) treatment technologies is becoming more relevant. Common household POU/POE treatment processes include particulate filters, GAC or other sorptive media, aeration, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and ultraviolet (UV) lamps or ozonation for disinfection. Each of these treatment techniques is discussed in section 2.9, as is its application to 1,4-dioxane. A complicating factor to POU/POE treatment of 1,4-dioxane is the lack of commercially available POU/POE treatment devices that have consistently demonstrated, or been certified to, remove 1,4-dioxane in a variety of water quality scenarios. The ex situ technologies used to readily treat 1,4-dioxane are not yet robust enough, or compact enough, to be sold as POU/POE devices. Many times, POU/ POE treatment processes are designed to be easily mixed and matched, and treat reasonably expected contaminants for an acceptable period of time before replacement. Use of GAC for POU/POE treatment could become particularly challenging for residents to manage. As discussed previously, 1,4-dioxane does not readily sorb to GAC; therefore, longer contact times and more frequent changeouts (i.e., higher carbon usage rates) are needed to adequately remove 1,4-dioxane and ensure treatment goals are met.

2.9 1,4-DIOXANE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR DRINKING WATER TREATMENT AND EX SITU GROUNDWATER REMEDIATION Compared to the development of in situ treatment technologies for 1,4-dioxane, technologies for drinking water and ex situ groundwater remediation could be considered better established. For example, the use of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for water treatment is considered the most established treatment technology for 1,4-dioxane. However, a better understanding of how other water treatment technologies can be applied to 1,4-dioxane (e.g., GAC), as well as development of new options (e.g., synthetic media), has come about more recently. The technologies described in this section can be applied to different types of water that need to be treated: municipal drinking water, household drinking water, domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, and/or extracted groundwater at a remediation site. The application of technologies to these treatment scenarios may differ, with certain technologies being more appropriate than others under the design conditions (e.g., flow rates, 1,4-dioxane concentrations, cleanup criteria). Table 2.10 includes a list of common water treatment technologies, provides a description of each, and identifies the ones that are, or are not, applicable to 1,4-dioxane. A relevant subset of these technologies is described in more detail in this section. As with any treatment strategy, it is important to consider removal of 1,4-dioxane in the context of other unwanted constituents that might be present, or restrictions on generation of by-products. As discussed throughout this chapter, 1,4-dioxane is commonly colocated with chlorinated solvents. Conventional ex situ water treatment technologies for chlorinated solvents include use of air-stripping towers or GAC.

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TABLE 2.10 Water treatment technologies and their application to 1,4-dioxane Treatment Process

Description

GAC and other sorbent Passing the water stream through a media highly porous media that allows for both absorption and/or adsorption of chemical to the media.

AOPs

Electrochemical oxidation

Ion exchange

Air stripping

A reaction—typically between various oxidants and sometimes paired with UV light—that produces highly reactive radicals (e.g., hydroxyl radicals). These reactive radicals aggressively react with other compounds, destroying the other compound in the process. Application of an electrical current to the water. Complete destruction of chemicals occurs through both direct oxidation of the chemical at the anode, as well as indirect oxidation through the reactive species that are generated (e.g., hydroxyl radicals). Reversible chemical reactions that remove ions (either positive or negative) from water and replaces them with other, similarly charged, ions. A common example of ion exchange in water treatment is the exchange of calcium or magnesium ions for sodium ions (i.e., water softening). The contact between the water stream and a gaseous stream (e.g., air) to facilitate transfer of chemicals from the water phase into the gaseous phase, for removal.

Application to 1,4-Dioxane 1,4-Dioxane does not readily sorb (i.e., low log Koc value). GAC can be effective at removing 1,4-dioxane; however, treatment units may be larger and more frequent carbon replacement may be needed than for other chemicals. Some other sorbent media are specially designed to enhance sorption of 1,4-dioxane; therefore, they can be effective options for treatment. 1,4-Dioxane is readily destroyed by reactive radicals to form carbon dioxide and water. Therefore, AOPs are very effective treatment options.

1,4-Dioxane can effectively be destroyed by hydroxyl radicals; therefore, electrochemical oxidation is a relevant treatment technology.

Because 1,4-dioxane is not commonly present as an ion, use of traditional ion exchange is not applicable.

Due to the low Henry’s law constant for 1,4-dioxane (i.e., low volatility), it is not readily transferred from the water phase to the gaseous phase; thus, air stripping is not an effective treatment technology. (Continued )

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TABLE 2.10 (Continued) Treatment Process

Description

Application to 1,4-Dioxane

Reverse osmosis and Nanofiltration

A process that separates dissolved salts (monovalent and divalent ions), particles, colloids, organics, bacteria, and pyrogens from water by filtering through a semipermeable membrane at a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure caused by the dissolved salts in the water stream. Reverse osmosis is effective at removing molecules with a molecular mass greater than 200 grams per mole, and ionic compounds. Nanofiltration is similar to reverse osmosis, but generally removes only larger divalent ions. A pressure-driven process that forces water through a microporous separating layer (the filter) which captures the particles present in the water stream, but allows dissolved components to pass through.

1,4-Dioxane’s molecular mass is 88.11 grams per mole, which is less than the threshold of 200 grams per mole; also, it is not ionically charged. Therefore, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration are not effective treatment technologies for 1,4-dioxane.

Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration

Because 1,4-dioxane is miscible in water, it will not be removed via physical filtration techniques.

Unfortunately, these technologies are less effective at removing 1,4-dioxane, particularly when they are designed to treat the chlorinated solvents present. However, design adjustments could be made to make them more effective at removing 1,4-dioxane. For example, adjusting the empty bed contact time (EBCT) or the breakthrough monitoring and carbon changeout schedule may be a way to manage 1,4-dioxane using GAC. Another treatment technology that is not typically effective in treating 1,4-dioxane is air stripping, and by extension in situ air sparging. Air stripping typically refers to ex situ treatment systems that force air through/over water that is distributed onto media designed to maximize the surface area of air-to-water contact. The degree to which a compound can be effectively stripped from water is predominantly described by the Henry’s law constant. An optimistic estimate of the air-to-water ratio required to achieve the desired removal of a given compound can be described by Equation 2.1. A / W = ( Co − C f ) / ( H × C f )

where:

A/W =  volumetric air-to-water ratio Co = initial contaminant concentration Cf = final concentration H = Henry’s law constant (unitless)

(2.1)

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The air-to-water ratio needed to achieve 90 percent removal of 1,4-dioxane (using a unitless Henry’s law constant of 2 × 10 −4) is 45,000 compared to 14 for TCA (using a unitless Henry’s law constant of 0.663). Based on this analysis, even at very high air-to-water ratios, the required residence times for 1,4-dioxane removal would be impracticable. This is further exacerbated when a 1,4-dioxane reduction of several orders of magnitude is required to meet treatment criteria.

2.9.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes AOPs have been employed for water treatment since the 1980s. They were initially applied as tertiary drinking water treatment but expanded to treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater as well as part of groundwater remediation treatment strategies. The fundamental goal of AOPs is to produce highly reactive radicals, which are molecules with an unpaired electron typically denoted by a dot next to the chemical formula for the molecule (e.g., ·OH for the hydroxyl radical). As a rule, a radical needs to pair its unpaired electron with another. This is the source of its oxidative power, and it will aggressively react with other molecules to obtain this missing electron. The chemistry of AOPs can be applied both in situ and ex situ, but the term “AOP” most commonly refers to an ex situ unit process. Over time, AOPs have evolved from Fenton’s reagent chemistry (i.e., hydrogen peroxide with a ferrous iron catalyst to generate hydroxyl radicals) to include oxidant combinations that maximize destructive capability while minimizing formation of unwanted by-products. Some radicals are less reactive than others, but most radicals are highly reactive and thus very short lived. Hydroxyl radicals can destroy most organic pollutants in water and are particularly effective at destroying 1,4-dioxane, making AOPs among the most used treatment technologies for destruction of 1,4-dioxane. There are a variety of commercially available AOPs based on the formation of hydroxyl radical. These include different combinations of UV light, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, catalysts, and hypochlorite. Table 2.11 describes several AOPs that have applicability to the treatment of 1,4-dioxane, the basis of their oxidation process, advantages, and challenges associated with each. Technology selection is dependent on site-specific water quality, target reductions, and flow rates. To date, UV light/hydrogen peroxide and ozone/hydrogen peroxide are the most common AOP technologies used given their cost-effectiveness for large-scale applications. The advantages of a UV light/hydrogen peroxide approach over an ozonebased approach include: (1) no bromate formation, and (2) lower costs for waters with low UV absorbance. Likewise, the challenges include: (1) the need to incorporate quenching of excess hydrogen peroxide, and (2) potential increases in disinfection byproducts. The advantages of an ozone/hydrogen peroxide approach over a UV-based approach include: (1) lower power requirements, especially with waters with high UV absorbance, and (2) the ability to minimize hydrogen peroxide residual because the ozone is dosed stoichiometrically. However, the challenges include: (1) formation of compounds that are then regulated, specifically bromate; (2) considerations for storage/handing of liquid oxygen; and (3) potential increases in disinfection by-products. More generally, key challenges associated with implementation of AOPs are typically associated with formation of unwanted by-products, energy consumption, and a

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TABLE 2.11 Comparison between commercially available ex situ AOPs AOP System and Method to Create Manufacturer Hydroxyl Radicals Advantages HiPOx® by Ozone and hydrogen Less sensitive to poor water APTwater peroxide quality No iron pretreatment required (