Blood program in World War II

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NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE

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MEDICAL UNITED

DEPARTMENT STATES

IN WORLD

WAR

ARMY II

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY

BLOOD

PROGRAM

IN WORLD

Prepared and published under the direction of Lieutenant General LEonarp D. Heaton The Surgeon General, United States Army Editor in Chief Colonel Joan Born Coates, Jr., MC, USA Associate Editor Exizaners M. McFeraince, M.A.

OFFICE OF THE DEPARTMENT

SURGEON

GENERAL

OF THE ARMY

WASHINGTON,

D.C., 1964

WAR

II

BLOOD

PROGRAM

IN WORLD

WAR

Supplemented by Experiences in the Korean

II War

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE BETHESDA 14, MD.

The Historical Unit, United States Army Medical Service Colonel Jou Boxp Coatzs, Jr., MC, USA, Director Cuarues J. Simpson, Executive Officer Lieutenant Colonel Wrouau °. Cuampzrs, MSC, USA, Special Assistant to Director Lieutenant Colonel Frepexick BEtt, Jr.,"MC USA, Chief, Special Projects Branch Cuagies M. Wittss, Ph. D., Litt .» Chief, Historians Branch RNEST Buzione, It, Chics "Editorial Bra: Lieutenant Colonel JEROME Rupeeee, MBC, USA, Chief, Information Activities Branch K M. Encert, Chief, General Reference and Beatarch Branch Hazeu G.Hin, Chief, 7Administrative Brat

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number; UB. Washington, D.C.

20402

64-69006

BLOOD

PROGRAM

IN WORLD

WAR

by Brigadier General Doucias B. Kenpnick, MC, USA

II

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY The volumes comprising the official history of the Medical Department of the U.S. Army in World War II are prepared by The Historical Unit, U.S. Army Medical Service, and published under the direction of The Surgeon General, U.S. Army. These volumes are divided into two series: (1) The dministrative or operational series; and (2) the professional, or clinical and technical, series. This is one of the volumes published in the latter series.

VOLUMES

PUBLISHED

ADMINISTRATIVE

SERIES

Hospitalization and Evacuation, Zone of Interior Organization and Administration in World War II Personnel in World War II

CLINICAL Internal

Medicine

in World

War

SERIES II:

Vol. I. Activities of Medical Consultants Vol. II.

Infectious Diseases

Preventive Medicine in World War II: Vol. II.

Environmental Hygiene

Vol. III.

Personal Health Measures and Immunization

Vol. IV.

Communicable Diseases Transmitted Chiefly Through Respiratory and Alimentary Tracts

Vol.

Communicable Diseases By Unknown Means

V.

Vol. VI. Vol.

VII.

Communicable Diseases: Communicable Than

u

Transmitted

Through

Contact

Or

Malaria

Diseases:

Arthropodborne

Diseases vo

Other

Vu

Surgery in World War IT: Activities of Surgical Consultants, vol. I

Activities of Surgical Consultants, vol. 11 General Surgery, vol. IT Hand Surgery Neurosurgery, vol, I Neurosurgery, vol. II Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology Orthopedic Surgery in the European Orthopedic

Surgery

in

the

Thoracic Surgery, vol. I Vascular Surgery Miscellaneous: Cold Injury, Ground

Type

Dental Service in World War IT Veterinary Service in World Wound Ballistics

Theater of Operations

Mediterranean

The Physiologic Effects of Wounds

War II

Theater

of Operations

Foreword In medicine, as in life, there is usually small profit in attempting to assign full praise or full blame for a success or « failure to any single action or circumstance. On the other hand, if any single medical program can be credited with the saving of countless lives in Worlda. IT and in the Korean War, it was the prompt and liberal use of whole bloo The development of the concept ot the liberal use of whole blood and the— regrettably delayed—implementation of the concept represent one of the great pioneering achievements of World War II. The same concept wes applied in the Korean War, fortunately more rapidly, with equally spectacular results.

Tt hes been carried over into civilian life, again with brilliant results, though

sometimes, one fears, almost too casually, as one sees blood administered when it is not actually needed and apparently without thought of ite possible

consequences.

The story told in this roume of the history of the U.S. Army Medical Department i in World War II is one that must be told. When that war broke out in September 1939, a whole blood service had already been successfully

provided during the 3-year Spanish Civil War, and the British immediately

put into operation the program which they had developed 6 months before. Yet, it was not until May 1940 that the United States took the first steps in what later became the whole-blood program, and when this country was precipitated into World War II in December 1941, the plasma program, a least from the standpoint of commercial production, was still in its early The British experience with whole blood in North Africa, before the United States entered World War II, gave rise to discussions in the United States as to the need for provision of whole blood for combat casualties, but these discus-

sions were not much more than academic until after the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942. It was that invasion and the casualties that

it produced which brought the true situation sharply home, both to medical officers overseas and to the numerous persons8 and agencies in this country who were studying shock. Our experience in North Africa made it quite clear that plasma, in spite of its virtues and advantages, could not take the place of whole blood. Plans for its provision were worked out in both the Mediterranean and European theaters, and, by May 1943, the Office of The Surgeon General had formulated e plan, frankly a compromise with the ideal, for supplying whole blood to forward hospitals from base sections. By November of 1943, however, an entirely workable plan had been prepared in the Transfusion Branch of that Office to fly blood from the Zone of Interior to oversea theaters. The Surgeon Generel at this time considered the plan both impractical and unnecessary, and it needed the casualties of the first weeks of the Normandy invasion to demonstrate that the reliance placed upon local supplies of whole blood was completely unrealistic. Then, in August 1944, the same plan and the same airlift that had

71T~400"—¢4__2

x

x

FOREWORD

been rejected in November 1943 were utilized to fly blood to the European theater. A similar airlift to the Pacific Ocean areas was instituted in November 1944. The blood program in World War II was a brilliant success in spite of the delays and frustrations that attended its inception. After the wer, however, the program was allowed to lapse, and, when the Korean War broke out, less than 5 years after World War JJ had ended, planning for whole blood in a future war had only just been instituted, and 2 implementation of the planning had to be effected during the active fightin hard, in retrospect, to understand why the United States was so slow to grusp the implications of the use of whole blood in World War I, limited though that experience was; why it did not take advantage of the successful blood program used during the Spanish Civil War; and why it did not immediately make use of the British experience in the early months of World War II, when the necessity and value of whole blood for combat casualties were eo clearly proved. It is even harder to understand why, between World War IT and the Korean War, all plans for a supply of whole blood in possible future wars were allowed to lapse, so that the United States entered the Korean War with a plen, it ia true, but with no arrangements for implementing it. Brig. Gen. Douglas B. Kendrick, the author of thie book, carried the chief responsibility for the Army blood program during World Wer JI and during much of the Korean War. I note that i in his preface he is somewhat apologetic for the detail with which the story is told. He should not be. He is quite correct in emphasizing that behind the drama of tranefusion, and its almost miraculous results in both those wars, lay an claborate mechanism of procurement, storage, delivery, and other monotonous but highly necessary details. Furthermore, as he has pointed out, it is only by the strictest and most precise attention to such details that blood is able te achieve its life seving miracles, and, pavally importent, can be prevented from becoming a lethal agent. also glad that, contrary to the usual practice in this historical series, the stony of the whole-blood program has been carried over from World War II inte the Korean War, even though, as already stated, the story, at least in the beginning, reflects no credit upon our foresight. Our thoughtless negligence makes it the more important to record the facts. Like my predecessors in the Office of The Surgeon General, J have taken the position that this history must be written with complete candor and frankness, not only because a history ia worthless if it is not honest but also because we must spell out the errors of the past so clearly that the same mistakes cannot be made again. I do not believe that these gigantic errors are likely to be repeated. There is now in my Office a special transfusion officer whose business it is to sce that they are not. No matter what form future conflicts may take, there is no conceivable kind of injury which will not require blood, plasma, or both. These agents, in fact, will be needed even more than in World War II and in the Korean War, for future wars will surely involve civilians as well as military personnel, and probably in even greater numbers.

FOREWORD

xI

Tn this book will be found the key to salvation in future wars as far as blood is concerned. Blood is not a commodity thet can be collected and stored, at least by present techniques. It must be collected as the need arises, and the point of collection is seldom the point of administration. It cannot be collected when the need for it arises, nor can it be taken to the area of need, unless there has been careful advance planning for its procurement and transportation. A blood program cannot be improvised on the spur of the moment. Some technical details may change as knowledge increases, but the basic principles of the World War II blood program and the Korean War blood program are biologic principles and they are unlikely to change materially

from the facts set forth in this book. Medical

officers who, like myself,

served overseas in World

War

II, and

who observed the management of casualties with and without the use of whole

blood, are peculiarly qualified to appreciate the achievements of the wholeblood program. Its results unfolded before our eyes. In forward hospitals, we saw men saved from death and, sometimes, almost brought back from the dead. In fixed hospitals, we received wounded men who once would have died in forward hospitals, or even on the battlefield. We received casualties with the most serious wounds in good condition. With the aid of more blood, we performed radical surgery upon them, and we watched them withstand opera-

tion and, with still more blood, recover promptly from it.

There are more than the usual reasons for the preparation and publication of this volume on the whole-blood program. A major reason, h impact this9 therapeutic advance has had upon medical care, vivilian as well as military other reason is to keep faith with the multiple personnel who

planned ‘and operated the whole-blood program, and with the millions of American citizens whose gifts of their own blood saved the lives of so many American

soldiers, who otherwise would heve di

As in previous forewords, I desire again to express my thanks to the authors and editors of all of these volumes and to the personnel of my own office, who are helping me to carry out this extremely important phase of my mission as The Surgeon General. Lronarp D. Hearon, Taeutenant General, The Surgeon General.

Preface In World War IJ, between 8 and 11 of each 100 wounded men who reached forward hospitals alive died in them. In World War II, the number was reduced to 4.5 per hundred. In the Korean War, it was further reduced to 2.6 per hundred. The explanation is simple, that the mortality rate in combat wounds is inversely proportional to the availability of prompt and adequate resuscitation, | in the routine of which whole blood and plasma play major rolea, T s learned in World War II furnished convincing evidence of the soundness "of that concept—but they had to be learned in the course of the war. When the Korean War began, the concept of the essentiality of whole blood in the management of shock was firmly eatablished in the minds of both clinical and administrative personnel end had been accepted by statisticians. The fly in the ointment was that administrative personnel had not yet learned that whole blood is best handled out of supply channels, aa a separate supporting service. In 1939, at the outbreak of the Second World War, the United States found itself with no organized blood bank system, and, indeed, with no plans

for supplying whole blood or so-called blood substitutes to wounded casualties.

By 1941, when this country was precipitated into that war, the plasma program was beginning to evolve, but the whole blood program was not yet even in the planning stage. Both programs developed by a series of expediente, almost on a trial-and-error basis. The end result was brilliantly successful, but the success was achieved at the cost of delay, inefficiency, and far greater expense than should have been incurred. Moreover, there was only a small

capitalization on the tremendous research potentialities afforded by the collection of millions of units of blood and ite clinical use in war casualties, partly

as whole blood and partly in the form of plasma and serum It is distressing to relate that when the Koreen War broke ¢out in June 1950, less than 10 years after the United States had entered World War II and juet 5 years efter World War IJ had ended, planning for a blood bank system had been instituted, but so shortly before the beginning of hostilities that, as in World War II, planning and implementation again were carried out on a basis of expediency.

It is doubly distressing to recollect that this situation was entirely un-

necessary: At the end of World War JI, well-founded, detailed reeommendetions for a transfusion service had been prepared and submitted through channels to the proper authorities. Time, manpower, effort, money, and

lives could all have been spared in Korea if these recommendations had been

utilized as a basis for postwar planning. As it was, the newly developed plans were not ready for implementation when the Korean combat began. The essentials of a blood program for oversea theaters may be described as material. In addition to donors, they include equipment, refrigeration, SUT

xIV preservatives, and an airlift.

PREFACE Basic to the program, however, is the acceptence

of the concept of the need for whole blood for combat casualties.

It was

lure to recognize this need,and to face and overcome the associated logistic problems promptly, thet was the real reason for the delay in supplying whole

blood to oversea theaters in World War JJ.

When World War II began, the concept of shock wes still vague, and, in the light of World War II experiences and investigations, it was found to

be in error in many of its aspects.

Transfusion was still a drematic and heroic

rocedure, resorted to more often than not only when the situation was critical or desperate. Direct techniques were just beginning to give way to indirect techniques. Reactions, due chiefly to the presence of pyrogens, were still alarmingly frequent. Plasma was still in the experimental stage. The fractionation of plasma proteins had not yet become a practical reality, and the clinical use of byproducts of that process was not yet even imagined. Many of the problems of shock still remain to be solved, but a great deal was learned about them in World Wer II, not only by clinical observatioa but also by the careful studies carried out on them in theaters of operations, partionlary | in the Mediterranean theater, by the Board for the Study of the everely unded. ough much remains to be ed, there is now full realization that the fundamental cause of shock in the wounded man is diminuion of the amount of circulating blood. gically, therefore, the objective of all therapy is the restoration of the diminished blood volume to its approximately normal status, so that the wounded soldier may withstand the measures—which are often heroic—necessary to care for his wounds. In spite of the attention paid to plasma in the early months of World II, there were many whose eyes, from the beginning, were fixed upon whole blood. It is interesting and significant that it was a biochemist, not a clinician, who, some years after the war, vigorously called attention to this fact. Dr. Edwin J. Cohn, in recounting the history of the World War II

National Research Council Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes to the similar

committee which took ite place in 1949, stated that he “* * * wanted the group to realize that at a very early point in the history of the earlier Subcommittee, Dr. DeGowin had started writing and talking about the necessity of using whole bleod instead of blood fractions, and for the need to start immediately to develop a service to supply blood to the Armed Forces.” The subcommittee, Dr. Cohn continued, had repeatedly recommended the use of whole blood for combat casualties, but no specific action was taken on these recommendations until reports from the North African theater indicated the need for blood. Then, concerted efforts were made to supply it, but there were delays while logistic problems, which hed not yet been evaluated, were solved. At first, many authorities outside of the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes considered it impractical ‘o extend the dating period beyond 8 days, let alone to fly blood overseas. took persistence, faith in the concept and in the possibility of its implementation, and a great deal of hard work to set up the plan, but, by November 1943, the same airlift was available

PREFACE

XV

that was—belatedly—put into effect in August 1944. One can only regret the lost months and, as a corollary, the lost lives, that resulted from the delay. In retrospect, it is difficult to understand why the United States was so slow in setting up a whole blood program in World War I1. We could have learned some lessons from World War I. O. H. Robertson, for instance, and Ohler both stated unequivocally from their experience in it that, when blood is lost, it must be replaced by blood. We could also have learned from the very successful program in effect in the Spanish Civil W: bove all, we could have learned from the British, who, to quote Brigadier Sir Lionel E. H. Whitby, RAMC, entered the war with a “firm policy,” decided upon 6 months earlier, that there would be a completely distinct and scparate transfusion service in their Army because the transportation of potentially

dangerous biologic fluids over long distances would require clase personal

supervision and could not be trusted to the usual supply routes emanating from a base medical supply store. The British policy was remarkably successful. It was carefully planned before hostilities began. It was based on the concept that blood is a perishable substance, as potentially dangerous as it is potentially useful, and therefore is to be handled only in special channels and only by specially trained personnel. We followed that plan only partially in World War II, and not much more effectively in Korea, and, in both wars, we paid the penalty for our folly. In the face of these facts, one can only wonder why the United States did not have a special transfusion service planned before we entered World War II; why the recommendation of the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, National Research Council, for such a service was not adopted during the war; why it was not until 4 years after the war ended that such a special service was established; and why we had been engaged in World War II for almost 3 years before the proposal, made many months before, was adopted’ and blood was flown overseas to the European theater and to the Pacific areas Once the oversea airlift was instituted, it was clearly demonstrated that blood can be collected thousands of miles from its point of use; can be safely transported over those miles; end can be used with safety and benefit if there is proper planning, proper handling, proper timing, and adequate airlift, trained administration, and careful coordination. The successful use of whole blood reached a high point on Okinawa in World War II. Planning—in which, naturally, there were some mistakes—was detuiled and timely. Blood was provided in ample quantities. There were 40,000 casualties, and their treatment involved the use of approximately 40,000 pints of whole blood, 1:1. All the blood used on Okinawa wes flown from the United States, a distance of 8,000 miles. With the dating period set at 21 days, it required careful timing to insure provision of adequate quantities of whole blood with a minimum amount of wastage from outdating. There were two reasons why the operation was successful: First, the blood supply from the United States to Okinawa via Guam was highly efficient. Second, the commanding general, with the full concurrence of the surgeon of the task force, assigned to a trained transfusion

XVI

PREFACE

officer full responsibility for the supply, distribution, and correct use of all the whole blood brought onto the islan Although whole blood is usually the fluid of choice in the resuscitation of wounded casualties, it would be fatuous not to grant that there are military

situations—and there probebly will be civilian situations—in which it cannot

be provided and, as a matter of expediency, fluid of o longer shelf life must be used. Plasma met this requirement admirably in World War IJ. It was useful in the field, forward of hospitels; in the initial phases of landing operations, in which it was difficult logistically to eupply a perishable item like whole blood, which always requires special care; and aboard ship, where, however, the Navy found serum albumin equally useful, because the procurement of water, which usually had to be administered with this agent, was no

problem. During World War II, an abundance of plasma was avaiable to the Armed Forces of the United States

al

unhampered by considerations of supply. or cost. The purity and excellence of the product supplied, and the disposable, sterile, pyrogen-free dispensing sets and distilled water supplies with it, permitted the administration of large

quantities without fear of reaction. until they reached

How many casualties plasma kept alive

installations in which

whole

blood

could

be administered

and surgery performed is not a fact that can be reduced to statistics, but it is safe to say that it was in the hundreds of thousands Plasma was used most effectively when its indications and limitations were clearly realized. In addition to its use for resuscitative purposes, it w the agent of choice in crushing i injuries, in burns, in injuries from blunt instrus

ments, end in other injuries in which there was no great loss of blood.

It was

built up beyond its capabilities early in World War JI; it was often used to excess and unwisely, though that criticism must be tempered by the fact that very often, in the early days of the war, the choice was plasme or nothing. In the Mediterranean and the Pacific, in those days, medical units and hospitals went in with little or no provision for the collection and administration of blood, chiefly because there was lack of logistic support in the Zone of Interior to make the necessary equipment available. When it became evident that plasma was carrying the virus of hepatitis, its use in the Korean War had to be discontinued, but thet unfortunate develop-

ment has nothing to do with its essential value. When this problem has solyed—and there is no doubt that it will be solved eventually—plasma can

resume its proper and valuable place as an agent of resuscitation to be used to

supplement whole blood.

matter what form future conflicts may take, casualties will result, and there is no conceivable kind of wound which will not require blood, plasma, or both. It is quite possible that more blood and plasma will be needed in a future conflict than have been needed in the past, because future wars will involve civilians as well as troops, and will involve them in far greater numbers

PREFACE

XVII

than were affected in the countries that bore the brunt of the air raids in

World War IT.

Since the need for blood will arise whenever combat commences and what-

ever form it may take, it is imperative, before it commences, to maintain supplies and equipment, to trein personnel, and to plan edequately for the provision of whole blood for any forces that may be placed in the field and for civilians who may be part of the conflict at home. Although research done on the long-term storage of blood by freezing with glycerol indicates that this technique offers a realistic and practical approach to the problem, whole blood,

at least as yet, is not a commodity that can be generally stored on 4 long-term b Nor ean it be collected as the need for it ariscs unless there has been

prior planning for its procurement.

no such provision when World War II broke out, and it was

not until late in the wer thet the correct equipment for collecting it and using

it was made available in oversea theaters. rectified when the Korean War broke out.

That situation was only partially Neither contingency must be per-

mitted to happen ag War has very Tittle left of glamour, but if, in World War II, there was anything dramatic and glamorous, it was the miracles wrought by the use of mole blood. Since this is so, readers may wonder, and perhaps complain, that book contains a great many prosaic, repetitious, Monotonous details. It

does indeed, and their inclusion has been deliberate. It is extremely important— in fact, it is imperative—to recognize that behind the drama of transfusion in World War II ley an elaborate mechanism of procurement, storage, deliv

and such was thet

many other mundane details. It was only by the strictest attention to matters that blood was able to achieve its miracles, and, equally important, prevented from becoming a desdly agent. It must never be forgotten without proper care, blood can be lethal. Many agencies were involved in this gigantic enterprise, including The Department of Surgical Physiology, Army Medical School, and the

similar division of the Naval Medical School. The Office of The Surgeon General, U.S. Ar

The Medical Departments of both the ‘Army |and the Navy. The American Red Cr The Division of Medical Sciences, National Research Council, with its various committees, permanent and ad hoc, particularly the ill-named Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes. The actions of this subcommittee occupy considerable space in this book, as they should, for it was the advice of its membership that guided the Army and the Nevy Medical Departments in many aspects of the blood-plasma program. This subcommittee anticipated events by an early recommendation that whole blood be supplied for combat casualties and by an early recommendation for an airlift of blood to the European theater. It is a great pity that these recommendations were not accepted when they were made. Considering the fact that its petition was never granted

XVII

PREFACE

that it be permitted to visit combat zones and determine personally whet the circumstances and needs were, it is remarkable that this subcommittee wes able to accomplish what it did.

The National Institute of Health

The Army Medical Procurement ‘Agen The biologic processing plants that participated

pioneered in new and untried fields.

in

the

program

and

d, finally, the millions of U.S. citizens who donated their blood. As to the individuals who participated in the program, it is difficult to single out any for mention without omitting others who should be included. Four exceptions, however, might be made: Dr. G. Canby Robinson, who directed the American Red Cross Blood

Donor Service.

Mai. Earl S. Taylor, MC, who served as Technical Director of the Service.

Dr. Walter B. Cannon, who, at the first meeting of the Committee on

Transfusions, National

Research

Council,

biochemist” be brought into the program.

suggested

that some

“outstanding

dwin J. Cohn, who was brought into the program in response to that suggestion , andin whose Department of Biochemistry at the Harvard Medical School the trestioustion of blood plasma was successfully accomplished and the

serum albumin program was tranelated into reality.

Surgeon Vice Admiral Sir Edward Greeson, RN, wrote in the preface to one of the volumes of the history of the Royal Naval Medical Service in World War II that no one hes ever written “the” history of anything. The best that can be accomplished is “a” history. He made that statement in advance, he frankly admitted, to take ¢cere of the adverse criticisms he knew the volumes he was editing would ree This volume, ‘which iis concerned with the blood-plasma program in World War II and in the Korean War, is intended as ‘‘a” history of that program. It is a chronicle built upon personal knowledge of what happened and upon a mass of material almost exasperating in ite voluminousness and equally exasPerating, in its lack of many essential deteils. A great deal of the story is —and quite properly—built upon personal knowledge of what happened, what actions were taken, and why and in what circumstances they were taken. World War IJ was the first war in which the United States was engaged in which blood was used with any frequency, and the first in which plasma and serum albumin were used ai . The attempt has therefore been made to record the whole story, and, in particular, to omit no errors and no failures. A major failure was the attempt—which seemed so near success—to use bovine albumin instead of human blood. So many problems would have been solved if only the attempt had succeeded. It may be that one day the project will be

revived and the difficulty solved.

No more practical man ever lived than the

PREFACE

XIX

late Dr. Cohn, and he believed that this might happen, though it was he who, aginst the desire of some clinicians, insisted upon an immediate stop to clinical testing when it became evident that the bovine albumin developed in his laboratory was not » safe agen The preparation of this book according to the principles just laid down has presented certain major difficulties. World War II was a global war, and the blood and plasma program was an essentially global program. On the surface, as has been suggested for many of this series of volumes, it seems perfectly eimple to present what might be termed ' ‘a linear chronologic account,” with

th

as

they

occurred.

Actually, this would be an impossible task, and, granting the possibility of its accomplishment, it could result only in confusi Alter considerable experiment, it was decided that the most logical mode of presentation would be first by subjects and then by theaters. By this plan, the book falls into the following divisions: 1. A historical note, for which no epology is offered, if only because the chronicle makes clear how far we still had to go in World War II, as well as— to our discredit—what had been accomplished in the» Spanish Civil War and bythe British before the United States entered the w: . Two background chepters dealing with shock and with the evolution of te whole-blood conce

The provision of blood for blood transfusions and for conversion into

plasma, This group of chapters deals with administrative considerations; the American Red Cross, which was the collecting agency; the donors who provided the blood; the equipment used to collect and administer it; | trans portation and refrigeration; and the laboratory studies necessary before blood could be used safely and accurately. group of chapters dealing with plasma, serum albumin (bovine and buman), byproducts, so-called blood substitutes, and other intravenous agents.

. Separate chapters

dealing with

the Mediterranean

Theaters of Operations and the Pacific areas.

and

European

6. A final clinical section dealing with reactions and with principles of

replacement therapy. 7. A chapter on the blood and plasma program in the Korean War, which is included, contrary to the usual practice in this historical series, because this war furnished an opportunity to study the application of the lessons learned in World War II, some of which, unfortunately, had to be learned

over again.

No matter what the plan of presentation, a certain amount of repetition would be inevitable in this volume. The plan adopted perhaps calls for an undue amount, though some of it is deliberate and necessary. As much repetition as possible, however, has been eliminated by the copious use of cross-references,

xx

PREFACE

One other item might be mentioned in conclusion: the number of veterans of World Wer II and Korea who have given blood since those wars in gratitude for the blood they themselves had received in them. One man, a recent newspaper story related, had just given his sixty-fifth pint; he lost a leg on Guam but, thanks to the blood he received, he did not lose his life. No one appreciated the value of whole blood more than GI Joe, and not the least of its benefits was its effect upon his morale. Dovatas B. Kenpeicx, Brigadier General, MC, USA.

Acknowledgments Although

this book

is credited

to a single author, it owes much

persons, and it is a pleasure to acknowledge that debt:

to other

It was my good fortune, during a large part of my wartime experience, to work with Capt. Lloyd R. Newhouser, MC, USN (Ret.), who waa my opposite number in the Novy. I count myself equally fortunate in his having read this entire book. His familiarity with the blood-plesma program both in World War II and in the Korean War, enabled him to pick up errors which had been overlooked, add items which had been forgotten, and make many other helpful suggestions. It was my similar good fortune to have Dr. Robert C. Hardin read the section dealing with the European theater. As Lieutenant Colonel Hardin, MC, he served as Transfusion Officer in that theater and directed the blood

service in it.

He clarified many points on which no written records existed,

and of which I had no personal knowledge; corrected errors of fact and interpretation; and added a number of interesting and useful items. This is a better

section because of his comments,

Col. R. L. Parker, MSC (Ret.), also read the section on the European theater. He had personally participated in the supply phase of the program in that theater, and, like Dr. Hardin, he performed a useful task of clarification, correction, and addition, y grateful appreciation is due to oath of persons in The Historical Unit, U: S, Army Medical Service, beginning with the Director, Col. John Boyd Coates, Jr., MC, who is Editor in ‘Chief of the hhistory of the U.S. Army Medical Service i in World War II. Colonel Coates read the entire menuscript and made many useful comments, particularly in the section on the European theater,

of which he had personal knowledge from his service in it as Medical Executive Officer, Third U.S. Army. The

General

Reference

and

Research

Branch in that unit supplied much

of the materiel on which this volume is based. The Assistant Chief of the branch, Mrs. Esther R. Rohlader, not only was largely responsible for producing this

materiel

but

also

performed

the

monotonous,

time-consuming,

often

difficult, and always important task of tracking down the tacts that invariably

get away. Maps were prepared by Miss Elizabeth P. Mason, Chief, Cartographic Section, and Miss Jean A. Saffran, Cartographic Draftsman, of the Special Projects Branch, The Historical Unit.

azel'G. Hine, Chief, Administrative Branch, The Historical Unit,

supervised the final typing of the manuscript.

Mrs. Martha R. Stephens, Editor, of the Editorial Branch, The Historical

Unit, performed the publication editing for the volume.

XXI

XXIL

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My grateful appreciation is due to Mrs. Ethel Bauer Ramond, who served as assistant to the Associate Editor and who typed the entire original manuscript with notable speed, accuracy, and real medical intelligence. Finally, no expression of appreciation would be complete without grateful acknowledgment of the services of the Associate Editor, Miss Elizabeth M. McFetridge, for her untiring efforts in seeking out and compiling the information for this book and for organizing the text. Without the application of her vast experience in medical writing and editing, this volume would not have been possible. I want to express my thanks and appreciation to her for her invaluable services and, in particular, for her sympathetic understanding of the vagaries of medical editors and authors, Dovatas B. Kenpricx, Brigadier General MC USA.

Contents Page FOREWORD

IK

PREFACE

XII

KXI

Chapter I

Il

Historical Note Transfusion Before World War I.-.........----------------------Blood Transfusion in World War I_.........-.-------------------Spanish Civil War (1936-39) __..._..---._-----------------------Blood for Britain The British Blood Program in World War Il_._..._---------------The Soviet Union Blood Program in World War II__--_------------The German Experience in World War II_..-....-.---------------Other Sources of Blood

1 1 5 i 13 15 21 22 23

Shock

29

Historical Note ns Between the World Wars__.._.._-_-------------------

Special Studies The Board for the Study of the Severely Wounded_...._.-.--------Ebert-E

Ill

son

Study

The Evolution of the eeof Whole Blood in Combat Casualties_-___-_-_The Tae of the Natioat Rosconch Counoil_____.___---------------The Evolution of the Concept of Whole Blood Replacement in the Comment

IV Administrative Considerations in the Zone of Interior_._.---..----------Medical School Office of The Surgeon General National Research Council National Institute of Health Legal Aspects of the Blood and Plasma Program..---------.-------Training Office of

Civilian

Defense.

Plasma for Allied Nations Offers From Other Countries. Supptios of Plasma for Zone of Interior Hospitala_--_-.-------------Provis' n of Whol le Blood in Zone of Interior Hospitels_-_--..----.--

29 29 30 33 37 38 40

42

47 47 49 54 57 61 61 67 73 81 81 85 91

93 95 95 97 97

XKIV Chapter Vv

CONTENTS

The American National Red Cro irat. Steps of the Progran f the Program Organization and Personnel Blood Donor Centers. Mobile Uni

Conferences.

Blood Donore Other Aspects of the Program

VI Blood

The

Total

The

End

Program Result.

118

119 128 130 137

Donors and the ‘Technique of ¢ Collection of Blood...---.------.---i Donora With Speci Dicer

139 139 141

Routine

145

of

Donat

Focnniaue of Collection of Blood______.-.---------------+--------Rea 3 to Donations Resmmeretion of Hemoglobin VII

Page 101 101 102 104 106 11 114

Plasma Equipment and Packaging, and Transfusion Equipment_--_- ------Part I. Plasma Equipment and Packaging Original Packages f Standard Package Com:mponents of the Fiasma Package en ne ee ee eee eee eee eee The Larger Plasma Packaging of Dried Pee for Zone of Interior Use__ ges.

148 153 158 163 163 165 169 172 175 177

Part II. Transfusion Equipment for the Oversea Program General

Consid t

of Equipment.

177

180

Des ‘of Field Transfusion Unit in European Theater_....-.-...---. | 185 Expendable Transfusion Equipment____-_---.--------------.---195 Part III. Albumin Packaging ion and Refrigeration Preliminary Specifications. Transportation in the Zone of Interior___._...-__.----------------Status of Refrigeration, 1043 August 1944____ The Airlift to the European The: Studies on Unrefrigerated Blood vlewn to the European Theater__._.. Expendable Refrigeration Containers for the Oversea Airlifts......-.--

VIII

Ix

Pri

ti

Soluti

Fannitions and Criteria. rical Not of Whole Blood Developmat of Preservative Soluti of Efficiency of Preservative Solutions. Special Studies.

203 203 204 206 208 211 213 217

217 217 220 221 229 229

CONTENTS Chapter X

XI

Laboratory Techniques and Special Laboratory Studies lood Typing of Typin kePersonnel wee ween ee eee Development of Typi Typing Errore The Rh Fac’ Screening Test for 0 Blood Hemat tocrit Dye it of Blood Volume Tiration of Blood. Studies on A and B Substa Studies of Cell Survival Alter ‘Tranafusion aeee anes Serologic Testing for Syphilis sThe Plasma Program Historical Note Gen Cc Forms of Plasma. Frozen Plasma uid Plasma Concentrated Plasma. Dried Plasma. Commercial Processing of Dried Plasma-_-------Additi: Filte

Mass 5 Produation of Dried Plaama ae eee ee eee eee eee Expansion of Requ: uire! Equipment for the Plasma erogram pee one-one eee Other Production Difficulties Testing. Tospection of Processing Laboratories Yields of Pinsma rom Blood. Accounting Prac’ Loases. Disposition off Surplus Plasma. Offers and Pr Red Blood Can teat Residua. XII

The Bovine and Human Albumin Programs_.._....-------.---.--------Part I. Bovine Albumin Development of Program Progresa of Program Clinical Testing. Termination of Program Later Devel + Part I]. Human Serum Albumin Historical N. Laboratory Development wane nee ene ne eee ee eee Testing Recommendation of Serum Albumin to the Armed Forces

XXKVI

CONTENTS

Chapter XII The Bovine and Human Albumin Programs—Continued

Page

Part II, Human Serum Albumin—Continued Commercial Production, y Requsitions for Serum Albumin_......-..---.---------------Teobaiques of Plasma Fractionation Refrigeration

949

Further Clinical Studies. Termination of Progr XIII

354 355

Byproducts of Plasma Fractionation General Considerati Hemoglobin Globia Si

359 359 361 361

Globulin

362

Mibris Foam and Fibrin Film XIV

341 347 348 349

Additives.

303

Blood Substitutes and Other Intravenous Fluids

371

Part I. Blood Substitutes General Consi

i

Gelatin

XV

371

373

Ouher Blood Substitutes

a77 379

Part II. Other Intravenous Fluids Salt Solution Gum Acacia.___.-.2-22. eee Sodium Bicarbonate B Complaii

383 384 384 384

The Mediterranean (Formerly North African) Env Bas of Policies

ee eee

Theater of Operations_--.-

Part I. Fifth U.S. Army

Experiences.

391

int Planning for a Theater Blood Bank. enn e wn nnn Blood

The B713th

Bank

at

15th

Mi

J

nn nnn

nee

1 Laboratory.

Blood Transfusion Unit (Overhead)_-_.-..--.-----------

ip

and Refrigeration

T

400

414 420

Donors

421

Selection of Type O BI Technique of Gaeton Laboratory Facilities.

Equipment,

t Blood____..-.-.------------------------

424 426 428 431

432

ervatives pital

392

396 404 412 417

Distribution

Statistical

391

437

Data

437

Experi

442

Survey of Blood Program Comm

443 445

CONTENTS

XXVU

ipter XV_ The Mediterranean (Formerly North African) Theater of Operations—Con. Part IT. Seventh U.S. Army Organization Pp Operations ” Air Transport Forward Distributing Base Bleeding Secti

S

Transfer to ETOUSA. Donors Equipment.

Refrigeration and T; Statistical Data.

Culnical XVI

The European Theater of Operations Part I. General Considerations Special Ciroumstances Education and I

ini the

European

Theater_-.....-..----------

Part II. Initial Activities in the Zone of Jnterior for an Oversea Trans‘usion Service Background of Project. First Proposal, October 1943 Acti Revival of Provonal April 1944_______-__------------------------Request for Oversea Mission. Recommendations by Surgery Division, OTSG...._____-_----------Part ITI. Initial Activities in the European Theater Tnitial Provision o! Training in British Blood Supply De Appointment of Consultant on Tramtusion and Shock..__ Banks.

Tncreasing Awareness in the European Theater of the Need for Whole Blood

D-day and After Implementation of the Whole Blood Proposal. -__---.._.-.--_-------Comment

Part IV. Definitive Actions in the Zone of Interior for an Oversea Transfusion Service Revival of Proposal |for Airlift of Blood to Europe.__--...--.-------First

494

Shi

Part V. The European Theater Blood Bank Section I. Establishment Preliminary Planni Organization and Function. --------------------------------------

496

XXVUI Chapter XVI

CONTENTS

The European Theater of Operations—Continued

Page

Part V. The European Theater Blood Bank—Continued Section II. 162d Station Hospital Blood Bank, United Kingdom Section Conversion of 152d Station Hospital to Blood Bank Purposes-. -__-_--

Personnel

Operational

Structure.

TORTEeSSReport. Further Planning for Operation OVERLORD.___-._-__----_-------Major Elements of the Final Plan The Invasion Section III. 127th Station Hospital Blood Bank, United Kingdom Section

Authorization

Conversion of Facilities and Personnel

Training

498

490 500

508 509 510 512

513

513

514

Operation

514

Section IV. 162d Station Hospital Blood Bank, Continental Section Movement to the Continent. Permanent Location Operations Section V. Activities of the European Theater Blood Bank Detachments 152d Station Hospital Blood Bank 127th Station Hospital Blood Bank-_-____.

515 516 516 518 522

Part VI. Blood Donors in the European Theater rane Provisions for Blood Donors.___...-.---.-~-.---------------For Planning for the Blood Supply atti Results | Postinvasion D ions Blood and Plasma Donations to British_.___-._--__---------------Prisoner-of-War Don Payment of Donors. Cc. tion for Accidents.

523 524 526 526 528 530 530

Part VII. Practical Considerations of the Blood Program in ETOUBA Preliminary Planning for the Airlift to the Continent. Airlift to the Continent After D-day_.._____---.-.----------------Other of Ti i Airlift From the Zone of Interior Reports and Estimates. Refrigeration and T: i Field Transfusion Uni Role of the Supply Division inj the Whole Blood Program -Security Measures Housekeeping Arrangements_..__--_-----------------------------Early Operational Difficulties Inquiry Into Efficiency of Airlift to European Theater__.___.--------

Clinical Problems

531 534 537 538 541 541 543 545 548 549 550 551

563

CONTENTS

KXIK

Chapter XVI

Page The European Theater of Operatione—Continued Part VIII.

Statistical Data

Quantitative Use of Blood Critique on the Use of Blood on the Continent. Airlift to the European Theater. Production of ETOUSA Blood Bank Use of Blood in Army Installations Losses of Preserved Blood. Odd Bloods Serologically Positive Bloo logic Summarized Statistical Experiences Part IX.

Field Hospital General Hospitals Part X.

Special Experiences

Statement of the Theater General Board

Contents.

Comment XVII_

The Pacifie Areas and the Chi

BR

Ind:

Staff Visit to Pacific Areas be “ray and Transfusion 4

and Navy Consultants in Shock

Dono:

Equipment. The Airlift of Blood to the Pacific Advance Base Blood Bank Facility No. 1-_--Leyte

Luzon Termination of Airlift Statistical

Clinical

Plasma

er Replacement Agents.

Conclusions.

Operation OLYMPIC dia,

XVIII

Theater.

Reactions te, and Complications of, Blood and Plasma Transfusions General Consid i Allergic Reactions Pyrogenie

Reactions

Hemolytic Reactions Special Theater Experiences Reactions From C

d Blood

XKXK Chapter XVITI

CONTENTS

Reactions to, and Complications of, Blood end Plasma Transfusions—Con. Lower Nephron Nephrosis Southwest Pacific Area. Plasma Transfusion Reactions Serum

XIX

Jaundice

665 668 668 674

General i i of Shock Therapy Principles of Resuscitation lesuscitation

XX

Page

683 683 687

Technical Consi Use of Blood in Zone of Interior Hospitala__---_-_.-------_------.-Plasma Therapy Serum Albumin Therapy. Management of Special Types of Wounds. -.-.-.-...--.-----------Ass sya Conaiderati

693 694 696 699 703 708

The Blood, Plasma, and Related Programs in the Korean War__-----------

713

Part I. Administrative Background General Consi i The Interim Between the Wars... ___._-_-_----------------------Initial Steps in the National Blood Procurement Program_-_-__----_Report of Task Group. Implementation of Task Group Proposals_------------------------National Research Council

713 714 717 718 721 724

American

Red

Cross

Participation

726

Part II. The Whole Blood Program Section I, Blood Procurement in Japan Initiation of Program. Subsequent Developments ‘apanese Donors. Publicit; Statistical Data

727 720 729 730 731

Section II. The Development of the Whole Blood Program in the Zone of Interior

The First Ye The Armed Forces Blood The

National

Donor Program.

Blood Pro

733 734 735

Section LEI.

The Oversea Airlift to Korea

General C Processing Lalaboratory, Travis Air Force Base__.___-.__------------Laboratory Routin

739 739 743

Statistical

TAT

Data.

Seetion IV.

The Whole Blood Oversea Experience

Estimate of Needs Distribution Survey of Whole Blood Experience, Far East Command--------.---Statistical

Data.

752 752 755

157

CONTENTS Chapter XX The Blood, Plasma, and Related Programs in the Korean War—Continued Part II. The Whole Blood Program—Continued Section V. Equipment and Refrigeration for Airlift Plastic Container.

Refrigerated Shipping Containers

Refrigeration Facilities in the Far East Section VI. Techniques of Preservation Preservative Solutions Red Blood Cell Preservation Exchange Resins Freezing

Part III. The Plasma Program Plasma Supplies Between the Wars_--___.--.---------------------Stockpiles and Future Requirements Procurement of Plasm

Serum Hepatitis

Part IV. The Plasma Fractionation Program Serum

Albumin

Globin

Gamma Globulin Red Blood Cella Cadaveric Blood Bibliography

Part V. The Plasma-Expanders Program

Gelatin an Polyvinylpyrrolidone (Periston, PVP) __-_------------------------Dext ran Fat. Emulsions. Part VI. Clinical Considerations Therapeutic Principles and Practices. estigatio:

APPENDIXES A Circular Le Mi Theater B Circular Letters European Theater. 7 C Circular Letters, Pacifie Are: INDEX

Page

XXXII

CONTENTS

Tllustrations Figure 1 Experimental blood transfusion apparatus (Blundelt), ( 1818_..--.---2.-22 2 Clinical transfusion with Blundell gravi 3 World War I blood transfusion apparatus 4 British and Cenadidian equipment for replacement therapy...........--.---5 ini mine f 6 Brig. Gen. Charles C. Hillm 7 Col. (later Brig. Gen.) George a. Callande _M 8 timenteal blood studies, Army Medical ‘School, 1 wee ne nee eee eee 9 Exhibit by Blood Research Division, Army Metical Soho, 1941...2-2..-210 Preparation of owep i ts Aeny M edical Schoo! HW hi Lt. Gok (ater Col.) B. slend Carter, MC 1 and Navy wproaentativon Blood and Plasma Program__ 13 Lateratr techniefans int training, Army Medical School 14° Dri lasma arriving at emergency sanding field during maneuvers, 1941____ 15 Dried plasma ready for immediate wu e duri ing | maneuvers, 1941_._-...__..-__ 1 of plasma 17. Dr. G. Canby Robinson 18 Dr. (later Major, MC) Earl S. Taylor. 19 American Red Cross Died donor centers 20 Committee room, Fort Worth Red Cross Blood Donor Center__2 d Cross mobile units 22 Setup of Red rosa mobile units 2 Red G ters. 24 d Cross recruiting pamphlets 25 Gutdose recruiting posters contributed by commercial firms.___._--....___26 Cadets from Marquette University at Milwaukee Red Cross Blood Donor _,

Center

27

i

di by

blood

donors.

Page 2 3 10 18 58 62 63 64 68 68 70 72 86 88 89 90 105 108 113 114 5 116 122 123 124 127 141

28 Recontie mn and registration rooms Red Cross blood donor centers.____..__.29 Registration card for blood do: 30 Hemoglobin and eee i 31 Fileroom, San Antonio Red Cross Blood Donor Center. 32 Colleetion of blood, Red Cross blood donor centers__.---_---------.-.-2..33 Canteens, Red Cross blood donor cente: 34° «Can'teen ‘kitehen, Fort Worth Red Cross | Blood jonor Center_..-_.________ 35 Beeps iin collection of blood 36 Final step in collection of blood 37 Shipping room at a Red Cross blood donor center. 38 Dried plasma containers early in World Wer au 39 Standard Army-Navy 250-ce. plasma pa 40 Stoppers used in blood and plasma program 41 Filters used in plasma P!program 42 page pl package, 43 & pac used in Zone of Interior hospitals 44 Collecting ons giving set devisedat Arm: 7 Medical | School 45 Improvised equipment for oversea collection of blo: 46 Maj. (later ing Col.) Richard V. Ebert, MC, and Mal, Qater Lt. Col.) Charles

146 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 164 166 167 170 174 176 178 181

47 Evolution of oe dnon bottlein Ebert-Emerson. transfusion set. -.--48 Ebert-Em technique 49

187 188 189

P.

, MC

eee

CONTENTS

a o

Figure

fa a

61 52

E38

55 56 57

az

61 62 63

a

66

XXXIIT

mechnique of of cleansing Ebert-Emerson transfusion set. bert-Em transfusion set packed for Hose hub need Disposable siving set standardized for or Army-N avy Use... eee Standard Army Navy albumin Church container for of Aluminum ref sgeratr (Chrysler) doveaped by Army Air Foroes___--.....Preservation of bloo solution...-__-----..---------------Technique of tes oon Rb factor. Copper sulfate techvique of measuring specific gravities of blood and plasma... Portable kit for copper sulfate technique of measuring specific gravities of and

plasma_

Preparation of liquid plasma,1 Equipment for cold-trap vechnlaue of drying plasma__-._-........-------.Shell-frozen p! Plasma shell-' neering machine Toa ele for freezing plasma, al plasma shell-freezing tray Equipment for Emery technique of shel freezing plasma. koff-Lagsden vechnique off drying pl Divine plasma ai Vacuum diffusion proces ‘ee drying plasma pn eee

2 So

o

a

a

68 69 70 71 f plasma d: b 72 Schematic drawing of plasma freeze-drying equipment_________-_.----.---73 Edwin J. Cohn, m D 4 Commerdially prepared fibrin foam and thrombin_-----------------------75 Closures for bieediog. plasma, and intravenous Paution bottles (Baxter) . .... 76 Col.‘Edward D. Churehill, MC. of blood plasma just behind Sicily, 1343 V7 Administration of blood Plasmas ato German casualty, Italy, 194: 79 Administralion of blood plasma after bomb np iy 1943... Administration of blood plasme ini open field, Italy__-._-----.--.---------81 ‘Transfusion with British equipment and blood he 1944 82 Sikh viet ie British blood serum, Italy,1 83 Col. il H. Cornell, 84 Maj. ‘re no J. Me Graw, a MC. 85 GI blood donors, Italy, 1944 86 Taking blood for typing, Ttal 7 Postoperative transfusion, Ttaly, 1944... 88 Preparation of donor sets, Italy, 1944.._.......-.---.----88 Laboratory examinations, Ital Blood typing, Italy, 1 91 Blood typing, Italy, 1944 92 Reading Kahn testa, Italy. 93 Preparation of dried plasma for use in field, Italy, 1945. 94 Refrigerator truck for delivery of blood, Italy, 1944 95 Insulated box for shipment of blood, devised in Ttaly. 96 Loading blood for shipment ‘0 Anzio beachhead.......-.-----------.----97 Unloading Blood plane, 7 ttaly, 98 Bleeding ro 90 Completion of "naividyal ddonation, Italy, 1944______-.-_-_-_---_---------100 Preparationof Blood ample for laboratory tudes, Italy_.-._.-_-_---------101 Daily worksheet,I T17—-400"—64—__3

Page 190 ‘Io 194 197 199 205 207 223 252 254 255

272 278 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288

289 326 366 386 392 393

394 395 396 399 400 401 402 403 404 406 409 410 411 412 413 414 415

416 417 418 427 428 429 430

XXEIV

CONTENTS

Blood donations, Italy. Creation of slight negative p in blood bottle Introduction of gl di: lution into blood bottles Whole blood collections, Ttaly, 1044_....._.------2------------+--+ -Arrival of DUK h blood and reniciliia, southern Frane: Plasma tropatusion adGoring transportation from frontline, southern France, 1945. ansfusion in forward hospital, southern Franee, 1944__________-_---..Administration of albumin to wounded wo southern France. --...--Inventory of liquid plasma, gene, we eee e ene ene nee eee Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Eiio t C. Cutler, Ne. Lt. Col. (later Col.) Ralph 5. Muckenfues, MC, and Cal Robert C. Hardin, MC, eummer, 1944... Solutions room, European Theater Blood Bank__-_--.-----.-----------Loading autoclave with materials for blood. collection, Muropean Theater Blood Bank, 1944 Movement of blood from refrigerated storage via truck to waiting plane, United Kingdom, 1944. Preparation ¢of transfusion equipment for reuse, Kuropean Theater Blood Bank, Labeling bettion of blood, European Theater Blood Bank, toad Processing of blood donations, E n Theater Blood Bank........-...Shipment of blood from Continental Section, European Thestes Blood Bank,

a8

Figure 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111

e a

112 118

116 117 118

119 Louting blood for shipment to European Theater Blood Bank, 1944...-_-. 120 Blood packed in ice for shipment, 1944_ Lat Plane Joaded with whole blood in refrigera'

8

122 Unloading or blood from Plane, France. 1 ween eee eee eee ee eee 123 eturning wounded from Continent, 1944_.... 002k 124 Delivery vehicle w ith retvigersttor Refrigerator truck reine | loaded with blood at Continental Section, European Theater Blood Bank, 126 Blood being unload truck, Belgium, 1944 127 Preparation of plasma, Rendova, 1: mini 129 130 of plasma, Meni 1945... ee eee ee eee eee 131 Adlministretion of plasma, Luzon, 1945. --....-..-. 132 Blood bsbank in hospital Gispensarye New Guinea, 1945_......2.2--------133 Brig. Gen. Guy B. Deni 134 Bloo ainTransfusion, Leyte, 148. 135 Blood donors, Biak Island. sing laboratory fort blood for Pacific, Oakland, Calif__._.-._-136 Navy pi 137 Blood dntrbtion center, G of blood a ibuti ter, Guam 138 Movement .

:

142

-

144 145 46 147

. Col. (later Brig. Gen.) William ‘A. Hagins, MC..._____-------.---------Lt. Col. Frank Glen Blood distribution a en CSN , Okinawa, 1945._.____..._...---.------Administration of plasma, Okinawa, 1945. Administration of plasma, Okinawa, 1945_ Administration of plasma, Okinawa, 1945.

Page 431 432 433 434 449 456 466 457 470 471 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 533 534 536 536 537

538 539 540 583 584 585 586 587 589

593

596 597 602 608 610 611 612

613 617 619 624 625 626 627

CONTENTS Figure 148 149 150 151

Blood transfusion, Leyte, 19: Stored blood and plasma, Leda, wee ee eee eee eee Proceased serum, Calcutta Block Bonk mee nee eee eee eee eee eee Lt. Gen. (later Gen.) Joseph W. Stilwel, “USA, and Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Ieidor S. Ravdin, MC, Assam Base Hospital, 1044...--.......---.-.-. Blood donors, K'un-ming, Form used in hepatitis wwe ta Zone of Interior (feneralol hospitals, 1945... Administration of replacement therapy, Rrance, 19 Transfusion in shock ward Belgium, 1945. Transfusion in sho ard, Germany. .Form peed i in shook war ard. wen ee ne eee eee Transfus France, 1044 . ljasme administration on beach in Normandy, 1944--.---.. .. 2.2.2. -_Core of wounded in battalion aid station, France,1 me administration, Holland, 1944_-.-...-------Care of civilian i injured by Jan din, Germany, 1944 of dried plas

152 153 14 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 “of albumin 164 165 Interior on shock ward 166 Setup of 167 Blood tenors tom aU, 8. Navy, Tokyo, 1950_--...._.-.--------------ee ‘okyo, 1952 168 Jap 1951.__.----..---160 Official pposter of Armed |Forces eae Donor Program, 170 Shipments of blood from military installations in Zone of Tniasioe 71 Inspection of blood for transshipment from San Francisco Airport | to Tsapan,

172 cateto ott blood by mobile units from Louisville Regional Blood Donor Cen 173 Personnal at ‘Travis Alr Force Base Blood Processing Center_---_.._..--174 Laboratories at Travis Air Force Base Blood Processing Center_.._...____ 175 Whole blood ready for airlift to Korea from Travis Air Foroe Base Processing Center.

176

Blood being loaded | on plane for airlift from Travis Air Force Base to Tokyo Blcod 177 Blood fooesrom Travis Air Force Base to Japan__._----........----.-178 Blood flown from United States via Tokyo on varrival in Korea.. 179 Transportation of blood by helicopter i in Korea__.-.-.----.-.. 180 181 182 Insulated box used in early airlift to Korea.........-.----.---.--------183 Whole blood d shipment arriving in Korea isin insulated box originally used in 184 Tank yee a innlaed container developed during Korean War----_.--.. Korean War 185 Refrigerated container developed after 186 Refrigerator units tor storage of blood, Korea, 1951187 Refrigeration facilities for blood, Korea, 1953_.-.--188 189 190 min Korea 191 192 Withdrawal of stored blood for use at front, Korea, 1950__--........--_193 Blood transfusion in Korea. 194 Transfus 195 Rapid blood transfusion, Keres, 1003. ane nn ee ene eee ene eee eee eee

xXEXKV

CONTENTS

EXKXVI

Tables Number NManmonre

American Red Cross blood donor centera..-.------------------ee eee eee Summarized data onactivities of American Red Croas blood donor centera- Production report of Ameri: Cross blood donor centers, 1941—-45_.

Regults of testing commercially produced lots of plasma in Army

oD

School

_

10

be a

12 13 14 15

8s

17 18

Ratios of Bloods 4 lelivered to admissions to forward hovattak, First Army, Ratios ne bloods delivered to admissiona to forward hospitals, Third my; 1944Ratios of Biods ‘ives to admissions to forward hospitals, Seventh Army, Ratios "s Pode delivered to admissions to forward hospitals, Ninth Ration or Died

s a

nN a

nw a

i] =

8

21 22

Medical

Distribution of causes of loases in total bloods collected in World War II____ Resi f clinical testing of bovine atbumaity 1941__.---_- 2. Accepted production of normal human seru! Summarized report of albumin producti 01 Effect of storage temperatures on stability of erystalline human albumin... Effect of storage temperatures on viscosity of c!egataline human albumin-Production of 6713th Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 1944-45. Distribuwon of bloods collected by 6713th Blood Transfusion Unit “(Ovhd. , 944-45 Blood shipments by 6825th Blood Transfusion Company (Non-T/O), 1044-46 ‘Use of blood in Italy, 19. Estimated demands for whole blood, April 1944..............-2-.------Response to request for type O blood donors ino Uaited Kingdom, spring 1944. Consolidated report of monthly shipmente of blood to ETOUSA, Army

ETOUSA, 194

dived

U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S.

to admissions to forward hospitals, all U.S. Armies,

oo =

28 Reactions to tranatugiona in field hospitals, ETOUSA_. 29 ns to transfusions in evacuation hospitals, ETO ETOUSA meeeee 30 Renotiona to transfusions in general and station nei Influence of local preparationSof transfusion setson pyrogenic reactions. 32 evel pment of hepatitis in hospitalized patients, European and Mediterratheaters,

1944

£8

Survey of hepatitis ini Zone of! Interior general hospitals, 1945 wane eee en ee

Type distribution of blood wolleeted in Japan, 1951_........------------36 Receipte of blood, Tokyo Blood Depot, 1951-52____ 37 Ratio of blood issued to wounded in action, 1951-52 38 Remaining usable days of blood received from Zone of Interior and shipped to Korea, Distribution or ‘blood by Tokyo Blood Depot, 1951-52____...-_-..--.----

559

CONTENTS

XEXXVII

Number 40 Resulta of inoculation of volunteers fi ix di 4 of having hepatitis 41 Results of ultraviolet irradiation of infected pooled plasma wee eee eee eee 42 Results of heating infected pooled plasma at 60° C_-...........-.-.--

Page 778 778 780

Charts

2r8

a

moh

-_

Number

U 11 12 13 4

Organization chart, Transfusion Branch, Surgical Consultants Division, Office of The Surgeon General, 1944_........-.-.-------------------Organization chart, American Red Cross Blood Donor Service, 1041---Organization chart, American Red Cross Blood Donor Service, 1942 Line chart for calculating plasma Proteins, hemoglobin and hematocrit from specific gravities of bleod and plasma._.__._.--------.--------------Line chart for calculating percentages of normal Plasma proteins and hemoglobin from specific gravities of blood and plasma..___-.-------------Hemolytic effect of various dil Fractionation of plas Diagr: of blood transfusion service for field army, North African theater, 1944 Operations chart, Whole Blood Service, European theater, 1043__..__-.--Procurement and distribution of whole blood, European theater, 1044-45.. Structural organization of blood and blood derivatives program, 1949...... Structural organization of blood and blood derivatives program, 1950-_.-.Si fanization of blood and blood derivatives program, 1952 Organization for distribution of whole blood for Koi

71 107 108 256 287 316 360 405 407 517 722 723 724 754

a

2 s

Maps Movement of whole blood in Flight plan of airlift of blood from Zone of Interior to the European Contient Oneation map showing movement of ADSEC mobile blood depots on the

Nm

European Continent

Distribution of blood in Southwest Winerary of Army-Navy blood and t plan for distribution of blood Flight plan for airlift of blood from

Pacific____.-..--------------------plasma personnel in Pacifle arent, 1944. to Pacific from U.S. wes Zone of Interior to Keres. _—

419 405

519 588 592 601 748

CHAPTER

I

Historical Note TRANSFUSION

BEFORE

WORLD

WAR

I

Although the concept of the therapeutic value of blood dates back to antiquity, transfusion in the modern sense of the term was ev practical impossibility until William Hervey, in 1616, announced his discovery of the circulation of the blood.' This discovery opened the way for serious experiments on the infusion of various substances into the bloodstream and eventually led to the use of whole blood for transfusion. Claims to priority are various and confusing. It is clear, however, that

Richard Lower, inspired by the previous experiments of Sir Christopher Wren

in

infusion

techniques,

performed

the

first successful

animal

transfusion

in

1665, when he transferred blood from the carotid artery of one dog to the jugu-

lar vein of another. In November 1667, Lower transfused Mr. Arthur Con “a mildly melancholy insane man,” with the blood of a lamb. Mr. according to Pepys, described his experience in Latin before the Royal soc of Medicine and stated that he was much better. He impressed Pepys as

“cracked a little in his head.”

The next animal-to-human transfusions were also performed on generally the same indications, by Jean Baptiste Denis, physician to Louis XIV. When Denis’ fourth attempt ended fatally, he was charged with murder. He was eventually exonerated, but, 10 years later, the procedure was prohibited by law in France as well as in Italy and was also forbidden by the Royal Society of Medicine in Englend. For the next 150 years, there was little interest in transfusion, but it is significant that Nuck in 1714 and Cantwell in 1749 declared thet this procedure would be of value in severe hemorrhage. When interest in transfusion was revived by James Blundell (5-7) in 1818, it was on the basis of replacement of lost blood in puerperal hemorrhage and after a series of experiments in which e@ had demonstrated that human blood loses none of its ‘vital properties” by passage through transfusion equipment (figs. 1 and 2). Blundell failed in his first four desperate attempts to save women on the point of death from postpartal hemorrhage, but he succeeded in five of the next six attempts.

wise indicated Lewiaphn's (4,

tic techni

‘unless other-

and (2)

York to this thera-

1

2

BLOOD

PROGRAM

URE 1—Apperatus used by Blundell for experimental blood transfusion, 1818. 1 (Blundell's ortgine “unmbers and letters arere jaine d). Syringe, ete. 2, 3. Stru ieture of double-way cock. ead of syringe. B (fig. 2). Channel by which blood is expelled while ADC}isoe teaed ADC (fig. 3). Chane by which blood en!tere while ADB is closed. Change is effected by giving plug D a quarter-turn (2). In 1859, in reporting a successful transfusion, Benedict conditions under which this operation should be practiced. applicable to no pathologic state save that

(8) laid down the He considered it

* which is commonly called ‘collapse,’ induced by hemorrhage by certain exhausting discharges, or by utter inability to reeeive or onk: sanctioned, either by physiology or by common sense, is t of huruman venous blood into human veins, identical, as nearly as possible, with that which hae ‘soon lost, and in quantity just sufficient to arrest the tendency toward death. Benedict (9) could find only 21 cases recorded up to 1853 in which transfusions had been “practiced under these conditions.” There were 19 survivals in the 21 cases. In 18 75, Landois (10), in a comprehensive monograph on transfusion, collected 347 cases in which human blood had been used and 129 ceses in which animal blood hed been used. By this time, important studies on the physiology of the blood were being performed by « number of qualified observers, and some

HISTORICAL

NOTE

3

Fravee 2.—Clinical transfusion with Blundell gravitator for transmitling “bleod in a regulated stream from one individual to another’ (3). physicians, such as Fordyce Barker, advocated transfusion “* * * exclusively in those desperate cases where favorable results are hardly looked for but * * * before patients have arrived at, and fallen into, this desperate condition.” Techniques in use included transfusion with defibrinated blood, medinte transfusion with pure blood, immediate transfusion from vein to vein, and immediate transfusion from artery to vein. Although the indications and rationale of blood transfusion were by this

time apparently quite well understood, the indications during the last quarter

of the century again became vague and irrational, the procedure was employed indiscriminately, and the number of severe reactions and fatalities increased. As a result, transfusion again began to be considered eas e hazardous, and even a disreputable, procedure, to be employed only asa a last resort and in desperation.

Special Problems During the first years of the 20th century, a blood transfusion was frequently a more difficult technical procedure, and sometimes a procedure fraught with greater risks, than a major operation. Its development as an 717-400'—64—_4

4 effective and safe therapeutic method special problems: 1. Blood coagulation. First efforts in 1835, with the use of defibrinated 1914, with i successful use of sodium

@, %) (p.2

BLOOD required

the solution

PROGRAM

of a number

of

to overcome this difficulty were made blood by Bischoff, and terminated in citrate by Hustin, Weil, and Lewisohn

2 esaputination and hemolysis from admizture of ancompatible bi The way was opened to the solution of this special problem in 1900, when Landsteiner (11) published his epochal work on the identification of blood groups, based on his previous demonstration of the presence of isoagglutinating and isoagglutinable substances in the blood. Jansky in 1907 and Moss 3 years later, without knowledge of Jansky’s studies, worked out the reciprocal agelutinating reactions of the four blood groups and classified them accordingly. The confusion that arose because of differences in nomenclature was elimineted after World War I,when the numbers previously used to designate blood groups were replaced by the letters A, B, AB, and O, each group thus being designated by the agglutinogens iin Landsteiner’ 's original scheme. Communications in the early years of the 20th century were often slow, and foreign medical literature had only a limited circulation in the United States. No practical use, therefore, was made of Landsteiner’s work until 1907, when Ottenberg (4), at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, first matched donor and recipient before giving blood and thus made transfusion a safe procedure from the standpoint of compatibility. The validity of Ottenberg’s work was not immediately realized; his offer to perform compatibility tests for the surgeons at his own hospital had no general acceptance for almost 5 years because such tests were considered unnecessary or misleading. In 1911, Ottenberg demonstrated that it was safe to usc es a donor a person whose serum agglutinated the recipient’s red cells but unsafe and dangerous to use one whose red cells were acted upon by the recipient's serum. This demonstration eventually led to the widespread employment of group O donors as universal donors, since the red blood cells of this blood group are not agglutinable by the serum of any other blood group. 3. Technical difficulties. Until 1913, direct transfusion was used to the exclusion of any other technique. This wes a difficult and time-consuming method, requiring a specially trained team to carry it out and totally unsuited for use in sudden emergencies. In 1892, von Ziemssen of Munich had performed transfusion by the syringe technique, but his report attracted no attention and when Lindeman (/2) described it in 1913, it was, for all practical purposes, a new method. With this technique, no dissection of blood vessels was necessary in either donor or recipient, and the exact quantity of blood transfused was known. The technique, however, required a trained team of at least four persons and the use of a large number of expensive syringes. Also, rapid injection of the blood was mandatory. In 1915, Unger (13) introduced an apparatus based on the principle of the two-way stopcock, which

HISTORICAL

NOTE

5

overcame many of these difficulties. Dozens of variations of this apparatus were introduced during the next 15 years 4. Infection. Infection ceased to be: @ major problem after first antiseptic, and then aseptic, techniques came into general use and es long es transfusion was employed only in hospitals and on what amounted toclective indications. The open containers originally used to collect blood for indirect transfusion first became impractical, and then a real source of danger, when indications

for transfusion were extended. BLOOD

TRANSFUSION

IN WORLD

WAR

I

The British Experience In June of 1918, an editorial writer in the Lancet doubted that as recently as 4 years earlier any surgeon could have been found to perform "the operation” of transfusion in England (74). In the next issue, Sir Berkeley Moynihan (15) took exception to that statement: He and his associates in Leeds had been performing transfusion regularly for 10 years, first by the direct, and later by the indirect, technique The editorial writer’s statement was, however, generally true. Blood transfusion was not practiced by the majority of surgeons in Great Britain

before World War I, and its use in the last 2 years of the war was chiefly derived from the work which had been done on it in the United States.

‘echniques.—Direct transfusion, acompletely impractical method in

as

might

have

been expected,

proved

required in the Kimpton-Brown technique “mekes one wonder how it could

have been employed at all in a busy casualty clearing station, but Fullerton and his associates (76), using improvised equipment, employed the method in 19 casualties at the Boulogne base in 1916. The 15 deaths were not too discouraging, since the blood was given only to patients whose condition was

considered desperate.

In 1917, U.S. Army medicel officers introduced the

standard Kimpton-Brown equipment into British hospitals, and numerous patients were treated by this technique in casualty cleuring stations of the

British Second Army.

In a series of reports between 1916 and 1918, Bruce Robertson (17-20), of the Canedian Army, explained the adventages of the syringe-cannula technique, which he had introduced into the British Second Army area. The method was far simpler than the Kimpton-Brown technique, but at thet it was not simple, and it required a team of three persons to carry it out. The use of preserved blood was introduced into a casualty clearing station in the British Third Army during the battle of Cambrai in November 1917 by Capt. (later Maj.) Oswald H. Robertson, MORC, USA (2/, 22). His reasoning was that if blood had to be collected as casualties arrived, the number of transfusions given would necessarily be limited. The solution seemed to him to be

use of human red blood cells collected and stored in advance of the need.

6

BLOOD PROGRAM Only group O (then termed group

Ivy) blood wwas used

from each donor was collected in the Rous-

The 500 cc. taken

glucose-citrate solution

(p. 217) and stored in anicebox. After theSleod ‘hed ‘settled for 4 or 5 days, the cell suspension contained no more citrate than would be. used in ordinary citrated transfusions. The majority of transfusions were given within 10 to 14 days after the blood had been collected, but in some instances they were given with 26-day-old blood. The length of time the blood was kept did not seem to influence the results. The blood arrived i in good condition, with no evidence of hemolysis, after transportation by a demonstration later repeated by Capt. Kenneth Walker, who carried # bottle of preserved blood with him during a journey from Arras to London. The 22 transfusions with preserved blood reported by Robertson in June 1918 were

carried out on 20 patients, of whom 9 died but all of whom, it was thought, would have died unless they had received bloo

In 1918, transfusions were carried out “farther forward than casualty clearing stations, chiefly due to the efforts of Captain Walker, Capt. Norman M. Guiou (23) of the Canadian Army, and Major Holmes-i-Court of the Australian Army (22). The syringe technique, Guiou claimed, could ‘‘easily”’ be applied in advanced dressing stations and in the average regimental aid post. If casualties were given blood in these areas, he continued, they would

be kept alive until they reached the casualty clearing station, where they could

be treated surgically. The official history of the British Medical Service in World War I concluded that whatever the merits of the various techniques of transfusion in civil life, there was no doubt of the superiority of the citrate method in wartime. It could be employed in circumstances in which other methods were impractical. It was simpler than other methods. It permitted the transportation of blood from donor to recipient without interrupting an operation and further congesting en already overcrowded operating tent. A skilled “transfuser,” devoting himself entirely to the task of drawing and citrating blood, could supply a dozen patients in need of blood, leaving to anesthetists the “simple task” of administering the blood (22). Donors.—There was no difficulty in procuring blood donors. Up to the middle of 1918, the spirit of comradeship was sufficient to supply them. Later, a 3-week leave in England after the donation secured meny offers from lightly wounded men. Dental patients and soldiers with minor injuries, sprains, and flat feet were also used as donors. Syphilitic and malarial subjects were rejected, as well as those with other infectious diseases, such as trench fever. A healthy donor, it was thought, could withstand the loss of 700-1,000 cc. of blood. Blood grouping.—Early in the war, the precaution of blood grouping before transfusion was frequently omitted because it wes impractical. A number of reactions were attributed to this omission, and by June 1918, Bruce Robertson (19) had observed three cases of fatal hemoglobinuria i in 100 transLater in the war, preliminary blood grouping became the rule, but, when there were no facilities for laboratory work, his suggestion of a test

HISTORICAL

NOTE

7

injection

was generally used, particularly in emergenices. If no symptoms within 1 or 2 minutes after the injection of 15 to 20 cc. of donor blood, it was thought safe to proceed with the tranfusion. In November 1917, Maj. Roger I. Lee, MC, USA, writing in the British Medical Journal (£4), described what he termed the ‘minimum procedure” assure that the recipient's serum did not agglutinate the donor’s cells. This extremely simple test continued to be useful until avid grouping serum

became available after the war.? Indications.—Indications

Force included:

for

transfusion

in

the

British

Expeditionary

1. Preoperative preparation in severe hemorrhage and shock, in which blood replace ment was consideredthe proper treatment for loss of blood. The time of the transfuston officer was not properly spent on casualties who were moribund. ‘Although there was considerable argument about the relative effecte of gum acacia and blood in shock, the most experienced surgeons considered transfusion far more efficacious. Captain Walker found that 70 percent of the casualties resuscitatedby gum acacia infusions in field ambulances required blood when they reached the casualty clearing etation. In rush periods, when time could not be taken, or facilities were not a ble, the need for trapafualon was determined by the oasualty’s general eppearenee, pulse, and blood pressure. In severe hemorrhege, large amounts of blood (900 to 1,000 cc.) were recommended; 500 to 600 co. was considered adequate in shock.* 2. During opera’ 3. After oom "after a delay to determine whether we depression might be due to the anesthetic, especially if an ete other than gas-oxygen had been use Carbon monoxide poisonin, 5. Septicemia and chronic wound infection. Bruce Robertson (20) emphasized the importance of the timing of transfusion. It was a temptation, he said, to use other measures first, but clinical h Kan chawed th Aa flactive eftar tha + 7 condition” had persisted for several hours and degenerative changes had occurred in the organism. Properly timed transfusions could revive inoperable patients and bad-risk patients to a Heevee that permitted radical surgery, with a good chance of recovery. Gordon Watson, in a note attached to one of Robertson’s papers (20), stated that there was no comparison between the results of transfusion, which were instantaneous and permanent, and those secured by infusions of saline, which were "‘n flash in the pan” and followed by more serious collepse. Transfusion program.—To resuscitation teams (a nomenclature later employed in World War IT) was delegated the task of collaborating with surgeons at casualty clearing stations by relieving them of the special measures hecessary in poor-risk casualties both before and after operation. Teams of ysis of the the remalnder of the First World War. qa 17 vanced to explain shock ib weld

F noe

War I (p. 37).

. Ward (28), 1018, however,

Lt. Frank

W.

Hartman,

fo combat areas during MC, USN, used Uquid

8

BLOOD

sisters and orderlies experienced in this work were developed and

useful

PROGRAM proved very

A formal transfusion program was instituted in the British Third Army as

experience showed that trensfusion forward of casualty clearing stations could

seve many lives (22). center wes set up in connection with a group of casualty clearing stations, and instruction in transfusion techniques was given in it to field ambulance and regimental medical officers. When they had completed their courses, they were provided with the necessary equipment, and several divisions thus had one or more officers especially skilled in the treatment of severely wounded casualties. The officer in charge of this center, in addition to his teaching duties, made a point of being present during any large trench raid in the army area, so that transfusions could be given as indicated in aid posts or advanced dressing stations. Whatever the clinical results achieved—and many lives were undoubtedly saved by these arrangements—the morele effect of his presence on the men going over the top was so good that the combatant services soon got into the way of sending back word of impending raids to the shock center. ‘When several battalions were to participate in the operation, it was possible, with such advance notice, to select a central site to which badly wounded men

could be sent from various aid posts for resuscitation and transfusion.

It

was also possible, with advance notice of military actions, to prepere a store of preserved blood at the center to supply the needs of forward areas. When the blood was supplied, even a poorly equipped aid post could be used for

transfusions.

The United States Experience

Replacement fluids.—By the time the United States entered I, it was realized that the injection of physiologic salt solution solution was only temporarily effective in shock end hemorrhage “internal transfusion” accomplished by hypertonic salt solution,

World War or Rin end that the which with-

drew fluid from the tissues and thus increased the blood volume, was equally

ineffective (27). It had been concluded from Bayliss’ studies that gum acacia was capable of replacing blood plasma and that it had a number of desirable

properties (p. 384).

There was considerably less agreement, however, about its

clinical value. Maj. O. H. Robertson's survey of forward hospitals in October 1918 showed that some resuscitation teams praised it, some were indifferent to

it, and some condemned it.

The poorest results with it were reported in very

severe hemorhege and in shock that had been untreated for 15 to 20 hours. Maj Richard Ohler, MC (88), who had had an extensive wartime experience as a ‘resuscitation officer, made the unquelified statement after the war that hemorrhage is the most important single factor in shock and that the amount of hemorrhage determines the degree of shock. When, therefore, the need is for oxygen-carrying corpuscles, no other intravenous solution will serve the purpose. When the United States entered World War I, physicians with

HISTORICAL

NOTE

9

the most experience in trauma took the position that when hemorrhage played a large role in the production of a circulatory deficiency, blood was preferable to any “indifferent” fluid. It was not until March 1918, however, that a com-

mittee representing the laboratory and surgical services of the U.S. Army

Medical Department officially adopted transfusion with citrated blood as the method for combating shock and hemorrhage in hospitals of the American Expeditionary Forces. mors.—Hospital personnel were classified in blood groups for emergency use, but donors were chiefly secured from lightly wounded and gassed patients who, on admission, were sent to wards near the shock wards. Patients with scabies and convalescents who were nonfebrile and in good condition also

served as donors.

No rewards were offered and all donations were voluntary,

without compulsion of any kind. Not more than 600 cc. was drawn at any one time, and the same donor could not be used twice within one week.

priate glass and rubber tubing; and two transfusion needles, a larger one for bleeding the donor and a smaller one for giving blood to the recipient. A satisfactory suction and pressure pump could be made from an ordinary Davidson syringe; suction or pressure was created as necessary by reversing

the ends.

The equipment was either sterilized in the autoclave or boiled in

distilled or previously boiled water. The needles were sterilized just before they were needed, in boiling liquid petrolatum or Albolene, and were left in the medium until used. Great care was taken in cleansing the apparatus after the transfusion. The blood was drawn into a solution of 0.6-percent sodium citrate in 700 cc. of physiologic salt solution. It was ordinarily used as soon as it was

collected, but it could be kept for several

hours.

The container was kept in

water at about body temperature during the transfusion. No provisions were made for transfusion during operation, but precautions were taken to lose little blood as possible Postwar evaluation of replacement iherapy.—A questionnaire circulated in advance of the 11th session of the Research Society of the American Red in France, held on 22~23 November 1918 and attended by representatives of the Medical Departments of the Allied and U.S. Armies, produced the following information on replacement therapy (not all officers queried replied to all questions) (29):

1. All 31 officers who voted on this question preferred blood to gum acacia-salt or salt eolution. serum reactions were reported by 29 officers when blood was properly grouped. Five others reported slight or rare reactions. ulties in ‘rensfusion eee included the length of time necessary to collect the blood. clotting in the needle during administration of the blood, inability to secure donors; keeping a under careful control, and the inconvenfence of having corpsmen who served as donors off full duty for 24 to 48 hours after their donations.

10

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Fieaure 3.—Blood transfusion apparatua used in World War I, A. a. > a e. f. g.

p. q.

Transfusion needle. Rubber tube. ube. Rubber stopper. 1-liter bottle. Glass tube. Rubber tube. Glass tube for suction, with cotton in bulb. Transfusion needle.

Rubber tube. Glass tube for exerting compression (cotton in bulb) (27).

. Seven hospitals had no experience with blood transfusion in prolonged infections: 43 reported definite improvement after its use, 2 temporary improvement, and 10 improvement‘ 5, Twenty-six medical officers preferred the sodium citrate technique of blood transfusion. Three preferred the par arafin-“tube technique, and the Kimpton-Brown and the syringe pechniques rec ceived one vote . Because of numerous unfavorable reactions and some deaths after hospital was «very positive against”? gun acacia-salt solution, and others considered 1 i very dangerous or found nothing to recommend it,

HISTORICAL

NOTE

11 SPANISH

CIVIL

WAR

(1936-39)

Barcelona Blood Transfusion Service The Spanish Civil War (80-31), which ended in January 1939, almost 3 years before the United States entered World War II, proved conclusively,

and for the first time in military history, the practicability of supplying wounded men in forward medical installations with stored blood secured from

a civilian population. Franco’s armies, following the practice of the German Army (p. 22), supplied blood at fully equipped medical centers in the rear. The"Republic Army Medical Corps supplied it at advanced medical units in

the field.

In the 2% years of its operation, from August 1936 through January 1939, the Barcelona Blood Transfusion Service collected more than 9,000 liters of blood in 20,000 bleedings, prepared more than 27,000 tubes of blood for forward use, maintained a list of 28,900 donors, and also prepared all necessary group-

ing sera.

Blood was kept under refrigeration, which was provided by electric iceboxes whenever current was available. It was supplied to classification stations in heat-insulated wood or canvas boxes, with thick cord linin Transfusion data were recorded on special cards provided with all. blood containers. The records were so complete that it was possible to trace every container to its point of origin in the collection center and to identify every forward hospital in which blood had been given, the data including the name of the person who had performed the transfusion. Blood was prescribed by surgeons but administered by personnel of specially trained transfusion teams. Donors were between 18 and 50 years of age. ood was collected into a closed system, under strictly aseptic precautions. Citrate and glucose were added after collection, and bloods of the same group were mixe Clinical considerations.—Only badly shocked casualties received blood at classification posts. Most transfusions were given in No. 1 hospitals, where very few seriously wounded patients did not receive them. Occasionally, if stored blood was not available or if the sector was particularly quiet, direct

transfusions were given.

The members of the hospital staff had previously

been grouped and serologically tested against such emergencies. Indications for blood and plasma administration were as follows: 1. Casualties with serious hemorrhage were given only blood, which was injected as rapidly as possible, because cardiac function soon deteriorates when systoles contract on a vacuum. 2. Casualties suffering from primary shock and hemorrhage were given both blood and plasma. If improvement followed the use of 2 pints of blood, @ pint of plasma was given to “stabilize the improvement.” Thereafter only plasma was used. If the response to the first transfusion was not satisfactory, a third pint of blood was given before plasma was used.

12

BLOOD

PROGRAM

. Casualties suffering only from shock were given 2 pints of plasme as quickly as possible, followed, if there was no improvement, by a pint of blood, also given quickly. If there was still no improvement, another pint of plasma and another pint of blood were given over the course of an hour.‘ The concept of blood replacement was thet in Posthemorrhagic” shock, at least 40 percent of the lost fluid must be restored promptly. ere were, however, no quick or reliable methods for estimating the amount of blocd loss. Generally speaking, 500 cc. of blood or blood derivatives was required for each fall of 10 to 20 mm. Hg in the blood pressure. Failure of the transfusion to raise the blood pressure was assumed to mean continued bleeding and indicated the need for control of hemorrhage as well as additional transfusion. Quick administration of blood and plasma was regarded as desirable and without risk of cardiac embarrasament, since most casualties were young and healthy. The rate of administration could be regulated from a slow drip up to 100 cc. per minute. Although most casualties received the first pint of blood more quickly than the remainder, no instance of dilatation of the right heart was recorded. As Whitby pointed out in 1945, failure to restore the

blood volume was a greater risk than overloading the circulation (92).

In Jess

urgent cases, speed of transfusion was not so important as administration of the necessary amounts of blood. The amounts given before and after operation varied with individual needs. Trueta usually gave from 1,000 to 1,500 cc. per cas Patients with infected wounds required several transfusions to restore the hemoglobin to normal velues.

Madrid Blood Transfusion Institute In September 1937, Saxton (98), a member of the British Ambulance Unit in Spain, reported on the Madrid Blood Transfusion Institute, organized by the Sanidad Militar of the Spanish Republic, which was then supplying about 400 liters of preserved blood per month and whose output was steadily increasing. The full-time personnel consisted of five physicians; five nurses; five members of the secretariat, including interpreters; and a domestic staff, For practical reasons, only donors of groups II and IV (Moss) were utilized. The donors, all volunteers, were between 18 and 50 years of age. They were

given cards that permitted them to buy extra food and were sometimes also

given small quantities of rice, condensed milk, or other staples at the time of the donation. They were liable to call not oftenear than every 3 weeks, and

they usually gave 500 cc, at a time.

Blood storage was limited to3 weeks.

Saxton’s suggestion that the Sanidad Militar organize a large-scale supply of cadaver blood by the technique of Yudin (p. 24) does not seem to have been acted upon.

HISTORICAL

NOTE

13

BLOOD

FOR

BRITAIN

Origin of Program The project in New York City hospitals which carne to be known as

Blood for Britain (94, $6) originated in June 1940, when Dr. Alexis Carrel, who had recently returned from France, made known the great need there for

plasma for the treatment of shock in battle casualties.

The idea of shipping

plasme to France and Englend was suggested to the president of the Blood Transfusion Association of New York, and a meeting to discuss the possibility was called for 12 June 1940. It was attended by the trustees of the association; its Board of Medical Control; Dr. Carrel; experts in the field representing the Army, the Navy, NRC (Nationel Research Council), and Rockefeller Institute; and representatives of a number of large pharmaceuticel and biological firms. was the sense of the meeting that, even though the use of plasma was still in an experimental stage, enough knowledge was available to justify an effort at quantity production. The cooperation of the New York chapter of the American Red Cross was secured as scon as it was pointed out to its officials that the experience to be gained from this project would be of great assistance in the National Defense Program, one phase of which was the supply of p asma for the Armed Forces. At the suggestion of Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Charles C. pene MC, Chief, Professional Services, Office of The Surgeon General, Arm: ws, NRC, which hed just been appointed (p. 74) and by whose advice the ical Department was being guided in replacement therapy.

‘the program became operational on 15 August 1940, at the Presbyterian Hospital in New York, and terminated on 17 January 1941. All the plesma

collected went to Great Britain, France having fallen shortly after the 12 June meeting. The program, which represented tho first effort in the United States

to collect large amounts of blood from voluntary civilian donors for military use, had great popular appeel, and during its existence,

made.

14,556 donations were

Technique of Collection and Shipment

id plasme was selected for processing rather than dried plasma, partly because the time element was vital and partly because of the expense of installing drying equipment, whose performance at this time was still inadequate and far from satisfactory.

Originally, the system by which the blood was collected was not completely

closed. Later, it was realized that a completely closed system was imperative. The plasma was separated by either sedimentation or centrifugation.

To reduce viscosity, it was diluted with equal amounts of sterile physiologic salt solution; the solution, under 13 inches of water vacuum, was in the Baxter

14

BLOOD

PROGRAM

bottle (Plasmavac) in which it was finally dispensed. Merthiolate was added in quantity sufficient to guarantee dilution of 1: 10,000 in the final plasma-saline

mixture.

The finished product was shipped in 1,000-cc. pottles, six to a carton. Larger packages were not practical because the shipments were made by

Clipper plenes—this was long before the existence of a transatlantic airlift. Laboratory Tests and Losses From Contamination

Exacting bacteriologic and toxicity controls were required before any lot of plasma wes dispensed. These tests were carried out not only in the laboratories of the participating hospitals but also in a central laboratory, under the direction of Dr. Frank L. Meleney. When the material reached England, samples from each carton were also checked bacteriologically before they were released for use. The latter precaution wes instituted when it was found that certain pools of plasma that were free from bacteria when examined within 3 to 7 days after collection and processing were later found to be contaminated. Up to 1 November 1940, 1,950 liters of plesrma were sent abroad as sterile after examination in Dr. Meleney’s laboratory and 30 liters had been discarded because of contamination, The delayed contamination just described was discovered soon after this analysis had been made, and more rigid bacteriologic controls were at once set up. The total figures show that of 6,151 litera of plasma produced, 361 liters were found contaminated at the various hospitals and 160 liters were found contaminated in the central laboratory, the combined loss from contamination (exclusive of the amounts found contaminated in England) being 8.5 percent. The total loss from all causes was 581 liters, 9.4 percent; 151 bloods were rejected because of serologic evidence of syphilis (1.03 percent).

Analysis of Operation The original opinion that the collection of blood and the separation of

plasma would be ‘‘as simple as mixing a cocktail” promptly proved fallacious. The mass production of liquid plasma and its shipment abroad were very different from the production of small quantities for immediate local use. There were long debates on the size and shape of the collecting bottles, the

stopper, the collection of blood by vacuum versus suction versus simple venous

pressure, and the technique of removal of supernatant plasma. There were also discussions about the criteria for donors. Eventually, the age range was set at 21 to 60 years inclusive, the systolic blood pressure at 110 mm. Hg, and the hemoglobin Jevel at 80 percent. Fasting was considered desirable, but the requirement proved impractical. ‘0 set up criteria for production, to develop standard techniques, and to insure the vsabety of the fina] product involved far more difficulties than could be solved by volunteer part-time workers, and Dr. Charles R. Drew, later

HISTORICAL

NOTE

15

Assistant Professor of Surgery, Howard University, was appointed full-time medical supervisor of the project shortly after it was initiated. The New York experience with liquid plesma led to the later decision that dried plasma would best solve the problem of so-called blood substitutes for the Armed Forces because of its greater stability; the simplicity of its packing, storage, and transportation; and reduced losses from breakag: The Blood for Britain project was a most valuable introduction to the later development of the American Red Cross Blood Donor Service (p. 102). The experience of the New York chapter served as a pattern for the organization and operation of the blood donor service which was to supply plasma for the Armed Forces and blood for oversea shipment. This chapter was ready to begin operations as soon as the Surgeons General of the Army und the Na’ requested the American Red Cross to be responsible for the blood donor

program.

There were many mistakes made in the operation of the blood and plasma program during the United States participation in World War II, but far more would have been made without the trial-and-error experience of the Blood for Britain project. The chief lesson learned wes that blood and plasma, if they are to remain uncontaminated and safe for use, must be handled in a completely closed system. The vacuum system devised by Elliott in 1936 ended this particular problem (6). The gravity system of bleeding may be less damaging to red blood cells than a vacuum system, but only the completely closed system possible with a vacuum bottle insures sterility.

THE

BRITISH

BLOOD

PROGRAM

IN WORLD

WAR

II

e Association of Voluntary Blood Donors founded in Great Britain in 1922 aver became the British Red Cross Transfusion Service, the first organization of its kind in the world and the forerunner of a number of similar associations in Great Britain and elsewhere ($7). Blood banks were in operation in various hospitals in that country for at least 6 years before the outbreak of World War II. In the months after the Munich crisis in 1938, recent advances in transfusion techniques, especially the use of stored blood on the field in the Spanish Civil War, were under constant discussion in Great Britain ($2, 37, 38). The Medical Research Council, on behalf of the Ministry of Health, established four blood depots in the outer suburbs of London. Arrangements were also made to establish an Army Transfusion Service, which would enroll all available donors in the South-Western Countries and which would elso supply civilian needs in that area. In short, as Brigadier (later Sir) Lionel E. H. Whitby, RAMC, who headed the British blood program, expressed it, the British began the war with a firm policy, decided upon 6 months earlier, that there would be a completely distinct and separate transfusion service in the Army (38). Returning to the subject at a meeting of Allied medical officers on shock and transfusion in May 1945,

16

BLOOD

PROGRAM

he pointed out that the transportation of Potentially dangerous biologic fluids over long distances requires close personal supervision and cannot be trusted to the usual supply routes from a base depot medical store ($2). The British bleod program wes e remarkably successful operation for the two reasons just indicated: (1) that it was carefully planned before hostilities began, and (2) thet it was based on the concept that blood is a perishable fluid, as potentially dangerous as it is potentially useful, and therefore to be handled in special channels by specially trained personnel. The daily, almost hourly,

care that trained British officers and men gave to the blood they handled reduced accidents toa minimum. The British also regarded it as essential that

their armies be self-contained as regards blood. The success of the attempt in World War II, first made by the British in the Western Desert, to bring surgeons forward to casualties, was due in large part to the successful operation of the Army “rrensfusion Service. arate service was recommended by the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, NRC, for the U.S. Armed Forces early in U.S. participation in the war (p. 76). Such a service was later set up in Italy, and time, expense, and lives would have been spared if it had been put into operation when it was proposed

Functions of the Army Transfusion Service

The chief function of the British Army Transfusion Service was to supply blood and other fluids, including crystalloid solutions, with equipment for their use, to the entire British Army overseas and in the United Kingdom, and also to supply civilian needs in the areas of the United Kingdom in which it operated. Liquid plasma was used in temperate climates and was safely exported as far as India; it was kept cool but not under refrigeration. Dried human grouping serum was prepared by the Army Transfusion Service. It was selected because it did not require refrigeration. It was colored with acriflavine for group A and with methylene blue for group B.

The minimum titer was 1:32 against A, cells and 1:64 against B cells. Organization

The British Army Transfusion Service (fig. 4) was organized on three levels: a home depot, which was chiefly a production and training center; a base transfusion unit, which was chiefly concerned with distribution, in each theater of operations; and field transfusion units, which worked in forward areas, The home depot, in addition to supplying transfusion fluids, wes responsible for the mobilization, equipment, and training of transfusion units for service overseas and for the training of all ranks of the Royal Army Medical Corps in resuscitation work. The courses of instruction, which were begun in 1940, were attended by officers from the British Army, Navy, and Air Force; personnel from other Allied forces; members of the civilian Emergency Medical

HISTORICAL

NOTE

17

Service; and, later, many U.S. Army medical officers (p. 471).

In addition to

instruction in blood work, the courses included preparation and assembly of

crystalloid

solutions,

the

maintenance

and

repair

of transfusion

refrigeration maintenance and repair, and autoclaving.

equipment,

Bleeding was carried out by 15 mobile, fully equipped, self-contained teams, each consisting of a medical officer, who frequently was a woman, 4 VAD’s (Volunteer Aid Detachments); 2 ATS (Army Transfusion Service) drivers; and an ATS orderly. Each team had two vehicles, one a lorry equipped with an icebox, and the other a four-seated car. With the equipment carried, any room could be converted into o miniature hospital ward for bleeding within 20 minutes. For steady work, each team was expected to obtain 70 to 90 pints of blood daily. In emergencies, over short periods, these amounis were exceeded, and some teams collected as much as 300 pints daily. (Gg.

The 440 cc. which made up each bleeding was collected in a bleeding bottle 4) into 100 ce. of 3-percent sodium citrate solution.

Later, with special

that it was filled to the top and its contents were not agitated during transportetion. Capping was done with a special machine. Only group O blood was used for oversea troops. It was tested by the Kahn test and doublechecked for group before it was dispensed. Brigadier Whitby had no knowledge of the dispensing of any incorrectly typed blood during the entire war (82 se transfusion unit -—The base organization overseas was the link between the home depot and the forward transfusion units. Its function was lo estimate needs for replacement fluids; obtain supplies and equipment from the home depot; distribute them to forward areas; produce crystalloid solutions; assemble apparatus; service and repair refrigerators; and exploit local resources, usually base troops, for blood donation When the base unit was within reasonable distance of the home depot, as it was in France, the home unit was responsible for the supply of whole blood. Otherwise, the base unit was responsible. Blood collected locally was sent forward to field units by road in refrigerated trucks, by air in insulated boxes, or along the coast in the refrigerators of hospital ships. Personnel of the unit were equipped to give transfusions, but their multiple duties usually prevented any large-scale performance of this function.

Field transfusion units.—Field transfusion units, which were the smallest

units in the British Army, were entirely self-contained and were fully equipped for transfusion in the field. Their personnel consisted of an officer and three men, one of whom drove the truck end was entirely responsible for the operation of the refrigerator, upon the efficiency of which the safety of the blood depended. These units, which were attached wherever they were most needed during « campaign, usually operated with field surgical units, the combined units forming complete surgical centers at field ambulances, field dressing stations, and casualty clearing stations. Surgeons came to rely heavily upon

18

BLOOD

PROGRAM

replacement Gherapy A. British (right) and U. s Army dried plasma units. B. British dispensing set for pl these field transfusion teams; many of them delegated the selection of their operating lists to them. The optimum time for surgery, Brigadier Whitby pointed out, was often ‘a fleeting moment indeed,” and the teams working on the wards, with their skill in resuscitation, were often best equipped to pick that moment ($2). Experience

in France,

1940

During the so-called phony war, the personnel of the Transfusion Service utilized the time developing a large donor panel, which eventually included

HISTORICAL

NOTE

19

y

Sp

|

—+: =]“ah

;

é

iF}

Fieure 4.—Continued. C. Original British serum unit, prepared at University of Cambridge. dried

human

serum

unit

ren

shown

with

dried human D. Canadian

distilled

water

and

dried plasma units of U.S. Arm, The he C. Canadian package » Which contained 250 cc. of serum, wee as large again by a third ag the Plasma unit. more than 350,000 names; carrying out studies on blood, especially when it was transported Overseas; va “This was a difficult period for the Transfusion to bleed donors to provide for possible needs, but at to build up a reserve. Blood was sent to France by Norway, where it was flown directly to transfusion

8.

the keeping properties of determining the merits of f plasma. Service. It was necessary the same time impractical air, and later was flown to units operating in forward

About 400 units of stored blood seem to have been used on the Continent between the invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May and the Dunkirk evacuation. In an editorial in the British Medical Journal on 10 August 1940, a

20

BLOOD

PROGRAM

request was made for information concerning the use of whole blood, plasma, and crystalloid solutions during the campaign in Flanders and in France, when conditions prevented the collection of data ($9). Whet was desired was not data “that would satisfy medical statisticians’ but information that would permit the evaluation of various replacement fluids. In particular, data were requested that would throw light upon the length of time blood could safely be stored. During this period, medica! officers frequently had no choice but to use such blood as they had, and other physicians might find themselves in similar circumstances in the frontline at any time, whether or not they were serving with the Armed Forces. The reply to this request, from W. d’A. Maycock (40) in a letter to the Journal, 5 October 1940, is a remarkable statement of what was accomplished in casualty clearing stations subject to aerial bombardment, ]'mited in numbers because of the highly mobile type of warfare, and manned by overworked medical officers: The rapid response of the Army blood supply depot at Bristol to requests made immediately after the invasion of the Low Countries permitted the stocking of mobile refrigerators, in which only small supplies of blood had previously been stored, at the casualty clearing stations. Within 4 or 5 days, each of the eight teams attached to these stations and the teams attached to the medical base at Boulogne had received 60 to 80 p of blood, with some plasma. Glucose-saline solutions had already been "sto vekpiled. One casualty clearing station designated as an advanced blood depot was provided with extra quantities of blood and was given transport to distribute it as necessary to other stations. Some forward units could not function at all. The provision of apparatus for transfusion with each bottle of blood was ideal for active service and permitted transfusion under almost any conditions. The knowledge that there would be no further supplies of blood made officers use what was available very conservatively, and it was withheld from casualties who in happier circumstances would surely have received it. Transportation of blood for long distances over rugged roads did not seem te increase hemolysis, and there was no known instance of serious infection after a transfusion, even though the blood was often injected without regard to asepsis or antisepsis. No serious reactions were reported after transfusions with blood 3 weeks old and, in one instance, 7 weeks old, and amazingly good results were often obtained in apparently moribund casualties.

Clinical Considerations t the Conference on Shock and Transfusion, 25 May 1945, Brigadier Whitty noted that between that date and 1939, the pendulum had swung back and forth on a number of points ($2): ly experience with air raid acualties suggested that the neecasary volume of tranafused fluid was often almost incredibly large. Then came a wave of apprehension that these quantities were producing pulmonary eden, eg in some instances they were. The

HISTORICAL

NOTE

21

amounts administered In shock and hemorrhage had now become stabillzed, but seriously wounded casualties, especially those with massive wounds of the extremities, still required very large volumes of replacement fluids. 2. It was now plasma had i ard arcas, © restore and maintain the “Melener, of the sieulation. Only whole Mood “transfualone, however could F der a casualty fit for surgery. 3. Speed in ‘administration was casential. If a casualty was exsanguinated, an experienced resuscitation officer would have bleed going Into two veins at once. There was no danger of pulmonary edema at this tim 4. Blood and plasma were eupplicd ¢so generously to the Armed Forces that if a casualty were wounded at ail, he was fortunate to “escape” tranafusion, even if he did not need it. It had been Tearned that, at least In wounds of the cheat and of the central nervous system, blood, if given at shoul rainistered with great moderation. In extremity wounds, although tranafusion was needed, it introduced the riak of fat embolism. Col. Frank B. Berry, MC, Consultent in Surgery, Seventh U.S. Army, supported Brigadier Whitby’s warning about the unwise use of blood by the specific illustration of a casualty with blast injuries of the head and lungs whose life was saved in these circumstances only because he hed a hemorrhage from the iliac artery.

THE

SOVIET

UNION

BLOOD

PROGRAM

IN WORLD

WAR

Il

While not a great deal is known about replacement therapy in the Soviet Union during World Wer II, all reports indicate that blood was the chief replacement fluid (41-43). ‘This might be expected because of the large civilian population; its proximity to the frontlines; the cold climate, which eliminated many of the difficulties of preservation and storage; and, perhaps, the lack of facilities for processing blood to plasma or serum (p. 95). ationwide transfusion service that existed in the Soviet Union before Bagdaserov. This officer later directed transfusions under fire during the border warfare with the Japenese in 1939 and during the war with Finland in 1940-4 The Central Institute for Blood Transfusion in Moscow wes at the head of several subordinate institutes and about 1,500 blood donor centers. When Russia entered World War II, this organization became, in effect, a system of factories for collecting and preserving blood and delivering it to the front as

it was ne

About 2, 000 persons a day gave blood in Moscow, about the same number who donated at the two blood centers in New York. All possible methods of “sanitary” propaganda were used to attract donors. About 95 percent of the donors were women, as compared with 50 percent in the United States. Donations ranged from 225 to450 cc. A second: donation was permitted in 4 to 6 weeks, but only if the bleed picture had returned to normal. With these precautions, some donors had given blood for periods of 12 to 15 years with no ill effects.

22

BLOOD PROGRAM

A standard four-cornered container was used to collect and administer blood. The bottles were transported, preferably by plane, in specially conatructed isothermic boxes, suitable for use in both warm and cold weather. Blood was also put up in 200-ce. ampules which could be carried by medical corpsmen and used well forward. The Russians used type O blood for most battlefield transfusions and aleo used large amounts of type-specific, unpooled plasma. The institute worked out a method which permitted the preservation of blood for 3 or 4 weeks without loss of its biologic properties and also devised a technique for drying plesma that insured its solubility without turbidity or precipitation. Transfusions were given at all points up to the regimental medical aid station (battalion aid station) but were most widely used at the medical sanitary battalion service level (collecting station). The most important indication was hemorrhage with shock, especially in wounds of the abdomen and extremities, The combined experience of the institute and the army was that only large transfusions, from 1,000 to 1,500 cc., given rapidly, were effective in shoe!

THE

GERMAN

EXPERIENCE

IN WORLD

WAR

II

When the blood program originated in Germany is not entirely clear. A civilian program was set up in 1940 by an administrative law which permitted donations of only Aryan blood and which provided for payments of 10 marks for the first 100 cc. and 5 marks for each additional 100 cc. (48) The military procurement program was apparently an outgrowth of this civilian program. The Laboratory for Blood Transfusion in Berlin, which directed the military program, was disrupted by heavy bombings, and all the evidence suggests that the supply of blood was insufficient and that containers and technical equipment were in short supply. Donors included medical personnel, nursing sisters, staff assistants, and slightly wounded men. An endeavor was always made to rule out tuberculosis, malaria, and syphilis in donors, but serologic examinations were seldom practical and the donor's statement that he had not had syphilis usually had to be accepted. Blood groups entered in the soldiers’ pay books were frequently incorrect, and new determinations had to be made bore cach transfusion. If this was not possible, a test injection of 10 cc. of blood w e German experience with preserved blood was chiefly *petween 1940 and 1942. There were so many serious reactions that medical officers lost interest in it. Those who reported satisfactory results were usuelly in favorable positions, along the lines of transportation. Some medical officers hed never seen preserved blood used in the field without “deleterious” chills. Plasma and serum were seldom used, although officers who used captured U.S. stocks of plasma were entbusiastic about it. Special report.—Afte @ German surrender in Italy on 1 May1 an unusual opportunity arose ote study German management of battle cesualtice

HISTORICAL

NOTE

23

(44). On the instruction of the Fifth U.S. Army Surgeon, Lt. Col. (later Col.) Howard E. Snyder, MC, visited a number of German medical installetions, including the equivalents of U.S. field, base, and convalescent hospitals. In his report, which is included in detail in another volume of this historical series (44), Colonel Snyder emphasized that observers could not judge the

standards of German medicel practice in the first years of the war in the light of what they found in May 1045, after the total collapse of the Army, nor could they judge the quality of German medical practice elsewhere in Europe in the light of what they found in The German management of shock and hemorrhage was thus in sharp contrast to the U.S. practices, by which plasma was always available, and was used in the quantities indicated, in all forward medical installations, while banked blood was available in adequate quantities in field hospitals adjacent to division clearing stations. The extreme pallor of many of the wounded bserved in German hospitals, and the moderate pallor of most of the others, supported the deduction that they had received little if any blood.

OTHER

SOURCES

OF BLOOD

To complete the record of the status of transfusion at the beginning of World Wer II, three other possible sources of whole blood should be briefly mentioned; namely, blood secured from the patient’s own blood, that is, autotransfusion; cadaveric blood; and placental bloo Autotransfasion.— Autotransfusion (autohemofusion, autoinfusion) was first suggested by Highmore in 1874, as a sort of afterthought in a fatal postpartal hemorrhage (45). Halsted, in 1884, treated several patients with carbon monoxide poisoning by drawing blood from the victims, defibrinating it, and then reinfusing it. Autotransfusion was apparently first employed in trauma by Duncan of Edinburgh in 1885, in an amputetion for a crushing injury of the leg (1). The pesients who was close to death at the end of the operation, made a rapid recov In 1923, Burch (46) collected from the literature 164 cases, chiefly from Germany, in which this method had been used, and several other large collections were made during the next several years. Autotransfusion proved particularly useful in ruptured ectopic pregnancy. Most of the unfavorable reactions and some of the fatalities could be explained by the fact that the blood hed been in serous cavities for periods up to 72 hours before it was used. In World War I, according to Yates (47), the large amounts of blood and “eolored fluid’’ removed in massive hemothoraces suggested the possibility of autotransfusion, but tests showed that the attendant risks were prohibitive and the method was not used. Autotranafusion, naturelly, became less necessary as blood banks were set up, but early in World War II, when blood was still in short eupply it proved 4 valuable method in occasional severe chest injuries in whichit was certain that there was no injury of the abdominal viscera.

24

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Cadaveric blood.—In 1928, Shamov reported the experimental use of cadaveric blood and demonstrated the absence of toxicity (48, 49). At this time, Yudin wes in charge of the entire surgical and accident department of the Sklifosovsky Institute, the central hospital for emergency surgery in Moscow, in which from 8,000 to 10,000 patients were treated every year. The admissions also included many patients whe died promptly from acute cardiac disease or severe traume. In other words, the patients who needed transfusion and the bodies from which, in the light of Shamov’s demonstration, the necessary blood could be secured, were both at hand. Yudin reported his first seven transfusions with cadaveric blood at the

both of which recognized its scientific foundation, and he was given a special permit to collect blood from fresh cadavers before autopsy. With the discovery that cadaveric blood could be stored safely, time was provided for both serologic tests and bacteriologic examinations. In November 1932, Yudin reported to the Société Nationale de Chirurgie in Paris on 100 transfusions with cadaveric blood kept for 3 weeks, and in one instance 4weeks. In 1937, he reported in the Lancet that he had performed « thousand transfusions by this method, chiefly for internal hemorrhage and traumatic shock and in operations for gastrointestinal disease, particularly cancer. In Yudin’s first 200 transfusions, all performed with citrated blood, there were 40 reactions, all moderate. In the next 800 transfusions, all performed with noncitrated blood, the incidence of reactions fell to 5 percent. The five fatal cases in the series were explained in three instances by technical errors, including the transfusion of incompatible blood. The fourth death was due to embolism and the remaining death to anaerobic infection. Cadaveric blood was apparently never used widely, even in Russia. It was not mentioned to Dr. George K. Strode (42) of the Rockefeller Foundation, who visited the Central Blood Transfusion Institute of Moscow in October 1941, and no statement in the literature suggests that it was used during the war. It is doubtful that transfusions with blood secured from cadavers could ever have been employed in any country in the world except Russia, for the idea, in spite of ite ta logic, isj revolting Plac blood. — in Februery 1938, J. R. Goodall of Montreal, with a

group of oo associates, published a communication whose title proclaimed

‘an inexhaustible source of blood for transfusion” (50). This source was the placente, from which amounts of blood ranging from 100 to 150 cc. had been collected under sterile precautions. The preservative used was the solution proposed by the Moscow Institute of Hematology (sodium chloride, sodium citrate, potessium chloride, magnesium sulfate, double-distilled water), and the blood had been kept in a refrigerator as long as 60 days at temperatures of 33° to 38° F. (1° to 3° C.). Serologic tests were not necessary, as they had been run on the mothers. Cultures were not considered necessary: the reason-

HISTORICAL

NOTE

25

ing was that at the low storage temperature, contamination, if iwwas present, could not propagate and would be so attenuated as to be innoc The Goodall report gave no definite figures but stated that “many” transfusions had been accomplished with placental blood with no reactions of any kind. It was concluded that the maternity section of a general hospital could provide blood for the whole hospital, supply other institutions, and also prove a source of income, since private patients could be charged for the transfusions. In the opinion of the Montreal group, placental blood could be regarded as a “gafe, constant, efficient, and lucrative” source for transfusion. land and his associates (41), reporting in the Lancet in February 1939, were considerably less enthusiastic about placental blood. They had ex-

perienced several serious reactions with it and found

contamination in 30 percent

of 40 specimens of fetal blood collected by the Goodall technique.

Placental blood was never used in the United States, and it was not employed in World War II. References . Kilduffe, Robert A., ane DeBakey, Michael: The Blood Bank and the Technique and Therapeutic of Transfusi St. ‘osb: 942, ohn, R.: The¢ Development of the Technique of Blood Transfusion Since 1907; with " sreviat Reference to Contributions by Members a the Staff of the Mount Sinai Hospital. J. Mt. Sinai pore 5-622, January-February 1944. wisohn, R.: B ahconfaions 50 Years Ago and i Today. Surg. Gynec. & Obat. 101:“i 08 Septennber t1955. . Ottenberg, R.: Reminiscences of the History of Blood Transfusion. J. Mt. Sinai Hosp. 4: 264-271, November—-December 1937. 5. Blundell, J.: Experiments on the Transfusion of Blood by the Syringe. M. Chir. Tr. ®: 56-02, ise (London). 6. Blundell, J.: Observations on Transfusion of Blood. With a Description of His Gravitator. Lancet 2: 321-326, 31 June 182! 7. Blundell, J.: Successful Case of Transfususion. Lancet 1: sae 3 Jan. 182! 8. Benedict, N. B.: Transfusion in Yellow Fever—A Successful C: New Orleans 9. Benedict, N. B.: On the Operationof Trans/usion— Being the Report of a Committee. New Orleans M. & 8. J. 10: 191-205, September 1853. 10. rancols. L.: Die Transfusion des Blutes. Leipzig: F. c. Ww. Vogel, 1875. 11. Landsteiner, K.: Zur Kentnissd 1 Wirkungen ‘in Bluteeruma und der ymphe. Zentralbl. Bakt. 28: 357~362, 23 Mar. 1900. . Lindeman, E.: Simple Syringe Transfusion with Special Cannules. A New Method Applioable to Infants and Adults. Preliminary Report. Am. J. Dis. Child. 6: 28-32, July 1913. 13. Unger, L. J.: A New Method of Syringe Transfusion. J.A.M.A. 64: 582-584, 13 Feb. 1915. 14. Editorial, Trapsfusion of Blood in Military and Civil Practice. Lancet 1: 773-774, 1 June 1918. 15, Moynihan, B.: The Operation of Blood Transfusion. Lancet 1: 826, 8 June 1918 (Correspondence). . Fullerton, A., Dreyer, G., and Bazett, H. C.: Observations on Direct Transfusion of Bioed, With a pevtipting of a ‘Simple Method. Lancet 1: 715-710, 12 May 1917,

26

BLOOD

PROGRAM

17. Robertson, L. B.: The see of Whole Blood. A Suggestion for Ita More Frequent | Employment in War Sur ort. M. wean : 38-40, 8 July 1016. , L. B., and Wateon Cc. G.: rther Observetions on the Results of Blood.‘Tranafuaion" in War Surgery. With shel Reference tto the Results in Primary Haemorrhage. Brit. M. J. 2: 679-682, 24 Nov. 19. Robipertson i B.: A Contribution on god Transfusion In War Surgery. Lencet 1: 759-762, 1 June 20. Roberton, L B., and Watson, C. G.: Further Observations on the Results of Blood Transfusion in War Surgery; with Special Reference to the Results in Primary Hemorrhage. Ann. Surg, 67: 1-13, January 19 21. Robertson. °. H.: Y canefaston With Preserved Red Blood Cells. Brit. M. J. 1: 691-695, we June 22. = 6 He Injuries to the Bload Vessels. Jn History of the Great War Based n Offici nts. Medical Services = ery of the War. London: His Majesty’s Stationery omer, m022, vol. II, pp. 170— , N. M.: Blood Tevatuaton b In a Field Ambulance. Brit. M. J. 1: 605-696, 24. Lee, R. I: A Simple and Rapid Method for the Selection of Suitable ers for Transfusion by the petermination of Blood Groups. Brit. M. J. 2: 684-685, 24 Nov. 1917. . Ward, G. 2: Transfusion of Plasma. Brit. M. J. 1: 301, 9 Mar. 1918 ‘Cone. spon) 6. 1 F. : New Methods for Blood Transfusion and Serum Therapy. JA, Mt A. aa 1858-1650. 16 Nov. 19 . Cannon, W. B.: Wound shook, In The Medical Department of the United States ry in the World War. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1927, vol. XI, pt

I, pp. 185-213.

28. ghee. W. R.: Treatment of Surgical Shock in the Zone of the Advance. Am, J. M. Se.159: 843-853, June 1920. 20. Callective Surgical Experiences at the Front and at the Base. In The Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War. Washington: Government Printing PiReo, 1927, vol. XI, pt. I, pp. : The Principles an An Practice of War Surgery With Reference to the Biological Method of the Treatment of War Wounds and Fractures. St. Louis: Vv Mosby 1943. 31. Jolly, Douglas W.: Field Surgery in Total War. New York: Paul B. Hoeber, Inc., 1941. 32. Conference ° Shock and Transfusion, 25 May 1945. 38. Saxton, R. S.: The Madrid Blood Transfusion Institute. Lancet 2: 606-607, 4 Sept. 193 937. 34. Report of the Blood Transfusion Association Concerning the Project for Supplying Blood Plasma to England, Which Has Been Carriedon Jointly With the American Red Cross from August, 1940, to January, 1941. Narrative Account of Work and Medical Report. New York: Blood Transfusion Association, 31 Jan. 1941. 35. Stetten, D.: The Blood Plasma for Great Britain Project. Bull. New York Acad. Med. 17: 27-38, January 1941. 36. Elliott, J.: A Preliminary Report of a New Method of Blood Transfusion. South. Med. & Surg. 98: eh December 1936. 37. Proger, L. W.: veoopment of the Emergency Blood Transfusion Scheme. Brit. M. ‘ “ 252-253, 29 Aue itby, L. E, H.: The British Army Blood Transfusion Service. J.A.M.A. 124: 421-491, 12 Feb. 1944 Editorial , War Surgery: Information Wanted. Brit. M. J. 2: 196, 10 Aug. 1940. 40. Maycock, W.d’A.: Blood Transfusion in the B. E. F, Brit. M. J. 2: 467, 5 Oct. 1940 (Correspondence).

HISTORICAL

NOTE

27

41. Phalen, J. A.: The Blood Plasma con oeray Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, Washington: 0Office of Medical Taformetion, 25 25 July 1044. » Ki: ‘ranafusion and Donorship in the U.S.S.R. New York: Rockette Fo Foundation, 14 Nov. 1941. Blood Procurement Programs in Other Countries. Distribution 74427, American Red Cros Blood Donor Service. 44. Snyder, H. E.: Fifth U.S. Army. Im Medical Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War II. Activities of Surgical Consultants. Volume I. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962. 45, McClure, R. reaand une, G. R.: Transfusion of Blood. History, Methode, Dangers, Preliminary Tes! t Status. Report of One Hundred and Fifty Trans. fusions. Bull. Jo hme ont Hoep. 28: 98-105, March 1917. 46, Burch, L. E.: Autotransfusion. Surg. Gynec. & Obst. 36: 811-814, June 1923. 7. Yates, : Wounds of the Chest. ijn The Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War. Washington:‘Government Printing Office, 1927, vol. XI, pt. I, EP 342-442. 8. Yudin, 8. 8.: Transfusion of Stored Cadaver Blood. Practical Considerations: The First “One Thousand Cases. Lancet 2: 361-366, 14 Aug. 1937. 49. Minutes, meeting of Subconnitves on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 24 Feb. Goodall,J. R., Anderson, F. O., Altimas, G. T., and MacPhail, F. L.: An Inexhaustible Souree of Blood for Transfusion and Its Preservation. Surg. Gynec. & Obst. 66: 176land, C. R., Craig, N. S., and Jacobse, A. L.: Collection and Transfusion Preserved Blood. An Improved Technique. Lancet 1: 388-301, 18 Feb. 1939.

717-400"—64_6

of

CHAPTER

II

Shock The development of the concept of whole blood transfusion in the management of battle casualties was intimately related to the development of a correct concept of shock. The confused and incorrect concept of this condition held in many quarters at the onset of World War II accounted, in lerge part, for the delayed development of the whole blood program in the Zone of Interior and for the trial-and-error period of shock therapy overseas.

HISTORICAL

NOTE

Attempts to study shock during World War 1 by the special committee appointed for that purpose, while generally unsuccessful, at least discredited such existing theories as the reflex vasomotor paralysis theory, the theory of exhaustion of the vasomotor center, the acapnea theory, and the theory of adrei exhaustion (1, 2). Cannon’s (8) conclusion that the absorption of toxins from injured tissues was the primary cause of traumatic shock, which was based on his own clinica] and experimental studies for the Shock Committee, was supported by other observers. In retrospect, however, it is clear thet this theory was not supported by adequate proof and that the attempt to distinguish between shock and hemorrhage was equally fallacious.

OBSERVATIONS

BETWEEN

THE

WORLD

WARS

nm in an increasingly mechanized age, severe shock associated with trauma is not often encountered in civilian practice in peacetime, nor, with really rare exceptions, such as the Cocoanut Grove disaster (p. 697), is it ever encountered en masse. Isolated clinical observations are possible in peacetime, but the circumstances of war, with its mass casualties and wide variety of wounds, provide the only really propitious tee for the clarification of shock and other problems associated with wi It is not surprising, therefore, that after. World War I, the problem of shock was transferred to experimental laboratories, in which attempts were made to study it by physiologic and chemical techniques under @ wide variety of experimentally induced condition:

The theory of toxemic shock persisted until the late twenties, when Blalock

(4), and a little later Parsons and Phemister (5), demonstrated that shock produced by trauma to the limbs is not the result of toxemia but of a local loss

of blood snd fluid and of circulating blood volume.

Experiments by a number 2

30

BLOOD

PROGRAM

of other observers also failed to identify toxic substances in the bloodstream of shocked animals and persons. Between the wars, a number of misconceptions developed concerning shock. For years, some observers continued to insist that the only explanation of so-called true shock was a generulized increase in capillary permeability, a concept introduced with the theory of traumatic toxemia and based on the observation thet red blood cell counts from the capillary bed were high, particularly in comparison with counts from the venous blood. In World War II, this phenomenon was found to be both a late and a very infrequent development, Actually, the explanation of the hemoconcentration was fluid shift. The erroneous concept just described, however, was so widely accepted that it was included in the venual on shock prepared under the auspices of the Committee on Surgery, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC (National Research Council) (6). In 1936, Freeman and his associates (7) were able to show that in shock there is a reduction of the volume flow of blood in the hand from the normal rate of 7 cc. per minute per 100 ce. volume to 1.3 cc. The result is a progresdebt is not repaid. The rate of blood flow decreases much sooner than the blood pressure falls or hemoconcentration occurs. From their observations, Freeman and his group concluded that the blood volume is a more reliable index of shock than the blood pressure. At this time (1936), there was no practical method of determining blood volume under field conditions. The Freemen group suggested that, as an oxpediont, it might be useful to make a rough calculation of the time necessary to refill the veins of the forearm and hand after they were stripped; normally, they fill immediately.

INITIAL When

CONCEPTS

OF SHOCK AND SHOCK WORLD WAR II

THERAPY

IN

the United States entered World War II, the following concepts of

shock were generally accepted:

he reduction in tlood volume present in peripheral circulatory failure is the most important single factor, if not the initiating factor, in the production of the clinical picture seen in shock. It results from the Joss of plasma, at first locally and then generally, into the extravascular tissue spaces. Most therapeutic efforts in shock must be directed toward overcoming this loss of blood volume. 2. The reduction in the rate of blood flow is associated with a diminished ‘venous return, which results in a decreased cardiac output, though the heart

and the nervous energies that control it are not incapacitated.

vasomotor center remains active. 4. Hemoconcentration is usually present in shock not associated with hemorrhage (burns, crushing injuries) and tends to reflect the amount of plasma lost.

SHOCK

31

In 1920, Maj. W. Richard Obler, MC (8), had expressed the firm opinion, based on his World War I experience, that the most important single factor in shock is hemorrhege and that the degree of shock depends upon the amount of blood lost (p. 8). The therapeutic need, he said unequivocally, is therefore for oxygen-carrying corpuscles, and no intravenous solutions can replace them. It would have been desirable, he continued, to have a method of calculating the total hemoglobin and blood volume, but the use of citrated blood, even without this precise knowledge, was both simple and efficacious. Between thie time and the outbreak of World War IJ, numerous other observers had arrived at the same point of view, but they did not make their voices heard. Most of them did not even try. The rather general belief at the outbreak of the war that plasma alone could compensate for the loss of whole blood in shock simply reflected the prevailing point of view that blood loss was not necessarily the primary cause of shock. It is not easy, in looking back, to understand how these concepts were ever accepted, yet some of the most competent physicians in the country believed that plasma alone could compensate for the massive blood losses which occurred in trauma. It was a belief which did a disservice to the true and important role of plasma in the therapy of shock. Also, as pointed out elsewhere (p. 9), many observers who believed that only whole blood wes effective in shock did not believe that it would ever be practicel to provide it for forward areas. Attempts to transfer controlled laboratory studies to combat conditions led to confusion, as might have been expected, for they were based upon faulty premises. As Beecher (f) pointed out, the belief thet plasma would be as effective as whole blood in the management of hemorrhagic shock seems to have been derived from laboratory experiments so set up that the number of variables could be strictly limited. There was, of course, no real resemblance between e combat soldier who had suffered a serious wound or wounds and a rabbit lying quietly in its cage after experimental deprivation of 75 percent of ita blood volume. The very management of the wounded soldier, including is successive removal rearwi from the battlefield through the chain of evacuation, produced additional trauma, which wes further increased by physiend roentgenologic examinations, anesthesia, and operation. Transfer of Taborutory conclusions to a combat situation with its additional and widely different variables was simply unsound reasoning, which led to therapeutic

confusion.

Nomenclature

The prewar confusion in the concept of shock was in no wise diminished by the confusing nomenclature employed to designate the condition and the

loose use of the term.

In 1918, Mann (8) defined shock as a term used by surgeons to describe a definile clinical condition Probably due to 6 number of caus uses but always oceurring in one or the ornee ot two groups of cases: (1) those in which clinical manifestations followed some time after occurrence of conditions incidental to shock, « or (2) those in which a severe or fatal condition

32

BLOOD

PROGRAM

oO

ade immodiataly upon reeeirt of the active The vagueness of the definition, unded, , by a physician of Mann’ 8 stiity and experience, ia indicative of the agueness eas of the concept of thao at that In 1930, Parsone and Phemister (5) stated ‘thet it was more correct to speak of hemorrhage than of shock, or to seal aof ehock due to hemorr! hege when acute loss of blood in wounds, whether ‘toned or open, wes the cause of marked circulatory embarrassment or failure. at the same time, these observers cited Blalock’a criticiem, in 1927, of the current loose use m. Shock, in Blalosls opinion, should be considered not as a disease might be produced by a number of factora, including but asa Group of aymptoms which acute hemorrhage, wounds, and amine Later, Blalock (4) was to be the first 10 use the term “peripheral circulatory failure” for shock. = 1938, Moon (10) defined shock as a cireuletory Gefcieney, a neither cardiac r origin, characterized by decreased blocdvolume, decreased cardiac cutput iredued rae volume flow), and increased nemoconeeatrations 1, Janeway (11) deacribedoeamey shock a3 & condition of vascular collapse in which ¢ the tone of the peripheral vessela was oe dime d reflexly aa a reault of psychic stimuli. Primary shock, in his opinion, was difficult to distinguish from secondary shock, another term used veryloosely indeod early in World War II. If there was not prompt improvement after auch meas armth, hot fluids, morphine, and the shock position (considered useful ecaune erevityy played such an important part in the pooling of the blood), then true second: hock was undoubtedly present. In secondary shock, by Janeway’s definition, because of vasodilatation (ee a matter of fact, vasoconstriction was usually present) but because of blood loss. In secondary shock, whole blood was a more desirable replacement a than plasma because both red celle and plasma had been Tost.

is significant that, in his excellent study on casualties in the Battle of

El Alamein

Lt. Col. W. C. Wilson, RAMC,

began with a definition (12):

There is so much variation in the use of the term “shock” that some kind of definition is required. The term is sometimes used to deacribe any form of circulatory teats ier injury. * * This practice is oblectionsble in that the label of “shock” many varieties of circulatory collapse, including those cat by peritonitis, other forms on parla infection, sephy i pneumothorax, and other complicated effecta of intrathoracio e term “wound shook’! 1 is usedin a restricted sense. It does not inolude circulatory railure trom peritonitis, bacterial infection, or intrethoreci injury; n unless rece, stated, does it refer to the shock which follows burns or injury to the central ner tem. It embraces all other forms of circulatory failure which arise within a few hours 2sasa2 result of wounding. As a matter of convenience, the term shock is used aa a 8: paym ffor cireulatory failure and the cause is added when this is known, e.g., “shock ftom hemorrhage.’ The ETMD (Essential Technical Medical Data) for NATOUSA (North African Theater of Operations, U.S. Army), for March 1944 (13) suggest that the definition of shock should be extended to include the inability of the organism to meet the demands commonly within the normal physiologic range and should not be limited to a Cee index of abnormal findin, e end of the war, the accepted definition of traumatic shock was a cituetion produced initially by a decrease in i the peripheral circulatory blood volume that is followed by a diminished venous return, an inadequate cardiac output, and depleted physiologic functions. The most usual cause of these nges is hemorrhage. This is etill (1962) an acceptable definition.

SHOCK

33

a matter of convenience, the confusion that arose in the Mediterranean theater because of the mistaken concept cr shock and the loose use of the term is discussed under another heading (p.

STUDIES

ON

SHOCK,

NATIONAL

RESEARCH

COUNCIL

When the Committee on Transfusions, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC held its first meeting on 31 May 1940 (14) (p. 73), it appointed mmittee on Anesthesia and Shock (hereafter called the Subcommittee « on Shock), with Dr. Alfred Blalock, Professorof Surgery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, as Chairman, and a distinguished membership of eurgeons and anesthesiologists During the war, ‘this subcommittee supervised a large number of research studics dealing with special components of shock and certain variations in its treatment, including an investigation of agents other than whole blood and plasma. All of these studies were undoubtedly of some value but most of them were of value from the negative aspect; that is, the investigators tested and eliminated a large number of agents thet had to be tried before they could be discarded. Reports of these investigations can be found in the minutes of the subcommittee, 1940-45. From a practical standpoint and for the purposes of this history, the significant activities of the Subcommittee on Shock are included in the conferences on shock held under its auspices and in certain of its officiel reports.

First Conference on Shock The first Conference on Shock (15) was held under the auspices of the Sub-

committee on Shock on 28 June 1941, 6 months before the United States

entered the war. The announcement of the meeting carried the statement that emphasis would be placed upon measures of immediate use to the Army and Navy Medical Departments. The agenda included a wide range of subjects but did not include specific presentetions on the use of blood or plesma

in shock.

Shock Report No. 1 At a conference on 28 June 1941, a committee was appointed to make general recommendations concerning shock. It consisted of Drs. Blelock, Henry K. Beecher, Oliver Cope, Robert F. Loeb, and Stafford Warren, Its report (Report No. 1) (16), issued on 16 July 1942, covered the recognition of shock, its prevention, and ita control. tion.—The remarks on prevention in this report began with the following statement: medium ‘wbele blood, plasma, or water and electrolytes, or a combination o. i these), , berapy is based upon checking such losses and replacing body fluids by the eat means at hand.

34

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Preventive sneasures were listed as control of hemorrhage; application of @ tourniquet; spli ; tural measures; fluid therapy in traumatic shock, burns, and dehydration, the pplication of heat; treatment of exposure to cold and immersion; and precautions in regard to analgesia and anesthesia. Therapy.—The important “therapeutic Tecommendations by the ad hoc committee on shock were #8 follows (it should be remembered that they were made in July 194 1. When shock is imminent. or Present, blood, plasma, or par should be injected as promptly as possible. If massive hemorrhage has occurred oi of serious anemia are present, whole blood is preferable to blood substitutes. 2. In the absence of evidence of blast injuries and pul monary irritation, blood or blood substitutes can be given intravenously, as rapidly as 1 pint ofieotonle fluid in 10-15 minutes. . If th has fallen belo it ta normal a8 800N &8 poss: 4. If blood is available, me ‘should be used in initial amounta of 500 to 1,000 cc. The ae of reconstituted piesme should be two units and of concentrated albumin, one unit (25 gm.). Not more than 10 units of albumin should be given in 48 hours. If all in is sed, severely dehydriraed patients require additional water and salt. When aterile physiologic salt solution is available, concentrated albumin can be diluted in the ratio of two units (50 gm.) to one liter of salt solutio 5. If the desired effect on the blood pressure is not obtained in 15-30 minutes, the dose of blood or blood substitute should be repeated. : sth e . te albumin, whole blood transfuelong are indicated. . Balt and glucose solutions are not recommended in shock. The temporary: rise in blood presaure and blood volume which they produce is only temporary and gives nse to a sense of complacency. Their only value ie to correct dehydration. They are contraindl. ted in head injuries and pulmonary damage, 8. Within reasonable limits, there ia little risk f injecting too large quantities of replacement fluids immediately after wounding. It is important to watch for freeh bleeding when the blood pressure, in the course of therapy, begins to approach normal.

Second Conference on Shock At the second Conference on Shock (17) on 1 December 1943, the agende had become more realistic, in the light of military developments. It included field blood volume determinations by the Phillips-Van Slyke copper sulfate method; the comparative therapeutic effects of whole blood, plasma, albumin, saline solutions, and gelatin in clinical shock; and a vigorous discussion of the use and value of blood ond bloed substitutes. The proceedings were thus in marked contrast to the proceedings of the first conference, which had been held almost 6 months holore Pearl Harbor. On the other hand, the discussion of shock was still not entirely realistic, for it was divided into early and late shock. The discussion of early shock included infection as an initiating agent, possible techniques for early recognition, and prevention and treatment. The discussion of late shock covered intermediate metabolism, visceral damage, acidosis, vitamin-coenzyme systems, and succinate and Pitressin therapy. Acidosis was stated to be a possible

SHOCK

35

criterion of the severity of shock but was not considered succinate nor Pitressin t!therapy was regarded as promising.

a ceuse.

Neither

ne report at this session by Dr. E. I. Evans on the comparative therapeutic effects of whole blood and blood substitutes in shock, the following

points were m

1. In patients aeen soon after wounaing: & saline solution seemed to have a beneficial effect, even when he blood loss was quite se arked reduction in the Incidence of severe shock o ud be produced by giving saline salution prophylactically. When saline solu jon was given @ patient already in severe shock, there might be temporary improveent, with clevation of the blood pressure, but !t seidom lasted more than 30 minutes. 2. Both plasma and whole blood were effective lerately severe shock, but a of the blood volume after the initial treatment usually viedleated the need for whole bloc. All Patients inin shook who had not been given whole blood eventually showed moderate or severe anemi Quotation at the conference of « recent letter from Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Henry K. Beecher, MC, then in North Africa, brought the discussion down to a realistic level: One of the chief problems is concerned with supplying blood in forward areas. Somewhere wore the planning line somebody eeeme to have forgotten that plasma lacks oxygenarrying power. uch too often the following eaves “ vente takes place: A man receives a ped wound; he bleeds; hours later his “blood”v e and pressure are restored by plasma infusion; the aurgeon decides he is now ready for. suman there is further loas of the too-small quantity of hemoglobin available in his body, as a result of thesurgery; the patient’s circulatory system collapses and it is impossible to revive Plans being worked out for supplying whole blood for the forward areas, At this second Conference on Shock, Dr. Loeb, chairman of the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, made the highly aignifiean announcement that it was the conviction o group that the ideal treatment of shock due to

hemorrhage and skeletal trauma was replecement of lost blood with blood and

that every means possible should be utilized for increasing the use of blood in the prevention and treatment of these conditions in various theaters of war (p. 53). It was, however, recognized by his committee: , That whole blood could not always be made available. in crushing injuries, burns, and abdominal wounds, plasma was than lod at certain atages ‘a of tytreat men . That plasma is more desirable than whole blood when dehydration, or esther is ed. . That plasma has the advantage of convenience of transportation to whole blood cannot be taken but that there are certain situations in which is more practical than plasma.!

more desirable for one reason areas to which serum albumin

Shock Report No. 17 Shock Report No. 17 (18), dated 4 March 1944, was a revision of Shock Report No. 1 (16), dated 16 July 1942. Some of the members of the committee ie

2

albumin was more practical than when eJbumin was

717-400"¢4__4

plasma

because

of the

In thelropinion, almost

universal

necessity

torent ne of supplying nialtional

: fluids

36

BLOOD

PROGRAM

which prepared the second report had also served on the first committee. current status of the shock problem was set forth as follows:

The

The catablishment of a close correspondence of circulatory changes in experimental and tlinieal shock has given confidence in the clinical application of results obtained in experimental iudien especially on dogs. 2, Reduction in the cfreulating blood volume is the most important factor i in the initiation of shock. The reduction, whether the injury is mechanical or thermal, is due to loss onblood °» ant at the elte of injury. Except possibly in very late stages, there is no notable lary permeability in nontraumatized areas of the body. The reduction in the cireulating ‘bleed volume makes ite Testoration to normal the primary consideration of Uherapy. 3. The most reliable criteria of the degree of circulatory disturbance underlying shock are cardiac output and blood volume. As shock pro, cardiac output continues to decrease, even if there is no further reduction in cireulating blood volume. The level of arterial pressure is not a reliable criterfon of the degree of circulatory {mpalrment in early shock, nor does the hematocrit, cons{dered alone, Indicate the relative degree of loss of Blood or plasm: . After a critical point has been reached in diminution of the blood volume, progressive tissue anoxia leads to metabolic changes and to damage to certain organs, such aa the brain, and perhaps the heart ‘end liver. The‘tate which then develops is termed “irreversible shock.” The following prophylactic and therapeutic points were stressed: consequences of inadequate circulatory volume emphasize the very great importance orsme a nlequate treatment of shock. Treatment should not be delayed until its manif 2 Operation chould be carried out as promptly as possible after resuscitation, or sometimes before it is completely accomplished, with blood replacement as indicated during the procedur . Fluid therapy ig the most important measure in the therapy of shock. It should take the form of whole bioed, which may be required in amounts up to 3.000 ce none firat 5 ec. of blood should be given rapidly. Subs ti tion 2ahould be at the vate of 500 cc. per hour or less. Prophylactic transfusions should also be oven slowly, The

great difference

between

these

recommendations,

in

March

1944,

and those at July 1942 is the unequivocal advice to use whole blood without

delay. The altered concept of shock should also be noted. The advice to inject the blood slowly was founded on the old idea that rapid injection of blood might give rise to speed shock. As a matter of fact, early in the war, it was found that the rapid injection of blood was not only harmless but essential and beneficial. It was not unusual to inject 500 cc. of blood in 5 minutes, end occasionally as much as 20 pints of blood were injected into four different veins in a period of 3 hours. Had members of the various committees of the National Research Council been permitted to visit combat zones, as was several times requested (p. 79), their recommendations would have been more closely related to the facts of military medicine.

SHOCK

EVOLUTION

37

OF THE CONCEPT AND THERAPY OF SHOCK IN THE MEDITERRANEAN THEATER

n the first months of active U.S. participation in World War II, the confusion that attended the condition thet came to be appreciated as the most important single complication of wounding seriously affected the management wounded casualties. Until the concept of shock was clarified, they were treated with ela and devotion, but they were often not treated entirely correctly, even though, by the time North Africa was invaded in November 1942, it was generally accepted that decreased circulating blood volume was the most important deviation from normal physiology seen in shocked casualties. The necessary clarification of the concept of shock, with the application of the correct concept to shocked casualties, was accomplished in the Mediterranean theater. Until June 1944, this was the only theater in which large numbers of ground troops were in constant contact with the enemy. For nearly 2 years, the battle casualty rates in it were continuously above 50 per thousand per annum, and for nearly 2 months of this period they were above 100 per thousand. With casualties requiring treatment in such numbers, policies of management had to be established, even in the absence of any proved ecientific rationale for them. The situation began to change when Col. Edward D. Churchill, MC, reparted for duty in North Africa on 7 March 1943 as Consultant in Surgery the theater surgeon. Before he left the Zone of Interior he had been well briefed on the British experience in shock and transfusion (p. 55) and had been informed of the research under way in this field at the Army Medical School and elsewhere. Colonel Churchill’s first official report to the theater surgeon, 2% weeks after his arrival and after a period of temporary duty on the southern Tunisian front, was amemorandum on blood tranafusion (19). _ On 16 April, after the he set f , the most important of which was that a significant number of wounded went into shock from loss of blood and that plasma was not e total treatment for these casualties (p. 55). In his first report, Colonel Churchill was critical of both the nomenclature and the concept of shock. He found that in field medical records, histories, an topsy reports, shock was used with vague significance and often with no definition at all (p. 32). The disturbance oft the peripheral cireulation which the term indicated might renge from slight pallor to impending dea Further confusion wes introduced by the use of the term virroversible shock,’’ a use which amounted to the assumption that at one moment restoration of the blood volume could halt the process of death while at the next, it could not. Even the most carefully controlled laboratory experiments could not identify this precise baseline. If this held true in a controlled experimental

38

BLOOD

PROGRAM

laboratory, identification of the onset of irreversible shock seemed even more impossible when the medical officer was confronted with the results of random trauma sustained by soldiers under combat conditions In the records of battle casualties who died in forward areas, shock or irreversible shock was alinost invariably found to be recorded as a secondary cause of death, whether the primary condition was a craniocerebral wound, an overwhelming peritonitis, a fulminating gas gangrene infection, or uncontrollable hemorrhage. In Colonel Churchill’s opinion, the terms ‘‘shock”’ and ‘irreversible shock,” as they appeared in records and autopsy protocols in NAT OUSA, were completely irreleva nt. He therefore found it impossible to ing the Tunisian campaign in terms that would be helpful to those engaged in research on the subject. An analysis of 1,263 casualties had shown no deaths from so-called wound shock under terms of the restricted definition in which hemorrhage could be excluded as the important causative factor. The same observations were made in the clinical study of large numbers of wounded. Colonel Churchill therefore concluded: 1. That wound shock, if it occurred among surviving casualties, apparently responded to treatment. Hroversible shock therefore did not ap a problem of pressing importen hat wound shock could not be identified as a cause of death in conditions prevailing in the management of battle casualties during the period of the survey. 3. That shock as it was observed in the Tunisian campaign could be controlled by the application of accepted methods of treatment, without the need for the development of additional methods. These conclusions were amply confirmed in the following months by simple, direct observations on battle casualties properly treated by methods already availeble, including the replacement of blood logses by whole blood. Clinical observations were later confirmed by a number of special studies. The manegement of shock in the last year of the Italian campaign, when there was 6 general appreciation of the need for whole blood and when the blood needed was available in ample quantities from a theater blood bank, was very in the Tunisian and eerly Italian campaigns. Appreciation blood, however, preceded its supply by many months.

SPECIAL

of the

need

of

STUDIES

Lalich Study The first planned studies on shock in the Fifth U.S. Army were made by Capt. Joseph J. Lalich, MC, on the Cassino front in December 1943 and on the Anzio beachhead in March 1944 (19, 26). Studies on the hematocrit, on the plasma protein, nonprotein nitrogen, and chlorides of the blood, and

SHOCK

39

on the carbon dioxide combining power of the blood eupported his thesis that blood loss is the chief factor in shock.

On the besis of his clinical observations alone, Captein Lalich had already

advocated that battle casualties in shock be divided into three categories, according to the follo : 1, The petient has a normal blood pressure and no significant abnormalities of pulse volume or pulse rate, but his wounds are sufficiently numerous and sufficiently severe to make it reasonable to anticipate circulatory failure.

Experience showed that unless patients in Lhis group were treated by replece-

ment therapy, usually in the amount of 500 cc. of plasma and 500 cc. of blood, varying degrees of circulatory failure were likely to occur during operation. 2. The blood pressure ranges from 90 mm. Hg down to the lowest level at which it can be measured. Resuscitation requires at least 1,000 to 2,000 ec. of blood. 3. The blood pressure cannot be determined by auscultation. A patient in this state should receive from 500 to 1,500 cc. of blood, the precise amount depending upon how much is required to raise the systolic pressure to about 100 mm. Hg. After this level has been attained, an additional 500 to 1,000 cc. of blood should be given before surgery is undertaken. If the systolic pressure fails to rise to at least 50 mm. Hg after 1,500 cc. of blood has been given over a period of 15-30 minutes, operation should be resorted to without further delay, for factors other than serious blood loss or continuing hemorrhage are probably contributing to the persistence of shock. Among these factors are gross contamination and infection of the pleural or peritoneal cavities, or both, or toxemia from clostridial myositis, Even when these conditions are chiefly Tesponsible for the state of shock, blood loss may also play some part in the patient’s status. ere were humerous veriations in this classification, but, on the whole, it represented the consensus of the surgeons and shock officers in the Mediterranean theater.

Stewart-Warner Study

The second study on shock was begun in January 1944, by Maj. (later Col.) John D. Stewart, MC, and 1st Lt. (ater Capt.) Frank B. Warner, Jr., MC, when Mobile Unit No. 3, 2d Medical General Laboratory, was operating beside the 3d Platoon of the lith Field Hospital at Cassino (19, 20). The hospital was doing first priority surgery, and the objective of the investigation was the response er seriously wounded men in respect to shock, hemorrhage, and dehydration. Surgeons caring for the patients investigated were kept informed of the results of the laboratory studies and were able to utilize the information in their management. The final report on 2 January 1045 covered 100 casualties, of whom (the figures are overlapping) 48 had penetrating abdominal wounds, 32 penetrating thoracic wounds, and 55 compound fractures. Seventeen died during the course of the investigation.

40

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Colonel Stewart and Captain Warner, who had been promoted in the interim, were particularly impressed by the variability of both the vasomotor and the cardiovascular response to wounding and also by the fact that reactions to shock and hemorrhage were considerably less stereotyped than they were usually supposed to be. Their other findings were as follows

1. A reduction in blood volume was characteristic of untreated shock.

2. Hemoconcentration was not encountered, but decreases in plasma protein concentretion and hematocrit values were evident shortly after wounding. hater, both components were lowered. 3. Dehydration and ezotemia were common in the eerlyrecovery period. 4, Urinary reactions were indicative of a rather mild base deficiency. 5. No evidence of the excessive use of plasme or whole blood was detected in any patient.

Beecher-Burnett Study

The third study, by Major Beecher, Consultant in Shock and Anesthesia to the Surgeon, MTOUSA, and Capt. Charles H. Burnett, MC, was made at Cassino and on the Anzio beachhead and chiefly concerned the timing of surgery in relation to resuscitation (19, 21 Most medical officers who had made special studies of shock or who had a large clinical experience believed that it was wiser to resuscitate the casualty as completely as possible before surgery unless there was some indication, such as continued hemorrhage or peritoneal contamination, for emergency operation. As 2 result of their own investigations, Major Beecher and Captain Burnett took the position that surgery should be considered a phase of the routine of resuscitation and given an earlier place in it (p. 584). Specifically, when the systolic blood pressure had reached 80 mm. Hg and the patient was warm and a good color, they believed that operation should be proceeded with. Whatever additional replacement therapy was indicated could be carried out during operation. While there was no universal acceptance of this concept, comparative figures seem significant (21): In November and December 1943, resuscitation in the field and evacuation hospitals below Venefro and Mignano on the Cassino front often required 6-8 hours after seriously wounded casualties had been itted. In 1944, on the Anzio beachhead, even extremely bad surgical risks were prepared for operation on an averageof 2 hours and 20 minutes after wounding. The readier availability of whole blood in 1944 had much to do with the reduction in the timelag, but the change in concept of the optimum time for operation undoubtedly also played a major role.

THE BOARD FOR THE STUDY OF THE SEVERELY WOUNDED In August 1944, the appointment of a board to study the treatment of severely wounded casualties was recommended by the theater surgeon, then Maj. Gen. Morrison C. Stayer, to the Commanding General, NATOUSA, Lt.

SHOCK

41

Gen. Jacob L. Devers (19). There were two reasons for General Steyer’s request: (1) that the concept of blood loss as the etiologic factor in shock must be documented by cold, hard facts; and (2) that similar proof was required for the use of whole blood as an essential clement in the management of wounded men and not as an agent which could be replaced by other substances. Without such proof, shock and its associated problems would be left, at the end of World War IJ, in the same inconclusive state in which they had been left at the end of World War I. On 3 September 1944, General Devers appointed a Medical Board to Study the Treatment of the Severely Wounded (usually known as the Board for the Study of the Severely Wounded) to operate directly under the theater surgeon. Its membership was composed of Major Beecher; Major Burnett; Capt. Seymour L. Shapiro, SnC; Lt. Col. ater Col.) Fiorindo A. Simeone, MC; Capt. Louis D. Smith, SnC; wa (later Lt. Col.) Eugene

R. Sullivan, MC; and Lt. Col. Tracy B. Mallory

In view of this action, it is interesting to recall nat the minutes of the first meeting of the Committee on Transfusions, NRC, in May 1940 (14), contained the suggestion that ‘a group of men be allowed to work in the Army, freed from any of the obligations of Army officera, who would study cases of shock as investigators. This would give opportunity to observe shock on a big scale, an opportunity to get an insight into the nature of shock.” More than 4 years after this recommendetion, upon which no action was taken, it was, in effect, implemented by the appointment of the Board for the Study of the Severely Wounded. Great advances might have been made, and many lives might have been saved, if this or some similar board had been appointed

earlier.

Observations and Conclusions

The 186 petients who were studied during the investigation were carefully

selected and directly observed by the medical officers who made up the board (19). The experience proved that a mobile laboratory unit could function competently close to the frontlines—indeed, at time, within them—and that

it coul The major consideration was at all times, of course, that the studies must not delay or otherwise investigation.

interfere

with

the

treatment

of

the

casualties

under

From the standpoint of the relation of blood loss to shock, the board made

the following observ: : 1. A wounded man2 could recover after the loss of about 75 percent of his

circulating blood volume, « considerably larger amount then had generally been supposed. The quantitative relation demonstrated between the degree of clinical shock and the loss of blood volume or hemoglobin lent further support to the theory that the major cause of shock in wounded men is hemorrhage 2. Certain

visceral

changes

were

found

in casualties

who

had

been

in

shock, but they were not evident until a minimum of 18 hours efter injury, in which

interval many

wounded

men

had

already succumbed

to loga of blood.

42

BLOOD PROGRAM

If infection were not a complication, a return to normal could be demonstrated from the fourth day onward. Pulmonary edema was too inconstant and too late a development to be considered an important factor in the initiation of shock. Pulmonary fat embolism was absent or minimal in most ceses and of uneewnn significance in the remainder. investigation and the other studies of shock conducted in the

Moditerraneen theater did not settle all the problems of shock or all phases of any problem. They did, however, clearly establish that blood loss, with the resultant decrease in blood volume, is the most important cause of death in battle casualties, Thus, at the end of World War II, in contrast to the situation at the end of World War I, there was a clear understanding of why shock occurs and an equally clear understanding of the rationale of resuscitation therapy and of the necessity for whole blood replacement. Two other factors in the reduction of the mortality from shock should also be mentioned: 1. The skill and fine judgment developed by shock officers and others who supervised the resuscitation and preoperative preparation of casualties (the so-called learning curve described by the chest surgeons of the 2d Auxiliery Surgica! Group) (22). planning and organization of the blood bank at Naples (p. 400), which provided a superior type of banked blood in quantities sufficient to meet all Fifth U.S. Army demands.

EBERT-EMERSON

STUDY

Materiala and Methods By the time active fighting began in the European theater, two concepts concerning shock were generally accepted: (1) that the pathogenesis of traumatic shock is a reduction in the circulating blood volume, and (2) that an essential foature of shock therapy is the correction of this deficiency by blood replacement. From the practical standpoint, a major therapeutic problem was still the determination of the degree of blood volume deficiency. Clinical estimations alone were imprecise. Blood volume measurement, with the techniques then available, was obviously impossible as & routine therapeutic control in the field. Transfusion requirements in any given case were still, therefore, based

almost ro tea

on the clinical symptoms and signs present and on their

response to ther tudies to valuate the relative importance and reliability of these clinical manifestations were undertaken in July 1944, in a First U.S. Army field hospital, by Maj. Richard V. Ebert, MC, and Maj. Charles P. Emerson, MC, 5th General Hospital (23). A preliminary study on 55 nontransportable casualties was limited to serial determinations of hemoglobin concentration and

ar terial

p

to their

SHOCK

43

tion.?, The data, like those collected in the Mediterreneen thenter (p. 41), indicated that the magnitude of the blood loss sustained by casualties in severe shock was far greater than had been generally appreciated. A second study was carried out in September 1944, during the campaign on the German border, on 112 casualties with serious abdominal, thoracic, and extremity wounds. About half were in severe shock. The investigation included, in addition to routine physical examination: 1. Serial determinations of either (a) the hemoglobin concentration, by the acidhematin technique with the Sabli-Hellige hemoglobinometer,or (b) hematocrit deterraina. tions, obtained after rapid centrifuging of oxalated samples in L00, tul pee. 2. Determinations of plasma volume by the Gibson-Evans dye techniq 3. Plasma protein concentration determinations by the copper ‘lla technique of Phillipa et al, Measurements of the plasms volume, plasma protein concentration, and hematocrit were completed in57 cases. Multiple blood volume determinations were made in 33 eases, either during transfusion or before or after operation.

Observations and Conclusions The data which these observers had set out to secure and the conclusions derived from them may be summarized as follows: 1. The degree of blood volume deficit in shock and the extent to which clinical signs could be correlated with varying degrees of oligemia. The arterial blood pressure proved the most reliable clinical index to blood volume deficiency. casul ties with initial systolic pressures Hg, except those with spinal transections, were found to have vignifieant degrees of oligemia, the deficit averaging 40 percent of the expected normal blood volume. 2. The degree of spontaneous hemodilution following extensive hemor-

age.

Blood volume and plasma protein determinations indicated that some degree, usually small, of spontaneous hemodilution with low plasma protein values occurred in oligemic shock. It was concluded that a normal hematocrit reading or the demonstration of only a mild anemia within a few hours after injury should not be interpreted to mean that severe blood loss had not occurred. Serious anemia could be produced by the administration of plasma to markedly oligemic patients. The relative importance of losses of whole blood and plasma and the total blood | loss resulting from various types of woun The majority of the casualties in the series presented no evidence of excessive losses of plasma in proportion to losses of red blood cells. In a few severe 2A

Fit 0.8.

the detached observations they had planned,

44

BLOOD

PROGRAM

abdominal wounds, a disproportionate plasme loss was demonstrated, with resulting mild erythroconcentrations. The average blood loss estimated to have occurred before admission to the hospital was 63 percent per severely shocked casualty. Hemorrhage was most profuse in extremity woun least profuse in uncomplicated chest woun: 4, The relative requirements for whole blood and plasma in shock and the effect of transfusion on blood volume. Serial blood volume determinations indicated that hemorrhage hed urred during the course of transfusion in 12 of 23 patients studied. This complication was encountered most often in severe wounds of the extremities; the majority of these patients suffered losses avereging 40 percent of the bloed and plasma transfused. The causes of therapeutic failure in the treatment of traumatic shock. Measurements of plasma protein before and after the injection of blood diluted with equal volumes of preservative solution indicated thet retention of the solution in the bloodstream was only transient and not sufficient to produce significant hemodilution. Casualties in whom clinical evidence of shock was not corrected by appropriate therapy, including restoration of the blood volume to normal, included those with severe infection; lesions involving the central nervous system; anoxia associated with pulmonery damage; and a persistent combination of anemia, oligemia, and hypotension, with terminal signs of myocardial insufficiency. The case fatality rate for all casualties admitted in severe shock was 32 percent. When, however, the arterial pressureon admission exceeded 85 mm. Hg, the casefatelity rate was only 10 percent. The majority of deaths occurred in casualties with abdominal wounds. References 1, Beecher, H. K.: The Physiologic Effects of Wounds. Arch. Surg. 80: 366-373, March wo 2, Cannon, W. B.: Wound Shock. In The Medical Department of the United Statea Army in the “World War. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1927, vol. XI, pt. I, pp. 185 3. Cannon, W. B.: Traumatic Shock. New York and London: D. Appleton and Co., 1923. 4. Blalock, A.: Principles of Surgical Care, Shock and Other Problems. St. Louis: Cc. Vv. Pao Co., 1940. 5. Parsons, E, andtal Stadt . Bs Ha emorrhage and “Shock” in Traumatized Limbs. An Experimental Stud: Sure g. Gynec. & Obst. 51; 196-207, August 1930. 6. Freeman, N. E., Blalock, re and Strumie, M : Shock. In Burne, Shock, Wound Healing, and Vascular Tnjur jes, Prepared under the ati of the Committee on Sur, urgery, Division of Medic: a Sens, NRC. Military Surgical Manuals. Philadelphia and London Ww. . Seunders & Con . Freeman, N.E., w,J. L, and Snyder,J. C.: The Reduction in Circulation THOUER the Hand Resulting Rom oe Fear, Cold, and Asphyxia, With Quantitative Meas of the Volume Flow of Blood in Clinical Cases of Surgical Shock. J. Clin. "Invest, 1-664, November 1936.

SHOCK

45

: Treatment of Surgical Shock in the Zone of the Advance. Am. J. M. Se. 159: sat, June 1920. n, F. S Further Experimental Study of Surgical Shock. J.A.M.A. 71: 11841188, .2 Ost. 191; . Moon, V. a: Shock and Related Capillary Phenomena. New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1938. . Jan , C. A.: War Medicine, With Special Emphasis on the vee of Blood Subatittee Gidea Progress). New England J. Med. 225: a7 aL 4 Sept. 1! ‘OUSA,

2 Saly 043.

i. ETMD, NATOUSA, for March 1944. Minutes, meeting of Committee on Transfusions, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, ot nay JS nutes, ‘Conference on Shock, under the auspices of the Subcommittee on Shock, Diva v Medical Sciences, NRC, 28 pe 1941. . Shock Report No. 1, General Recommendations Concerning Shock, Subcommittee on Shock,‘Division of Medical Soienece NRC, "6 July 1942. 7. Miput es, Conference on Shock, Subcommitiee on Shock, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 1943, 1 hock Report No. 17, General Recommendations Concerning Shock (Revision by Subcommittee 0onn Shock of Report No. 1, issued 16 July 1942), Division of Medical Sciences, RC, 4 Mi ediecal. Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War II. The Physiologie Effects of Wounds. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1952. 20. Snyder, H. E.: h U.S. Army. Jn Medical Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War fa w potivities of Surgical Consultants. Volume I. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962. 21. Beecher, H. K.: yearn Control of Pain, and Anesthesia. In Medical Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War II. Vol. II, General Surgery. Washington: U.S. Government Printing “Ofte ice, 1955. 22. Burford, T. H.: Evolution of Clinical Policies in the Mediterranean Theater of

Operations.

In Medical

Thoracic Surety, Volume Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963. 23. n, C. P., and Ebert, R.V.: A Study of Shock in Battle Casualties. Measurements of t 5 Blood Volume Changes Occurring in Response to Therapy. Ann. Surg. 122: 745-772, November 194.

CHAPTER

The

Evolution

ITI

of the Use of Whole ombat Casualties

DEVELOPMENT

OF THE

Blood

in

CONCEPT

ce the importance of whole blood in the resuscitation of wounded casu-

ment, distribution, and utilization got off to such a slow start in the U.S. Army in World War II. The success of the transfusion service in the Spanish Civil War (p. 11) and the similarly successful and long operational progrem in the British Army when . United States entered the war (p. 15) make the delay even more mystifyin Any attempt at "-xplenation must be a mixture of fact and opinion. Perhaps the chief reason was that overenthusiasm for the potentialities of plasma as an effective blood substitute tended to reduce the attention which might otherwise have been devoted to the development of methods for making the use of whole blood practical. A second reason was that even those who considered whole blood essential in the treatment of battle casualties thought its supply to forward units in a combat zone—let alone its transportation overseas—an entirely impractical project. The discussion at the first meeting of the Committee on Transfusions, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC (National Research Council) } on 31 May 1940 (1) clearly ehowed that the feasibility of such ea program hed to be grasped before any means for its implementation would be developed. The lack of the acceptance of the concept as a possibility was far more important than (1) the current lack of means to store the blood and transport it safely over long distances, and (2) the fact that an oversea airlift did not exist when World War II began. Moreover, at this time, blood had only a 6- to 8-day dating period, which was scarcely long enough to get it into a combat zone even if an airlift had been available. In short, the hard fact of the matter was that in 1940 and 1941, when the need arose, there was no real choice: If plasma had not been recommended and used, there would have been no agent at all for the treatment of large numbers

of wounded casualties.

It was just 5 years before the United States entered

World War II that Elliott (2) had pointed out the military advantages of plasme, some of which Ward had called attention to in World WarI (p. 265). Because of its small bulk, it was practical to carry it well forward and thus } Committee on

NRC,

the Committeo on Medical Research, NRC).

47

48

BLOOD

PROGRAM

treat shock many miles closer to the actual scene of wounding. Reduction of the timelag (‘this valuable time element,” as Elliott called it) might well mean the difference between life and death. Another reason for delay in setting up an oversea blood program was the rather general failure to appreciate the difference between the use of blood in civilian medicine and its use as a military necessity. DeGowin and Hardin (3) (Maj. Robert C. Hardin, MC, who later served as Transfusion Officer in the European Theater of Operations, US. Army) differed [rom most other observers in their appreciation of this distinction. In an article in War Medicine in May 1941, these observers pointed out that since shock and hemorrhage are acute conditions, they must be treated at the earliest possible moment. The goal of any service supplying blood and plasma should be to make them available as far forward in the combat zone as possible. The value of every step in the processing and administration of these substances should be weighed in terms of their use at the front. Each detail of technique should be visualized as it would have been carried out in some such setting as a British casualty clearing station under air bombardment in the Battle of Flan To meet these requirements, it would be necessary to collect blood i in many centers, transport it to a small number of points for processing, and then deliver it to forward units. This is precisely what was done when the blood program was developed in the Mediterraneen theater, whieh supplied its own blood throughout the war, and when the plasma program in the United States was extended to provide blood for theaters of operations. In spite of the imaginative Planning of DeGowin, Hardin, and their associates, the concept of the provision of whole blood for forward areas in oversea theaters was a very gradual development. In the Zone of Interior, this concept was first of all part of the development of the concept that whole blood was necessary for severely wounded men in shock and that plasma, valuable as it had proved, was simply an interim measure, with a supplemental and not a definitive role in their management. Lt. Col. (later Col.) B. Noland Carter, MC, Assistant Director, Surgical Consultants Division, Office of The Surgeon General, expressed the general point of view in a comment on ETMD (Essential Technical Medical Data) NATOUSA (North African Theater of Operations, U.S. Army), for 1 July 1944 (4). Early in the war, he said, the lack of appreciation of the need for whole blood for seriously wounded men was shared by his own office, though at the time he was then writing (September 1944), the necessity was recogniz in the Zone of Interior as well as in all combat zones. The complete recognition of this need, he concluded, was now evident in the Office of The Surgeon General in the establishment of tables of organization and equipment an blood transfusion units and in the recently instituted airlift of b to Euro The need of combat casualties for whole blood in lerge quantities was learned by experience in the Mediterraneen theater (p. 392). In the European mented

by theater experience, it became

clear that the procurement of blood

WHOLE

BLOOD

IN

COMBAT

CASUALTIES

49

m Army personnel in the theater simply would not meet the needs. Only a brief combat experience was required to make it clear that blood would be needed in much larger quantities, and for many more casualties, than had originally been contemplated. As time passed, there were increasingly frequent expressions of the neceasity for, and the possibility of, securing blood by airlift from the Zone of Interior (p. 474). As has already been pointed out, there was always a considerable number of observers in both the Zone of Interior and oversea theaters who believed that whole blood was necessary, and had no substitute, in the treatment of severely wounded men. Their voices were simply not loud enough—or perhaps they did not speak out loudly enough—to carry conviction until events in combat theaters furnished overwhelming proof of the need. Moreover, even those who believed from the beginning that whole blood was essential for combat casualties were at first faced with the major problem of how to place it where it could be used

THE

ROLE

OF THE

NATIONAL

RESEARCH

COUNCIL

Much of the basic work which led up to the use of whole blood in combat casualties in forward installations was directed, or actually carried out, by members of the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes of the Committee on Transfusions, National Research Council? The development of the concept, which wes linked with the practical aspects of its implementation, is most conveniently described chronologically?

1940 May.—tThe first meeting of the Committee on Transfusions (1), of which Dr. Walter B. Cannon was chairman, was attended by the full membership, by Dr. Lewis H. Weed, chairmen of the Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, and, by invitation, Col. (later Brig. Gen.) George R. Callender, MC; Col. (ater Brig. Gen.) Charles C. Hillman, MC; Capt. (later Col.) Douglas B. Kendrick, MC; and Cdr. C. S. Stephenson, MC, USN. Maj. Gen. James C. Magee, The Surgeon General, was present for part of the meetin, Dr. Weed explained that the committee had been organized because of a request from General Magee that NRC (p. 75) assemble a civilian committee that could act informally in an advisory capacity to the Army Medical Corps, as well as to the Navy Medical Corps, with special reference to surgical shock, blood transfusion, and blood banks, When Dr. Cannon took the chair, he stated that many trained investigators in various medical fields had offered their services to the committee, and, if representatives of the Army and the C, aetlog for the Committee on Medical Research, Blood Substitutes, NRC).

Office of Scientific Research and Development

(hereafter crea

Subcommittee

50

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Navy would formulate their problems, the Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, would act us an agency for their investigation and for transmission of information concer em. In reply, General Magee stated that from his standpoint there were two chief poe lems: . Blood transfusions, particularly the use of dried plasma and the proper

cntane

for plasma.‘

. Shock, including its prevention, and hemorrhage. ta the discussion that followed, these points were covered 1. Blood banks. Colonel Hillman stated that if combat in a future war should be chiefly outside the United States, the Army would probably discourage the use of blood banks. iu war should come closer, it might be possible to use blood transported by plane or under specially devised refrigeration. If blood could not be collected locally, either liquid or dried plasma would have to be used. 2. Preserved blood. At this time, the safe storage of whole blood was not generally thought to exceed 5 days. Dr. Everett D. Plass stated that he had used blood more than 30 days old without serious reactions. He believed that by improving the preservative fluid, the period of safe storage could be increased materially, though he granted that as the Proportion of glucose, p! ently the p in use, f administration ‘would 8. Plasma. Commander Stephenson explained the Navy’s preference for plasma rather than whole blood: Plasma could be used in any form without reactions. If it were dried immediately, it could be kept for 4 or 5 months without refrigeration. If the circulation were embarrassed, it could be given in concentrated form. Also, the task of accumulating stocks could be begun a year or more in advance of the time the plasma might be needed. Refrigerator space was not a problem for the Navy, and distilled water for the reconstitution of plasma was available on many parts of ships. Other points concerning plasma discussed at this meeting included the possibility of meking a synthetic preparation or of using plasma from a lower animal instead of human plasma, the best techniques of preparing dried plasma, and a request to drug firms to0 prepare and distribute dried plasma to certain institutions for testing purpos 4. Shock. The chairman asked that various methods of handling shock and hemorrhage be described, including the potentialities and limitatione of whole blood; concentrated plasma and wet and dried plasma, with due note of the refrigeration needed; deterioration of blood after transportation; and the which

end

y

however, that at this time

of cholee, of refrigeration, and lack of an alrilft.

7my 19 April 1941 (6) actnally dia-

At should b

lack

WHOLE

BLOOD

IN COMBAT

CASUALTIES

51

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rat MC,for The Surgeo: n General, 20 Jan. 1044, subject: Report of Visit to Denver, Colored, 16 ond 17 January 1044. 9. Minutes, Blood Plasma Conference, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 24 Mar. 140 . Minwutes Conference of the Albumin Testing Group, Division of Medical Sciences, NRG ‘2 Mar. . Me aroandom, Col. Tracy 8. Voorhees, JAGD, 28 July 1942, subject: Meeting at the Foshan and Contracting Office of the New York Medical Depot on July 28th Coni Revision of Plasma Contracts. oe Memorandum, Capt. W. G. Patten, SnC, for Lt. Col. Lee I. Park, JAGD, 14 Sept. 1943, subject: Accounting for Donated Blood and Processing Losses in Relation to the Rengotation Program . Memor: andum, Capt. Earl 8. Taylor, MC, to Capt. Frederic N. Schwartz, MAC, n.d., eeabjerts Memorandum on a counting for Donated Blood and Processing Losses in Relation w the Renegotiation Pro; morandum, Capt. F. x Sehwars, MAC, for Director, Procurement Division, 2 oct, oan subject: Plasma Accoun: 65. Letters, ie ‘Col. H. T. Marball "MC, to all laboratories processing plasma, 17 May 1944,seuvleet: instructions for Preparation of Monthly Blood Plasma Report. E. §.: Procurement of Blood for the Armed Forces. J.A.M.A. 120: 10-18, 2 Gert 1942, nutes, meeting of Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Sion nC, 9 Apr. 1043. y, E. E.: Potential Post-War Market for Dried Blood Pi Thesis submitted e ‘Geonge Washington University, Business Administration 151, Marketing, il Jan. 1944. 60. Letter, Dewitt Smith, Vice Chairman, American Red Cross, to Maj. Gen. Norman T. «me 25 Sept. . Letter,Maj. Gen. Norman T. Kirk to Mr. Dewitt § Smith, 1 Oct. 1945. 7 Letter, Mai. Gen. Norman T. Kirk to Chairman, ican Red Croas, 5 Nov. 1045. 2. Letter, Dewitt Smith, Vico Chairman, American ‘eee Cross, te Maj. Gen. Norman T. Kish, 21 Nov.1 73. Robertson, 6. H.: Tranefusion With Preserved Red Blood Cella. Brit. M. J. 1: 691-695, 22 June 1918.

PLASMA

PROGRAM

323

. Rous, P., and Turner, J. R.: The Preservation of Living Red Blood Cells in Vitro. II. The Transfusion of Kept Cells. y Exper. Med. 23: 239-248, February 1916. . Custellanos, A., and Riera, R. bre la trensfusién de glébulos y la transfusién de plams, sus tecnicase indicaciones. “Bol. Soc. cubana de pediat. 9: 234-270, June 1937. 76. Castanos, A.: La transfusi6n de glébulos. Arch. med. inf. 6: 319-333, July— September 1 Metuaide, D. H. G., and Mollison, P. L.: Treatment of Anaemia ny Aransfusion of Concetta Suspensions of Red Cells. Brit. M. J. 2: 555-556, 26 Oct. . Scudder, J., Drew, C. R., Corcoran, D. R, and Bull, D.C.: Studia in Dlood Preservation. J.A.M.. A 112: "9969-2271, 3 June 193! 79. Minutes, meeting of Subcommittee on ” Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 13 May 1943. Letter, Capt. Earl5. Taylor, MC, to Col. Tracy 8. Voorhees, JAGD, 22 Nov. 1943, subject: The Red Food t Cell Transfusion Service of the American Red Cross Blood Donor Service. . Minutes, meeting of Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Pal NRC, 16 Mar. 1945. Cooksey, W. B., and Horwitz, W. H.: Use of Salvaged Red Cells. J.A.M.A, 124:

961-964, 1 Apr. 1944.

83. Denstedt, 0. F., Osborne, D. E., Stansfield, H., and Rochiin, I.: The Suvi al of Preserved Erythrooytes After Travefusion. Canad. M. A. J. 48: 477-496, June 194: 84. Mollison, P. L., and Young, I. M.: Failure of In Vitro Tests as a Guide to the Value of Stored Blood. ort “ a m vee, a, so 1941. 85. Thalhimer, W., : The Transfusion of Centrifuged Human Type 0 Celle Resuspended and. Stored i inare Ora Syrup. J.A.M.A. 127; 1096-1101, 28 Apr. 194,

717-408"—-64 —24

CHAPTER

XII

The Bovine and Human Albumin Programs Part I. Bovine Albumin with

In the spring of 1940, when medical resources first began to be mobilized the realization that the United States would eventually enter World

War II, the use of blood serum for shock and other conditions was limited to a few pioneer workers in a few medical centers. Serum albumin, which was

to prove the mainstay of the Navy, had not yet been developed. Work with bovine albumin was limited to a few pilot studies, chiefly by Wangensteen at the University of Minnesota (1). bovine albumin program in World War IT began in late 1940 and prod in a series of highly encouraging developments until July 1942, when the first real setback was encountered, in the form of a fatal case of apparent serum sickness. Because the potentialities of this form of therapy were believed to outweigh the risks, the Program was continued cautiously. A number of serious reactions, however, occurred in volunteers used for testing purposes, and, when a second fatal case of serum sickness of an unusual type was encountered in i February 1943, further work with bovine albumin was regarded as unjustified, and the program was officially discontinued ‘he following month. It was a truly discouraging end to a highly promising proje

DEVELOPMENT

OF PROGRAM

ne of the questions raised at the first meeting of the Committee on Transfusions, Division of Medical Sciences, 31 May 1940 (2), was the possible development of a substitute, preferably synthetic, for human plasma. At this same meeting, ‘in the interest of clear thinking,” it was proposed that protein chemists be brought into the work, and the assistance of Dr. EdwinJ. Cohn (fig. 73), Department of Physical Chemistry, Harvard Medical School, was obtained (p. 336).

empulat

= Hospital

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difficulty, since only a small amount of blood was used by the Fifteenth U.S. Army on the west bank of the Rhine. After the blood bank was set up in Paris, communications between it and its advance detachments were generally excellent until the final days of the wi Then, when the blood depots moved with the airstrips, to keep the appropriate Army depots supplied, their whereabouts was sometimes unknown in Paris for as long as 36 hours. On the cessation of fighting in Europe on 8 May 1945, the four detachments operating in the Army areas and in ADSEC were brought back to the base bank in Paris, the Jast arriving on 24 May. These detachments were then disbanded and their personnel were absorbed into the structure of the parent he base bank continued to operate as such until 15 June 1945; the last shipment of blood was made on 14 June. The last shipments from the bank in the United Kingdom had been received on 11 May and the last shipment from the United States on 15 May. After that date, all blood distributed on the Continent was collected and processed by the Continental Blood Bank.

518

BLOOD

Section

V.

Activities

of the European Detachments

152D STATION

HOSPITAL

Theater

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Blood

Bank

BANK

Assignments April

At the conference on blood supply held at the 1st Medical Laboratory on 5 1944, it was recommended that the assignment of advance banks be

as follows:

First U.S. Army:

Detachment A in the Army zone, supported by Detach-

ment B in the communications zone.

hird U.S. Army: Detachment C in the Army zone, supported by Detachment D in the communications zone. This was essentially the plan employed on the Continent (map 3). When the Ninth U.S. Army became operational and the 127th Station Hospital had been added to the blood bank at the 152d Station Hospital, the same plan was employed: Detachment A of that hospital operated in the Army zone, supported by Detachment B in the communications zone.

Movement to the Continent On D+1, two refrigerator trucks from Detachment A, which had been loaded with predetermined amounts of blood by Detachment C at Southampton, were landed on Omaha beach. Their drivers were responsible for the delivery of this blood to medical units in the area. Two other refrigerator trucks, one of which was preloaded with blood, also from Detachment A, were landed on Utah beach on D+3. Their drivers had the same duties as the drivers of the trucks landed on Omaha beach. Both groups also took off unused and unneeded blood from LST's going back to the United Kingdom with few casualties or with casualties who did not need blood. D-+6, the remainder of Detachment A had arrived in France and was stationed at Martha Dump (Medical Supply Depot, First U.S. ). The trucks of this detachment could readily distribute all the whole blood available to the field and evacuation hospitals which required it because in the early days of the invasion, the lodgment area on the Cotentin Peninsula was very

limited. All whole blood brought into France during the first days of the invasion

was brought i in by surface craft. On D+-7, it began to arrive by air, on the airstrip in the rear of Omaha beach. Thereatter, C-47 planes brought in practically all blood from the United Kingdo: The third phase of the blood bank operation called for the movement of

Detachments B, C, and D to the Continent. there earlier.

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Detachment C arrived in France on 10 July nd and began to serve the hospitals supporting the VII Corps of the First U.S. Army, which was operating

toward the south on the Normandy Peninsula. On 4 August, Detachment C also took over delivery of blood to hospitals of the Third U.S. Army, which had become operational on 1 August.

Detachments B and D arrived on the Continent on 18 July, attached to

the Advance Section, Communications Zone. On 23 July, for Operation COBRA (the breakthrough at Saint-L6), Detachment B was placed at Tréviares, with the 3lst Medical Depot Company, to support Detachment A. Detachment D was initially located on the airatrip at Binniville, but a few days later it took station at the 30th Medical Depot Company at Chef du Pont.

Departures from SOP The SOP for delivery of blood to the Continent (40) called for trucking of blood from the base bank to the field; separate air shipment of blood to each ADSEC detachment; and delivery forward, by truck, to the respective armies served by the perticular detachments. On occasion, departure from this procedure was necessary: 1. The major test of the flexibility of the plan devised for the supply of

Brittany Peninsula and the eastward drives of the First and Third U.S. Armies. 'o handle this situation, Colonel Mason directed a Tegrouping of personnel and equipment of the ADSEC detachments as follows Detachment B was placed in support of the Firet and Third U.S. Armies, at first from the airstrip at Courtil, in Brittany. It was given the 1,000-pint refrigerator truck and the 500-pint bulk delivery truck from Detachment D. Between 13 September and 2 October, Detachment B gave full support to both armies, even when this mission required splitting itself in half because of the diverging fronts. Detachment D was placed in direct support of the field and evacuation hospitels operating with the reinforced VIII Corps. It operated initially from the airstrip at Courtil and later from the strip at Morlaix in i Brittany. It was

This enabled Detachment D, from mid-August to eerly October, to operate 6 shuttle service between the airstrip and the field and evacuation hospitals. The areehment then reverted to its original mission of backing up the Third

U. Ss Arm

“Tn October 1944, the Surgeon, Third U.S. Army, requested that supplies of blood be sent directly to mobile hospitals supporting the divisions engeged

before Met:ta.

. On 24 October 1944, Detachment B took over delivery of blood to hospitals of the Ninth U.S. Army, continuing this function until 1 November,

EUROPEAN

THEATER

521

when Detachments A and B of the 127th Station Hospital arrived and took over

the mission of supplying the hospitals of this Army end the communications zone pospitale behind it. in October, Detachment B became responsible for the delivery of blood. to othe mobile hospitals supporting the 82d and 101st Airborne Divisions of the XVIII Corps in the Eindhoven-Nijmegen Area. One delivery truck from this detachment transported blood daily from the airstrip near SaintTrond, Belgium, to the combat area over ‘‘Hell’s Highway.’’ On at least one occasion, the vehicle carrying the blood had to be escorted by tanks, to protect it against interference by roving German patrols. Although it was constantly subjected to small arms fire, it was never hit. The drivers and assistant drivers of the two trucks engaged in this operation were awarded the Croix de Guerre by the French Government. le it was stationed in the vicinity of Saint-Trond, Detachment B received all its blood by air. It was entirely mobile and could move immediately to the vicinity of any airfield near the front to which a supply of blood could be flown. After 10 November, when it went on to Liége, it received its blood by both plane and truck. The first night the detachment was at Saint-Trond, a German V-1 bomb blew out several of the windows in the chateau in which it was billeted. While it was in Liége, it was subjected to constant V-1 bombing. This detachment had some minor refrigerating problems. Its storage refrigerators kept the blood at the correct temperature only when the environmental temperature was above the required limit. When it dropped below that level, the temperature in the icebox had to be raised by the use of a 200watt bulb and cans of hot water, and hourly checks were made.

Evaluation of Performance This was probably the most trying period for any of these detachments. The work could not have been handled by units not thoroughly trained and seasoned. One reason for the successful flexibility of the ADSEC operation was that the Commanding General, Brig. Gen. (later Maj. Gen.) Ewart G. Plank, had given his Surgeon, Col. Charles H. Beasley, MC, direct commend over all medical units assigned or attached to AD! SEO. Colonel Mason, who was Colonel Beasley’s executive officer, was directed to exercise personal supervision over the blood bank operations in ADSEC and to coordinate all matters of blood supply with the army surgeons, the Surgeon, 12th Army Group, and the Chief Surgeon. The work of the detachments of the 152d Station Hospital blood bank was faithful and consistent. Great resourcefulness and initiative were shown by the commanding officers, 1st Lt. Herbert H. Reardon, MAC; 2d Lt. (later 1st Lt.) Eugene E. Stein, MAC; 2d Lt. (later 1st Lt.) Philip Sheulson, MAC; and 2d Lt. (later 1st it) Joseph A. Plantier, MAC. With the men of their

522

BLOOD

PROGRAM

units, they showed consistent courage and devotion to duty. Deliveries were often made under difficult conditions, in unknown, dangerous terrain, but the drivers took pride in getting the blood through, even though it had to be transported through artillery and small arms fire. When bridges were destroyed, the drivers forded streams. They were often annoyed by snipers, and they sometimes found that the installations to which they were taking blood had been wrecked by enemy action. The successful operation of the ETOUSA Blood Bank was in large measure due to the efforts of the officers and men of the advance detachments.

127TH

STATION

HOSPITAL

BLOOD

BANK

Movement to the Continent On 2 October 1944, two advance detachments (A and B) activated from personnel of the 127th Station Hospital blood bank departed for France, fully trained and equipped for their new missions. Almost as soon as these detachments had left, two additional detachments (C and D) were activated and began training. Personnel, trucks, and supplies were kept ready for another call from the Continent. The loss of manpower because of the detachments already sent to France was felt, as was the alert maintained until Detachments Cc and D went to France in March 1945, but increased efforts of the re nnel compensated, and the internal mechanism of the blood bank was in no way slowed down

Detachment A (Provisional)

Detachment A of the 127th Station Hospital, commanded by Capt. A. C. Shainmark, MAC, landed on Utah beach in October 1944 (64), just as the battle for Aachen was terminating and plans were in hand for the Ninth U.S. Army to cross the Roer River and push on to the Rhine. After a 2-day stay in Paris, to obtain additional supplies, the detachment pushed on to Namur, Belgium, and then to Maastricht, Holland, which it reached on 27 October. After personnel of the 28th Medical Depot Company arrived there several days later, the detachment moved to its location. The first shipment of blood was received on 30 October 1944, from the ADSEC supporting unit (Detachment B), which was located near an airfield

in the vicinity of Liége and which served as the link between Detachment A

and the blood bank in Paris. Thereafter, the trucks of Detachment A moved along with the army, maintaining continuous contact with forward medical units and delivering blood to them daily. Captain Shainmark was kept fully informed of the movements and locations of field and evacuation hospitals as the Ninth U.S. Army ewept forward across Germeny to Helmstedt, where it was operating on V-E Day. Several times, the blood bank truck appeared on the scene while hospitals were still

rolling to their new locations.

At the height of the Battle of the Roer, when

EUROPEAN

THEATER

523

several field hospitals crossed the swollen river almost side by side with the infantry, the trucks of Detachment A often delivered more tt“oe 500 pints of blood to them daily. Similarly, when the Ninth U. rossed the Rhine, the poeple on the East Bank received the blosd der, needed as s00n as they were set u Detachment A (Provisional) distributed about 35,000 pints of

whole ‘blood.

Detachment B (Provisional) Detachment B of the 127th Station Hospital arrived on Utah beach on 22 October 1944 and reported to the 152d Station Hospital blood bank in Paris. Here, it received orders to proceed to Namur, Belgium, where it arrived on 26 October and where it received further orders to proceed to Saint-Trond, igium. Here, it began to work with Detachment B, 152d Station Hospital

blood bank, and gredually took over “om it the servicing of the forward hospitals supporting

the Ninth

U.S. Arm

Detachments C and D (Provisional) When Detachments C and D (Provisional) of the 127th Station Hospital went to the Continent, they were attached to the Seventh U.S. Army (instead of the Ninth, as had originally been planned) because the advance section of the 6825th Blood Transfusion Company had been found too small to care for total Army needs. Until late in March, all blood collected by this company was shipped directly to the Seventh U.S. Army. Thereafter, the blood was routed through Paris, which permitted much more effective control and distribution, as well as augmentation of the inadequate supply.

Part VI. Blood Donors in the European Theater * FIRST Before

PROVISIONS

blood donor

panels

late in troops These 1. not

FOR N

BLOOD tablished

DONORS in

the

United Kingdo: im

1943, occasional suggestions were made to the effect that noncombatant follow the example of U.S. civilians and provide blood for casualties. suggestions were all answered in the same manner: At the time (1942), the demand for blood in the European theater was o great, . The location of the blood banks in the United Kingdom, particularly the British blood bank at Bristol, limited donors to troops in the immediate vicinity of the banks.

end from the official dlary of General Cutler (€3).

524

BLOOD

PROGRAM

soon as blood collecting teams begen to operate in the vicinity of particular organizations, members of these commands might voluntarily submit themeelves as donors. It was expected that detachment commanders of unite stationed in the vicinity of hospital blood banks would shortly set up panels of names of men who would be willing to donate blood upon ci During this period, the emergency need for transfusions was met from the nearest available personnel, preferably from the recipient’s own unit. The literal interpretation of the latter clause led to some difficulties, which were eliminated when instructions were given early in January 1943 that blood required for emergency transfusions must be secured from the nearest available personnel and not from members of the recipient's own unit if it did not fall into the category of availability

FORMAL

PLANNING

FOR

THE

BLOOD

SUPPLY

Formal plans for securing blood donations for combat casualties from U.S. Army personnel in the United Kingdom began in October 1943, with an inquiry by the Theater Chief Surgeon of the Professional Services Division of his office as to the effects of withdrawal of 500 cc. of blood. He had already notified Captain Hardin that it would be his policy not to use donations from combat personnel. On 31 October, Colonel Cutler notified General Hawley that in his opinion, in which Colonel Middleton concurred, the resistance of the individual who gave blood in this amount would not be affected adversely in any circumstances of weather or environment (68). In November 1943, General Hawley wrote the Commanding General, Services of Supply, ETOUSA, as follows (66): © lifesaving value of large-scale transfusions of whole blood during militar: operations ‘nas been repeatedly confirmed by the experience of the United States and of our Allies In other theaters of wi - It will be necessary to “establish in the United Kingdom a reservoir of type O blood donor, under military control, in order to secure an adequate amount of stored whole blood for operations on the Contin 3. Potential donors are ores in large numbers in SOS military personnel in the United Kingdom. It is thought tithet a simple statement of the need for whole blood, contained in a call for ve er address ed to soldiers with type O blood in SOS units, will have : tighly satisfacto ood Panel, ETOUSA, will consist of a consolidated nominal list of volunteers, to be “nainteina by the Chief Sur, . The collection of blood will not‘be required until approximately D+7. Subsequent tstiogs may jay intervals. 6. an initial cal b fe a blood panel. In accordance with General Hawley’s suggestion, a letter dated 15 December 1943 and containing the following instructions was sent by Lt. Gen. John Clifford Hodges Lee, Commanding General, SOS, ETOUSA, to the commanders of Channel Base Section, Eastern Base Section, Western Base Section, and

EUROPEAN

THEATER

525

Southern Base Section. The Northern Ireland Base Section was not included because its geographic situation would not Permit ready transportation of blood collected there to processing and storage depots. General Lee directed that bis letter be published to all units of the command and that the appended age from him be read at the first formation after its receipt. The letter contained the following information (67): 1. The establishment of a blood panel for ETOUSA, containing the names of type 0 donors from SOS units, is required to insure an adequate supply of whole blood for the treatment of the wounded. The establishment of this pose bas been approved by the T and is therefore desired: {type O Li h unit and retained in unit‘seadeusrtera . That a record of the number of type O voluntecrs be maintained by units in the base section headquart ers. . That the records just Specified | be corrected as of the 15th of each month and ‘het, immediately towing each correctio: report of the number of type O donors in each u of the SOS troops in each base nection be sent to the Commanding Officer, ETOUSA Blood That upon call by the Commanding Officer of the eToUSA Blood Bank, the volunteer type O donors of the unit specified be mbledat a designated bleeding station (ordinarty the unit dispensary) at an hour to be de detetermined by each commander, which will interfere seriously with the normal duties of the unit and which will be reasonably convenient for the bleeding team. e. That only | light duty be required of donors from the time of bleeding until reveille the following mol 3. a rule, four-fifths of a pint of wood will be taken 8at each bleeding,“ and no donor will be ted fect apo than once in 3 months. The withdr of this amount of blood will have no il feck othe donor and will not reduce his nvaical capacity for work or predispose him to il 4 Active interest in maintaining as many volunteers as possible is enjoined. ‘he message from General Lee, to be read at the first formation after the receipt of the letter just abstracted, was, in i summary, ass follows (6(68):

tof the enemy tb dfLif d wounding of United States eoldiers. 2. Large quantities of blood, which medical considerations | limit to type O blood, would berequired for transfusion | for their comrades fiinthe field for to donate blood when called upon. Instructions would be isoued 1 as to when and where these donations might be made. General Lee’s message concluded: ‘‘You, who are eligible, may well be proud of nis opportunity to place your name on this Roll of Honor—the Blood Panel, ETOUSA.” of blood at each donation. would hold only 400.ce.

It is now

‘ag used (1962) UI

Ithaving

526

BLOOD

INITIAL

PROGRAM

RESULTS

It had been estimated that to maintain adequate supplies of whole blood for battle casualties in the European theater, at least 90 percent of all blood type O individuals in the Southern Base Section must volunteer as donors. The results reported on 10 March for the first solicitation (table 19) were not encouraging, and the second report, on 21 April (table 19), showed no great improvement, TasLE

19.—Reaponse to request for type O blood donors in the United Kingdom, spring 1944 Base section

| Nomber of unita

Number of donors

Percantage of | troop strengths

10 March 1944 Eastern Weatern Southern Total______-...---.-------------+e

116 130 267

4, 589 10, 075 9, 207

58 80 34. 48 27,98

513

23, 871

40. 35

21 April 1944 Eastern Western Southern Total. __._.-..--_---_----------------

135 356 309

5, 316 19, 020 10, 350

62. 48 72. 06 30. 30

800

34, 686

55. 55

On 6 April 1944, the Office of the Adjutant General, Headquarters, SOS, notified the base section commanders, SOS, and other headquarters commendants that the response to the request for blood donors had fallen far short of expectations (69). All were therefore directed to note th port f this project and to consider methods of increasing the number of volunteer donors. At e conference on blood supply in the United Kingdom on 7 April 1944, as well as several times later, it was tentatively suggested that if the response of blood donors continued to be unsatisfactory, consideration be given to paying them under Army Regulations No. 40-1715. This plan was never adopted.

POSTINVASION Shortly after D-day, when it became considerable publicity, chiefly informal, there were numerous volunteers from surgeon's office, the Adjutant General’s

DONATIONS evident that blood was in short supply, was given to the need for donors, and various sections of the theater ‘chief Office, and other offices. The reply to

EUROPEAN

THEATER

527

these offers was always the same, that the volunteers would be bled whenever a sufficient number of O donors could be brought together, and that the entire process would then be streamlined, so that there would be a minimum of delay and absence from duty. ik umerous donations were secur: m these sources. Even the arrang t to fly blood from the Zone of Interior to the European theater did not end the need for local donations. Thus, on 24 September 1944, a little over a month after the airlift was instituted, the Operations Section, Office of the Chief Surgeon, noted that supplies at Prestwick were low and that a regular schedule of bleedings in the United Kingdom must be maintained if 1,000 pints of blood were to reach the Continent every

day.

31 December 1944, Colonel Cutler wrote the deputy theater surgeon that the panel of blood donors in the United Kingdom hed become very sm Two weeks earlier, General Hawley had approved the bleeding of combat troops in the United Kingdom if it were certain that they would remain there for 2 or 3 weeks after the blood had been teken. There had been no formal notification of this policy, and Colonel Cutler suggested that dissemination of the information be expedited. nuery 1945, General Hawley notified the Surgeon, United King-

dom Buse, that he had investigated the possibility of bleeding combat troops

and had been assured by competent medical authorities thet this would not be injurious to them. Blood from this source would add materially to the blood donor panel. Generel Hawley had also been assured that there was no physiologic or medical contraindication to using these troops as donors if they would not enter combat within 2 weeks after they had been bled. The theater commander had approved the bleeding of combat units staging in the United Kingdom. Now that he had done so, General Hawley wished this additional source of whole blood to be properly exploited through technical channels. On 8 March 1945, a memorandum was sent out from Headquarters, Communications Zone, ETOUSA, to the chiefs of general and special staff sections of that Headquarters stating that the Commanding Officer, 152d Station Hospital blood bank, had reported a critical shortage of type O blood and had requested that “all personnel’ be canvassed in an effort to secure voluntary donetions. In this memorandum, the chiefs of generel and special staff sections were instructed to submit to the Headquarters Commandant not later than 14 March 1945, a nominal list of personnel who possessed type lood and were willing to donate it. The order was widely circulated and a considerable number of volunteers were thus secured

The airlift of blood from the United States ended the problem of blood

shortages

supply.

except

for occasional

periods

when

blood

was

in temporarily short

Until the airlift was instituted, the effective orgenization of the local

donor panel proved the key to the success of the ETOUSA Blood Bank. Plans for the panel were most efficiently implemented by Col. Robert E. Peyton,

MC, and Col. Angvald Vickoren, MC, both of the Operations Division, Office

of the Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA.

Unit medical officers also were very helpful.

528

BLOOD

BLOOD came

AND

PLASMA

DONATIONS

PROGRAM

TO BRITISH

The propriety of donations of blood by U.S. troops to British blood banks up as early as 9 Cetober 1942. On thet dete, Captain Hardin, then

Liaison Officer at the blood bank in Bristol, wrote to Colonel Cutler that in

certain arene British hospitals were re being furnished with small amounts of blood by U.S. Army units. This was a practice, he said, fully in keeping with general practices of reciprocity botween the Royal Army Medical Corps and the U.S. Army Medical Corps. One difficulty, however, had arisen: When blood was collected in U.S. Army hospitels and used in British military hospitals, some U.S. soldiers expected to be paid $10 per pint. Brigadier Whitby thought that if this were done, British civilians might also expect to be paid for donations, which would be against a longstanding British policy in both civilian and military practice. Colonel Cutler ruled that U.S. personnel, whether civilian or military, would not be paid for the donation of blood. On 17 June 1943, in response to an earlier query, The Adjutant General, War Department, informed Headquarters, SOS, ETOUSA, that the transfer of dried plasma from U.S. sources to Allied commands could not be approved. The plasma had been secured entirely through donations by patriotic Americans of blood to the American Red Cross, and it wes intended only for U.S. fighting forces. Its production, moreover, was geared to estimated requirements, and there was none to spare. This ruling did not, of course, apply

to the treatment of Allied personnel i in U.S. Army medical installations or to

the emergency use plasma available.

of plasma

in Allied

hospitals

when

there

wes

no

other

Later, Colonel Cutler further ruled that U.S. troops would not be per-

mitted to act as donors for British blood supplies. There would be unfortunate repercussions in the United States, he thought, if, with all the plasma genereualy donated by civilians, U.S. troops were required to give blood as well as to fight The question of U.S. Army donations to British blood supplies came up again late in 1943. On 20 October, Captain Hardin wrote to Colonel Cutler that, during a recent drive for donations, teams from the British Army Transfusion Service had met with considerable enthusiasm from U.S. troops, and, in at least one instance, the commanding officer of such a unit had offered to produce large numbers of donors. In fact, tentative arrangements had already been made for bleeding them. Brigadier Whitby was naturally pleased with the response but did not wish to proceed without definite approval of the Office of the Chief Surgeon. He desired to avoid possible unpleasant future comments by making it clear that the response was entirely voluntary on the part of U.S. troops and wes not the result of any direct appeal to them.

EUROPEAN

THEATER

529

his particular organization (the 29th Division), Mayor Hardin pointed out, because of its location would not be asked to volunteer in the U.S. bleeding program. If it were bled by the British, the donations would be completed by 1 January 1944. His own opinion was that no combat unit should be bled later than 60 days before it was expected to go into actio Colonel Cutler replied on 24 October 1943 (65) “that the bleeding of U.S. troops for British use represented a very important principle. It had been decided by the U.S. Army that blood would not be requested from any of its

own combat organizations. other

troops

might

If this particular combat division were bled,

to volunteer,

and, once

there would be difficsalty i in stopping the practice.

the principle were violated,

He therefore recommended

that the donation of blood by U.S. soldiers for British supplies be forbidden unless the staff at Headquarters, ETOUSA, could so guarantee combat dates that it would be certain that no troops would be bled later than 60 days before they went into action. February 1944, Col. Howard W. Doan, MC, Executive Officer, Office of the Chief Surgeon, wrote Sir Francis R. Fraser, Director-General, British Emergency Medical Service, that while there would be no objection to individual U.S. soldiers’ serving as volunteer donors for the British, the U.S. Army blood program was expected to get underway shortly (70). When it did, it would utilize all available sourccs for the procurement of whole blood end is reduce the number of volunteers to the patie supply. ‘ay 1944, the question came up again time in connection with theAz Forces (71). The Surgeon, Eighth Air Force, received & memorandum from the Surgeon, Headquarters, 1st Bombardment Division, to the effect that representatives of the British Red Cross had requested permission for their transfusion vans to visit Air Forces camps. The British arrangement would apparently not interfere with U.S. Army plans for collecting blood, since only SOS units and Ground Forces would serve as donors. Brig. Gen. Malcolm C. Grow, Surgeon, Eighth Air Force, referred the matter to the Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, for decision, with the comment that in his own opinion,

the request should be favorably considered if it would not interfere with the

U.S. Army blood procurement personnel would act as donors

program. and that

It was understood that no flying all donations would be voluntary,

referred to the Professional Services Division, Office of the Chief Surgeon, by the Operations Division of that office, with the statement that the attached correspondence suggested that the Eighth Air Force had not been approached for blood donations. If so, it was the writer’s opinion that a potential pool of donors had certainly been missed and the omission should be investigeted by the Professional Services Division.

530

BLOOD

PROGRAM

The reply to the first letter (from General Grow) by the Deputy Surgeon, ETOUSA, Colonel Liston, and to the second letter by the Director of the Professional Services Division, Colon rough, were to the same effect: When the ETOUSA donor panel for the blood bank was established on 6 January 1944, Air Forces personnel were the only U.S. troops engaged in active combat. East Anglia, where the Eighth Air Force was stationed, was not adily accessible to the British blood bank in the Southern Base Section of England, Finally, it was the intention to use Air Forces personnel as local donors for U.S. hospitals in East Anglia when the need for blood for them arose. Also, when the ETOUSA panel of donors was decreased by movement of SOS troops to the Continent, it might become necessary (as happened) to enlarge the panel by the addition of donors from the Air Forces. For these various reasons, Air Forces personnel could not be permitted to donate blood to the British.

PRISONER-OF-WAR

DONORS

In August 1944, when German prisoners were being taken in great numbers, the suggestion originated with some of them that they be used as donors (72). On 6 September 1944, Colonel Kimbrough notified the Surgeon, United Kingdom Base, that the Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, had no objection to this practice if the donors were volunteers.

PAYMENT

OF DONORS

Although payment of blood donors was permitted by law and was practiced in the Mediterranean theater during most of the war (p. 423), General Hawley tuled that neither military nor civilian donors should be paid in the European theater. This ruling was duly incorporated in Circuler Letter No. 51 (19). Tt was tentatively suggested on several occasions, as already mentioned,

in connection with planning for the invasion of the Continent, that it might

be necessary to pay donors, but no action was ever taken on the matter. When the question was occasionally raised by hoepital commanders, because of

special circumstances, permission was always COMPENSATION When

arrangements

were

being

FOR

ACCIDENTS

discussed

for the maintenance

of blood

banks to be supplied from British civilian donor panels, Colonel Cutler took

the position that claims for monetary compensation for accidents suffered by civilian donors who were being bled by U.S. Army medical officers should be the responsibility of the U.S. Government and not the British War Office. In the experience of the British Army Transfusion Service, according to Captain Hardin, claims had been small in both numbers and amounts. The American experience in this respect was also negligible.

EUROPEAN

Part

VII.

THEATER

531

Practical

PRELIMINARY

Considerations

in

SA

of the Blood

PLANNING FOR THE CONTINENT

AIRLIFT

Program TO

THE

Although whole blood was not an item of medical supply during World War II, the Overseas Branch, Supply Division, Office of The Surgeon General, ad the responsibility for shipping it to the United Kingdom and thence to the Continent (73). That function entailed arrangements for air priorities and

0 required the coordination of shipments with the Air Transport Command

for allotment of space based on the daily estimated needs of the theater.

October 1943 Early in October 1943, General Hawley took up with the Commanding General, SOS, ETOUSA, the logistics of the delivery of whole blood to the Continent as follows: 1. Whole biSod me be transported rapidly | to the locus of use and must be properly chilled during tran: Otherwise, it couldnot be used to render effective aid to the unded. Failure at sishor delivery ‘of the blood or refrigeration would spell failure of the blood program. 2. Shipment by air was the method of choice. If enemy action, weather, or other conditions prevented this mode of transport, then shipment by special refrigerated trucks, on high Priority, would be necessary to insure safe delivery of properly chilled blood in adequate 3. y Air Forces, be called upo to assume primaryaervnetbility fefor delivery of blood to the ‘Continent, and that necessary planning and policies to implement the service be prepared jointly by representatives of the Air Forees and § SOS. vehicke. carrying blood must have thefe highest priority for water transportation when air delivery is not possible.

November 1943

On 4 November 1943, Colonel Mason wrote to the Chief Surgeon, in reference, to the communication just summarized, that while it might not be necessary to mention to the Chief, Transportation Corps, that blood shipped by refrigerated truck must be given the highest priority, approval of this specific arrangement by General Lee might prove very useful (7.

December 1943 In a conference held on 22 December 1943, Col. Edward J. Kendricks, MC, Surgeon, Ninth Air Force, informed Colonel Mason that Troop Carrier Command planes would deliver blood from the vicinity of the blood base depot

532

BLOOD

PROGRAM

to fields on the Continent in the vicinity of Army medical supply depots (75). The Troop Carrier Command of the Ninth Air Force had transported blood for

the British Eighth Army in the North African campaign and was therefore familiar with the necessities.

Colonel Kendricks requested that a study be prepered concerning the maximum weight and space required for a single shipment of blood. The British had been allotted 2,240 pounds of cargo space daily for air transport.

April 1944 On 7 April 1944, in order that the logistic requirements

of the blood pro-

gram be placed in command channels, the Chief Surgeon requested that the air

transport of whole blood to the Continent begin on D+14 own information (84):

and provided

the

Tequirement of this operation is 600 pinta > Ths blood can be delivered by truck from ‘the 1 ETOusA Blood Bank at the Ist Medical Laboratory he United Kingdom for transport to desieneted fields or landing strips on the Continen 3. ood will be packed in cylindrical Soeulated iced containers, 18 inches high by 16 inches in diomoter. Tho 50 containers required for 500 pints of blood can be stacked ina space 17.68 feet jon: 2.66 feet wide, and 3 feet high. The total weight is 3,350 pounde. upied byt container is 2.8 cu. ft. Its empty weight ie 32 pounds and its loaded weight, a7 poun On 10 April 1944, the Commanding General, Ninth Air Force, upon request, sent the Office of the Chief of Staff, ETOUSA, the following information to implement the previous request for an allocation of daily cargo apace to cover the tte Aceair tonnage requirements of blood and medical supplies for the Army, the Forces, and the Communications Zone on the Continent (76): 1. Designation of an airfield in the immediate vicinity of Salisbury, where the main atorage point and personnel to handle the blood were located, va be most desirable. As a second choice, a field in the immediate vicinityof Thatcham, Berkshire, Greenham Common, or Aldermaston would be satisfactory. Ifan airfield near Thatcham “were designated, blood wouldbe deli and held there In refrigerators until called forward oe the Air Force. “Thee it would be placed in iced, insulated containers and delivered in trucks to airfield Pea e the time specified. a Whole blood prepared for air @ shipment would be packed in 8. Quartermaster ini frigeration would be maintained by aoe eds ice (10 pounds to the can) in an insert placed on top of the bottles. This arrangement would maintain optimum refrigeration for approximately 40 hours in an air covironmental temperature between 65° and 85° F, (18° and 28° C.). Paoking of the contain d their delivery by truck to the designated airfield would be the responsinnty of the blood bank. 3. The Air Foros would load the containers on the plane and transport them to the far shore within the limit of the lifts authorized and subject to military situations and flying conditiona. Here it oad unload the containers and turn them over to the medical representative of the Army Advance Section, Communications Zone, oor Ferward Echelon, Communications Zone, whichever was located at the receiving fieldon the far shore. Distribu-

EUROPEAN

THEATER

533

aoe 119. ted to European Theater Blood Bank ty & mobile unit, March 1944. "Blood was collected at Shoot End Camp, Alderbury, England. tion of the blood after its receipt would be made by the advance blood depot attached to the Army Advance Section, Communications Zone, or Forward Echelon, Communications Zone. 4. | Empty shipping «containera and used | blood recipient sets would be collected by ady the Ninth Air Force, whence the would be returned to the Greenham Common Airfield. Fone they would be turned over to the Medical Section of Depot G—45 located there Over General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s name, the information in this letter was sent to the Commanding Generals of the 1st Army Group, the U.S Strategic ae wore, the First and Third U.S. Armies, and the Ninth Air For nerally speaking, this was the plan by which blood was transported to the Continent during the fighting in Europe (figs. 119-126). re D-day, the plans for air supply from the United Kingdom to the Continent “cluded a CATOR (Combined Air Transport Operations Room) to assign priorities, allocate aircraft and tonnage, and coordinate air movements (77). Lit. Robert E. Pryor, MAC, was appointed to coordinate the movement of medical supply by air and to be ‘the representative in CATOR. Direct communication was authorized between the commanding officers of the blood bank and the Troop Carrier Command, which was to fly the blood in C-47 planes. Basic policies and procedures for decentralizing the operation were therefore worked out satisfactorily. In addition, the liaison officer of the Ninth Air

534

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Fievre 120.—Marmite can, opened to show whole blood packed in ice for shipment to 120th Evacuation Hospital, June 1944. Force visited the blood bank on 2 May 1944, to become acquainted with the staff and to learn their special problems. Greenham Common, the airfield selected for the takeoff of planes carrying blood, was excellently located for this purpose. It was only 3 miles from Depot G-45, to which blood was to be delivered, and only 38 Y nilea from the

ETOUSA Blood Bank at Salisbury.

By D-day, arrangements had ‘been concluded with the 21 Army Group (British) for a daily 4,000-pound airlift to the Continent for blood, penicillin, and biologicals, with additional standby provision for emergency shipments.

AIRLIFT

TO THE

CONTINENT

AFTER

D-DAY

From the beginning, the planned airlift worked excellently (69). As early as D+1, ether and penicillin were being dropped by parachute to medical units on the beaches. By D+7, emergency landing strips were available on the far shore, and, weather permitting, daily shipments of blood went forward from that date. By the end of June, the daily tonnage exceeded the original allocation, and a second plane was added to the airlift, so that 5 tons of blood and medical supplies per day could be transported to the far shore. The two

EUROPEAN

THEATER

535

Figure 121,—Interior of C-47 loaded with whole blood in refrigerated marmite cans for shipment to ADSEC Blood Depot in France, summer 1944. C~47’s flew so regularly that their flights were described in official documents as the milk run. Additional planes were supplied for special emergenci The whole system worked smoothly. When blood was delivered to the planes in i the United Kingdom in marmite cans, with a block of ice or cracked ce in the top insert, it reached the Continent in good condition, with temperatures of 39° to 40° F. (4° to 4.5° C.), even when outside temperatures were as high as 85° F. (28° C.), the maximum expecte In September, after the fall of Paris, the Supply Division established a receiving point, with office and storage space, at Le B This was the terminus of the milk run from the United King dom Getting supplies forward to the armies was another matter. This problem was solved by Lieutenant Pryor’s discovery near Paris of a squadron of 20 small C-64 planes which were not being used; they were too large and too slow for observation and liaison work and too small for routine cargo work. Their personnel, because of their enforced idleness, were unhappy and frustrated. Arrangements were made with this squadron to fly blood and medical supplies forward and bring back wounded, usually five per plane (three litter patients

536

BLOOD

“Ss

PROGRAM

=a

Fiaues 122,—Blood in refrigerated ite cans being unloaded from C47 on grass s landing strip by voldiere ofof Al ADSEC Blood Depot, France, summer 1 and two sitting patients). The movements of the planes were controlled from General Hawley This was an‘edmirebly succeesful arrangement. In 3 months, these planes transported 30,000 pinta of whole blood, in addition to 463 tons of other medical supplies. On the return trips, they evacuated 1,168 patients. 1 September 1944, the Chief Surgeon requested G-4 to arrange for permanent diversion of the two transport planes which had been assigned for the daily airlift of blood from the United Kingdom to the Continent from the used to a strip farther forward (78). The requirements for whole blood had moved forward with the armies, and it was no longer satisfactory to haul the blood forward by shuttle plane or transport it by road. Blood from the United Kingdom was now augmented by blood from the Zone of Interior, and it was imperative that all supplies arrive at their final designation as rapidly as possible. On 22 September, Colonel Hays requested G-4, ETOUSA, to notify PEMBARK that hereafter, all shipments of blood from the Zone of Interior should be flown to Paris and that shipments to Prestwick, Scotland, should be permanently discontinued (79). This change was effected. Air transport to forward areas was continued as long as flying conditions permitted. During December, however, the weather was so unfavorable that truck and train shipments became standard procedure. When truck transport was used, deliveries were most satisfactory when there was a preerranged

EUROPEAN

THEATER

537

Fievrs 123,—C—47 plane arriving at sirfleld in United Kingdom with wounded from Continent, July 1944. It will carry blood from the United Kingdom Blood Bank on its return to the Continent. rendezvous between vehicles of base and advanced depots. When good flying weather returned in the spring, the tedious, time-consuming delivery of blood by road was discontinued. In early December, the only contact the blood bank had with the Seventh U.S. Army was by air. Later, blood was shipped to it by regular passenger train also; during the first week of February, this was the only means by which blood reached this Army. In January 1945, 45 of the 60 C-64 planes were replaced with 7 C—47’s, which gave a daily airlift of 17% tons for blood and other medical supplies. These planes were frequently used to pick up supplies in the United Kingdom and deliver them directly to the armies. After the Rhine had been crossed, the armies were so far ahead of established depots and were o| territory in which rail transportation had been so completely disrupted that the medical service was fortunate in having an adequate airlift

OTHER

MEANS

OF TRANSPORTATION

The Red Ball Coaster Freight Service, set up before D-day, amounted to rapid delivery service by speed boats from ports in southern England to the far shore (24). Because it wes not under medical control, it was employed ly during the early days of the invasion, at which time it was very usef When blood was carried by this service, it was top-loaded; that is, it was last on and first off. The Army hed personnel on the beaches in Normandy to search for and receive emergency cargo arriving by these boats.

538

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Figure 124.— Delivery vehicle with 80-pint refrigerator in truck body. this vehicle isi 1,000-pint mobile refrigeration truck of Detachment A, 152d Station Hospital, First U.S. Army, Belgium, October 1944 Another plan for the immediate delivery of blood in the early days of the invasion was, as already mentioned, less successful than other methods. In the discussions before D-day, the daily shipment of blood on hospitel carriers, with couriers to meet the boats and take the blood off, seemed to many participants the simplest, and therefore the most foolproof, method of getting blood across to the far shore. The plan was put into effect on D-day, but all but one of the assigned hospital carriers had to put back to port for various reasons. Very little blood was therefore delivered by this route. Dropping of blood by parachute was discussed in the planning in the Zone of Interior for blood in the European theater, but the Surgery Division, Office of The Surgeon General, did not recommend it because it did not seem necessary and the idea was ‘dropped. If it had been used, appropriate containers would have been requir

AIRLIFT

FROM

THE

ZONE

OF INTERIOR

The initial request for an airlift from the Zone of Interior to the European theater was made by Colonel Hays to the theater G-4 on 1 August 1944. Atter pointing out the inability of the blood bank in the theater, even operating imum capacity, to supply the needs of the army fighting in France, he specified the requirements for a daily airlift of blood alone of 1,000 pounds,

EUROPEAN

THEATER

539

Figure 125.—Refrigerator truck being loaded with blood by enlisted men of {Continental Section, European Theater Blood Bank, November 1944.

England.

Note

Bri

which, with the necessary refrigeration, would amount to 6,700 pounds (500 cu. ft.). The blood would be carried to Europe in iced marmite cans (standard Quartermaster 4-gallon, insulated food containers). The returning airlift would require only 4,500 pounds but would require the same space, since an empty can, although it weighs less, takes up as much space as a full can. If the refrigeration units for planes under development at Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, sho ecome available, the requirements would be less, since marmite cans and ice would no longer be necess: 2 August 1944, G4 Headquarters, ETOUSA, was requested by the theater Chiat Surgeon to advise The Adjutant General, War Department, that the theater was prepared to accept 258 pints of blood daily, and had the tefrigeration to care for it. A daily airlift of 300 pints had been assigned. Each container, with 10 pints of blood and the requisite amount of ice, would weigh 67 pounds and would occupy 5 cu. ft. of space. The total allotment required was 2,010 pounds and 150 cu. ft. of shipping space. The return ™ Colonel Haye’ reference was to batteries. Earopean theater was instituted (p. 208). 717-409°— 64——37

in planes on 24-volt

aflble sa

the airlift to the

540

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Figure 126—Whole blood being unloaded from 2}4-ton refrigeration truck at 16th Field Hospital, Boulaide, Belgium, December 1944.

airlift would weigh only 1,350 pounds. Shipping requirements would be increased as Zone of Interior production increas On 18 August, General Hawley was notified by General Kirk that the blood shipped from the Zone of Interior would not be refrigerated in transit on the plane and thet the containers need not be returned. The request for transportation to G-4, ETOUSA, was altered accordingly. Since the blood would be placed in marmite cana when it was unloaded at Prestwick and would be refrigerated during transit to the far shore, an airlift of only 4.5 pounds would be necessary for every pint of blood delivered to France. On 20 August 1944, Headquarters, ETOUSA, was informed that the first 300 pints of blood would leave PEMBARK the following day; that shipments would increase to 500 pints daily as soon as sufficient blood could be procured; and that the blood received at Prestwick must be flown to the far shore as 800 as amen Arrangements were made with the Air Transport Command, ETOUSA (CATOR), oo fly the blood daily from Prestwick to the far shore, landing, until

EUROPEAN

THEATER

541

further notice, at the Courtil Airstrip. Colonel Hays, the folowing instructions for handling the blood:

on 27 August,

issued

« The blood received from the Zone of Interior was to be placed at once, in its original carton, under & refrigeration. earvons wo marked with the date of receipt and the oldest Blood | would be shipped ou! would be shipped to‘ne Continent fn the cartons in which i was received, not in te‘narte cans originally proposed. Daily telephonic reports would bemade to CATOR

ir A

Norfolk

Houaze,

London,

to be tranaported and their weight. . Unleas the atmoapherio temperature was between 30° and 50° F. (—1° and 10° C,), blood ‘would be kept in thereftlgenctor at Prostwi ick until word was received that the plane was ready to receive it for transportation to the Continent. Pilots were to be cautioned that blood must not be allowed to freeze en woute and that the cabin temperature was to be kept as close as possible to the temperature range ‘just specified.

REPORTS

AND

ESTIMATES

The original plan for a weekly report of blood movements at Prestwick was changed on 6 September 1944 for a daily report, to include the number of bottles of blood on hand from the previous day, the number received from the Zone of Interior, the number shipped to the Continent, the number otherwise disposed of, and the balance on hand at the end of the day. Similar totals also requested for each week, with any comments desired. One copy of each daily report, addressed to the Office of the Surgeon, Headquarters, Communications Zone Forward, for the attention of Colonel ers, was to accompany the blood being transported. A second copy w go to the same office by air courier, and a third was to go to the Office of the Surgeon, United Kingdom Base, attention the Supply Division. Daily airlift requirements, as just noted, were to go to CATOR in London.

REFRIGERATION

AND

TRANSPORTATION

Transportation of blood in the European theater from base banks to using hospitals in forward areas involved questions of refrigeration as well as transportation.

Pre-D-day Planning and Procurement Transportation.—-In October 1943, Colonel Perry, then Chief, Finance and Supply Division, Office of the Chief Surgeon, wrote The Adjutant Geueral, War Department, through channels, concerning the requirements of the whole blood service, pointing out that special provision must be made for it (PROCO) because it was operating without a T/O or a T/E (80). All items necessary could be obtained locally except cargo trucks, 30 (later 34) of which were requested. Twelve should be delivered by 1 November 1943, twelve by 1 February 1944, and the remainder by 1 April 1944, so that the necessary minor alterations could be made on them, to convert them to their new purpose, and

542

BLOOD

PROGRAM

to mount refrigerators on them. This would take a minimum of 8 hours for each truck. These trucks hed not been received by 17 March 1944, and twelve 6 by 6 cargo trucks were requested as an advance issue of the total requisition so that conversion could be begun. In this same memorandum, Captain Hardin described the various trucks he had examined and explained why he had selected the 2%-ton, 6 by 6 cargo truck as most suitable for transportation of 400-pint refrigerators. By 18 April, 12 of the 34 trucks requisitioned had been received and were already in use by the blood bank. It was urgently requested that delivery of the remainder be expedited. It would take 3 weeks te convert them, and they must be ready before the start of operations on the Continent, for the ETOUSA Blood Bank could not function without the necessary vehi

equipment

By the middle of May 1944, all necessary vehicles for the First U.S. Army had been received and were in use or ready for issue. The vehicles for the Third U.S. Army had also been received and would be ready for issue as soon as refrigerators were mounted on them. Earlier, the blood bank had been instructed to classify these trucks as surgical trucks; mark them permanently with Red Cross markings; mark the cab visors “RTO Blood Bank”; and them only for the supply, packing, and transportation of whole blood. Refrigeration— Although PROCO was not approved until 27 October 1943, the refrigerators requisitioned for the blood” bank arrived well in advance of the need for them. Because of shortages in the United States, however, it had been feared that they might not arrive on time, and steps were therefore taken to procure them in the United Kingdom. Through the efforts of Colonel Perry, Brigadier Whitby, and Lt. Col. (later Brigadier) John P. Douglas, RAMC, * the British furnished: walk-in relFigerators, each of 1,000-pint capacity, which took care of the initial requirements for fixed storageat the base and the requirements of mobile units. Eaoh refrigerator had an attached Seotor-dniven unit, which the Britisha! ed. 2 Dulk-delivery 500-pint capacity refrigerators, suitable for use in communications zone dep 30 eealler refrigerators, of 60- to 80-pint capacity, for the blood bank. of these items were available by 1 April 1944, which made it possible to plan for D-day as follows 6 refrigerators for the base depot t, each with a capacity of 600 pints of blood. 4 refrigerators, of 80-pint capacity, mounted on 2-1 a trues on the hards, where there would be two advance section line of communications bicod dep: torage refrigerators,of 600-pint capacity, with the S dromeed b loca depots. 4 refrigerators, of 540-pint capacity, mounted on n trucks. § refrigerators, of 80-pint capacity, on 2}4-ton trucks for the Third U.S. Army advance at. Brigadier

by

tubing, needles,

org hich

EUROPEAN The

blood.

THEATER

overal)

543

capacity

of the

refrigeration

described

was

8,240 pints

of

Post-D-day Transportation On 23 June 1044, 24 weeks after D-day, 2 message was sent to the War Department from ETOUSA, requesting additional vehicles for the blood bank, the capacity of which was not sufficient to meet the requirements of the present situation. Since the troop basis would shortly be supplemented by two additional armies, 8 request was made for 30 additional 2-ton 6 by 6 trucks; 4 days later, the request was increased to 34. If this type of truck was not available, 1{-ton trucks would be acceptable. The basis of the request was that requirements for blood had proved far larger than originally estimated, that the blood bank in the United Kingdom could not further increase its capacity, that it was not possible to build up reserves of a perishable substance such as blood, that a blood bank must therefore be established on the Continent with the assurance that it could provide adequate supplies of blood as they were requested. On 12 July 1944, the 152d Station Hospital informed the theater Chief Surgeon that its requisition for 30 additional trucks for the expansion of PROCO III had been disapproved by the War Department and, without increased transportation facilities, increased demands for blood could not be

met.

ae the original request for additionel trucks was refused, the refusal was later countermanded and the trucks, of the type specified, were duly delivered, thanks in large part to the firm stand in the matter taken by Colonel Hays.

FIELD

TRANSFUSION

UNITS

Authorized Personnel and Equipment On 2 January 1944, in a memorandum dealing with whole blood, Headquarters, ETOUSA, informed the Commanding General, Firat U.S. Army,

that the following personnel and equipment would be furnished each field

army without requisition and would be regarded as over and above T/O and T/E Provisions (): . Personnel: 1 officer and 22 enlisted m b Teeemectations Nine 2%-ton trucks; one %-ton truck; two motoreyoles solo. . Other necessary transfusion cauipment, including about nine refrigerators to be transported on unit tran

Preparation of Equipment After the Ebert-Emerson transfusion set had been approved in 1943 by the Medical Supply Board, Office of the Chief Surgeon (p. 185), the first problem

544

BLOOD

PROGRAM

wae to find an appropriate place for assembling and packing the sets. With some minor alterations, appropriate facilities were found at Thatcham, and General Hawley ordered that, as supplies for the sets became available, they be transferred there and frozen for use in field units. The assembly and of the units was accomplished under the supervision of Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Charles P. Emerson, MC, who was sent to Thatcham on temporary duty. Shortages.—The assembly of the seta was not a simple matter because of shorteges and substitutions (81). Although Bexter bottles had been requisitioned, Briti ottles were received, and, to avoid further delays, they were used. Only 3,000 vials of sodium citrate solution with beads were received, instead of the 10,000 necessary for the 350 (reusable) transfusion sets to be supplied to each field army. we British viele, which were substituted, were the same size as the U.S. vials but had to be repacked because the British packing was undesirably bulky. The instructions to be included in each set did not arrive at Thatcham until 14 February, several weeks after the assembly of the sets had begun. In April 1044, the prospects were that it would take 10 months for British firms to fill the order for 70,000 Welsbach gas mantles to be used as filters. The 15-gage needles to be substituted for the 17-gage needles originally used were requested from the Zone of Interior on air priority, but they were still not available by the end of August. Special requeste had to be placed in April and May for such items as 3,800 adapters to be used to attach the Luer needle to the rubber tubing in the units. Shortages of blood donor needles, filters, and rubber tubing continued even after D-day until they were corrected by shipments of whole blood from the Zone of Interior.

Allowances and Distribution

There was considerable transfusion sets was settled to supply 2 sets to each 750-bed), and field hospital,

discussion on the matter before the distribution of in the European theater. The original plan was clearing company, evacuation hospital (400-bed, and 10 sets to each auxiliary surgical group (82).

20 for each auxiliary surgical group. It was estimated that 350 field transfusion sets would be needed for each of the two field armies then contemplated (83). In January 1944, these estimates were expanded. On the basis that 2 casualties out of each 10 would require transfusion, it was estimated that about 20,000 sets would be needed for each 100,000 expected casualties, which meant that 4,000 seta should be ordered at once (84). It was then expected that sterile expendable transfusion sets would be ready for distribution in February and could be supplied to hospitals and used as replacements for the field transfusion sets then packaged in ammunition cases. The suggestion that station and general hospitels be provided with field transfusion units was not accepted, since whole blood transfusions could be accomplished in them by modified Britiah sets, which would be requisitioned

EUROPEAN

THEATER

545

through channels from the British Army Transfusion Service (p. 179). These hospitals were so equipped, furthermore, that they could clean and sterilize their own equipment. By 13 March 1944, all field transfusion units had been completelyassembled at Thatcham (84). They differed from the units originally planned in tw respects: That the amount of typing serum was sufficient for only 25 donors, not for 50, and that, because of shortages, citrate had been secured from

British and not U.S. sources, which decreased the number of transfusions pos-

sible with each set from 18 to 10 or 11. Individuel organizations, however, could requisition additional citrate and typing sera as needed. The 175 transfusion sets requisitioned by the First U.S. Army were delivered to it about the time expendable transfusion sets were first received from the Zone of Interior. The latter were in very short supply—by 11 May, only 1,815 of the 4,000 sets requisitioned on 20 January had been received in the theater—and, or this and other reasons, it was not considered advisable to replace the Ehert-Emereon sets already delivered to the First US. Army. The

S. Army, however, which had requisitioned 250 of the field transfusion

units, was supplied with the expendable sets, on the basis of two of the disposable sets for each of the field transfusion sets requisitioned. When the First U.S. Army required replacements, it, too, would be provided with the disposable sets. All problems of this kind were eliminated when blood began to be flown from the United States to the European theater, since disposable giving sets were included with each unit of blood.

ROLE

OF THE

SUPPLY

DIVISION IN THE PROGRAM

WHOLE

BLOOD

Initial Planning While the whole blood program in the European theater could not have been operated without the aid of the Supply Division, Office of the Chief ae ETOUSA, this division had no responsibility at all for the collection, processing, storage, or distribution of blood (78). That was the responsibility of the ETOUSA Blood Bank, at the 152d Station Hospital, with the later support of the 127th Station Hospital. The function of the Supply Division was t 1. ta the 2. 3.

To blood from the Zone of Interior and the blood bank at Salisbury according cuant for it from the field. To ecessary supplies for the operation of the bank. To nd logistically in securing transportation for the blood.

The relation of the Supply Division to the blood program first appeared in a memorandum from Headquarters, ETOUSA, to the Commanding General, First U.S. Army, dated 2 Tenuary 191944 and dealing with the provision of whole blood from the Medical Service (92, 86). In this memorandum, it was stated

546

BLOOD

PROGRAM

that whole blood would be an item of medical supply which would be distributed On 17 March 1944, in a conference between Colonel Muckenfuss and Major Hardin, it was agreed thet all requests for supplies of whole blood should proceed through the same channels as requests for medical supplies. On 12 April, this understanding was expanded to indicate thet “through normal

channels” meant that requisitions would proceed from the Continent to Head-

quarters, G-4, SOS, where they would be extracted, sent to the theater chief surgeon’s office, and then relayed to the base blood depot. This procedure, it

was estimated, ‘would consume 48 hours.

Early in March 1944, the Supply Division began to plan for the delivery of blood from the blood bank at Salisbury to the Continent via Depot G45 at Thatcham (78). It would be the responsibility of the blood bank to get the blood to this depot and the responsibility of supply personnel at Thatcham to see that it was loaded on the plane and that provisions were made for icing the blood from this point until it reached the Continent. When blood was shipped from the bank at Salisbury, and later, when it was shipped from the Zone of Interior, it was the responsibility of the Supply Division to see that it was properly iced along the way. If any shipment of blood was improperly iced or was mishandled for any other reason, it was the responsibility of the Supply Division to investigate the circumstances and correct them if the division was responsible; if not, the blood bank was informed

Implementation of Plans The assignment of planes in which blood was transported to the Continent cleared through the office of Colonel Hays, not only because of the priority for blood but also because of the Priority of other supplies, partievlarly penicillin, which were sent to the Continent on an emergency basis. nel of the Supply Division soon learned cat, when planes were difficult to prprocure, blood and penicillin were both magic N o difficulties arose in the relation of the blood program to supply channels as long as the blood bank remainedet Salisbury. In September, when the 152d Station rosetta blood bank moved to the Continent, some misunderstandings develop On 23 September 1944, Colonel Kimbrough wrote the Executive Officer, Office of the Chief Surgeon, suggesting thet a circular letter be published, stating

that:

1 ahe 152d Station Hospital would operate the Continental Section of the ETOUSA Blood B Ma eforr Hardin, commanding officer of the hospital, would serve as director of the bm, in ecdition to his other dut ieal supervision of the t bank functions (that ia, procurement, processing, storage, end distribution of blood) would be the responsibility of the Professional Services Division, Office of the Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA.

EUROPEAN

THEATER

547

Colonel Hays objected to this proposal, on the ground that the division of responsibility within the Office of the Chief Surgeon was not a matter for a circular letter. In his opinion, the outside world should consider this office es an entity, and the division of responsibility and authority in it should be handled by an office memorandum. He called attention to Office Memorandum No. 10, 17 September 1944, over the signature of Colonel Doan, Executive Officer, Chief Surgeon’s Office, which stated that the Supply Division of this

office was responsible for the requisitioning of blood in adequate quantities to

meet requirements on the Continent and for its proper and timely distribution. These responsibilities would require intimate coordination with other divisions of the Office of the Chief Surgeon, especially by the Professional Services Division and the Plans and Operations Division. Associated divisions were reminded to keep the Chief of the Supply Division constantly acquainted with the situation as it applied to their particular activities. Any irregularities or suggested improvements in procedure which came to the attention of any one division should be transmitted to the responsible division As a result of the discussion, in which others participated, Office Memoren-

dum No. 10 was rescinded and Office Memorandum Ne. ‘8, dated 30 October 1944, was issued in its place.

In substance, it was as

le blood for transfusion purposes is obtained from needing on the hoof (local bedin, pom the United Kingdom Blood Bank at Salisbury, or from the United States . In the near ae, blood will be furnished by a brood bank on the Continent. (Asa matter of fact, by me this memorandum waa issue e Continental Blood Bank had already been set Tb an wae distribusing blood. ro vision t whole blood for tranafusion is a complicated procedure, involving the ciisblstenent 6 f technical sandra, with technical supervision of collection; preparation; storage; transportatio. and, finally,admin istration of the blood to the recipient. The divvision of reoponibity and authority * " in this p eedure {a a8 a. The Pr tandard: and for isi whole blood. b. The Supply Division teis veeponatble fervr the a vision of transportation, storage, and distribution of the blood. ce blood is chiefly transported by air, and since the same planes are used for the transportation of other medical supplies, the traneportation and distribution of blood and other medical supplies moved by air are very olosely related. . In carrying the duties necigned to bina, » the Senior Consultant in Blood Transfusion and Shock, ae Hardin,who is aleo commanding officer of the Continental Blood Ban. operate under the sper viaton of the he Professional Services Division and the Supply Divine a3 saat out!tiined. . All divisions of thisoffice (thatiis tte Office of ihe Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA), wil keep the Chief of the Profeccional Servi vision and the Chi e Supply Divia acquainted with any matter pertaining to hessupply or whole plood «willithin the division ot responsibility as just outlined. Information to higher echelons and instructions to Tower echelons, including requesta for information, will be routed through these channels. Major Hardinm:

‘the entire Temmonstbtity 717-400"

for the transfusion service in professional hands.

64_—

38

548

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Occasional difficulties continued to arise, but, on the whole, the relation of the whole blood program to supply channels was cooperative, and personnel of the blood program freely admitted their obligation to the Supply Division for ita successful operation.

SECURITY Unusual

activity in the blood

MEASURES

bank

would,

of course,

indication that the date of the invasion was approaching.

have

been

a clear

On 1 May 1944,

General Hawley wrote to the Commanding Officer, 1st Medical Laboratory (87), that the pony edition of Time for 24 April 1944 had carried an item to the effect that a recent ary run in the bank had been just for practice but that 3 weeks before the invasion, “the run ecome wet.” Obviously General Hawley wrote, after such an tO aunoouent no better indication be given to the enemy of the date of the impending invasion than fnuguraton of a stepped-up collection of blood. He found it veneer therefore, to direct that blood be collected on the maximum possible scale from this date until the invasion; otherwise, it would not be possible to resume collection until after the invasion. He requested all details concerning the origin of this statement and concerning the clearance of the particular correspondent responsible for it. In reply, Colonel Muckenfuss stated that no correspondent for this publication had ever visited the 1st Medical Laboratory; the term “dry run” had not been used in the laboratory for at least 3 months; small-scale bleedings had been made at frequent intervals; and blood could not be kept longer than 3 weeks, which made the statement about beginning to collect blood “in earnest’ 3 weeks before the invasion obviously incorrect. He could therefore throw no light on the source of the statement. He added that he had discussed the problem of security several times with Major Hardin, to decide on methods of minimizing evidences of unusual activity in the blood

bank.

Immediately after General Hawley's complaint was received, all bleeding jeans were sent out from the bank every day, to work all day and collect blood es in which there were only a few donors, who were bled behind ostentatiously locked doors. At the end of each long day, the few donations thus procured were rushed in clearly marked 500-pint refrigerators to the blood

bank.

Actual blood collection for the invesion began 20 days before D-day, but,

by Colonel Muckenfuss’

own ne, he was not informed of Major Hardin's

time schedule, and, as the latter expressed it in 1961, “T was the only person who ever knew when the blood bank was actually turned on.’

terally correct. rant something kr sh, pA

.

Dr. fer which this arva

1963:

bat At

EUROPEAN THEATER

549

HOUSEKEEPING As already mentioned

ARRANGEMENTS

(p. 499), the 152d Station Hospital, which served as

the ETOUSA Blood Bank, was attached for housekeeping and general adminis-

trative purposes as long as it was in England, to the 1st Medical Laboratory. ent was in effect for the 127th Station Hospital when it took over the blood bank functions of the 152d Station Hospital and the latter moved to the Continent. ifferent arrangemeuls were necessary when the 152d Stationprcepital moved to the Continent, in September 1044. The parent bank in Paris was then attached for housekeeping and administrative purposes to the 1st General

Hospital (p. 516).

The detachments of the two blood banks which operated in the field were attached for these purposes to any convenient medical supply depot, the commanding officers of which provided rations, quarters, space for blood storage, and other needs. These arrangements were highly satisfactory. The medical supply depots to which the d great assistance them. The mobility of the Army medical supply depots made the setup varticularly satisfactory, for the Army detachments of the blood banks also followed the armies which they served. Locations of station and evacuation hospitals were secured from the depots to which the detachments were attached, and some confusion sometimes arose. The revised directives for ADSEC detachments (54, 57) provided for atteching them for rations and administrative purposes to the units which but hap: pened to be uncomfortably correct.

actually ‘trrned on.’

For that reason,

As you can imagine, General Hawley was reasonably upset and he ordered me to People to know by obser ETO bloodbank wes

tle ec

4 hitber and yon,

was actually being collected. “The untts of the ETO bi

wale

They ere going. let me ne wo behind the wire and brief my units and, 29 ag 8B mutter of fac fact,‘take blood i ther fort | transport ecross the we landed our first depo most oewhieh were ‘LST’s cop verted to bi

tot vale

officers alrendy in that locality. antl) the invasion of Normandy My memory would occur.

Alter seen was 4 fast.

when to put 1 was forbidd it happened.

jpered

me to know when D-day ‘as taken to the middle of a large room by in wy ear. Taal as ae date f this date. of courso,

550

BLOOD

PROGRAM

operated Army Air resupply strips. This plan was quickly put into effect by an agreement between the Commanding General, Ninth Air Force, and the procedure for the rest of the war. It had meny advantages. The blood detachment could quickly unload the C-47’s which transported their daily supply of whole blood. The distance between this location and the banks in the Army area was short. Communications with Headquarters, ADSEC, and the base depot of the ETOUSA Blood Bank were almost immediately available. In order that commanding officers of these mobile blood units be unhampered by tight control, they were given relative freedom of action in planning their forward movements. The Surgeon, ADSEC, however, insisted upon

prior clearance for moves when the situation permitted, for station list and order purposes, and, in an occasional instance, tactical requirements demanded other dispositions than those planned.

EARLY

OPERATIONAL

DIFFICULTIES

As might have been expected, a number of problems arose in connection with the whole blood service in the first weeks of its operation. On 19 July 1944, a number of them were called to the attention of Col. (ater Brig. Gen.) John A. Rogera, MC, Surgeon, First U.S. Army, by General Hawley's office (88): vi

Trucks designated for blood were being required to carry out many repair parts,

diversified tasks,

time for the proper maintenance of these trucks and of the refrigerators mounted on them. If orem unwise® practice were continued, f {t could lead to serious interruptions in the blood pro; were available as replacements for these special trucks; they were cnet fea the dulivery of blood. . The motoroycles and jeeps designated for the blood bank hed been moved from ita contre

and h

value for

their

with using units, 3. The blood bank was not cart poated on the movement of forward hospitals, and they were gometimes difficult to loc wld help imeterially fin oe ey of blood ff the blood service were notified when 3 hospital tal woe closing and moving. jood in ia control could then be picked up and teTedistributed, and the hospital could be soaked it was again in operation. Bloo too precious a commodity for any of it to be wasted chrough preventable deterioration, It was evident, General Hawley concluded, that as more and more troops were committed, greater economy must be practiced in the use of blood. The limit of supply was fixed not by the organization which collec it but by the availability of suitable donors. That limit had almost been reached, and it was therefore requested that necessary action be taken towerd improving the efficiency of the blood service on the far shore. The memorandum from General Hawley’s office bore out complainta from members of the blood detachments. In Juno 1944, the commanding officer of one such detachment wrote to Major Hardin that his two motorcyclists had

EUROPEAN

THEATER

651

been placed on detached service and that he had just lost & sergeant. He wished no replacement for the latter, but if he had to have one, he wanted a private.

He still had no jeep.

His trucks were working well, but were getting

unnecessarily herd weer. w He wrote: Tn addition to h blood dered to h athe

to pick up laboratory specimens. d

We have

one oof the hospitals. We also carry parte and toola. We carry the men back to the depot or ifferent hospital. We still haul some re freight from the depot to advance sections or vice versa. We carry biologicals from th rip to the depot and optical repairs from the depot to the airstrip. We haul X-ray machines for repair and back. It wes increasingly difficult, the writer continued, to keep refrigerators in good condition because of damage caused to them by hauling freight. The trucks were kept on the road so much that their maintenance was as unsatis-

factory as the maintenance of the refrigerators.

It was also difficult to keep up with the increasing number of hospitals in the area, the writer went on, now that the blood detachment was on the same post as the base platoon of the medical depot and information as to hospitals was no longer secured from First U.S. Army Headquarters. Changes in location were often received late and were often incorrect. On a recent trip, one of the detachment trucks had spent the entire night searching for the hospital to which ita blood was consigned and did not find it until the next dey, when correct information about its location was secured. The writer found the failure of the Supply Division (headquarters not stated) to discuss proposed changes with blood personnel very discouraging: A recent ruling, for instance, that marmite cans be sent to field hospitals to increase the amount of blood to be kept on hand in them was as put into effect without previous notice. The result would be an increased lag in the return of these cans and an imbalance in both cans and recipient sets. This extremely pessimistic memorandum ended on a brighter note, that using hospitels seemed to be entirely satisfied with the blood service. The misuse of the trucks, however, of which the writer complained and which duplicated the experience of other detachments of the blood bank, further substantiated the importance of completely dissociating blood from medical supply.

INQUIRY

INTO

EFFICIENCY OF AIRLIFT THEATER

TO

EUROPEAN

On 8 January 1945, at the suggestion of Colonel Carter, who believed that the desired information would be expedited by personal communication, Major McGraw, who was now in the Office of The Surgeon General, wrote to Major

552

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Hardin asking for details of the operation of the oversea blood program (89). Up to that time, very little information had been received in the Office of The

Surgeon General regarding blood sent to the European theater. Indeed, not much was known about what happened to it after it was put on the oversea

plane. Improvements in handling were desirable and would information on the following points:

be facilitated by

. How long did It take plood to reach the ETOUSA Blood Bank? Presumably) | . should reach {ft in about 24 how ¢ if was put on the plane, but there must bem occasions when bad weather delayed shipmente eo route. If so, steps should be taken t to Prevent both warming and freeai! . Wer e all shipments received? (There was no assurance at the Present time thet be landed at an it desirable to send a courier with each. shipment? Personnel of the Neth Atricen Theater Blood Bank, with which Major McGraw had previously worked, considered it absolutely sesential that a respon Pern accompany each shipment of blood to northern Italy as well as to aouthern Fran It was the courier’s responsibility to see that the blood was properyhandled at t any emergensy landing field = route and to a to wi e plane could not put in at the regular ai each what condition did the Blood reach the theater? There was concern that some of it night be frozen or hemolyzed,or that some containers might be broken. 5. ugh blood being received? The Red Cross bad heard unofficially that there was someFacet ant in the European theater because less blood was shipped than had bean requested. The director of the Red Cross blood bank had reported this etory to The Surgeon General, who could only reply that the last request from. ETOUSA had been for Ma 00 bottles a day and that 1,000 bottles a day were being sent. The shipments could ased beyond this amount if the request was * Were the hospitals satisfied with the blcod? Were there hemolytio or pyrogenic >

In this same letter, information

was requested

concerning

titration prac-

tices. In Italy, a technique was employed by which it was possible to pick out about 30 percent of the highest titered O bloods. These bloods were

marked for the use of O recipients only. The practice had been adopted because of a severe hemolytic reaction in a patient with group A blood, who had received group O blood with a very bigh anti-A titer (p. 424) Most of these questions were answered by Capt. John Elliott, SnC, from ie observations in the European theater on his visit there later in January (90). They are discussed under appropriate headings. In general, his report wes

highly favorable. So far as he

could determine, no blood from the United

States hed been contaminated on receipt, nor had there been any errors in typing. About 18 bloods of each thousand had to be discarded because of hemoglobin in the supernatant plesma. Since it had been discovered in December 1944 that a amall number of bottles of blood hemolyzed rapidly, for no reason that could be discovered, the plan had been adopted of allowing all blood to sediment for 24 hours before it was shipped out of the Paris Blood Bank (91). Each bottle was then examined visually before it left the bank.

EUROPEAN

THEATER

553

CLINICAL

PROBLEMS

Difficulties With Equipment On 27 June 1944, General Hawley requested G-4 to provide space on a plane the following day for Major Hardin to fly to the Continent. On his own visit, he had observed certain difficulties in the administration of blood, particularly maintenance of the proper rate of flow, which was a most important element in the procedure. He wished Major Hardin to investigate the trouble immediately. Major Hardin arrived on the far shore the following day, and, in fulfillment of General Hawley’s mission, visited the Office of the Surgeon, First U.S. Army; the 1st Medical Depot Company; the Advance Blood Bank (Detachment A) of the 152d Station Hospital; and the 45th, 67th, and 128th Evacuation Hospitals (92 In discussions with Colonel Crisler, Consultant in Surgery, First U.S. Army, Major Hardin learned that the difficulties in the blood program were chiefly in the administration of the blood, during which the rate of flow was frequently inadequate. Most observers considered the filter at fault, but Colonel Crisler, as well as Col. William G. Amspacher, MC, Chief of Plans and Operations, Office of the Surgeon, First U.S. Army, believed that the filter

was adequate and that the rate of flow was hampered by the size of the needle

and the adapter. Some officers complained that they had lost patients because the blood clotted. While the complaints were most prevalent on the beaches, there were also difficulties in hospitals and they continued for some time, even

after the Continental Blood Bank had been established. Some officers overcame

for filtration.

the

poor performance of the filter by using gauze

Others transferred the blood to salvarsan tubes for administra-

tion. Still others, who were in the majority, applied positive pressure by means of a Higginson syringe obtained from the field transfusion set or a sphygmomanometer b Results wit methods were about the same, but the use of positive pressure was not desirable because the tubing and adapters provided were not of a quality to withstand the pressure. When this expedient was employed, it was cormmon experience for the system to spring leaks, with the result that the transfusion had to be stopped and the blood being used had to be discarded. The solution would have | been the use of 15-gage needles, but they were not available until much let Major Hardin considered all of these cman justified. Transfusion should be a continuous and efficient procedur n the period immediately tinuous and efficient when expendable transfusion adequate filters and needlesof larger bore.

sets

were

supplied,

with

Colonel Cutler believed that bank blood which clotted did not contain a sufficient quantity of citrate solution. It is true that when blood began to be

554

BLOOD

PROGRAM

received from the Zone of Interior in Alsever’s solution, complaints of clotting

ceased. Many observers, however, continued to believe that it was not desirable to give blood diluted 50 percent by the preservative soluti When the expendable set was introduced, with the giving nese Attached directly to the rubber tubing, there was seldom any difficulty casualty who had good veins. When the veins were collapred, the situation

was different.

Since the needle was attached directly to the rubber tubing,

without a connecting observation tube, it was not easy to detach the needle and hook it up to asyringe, to facilitate location of the vein. Some modification of the set was necessary in circumstances. This was accomplished at some hospitals by cutting off “the needle attached to the rubber tubing and replacing it with the needle and observation tube from the plasma set. After the needle had been connected to the syringe and the vein located, the needle was attached to the Luer tip of the observation tube before the transfusion

was started. On

his

Aging of Blood visit

to

the European

theater

in September

1944

(1), Colonel

Kendrick was informed of two transfusion reactions, accompanied by cl and fever, which

had occurred in the Ist Platoon

and of eight similar reactions in 50 transfusions in

of the 60th Field Hospital,

the 12th Evacuation Hospital.

In discussions with the chiefs of the surgical and laboratory services in the hospitals involved, he learned that, in each instance, the blood was within 4 few deys of the expiration date, or beyond it. Most of the patients for whom it had been used had lost a great deal of blood, and they were transfused with the aging blood because of their extreme need

Further investigation revealed other special circumstances. Immediately after the service to Prestwick from the Zone of Interior had been inaugurated, there was a sharp reduction in the number of cesualties and e corresponding decrease in the requirements for whole blood. As a result, there was a lag in shipments from the United Kingdom to France, and some blood was stored for 8 or 9 days before it was sent to the far shore. At one time, even though the collection of blood in the United Kingdom was halted altogether, there was 8 backlog of 6,000 pints of blood in the United Kingdom. Major Hardin and Colonel Kendrick recommended that, beginning at once (26 September 1944), blood from the Zone of Interior be sent immediately

from Prestwick to France, the oldest blood on hand being shipped first, to be

e that it was used before the dating period expired. They further recommended that blood which could not reach hospitals in France before the expiration date be used in general hospitals in the United Kingdom, or, if ecessary, discarded entirely. It was expected thet, as the number of casualties again increased, the lag would be overcome. This did not happen immediately, however, and for a time, blood continued to be sent to the far shore which had aged a week or more before it reached the using hospitals.

EUROPEAN

THEATER

555

An additional difficulty in this connection was that, because of bad flying weather and the consequent delays, some blood hed already aged for several

deys in the Zone of Interior before it was flown to the United Kingdom.

The safety of using blood that was from 14 to 18 days old for exsanguinated casualties could not be readily determined from existing evidence. The impression prevailed that those casualties with depleted blood volume were more likely than others to have reactions after intravenous there

On

amount of free hemoglobin in it increases, as does the amount of plasma potessium. Although the normal human kidney will tolerate rather large quantities (up to 5 gm.) of hemoglobin without significant pathologic changes, the exsanguinated casualty probably has a much lower threshold for this substance. When anoxia is added to lowered blood pressure and decreased circulating blood volume in a casualty who has suffered severe hemorrhage, it is logical to assume that renal function will be impaired. Then, if blood with 50 to 100 mg. of free hemoglobin per 100 cc. is injected, there is o real increase of free hemoglobin in grams per volume, and kidney function is further impaired.

e result, reactions might be expected.

While this reasoning was recognized as purely conjectural,* it did suggest the need for providing greatly exsanguinated casualties with as fresh blood as possible. It also suggested the need for alkalinizing casualties who had sustained severe hemorrhage and had to be given 3-4 pints of blood over a short period. tour of First and Ninth U.S. Army installations in September 1944, Colonel Cutler expressed the opinion that field hospitals should be given whole blood, that is, ETOUSA blood, while evacuation hospitals, in which the need for blood was generally less acute, should be given preserved Zone of Interior blood, in which there were fewer corpuscles. No action was taken The whole subject of reactions is discussed in detail under that heading

(p. 649).

Use of Chilled Blood

Another subject brought up to Colonel Kendrick on his visit to the European theater in September 1944 was the use of chilled blood in exsanguinated patients. Clinical usage had demonstrated the safety of injecting blood at 30° to 43° F. (4° to 6° C.), and the practice was now routine in many civilian hospit The injection of chilled blood into patients in shock from exsanguination, who were in an unstable state and exposed to cold surroundings, had not yet been investigated. It seemed safe to conclude that this practice would produce no eet reactions, but the experience in field srt hed shown that it

g

tor the reactions

described.

dtoit.

Colonel

556

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Kendrick therefore recommended that, whenever time permitted, blood to be used in exsanguinated casualties be removed from the refrigerator an hour before the transfusion. This practice had its own elements of danger: Blood could be used safely after it had stood at room temperature for 2 or 3 hours, but in the rush of caring for many casualties at once, it might be overlooked and left out of the icebox until it was no longer safe to use.

Part VIII.

Statistical Data

QUANTITATIVE

USE

OF BLOOD

Initial Observations When it became evident, soon after the invasion of the Continent, that much more blood would be required for combat casualties than had T anticipated, the question naturally arose as to how efficiently the blood available

was being used.

On this point there were several opinions.

When Major Hardin returned from the trip to the Continent which he had begun on 28 June, he reported that he had not seen a single casualty ir whom transfusion had not been both helpful and desirable (92). It was being given to exsanguinated casualties to build up the hemogiobin level and restore lost blood volume and was also being used to combat gas gangrene. It did not appear to him that blood was being used to excess. Statistical data were not readily available, but in the three evacuation hospitals which he had visited, the ratio of blood to casualties was 1:4.7 and the ratio of plasma, 1:3.2. The ratio of blood to plasma was about 1:1-4. Since many casualties had received plasma before admission to the hospital, these ratios could not be accepted as entirely accurate. There was perhaps some justification for the hope that the use of smaller amounts of blood, backed up by plasma, might produce almost as good results as the use of whole blood. Perhaps a ratio of one unit of blood to three units of plasma might be considered by First U.S. Army medical personnel, since the supply of blood would always

be limited and the amount administered must be adjusted to the supply.

At about the same time as Major Hardin's ourveys Colonel Zollinger conducted an investigation of the relative use of plasm blood in forward hospitals (48). The shock teams which made the study erie that the ratio in field hospitals was 1.63:1 and in evacuation hospitals 1.34:1. More important than the actual figures was the opinion of the surgeons: A medical officer on one of the 3d Auxiliary Surgical Group teams, who had previously worked in North Africa and Sicily, stated that the greatest single medical blessing in the European theater was the availability of blood from the blood bank, which was making it possible to operate on, and save, casualties who would never have survived on plasma elon

EUROPEAN

THEATER

557

On 1 July 1944, General Hawley wrote Colonel Rogers, Surgeon, First U.S. Army, that on a recent trip to the Continent, Colonel Cutler had gained the impression, as he had on his own recent trip, that in some units blood was not being used economically. Since there was a limit to the amount that could be supplied, use must be proportionate to the supplies available. When Colonel Cutler transmitted Major Hardin's report (92) to General Hawley, he noted that the present ratio of blood to plasma indicated that only a little more plasma than blood was being given. He had expected that the amounts of plasma used would be at least. double the quantities of blood used. He considered the present usage of blood quite satisfactory, but the Professional Services Division must be constantly alert to be sure that this vuluable substance was being utilized correctly. Essential Technical Medical Data from the European theater for October 1944 (93) also had some criticism of the excessive amounts of blood used in some cases. Investigation had shown that, on the whole, if appreciable benefit were not obtained after 4 pints of blood had been transfused, a consultation should be requested, to determine whether prompt operation would not be the proper procedure. As time passed, the realization grew that, contrary to the first impression that blood was being used to excess, more was needed than had been given originally. By October 1944, shock teams were beginning to view more critically the necessity for correcting depleted blood volume by the use of whole blood, Canadian shock teams, working with apparatus for determining blood volume, had found that the reduction in severely wounded men averaged 33 percent, which was equivalent to a loss of 2,000 cc. in a man 5 [t. tall and weighing 70 kilograms. On the basis of this observation, the demand for blood by Army surgeons was not considered excessive.

Adjustment of Supply and Demand One of the problems of the blood program wes to supply blood in proportion to the need for it, since it is not a substance which can be stocked indefinitely. On 14 September 1944, General Hawley wrote General Kirk that, as soon as the supply of whole blood had been increased by the institution of the airlift from the United States on 21 August, the demand for it had decreased by about 75 percent, because of the slackening in combat (94). This had been a temporery situation. Now that the Firat U.S. Army was up against the Siegfried Line, it was expected that the need for blood would promptly increase

again

Even during slack periods in combat, when supply exceeded demand, care was taken to waste no blood. In December 1944, Colonel Kimbrough proposed, in a memorandum to Colonel Hays, that during such periods, general hospitals, which were required to supply their own blood, be provided with

blood from the Paris bank.

He had observed that whole blood was accumulat-

558

BLOOD

PROGRAM

ing for field use while at the same time general hospitals were having difficulty setting up blood panels. Colonel Liston, acting for General Hawley, concurred

in this recommendation, and it was put into effect. Shortly afterward, the Battle of the Bulge resulted in renewed demands for very lerge amounts of blood. Special and unexpected requirements for blood also sometimes arose.

Thus, in the spring of 1945, the 182d General Hospital reported an unusual

demand for blood, chiefly because of the malnourished condition of many liberated U.S. Army POW’s (prisoners of war). Tho real need for whole blood for wounded casualties is attested to by the experiences of individual forward hospitals. The 84th Field Hospital is an illustration. It landed on Omaha beach on 14 July 1944, operated for a short time with the First U.S. Army, and then was assigned to the Third U.S. Army. During August, it moved 13 times in support of the 79th Division Clearing Station. After 6 November 1944, it was assigned to the Seventh U.S. Army, in which it operated in support of division troops. No matter where it was serving, the personnel of this hospital found, month after month, that from 60 to 90 percent of the casualties it received were either in shock or had been in shock within the previous 6 f them had received plasma in forward installations, but almost without exception, they also needed large amounts of blood before they could be pronounced ready for operation.

CRITIQUE

ON THE

USE OF BLOOD

ON THE

CONTINENT

July-September 1944 Tn his tour of Army instellations on the far shore in September 1944, as the Special Representative on Blood and Plasma Transfusions to The Surgeon General, Colonel Kendrick made the following observations (7): . The quantity of protein fluid that can be injected into a casualty over a period of time without undue reactions varies because of individual tolerances. As much as 9 pints of blood and266 Pin ta of plasma can be safely given over a 24-hour period, depending upon » A casualty with av organically normal cardiovascular system, who haa suddenly become exsanguinated, can presumably tolerate the introduction of 3-4 liters of blood and plasma over a 24-hour period. If casualties whe‘pave suffered severe hemorrhage do not respond i tne mount of blood and plasma just mentioned, surgical consultation is necessary. © respond may be due to ontinued hem:orate fF to the results of severe tiasue daroage * ea prompt surgical intervention may be n: 4. Observations in field ard ‘evavuation eval hospitals in the First and Third U.S. Armies showed that excessive amounts of blood had sometimes been us The most impo t tingle factor in the picture was the timelag between wounding and the beginning of treat-

EUROPEAN

THEATER

559

Casualties seen fairly early, that is, within 3 hours after wounding, were frequently benefited cine ble in relatively large 2 amounts, 8&9 pints given in’ 2-4 hours. If, however, the had been long, up to 10-12 hours, very little improvement could be expected, even with enormous quantities ot blood. Some patients had been given 27 pints in 18-24 hours. From his observations on the Continent, Colonel Kendrick concluded: 1. From a practical standpoint, it was impossible to set arbitrary standards as to the relative quantities of plasma and blood an individual casualty should receive. The decision must be based upon individual evaluation of the amount of blood loss; the cessation or continuation of hemorrhage; the degree of shock; the blood pressure and pulse rate; the number and severity of the wounds; the timelag; and, most important, the general status of the patient. . If surgical consultation was requested when no improvement followed the transfusion of 3-4 pints of blood, tremendous quantities would not be used. without adequate justification.

AIRLIFT

TO THE

EUROPEAN

THEATER

The oversea service to ETOUSA from the Zone of Interior began on 21 August 1944 and ended on 10 May 1945. During this period, according to the Army Whole Blood Procurement Service, 201,105 pints of blood were flown across the Atlantic (teble 20). Tan iy 20.—Final consolidated report of monthly shipments to ETOUSA, Procurement Service, £21 August 1944-10 May 1946 ‘Year and month

New York shipments.

Brooklyn shipments

2, 489 8,202 |.....---_7, 781 828 9, 034 3, 548 9, 936 3, 734 9, 9, 10, 9, 2, Total___._..

959 042 994 226 420

4, 301 4,244 5, 402 4, 608 786

79, 083

27, 316

Boston shipments

‘Washington shipments

Army Whole Blood

Baltimore shipments

4, 561 5,179 5, 519 6, 392

1, 3, 3, 4, 4,

002 048 096 668 688

7, 5, 6, 5, 1,

219 826 524 282 641

4, 881 3, 768 4,999 3, 499 1, 237

2, 487 2, 388 2, 591 1, 897 684

48, 143

34, 976

11, 587

Total shipments

3, 15, 16, 22, 26,

581 911 884 769 290

28, 25, 30, 24, 6,

847 268 510 407 738

201, 105

560

BLOOD

PROGRAM

For the week ending 26 August 1944, the first week of the service, 1,627 pints of blood were shipped, a daily average of 271. For the next week, the total shipped was 3,017 pints, a daily average of 503. During the week ending 18 November, 6,150 bottles were shipped, a daily average of 1,025. During 25 days of collections in December, 26,657 pints were shipped, an average of 1,066 bleedings per working day. The highest point in shipments was reached during the week ending 3 March 1945, when 7,230 pints were shipped to the European theater. By the end of January 1945, the theater was receiving an average of 6,000 pints of blood per week, even though bad fiying conditions sometimes forced the Air Transport Command to suspend deliveries for 1 to 3 days at a time. On 24 January 1945, General Hawley wrote General Kirk that the whole blood transfusion setup, from supply to administration to the patient, was “one of the happiest situations’ in the theater, and that his (General Kirk’s) office had played the dominant role in it. At this point it is necessary to repeat the statement, made several times previously, that the statistical data in this volume, while as complete and as correct as possible, are not always complete and are sometimes in conflict. In table 20, for instance, which represents the final report of the Army Whole Blood Procurement Service for the entire period of the airlift to Europe, the total number of units of blood shipped is put at 201,105. In the official history of the American Red Cross Blood Donor Service (95), the number is put at 205,907 (p. 101). The explanation of this discrepancy is probably that some of the bloods collected for this purpose were, for one reason or another, not used in the airlift In theaters of operations, the circumstances in which blood was given were simply not conducive to accurate recording. The reader, therefore, is cautioned against accepting as numerically accurate all the data presented, though he is entirely safe in accepting as accurate the trends that they represent.

PRODUCTION

OF ETOUSA

BLOOD

BANK

Table 21 is a record of the production of blood by the ETOUSA Blood Bank operated in the United Kingdom first by the 152d Station Hospital and later by the 127th Station Hospital, and operated on the Continent by the 152d Station Hospite (64, 55, 57, 96). Table 22 is a record of all deliveries of blood to and on the Continent by the

ETOUSA Blood Bank and from the Zone of Interior via Prestwi

EUROPEAN

THEATER

561

TABLE 21.—Production and distribution of blood, ETOUSA 1946 (57)

Blood Bank, April 1944~June

United Kingdom Section ! distribution— ‘Year and month

On Continent}

7, 650 11, 890 13, 018 5, 359 &, 150 7,910 11, 550 12, 9, 6, 8, 1, Total. __----.---------

In United Kingdom

Total

Total Coerton, e distribution |

20 1, 790 3, 945 106 411 515 748 573 650

100 464 677 162 764

709 515 1, 278 1, 602 806 6

103, 694

14, 475

12, 9, 7, 9, 2,

B09 979 955 764 570 6

3,977 91 2, 704 27 435 1, 054

118, 169

12, 466

plood bade distribution

1, 11, 12, 13, 5, 8, 12, 12,

20 790 695 796 429 874 899 661 200

16, 10, 10, 9, 3, 1,

786 070 659 791 005 060

130, 635

‘ Operated by 152d 4 Opernted by 152d Station Hospital.

USE

OF BLOOD

IN ARMY

INSTALLATIONS

In analyzing the statistical date for the use of blood in the individual armies (tables 23-26) and the combined armies (teble 27) on the Continent uring the period of combat, a number of points should be borne in mind (96): . During the firat 3 months efter D-day—that is, until almost the end of August tot the supply of blood was limited. Sometimes it was extremely limited. A great deal more should have been used than was used, but it was not available. In June 1944, the ratio of blood to woun desirable tatio but because that was all the blood there was to use. This ratio gradually changed. For the remainder of the war it averaged out at 1:1.6. In February 1946, it became 1:1, and it remained at this level thereafter. 2, There was no regularity or uniformity in a distribution of blood to using unite This was because the amount delivered was al in direct response to the collective demands of the forward Bema which were based, in turn, on timated cagualities. x casualties did not materialize ected, then the amount of blood asked for was excessiv The blood had to be requisitioned, 1however, if it was thouught that it it would be needed. | Tt was utilized elaewhere whenever possible, could not be taken into consideration when the amount of blood to be requisitioned was culated.

PROGRAM BLOOD 562

zeo'2 662 ‘9 2826 262% evo ‘%

cat‘t e6e‘9 806‘8 609+ zze‘9

aig 0 oF e | 126% | OOZ'T | zeg‘'T | gez‘T |

1390,

quuow pow 20,

Bo rrr rrr scare ssen eune 908 [ccc AB BOOT fo Tndy BaZ‘T [TTT Or SIg© 9 |---7TTTTT Tt Araniqe,g 602 9 f----7TTTTT Too Arenusp or61

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EUROPEAN

THEATER

563

TaBLE 23.—Ratios of blood delivered to admissions of wounded to forward hospitals, First U.S. Army, June 1944—May 1945 (96) ‘Year and manth

Admissions

1944

June. July.

Pints of blood delivered

Ratio of blood to wounded

24, 325 141, 034

August.

17, 667

‘ptember.

8, 819

November.

13, 197

October

B, 553

December

January. bru

16, 01

1945

11, 961 6, 537

‘arel

12, 367

April May.

9, 681 196

Total. .-----.------------------------

160, 254

TaBLE 24.—Ratios of blood delivered to admisei of d to f< Army, August 1944-May 1946 (96) } Year and month

August. September. tol November December. January. February. March April ‘ay.

Admissions

1944

6, 12, 4, 15, 11,

1946

Total_.___-_-------.-_...-.------.----.

307 409 003 127 955

d hospitals, Pints of blood

3, 5, 7, 8, 8,

Third U.S. Ratlo of 0 ood

604 643 866 058 776

17,378 10, 855 11, 430 5, 671 716

12, 139 10, 257 11, 798 7,140 2,498

|_-----------

96, 031

77, 777

1:1.2

Army (table 23).

564

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Tassie 25.—Ratios of blood delivered to admissions of wounded to forward hoapttale, Seventh U.S. Army, November 1944-May 1948 Year and month

November. December. Ji February.

1944

1945

April Total__.-....------------------------

TaBLe

26.—Ratios of blood

January. February arc! April

Pints of blood delivered

Ratlo of blood to wounded

5, 560 8, 168

8, 521 11, 238

16:1 14:1

8, 4, 7, 8,

206 983 913 810 438

11,017 7, 834 11, 205 11, 729 3, 188

1.3:1 1.6:1 14:1 1.3:1 |------------

44, 087

64, 732

1.4:1

delivered to admissiona of wounded to forward hospitals, Ninth rmy, September 1944-May 1945 (96)

Year and month

September. October November. D b

Admliasiong

1944

19465

Total. _.-_.---------.-.----22 eee --

Admissions

Pinta of blood delivered

2, 653 1, 614 6, 625 2, 728

1, 225 746 5, 436 3, 909

1, 657 4, 876 5, 072 5, 565 189

2, 4, 4, 6, 2,

30, 979

628 292 782 799 082

31, 899

Ratlo of blood to wounded

1:2.2 1:22 1:12 14:1 1.6:1 1:11 1:1.1 12:1 |.--_-------1:1

he more forward the hospital, the greater was its need for blood. This held not only ‘tor host the army zone but also for hospitals forward in the communications zone apie 22 armies increased their use of blood as they gained combat experience. Their ierena use° of availetie however, can be entirely explained onn the ground that blood available. The Seventh U.S. Army, which had come from the Mediterranean an theater, ‘whee 8 blood bank was in opeiation, and which had ‘pen served by its own blood bank before it came under ETOUSA operational control, consistently used proportionately larger amounts of blood than the other three armies in the European theater.

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565

Tasin 27.— Ratios of blood delivered to ad tastons of wounded to forward hospiiale, ail U.S. Armies, ETOUSA, “Vune 1044-May 1045 oo ‘Year and month

Admissions

1944

June

July

August.

24, 326

41, 034

13, 669

23, 971 14, 170

15, 907 21, 367

24, 064

September. Oo November.

40, 518

Deoember

37, 868

1945

Pints of blood delivered

January February___....--..----------- 0 eee eee March. _..__------.-. 2222-22-22 eee eee A May.

30, 202 27, 251 36, 782 20, 627 1,530)

Total. ._..._.---.-.------------------

340, 351

»

»

31, 868 32, 26, 36, 32, 9,

Ratlo of blood to wounded

1:3. 9

1:3

1:28

1:23 isl b4

1:12

611 1:12 992 Mil 601 Il 444 Led 221 |..-.-_-_----

266, 238

1:1. 33

The combined figures for the use of blood in all four armies in the European theater (table 27) are more representative of the total use of blood during the riod of combat than the reports for individual armies. The ratio for May 1945 has been omitted for all armies, for two reasons. The first is that the cessation of hostilities was not immediately reflected in the discontinuance of shipments of blood from the Zone of Interior. The second is that in May,a

great deal of blood was used for nonbattle casualties, particularly malnourished "s (recovered Allied military personnel).

It is believed that the combined ratio “of 1: 1 38 provides a fairly accurate

estimate of the demand for blood in all army ar Easential Technical Medical Data for the European theater for September 1944 stated that nothing had given forward medical unite greater satisfaction than their ability to administer to casualties the whole blood they needed (97).

It was hoped that this information would be publicized in the Zone of Interior,

for, without the blood from that source, the mortality rate would have been much higher and the morbidity much greater. The same issue contained an analysis of the use of blood in (1) 213 casualties treated in the 13th, 42d, and 47th Field Hospitals for the period 26 July-18 August 1944 and (2) 221 casualties treated in the 2d, 5th, and 97th Evacuation Hospitals for the period 26 July-14 August 1944. All casualties were nontransportable. Not all data are complete for all items, but the analysis is nonetheless very informative.

566

BLOOD All the casualties were in shock.

In the field hospitals,

PROGRAM

57 were in first

degree shock, 34 in second degree shock, 31 in third degree shock, and 8 in fourth

degree

shock.

were 28, 41, 41, and 2

ra

the evacuation

he timelag from + vounding

hospitals,

the corresponding

figures

to admission averaged 8 hours in 175 patients

patients in field hospitals and 13 hours in 189 patients in evacuation hospitals. An average of 1.07 pints of plasma had been given in the clearing station to 138 patients received in field hospitals, and an average of 1.3 pints had been given to 131 received in evacuation hospitals. An average of 1.5 pints was given to 197 patients after they reached the field hospital, and an average of 3.6 pints was given to 198 after they reached evacuation hospitals. The total amount of plasma used in field hospitals was thus 302 pints and in evacuation

hospitals 715 pints.

The total for both clearing stations and boepitale was 451

pints for field hospitals and 892 pints for evacuation hospit: An average of 2.34 pints of blood was given to each of the 213 casualties treated in field hospitals and an average of 2.6 pints to each of the 221 treated in

evacuation hospitals.

The total amount of blood used in field hospitals was

501 pints and in evacuation hospitals 580 pints. The ratio of plasma to blood was 1.63: Li in field hospitals and 1.34:1 in evacuation hospitals. When the amount of plasma used in clearing stations is included, the finel ratio of plasma to blood was 1:1 in field hospitals and 1.53:1

in evacuation hospitals.

ere were two reactions to plasma in field hospitals and the same number in evacuation hospitals. For whole blood, the respective figures are 8 and 5.

There were 92 deaths in the 434 casualties, 41 in the 213 treated in fidd

hospitals and 51 in the 221 treated in evacuation hospitals. In all, 184 patients were operated on in the field hospitals and 198 in the evacuation hospitals. Of the 25 casualties who died without operation, 8 died in field hospitals and 17 in evacuation hospitals. Four deaths occurred during operation, three in the field hospitals and one in an evacuation hospital. Of the 63 deaths which

oveurred after operation, 30 occurred in field hospitals and 33 in evacuation

hospit. The extremely high mortality rate in evacuation hospitals, closely comparable to that in the field hospitals, is explained by the fact that the evacuation hospitals in this series, contrary to the usual practice, were receiving nontransportable casualties and in effect serving as field hospitels.

LOSSES

OF PRESERVED

BLOOD

n an operation of such magnitude as furnishing blood for the European theater, conducted on two continents and across an ocean, a certain amount of wastage and Joss was inevitable, but in the ETOUSA experience, it waa

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567

surprisingly small. One plane crash on 30 November 1944 destroyed 1,146 bottles of blood, but this was practically the only loss of the kind during the whole procedure. So far as possible, requests for blood from the Zone of Interior were calculated on the basis of anticipated needs, and the calculations, with the adjustment of supply and demand, were remarkably accurate. In September 1944, for instance, shortly after the program had been instituted, daily shipments from the United States were running well ahead of needs, and the program was slowed accordingly. In late October 1944, Colonel Kendrick, then on temporary duty in the European theater, reported that increased quantities of blood would shortly be needed, and ‘the daily requirements were therefore steppedup. In both the United Kingdom bank and the Continental bank, there was also an endeavor to adjust the daily bleedings to the anticipated demand. While only group O blood was used in combat zones, blood collected that was of other than O type was distributed to selected hospitals, especially those in the United Kingdom. As pointed out elsewhere, whenever this was done, a Tepresentative 0 of the blood bank visited the hospital to warn personnel that he blood be crossmatched before it was used. During the last 6 months of the operation of the blood bank, not a single pint of non-O blood was discarded in the United Kingdom. The de mand for odd types of blood never reached signiicant proportions on the Con! n all, about 4,000 pints of outdated blood were used for plasma. About 3,000 pints were discarded because of hemolysis or because the blood was serologically positive. Some blood was also lost because of breakage, and some because of failure of refrigeration. The total loss of blood in the 316,799 pints which were collected in, or passed through, the ETOUSA Blood Bank was probably in the neighborhood of 15 percent. Because of the short storage period of blood, it is doubtful that any better results could have been expected

ODD

BLOODS

OF the 130,635 pints of blood collected by the United Kingdom Section of the blood bank, 110,878 pints were collected before 1 April 1945 (96). Up to this time, Blood was collected only from donors whose identification tags were stamped as type O. In this amount of blood there were 6,607 pints of so-called odd blood, that is, though it was drawn from donors whose identifica: tion tags were stamped group O, the blood was of other types. This fi represents an error of 5.96 percent in the original typing of the blood. The error in the blood collected by the Continental Section of the blood bank wes substantially the sam: All odd bloods were distributed to local hospitals.

568

BLOOD

SEROLOGICALLY

POSITIVE

PROGRAM

BLOOD

Serologic tests were positive in 574 pints (0.47 percent) of the blood collected by “the United Kingdom Section of the blood bank and in 95 (0.62 percent) of that collected by the Continental Section. Another 57 pints (0.37 percent) were classified as serologically doubtful. All serologically positive blood was discarded.

SUMMARIZED

STATISTICAL

EXPERIENCES

The experience in the European theater was Considered in 1946 to the following conclusions in respect to the provision of whole blood in 96): For planning purposes, in the kind of warfere encountered theater, the only safe calculation of requirements is the provision of 1

blood for each casualty.

justify warfare in this pint of

. This means that a field army in action will require about 500 pints of blood daily. 3. This heavy demand seldom exists for longer than 8 consecutive days. About 400 pints will be needed during the first 24 hours of an operation, about 800 pints between the third and sixth days, and the same amount for the next 2or3 days. Thon the need will decrease rapidly. 4, In the event of a breakthrough, particularly an armored breakthrough, the demand falls off sharply, to 300 pints a day or less. 5. When infantry attack prepared positions, particularly when they must cross minefields, a large proportion of the wounded, probably about 20 percent, will require transfusion. 6. Whole blood requirements can be supplied only by careful calculations of daily needs. The short storage period of blood precludes the forward movement of lerge amounts until it is known that they will be needed. To stock all advance blood banks at ell times with the maximum amounts likely to be needed could not be tolerated. It would result in tremendous losses, by aging, of a scarce and precious commodity.

Part IX. Special Experiences * There were no hospitals in the field, evacuation, or general categories that did not profit from the supply of whole blood for their casualties. This generalization is so valid that when one comes to select unit experiences to use as illustrations, it is extremely difficult to make the choice. For any of the histories related in the following pages, a dozen others could have been selected ind would have carried quite as much conviction. in The Historical Unit, U.8, Army Medical Service, Washington, D.C,

Allare on file

EUROPEAN

THEATER

560

FIELD HOSPITALS 11th Field Hospital At the 11th Field Hospital, during 1944, 2,532 nontranaportable casualties received 8,591,300 oc. of blood in 8,025 transfusions. Almost all of it was furnished by the faithful consistent operation of mobile blood units. For many casualties, the availability of whole blood made the difference between life and death. A 24-hour supply o of blood was delivered daily, yeu between 36 to 48 botties, with an occasional expansion of the requisition, during perlode of stress, to 60 bottles. If the supply of bank blood ran TOW, fresh blood was drawn from hospital personnel and members of the clearing company. henever time permitted, blood was also drawn from these personnel for use in casualties with type A blo od, Jo in thie

}

seal with

of the many bl & he p ion of ion kidney and other transfusion reactions. Lower nephron ee bresie eo ed in casualties with type A blood more oes than incauatee with other types of blood, eapecially when large quantities of O blood ha been give: ‘he actions | occurred in spite or we apparent complete compatibility 9f the blood ‘ed, aa shown by mi ie crossto. he age of the blood wasa not & positive ‘edenof the likelihood of transfusion incompatibility. lewwas generally true that the more recent the blood, the less was the likelihood of transfusion reaction. At times, however, blood that had been drawn very recently produced legree of hemolysie proved an extremely highly undesirable effects. On the whole, the de; The small number ofrection "observed ini 80 many and such massive transfusions was both surprising and gratifyin,

56th Field Hospital Many remarkable instances of recovery after apparently lethal wounds could be attributed to a combination of whole blood and good surgery. A casualty at the 56th Field Hospital illustrates this point. Whe he was first seen, he was in deep shock from loss of bl He had multiple large laverated wounds of the lower extremities; multiple fractures of the pelvis; and multiplee perforations 8 of the cecum, ileum, and jejunum. He was rapidly resuscitated ie bsp level of operability by multiple simulteneous transfusions of whole blood, afte: tomy was performed and the intestinal perforations closed. His » renesious condition die not permit any surgical procedure on the extremity wounds at thia time, and they were simply cleansed by irrigation. The necessary additional surgery was done several days la’ This m: men 's recovery was entirely uneventful, us and he was in excellent condition when he general hospital prepared him for operation, he, and many others like him, would surely have died.

77th Field Hospital The experience off the 77th Field Hospital ia an| interesting example of the value of plasma In wounded c ssualties This hospital oeitved in France on 25 Mareh 1945 and shortly afterward pews receive RAMP’s. It was immediately evident that malnutrition of all grades of coverity, complicated by many types of infection, was ta be the principal ‘herapeutic problem Beoause of the limited facilities of a field hospital laboratory, was not possible to study the. blood protein and blood chloride levels ‘in | the first pavients teceived. Most of

570

BLOOD

PROGRAM

them were in serious condition, and many were critjeally {l. anney were severely malnourished, dehydrated, and emaciated, and were suffering from Texia,nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Their low blood pressure, rapid pulse and respiration, end other algna suggestedsurgioal shock. The assumption was that they were suffering from a depletion of Blood ee and chlorides, and they were therefore treated with plasma and fh glucose lologic salt solution, which, it was soon learned, must be given fowly and i in small emounts. Before this was realized, five patients developed pulmonary edema during infusions or immediately after the fluid had been injected. Once the “infeal condition had improved, the infusions ould be given in larger amounts. The re: ti lie: Plasma was also wed &successfully in a few inatancee of severe nonbacterial‘diarrhea and in a few instances of nutritional edema. In all, 173 RAMP's were treated with plasme at the 77th Field Hospital, in unita of 300 cc. The average amount given was 2.15 units. The smallest amount, 200 cc., was given to & patient who went into cardiac failure after receiving this quantity by a very slow inwho had been vomiting for 3 days and who had had nonbacterial diarrhea for 80 days when he was received. There were no deatha among these RAMP’s

GENERAL

HOSPITALS

43d General Hospital When the 43d 1944, as e 1,500-bed Function and sponsibility for all

General Hospital was permanently reorganized in August hospital, a blood bank was set up in it. equipment.—The hospital laboratory had complete reactivity pertaining to blood transfusion except the care

and preparation of recipient sets, which was the responsibility of the central

supply service, and the actual administration of blood, which was a function of ward medical personnel. The laboratory, however, acted in a supervisory and advisory capacity in respect to both these activities, in an endeavor to control the incidence of pyrogenic reactions. h used in a seperate room, 7.5 by 18 feet, which was near the laboratory and which was arranged specifically for blood bank functions. There were facilities for bleeding two donors at the same time, for storage of donor seta and other equipment, for refrigeration, and for the handling of records. There were two built-in bleeding tables, each 13 feet long and wide enough to accommodate regulation operating table pads and still leave free space for the donor’s extended arm and the collection bottle. The pads were co with easily cleaned rubber sheeting. A cot was evailable in the corridor outside for fainting donors; it wes not needed vi Two single-compertment kerosene refrigerators were 6 used; one did not

prove adequate.

They gave reliable service but required a great deal of

careful attention. Losses by hemolysis emphasized the importance of constant refrigeration; 56 percent of the losa from this cause at the 43d General Hospital

occurred in September 1944, from power failure.

At this time, the electric

EUROPEAN

THEATER

refrigerator

used

reliable.

for storage wes

571 powered

by

French

current, which

was

not

By 1 January 1945, 70 donor sets were in use. This number was large enough to permit some sets to be out of use for minor repairs, and also to allow for possible foilure of sterilization facilities for 24 hours. Standard bottles containing citrate solution were used to collect blood. Personnel.—Personnel of the blood bank, in addition to medical officer personnel, consisted of a private, first class, and two technicians, fourth grade, who were essigned solely to the bank; another technician, fourth grade, who had other duties in addition to his blood bank duties; specialized assistants from the hematology and serology departments; anda German POW, who aseisted in washing glassware and sterilizing equipment. The three men ned full time to “he bank had complete charge of the procurement of donors; the collection and care of blood; maintenance of fauipment and, during their duty hours, the issuance of blood to the wi ank routine.—Blood was drawn each day in antieipation of immediate demands. The estimates were based upon the amount of blood used during the preceding 48 hours and the number of low hematocrits reported by the laboratory for the preceding 24 hours h afternoon for the number of donorsrequired, according ‘to blood groups, for the following day. They were secured from hospital personnel, army personnel in the staging area, and the POW enclosure. Donors from outside the hospital were transported to the laboratory in charge of one of the bank personnel. Donors were selected according to the blood groups listed on their identification tags, but each blood was retyped. A Kahn test was also run on each unit collected, and a thick smear was examined for malaria. Because of difficulty in anticipating demands for blood groups AB and B, it was occasionally necessary to use O blood for patients in these blood groups. In such cases, in addition to routine crossmatching, recipient cells were crossed with donor serum diluted 1:40, to eliminate the risk of a reaction caused by high-titer group O blood. All crossmatching and typing, except emergency nce were done by the seme technician. All crossmatchings were checked by a medi officer in the laboratory before the resulta were accepted. The Landsteiner or test tube method was used exclusively for crossmatching. This technique minimizes the occurrence of rouleaux formation and can be read immediately after centrifuging, which gives it an advantage over other techniques, all of which require at least a 30-minute wait. It was also considered more accurate than any other method. A ledger was kept in which were recorded the accession number of the donation, the donor’s name and organization, the date of bleeding, and the resulta of the laboratory tests. After the blood had been used, entries made opposite the flask number included the name of the recipient; the ward; the date of the transfusion; and, if a reaction had occurred, information about it.

17—400'_0138

572

BLOOD od was requisitioned on the ward by duplicate slips.

PROGRAM

The prospective

recipient’s blood was crossmatched with the vial of uncitrated blood tied to e flask selected for him. If the bloods were found compatible, the flask number was entered on the patient’s requisition. One clip waa returned to the ward, and the duplicate slip was placed in the benk file. When the ward was ready for the blood, the slip which had been sent back to it was brought to the bank and the appropriate flask of blood was issued.

The date end hour the blood left the bank were entered on the becks of both the werd slip and

the file slip.

The slip brought from the werd was returned

to the ward and placed on the patient’s chart. The duplicate slip was placed in the used file of the blood bank. These ward slips were collected from the

wards every morning by The slips used t

isition

personnel. the blood also

had

dat

reactions. on a reaction occurred, pertinent information regarding its type end severity was noted on the ward slip. This system insured that every reaction was reported and could be analyzed by the leboratory. Hemolytic reactions were differentiated from pyrogenic reactions by examination of the postreaction urine for hemoglobin and urobilinogen. Recipient and donor bloods were also retyped and recrossmetched, to eliminate any possibility of error in the original reports. When the type of reaction was definitely determined, the information was

placed on the back of the file slip, which was then placed in the permanent file. In cases in which no reactions hed occurred, duplicate slips were discarded at

the end of a month.

Statistical data —Of the 2,206 units of blood collected at the 438d General Hospital between 25 September and 31 December 1944, 1,029 came from U.S. personnel and 1,127 from German prisoners. All donations were voluntary,

and all requests for donors were filled with complete cooperation on the part

of both the donors and the officers in command of the organizations from which the blood was secured. U.S. Army personnel were furnished clean towels and bathing facilities and given hot food at the mess, but no whisky. German prisoners were given an extra . Of the 2,206 units of blood ‘collected during 1944, 1,931 had been used for transfusions by 81 December 1944. During November and December, an average of 3 pints of blood was given to each patient transfused. The largest amount given to any single patient was 15 uni in all, 193 units (8.7 percent) were discarded. Of these, 97 units were discarded because of overaging, 60 because of hemolysis, and the remainder for various other reasons, chiefly positive serology. There wero 126 reactions in the 1,931 transfusions given, 6.5 percent, 110 pyrogenic and the remainder allergic. Of the 110 pyrogenic reactions, 50 occurred during a single week in November. They were traced to the following

farults:

. Failure of ward personnel to dismantle

the giving sets and wash

thoroughly in tap water immediately after transfusions were completed.

them

EUROPEAN

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573

. Failure to prepare new rubber tubing for use by boiling it in sodium bicarbonate and rinsing it until the fluid returned clear. . Failure to inspect the sets adequately before they were reassembled for sterilization 4. Failure to rinse them finally in pyrogen-free distilled water or physiologic salt solution. When these errors, all of human origin, were corrected, the incidence of reactions at the 43d General Hospital returned to its normal low level.

227th General Hospital The 227th Genera] Hospital reached the Continent on 30 March 1945. It acted as an intermediate depot for the distribution of blood received from the ETOUSA Blood Bank and intended for use in the hospitals of the 813th

Hospital Center.

There was a heavy demand for blood at this time, but there

were ample supplies to meet it. In all, 1,524 bottles were dispensed between 10 April and 1 June, when the bank closed down. Thereafter, blood wes secured from officers and enlisted men in the hospital. Donations were generous, but

the ample supply of blood previously available had made procurement

seem

simple, and local donors were | tapidly used up. With the fine cooperation of radio stations at Marsei Nice, and Cannes, as well as other publicity, a panel of donors was secured which met the hospital needs, The hospital laboratory insisted upon complete control of the bank blood

from the moment it was received from the Paris bank until it was dispensed. Refrigeration

was regularly checked,

day

and night, every 2 hours.

Electric

refrigeration was more desirable than kerosene refrigeration, which had to be watched with particular care, but it was not always available. French current was not dependable, and two small electric refrigerators were secured and supplied with current from one of the hospital generators. Refrigeration problams

became minimel after the Paris bank began to send blood in the expendable

insulated boxes in which it was received from the Zone of Interior. A commercial source of ice was then utilized, and the boxes were re-iced daily. This hospital had one constant difficulty to combat, the production of distilled water. Fluctuations in water pressure, the extreme hardness of the water, the inadequacy of French electrical current, and the vulnerability of the stills taxed the beat efforts of olectricians, plumbers, maintenance men, and laboratory personnel. Their success, however, is attested by the fact that the 227th General Hospital supplied distilled water for several other hospitals in the vicinity in addition to providing for its own nee

298th General Hospital The experience of the 298th General Hospital, in general, paralleled that of most other general hospitals, with one exception: On 22 January 1945, when a. bottle of blood from the ETOUSA Blood Bank was being crossmatched for a

574

BLOOD

PROGRAM

patient with a spinal cord injury, the donor flask wes found to bear the name of upreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower. The Stars and Stripes, which reported the incident, said that the general had hoped, when he made the donation, that the disposition of the patient who might receive his blood would be better than his own. After he had received the 500-ce. transfusion, said the article, the patient was in good condition, and his disposition was excellent.

Part X.

Statement of the Theater General Board CONTENTS

The definitive statement on the whole blood service in the European theater is contained in the report of the General Board, U.S. Forces, European theater,*! set up by General Orders No. 128, issued on 17 June 1945, to prepare a factual analysis of the strategy, tactics, and administration employed by the U.S. Armed Forces in this theater. The following points were covered (98): 1. The importance of whole blood in the care of the wounded. 2. The Sreanization o1 of the whole blood service in the theater in the United Kingdom and o the Conti The operation of blood banka in base sections. The distribution of anole bloodon the Continent. 5. The determination of req utirementa of whole blood for continental operations, It was the conclusion of the Generel Board that the provisional organization for the supply of whole blood in the European theater was “eminently successful.”

RECOMMENDATIONS

The Board made the following recommendations for future operations: 1. That a T/O&E be authorized for an organization aimiler to the provisional base blood bank for the purpose of collecting and processing whole blood. 2, That whole blood be handled by medical depots operating in the forward communications zone areas and the Army area, since there is no justification for the distribution of whole blood through other than normal medical supply channels. The type of personnel and equipment employed in the European theater by edvance blood banks should be incorporated into the T/O&E of medical depot compani: 3. That a ratio of 1 pint of blood for each anticipated wounded admission be used for planning purposes.

COMMENT

Recommendation No. 2 is difficult for a clinician to accept (this board had no clinicians on it). It seems based on a complete failure to grasp the funda1 This study was prepared by Col. L. Holmes

Ginn, Jr., MC, cae

Medical Section, Chairman

Ma). Joseph J.

ofteer, 13th

Medical Depot

Sumad, MAC, Deputy Chairmen: and ist Lt, Joba Be Ward, MMAC. 6pecial eansnal Robert H. Barr, MO, Burgeon, vit Corps; Lt. Col. MAC, Commanding and Copt. William M. Hamilton, MAC, Medical uy Ottce Third U.S. Army.

Hays, Col;

EUROPEAN

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575

mental fact that blood is a perishable es well as a precious substance and that r both those reasons it must not be handled in normal medical supply channels. One need refer only to a single experience in the Philippines (p. 605) in which blood wes thus handled (that is, in normal medical channels) to realize e unwisdom of this recommendation. Had it been in effect in the European theater, ivi is highly doubtful that the whole blood program would have been as uccessful as the General Board concluded that it was. In fact, if there was a single conviction rooted in the minds of those who directed the whole blood program, it was that blood is a substance which requires special handling from the moment it is drawn until the moment it is administered. In the European theater, Medical Supply provided storage facilities and transportation, but the real responsibility for handling this perishable item, which could be lethal without proper supervision, belonged to the transfusion service, which operated under the overall direction of the theater blood bank. It is {nfortunate that the same policy was not employed in the Korean War

(p. 752).

References

1. Informal Routing Slip, Li. Col. D. B. Kendrick, MC, to Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 26 Sept. oat subject: Report of Trip to First U.S. Army Medical Installations. andum, Lt. Col. D. B. Kendrick, MC, for Col. B. N. Carter, MC, 5 Oct. 1943" subst "Tranaf elon of Whole Blood in the Theaters of Operations. . Circular Letter No. 108, Office of The Surgeon General, U.S. Army, 27 May 1943, oubjent Tronetvet usion of Wnele Blood in the Theaters of Operations . Memorandum,Lt. Col. D. B. Kendrick, MC, for Brig. Gen, Fred W. Rankin, 3 Nev. 1943, subject: Transfusion of Whole Blood in the Theaters of Operati 5. Memorandum, Brig. Gen. Fred W. Rankin for The Surgeon General, rf Nov. 1943, subject: rata non of Whole Blood in the Theaters of Operati 6. ites, ecting ° Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Selences, NRG 17 Nov. 7. orandum, Nie rig. Gen. Fred W. Rankin for The Surgeon General, 13 Nov. 1943, subject: MTreaefs usion of Whole Blood in the Theaters of Operation 8. Memorandum for the Record, Col. B. N. Carter, MC, 16 Deo. 1043, subject: Meeting With The pirgeon General and With Genera] Lull on the Subject of Whole Blood Transfusions in Theate: 2. Momanndun, Lt. Col. D. B. Kendrick, MC, for The Surgeon General, 17 Apr. 1044, subject: Trapsfusion of Whole Blood ini the Theaters of Oper: . Memorandum, Brig. Gen. F. W. Rankin, MC, for petrhe Surgeon General, 21 Apr. 1044, rubiet Transfusion of Whole Blood i in the "Theaters of Operations. Minutes, meeting of Committee on Transfusions, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 31 May 1940. 12. Minutes, ostng of Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 9 943, Minutes, serine of Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical See NRC, 24 Sept. 1943. 14. ual Report, Activities of the Transfusion Branch, Surgery Division, OTSG, fiscal rer Todd. 15. Memorandum, Capt. R. C. Hardin, MC, to Chief Consulting Surgeon, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 6 Mar. 1943, eubject: Transfusion Arrangements in U.S, Hospitals.

576

BLOOD

PROGRAM

16. Memorandum, Maj. W. A. H. Jayeott, RAMC, for Assistant Surgeon, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 8 June 1943, sublest Sunniies of Plasm: . Informal Routing Slip, Col. E. C. + MC, to Col. 7 C Kimbrough, MC, 30 Deo. Teds subject: Bloo ¢ Tranefusion Servi ‘nformal Routing Slip, Col. J. B. Meson, MC, for the Chief Surgeon, ETOUBSA, 6 Jan. ‘oe subject: Director of Whole Blood Service. 10. Cireular Let ter No. 51, Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, ETOUSA, 5 Apr. 1043, subject: Arrangements for Blood Banka and Transfusion in U.8. Army Hospitals. 20. Memorandum, Capt. it. C. Hardin, MC, to Col. E. C. Cutier, MC, 9 June 1843, subject: Provision for Procurement of Whole Blood for Transfusion in General Hospitalsi 0. . Em imernor Maj. C. P., MC,and Ebert, Maj. R. V.. MC: Operation of a Hospital Bleed Bank, Ps , No. 4 Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, ETOUSA, 1 Ta etter, Le ‘Col. W.8. Middleton, MC, to Dr. P. L. Mollison, 29 Jan. 1943, subject: Confer 28. “Cutler, E. C.: The Chief Consultant in Surgery. Jn Medical Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War II. Activities of Surgical Coneultente, Volume II. 8S. Gov 4. Memorandum, . E. C. Cutler, MG, oa» rig. Gen. P. R. Hawley, through Col. J. ©. Kimbrough, MC, 10 May 1945, subject: The Use and Procurement of Blood and Plasma for the ETO. 25. emorandum, Capt. R. C. Hardin, MO, to Col. E. C. Cutler, MC, 5 June 1943, subject: A Pian for the Procurement and Delivery of Whole Blood for a Continental Task Fores f trom the USA or U . Memorandum for the Record, Col. E. C. Cutler, MC, 29 Aug. 1943, subject: Project Preliminary Studies for the Procurement, Storage and Supply of Whole Blood to an ETO Combat Arm 27. Memorandum ‘tor the Record, Col. E. C. Cutler, MC, 13 Nov. 1943, subject: Blood Procurement ET! 28. Informal Routing Slip, Col. E. C. Cutler, MC, to Chief, Operations Division, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUBA, 13 Nov, 1943, subject: Whole Bloo 29. Informal Routing Slip, Col. J.B. Mason, MC, toProfessional Services Division, Office of Crit 8Surgeons ETOUSA, 18Nov. ne, Mees Wholle Bloos ‘nfor! mal Routi ta apjotee Meoviste P. R. for Com! mending Generel, S08, ETOUSA 26 Nov. 1943, subject: Provision of Wholevied for Battle Casualties, . Administrative and "Logistical History of the Medical § ervice, Communications Zone, European Theater of Operations, vol. 7, appendix1 {Official record.) 32. Memorandum, Lt. Col. R. P. Fisk, Adjutant ‘General 's Department, to Commanding veneraly Ist Army Group, 2 Jan. 1944, subject: Provision of Whole Biood for the Modieal Ser . Memorandw lum, Maj. R. C. Hardin, MC, to Operations Divisions Office of Chief Sure, ETOUSA, 17 Apr. 1944, sublect : Expansion ©of ETO Blood Bank . Official Diary, ETOUSA Blood Bank, ! a5, Memorandum for the Record, Col. E. C ‘Cate, MC, and Maj. R. C. Hardin, MC, 1 Aug. 1044, subject: Whole Blood from USA. formal Routing Slip, Col. J. C.. Kimbrough, MC, to Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, Apr. 1944, ele: Whole Blood Trans 37. Fifth U.S. Army Medical Service story, 1944. ae Fifth U.8. Army Medical Service History, 45. dum, Maj. . R. Hawiey for Professional Services Division, Ofce of cus Surgeon, ETOUSA, 28 Mer. 1944, subhoete"Blood Supply, and 2d and 3d Indors tents ther:

EUROPEAN

THEATER

577

. Operating Procedure, The Whole Blood Service, ETOUSA, Office of the Chief Sure, Cheratlons Divisio’ 1044, formal Routing Slip, Col. E. C. Cutler, MC, to Chief, Professional Services Diva, Ofte of Chiet ‘Surgeon, STOUR, 2 uly | 1944, a Bloo nformal Routing Slip, Col. J. C. Kimbrough, ‘MC, bd Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 12 Jae 1944, subject: Whole Blood ton Transfusion fromthe Z 43, Informal Routing Slip, Lt. Col. R. M. Zollinger, MC, to Surgeon, Forward Echelon, Headquarters, Communications Zone, 23 July 1944, subject: Evaluation of the Require. ment enta for Whole Blood in Army Hospitals . Informal Routing Slip, Col. J. Cc. Bimbrough, MC, to Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 31 say 1944, subject: Whole Blood Requi 5. Informal Routing Slip, Col. J. H. MeNinch, MC, to Personnel Division, fee of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 21 July 1944, subject: Return of Colonel E_ o Cutler, MC, Colonel William F. MacFee, MC, and Major Robert C. Hardin, MC, to Sta 6. Informal at Routing Slip, Col. H. W. Doan, MC, to G-4, 4 Aug. O44, subject: Request for Ord ~« Radi iogram, CG, U.S. Army, SOS in the British Isles, London, England, to War Deparment, Cc 84252, 2 Aug. 1944, subject: Request for Blood from Zone of Interior. 48. Letter, Maj. Gen. P. R. Hawley to Maj. Gen. N. T. Kirk, 5 Aug. 1044, subject: Request for Whole Blood from Zone of Interior. Maj. Gen. N, T. Kirk to Maj. “Gen. P. R. Hawley, 11 Aug. 1944, subject: 50. Radiogram, from AGWAR, from Kirk, signed Somervell for Hawley to Headquartera, Communications Zone, 79474SOSMC, C 84252, 13 Aug. 1044, subject: Whole Blood trom Zone of Interior. . Memorandum, rig. n. F. W. Rankin, for The Surgeon General, 3 Aug. 1944, mbit Provions for Supplying Whole Blood ok ETO f rom U.S. andum, 5 Sr MC, for Brig. Gen. F. W. Rankin, 4 Aun inne subject: "Plan {or Supplying Blood . Memorandum, Lt. Col. D. B. Kendrick, Metfor “Brig. Gen. F. W. Rankin, 23 Aug. 1944, subject: Conference on Peppy of Whole Blood for the ETO. . Annual Report, 152d Sta n Hospital, 11944 (ETO Blood Bank), 30 Jan. 1945, 55. Period Report, 152d Station "Hos pital (ETO Blood Bank), to The Surgeon General, ne 1945. 56. Annual Report, 127th Station Hospital (ETO a aai Bank U. , » ja, 19 Jan. ine 57. Annua port, nsfusion and Shock, from . RC. Consultant in eee Office of the Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, iW San oe . B.: Planning for the ETO Blood Bank. Mil. Surgeon 102: 460-467, June 1948, 59, Mason, v1 B.: aes Role of ADSECi in ihe Supply of Whole Blood to the Twelfth Army Group. il. Sur, 103: 9-14, July eport, Coataraee on the Operations Cr ihe Blood Bank held at 1st Medical Laboratory, § Apr.1 . Me aerandumn, Col. H. W. Doan, MC, to Surgeons, Twelfth Army Group; Third, First, nd Ninth U.S. Armies, ADSEC, Com Z; Base Sections (Continent), 30 Oct. 1944, sublects Supply of Whole Bloo . Letter, Lt. Col A. Viekoren, MC, to Commanding Officer, let Medical General Laboratory, 7 Mar 944, subject: srremeration of SOP for ETOUSA Whole Blood Service. 63. Adm: ave and Logistical History of the Medical Service, Communications Zone, European Thea: at Opeations vol. 7. [Official record.] Shainmark, : The Supply of Whole Blood to Forward Mobile Medical Field Unite ee the Ninth Us. x rmy. Mil. Surgeon 104: 14-16, July 1948.

578

BLOOD

PROGRAM

‘nformal Routing Bip, § Col. E. C. Cutler, MC, to Deputy Chief Surgeon, 24 Oct. 1043, Gal. “ C. Kimbrough,MC, to Deputy Chief Burgeon, 25 Oct. 1943; Brig. Gen. P. R. Hawley to Deputy Chief Sineeon, n.d.; and Col. E. C. Cutler, MC, to Chlef Surgeon, 31 Oct. 1948, subjects Donations of Blood by U.S. Troops to British Transfusion Service; Harmiess: f Blood Donations. 66. Letts ter, ter, Brig . Gen. P. R. Hawley, to Commanding General, 808, ETOUSA, November 1943, spubieet vy Establishment of the Blood Panel, ETOUSA. 67. . Gen. J, C. H. Lee,to Commanders, Channel Base Section, Eastern Base Beatin,ter tien Base Pevtion, and Southern Base Section, 15 Deo, 1943, subject: Volunteer Donetio ns of Blood 68. rette T, Maj. Gen. J. ‘c. H. Lee, to SOS, 16 Dee. 1943, subject: Volunteer Donations of B 69. Lanter, Brig. Gen. R. B. Lovett,to Baee Sections Commanders, SOS, ETOUSA, and HeadquartersCommandant, ETOUSA, 6 Apr. 1944, subject: Provision of Whole Blood for the Medical Servi 70. Letter, Col. H. W. Doan, MC, to Sr anes R. Fraser, 1 Feb. 1944, subject: Donations by U.S. Troops to British Transfusion Servi 71, Memorandum, Lt. Col. Thurman Shuller, MC, to Surgeon, 8th Air voree, & May 1944, subject: Blood Donors for the Britfah Red Cross, and $d indorsement ther 72. a Indorsement Col. J. C. Kimbrough, MC, 6 Sept. 1944, to basic totter, 26 Aug. 1944, eile of Prisoners of War aa Bloo nora. 73. Med: eal Doprtinents United States Army. Medical Supply in World War lI. [In preparation. 74. Memorandum, Col. J. B. Mason, MC, to the Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 4 Nov. 1943, 1 gublect: ealiver ry of Whole Blood to entinent, ETOUSA ‘ence, Whole Blood Service,E’ TOUR 22 Dec. 1048. \. reread Lt. Col. C. B. Meader,rt, MC, to Planning Branch, Oftce of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA , 10 Apr. 1944, subject: ehnmect of Medical Supplies by Air Transport. 77. Administrative and Logistical History of the Mec dieal Service, Ca ounteations Zone, European Theater of pperations, vol. 6. [Official rd.] 78. Letter, Lt. Col. L. H. rs, MAC, to G4, Suppiy Requirements Division, Head quarters,Com 2z (Forward), 1 gar ‘1944, subject: Diversion of Air Planes Carrying Bloo: 79. Informal Routing Slip, Col. 5. B ys, MC, to C4, Headquarters, ETOUBA, 2 Sept. 1944, cabs: Request for Future Simei of Blood to P: 80. Letter, Col. W. L. Perry, MC, The Adjutant General, ‘Washington, D.C., 25 Sept. it. et Project: Whole Blood Service for ETOUSA. » Inf ating Slip, Lt. Col. Robert M. Zollinger, MC, to Medical Supply Divivctention “Col L. Perry, MC, 20 Feb. 1944, aubject: Medical Supplies for Field Trante sion Kit. . Memo: , Lt. Col. Robert M. Zollinger, MC, to Surgeon, First U.S. Army, 17 Fon, 1944, beets "Concerning Distribution of Field Transfusion Units. 83. Memorandum, Lt. Col. Robert M. Zollinger, MC, to Col. E. c. Cutler, MC, 5 Nov. eat subject: Transfusion Units. . Me morandum, Lt. Col.Robert M. Zollinger, MC, to Medical Supply Division, 13 Jan. oa, subject: Blood Transfusion Set Sterile, Expendable). 85. Informal Routing Siip, Lt. Col. ert M. Zollinger, MC, to Plans and Training Division, attention: Lt. Col. A. Vickoren,nome, 13 Mar. 1944, subject: Concerning Field Units. - Administrative and Logistical History of the Medica! Service, Communications Zone, European Theater ne Operations, vol. 9. [Official 7. Memorandum, Maj. Gen. P. R. Bercy to Commanding Officer, lst Medical Laboratory, 1 May 1944, subject pation of Seew 88. Letter, Maj. Gen. P. wleey,to Col, J. "AL pogen MC, 19 July 1944. 0. Letter, Maj. J. J. MeGron, Jr., MC, to Maj. R. C. Hardin, MC, 8 Jan. 1045.

EUROPEAN

THEATER

579

90. Memorandum, Capt. John Elliott, SnC, to Chief, Surgical Consultants Division, Office of The Surgeon General, through Director, Army Medical School, 11 eb. 1945, subject: Transportation of Blood from the U.S. to the ETO Blood Bank in P. 92. ETMD, eroven for June 1944. 93. ETMD, ETOUSA, for October 1944. 94. potter, ‘Mel Gen. P. R. Hawley, to “The Surgeon General, 14 Sept. 1944, subject: Whole Bloo: 95. Robinson, G. C.: American Red inet Blood Dioner Service During World War II. Its Organization and Operation Washin : The American Red Cross, 1 July 1946. 96. Kendrick, Col. D. B.: History of Blows ond Plasma Program, United ‘States Army, During World War II, 1 Aug. 195 2 am ETMD, ETOUSA, for September 1944. . The General Board, United States Forces, European Theater: Study Number 93, Medieal Supply in he European Theater of Operations. Chapter 5, Whole Blood Service.

717-409"—84—40

CHAPTER

The

Pacific

Areas

and

XVII

the

China-Burma-India

eater THE NEW SOUTH WALES RED CROSS BLOOD TRANSFUSION SERVICE Organization and Techniques Since the first—and, for a time, the only—general supply of whole blood for U.S. Forces fighting in the Southwest Pacific came from the Re dd. Cro this blood bank in New South Wales, Australia, it is appropriate to chapter on the Pacific areas with a brief note on its organization and techniques

(1, 2).

The Australian blood service was instituted after a study of methods of ings which resulted in he selection of the dik dric sodium citrate-glucose solution recommended tby the Medical Research Council of Great Britain. 2. The development of a heavily insulated wooden box suitable for transblood

porting blood by air.

The blood of two donors (430 cc. each) was collected into a single 1,000-cc.

Soluvac bottle containing 200 ce. of 3-percent dihydric sodium citrate solution

and 40 cc. of 15-percent glucose solution. Only group O donors were used. The technician who drew the blood prepared himself by an extremely rigid aseptic technique and repeated the preparation before the second blood was collected. Processing included grouping, crossmatching, the Kline test, and sterility tests. As soon as the blood was drawn, it was placed in an electric icebox for 2 hours. It was then moved to the insulated box just mentioned. This box held ten 1,000-cc. flasks, and the 56 pounds of ice which it contained was

enough to keep the blood between 40° and 46° F. (4.5° and 8° C.) for 48 hours;

if the box was not exposed to the sun, the blood remained chilled for as long as

5 days. The ice was placed in the box at least 4 hours before the blood was to be dispatched, and, just before the blood wes packed, it was removed, crushed

into fine pieces, and replaced. Each box weighed 210 pounds packed and occupied 4.2 cu. ft. of space. The expiration date of the blood was arbitrarily set at 10 days from the date of collection. Blood considerably older was used in emergencies, with no report of ill effects, but the practice was not considered desirable; it was fully realized that the older the blood, the more advanced the cellular destruction and the biochemical changes, and the greater the risk of infection. Con-

582

BLOOD

PROGRAM

tamination was never a factor, and no reactions attributable toO moe per se were recorded. In fact, than the detailed preliminary p , there were very few difficulties of any kind when the transfusion service began active operation. Blood not used for transfusion was conver’ to serum (1), an the wastage factor was therefore kept very low. Rh-negative blood was supplied for Rh-negative casualties.

Distribution The first box of blood for use by Australian troops was flown from Australia to New Guinea in December 1942. Thereafter, blood was continuously dispatched to forward battle areas. After August 1943, it was also supplied to civilian hospitals and to private physicians in the Sydney metropolitan area, When the lines of communication became too long for supplies of blood to be flown directly to the battle areas, a relay station was set up in an advanced base (Finschhafen), where the blood was inspected, repacked, and then shipped forward. This unit was also equipped to bleed service troo Up to 1 December 1944, about 7,000 liters of blood had been flown from Sydney and Brisbane to combat operational arees.

PLANNING

FOR

LOCAL

SUPPLIES

OF BLOOD

The small supply of plasma available at Pearl Harbor (p. 338) was soon augmented by large quantities, and there were practically no shortages of item during the course of the war. Its portability, ease of administration, and the apparatus supplied with it made plasma an ideal agent in the circumstances a Pacific fighting (figs. 127-131). _Nonetheless, from the beginning of the , some medical officers in the P at there for r ahole blood. The transfusion service in this area» hed its inception in this ce] any instances in which plasma was d, it was employed because. whole blood was not immediately available, and time could not be lost finding » compatible donor, making the necessary tests, and drawing the blood.

First Proposals

The first proposal for a supply of whole blood procured locally in the Pacific came on 8 February 1943, when Col. Frederick H. Petters, MC, Surgeon, Bose Section No. 3, Brisbane, Australia, asked the commanding officers of the 105th and 42d General Hospitals their opinion of the feasibility of establishing a blood bank with donations oom nonmalarious troops in the area

(3).

Blood would be collected in

500-cc. amounts on e continuous

daily

basis and shipped by plane to advanced bases. The supply of donors in i the base was exhausted. The number of troops who could give blood had been depleted by loss of weight and possible malarial infection, and those available were being bled for a second time. It might be possible to identify a group of

PACIFIC

AREAS

583

Fiavure 127.—Preparation of plasma for administration to incoming casualties, 43d Division Hospital, Rendova, July 1943. nonmalarious donors, test them serologically, draw and package their blood, and forward it by plane, by the system the Australians had used so successfully. Replies from Col. Maurice C. Pincoffs, MC, Commanding Officer, 42d General Hospital (4), and Col. Raymond O.’Dart, MC, Commanding Officer, 105th General Hospital (5), stated that it would be perfectly feasible to ship blood to advanced bases by the plen proposed, but both specified that the entire procedure should be made the responsibility of personnel trained in the handling of blood at the base and at advanced bases. Either jointly or singly, Colonel Pincoffs and Colonel Dart also made the following 1. Some means of prompt communication should be arranged between the officers in chargeof blood at the base and at advanced bases, 80 thet. the tollestion ‘of blood could futunte ure the needs in the forward area. . Only group O and group A blood should be used, and collecting flasks should be provided in the. tatio of 60:40. Eighty-five percent of recipients would thus receive homologous blood.

584

BLOOD

Ficure 128.

anil Philippine

PROGRAM

of plasma to wouneed infantryman, Leyte, Islands, October1

3. Australian techniques should be investigated. If blood were colleoted in discard 1, 000-00. intravenous flasks, the amounts from two donors could be combined and would the intravenous fluid of choice, whole blood being given only in circumstances of extreme urgency. Specifications for marking the blood, maintenance of sterility, and other precautions were emphasized. 4, The blood should be refrigerated from collection e administration; in these circumstances, a dating period of 5 days would be considereds: &. Donors should be grouped, tested serologically, ane examined physically before the blood was drawn, preferably before breakfast, to avoid foreign protein reac’ Colonel Pincoffs did not believe that e system of volunteer donors would

stand up under heavy demands.

He recommended that hospitals draw blood

from their own detachments and that service troops, not including medical troops with detachments of active hospitals, should form donor pools. Colonel Dart estimated that, if the cooperation of all enlisted personnel at a hospital could be secured, there would be available daily 10 times 500 cc. of blood. If officers and patients were also used, daily availability would increase to 15 times 500 cc. These figures would be maximum, however, if the need were prolonged." 1 They proved to be overly optimistic.

PACIFIC

AREAS

585

Figure 129.—Administration of plasma to wounded Filipino with severe, almost fatal, wound from saber cut by Japanese officer, Manila, Philippine Islands, February 1945. On 23 February 1943, Col. Julius M. Blank, MC, Surgeon, Advanced Base, sent the following 1st indorsement to Brig. Gen. Guy B. Denit (6): 1. If whole blood were obtained from Australian sources and shipped to the advan base (a8 was done 11 months later), itwould be necessary to set up a small subbank in ua base, wi tion at 38° F. (3.5° C.). Such facilities did not then cue 2. 4 dar t ses 4 probably t hemolyzed at of 10 days after bleeding. If it were used, benefits would be reduced and the chances of acti increased. At the end of this period, however, it should be possible to remove the red moo cells on 50 the | residue if the proper facilities were available. . The use and the use of hole biload could therefore be limited to those patients with a marked reduotion in the cellular elements. 4, Authorities had set the level of transfusions below which it was not considered practical to establish a blood bank at 1,000 to 1,200 per annum. At the 10th Evecustion

586

BLOOD

—

PROGRAM

oo

Ficuae 130.—Administration of plasma to wounded U.8. soldier in courtyard of Walled City, Manila, Philippine Islands, February 1045. Hospital, 50 transfusions had been given to approximately 1,500 wounded in December 1942, and 44 had been given in January 1943. These ted to that the present supply of donors a was reduate and that, unless there was a sudden influx of coguasics ties, blood from tthe Australian bank was not needed.’ ly of blood on head. It was therefore vrenvemted that adequate sroreee | facilities be prov ided at the advanced base for a minimum of 25 Ilters of blood. Ifthe supply were replenished every 10 days, the tranafusion capacity per month would be 75 iliters. Arrangements could also be made with the Australian blood bank to provide blood to be fown up as requested by radiogram. In comments on these proposels on 2 March 1943, Maj. (later Col.) Wm. Barclay Parsons, MC (7), pointed out that the assumption that the donor supply was adequate seemed odd, since the paucity of donors had been the main reason for starting the discussion.

BLOOD

SUPPLY

FROM

AUSTRALIA

3 August 1943, the Surgeon, Subbase D (Port Moresby), was informed by Colonel Petters (8) that thereafter blood would be supplied regularly from 41 ls curious, tasfulnes.

that [t was pot

inarance of Its

PACIFIC

AREAS

587

Fiecure 131.—Administration of plasma to wounded U.S. soldier directly behind | frontlines near San Nicholas, Luzon, Philippinne Jelands, March 1945. i in the rear. Note: large bottle (500 cc.) of plasma.

the Australian Blood Bank Service, in amounts up to 200 liters per week, within 24 to 36 hours after it had been requested by radiogram. Instructions were given for refrigeration of the blood on arrivel; for its shipment forward

by air in insulated boxes, which would be supplied; and for a 10-day dating period. It was requested that surgeons in forward areas be informed of the

availability of the blood, all of which would be group O. Instructions for the use of the Australian Soluvac giving set were attached. Great emphasis was placed upon the proper cleansing of the equipment immediately after it had been used. On 22 January 1944, the Australian Blood Distribution Center operating at Port Moresby, New Guinea (map 4), began to supply preserved blood to U.S. troops located at bases within air reach. Delivery to them was by US. planes. When this operation began, the useful age of the blood was advanced from 10 to 15 days, it having been found that hemolysis seldom occurred earlier. By the original plan, 10 liters of blood were flown weekly to Milne Bay,

Oro Bay, and Finschheafen in New Guinea.

In July 1944, hospital ships

588

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Map 4,—Distribution of blood from Australian blood bank to Pacific areas and of locally collected blood from Hollandia. departing from Finschhafen and Hollandia to forward bases at which there had been recent activity were also stocked with blood. From the initiation of this service until it was discontinued in February 1945, U.S. bases in the Southwest Pacific received 2,310 liters of blood from Australia, about a quarter of their requirements, at a cost to the U.S. Army of $15 per liter (1).

PACIFIC

AREAS

27TH

589

GENERAL

HOSPITAL

BLOOD

BANK

The plan to use the 19th Medical General Laboratory for a blood bank at Hollandia, to support the Leyte operation, could not be carried out because this unit arrived in the area too late. The laboratory served as a blood bank,

however, after the final Japanese surrender and the end of shipments of blood

from the Zone of Interior in September 1945 (p. 629). The bank at the 27th Generel Hospital (fig. 132) began to function on 9 September 1944, about 5 weoks before the landings on Leyte were scheduled (1). Instructions for its operation were given in the standing operating procedures

Fiaune 132.—Dispensary housing blood bank at 27th General Hospital, Hollandia, New Guinea, January 1945. Laboratory is in background. Donors are waiting to be called. White containers on ground behin dispensary were used for shipping refrigerated whole blood from the bank. prepared by Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Mark M. Bracken, MC, who was chief of the laboratory service, and in Technical Memorandum No. 13, Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, USAFFE (U.S. Army Forces in the Far East), 21 September 1944 (9). ‘he original plan, to pool the blood of eight donors in 4,000-cc. flasks, had proved technically unworkable. There were no facilities for creating a vacuum powerful enough to permit the collection of satisfactory amounts of blood from each donor into bottles of this size. The substitute plan, to

collect individual donations in ium citrate,

600-cc.

isfactory from

Transfusovac

th

tt:

bottles

dpoint of sterility

containing as

wi

as

of efficiency. The final content of each flask was 500 cc. of blood; 70 cc. of citrate solution; and 5 cc. of 50-percent glucose solution, which was added before the flask was topped. The original plan of adding sodium sulfathiazole

590

BLOOD

PROGRAM

to the blood was discontinued as unnecessary; the Institute of Tropical Diseases at Sydney had shown that spirochetes ond malarial parasites do not survive in blood stored under refrigeration for 5 The dating period of the blood was set at 20 days. Piasma from blood not utilized by this time was to be used locally on burns and on certain types of wounds, though in Major Bracken’s experience, plasma thus prepared could be safely used intravenously. The following modes of transportation were authorized for shipment of blood: 1, By plane, packed in crushed ice in insulated boxes. 2. By boat, similarly packed until it could be placed ‘under Tefrigeration aboard. The boxes were to be returned to the blood ban! 3. By boat, to which it would be delivered ini Thermos jugs. After the blood had been placed in refrigerators aboard, the jugs would be returned to the bank. 4. B boat, in portable reefers paieinariee inSdayait it would be delivered to its destination. 8 if the boxes direct sunlight. The bank at Hollandia (map 4) at once began to function actively. During October, 697 liters of whole blood were distributed from it. It proved to be a convenient supply base both for New Guinea bases and for combat areas forward. On 20 December 1944, a supplementary depot began to operate on Biak Island (Base H), and a bank was projected for Leyte (Base K), as soon as the military situation permitted.

STAFF VISIT TO PACIFIC AREAS BY ARMY AND NAVY CONSULTANTS IN SHOCK AND TRANSFUSION Objectives and Itinerary In view of their close association in the plasma program, it was logical that when Capt. Lloyd R. Newhouser, MC, USN, was ordered to the Pacific in June 1944, similar orders should have been requested for Lt. Col. (later me ) Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, his counterpart in the Army blood and plaama rogram. Captain Newhouser’ ‘8 orders placed no limit on hie activities. Colonel Kendrick's orders directed him to accompany Captain Newhouser at times. Their combined survey, which began on 6 June and ended on 8 August, had the following objectives: 1. Investigation of the need for, and availability of, whole blood. Investigation of available equipment and personnel for supplying whole blood and setting up blood banks. oordination by the Army and the Navy of plans and equipment for supplying whole blood. Investigation of the availability and use of plasma and serum albumin and the need for the products of plasma fractionation.

PACIFIC

AREAS

591

5. Investigation of the eupply and use of penicillin.

6. Collection of other miscellaneous medical information.

As specified in their official orders, Colonel Kendrick and Captain Newhouser went from Washington to Honolulu, and then visited the following Tocations {map 5) (10): tral Pacific Area: Pearl Harbor, Hawaiian Islands; Kwajalein and Koiwetale Marshall Islands; Saipan, Mariana Islands; Johnston Island. 2. South Pacific Area: Esptritu Santo, New Hebrides; Nouméa, New Caledonia (twice). Southwest Pacific Area: Brisbane and Sydney, Australia (twice each); Dobodure, Oro Bay, Finschhafen and Hollandie in New Guinea; Biak, Owi,

and the Woendi Islands in the Schouten Group; Manus and Los Negros Telands

in the Admiralty Group; Cape Gloucester, New Britain; and Milne Bay, New

uines.

The policy in all of these places was the same: to hold conferences with Army and Navy medical officers with an interest in plasma and transfusion; to visit Army and Navy hospitals, to get @ cross section of their activities; and to determine the use of albumin and plasma and the use of, and need for, whole blood. In all areas, Captain Newhouser and Colonel Kendrick found @ great need for « transfusion service, particularly in i New Guinea, where the distances between the transfusion service in Australia and forward combat areas were becoming too long for efficient transportation of blood. There was agreement in ell areas by Army surgeons and Fleet surgeons that there was an increasing need for whole blood, which, up to then, had been available only in limited quantities. Augmentation of the supply had never been possible, nor hed it been possible to establish a blood bank, because of lack of trained personnel and equipm was immediately ondent to Captain Newhouser and Colonel Kendrick that, for a variety of reasons, it would not be practical to ship blood from Sydney to any area beyond Finschhefen, but they thought it best to delay recommendations for the location of a blood bank until their trip through New Guinea was completed.

Recommendations for Blood Supply in the Southwest Pacific Area On 19 July 1944, at the request of General concurrence of Captain Newhouser, Colon Denit a plan for a blood transfusion service in Area) with special reference to advanced bases,

Denit (fig. 133) and with the endrick submitted to General the SWPA (Southwest Pacific as follows (21):

1. With high priorities and responsible couriers, it was practical to transport blood from Sydney to Finschhafen. Beyond that point, a transfusion service must be established. bered, ho Pacific arene wos practically complete ond United State, that Ma]. Gen. Nor:

Cotanel

Eendrick and

Captain Newhouse

were oD than

way back to the

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PACIFIC

AREAS

593

Fie 33.—Brig. Gen. Guy B. Denit, Chief Surgeon USASOS, SWPA, and USAFFE

2. Two recommendations were made: a. That a blood bank be set up at Hollandia, because of its proximity to future planned operations; the availability of an adequate service donor population (100 a day); and facilities already available in the area. General Denit had also pointed out another advantage, that an Army laboratory was shortly to be set up ther . That a blood bank to service both Army and Navy should be set up initially aboard LST 464 (landing ship, tank), which should remain in Humboldt Bay until the proposed Army laboratory came into operation in this area (11, 12). Whentl ually moved to a more advanced was anticipated that it could continue to cuply ell as needs of portable surgical hospital teams ab: in the Army 1 the Army had immediately available), this ship had the space, facilities, and trained PerBonnel to institute a transfusion service immediately. Specifications for personnel,r frigeration, equipment, and sources of donors were stated in detail. At General Denit’s request, on

1 July

1944,

a requisition had been sent

“appara ansfusion, indirect, field assemblies’ to produce blood for operations scheduled for the immediate future. A requisition had also been sent through regular supply chennela for enough recipient bottles, recipient sets, ane refrigerators to supply the need of the SWPA for the next 6 ontbs. General Denit intended to request trained personnel for the bank.

594

BLOOD

Earlier,

a radio request had

Caledonia. oie

been

made

for transfusion

equipment

PROGRAM for New

was complete Navy agreement with all of these plans. In in fact, Captain Newhouser and Colonel Kendrick had been greatly

ressed by the way the two services worked together.

Recommendations for Blood Supply in the Central and South Pacific Areas When Captain Newhouser and Colonel Kendrick reported to Headquarters, SPA (South Pacific Area), on 21 July 1944, they were informed by Capt. (later Rear Adm.) Frederick R. Hook, MC, USN, the Force Medical Officer. that hospital ships evacuating casualties from Seipan were in urgent need |of additional blood. It was requested th to operate a blood bank at Bougainville or Pearl Harbor, where donors could be procured in adequate numbers and whence blood could be flown to ports into which hospital ships could be ordered. After Captain Newhouser and Colonel Kendrick had returned from «® trip to Saipan on the hospital ship Samaritan, which was evacuating casualties from the Marianas, the Surgeon, SPA, on 22 July 1944, sent a radio request to the Office of The Surgeon General for 100 field transfusion assemblies for use aboard hospital ships or in e blood bank at Bougainville or any other location that might be decided upon for long storage of blood. Meantime, part of the transfusion equipment which the Army had on hand at Nouméa, New Caledonia, was transferred to the Samaritan. When the visiting officers returned to Pearl Harbor, Capt. Walter M. Anderson, MC, USN, Fleet Surgeon, and Brig. Gen. Edgar King, Surgeon, CPA (Central Pacific ‘Area), requested advice as to the best location for a blood bank to supply blood to advanced locations in the South Pacific Area. Since the SPA and the CPA had been combined under the POA (Pacific Ocean Areas), it was thought that one bank at an advanced base could care for the emergency needs of the entire Pacific Ocean Areas. Pearl Harbor could provide an adequate donor population but was considered too far removed from the combat zone to supply blood for future operetions west of the Marianas. Saipan or Guam, depending upon which hed the lerger military population, would be a better ice Blood collected on either island could bi ted to the combat zone by hospital ships or LST’s until airstrips were secured. Later, Guam was selected as the distributing center for the airlift to the Pacific (p. 614).

LST 464

Just before Colonel Kendrick recommended to Genera] Denit the use of LST 464, acting as hospital ship, as a blood bank for the invasion of Leyte, Lt. Ernest E. Muirhead, MC, USNR, hed prepared blood on it and carried it ashore on another LST to supply troops going in at Noemfoor Island. Although

PACIFIC AREAS

505

his equipment was extremely limited and he had to use empty intravenous solution bottles, his procedure had proved entirely feasible. Lieutenant Muirhead had had previous experience in the operation of blood banks, and it was

recommended that he be put in charge of the bank proposed for LST 464 (11, 18).

Detailed recommendations for operations on this ship covered personnel, equipment, refrigeration, blood grouping, and donors. The closed system of collection, which was easential, would require the use of a sterile, self-sealing, vacuum-type, 1,000-cc. bottle, containing 500 cc. of Alsever's solution. This technique would make it possible to preserve the blood under refrigeration at 43° to 46° F. (6° to 8° C.) for 18 to 21 days. Provision was also made for the use of individually packaged, expendable giving sets, ready for immediate use. Donor sets, consisting of 17-gage needles, latex rubber tubing, and stain-

less steel valves, would be cleaned and sterilized each time they were used. The

tubing must

be replaced

used several thousand times. Donors

eboard

ship

after 10 to 15 bleedings.

would

be

obtained

from

The

Navy

valves could be

personnel.

Only

type O blood would be used. Serologic tests would be run, but it would be

impossible to rule out malaria-positive donors by blood amears. Suppressive treatment with Atabrine (quinecrine hydrochloride), however, which was universal, would prevent the transfer of the infection to the recipient, since most infections were caused by trophozoites. Refrigeration of the blood would also have a lethal effect on the parasite. These recommendations, including the appointment of Lieutenant Muirhead, were duly implemented on 23 July 1944, by orders from Headquarters, USASOS (U.S. Army, Services of Supply), SWPA. Steps were taken at once to prepare the blood bank on board for the invasion of the Philippines (fig.

134).

DONORS General Considerations

Hospitals i in the Pacific which collected their own blood frequently had difficulty in securing donors. Detachment personnel could not be reused as promptly as in the Zone of Interior because experience had shown that they did not regenerate hemoglobin as rapidly as in more temperate climates. It was always undesirable to bleed troops shortly before they went into battle, and much more undesirable, for the reason just stated, in the Tropics. When the Sixth U.S. Army was etaging in Hollandia for the invasion of Leyte, an attempt was made to maintain a list of 500 donors in the Office of the Base Surgeon, but the project was not successful, partly because of the continued calls for large quantities of blood and partly because of the rapid passage of prospective donors through the base. It was necessary to bleed listed donors promptly if they were to be useful. en necessary, as many 150 donors could be bled in a day at the 27th General Hospital blood bank.

596

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Figure 134.—Transfusion of whole blood at Burauen, Leyte, October ae Blood for this cam. paign was collected on LST 41 The original plan of requiring two visits of donors (the first for confirmation of the blood group, the Kahn test, and the blood smear, and the second for bleeding if the first examination was satisfactory) proved completely impractical. A great many donors did not return because of transfers, leaves, and for other causes, When the plan was adopted of requiring only a single visit, it proved equally impractical to hold donors until the tests were completed. The routine was therefore adopted of bleeding the donors at once and discarding blood that was serologically positive or that otherwise did not meet specifications, Calls for volunteers were made by notices in the daily bulletin, at headquarters, and by personal contacts by the officer in charge of the bank with various organizations from which donors might be secured. These were the only practical plans. The postal servico was entirely unreliable, and the use of the telephone simply resulted in loss of time. Red Cross workers were very helpful in securing donors from both Army and Navy personnel. The response to a call for donors was sometimes enthusiastic. The ber exceeded 500, for instance, when information, considered reliable, spread

PACIFIC

AREAS

597

Ficure 135.—Response of donors to emergency call after air raid, 8th Medical Laboratory, Biak Island, Netherland East Indies, March 1945 within the 32d Infantry Division, when it was staging at Hollandia, that each donor would receive 2 ounces of Wwwhisky and a good meal. limited facilities of the bank at the 27th General Hospital were all that prevented The donations proved well worthwhile: This division was mass participation. the first to use whole blood on the battlefield, where its usefulness far exceeded the most optimistic hopes for it. It is only fair to add that there was always a prompt response to a real emergency (fig. 135).

The Malaria Problem he malaria problem first assumed an areawide aspect in June 1944, when preparations for the operation of a transfusion service were first discussed. Upon inquiry, General Denit learned from the Surgeon, Base B (Oro Bay) that New Guinea hospitels were in the habit of using members of their own detachments as donors (13). Even though negative smears for malaria were obtained before bleeding, it was highly probable that a certain percentage of these donors had subclinical suppressive malaria, which would not be apparent on a single smear. Malaria had developed after transfusion in several casualties who hed not previously had it and who had received blood from donors who had been in New Guinea for some time. In one instance, the chills and associated fever proved a serious complication of bleeding peptic ulcer. Since

598

BLOOD

the ® problem was likely to increase as more troops remained rocedures were suggested:

PROGRAM

in malarious

areas,

supply of pooled blood from Auetralla, which was now not being used surge in quantities, might be increased. though thls blood waa supposed to be used wit! days, it was Preserved i in glucose and if it were properly refrigerated, the dating period ¢ vould be catended to 15 da: 2. the suggestion of Ist Lt. (later Maj.) Frederick B. Bang, MC, of the Malaria Research Group, an intramuscular injection of Atabrine might be given before transfusion. In an cmereeney if blood had to be used from a possibly malarjous donor, it might be wise to @ dosage of Atabrine as recommended for patients about to undergo surgery i. No positive malaria smears were reported at the bank at the 27th General

Hospital in its first 7 weeks of operation (and only one positive serology).

One

reason was that donors who appeared cachectic and those with a history of malaria, jaundice, or any serious illness within the previous ear were not accepted. There were no reports of malaria (or jaundice) after any transfusion. It was realized, however, that since the bank was located in e malarious area, it would be impossible to exclude all malarious donors. It was also considered possible that, in a few instances, viable parasites had been transmitted in the blood and that the transmittal had been masked by the required daily use of Atabrine by all personnel in the area.

Other Tests Up to the middle of 1945, the Rh factor was not considered of importance in the Pacific. In July 1945, 436 pints of Rh-negative blood were sent from

the Zone of Interior in atotal shipment of 4,465 pints of blood.

Up to this time, isohemaggivtinins had also not been regarded as portant. Crossmatehing w performed when time permitted but was not

considered essential, since the ‘blood had been checked twice in the Zone of . Had the war continued, it would have been necessary for patients who had had numerous transfusions to be crossmatched and have agglutination tests for minor ay ‘inins, Errors in the entries on the identification tags averaged about 10 percent.

EQUIPMENT The story of equipment for blood transfusion in the Pacific areas duplicated that in other theaters; that is, shortages and improvisations until expendable receiving and giving sets became available, the latter when the airlift of blood from the Zone of Interior began in November 1844. Just before that happened, the scarcity of expendable sets was so great that those on hand had to be apportioned among POA and SWPA, according to the intensity of the area Ce i Early in the whole blood program in the Pacific, there were some complaints that i it was difficult to pass stored blood through the metal-mesh filters

PACIFIC

AREAS

599

in the giving sets. Up to this time, blood had been stored at 36° to 40° F. (2° to 4. 5° . ). The difficulty was almost entirely overcome when the storage temperature was raised to 40° to 45° F. (4.5° to 7° C.) because the gel which

formed in the blood at the lower temperature did not form at the higher temperature.

One

of the most important

considerations of storage

then became

the maintenance of the temperature above 39° and below 45° F. (4° and 7° C.).

In his first report from the Pacific, Colonel Kendrick stated that the Medical Department in thataree frequently had to construct its own hospitals and was therefore greatly in need of building tools (10). Without appropriate facilities, blood could not be used. He suggested that hammers, saws, and even sawmills should be issued to hospital units as pert of their regular equipment. The suggestion about sawmills was not acted on favorably.

THE

AIRLIFT OF BLOOD

TO THE

PACIFIC

Organization Since the Army had set up, and was conducting, the airlift of blood to the European theater, under the direction of Colonel Kendrick, it was logicel for the Navy to set up and conduct the similar service to the Pacific areas, under the direction of Captain Newhouser. In a conference between Brig. Gen. Fred W. Rankin and Captain Newhouser on 13 Octo 1944, while Colonel Kendrick was on temporary duty in Europe, it was eereed that the Navy should establish and operate the processing laboratory in San Francisco and should furnish all the bottles, donor sets, and refrigerators for the program. The amy would furnish all the equipment necessary to operate the laboratory. The Surgeon General, Army, agreed to the coordinated program in the Pacific with the understanding that the allocation of hood to the two services would be based entirely upon their requirements. The Navy would fly the blood from the west coast to Guam, process it at the Navy blood laboratory there, and then deliver it to all areas in the Pacific as it wes require The Army also furnished all personnel for the laboratory at the Los Angeles bleeding center (blood grouping, serologic testing) and for the packaging and shipment of blood to San Francisco. Requests for personnel for these purposes were made by General Rankin in October 1944, and again in February and March 1945, to the Personnel Division, Office of The Surgeon General.

Trained technicians were not requested, since the enlisted men required could

be trained by the staff of the Los Angeles for the airlift.

and other centers supplying blood

American Red Cross Participation

On 26 October 1944, after the feasibility” of an airlift of blood to the Pacific hed been established, Vice Adm. Ross T McIntire, MC, USN, Surgeon Generel, U.S. Navy, and Maj. Gen. Norman T. Kirk wrote jointly to Basil O'Connor, Chairman, American Red Cross, concerning the planned

600

BLOOD

whole blood program for the Pacific (15). it was

pointed

hemorrhage. military

out,

could

compensate

PROGRAM

Neither plasma nor serum album

for

the

whole

blood

lost

by severe

theaters, the

Red

wes

Up to this time, blood had been obtained in the Pacific from nnel in combat areas. Since recent developments had shown

the feasibility of transporting

blood

to overseas

the understending that activities might be expanded if larger amounts of blood proved necessary. It was requested that the service begin on or about 15 November 1944 and that the collections be in addition to the blood then being collected for existing programs.

Mr. O’Connor replied on 3 November 1944 that the American Red Croas

would be glad to cooperate in the Pacific program and that steps were being taken to procure the blood, as requested, from the centers at San Francisco, Oakland, and Loa Angeles (16). The airlift to the Pacific began with the procurement of blood from the three centers specified (17). As the need for blood increased, the Portland, Oreg., collection center was added to the program on 30 January 1045 and the San Diego, Calif., center on 4 February. The Chicago center began to produce blood for the Pacific on 13 April When the need for whole blood ended in i Europe with the German surrender on 8 May 1045, the centers on the east coast, which had been collecting whole blood as well as blood for plasma (New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Boston, and Brooklyn) were kept operational for procuring blood to be flown to Oakland. The capacity of these centers, added to that of the centers on the west coast, brought the blood available for shipment to the Pacific to 12,000 pints each week. As of 15 May, all blood collected in the eastern United States was being flown to the west roast, re-iced (there, and then flown to Guam (map 6). By the end of May, arrangements were completed to consolidate the processing of all blood collected in Philadelphia, Boston, Washington, and New York in one large laboratory at the blood donor center in New York. The blood was collected in these cities, taken to New York by refrigerated motor truck, processed there, and then packed in Army expendable insulated boxes for the flight to the weat coast. This plan proved both safe and practical. When Maj. Leslie H. Tisdall, MC, inepected the Navy laboratory at Oakland (fig. 136) after these arrangements had been effectuated, he found that ehipments arriving from New York needed only a small amount of added ice before being flown to Guam. Shipments were regulated according to requests from the naval officer in charge of the distribution center on Guam. They varied widely, from no donations at all on a few days to 12,000 pints during one week in May 1045. These irregularities caused some difficulties in the centers, since procurement

601 AREAS PACIFIC

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BLOOD

Fiaure

PROGRAM

136.—Navy processing laboratory for blood for Pacific, Oakland, Calif. Note Church chest in left foreground.

of donations had to be kept at as constant a level as possible. Donations in excess of whole blood requirements were shipped to the laboratories processing plasma.

Initial Difficulties

The inauguration of the airlift of blood to the Pacific terminated, for all practical purposes, the difficulties of replacement therapy in that area. The service evolved into an extremely efficient operation. As Lt. (ater Lt. Cdr.) Herbert R. Brown, Jr., MC, USNR, stated in his report on the depot for 6 March 1945, it had not been necessary to make a single major change in the original program and very few minor changes (18). The pilot run in September 1944 had gone very smoothly, but there were multiple initial difficulties, both in the Zone of Interior and overseas. Zone of Interior.—The first shipment of blood left San Francisco for Guam and Leyte (map 6) on schedule on 16 November 1944, in charge of Lt. (ater Lt. Cdr.) Henry S. Blake, MC, USN. Brig. Gen. Charles C. Hillman and other Army and Navy personnel were extensively Photographed as they assisted in placing the 10 boxes of blood (160 pints) on the plane. A naval medical officer, a naval public relations officer, and a photographer went on the flight, to send back stories and create more interest inthe program. The

PACIFIC

AREAS

603

blood reached Guam on 19 November and Leyte on 22 November without

complications. Numerous complications, however, attended the departure of the first shipment and continued for several days nfterward. They were described by Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Frederic N. Schwartz, MAC, who had gone to Los Angeles on 13 November, to establish the Army part of the program, substantially as follows (19): The laboratory in which the blood was to be processed was not yct ready. the eaneeen auboratory supplies had not arrived, ineluding ne iudispensable vonteituge, nta le for shipments toSan Francisco. On the Navy aide, t there were also shortages, including ingulated boxes, and, for a few days, the Oakland laboratory could handle only 40 bloods daily instead of the specified 100 bloods. The Army waa able to meet the original schedules by leans and oe ie Soke centrifuge was flown in from Fitzsimons General Hospital, Denver, Colo. r Schwartz arranged with Hyland Laboratories for the blood to be processed there until the Los Angeles center was ready. This was not a particularly efficient arrangement, for it meant that the blood had to be taken by the Red Cross Motor Corps from the collecting ce uter, where it should have been processed, to Hyland Zaboratories for typing and tro Lesting. It was fortunate, however, that the arrangement could be made. The blood was taken to San Francisco by the Railway Express Agency, in Church containers. 1 December 1944, most of these difficulties had been ironed out and daily shipments to the Pacific amounted to 250 pints, of which 100 were supplied

by the Arm:

Overseas.—In correspondence with Col. (later Brig. Gen.) George R. Callender, MC (80), and Major Schwartz (21) in December 1944, Colonel Kendrick‘ stated that planning in the United States for the Pacific airlift

had been exeeptionally United S tates

well done but the excellence had been confined to the

. No command in either the Central or the Southwest Pacific had been advised offcially of the whole blood program by either Army or Navy sources. Colonel Kendrick me every effort to assure the surgeons in the various Pacific commands that this was an o: program. coordinated by the Army and the Navy, but lack of written authorization sometimes made it difficult to secure cooperation.’ He was told at one Ingtallation, where con‘geon Gener ledt the United States on 21 November 1044, for semporory duty with the UGAFPOA (U.8. Army Forces, Pacific Ocean Areas), of Which Brig. Gen. Johu D4. Willis was Surgeo and did not return to Hawall ones Jannary 1845, after stopping en route forseveral ‘avs of oonferenoes on the blood program with Lieutenant Brown en Guam, By this time, tho overallblood progr: as functl ening matin to 008 of Intertor, | by Maj. John J. McGraw, Jr., MC (p. 42). Colond

At

of (he war. this time (anusry 1045), Colonel Kendrick was placed in commend of the 10th Field Hospltal, which was on Okinaws on D+60, but on 14 March, § days before the Tenth U.S. Army sailed for thet target, Surman, Cal. Fredatia B. Weatertalt, MO, 9 In these special fielda. Colonel Kend served

the Army

Blood, * This was an unfortunate comtretemps,

Field Hospital. Letters iad been written by the Surgeon Goneral, Nery advising all nited States. The letters were to go airmall, but

after the blood program had been set up In the Pacific, 17. }—400".

1

it

2to 4 week

604

BLOOD

PROGRAM

fusion was rampant, that a War out and ¢tell | them how to run chee tranafusion ¢service. In on| advanced area of the Sixth U

palsies on7 the ground that the officers in shasge of the program were competent to meal it, By surreptitious methods, Colonel Kendrick provided the surgical consultant, Slxth U.S. Ar enough information for him to prepare a circular letter on the new 2. The blo od bank in Honolulu resented being left out of the program, even though ite inelugion would have greatly complicated the transportation of blood. The additional eupply, in fact, would not have been worth the trouble necessary to secure it, 3. Goneral Denit had not been notified of the program nor had any Army ov tkey Not having recelved any word on it from the Office of The Surgeon General, Army, they concluded, quite logically, that the program was @ Navy responsibility and had cent no information about it to forward hospitals. 4, The of the first shipment of blood in ine Southwest Pacific in November 1944 had been reported to the Army surgeon but n the Fleet surgeon, and Col Kendrick, as Consultant on Blood and Transfusion ‘. she Surgeon, POA, found imeelt in the oddpation of selling a Navy program to the N 6. Because of the lack of offielal notice of the blood p rogra‘am, it was “existing parasitically,” by leaning heavily on personnel and equipment from medical supply companies and other organizations, which could ill afford to spare either. It was Colonel Kendrick's opinion ‘hae ‘ the program had concerned anything but blood, it could not have operated. 6. Sin 0 blood distribution teams ha set up, the blood was frequently not bein ¢ handled pri openly. Sent through sa inary supply channels, it was taking unnecessarily long in delivery. It was sometimes kept without refrigeration, and not even in inibu in ne Thilippines and to arrange for transportation, a supply of ice, and other essentials. . It regrettable that, because of some fae with in his orders , which kept him in the Cantal‘Pacific for 10 days, his planned meeting with Lieutenant Blake did not occur. The exchange of experiences would have been of reat value. In spite of these

of all concerned.

difficulties,

cooperation

had

been

excellent on the part

The Naval Air Transport Service and the Transport Air

Group, without written authority, gave Colonel Kendrick a No. 1 priority for blood, and asked no questions about it. Since proof existed that the blood service could be operated with sacrifices on the part of other medical units, he saw no reason why, in view of its importance, it should be hamstrung by lack of its own adequately trained personnel, equipment, and transportation. Responsibility to the services and to the donors of the blood werran hb utilization of the best trained personnel and the most efficient equipment pos-

sible.

If a commodity such as blood were lost, as the result of incompetence

on the part of makeshift personnel

or inadequate refrigeration at relay points,

the armed services would be put in a position of great culpability.

Colonel Kendrick, on n the recommendations (20, 2

basis of his observations,

made

the following

. A circular letter or directive should pe jigsued by the Amy and the Navy, together or separeatel The transfusion teams recommended b . the Office of The Surgeon General in the T/O & E (Table of Organization and Equipment) ee sent to Army Service Forces on 15 December 1044 should be immediately approved and activated.

PACIFIC

AREAS

605

. Two transfusion teams should be activated, equipped, and ordered to the Pacific, one te USASOS, SWPA, and the other to USASOS, POA. he transfusion service for the entire area should be placed under a single control officer witha combined staff of Army and Navy personnel. The present confusion caused by five or six different officers’ being responsible for blood in different installations could no longer be tolerated. @ way or another, all of these recommendations implemented by the end of January 1945.

except No.

4 were

Personnel When the service to the Pacific was once firmly established, the blood was consistently handled by specialized personnel, by what amounted to & special delivery service, which is the only efficient way to handle such a valuable commodity and, more important, the only safe way. At no stage along the way, from the collecting center in the Zone of Interior to the administration of the blood at the terminal point in the Pacific, was it touched by any but trained, specialized personnel, on permanent assignment. The blood service

in the Pacific had its roots in the experiences gained in the Mediterranean and

European theaters, as well as in the Zone of Interior. The initial handling of some of the first blood shipped from Guam to Leyte furnished an excellent example of what could happen to this scarce commodity once it left the care of personnel specially trained to handle it. These shipments had been correctly handled all the way from the Zone of Interior to Leyte. When they reached Leyte, the bottles of blood were taken out of the insulated containers in which they had traveled up to that time, thrown into the backs of trucks, and transported for 4-5 hours over rough roads to the medical instellations which bad requested them. The temperature, as it frequently was, was 100° F. in the shade, the humidity was extreme, and it was possible to have mud on one’s shoes and dust in one’s eyes at the same time. These shipments were entirely unusable, and if this sort of handling had not been promptly corrected, the whole carefully worked out program would have been in a fair way to being wrecked and to being highly dangero ides. Areas in which the use of whole blood was a new experience, as the area just described, did not immediately comprehend the importance of refrigeration and of other precautions in the handling of blood. The practice was therefore instituted of sending e courier with the blood when the first shipments went to areas new to the program. Transfusion teama.—On his return from his first trip to the Pacific, in August 1944, Colonel Kendrick recommended to The Surgeon General that a transfusion team be stationed at Saipan to handle blood drawn in the Zone of Interior, as well as to bleed donors if it became necessary to supplement the supply from this source. A second team should be stationed at some other strategic point, to be selected later, to function in the same fashion.

606

BLOOD

PROGRAM

The proposal was accepted, and cadres for the teams were treined st the Army Medical Center and then placed on temporary duty at the Red Cross blood donor centers while they waited eesigninent to the Pacific. On 17 January 1945, arrangements were made with the Personnel Division, Office of The Surgeon General, to send them to Fort Lewis, Wash., to move them on higher priority than the theater requisition would allow. ater in February 1945, Brig. Gen. John M. Willis, Surgeon, USAFPOA (U.S. Army Forces, Pacific Ocean Areas), was informed by Col. B. Noland Carter, MC, that such a low priority had been requested for these transfusion teams that there was little chance of dispatching them within the next 6 months, The request to nominate spaces for the officers and technicians of these teams on a theater troop basis had not been acted on by the POA, and it was therefore impossible to activate these units. Their training period had been extended by 30 days, in the hope of straightening out the difficulties. If arrangements for the dispatch of the teams could not be concluded within this period, there would be nothing to do but scrap them. If General Willis agreed that time was a factor, the theater could request that the officers and men who had trained could be shipped as casuals, to act as cadres for newly formed unite to t be activated locally, but this, again, would require nomination of spaces on a theater troop basis. These teams did not reach the Pacific during the war. When, however, the 317th General Hospital reached the POA, General Willis withdrew the blood transfusion personnel and sent them to the Marianas to form two transfusion teams, one for the Marienas and the other for Okinawa, because he did not wish to be entirely dependent on the mainland for the area blood supply.

Operational Factors While

the airlift of whole

blood to Europe

served as the pilot program,

neither distances nor temperatures in that theater presented the handicaps

that accompanied the airlift of blood to the Pacific areas (22). The distance from the mainlend and the high temperatures in combat areas introduced three operational problems of extreme importance into the Pacific program: (1) transportation; (2) refrigeration; and (3) preservative solutions. All three factors were closely related. A break in any one of them would have made the whole program p useless, and, if it had been persisted in, extremely dangerous rtation.—Some 7,400 miles of travel were involved in flying blood from the ne laboratory at Oakland, Calif., to Leyte in the Philippines (map 6). The actuel flying time was about 48 hours, but with stopovers at various points and rechecking at the advanced base on Guam, most blood was 4-5 days old when it zeached Leyte. itinerary involved moving blood from the bleeding centers at San Francisco, Los Angeles and elsewhere to the naval laboratory at Oakland, where it was prepared for shipment (fig. 136) and whence it was flown to Pearl Harbor, a matter of about 12 hours. At Pearl Herbor, there was a stopover

PACIFIC

AREAS

607

ranging from 30 minutes to several hours, depending upon circumstances, during which time the blood was re-iced by the Naval Air Transport Service, whose personnel hed received special training in its care. The blood was flown from Pearl Herbor to Guam, with brief stopovers at Johnston Island and Kwajalein in the Marsbell Islan he facility at Guam (figs. a7 end 138) received all shipments of blood

from the Zone of Interior.

The bloods were placed in the refrigerators there

to settle for at least 12 hours, to compensate for the agitation induced by transit and movement. After the bottles had been inspected for hemolysis, clots, and possible contamination, they were placed in the re-iced insulated

boxes in which they had traveled from the Zone of Interior, and were shipped

by planes of the Transport Air Group, according to requirements and requisitions, to:

1. Ulithi, 24 hours’ transport distance from Guam. The planes landed at Falalop Island, where the shipments were immediately transferred to designated fleet units. we liaison at thia base with fleet personnel was excellent, and for thia reason, and beca seer medical officer was in charge of ehipments, the blood was usually in reefers"at in 6 to 10 hours after It had left Guam. Two inspectiona of this baseby Lieutenant Brom showed that all concerned with the handling of blood fully appreciated the requirementa and the possible dangers of the program. O Peleliu, 5 hours’ transport distance from Guam. Shipments were made by Transport Air Group planes to U.S. Naval Base Hospital No. 20 at this location as requested. 3: Tinian, 1 hour's Aying time from Guam, to U.S. Naval Base neat No. 19. . Saipan, 1 hour's Bying time from Guam. This island waa a large Army outlet for hospitals and for ‘anefer to the Phillppine Telands. Col. Eliet G. Colby, MC,

with the problems of the transportation of whole blood, Colonel Colby sent a technical sergeant to the base bank on Guam for instruction in the© Broo essing of blood for shipment id fleet units and for its care while iw . 5. The Philippine Islands. Fron ‘om» eaipen, blood was carried by Army Transpo Command planes to Tacloban Airfield, Leyte, “hove aa medical supply ” depot received he shipments and saw to nel aotrigerstion and re-icing before distribution. Re-icing was essential, fora trip of 30 to 50 milea to forward area@ hospitals might require as much aa 24 hours because of the rough, aifiew It terrain to ed. Smaller amounts of blood were shipped tto various islands as necessary and were cared for by aid personnel who understood the requirements for refrigeretion and stor Whole blood hod a routine No. 2 priority in Army shipments and could employ e No. 1 priority ren necessary. All shipments by Navy agents were by No. 1 priority. In his 4 July 1945 report from Base K (Leyte), Capt. Henning H. Thorpe, MC, Blood Bank Fecilities Officer, recommended that a

similar directive memorandum be issued to Army units, to give official Tecog-

nition to the program of procurement and distribution of whole blood and in keeping with the combined Army-Navy function of the program (28). This suggestion wes duly implemented.

608

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Ficure 137.—Blood distribution center, Guam. A. Facilities on airstrip. B. Shipping cases of blood being loaded aboard o 54 for distribution to Pacific islands. C. Shipping cases reved from mainiand being brought to distribution center on Guam. D. Receiving platform. E. Shipping cases on platform. While it might have been better if whole blood had been given a universal No. 1 priority, no criticism of its handling by transport agencies would be warranted. The cooperation of the Army and the Navy Air Forces was always superb, in all areas. They flew blood to combat units in medium bombers before transport planes could Jand on airstrips. In emergencies, they set up special flights to transport blood. There was not an instance in which blood needed that it did not leave on the first aircraft available. Refrigeration.—-In spite of the handicap of high environmental temperatures, transportation of blood to, and in, the Pacific was far more a matter o| ‘raine personnel to observe the proper precautions than of equipment. ‘he ice chest used by the blood bank in New South Wales (p. 581) was a durable and efficient means of refrigeration. Its chief disadvantage, that it was not expendable and had to be returned to the point of origin, was a real

PACIFIC

AREAS

609

Fic 2 137.—Continued. F. Blood being transferred from shipping cases to walk-in reefer, G. Chee! of blood i frigerator. H. Demonstration of cauiprent for Blo dis. tribution. I and J. Processing laboratory on Gua: disadvantage in an area in which

limited.

shipping space by land and air was always

The chest developed by the Navy for the airlift of blood to the Pacific (figs. 139 and 140) was lighter than the Australian box and, more important, was expendable. This chest, which had a hinged cover, measured 21 by 21 by 23 inches. It was made of %-inch plywood and was completely lined with 3 inches of Fiberglas. A cardboard box that fitted into the outside box held two metal receptacles, one on top of the other, each 7 inches high and 13% inches in

610

BLOOD

PROGRAM

diameter, and each fitted with individual metal racks for eight bottles of blood. In the center of the receptacles wes a galvanized iron canister 5% inches in

diameter and 14 inches high, with a detachable cover.

ice.

It held 15 pounds of

There was thus no direct contact between ice and bottles of blood.

Fiaure

138.—Movement of blood at distributing center on Lt. Herbert R. Brown, MC, USNR, second from left.

The

Guam.

box occupied 5.9 cu. ft. of shipping space and, when it was packed with ice and blood, weighed 87 pounds. Testing had been rigorous, but no damage had been sustained by box or contents, even in parachute drops (fig. 141). Bottles containing ACD (acid-citrate-dextrose) preservative solution were taken directly from the refrigerator to the donor's side. As soon as they were filled, they were placed in a refrigerator cooled to 40° to 45° F. (4.5° to 7° C.) and left there for about 8 hours before they were packed in the portable insulated box just described. er average environmental temperatures of 65° to 85° F. (18° to 28°C.), the temperature inside the box could be held to 42° to 45° F, (5.5° to 7° C.) for about 60 hours. When blood shipped from the west coast was re-iced at Pearl Harbor, a half to three-quarters of the ice placed in the box at Oakland was usually still present in the central compartment, and the inside temperature averaged 44° F. (6.5°C.). Lieutenant Blake’s observations on a test shipment showed that temperatures within the chest were maintained at 45.5° to 48° F. (7.5° to 9° C.), Boxes not re-iced at Pearl Harbor but flown straight from Oakland to Guam had inside temperatures no higher than 50° F. (10° C.). ‘When blood was shipped out from Guam, it was replaced in i the expendable Navy boxes in which it hed been received, The central ice containers were packed with as much ice as possible, and forward installations, without refrigerating facilities, were instructed to re-ice the boxes every 24 hours; the importance of this precaution was emphasized to all units which received blood.

PACIFIC

AREAS

611

Fiaurn 139.—Iecing center containers of Navy shipping cases on Guam. Under combat conditions, refrigerators were frequently not available, but daily re-icing of the expendable boxes proved an entirely satislactory °substitute. In December 1944, requests were put in—and were filled—forthe immediate delivery of three 375-cu. ft. refrigerators to the center on Guam. It was anticipated—as proved true—that current calls for blood would be greatly increased to meet peak loads of combat casualties and that thousands of pints of blood might sometimes have to be handled daily (18). The standard field refrigerator was used for land transportation of blood. Preservative solutions.—The glucose preservative solutions employed by the Australian blood bank (p. 581) and by the Army bank at Hollandia limited the usable life of blood to 15 days, though permitting its use up to 20 days if refrigeration had been adequate at all times and if marked hemolysis had not occurred (23). Alsever’s solution, as noted elsewhere, was used for the European airlift as a matter of expediency, but its bulk made it undesirable clinically and highly undesirable for an airlift extending over many thousands of miles. The trial runs for the Pacific airlift, begun in September 1944, were made with ACD solution. Their complete success indicated that it would be entirely feasible to ship refrigerated whole blood to the Pacific in this medium. Colonel Kendrick reported on it as follows from his observations in December 1944 (20): 717-400"—64—_42

612

BLOOD

Ficurs

140. Loading refrigerated Navy with blood on Gua:

shipping

The ACD solution has stood all field tests in good order.

containers

As you know, I viewed the

p gly A i re showed a reaction rate of 1.7 percent, none severe, mostly urticarial. many bottles after the expiration date, up to 30 days, with good results. to‘discard it.

PROGRAM

Due to the diffi-

We have extended the expiration date to 24 days.

Colonel Kendrick also observed that a number of reactions could be traced to the use of locally prepared sets and did not seem related to the age of the blood

Hemolysis and Dating Period

When Lieutenant Blake arrived on Guam on 19 November 1944, 160 pints of blood from the Zone of Interior, it seemed wise to defer examination

PACIFIC

AREAS

613

Fieure 141.—Lt. Herbert R. Brown, Jr., Cc, use polding blood dropped in test parachute drop n Gua we insulated box in which the blood was drop < d by t he Navy during the airlift to the Pacific and l later during the Korean War of the bottles for hemolysis, clots, and other abnormalities until the blood had settled. Behind the blood was a long air trip, and ahead, over roads under construction, was the trip to Naval Base Hospital No. 18. The practice of delaying examination for 12 hours or more after the arrival of the blood immediately became routine. It was soon ovident, however, that bottles of blood that would show hemolysis at all would show it on their arrival on Guam, where they could be detected on screening and could be removed from further ' shipment. It was not desirable to handle blood any more then necessary, but the World War II experience showed that the red cells, for the most part, tolerated transportation without hemolysis. None appeared even when a full box, containing 16 pints of blood, was dropped by parachute from a height of 800 feet. Another experience was even more significant: Because of the sudden cancellation of a flight while the base bank facility was still located at U.S. Naval Base Hospital No. 18 on Guam, 160 pints of blood intended for an outgoing shipment, which had been

614

BLOOD

PROGRAM

transported 35 miles over poor roads under construction, had to be returned to the reefers. When it was checked 12 hours later, before reshipment, none of the bottles showed any hemolysis and all were considered safe for shipment to

8.

The dating period in the Pacific for blood preserved in ACD solution was 21 days after it had been drawn. On numerous occasions, in extreme emergencies, it was used as late as 30 days. Much of it was in excellent condition at this time, and if the war had continued, there seems little doubt that the dating period would have been extended to 28 days, at least for blood that did not have to travel beyond Guam.

ADVANCE

BASE

BLOOD

BANK

FACILITY

NO. 1

Location The naval medical officer in charge of the advance base blood bank facility on Guam, Licutenant Brown, arrivedat his post on 17 November 1944. His assistant, Ens. (later Lt. jg) ‘George E. Nicholson, HC, USN, arrived on 21 November 1944 (18, 22, 24). The day after Lieutenant Brown arrived, the blood bank was set up temporarily at U.S. Nevaval Base Hospital No. 18, where a 675-cu. ft. refrigerator and an icernakin, thine were available. As a temporary arrangement, no fault could befound with this location, but it was evident from the arrival of the first shipment of blood from the Zone of Interior, which Lieutenant Blake brought in 48 hours after Lieutenant Brown hed arrived on Guam, that it would not be satisfactory for blood that was to arrive by air and later leave by sir over several different military transport systems. The hospital was

about 17 miles from Agana Airfield, and transportation would not only be inconvenient but would subject the blood

to unnecessary

trauma.

The logical location for the blood bank was at the airfield, but the move

to it could not be made until 8 December, because the necessary refrigeration was not available. On this date, a 65-cu. ft. refrigerator was secured on loan, and the bank wes temporarily located in a large airfreight terminal. The temperature in the refrigerator was maintained at 40° to 45° F. (4.5° to 7° C.) with difficulty because of the heavy demands and the high humidity, and, as a result, the unit had to be defrosted with inconvenient frequency. When the blood bank finally moved to its permanent facilities at Agana Airfield, the wisdom of the move wes immediately apparent. The base comMunications center was nearby, as were the operational offices of the Military

Transport Services.

As a result, blood could be delivered with great rapidity.

On one occasion, when Lieutenant Brown was on Saipan, visiting the various units efloat and surveying their needs, he sent an operational priority dispatch to Guam for 1,200 pints of blood, with the request that it arrive before dark, as the ships that needed it were sailing that night. The blood depot at Guam received the message through the Port Surgeon’s Office at 1300 hours. Planes

PACIFIC

AREAS

615

with blood aboard left at 1400 and 1500 hours. When the blood arrived at Saipan, at 1600 hours, it was loaded onto an Army reefer truck, taken to the dock area, placed on an LCM (landing craft, mechanized), and by 1900 hours was in the refrigerators of the ships that were leaving at midnight. As experience increased, the location of the blood bank became even more important. In March 1945, when the possible need for another blood depot came under discussion, Lieutenant Brown stated that, while the location of

such a center would depend upon the tactical situation, it could not be empha-

sized too strongly that the operational efficiency of a blood distribution center depended upon its immediate connection with a large airbase, where emergency requests could be handled immediately. Hospital connections were not

ecessary.

Notification of Needs

The blood depot on Guam supplied the urgent needs of the latter part of the campaign on Leyte to the limit of transportation and etorage facilities. It also supplied other units of the Army and the Navy ashore and afloat within a radius of 1,100 miles. Hospitals in the Marianas depended entirely on Guam ier their lerge demands for blood. A moderate backlog of bleod was maintained these hospitals, and cooperation concerning notification of needs was excellent, All hospitals were informed that a notification of at least 10 days was required for any increase in operational demands, and « notification ar 4 to 5

days for emergency requests.

Requests for blood were made from

the 12th Naval District in San Francisco, whence they were cleared to the blood donor service. It took about 7 days for donor centers on the mainland to step up their collections to meet increased demands in the Pacific. It was therefore necessary for hospital installations to anticipate their needs and notify the distribution center on Guam, through channels, well in advance of the time the blood would be needed. All requests were on the basis of i pint of blood per casualty. The amount of blood handled through Guam greatly increased as opera-

tions were extended to Luzon, and then to Iwo Jima and Okinawa.

Between

19 November and 24 December 1944, 6,480 pints of whole blood were received and 5,040 pints were distributed. In February 1945, 16,608 pints werereceived and 16,563 distributed. On several days during the month, 1,000 pints daily were handled, particularly during the final staging for the Iwo Jima operation. In April, 25,760 pints were received and 30,177 pints, including the excess from March, were distributed (24). Early in the month, it was necessary to distribute the accumulated blood and reduce the supply from the Zone of Interior. Later in the month, the requests to the Zone of Interior had to be increased because of increased demands from the Philippines and a considerable increase in the Okinawa requirements.

616

BLOOD

PROGRAM

LEYTE Planning was expected that, as the fighting in the SWPA increased in intensity end advanced from New Guinea to the Philippine group, the Japanese would begin to use field artillery of higher caliber, with greater frequency, and that bombing from the air would be heavier and more constant. Since wounds produced by shell and bomb fragments cause shock, hemorrhage, and extensive tissue destruction, ample amounts of both plasma and blood would be necessary. Supplies of plasma furnished no problem; they were always ample, and they were used intelligently The Leyte operation was the first in which combined Army and Navy blood banks were used and in which blood was supplied in the first stages of the operation. In general, the plan employed was that recommended to General Denit by Colonel Kendrick, with Captain Newhouser's concurrence, on 19 July 1944 (p. 591). It involved (map 1. The transportation of blood from Sydney to Finschhafen. 2. The establishment of a blood bank at Hollendia. 3. The cuuablishment of a bloed bank aboard LST 464 which had been converted into & hospital shi The recommended blood bank was set up aboard LST 464, with Lieutenant Muirhead in charge. Its supplies were supplemented by the 27th General Hospital, which began to function as a blood bank on 9 September 1944. By 9 October 1944, plans for the initial supply of whole blood for the Leyte invasion and its maintenance had been agreed upon by representatives of the Sixth U.S. Army (fg. 142), the Medical Supply Section, USASOS, and the Seventh US. me lood supply was planned and reported in ETMD (Essential Technical Medical Data) us follows (26): 1 The task force would take 200 liters of blood ashore with it, for use on the beaches. Between D45 and D+7, 400 additional units of blood would be shipped from Base G (Hol Tlandfa) on the 10 returning LST’s, for delivery by the Sixth U.S. Army medical supply dypot on shore to Sixth U.S. Army medical units. ‘hereafter, blood would be shipped automatically by the Base G medical supply depot on LST’s at the rate of approximately 200 units every 5 daya untll D+20. These amounts would be varied only on radio instruetions from phe Sixth U.8. Army to the medical supply depot on Base G. On such instructions, the blood would be flown to Leyte via Blak, where 100 liters was kept as a pool. The first blood for the pool would be brought by LST which would leav +6. 464, converted to a hospital ship, would arrive on the beach on D+4, with 100 liters of blood. This ship was * equipped to collect and process blood, and it was expected that enough donors id be secured from troops on the beach to provide ample amounts for LST 464 and other ists caring stor casualties. These LST’s were located in the harbor intervals of 1,000 to 2,000 yards . LST's arriving in the harbor ¢ onD+? and D+ 21 would each bring 100 liters of blood.

PACIFIC

AREAS

617

Fiavre 142.—Col. (later Brig. Gen.) William A. Hagins, MC, Surgeon, Sixth U.S. Army.

Implementation of Planning In general, the plans just described were implemented in the Leyte operation, which began on 20 October 1944. Plasma was used extensively, and the supply was adequate at all times. Its value in burns and in shock without hemorrhage was indisputable, but it was proved again that it was a supplement to, and in no sense a substitute for, whole blood in hemorrhage and that its use might, indeed, give rise to a false sense of security. On D , two 200-cu. ft. mobile reefers, each containing a thousand 500-cc. units of blood, were put ashore on the beaches in which combat activity was greatest. The blood was well used, but it was evident in retrospect that even greater quantities should have been supplied. Multiple transfusions, for instance, often could not be given. Moreover, since whole blood had not

availability in this ‘operation, Steps were taken to avoid this error in future operations. asualties brought to LST 464 received excellent shock treatment and preoperative preparation. Blood was taken from each patient for hemoglobin,

618

BLOOD

PROGRAM

hematocrit, and protein estimations, and replacement therapy was based on the findings. This was the first time the combined facilities of Army-Navy blood banks were used in the initial stages of en operation, and cooperation was excellent. T 464, in addition to treating casualties, drew blood and acted as a blood bank for the 7th Amphibious Force. The great edvantage in the use a thie particular LST was that she acted primarily as a hospital ship, not rimarily as a cargo ship and only secondarily as a hospitel ship, after the cargo ras unloaded. She was therefore able to remain on station in the harbor and was one for medical service at all tim 464 also received blood from the depot at Biak via the LST’s returning toLovie after taking casualties to Biak. Each convoy scheduled for Leyte, as already noted, received additional stores of blood to take back. The landing at Leyte presented a problem in the care of casualties not encountered in any previous operation; namely, the bombing attacks on all ships in the harbor, including hospital ships, by Japanese suicide planes. Large numbers of casualties continued to occur in the harbor for 38 days and provided the strongest possible indications for the liberal use of whole blood. They had to be treated aboard ship. It proved impractical and inefficient to take them ashore for treatment because of poor communications, difficulties in beaching, inadequate facilities, poor roads, and lack of transport. The risk of keeping hospital ships on station in the harbor was too great, in view of the ate bombing, and the problem would have been insoluble without the presence of LST 464 and other LST's.

Blood From the U.S. Airlift In all, about 3,000 units of preserved whole blood were used during the

first 30 days of the Leyte campaign, including blood from the 27th General Hospital bank at Hollandia, from | the relay depot at Biak, and from LST 464. Arrengements had been made to have additional supplies of blood flown from the Australian blood bank at sydney if it should be necessary to supplement the blood provided for at the beginning of any large operation. Up to 22 November 1944, all of the blood used in the Leyte Operation was provided by the plans worked out by Colonel Kendrick in July 1944. On ihe twenty-second of this month, Lieutenant Bleke, representing the Arm: Navy, and the American Red Cross, arrived on Leyte with 80 pints of ma group O Blood which had been flown from Sen Francisco via Guam. This was the first blood to arrive from America and it representeda turning point in the recufusion service in the Pacific. With greatly increased supplies available, greatly increased use of blood was possible, and plasma assumed its proper role in replacement therapy as a supplement to whole blood, not as a substitute for it. Between 19 November and 24 December 1944, 4,256 of the 6,480 units of whole blood received on Guam went to Leyte (22).

PACIFIC

AREAS

619

Fievre 143.—Lt. Col. Frank Glenn, MC, Consultant in Surgery, Sixth U.S. Army.

LUZON Planning The Leyte Seeajant as already indicated, was the first combined ArmyNavy whole blood project, and in retrospect, for a number of reasons, it seems that it could probebly have been handled more efficiently. The operation on Luzon was handled better, for two chief reasons: 1. Information concerning the blood supply was well disseminated. Through the efficient cooperation of Maj. (ater Lt. Col.) Frank Glenn, MC, Consultant in Surgery, Sixth U.S. Army (fig. 143), Colonel Kendrick was able to present the blood program in detail to the senior medical officer, Nevy; representatives of the Surgeon, Sixth U.S. Army; base and other surgeons; and a number of other medical officers with special interest in the use of blood. At this meeting, he was able to demonstrate to these officers that they could have all the blood they needed from the Zone of Interior and that it would be delivered according to their requests if they merely made the requests. 2. Colonel Kendrick had encountered, during his stay on Leyte, a welltrained pathologist and fine medical officer, Captain Thorpe, who, with totally inadequate resources, had done remarkably good work in supplying the Sixth U.S. Army with blood. When he came into the Zone of Interior program, most operational difficulties were cleared away. In the month Colonel Kendrick spent with the Sixth U.S. Army, he wi able to work out a blood program for the invasion and to arrange for the delivery

620 of blood

BLOOD from

follows (26):

Guam

according

to estimated

needs

from

D-day

PROGRAM onward,

as

. A responsible omer, either MC or mac would be casi in the Sixth U.S. Army’ to be in charge ofthe blood bank. He would be adeq assisted by enlisted men and would have the sole veoponalbltey for the oeration of the | heed bybank 2. “Equipment would consist of four 220-cu. ft. reefers with a capacit: 1,600 to 2,000 bottles of plcod; ¢one vehicle to take blood from the beach to the airetrip to the distribution center; and an ice machine. inning on 30 December 1044 (D-day on Lingayen Gulf, Luzon, was set for 9 January 1045), 300 to 400 pints of blood would be requisitioned daily from the States. The four reefers to ba used could aecommodate 700 to 800 pints each, but for the (Luzon) operation, only 400 to 500 pints would be stored in each. The reefers would dispersed on LST’s, so that they could be put ashore as acon as the military situation per. mitted. On shore, one Teefer would be‘Placed behind each division, but as soon |as the tacall four w facility. The officer in charge woul ibe responsible for stocking the reefers at the mounting point of the invasion with blood saficiontte fresh to arrive at the target area within the usable time limit. . The requirement o ol a 600 pinta of blood for the Sixth U.S. Army was based on the number of expected cas and was in addition to the quantity requested for the ‘Navy. The needa of both services aa for the first 4 days of the operation were set at 3,500 pints. To meet these requirements 2. A501 ‘ints te would, ‘be shipped from the States. ts would be shipped from the blood ‘banks at the 27th General Hospital in Hollandie, and ibe 9th General Hospital, which then would be serving as a blood bank on

Leyte.

600pints would be collected locally by LST 41 5. After the firat 5 days of the operation, Blood would « be supplied from Leyte to the target ey UST" ‘8 or other shipe leaving Leyte for Luzon. Bloo irstrip was secured. The blood bank officer would be responsible for developing the line of supply and receiving the blood upon its arrival at the target. 6. If reeferspace was limited, the racks containing the blood could be atored without the insulated box The boxes, which contain ed the giving sets, must be taken aboard the wee and the blood must be replaced in them before landing, to keep it cool during ita ution A ‘supply of ice to refrigerate the insulated boxes might not be available early in the assault, If this happened, the blood must be delivered directly from the reefer to the using hospital. The ice machine, with a capacity of 800 to 1,000 pounds per day, must be placed ashore and made available ‘to the distribution team at the earliest practical time. December 1944, the Navy estimated ite Tequiroments ag8s 1,200 pints of blood at the mounting area on 3 January 1945; 700 pints on 4 January 1945; and 500 pinta on 6, oe 14, and 20 January. The LsT 464 would fren eatin rf 200 pints ste for uae | on D-day and D+1, porte for casualties. This plan did not include the whole blood supply to convoys departing from Hollandia, Aitape, Noemfoor, and Sansapor, nor did it include the resupply of blood for hospital ships bringing casualties to New Guinea blo for these purposes would be supplied by the blood bank at Hollandia and the depot at Biak. If the ships departed from Hollandia, the blood would be placed aboard them there. Blood would be flown from Hollandia to Aitape and to Noemfoor for the convoys departing from those points. Blood for

PACIFIC

AREAS

621

convoys leaving Sunsapor would be flown from the depot at Biak. which left Leyte would carry blood from the Zone of Interior.

Convoys

Implementation of Planning The scope of the amphibious landings on Luzon was so vast that it was impossible to set up a central distribution point, and the arrangements just outlined had to be substituted. The blood was placed aboard ship just before the convoys departed. All clearing companies, portable surgical hospitals, field hospitals, evacuation hospitals, hospital ships, and cargo LST’s with medical officers aboard had fresh refrigerated whole blood with them when they left for the target. At the beginning of the Luzon operation, equalization of supply and demand furnished something of a problem, which disappeared when better liaison was established between the mainland and forward areas (27). By the end of January, blood was being received at Leyte that still had 17 days of life. It was therefore possible to forward the blood by ship and have it received on Luzon with several days of life still left in it. The first blood was flown into Luzon from Leyte 12 days after the invasion, by medium bombers, before transport Planes could land (18). The Luzon be wise to plan that ships and LST blood eke supply forces ashore for ment 14 days; after that time, air transportation could be relied on. When the system was finally established smoothly, it was considered ideal (28). Blood shipped from Guam on requisition went to Tacloban, on Leyte, where Captain Thorpe screened each shipment before it was placed under refrigeration. Blood for local distribution was stored in a 350-cu. ft. refrigerator at the 34th Medical Depot. Blood for Luzon was placed in a stationary refrigerator, provided by the Quartermaster Refrigerator Co., whose 4,300-cu. ft. capacity assured a minimum temperature change when the door was opened. The temperature was maintained at 38° to 43° F. (3.5° to 6° C.). refrigerating units were used, so that, if one failed, the others could operate while repairs were being made. Before the blood was placed in the refrigerator, each box was opened, the blood was examined, and the amount of ice in the cylinder was noted. The expiration date of the blood was written on the outside of the box. The blood was refrigerated with the lid of the box propped open, to allow the temperatures inside and outside to equalize and thus to insure a stable temperature while the icebox doors were opened and closed. Each box was re-iced before issue. Supply was controlled by radiogram to the Island Command, Guam. The benk at Leyte operated on e 24-hour basis for distribution, and arrangements were made with the signal center that all messages concerning blood were rted immediately, by phone, to the bank. Shipments could thus be moved at once, Radio notification of the arrival of the blood, and the use of couriers whenever there might be any delay en route or at the receiving end, insured

622

BLOOD

PROGRAM

the arrival of the blood in good condition because refrigeration had been maintained and the boxes re-iced as necessary during transportation. When necessary, emergency items were reques y radio or telephone and were dropped over the frontlines, often within a saver of minutes, from artillery liaison planes. Recovery was almost 100 percent satisfactory, ani

even such delicate items as plasma and blood were received in good condition (29)

"Plas a was in ample supply and well used (figs. 127-131). The first direct issue uo of blood in the Manila area was by the 15th Medical Supply Platoon (Aviation) on 11 March 1945. The initial supplies were obtained from Leyte vie Base (Sen Fernando, La Union). Later shipments were made directly from Leyte to the Nielson Airfield in Manila. The average daily issue during March to units in the area was 125 pints (80). During April, the daily issue ranged from 160 to 175 pints, and, for the next 3 months, it averaged 175 pints. When casualties began to drop as heavy fighting on Luzon ceased, any blood not utilized before the expiration date was

transferred to the Philippine Island Civil Affairs Unit, for use in civilian

hospitals. Interior.

All

blood

supplied

during

this period

originated

in

the Zone

of

TWO JIMA The Iwo Jima operation, which lasted from 19 February to 16 March 1945, was a Navy-Marine operation (18, 31).

OKINAWA Planning When Colonel Kendrick was appointed Consultant in Blood and Shock to Col. Frederic B. Westerfelt, MC, Surgeon, Tenth U.S. Army, on 14 March 1945, it was only 5 days before the Army sailed for the i invasion of Okinawa. Little additional planning was possible at this time, but he was able to see that the ships that went to Okinawa from Saipan were loaded with all the blood likely to be needed for the first stage of this operation, which was an ArmyMarine responsibility. The plan for supplying blood for the Okinawa operation, which wv incorporated in the ITI Ampeious Corps Administrative Plan No. 5, Annex Easy, was in essence as follows 1. The Distribution Center at Guam would stock AH’s (hospital ships) with suitable quantities of whole blood and wou a0 sock aa a which had been designated medical use by the Commander, Join! . APH’s (transpo. ‘or deans and APA's (transporte, attack) were scheduled to arrive ot the target within the usable limits of the blood carried on t 9. At the target, LST 929 and AH’s would act as a local Sfetribution center for APH's, APA's, PCE(R)’s (patrol craft, escort (reseue)), and LST’s used for evacuating casualties. They would also supply blood for the medical unite ashore.

PACIFIC

AREAS

623

4. As soon as practical, a temporary whole blood distribution center would be established ashore and would take over the distributing functions of LST 929 and AH’e which had be n used for this @ dietaibuting center on Guam would supply the distributing center ashore with adequate quantities of blood by alr or by in surface transportation, When hospitals were established, they would receive their blood b: nel, refriger flake ioe machine, and other equipment would be supplied to the temporary dition 4 center and LST 929 by ComServPac (Commander, Servi Force, Pacific). nel and equipment would be teken ashore in assault shipping os soon as the Teaing toree commander could arrange their transportation.

Implementation of Planning The plans worked out perfectly. The Fleet drew its whole blood supply in mid-March; some of it was due to expire Jate in March and the remainder at various dates in early April. In the event that resupply would have been necessary before regular channels of supply could be opened, 75 bottles of blood were prepared to be dropped by parachute at some one of the Fleet refueling stations. This did not prove necessary, though preliminary tests at Agane Bay had proved that this method of delivery was entirely practical end did not harm the blood dropped. Blood was brought into the target area by eight AH’s, LSV-6 (landing ship, vehicle), and AGC-4 (amphibious force flagship), the U.S.S. Ancon. The LST(H) 929 (landing ship, tank (casualty evacuation)), designated as the distribution center afloat, arrived at‘the target onL-day. Because it was a slow ship, i i t LSV-6 and the U.S.S. Solace a Additional AH" ivi 2-3 day intervals brought in about 1,700 pints per y excess over theneeda of the casualties on the AH’s was transferred toMe isha 929, which distributed | blood to the seven other LST(H)’a and the numerous APA’s which had arri 'T 929 continued to act as te distribution center afloat until L+15, when the blood distribution team set uP by Colonel Kendrick was able to go ashore and begin to function. Its arrival at the target had been delayed because the ship on which it had been transported was Miamaged by a suicide dive bomber and could not be unloaded at once. During this period, the XXIV Corps received all the blood it needed from LST(H) 929 which was lying off Beach Orange 2 in close proximity to it. Blood was supplied to the III Amphibious Corps during the same period by transfer of blood from LST(H) 929 to LST(H) 951, which was conveniently located off Beach Yellow 2, near Corps headquarters. When the III Amphibious Corps advanced north on Okinawa, blood reached it from this LST(H), which went up daily to evacuate casualties, By L+20, about 12,900 pints of blood hed reached the target by surface carrier, Approximately 3,200 pints were retained aboard AH’s, LST(H)’s, The first blood, 200 pints, received by air, arrived on Okinawe on L+ 17. The distributing center ashore (fig. 144) was set up at Yon-tan Airstrip, where

624

BLOOD

PROGRAM

it operated with two 150-cu. ft. refrigerators, equipped with generators. Daily shipments from Guam (200 pints) were received from Guam after The original plans called for the provision of 6,000 pints of whole blood for the target on Love Day and the delivery of another 3,000 pints by hospital ship during the first week of the campaign. The course of events made clear the importance of the control of blood by trained personnel if wastage was to be

eee a? Ficure 144.—General view of blood distribution center, U.S. Navy, off Route No. 1, Okinawa, July 1945. avoided: The casualties in the first days of the Okinawa operation were unexpectedly low. As a result, only 3,000 pints of blood were needed, and the resupplies planned for this period were not need . small amount of blood was lost, but most of the 3,500 pints snvelved were saved. Several of the ships to seit with blood from Ulithi were not dispatched because they were not needed. A medical officer sent to Honolulu to investigate local needs found that most of the blood on which the dating limit was due to expire could be

utilized thers.

J slow pi made it possible for Colonel Kendrick, scompenid by Col. George G. Finney, MC, Consultant in Surgery, Tenth U.S. Army, Lt. Col. (later Col.) Harold A. Sofield, MC, and Col. Walter B. Martin, MC, to make daily trips ashore for indoctrination purposes. The circumstances were peculiarly propitious: The Japanese had retreated south as the landings were made, and it was a week before real resistance was encountered. During this interval, it was therefore possible for these officers to visit every field and evacuation hospital ashore, whether Army or Navy, and to pass on to the hospital staffs all the available information about the use and handling of whole blood, including the information Colonel Kendrick had secured in the Mediterranean and European theaters about its correct use in battle casualties. The discussions covered careful triage at the field hospital level after adequate resuscitation (figs. 145, 146, and 147), the physical arrange-

PACIFIC

AREAS

Ficure

625

145.—Administration of plasma |to officer wounded by Japanese sniper, Okinawa, April 1945.

ments of a shock ward (p. 707), the employment of shock teams, and the establishment and observance of a routine of surgical management. When the hard fighting started, the medical officers responsible for the care of battle casualties were well trained in resuscitation procedures and in the use of whole blood. The daily distribution of blood ashore varied from 5 cases originally to 59 cases, As soon as needs began to increase, the center at Guam was requested to ship 1,000 pints immediately, to provide for a backlog in case of bad weather. As the operation progressed, it was necessary to increase the requisitions to 750 pints per day. Between L+39 and L+42, 2,336 pints were used

626

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Ficure 146.— Administration of plasma to soldier wounded on Okinawa, 7th Division, May 1945,

Shock Teams Because large numbers of casualties were anticipated in the Iwo Jima and Okinawa operations, shock teams were used in numerous hospitals. The team attached to the 148th General Hospital was organized on 26 February 1945, on Saipan. It consisted of five medical officers, two nurses, and four enlisted men, 60 assigned that the team was on duty around the clock, Two of the ted men were trained to perform venipunctures The shock center was located in a small quonset hut. Refrigerated blood wes stored conveniently near it, ina large reefer. Equipment was generally sufficient, but motorized transportation would have saved time because of the extent of ground occupied by the hospital. All casualties were treated by a regular shock routine, which included immediate determinations of hemoglobin and of the hematocrit and plasm protein values by the copper sulfate technique, which was generally used in the Pacific as soon as it became available. These results were entered on a mimeographed form that bore the patient’s name, serial number, and ward assignment and that was checked in the shock center before it went to the ward. If the hematocrit level indicated the need for blood, the center notified the ward officer and provided the proper amount. If, however, a casualty seemed clinically in need of blood, the ward officer, without waiting for the laboratory results, phoned the information to the shock center, which provided the transfusion.

PACIFIC

AREAS

627

Ficure 147.—Administration of plasma to wounded infantryman on Okinawa, April 1945. A cigarette was often an essential part of resuscitation. In order to save time and avoid unnecessary repetition of venipunctures each ward officer gave the shock center each morning a consolidated requisi' ion for the estimated blood and other intravenous fluid needs of all his patients for the next oe the Iwo Jima and Okinawa campaigns, between 24 February and 13 Avmuat 1945, the shock team at the 148th General Hospital handled 3,767 patients, who received 4,748 pints of whole blood. The 164 reactions averaged 4.3 per patient and 3.0 per transfusion, Of the 5,412 pints of blood received, 664 had to be discarded because of excessive lipoid content, clotting, overdating, and technical difficulties of administration. The smooth functioning of this well-organized shock team played an important role in the low mortality rates achieved in both the Iwo Jima and the Okinawa campaigns.

Critique

In his report to General Willis on the blood program campaign, Colonel Kendrick made the following comments:

for

the Okinawa

1, Overall planning was practical and effective. Shipment of blood bysurface carriers provided adequate supplies for the initial phase of the operation. Reefers anufacturing mahine on LST(H) 929 enabled this ship to act as a distribution center ‘for vat afloat and ashor The LST(H) 90 arrived at the target area without its own supply of blood because its slow speed would have made the blood outdated before ita arrival. It had to draw its

628

BLOOD

PROGRAM

supplies from other ships before it could begin to function as a distribution center, and thia delay, which made the LST(H) 929 dependent on other ships, was responsible for some delay aa 3. je and APA's were stocked with varylng quantities of blood at the assembly point, and certain other ehips were also well stocked. of these ships could have drawn blood, as they noeded it, from LST(H) 929, and it would be advisable to use this plan in ruture opera‘ation ve plan ‘called for AH’s aa well as LST(H) 929 to act as distributing centers for other shine The AH! 8 carried suficient blood for this purpose, bu It no pergonn nel had b designated t issues of blood. Local i distribution could be aovomplished with "Yess confusion if some designated LST acted as the other floating distribution center and was made responsible for issues of blood and records of receipts and created as * the shoreline in a future operation should be long, pnother LST could be dealgnated as a subdistribution ship, to supply half of the beac hbead, b ot to supply other en Because a this possible necessity, two LST's uid be pro vowided with reefers and ice machines. t Okinawa, ist 951 supplied the IIT Amphiblowe Corps and served as a supp! Jementary distribution cen 5. The blood distribution ‘com was delayed in| 1 going ashore because the U.S.8. Achinar, on which it traveled, sustained bombing damage. Since the team was not brought In on the LST(H) 929, it povided nosupport ‘for the distribution activities on that ship. Hereaf: ‘eam end equipment should be trmraported on the LST which is to serve as aeration @ enter, or on one of t)the or which accompanies it, fo that the team can maintain complete control of blood distribution afloat and ashore, part of the team remaining afloat on ‘the L8sT until the distribution center ashore is functional. 6. Considerable confusion was caused in medical installations ashore by laok of knowledge as to where blood could be obtained. In future operations, instructions should be given by cach corps to its medical instaations concerning the location of the distribution center afloat. The officer in char, blood distribution team should notity each shore part of the location of the floating Senter‘ond the availability of blood from it. 7. The LST(H) 920 did not have facilities for delivery of blood to the beach when signalediby the shore party. by the dietrifition ¢ t letaly adi The machine could not be used because acceasory parta were lacking. There was no provision for water for manufacturing ice and for removing latent heat. Water tanks, piping, a water trailer, a w. an er supplies could be obtained from Island Command and NCB's (Navy construction battallons} before the center ashore could make its own ice. In the meantime, it had to obtain its ice from LST(H) . An ice machine with ccessory cooling system should be available for immediate use In future operations. Another 2- ton 6-by-6 truck to transport a third 150-cu. ft. reefer and a 250-gallon water trailer 9. While a distribution team proved entirely sapabie of ©f functioning as a blood supply point under the supervision of a hospital corps officer, lered imperative that 6 medica! officer be responsible for the proper care annd ‘use u 0! cod. He could be in charge of tl e team or alatta ched to the medical section of the Tanding Force Commander’s headquarte! The angement would be more desirable, for it would give the officer more latitude ini vndvising ¢on the proper use of whole blood. and also

nel Kendrick made recommen

Tecommendations

to cover

these

verious

points

. That the ea, of all medical installations assigned to an amphibious task force be instructed | before departure in the principles and practices relating to the treatment of shock and the proper use of whole blood.

PACIFIC

AREAS

629

. That each field hospital supporting amphibious operations have attached to it four shook teams, each consisting of a medical officer, a nurse, and two enlisted men. It would thue be possible for two teams to be on duty each 12 hours.

TERMINATION

OF AIRLIFT

As the campaigns in the Southwest Pacific decreased in intensity and then were concluded, the quantity of whole blood needed and used decreased correspondingly. The blood bank at Hollendie and the depot at Biak were closed at the end of 1944, since planning for the invasion of Japan was predicated on procurement of the major supply of blood from the Zone of Interior (p. 639). The abrupt end of the Pacific war on 14 August 1945 caused an equally abrupt change in the transfusion service. On 5 September 1945, the commanding generals of all base areas and commands were notified by Colonel Dart, Deputy Chief Surgeon, U.S. Army Forces, Western Pacific, that shipments of

whole blood from the Zone of Interior would be discontinued on or about 15

September and that thereafter blood must be obtained from local sources (82). A blood bank had been established at the 19th Medical General Maborsiary in | Manila to supply blood for hospitals in the Philippine Islands and would begi: to function on 15 September. Instructions were given for the procurement of blood from this source. The dating period for properly refrigerated blood was set at 30 days. If a hospital needed only small amounts of blood, it should

collect it from local donors.

Attention was called to the technical instructions

on the storage and edministration of blood contained in Circular Letter No. 38, Office of the Chief Surgeon, USAFPAC (U.S. Army Forces, Pacific), dated 20 August 1945 (33). he plan worked out very well. After shipments from the Zone of Interior sonoed, the blood bank at the 19th Medical General Laboratory in Manila took care of the initial needs of the army of occupation and supplied the needs of all U.S. hospitals in the Philippines as long as they were in operation. The absence of opposition in Japan and adjoining territories soon relieved the blood bank of the necessity of supplying blood for the armies of occupation.

STATISTICAL

DATA

An accurate statistical analysis of the whole blood program in the Pacific is almost impossible because of the circumstances under which many, perhaps the majority, of transfusions were given. The figures to be cited should therefore be viewed as representing trends correctly but not accepted as precise data.

Supplies From the Zone of Interior al figures from the American Red Cross show the following shipments of whole blood, group O, to the Pacific (17): DUrposas,

General

blood

bank

630

BLOOD

PROGRAM

The wide variations in the monthly amounts, which reflect the varying intensity of fighting, made for difficulties in maintaining collection schedules in the Zone of Interior. The remarkable accuracy of the estimates, however, is evident in the April 1945 report of the distributing center on Guam (24): In that month, it was necessary, for the first time, to distribute excess supplies of blood to general and other hospitals in the bases, instead of sending it forward to combat zones.

Oversea Supply and Distribution

The following general data, which ere incomplete and inaccurate because of the circumstances (p. 455), are available for the supply and distribution of blood in the Pacific: 4,260 units (2, 130 liters) to U.S. Army bases in New Guineas and the Philippine Islands by the Austral ian Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service between January 1944 and February 1945 (p.5 units to 0 8. bases in New Guinea, the surrounding islands, and the Philippine Islands by the whole blood bank at the 27th General Hospital, Hollandia, New Guinea, ber Ta 944. 88,728 units to U.S. bases in the Philippines by the blood distribution center, Leyte, Philippine Islands, betwean December 1044 and sagPtember 1045. All of this blood was received

from

the

Zone

of Interior

via

Guam

(23,

2,145 unita to U.S. bases in the Philyine Islands by the blood bank at the 19th Medical General Laboratory, Manila, in September and October 1945, when these tabulations were concluded. As the result of planned indoctrination combined with the availability of preserved whole blood, the use of blood in all forward installations in the Southwest Pacific increased steadily ($5). There were few medical officers who did not eventually realize that lost whole blood can be replaced only by whole blood. The value of massive transfusions was also universally appreciated, and it was not uncommon to encounter patients in rear hospitals who had received from 5,000 to 7,000 cc. within a few hours after wounding. The blood supply was originally on the basis of 1 pint of blood per casualty but frequently much more blood was used. In one series of 6,807 casualties treated surgically, 10,242 units of blood were used, and by the end of the war a ratio of 1.5:1 was the rule.

PACIFIC

AREAS

631

While accurate total figures

are significant: The first report for U.S. on Guam, from 19 November pints were received from the tributed, 4,256 pints to Leyte,

t

available, certai

parative

st

Naval Whole Blood Distribution Center No. 1 to 24 December 1944 (22), showed that 6,480 mainJand, of which 5,041 pints had been dis288 pints to hospital ships and Fleet units, 48

pints to the 3d Marine Division, 128 pints to the 168th General Hospitel,

40 pints for civil emergencies on Guam, 191 pints to three naval base hospitals, and 14 Pints to the U.S. Naval Air Base Dispensary. In eddition, 76 pints had been discarded for causes not connected with outdatin, The April report from the Guam distribution center es ) showed 5,663 pints of whole blood on hand on 1 April and 25,760 pints received during the month from the United States. Of this amount, 12,568 pints were distributed

to the Philippine Islands and 15,916 to the Okinawa operation.

By 30 April

1945, a total of 18,316 pints of blood had been distributed for the Okinawa operation, of which 5,120 pinte had been shipped by eir. The remainder of the blood flown to vee” mostly in small amounts, went to hospitals in the Marianas and on Guam, and to hospitel ships and Fleet units. Included in the April distribution was the blood (535 pints) that went to hospitals in the

Hawaiian Islands when casualties in the first stage of the Okinawa operation

proved fewer than had been anticipated (p. 624). From L—6 to L+43, approximately 25,444 pints of blood were supplied for the Okinaws operation, 12,900 by surface carrier and the remainder by air ($1). During this period, there were 23,6381 casualties, including killed in action, wounded in action, missing in action, and nonbattle casualties. The Tatio of 1 pint of blood per casualty admitted to field hospitals, which had been established in the Mediterranean and European theaters, was thus exceeded in the Okinawa operation, one reason being the kamikaze suicide bombings. Between 1 April and 21 June 1945, approximately 40,000 units of blood were received by the various hospitals and other medical installations operating on Okinawa.

Losses

Considering the circumstances in the Pacific, it is remarkable that the losses of blood were so small. ey were chiefly due to hemolysis, breakage, failures ofSine Bey and outdatil ysis.—Earl the operation of the airlift, it was well established that Borel of blood which would become hemolyzed would be in that state on their arrival at Guam, where they could be screened and discarded as necessary (p. 607). It was also found, in the Pacific and elsewhere, that blood could undergo considerable movement without hemolysis. In the total shipments, excessive hemolysis before the outdating period was reached occurred in less than 5 percent of the flasks. The single serious

complaint in respect to this change came from the 2d Field Hospitel, which,

on one occasion,

found

80 percent of its stock hemolyzed.

While the precise

632

BLOOD

PROGRAM

cause was never determined, the most plausible explanation wes a break in refrigeration technique. reakage.—Breakage was remarkably infrequent. Licutenant Brown reporied no instance of breakage in the blood received at Guam between 25

December 1944 and 31 March

1945, and Captain Thorpe made the same

statement in his 4 July 1945 report from the Leyte bank. ilure of refrigeration.—The chief losses from refrigeration failures were in forward hospitals and, for the most part, in hospitals in which the control of blood was not the responsibility of a single medical officer with Faulty refrigeration, with temperature fluctuations training in this field. and storage at too high temperatures, was the chief cause of loss of blood by hemolysis. Base units reported only small losses because of incorrect refrigeration, This would be oxpected, for they had good refrigerators and experienced mechanics to maintain Outdating.—The blood that combat medical units carried with them to the target always was loaded at the latest possible date, so that the expiration date would not be exceeded before a new supply could be flown in; this was not possible until airstrips were secured. Invasion forces went ashore with

supplies of blood adequate for all estimated casualties.

Most of the losses—

many unrecorded—probably occurred at such times. There was no alternative, however, to the provision of blood on the basis of possible needs. Resupply was on the basis of actual needs; automatic resupply would have occasioned

far heavier losses than those that occurred.

The bank at Leyte was at first supplied with blood with only 10 days of life remaining in it, the fresher blood being given to Fleet combat teams, As supply and demand equalized, the bank at Leyte was supplied with fresher blood. It was kept stocked at all times with 3-4 days’ supply, to provide for emergency requests and to guard against failure of supplies because of bad flying weather. Not much blood was lost by outdating, and, according to Captain Thorpe, there was never a time during the operation of this bank that

blood ree not available for issu

‘he dating period for all banked blood in the Pacific, including the blood collected locally, was set at 21 . ere was some discussion in the spring of 1945 about extending the shelf life to 28 days, but no formal ection was

en. The report of the center on Guam for June 1945 showed total losses due

to aging in 1945 as 3. 8 percent, 2.9 percent for the first quarter and 4.3 percent for the second. During this period there were only three occasions when supply and demand were not well balanced; in Januery, in preparation for the Luzon invasion; in April, in preparation for the Okinawa invasion; and in June, when there was an unexpectedly rapid cutback of requirements in the POA and SWPA. On all of these occasions, more blood was ordered than was needed for the combat forces, but most of it was used in hospitals to the rear.

The total losses from aging were probably somewhat higher than these

figures suggest

because

they

take

incomplete

account

of losses

in hospitals,

PACIFIC

AREAS

633

particularly the forward hospitals which required only small amounts of blood at irregular intervals but which had to carry o stock large enough for possible emergencies (86). he use of blood beyond the 21-day limit set was not recommended, but the dating period was ocensionally exceeded when the choice lay betwee! outdated blood or no blood at all. Lives were undoubtedly saved as a result. At one time, when the an Portable Surgical Hospital received a heavy influx of casualties, it used a considerable nmount of outdated blood with no reactions (87). Two casualties, each of whom received more than 4,000 cc. in a 36-hour period, showed no ill effects, though all of the blood used was outdated from 14 to 20 days (87).

CLINICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

Indoctrination When Colonel Kendrick reached Hawaii on 25 November 1944, he went on to Guam, and then, after discussions there with Lieutenant Brown, he continued on to Leyte, to discuss all aspects of the supply and use of whole blood with medical officers in General Denit’s office and with the Surgeon, Sixth U.S. Army. At this time, there were no personnel in the POA who had the overall responsibility of supervising the reception, storage, and distribution of blood or who had the authority to undertake these t Also, as might have been expected in the circumstances, there was no general recognition of the importance of the liberal use of whole blood in battle casualties. One of Colonel Kendrick’s important tasks, and it was not a particularly easy one, was the indoctrination of medical officers concerning this modality. He hed to convince officers of the Sixth U.S. Army, which had been functioning effectively for several years without adequate supplies of whole blood, that the new blood program had a great deal to offer them. Many of them frankly told him that they had got along very well without it and him. He also had to convince medical officers in an army that had never had enough of anything that they could have all the blood they needed and wanted simply by asking for it. His observations in the Mediterranean and European theaters stood him in good stead, for he could bear personal testimony to the feasibility and advantages of the plan he was advocatin e acceptance of the blood program and the liberal use of whole blood that followed (fig. 148) can be attributed chiefly to the vision and support of the Consultant in Surgery, Sixth U.S. Army, Major Glenn. Without his understanding of the problem, and without the high esteem in which he wes held by medical personnel in the Sixth U.S. Army, it would have been far more difficult than it was to support this Army with the blood which it required. has been pointed out already, the arrival of the first shipment of blood from the United States changed the whole face of the management of shock and hemorrhage in the Pacific. Up to that time, the ratio of pints of blood to casualties had been about 1:10. The ratio changed to 1:1, and later to 1.5:1.

634

BLOOD

Fraure 148.—Administration of blood to hia division | om st was shelled, October

PROGRAM

U.S. casualty, wounded when Leyte, Philippine Islands,

When whole blood was immediately available as far forward as clearing companies and portable surgical hospitals, it became the practice to use plasma only when blood was not at hand, which was seldom, or to supplement transfusion, but never as a substitute for it. By March of 1945, it was routine for invasion forces to carry blood ashore with them, and it was not uncommon, on reading a casualty’s Emergency Medical Tag in a rear hospital, to find that he had received 1 or more pints of bank blood at a clearing company (34). Some casualties received as much as 6 pints in an hour. umerous reports from individual surgeons and hospitals testified to the value of whole blood. The Surgeon, Palawan Task Force, said that the buffered whole blood brought in with medical units on D-day in the Luzon operation proved invaluable: “The value of whole blood over plasma for battle casualties is unquestioned.” A surgeon at the 27th Portable Surgical Hospital said that the mortality rate from abdominal wounds dropped 20 percent when transfusions, penicillin, and oxygen therapy became available. A report from e 80th General Hospital stated that the superiority of whole blood over plesime was most striking in casualties with shattered pelves and associated abdominal injuries, who required 3,000 to 4,000 ce. of blood in the first 24 hours after wounding. The surgeons of the 119th Station Hospital found plasma of little value in casualties received for definitive and convalescent care. ‘Blood is what is needed.”

PACIFIC

AREAS

635

The comments of the Surgeon, Sixth U.S. Army, were particularly enthusiastic. The use of plasme in the restoration of blood volume in hemorrhage

and shock needed no comment on its merits, he wrote, but if hemorrhage had

occurred, only whole blood could meet the situation. Blood had been used extensively as far forward as battalion aid stations. Given over a 24-hour period, 5,000 cc. could completely change the appearance and outlook of a critically wounded casualty. The use of whole blood in the Luzon campaign had played a very significant part in reducing the mortality from serious wounds and had also proved that massive transfusions carly, followed by slower transfusions, were much more efficacious than plesma. Finally, fewer reactions

were occurring with banked blood than had ovourred ‘with

locally. Numerous

case reports

were

also cited

that showed

fresh blood collected both

whole blood and the success of the indoctrination in its use.

the

value

of

One casualty,

5 pints of blood immediately and another 5 Pints over the next 12 hours. By former methods of collecting and administering blood, he could not possibly have been saved. With banked blood immediately available, he was brought out of shock, hemorrhage wes controlled, reparative surgery was done, and both life and limb were preserved.

The Luzon Experience The Luzon experience is typical of all later experiences with whole blood. In this campaign, for the first time, blood was administered to all patients with severe and moderately severe wounds or with evidence of impending shock,

regardless of their status on admission. Those with no signs of shock received 2 pints of blood. Those ini moderate shock received from 4 to 6 Piats, run in

rapidly by gravity. as much as 10 pints in 90 minutes.

One patient received 17 pints in 9 hours.

In severely shocked patients, blood was often forced through cannulas into

several veins at once by multiple syringes or by pressure gravity techniques. After observation of the results of these practices, it required little effort to convince Sixth U.S. Army medical officers at headquarters or in the fieldo the value of the whole blood program. Whole blood was used in chest wounds with the usual precautions against, overhydration. It was given liberally in wounds of the abdomen and of the extremities. Its postoperstive use was found to be an effective way to prevent wound disruption. Casualties coming from forward hospitals often suffered from hypoproteinemia, and the liberal use of blood and plasma, supplemented by early high-protein feedings, helped to prevent this complication. Blood was also used as necessary on the medical service. Several patients with aplastic anemia received 20 pints or more before evacuation. 717-400" 04

43

636

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Techniques of Administration Data concerning the practices used in the administration of whole blood in Pacific hospitals were reported in the ETMD for March and April 1945 (86). The container was inverted and agitated gently until the cells had returned to a state of uniform suspension in the plasma. The blood was given either cold as it was taken from the refrigerator or after it had stood at room temperature for a short time; it was never warmed to body temperature. When it was given rapidly, it was preferable that it be at environmental temperature. When it was given over a 30- to 90-minute period, the temperature seem The time required to administer a When pressure was exerted by use of the other means, a pint could be given in 5 be given rapidly under minimal pressuce

saphenous vein.

unit of blood was widely variable. bulb on 8 Baumanometer or by some to 10 minutes. A transfusion could if a cannula was tied into the long

The intrasternal route was occasionally used.

When

a

casualty was in severe shock, two transfusions could be run into different veins at a rapid rate. As soon as bleeding was controlled and the blood pressure returned to a satisfactory level, the rate of administration wes decreased, and the roe was given just rapidly enough to keep the pressure near that level.

ties originally experienced with filtration of the blood soon dis-

appeared ‘with improvements in the filter. ‘There were some complaints because it was not possible, with the sets used, to see the blood dripping through a glass adapter, but the objection wes not considered significant when a filter was used which did not clog

PLASMA The story of plasma theaters. Before whole needed whole blood were bottles over a period of

in the Pacific is much the same as its story in other blood was available, many casualties who clearly given plasma; some received as much as 10 to 14 a few hours. Once whole blood became evailable

and ite correct use was comprehended, indications. In his report to The Surgeon

plasma was used on the proper

Generel on his survey of blood requirements

end supplies in the Pacific in July 1944, Colonel Kendrick stated that he and

Captain Newhouser had found adequate supplies of plasma in all areas (10). Some of the packages were 2 years old, but plasma, distilled water, and intravenous equipment were still intact and uncontaminated, and there was no apparent deterioration of the rubber tubing or stopper. The few reactions Teporti ter plasma transfusions were apparently urticarial. officers were enthusiastic about the change to the 500-cc. pac! On ; Plasma was reconstituted in battalion eid stations, carried forward, and administered as splints fore th moved. In thick jungle country such as on Biak, where it often took 8 hours to move @

PACIFIC

AREAS

casualty 4 ane

often lifesa vin,

637 by litter, the use of plaama before and during evacuation was

The use of ‘plasma both afloat and ashore wes greatly extended by training Army and Navy corpsmen to prepare and administer it. Aboard ship, naval medical officers depended upon these well-trained men to administer most of the plasme given. The ability of enlisted men to master the intravenous technique was sometimes underestimated. They learned readily, and some technicians, who had not been trained, administered plasma for the first time under. fire ene by following the instructions on the container. € g enlisted personnal

ouch trainin,

A seriously wounded man lay in a depression in the direct line of fire of an active Japanese machinegun. To leave him without treatment would have Tisked his going into irreversible shock. To move him would have meant certain casualties for the litter squad. A staff sergeant, who was later awarded the Silver Star medal for bravery, crawled out to him, dressed his wounds, splinted a fracture, and then administered three units ‘of plasma to him by lying by his side end elevating the bottle of plasma with one hand (98). Five men in s command post about an hour’s litter carry from a battelion aid station were seriously wounded by «4 short 81-mm. mortar. enlisted technician on the spot prepared five units of plasma, suspended the bottles by forked sticks in the ground, and hed the last infusion flowing before the first was complete. Many lives were saved because enlisted technicians with supplies of plasma were assigned to companies carrying out flanking attacks in the jungle and operating apart from the battalion.

OTHER

REPLACEMENT

AGENTS

albumin was available in the Pacific but Captain Newhouser and Colonel Kendrick found that it was not widely used, either ashore or on ships, for several reasons: Many medical officers had never heard of it; the circumstances did not favor rapid dissemination of information. No extensive educational program had been carried out concerning it, and plasma, which had been the subject of careful indoctrination, was universally available and had proved extremely satisfactory. The necessity for using additional fluid with albumin was a distinct disadvantage, for dehydration was a real entity in troops fighting in the Pacific areas. Many hours were spent on hospital ships and in other Army and Navy installations instructing medical officers on the availability and use of serum albumin. It was also pointed out that it need not be stored in refrigerators, in which it was being kept in all the storehouses visited. Almost nothing was knownin the Pacific about immune globulin, fibrinogen, thrombin, and fibrin foam.

638

BLOOD

PROGRAM

All intravenous preparations and equipment examined were found in good condition, although some of the tubing had been exposed to temperatures from 85° to 110° F. for 18 months.

CONCLUSIONS Once the program to supply blood to the Pacific from the mainland hed been instituted, there was never a shortage of blood in these areas. At times, when the weather was bad and supplies on hand did not exceed 24-hour requirements, some concern was felt, but, as in the European theater, the blood never failed to arrive when and where it was needed. Had Operation OLYMPIC

(p. 639) been carried out and the estimated 500,000 to 600,000 casualties come to

pass, there is little doubt that sufficient blood would have been provided for all their needs. In one operation out of four, said the May 1945 report of the distribution center at Guam (86), in reference to the early stages of the Okinawa operation, “‘we had too much too early but in none, including the other phages of the Okinawa operation, to date did we ever pave too little too late.” That

statement continued true until the end of the The experience of the airlift of Brood ¢to the Pacific and the handling and

use

blood there proved a number of p . That it is perfectly practical to Pollect Vlood i in the Zone of Interior and deliver it safely to a theater far removed from the point of origin. It was not unusual for blood to be collected in the United States, sometimes in cities as far inland as Chicago, and to be used in pleces as remote from the point of collection as Okinawa within 6 days after it had been collected. 2. That a theater transfusion officer, with his staff, attached to the office of a theater surgeon and given the proper authority and resources, can keep a combat force adequately supplied with blood. This is true, however, only if the resources made available to this officer include the staff, personnel, and equipment necessary to Collect, process, and deliver whole blood to allmedical

inotaliations ini the thee

. That in dealing with a commodity such as blood, which has life cna which is easily contaminated and rendered not only useless ous, handling and distribution must be the responsibility of medical other personnel trained in this particular specialty. For the reasons

only a brief but dangerofficers and just stated,

blood cannot be handled efficiently or safely through conventional supply channels.

4. That collection of blood from base troops is necessary to insure adequate supplies of fresh whole blood in the event. that transportation from the Zone of Interior is impossible because of adverse weather. Local collections are also useful in buffering the wide fluctuations in the amounts required from the Zone of Interior. It was very difficult for the Red Cross to regulate its schedule so as to bleed no donors one day and 2,000 the next, and then to drop from 2,000 to almost none again on very short notice.

PACIFIC

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639

5. That the delivery of blood over great distances and ite distribution to to widely dispersed medical units on separate land masses require coordination and timing of a high degree. The experience on Okinawe proved that in island operations, in which blood must be carried ashore with landing forces, it is essential that a trained medical officer, with experience in the handling of blood be given the responsibility for prior planning, for distribution, and for resupply, and also be given the resources necessary to discharge his duties. All the blood used at Okinawa came, via Guam, from the United States, 8,000 miles away. With the dating period set at 21 days, it required careful timing to guarantes adequate quantities of blood with minimum wastage from outdating. That the project was accomplished so successfully was due to (1) a highly efficient blood supply system extending from the Zone of Interior to Okinawa and (2) to the assignment of a trained transfusion officer who was responsible for planning, supply, and distribution, and for the proper clinical use of the blood once it

hed reached the target.

ese conclusions indicate, perhaps the most essential factor in the efficient operation of a transfusion service is the assignment to the office of the theater surgeon of a trained transfusion officer, whose responsibility is overall supervision of the transfusion teams and liaison between hospitals, teams, and

the source of blood in the Zone of Interior. OPERATION

OLYMPIC

Just before the end of the campaign on Okinawa, at the suggestion of Col. I. Ridgeway Trimble, MC, Consultant in Surgery, SWPA, General Denit invited Colonel Kendrick to Manila to plan the blood program for the invasion of Japan (Operation OLYMPIC). It was interesting that even at this lete date, certain medical personnel in the SWPA, while fully recognizing the urgent need for whole blood, doubted that all that was regarded as necessary for the invasion of Japan could possibly be supplied. The es of the plan developed for Operation OLYMPIC were es follows (89): 1. Whee blood would be fown under refrigeration by an Army Novy airlift from the Zone of Interiorto Guam. All requisitions would clear through this . Accessory distribution units would be eet up in Manila and ona Leyte and Okinawa, each to 4 be operated by a well-trained and rete pe distribution team. 3. Initial eupplies of blood would be providedb: e Manila center. The center at Okinawa wou e responsible for resupply by surtace. cunien air,or both means, 4. blood supply at the target would be provided initially by LST(H)’s designated as blood distribution centers afloat. As soon as possible, blood distribution teams would be put ashore at each of the target areas. Detailed descriptions were given of personnel, centers, and other matters,

equipment,

function of the

640

BLOOD Blood would be provided for Operation OLYMPIC

PROGRAM

as follows:

consultant or otherreeponaibie medical officer would be attached to USAFPAC as officer in eheree of the tranefuaion serv! Army tran atusi on teame, on duty in Saipan would be requested from the Commanding 6General, POA. One team would be assigned to Manila, to serve as a distribution team and, when necessary, as a blood collecting o The other ‘would serve in Okinawa as a collecting team and would be prepared to furnish distribution personnel to go . Three istri ‘ixth . Army, in with each naeault force, These teams would be transported te the target on the istaive ‘a dealgnated as blood distribution points afloat and would function on them until they went hore. The center ashore would be centrally located, to aupply both installationa ashore and ships afloat. 4, One LST(H) would serve as a blood oes n center at each target. at should be provided with adequate reefer space for the nec of blood and should also be Provided ¥with an ice machine. If the haachhead wwere wide, ¢each LST(H) might need to be supported by other LST(H)’s serving as subsidiary blood distributiou points, but all blood should be obtained from the designated whole blood dietribution center afloat. oatelivery of blood to individual hospitals would be a unit function. Lf the LST(H) serving aa the distribution center afloat: were on the beach, the supply of blood to shore units would be almplified. If it were offshore, transportationmort he blood should be by LCVP's Genane craft, vehicle, personnel) at the direction ofthe distribution team aboard the Arrangements should be made for flash senala for notification of the need of blood on 1 the beach,

Blood requirements for the invading Army and Marine troops were estimated at 15 pints per casualty and on the assumption that 80 percent of all

cagualties arr: iving in forward hospitals would require blood. For the firat 15 days of the iinvasion, 7,3780 casualties would eauire 11,670 pints of blood. 30 days would be 18,060 casualties and 27, 090 pints; for the first 60 days, 44,725 Casualties ¢ and 67,087 pints; and for the first 120 days, 90,948 casualties and 149,922 pin 'o insure adequate supplies, enough blood spould be carried as! initially for a 5-day period; this plan would require 6,000 pints of blood, 000

pints to be loaded with each assault force.

After the first 5 days, resupply

would depend upon placing distribution centers as close to the target as possible, the availability of surface and air transportation, and maintenance of an edequate flow of blood from Guam to the distribution centers at the target. Because of rhe short haul, it would be most desirable to utilize the distribution ter at Okinawe for the resupply of blood until airstrips were available. This center should be familiar with the total blood requirements for Operation OLYMPIC, and requests from the target area should be addressed to it. The officer in charge of the transfusion service should work out a table showing the amount of blood required, the dates it must arrive, and the points at which it should be delivered from Guam. Lieutenant Brown at Guam should have this information at least 12 days before the blood would be

needed at the loading points.

This interval would allow the centers on the

PACIFIC

AREAS

641

mainland to step up their program to meet requirements. It would take from 4 to 6 days to accumulate the 6,000 pints of blood needed for the first stage of the operation.

Critique

The plan just outlined was presented to Genera] Denit in sufficient time for it to be approved in his office and sent to the Office of The Surgeon General, so that Maj. John J. McGraw, Jr., MC, then serving as his special representative on blood and plasma transfusions, could comment on it in the light of his experience in the Mediterranean theate: Major McGrew found the plan excellent and noted that there were 11 centers in the United States capable of supplying whole blood at the rate of 2,300 or more units per day 6 days a week (40). e considered the plan for a consultent at Headquarters, USAFPAC, charged with the overall responsibility for the transfusion service, to be an essential part of the program. He emphasized again that blood distribution must not be a function of Medical

Supply but the responsibility of blood distribution teams which were trained

Major McGraw also made the following comments: 1. Blood should not be used after 21 days. At that time, high-titered group O bloods must be considered dangerous for A, B, and AB recipients.

2. The teams assigned to operate the two distribution centers were prob-

ably not large enough for the collection, processing, and delivery of significant amounts of blood. Tt was suggested ‘that they be replaced by the type 2 blood transfusion teams (listed NB under T/O&E 8-500), which consisted of 5 officers (2 MC, 3 SnC) and 26 enlisted men e Navy distribution teams attached to assault forces should be replaced as soon as possible by Army teams, so that all personnel dealing with

blood would be peer the control of the consultant on transfusion at Head-

quarters, USAFPAC. . The plen of making each hospital responsible for picking up its own blood. by the ambulances bringing patients to hospitals, was considered a hit-or-miss proposition. It was secommended instead that distribution teams make regular rounds to all hospitals, delivering blood as needed and picking up blood nearing its expiration date for delivery to more activew These comments were made on 4 August 1945, just 10 days before the cessation of active fighting, which made unnecessary any further action on the blood program for the invasion of Japan. They were also, Colonel Kendrick noted later, made by an officer whose experience with the supply of whole blood, although very extensive, did not include the ship-to-shore operations required in the Pacific areas. Colonel Kendrick considered having hospital ambulances carry their own blood supply almost the heart of the program in this sort of warfare in its initial stages.

642

BLOOD

CHINA-BURMA-INDIA

PROGRAM

THEATER

National Blood Programs The first blood bank in India was organized in Calcutta, at the School of Tropical Research, in 1925 (47). When the war broke out in 1939, @ transfusion service was set up here for the Indian Army, and another center was opened in ore. When Japan entered the war and Burma was occupied, the blood p program was expanded into most of the major Indian cities, to provide blood for both civilian and military use. All of these centers operated under Government control,, but each used techniques to fit the local situation. When they were opened,a to overcome the superstitious fears of the polyglot Indian people about giving blood. Blood was processed into serum in several large cities, and a limited amount of dried plesma was produced in Calcutta. The expansion of the program was hampered by lack of equipment and by long delays in procuring it.

China had no organized blood or plasma program.

Bureau for Medical Aid to China undertook the in e special donor center in Chinatown in New group would be sent to Chine, as a pilot group to who would establish additional centers to bleed sources. The plan had a limited success.

In 1943, the American

training of technical personnel York. The idea was that this train other technical personnel, donors supplied from military

Blood and Plasma Supplies When U.S. troops reached India, a basic supply of dried plasma was forwarded to them by air. Maintenance was on the basis of 100 units per month for each 10,000 troop strength. Supplies of plesma were practically always adequate, and it served the same useful purpose that it did in other theaters. Unfortunately, it frequently had to be used when blood would have been more

desirable.

The blood bank set up at the 20th General Hospital at Margherita, Assam, in May 1943, also served the 14th and 73d Evacuation Hospitals and all their substations which were accessible by motor transport (42). Wet plasma was 0 provided, and some serum (figs. 149 and 150). The blood was collected under aseptic precautions by a semiclosed method. It wes citrated when it was to be used for whole blood or plasma but not when it was intended for serum. The blood had a shelf life of 10 days. At the end of this time, the plasma was withdrawn and the cells were ded. No centrifuge was available, so when plasma or serum was to be processed, separation took from 3 to 5 days. The citrated blood, wet plasma, and serum were stored in electric refrigerators of 6-cu. ft. capacity. When blood first became available, combat injuries were not numerous, and its chief use was for patients with malaria and dysentery, who often were

PACIFIC

AREAS

643

Ficure 149.—Stored blood and plasma at 20th General Hospital, Ledo, September 1944. U.S. blood and plasma ere on the right, and Chinese blood on the left.

in a serious state of shock, and for civilian-type traumatic injuries. When combat casualties were treated, the indications for transfusion were the same as in other theaters (fig. 151)

Malaria in Donors The blood of every donor, whether American or Chinese, was examined for malaria, and a Kahn test was also performed. If either reaction were positive, the donation was used for plasma, which was kept in the refrigerator for 14 days before it was used. Information disseminated by the Indian Medical Directorate at New Delhi was to the effect that neither the storage of blood at low temperatures nor the addition of quinine nor Mepacrine (quinacrine hydrochloride) in vitro made malaria-infected blood safe for transfusion (43). If whole blood had to be secured in malarious areas, donors should be selected who had no history of frank attacks, who had had no recent symptoms, whose spleens were not enlarged, and whose thick films were negative.

717-400".

4

644

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Fie 150.—Processed serum in cold storage at Calcutta Blood Bank, October 1944, Note British bottles, which were used by blood bank

Since potential infection had to be assumed in a malarious area during the malaria season, it was recommended in these instructions that the donor, when time allowed, should be given Mepacrine and that the recipient should also be given it for several days after the transfusion, until his condition had improved sufficiently for a frank attack of malaria to be tolerated If the recipient developed malaria, or if it were found that malarious blood had been accidentally given, the diagnosis should be confirmed by examination of thick and thin smears, and the standard course of treatment carried out. After giving blood, donors with latent or suppressed malaria frequently had attacks, especially if they were walking wounded. Standard suppressive treatment should be given in malarial areas ; otherwise, no treatment should be given unless an attack of malaria ensued.

PACIFIC

AREAS

645

£

Ficuas 151.—Lt. Gen. (later Gen.) Joseph W. Stilwell, USA, and Col. ae Brig. Gen.) Isidor 8. Ravdin, MC, visiting pattle casualties from yina, Burma front, at Assam Base Hospital, July 1

Supplies for Chinese One of the chief reasons for the establishment of the blood bank at the 20th General Hospital was to provide blood and plasma for Chinese patients. Only small amounts of plasma and serum were available to them from Chinese sources (fig. 152). Arrangements were made with the Director of the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health in Calcutta to lyophilize pooled plasma d serum from Chinese donors, with the idea of building up a reserve for use in forward installations. A small blood bank was maintained at the 20th General Hospital, with limited amounts of wet plasma and serum, but the project did not succeed as it had hoped that it would, and the arrangements made in Calcutta were not utilized because Chinese donations barely met. the day-by-day local requirements. At the 20th General Hospital, it was found that blood was needed in about 30 percent of U.S. patients who required replacement therapy and in about 75 percent of the Chinese patients. The chief reason for the discrepancy was the high incidence of hypoproteinemia and severe anemia in the Chinese, as the result of injury superimposed on disease. Serious anemia was frequently secondary to prolonged malnutrition, severe and recurrent dysenteries, and

646

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Fieunrz 152—U.S. and Chinese military personnel donating blood at Chinese Services of Supply Headquarters, K'un-ming, China, April 1945. severe, recurrent malaria, Traumatic rupture of the liver and spleen was also disproportionately frequent in the Chinese soldiers. Enlargement of these organs was frequent in them, and susceptibility to trauma correspondingly great, References 1, Bracken, Lt. Col. Mark M., MC, n.d., subject: The vse of Whole Blood and Blood Plasma ini the Pacific Operational ‘Area During World War . Report, Maj. R. J. Walsh, Secretary, New South Wal , Red Cross Tranefus Comenition ny. 4, subject: New South Wales Red Cross Blood "Transfusion Service at the Conclusion of the War (1945). . ndum, Col. F. H. Petters, MC, to Commanding Officers, 105th General Hospital and 42d General Hospital, 8 Feb. 1943, subject: Blood B: 4, ist Indorsement (Memorandum No. 3) from Col. Maurice Cc.Pincoffs, MC, 12 Feb. 1943. 5. Memorandum, Col. Raymond O. Dart, MC, to the Surgeon, Headquarters, U.S. Army, Services of Supply, Base Section No. 3, 15 Feb. 1943, subject: Shipment rof Whole Blood to Advanced Areas

PACIFIC $.

i

AREAS

647

ndoreament

(Mremerandun No. 3), Col. J. M. Blank, MC, 23 Feb. 1043. m. Barclay P, ervone, MC, to Col. F. H. Petters, MC, 2 Mar. 1943, 7 subject "Coneenta on latice from Colonel BI 8. Memorandum, Col. F. H. Pettera, MC, vo Surgeon, Subbase D, 3 Aug. 1943, subject: Blood Bank. 9. Technical Meme Ne 13, Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, USAFFE, 21 Sept. jos, subject: Blood B. dum, Lt. Col. ‘Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, for The Surgeon General, 30 ort. a oubject: Report of Trip to South waite Area, Southwest Pacific Area, Central Pacific Area. Time: June 6th to August 8, 11, Memorandum, Lt. Col. Douglas = 3‘Kendrick, MC, to Brig. Gen. Guy B. Denit, 19 July 1944, subject: Plan for Blood Transfusion Service in SWPA With Special Reference to Advanced Bases. 12. Memorandum, Lt. Col. Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, to Brig. Gen. Guy B. Denit (atte Col. A. M. Libasoi, MC), 19 July 1944, subject: Supply Problema in “he Advanced ases SW. A. . Memorandum, Lt. Col. Bruce P. Webster, MC, to Chief Surgeon, USASOS, 26 June 1044, subject: Informal Report on the Use of Army Personnel as Blood Donors in Malariou:

SSssE

‘echnical Memorandum No. 6, Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, USAFFE, 12 May 14, subject: Treatment of Malaria. 15. Letters, Vice Adm. 5 cose a Molntire, MC, USN, and Maj. Gen. Norman T. Kirk to Mr. Baall oy Connor, 26 Oct. . Lettera, Me Basil 0” Conner to Maj. Gen. Norman T. Kirk and Vice Adm. Ross T Metatie 3 Nov. 1944. . Robins 2. C.: American Red Cross Blood Donor Service During World War II. Tta Organisation and Operation. Washington: The American Red Croas, 1 July 1946. §, Report, Officer-in-Charge, U.S. Naval Waele Blood Distribution Center No. 1, to Chiet of the bee of Medicine and Surgery, vy Department, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1945, aul t: Operation of the U.S. Naval Wo Blood Distribution Center No. 1. 19. Letter, ita F. N. Schwartz, mAG to Col. B. N. Carter, MC,14 Nov. 1944. 20. Letter, Lt. Col. Douglas B. drick, MC, to Col. George R. Callender, Mc, 28 Dec. 1944, subject: Blood Supply to Pectie 21. Memorandum, Lt. Col. Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, to Maj F. N. Schwartz, MAC, 28 Des. 1944, subject: Blood Supply to Paci 2. Report, Lt. Herbert R. Brown, n MC, USNR, and Ens. George E. Nicholson, HC, TaN, subject: Operation of Advance 1 Base Blood Bank Facility No. 1 From the Period of 19 November 1944 Throu; eh 24 Dec 944. 23 Repo Capt. Henning H. Those » MC, to Chief Surgeon, U.S. Army Forces, Wes! 4 July 1945, subject: Second Quarterly Report for History, Whole Blood Distribution, Oe of the Surgeon, Base K. 24. , Lt. Herbert R., Jr.. MC, USNR: Operation of U.S. Naval Whole Blood Ditbation “Center No. 1 for Period of 1 on 1945 to 30 April 1945. 25. MD, USAFFE, for November 1944. endtiv i Col. Douglas B., MC, n. 4, subject: Plan for the Use of Whole Blood in te= 1 Operati: MD, POA, for March1 2, ETMD, USAFPAC, for‘uly “045 . History of 32d Infantry Division, SWRA, 1044, . pTMD, UsAFTAG, for November . Memorandum, 1. Douglas B. endl ick, MC, to Surgeon, Tenth U.S. Army, 14 May 1945,“subject: "Report of Transfusion Services for the Okinawa Operation.

643

BLOOD

PROGRAM

32. Letter, Col. Raymond O. Dart, MC, to Commanding Generals, Philippine Base Section, Luzon Area Command, Bases M, X, K, R and §, 5 Sept 1945, subject: Whole Blood Distribution to Hospitals in the Philippine Islands. 33. Circular Letter No. 38, Office rt the Chief Surgeon, General Headquarters, USAFPAC, 20 Aug. 1945, sublest: Whole BI 34. Report, Capt. Henning H. Thorpe, MO. o Chief Surgeon, Advanced Headquarters, U.S. Army Services of Supply (attention: Central Medical Records Office), 4 Apr. 1945, subject: Initial Quarterly Report for History of Blood Bank Facilities. D, USAFFE, for March-. rt, Lt. Herbert R. Brown, ar MC. USNR, n.d., subject: peration of U.S. Navel Whole Blood’ Distribution Center 1 for the Period of 1 May to 31 May 1945. 7. Quart History, Medical Ativiticn of 7th Portable Surgical ‘Hospital for 1945-1, 1 Ape 1945. 38. History of 116th Medical sociale SWPA, summary 14 Dec. 1942 to 5 Oct. 1943. 39. Memorandum, Lt. Col. Dou as B. Kendrick, MC, to Brig Gen. Guy B. Denit, 21 Jay 1945, subject: Proposed Pe Tor the Supply of Whole Blood for the Olympic “. ‘Bfemoraadum, Maj. John a Me aoa, Jr., MC, to Col. B. N. Carter, MC (for Col. y Trimble, MC),4 . 1945, subject: Comment on Proposed Plan for surply on ated Blood for Olympic Oat ion. Memorandum, Col. Elias E. Cooley, MC, to The Adjutant General, War Department, Washington, D.C. (attention: The Surgeon General, U.S. Army), through Commanding General, U.S. Army Forces, Ghine-Burma-Tndis, 17 Jan. 1944, subject: Essential Technical Medical Data from Overseas For . ET. . Headquarters, US S. Army Forces, CBI, December 1943. Medical Directorate, India, Technical Instructions No. 11, General Headquarters, India, 10 Dee. 1943, subject: Precautions to be Observed When Giving Whole Blood Trans. fusion in a Malarious Area.

CHAPTER

XVIII

Reactions to, and Complications of, Blood and Plasma Transfusions GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS

It is still true (in 1962) that, whenever large numbers of transfusions are given, reactions will occur, though on well-controlled services, they do not exceed3 percent. It is also still true that some deaths will follow transfusions, though the number is smaller, in fact, than would occur if transfusions were withheld. At the onset of World War II, reactions after transfusions were sufficiently frequent to alarm even the most enthusiastic proponents of the liberal use of whole blood.! They were readily explained: Blood was usually collected by an open system, and principles of sterility and of absolute cleanliness of the aratus were enforced in only a limited number of hospitals. Many surgeons were therefore wary about using blood at all. When it began to be used in

increasing amounts in the management of battle casualties, the pendulum

then swung to the other extreme. Reactions were overlooked, and the widespread and highly erroneous clinical impression grew up that transfusion was an innocuous procedure. The relatively easy availability of whole blood and its widespread use brought in its train great benefits but it also brought in-

evitable misuse.

more experience was gained and the risks of transfusion began to be appreciated, there was another swing of the pendulum. The impact of severe reactions on persons who had supposed that transfusion was without risk was magnified, and blood was sometimes withheld when it should have been given. The precise incidence of reactions after transfusions in World War II is not known, for the major reason, already stated several times, that the circumstances in which many, if not most, of them were given did not favor accurate recording. Such statistics as do exist are also of somewhat dubious accuracy,

because the differential diagnosis of the reaction was not

always correct.

Many casualties who were transfused were already running high temperatures and some were having chills. Some diagnoses were therefore made of reactions which did not exist, while some probably went unreco; The incidence of reactions varied from hospital to hospital but invariably wes smallest in hospitals which practiced routine investigation of all transfusion reactions as soon as they occurred. A critical appraisal of the findings,

In 1040, pilatians,

as Davis noted,

to

80-day

ions of “conserved” blood, with 13.8 percent of reactions,

old blood in alx cases, with five reactions,

AJl such come

649

650

BLOOD

PROGRAM

with correction of errors, went fer toward tightening controls and preventing recurrences

A listing of the most common causes of transfusion reactions carries in itself the method of preventing them. They include errors in typing, hemolysis due to overaging, physical changes from feilure of refrigeration or from storage at lower or higher femperatures than the optimum, contemination, and the Presence of pyrogen In hospitals which used type-specific blood, transfusion of incompatible blood could be avoided only by the most careful attention to techniques of blood grouping, crossmatching, and typing of donors and recipients; the use of fresh, avid, high-titer typing sera, free from contamination, in adequate quantities; the use of sufficiently heavy cell suspensions; and the performence of the tests by experienced technicians. The plan of having the results of typing and crossmatching checked and the tests repeated by different technicians was well worth the time it took. Indeed, many technicians learned to develop a high index of suspicion when they observed any deperture from

normal behavior in blood typing.

Another precaution, when it was practical, was to have the person who would give the transfusion collect the blood from the laboratory, start the transfusion, and remain with the patient long enough to be reasonably sure that no reaction would occur or to cut off the flow of blood at once if signs and

symptoms did appear.

One reason that this was a wise precaution was that

the amount of blood given seemed important in hemolytic reactions. Bordley (2), for instance, reported that 5 patients who recovered after such reactions

received an average of 314 cc. of blood, while 10 who died received an average

of 565 cc. The functional capacity of the kidneys and the general condition of the patients as always, of course, helped to determine the outcome The point to be emphasized in any discussion of reactions in World War II is that, while mass transfusions were given, mess reactions did not occur. The number of reactions reported, in fact, was so smell that generalizations based on them seem scarcely valid. This important consideration should be borne in mind in reading the following pages and reflecting upon the individual case histories presented.

ALLERGIC

REACTIONS

Of the three varieties of transfusion reactions, allergic, pyrogenic, and

hemolytic,? allergic reactions were the most frequent and the least serious (3). They followed transfusions of whole blood and plasma and, occasionally, of an serum elbumin. ey were presumebly caused by @ response on the part of the recipient to allergens in the blood of the donor. The recipient was sometimes sensitive to what a nonfasting donor had eaten. Passive transfer * 8 Unless otherwise indicated, the clinical and laboratory material in this chapter ts taken from War Technical Bulletin (TH MED) 204, 24 Oot. 1045 (9).

Department

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

651

of sensitivity was also possible, the aha showing an allergic response if he came into contact with the specific allergen. For this reason, it was best not to use individuals suffering from major allergies as donors ost allergic reactions took the form of urticaria, which readily responded to subcutaneous administration of 0.3-mg. doses of epinephrine. If urticaria appeared, it was best to discontinue the transfusion unless the indications for it were extremely urgent us allergic reactions took the form of angioneurotic edema or asthma, both of which required immediate discontinuance of the infusion and prompt treatment with epinephrine. Edema of the larynx was occasionally fatal. @ common experience in military hospitals to have few reactions in the shock ward as compared with the number in the operating room and the recovery ward, after several transfusions had been given. The interval between the infusions in these cases was too short for the reactions to be : explained by the Rh factor, and a med of the patients to type O blood or to plasma protein which might have undergone denaturization. The possibility of sensitization of humans to humen protein was the last of all explanations to be considered.

PYROGENIC

REACTIONS

Hietorical Note When sodium citrate was suggested as an anticoagulant in 1914, by sev-

eral observers at the same time (p. 218), it was at once blamed for the undesirable and often dangerous chills and fever that followed direct transfusion.

ractical proof to the contrary was supplied in 1933 by Lewisohn, one of those

who had suggested the use of citrate, and Rosentha) (4). Scientific proof went considerably further back. The possible role of distilled water in pyrogenic reactions was demonstrated in 1923 by Seibert (6), who pointed out, in her review of the literature, that ite febrile potentialities had been establishe d by Billroth in 1865 and by Bergmen in 1869. Hort and Penfold also made observations on contaminated distilled water in 1911. There were no chills in the first 17 transfusions given at Mount Sinai Hospital in 1915, all by the same physician, who paid careful attention to the preparation of apparatus and solutions (@). When multiple personnel began to give blood, there were numerous reactions, 24 percent in one series of 365 transfusions (7). en transfusions were concentrated in jee hends of eight senior inombers of the house staff, the reaction rate fell to 13 percent. he high rate of reactions after transfusion continued until Rosenthal advanced the theory that the preparation of the equipment used in its performance was entirely too lax and casual. He was able to demonstrate that posttransfusion chills were caused by foreign proteins introduced as extraneous matter in distilled water or present in the tubing or other apparatus in the form of

altered

proteins

left from previous intravenous

injections.

Such

matter

652

BLOOD

PROGRAM

would always be present unless the instruments were cleansed with the greatest care, immediately after use, by competent technicians, in a central room, with no connection with the operating room or any other part of the hospital. h a room was set up, and the detailed technique outlined by Reosenincluding the use of triple-distilled water, was instituted at Mount Sinai Hospital on 1 October 1931. The results immediately proved his theory. The previous year, there had been 9 percent of chills in 412 transfusions. In the first year of the new setup, although multiple personnel gave the 477 transfusions, there was 1 percent of reactions. In the 6 months before the new department was set up, the incidence of chills after transfusion with citrated blood was 10 percent. In the first 6 months of the operation of the new department, there were no chills in 154 similer transfusion Although the use of triple-distilled water was not accepted in some quarters, Lewisohn and Rosenthal’s proof, published in 1933 (4), was too conelusive to be ignored. Their experience was always duplicated when their technique was followed, though as time passed, it became clear that the use of triple-distilled water was an unnecessary precaution. At General Hospital, Washington, D.C., when the Research Division of the Army Medical School took over the task of cleansing the equipment, the incidence of reactions fell from 20 percent to 0.5 percent. All rubber tubing was washed within an hour after use, with distilled water, which wes forced through it by a 50-cc. syringe or a large Asepto syringe. The tubing was then soaked in 5-percent sodium hydroxide. The temperature of the water and the solution was not important. The equipment was put up in individual sets and autoclaved immediately. The results here and elsewhere left no doubt that the majority of posttransfusion reactione were pyrogenic and were the result of improper cleansing of the transfusion apperatus, particularly the rubber

components.

World War II Experience

In World War II, the common errors leading to pyrogenic reactions were as follows: . Insufficient cleansing of the rubber tubing, or the glass or metal parts, or the entire equipipment. 2. Delay in cleansing used sets, which permitted pyrogens to develop in amouata that could not be removed by ordinary cleaning techniques. 3. Rinsing the fauipment with supposedly pyrogen-free water that had become contaminat 4, Allowing aeoarty cleaned and rinsed sets to stand for 4 hours or more before sterilization. The elaborate cleaning technique which was possible in civilian hospitals proved completely impractical in combat circumstances. Transfusions could ment had not been developed and provided along with blood and plasma. The incidence of pyrogenic reactions was inveriably increased when hospitals

REACTIONS insisted

upon

AND

COMPLICATIONS

cleaning

sterilized sets furnished

The severity of the

thelr own

653 glassware

and

tubing

instead

of using

the

don depended upon the amount of pyrogen infused

and the susceptibility of the patient.

Symptoms and signs might start at any

time during or after the infusion, but most often occurred shortly after the infusion had been completed. The reaction varied in severity from a clight to an extreme temperature elevation (which was extremely dangerous if the patient was already running a high fever), with chills, cyanosis, and prostration.

The temperature usually returned to normal within 3 or 4 hours and fatalities

scarcely ever occurred. The prophylexis of pyrogenic reactions was the use of properly cleaned transfusion sets, or, better, the use of disposable equipment. The treatment was immediate termination of the transfusion, for the principal reason that the initial clinical manifestations of serious hemolytic reactions from the transfusion of incompatible blood could not be differentiated from simple pyrogenic reactions. Another reason wus, as already pointed out, that the outcome of the reaction depended upon the amount of pyrogenic substances introduced

into the bloodstream.

HEMOLYTIC

REACTIONS

In 1942, Kilduffe and DeBakey (9) collected from the literature 43,284 transfusions, with 80 hemolytic reactions (0.18 percent) and 45 deaths (0.14 percent). Hemolytic shock was the cause of death in 32 of the 45 fatal cases. The figures leave no doubt that incompatibility reactions are the chief cause of death after transfusion and vindicate the decision to use only O blood in the massive transfusion programs set up in the Mediterranean and the European Theaters of Operations, U.S. Army, and the Pacific areas in World Wer II. At the end of the war, as the result of prewar knowledge and wartime experience, the causes of hemolytic reactions could be listed es intravascular hemolysis of incompatible donor cells, whether intergroup (A, B, O) or intraup (Rh); intravascular hemolysis of recipient cells; intravascular hemolysis of compatible donor cells; and transfusion of hemolyzed blood. Hemolytic reactions, although relatively infrequent, were always serious, and were always potentially lethal. On the other hand, there is no doubt thet many of the deaths classified as caused by transfusions in World War II were the result of the wound iteelf or of other causes not related to the use of whole blood.

Reactions Due to Incompatibility Clinieal manifestations.—The reaction to transfusion with incompatible

blood varied from patient to patient, perhaps depending upon the agglutinin titer of the recipient’s plasma. One patient might receive 500 cc. of incom-

patible blood and have no manifest reaction while another might have a severe

654

BLOOD

PROGRAM

reaction after only 20 to 50 cc. ad been given. Ase rule, symptoms appeared after 100 to 200 cc. had been gi here were two clinical components of the reaction, the immediate hemo-

lytic crisis and the later renal complications

The initial clinical manifestations (hemolytic crisis) usually consisted of a severe chill; pain in the lower back; a sense of substernal oppression; and, sometimes, nausea, vomiting, and involuntary micturition and defecation. After an initial rise of blood pressure, a state of shock might supervene, with extreme hypotension and a weak, fast pulse. After the chill, the temperature might Tise to 105° F, Sometimes bleeding occurred from needle puncture wounds or other exposed capill As arule, the patien trecovered from the initial reaction, though transfusions of plasma or compatible blood might be required, and often, in e few hours, he seemed completely well. @ first urine passed after the reaction was dark brownish-red, wes positive for protein, and contained a few red blood | cone end a fair number of pig-

e benzidine test was also

The initial reaction was seldom fetal, but ator recovery from it, a number of Possibilities might come to pass: . There might be no further signs or symptoms other than a transient

brine,

. There might be transient oligurie, with nitrogen retention, the excretion at nree quantities of urine, and then recovery. re might be persistent oliguria, with increasing nitrogen retention, and death iin uremia. 4, There might be oliguria leading to complete anuria, or there might be complete enuria from the onset of the reaction. In either event, fatal uremia usually occurred, although a few patients recovered after diuresis. An occasional fenton continued to retain nitrogen even after diuresis and died in

urem:

Death from renal failure usually occurred in 4 to 10 days. If the patient had received less than 250 cc. of incompatible blood, the chence for recovery was usually good. If he had received 500 cc. or more, the prognosis was generally poor. Pathologic process.—The characteristic autopsy findings in a death following the transfusion of incompatible blood were limited to the kidneys. Except for some sw , there were no pathognomonic gross lesions. The most striking microscopic observation was the presence, within the renal tubules, of pigmented casts consisting of hemoglobin or degradetion productsof hemoglobin, though mechanical occlusion of the tubules by hemoglobin casts was not believed to be the principal factor in the fatality. Charecteristically, the casts occurred only in certain portions of the tubules; namely, the ascending limbs of Henle, the distal convoluted tubules, and the collecting tubules. The distribution of the casts was irregular but not diffuse, and frequently only a small proportion of the tubules were involved

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

655

Less conspicuous than tho changes just described, but probebly more important, wero the degenerative, sometimes necrotic, changes in the tubular epithelium of relatively short segments of the ascending limbs of Henle and the

distal tubules.

the interstitial

In the neighborhood of the more severely damaged segments,

tissue often

exhibited

dominance of small round cells.

an

inflammatory

reaction,

with

a pre-

The changes in the tubules and their supporting stroma were usually most evident in the zone between the cortex and the medulla. The glomeruli and the proximal tubules; thet is, the upper portion of the nephron, were usually normal. Pathogenesis.—A comprehensive clinical and experimental study of hemoglobinuric nephrosis in traumatic shock by Mallory (10) (formerly Liewtenent Colonel, MC), in 1947, eliminated a number of theories of causation. Fatal renal insufficiency was not produced by the intravenous injection of hemoglobin. Precipitation did not occur in the presence of either acid or eurine. The Van Slyke kidney could not be reproduced experimentally, but when renal ischemia was produced, changes were observed ranging up to rosis of proximal tubules, though no significant changes occurred in the lower nephron. Experimental pigment-formation could not be produced, and there was no proof of a responsible toxic factor. In Mallory’s study of 60 fatal cases of battle injury, pigment excretion was found in all the casualties, the amount of pigment nephropathy being directly proportional to the severity of the injury. The evidence suggested that, while renal insufficiency preceded all structural changes, it did not progress in the absence of pigment nephropathy. It was the lower nephron, Mallory pointed out, not the upper, in which anatomic changes were present in the presumed posttransfusion kidney. At the end of the war, therefore, and afterward, the posttransfusion kidney remained an unsolved problem. Diagnosis.—The clinical and pathologic picture just described, while it mee be caused by a transfusion of incompatible blood, might also be caused a variety of other conditions, including shock, crushing injuries, burns, sulfonamide therapy, and possibly various combinations of these conditions. The renal involvement that followed all of them could not usually be differentiated from that resulting from the transfusion of incompatible blood, and no doubt a number of deathe were charged to hemolytic reactions when they were really due to eome one of these other causes. The following test, devised by the serology section of the 15th Medical General Laboratory to differentiate hemolytic from nonhemolytic reactions (11), came into rather wide use: Blood gerum, drawn about 15 minutes after the clinical reaction, was compared with the serum taken for crossmatching before the transfusion. The presence or absence of hemolysis in the posttransfusion specimen was compared with the same phenomena in the pretransfusion specimen. This simple method proved very useful in indicating whether the reaction was hemolytic and required a complete investigation, or was allergic and re-

656

BLOOD

quired a recheck

of the patient's history,

or was

4 hours after the reaction and tested for bilirubin. for the cause was made

pyrogenic

and

PROGRAM required

an

If it was present, a search

1, The blood groups of the recipient and the donor were rechecked. 2. Crossmatching testa were rechecked. 3. The presence or absence of hemolyals was determined by centrifuging a specimen from the donor ones 4, The Rh types of the recipient and the donor were checked. A recently transfused Rb-negative patientM might show a few Rth-positive cells, and this possibility always bad to be taken into account. 5. If the@ reeipient was Rh negative, the pretransfusion eample of serum was tested for the presence of anti-Rb aggluti 6. If the donor was group aaB, or AB and had received group O blood, his serum was titered against the‘recipiont cells, Treatment.—The immediate treatment of hemolytic crisis was stopping the transfusion at the first sign of any adverse reaction. Plasma was used if shock was present. The mechanism of renal failure, as just stated, was never clarified during the war, and its treatment therefore remained entirely empirical. It consisted of any single one or a combination of the following methods: alkalinization, splanchnic block, decapsulation of the kidney, bleod and plasma transfusions, and regulation of the fluid and selt balance. All of these methods were empirical, and none of them was successful in any significant number of cases. Fluid regulation, it should be emphasized, wes always an individual matter, for which no general rules could be stated.

Reactions Due to Intravascular Hemolysis of Recipient’s Cells Intravascular hemolysis of the recipient’s cells could be caused by the accidental administration of distilled water and by the use of high-titer group oO blood fer A, B, and AB recipients. e Conference on Shock and Transfusion on 25 May 1945 (12), Maj. (ater: th Col. ) Charles P. Emerson, MC, described a type of reaction in which the presence of incompatible isoagglutinins in high-titer blood was manifested by chills, fever, hemoglobinemia, and a rather persistent bilirubinemia. Destruction of red blood cells by group O blood was first demonstrated in a group A patient with severe leptospirosis, who was given a large amount of plasma for 4 or 5 days and then a series of O-blood tranafions or rapid,

progressive anemia.

When the transfusions were over, every 0!

cells had been replaced by transfused cells, but ment, for he survived. The observations in we) earlier studies, which showed surprisingly elis. Similar observations were m in five

own-

apparently: not to his detrithis case med Ashby’s large destruction of recipient patients with severe burns,

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

657

one of whom died on the fourth day. All had received large amounts of plasma. An ante mortem Ashby count in the fatal case showed that 96 percent of this

petient’s red blood cells had been replaced by transfused cells. Major Emerson’s investigation also showed

that the increased fragility of

recipient cells frequently noted efter transfusion was particularly marked efter

injection of high-titer O blood and after repeated transfusions of O blood or pooled plasma (14). In discussing these observations, Brigadier Lionel E. H. Whitby, RAMC, stated that the fragility curve is always increased after severe burns, because of the external heat applied to the cells as they pass through

the burned area.

The affected cells continue to be destroyed for many days

thereafter. Major Emerson found it hard to believe that, if the patient were to survive, traumatized red cells resulting from a burn could possibly involve en enormously high proportion of his blood. ‘ince the technique of titration varied from laboratory to laboratory, no specific general rulings were made as to the upper limit of agglutinin titer compatible with safety. It was simply recommended that some technique be selected which would label all group O blood as having a high agglutinin content. Tt was thought unlikely that such a proportion would be potentially dangerous, but, in view of the fact that many casualties received multiple transfusions, it was also thought that the titer for universal donor blood should be kept es low as possible.

Reactions Due to Intravascular Hemolysis of Compatible Donor Cells Hemolysis of compatible donor cells could occur promptly after transfusion with blood which had been improperly handled; that is, it was overage or it had been stored at incorrect temperatures. Unless the blood showed definite in vitro hemolysis, results were seldom serious and there were often no subjective symptoms, though the transfusion was obviously of little benefit. When the transfused blood wes promptly broken down, there would be free hemo-

globin in the serum, which would shortly be converted to bilirubin, and clinical

jaundice might be evident. Hemoglobinemia might be expected to have a deleterious effect upon the kidneys of a patient in ghock, and fatal anuria was reported after the transfusion of hemolyzed blo: The proper care of oes served blood and its careful examination before use were all that was necessary to prevent these res

European Theater When Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Robert C. Hardin, MC, visited various hospitals in the European theater in the late summer and early fall of 1944, he found .considerable amount of confusion concerning transfusion reactions ‘and any untenable theories, which were little more than clinical impressions i), Furthermore, fatalities were being attributed to transfusions for

658

BLOOD

PROGRAM

no better reason than that the patient had been given blood. It was not realized that a hemolytic transfusion reaction cannot be diagn by tissue study, nor was nt realized that intravascular hemolysis of incompatible blood is not the only cause of hemoglobinuric nephrosis. In short, the reasoning wes entirely of the post hoe, ergo propter hoc variety—the patient hed « transfusion; the patient died; therefore, his death was due to the transfusion. Studies in the European theater corroborated those in the Mediterranean theater and confirmed the highly dubious role of transfusion in the etiology of lower nephron nephrosis (16). In an investigation of a number of reporteof autopsies performed at the 91st Evacuation Hospital, Major Emerson found cause to doubt the anatomic diagnoses of hemoglobinuric nephrosis. He thought that the renal changes demonstrated might well be due to prolonged impairment of the renal blood flow, as the result of severe, long continued, hypotension. The renal anoxia was probably further enhanced by the severe

anemie induced by massive plasma transfusions; by anoxia resulting from

impaired pulmonary ventilation; and, quite possibly, by diffuse intravascular agglutination resulting from the injection of isoagglutinins, although this fector could not be properly evaluated, since the patients’ blood groups were seldom noted on their reco: ost of these patients had been treated for oligemic shock. Their hypotension had been prolonged. They had exhibited temporary oliguria and albuminuria; reduction of the urinary pH; and, in an occasional case, excretivn of red blood cells and casts. In all but two cases, which ended fatally, these findings were transitory, clearing within 24 to 48 hours after restoration of the arterial Press Case 1.—In the firat fatal case, the casualty, in addition to multiple inteatinal perforationn bad required nephrectomy for a severe lacerating renal wound. He had been in te of oligemic shock for 8 hours and had received 4,000 cc. of O blood during his first 10 boas of hospitalization. He died on the fifth day. —The second patient hed multiple sucking wounds of the chest with severe tntrapabecnary hemorrhage. He had been in severe shock, as the result. of hemorrhage, anoxia, and marked oligemla, for 30 hours. group was A, and he had received 4,000 ec. of O blood during the first 24 hours of hospitalization. He diedon ‘the ninth day. Clinically, there was no sign of a transfusion reaction in either case, and the Ashby count indicated no unusual degree of hemolysis of recipient cells. The second patient developed severe hypertension on the sixth day. Both patients exhibited oliguria progressing to anuria and uremia. he first case, necropsy showed eosinophilic granular casts of the distal portion of the nephrons of the remaining kidney, which was edematous. The diagnosis of hemoglobinuric nephrosis was consistent with the pathologic picture described by Mallory. In the second case, there were also hemoglobin casts in the renal tubules. It was Major Emerson’s opinion that these post Mortem findings, even though hemoglobinuria was not demonstrated during life, might be explained by diffusion of small amounts of hemoglobin through the glomeruli of i ischemic kidneys. Once the hemoglobin had gained entrance

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

650

to the tubules, either insufficient reabsorption of water might occur, or the filtration pressureof the urine might be so inadequate that any casts that formed could not be dislodged. The benzidine test, in contrast to its efficacy

in other biologic fis, was not entirely satisfactory for the detection of minute

amounts of hemoglobin in the urine, and small amounts might be regularly overlooked. ane free hemoglobin from which these casts were derived co be either fre ived from the patient’s ownmn red cells hemolyzed by injected incompatible isoagglutinins. It was assumed that the concentration required to free plasma hemoglobin might be much lower than was ordinarily conceived Thus in the European theater, as in the Mediterranean theater, lower nephron nephrosis remained an unsolved problem at the end of the m, the standpoint of this volume, the important consideration is the. multiple causes other than transfusion which could give rise to what wes erroneously called by many observers the posttransfusion, or the transfusion kidney.

SPECIAL THEATER

EXPERIENCES

Mediterranean Theater here are no accurate reports or the reaction rate in transfusions accomplished with blood from the bankat Naples. An overall rate would be of little significance as an index of the suitability of the blood provided: Each hospital in the theater prepared its own recipient sets, and the bank, while it distributed instructions for their proper cleaning and preparation, had no control over the procedures. The incidence of reactions therefore varied from hospital to hospital and was related to the efficiency with which the sets were cleaned and sterilized (17). Only once was there any serious question concerning the quality of the bank blood. This was in May 1945, when a shipment of blood, all from one bleeding center, resulted in 18 febrile reactions in three separate hospitals. ur of the patients died, but in only two cases was the transfusion considered the direct cause. Bacterial examination of two bottles from this shipment revealed psychrophilic organisms which had probably gained entrance to the blood because of incorrectly sterilized donor sets. There were no other deaths and no febrile reactions attributable to the blood itself, though 78,329 units had been distributed up to the time of this survey (October 1944) (17). In 1943, a number of febrile reactions at the 91st Evacuation Hospital were attributable to the extreme difficulty experienced in cleansing the filters of the recipient & ee (18). Aside from the risk of reactions, the blood would not run hy ters. Facilities for proper cleansing of transfusion equipment were not available in forward hospitals, and, at this hospital, as at many others, it had to be cleaned and sterilized in the operating room. None of the reactions was serious, and no hemolytic reactions occurred.

660

BLOOD

PROGRAM

British transfusion units in the Mediterranean theater included one set of

sterile equipment with each two bottles ot blood intended for forward hospitals. Disposable equipment from the Zone of Interior was received in the theater too late to be useful. It would have been highly desirable, end some reactions could have been avoided, if the Naples bank had been able to prepare transfusion equipment to be supplied with the blood, but neither equipment nor personne! were in the theater in sufficient supply to permit auch a plen.

European Theater To clarify the confusion in the minds of many medical officers about transfusion reactions and the so-called transfusion kidney, Administrative Memorandum No. 150 was issued on 27 November 1944, from the Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, European Theeter of Operations, U.S. Army (19). In this memorandum, it was frankly admitted that, because of the enormous number of transfusions being given in the theater, e certain number of reactions were inevitable. Allergic, pyrogenic, and hemolytic reactions were described, and their prevention and treatment were outli In this same memorandum, all hospitals in the theater were instructed to submit weekly reports to the Office of the Chief Surgeon, the data to include the nwmber of transfusions given; the number of reactions and their classification; and, for each reaction, the type of blood, its source, its age, and the source of the giving set (disposable, or prepared locally). By 30 December 1944, 3,741 transfusions had been reported, with 188 reactions of all types. Major Hardin considered that the incidence of pyrogenic reactions, 3.7 percent, and of hemolytic reactions, 0.48 percent, was too high. The incidence of hemolytic reactions, however, was probably less than stated because deaths were being signed out as hemoglobinuric nephroses when the blood given hed nothing to do with the complication or the death. Many of the casualties, in fact, had been anuric before they received any blood. Special studies of the reports submitted by hospitals in the theater and analyzed by Major Hardin and several of his associates are presented i in tables 28-31 (18). Perhaps the most interesting feature of this analysis is contained in table 31, which indicates the responsibility of poor preparation of locally prepared sets in the incidence of pyrogenic reactions. One is immediately impressed by the discrepancies in the reaction rates reported by hospitals in different echelons of medical care. The first explanation of the higher rate in rear hospitals is multiple transfusions and the development of Rh sensitivity. Patients transfused in forward hospitals on one day were often transfused again 10 to 14 days later, in general hospitals in we rear. The possibility of producing Rh sensitivity by the indiscriminate use whose Rh type was not known was suddenly real, and subsequent trenefusion provided the opportunity for the sensitivity to become manifest. A simpler explanation, however, is available for the low reported incidence of reactions in forward hospitals, that in a field or evacuation hospital, during

REACTIONS Tapia

AND

28.—R.

»

COMPLICATIONS blood

661

Faend.

in

foldh

Stall

17.

"7

iod

in the

European

Theater of Operations, U.S. Army! Weekly perlods

‘Transfusions

Beaotions

Number

Number

Classification

Reactions Allergic

2. 742 579 939 1, 233 1, 307 1 104 1, 304 907 1, 043 929 1, 039 1,101 1,111 1, 494 1, 228

Total. ._.._-

17, 769

2 18 9 5 26 18 15 27 18 8 16 7 18 14 5 16 1

224

Pe

Pyrogenic

Hemalytic

Number

0. 79 |...---_--2.42 1 1, 55 }..--- eee a) 2 2.11 7 1.38 3 1. 36 3 2.01 6 1,98 |.__-__---_-77 1 1.72 5 67 2 1 63 7 1, 26 3 a 1, 22 10 -12 1. 26

52

160

12

1 There were six deaths In the 12 hemolytic reactions.

8 rush of casualties, mild reactions were often overlooked and only the most severe reactions were noted, let alone recorded. In general and station hospitals, with larger staffs and less pressure, more accurate observation and recording were possible. e figures in these tables cannot be accepted unequivocally, for the reasons mentioned, but the collection served the purpose for which it was intended, to check upon the operations of blood banks and to build a basis for further investigation. One important thing thet wes learned was that it was dangerous to accept reports of reactions based on less than 500 transfusions and that a minimum of 1,000 transfusions was necessary for conclusions of any validity. In his report of his trip to the European theater in January 1945, Capt. John Elliott, SnC, reported Major Hardin’s emphatic belief that the reaction rate from blood flown from the United States was considerably lower than that of blood collected locally in i the theater (20). Up to that time, 18,460 transfusions had been given with 643 reactions, 3.5 percent. Blood collected locally accounted for 26 percent of the reactions but for only 10 percent of the transfusions. Blood from the Zone of Interior accounted for about 28 percent of the reactions but for about 60 percent of the transfusions. Blood from the

662

BLOOD PROGRAM

TasLe

20.—Reactions to blood transfusions in evacuation hospitals over 80-week period in European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army !

Weakly periods

‘Transfusims |

Reactions |

Cinesifiontion*

Reactions Allergic

Number 36 40 32 47 37 31 17 51 21 12 2 10 11 10 7 1 500

Pyrogenis

Hemolytic

Nemier

Nomber Nemier 472 12 17 7 377 5 27 8 240 3 20 1 1.70 5 24 3 1.95 9 32 6 2.43 12 23 2 1, 62 12 4 2.45 10 3 211 3 1 421 2 9 4 4 5 1,07 4 1 251 4 2 4) = Sj.-.------os) eres 1,43 3 1, 00 2 1, 28 4 ~%2 2 225 [e--ee-----] 0D feo eee 20

100

340

52

Tasie 30.—Reactions in 18 general and station pespitale after transfusion with blood obtained Srom the United Kingdom Section, European Theater Blood Bank' ‘Year and month

Transfmxians |

Numer 1, 063 1, 402 307 2, 772 1 There were no bemolytic reactions in this group.

Benctions

Renctions

Nemier

“ 30

Pavent 4

58

Claaification Allergic

Pyrogenic

Nember

Nesber

21

10 1

20 3

21

ul

23

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

663

Tas.p 31.—Iaftuence of local preparation of transfusion seta on pyrogenic reactions in various types of hospitale ‘Types of hospital

Field hoepitals

Total. _.._.-.-.----------------------

Number of pyrogenic reactions

Number with locally prepered sete

Percent

160

62

393.7

340 346

136 174

40.0 60.2

46

372

440

United States accounted for the largest proportion of allergic reactions but by

far the lowest proportion of pyrogenic and hemolytic reactions. Similarly, striking figures were eported for February 1945, In that month, 32 percent of th d by with locally prepared sets, The use of] locally prepared sets also explained the reactions which occurred in bloods collected by the theater bank (2f). Special studies on the effects of transfusion of incompatible isoagglutinins ere carried out at the 5th General Hospital by Major Emerson and Maj. (eter Lt. Col.) Richard V. Ebert, MC (22), and were supplemented by additional studies made by Major Emerson on detached service with the 91st Evacuation Hospital (18). They arrived at the ielowing conclusions: d inj O blood 1 injection in massive amounts, into individuals of other than group 0 dae Newly of recipient cells, the degreeof which may bo significant. The process is occasionally accompanied by a febrile ve reaction. 2 hemolytio pr ‘oceas is associated with progressive increase of hypotonic erythrocytio raat which is See related to the hemolytic phenomens described by Ham and Castle. These observers produced the same processes in experimental animals by the injection of nonspecific egglutinins, 3. Evidences of profound hemolytic disease may appear after massive plasma transfusions given to pati jents of other than group O. This phenomenon was observed in four patients and was in contrast to the good reresulta ini three patients with comparable injuries, who were treated similarly and whose blood group was O. 4. proportion of pomePerise Prrogens transfusion reactiona may be caused by the stroma of hemolyzed red blood cella in transfused blood. Prevention of these reactions depends not only on Proper retrigeration “of stored blood but also on | the malntestorage. Resulte of preliminary | studies suggested that the survival of Ted blood cells during storage ia limited by the of an In his separate study, Major Emerson followed 61 patients throughout their course in the 91st Evacuation Hospital, making elaborate clinic studies on them during the 5-week period ending 10 May 1945. All had incurred severe wounds and all required intensive replacement therapy, including 265 units of whole blood, 222 of which were flown from the United States.

664

BLOOD PROGRAM

During the period in question, 520 units of blood were given in the hospital, with eight reactions. The data in one case are incomplete. Three of the

reactions followed the use of partly hemolyzed blood, and the remainder occurred in casualties of groups A and B, who received O blood with a high titer of isoagglutinins ranging from 1 to 500 against the patient's cella, The hemolysis was attributed to three factors: the age of the blood (10

days or more in all instances); failure to agitate the blood frequently during

atorage, so that the red cells in the bottom of the flask were not kept in contact with the preservative diluent and failure of refrigeration. Major Emerson considered that, from the practical point of view, the importance of these end. other findings (space does not permit their inclusion here) was as follows: 1. Repeated transfusion ofgroup O blood into other than group O patiente may be an ineffectual and uneconomic procedure except in emergency replacement therapy. 2. The transfusion of very large amounts of group O blood, and even of ooled plasma, into recipients of other blood groups may cause serious hemoite disease.

ble that i

ib]

ic

ch

Iving

the kidneys,

liver’“central nervous system, and other ‘organs may occur as“the result of prolonged, difuse intracapillary i agglutination. 4. The implication is strong that whenever feasible, strictly compatible blood, of the recipient’s blood group, should be used. Under conditions that render the exclusive use of group O blood necessary, only blood of low titer should be supplied. There are strong reasons to suspect that even pooled human plasma with a low agglutinin titer, if administered in very large amounts to persons of blood groups other than O, may have undesirable and even dangerous effects, and that the use of fractionated human albumin might be preferable in such cases.’ Occasional hospitals, during the course of the war, indicated their desire

to collect their own blood and not use banked blood because of fear of reactions

and for other reasons. Mejor Hardin was willing that hospitals ahould maintain their own blood banks if they wished to, but he pointed out that if a hospital should ever be either isolated or overwhelmed with casualties, either the system would collapse or the patients would not be adequately transfused (23). Maj. Gen. Paul R. Hawley’s position was unequivocal. He considered that most of the deaths reported as caused by transfusion were due to other causes, including overloading kidneys already damaged from toxins elaborated in the crush syndrome or other injuries. Up to March 1945, the transfusion death rate in the European theater was 0.12 percent, which compared very favorably with the 0.14 percent of transfusion deaths recorded in the literature.

edvised far routine une in peacetime os welles in war.

be.

This, of course, was not true.

It wae recommended for use in the aan

vindicated this decision.

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

665

“T shall not,” he wrote, ‘tolerate exuberant enthusiests casting any doubt upon a technique that has saved the lives of thousands of American soldiers”

REACTIONS

FROM

CONTAMINATED

BLOOD

One of the most serious complications of blood transfusion, but one which fortunately occurred only infrequently, followed the use of grossly contaminated blood. The recipient became violently ill shortly after receiving the blood and death usually occurred in a few hours. Four such reactions occurred on 23 and 24 January 1945, at the 43d General Hospital, two in German prisoners of war and two in U.S. soldiers (26). The course in each case was almost identical. Shortly after the transfusion, chills occurred, without pain or respiratory difficulty. Then, the patients quickly passed into a state somewhat, but not altogether, like shock. They were disoriented, but frank coma did not develop. The blood pressure was well within the shock range, but the general appearance was not typical of shock. The pulse rate was extremely rapid, but at first was of good volume and there was no noticeable sweating. ithin a short period of time, the temperature rose sharply, in one instance to 106° F. Later, cyanosis appeared. The outstanding feature in each case was the profound circulatory collapse, which predominantly involved the peripheral vascular bed. Three patients died. At post mortem examination, the only findings common to all three cases were wi art failure, with the right ventricle primarily involved. rate investigation followed, hampered by the fact that the Baxter bottientinoan the blood had been collected and the donor sets used were no longer evailable for examination. It was not possible to determine how the contamination had occurred, but the situation was described as the kind that “keeps blood bankers awake at night.” After these fatalities, Major Hardin instituted cultural spot checks of the bloods in the United Kingdom Blood Bank and at the Continental Blood Bank in Paris.

LOWER

NEPHRON

NEPHROSIS

The lethal sequelae of shock were not appreciated at the beginning of the war, as might have been expected; the peacetime experience with this condition is never on the massive scale on which it occurs in wartime, and such sequelae are therefore numerically less frequent and tend to be less impressive. In World War II, they were very frequent, because of the vast number of shocked casualties, and they became more impressive and more apparent as more patients, with improved methods of resuscitation and surgery, lived long enough to develop them. These sequelae were due primarily to asphyxia of organs or tissues during

the prolonged period of reduced volume flow of blood. tions

by

knowledgeable

pathologists

demonstrated,

Post mortem examina-

in such

irreperable damage to the brain, the kidney, and the liver.

delayed

deaths,

These sequelae

666

BLOOD

PROGRAM

must be mentioned here because of the implication, which proved to be incorrect, of the role of transfusion in the pathogenesis of the condition that came to be known as lower nephron nephrosis.

Mediterranean Theater Lower nephron nephrosis, manifested clinically by oliguria and enuria, became a prominent feature of the crushing injuries sustained in air raids on London during the first months of the war. Up to October 1944, when Lt. Col. (ater Col.) Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, reported on it to the Surgical Consultants Division, Office of The Surgeon General, about 50,000 transfusions

hed been given in the Mediterranean theater, 114 of which had been followed by anuria, which was usually fatal (17).

Clinical 5: ‘ome.—Certain findings were characteristic of the renal complications that occurred after injury and transfusi \ Au the patients had gone into shock after veation blood and pl before operation,

had tet titer of the ood.

but th

varied, as

‘

. Although large quantities of blood were given in fixed hospitals, in Preparation for reparetive surgery, sometimes 1,000 to 1,500 ce. for 2 or 3 days, anuriawes almostn observed at this echelon of medical care. 4. Lower nephron nephrosis cocurred in| group O recipienta as well as in recipients of other groups whetreceived6 our O blood. .» When to develop, it appeared early, usually within the first 24 hours after edmission toafa or evacuation hospital. 6. The was ciated with & progressively increasing nonpre nitrogen retention, which Wwwas untested by the injection of whole blood,plasm, rystalloid solutions, nuria developed, alk aft efron 7. Death occurred within 5 to 7 days unless the patient ttied caslior from other causes. When it was thought that lower nephron nephrosis was caused by the use of group O blood in nongroup O recipients, an endeavor was made to supply type-specific blood to forward hospitals. The attempt was overruled (p. 425) and, in the light of more correct information, it was realized that it would have been a futile gesture from the standpoint of preventing this renal complication of wounding. Special investigations.— The principal reason for the creation of the Boerd for the Study of the Severely Wounded (p. 420) was the investigation of lower

nephron nephrosis (16).

The observations of the board may be summarized

as fo sows : tudies made after resuscitation, and after operation in surgical cases, indicsted that, functionally, all portions of the nephron were almost equally impaired for varying periods of time. The impeirment depended upon the severity of the initial insult, and the state of shock on admission also depended upon it. Thesep did pond with the histologic findings in i fate) cases, in which the lesion “observed was wore predominantly in the lower nephron.

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

667

2. The clinical syndrome of renal insufficiency after shock was remarkable chiefly for the paucity and mildness of its symptoms. The most frequent symptom, drowsiness slowly deepening into stupor, might be absent until death was impending. The only frequent sign was pulmonary or peripheral edema. 3. Blood pressure determinations and laboratory tests were more useful then clinical observations. In the ascending order of diagnostic importance, laboratory findings included proteinuria, persistent urinary acidity, excretion of nzidine-positive material, azotemia, and fixation of specific gravity at a low level. When these findings were associated with hypertension, the diagnosis was establishe Other important findings included nitrogen and phosphorus retention, acidosis, hypochloremia, and an increase in the plasma volume. Practically

all of the sbaoralitie, it should be noted, were those that reflect rapidly

diminishing renal fun : 4, The case intality rate was approximately 75 percent. Death usually occurred within 10 days after wounding. Apparently, if the wounded man could survive this critica! period, renal function might begin to recover and he hed a chance of sur . When recovery ensued, it was characterized by what was termed ‘“‘the

syndrome of recovery diuresis

6. The best treatment of lower nephron nephrosis was its prevention, by prompt and adequate resuscitation of every casualty in shock. None of the therapeutic methods employed was really effective except the prevention of pulmonary edema by control of the fluid intake. It was a grave error to overload the circulation during the critical 10-day period. vidence was meager tha’ alinization would prevent renal complications in the severely wounded. “The originel plan, to give alkalis as soon as renal complications became evident, was eventually discarded, and their use, beyond the amount given routinely with citrated whole blood or blood substitutes, was not recommended. 8. The lack of correlation between concentrations of benzidine-reacting pigment in the plasma and the hemoglobin or myoglobin in the urine suggested that the alteration of the threshold was variable. The irregularity with which extensive muscle injury was followed by myoglobinuria indicated that some factor other than necrosis of muscle cells was at wor! actor— which was not shock—apparently had to do with the maintenance of reestabmyoglobinuria developed in the absence of demonstrable mus jury, most. constant arn of moderate or severe shock in such cases suggested th logically. “The fact that severe pyoglobinuria and severe. hemoglobinuria were often observed in the same patient suggested the possibility of a common mechenism, 717-408"—84—_45

668

BLOOD

SOUTHWEST

PACIFIC

PROGRAM

AREA

Statistics for transfusion reactions are more incomplete for the Pacific areas than for other theaters because the circumstances of warfare were less favorable than elsewhere for precise reporting. Reports (which were required, as in the European theater) were received on only 22,000 of the pints of blood distributed from Guam, but the 3.1 percent rate indicated in them can be accepted as accurate (26). A number of severe hemoglobinurias were reported, but most of the reactions were mild, and 41 percent were allergic. As in other theaters, a number of deaths attributed to transfusions were not related to them except in the sense that they occurred after blood had been given. The reaction rate was higher when the blood was outdated. U, 2 days, it was between 2 and 4 percent. Between 2 and 30 days, when the specified time limit had passed, it was 5 to 6

low reaction rate secured in trenefusions with blood flown from the

Zone of. Interior was chiefly explained by the use of disposable recipient sets.

Whenever locally prepared sets were used, the reaction rate was higher.

of the hospitals which received Zone of Interior blood were warned that the recipient sets provided with the blood must be used When the plan of flying blood to the Pacific was first announced, many surgeons thought the reaction would be prohibitively high (27). Within a matter of weeks,their skepticism the low rate; tl of not having to crossmatch the blood; the absence of fatalities; and the ben ficial results secured, which permitted major surgery with an enormous reduetion in the surgical risk, It was not surprising that hospitals using large amounts of preserved whole blood invariably reported reaction rates well below those of units using smaller amounts. cient refrigeration, elimination of mechanical difficulties, and greater experience were all contributing factors. The rates were notably lower in hospitals in which special shock teams handled all transfusion Transfusion reactions were more frequent and more severe in Filipinos than in U.S, personnel (28, 29). They were chiefly allergic and manifested by edema and urticaria, but one station hospital reported two fatal cases of anuria soon after the landings on Leyte, and later reported a third fatal case. Presumably, these reactions were on the seme basis as the plasma reactions which occurred in Filipino personnel.

PLASMA

TRANSFUSION

REACTIONS

Urticarial reactions sometimes followed the infusion of plasma, though they were not very frequent. Almost without exception, reactions as hemolytic could be traced to the use of contaminated plasma and ty were incorrectly diagnosed as hemolytic.

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

669

Early Experiences The possibility of reactions to plasma therapy was first brought up in the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes at the 18 July 1941 meeting (30), when 262 transfusions were reported from cooperating civilian hospitals with 19 reactions, 7.3 percent; the series included transfusions with type-specific plasmas, pooled

liquid plasma, and dried plasma.

These reactions, it must be remembered,

occurred at a period when plasma was first being tested as a so-called blood substitute and when the techniques of collection of blood offered an invitation to infection and to other complications, At two later meetings of the subcommittee in i 1942 (81, 82), the subject came up again, since several articles appeared in i the literature describing reactions to plasma infusions. The experiences Teported were contrary to Dr. Mex M. Strumia’s extensive experience; in 2,200 plasma infusions which he had observed personally, there were only five reactions, all urticari: He was inclined to attribute the reported reactions to the use of plasma obtained from partly clotted blood, or, less probably, to pyrogenic substances in the plasma. He could find no evidence that they were due to an incompatibility between the recipient’s cells and the plasma injected. Pooled plasma occasionally showed a relatively high isoagglutinin titer, but, when the plasma was given at the usual rate (5-10 cc. per minute), the agglutinins were not onl: diluted in the recipient's bloodstream but were apperently also absorbed or inactivated as rapidly as they were injected into the circulation, An editorial published in the Journal of the American Medical Association on 19 September 1942 (p. 79) contained inaccurate and misleading information concerning the potential toxicity of plasma (33). It was considered important that it be corrected at once because of its possible effect on the blood procurement program. The editorial which corrected the erroneous statements left much to be desired, but the article prepared by Dr. William Thelhimer and published in the Journal for 19 December 1942 was a competent and reasoned

rebuttal ($4).

Production difficulties.—In August 1944, complaints were received from the Office of the Chief Surgeon, European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army, that reactions were occurring after the administration of dried plasma from a certain laboratory. The plasma which had caused the reactions had contained excessive amounts of fibrin particles. The use of plasma from this firm en forbidden in the theater; its issue had been discontinued; and the New Tonk Port of Embarketion hed been requested to delay further

shipments. All installations in the First and Third U.S. Armies, Advance Section, and all laboratories in the United Kingdom were @ 5 requested to report, on a special questionnaire, on any reactions which had occurred after the administration of plasma in the last 2 months. Clinical testing with the offending lots of plasma

at the

Army

and

the

Naval Medical Centers was followed by chills and fever in about 7 percent of

670

BLOOD

PROGRAM

the patients, and a number of the bottles used showed moderate amounts of brin. When the firm which had produced the offending plasma was visited in October 1944 by Colonel Kendrick, Capt. Lioyd R. Newhouser, MC, USN, and Lt. (later Lt. Cdr.) Henry S. Blake, MC, USN, certain changes in production technique were advised, including chilling of the blood before centrifugetion, to eliminate excessive amounts of fibrin in the final product. It was also recommended that all plasma produced by this particular laboratory before these changes were made should be used only in the United States. There were no adverse reports from any of the hospitals to which it was distributed.

.Special Investigations in the European Theater Early in 1945, while a survey of transfusion reactions was being made in the 91st Evacuation Hospital, a number of plasma transfusion reactions were also observed, some quite serious ($5). A special study was therefore undertaken of the plasma transfusions given during a recent 25-day offensive, during which | 1,022 patients were handled on the surgical service. this group, 109 patients, 10.6 percent of the surgical admissions, received 323 units of plasma, an average of 3 units per patient. There were 21 reactions, of which 3 were urticarial: these reactions simply caused discomfort and did not impede the progress of treatment. There were also 14 pyrogenic reactions and 4 modified hemolytic reactions, all sufficiently severe to delay recovery, though none were lethal. Counting only these 18 reactions, the reaction rate was 5.3 percent for the 323 injections and 15.6 percent for the 109 patients. Pyrogenic reactions—The pyrogenic reactions were similar to those observed in reactions sometimes obeerved after the intravenous administration of other fluids. Chills and temperature elevations were the chief manifestetions. The temperature, which ranged from 101° to 104° F., returned to normal in 3 or 4 hours. There was no fall in the blood pressure, no urinary suppression, and no abnormalities in the urinalysis. Many of the patients received additional plasma and blood without further difficulty. The pyrogenic reactions, however, were serious because they bften occurred in the shock ward, in patients being prepared for operation, and their progress through X-ray qramination to the operating room had to be elayed for a metter of hours until recovery from the reaction took place. Hemolytic reactions.—The four tnodified hemolytic reactions were far more serious. Three patients had received vo intravenous fluid except plasma. The fourth had received two units of blood, but the onset of the reaction occurred while he was receivingplasma. One patient presented a typical picture of peripheral vascular collapse. The systolic blood pressure fell to 60 and 32 mm. Hg, respectively, in two cases and could not be obtained in the other two. One patient hed no elevation of temperature, but the elevations in the three other cases ranged from 102° to 103.4° F

REACTIONS

AND

o of the

COMPLICATIONS patients

were

unuric

671 for 12 and

had red blood cells and granular casts in the urine.

24 hours, respectively.

Al

All had positive orthotol-

uidine reactions. Icterus index determinations were made 24 hours after the reaction in two cases and were reported as 9 and 11, respectively; 2 days later, the values were 5 and 6, respectively. Three of the patients were group A and the fourth, group O. All received large amounts of plasma in relatively short periods. The titer of the plasma to the recipients cells was 1:8 in two cases and 1:16 and 1:54, respectively, in

the oth

All four patients were treated successfully by the routine used for hemolytic blood reactions. An attempt was mede to elkalinize the urine with sodium chloride, with careful regulation of the fluid intake and close observation to detect any signs of pulmonary edema; it would have been easy to drown these patients in the attempt to increase the renal output. Serum albumin was also used and was very effectiv: No reasonable explanation wes found for these reactions at the time of

their occurrence.

None of the patients had wounds of the urinary tract.

The possibility that the findings were due to massive tissue destruction with hemoglobin could not be excluded, but similar phenomena were not observed n other casualties with injuries of comparable kind and severity. The most. reasonable immediate explanation seemed to be that, when several infusions of plasma were given over a relatively short time, an agglutinin titer might be built up which might react with the cells of all blood types except retrospect, these phenomena seem to an observer who did not witness them personally to be explained by the use of contaminated plasma rather than as true hemolytic reactions.

The Southwest Pacific Experience There were occasional isolated reports of plasma reactions in the Southwest Pacific, none particularly convincing and most of them readily explained, by contamination of the plasma. One experience, however, was extremely serious (86): pril 1945, the Office of The Surgeon General received a report of

eight rated reaction

after the use of U.S. Army plasma for Filipino civilians in

ospital in Manila, « civilian hospitel staffed by civilian Filipino physicians. The 11 patients among whom these 8 fatalities occurred were all greatly emaciated, debilitated and avitaminotic. All had nonspecific ileocolitis, which it was thought would be improved by the administration of plasma. The course of events was substantially the same in 10 of the 11 cases, in all of which the plasma was given on the same day, 24 March. About 30

minutes after the intravenous administration of 250 cc. of normal human 4 The titer seams quite low to be causing reactions.

672

BLOOD

PROGRAM

plasma, 9 of the 10 patients complained of chilly sensations, which lasted about 30 minutes; none of them had e reel chill. All complained of malaise and muscular pains. Their temperatures were not taken but they were obviously febrile. They were wrapped in blankets and each was given 2 cc. of 10-percent camphorated oil intramuscularly, f the 10 patients, 7 died between 4 and 16 hours later, 2 in 4 hours, 1 in 5 hours, 2 in 7 hours, 1 in 12 hours, and 1 in 16 hours. Autopsies performed in two cases revealed nothing to explain the fatal outcome.

Two units of the lot of plasma used for these patients were set aside for

analysis, and, through a tregic error, one of them was given to a critically ill patient. An"hour later, he developed «, chill and complained of extreme substernal oppression and dyspnea. When this patient, the only one observed by a U.S. Army medical officer, was first seen, he was unconscious, with shallow, gasping respirations, at the rate of 5 per minute. The pulse was rapid and thready, and the lips and nails were cyanotic. Artificial reepiration was t attempted but was unsatisfactory because a cheat spice was in situ. lan! and hot water bottles were applied, and the foot of the bed was elevated. Other treatment consisted of Adrenalin (epinephrine), 1 ce. intramuscularly; an infusion of 5-percent glucose in phys solution; and a transfusion of 500 ec. of type O blood. During the transfusion, the patient became conscious, asked for food, and improved. The pulse continued rapid but was of good volume. An hour later, after an episode of extreme dyspnea, he was deed. A tendency to react to infusions of plasma and to hloud transfusions had been noted elsewhere in the Philippine Islands in patients with marked melnutrition, and it was thought that these fatal reactions might be the result of the serious hypoproteinemia then frequent among Filipinos. It was considered imperative, however, to investigate and rule out the presence of special toxic factors i in this particular lot of plasma. A variety of steps were taken to achieve urpose, and to warn all hospitals in the Southwest Pacific Area of the possible risk of plasma infusions as evidenced by these fatalities. They were instructed to use dried human plasma with extreme caution in Filipinos end to substite whole blood for it whenever possible. e 39 units of plasma in lot, only a sing] was left. When it was tested at the National Institute of Health on 28 April 1945 oD. the appearance of the package and that of its contents were in accordance wit!

ett

aed

All the tests performed

in respect to solubility, moisture,

sterility, and safety were in conformity with the minimum Pyrogen festa on rabbits, however, revealed that the product Pytogen:

requirements. was definitely

Tnvestigation of the production of this perticular lot of plesme showed that it represented the pooling of 50 separate bleedings. Sterility tests of the blood were all negative at the end of 48 hours’ incubation, and the bloods were therefore pooled and processed in the usual manner. At the end of 7 days, one of the bloods was found to be contaminated, but when the plasma was tested for

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

673

sterility, it met

of contamination when it was tested I redtinely at the National Inatitute of Health.

Tt was considered surprising that such a slight contamination as hed occurred in this lot of plasma, 1 of 50 bloods, would have caused the finished product to be pyrogenic, particularly since the processing laboratory reported that the conteminating organism was identified as Staphylococcus albus, which is ordinarily regarded as only mildly pyrogenic. On 28 March 1945, the Office of the Surgeon, Headquarters, Luzon Base Section, requested information from all the hospitals in the area on the plasma reactions that hed occurred in the past 30 days among U.S. soldiers, Filipino soldiers, and interned civilians. It was directed that plasma from all lots that had produced reactions was not to be used until further notice. stallations, including clearing companies, medical battalions, and field, "evacuation, and general hospitals reported no Teactions 38). The ] hospital two field‘hospitals, two evacuation hospitals, end one general hospital) reported a total of 54 reactions, the great majority of which occurred in Filipino patients with debilitating diseases. The products of seven different laboratories were involved, but in only the single case just described was it possible to investigate the plasma responsible for the reaction. Maj. John J. McGraw, Jr., MC, Special Representative on Transfusion in the Office of The Surgeon General, made the following comments on the San Lazaro Hospital experience (39): . The type of reaction was very similar to that which occurs when grossly contaminated plasma or blood is transfused. 2. Since the sample tested at the National Institute of Health was sterile, the possibility exists that the plasma became contaminated when it was dissolved. Minor contamination not infrequently occurs as a result of breaks in technique. If the plasma is used promptly, the contamination is usually of little significance. If the solution is allowed to stand for several hours before use, bacteria may eventually be present in very large numbers. Heavily contaminated plasma can produce severe and even fetal reactions. Dried plasma should always be used within 3 hours of the time it is dissolved. 3. The debilitated condition of these special patients undoubtedly made them less able to tolerate adverse reactions. articular significance was attached to urticerial reactions, which occur in about 2 percent of all blood and plasma transfusions, usually on a background of allergy. The fact that the same lot of plasma that produced urticarial reactions also produced chills and fever in some patients was considered of more significance. Theoretically, plasma should never produce chills and fever. On the other hand, even minor breaks in the technique of the preparation of distilled water or of intravenous tubing can result in the formation of pyrogenic substances. It could not be determined whether the giving sets used at San Lazaro were prepared locally.

674

BLOOD PROGRAM

. It was recommended that any lot of plasma suspected of producing chills and fever should be used only in e general hospital, in which its effects could be observed under controlled conditions. If it appeared to be pyrogenic, it should be destroyed. The Surgeon General should be notified if the plasma of any single commercial house seemed excessively pyrogenic. It was neither desirable nor necessary to withdraw a lot of plasma and destroy it because urticaria followed the use of some units in it. This is a logical, well-reasoned comment on an unfortunate episode which undoubtedly occurred because of a break in technique somewhere along the line of production and administration.

HOMOLOGOUS

SERUM

JAUNDICE

General Considerations In the light of the postwar incidence of homologous serum jaundice, it is important to make certain points clear about its wartime occurrence after Plasma transfusion: though pooled plasma wes used in enormous quantities in battle casualties all during the war, the causative relation between the plasma itself and the numerous instances of jaundice in military personnel after its use was not realized until late in 1944. n retrospect, what happened is clear: When blood is not pooled, a single transfusion from a donor with serum hepatitis is unlikely to cause the disease in many recipients. When, however, blood is pooled, as it iswhen plasma is processed, the chances of contracting jaundice are correspondingly increased.’ . Serum hepatitis was never a problem in Zone of Interior hospitals, in which practically all of the plasma used was liquid and pools prepared from more than eight bloods were seldom used. Up to 50 bloods per pool, however, were used in the early stages of the dried plasma program, and later, in 1944-45, even jorge pools were frequently us . The relation of these various facts to the development of jaundice and serum hepatitis was finally perfectly evident, but the war was practically over before the causal sequence was widely appreciated. lack of realization of this relation is apparent in the lack of action in the matter on the part of the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, NRC (National Research Council), whose members were remarkably alert to all developments in the field of blood and plasma transfusion. Jaundice was discussed at a number of meetings in 1942 ($1, 32), and 1943 (40), in connection with serum albumin, particularly in regard to the development of jaundice after immunization against yellow fever; each immunizing dose contained 0.04 cc. of human serum, and attention was naturally directed to it as a possible rather than

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

675

vehicle for a wild virua. A number of inquiries were set on foot, but, at this time, no one had observed, or heard of, jaundice after plasma transfusion. precaution, however, the Red Cross Blood Donor Service began to reject all donors with a history of jaundice within the previous 6 months 6. The homologous serum jaundice that followed plasma transfusion was, of course, entirely distinct from the widespread outbreak of hepatitis in the Army in 1942, which, as just mentioned, was caused by an icterogenic agent in certain lots of yellow fever vaccine then in use (41). It was also not related to the hepatitis which occurred among troops in North Africa in 1943 and at other times during the war.

Special Studies

During 1943 and 1944, a number of reports appeared in the American literature concerning the development of hepatitis after the administration of homologous blood products. The realization of the cause-and-effect relation and of the importance of this variety of hepatitis was brought home when concentrations of the disease began to appear in various hospitals overseas (table 32) and in the Zone of Interior, and special investigations were begun on them

(42-45).

The conclusions drawn in most of these investigations are, unfortunately, little more than assumptions, and not very convincing ones at that. number of rensons, they could hardly be otherwise: 1. The clinical and histologic pictures in both homologous serum jaundice and infectious (epidemic) hepatitis are practically identical. - Pr at icterogenic agents existed in the plasma transfusions that had been ;Biren wasss entirely lecking. v few patients with wounds of any consequence had not received plasma. 4. Further confusion in differentiel diagnosis was caused by the fact that there was intimate contact between patients with serum hepatitis and those with epidemic hepatitis in hospitals along the line of evacuation, in ships and planes, and in Zone of Interior hospitals. ible, fo: tated 5. A controlled investigation and the premises on which most reports were based were v wirawaly unstable and tenuous. Survey, 1 June 1945.—As of 1 June 1945, a survey was undertaken in all Army general hospitals in the Zone of Interior to identify all patients with hepatitis, of any degree or associated with any other condition, under the direction of Maj. Philip E. Sartwell, MC (44). The form provided was also to be filled out for each death from hepatitis within the preceding 30 days. The survey form (fig. 153) was made as simple as possible in view of the heavy load then being carried by all genera) hospitals in the United States. At this time, about 85 percent of the general hospital population in the country consisted of casualties evacuated from overseas, 85 percent of them because of battle wounds and the remainder because of other injuries and

717-400"—01 46

676

BLOOD

TaBie 92: Percentage

PROGRAM

of patients developing hepatitis while hospitalized for somes other condition, European and Mediterranean theatera, 1944 Number of cases

Cause of hospitalization

Disease a ‘then hepatitis a Nonbattle in: Penetrating nd perforating

Battle wounds: ® Penetrating and

exctu

perforating

1 Wuclodes s cases with diagnosis of, 820, cent sample of ad: nett of those mitted wil Tbepatitis, + Based on a 20-percant sample of admisslons. Source:

diseases. Most of them hed been hospitalized for a month or more before being returned to the Zone of Interior. The majority of patients admitted to the general hospitals from other hospitals in the United States were suffering from conditions that required specialized types of care not available at station or regional hospitals, The number of cases of hepatitis reported, 1,762, with 15 fatalities, was much larger than had been anticipated (tab! @ 33). All 64 general hospitals reported at least 1 case and the majority oeponted from 5 to 30 cases. The regional distribution was not significant because so many of the reporting hospitals were special treatment centers. Of the patients, 87 had been prisoners of war. There was, however, a higher incidence in patients from the Mediter1}

}

fn,

tha

FB

For a variety of reasons, the transfusions were not considered given in forward areas, in which precise records. The patient’s Finally, additional confusion was

th

.

data concerning previous plasma and blood reliable. Plasma transfusions were chiefly circumstances did not favor the keeping of own recollections could not be accepted. introduced by the fact thet, although the

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

677

HEPATITIS SURVEY FORM

s

NAME & ASN DATE

AGE

RACE

OF ADMISSION

a

(IF neldier had net been eversecs, so stots) DID PATIENT

RECEIVE

OF HEPATITIS?

iE

™

6.

nO

UNKNOWN

BLOOD PRODUCT USED FHOLE BLOOD PLasMa OATES OF TRANSFUSIONS CAUSE FOR ADMISSION TO PRESENT HOSPITAL WOUNDED

(GIVE

DATE

UNKNOWN

OF WOUND) (on

INJURY),

MEDICAL 6.

DATE

INSET)

OP ONSET OF SYMPTOMS

HAS JAUNDICE

BEEW

OF HEPATITIS.

PRESENT?

10.

CLASSIFICATION OF HEPATITIS ATTACK:

V1.

SEVERITY OF HEPATITIS ATTACK:

CHRONIC (SYMPTOMS

YES

WO RECURRENT

LASTING MORE wILD

THAN

SIX MONTHS) MODERATE

SEVERE

Fatal

Fievre 153.—Form used in 1 June 1945 survey of hepatitis in Army general hospitals in ne of Interior. question about transfusion was limited to the 4 months preceding the onset of hepatitis, a number of reports, though by no means all, gave information about the use of plasma and blood for longer periods. The data collected in this survey were considered to warrant the conclusion that e large proportion of patients hospitalized with hepatitis on 1 June 1945 had contracted their disease because of the presence of an icterogenic agent in trensfused blood or plasma. The conclusion naturally did not warrant the inference that any of these transfusions were not indicated or that too much blood or plasma was used. Saving the patient's life was obviously more important than protecting him against the remote possibility of his contracting hepatitis. Other special studies in general bore out the results of this survey. A planned study at McCloskey General Hospital, Temple, Tex. (44), for instance, from 1 February to 30 April 1945, showed 57 cases of hepatitis in 935 battle casualty admissions, 1 in 322 patients who had received no blood or plasma, and 51 in the 528 who had received either oF both. There were a cases of hepatitis in the remaining 75 patients P use,

678

BLOOD

PROGRAM

TaBie 33.—Data obiained in survey of hepatitis in Army general hospitals, Zone of Interior, i June 19454 Information obtained in survey

Total

cases

reported

(including

deaths

Total patients

in preceding

30

Tnitial cause of hospitalization: Wounds. Nonbattle injuries___._._.__--.-.---_--------------Initial hepatitis : is her than hepatitis a ee eee Classification ot hepatit Acute. nt,

Chaanle (over G months’ duration) ...-..-.----.--..Areas of servic European and Mediterranean theaters__...----.---.. Pacific and Asiatic theaters....___.__---_----------United Stat Other

Cases in iiberated Amcrican prisoners__. pletely

ut.

Ln

Number | Percent

1, 762

|100

‘Trensfused

putients

|Nuwber|

607 | 34 9 J 934 | 53 165 9

434 | 23

1,499 | 86

469 |

127

120

7

7

1,311 | 75 369 | 21 62 4 9

87

05

6

Percent

500 | 100

42

87 8 95

15

3

373 | 117, 3

75 2 0.6

9

2

3

2

0.4

a8

such cases,

Case History While general surveys were inconclusive, an one reported by Lt. Col. (ater Col.) Marion H. Mediterranean theater, offers rather strong proof ecipient from a donor in whom it eBbrevae) history isi as follows:

occasional case, such as the Barker, MC (46), from the of the possible transfer of the proved fatal. The (greatly

sergeant who made the donation was a 235-lb., strong, well-muscled member of a general hosp al medical detachment, with an entirely negative previous history. On 8 May, he played a vigorous game of baseball and knocked a hom On the next day, he acted as a donor, and, on 10 May, his blood was given to a Se year-old Tifleman who had sustained a gunshot wound of the right lower abdomen on 25 April 1944. On the next day, 11 May, the donor reported to sick oall, and he died on 14 May, of fulminating infectious hepatitis, confirmed by the clinical course, the laboratory findings, and the necropsy Gndings. There was no doubt of the diagnosis, nor waa there any doubt that this man had been perfestly well up to, and including, the fifth day before his death, when he gave 500 ec. of b! as it became hoown that the donor had hepatitis, the recipient was transferred to a special ward, where he was kept under close observation. He remained perfectly well, and allt laboratory tests were negative, until 21 May, when he began to complein of lower abdominal1 Pain and seneralized discomfort. The temperature was 99. . a blood 5. showed a of the abnormal toxic lymphocytes ordinarily seen in early infectious ‘hepatitis. Thereafter, the clinical course, as well as the laboratory findings, were entirely typical of infectious hepatitis, except that jaundice did not appear until "June.

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

679

The patient was critically ill for the next several days, but, after 8 June, his condition gradually improved and he went on to an apparently normal recovery. In this case, although the incubation period of 11 days isj extremely short, and although the events may have been no more than a coincidence, it seem reasonable to assume that they represent a direct human transfer of hepatitis from a donor with fulminating, fatal, infectious hepatitis to a recipient who was apparently recovering normally from a minor battle wound.

;

Preventive Measures

Since the virus of hepatitis could not be detected by the techniques available in 1945, when its importance began to be realized, the only means of preventing its transmission was a more rigid examination of blood donors than had hitherto been required, including a detailed history; a physical examination, with special reference to the liver; and a battery of laboratory tests. Aside from the fact that such e routine would be completely impractical, if only from the stendpoint of expense, it was doubtful that the most elaborate requirements would uncover all cases of incipient jaundice and low-grode or latent hepatitis

(48).

There seemed, in short, no practical way of eliminating the asymptomatic blood donor who never developed jaundice. By inoculating human volunteers with icterogenic serum, Neefe and his associates (47) were able to demonstrate that, at least in somo cases, asubdlinical hepatitis precedes the onset of jaundice yy a considerable period. Clinical confirmation of these experimental observations was obtained in two cases in which studies were done a month before the onset of jaundice. Capt. (later Maj.) Emanuel M. Rappaport, MC, in a epecial study of asymptomatic donors (42), suggested routine serial studies of fiver function 8 weeks after transfusion, to uncover latent hepatitis which w otherwise escape detection. He had observed four such cases. Such a rogram was, of course, impractical at a time when all available laboratory facilities were taxed to capacity with more immediate problems, and was not very practical at any other time.

Prophylactic and Therapeutic Use of Gamma Globulin n after gamma globulin was introduced by Stokes and Neefe 4), in 1945, as a prophylactic measure in infectious hepatitis, its efficacy in this respect was verified by Havens and Paul (48). Since an intimate relation had been demonstrated between the viruses of infectious gob pomologous serum hepatitis, it was logical to recommend that gamma globulin be give patients who had received either blood or plasme and Boe it be given imomediately after the transfusion, since the incubation period of hepatitis produced by inoculation, while it might extend to 130 days or more, might also be only 30 days or even less.

8380

BLOOD

PROGRAM

This recommendation was transmitted to the Surgeon, Mediterrenean Theater of Operations, 3 June 1945, by the Office of The Surgeon General. The recommendation was duly complied with (49). The same instructions were given to medical officers in the European theater in Circular Letter No. 53, Office of the Chief Surgeon, 19 June 1945 (50). a conference in the office of Brig. Gen. James 8. Simmons, Director, Preventive Medicine Division, Office of The Surgeon General, on 25 July 1945 CD the prophylactic use of gamma globulin was fully discussed. Brig. Gen. ankin was not yet convinced that the relation between transfusion and ‘pevatitis had been ineontrovertibly established, nor was he convinced of the preventive value of gamma globulin, but he was not opposed to its prophylactic use. Brig. Gen. Hugh J. Morgan, Consultant in Medicine, Office of The Surgeon Generel, was sufficiently impressed with the findings of Major Sartwell’s survey of hepatitis in Zone of Interior hospitals to believe that gamma globulin should be administered routinely. All present agreed to recommend that all wounded patients who had been transfused and who were received in hospitals in the United States between 21 and 120 days after wounding should routinely receive gamma globulin. The rend te nat dose was 10 ce. This was the last official action in regard to ttransfusion hepatitis in j World War II. The postwar problem is described els elsewhere (p.7 References 1. Davis, H.A.: The Transfusion of Conserved Blood. Am. J. Surg. 50: 698-702, December 1940. 2. Bordley,J. III: Reactions Following Transfusion of Blood, With Urinary Suppression and premia. Arch. Int. Med. 47: 288-315, February 1931. at Department Technical Bulletin (TB MED) 204, 24 Oct. 1945, eubject: Compliction Ms“Blood Transfusion, . Lewisohn, R., and Rosenthal, ie evention of Chills Following Transfusion of Cicsted Blood. J. A. M. A. 100: ‘0-469, ‘1s Feb. 193. 5. Seibert, F. B.: Fo a in Some Distilled Waters. Am. J. Physiol ah 90-104, Denoaber | wisohn, R.: A New end rently Simplified Method of Blood Transfusion. A Prlininey Report. M. Rec. 142, 28 Jan.1 » Lewisohn, R.: Blood Srvarafusion: 50 Years Awe and Today. Surg. Gynec. & Obst.

101: 302-308 September

1955.

8 A inistrative nd Logistical History of the Medical Service, Communications Zone, European Theater 0} t Operations, vol. 18, chapter 14, Professional Aspects of the Medical Service. el ohicia! cord.} 9. duffe, Robert A., and DeBateys Michael: The Blood oo aod the Technique and Therap “ ‘Transfusionns. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co. 10. Mallor . Bs Mersosiobinarie Nephrosis in Treuaatle Shoek. Am. J. Clin. Path. 17: 427-443, Jane 1947, i History, 15th Medical Genera!1 Laboratory, 20 Dec. 1942-31 May 14 31 Oct. 1944. . Conference on Shock and T: tusion, afternoon session, 25 May Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, European jneater of Operations, U.S. em 13. Ashby, W.: The Determination of © Kength a Life of Transfused "Blood Corpusoles in Man. J. Exper. Med. 29: 267- 31, M Maret

REACTIONS

AND

COMPLICATIONS

681

4. Report, Maj. Stewart C. Wagoner, MC, to Army Surgeon, Ninth U.S. Army, 12 Feb. W043, subject: Report orFeranefusion Reactio 15. » Lt, pol rt C., MC, Holt, Maj. Benton B., MC, and Coulson, Maj. Forest H., MC: " React a tr ansfi n.d. 16. Medical Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War m oe Physiologic Effects of Wounds. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,1 17. Report, Lt. Col. Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, to The Surgeon General, 13 rian. 1945, subject: Trip to the North African Theater of Operations. Emerson, Maj. Charles P., MC: Investigation of Transfusion Therapy—Ninth U.S. Army, 6 April-10 May 1946. 19, Administrative Memorandum No. 150, Office of the Chict Surgeon, Headquarters, European Thestero} # Operations, U.S. Army, 22 Nov. wat _fubieet: Blood Transfusion. 20. Memorandum, Capt. John Elliott, SnC, to Chi jurgical Consultants Division, Office of The Surgeon Genel through Director, Army Medica School, 1 Feb. 1945, subject: Transportation oeBlood from the U.S. to the ETO Blood Bank in Paris. 21. ETMD, European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army, for February 1945. 22. Emerson, C Peaand Ebert, R. V.: A Study of Shock in Battle Casualties. Measurements of the Blood Volume Changes Occurring in Reaponse to Therapy. Ann. Surg. 122: 745-772, November} Chief Consultant in Surgery, Me weranduen, taj, Robert C. Hardin, MC, Professional Services Division, Office of the Chief Surgeon, “Heedquartere, European Theater of Operations, 21 Mar. 1045, subject: Transfusion Reactions. 24. Letter, Maj. Gen. Paul It. Hawley to Col. William E. Shambora, MC, 24 Mar. 1945.

25. Report, Lt. Col. Francis P. Parker, MC, to the Commanding Officer, 43d General Hospital, 22 Feb. 1945, subject: ipvestigation of Transfusion Reactions. utes, Conference on Blood Preservation and Red Cell Resuspension, Division of Medical Sciencee, NRC, 6 Dec 27, ETMD, pate Ocean Are rea, for January 1945. rt, 64th Portable Surgical Hospital, 2d quarter,1 29, Clinical enh Fatal Transfusion Reaction, 311th General Hospital, 24 Nov. 1945. nutes, meting of Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 18 July 104 31. Minutee, meeting Ee Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Selonces, NRC, 12 May . Minutes, meeting ol Subcommittee on Bleod Substitutes, Division of Medical deieneea, NRC, 20 0 33. Toxicity of Mumen ‘Plasm J.A.M.A : 206-207, 19 Sept.1 . Thalhimer, W.: Intravenousis Injection ‘ot‘Tooled Normal Plea 0or * Serum. Is it Dangerous? JA.MLA, me: wen 1267, 19 Dec. 194 Letter, Mal Stewart C. Wagoner, MC, to * emy Surgeon, Ninth U.S. Army, 21 Mar. 1945, ster BrigPlasma n Reactions 36. Letter . Gen, Guy B. Denit to The Surgeon General, Army Service Forces, 21 Apr. 1945, ‘subjects Reporta of Reactions Following Administration of Human Blood Plasma, Item 7. piv Dr. M. -V. Veldee to Maj. J. J. McGraw, ary MC, 28 Apr. 1945. 38.

eadquarters,

i

of horpitels inT the area, 28 Mane 1 subject: "Plasma Tenctioney Summary of replies, entitled ‘Plasma Reaction Summary,” 39. Mel crandum Maj. J. J. MeGraw, Jr., MC, to Liaison Branch, Purchase Division (attention: Maj. A. O. Glasson), 17 May 1945, aubject: Reactions Following Administraof Plasma in Far East,

682

BLOOD

PROGRAM

. Minutes, meeting of Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical 24 43. Sciences, an Wi ee W. Some Ppidemiological Aspects of Infectious Hepatitis in the U.S. Army. Am. 7. "ron. Med 25: 75-82, March 1945. 42, Rappaport, E. M.: Hepatitis partes Blood o1 ieee Transfusions. Observations in Thirty-Three Casa J.A.M.A, 128: 932-939, 28 July 1945. ppaport, Capt. E. M., MG: Further Obnervetions | on Delayed - tepatitis Following Transfusions and the Role ‘of Asymptomatic Donors in this Syndro: 44, Sartwell, Maj. P. E., MC: Infectious Hepatitis in Relation to Blood "Transfusion. Findings ofa a Survey Conducted | io Army General Hospitals, D. a. . Grossman, E, id ,J., Jr. patitis in B Iti and a Btudy « of te Propane te Means of ‘Sumas Immune Serum Globulin. J.A.M.A. 129: 991-994, 8 Dec. 1945. . EB , North African Theater of Operations, U.S. Army, for August1 47. Sto J, Jr., and Neefe, J. R.; The Prevention and Attenuation of infectious Hepatitis oe Garin Globulin. J.A.M.A. 127: 144-145, 20 Jan, 1 . Havens, W. P., and Paul, J. R.: Provention of ‘Infectious “Hepatiti With Gamma Globulin J. A M. A. 129: 270-272, 22 Sept. 1945. . Memorandum, Col, Earl Standlee, MC, to The Surgeon General, U.S. Army, 22 july!is6, subject: Hepatitis in ‘Transfused Individuals. . Circular Letter No. 53, Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army, 19 e 1945, subject: Homologous Serum Jaundice (sec. IT). 51, Memorandum, Maj. P. z Sartwell, MC, for file, 25 July 1945, subject: Prevention of Post Transfusion Hepatitis,

CHAPTER

XIX

General Considerations of Shock Therapy According to Brig. Gen. Elliott C. Cutler (1), the single feature of professional care that contributed most directly to the improvement in morbidity and mortality in World War II was adequate resuscitation of the wounded man. This factor, in his opinion, transcended in unportance any single method of therapy, even the administration of blood and plasma, for it comprised the total evaluation and care of Oey casualties before surgery, not altention to a single anatomic region or some particular wound. This concept led to the greatly improved management of shock, chiefly by the liberal use of whole

blood.

PRINCIPLES

OF RESUSCITATION

Role of Surgery In a report to the Surgeon, NATOUSA (North African Theater of Operations, U.S. Army), on 2 July 1943, Col. Edward D. Churchill, MC, emphasized what was, for all practical purposes, a new principle in military medicine, the role ofsurgery itself in resuscitation (2, 3)

establishment of a shock or resuscitation ward, Colonel Churchill

pointed out, to which casualties in actual or impending shock could be sent as they were received, was an efficient arrangement and absolutely essential when casualties were received in overwhelming numbers. When this system was used, however, there was one error to be guarded against: Resuscitation might come to be regarded es # subspecialty of military surgery and, as such, as a goal in itself. Though it might seem too obvious for mention, one central fact had to be repeatedly emphasized, that a wounded man was resuscitated not only to deliver him from his immediate peril but also to prepare him for whatever surgery he needed. With this concept in mind, a number of principles of resuscitation became clear: Any delay in resuscitation prolongs the crucial interval between the time of wounding and surgery; that is, the timelag. Any delay in the reversal of shock increases the deleterious effects of

circulatory failure.

Prompt restoration of blood wm

stands out as the

most important advance in the war to date (July 1 3. Resuscitation of every casualty being repo for operation is an integral part of the surgical management of trauma, Operating surgeons must not fail to follow closely the clinical course of patients in the resuscitation wards. They must not wait for the patients to be “served up” to them. They 633

684

BLOOD

PROGRAM

must not rely on the judgment of inexperienced medical officers with inadequate training in surgery. To divorce the surgeon from shock is a disquieting

outgrowth of war that cannot be too severely condemned

4. Replacement fluids must be introduced rapidly. to tnerense the rate of flow is too infrequent.

"The use of a syringe

5. Delay in the procurement of whole blood must not be interpreted as

Justificenon for not using plasme. . The resuscitation ward tends to become e routine stopping point to regulate the flow of casualties to the operating room. e delay caused by lack of precision in the selection of casualties for resuscitation is wasteful and

intolerable.

Practical Implications In the months that followed Colonel Churchill’s report a sophisticated and highly efficacious system of resuscitation was developed in the North African theater. Out of this development came the implementation of his concept that surgery was indeed the climax and goal of resuscitation and was in itself the most potent of all acts of resuscitation. The immediate outgrowth of this new concept was the establishment of field hospitals immediately adjacent to clearing stations (4), with the result that surgeons trained and equipped to perform emergency surgery were brought within a short litter-carry of casualties whose wounds did not permit them to be transported to an evacuation hospital to the rear but who, after resuscitation, could be operated on close to where they were wounded.

Concepts of Shock and Its Management It was extremely important that all medical officers and others responsible

for resuscitation should understand that shock is not a fixed state but is dy-

namic. Once resuscitation was begun (figs. 154, 155, and 156), the casualty had to be observed frequently and carefully, so that surgery could be per. formed at the peak of improvement. Once thet peak had passed, it was usually difficult, and sometimes impossible, to attain again the same degree of response to the measures employed. Delay during periods of pressure might mean a lost opportunity in the selection of the optimum time for operation. Stabilization of the circulatory mechanism was, however, essential before surgery was underteken. Clinical observations were important. So were such observations as the level of the blood pressure, the pulse rate, the presence or absence of sweating, and the state of the peripheral circulation. Serial determinations (fig. 157) of the pulse and blood pressure were necessary; single observations might be highly misleading. Pulse volume was often more im portant than pulse rate. Collapsed veins8 and fluctuations of the blood pres1

b

in the Mediterranean Theater of Operutions, U.S. Army, by Lt, Col. Henry K. Beecher, MC, and others (9).

SHOCK

THERAPY

685

A Ficups 154. —Administration of plasma and other intravenous therapy in shock ward, 60th Field Hospital, Dieuze, France, November 19. Note U.S. plasma bottle hanging by white tape, and, next to it, British transfusion bottle, with filter below it, containing blood collected in the European thea

sure

sounds

with

respiration

had been inadequate

indicated

that restoration

of the blood

volume

No reliable criteria were ever developed for recognition of the degree of hemodynamic instability in shocked patients. Blood pressure readings provided only a rough indication. Often when the pulse rate and blood pressure had been restored to almost normal levels, movement of the patient, however slight, might cause a rapid reversion to the original stage of shock. If the significance of this reversion was not realized and if further resuscitation was not carried out before anesthesia and operation, deep and fatal shock might occur, In some cases, compensation might be so complete that, while there were no objective signs of shock, a slight additional blood loss might induce a rapid fall in the blood pressure. Continued or recurrent hemorrhage wes one of the most important considerations in resuscitation. The possibility ys to be suspected in casualties who did not respond to adequate resuscitation, including adequate blood replacement. In general, the degree of shock was proportional to the amount of blood lost, though there was occasionally « surprising lack of correlation. In wounds

686

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Figures 155.—Transfusion in progress in typical shock ward, 102d Evacuation Hospital, Huy, Belgium, January 1945.

of the spleen or the mesentery, in which 1,000 to 1,500 cc. of blood could be aspirated from the peritoneal cavity, there was sometimes complete hemodynamic compensation. It was a mistake to be content with that status. The safety of these casualties required that they be transfused before operation and that preparations be made to transfuse them rapidly during operation (fig. 158), to compensate for the blood loss during it. Many medical officers shared Dr. Owen H. Wangensteen’s opinion that measured blood loss at operation always proved larger than it seemed (4).

Limitations of Plasma Since loss of blood externally or into body cavities was the principal cause of shock, its successful management depended upon the restorations of both red blood cells and blood volume. Plasma alone would not suffice (p. 55). In fact, used beyond a certain point, it might do harm by diluting the remaining blood cells at a time that rising blood pressure, caused by the plasma transfusion, could increase hemorrhage. Also, a false sense of security might be induced when elevation of the systolic pressure was accomplished by plasma 1 ressure elevated by these means might fall precipitately with induction of anesthesia, operative manipulations, or mere movement of the

SHOCK

THERAPY

687

Ficure 156. Satanefusion in shock ward in U.S. ld hos pital in Germany © suspension of blood bottle wAlsever type) from Serlad wire patient. Finally, the plan of giving only plasma before operation, with the idea of making up the preoperative blood deficit on the operating table, was poor practice and dangerous besides.

RESUSCITATION Diagnostic

Routine

The plan of resuscitation which evolved in the Mediterranean theater came into generaluse elsewhere. It began with first aid measures, which frequently included the administration of plasma (figs. 159~162), on the battlefield. They were followed, as soon as the casualty was hospitalized, by rapid, complete examination, with his clothing removed, to appraise his general condition; estimate his state of shock; and determine the factors

688

BLOOD

BLOOD

29 NI SGINAS

G, WHOLE

PROGRAM

OBSERVATIONS ON SHOCK MUMBER

DATE AND TIME OF INJUR DATE AND TIME OF ADMISSION iNgURY TYPE OF MISSILE SPLINTS, PLASMA, ETC. {

Figure 157.—Type of form used for serial observations in shock ward. which might be contributing to it and which required immediate control, as part of resuscitation. These conditions included cardiorespiratory embarrasshemothorax, pneumothorax, and tension pneumothorax; cardiac tamponade; blood or mucus or both in the tracheobronchial tree (wet lung); paradoxical respiration; anoxia from any of these causes; inadequately immobilized fractures; large soft-tissue wounds, clostridial myositis ; gross peritoneal contaminetion; and sepsis. Blood loss was the major cause of shock and in most instances it was associated with the conditions just listed. They were, however, able in themselves to produce and maintain shock, and they therefore required separate consideration. The replacement of-lost blood was essential, but it could not, in itself, eliminate other factors causing shock.

SHOCK

THERAPY

Fiaure

689

158.—Transfusion in operating room of 111th ospital, Ninth U.S. Army, November 1944.

Evacuation

The diagnostic routine also included roentgenologic examination and the performance of certain laboratory tests. These tests were limited to those cbsolutely necessary; @ medical staff that was too energetic might well contribute to the precipitation or aggravation of traumatic shock in a badly wounded casualt the basis of these examinations, casualties were grouped into two categories: 1. Those with minor or slight wounds, in good condition, who needed no special preoperative preparation. They were operated on es soon as possible, with due regard to the more urgent needs of more seriously wounded casualties. Those with severe wounds, who were in shock, and in whom adequate resuscitation might mean the difference between survival and death. The classification of casualties according to their degree of shock has been described elsewhere (p. 39).

Blood Replacement

Casualties admitted in severe shock, with no perceptible blood pressure, were given low-titer group O blood immediately and rapidly, without waiting for grouping and crossmatching of the first liter. The blood was sometimes Tun into two, three, or even four veins, depending upon the urgency of the patient’s state. Blood was obtained at the first venipuncture for grouping and crossmatching in subsequent transfusions.

690

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Ficure 159.—Administration of plasma on beach, only few fect from surf, to survivor of wee craft sunk off coast in first days of invasion of Normandy, June 1 In cases in which there was time for laboratory examinations, a unit of plasma or albumin could be given while preparations were made for trahsfusion. After 1,000 to 1,500 cc. of non-type-specific blood had been given to a bled-out casualty, a new sample of his blood was obtained for crossmatching, and the same precaution was repeated after the administration of every additional

liter.

“When the systolic blood pressure had risen to 80 mm. Hg, the rate of transfusion was reduced while an additional 500 cc. of blood was administered over a 30- to 60-minute period. The rationale of this practice was that the blood pressure often reached an almost normal level before the depleted blood volume hed reached a safe level. ‘Transfusions for prophylactic purposes; that is, to guard against a possible fall of blood pressure, were also given slowly. Ideally, blood replacement was always an individual matter, based on the requirements of the casualty. Since the initial blood pressure was sometimes misleadingly high, the necessity for transfusion was best gaged by the extent and severity of the wound or wounds, the probable amount of blood lost, and the general state of the patient. When Maj. (later Col.) Howard E. Snyder, MC, began to visit hospitals as Consultant to the Surgeon, Fifth US. Army (4), he could easily tell, simply by looking at patients after operation,

SHOCK

THERAPY

691

ae

al

Ficure 160.—Care of wounded, one of whom is receiving plasma, advance battalion aid station, Mortain, France, August 1944.

at

which ones had not had enough blood before operation; they looked white and bled-out, Generally speaking, each 3- or 4-point deficit on the hematocrit scale or each 0.9-gm. percent deficit in hemoglobin required a transfusion of 500 cc. When there was doubt, it was considered better to give blood than

to withhold it.

was sometimes given in larger amounts than was necessary (3). Aside from the waste of a scarce and precious substance, results achieved y this method were no better than those achieved with amounts more consonant with the actual needs. The use of excessive amounts of blood could also be dangerous: If there was no response in the pulse or blood pressure to the transfusion of 2 to 4 pints of blood, it had to be assumed that hemorrhage was continuing or that an overwhelming infection was the cause of the failure of resuscitation. In such cases, immediate operation offered the best chance

of li

Blood was given during operation Recording to the indications and was also given after operation in large numbers of cases. The correction of nutritional depletion was an essential phase of postoperative care. Many of the wounded had been living for weeks under field conditions, with suboptimum consumption of protein, calories, and vitamins. Loss of blood and plasma at wounding increased the protein and hemoglobin deficits. Postoperative dietary restrictions and exudation into inflamed tissues led to further depletion. These conditions, which retarded wound healing and delayed convalescence,

692

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Ficure 161.— Wounded British soldier receiving plasma under care of U.S. and British corpamen, British-U.S. sector, Holland, October 1944, responded well to plasma and blood transfusions, continued until the red blood cell count was above 4 million per cubic millimeter and preferably higher. The correction of these deficits was @ postoperative objective. In his May 1944 report to the Surgeon, NATOUSA, Colonel Churchill pointed out that not until the end of 1943 were supplies available in sufficient quantities to permit the establishment of facilities for adequate resuscitation of wounded in forward areas (6). The improvement effected was evident in comparative series: In the first, 200 casualties in Tunisia who were operated on in forward hospitals received 350 plasma infusions and 6 blood transfusions. In the second series, 297 casualties in Italy were admitted to a field hospital, a type of installation which did not exist during the Tunisian campaign. In this series, 285 of the 207 casualties received 1,364 units of plasma and 277 received 511 transfusions. The two series are perhaps not entirely comparable,

SHOCK

THERAPY

693

Ficuse 162.—U.S. corpsmen administering care to German civilian who stepped on mine, Wiirselen, Germany, November 1944. Administration of plasma is part of first aid therapy. since the first included many less seriouslywounded than the second. On the other hand, more than half of the casualties in the first series had wounds serious enough to require immediate operation, and, had facilities and blood been available, there is little doubt that as many of them, proportionately, would have been treated by transfusion as in the second series.

TECHNICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

A number of technical improvements and short cuts were developed all theaters as experionce increased. Some of them were as follows

in

If blood had to tt 50-cc. syringe was inserted into the tube sireadye in situ, which was dnmped off jt‘Slow the needle, After the syringe fad been filled with blood, the clamp was placed above the needle and the blood was pumped When a sovond 1 transfusion was to be given immediately after he frst, the original needle was left in situ and the second transfusion set was connected wi it. id be exposed anda e cannula inserted, which could be left in place for 24 to 48 hours. od could also bi © forced in rapidly by the use of a bulb from the blood pressure apparatus attached to the ir inlet of the blood bottle. This was an effective method i extreme emergencies but not desirable, for, in careless hands, it could_—and did—carry the risk of air embolism. General Surgical Team No. 25, 2d Auxiliary Surgical Group, which once used 20,000 ce. of type O blood in 4 days, developed the practice of crossmatching three to four bottles

604

BLOOD

PROGRAM

of blood at once if the casualty seemed exsanguinated (7). This practice had two added advantages, that there was no delay in the transfusions and that reciplent sets, which were frequently in short supply at this time, were conserved by the uge of the same set for the total amount of blood. Intrasternal administration of parenteral fluids was discussed at a number of meetings of the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes and allied groups (8, a but, after a vigorous discussion, it was decidednot to recommend it, for two reasons: required a clegree of skill unlikely to exist in medical officers of all degrees of training vad experience. ‘Also, some fatalities had been reported after it, from puncture of the inner table of the sternum and puncture of the mediastinum There was also a vigorous diseussion concerning administration of flulds by the femoral vein (8, 9). This feehiniaue had been used successfully at Pcarl Harbor in burned patients, but it was conclu that it was too dangerous for gencral use. One reason h hypertonic solution such as concentrated human albumin might cause serious damage if it was extravasated. As early as 1940, Dr. Elmer L. DeGowin and his associates (J0) at the State University of Iowa School of Medicine had demonstrated that preserved blood could safely be given without reheating. This practice, which later became routine Army practic of advantages. It eliminated the frequently costly apparatus and the manpower expended by medical and nursing personnel in the former endeavor to keep parenteral fluids at body temperature during injection. It also saved the time formerly epent in heating blood, and eliminated the risk of hemolysis from the injudicious application of heat.

USE

OF BLOOD

IN ZONE

OF INTERIOR

HOSPITALS

In the spring of 1945, Col. B. Noland Carter, MC, Assistant Chief, Surgical Consultants Division, Office of The Surgeon General, was impressed, on his visits to a number of Zone of Interior hospitals, by an apparent tendency to

use too little blood in the preoperative, operative, and postoperative manage-

ment of battle casualties. Part of the explanation was the paucity of surgical personne trained in | the use of whole blood as well as in its storage and processing: e the war ended, the amounts being used were increased as medical officers who had used blood oversens returned to the United States. Ata few hospitals, blood had always been used in adequate quantities. Walter Reed General Hospital, Washington, D.C., as might have been expected, was outstanding in this respect, for the biood for the 250-300 transfusions given there every month was provided bythe Blood Research Section, Division of Surgical Physiology, Army Medical School, which conducted most of the research, on whole blood carried out before and during the war. To be certain that difficulty in obtaining blood was not the explanation of its minimum use, Colonel Carter instituted a survey, in April and May 1945, of the hospitals he had recently visited (11). With the end of the war, no action was taken in the matter, but the replics to his questionneire are worth putting on the record: Ashford General Hospital, White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., which gave about 20 transfusions a week, obtained the bleod from the hospital detachment 2 snd civilian personnel. If the necessary refrigerator could be supplied, it was thought that about 50 pints of blood a week could be secured and the number of transfusions per week increased by 10 or 15.

SHOCK

THERAPY

695

PE2

Thomas M. England General Hospital, Atlantic City, N.J., gave about 20 transfusions a week. It procured the necessa: y blood from the Philadelphia chapter of the American had a rage. ayo General Hospital, esburg, Ill., gave 59 transfusions in January and 60 March 1945, against an average of 28 in each of the preceding 4 months. The increase was explained by the increase in the number of operations and in their magnitude. Blood was procured from men of the detachment, who were paid $10 for each donation. An informal arrangement had been made with the civilian hospitale in Galesburg, which paid $25 per donation, shat no men of the detachment would be permitted to donate blood at any of them until they had first donated at Mayo General Ifospital. No man was permitted to donate oftencr than every 6 weeks, and 3 months was the preferable intery al. The hospital staff saw no particular advantage to catablishing a blood a nk with such a pool of donors at hand and only a limited amount of surgery being don - Baker General Hospital, Martinsburg, Ww. “Va, reported a strong tendency ganiy i P vallabitity ond ite of Over the p: I hs, an an had been more re blood, and an average of three ecafusions a week had been given betweenni Januaryy and 9 April 1946. Group B and group AB bloods were sometimes in short supply but there had been no shortages in donors of other types. a aithough the number of transfusions given was small, the use of blood was considered adeq Paraplegies sometimes presented compatibility aifficuttes, Roars because they ‘nad alread. received 80 Many transfusions. ell General tal, Ayer, Mass., which operated its n blood bank, gave an average of 30 transfusions aweek. Blood was obtained without dimeulty from the medical and Women’s Army Corps detachments and civilian employees and was supplemented by blood from the Worcester Blood Bank and the Boston Red Cross Chapter, which provided as many ae ¢ re bottles a week anind gould furnish more if necessary. DeW t General Hospital, A , Calif., which gave an average of 12 transfusions a week, obtained blood fro! vila, and. military members of the hospital staff. Local Re: Crosa representatives bad informed the commanding officer of the hospital that about 100 Auburn clvilians, who periodically gave eed for the plasma program, would be glad to contribute to the hospital if the need shou! Halloran General Hospital, Staten aad N. ¥. whieh operated its own blood bank, gave about 40 transfusions per week. Group O blo secu m duty personnel, and A, B, and AB blood fro m the Army Whole “Blood Procurennant Ser ice, which procured it from the New York chapter e Am ericannm Red Cross Billings General Heopitel, Iniaepe is, Ind., whi oh operated its own blood bank, gave 559 transfusions between 27 March and oT April 1045, The blood was secured from individuals confined in the U.3.Pisin Barrocks m the t and was collected at regular intervals. The bleeding of prisoners ways on an entirely voluntary bas! Brooke General Hospital, San Antonio Tex., which gave about 40 tnanefuslons per wrecks was not permitted to operate 3 blood bank because the liquid Plasma center operated at t) 4th Army Laboratory at F needed. The hospital, howover, had set up a ransfasion section which prepared and issued all intravenous seta, typed all patients requiringt transfus sion, crossmatched all bloods,‘drew all bloods collect ted inin the hospital, and investigated reac’ The transfusion section kept 6 pints of 0 bload o: hand at alt times for emergency use,‘replacing within 24 fours all blood used. The bulk of the blood collected locally came fro medical detachment. Donors were paid at the usual rate. Civilian donations eounted. to about 15 per wee

Walter Reed General Hospital Lat 943, the Division of Surgical Physiology, Army Medical School, undertook tto ‘supply blood for all routine transfusions at Walter Reed General

696

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Hospital. A strict record was kept of the first 3,000 transfusions given under the new system,and ea continuing effort was made to see that recipient sets were properly prepared. With this precaution, the reaction rate, as already noted, was reduced from 22 percent to approximately 0.5 percent. Only O blood was supplied. At first, the bloods were not tested for lutinin titer, and no effort was made to avoid giving A, B, or AB recipients transfusions of high-titer blood. During this period, there was only one instance in which it was suspected that an A recipient might heve suffered from some hemolysis of her own cells. The reaction was mild, perhaps because the blood had been collected in Alsever’s solution and the amount of agglutinin was therefore diluted and was taken into the pioodstream more slowly than if the amount of solution transfused had been 500 or 600 In January 1945, a number of high-titer ‘bloods were deliberately given to A and B recipients. No clinical reactions were observed until bloods with titers of 1:1024 or higher were administered. Then, the patients had chills,

fever, vomiting, end other symptoms, and an increase in the serum bilirubin

observed. » Since these observations suggested that high-titer O bloods might cause reactions in non-group O recipients, all O bloods handled at the hospital in the future were separated on the basis of their agglutinin content. The titration technique which wes adopted separated approximately 25 percent of O bloods with the highest titers of anti-A or anti-B agglutinins, or both. High-titer bloods were given only to O recipients, and low-titer bloods were reserved for A, B, and AB recipients. Maj. Leslie H. Tisdall, MC, Coordinator, Army Whole Blood Procurement Service, with his associates, made a study of the effects of high-titer O blood on incompatible recipients (12) (p. 259), and further studies in the Zone of Interior were being planned when the war en

PLASMA

THERAPY

Indications While too much credit was given to plasma early in World War remained until the end of the war an extremely useful emergency agent.

II, it This

has been indicated in so many discussions earlier in this volume that any repetition is unnecessary here. ‘There were certain injuries and conditions in which plasme was of greater value then blood or was needed in addition to blood. These included:

ead injuries. Limitation of fluids was desirable, and Plasma was given only in eile quantities to control shock and restore bloodv: 2. Crushing injuries, in which Deenoconosnteation was 5 frequent. The tremendous eath swelling ‘hi f these victims after is ich had ss crit values.

|The management a these injuries i |was also complicated by ‘the evelopment of transfusi

SHOCK

THERAPY

697

3. Fulminating clostridial myositis, particularly of the wet type. Lose of Plasma through the wound or into the affected muscles was best combated with large plasma infusions. These came patiente, however, tended to present severe anemia, and they required whole blood as well as plasma. 4, Severe wounds associated with bypoproteinemia; pariae wounds which required prolonged nasogastric suction; and bedsores, particu in paraplegics. Amino acid solutions for intravenous use were never generally svallabhe in World War II and were not available at all until late in the war. Plasma proved to be an excellent substitute. §. Burns, which furnished perhaps the most clear-cut indication of all for the use of plasma. When Elkinton (19), in 1939, reported four cases treated by thie method, h a. That hemoconcentration or diminution of the plasma volume, as measured by serial hematocrit determinatione, was evident in all four Pach bes ho also all exhibited in the plasma in concent: rease pl tein, most tional therapy. Whole blood would supply the necessary elements, but to nad red cells"to asireuiation already relatively overloaded with them, was not logical. set of shock in severe burns is remarkably rapid and 1 may occur within an hour after iiane Immediately after injury, however, the need for plasma is not yet reflected in the hematocrit, and larger amounts are needed than ita current level indicates, The tragic experience of the fire at the Cocoanut Grove in Boston in November 1042 provided an tnatructive experience in the management of shock in burna (14). The mass disaster bore a real resemblance eaethe situation that might be encountered in miltery experience. An instructive comparison was also furnished between the | use of plasma a Massachusetts General Hospital, where all the patients were treated uniformly,wu direction of Dr. Churohill, ond its use at the Boston City Hospital, where the patients were Treated on fiv te servic In cases of burn shock not. complicated by wounds, in which the insane blood volume was due almost entirely to loss of plasma, the most common error of man in World War II was failure to adminfeter plasma rapidly enough and in large enough mounts The were secured when it was given into The ven or with positive pressure, until a

br t 24 to 36 h After this i ondary enemies nwa feg a vsevlop rapidly, and. whole plood 2 -veplaced plasma in the. Toanagement of the injury. The special experience of ine 77th Field Hospital in i the Europeen theater, commanded by Maj. Henry Metz, MC, with the use of plasma i in true protein depletion, in which it was moreve valucble than whole blood, is described elsewhere (p. 570).

Dosage and Administration

The dosage of plasma, as of blood, was an individual matter. The blood pressure level was the simplest method of determining the need for it and the response to it, but not necessarily the most accurate metho: The degree of hemoconcentration was another method of determining the amount of plasma to be used; 50 ce. was given for every point that the concentration exceeded the normal 100 percent. It was also estimated that 100 ce, of plasma was required Pa every point that the hematocrit determination exceeded the normal of 4

698

BLOOD

PROGRAM

‘When the hematocrit was low, patients treated with plasma sometimes had a rapid pulse for days, even though the blood pressure was well sustained. It was realized very early in the war that 250 cc. of plasma was never an adequate dose; if plasma was necded at all, at least 500 cc. was necessary, and, many times, a good deal more (14, 16). As time passed, the initial dose tended to become larger, up to 1,000 cc., and some hospitals, such as the 33d Field Hospital in November 1943, reported using as much es 5,000 cc. for resuscitation (6). The first 500 ce. of plasma was given rapidly, and rapid administration was continued until the blood pressure became approximately normal. If the patient was evacuated to the rear, additional plasma was given before he was

putin the ambulance.

This method was very useful in the Tunisian campaign,

when, field hospitals not yet being undesirably long evacuations were during transportation, particularly fractures of the femur. Later, of

in use in their later conventional manner, often necessary. Plasma was also given to patients with abdominal injuries and course, patients with such injuries were

resuscitated and operated on in forward hospit

Isotonic plasma was recommended by the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes (16). Its members did not look with favor on the use of concentrated plasma. (p. 275).

Other Proposed Uses he suggestion that dried plasma be used as # menstruum for the local application of penicillin to wounds did not get beyond the experimental stage. true of a study at the University of Chicago on filling the pleural space with plasma after lung resection, to compensate for the protein loss that oceurs after such operations. Attempts to treat decompression sickness with plasma, on the ground that some patients presented decreases in specific gravity, came to no more than the suggestion. A similar fate befell the suggestion that concentrated dried plasma be used in the treatment of acute nephritis. The proposal that plasma be administered by hypodermoclysis in i deeply shocked casualties was discouraged for the reason that if the veins were collapsed and difficult to locate, there was all the more reason for injecting plasma intravenously as promptly as possible to restore an effective circulating blood volume.

Technique of Administration The standard Army-Navy package of dried plasma contained two sealed cans and a printed questionnaire. Filling out the questionnaire was the final step of administration of plasma and was particularly important in the early days of the program, when the Blood Research Section, Army Medical School, urgently needed the data thus secured to determine further steps in procedure. The detailed technique of plasma administration is described in figure 163.

SHOCK

THERAPY

699

SERUM

ALBUMIN

THERAPY

The Army, in contrast to the Navy, used very little serum albumin because of its satisfaction with plasma and for other reasons (p. 347). Clinically, except for the need for supplying fluids when serum albumin was used in dehydrated patients, there was little to choose between the two agents. At times, however, the compact size of the serum albumin package was a distinct advantage. One medical officer, for instance, related how he and some of his corpsmen, after they had lost all their plasma when their landing boat was sunk off the Normandy beaches, filled their pockets with packages of serum albumin and administered it to many seriously wounded men, most of whom lived to be taken aboard ships on which they could receive definitive care. As albumin was put up for the Armed Forces, its high concentration made its physiologic effect dependent upon the rapidity with which it mobilized interstitial fluid. In a well-hydrated patient, this was no problem; the circu-

Ficune 165-—_-Reconetitution of standard Army-Navy package of normal human aried pas a. A. Unopened waterproof cardboard box sealed with waterproo: 3. Removal of tape from box. C. Opened box, showing Ware aiee come “whieh are Semoved by pulling on the draw cord. D. Cans removed from box. E. View of can showing spot-welded key on top. 7-400"

8447

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Ficurse 163.—Continued. F. Opening of can with ee teed key. G. Removal of contents of cans. The plas ed under ‘acuum, contains a double-ended needle, iptrnvenous "ote and bottle of dried plasma. The water can, packaged under nitrogen t to protect the tubber tubing, containg an intravenous set, an airway assembly, and a pottle of distilled w H. Contents of cans assembled for demonstrartion ar double-ended

needle

into

water

bottle,

for transfer

or water to"died Plastna bottle. J. Insertion or one oa a doubleended needle into plasma bottle after prelimin. of water bottle and painting of stopper of plasma bottle mah antiseptic solution, K, ineertion orairway needleinte water bottle if vacuum is not sufficient to© pul ull all w: into plasma bottle. After the water is transferred, the needle is i 5 withdrawn ‘rom the water bottle and inserted into the plasma bottle.

SHOCK

THERAPY

Figure 163.—Continued. L. Direct transfer of water to plasma bottle when standard techniques just described (J, K) have failed. Plasma reconstituted by this technique must be used immediately. M. Shaking (or rotation) of plasma bottle while water is being added, to expedite solution, which normally takes 1-2 minutes. N. Airway ipserted into stopper plasma bottle, after it has been painted with antiseptic solution. O. Givin, for administration by theusual intravenous technique. Note the turbidity of th Attachten of intravenous needle, still covered by glass tube (and up to on point cellophan pper), to Luer tip of glass observation tube. Q. Final a in a dministration of plasma, filing out questionnaire in package, to be returned to the Blood Research Seetion, Division of Surgical Physiology, Army Medical School.

701

702

BLOOD PROGRAM

lating blood volume wes promptly increased, and the intravascular discrepancy characteristic of shock was promptly overcome. In the dehydrated casualty, the problem was different. Since the majority of wounded soldiers, under the Tigorous conditions of combat, were dehydrated, isotonic fluids usually had to be administered along with the serum albumin. ‘This was no problem for the Navy but made the use of albumin by the Army far less practical and convenient. At the 2 June 1944 meeting of the Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes (17), the principal discussion concerned the possibility of resuscitation in airplanes. It was decided that if this procedure should be attempted, serum albumin would be the best agent to use. There were numerous problems, including limitation of space, thermal stability, and the effect of turbulence. No further action was taken, chiefly because D-day was 4 days after this meeting and the Army Air Forces were fully occupied with other, more urgent matters. At ‘the end of the war, the clinical indications and contraindications for the use of serum albumin were quite clear: . It could be used in shock and in hypoproteinemic states almost interchangeably with plasma. It had to be borne in mind, however, that albumin is purified protein and contains no complement, prothrombin, or other components of plas 2. Serum albumin was of special value in edematous patients, Particularly in burned patients, because it could be administered without gnificant amount of fluid. On the other hand, if it was given to a debydrated p patient the parenteral administration of fluid was necessary simultaneously or immediately after the serum was injected. . Serum albumin was useful in patients with cranial injuries, in which finids were generally contraindicated. . The fact that albumin is hypertonic and remains in the vascular system longer than hypertonic crystalloid solutions made it necessary to use it with great care. It was not useful in older patients if any myocardial weakness was evident; the rapid elevation of the blood pressure could cause pulmoni odes was also contraindicated in concealed arterial bleeding end in ontroiled or recurrent hemorrhage because of the rapid rise in blood pressure which it produced.

Technique of Administration 164A me

andard Army-Navy package for concentrated serum albumin 2) contained three cans (fig. 164C), each of which contained:

(fig.

A double-ende d glass container, sealed at each end with rubber stoppers, and containing 100 cc. of 25-percent solution of serum albumin (26 gm.). Adairw Equipment for intravenous administration. Tape for suspension of the albumin bottle.

SHOCK

THERAPY

703

Etched on the metal can were on tration of the serum albumin (fig.1

following

instructions for the adminis-

» Open metal can with attached key. 2 Remove air filter needle, intravenous set, and intravenous needle. 3. Remove container ‘of albu 4. Apply alcohol or iodine to both rubber stoppers. 5. Holding container in upright position, insert air r filler needle through top of rubber stopper. 6. Insert short needle of intravenous set through rubber stopper at opposite end. . Attach intravenous needle to observation tube. 8. Allow tubing to fill with eibumin solution. 9. "Seen intravengus @ eedle into vein. It emiuncture is& dificult, cut down on vein. 10. Sus ontainer about 3 ft. abovep i. Ere in severe shock, do not let vate ot "tdministration exceed 5 cc. per minute.

MANAGEMENT

OF SPECIAL

TYPES

OF WOUNDS

Wounds of the Extremities Patients with multiple wounds of the extremities, particularly those produced by landmines, traumatic amputations, and fractures of the femur, required large amounts of blood. A common mistake in the management of femoral fractures in the early experience of the Mediterranean theater was failure to restore the blood volume prommptly. Penicillin was brought to the theater by Maj. Champ Lyons, MC, in the late winter of 1943, and he and Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Oscar P. Hampton, Jr., MC, introduced an extremely successful three-point program of blood, penicillin, and surgery ({8). In all their instruction, they emphasized thet even as potent an agent as penicillin would be less potent without the liberal use of whole blood and that surgery would be much less successful—and sometimes impossible—without it. es given in preparation for operation, during operation, and operatively iinn the forward hospital, and was also given later, before vepanttive surgery, in the base Secondary anemia, often of a considerable degree, was evident in casualties admitted to base hospitals, even when they had received large amounts of blood in forward hospitals. These anemias would undoubtedly have corrected themselves spontaneously in time if adequate diets had been supplied and had been supplemented by iron therapy. There was, however, an urgent need to get on rapidly with reparative surgery, not only because the military situation required the rapid turnover of hospital beds but, even more impellingly, in the patient’s own best interests. Wound closure with low hematocrit levels would have introduced a completely preventable surgical risk (19, 20) Three series of fractures of the long bones illustrate these points (18): 1. At the 16th Evacuation Hospital, 28 of 100 casualties with required petmeen 1,500 and 2,000 cc. of blood before and during Patien the series required no blood at all. In contrast, only eompound fractures of the radius, ulna, or Tong bones required blood

fractures of the femur operation, and only 9 3 of 100 patients with in such quantities, and

704

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Fiaure 164.—-Administration of serum albumin. A. Standard box onaining three bottles of albumin. B. Removal of sealing tape. C. Opened box with contents. D. Can with spot-welded key. 3 required no blood at all. Casualties with compound fractures of the humerus, tibia, fibula, or both bones of the leg constitutedan intermediate grou 2. At the 23d General Hospital, 34 patients with fractures of | the long bones had hematocrit

values

under

30;

80

others

had values

between

31

and

40;

and

only

25

(18

percent)

had values of 40 or higher, the desirable level for reparative operation. Only 2 of 38 patients ith frectuures of the femur fell intothe latter category. the 2ist General Hospital, the proportions were substantially: ihe eame in 166 patienta with actures of the long bones; 37 had hematocrit readings under 30, and only 31 19 * roent) were regarded as safe for operation without further Boed one nt While no absolute proof can be adduced to show that such intensive blood replacement was necessary for good results, there is a great deal of indirect proof. The program of reparative surgery in compound fractures, the use of penicillin, and liberal whole blood replacement therapy came into existence in the Mediterranean theater at about the same time. It is naturally impossible to attribute the improved results that promptly followed their introduction to any single one of these factors. It was the general impression, however, that the anesthetic risk was far less in patients whose secondary anemia had been corrected, that wound healing was prompter, and that convalescence was less

SHOCK

THERAPY

705

Fiau 164.—Continued. E. Opening of can with key. F. Bottle, airway,a giving cet,‘being removed from can. G. Do ape olbumin bottle, Counted airway, giving set, and needle. H. Albumin and equipment set up and ready for use. Airway has been inserted in one end of bottle and intrevenous needle in other. Set will be suspended by cloth scrap attached to bottle. complicated. It was also the impression that those who transfusions were less likely to present chronic infections,

had

received

liberal

Abdominal Injuries Casualties with abdominal injuries required replacement therapy by the usual routine (3). In such injuries, however, it was important to observe the response carefully. If it was not what could be expected with the amount of blood used, prompt surgery was indicated, on the ground that hemorrhage might be continuing or that a ful be present. lasma was often used liberally in the first few days after closure of a colostomy, to reduce edema of the suture line, and to prevent narrowing of the anastomotic orifice.

Chest Injuries

Both plasma and blood had to be given with great caution in chest injuries (21). Decompensation was always a possibility if edema were per-

706

BLOOD

mitted to develop.

The same precautions

PROGRAM

concerning the risk of overloading

the circulation held in thoracoabdominal wounds.

Sometimes the need for

correction of cardiorespiratory pathophysiology, which indicated limitation of fluids, had to be balanced against the need for liberal amounts of blood because of hemorrhage from associated injuries. Theoretically, if red blood cells had been available, their use might have solved the problem of the need for blood and the risk of overloading the circulation in chest injuries. Before blood was available in liberal quantities in the Mediterranean Se blood aspirated from the chest was sometimes used for transfusion. s differed as to the periods within which they considered it safe to use each blood; most were conservative, limiting the time to no more than 6 hours. The bloo was never used, of course, if there was the smallest suspicion that a thoracoabdominal wound was present.

ADMINISTRATIVE

CONSIDERATIONS

Preparation of Manual On Shock At the first meeting of the NRC (National Research Council) Committee on Transfusions on 31 May 1940 (19), Dr. Alfred Blalock was appointed to prepare a small pamphlet on shock and allied subjects, for distribution to the Army and the Navy. His choice as principal author was wise, for few people had done more than he to develop the concept of hemorrhage as the basic cause of shock. It is of interest, therefore, and indicative of how completely shock therapy was revolutionized during the war, to find in this pamphlet (22): , A full discussion of isotonic ealt and glucose solution in the prevention of shock. . A statement of the limitations of blood banks in wartime ee of the cumbersome coering unit necessary, and the limited shelf life of blood. It was pointed out, however, that one of the greatest ae ntages of preserved blood was that varger quantities eould be given than were ordinaril BA incursion of plasma (twive as a8 long as the space devoted to blood), in which the concept was presented that the loss of red blood corpuscles minora be (olerated quite well if the lost plasma were replaced. One of the advantages of plasma was said to be that it did not add to the concentration of ed blood corpuscles, hemoconcenration being the usual finding in shock. The intravenous injeoti jon of adequate quantities considered “probably the single most effective and valuable and practical method tor ‘he prevention and treatment of shock, with the possible exception of methods of hemostasis.” All of these statementa were correct in the light of 1940 knowledge.

Shock Teams The blood banks in the Mediterranean and European theaters hed a single function, to provide blood for wounded casualties. The U.S. Army blood service personnel, unlike the British Army Transfusion Sorvice personnel, had nothing to do with the administration of the blood. British personnel were trained in the processing and care of preserved blood and also in its

SHOCK

THERAPY

707

administration. U.S. personnel were trained only in its procurement and processing. As shock was handled in the Mediterranean theater during World War II, it was the shock teams assigned from auxiliary surgical group personnel and not organic personnel of field hospitals who carried the major responsibility for treating casualties and determined the efficiency of their care in these hospitals (8). The supervision of shocked casualties by hospital personnel was the responsibility of the anesthesiologist, whose hands were full with his own duties, supervisionof his helpers, and supervision of replacement therapy in the operating room, This situation was almost inevitable. In contradistinction to other areas of medicine and surgery, there was no pool of civilian medical personnel trained in the mass treatment of shock. Almost any civilian physician could treat single patients adequately in peacetime practice, and that was how shocked patients were usually encountered, as individuals. In warfare, there were few occasions on which it was not necessary to treat several casualties at the same time, and it was often necessary to treat overwhelming numbers of seriously wounded casualties simultaneously. Few medical officers possessed this knowl-

edge and ability when they entered the Army and they hed to be trained afterward

(p. 87).

Shock Wards

Shock wards were promptly set up in hospitals in combat areas in all theaters. The ward described by Col. Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, in October 1945 (figs. 165 and 166) brings together the best features of all such wards as they ora with experience (23): Facilities. —While facilities must conform to available terrain, shock wards, whenever possible, should be located in proximity to the triage tent and as close as possible to the surgical tent. If terrain permita, it is best

to have all of these tents, plus the radiology tent, joined.

With such en

arrangement, service is more efficient, and mud, heavy rains, and blackout regulations are less hamperin, The tentage should be veufficient to accommodate 40 patients at the same time (fig. 165). Two squad tents, attached to each other laterally, with the adjoining sidewalls raised, will provide adequate space for 25, and a third tent, joined to one or the other, can care for an additional 15 casualties. Shock wards should not be divided. When they are, additional personnel and equipment are necessary, and comparative surgical priorities are more difficult to establish Equipment.—Good light is essential for examination, venipuncture, and laboratory work. If electrical fixtures are limited, bulbs attached to long drop cords provide adequate lighting. Also needed are: 1. Wooden horses (80), half 25 and half 29 inches high, so that litters can be placed in either the Fowler or the Trendelenburg position. 717-400"

61—_48

708

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Fiavge 165.—Interior of shock ward, showing litter on sawhorses. Wire, strung above litter, suspends charts, identification cards, and blood, plasma, and other intravenous fluids. rhanging wires (fig. 165), strung about 7 feet high and so distributed that a wire passes over each litter. These wires are used for intravenous fluids, individual records, and, for rapid identification, cards with each patient’s number. Tourniquets. 4. A refrigerator. 5. A large sterilizer or two small sterilizers. 6. Wash basins, kidney basins, sponge cups, and drinking cups. 7. Levin tubes, urinals, bedpans, and enema bags. 8. Oxygen tanks, reducing valves, and oxygen masks. 9. Syringes, 5-, 10-, 30-, and 50-cc., 100 of each. 10. Hypodermic needles, from 25- to 15-gage. 11. Sternal needles. 12. Intravenous cannulas. 13. Clinical thermometers. 14, Bandages, Carlisle dressings, large and small gauze squares, petrolatum gauze (for sucking wounds of chest), and adhesive tape. Blankets. 16. Portable Van Slyke copper sulfate specific gravity sets and a centrifuge for determining hematocrit and plasma protein values. 17. Phlebotomy sets and chest aspirating sets. 18. Morphine solution in 100-cc. bottles, procaine hydrochloride solution, sodium amytal, and aspirin. 19. Penicillin.

SHOCK

THERAPY

709

Ficure 166.—Setup of shock ward. A. Utility fable. B. Oxygen tank. C. Sterilizer. D. Refrigerator. Wasi wis. F. Entrance from triage ward. G. it to surge! In retrospect, it would have been more efficient” to place the refrigerator in the center of the ward. 20. Whole blood, plasma, isotonic sodium chloride solution, and 5-percent dextrose solution i in distilled wi ° rms for recording (raufusions and other intravenous medication. ‘A bulletin board for posting lists of casualties under treatment for shock. with recommended surgical priorities. enter table, with multiple shelves, placed in the center of the ward makes all equipment and supplies readily accessible. Glassware is washed and prepared on a small table near the sterilizer. Staffing. The minimum personnel to handle 30 patients in shock is two officers and four enlisted men, so assigned as to provide efficient coverage in the circumstances.

710 Enlisted men

BLOOD should

PROGRAM

be well trained in aseptic techniques end in the prepera-

tion and administration of blood and other intravenous fluids, Because of the volume of work on a shock ward, it is desirable to utilize

personnel from other services. After adequate instruction, dental officers prove very useful, and personnel from the medical services can aleo help, eapecianly early in a combat operation, when, as a rule, there are few medical

admissi

Assignment of duties.—The duties of medical officers on a shock werd are to make an initial examination; control hemorrhage; close sucking wounds of the chest; aspirate hemothoraces; relieve tension pneumothorax; perform intercostal nerve block; take blood for hematocrit and plasma protein detera check on the blood preseure; orderreplacement therapy

follow the results of treatment; correlate them mine transportability; and, in conference with operative‘Priorities, with due regard to relative dicel officer in charge of the werd

with the shock process; deterthe chief of surgery, establish possibilities of survival. elso organizes the duty roster

plasma, and other therapy as direc by the medical TS: adequate supplies; attend to the care and operation of the sterilizer; clean WATE ; edures carried out on patients; provide ordinary nursing care, such as clothing; cleanse patients, at least superficially; and supply coffee, water, and other fluids if the patients are able to take them, xperience proved that the methods just outlined provided a simple and efficient routine for the management of shocked casualties. References . Administrative ond Osi ical History of the Medical Service, Communications Zone, European Theater of Operations, vol. 13, chapter 14, Professional Aspects of the Medicel Service. [Offetal | record} 2. Report of Consultant Surgeon to the Surgeon, eee tet 2 July 1943. 3. Medical Department, United States Army. Bur, in World war II. General Surgery. Volume II. Washington: U.S. Government «Ping Office,1 4. Snyder, Howard E.: Fifth U.S. Army. in Medical Departmen’a ‘United States Army. Surgery in World War II. Activities of Burgloal Consultante, Volume I. Washington: U.8. Government Printing Office, 1962. Minutes, meeting as Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Solenoes, > neet, 24 Sept 6. of Consultant ‘Surgeon | to the Surgeon, NATOUSA, 31 May ioe 7. Hoarn Lawrence E.: General Surgical Team No. 25,8 Au 8. Minutes, Conference on Albumin, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 5 Jan. 1042. 9. Minutes, meetingof Subcommittee on Blcod Substitutes, Division of Medical Solences, *NRC, 23 June 1942, DeGowin, E. L., Hardin, R. C., and Swanson,L. W.: Studies on Preserved Human Blood Iv. Transfusion of Cold Blood Tnto Man. J.A.M.A. 114: 859-861, 9 Mar. 1940,

SHOCK

THERAPY

711

. Use of Whole Blood in Zone of Interior Hospitals. Survey, Col. B. N. Carter, ey 1945 ‘isdall, L. H., Garland, D. M., Szanto,P. B., Hand, A. M., and Barnett, J. C.: The ‘pitecte of oe Transfusion of Group O Blood of High Iso-Titer Into Recipients of Other Blood Gro: Am, J. Clin. Path. 16: 193-206, March 1946. Tkinton, “ R: The Systemic Disturbances ini Severe Burns and Their Treatment. Bull. Aye Clin. Lab., Pennsylvania Hosp. 3: 279-291, December 1939. . Mem randum, Lt. Col. D. B. Kendrick, MC, to Director, Army Medical School, 15 Dew 1942, subjesject: A Preliminary Report on the Cocoanut Grove Disaster From the Massachusetts General Hospital,"66 December 1942. 15. es, meeting of Bubcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, 23 May 1941. . Robinso : American Red Cross Blood Donor Service During World ow W. Ita Organization and ‘Operation. Washington: The American Red Cross, 1 July 17. Minutes, meeting of Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Division ot “Medical Sciences, NRG, 2 June 1944. B. M cal Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War II. Orthopedie & urgery in the European Theater of Operations. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1956. 19. Minutes, meeting of Committee on Transfusions, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, a May 1940. purehill, E. D.: The Surgical Management of the Wounded in theMediterfanean Theater at the Time of the Fallof Rome. Ann. Surg. 120: 269-283, September it . Medical Department, United States Army. Surgery in World War II. Thoracie Surgery, Volume I. Washi n: U.S, Goverament Printing Office,1 22. Shock, oy ae and Treatment. A manual prepared for the Medical Corps of the Army and N. under the direction of the Medical Division of the National Research , Tenn. 23. Kendrick, Lt. Col. Dougtas B: Organization of a Shock Service in a Combat Area Hospital. J. Mil. Med. Pacifio 1: 14-21, October 1945. MC,

CHAPTER

XX

The Blood, Plasma, and Related Programs in the Korean War Part I. Administrative Background GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS

When the Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950, less than 10 years after the United States had entered World War II and less than 5 years after that war had ended, the situation was improved over the situation in December 1941 in only one respect: No well-organized blood bank system was in operation, but a plan for the supply of whole blood and plesma did exist. The plan had not been implemented, however, because it had been prepared only a short time before the outbreak of hostilities. It is extremely unfortunate that planning had not begun earlier, for the need for whole blood arises whenever combat commences; the Korean War proved again that whole blood cannot be provided promptly and efficiently unless supplies, equipment, trained personnel, and a detailed plan for its collection, processing, transportation, and distribution have already been set up. en the Korean War broke out, the course of events in respect to the blood program was as follows: 1. Blood collecting teams were immediately utilized in Japan, to meet

the first need for blood in the field.

2. These supplies proved inadequate as action became more intense, and requests for whole blood were sent to the Zone of Interior. 3. The American Red Cross was asked, as in World War II, to become the collecting agency for blood for the oversea airlift. Fortunately, this agency already had in operation a blood collecting ae to supply blood to civilian hospitals in the United States, and could builduy 4. Later, when the initial program proved a eedequate, an Armed Forces Blood Program and a Nationel Blood Program were established and remained in operation until the end of active fighting in Korea. 5. A plasma program was also developed which later had to be discontinued because of the risk of serum hepatitis associated with plasma infusions (p. 776). The production of human serum albumin was substituted for the production of plasma and wes supplemented by the production of plasma expanders (the so-called blood substitutes of World War IT). 1088,

when

th

War (25 June 1950,

and

713

27 Jnly

714

BLOOD

PROGRAM

In spite of the expedient nature of the blood program, casualties in Korea never lacked the blood they needed, but the comment is justified concerning this war, as it was concerning World War II, that the efficient way to provide

blood for combat casualties is not to wait for the need for it to arise and then

to provide it, at least initially, by a series of improvisations. It is interesting, and somewhat depressing, to note in various reports of conferences concerning the blood and blood-derivatives program in the Korean ar how quickly the World War II experience seemed to have been forgotten and how the tendency was again evident to concentrate on agents other than

oc]

Research Council), on 14 November 1951 (f), Dr. Walter L. Bloom rather impatiently called the attention of the members to the fact that the entire Philosophy of plasma expanders was questionable. Military and surgical groups, he said, should define the limitations of these substitutes, and they should be considered as suitable for emergency use only. The first need of combat casualties was for whole blood.

THE

INTERIM

BETWEEN

THE

WARS

A knowledge of certain background facts is essential to the story of the blood, plasma, and plasma-expanders program in the Korean War, beginning with one major difference between this program and the similar program in World War II: In the Korean War, the program covered civilian defense as well as military needs. In World War II, the two responsibilities were entirely separate. The development of the program that provided blood and plasma in the Korean War is best described chronologically.?

1945-46 Inn September 1945, with the ¢end of hostilities in World War I], the whole blood program d immediate] to an end except for the plasma-fractionation studies, which were continued in Dr. Edwin J. Cohn’s laboratory at Harvard. During the interim between the ware, needs for whole blood in Army hospitala were met within the hospitals. There were no plans, militarily or otherwise, ne stockpile reserves of plasma for a national emergency. Indeed, had such a disaster occurred, there would hole bl would have died between the wars except for the stimulussay by the activities of the American Red Cross. blood derivatives, by Col. Patrick H, Hoey, MC, USAF, Miss Elste LaMantls (8).

Chairman of the blood and

blood

derivatives

group

(£), and

‘War prepared the convenient

THE

KOREAN

WAR

716

1947 Postwar activities in respect to blood began on 26 July 3047, 1 with the pessoas of the National "Security Act (Public law No. 253, 80th Congress), w! e Department of Defense (#). This act provided for the oebinheet of NSRD (National Security Resources Board) to advise President Harry S$. Truman on policies relating to industrial and civilian mobilization. It also provided for the policy just mentioned, th integration of civilian and military health resources. Finally, it authorized steps leading toward a more unified control of national medical services,

1948 On 1 January 1048, the then Secretary of Defense, Mr. James V. Forrestal, appointed se Committee on Medical and Hospital Services of the armed Forces, to atudy all questions with a vi and economy in all their operations. Secretary Fo:rrestal’s committee consisted of Maj. Gen. Paul R. Hawley (Ret.), chairman (hence, the Hawley Committee); the Surgeons General of the Army, the nevy, and the Air Force; and Rear Adm. Joel T. Boone, MC, USN, who served as executive ry. he meantime, the Pres ‘cent had appointed a Commission on Reorganization of the Executive Branch of Government under Ex-President Herbert Hoover (the Hoover Commiasion), which, by the middle of 1948, had two task forces working | on the coordination of health and medical matters in the National Military Establishm: The Task Force on National Security (the Eberstadt Commi vtec). 2 The Task Force on Federal Medical Services (the Voorhees Committee). The Hawley Committee had recommended that a civillan committes be established, to serve in a consultant and pavieory capacity to the Secretary of Defense on medical and health affairs, and both of t ask forces made similar recommendations. oOn9 November 1948, tilesenother committes was appointed, the Armed Forces Medical Advisory Comm: ites. Its chairman, Mr. Charles P. Cooper (hence, the Coo per Committes), uty to the Secretary of Defense in the fields of medicine and health. committee consisted of the Surgeons General of the three services, General Hawley, endsa number of distinguished civilian physi The recommendations of this committee immediately identified a structural weakness in the Office of the Secretary of} Defense: There was no ag: the Secretary had d The Surg 1" who th ittee, were in th tenable position of maki tions to the Secctary and then receiving these same recommendations from him for comment. This phase of the problem was solved by removing the Surgeons General from membership on the Cooper Committee.

1949 a menue 1949, the Joint Chiefa of Staff asked that the Cooper Committee conslder the tion of ‘unification or coordination” of the Armed Forces medical services, incloding the ppossible development of a ingle medical service. At the end of 2 months of intensive study, the committee recommended ajgainst a single Tri-Force medical service. Instead Jed tk the Eberstadt, Voorhees, and Hawley Committees should be implemented and that an organization be established in the Office of the Seoretary of Defense, with authority to act on committee and other Son was sot In ordance with this recommendation, the Medical Service Divisi the Office “of the Secretary of Defense in May 1949, with a director who had authority to

716

BLOOD

PROGRAM

establish seoneral Policies for the medical services of or an three Armed Forces. The Hawley Com “eee and ite subcot were transferred to the Medical Bervice gcomnenl ‘The er Committee continued teto function. On 29 September 1949, the Medical Service Division was renamed the Office of Medical Services. Its current director, Dr. Richard L. Meiling, was named Director of Medical cal . Dr. Melling est: hed a Medical Advisory Council consisting of the three Surgeons General, who met weekly in his office. After the Korean War broke out, the Surgeon General of the U.S. Public Health Service and the Medical Director of the Veterans’ Administration were added to the membership of the Council.

1951

The Cooper Committee continued to function throughout 1950, as did the Office of Medical Services. On 2 January 1051, oh e Cooper Committee and fhe fies =f Medica) Serviceswere replaced by an Armed es Medical Policy Council, named Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs. The Counceconsisted. of the three Surgoons | General; a dental surgeon; and two other civiliane, Dr. Isidor 8. Revdin and Dr. W. Randolph Lovelace III, both of whom had had wide medicomilitary experience. With the etatlichent of this council, there was now fully carried out, for the first time, the Intent of Congress as expressed in the National Security Act of 1947 (p. 715). Also for the firet tim 1. There existed in the DOD (Department of etense) an organization with authorily to coordinate medical policy within the departmen' well as between the department and other governmental agencies and civilian medical tad allied healt h organizations. 2. The three jurgeons General had authority to represet ir respective departments in the formulation of medical and health policies at the tevel at ‘ne Department of Defen

1953 There were no further changes of congequence in the medical structure of the Department of Defense until 1 April ss. when DOD Directive 5136.4 established the position of Aasistant to the Secretary of Defense (Health and Medical) in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. This was a coaierble forward step. All medical and health polleies, plane, atandards, criteria, and other aspectsof m service could now be reviewed in the Office of the Assistant to the Seeretary 0of Defense (Health and Medical), who also maintained liaison, on both o national and an international basis,with all other governm civilian health and medical agencies and associations. The advice of the Surgeon General was made available t to the Assistant to the Secretary of Defense as neccsear on 30 June 1953, Congress approved Reorganisation Plan No. 6 for the Department of Defe: This uthorived, prone nine Assistant |Seeretaries of Defense, | an Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health to the plan adopted in the Ofee of the Becretary of Dalene in April 1953. On 2 September er the Secretary of f Defense, by pop Directive 5136.4, established a Health and Medical ry Council composi "Meantime, the NSRB chairman, former Secretary of the Air Force W. Stuart Symington, had set up aHealth Resources Office, which reported directly to him and whieh was Tesponsible for allocation of health resources and for the medical aspects of civilian defense. Dr. Howard A . Rusk was appointed puairmesan of the< ppecial committee to advise Mr. Sraaington on broad policies relating to health urees. Whenthese last actions were taken, the armistice of 27 July 1953 had already ended the fighting innahe Korean

THE

KOREAN

WAR

717

Comment The organizational steps just outlined were all extremely important and are entirely relevant to the blood program in the Korean War. They meant that, for the first time, the Department of Defense would coordinate and integrate all phases of its health program, including the blood program, to

conform with broad policies established at the presidential level.

It also

meant thet recommendations of task groups concerning coordination with other agencies would no longer be conflicting, since both military and civilian national health agencies would now act jointly, to meet the overall requirements of national mobilization.

INITIAL STEPS

IN THE

NATIONAL RAM

BLOOD

PROCUREMENT

e of the joint problems that came to the attention of the Director of Medical Services, Office of the Secretary of Defense, in 1949, soon after the establishment of his position, concerned military and civilian requirements for whole blood and blood derivatives. An inventory of existing stocks of plasma and other derivatives, early in October of that year, indicated that they were

very low (p. 772); that there was no coordinated plan to expand them; and that,

if an emergency should arise, there were no facilities for their augmentation. Only four laboratories were producing plasma commercially. Their combined annual production was about 300,000 units, and they had no incentive to expand it, for plasma was a nonprofit item. This situation was viewed with the seriousness it deserved, and, on 26 October 1949 the Director of Medical Services, acting for the Secretary of Defense, appointed a task group to study the whole problem of providing blood, blood derivatives, and plasme substitutes (expanders) for the Armed Forces in peacetime and in war. The investigation was to cover such related matters as supplies and equipment for transfusion; training of personnel in the technical aspects of procurement, control, storage, transportation, and us of blood and blood derivatives to meet expanded requirements of an emergency program; and the development of a system of logistics capable of meeting requirements on # global scale (4). ie members of this Task Group included Capt. Hilton W. Rose, MC, USN; Capt. Lloyd R. Newhouser, MC, USN; Col. William S. Stone, MC, USA; and Lt. Col. (later Col.) Alonzo A. Towner, dr., MC, USAF. The comprehensive report which they submitted to the Secretary of Defense on 15 March 1950 (4) had been approved by the Military Medical Advisory Council (the predecessor of the Armed Forces Medical Policy Council) on 14 February 1950. On 5 May 1950, the report was approved by the Secretary of Defense, in a memorandum addressed to the three Service secretaries, and thus became official DOD policy (6).

718

BLOOD

PROGRAM

As of this date, the retrenchment that had characterized all activities relating to blood in the postwar period began to be reversed, but it was almost too late: It was less than 2 months later that the outbreak of hostilities in

Korea required the immediate translation of still theoretical concepts o!

national emergency into a stern reality, though, fortunately, several additional weeks were to elapse before a request for whole blood came to the Zone of Interior from the combat area,

REPORT

OF TASK

GROUP

The report by the Task Group to the Director of Medical Services on “A Suggested Program of Whole Blood and Blood Derivatives for the Armed Forces” in March 1950 anelyzed the problem; summarized the commercial potential for dried plasms; and outlined the requirements for stockpiling plasma and for the collection, distribution, and use of whole blood. In substance, the report was as follows

The Problem Whole humen blood, required in modern therapy, cannot be stockpiled because it is extremely labile; it requires constant refrigeration and precise technical control and handling g; and, under present procedures, it cannot be stockpiled for more than 30 Armed Forces can operate blood banks to meet peacetime requirements but cannot supply wartime | necessities. Tt is not desirable to use combat troops as donors. Neither in peacetime nor in war can the Armed Forces provide blood derivatives. The reserves of blood derivatives left from World War II will largely be outdated by the end of 1950, though some can be reprocessed, at about a third of the cost of new products. The total amount that has been reprocessed, however, will provide only a third to a half of the required war reserve (set at a million units) for the Armed Forces. Reprocessing and handling can be carried out only by specially trained personnel, with considerable technical background. The present civilian program for blood and blood derivatives is not adequately organized or planned to meet the requirements of the Armed Forces, the civil defense program, and other civilian needs in time of war. The wartime needs can therefore be met only by a national program,which must be organized in peacetime.

The Present Situation At this time (Mareh States is as follows

1950), the blood procurement situation in the United

nty-one blood banks are in operation in Armed Forces installatio Alth atandardined equipment and supplies, are centrally controlled, and would be capable. of

THE

KOREAN

WAR

719

operating under wartime conditions. Four of these Banks are each collecting 300 pints a oath. The others are collecting from 50 to 250 pints ea e two or three thousend nonprofit blood banks are in operation, most of which belong to he American Association of Blood Banks.’ About half of theae banks actually draw and process bl The remainder, whose chief function is to serve thelr own hoepitals and adjacent rural communities, act merely a8 storage and issue pointa for blood draw elsewhere. When the operations of these banks are entirely intrastate, they are under no control, and their equipment, supplies, and procedures are not estan If, however, these hogpital banks would adopt NIH (National Institutes of Health) standards and could produce significant surpluses above their own needs, they could contribute to the national blood progr: 3. Fo bank tion in New York. Othera are in operation in Dallas, San Francisco, and Chicago, and thera ares a few smaller banke in other locations. They lack trained Personnnel end uniform etandards, and it is doubtful that they could exPond significantly in f war, three comnervial biologic laboratories are now collecting blood a plasma: Cutter Labortari, 00.06 pi inte | Per year; Hyland Laboratories 40,000 pints per year and Sharp & Dohme, 150,000pints per year. Allthese laboratories produced plasm during Weld War II,“and Sharp é ‘Dohme also produced ieee fractions, which only Cutter boratories is now producing. Eqauipm ent can be manufactured by a number of larger firms es well as some smaller 1 reasonably short notice, with certain exceptione. There would be difficulty, for nance supplying 15- to 20-gage needles for intravenoua and donor sets if they should be uired at once, though within 6 months, well over a million could easily be produced.

Recommendations The Task Group, on the basis of the World War II experience factor, set the replacement requirements for each combat cesualty who survived to be hospitulized at one 500-cc. unit of male blood and the same amount of plasma

or other blood-derivative. ACD

Only

group O blood would be used,

preserved in

(ecid-citrate-dextrose) solution, typed for the Rh factor; and refrigerated

at 4° to 10° C. from collection until administration

The Task Group did not think that the Departme nt of Defense of itself could procure such amounts of blood and blood derivatives and therefore recom-~ mended immediate coordination with other interested governmental and non-

governmental agencies in the development of a program

that would meet the

standards and fulfill the requirements of the Department of Defense, as well as civilian requirements, in peacetime and in wartime. The Task Group also recommended that the Department of Defense assume responsibility for the direction and implementation of the whole blood program and its coordination with other agencies, including the American Red Cross;

were to serve as an integrated national blood group,

they must be tightly con-

trolled because of the multiple risks ottending the use of blood, including its

perishability;

incompatibility;

possible

by the Task

pints of blood 1s considered a blood bank.

errors in grouping,

typing,

and

cross-

ing 8 fe

720

BLOOD

PROGRAM

matching; contamination from unsound techniques; unsatisfactory conditions or storage; and possible transmission of such diseases as malaria, syphilis, an hepatitis. Finally, the Task Group recommended that the Director of Medical Services should be responsible for, and direct, the continued study and implementation of the Department of Defense blood program and all coordination of the activities of the department with those of other agencies. In addition to these basic recommendations, the Task Group made the following specific recommendations: . That transfusion supplies, equipment and procedures as standardized for the Armed Forces be standar ized ed by all participating agencies, with the IDirector of Medical Services, DOD, ring the necessary steps to socomplish thia objective. 2. Thai boogie atandards for blood and blood derivatives be uniform throughout the country, with necessary legislation to assure the adoption of the desi riteria. 3. That all's military combat plans include logistic requirements for blood. . That all blood do: nations be volun » That a war reserve be ctabehed for plasma, plasma substitutes (expanders), and and that a system be slevised or replacing deteriorated supplies, eo as to malotain a aatisfactory and| economical res emphaslaed by the Doprctenern of Defense. It was suggested t that the sum of $100,000 be nnually for the next 2 or 3 yeara to provide for additional research in these fields. tt was essential, the report of the Task Group concluded, that the agency for civilian and military whole blood requirements thet was developed i in peecetime should be of such a character that itcould be oxpanded in time of war to ining, and operating procedures. Such an agency should have ramifications down to the community level, so that, in an emergency, all potential sources of blood could be tapped. Also, the personnel of such an agency should be se organized and trained that, in tim ] activities e to be expanded. Continuing misconception of requirements for ‘whole blood.— Another depressing phase of the development of the blood program after World War II was the position taken by the Director ofMilitary Supply and tho Acting Chief, Requirements Coordination, Munitions Board, in April 1950, in connection with the recommendations of the Tas (6). Both granted the necessity for a national blood program, the importance of its prompt development, and the wisdom of correlating tary and civilian requirements, policics, standards, and procedures. These officers, however, could not agree with the recommendation that the Director of Medical Services, Department of Defense, be responsible for, and direct continued study and implementation of, the DOD blood program and its coordination with other agencies. Nor could they agree that the director should take steps to accomplish standardization of related military and civilian supplies, equipment, and procedures, for the following reasons: .B eee derivatives ‘are considered a ae commodity or munition. 2. The Munitions atl to military supplies.

THE

KOREAN

WAR

721

3. The blood program is no different from other programs and must be handled in the game manner as other programs. i would be hard to imagine a more total misconception of the requireand implications of a whole blood program. The position of these officers, obviously taken in complete ignorance of how whole blood must be procured, handled, and administered, represented everything the Supcommittee Blood Substitutes, NRC, the Blood Transfusion Branch, Officeof The urgeon General end other agencies and personnel had fought against during Woes War II. Had these ideas been permitted to prevail, the entire whole blood program for Korea would have foundered and many lives would probably have been lost from the use of incorrectly handled blood. The controversy had no chance to develop, however, for the Secretary of Defense, in Augus 1950, geve the operational responsibility of the blood program to the Dives: torate, Armed Services Medical Procurement Agency, and directed the Director of Medical Services, DOD, to prescribe the policies and standards for the implementation of the program (7).

IMPLEMENTATION

OF TASK

GROUP

PROPOSALS

In May 1950, Dr. Meiling assumed the chairmanship of a Blood and Blood Derivatives Committee in the Department of Defense, which had the function of determining the need of the Armed Services for plasma and whole blood. He at once appointed an ad hoc committee on blood and blood derivatives to

serve in an advisory capacity to him,

At its meeting on 28 July 1950—a month after the outbreak of the Korean War—the Military Medical Advisory Group, in a full discussion of the Blood and Blood Derivatives Program, decided that the American Red Cross should be the coordinating blood procurement agency for the Department of Defense and that the Armed Services Medical Procurement Agency should be assigned operational responsibility for the progrem in the Department of Defense. A week later, when the Secretary of Defense formally assigned operational and technical responsibility for the program to the Directorate of the Armed Services Medical Procurement Agency, the directorate at once requested the chief of this agency to establish a blood and blood derivatives division within the agency. At the same time, the directorate requested that the director of Medical Services, Office of the Secretary of Defense, grant membership in the Task Group studying the Whole Blood and Blood Derivatives Program to the chief of the Procurement Agency and the chief of its Blood and Blood Derive: tives Division. All of these requests were granted. Col. Douglas B. Kendrick, MC, who had been in charge of the Army blood program in World War II from its inception until November 1944, was named chairman of the Blood and Blood Derivatives Group, which position he held for the next 2 years. On 1 May 1952, he was succeeded by Col. Patrick H. Hoey, MC, USAF, who held this position

722

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Cuanr 11,— Structural organtzation of blood and blood derivatives program, 1949 President

National Security Resources Board

Office of Oefense Mobilization

Health Resources Office

Health Resources Advisory Committee

Health Resources Advisory Committee'

Secratary of Defense

Armed Forces Medical Advisory Commitlee4

Director of Medical Services

Task Force Group?

Military Medi Advisory Commi

Anned Forces Medical Policy Counci!

Armed Forces Medical Procurement Agency

Blood and Blood Oerivatives Division (Group)

Blood and Blood Derivatives Committee Apr. 1051 : A , Navy, Alr Force. 4 Composed of the Surgeons General, Army, Navy, Alr Force, and Public Health Service, and Director, Veterans’ Administration.

the Chief Medical

Cooper.

until the end of the war. Lt. Col. Arthur J. Carbonnell, MC, was the Army member of the group from 15 February 1951 to 18 February 1952. On 12 September 1950, the Armed Services Blood and Blood Derivatives Division (which became the Armed Services Blood and Blood Derivatives Group a few days later) was officially established. It consisted of a professional staff and of administrative, field, laboratory, and liaison branches. Its mission was as follows: 1. To provide whole blood for FECOM (Far East Command).

THE

KOREAN

WAR

723

Cuart 12.—Structural organization of blood and blood derivatives program, 1950 Defense

Department

Protessionat Directorate Surgeons General, Army, Navy, Air Fe

Directorate

Transfusion

roup

Representative Amy, Air Force, Navy

Training Program

Military Air Transport

Service

Blood Processing Centers

Easi and West Coasts

Blood Collecting Centers

Army,

Navy, Air Force

Posts and Bases

Theater

‘Translusion”

Service Office of Surgeon

Oistribution Teams Communications Zone Medical Facifities Transfusion Office

Combat Zone Hospilals Transfusion Officer nd scitation

2. To provide wnole blood for the production of dried plasma for the DOD War Reserve stoc! 3. To reprocess cutdated stocks of plasma produced in World War II. 4. To investigate developments in the field of plasma-expanders, The actual division of responsibility for the blood and plasma program was that the Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives recommended policy and the Blood and Blood Derivatives Group had the operational responsibility for its implementation. e structural evolution of the blood and blood derivatives program in the Department of Defense between 1949 and 1953 is shown in charts 11, 12, and 13.

724,

BLOOD Cart

PROGRAM

13.—Structural organization of blood and blood derivatives program, 1952 Office of Oeterse Mobilization

Interagency Cammities Blood Trarsfuston Research

Blood Grouy ps Array, Navy, Air Force

Transhusion ‘Training

Continentel US, Medical FacKities

Delivery Service

Hospital

Hospita!

Transfusion Service

NATIONAL

Translusion Service

RESEARCH

COUNCIL

Organization and Functions The Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, Committee on Shock, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC, hed done such important work on the collection and distribution of whole blood and its derivatives, and had supervised so much valuable research, in World War II, that it was reactivated in 1948 as the Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives. The work of the subcommittee had lapsed at the end of World War II, but in the interim before its reconstitution, the American Red Cross, which was entrusted with returning surplus

THE

KOREAN

WAR

725

blood derivatives to the people of the United States who had contributed them, used many of the saine pliysicians who had served on the subcommittee on its own Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives, thus maintaining their contacts with the blood program. ‘The reason for the reactivation of the World War IT subcommittee was the realization that a national emergency would demand huge amounts of blood and blood derivatives for civilian as well as military uses, and the subcommittee was promptly enlarged because of the complexity of the problems to be so As soon as it was activated, the Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives went actively to work. At its first meetings, the stage of existing knowledge in the special fields of blood and blood derivatives was assessed. Ad hoe responsibilities were delegated to particular members, who were directed to investigate equipment, preservatives, and sterilization of blood and blood derivatives. (Contracts for research in the field of blood and blood derivatives were reviewed for the National Military Esteblishment and the Veterans’ Administration. At the meeting of the Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives on 3 December 1949, much of the agenda concerned general principles and policies (8). Dr. Charles A. Jeneway, chairman of the committee, pointed out that the blood program was an integral part of national defense and that the counterpart of this committee during World War II had sat as an advisory group to

all agencies and organizations concerned in any way with blood.

Its successor

cominittee would perform the same functio Dr. Meiling, Director of Medical Services, Office of the Secretary of Defense, explained the functions of his office. Dr. Cohn spoke of the importance of the cooperation of all agencies concerned in the blood program. During World War II, he noted, no decision regarding blood products was ever made without the approval of the Laboratory of Biologics Control, National Tnstitutes of Health. Many of these matters were within the province of the Food and Drug Administration. The World War II subcommittee had been careful never to recommend any action or procedure on the basis of research alone; the practicability of all recommendations was tested by pilot operations. It was possible that blood might be collected by some agency other than the Red Cross, which was now operating with no obligations to turn over any material to the Armed Forces in an emergency. The important consideration was that there must be a single blood program, cooperative and not competitive. In conclusion, said Dr. Cohn, “Failure to act until an emergency entails accepting the responsibility for being unprepared.” By this time (December 1949), a great many problems hed already been referred to the Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives, NRC, and many more were to be referred to it before and during the Korean Wer. The recommendations made concerning them are discussed under appropriate headings. The contribution of the committee was incalculable. There were, owever, many perfectionists on it, and, at intervals, the more prectical-

minded members felt constrained to remind them of current needs.

If, for

726

BLOOD

PROGRAM

instance, excessive and unnecessary standards of accuracy were required, the volume of production would be impractically small. The point at issue was the quick determination of what agents were safe to put into people’s veins from the standpoint of immediate or delayed antigenicity and toxicity. At the December 1949 meeting, an ad hoc committee was appointed to consider all phases of the blood program, talk with civilian defense planning groups and other agencies, and then make recommendations to the Committee. The membership of this cout included Dr. Janeway, Dr. Cohn, Dr. Ravdi Carl V. Moore, rr. Charles A. Doan this same meeting, ane a bes of changes were recommended in the 13 May 1043 agreement with the American Red Cross, both to bring the text into agreement with the current organizational situation and to indicate that collections of blood were for civilian needs as well as for needs of the Armed Forces. It was also recommended that a committee be formed to serve in an advisory capacity to the American Red Cross, Department of Defense, National Institutes of Health, Veterans’ Administration, Atomic Energy Commission, and whatever agency would be responsible for civilian defense. Some of the problems referred to the Committee on Blood and Blood Substitutes, NRC, might be mentioned here, to indicate their range and importance: . Could not a preservative solution be devised in which blood for transfusion and blood intended for las could both be collected? . What measures should be adopted to safeguard plasma to be stockpiled while it was being processed? 3. How could transmission of virus infections from plasma infusions be prevented? 4. Could the dating period of blood be extended? 5. How could the incidence of clots in collected blood be reduced? Would\siliconing the inside of collecting bottles improve the product? the present estimate of the value of gelatin? Oxypolygelatin? Dextran? Perlioa? “Tngutties concerning these and other plasma-expanders were up repeatedly.

THE

AMERICAN

RED

CROSS

PARTICIPATION

The Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives, DOD, recommended to the Secretary of Defense on 2 October 1948 and 10 January end 13 February 1949 that the American Red Cross be officially designated as the agency to collect blood for the National Military Establishment. The Subcommittee on Burne, Committee on Surgery, NRC, also recommended, in November 1949, that some large-scale machinery for the collection of blood be set up. On 20 July 1950, the Secretary of Defense, then Mr. Louis Johnson, recommended to the Chairman of the American Red Cross, then Gen. George C. Marshall, that the relation which had existed during World War II between that organization and the War and Navy Departments be reestablished between it and the Department of Defense to meet the needs of the Armed Forces for blood and blood derivatives (9). On 22 July, General Marshall replied that the Red Cross would at once increase its blood collections and that Adm.

THE

KOREAN

WAR

727

oss T McIntire, MC, USN (Ret.), who was assigned to the Red Cross Netonal Blood Program, would be assigned to work with Dr. Meiling on the neceasary plans (10). On 30 August 1950, Mr. Symington, as Chairman, NSRB, formally requested, through General Marshall, that the American Red Cross accept the responsibility for coordinating a nationwide civil defense blood program for recruitment of donors and for the collection, storage, processing, and preparstion for shipment of blood and blood derivatives collected under the program (11). On 7 September 1950, Generel Marshall replied that the Red Cross would accept the specified responsibilities, on the assumption that local civil defense units would coordinate their planning with the national program (12). ¢ Boston Agreement.—Meantime, on 11 and 12 July 1950, the Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives, American Red Cross, and the Red Cross Medical Advisory Committee on the National Blood Program met in Boston with representatives of the American Medical Association, the American Association of Blood Banks, and the American Hospital Association, to determine their relations with each other. The so-called Boston Agreement provided that these four agencies would cooperate with each other in peacetime and with the National Security Resources Board in time of war (18). In peacetime, there would be a free exchange of blood on a unit-for-unit basis, as would best serve community needs. As @ matter of principle, surplus blood would be given to the Red Cross or other designated agencies for conversion into blood derivatives. In time of war, procurement agencies would be set up in communities not already served by Red Cross regional blood centers. t this conference that standardization of equipment for the blood program was® deeirable in peacetime and imperative in a national emergency. It was also recommended that all blood banks cooperating in the joint program should meet the minimum standards of the National Institutes

f Health.

Part II. The Whole Blood Program Section [| Blood Procurement in Japan INITIATION

OF PROGRAM

The blood program for the Korean War began in Japan. Here, in the interim between the wars, a few Army hospitals, all of which were authorized to provide definitive surgical care, collected blood from donor lists in accordance with Army Regulations No. 40-1715. These hospitals, located mainly in the Tokyo and Osaka areas, operated small banks, sufficient for their own needs. Within 10 days after the outbreak of the Korean War (then considered only a police action), it became apparent that the Armed Forces in combat would

BLOOD

PROGRAM

a

De.

orev)

728

Ficure 167.—Biood donora (Flag allowance personnel, Commander, U.S. Naval Forces, Far East) lined up outside 406th Medical General Laboratory blood Panky * Tokyo, July 1950, ready to donate blood for fighting forces in Kor require blood in large amounts, and plans were at once made for a centrally controlled blood procurement program in Japan (2, 74). Three initial steps were taken: . A special blood bank unit was formed from personnel of the 406th Medical General Laboratory to operate a blood bank there. As the bank was first set me it consisted of a Blood Bank Storage Depot and Shipping Section) in Tokyo, and an » advance ‘blood bank depot at the 118th Station Hospital in Fukuo! 090th Blood Bank Laboratory Detachment was organized as a temporary duty unit in August 1 1 Laboratory. The detachment consisted of two‘mobile bleeding units and aseboratory & unit. It functioned until 5 November 1951, when it was replaced by the 48th Blood Bank Laboratory Detachment. 3. Blood bank sections were activated in Korea, as organic parts of medical supply depots. The necessary organizational steps were taken quickly, donors were recruited (fig. 167), and the first shipment of blood from Japan (69 bottles) was sent to the 8054th Evacuation Hospital in Pusan, Korea, on the night of 7 July 1950

THE

KOREAN

WAR

729

SUBSEQUENT

DEVELOPMENTS

For the first 5 weeks, the blood bank operated on an emergency basis, as troop strength built up rapidly and field medical installations were sent to orea to care for casualties. It then became evident that the combat in which the U.S. troops were engaged would be considerably more than a local engagement, rapidly terminated, and that blood bank operations must be put on a firmer basis. The first step was to determine a working ratio between anticipated casualties and future needs for whole blood. By the use of figures supplied by the Assistant Chief of Staff, G—1 (personnel), which were available daily and were regarded as accurate, a ratio was developed of 0.82 pint of blood to each casualty wounded in action and surviving to be hospitalized. At this time, the donor panels in the Tokyo-Yokohama areas could supply, at the most, 100 pints of blood per day. Official approval had not yet been obtained for the use of Japanese donors, and, until the end of 1950, blood was secured only from noncombetant Army, Navy, and Air Force personnel; Allied Forces personnel; civilian employees of the U.S. Armed Forces; foreign nationals other than Japanese; and adult dependents of these groups. When the needs of anticipated casualties were surveyed realistically, it was at once clear that available local donors could net possibly meet their equirements, and a request for blood was made on 15 August 1950 to the Zone of Interior (15) and promptly acceded to (p. 713). It was hoped, however, that local sources could continue to meet emergency needs and could also supply group-specific and Rh-specific bloods, which, as in World War II, would not be sent from the Zone of Interior. After 6 months of combat, and after blood from the Zone of Interior had been reaching Korea for over 4 months, it was found that the ratio of blood to casualties had undergone a change. The factor then used, 3.32 pints of blood factor for etic blood requirements that included not only the blood actually used but the blood wasted in storage and distribution, a wastage that was then vonsidered | unavoidable in such a perishable product as blood in such combat circumstances as Korea. The first bloods collected in Japan were transported from the bank at the 406th Medical General Laboratory to the advance depot at the 118th Station Hospital in Fukuoka in railway baggage cars, three of which had been equipped with reach-in reefers (refrigerators) for this purpose. Later, air transport was used almost exclusively (p. 752).

JAPANESE

DONORS

Techniques of collection of blood in Jepan ployed in Red Cross bleeding centers in World

generally followed those emWar IT until donations from

Japanese began to be accepted, at the end of 1950.

Then, certain changes

730

BLOOD

PROGRAM

procedure were necessery. For one thing, language difficulties made it necessary to employ a small Japanese staff, as well as to use nurses and volunteers supplied by the Japanese Red Cross (fig. 168). For another, Japanese medical authorities were at first reluctant to depart from their standard practice of limiting donations to 200 cc. Some concessions, naturally, had to be made to e small size of the Japanese, who could not routinely give 500 cc. of blood es did U.S. donors, and tables of maximum collections for bleeding them and others of similar stature were therefore worked out (table 34). When these standards were adhered to, there was never any evidence of immediate or delayed harmful effects from the donations. Tasie 34.—Authorized collection of blood, from Japanese nationals and other donora of small stature [Per pound of body welght] Body weight Male Pounds

100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 Over we eeeee a

Female

105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 Over

Authorized collection Male

Female

ee.

ee.

250 260 275 290 300 310 325

ae nnn nnn ee

230 240 250 260 275 285 205 310 320 0 Maximum

Blood and anticoagulant Male ee.

370 380 395 410 420 430 445 450 Maximum weeneneeee a eeeeeeeee

Female

350 360 370 380 395 405 415 430 440 Maximum

PUBLICITY Publicity for the blood program in Japan was provided by the U.S. and the Japanese Red Cross, the Armed Forces radio station in Tokyo, the Pacific eflition of the Stars and Stripes, and similar sources. Documentary films g blood bank operations were made by the Army Signal Corps and by Japenese photographers for use locally as well as in the United States. Posters, pictures, and stories were provided for both local and stateside release by General Headquarters and Joint Logistical Command Public Information Offices. On one occasion, a spectacular air rendezvous was made with the U.S.S. Boxer, then in Korean waters; her crew donated 2,407 pints of blood in 4 days. On another occasion, Gen. Do uglas MacArthur publicly received a token

THE

KOREAN

WAR

731

Fictre 168 son tpancee mothers, representing the United Nations Bae ational, Seientific end Cultural Organization, giving blood for forces in Korea at 406th Medical General Laboratory, Tokyo, February 1952, as their stildren watch.

shipment of blood from the German employees of a commercial airline. On 4 July 1951, the medical section of the Joint Logistical Command, at a carnival at Meiji Park, staged a complete demonstration of blood bank operations; the processing of the blood was carried out in full view of the spectators. The

Gallon Club, instituted in August 1951, had almost 150 members within a few weeks.

STATISTICAL

DATA

During fiscal year 1951, a total of 43,479 donors were interviewed at the blood bank in Japan and more than 39,000 pints of blood were collected from them through the efforts of the central bank and its mobile teams. The chief reason for refusing donors wes 8 history of disease, including malaria and infectious hepatitis, and of hypertension. Only 175 positive serologies were encountered, 0.4 per The low incidence of‘Rh-negative bleod (table 35), a Japanese racial characteristic, limited to a considerable de,legree any extensive use of Japanese donors if Rh-compatible blood was to be given to a recipient population composed chiefly of Americans and Europeans. In the first 2,784 Japanese

T17—-409"—4-—_49

732

BLOOD

PROGRAM

bloods collected, there were only 19 Rh-negative pleods, 0.68 percent. The distribution according to type in 39,100 units of Japanese blood collected in 1951 is shown in table 35. Statistics for 1952 and 1953 were of the same

der.

In 1951, almost 25 percent of the blood received in Japan by the blood bank was procured in that country (table 36). Something over a third of this amount wes collected in Tokyo. The remainder was collected by mobile teams at various stations in the vicinity, including 6,456 pints from the U.S. Naval Hospital in Yokosuka and 3,308 pinta from the U.S. Army Hospital in Yokohama. Tape 35.— Type distribution of blood collected in Japan, 1981 Blood type

Type 0: Rh positive, high titer_.-.-_-------------------------Rh e, low titer_..-----------------------------Rh negative, high titer____.__---_-------------------Rh negative, low titer__._____-_..--_--_-------------Total.

Bloods

Blood type

Number 10, 378 5, 142 1, 848 1,070

Percent

56. 2 29.7 10.0 5.9

18, 438

47.1

12, 309

$4.5

14, 560

37.2

Type B: Rh positive Rh negative

3, 722 608

85. 9 14.1

Total

4, 330

11.0

1, 611

85.2

261

14.8

Type A: Rh positive

Rh negative Total

Type AB: Rh positive Rh

negative.

Total All types: Rh positive Rb

negative.

Grand total

2,251

15.5

1, 772

4.7

33, 062

84.5

6, 038

15.5

39, 100

|._-______..-

THE

KOREAN

WAR

733

TABLE 36.—Receipts of blood, Tokyo Blood Depot, 1951-62 1051 Month

Total_..-.--.

Collected in Jopan

.

Received from Zone of Interior

2, 614 A, 243 2,319 2, 052 3, 287 3, 053 2, 454 1, 926 2, 722 5, 769 3, 871 3, 572

7, 060 9, 264 , 13, 466 15, 032 10, 528 10, 362 9, 048 11, 496 14, 424 10, 632 8, 639

38, 772

129, 205

1062

Total

Nu

Collected io Jepan mbar

, B74 497 543 418 319 581 846 974 218 193 503 210

3, 274 3, 509 2, 218 2, 163 2,177 2, 725 1, 986 2, 356 2, 555 5, 882 2, 337 3, 321

167, 977

34, 503

13, 11, 16, 18, 13, 12, 10, 14, 20, 14, 12,

Received from Zone of Interlor Number

9, 8, 8, 8, 8, 7, 7, 7, 7, 9, 8, 8,

648 328 472 6 076 920 368 415 558 360 112 760

100, 557

Total

12, 922 11, 837 10, 690 11, 10, 0, 9, 10, 15, 10, 12,

153 645 354 771 113 242 449 081

135, 060

Section IT. The Development of the Whole Blood Program in the Zone of Interior THE

FIRST

YEAR

Collections of blood by the American Red Cross for the Department of Defense began in August 1950. By the middle of 1951, those responsible for the blood and plasma program in the Department ofDefense were increasingly concerned because procurement was lagging far behind requirements and commitments (2). Whole blood requirements for the Armed Forces were being met, but reserves of plasma were in alarmingly short supply because of lack of blood to process. uly 1951, the chairman of the Armed Forces Medical Policy Council, Dr. Lovelace, projecting present trends into the future, reported to the Secretary of Defense that the blood procurement program of the Department was in serious need of revision. On the basis of a report made to the Policy Council on 16 July 1951 by an ad hoc committee,* Dr. Lovelace recommended that the program be referred to the newly established Health Resources Advisory Committee of the Office of Defense Mobilization for information and assistance. He also recommended that the American Red Cross Blood Donor ae

4 This committee conalsted of Colonel Kendrick, Chairman; David N. W. Grant, USAF (Ret.), and Mr. Richard Bwiga

Captain Newhouser, Department

of Defense;

Maj.

734

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Program be stimulated with the assistance and cooperation of the Department of Defense, as fol 1. There should be @ continuously active advertising campaign for donors.

2, Additional collection centers should be established.

3. Blood procurement should be stimulated on the local level in every possible way, especially when blood banks were located in heavily populated areas and within reasonable shipping distance of existing plasma plants. 4, The Red Cross should be requested to establish priorities for blood for the Department of Defense. In addition to these steps, which should be taken jointly with the American Red Cross, Dr. Lovelace recommended that the Department of Defense: 1. Should establish & military blood collection program to reach military Personne! and civilian employees on military bases . Should institute a policy of purchasing plasma from civilian commercial lebornteries which met NIH specifications.

THE Mr.

ARMED

FORCES

BLOOD

DONOR

PROGRAM

On 2 August 1951, in a DOD directive, the Acting Secretary of Defense, Robert"D. Lovett, announced the establishment of an Armed Forces

Blood Donor Program,‘'to provide a continuous and vigorous campaign, in

conjunction with the Red Cross, to persuade the civilian and military population to contribute whole blood to the Armed Forces” (16). The program would be launched on 10 September 1951 The Director of Information, Office of the Secretary of Defense, would be responsible for directing publicity and information concerning the program

Policy guidence would be provided by the Armed Forces Medicel Policy Council,

Office of the Secretary of Defense. All programs would be coordinated through the Armed Services Medical Procurement Agency.® The success of the military program was immediate (figs. 169-172).

Within a few months there were more donors than facilities to handle them.

The attitude of the Air Force was typical of all the Services. On6 September 1951, the Air Adjutant General directed that “every level of command of the Air Fores give its whole-hearted cooperation to insure the success of the progrem.”” Effective on 10 September, the date of initiation of the program, or as soon thereafter as possible, Air Force collection centers would be established at Lowry Air Force Base, Denver, Colo., Lackland Air Force Base,San Antonio, Tex., and Sheppard Air Force Base, Wichita Falls, Tex. Tentative sites were also selected for other collection centers, to be activated as necessary later. 'The National the credit for the cutatanding success of the program.

DOD,

THE

KOREAN

WAR

735

LM LLB Le LL

GIVE NOW Fraune 169.—0O: Donor Progra

THE

oster of Armed Forees {Blood instituted September 19

NATIONAL

BLOOD

PROGRAM

e of the major problems of blood procurement was the necessity of providing blood for civil defense as well as for combat needs. It was studied by Dr. Rusk, Chairman, Health Resources Advisory Committee, and his staff; on their recommendation, on 10 December 1951, President Truman issued an Executive order to the effect that the Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization would provide, within his office, ‘‘a mechanism for the authoritative coordination of an integrated and effective program to meet the nation’s requirements for blood, blood derivatives and related substances” (17). In this order, it was pointed out that a subcommittee on blood had been appointed within the Health Resources Advisory Committee, to develop “‘a single National Blood Program encompassing all phases of the problem.” It was the President's desire that the activities of all departments and agencies in the field be coordinated “through this mechanism.”

BLOOD

736

bea 4 —_ i

Fieurp 170.—Shipments of blood for processing centers secured from military installations in one of Interior. A. From Fort Bragg, N.C., October 1951, by train. B. From Camp Rucker, ‘Ala. October 1951, by plane. C. From Fort Leonard Wood, Mo., November 1951, by truck.

PROGRAM

THE

KOREAN

WAR

737

American

Red

Cross photograph

Figure 171——Mr. William J. Richards, Red Cross representative, Capt. Ray ones, and Copilot Wilson Byerhot inspecting shipment of blood as ived via American Air Lines at San Francisco Airport for treasshipmont to Japan, 26 August 1950. On 18 February 1952, the Subcommittee on Blood (the Cummings Com. mittee) submitted a statement of basic principles upon which the reorganized program should be based. The substance of this report, which was immediately transmitted to the Secretary of Defense, Mr. Lovett, was as follows (18): 1 program created to meet the blood needs of the nation in the time of national emergency and to be known as the National Blood Program would represent a coordination 2. No agency would duplicate the efforts of enother agency unless the jack | eould not otherwise be performed adequately. Before such a duplication occurred, there must be agreement for it among the agencies involved and the Offee of Defense Mobilizatition. 2. ‘he recruitment program for volunteer donors would emphasize the National Blood Program a a whole and not any specific part thereof. he Department of Defense and the Federal oivil’P Defense Administration would be authored eeestablish and maintain separate plasmar id Cross would continue to be the blood | collecting agency for the National D . Progam except for the facilities (then 34) of the Department of Defense in Armed Forces installations located in areas not covered by the collecting facilities of the National Red Cross. These collecting facilities now ineluded 44 egional programs covering 1,540 local chapters and cooperating blood bank:

738

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Figure 172.—Representatives of Swiss and British Armies watching as nurse takes blood from Tepresentative of Iranian Army during vivet ot mobile blood unit from Louisville Regional Blood Donor Center Knox, Ky., July 1950. On this visit, 189 onatione were secured. 6, Priorities for allocation of blood would be as follows: Armed Services, for whole bl transfusions. bcian needsfor whole blood and blood derivatives. . Alloe: f plasma and blood derivatives to mest immediate needs and table national reserv: 7. In the event of enemy action, the total reservesof plasma, blood derivatives, and plasma expanders would be allocated as necessaryby Executive order, 8. ine Red Cross would continue to operate, for military use only, 15 centers serving 258 local chapters and would participate in a cooperative program with 36 civilian blood banks enh would ‘coordinate supply. earch on blood and related problems would be coordinated through a committee set up by the National Research Council and composed of experts in the field, including liaison representatives from the Department of Defense. Funds would be provided for the

research

projects by the Participating

agencies.

10. There would also be a continuing effort to train personnel in the laboratory and clinical phases of blood cupply and to foster and provide for Ihe aoe so that, in the event of another emergency, any blood ban system setup id be operated by well-trained medical officers thoroughly versed in all phases of military‘blood peaking ‘and 1 logistics. These recommendations were put into effect and the national blood - program was successfully operated according to them for the remaining years of the war

THE

KOREAN

WAR

738

Section III. The Oversea Airlift to Korea GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS*

Korean Wer began on 25 June 1950, and active fighting ended on 27 July 1953, with the signing of an armistice. The formal Zone of Interior blood supply program for Korea began on 15 August 1950, with a radio request from the Far East Command for shipments of blood from the Zone of Interior to augment the quantities collected and distributed by the 406th Medical General Laboratory in Tokyo (15). The first blood shipped in response to this message, which had been requested for 30 August, left the temporary laboratory at the U.S. Naval Hospital in Oakland, Calif., for Japan on 26 August 1950. On 8 February 1954, a dispatch from the Far East Command recommended that the service be terminated, and the last blood was flown to Japan on 13 February 1954 from the Armed Services Whole Blood Processing Laboratory, Travis Air Force Base, Calif. Between the dates of the first and last shipments, this laboratory had received and handled 397,711 pints of whole blood, of which 340,427 pints had been shipped to Japan for transshipment to Korea for distribution to the various medical units of the United Nations there. The Travis laboratory was placed on a standby basis on 13 February 1954 and was deactivated a month later. This program was the largest operation of its kind in the history of military medicine in the United States. The important steps in the development of the administrative background of the airlift of blood in the Korean War have been described in detail elsewhere (p. 713). Many of the most important actions, it will be remembered, were taken after fighting had commen

PROCESSING

LABORATORY,

TRAVIS

AIR FORCE

BASE

Establishment In order that the military might have a central processing facility in which to receive blood collected by the American Red Cross, perform necessary laboratory tests on it, package it, and ship it to Japan for ransshipment to orea, a processing laboratory was established at Travis Air Force Base (then Fairfield-Suisun Air Force Base), Calif., where a Military Air Transport Service group of the Pacific Division was located. The building selected had to be renovated and converted for this purpose, and until it was ready, on 25 September 1950, a temporary laboratory was set up and operated in the U.S. Naval Hospital at Oakland, Calif., about 50 miles away.

Whale Blood Processing Tabonstors, 717-400"—64—\__50

derived from the history of the Armed Travis Air Force Base, Calif, 2 August 1960-15 March 1954 (19).

Services

740

BLOOD

PROGRAM

D the war, a number of attempts were made to establish a blood processing laboratory on the east coast, but no definitive action was ever taken, though supplies and personnel were earmarked for an emergency standby facility at the U.S. Naval Hospital, Chelsea, Mass. This facility was not called upon, but it was expected that, if it had been, it could have begun to ship blood to Japan within 24 hours after activation.

Functions The Armed Services Whole Blood Processing Force Base performed the following functions:

Laboratory

at Travis

Air

‘+ laboratory 2. It 3. tt

received whole blood from the American Red Croas, Performed appropriate testa on it, end shipped | it to the Far East Command for in Korea. malntalned a record of all bloods received in the laboratory. and th eir disposition. coordinated | whole blood requirements with the Armed Services Blood and Blood f the Ai Red Croas. ~ It maintained & close‘working arrangement with the medical supply section of the a Air Force Base in requisitioning and drawing of supplies required in the day-to-day operations of the laboratory. 5. It maintained ialson with other ery organizations and civilian agencies as necessary for ees accomplishment of its 6. It prepared and submitted to the chairmen of the Armed Services Blood and Blood Derivatives. Group routine reports and such special reports as were req’

Facilities and Equipment Structures of the permanent laboratory included a building of 3,400 sq. ft. and two warchouses, respectively 2,786 and 800 square feet. All buildings, office equipment and supplies, housekeeping items, heat, electricity, gas, the laboratory and ree (nine by the is Air Fo g and messing facilities for laboratory Personnel were also furnished by Travis Air Force Base. A Navy panel truck, on loan from Oakland Naval Hospital, was ssigned to the laboratory for general us ing at Travis Air Force Base thet was converted into a laboratory was an old hospital messhall. The conversion required the installation of lighting fixtures, water-distilling apparatus, refrigerators, sinks, laboratory counters and workbenches, and natural gas fixtures. The precooling room and warehouses were not completed until about 8 months after the laboratory was occupied. When the converted building was taken over, however, on 25 September 1950, everything else was in such good order that a shipment

of blood could be sent to Japan the same day.

Initial medical supplies and equipment were procured directly from Oakland Naval Medical Supply Depot. Later, by agreement among

the the

three Services, the requirements and stock control section of the Supply

THE

KOREAN

WAR

741

Division, Office of The Surgeon General, U.S. Army, was given the responsibility of furnishing medical supplies and equipment to the laboratory. All requisitions went through the Travis Air Force Base medical supply section to the Alameda Army Medical Supply Depot. The operational cost of this laboratory was estimated at over $1 million ayeer. It cost approximately $17.83 to procure and process a pint of blood and transport it from the United States to the Far East Command in Japan, this sum including $6.56 paid to the Red Cross for processing services, $9.40 for laboratory expenses, and $1.87 for transportation costs.

Personnel Four Navy blood bank technicians arrived from the east coast at the

laboratory on 23 August 1950. Office, laboratory, and cold storage spaces were made available to them at once, and supplies and equipment were procured from the hospital and from the U.S. Naval Medical Supply Depot in Oakland. As a result, 48 hours after these technicians had arrived, the first whole blood shipment (1,488 pints) was received, processed, and delivered to the Military Air Transport Service at Travis Air Force Base for transshipment to Japan. Requests for additional laboratory personnel were at first handled very slowly, and, by the middle of September 1950, the staff working in the Oakland laboratory included, in eddition to the four original technicians, only one Navy Medical Service Corps officer and three laboratory techniciens. Laboratory technicians were borrowed from Oekland and Mare Island Naval Hospitals and from Letterman General Hospital, San Francisco, Celif. Clerical and some general duty helpers were borrowed from Travis Air Force Bese and the Oakland Naval Hospital. Additional duty corpsmen and convalescent patients aided on a day-to-day basis. All of these men were returned to their duty stations when additional permanent personnel began to arrive about the middle of October. In spite of its personnel difficulties, the laboratory handled over 7,000 pints of whole blood during the weeks of its operation et the U.S. Naval Hospital in Oakland. In the approximately 42 months of its operation, an average of36 persons were regularly attached to the laboratory, including an average of11 from the Army, 10 from the Navy, and 14 from the Air Force (fig. 173). aining.—-A quick, efficient blood bank technique can be acquired only by experience, and most of the personnel assigned to the Travis laboratory were inexperienced. All therefore worked long hours while they were receiving individual instruction. A formel training program was set up a few months after the laboratory was activated, and 59 persons completed the course of instruction, including 14 Air Force Medical Service Corps officers, 34 Army enlisted men, and 11 Air Force enlisted men.

742

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Ficure 173.—Personnel of Travis Air Force Base Whole Blood Processing Center. Seated, left to right, M. Sgt. John F. Firmani, USA, Noor Cc

. Records Se Bs . Henry leat civine Sineane dhigping Section II; T. Set Aye E. - Hotchkis, USAF, leader, laboratory Section IT; M. Sut. Leon , USA, NoOIC st Bi ing oeepartment ane nea of ‘sean I; TMI 8Sherw Syverson, “USN. d bank te Sgt. John E. Abeare, USAF, leader, ie eaiving Stavane Ship oty ation III.

Work Schedules Because of its short life, 21 days at best, expeditious as well as expert handling of blood is necessary, and the work schedule at the Travis laboratory was geared to that consideration. Blood from the collection centers was shipped by air, rail, or motor transport, as most convenient. Centers near

the laboratory delivered their blood by motor transport.

Blood from distant

collection centers arrived by air. The shipments were offloaded at airports in San Francisco or Oakland, where they were picked up by the Railway Express Agency and transshipped by train to Fairfield-Suisun, about7 miles from Travis. Here, they were offloaded and trucked to the laboratory by the agency. Blood from centers nearer the laboratory was sent by train and delivered to the Teboratory by the Railway Express Agency. Because the agency worked 5-day workwe' ok schedule, arrangements were made with the motor pool avis Air Force Base to meet trains on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays, pick up the blood and deliver it to the laboratory.

THE

KOREAN

WAR

743

The Red Cross blood donor centers also worked on # 5-day week, usually Monday through Friday. Few collections were made on Seturdays, Sundays, end holidays. Each Friday, and oftener if requirements chenged, the officer in charge of the laboratory at Travis Air Force Base notified the central office of the Red Cross of the quotas of blood desired for the following week. The Red Cross, in turn, designated the donor centers which would collect, process, and ship these quotas. A number of attempts were made, all unsuccessful, to have the weekly quotas collected in equal amounts on each of the 5 days weekly that the centers operated. Few bloods were received from Monday through Wednesday, often not the equivalent of the amounts shipped to Japan. Most bloods were processed from Thursday through Sunday. By Sunday night, the refrigerators were filled, and there was sufficient blood on hand for the Monday-through-Wednesday shipments. Although bloods arrived in the laboratory at all hours of the day and night, most of them arrived twice daily, at 1000 and 1800 hours. On Sundays and holidays, the bulk of the blood usually arrived at 1800 hours. f these verious circumstances, the Travis laboratory bad to operate 7 days a week, day and night. After additional personnel arrived at the laboratory in October 1950, soparate day- and night-working sections were established to receive, process, and ship blood. The two sections, each composed of equal numbers of clerical, laboratory, and general duty personnel, alternated day- and night-working hours at weekly interv: A third section, composed of administrative and supply personnel, carried on the administrative and supply duties of the laboratory. This section worked a regular day shift, but its personnel were subject to night call as necessary.

LABORATORY

ROUTINE

Collection and Initial Processing Only proved group-O blood, of low titer and Rh-verified, was sent to Korea. As in World War II, about 45 percent of random donors proved to be group O, and about a quarter of this group had agglutinin titers above 1:64. ihe technique of collection was essentially that employed in World War II (p. 145). Donors were screened to make sure that they were group O. Whole blood intended for oversea use was collected in ACD solution (blood intended for plesma wes collected in sodium citrate solution). The blood was collected in 500-cc. amounts in sterile, pyrogen-free bottles; samples for serologic testing and crossmatching were collected into pilot tubes. The collection bottles were not entered again until the recipient sets were attached just before the transfusions were to be given. With this precaution, there was no possibility of contamination and there is no record that any occurre:

744

BLOOD

PROGRAM

After the blood had been collected, two technicians performed two separate tests for specificity. With this doublecheck, the percentage of error did not exceed 0.5 percent, and there was not « single report of incompatibility during the course of the war. This was a remarkable record, for the blood that arrived at the processing center at Travis Air Force Base came from donor centers all over the United States. Serologic tests were also performed, even though by this time there was

valid evidence that syphilis could not be transmitted by blood that had been

stored longer than 3 days (p. 143).”

Later Processing After the collected blood had been chilled to 39.2° to 42.8° F. (4° to 6° C.), it was shipped by truck, rail, or air to the processing center in insulated Church shipping cases, refrigerated with wet ice (p. 204). Blood usually arrived within 48 hours after it had been collected. At the base, it was taken to the receiving, storage, and shipping section; logged in; placed in a walk-in refrigerator maintained in the temperature range just mentioned; and there unpacked, inventoried, and stored. Two such refrigerators were available, each capable of holding 2,500 pints of blood. The empty insulated blood shipping container was readdressed to the blood donor center whence it had come, and was returned to the center by Railway Express.

The pilot tube containing 6-8 cc. of whole blood was detached from the

bottle and taken to the laboratory section, where the sample was regrouped, retyped, and retitered (fig. 174). The repetition of these tests served two purposes: (1) It eliminated units of blood that were not group O. (2) It served, to a degree, as a crossmatch; it was not always possible for medical units in Korea to type and crossmatch their patients before transfusing them. Each year the Travis laboratory used approximately 9,600 cc. of anti-A and anti-B, and 5,800 cc. of anti-Rh, blood typing sera. During the last month the laboratory operated, the sera were used in dried form. The liquid form, which had been used up to this time, was thought more satisfactory, for several reasons: It contained fewer artifacts. It saved time because it did not have space was required to maintain an adequate supply.

On the other hand, the

dried form cost a little less and had a longer useful life, 60 months, against 12

months for the liquid form. ere was No significant ifarence iin the number of bloods that ould be tested with given amounts of each for ter testing, a label was securely glued to each bottle, ‘containing the unit blood number, blood group, Rh-factor, point of origin, and original blood donor center number. Although the expiretion date did not ordinarily ex ' tte adgned), itwad proposed by Dr. William G.

the preparation of

dried plasms

y Dr. Thomas B. Turner, Dean, Johns Hopkins mended feor seton by the commilttes,

University School of Public Health,

and were rewm-

THE

KOREAN

WAR

745

Ficure 174.—Laboratories at blood processing center, Travis Air Force Base. A and B. ron titration, and Rh-testing laboratory. C. ing laboratory. Note slides with wells, a postae War-II development. 21 days, an expiration date of 22 days from the date of collection was placed on each bottle because this blood would be shipped across the international date line for use in a later time zone. If the serum agglutinin titer of a unit Pian 1:256, the label read, High Titer Group “O” Blood—For Group “O"' Reci Only. If the titer was less than 1:256, the label simply read Low “Ten

746

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Fioune 175.—Containers of whole blood loaded on Military Air Transport Service trailers for delivery to plane that will fly it to Korea, Travie Air Force Base blood processing center, 1952.

Shipment g the Korean War, the processing laboratory at Travis Air Force Base maintained in store two or three times the estimated daily requirement of blood, so that emergency requests could be met without delay. When such a request was received, the blood was given a No. 1 priority and sent to Japan immediately on a cargo or passenger If circumstances permitted, the ttood was held in the refrigerator for 8 to 12 hours, so that it could be examined grossly for hemolysis, clots, or excessive fat content. Frequently, however, because of the heavy demands, bloods were processed and shipped out on the same day that they were received. They were packed for shipment i in the walk-in refrigerators. Except in emergencies as just noted, all whole blood shipped from the United States to the Far East Command was transported in aircraft of the Military Air Transport Service (figs. 175 and 176). It was flown from Travis Air Force Base to Haneda Air Force Base near Tokyo, with stops at Honolulu and Wake Island (map 7). It was re-iced at these stops if necessary. As soon as the blood arrived in Japan (fig. 177), it was removed from the plane, trucked to the blood storage section of the 406th Medical General Laboratory, and stored there until it was shipped to Tokyo and thence to Korea (fig. 178). All blood moved in Korea was transported by plane or helicopter (fig. 179).

THE

KOREAN

WAR

747

Ficure 176.—Boxes of blood being loaded on plane for flight from Travis Air Force Base to Tokyo Blood Bank

STATISTICAL

DATA

The largest number of bloods received, tested, and labeled in the Travis laboratory in a single day was 1,881 pin The overall daily average was 319 pints, based on a sey week for the‘simast 42 months during which the laboratory operate The largest oe ber of bloods handled in a single day by the receiving and shipping section was 2,500p this number including both units received and units shipped. The largest bitmnent placed in a single plane for shipment to Japen was 1,488 pints. The average daily shipment was 273 pints. The total weight of the blood and recipient sets shipped to Japan was 1,782,434 pounds (891 tons) and the total space required for the shipments, 426,379 cubic feet. Of the 397,711 pints of whole blood received in the processing laboratory, 340,427 (about 85 percent), were shipped to the Far East Command for use in Korea. The remaining 15 percent included surplus bloods and bloods which for other reasons (hemolysis, clots, breakage, excessive fat content, volume less than 500 cc.) could not be used for transfusions. Most of it (56,809 pints) was sent to the Cutter Laboratories, Berkeley, Calif., for plasma fractionation, but 347 pints were used in local military hospitals. Breakage involved only 128 bottles; 94 were received broken, and 34 were broken during processing.

748

BLOOD

a)

PROGRAM

_(KoREA

weoKinawa

ry 5

AUSTRALIA

Jas

Map 7.—Flight plan, for airlift of blood from Travis Air Force Base, Oakland, Calif., to Tokyo Blood Bank, and thence to Korea.

Only 144 of the bloods received in the laboratory were not group 0; 116 were group A, 24 group B,and4 group AB. These units had been either mistyped or mislabeled at the original blood donor centers, and the errors were caught when they were retyped in the laboratory. The remarkably low percentage of misgrouped blood indicates the skill and care of the technicians who did the initial grouping and labeling. Theirs was a most responsible task, for, as already mentioned, most group-O blood used in Korea, as in World War II, was not crossmatched before it was used. About 10 percent of all the blood received had an agglutinin titer of 1:256 or higher. During the first 18 months the laboratory operated, less than 9 percent of the bloods received were Rh-negative. During the last 2 years, because of repeated requests for such bloods, the proportion rose to 12 percent. Rh-negative blood was not sent to Korea but was used in the fixed installations in Japan, since it was in them that Rh-negative casualties might receive repeated transfusions 10 to 14 days after they had received Rh-positive blood in forward hospitals.

THE

KOREAN

WAR

Ficure 177—Blood flown from blood processing center, Travis Air Force Bae to Japan. general purpose of this letter was to set forth the Purpose and scope or Aerie and B available oO ical Depart nel in the theater. It also established and clarified the vr oceduren to be followed finw atiliaing thease facilities. Paragraph 4d described the 7-day courses of instruction offered at the British Army Blood Supply Depot School for medical officers at the Southmead Hospital, Bristol, Gloucester. The vours Tefrigeration, and shipping of whole blood,» toe r with the clinical aspects of shock and of whole blood transfus Opening dat: allotments for the courses were announced periodically to the major + commands and base soctions by Headquarters, Bervices of Supply. 813

814

BLOOD

PROGRAM

1944 Letter No. 71, 15 May, subject: Principles of Surgical Management in the Care of Battle Casualties. Paragraph 3 of this letter dealt with the ratio of blood to plasma, procurement of blood within the unit, procurement of blood from the European theater blood bank, and its handling and storage after procurement. Lett . 80, 10 June, subject: Policies and Procedures Gove crning | oie of Patients in ETO. vregnsh lof Section III, “Administrative Directives Pertaining to Professional ore ” dealt with blood transfusion in general and station hospitals. The subjects covered included facilities, donors, equipment, storage of blood, technique of couceting and administering blood, laboratory hea cleaning of sets, records, and filte This circular letter “e acale with plasma t Li . 131, 8 November eabject: Care of Battle Casualties. Paragraph 6 of this circular letter, dealt with whole blood transfusions and covered the sources of blood (from the Zone of Interior and the European theater blood bank), asa on for transfusion, tatio of plasma and blood, and a warning that vasoconstrictio: t explain an initially normal blood pressure reading i in @ patient who was in need of bloods Administrative Memorandum No. 150, Office of the Chief Surgeon, European Thea of Operations, U.S. Army, 27 November. This memorandum d with ‘ranstation reactions and their management. Instructions were also given in it forweekly Teports on the total blood usedin each hospital, the total number of reactions, and the details of each reaction. These details were to include the source and age of the blood; the source ol the set; the type of reaction; the amount of blood elven before the reaction occurred; an the management of the reaction, with the resulta of therapy. 1945 Letter No. 23, 17 March, subject: Care of Battle Casualties. Paragraph 1 of this circular letter described the technique of a test for Giferentiating between | pyrogeni and and deaths after transfusion.

APPENDIX

C

Circular Letters, Pacific Areas The following official statements on transfusion end blood banks were issued during the course of the war in the Pacific: Circular Letter No. 9, Office of the Surgeon, Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces in Australia, 4 June 1942,subject: Blood for Transfusion. This letter, which concerned the payment of donors, was rescinded on 16 June 1942 by Circular Letter No. 21, from the same headquarters, subject: Donation of Blood for Transfusion and Other Purposes. This hnical Memorandum No. 13, Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, U.S. Ai Forces in the Far East, 21 September 1944, subject: Blood Bank. This letter concerned f the blood h General Hospital (p. 389). ‘echnical Memorandum No. 1, Office of the Chief Surgeon, Headqua , US. Army Forces in the Far East, 7 January 1945, subject: Preservation and pean nwavtel of Citrated Whole Blood. This memorandum concerned the general use of whole blood, supply, transportation and storage, criteria for use (age, hemolysis), selection of patients for transfusion, appropriate dosages, determination of + mpativilty, technical points of inistration, and reactions. ircular Letter No. 35, Office of the Chief Surgeon, General Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces, Pacific, 13 August 1945, subject: Calculation of Hemoglobin, Hematocrit and Plasma Protein (the Copper Sulphate Method). The pertinent part of this letter dealt with the copper sulfate techni Circular Let No. 38, Office of the Chief Surgeon, General Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces, Pacific, 20 August 1945, subject: Whole Blood. This letter covered the provision, delivery, and refrigeration of whole blood; equipment; directions for administration; and indications. It was pointed out in this letter that the condition of the casualty, not tbe type of wound, determin ed the amount of blood to be used; that blood was often necessary during and after operation as well as for resuscitation; and that surgery was often a part of resuscitation. 815

INDEX! A substances, 54, 239 As ogelutinogens, 194 Aachen,5: Abbott Inboratories, 292, 759, 794 Abdominal wounds, 22, 35, 39, 43-44, 705 pemorrhege in, 705 in Korean War, 803 mortality rates from, in SWPA, 634 plasma in, 393, on 697, 698 transfusion in, Anu, J. J., a6 iam after blood donations, 153, 154 Acapnea theory of shock, Accidente, compensation for, in ETOUSA,

Additives to dried plasma, 283-287 Additives to serum albumin, 349-352 Adjutant General, The, 475, 477, 528,

Aceounting practices— in an © blood donor centers, 303 @ program, 300-305

ACD solution, See Acid-citrate-dextrose 80lution. Acetyl phenylalanine, 351 Acid-citrate-dextrose solution, 208, 200, 211, 214-215, 225-228, 437, 467,7 changeover to, on ETOUSA airlift, 2149 fibrin precipitation in, 226-227 in Korean War,7. “a, 766, 774 in Pacific airlift,6 in SWPA, 614 incorporation of A and B substances in, 260 selection of: before Korean War, for ainlife ta ETOCaA, “24-295, 226

Acid-hematin technique of hemoglobin termination, 43-44 Acidosis in— late shock, 34 Jower nephron nephrosis, 667 shock, 36, 384 Acriflavine in grou serum, 16 Ad hoe committees, NRC, 75 shortages of, 544

de-

ve7th

ing centers, 410-411 ition Hospital Blood Bank, 513-

verseablood pi m, payment of donor in MTOUSA, 423-424 procurement of plasma equipment, 2036713th Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 404, 406-407, 409-411 transfusion units, 411 Zone of Interior, 61-98 Administrative errors in blood banks, 244 Administ e Memorandum 150, Office o Coit Surgeon, ETOUSA, 27 Nov. 4 600 Admiralty‘Grown, 591 Adrenal exhaustion theory of shock, 20 Adrenal glands, 373 Adtevae technique of drying plasma, 278 Advance base in SWPA, Australian blood for, 585 Advanee base blood bank facility no. 1. e Guam Advance Base Section, ETOUSA, 509 Advance mood bank detachments, ETOUSA Blood 553 Advance blood. ” Jepote, ETOUSA Blood Bank, 214, 497, 498, 500, 501, 504, 505-607, 509 during Normandy invasion, 512-513 War I.

fusion,” when

529,

Administrative action concerning— B substances, 260 plasma reactions in ETOUSA, 669 Administrative considerations in— blood banks in ETOUSA, 505506 airlift in MTOUBA, . 419 Army blood banks, 44! blood banks in MTOUBA, 431 Continental blood bank, 516-517 deliveries in MTOUSA, 420, 421 ETOUSA Blood Bank, 183-184, 496, 498-

The term “trans-

pot qualified, refers only to blond transfusion.

817

BLOOD

818 Advance detachments, Continental Blood Bank, 518-522 Advance "ection, Communications Zone, 610, 517, 520, 521, 522, 550 Advanced dressing stations, transfusions in, in World War I—6, 8

dried plasma, 15, 35, 48, a1, 57

sodium citrate technique wartime unit hospital aystem for provision of islood, 3 Aerobacter aerogenes test, 779 Acro. Medical Laboratory, 206 Agi eld, 14 Age of blood, effect of, on transfusion incom14 in Spanish Civil War, 11, 12 Agenda— of General Board, ETOUSA, 574 of staff inspections in Pacific areas, 59059 Agencies involved in4 blood program, 61 Agglutinati in incompatible transfusion, 4 in rare bloods,2: of red blood “ae by tecipient serum, 7 caused by oxidized cotton, 380 reactions: in Pillomer technique, 237 in rabbit 09 233, 234, 235 techniqu ine with grou; 239 Agglutinin titerts), 442 after massive plasma infusions, 671 for airlift in Korean War, 743, 748 of group O blood, Ser of necipiont plasma,6 | Walter Reed General Hospitital, 696 Agglutinins | of recipient, 240 Aging blood, reactions due to, 664 Agitation— of blood

during storage,

663,

664

of slidesi ml ‘a grouping, 240 Acors, L. Aeptloeyioy, 142 1 Aid Geta, tr ‘anefusion in, in World War I—8 Air Adivtant GGeneral, 734 Air co! g, 112" Air omboliom, 33

PROGRAM

Air evacuation from Continent, 513 Air filter,1 tse tor aerum albumin package, 108 For base hospitals, 176 collecting centers in Korean War, 734 fiekth, 529, 530 Medical rervice Corps, 741 Ninth, 533-53: Personnel donation from, 481, 486 n Korean War, 73: AirHeaduarter, Norfolk House, London, Air hunger ini shock, 384 Air Priorities for airlift from United Kingto Continent, 531 Air raid casualties, 20, 286-267 Air supremacy, necessity for, for airlift to Continent, 478 Air Transport.‘Command, 136, 213, 214, 418, 491, 496, 509, 531, ae 560 Airborne contamination, 193 Airborne divisions: 82d—521 Olt 52 rne troops, serum albumin for, 347 Aircraft, any lack of, 50

Airfields (airstrips):

for takeoff ron United Kingdom to Continent, polding hospitals sear, in ETOUSA, 513 in Pacific in SWPA, “G08, 14-615 tocation ot Army advance banks in rela0, 506 movement of blood bank advance detachis with,

on Continent, "520, 521, 522, 523, 536,

54! 9 on Luzon, 620 Airlift: capability of, in 1941—: estimated capacity of, before Korean War, 7 for Operation OLYMPIC, 639, 640 for oversea transfusion service, 465-466 from Australia to New Guinea, 581, 582, 587-588 from collection centers in Korean Wer, 742, 74 , 774 from Guam to— Luzon, 621 Okinawa, 622, 623

INDEX from Italy to southern France, 417, 419, m Leyte to— Luson, 621 Okinawa, 623-624 from Sydocy to Finschhafen, 591 from United Kingdom to Continent, 10, 450, 478, 510, 518, 531-532, 534-535 planning for, 53173, 121, 195, 203, 208-213, 217, ‘281, 319, re 460, 474, 475-476, 477, 478, 481, 494, 486, 488-400, 537, 538479, S41, 345 551-553, 557, 558-560, 580 sellers a 211-213 delivery time of, 552 implementation of 487-490 mdations for, 222-223, 228, selection of Alsever's solution for, 2245, 228 from a to Paris, 495-496, 536 in British Army Transfusion Service, 17 in ETOUSA, 521, 547 in Italy, 417-420 in Korean Wen 713, 729, 739-757, 803-804 effect of, on blood, 803-804 in MTOUSA, logistics of, 418-420 in Soviet Uni in SWPA, 500 in ZI for tests of transportability, 51, 220-221 to Ansio beachhead et to Okinawa, 631, to Pacific areas, oe 36, gi aM, 225, 227, 228, 262, 599-615, blood from, for Leyte op operation, 618 blood from, for Luzon operation, 619, 6 initial difficulties in, 602-405 operational factors in, 606-612

supply and demand in, 600-602 tion of, 629 Airplanes, serum albumin administration In, Air raids, provision of blood for casualties in,

in United Kingdom, 4798

Airtemp Division, Chrysler Corp., 206

Axnaorn, Lt. Col. J. H., 803

819 Alameda Army Medical Supply Depot, 741

Albumin. ° ee Bovine albumin, Scrum albumi Albumin and By-Products Committee, NRC,

Alburnta: Testing Group, NRC, 300, 333, 334

Abaminurio ini lower nephron nephrosls,6 cohol: vn serum apumin production, 353 recov in plasma fractionation, 348 secliectioe of field transfusion unit, 191, 193 Aldermas' 2 Aldobionio,acid, 76, 379-380 Aleutian Islands, 92, 170 Algi i , 380. Alkali reserve in shock, 384 in exsanguin inated casualties, in incompatibility reactions,‘o50 lo ephron ne} Phrosis, 666, 667 with raultiple tranafusions, 444 All India Institute of Hygiene and Publio ealth, 645 ALLEN, J. G., 780 Allergens in donor's blood, 650-651 Allergio reactions, 572, 650-651, 660, 661-

etiology of, 650-651 to dextran,

793

to plasma, 650 Allied Forces personnel, donations from: in Korean War, 7: in usa. 422 Allied Medical Departmenta in World War ies Allled nations, provision of plasma for, 93-95 Allocations of— blood after D-day, 486-487 expendable transfusion sets in SWPA, 598 gamma globulin in Korean War, 783-784 plasma reze in Korean War, 776 Allowances of transfusion units, ETOUSA, ete Atseven, J. B., 171, 222 Alsever’e solution, 208, 200-210, 214, 215, 222, 224-255, 322, 437, 444, 467, 460, 554, 606 comparison of, with ACD solution, 226227

BLOOD

820 Alsever’s solution—Continued compost ion of, 22: of, on resuspended red blood cella, “318 , 317 eviction of, for airlift to ETOUSA, 225, 489, 491, 492, 493, 404, 35-594, 61

ALTMANN, 277 Alum-precipitated antigens in bovine albumin, 32! Aluminum caps for intravenous solution bottles, 38: 5 American Airlines, American Assoclation. of Blood Banks, 719, American Bureau for Medical Aid to China, rican Aerinn Ame meri n American American Amenvan

Can Co., 168 Expeditionary Forces, 9 Federation of Labor, 125 Hospital Association, 727 Medical Aesociation, 156, 727, 783 Nationa! Red Cross, 61, 71, 80. 83, , 97, 101-137, 204, "205, 237, 252,

i) &8 a+

, omer, 269, 271, 274, 276, 290, 291,

292, 203, 204, 295, 296, 301, 302, 304, 306, 307, 309, 810, 311, 313, 329, 337, 340, 343, 344, 376, 396, 426, 451, 491, 493, 542, 552, 596, 638, 675, 695, 713, 719, 721, 726, 734, 737, 739, 740, 767, 774, 775, 785 8: assumption of blood program by, 102, blood donor centers, 76, 8@, 101, 111,

114,

257,

261,

290, 307,

345,

303, 314, 424, 618, 733, 784, 270 102,

490,

91, 494, 759, 760, 601 accounting practices in, 303 closing of, 111, 310 control of, by professional personnel, 76 equipment for, 294-295 facilltics of, 111-114 grouping at, in Korean War, 733-734 nurses in, 109 operation of, for Pacife airlift, 600-602 personnel of, 145, sereening tests for sroxp O blood in, 253 serologic testingat, 261, 26: supply of urch containers at, 204 volunteers in, 111 Blood Donor Service, 15, 3 103, 258-259, 313, 314, 464, 402, blood procurement on before Korean War, 721, 724

PROGRAM

collection a blood for plasma by, in n War, 773-774 conferences in, 118-119 of, with grouping errors, 241-245 field directore of, in Sicily, 396 funds for, liaison of, with OTSG, 70 local organization of, 108-111 logistics of, 103 ement of red blood cell residua by, manuals, 104 reorganization of, 103-106 alone of, in Korean War blood m, 713, 726-727 participation of, in Pacific airlift, 599personnel of, 103, 104, 106 postwar activities of, 714 professional personnel of, 109-110 Terommendations of, to Saneomnmtice n Blood Substitutes, NRC,7 reorganieation of, 1 responsibility of, for bcd collecled, 82 role 267 rotation of personnel iin, a routine of donations in, 145-148 terms of agreement with, 103 title of, to

byproducts,

83-84

transfer of surplus plasma to, 772 Transport Service, 491 Canteen Corps, nt 148 Hospital Cor Medial Ades ‘Committee ¢ on National 727 Medieal, and Wealth, Advisory Committee, Medica] and Health Service, 8 Mobile bleeding units, 114, 118 ‘ote ‘orps, 111, 603 Nationa) Blood Procurement Program, 92 Nationa’ Blood Program, 727 obstacles to procitrement program of, 79 oor ticinetion of, in Korean War blood program, 713, 726-727 post-World-War II activities of, 714

Pul Recreation ‘Cor A responsibility of, for blood | collected, role of, in plasma program,

82

INDEX Staff Assistanor Corps 1 tite of, to byproducts, 43-84 transfer of surplus pleema to, after World War II—7’ Transport Service, a volunteer services, Amerlean society of ‘Refrigerating Engineers, 203, ° American Stevia er Co., 388 American Sugar Reflning Co., 704 Amino ackds, 380, 707 Ammunition box, use of, for transfusion kit, on

hous bovine ibumin, 330, 331, 332 Amount of donations ARC blood donor centers, 139, 151

821 in Chinese patients, 645-646 in clostridial myositis, 607 in female donors, 158-160 innehock,

34

unds of extremities, 703-705 production of, by plasma adininjatration, treatment

of, by red blood cell reaidua,

an, awe

318

in Kor 1 War 785 treatment of, in Rh-immunized persons, 2 Anterior poliomyelitis, 363 Anti-A agglutinin titers, in pooled plasma, Anti-A agglutinins, 194, 259 Anti-A lutinogen titer, 258 Anti-A

globulins,

237

Anti-A grouping sera, 239 Anat abbit serum, Spanish C; ivil War, Amount of transf vision, velatlon of, to severity of hemolytic reaction, 650 mphiblous Force flagship, 623 Anpiiea 3 blood for feard administratlon Ausrscnes, Col. W. G., 553 Amyloid,3 degenera vation duc to gum acacia, 701 Anaerobic infection. See Ctostridlal myoé Analgeaia ini shock, 34 Analysis of — airlift to ETOUSA, 211-213 ood for Britain, ws 5 British blood , 16 Anaphyls lactoid reactions ‘to bumin, 324, 331 dextran, 792, 703 gum acacia, 384 AnvErson, Capt. W. M., 604 ANDREWS, K. R., 217, 230 Anemi: after donations, 158-160 after mile transfusions, 804 after after wounding, 805 as cause of failure or resuscitation: 44 traindication m albumin, 339 dew elopment of, during replacement 7 therapy,

due to massive plasms infusions, 658 in burns, 697

, 236 enta, addition of, to serum albumin, 352-354 Anti infractions II and If11—362 in sel Antibody titer of pooled plasma, 260 Anticoagulan sodjum citrate

as, 651

¢ also Sodium citrate. Anticosguiant solution, packaging of, with glass beads, 185 Antigenicity of— aldobionic acid, 379 bovine albumin, 324, 326, 327 gelatin,

373,

374,

376

globin, 362 oxypoly gelatin, 787

repincoment agente, 726 Antigens in blood substitutes, 373 Antibemophilic globulin, 359 tilutinins, 246, 24! Anti-Rh antibodies in fraction III-1—359 AnticRhh serum, production of, 250-251 the

transfusion with group O blood, 444 ‘ravafusion with hemolyzed blood,

after wounding, 803

BLOOD

822 Anuria—Continued fromincompatibility reactions, 65-67, 654 in crushing injuries, n fixed hospitals, 666 ino lower nephro: io nephrosis, 658, 666 In plasma, reaotlons 671 Anzio, 406, 407, 418, 440 Anzio peachheed, 78, ag 398, 402, 417, 418, 424, Anzio-Nettuno loadings, 398 APA's, 628 APH's, 628 Aplastic anemia, transfusions in, 635 Appoi‘inntments in ARC blood donor centers, 113 Arabs, 424, ARC. See American Red Cross. ARC manuals 104, itd Ancuipatp, R. M Argonne National Laboratory, 793 Armed Forces blood banks before Korean War, 718-719 donations from, in Korean War, 734 Blood Donor Program, 713, 734 Epidemiological Bosrd, 781 experience with mass blood grouping, 244245

Medica] Advisory Committee, 715 Medical Policy “Council, DOD, 716, 717, Medical curement Agency, 94 need of, for measles antibodies, 83 priorities of, for ARC blood in Korean War, 734 Radio Station, Tokyo, 730 recommendation for special shock and angfusion service in, 53, 76-70 responabity of for blood in commercial orator processing Laboratory, avis AFB, 739-743, 746 Armed Services Blood and Blood Derivatives Group, DOD, 721, 722, 734, 740 Armies: British Second Army, 5 British Third Army, Eighth U.S. Army, a, 754, 755, 756 Biveontm U.S. An h U.S. Army "2. 301, 408, 445, 4465, 42, 195, 460, 481, 484, 485, 488, 509, tie, 518, 520, 542, 543, 545, 551, 553, 555, 556, 557, 558, 669 German Army i

PROGRAM

in ETOUSA, use of blood by, 561-566 Ninth U.S. Army, 618, rao ah, 622, 523, 5

Seventh U.8. Army, 445-457, 516, 517, 523, 587,558, 5 Sixth U.S. Army, 595, 604, 616-618, 619, 620, 633,6: Spanish Army, ul

Tenth U.S. Army, 603, 622, 624 Third U.S. Army, 460, 485, 487, 518, 520, Armour

542, 545, }» 551 558, 669 Laboratories, 292,

326,

327,

328,

Army Advance banks in ETOUSA, deliveries to, 505-506 Army Advance Section, Communications Zone, ETOUSA, 532-533

‘m

ea, 61, 398, 408, 498, 529, 531,

608, 702 clinica] testing of dextran in installationa of, 703 cooperation of, in transportation in uthern France, 447 donatitions from, in ETOUSA, 487 responsibility on for transportation from United Kingdom to Continent, 532 Army Air resupply Solna 549-550 Army area, need for blood in, 404-405 Army Dental School, 8 Army E flag, 127 Army Forward Echelon, Communications ‘OUSA, 532-533 Army Ground Forces, Army Groups: 1st—479, 482 12th—498 Army ened plod banks in, before Kor 8-719 y Tour 136 Army information Gepartment, 121 Army installations. ff blood in, in ETOUSA, 561-566 Army insulated shipping containers in World ‘ar II—214, 401, 780 Army laboratories,1 attachments of‘heeribating centers to, 407 Arm: oratory Manual (TM 8-227), 249 Army liquid plasma centers, 1 Army- Marine Tesponsibility for Okinawa Army Medical Library, 786 Army medical personnel in bleeding centers, 109-11

INDEX Army

oc ecioal

823 Procurement

Agency,

267,

Army

role. ah inn plasma program, 267 Army Medical Purchasing Office, 305 Army Medical Purchasing Officer, 298 Army Medical Research Mand Development

Army

Army

Medica School, 37, 55, 61, 62, 67, 72, 86, 95, 171, 176, 177, 179, 195, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213, 224, 226, 228, 234, 236, 237, 241, 246, 250, 251, 269, 274, 285, 288, 296, 299, 304, 307, 308, 344, 385, 461, 468, 490, 491, 492, 539, 652, 694, 695, 69: role of, in plasma program, 267 training courses at, 7 Army Medical Service Graduate School, 803 Army Medical Supply Depot, Alameda, 741 Army Munitions Board, 172, ah 301 Army-Navy d Board,1 Army-Navy cooperation in aulite to Pacific, Army-Navy coordination in— Leyte operation, 618, 610 Pacific, 590 SWPA,5! srmy.Nony laama (serum albumin) pack = Plasma (cerum) albumi packs Army POWs, transfusions for, 558, 565, 569,5 a archase of serum albumin from Ne Army Regulations concerning record keep-

@ x)

Army Regulations— No. 38-6520—302 No. 40-1715, 15 Aug. 1942—526, 727 No. 600-40, 22 June 1931—233 Army representation in Blood for Britain, 13 Army requirements for— plasma, 291, 29: serum im albumin, 344-345, 347-348 Army reaponsibility— in ARC Blood Donor Service, 103 for blood losses,

Manual M3, November 1944—86 Army Signal Corps, 730 Army supply catalog, listing of plasma in, 268

transfer of ownership of byproducts 3 Army ‘Transport Command, 492, 607 Army weoe Blood Procurement Program, 259—

Whole Blood Procurement 550, 560, 695, 696 Arvest, Col. R. T., 384, 400, 446

Service,

Arterial pressure in» shoes 36 Arteriovenous aneurysm, transfusion in rupture of, 635 Artery-to-vein transfusion, Arthritis, red blood cell ranstusions in, 317 Arthrus phenomenon, 324 Artz, Maj. C. P., 799 Ascending ‘limbs of Henle in incompatibility reactions,6. Ashby technique for determination of red blood cell aurvival, 221, 260, 318, $30, Oars s Asupy, W., 260, 656 Ashford Ganon Hospital, 694 Aehiand 761 Asph. in shook, of tinoues i iny ehock, 30, 56 Assam, 642 rations, provision of blood for, 397 Assistant Chief of Staff, G—1 (Personnel), 729 Assis i ff, G-4 (Logieti es), sos, ETO Assistant National Direc! Assist ant Nation el Deere mae ‘Blood r Service, 105 Aseistant "Secretaries of Defen 6 Assistant Secretary of Defense for Medical Affairs, 716, 795 istant Secretary of Defense (Health and Medical), 716 Associate Technical Director, ARC Blood D ervice, 105, 258, 317 Association of Voluntary Blood Donors, 15 after transfusion, 651 Atabrine, 595 booster dose of, before transfusion, 423, eo Atlanta, 291 Atlantie cit, 118, 695 Atomic Energy Commission, 726 Attu,

Aiypien eppenmonia, Avbur:

142

Autrae, 582, 591, 598

824

BLOOD

Australian blood: airlift of, from Port Moresby to U.S. bases, provision of, ‘tor U.S. jnatallations in SWPA, 581, 585, 586-588, 501, 598, 630 veo at nal of blood banking, 581-582, 584 of aging blood, Australian wlood bank, 581-582, 608-609, 611 Auetrolian ae Cross Blood Transfusion Servi Authorivation of donor panel in ETOUSA, 524-5: Autoclaves, shortagesof, 462 Autoclaving facilities In oversea hospitals, 193 Autoclaving of transfusion equipment, 17 Autohemafusion (autoinfusion). See Auto. nsfus: Aut tranny, 23, 706 Auxiliary surgical groups, 707 242 “603 3d—556 provision of field transfusion units for, 544 Avitaminosis in reactors to plasma, 671 , 212

otemia in lower nephron

nephrosis, 667

isoagglutini 425 3 recipients ‘of | group O blood, 541 B eubs panies subtilis, 379 Backlog— United Kingdom, 554 tients, 487 onten ri m albumin, 353 terial examination of cadaveric blood, 24 Bacteriologie tests in Blood for Britain, 14 Baapasanov, Lt. Col. A. A., 21 Bagnoli, As Bailey Co. oy Bailey tainted shipping container Korean War, 760-762

Batzer, O. Zr

in

327, 332, 364, 367, 368, 381

Baltimore,2 Bana, Maj. F.'B, 598 Bank blood. See Preserved blood, Stored blood. Barbour falling drop technique of hematocrit determination, 253

PROGRAM

Barcelona Blood-Transfusion Service, 11 Bagen, A. P., 158 Bari, 391

of— Naples bloed bank, 300, 404-405, 431, 439-440, 445 training of personnel of, 412 6703d Bloo 4 ranefuslon Unit (Ovhd.), 446-447, 451-452 6713th Blood “Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), Base collecting units, ETOUSA Blood Bank, 462

Base deficiency in shock, 40 Base depot of ETOUSA Blood Bank, 497, 98, 500, 646, 550 Base hospitals: delivery of blood to, in MTOUBA, 442 transfusion in, in MTOUSBA, 444 Base Section, ETOUSA Blood Bank, 501-505, 517 Base Section, 6713th Blood Tranefusion 407 A, 582 Base transfusion unit, British Army Transfusio Base troops, donations from-— in ETOUSA, 476, 477 in BWPA, 638 Basic laboratory {raining, 412 Battalion aid sta! plasma in, 5 3. reactions to dextran in, 793 transfusions in: in Korean Wor 805-806 in MTOUBA, in SWPA we. Battle casualtics, management of, 471 Battle casualty rates in MTOUBA, 37 Battle of— Britain, 471 Bulge, 558 El Alamein, 32 England, 49) Flanders, 48 Roer, 522-523 pattlefeld wranefvelons in Boviet Union, 22 Tr, 636 Boner bottles, 13 -14, 65, 160, 178, 180, 193, 195, 220, 305, 437, 465, 467, 400, 544, 665

INDEX for airlift to ETOUSA, 491, 492 receipt of, in MTOUSA, 398, 435 Baxter Co., 65, Barturss, W. Baylor Unlvera ity College of roe 251 Beach operations in southern Fras 447 Beasiry, ies C. HL, 521 Bedaores, plasma in, 697 Baecuea, ae Col. H. K., 31, 33, 35, 40, 41, 74, 355, 424, 4: 443, a4 Beccher-Burnett suey on shock, 40 peisinm, 5 522, 52 BEn . B, 2 Ben Venue aber atories, 175, 280, 202 Benaldine test, 659 in incompatibility reactions, 654 in low or rep bron nephrosis, 667 Brraman, Benno, in E. A., Jr., 364 rkeley, 747 Berkabire, 532 Bermuda, 209, 211, 212 Berar, Col. F. B., 21, 448, 455 Best, C. H., 708 Beta globulins, in bovine loumin, 3 27 Bota-propiolaotone in treatment of infected 780 pooleled plas Beth Israel Hospital, 239 Biak Blood Depot, 590 in Leyte operation, 618 in Lugon opera Biak Island, 500,‘sol 616, 618, 621, 36 Bilirubin level of blood in serum hepatitis, 781 Bilirubinemis, 211, 240 ‘usion, 229 with high-titer gtoup O blood, 260, 606 wi tdated blood, 857 in incompatibility reactions, 654, 656 Biliru Voces due to, in MTOUSA, 441 Tejection of with, in MTOUBA, 423 Biltings General Hospital, 695 Britiaotn, T., 65 Binniville, 520 Blochemleal similarity of plasma and serum, Blologlo fluids: testing, before transfusion, 230-240 testing, for group O blood, 239-240 transportation of, 16 Biological laboratories, representation of, in Blood for Britain,1

825 bologicala: airlift of, with blood from United Kingdom to Continent, 534 handling ef. py blood bank detachmenta i A, 8 Birmingham, or Biscuorr, T. L. W.,6 Bizerte ‘offensive, 4338 Biake, oa aa H. &., 214, 40, 494, 602, ee 614, 618,6 lock, A 20, 32, 33, 74,330, "331, 333, 706 Blalock clamp, a4 Beank, Col. J. Blast injuries, lrsitation of transfusion In, 1, 34, 225 Bleeding a requests for, from MTOUSA,4 Bleeding ventectae isted personnel in,1 in ae h Medien! General Laboratory, 406 ited Kingdom movement of, In aly, mice207 Bleeding rooms In ARC blood donor centers, 1 Bleeding echedules in ETOUSA Blood Bank, Bleeding teams n British Army Transfusion Service, 17 in ETOUSA, weine t of, ‘n TRTOUSA Bl me after fextran cerns 704 Bleeding, ‘raining of, 412 Busses, Brig. Gen, . A, 308, 4400 Butas, Brig. Gen. R. W., Blood: allocation of, for plasma and serum albumin, 301 as item of medical supply, 479 British transportation of, in World War 1—220 concept of, as perishable fluid criteria for quantitative replacement of, _ 559 ing periods of, 47, 50, 80, 179 deterioration of, after tranaportatio: distribution of, In MTOUBA, 420-421 donations of, In ZI,6 ly discussions of, ‘a management of 60-5 carly ee of, in ETOUBA, 468-470 ements of, before Korcan evaluation es use on in ETOUSA, 558-550 for ZI hospitals,

826

BLOOD

Blood Continued ine ing awareness

RTOUSA, 474-478

of

need

for,

in

Jegal restrictions on use of, 93-94 local collection of, in ZI, 128 logistics of— supply of, in North Africa, 55 of, need for, in combat casualties in North Africa, 394-39, obstacles to initial use of, 52-53 open collection of, overseas, 180, 193

in MTousA, in a heap quantitative rationale of refrigeration

by unit hoapital system,

‘ain, 97 use of, on Continent, 556-566 replacement of, of, 203-215

in Spanish Civil War

uirements for, for writ, 206-208 relative need for, in Army and base arena, 35, 404-40. reported shortages of, in ETOUSA, 552 of, 5 in general hospitals o 185 techniques of collection of, 10: 104, 139, 148152 ts of transportability of, 220-221 titre tion of, 258-260 transportability of, 220-22: transportation of, 47, ph 32, 203-215 ail in ZI, 204-20: by rail by truck in 21, 205-208 in MTO Wed in Spanish Civil War, to commercial inboravorie, 103 use of, in— Army installations in ETOUSA, 561France in 1940—19-20 versus

blood

substitutes,

34-35

versus plasma, 51, 59 Blood and Blo Derivatives Division, Armed Services Medical Procurement Agency, DOD, 721, a

PROGRAM

Blood and

Blood Derivatives Group, Armed Procurement gency, 721, 722, 723, 744, 767 Blood.bavicto 49, 7 administrative considerations of, in OUBA, 431 before Korean‘ong 718— courlere, in 420, 445, 148-449, 511, 512, 591, 605, 621, 752 early Sieoursion of, by "NRC establishment of, without supervision, 91 first plans for, 101 in Armed Forces hospitala before Korean War, 718-719 in Army hospitals in Japan after World War I—7 27 in British casualty clearing stations in rh or te inin evacuation bospital 15th Medical Coneral Laboratory, 401~ 404 in forward hospitals, 395 inm general hospitals, 195 pitals in Sicily, 395-396 in» MTOUSA 306-445,489 in United Kingdom before World War II— limitations of, 706 logistics of, in MTOUSGA, 397, 406-407, 420-421 9th General hoepitel blood bank. See

Leyte bloo

10th Medical Gon ral Taboratory blood ank. See Manila blood ba on Continent, inspection of, 353 56 on LST 464—593, 594-595 on LST(H) 951—623 127th Station Hospital Blood Bank, 518, 522, 545,5: detachments ot §20-521, 522~523 move! o Continent, 522 152d ration Hoanita 1 Blood Bank. See also ETOUSA Binod Bank. proposal for establishment of, in New Guinie aaa sections in Kore: 20th General Tenia, 642-643, 645-646 27th General Hospital blood bank. See Blood bank Facilities Office, Base K, 607

INDEX

827

Blood bank officer, for— Luzon operation, 620 Okinawa operation, 622 Blood Bank Storage Depot and Shipping Center, 406th Medical General Laboratory, 723 Blood-casualty rao en before KoreanW. in ETOUSA, $85. 86, 487, 556, 561, 565-566, 568 in Korean War, 729, 752, 756 in Luzon operation, 620 in Middle East, 480 in Okinawa operation, 631 in Operation OLYMPIC, 640 in SWPA, 615, 630, 633-634 recommendations for, 574 Blood compatibility, studies of,5 Blood depots in Kore: Korean War, 752 Blood

derivatives,

71

inventory or stockpile of, before Korean Wear, oe? "Pema, Serum albumin, Frec-

See

Blood distribution center: for Okinawa operation, 622, 623 on Guam, 614-615 e, 6: Blood &donor oe Union, 21 See seria Nationa Red Cross blood donor centers. Blood donors. See Donors. Blood flow, reduction of rate of, in chock, 30 Blood for Britain, 13-15, 101, 267, 270, 312 analysis of operation, 14—) criteria of donors for, 14 , 15 \aboratory testa i in, 14

,

us

Univers.

6 after gelatin injections, 377 RC bloed od doner centers, 74 n MTOUSA, 429-442 in processing laboratory, Travis AFB, 744 n World War I—6-7 technique of 377 training

in,

Blood groups, 937, 3A5-246, 333 identification o! T1T-40

65

lood loss: at operation,

686

misconception of magnitude of, 31 misconception of properties of, before Korean War, 720-72 quantitative relation of— to blood pressure, 12 te eree of shock,3. See also Hemorrhage, hose of circulating ood volum: Blood | ais in MTOUSA, 418-120, 445, Blood | ae B

See P'

lasma jood-plasma

Producers ratio,

er, 95 Association,

278

462-463

Ba concept of, 392-393 estimates in ETOUSA In forward Nospitals of ETOUSA, 566 in forward hospitals of MTOUSA, 437438 n MTOUSA, 3!394, 396 Blood. plasma replacement therapy, in Spanish Civil War, 11-12 Blood Plasma Section, Office of Civilian Defense, Blood-plasma Gerum) ratio, in Western 1 of— need for plasma, 697 de nations of, on shock effect of dextran on, 793 effect of gelatin on, ‘374, 376 effect of glu

wards,

710

n, 361 effect of physiologic salt solution on, 34, 35 383 effect of plasma on, 298, 686 Rect of serum albumin o , 35. elevation of, in resuscitation, 34, 690, 691 in hematop ock, in a

meuibility

veactions,

654

in lower nephron nephrosis, 467 in ctions, 670 in reactions from contaminated blood, 465 in relation to timing of operation, 40 in shock, 559, 684 ineress ease of hemorrhage by elevation of, of donors,

139, 140, 145

BLOOD

828 Blood pressure—Continued in Blood for Britain, 14 suantiative Telation of: to de of oligemia, 43 to dearee of shock, 3! to loss of circulating blood

67038

PROGRAM

Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 445-457, 516

6713th Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.),

volume,

4

recurrent hemorrhage with restoration of, relation of, to blood loss, 12 Blood program in‘British Amy, 15-21 World War I—5-8 in ETOUSA, 50-578 in Ge y, 22-23 in Korean War, initial steps of, 717-721

War n Werid Wa I—8-10 legal aspects of, 71, logistica oh |in an AT-548 status of, at onset of Korean War, 713-714 Tmination of, after World War II-—714 Blood replacement, concepts of, in Spanish Civil War, 11-12 in resuscitation, 689-693 indtvidualization of, 0 arch Divis Army Medical orehoel, 95, 210, 224 228, 274, 296, 304, 490, 491, 652, 694, orgsnization of, 61 ‘2 Blood research program, Army Medical School, 65-66 Blood sludge, red blood cell residua from, 312 Blood substitutes, 371-381 criteria of, 372-373 historical note on, 371 in World War I—$71 Merature of, enclature of, 55, 371 storage of, in tissues, 373 versus wholle blood ini shock, 34-35 See ale expanders. Blood Transfusion Branch, OTSG, 721 Blood transfusion companies: 6825th—445, Blood transfusion units, 48 considerations of, 411 ctaehment of, in MTOUSA, 398, 400-

404-411, 435, 440-442, 445, 446 Blood volume: as index of shock, 30, 32 eos 3

mncer field conditions, 30 u, J. 1 BlutAiiesigkeitereat 2, 381 Board for Coordination of Malarial Studies, Board

for

Study

66

of

Severely

Wounded,

Boning Air Force Base, 794 Bologn: Bomcobing o vroepital ships, 618 Bonn, D. B., 33 Bone marrow damage after use of Periston, 381, 788, 789 Bone marrow, storage of dextran in, 791 Bockkeeping methods in ETOUSA blood nk, 504 NB, Rear Adm. J. T., 715 Bonpzr, J., THI, 650 Boston, 111, 214, 221, 248, 331, 494, 600, 7 Boston agreemen Boston Children’s * owpital, 304 Boston City Hospital, 697 Bougainville, 594 Boulogne, 20 Boulogne base in World War I—5

B

M., 379

Bovine steatiowoh 65, 76, 325-335,

345, 359

studies on, 327-32! globulin content of, 327, 331, 333

age, 335

multiple injections of, 327, 328, 330, 331 production of, 326-327 properties of, 326, 327, 328, 333 reactions to, 325, 327, 330-332

P., 265 Bowman-Grey choo! of Medicine, 374 Boy Scouts,1

INDEX Borp, M. C., 144, 261 Bornron, M. i. 166 Baacrun, Lt. Cal M. M., 589, 690 Bradycardia, Brain: damage to, in shook, 36, 56, 665 storage of blood s ubstitutes in, 373 Brain tumors, fibrin film in surgery for, 368 Breaks;age: estimated loases from, before Korean War,

losses from, 300-301, 304, 305 in ETOUSA, 567 in Korean War, 747 in MTOUSA, 438

path 20, 1 Blood, ton 5 " ambulanc e Uni appreciation of ond for blood, 475 Army, 179, 193, 218 Army Blood Bupply Depot, 470, 471,

British British British British

British Army Medical Services, British amy transfusion sorlipment, 179, 474, British ‘omy Transfusion Service, 15-21, 67, 8, 391, 493, 3G 460, Prt 474, 475, 476, 480, 528, 530, 545, 706 ita, 397 British base colle Britist bleeding bottles, 1 i, 194, 195, 433, 5, 544 Bat blood bank system, 396, 397, 404 of, 16 Bate blood banks, donations to, by U.8. troops, 528-53 British cooperation in blood program in OTSG. » BA, 30 British dextra British Eighth. “anny, “61, 532 ih Emergency Medical Service, 16-17, “178, 473, 5! British ih Expeditionary Forees in World War Britisha oxperience— inmn ranees we Middle East, 480 inS MTOUSA, ae1-462 in North Africa, 54-55, 177, 476, 478

829 in Western Desert,

291

British field dressing Stations 17 British fed surgical w 17 Britis tish fi sefusion tame, 17-18, 397 Ansio® beasthena 403, 407 Bekah hospitals, care of U.S. troops in, 94 Britvoh Medical Journal, 7, 19, 20, Medical Liaison Officer, 54, 391 British Medical Researc Council, 15, 293 British Medical Service, 2 in World W: British Ministry 3or Heal 16 British Naval Headquarters, 549 British personnel, care Oh | in 127th Station Hospital, British provision of— blood for Anzio beachhead, 55, 398 for station paepitals, 4 Ne intravenous fluids, 3 2, 397 items for field ‘ratatmion seta, 544 plasma, 460-470 refrigerators before D-day, 541 British purchase of plasma from commercial laboratories, 94 British vociplont set, 194 British Red Cross, 529 British supplies for ETOUSA Blood Bank, British training in intravenous therapy, 85 British transportation of blood in World War I—220 British transfusion units, 55, 397, 398, 440, British troops, donations from, in MTOUSA, British use of ACD solution, 226 Britis ih War Office, 530 BRon WELL, . W., 799 Brooke General Hospital, 695, 732 Brooklyn, 50, 94, 200, 201, 342, Brown,Lt. Cdr. H. R., 602, 03, nor, 614, 615, 032, 433, 640 Brusca, 219 rn Mawr Hospital, 65, 102, 266, 336 5 Jr., 769-770 ar jonor Servioe, 103

830

BLOOD

Buenos Aires, 218 Buffalo, 291 lk. of prescrvative solutions, 228 Bulletin, Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, NRC, 79 BUMED, 254 Buncz, L. E., 23 Bureau of Budget, 775 U.S. Department of BURNETT, Maj. C. H., 424 Burn, clinical resemblance of, to lower nephron a) fibrinogen fim in,| 364 fragili in, 657 gelatin in, 274, 377 hei rmovoneentration in, 30 incidence of, 90 plasma in, 35, 55, 266-267, 297, 462, 617, 69 replacement therapy by femoral vein in,

3

Fr 3 8 g. 5 5

replacement therapy th i in, in, 338, a7, 354, 702 serum in, 336 shook in, 32, 374, 697 . M., 210, 229 Buusiness firms, recruitment of donors in, 125 Byprodusts, 61, Toial Traduction of, 71 contracts for, 84, 267 eauipment for processing of, 84 Toblems in commercial production of, "71 license for production of, 81 of plasma fractionation, 342, 347 storage of, 82 ‘ee also apecial byproducts. C-47 planes for transportation, in— ETOUSA, 558, 534-637, 550 MTOUSA, 418-420 C-64 Planes for transportation oa Continent, 535, 537 Cabarrus Hospital,6 Cadaverio blood, 12, 23, 24 investigation of, in Korean War, 785

PROGRAM

Cadres for transfusion teams in SWPA, 606 Cairo, 382, 3 Calcium content of blood: effect of citrateon, 770 effect of ion exchange reains on, 770 Calculated risk of ples infusions in Korean War, 781 Calcutta, 642, 645 Caren Ee Brig. Gen. G. R., 49, 61, 64, 228, 237,382, 603 camoutlage "of expendable insulated con‘eines

Canada, 159 Canadian Army, 85 Canadian National Research Council, 158, 347, 379 Cancollation of appointments for donations, Cancer, ‘ranef ‘usion of cadaveric blood in, 24 Can Cannon, Lt. Col. W. B., 29, 49, 51, 73, 80, 85, 334, 336, 338 Canteons in ARC blood donor centers, 111,

14, 148

commercial processing laboratories, 271 ETOUSA Blood Bank, 480-481, 482, 483, , 600, 509 refrigeretion for aed 541-542 Cape Gloucester, 5! Capillary bed, red bleod cell counts from, 30 Capillary age of colloid solutions, had Capi rmeability in shock, 30,3 Carbon dioside combining power of blood ini ock, 39 Carbon dioxide poisoning: autot transfusion in, 23 transfus in, 7 Carbon dioxide. snow, 277, 278 Carbon steel, 1 Carsonnetn, Lt. Col. A. J., 722 Cardiac embarrassment during transfusion, Cardiac failure: yasme | infusi ion, 570 Cardiac fnation in shock, Cardiac ou Tease i inn shoek, 30, 32, 38 Telation of, to degree of shook, 36 Cardiac tamponade in shock, 688 Cardiorespiratory embarrassment in

shock,

Cardiovascular accidents after donations, 157 Cardiovascular disease in donors, Cardiovascular response 4 rording, 39-40 Cargo st blood on, in Luzon operation, Car reo space for— airlift from Vase Kingdom to Continent, 532, airlift fra ali to ETOUSA, 538-539 insulated containers for ‘Austrelian airlift, 581 insulated containers for Pacific airlift, 610 Carinola, Carlisle ‘Barracks, 54, 87 Carpopedal spasm after donations, 157 Carpet, A., 13 CartTEr, Col. B. N., 48, 67, 88, 249, 461, 462, 464, 465, 492, 498, 551, 606, 604 Case fatality rat oe aiafter transfu:usia: 2, 3,5 in lower nephron nephrosie, 667 in severe ° | shocks 4 Case histo coneraled hemorrhage in serum albumin administration, 339 jas fatality ater 4{ranefusion with group O blood,4 mostasis wit “th fibrin foam, 355-367 intravascular hemolysis of recipient’s cells, 656 fea cneephalitis 368 lower nephron nephrosis, 658 plasma infusions,

637

reaction to prove 0 blood by group A recipient, 424 serum albumin in burns, 338 serum albumin in shock, 337 serum hepatitis, direct human transfer of, 9 scrum sickn after bovine albumin therapy, 330, 332, 333 transfusion before surgery for multiple unwise use of blood in blast injuries, 21 453 Caneallotment to Office of Civilian Defense for emergencies, 91 Caasino, 39 Cassino campaign, 38, 40, 405, 418 delivery of blood in, 417-418 CasTELuANos, A. 2 Castix, W. B., 663

Casts— in lower nephron nephrosis, 659 Blasina reactions, 671 Casualtien estimates of— in

Okinawa

operation,

624

ion pera tion OLYMPIC, 638 selection of, forsareery, 683-684 Catalog stings 8) mponents of improved transfusion set, 3 plasma package, 166 sodium chloride, 234 C mihenerey irradiation of infected pooled CATOR (Combined Air Transport Command Operations Room), 533, 540, 541 ‘auses of— lergic reactione, 650-651 death in battle casualtics, 38 pyrogenic reactions, 652-653 reactions, 649-650 Chir na Burmaved blood, 2! ina"a preserved vlood, ? 29 Cellulose tubing, | 71 entral Blood Transfusion Institute of Mi rol, sdva‘antages ofof, 511 ‘tral distributing facilityfor Luzon operation, 620-6 21 on Guam, 600, 602, 607, 620-621 Central laboratory, recommendation for, in SA, 39: Central nervous 3) effe of aise ‘utrocaplllary agglutinainj

we as ease of failure of resuscita, 44

Central nervoua m system limited transfusion in ‘wounds of, 21

grouping, 238 lasma production, 13, 293, 299 Centrifuge technique, 259 Centrifuged plasma, hemoglobin of, transportation,

220-221

after

BLOOD

832

Chiet Consultant in Surgery, ETOUSA, 479, Chief, Finance and Supply Division, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 496 Chief of Ordnance, 515 Chief of Staff, ETOUSA, 532 Chief of transfusion service in 464 Chief, Operations Divison, Oi of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, Chief, Plane and Operations, Office of Surn, Firat U.8. an mys 553 Chief, Profeuionl 8 Division, Office ief Surgeon, ‘ETOUSA, 471-472, Chief,

Supply

Division,

Office

of

Surgeon, ETOUSA, 494-495, 648

Chief Saree See Chief Surgeon,

erous ISA, 511 7, Brig. Gen. P. R. USAFFE. 755

Chief

PROGRAM

Chief Sacral USAFPAC,& Chief Surgical Consultant, oTs6, 64, 464 one aloo I Ranxin, Brig. Ge: hief, TransportationCorps, ETOUSA, 531 Childgen' ‘a Hospital, Boston, 248 Children's Hospital Cinsonat, 226 Chilled blood,6: for emanguinated easualties, 555-556 after early use ofsodium citrate, 651 ith—

aero diagn to Rh inoeneatibilte, “49 chin, national blood program in, 642 a-Burma-India theater, 387, 642-646 Cnonplainta about intravenous solutions

from, 385-387

Chinatown, 642 hinese provision of blood and plasma for, in CBI, $46 -046 Rh factor in, 246 Chloride levee of blood in shock, 38 Chronic wound infection, 7 Chronellog: 1 pyrogenic nie reactions, 653 of shock, 31-3: Chrysler Corp., 208 Chrysler refrigerator, 206, 208 Chureh Co., 204, 206 Church containers, 204-205, 206, 299, 603, Q

Centrifuges, shortages ot 203, 294, 342 for Pacific airlift, for seruin albumin orogram, 343 in CBI, 642 Cerebral hemorrhage after donations, 157 Changeover to— oon solution on ey ainift, 214-215 ex endal ble containers on Pe RTOUSA amie. mens large plasma Channel, 5: Chann e] Base Section, ETOUSA, 524-525 Channel porta, os Cuarin, M. A , 260 Chaplains, aid trom , in securing donors, 396 one ter directors, ARC, 106, 108-109 ta for co’oper sulfate teat, 254-255 Chaneoer, Lt. . J., 513 Chef du Pont, 520 sea, 740 Chemical adsorption, 277 Chemical Division, Army Medical School, 237, 296 Chemical peritonitis, 705 Chemical purity of serum albumin, 345 Chemical similarity of human and bovine albumin, 326 hes autotranefusion i in wounds of, 23 limited transfusion in wounds01 woah of, 39, 43-44, 635, gon 705-706, 710 Chicago, 119, 206, 292, 310, 600, 638, 719 Chief Consultant in Medicine, ETOUSA,

Cuurci, Maj. E., 204, 205 Churches, cooperation of, in recruitment of donors, 118 CHURCH Col. E. D., 37, 55, 57, 391-392, , 395, 425, 443, 462-463, 485, 683, oe 692, 697

7H, Maj. A. L., 382

Cincinnati, 226, 291 Cireular— No. 73, Department of the Army, 20 Aug. 95: 3—126 Circular letters, 72, 604 No. 8, Office of Surgeon, II Corpa, NATOUBA, 7 Aug. 1943—422-423 No. 22, Office of Surgeon General, 22 Feb. 1943—91 No. 27, Office of Surgeon, NATOUSA, 20 Aug. 1943—423

INDEX

833

3, Office omeChief Surgeon, UGAFPAC, 0 Aug. . s, Ofive ot Cut Surgeon, ETOUBA, pr. 2, 530 lo 63. Office otCnet’ Ch Surgeon, ETOUSA, 19 June 1945—660 No. 88, Office of Surgeon General, 4 Sept. 1941—234 . 108, Office of Surgeon General, 27 May 1943—46-48, 72, 180, 192, ‘193, No.

194,

463-464,465, 466

112, Office of Surgeon

Nov.

1941—234

General,

26

Circulating blood volum bevine albumin in elevation of, 326 delay in restoration of, 683 determina tion of, 42-44 one ‘blood © 555 ooonhold solutions on, 371 gelatin on, 377 plasma on, 462 further logs of, in untreated shock, 40 raid casualties, 266-267 inin bematopneie shock, 56 logs of, as cause of shock, 29, 30, 32, 33, 36, 37, 54 quantitative relation of loss of, to blood pressure, 43-44 reduction of, in shock, 336, 665-666, 684 Ciroulatio bovine elbumnin in reduction of, 326 concentrated plasma in embarrasement of, 50 delay inrestoration of, 683 determinat: not, 42-44, 255 discovery of, effect of— aging blood on, 555 crystalloid rltion on, 371 gelatin on, in air raid reeaitics, 266-267 maintenance (restoration) of, by plasma, 2 1, 4 2 overloading of, by transfusion, 12, 108 reduction of, in shock, 346, 665-666, 684 aps infections, 32 intrat horaeie injury, i 32 peritonitis, 32 reactions trom contaminated blood, 665 Cirrhosis of liver globin in, 733 serum albumin in, 354

Citrate transfusion technique in Spanish Civil War, 11 Citrated blood: etna of, 553-554 period of, 219 cmp use of, in ehock, 31 first use of, 208 in World War I— irae blood 7 echniaue in British blood Citrated cadaver poe. nn Citrated p Citrie sed aa8eaiiuert ‘or dried plasma, 76, 266— Citrus fruit, yield of pectin from, 378 Civic mi meetings, recruitment of donore at, 125 Civitan blood banks, ee of ARC , in Korean War 738 Civitan blood program in Germ Civilian catestrophes, provision for. OL 102, 271 \vilian committees, studies by, in postperiod, 715-717 n War, 714, 718 Civilian distribution of excess blood in Luzon operation, 622 Civilige donations— ‘arseilles bleeding center, 453 inin ETOUBA, 462 in Japan Civilian experience ‘withhabock. 29 Civilian hos, blood eupply to, by ARC, 713 ragnnel in, 129 poattransfusion cleaning routine in, 652 Civilian needs in Great Britain, 15, 16 Civilian physicians, employment of, in bleeding centers, 100-110 Civilian population, release of globulin to, 85 Civilian possibilities for bovine albumin, 326 Civilian Practice, intravenous therapy in, } 77 Civilian requests for byproducta Civilian requirements in{ Korean. War, 735 Civilian share of gamma globulin in Korean War, 783Civilian sources of blood, 101 Civilian transfusion equipment, 177

red blood cell residua, 312-319 surplus plasma, 310-311, 772 transfusion, 48

BLOOD

834 Cuarre, H,, 351 Classification of shoek, 3! Classification station in oanish Civil War, i1 Cleaning donor ota in MTOUSA, 432, 434, 436 improvised transfusion equipment, 180, 1

ee a ®

recipient sets in MTOUSA, 440, 444 wranstusion equipment 196, 219 in field, in noapital ood banks in ETOUSA, 474 Clearing companies blood for, in Luzon operation, 621 blood for, in SWPA, 634 donations from, 393, 569 field transfu:usion units for, 544 plasmaa enton in, in SWPA, 673 Clearing statio: field hospitalats adjacent to, 684 7th Division, transfusions in, 406 use of expendable insulated containers in, 214

Cleveland, a Climate, effect cellulose ebing, 171 on plasm package, 172 on reconstitution of plasma, 170 Climatic conditiona during airlift to TOUSA 2218 Clinical consideral in cree 107, "553-556 in SWPA, 6 Clinical course inn incompatibility reactions, 654

Clinical effects of hemolysis of recipient cells, 656, Clinieal experience with crystalloid solutions in World War I—371 Clinical picture in— lower nephron nephrosis, 666, 667 Plasma

reactions,

670-672

pyrogenic reactions, 653 reactions, due to contaminated blood, 665 incompatibility, 653-654 Rh incompatibility, 246, 249 Clinical studies. on

dextran,

790,

791-794

m dried plasma, 101-102 Clinical testing of— e albumin, 327, 328-332, 334-335

PROGRAM

commercial Plasma, 297 fibrin film,3 fibrin foam, 365-367 fraction II—363 serum cloumin, 337-339, 345, 354-355 serum albumin, criteria mbin, 364 See alao Ti Clini cal use of liquid plasma, Clinical vale of gum acacia, 3a Clipper Closed collection system, 15, 178, 180, 217, ‘3, 274, 462, 468, 469 in ARC blood donor centers, 148-152 in Blood for Britain, 13 in ETOUBA Blood Bank, 502 in ETOUBA ea Wan 3 in Spanish Civil Wi n LST 464—595 preparation of frozen plasma in, 273 violation of, Closing of ARC blood donor centers, 111, 310 Clostridial myositis, 24, 62, 140, 384, 546 cause of shock, 38, 39, 688 plasma in, 697 Cloth filters, 169-170 Clotting: after use of gum acacia, 384 during bleeding, 9, 435 during transfusion, 4, 189, 193, 553-554 in Korean 4 losses from, 110 in MTOUSA,4 in Okinawa soeration, 627 of plasma, 285, 309-310 prevention of, 726, 77! Clotting time, effect of oxidized cotton on, 330

COs-cooled “pigs,” 279 Coagulating properties of thrombin, 363 Coagulating time: after pectin injections, 377 shortening 218

of,

from

use

of sodium

Coates, Col. J. B., Jr., 475 Cocktail transfusions, 428-4 Cocoanut Grove disaster, 29, 249, 697 Coaa, A, 1 Cocozssatt, L. R., 143

citrate,

835

Coan, E. J., 71, 74, Bl, 240, 241, 201, 271, 328, 331, 332, 333, Al, 342, 343, 344, 350, 352, 353, 354, 378, 378, 379, 380, 770

82, 83, 84, 285, 325, 334, 336, 345, 347, 350, 363, 714, 725,

221, 326, 337, 348, 965, 726,

237, 327, 340, 349, 374, 769,

HEN, J. H., 37 Cone, Col. E.G +» 607 Cold isoagglutinins after transfusions with 806 transfixing, 436

donavone from: n ETOUBA, 524, 520 in Korean War, 718 in Mouse. os 422 In SWPA, Combined ic bia port Operations Room (CA 333, vor 541 Combined “avding operations, serum albuIn, 347 Command ‘channels, Joglatica of transpor532

Force, Pacific (ComBervPac), Commander, U. Bt Naval Forces, Europe, 511 of carly transfusions, 2 Commanding General— cadavoric blood, 24 ADBEC, 550 colestng bottles Army Air Force, ETOUBSA, 531 r ACD solution, 205, 227, 228 Army Bervice Forces, 465 foe Alsever's solution, ETOUSA, 479, 485, 406, 524-525, 531 for Blood for Britain, n Irat U.S. Army, 533, 543, 545 in Soviet Ualon, 22 Ist Army Group, 479, 533 siliconising of,7: von a Force, 532, 533, 550 Collecting tection a ETOUSA Blood Bank, 501-503 US. Ar yo Collecting statlons, transfusions in, in oa 8, biratogte AL For Commanding officer, ee " Medical Labora406 Collecting teams— tory, 5 in ETOUBA, 463, 466 Commandos, Commercial ‘eed banks before Korean War, in Korean War, 714 ing techniques— 719 in ARC blood toner centers, 104, 148-152 Commercial processing lnboratories, 71, 104, in MTOUSA 108,1 Collecting tule in“Tncompatibllity Teacecloveren of, 275 tions, 654, contamination at, 308 Collecting oie ‘in general hospitals in farpectiona of, 208-200 ETOUBA, 465 location of, 120 Colloid solutions, propertics of, 52 losses of blood in, 83 records of, 297 Colmar Pocket, 450 Color of expendable insulated containers, role of, In plasms supervision of production of grouping 214 ‘ain, 241 Colorado mane Penitentia , 259 after closure of, 705 Commercial procurement of Intravenous Coloa 388 Columbia. ‘Divert College of Physicians nd 8 na, 74, 258, bstanoces, Columbus, 158, 160, 291 blood substitutes, 373 casualties: b: ucts, 71 donations from, in MTOUBA, 422 dextran, 704-795 evolution of use of blood for, 47-58 equipment betore Korean War, 719 ratio of transfusion sets te, ‘In ETOUSA, for plasma program, 203-205 544-545 fat emulsions, 796 Combat troops: fibrin foam, 365 approval of bleeding of, in ETOUSA, 527 T1T-400—

04— —56

836

BLOOD

Commercial production of—Contlnued fraction II—362 gelatin, 373, or, 375, 376 Periston, 788-75! plome, ‘01, 260, 280-282, 289-293 Plastic apparatus, 759 m albumin, 71, 290, 341-347 a ontractsfor, 3 41-344 specifications for, 348 47 testing of, 3 Commercial provision of Plasma for Free French, 04 Commercial sigeraten for plasma, 273 Commercial Solvents Corp., 793, 794, 795 Commercial transfusion equipment, 437, 464 in ZI hospitals, 177 Commission ©on Reorganization of Executive Bran f Government, 715 Commitee) appointed to study health matters after World War erst Commitiee(s) on— Blood and Blood Derivatives— ARC, 727 NRC, 723, ne ae 726, 758, 766, 767, 760, 7 Blood and Rel sod Problems, NRC, 769, 781, 785, 787, 790 Medical and Hospital Services of Armed Forces, 715 edical Research, OSRD, 84, 229, 230, Medi 329, 333, 326, 334, 354, 362, 365 National Rese a1 5 Shock, NRC, 724 . Surgery, NRC, 30, OL 714, 802 Surgical Shock and Allied Conditions,

NRG, 371

Transfusion ee NRC, 171, 184 ‘Tranefuslons, wee 4], 47, 49, 51, 3, 74, 1 “v02, ‘en 220, 267, 289, aaah 338, a7, 373, 4 06 Confere! Subecrnmittecs, er

gS, etc.

8, 92 of ACD and Alsever's 22 Compatible blood, hemolytic reactiona after use of, 245-246

Compatible

PROGRAM

donor cella, intravascular hemol-

Compas teria o| dia tn paraplegics, 605 a,4 Compensation for accidenta in ETOUBA, 530 Complaints concerning intravenous solutions, a Comp! Jement, 270, 273, 286, 287 abge! of, in serum albumin, 702 components of, 359 , 336 Complications of (reactions to)— plasma, 668-680 fransfvaion, » 649-665 See also Reactions, Special reactions. Components of— rt-Emereon transfusion set, 36-39 cmondable donor set, 196 expendable recipient sets, 196 field transfusion unit, 186-189 improvised tranefusion set, 103 original plasma package, 163, 165

pectin, 378

plasma, 270, 273, 336 plasma fractions, 359-360 loss of, 286 plasma package, 166-168, 169-172, 702 serum olbumin package, 198 Composition of— ACD solution, 227-228, 229 Alsever’s solution, 222, 228 Armed Services Blood and Blood Derivai 722

modified DeGowin ct al. solution, 222 modified Rous-Turner solution, 219 shock teams on Okinawa, 626 6703 pe Blood ‘Transfusion Unit (Prov.), Mslough proeervative," pr Compound prot ures of feo, 3? 444, 68 Conee: orrhage in album therapy, eae , 702 Concentrated plasma, 50, 173, 270, 275, 276, Concentration of antibodies in fraction II— 362 Concept (s) of— blood as perishable fluid, 16

INDEX blood Joplacement in Spanish Civil War, hemo! hag? as cause of shock, 265, 706 lower nephron nephrosis, need for whole blood in Pacific, 582 plasma, 302, 708 in Pacific, profession:nal henalin igof blood, 752-754 replacement therapy after World War I— replaocment therapy as specialized branch of medicine, 76-78, 469 resuscitation, 683 shock, 29-33, 37-38, 41-42, 684-686 utbreak of World War II—30-33 evolution of, 37-38 in Worl ‘ar I—7, 8-9, 31-32, 51 therapy, development of, in MTOUSA,

837 Pectin, NRC,3 lasma Featnation, NRC, 361 Preparati f Normal Human Plasma, NRC, "as Preparation of Rae Human Serum Albumin, NRC, 1 Preserved Blood, NRO. 221, 229 Radioactive Dextran, NRC, 792-793 Resuepended Red Blood Cells, NRC, 260 Revision of Army Manual on Blood Grouping, NRC, 252 Shock, NRC, 258 Transfusion Equipment, NRC,5: Trane/ucion Kavipment and Procedure, 171 une of Gane Gioia, NRC, 783 geniti omalies, 368 Conglutination of red blood cells caused by

74,3

transfusion, 20 Congress, 716 io component of shoek therapy, Congress of Induetrial Organizations, 125 47. Conservatio! in forward areas, 48-49 oritioal materials, 175 reactions, 657-658 shipping space, 185 reactions, errors in, 657-659 Constrton of— value of plasma, 48, 310, 482 insulated shipping containers, 214 whole blood for combat casualties, evoluBailey insulated shipping containers, 760—tion of, 47-54 in plone 586 ETOUSA Blood Bank, 498-499 lecerent i in MTOUSA, 54-57 Hollinger insulated shipping containera, Conferencete(a) o 762-7 Albumin, NRC, 338, 339, 240, 342, 345, insulated shipping containers in MTOUSA, Albumin and Byproducts, NRC, 340, 342, 3! Albumin Teaing NRC, 198, 381, 332, 343 Blood Donor Program, 118-11 Blood Grouping, NRe 53, 2, 237, 238, Blood Group Specie Substances A & B, NRG, 2 lood Proscrvation, NRC, 110, 210, 213, 226 Blood Preservation and Red Cell Suspension, NRC, 229, 248-249 Blood Proourement, "NRC, 100 Bovine Albumin, NRC, 330 Derivatives of Plasma Fractionation, NRC, 776, 781 Differential Pgglurination of Erythrocytes, NRC, Epidemiology of Pal iomyelitis, 784 ‘at’ Emulsions for Intravenous Admninistration, NRC,7

Navy insulated shipping containers, 213609-610 Consultant(s) in medicine— Offi cure eon General, 680 Third U.S. my, 509 Consultant(s) a resuscitation, Whole Blood id Shock for Okinawa operation, 603, 604 Consultant(s) in surgery in—

A, 70 Fifth U.S. Army, 391-362, 690 First U.S. Army, 486, 553 MTOUSA, 37, 398, 463

Sixth U.S. Army, 619, 633 SWPA, 639 Tenth U.S. Army, 624 Consultant in ‘Transfusion ET :

Contaminated blood, 304-305, 581-582, 638, 659, 720

and

Shock,

503, 552,

838

BLOOD

Contaminated blood—Continued accounting ffor, oon Contaminated. a water, 651, 673 as oauge of pyrogenic reactions, 652 in MTOUBA, 434 Contaminated liquid plasma, 96 Contaminated plasma, 303, 304-305 Teactions to, 668, 671, 673-674 scrum albumin from, 8%, 302, 306, 345-346, 347 thrombin from, 365 ‘rial Tuns with, 343, 344 Contaminatio as cause

of reactions,

650

at commercial processing laboratories, 299, 308 avoidance of, in closed collection system, 268 during bleeding, 300-301 during filtration of serum albumin, 353 War, 743 in SWPA, 607 losses from, 304, 306-308 in Blood for Britain, 14 in MTOUSA, 442 of‘blood overseas, 462 of blood substitutes, 373 of cadaveric blood, 785 a, 273 of intravenous solutions, 386-387 of liquid plasma, 270, 274, 306-308 of peritoneal cavity as cause of shock, 39, 40 of placental blood, 25 of pleural cavity “8 cause of shock, 39 of pooled of red blood cell ‘ceidus, 313, 315 of serum albumin, 450 risk of, with open collection system, 180, Content of instructional courses in British lood program,

See also European theater. Continental ir fense (CONAD), 452

wy fe PP

459, 478, 480, is 49 516, 518, 5 533, 534, 5 557, 559, 560,

8

>

Continent, 57, 195, 209, 482 515, 0, 531, 532, , 546, 547, 549,

481, 510, 522, 536, 561,

Command

PROGRAM

Continental Blood Bank, 212, 215, 247, 452, 495, 515-517, 522, 523, 543, 547, 553, 567, 665 administrative considerations of, 516-517, detachmenta of, 445, 518-522 suthorizetion fon § 513 deliveries I, 495-496, 510, 536 detachments of, 516-817, 549-550

personnel o 1 transportation for, 516 See aloo ETOUSA Blood Bank. Contracts for— byproducts, 84, 267 dried plasma, 172, 267, 289-293, 301, 304, 310 fibrin foam, 365 immune globulin, 363 Contaodetiow

in, 267, 341-344

to fluid administration, 96

or "plod program before Korean War, 719-720 f hemorrhage, 12, 34, 56 Controlled heating of pooled infected plasma, 77 Controversy over acceptance of field transfusion unit, 192-195 Contusions alter Glonstions, 157 Convalescentserum, 276 Convalescent as a fs donors i in World War I—9 Conversic of contaminated lasmaa into serum min, 88, 128, 302, 306, 345-346, 347 of tucke for refrigeration in ETOUSA, 541-543 Convulsions after donations, 142, 157 Cook County Hoapital, 379

Cooperating : chapters, ARC, 113, 118 Coordin of— blood 2egencics in National Blood Program, DOD with other agencies before Korean 720 Travis AFB with other agencies,7: Coordinator, Army Whole Blood procure. mont

Service,

696

INDEX

839

Cops, O., 33

34,

43,

159,

160,

Thalhimer modification of, 257-258 Corn Products Refining Co., 317 (Mm syTup, resuspension of Ted blood cells 19, 404 LY. uy 400, 401, 402, 413, Coronary oovluaten aafter donations, 157 TL_55, 392, 394, 422, 438 III Amphibious, 622, 623, 628 VII—243, 520, 574 TIT—520 XVIII—521 XXIV—623 Corps of Engineers, 463, 516 Corps troops, donations from, in MTOUSA, 398 ARC Blood Donor Serviee, 136-137 Baxter bottles, 195 insulated shipping containers, 765 plasma in Korean 78: plastic aoe evotae 49 processin; products,8 processing er ratory, Tra vis AFB, 741 reprocessiné

Plood

derivatives:

718

albumin in Kor 782 tranafuai sion equipment for fad use, 179 Cotentin Peninsula, 518 lonore,

clinical tes of bovine asibumin, 327 of serum some, 339 compatibility, donors— in MTOUSA, 422-4! 2 of

Blood

for

Britain,1

to ARC program, 130-144, 261 dried plasma, 279— equipment for military use, 77-78 facilities for ARC blood donor centers, 13-1

— for military use, 274, 276-277 grouping sera, 238-239 handling of blood, 574-575 in SWPA, 582-583 hemodynamic state ini n shock, 684-685 human serum albumin, 76 pectin, 378 Plastic equipment, 758 preservation of blood, revision of, 770 Preservative solutions, 217, 221, 222, 229 proccasing plasma, 95 puantitative bood ee tad 559 red blood cellr size of transfusion 1inin ETOUSA. est for hematocrit determination, 253 titration techniques, 4:

transfusion ‘auipment for field use, 178-179, 186 use of red bleed cells in xorean Wer, 785 Critical materials, 77, 173, in plasma package, 175 in plasma progtam, 177 albumin package, 343 ts,

621 MTOUSA, 419-420, 445, 448, 449 Pacific, 591 southern France, 448-449 SWPA, 605 transatlantic airlift, 62 Courtil Airstrip, 520, 54 SRISLER, Col. J. A., 456, 509, 553 Courtland Laboratories, tom Crash ambulances, dried plasma for, 176 Stews of planes, rejection of a8 a S donors, 140 Sriteria for— acceptance of syphilitic donors, 262 blood substitutes, 372-373 bovine albumin for military use, 329-330

437

ma (s)— of expendable transfusion equipment, 196— 198 offelid transfusion unit, 192-195 Critiq of Okinawa operation, 627-628 of SOP for Operation OLYMPIC, 641-642 521

Crospsy, Lt. Cal Crossmatching, 97, 191, 235, 239, 244, 245, 394, "8 433, 442, 650, 656, 719-720 after multiple transfusions, 805 before use of odd bloods, 567 equipment for, 464 errors in, 425 in field, 194

340 Crossmatehing”Continued War, 743, 744, 748 inrenuctation, 689, 690 in SWPA, 598 of pes, 258, 206. ae of pooled plasma, techniquer of, 300-604 gelatin in, 37 Hemovonentration in, 30 nm London, 666 planin, a6, 55, 267, 696 uremia in, 65-67 Cryoehem process 278 Crystalline bovine albumin, 327, 328, 330, 331, 332 Crystalline serum albumin, 337 tion technique of plasma fracCryatalloid content of Alsever's solution, 224 talloid solutions: equipment for administration of, 185 field studies of, 80 Preparation of, in British base transfusion taining in preparation of, 17 of,in France 1940—20 Curamesox, Maj. J. W., 437 Cultural spot checks in BTOUSA, 685 Cummings Committee,737, 775 Curiae, Orig. Gen, E, oi 52, 192, 194, 209, 469-470, 472, 473, 475, 476, 477, 478, A79, 480, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 493, 494, 496, 501, 524, 527, 528, 529, 530, 633, 555, 557, 683

Cutter Laboratories, 173, 252, 289, 292, 345, 378, 379, 719, 747, 772, 774, 794 Cyanosis after donatio 57 Cyclotherm, 453

D-day— in ETOUSA, 141, 195, 208, 226, 460, 466, 468, 474, 475, 479, 480, 4! 509, 510, 524, 526, 533, 537, 538, 542, 543, 544, 549, 561, affect of, on donations, 1 in southern France, 447, 448 on Lingayen Gulf, 620 on Luzon, 634 Daily report of requirements in— MTOUSA, 420 south nee, 449 Dallas, 292, 345, 355, 710

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Damage claims after red blood cell transfusion, Damage to red blood cella by gravity collection technique, 15 Dangerous universal donors, 804, 806 Darr, Col. R. 0. » 5 29 Data of blood progam, records of, 70 Dating period sirlifted bleed in Korean War, 744-745 autotransfused blood, 23, 706 blood, 47, 50, 180, 421, 638, 718, 726, 742 airhifte d to ETOUBA, 209, 212, 489, 490 ected by open system, 462 expiration of, 421 for invasion of southern France, 447 for Luzon operation, 6: for Okinawa operation, 623, 624, 627, for Operation OLYMPIC, 641 from Australian blood bank, 581, 587 from eee Pood Bank, 476, 481, from wn Maalle' blood "bank, 620 in ACD solution, 226 in Aisever’s 's solution, 224-225, 228 in CB in DeGowin' 's solution, 222 in Denstedt’s solution, 463 in Korean War, 754-755, 903 in MTOUSA, 426-428, 437 in North aioe, = in Soviet Unio: in BWPA, 500, ‘sil, 612-614, 632-633 losses from expiration of in MTOUSA, 438, 439, 440 LST 464—595 substitutes, 373 tested for transportability, 220-221 used in France, 1940, 20 cadaveric bloo |) 24 citrated blood, 219 dried lood-grouping sera, 744 fibrin film, 367 fibrin foam, 365 liquid plasma, 96 locally ooneoted ee 463 Piacenial ° plasma, aeoreed to0d, 179, 220, 222, 224, 230, re blood cell residua, 313, 494 rocessed plasme, 772 resuspended ted blood cells, 317, 318-319 in World War ]--6

INDEX

841

stored blood in Spenish Civil War, 12 surplus plasma, refrigerated boos, 210 Davis, H. A, 96 Davis, N. H., fon 102, 103 Dayton, DeBarsy, M. E., 1, 81, 225, 245, 653, 673 Debilltation in reactora to oe ma, 671 Decapsulation of kidney, Decision against airlift to ETOUSA, 465-466 Decompensation in chest wounds with pulmonary edema, 706 Decompression siokneee, dried plasma in, 698 Dee: in periph peripheral blood volume in shock, 32 in venous return as cause of shock, 30, 32 of cardiac output in shock, 30, 32, 36 nnel, 343 intra-arterialt:transfusion with, 796 transfusion with,4 Definition of— pectin, 377-378 ms, 267—' preservative solutions, 217 serum albumin, 267-268 shock, 31-33, 37-38 DaGow1n, E. L., 48, 52, 53, 54, 74, 76, 93, 159, 171, 219, 220, 2, 222, 223, 226, 240, 241, 242, 244, 471, 694 Gowin technique— of blood grouping, 236, 238, 242, 244 Degradation producta of hemoglobin, 654 Dehydration, 383 administration of supplemental fiuida m albumin in, 339, 340-341, 690-700 correction of, by crystalloid solutions, 34 57

Delay in Delayed Delayed Delayed 334, ys— during

ee, "545 cleaning transfusion sets, 652 Oot of hemorrhage, 462 2 primary wound closure, veact jons to bovine albumin, 332, 335 airlift to ETOUSA, 211-212

in production of large plasma package 175 Deliveries— ashore during Normandy landings, 485, 5k by advance depots of ETOUSA Blood Bank, 60 07 by British base transfusion units, 17

from

SOS advance depots to Army depots, inKorean War, 752-754 See also Transportation, Delivery tim of transatlantic airlift, 552 atininent from United Kingdom, 510 to front in Soviet Union, to hoopitale fn Operation OLYMPIC, 640 through supply channels i in SWPA, 604 under fire, 521 Demonstra tion plasma packages, 87-91 Demonstration training sets, 41 Denaturization of plasma protein, 651 Dengue, 142 Danis, J. B., 1 Danit, Brig. Gen. G. B., 585, $91, 599, 594, 507, 604, 616, 633, 639, 641 Denmark, itedt, moaiseation of DeGowin et al solution,2: Denerexpt, O. ?, Denstedt’s selution, i "2, 444, 463, 464, 467 effect of, on resuspended red blood cells, 16, 317 Dental officers on shock wards,7 Dental patienta as donors in soot War I—6 Denver, 292, 734, 756 Denver Blood Donor Center, 96 Department of Defense, 715, 716, 717, 719, 720, 721, 723, 726, 734, 737, 738, 774, 7 ee an of, for blood procurement, program before Korean War, 719-720 Department of Physical Chemistry, Harvard Medical School, 325, 359 Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota Medical School, 325 Department stores, recruitment booths in, 125

842

BLOOD

Deposition — "378 Depot ote 592, 533, 534,5Deputy Assist Secretary ot “Defense (Health and Media), 7 15 Deputy Surgeon General, Army, 34 Deputy Theater Sunmon, ETOUSA, 513, 530 Dermatitis sip donations, 157 esign of e ment for intravenous therpisperiation 0on bowine albumin, 328, 334 Desperate nefusion in, in World 3, ra a7 Destruction of plasmodia in refrigerated blood, 595 Detachment Pemonnel donors from, 438 Detachment(s) ot Continente' Blood Bank, 516-517, 549560,5 ETOUSA Blood en movement of, to Continent, 51) 127th Station ‘Hecpital Blood Bank, 520621, 522 be 3 Deterioratio: of red blood oad eetle, 217 without refrigeration, 227 of rubber in plasma package, 171 Determination of— circulating blood volume, 42-44, 255 by per sulfate technique, 34 in shock, under fieldSonditions, 30 hematocrit, 42-44 hemoglobin i Detroit, ne ato, 313, 414, 319 Detroit nee with red blood cell tention, 314-316 Developme blood vromrara in MTOUSA, 48-49, 443 bovine albumin program, 326-328 expendable transfusion equipment 195198 field test for hematocrit determination, 252-1

field transfusion unit in ETOUSA, gelatin as blood substitute, 373-377 9 preservative solutions, 221-228

185-

PROGRAM

reguscitation in MTOUSA, serum albumin in beste, 336-897 standard Army-Ni plasma package, 165-168 transfusion equipment, 180-185 in Army Medical School, 177 whole blood program in ZI in Korean DeWitt General Hospital, 695 Dextran, 381, 726, 787, 790-795 addition of, to plasma demonstration package, 89 clinical studies on, 791-794 commercial production of, 794-795 experiment al atudies on, 791-794 ‘orean Wer, 7 776, 781 packagin of, in Plastic bags, 795 propertios of, 790Stockpiling of, in Korean War, 795 Dextri: in corn : syrup, 317-318 molecular size of, 318 Dextrose: addition of ‘ blood in ETOUSA, 503 © blood in eet 426, 437 as Sema additive concentration, eet. of, on eee collected on -exchange technique, 770 effect, ou tel 218, 219 juspended red blood cells, 915-316 in ‘ACD solution, 226,

am

29

in Alsever's ralution. in Mail soluti 300 optim im concentrations of, 220 solution, suspension of red blood cell esidua in, 312 sonar! 28 perties Diabetic “onore, d 139 Diagnosis of— early shock, 34 incompatibility reactions, 655-656 lower nephron vephrosis, 667 reactions, 649 serum hepatitis 675 shock, Diagnostic tine in resuscitation, 687, 689 lysis «of salts in piseme fractionation, 348 Dia , L. K., 248, Diaphragro-sto ppered bottles, 149 Diarrhea, plasma infusions in, 570

INDEX

843

Differential onenessia of— incompatibility reactions, 655-656 Treasotions oa and infectious hepatitis,6 Differentiation naelutinetion cohsigues, 217 Diterentia tion of— bovine and human serum albumin, 326 hemolytic and pyrogenic reactions, 653 shock and hemorrhage, 20, 51 Difficulties— in initiation of alrlift to Pacific, 602-605 of changeover to lerge si lasmoa packages, 173-174 dri lution, 581 Dijon, 401,445, 452 Dijon Base Section, 453, 455 Diletation of heart rt during transfusion, 12 Direct transfusi before World ‘War a in Spanish Civil W: Directives for ADSEC ¢ Vctachments, 549-550 Director General— British Army Medical Servicee,1 British Emergency Medical Saiviee, 528 Director of Medical Services and Assis' to Secretary of Defense for Medical Affairs, 716 ee of‘Medical Services, Office of Seereof nse, 717, 718, 720, 721, 725 Dicer a Miler Supply, Munitions Boa Director on ‘Oniee of Defense Mobilization, 735 Director of Procurement Division, OTSG, 301 Director of Professional Services Division, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 530 Directorate, Armed Services Medical Proeurement Agency, 721,

775

Directors ooAR: Sead, Goner centers, 121 Disadvantages Church containers, 204 forward distributing system, 309 Rous-Turner solution, 219 unit hogpital system for provision of whole blood, 3 whole blood, 462 Disappeara: of dextren from bloodstream, 790 of Periston from plasma, 789 Discarded bloods— TOUSA, 426, 441 ae ific airlift, 213 Diserepencies in statistics, 560

Disease (s) nin donors, 342-144 Disodium citrate in ACD solution, 229 Display of demonstration plasma packages, Disposition of surplus Plasma after World wer II—310-311, Diss nation of informatio , 79, 80 Daal convoluteted tubules in incompatibility actions,

654,

655

nees— in“Pacific, 606 in SWPA, 468, 591 Distilled water, 387-388 | accid a wr commercial procuremento! 2-383 difficulties of production ee inNETOUSA, 573 forreeoatiton of plasma, 50 from British sources, 470 in North Africa, 433, 434 in plasma package, 166, 168 pyrogens in, 375 role of, in Pyrogen Teactions, shortagesof, in 670: Se Blood iTrersfusion tof (Gv hd.), 45. testing of, 3: Dis tributing units overseas, 463, 467 Distribution center (s): afloat for— Okinawa operation, 623, 627 we OLYMPIC, 639, 640 re for— ‘a operation, 623-624 Operation OLYMPI Paclfic airlift, 594 Korean War, 752 of 6713th Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 407 on Guam, 622, 623, 630, 638 Teports from, 631 Distribution of— en a 397, 420-421, 440 SWPA, 606-607, 630-631 sistitted blood i in Korean War, 752-755 blood rom Severin t U: S$. Army blood bank, blood o*on Continent, 476, 532-533 blood groupa in donorain MTOUSA, 441 field transfusion units in ETOUSA, 544— 545

844

BLOOD

Distribution of—Continued gatmoma globulin in Korean War, 783-784 locally collected blood in ETOUSA, 477 Plasma components, 361 red blood cell residua, 313-314 refrigerators in ETOUBA, 542-543 Distribution teama for Okinawa operation, 623 for Operation OLYMPIC, 641 in BWPA, 60 transportation for, 628 Distribution through medical supply channels, 479, 574 575 Division "elearin tations, blood ba 479 pion of Biologica Control, NI Division of Medical Sciences, NBG 2, 72, 102-108, 104, 107, 313, 375, 769, 802 Division of Surgieal jiology, Me dical School, 35, ore3, 67, 72, 171, 176, 177, 211, 212, 237, 251, 274-275, 208, 584, ‘61, 468, 520, 605-696 Division(s) 3d Infantry, 29th Infantry, 529 32d Infantry, 596-597

36

‘antry, 447

44th Infantry, 447 Doan, C. A., 158, 159, 160 Doan, Col. H. W., 529, 547 Dobodura, 591 CHEZ, A .R., 479 DOD (Department of Defense). Dore, Lt. V. P., 258, 254 Donations: amount of: in ARC blood donor centers, 139, 151 in Soviet Union, 2 ws in World War balance of, with heeds for blood, 120 before Korean War, 720 U by base troops in SETOURA, 476, 477 by civilian populations overseas, by clearing sommpany personnel in USA, by ne troops, 396, 397, 422, 524, 529, 595, 718 by eed troops,398 by hospital personnel in ETOUSA, 569 by line t trope, 445 by military personnel in Japan in Korean

War, 729

PROGRAM

by rows‘a in TOUSA, by ‘oops, on 452-458, “en 466, 476, 477, 478, 479, by walking wounded, 396, 422, 462, 476, 477, 486 designation of, for Free French, 94 distribution of, to commercial processing laboratories, 291-293 during thermonuclear attacke, 786 effect, of rumors

on,

effect of, on donors, 139, 524, 525, 527 excess of, exploitation of, by British base tranafusion unite, 17 fasting before, 140 for Blood for Britain, 13 nershipof, reactions to, 153ition of, tata

in WorldWar I—9

to "Britis h by Us. troops, 628-530 are 92, 138-160

139 14 Sin "Boed for Britain, blood pressure of jn Blood for Britain, 14 caepagee fofor, causes of ejection of, 139, 140, 141-144 261

history-taking in, 141-142 in British blood program, 15 in CPA, 5094 in Gruss, ‘ety voerama, 550 in Germ ‘am, 22 in Korean Wat 2 . in MTOUBA, 421-422, 4898-490 in New Guinea, exhaustion of, 582 in Spanish Civil War, 11, 12 in SWPA, 586, 594, 595-598 in United Kingdom, reduction of, 481-482

INDEX

845

in World War I—6, 9 on LST a overseas, pay:

ot

0

in ETOUBA, 5 528, 530 in wee , 423-424 in prowentation of emblems to, 128 procuiement of, for 67038d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 452-453 race of, 139 recruitment of, 61, 101, 107, 111, 118, 119-128, 139 in ETOUBA, 474 in India, 642 in Korean War, 730-731, 733-734, 787-738 in MTOUBA, 442-443 in SWPA, 596 Tegistration afi in ML OUSA, 435, 441 rejectionof,1 for henogn‘deficiency, 158-160 for histor: undice, 675 inKoreua we 731 in MTOUSA, 441 requirementa for, in Pacific, 582-683, 584, selection of, overseas, 186 eex of, 139, 141 ethods of of »lsttatlon of, 125-127 specifications for, 139-141 statistics for prieetion of, 140-141 weight of, 140,1 with major ag Tejection of, 651 in CBI, 643-€44

authorisation

of, in ETOUSA, 524-525 mmands in ETOUSA, 479 inn British ‘Army A Transfusion Service, 18-19 in ETOUSA, 474, 478, 481, 482-483, 486, 487, 496, 510, 524-525, 527, 530 in MTOUSA, 422 in Seventh U, 8. Army, 451452 in SWPA, 595, 605 Donor for eirlift to ETOUSA, 491, 492 for oversea transfusion, 463 improvisation of, in MTOUSA, 432-435 See also Expendable donor sets.

ma, 96 Plasma, 172,2, 175, 697-898 albumin, 34, 338, 330 Double-chesking of© group-specific blood, 650 Double-processing of a 1 Dovatas, Brig. Drew, Gc. R. 4 Dried human grouping serum, Dried plasma, 60, 52-53, st. 121, 268, 275-312, 337, “ additives to, 283-287 commercial potential of, before Korean commereyal rocessing of, 101, 269, 275276, 280-282, 289-293 ontracts for, 289-293 criteria for, 279-280 demo: stration n packages of, 87-9. equipment for processing of, 76, 103-177 first plans for,1 for ZI hospitals, m8 175-177 from British sources, 470 license for production of, 81 losistios of, 269 ass production of, 289-203 ercurl

packaging of, for ZI hospitals, 176— preparation of, from serologically positive blood, 744 Production of: t Bryn mewn Hospital, 65 in India, 6 program, vnplementation of, 102-104 provision of, for Office of Civilian Defense, reactio: civilian hospitals, 660 Tr ealrements ‘ot, 289, 290-291 Sovi oxperionce with production of, 95 stabilility &one storage of,1 under r reat, 102 testing of,50, 269 transmission— of malaria by, 143-144 of serum hepatitis by, 310, 775, 776-782, transportation of, 1 enionglnt, 189-190 Drierite, 278

BLOOD

846 Drip flowmeter, 436, 437 Drip indicator, 198 ive in ‘ARC Blood fone centers, lood Bank Getachmenta, ith, 203 Drying of plasma, 173, 175 difficulties of procurement for, equipment for, 65, 290 historical note on, 276-279 techniques of, 50, 76, 269, 280-282 Drying of serum, 276 Duncan, J., 23 Dunkirk, 19 Dura mater, replacement of, 367 Dural defects, protection of, 3 67-368 Dural

substitute,

fibrin

film

518

of equipment

270, 276-279,

by fibrin film, by fibrin film,

as,

359

Dutch Harbor, 92 Dye measurement of total plasma, 258 Dysent ery in Chinese patients, 645-64 ee for, in CBI, 642-643 Dys in donors, 142 in plasma reactions, 672 E awards, 127 Early shock, 34 East Anglia, 480, 530 Eastern Base Section, oe 524-525 Eastman Eberstadt. Committee, 716 Exent, Lt. Col. R. V., 42, 185, 186, 192, 193, 194, 195, 480, 663 Ebert-Emerson transfusion set, 42-44, 1864 191, 543-5 Eherthella iyphasa, 362 Betopie pregnancy, 23 Edem: aftor ‘closure of colostomy, 705 in burns, 702 in crushing i injuries, 696 in donors, 142 of larynx,

651

m albumin in, 338, 360 Edible Gelatin Manufacturers Society of America,3 Edinburgh, 23 Eunruicn, P., 265, 276

Research

PROGRAM

Eighth Air Forde,4 Bichoven Nijmegen area, & E:sennowsn, Gen. D. D., 333, 574 El Alamein, Battle of, 32, 461 Elective transfusions, booster dose of Atabefore, 423 Electrice Me refrigerator, 203 Electrolyte balance, 383 regulation of, in incompatibility reactions, Hlectrolyte replacement in serum albumin therapy 34, 270, 339 Electrol: proct of, on hemolysis, 218 loss of, as causes of shock, 33 Electrophoretic analysi f ma, ofserum albumin, 344, 345, 351 lerectrophoretie patvern of bovine albumin, Flectroplated | cans for scrum albumin package, 198 Eli Lilly e ‘Co., 89, 91, 172, yes 241, 286, 289, 291, 347, 349,7 Elimination of blood cubatioutes from body, 73 Exgrn, D. GC

x! , 266, 697 Euuort, Capt. J., 15, 47, 48, 65, 195, 211,

212, 213, 227, 237, 240, 241, 247, 240, 250, 251, 266, 336, 552, 661 Exorssrn, L., 74 Exser, W. J., 277 Emaciation ini reactors to plasma, 671 Emblems, presentation of, to donors, 128, 148 Embolism, 24 Emergency deliveries— in wen operation, 622 PA, 608 10 Continent, 535, 597, 546 mergency distribution on Guam, 631 Emergency donations in SWPA, 5! Emergency nadings during _ airlift to ETOUSA Emergency Modieal Tag, 634 Emergency needs— in ETOUSA, 510 in Pacific, 594 Emergency Provisio of blood in Japan in orcan War, Emergency cureary for peritoneal contamination, 40 Emergency, transfusions: Atabrine before, 423, 598

INDEX

847

in ETOUSA, 524 Emergency use of plasma expanders, 714 Exnneon, Lt. Col. C. P., 42, 185, 186, 192,

195, 252, 544, 656, 657, 658, 663,

04, 77 1 Emenson, Lt. K., 253 Emotional factors, iui postdonation reactions, 157 ical use of citrated blood in shock, 31 Enpers, J. F., 261 Engineer ng helpi in construction of ETOUSA lood Bank facilities, 431 Engine Development Laboratory ‘y, Armed oaeviees Medical Procurement Agency, Eoghan, 5, 13, 14, 80, 211, 312, 512, 515, 549 Pronibition | of transfusion in, 1 Eniwetok,5 Enlisted rat inn ETO USA Blood Bank, 498 Enlisted pe administration ot blood by, eT

in cies ibating units, 467 in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 409, 509 in field transfusion units, 544 in Luzon operation, 620 in 127th Station ' Hespital Blood Bank, 514 in o703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), on neck wards, 463, 700-710 aires Deish blood depot, 472 in plasma

dniiata

Ensyme activity of blood "collected by ionchange fechnvaue ie, 770 Enzyme syste Epidemiologio atstaiea on gamma globulin in orld War 1I—783 Epinal, 451, 452, 453 Epinephrine ini allergic reactions, 651 Equipm eprovall ‘of, by NIH, am cleaning of, in Pacific, commercial production oa before Korean r, 719

eriteria of, for military use, 77-78 design of, 464 difficulties with, on Continent, 553-554 for airlift to ETOUSA, 227, 491, 402 lood donor centers, 76, a 205 for Army tranefusion services, for blood program, 52, 148, 268 for commercial production of— for CPA, 5! for “iy let water, 387-388 for plasma, 13, 65, 76, 95, 277, 78-379 tor intravenous sree 77, 78 for large plas ackage, 175 for Luzon operation,6: for movement of ETOUSA Blood Bank to Continent, 515 for Okinawa campaign, 626, 628 for oversea transfusion service, 177-199, 463, 467 for plasma infusion, 163-177 for plasma program, 267, 293-295 for processing byproducts, 84 for processing Isboratory, Travis AFB, 740-741 for reconstitution of plasma, 52 for replacemont therapy in British Army, for nrologio testing, 492 for serum albumin program, 328, 340 shortagesof, 343 for shell freezing dried plasma, 282, 283 for 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), for 6713th Blood Tranafusion Unit (Ovhd.), 407 fot transfusion, 1, 4-5, 219 in British Army Transfusion Service, 17 in ETOUSA, in Franco, 102 20 in MTOUSA, 432-437 in NATOUSA, 177 in World War I—9 maintenance of, 17 ,136 for ultraviolet sterilization of plasma, 778— in Pacific, 590, 598-599 in SWPA, 604 lax preparation of, as cause of pyrogenic reactions, 660, 668 modifications of, 81

BLOOD

848 Equipment—Continued of ARC mobile bleeding unita, 115-116 of base collection sections in MTOUSA, of shock ware 707-709 for ETOUBA Blood Bank, 502-503 for field transfusion units in ETOUSA, }43~544 for unit hospital system, 207 (PROCO) for Continental Blood Bank,

13, 516

procurement of: before Korean War, 720 t blood donor program,7 rutin for, in SWPA, 509-504 sho: in sea, 591 2

ereton of, 727 Nan 113 at Anny Metal RENST, Col. K. F.,

Sohool, 65

PROGRAM

Espiritu Santo, 591 Essential T: Medical Data— ETOUSA, September 1944—56 ee October 1944—557 TO NATOUSA, a ecember 1943—399 NATOUBA, March 1944—a2 NATOUBA, 1 July 1944—48 UBAFFE, November 1944—616 FFE, March-April 1945—636 Establishment of ARC blood dono: centers, 111 Estimated ratio— of blood and plasma to casualties before Korean War, 773 of donora to cosualties in MTOUSA, 398 Estimated require for Luzon speration, 620 for Okinawa operation, 624 Estimates, blood losses caused by errors in, 567 Estimates of— blood-casualty ratios in invasion of southrT: » 447 blood requirements— in ETOUSA, 561, 568 in ETOUBA after D-day, 509-510 in Korean War, 752 in MTOUSA, 437-438 ee: 462-463 Plasma requirements, 102, 289, 2902 field transfusion unit requirements in

in> atsbution of fatalities to transfusion, 657, 658-659, ee 664 in Blood for Britain, in concept of lower nephron nephrosis, 666 in crossmatching,4: in diagnosia of : omelytic reactions, 653, 655 in distribution of blood for transfusion, 244 in early concepts of plasma, 706 in groin 552 id Cross blood donor centers, 242 in" Korean War, 744, 748 on identification tags, 429, 444, 501, 567, , 598 actions after,650 in handling of blood— in ETOUSA, 546 in MTOUBA, 421 in SWPA, 604, 605 in mass grouping, in Armed Forces, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 238, 234-235, 239, 241-245 in posttransfusion cleaning of equipment,

need for whole blood in NATOUSA, 401 lasma requirements, 1 269, 290-201 before Koiean War, procurement of wear O blood, in ETOUBA, 481 ente— requi for vavasion of Continent, 480-481 for Operation OLYMPIC, 640-641 for resuscitation in ETOUSA, 485-486 Ethanol, 237 Ethanol water ae nation technique preparation of bovine albumin, 326-327 Ethyl alcohol in iin processing of dried plasma,

in Rh heen 249-250 in shock therapy overse: a8, 29 of accounting in Plasraa program, 301-302 nen nsible for pyrogenic reactions, 6. 52 E. R. Squibb & Sons, 292, 774 Erythroblastosis, 248, 251

Etiology of— lower nephron Dephrosis 657 rum hepatiti ETOUSA puronean Theater of Operations, U.S. Army). See European theater. Euglobins, 237

ETOUSA, 544-545

INDEX European theater, 42, 57, 177, 185, 192, 194, 196, 211, 214, 225, 227, 247, 251, 261, 310, 391, 425, 445, 605, 624, 631 638, 653, 668, 680, 706 blood program in, 459-575 complaints about intravenous solutions in, ingidence of serum hepatitis in, 676 logistio transfer of 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.) to, 452 plasma reactions in, 657-650, 660-665 European theater aaewas Blood Bank,

5, 212, 459, 484, 488, 494, 495, oe 513, sis a7, 522, 523, 527, 532, 545, 546, 547, 560, 534, 538, 542,

849 anuria in, 666 attachment of distributing centers to, 407 ood banks in, 406

in Sicily, 395-396

blood for, in Luzon operation, 621 blood-plasma ratio in, 487, 556-557 check of blood grouping in, 244-245 deliveries to: during Normandy invasions 518 in ETOUSA, 480, 60 0 in MTOUSA equipment i iwrem field transfusion units for, in ETOUSA, in MTOUSA, 430, 432-4 ratio of blood ta casualties iin, in ETOUSA,

567, 573, 655, ses advance considerations of, 546-547, 549550 advance sections of, 501, 55: base bank of, 501-505, nT capacity of, 481, 482, 483 collecting section of, 501-502 construction of, 498-499 detachments of, 518-522, 553 functions of, 496-498 mobile bleeding teams of, 501-502 movement of dstachments of, to Contient,518-521 movement of, to Continent, 514, 515, 546, 54 operational difficulties of, 550-551 operational structure of, 501-507 operations of, during Normandy invasion, 512-513 organization of, 496-498

trensfusion in, 902-303, 406, 4! ‘ransfus in, with improvised equipent, transfusion officers in, 420 Evaluation of— grouping sera, 240-241 insulated ashipping containers, in Korean War, plasma i in NATOUSA replacement therapy in World War I— 9use of blood on Continent, 558-559 work of ETOUSA Blood Bank detach-

ro 8-5 Tecord Section oof 501, 404 security in, 548-549 storage » (chipping) eeotion of, 503-504, 515 technical procedures in, 497 training of personnel of, 500, 501, 509 transfer of personnel into, 499-500 Evacuation: administration of plasma during, 392, 636-637, 69 of casualties— in Korea by blood planes, 752 on Continent, 535-536 replacement therapy in line of, 51 tra tic effect of, 31 Evacuation hospitals, 180

Evans Memorial Hospital, 221 Evelyn colorimeter, 159, 160 Everett, 382 Evolution of concept of— shock, 37-38 37-38, shock therapy in NATOUSA, 1-392 54-87, whole bleed tor combat casualties in ZI, 29, 47-1 Examining rooms in ARC blood donor ra, 113 Exantbemata in donors, 142 Excess blood— in Guam distribution center, utilization of, 63 in Okinawa operation, utilization of, 624, 631

reactions in, in ETOUSA, 660-663, 670 Tefrigeration in, Wn 397, 422, 454, 462 welvent

salva

of bla in, 44

of blood fro, in MTOUSA, 440

BLOOD

850 Exceas donations, 120 Excess of byproducts, _cisposition of, 84 Excessive resi n War, 75 Exchange or cauipmente on Normandy beaches, Exchange resins, 758, 759, 760, 769-771 Exeretion of — colloid solutions jhroush kidneys, 52 dextran, 791, 792 gelatin, ‘375, 786 Peris 788, 789 Executive” Officer, Officer of Surgeon, ETOUSA, 529, 546 Executive Officer, let Army Group, 482 Exhaustion of vasomotor center, 29 Expansion of— blood program in ETOUSA, 480-484 Pencetime program to wartime requireents, 720 pera stockpiling program in Korean 74, Expendable donor sets, 196 for airlift to ean 492 TOUSA orltieietne ot 435-436 Expendable equipment, 461, 462, 465, 467, 468 development of, 195in Contin weal Blood Bank, 516 in ETOUSA, 544, 545, 553, 554 in prophylaxis of pyrogenic reactions, 652-653 in unit hospital system, 397 Teceipt of, in MTOUSA, 660 Expendable insulated containere— for oversea airlift, 213-21, for Pacific aint 609-611 Expendable plastic equipment, 758-761 Expendable recipient sets, 196, 480-437, 463, 469 in MTOUSA, aes 444 in SWPA, 598, MTOUSA ris of, 436-437 on LST 464—595 Pxperionce tablen 480 Experimental contamination of red blood el residua, 315 Experimental red blood cell transfusions, experimental salvage of contaminated plasm: Experimental shock, Plasma in, 266 Experimental atudies aidobionie acid, 379 380

PROGRAM

bovine albumin, 327-328 orystalloid solutions in World War I—371 dextran, 791-794 forin ti, 367 fibri im, 364— frocsine whole tiood, 771

gelatin, 374, 376, 787

gum aca cia, 384 hemoglobin solutions, 361 hemorrhage, 26: intra-arterial transfusion, 796, 799 Merthiolate in serum albumin, 352-353 oxidized cotton, 380 pectin, 377-379 Periston, 381 plasma, 268 in hemorrhage, 5 radioactive dennan, 792-793 blood cell residua, 312 Rh factor, 245-246 serum, 336 serum‘albumin 337, 355 shock, 36, 37tween World Wars, 29-30 sodium frat 14, 218 sodium glyc Tol polysuccinate, 380 transfusion tranamiesicn. of malaria by transfusion, 143-144 transportation of unrefrigerated blood, 213 Exaanguinatod casualties: chilled blood in, 555-556 reactions of, to aging blood, 555 Exsanguination, 229 multiple synchronous transfusions in, 21 transfusion techniques in, 693-694 Ext: atrepulmonery tuberculosis, in donors, 142 Extravasati of blood aft er donations, 157 of replacement fluids, 694 Extravascular tissue spaces, lose of plasma into, Extremities transfusion in wounds on 635, 703-705 unds of, 21, 22, Facilities of— ARC blood donor centers, 111-114 blood banks in MTOUSA, 431-432 processing laboratory at Travis AFB, 739, 740-741 shock wards, 707

INDEX

851

Failure of refrigeration: loases from,

in ETOUBA, 567, 570-571

, 650 ‘allure of resuscitation, 44, 685, 705 Failure of transfusion, 12, 444 as indication for surgery, 557, 558 Fainting after donations, 142, 157, 525 Fairfield-Suiain Air Force Base, 730, 742 Falalop Island, 607 ‘alciparum malaria,1 Paling. wanetechni, See Copper sulfate Fates 0Seelutinations False positive reeultsin i in rh testing, 250 False positive serologi after multiple lonetionn 262-263 after smallpox vaccination, 262 Pants B., 336 ‘ar East Command (FECOM), Se 740, 747, 756, 764, 768, 774, Far East Research Unit, it, 803 Fasting before donations, 14, 140, 208

739,

e albumin, 331 Fat emulaions in Korean "Wer, 705-706 Fatalities: after olieraic reactions, 651 after ai ‘usion, 23 after donations, 153, 166-157 r gum ecacia infusion, 10 after intrasternal transfusion, 6! efter tranafusion, 1, 2, 3, 464, 460, 649, 650, 658-650, 660, 664

with hermol: blood, 657 with incompatible blood, 425, 654 caused by lack of blood, 438 caused by Rh factor, 246, 247, 240, 260 from citrated blood, 218

plasma reactions, 671-674 in1 presumed hemolytic reactions, 655 In pyrogenio reactions, in volunteers for bepatitie studies 781-a presul maby a lue to transfusion, 657, 080, 064. 668

Fatigue ater . donations, 155 Fatty foods, prohibition of, to loners: 140 FECOM. Far East Com Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1 120 Federal Civil Defense Administration, 737, 775, 776, 784, 789 plasma stockpiling for, 775Federal Correctional Tlisivation, Ashland, 781 Federal Security Ageney, 91 Feteaur, F., 3 Female donors, aw rejection rate of, 141, 160 Femoral peril 1 pane in shock, 800-801 Femoral inject of replacement‘Auids, 604 serum albumin, 338, 343, 604 Femur, compound fractures of, 444, 703-705 plasma in {rectus of, 392, 698 Fetal erythroblasts, 248, 251 Fibrin filtration of, during transfusion,1 flocculation of, in reconstituted plasma, Fibrin-olot formation in ACD solution, 226— Fibrin content of fibrin film, 367 Fibrin film, 84, 350, 363-364, 267-368 Fibrin foam, 359, 363-367, clinical venting of 305507 Fibrin formatio: A

Fibrin precipitation in— filtered plasma, ma, 287 McGill solution, 224 plasme, serum,

ephrosis, 658, 666 from ecrum sickness, 332, 3: from transfusion reactions in f hospitals, 566 in hemolytic reactions, 653

ee

668

2 266

Fibrinogen, 76, 83, 240, 267-268, 270, 637 conversion a into fibrin foam, 364 in burn in rmction a0 loss of, ring | pissme filtration, 287 Fibrinolytic ona ne aso

852 Field armies need for veplacementa in, 5 provision of blood for, in ETOUSA, 498 Field conditions, determination of blood volume under, 30 Field Director, ARC, 165 Field hospitals, 51, 707 abdominal surgery in, 392 anuria in, 666 blood rs 466, 496, 479 operation, 621 ced name ratio in, in ETOUSA, 487, 556-55’ deliveries to, 414, 462, 467, 480 ing Normandy landings, 512, 518 in ETOUSA, 506, 610, 551 in invasion of ee France, 447 nn Continent, claimant ay inmn MTOUSA in, in ETOUSA, baa, "380-570 mobile‘refrigeration iin, a, ar, ae 464 on reactions in, in vision of field vansfusion “ite in, 544 og’ 8 salvage of axing blood in, | 440 shock teams in, 463 suspension of deliveries to, in southern Fran transfusions in, in MTOUSA, 180, 404405, 437 Field investigations, NRC proposal for, 23, 79-80, Field record of blood collected in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 504 Field requirements for refrigeration, 206-208 Field studies n— dextran in Korean War, 793-79. gamma globulin in Kore:cnn Wane 783 gelatin in Korean War intra-arterial ronalueion 100-161 replacement therapy, 79-81 Field training in use of Plasma, 8&7 Field transfusion equipmen' cleaning of, 190 controversy over acceptance of, 192-195 development of, in ETOUSA, 185-195 teating ef of, 190-191 testin, of, 192 Field tranefueton units: in British Army Transfusion Service, 16, 17-1 in ETOUSA,5: obstacles to inital enpply of, 53

BLOOD

PROGRAM

request for, from ETOUSA,1 ifth U.S. Army blood bank. see Naples Blood Ban! Tov, A., 266 Fi lerooms in ARC blood donor centers, 113 Filipino civilians, fatal plesma reactions in, , 668 susceptibility of, to plasma infusions, 672, 673 Film strip on resuscitation, 55 Fil i 41 Filter(s), 194, 468 difficulties wi SD ETOUSA, ‘553-554 in BWPA, 598-590, 636 for plasma, 168, 169-171, 287-288 for serum albumin, 198, 353 in expendable transfusion set, 197-198 in plasma package, use of, in Eber Emerson set, 189 lack of, in Ebert-Emerson transfusion set, 193 pads, 287-288 Shortages of, 544 iltra during tranafusi ion, 193 in fractionation of plasma, 343 in production of serum albumin, 353 of blood transported under vetrigeration, 211 Finance ae Supply eh Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA . G., 624 Finsebhafen, 582, 588, 591, 616 Fizopr, W. M., 75 First eid, plasma as component of, First Conference on Gelatin, NRG, ‘372, 373 First SpritBervice Force, 447 Fisnss, A. M. Fitzsimons General Hospital, 96, 111, 603 Fixed hospitals: anuria in, 666 in Japan, blood supply for, in Korean War, use of Rh-negative blood in, in Korean War, reaction rates i in, 660 eplacement therapy in, 51 ondary anemia in, 703-705 transfusion in, 103

INDEX

853

See also Base hospitals, General hospitals, Station hospitals. Flanders, 20, 48 Fiat feet, donors with, in World War Fleet, supply of, for Okinawa operation, 623 t Surgeon— CPA, oe SWPA, US. Puaite Fleet, 168 Fleet units detiverie to, in mene 607-631 Firs, rejec of, as donors, 140 Flight raviona S for elvilian donor re, 453 ight time of airlift to ETOUSA, 488-489 Floooulation: after reconstitution of plasma, 165 of plasma proteins, 274 Florence, 406, 407, 418, 420,4 FLospory, , 65, 277, 278, asa Fluid administration: contraindieations to, 96 upplem: , to serum albumin therapy, 35, 322, 339, 540-34), eat 637, 782 Fluid balance in plasma reactions, 671 Fluid loJoss oe oauee of death ina combat casualFluid1 roution in incompatibility reaotions, Fluid recone therapy, responsibility TSG, 67 Fluid whift iniacho 30 398 Followup studies on Periston, 789 ‘ood and Drug Administration, 788, 790, 795 618

in ETOUSA, 510, 541, 546

in SWPA, 615 Foreign antidodies after multiple tranafujions, Foreign body reactions to fibrin film, 368 Foreign isohemolysins in recipient serum, 806 Foreign proteins, introdgetion of, in trangfusion

compone:

Foreign relief, use oteexcess byproducta for, Formed Elements Group, NRC,7 Forms for plasma accounting, 401, 302, 303 Forme teed at ARC! blood « donor centers, 145 Forrestat, Secreta! 4 715 Fort Hancook, 514 F , 606 Fort ee Houston, 695

Fort Totten, 208 Fort Worth, 111, 292, 345 areas:

cepta of transfusion in, 48-49 provision of blood in, 35 Forward distributing center: in

MTOUSA, 400-411,

414

on Guam, 622, 623, 630, 631, 638 Forward distributing section: in MTOUSA, 445 of 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 447, 449-450 » 395 lasma ratio in, in ETOUSA,

556-

557

eleaning of recipient sets in, in MTOUSA, ae

434-435, 444

o n MTOUSA, 399 in Philippines, 607 on Continent, 520-521,

522-523,

550,

BTOUSA bank blood for, 555 in Kor in MTOUSA, use of blood in, 437-438 southern France, deliveries to, 451 lock of transfusion equipment in, 180 losses in, in SWPA, $33 anagement of shock 6 need for blood in, 461-469, 561-564 procurement

of blood

by,

397

reaction rate in, 660-663 records in, 455 refrigeration for: in ETOUSA, 478 in southern France, reservation of blood baa blood for, 496 transfusion officers in, 420 tena in, oar 194, 404-405 in World War usee of blood and vineme j in, in ETOUSA, 164-566 of plasma in, 191 See also Fixed hospital Evacuation hoapitals, ualty clearing stati Forward curgery, vole of British blood proam in, ‘OwLeR, W. M., 158, 150 Fraction I—348, 359 Fraction II—348, 359, 362, 363

854

BLOOD

Fraction 11+ I1I—237 Fraction 11I—359, 363 Fraction IV—a48, 360 Kraction V—448, ‘349, 353, 360 Fraction VI—349, 360 Fractionatioon gelatin, plasma,

36,

337,

343,

372

plasma protein, 8: Fractures, 39 after donations, 157 immobilization of, 56 of femur, a0, 444, 698 use of fibrin film in surgery of, 368 Fragility— of recipient cells after pooled plasma infons 657 of red blood cells: after airlift i in Korean ie foe after att ‘o ETOUSA,2 xohange vechnique on, 770 in An solut 6 molytic

reactions,

663

Fragility, index in red blood cell transfusions, 315-316 Fragility tests, 222, 755 France, 13, 17, 20, 119, 224, 447, 448, 451, 452, 453, 454, 488, 494, 514, 518, 520, 522,

538,

549,

554,

569

airlift to, from United Kingdom, 19, 459, 478, 510, 518, 531-532, 534-535 British experience in, 18-20 fall of, 13 legal Prokibition ° transfusion in, 1 Fraser, Sir F. R Fra ‘ea aevctings, recruitment of donora Frederick etearns & Co, Free French, plasma for, oh

ing A, 552 of reconstituted plasma in Korean War, 78 French Ar French blot collected in North Africa, 448 Freneh ars, employment of, in ConBlood Bank, 516 French tet current, 573 h Gover » 21 Fok Military Medical 3 Mission, 94

PROGRAM

Frozen plasma, 52, $6, 268-260, 270-273, 337 military use of, properties of, Provision of, for‘oc, 92-93 isks of storage of, 92 storage of, thawing of, 273 transmission of malaria by, 143 Frozen thrombin, 363 pukuoka, 728, 729 Fou ALS Fulminating infection as cause of failure of transfusion, 444 Functions of— Armed Services ae and Blood Derivatives Group, 723 base transfusion anit British Army efusion Service, 16, 17-18 chief of transfusion service in ZI,4 Committee on Brepod and Blood SubstiConsultant in Tronsfusion and Shock in ETOUSA, 472 Director of Medical Services, DOD, 725 Division of Surgical Physiology, Army ical School, 65-67 enlisted Sosvonnel on shock ward, 710 ETOUSBA Blood Bank, 4 96-498 home depot, iti Army Transfusion ‘ice, 16-17 medical officers on shock wards, 710 nonprofit blood banks before Korean War, 719 personnel, 6713th Blood Transfusion Unit d.), 408 (Ovhd.), processing laboratory, Travis AFB,7: Processing section, ETOUSA Blood Dank, special branch on shock and transfusion, Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, NRC, 75-76 Supply Division, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUBA, 545 technical supervisors of ARC chapters, 108-109 theater (FECOM) transfusion officer, 757 ‘7, 639 , 463 ZI personnel, in procurement of blood for ETOUSA, 491 Funds for ARC wlood Donor Service, 103 Fungible blood, 94

855

INDEX

Fungus growth 385-387

in

intravenous

solutions,

G4, ETOUSA, 536, 538, 530, 540 G4, 808, ETOUBA, 546 G-18 depot, 474 Gales! 685 Gallbladder surgery, 364 Gallon Club, 128, 731 Gamma globulin, 362, 363, 772 allocation of, in Korean War, 783-784 in Korean War, 783-784 prophylactic use of, 679-680 recovery of, from discards in Korean War, 7 Gamma-giobulin antibodies, 350 Gangreno of hand, after intra-arterial transfusion han cores arigliane ofenalve |“oe Ouran anesthesia, Gasoline generator for fel refrigerator, 206 Gamed casualties as donors in World War I —9 tic juice, A and B substances from, 260 Gastric ulcer, 31 Gastrointestinal disease, transfusion of cadaveric blood in, 24

fractionation of, 374 gelling of, at room temperature, 786 io Keron War, 786-787 indications for use of, 377 limitationsof Production « s in Korean War, 766-787 a7e 374, 376, 377 reactionsseo special studles on, 373-374, 375-377, 786 specifications for, for milltary use, 374 stability of, 374, 375 termination of investigation of, 377 toxicity of, 3 versus physiologic salt solution, 376 Gelatin (gel) cape, for distilled water 169 European General U.S. Forces, Theater, 574-575 General Electric Ni jews, 205 General hospitals. banks in, 106, 395-306, 473 in United Kingdom, 478-470

collecting unite in, 465 eran of ETOUSA ETOUSA, ‘chock

of

bank

blood

blood to,

grouping

in,

evacuation hospitals functioning as, riences in, in ETOUSA, 568, s70-574 in zi, 175 176 319 verueas, 1. collection of ‘blood in, i 462, 403 refrigeration in, 463 plasma reactions in, in SWPA, 673 provision of field transfusion units for, 44 reaction rate in shortages of nurses in, 501 storage oor blood in, overseas survey of scrum hepatitis ‘n in ZI, sranetusion in, 392-303, 465 transfusion officers in, 463 use of aging blood in, in United Kingdom, on ‘ceas blood in, in SWPA, 630 General Memorial Hospital, 219 General Orders No, 128, ETOUSA, 574 Genesal Surgical Team No. 25, 2d Auxiliary

Surgical Group, 693

Generators for field refrigerators, 206, 414, Genital sores, 262 George Washington University School of Business Administration, 310 German border, 43 German E-boats, 509 German experience, 22-23 nagement of battle casualties, German surrender, 111, 130 in Italy, Germany, 22, 23, 452, 522, 788, 780 Ghost cells, 555 Gmoon, J. G., 2d—210, 260, 335, 769 Gibeon-Evans dye technique of plasma volume determination, 43 Gitresrte, Col. F. 8., 54, 55, 301 Gunn, Col. L. H., Jr., 574 beads for austen, 185, 180, 193, 104 Glass cloth filters, 17 plant, 120 Globin, 65, 128-129, 361-362

BLOOD

856

Globulin, 76, 270

a of bovine albumin, 326, 327, 328, 331,

flocculation

albumin, 337, 344, 346, 349 of, in reconstituted

plasma,

in fraction I—-359 ownership of, 85 Globulin fractions, 83, 236, 237 Glucose: addition of, to blood— ETOUSA, 476 inin MTOUBA, 426 in SWPA, 589 critical level of, in freezing whole 7 effect of, on resuspended red blood 315-316 recommendation for addition of, to eo Glu oe, ns, a7 Glucose solutions, 50, 219, 598, 769 commercial procurement of, 382 effect of, in shock, 34 indications for, 383 Glutamyl polypeptide, 76, 379 Glycerol co: rin film, 367 Glycine, 363, “aT Glycolysis, in preserved blood, 229 Gwornssl, H., a 64) Goons, J R. Gorpy, Col. A. L. nae Gonoov, Col. J. E,, 245 Gothic Line, 408 Guady Hospital, 62, 144, 339 wt, Maj. Gen. D. N. W., 733 Gravity collection technique, 15, 195 Gray Ladies, Great Butea, 3 13 Greaves, R. J. N., 277, 278 GREEN, Th. Col. i. 8., 574 Greenham Common Airfield, 532, 533, Grecersen, M. I., 25! Gricas, Lt. Col. O. B., 492 Grosseto, 407 Group A blood, 4 collection of, for Seventh U.S. hospitals, 451, 453 suggested use of, in Pacific, 583 97 of group O blood, 641

PROGRAM

reaction of, to high-titer group O blood, 6 Group AB blood, 4, 284 reaction of, to high -titer group O blood, Group B blood, 4, 245 reaction

blood, cells, stored

534

Army

of, to high- titer group O blood,

Group © blood, 4, 65, 234, 502, 526, 527, 567 ARC collection of, 136 call for donations of, in ae 525 collection of, in SWP. estimates of procurement ni in ETOUBA, 481 for airlift: in Korean War, 743 to ETOUSA, 490 for battlefield transfusions in Soviet Union, 2: for forward oan t) 86 group’ rrors in, in British blood Prograsn, 17 TTOUBA, 477, 478 massive transfusions with, in Korean War, 804 reactions after massive transfusions of, 663-664 recommendation for universal use of, 53, 54, 462, ted cell residue from, 313, 317 risk of multiple transfusions with, 664 safety of, screening test for, 251-252 yf:

supply of, to aL hospitals, 97 testing of Alsever'ssolution with, 224 titration of, for overseause, 258 See also Universal donors; Dangerous universal don Group O donors in Auetralian blood bank, 581 in ETOUSA, 190, 194 recipients, limitation of high-titer group O blood to, 424-426, 442, 444, 489-490, 496, 552

INDEX

, 850 with red bloo d cell residue, 312, 317 rouping: equipment t for, 464 in, 241-245, 552 in‘Arie Forces, 77 of bl for BTOUSA, 490, 404 in ARC blood donor centern, 491 of hospital perso! in Spanish Civil.‘Wor, 1 in World War I—9 of plasma, 266, 269 Grouping errors, reactions caused by, 650 Grouping sera, 7, 11, 52, 77, 236-241, 442, 461 teria of, 238-239 development of, 236-239 for airliftto ETOUSA, 491, 492 ‘rom discarded blood, 306 in ET in 19. testing of, 240-24 Grow, Brig. Gen OM. C., 529, 530 Gusdeleanal, 253 Guam, 211, 213, 504, 600, 602, 603, 605, 606, 607, 610, 611, 612, 614, 615, 618, 620, 621, 622, 623, 625, 630, 631, 632, 633, 8, , 668 lecation of advance base blood bank on,

265, 384 amyloid degeneration from, 791 continued use of, after World War I—371 orld War I— 78 9 voxie ‘reactions to, Gum acacia-salt sarution, fatalities after use Gynecologic practice, Rh testing in, 249 Halloran General Hospital, 84, 97, 695 Hausrep, W., 23 Han, T. H., 663 Hammon, P. B., 253 Hamizron, Capt. W. M., 574

857 Hampton, Lt. Col. O. P., Jr., 443, 444, 703 Hand centrifuge, 191 Haneda AFB, 746, 754 Harn, Lt. Col. R. C., 48, 85, 179, 192, ne 220, 225, 207, 247, 470-471,

, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555-556, 557, oer, 660, en 664, 665 Hanrrts, J. E., Harrisburg, 202 | Hartford, 292 Hanrrorp, Col. T. J., 482 Hanrman, Lt. F. W., 7, 171, 377, 378 Hortmen’s technique of pectin production,

Hered Medical School, 70-71, 73, 74, 75,

ay 82, 237, 325, 326, a 328, 335, 338, 44, 346, , 351, 354, 359, 362 367, 377, 379, "130, ‘714, 769 Harvardd pilot plant, 303 ard-American Red Cross Hospital, 500 Hanes y, W. Havens, W. P., 679 Hawaii, 209, 338, 591, 603, 633 -

Groupspecific blood: rean War, 666, 720 of military use of, 664 lasma,

. . P. R., 179, 192, 215, 44, 459, 472, 475, 477, 479, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 496, 487, 488, 489, 492,

496, 498, 500, 524, 527, 530, 531, 544, 548, 549, 550, 553, 557, 558, ser 664, 7 Hay fever, in donors, Hays, Col. S. B., 494, 536, 537, 538, 541, 42, 5a, a6, 547, 558, 574 Head injuri 88 cause ofof k, 38 as cnn to replacement therplaame on, 696 serum albumin in, 247, 702 Headquarters, SOS, ETOUSBA, 528 Healing, effect of multiple transfusions on rate of, Health Resources Advisory Committee, Office of Defense Mobilization, 723, 735, 776, 784 Health Resources Office, 716 Heart: damage to, in shock, 36 dilatation of, during transfusion, 12 fibrin foam in surgery of,

858

BLOOD

Heart failure in reactions from contaminated oe 665 ‘offect of, on serum albumin, 345, 350, 351, in prevention of shock, 34 in shock, Hainatz, 8. W., 266 Helicopter transportation, in Korean War, 46, 7. Hell's Highway, 521 Helmstedt, 522 Hematochromatosis after multiple transdetermination of, 42-44, 63, 252-258, 339, 430, 432, 618, 626, 710 effect of oxidized cotton on, 380 quantitative relation of, to blood loss, 255, 256, Hematocrit level(s)— az index of reed for plasma, 697

3— i¢ response to transfusion, 805 Hematopaalo shock, 56 Hemato:opoic esis of splenic sinusoids, 381 Hematuria after elobin injections, 783 in incompatibl lity reactions, 654 plaai actions, Hemoolastie resetona in Korean War, 804 Hemoconcentra as indication for plan infusion, 51 in burna, 30, 338,6! in crushing injuries, 30, 696 shock, 30, 32, 40, 51, 706 Hemoaiitin, 379, 444 xtran injections , 792 after gelatin injections, 374, 376 after injections of oxidized cotton, 380 after plasma infusion, after serum albumin injection, 338, 339, 341

in shock, 43-44 relation of, to hemorrhage, 43—44 Hemodynamic atatus in2 aoc criteria of, 684-685 Hemoglobin preakdown products of, in dextran therapy, 791

PROGRAM

delayed regeneration of: in female donors, 158-160 in 8W. 595 effect oe on kidneys, 658-659 effect of oxidized cotton on, 380 145 of, 655 ation of, after donations, 158-160 renal ‘tolerance of, 555 reutilization of breakdown products of, 221 Hemoglobin content of— aging blood, 555 centrifuged plasma after transportation, 220-221 commercial plasma, 296 dried plasma, 279, 300,), 302 supernatant plasma, 210, 211, 224, 426, Hemoglobin detcits, postoperative transfusion for,6! Hemoglobin ‘eterminations, 42-44, 430, 617-618, 626 after red blood cell transfusion, 315, 316 by copper sulfate technique, 253, 254, 255 in MTOUBA, 442 in shock, 31 Hemoglobin level(s): after transfusion with unrefrigerated red I lis, 210 for donors, 140-141, 257-258 in Blood for Britain, 14 in‘burns, ae reserved blood, rejection of dono for, 141 Alsever's solution, 222 Hemoglobin tec studies on, by radioactive cell t: @, 221-222 red blood eal tranafusions, 318 ates of, on | shock kidney, 657 moglobinuria, 315, 66 water ted blood cell transfusions, 318 lower nephron nephrosis, 667 Hemogbbinun nephropathy after transf A recipients with O blood, 425 Hemoslobisarte nephrosis, 655, 658-659, 660 Hemolysis: after biologic festing, 239-240 atteer trans’Pow ation in World W: rs under refrigeration, 211

INDEX

859

=

after wounding, 805 anemia cane by, 805 used by wlood substitutes, 373 heating, ot 50 outdating, 6! degree of, aa index of reactions, 569 during airlift to ETOUSA, 552 effect of dextrose on, 21 effect of cctrolytes on, 218, 219 effect of sodium citrate on, 218 effect of temperatures on, 203, 219 in agin, in fractionation of in incom pa wee transfusion, 4 in Ke 747 in road bib0d, | 217, 218, 221-224, 229 in red blood cell transfusions, 315-316 in SWPA, 585, 587, 607, 611, 612-614 losses from, in ETOUSA, 6 572 in Korean in MTOUSA.. “i 441, 442, 631-632 of donor cells,2 of plasma by doner’ ‘3 cells, 7 of recipient cells, 663-664 afte sme infusion, 2 of resuspended red bloodcoll, 313, 314

with Alsever's solution, 222, 224 with plastic equipment,t, 750

in ETOUSA, 660 to plasma, 668, 670-671 relation of degree of, to amount

fused, 650 with compatible blood, 245-246, 804

trans-

Hemolytic shock, plasma for, 266 Hemolyzed blood, transfusion with, 653 Hem opti, fibrin foam in, 365 Hemorrhage as cause of shock, 7, 8-9, 29, 31, 32, 33, 38, , 444 as indication for transfusion, 1, 2, 7, 22 ‘7

quantitative relation— of, to degree of shock, 41, 42, 685-686 of transfusion to, 559 teourrence of, during replacement therapy, as 685 relation to baw tion, 43-44 to typesof weapons, 616 Ringer's eolution in, 8 1m albumin in, 354, 355 serum in, 335, 336 transfusion with cadaveric blood in, 24 See also Blood loss; Loss of circulating -

reactions,

Hemolytie reactions, 652, 572, 650, 653-659, oft 661-664 after plasma infusion, 259 differential diagnosis of, 653 tect of status of kidneys on, 650 from blood of gerous universal donors,

717-40!

blood regeneration after, 229 bovine albumin in, 327, 335 continuation of, as cause of failure of resuscitation, 444, 559 control of,1 in prevention of shock, 34 on shock wards, 710 differentiation of, from shock, 12, 20, 51 early discussion of, by NRC, 50-51 effect of gelatin Preparation in, 376, 787 effect of physiologic salt solution in, 8, 35, 383 Tinan management of, 23 gum acacia in, 8, 384 in abdominal wounds, 705

Hemorrhagic diseases, plas: Hemorrhagic shock, conceptMt of, 365 706 r multiple transfusions, 804 Hemostas in neurosurgery, 363-364, 367-368 plasma for, 266 Hem PAR: aspiration of, 710 in shock, 6 in World War I—23 Henry Ford Hospital, 171, 379 Hepatic cirrhosis, serum albumin in, 352 Hepatic function, effect of Periston on, 789 H plasma in, 297 virus of, in thrombin, 364 See also Infectious hepatitis. Hepatomegaly in Chinese troops,6 Hepatotoxic properties of dextran, 790-791 Heterogenicity of commercial gelatin, 374 Heterologous plasma, 266 Hovu, J. T., 331, 332, 333, 335

860

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Hicks, B., 21 Hosy, Col. P. Oy at 721 Higgineon enema syringe, 180, 190, 191, 553 Hoffman clam High anti-A (anti) pgatatinl in titers in Hog stomach, Py nvation of A and B subMTOUSA, 426,4 stances from, 260 High anti-A titer roup O bloods in Holding hospitals in ETOUSA, 513 MTOUBA, 424-426 Holland, 522, High anti-B titer group O blooda in Holanda, 58, “329, 590, 591, 598, 595, 597, TOUSA, 424-426 616, 620, 621, 630 High explosives, 391 Hollandia Blood Bank, 597, 611, 616, 620, High titer group O blood, 641 630 ility of recipient red cells after inestablishment of, 593 jection of, or in Korean War, 74 in MTOUSA, se-200 limitation of, to group O recipients, ti Hollinger insulated shipping container, 762424-426, 442, 444, 489-490, 498, , 765 reactions due to,"664 Houma, Court, Maj., 6 reactions tos in non-group-O recipients, 696 Home de risk of, to non-group-O recipients, 664 British ‘Army Transfusion Service, 16 use of, tr non-group-O recipients, 656 in Korean War, 804 374 High-titer grouping pera, 104, 650 m, experimental injection High-velocity missiles, of, 265 Hie W.,, 23 Honolulu, 591, 604, 624, 746 Hin, J. M., 251, 278, 280 Hoon, Capt.F. B., 504 Hint an, Bri . Gen. C. C., , 50, 51, Hoo r Commission, 715 , 64, 87, 109, 172, dou, ‘a7, 602 Hoover, Ex President H., 715 Hir wain , 218 Horse bottles, 293 Historical note, 1-27 Horse cea "ea, 1 on conn solutions, 217-220 Horse stomach, derivation of A and B subn blood substitutes, 371 stances from, 260 on development of Office of Assistant Hoar, E. C., tary of Defense (Health and Horwirz, L beW.HL, 314 Medical), 714-717 Hospital blood banks, 664 after World War II—714 onmarvin of plasma, 276-279 ia,3 Hospital carriers, eens by 485, 512, 538 onmn intra-arterial transfusion, 796 Hospital Center, 813th— Hospital Corps, ARC,1 ML on National Researeh Council, 73 a Periston, Hospital detachments, donations from: on phnllog vat vsolution, 383 plasma, 265-267 onmwa solutions, 217-220 in ale i 595, 597 yrogenic reactions, 651-652 Hos, nees— on red blood cell residua, 312 in TETOUSA. “368-574 on Rh factor, 245-246 in MTOUSA, 442-443 on serum albumin, 335-336 Hospital of University of Pennsylvania, 364, on shock, 29 oat sodium bicarbona' Hos, onm tranefusion before. World War I—1-5 in vitish‘blood program, 17 History taking donors, 141-142, 422-423 blood for, in Luzon operation, 621 HMB City of Canterbury, oe , Hoardive’s in MTOUSA, albumin on, 637 Hoadckinta di re, BA, 45 of blood by, in SWPA, in, 17 587-588

INDEX

861

sor tw eeon Surgeon,

E

Division,

ETOUSA,

Office

498-499

of

Chief

Hos)pitals, coustruetion of, in SWPA, 599 Hospitals, effect of location of, on use of lood, 437-438 Hospitals, evacuation: 2d—487, 565 5th—565

Tad—642 77th—382-383, 393-394, 422, 433 91st—659, 664 97th—565 128th—; Hospitals, field: 10th—447, 603 11th—39, 447, 569 13th—565

Hi

105th—582 148th—626,

627

— 573 posth 474, 499, 573-574 317th—606 Hospitals sin ZI: istilled water equipment in, 388 dried plasma for, 175-177 liquid plasma for, 95-96, 176, 195, 274-275 ie Blood cells for, 312 Hospitals, location of, in Tealy | 420 Hospitals of Fifth U.S. Arm Hospitals, procurement of Nod supply by, in Operation OLYMPI IC, 641 Hospitals, station 118th—728, 729

119th—634 127th—452, 496, 500, 513-517 152d—195, 212, 459, 475, 479, 513, 515-522 3

495,

Chelsea Naval Hospital, 97, 740 Mare Island Naval Hospital, 741 Navel Hospital, Oakland, 739, 740, 741 Naval Hospital, Pearl Harbor, 33! U.S. Army Hospital, Yokohama, 732 U.S. Naval Base Hospital: No, 18—613, 614 9—607

1 st 549, 8

House-to-house canvasses for donors, 125 Housekeeping. See Administrative considHouston 345, 783 Howarp, Capt. J. M., 803

A45th—366, 435, 442 52d—474 67th—474 B0th—634

6, W. L., Jr., 359 Human

errors

as cause

of reactions,

572-573

Human grouping sera, 235, 237-238, 239 Human protein, sensitization to, 651

862

BLOOD

Human serumalbumin. Humboldt Bay, 593 Hverin, A., 4, 21 Hiygroscopic property,

See Serumalbumin. of rabbit

grouping

Hyland Laboratories, 236, 279, 289, 292, 603, 719, 774

lower nephron nephrosis, 667 Hypertonic effects of concentrated Plasma, 276 Hypertonic salt solution, 383 Hypertonic serum albumin solutions, 349 Hypertonicity oft serum albumin, 702 Hypochloremia in lower nephron nephrosis, 667 Hypodermoclysis administration of plasma by, 698 with Physiologic salt solution, 383 Hypoprote! after donations, 159 globin in, in Korean War, 733 in Chinese, 645

serum albumin in, 338, 360, 702 transfusion in, 635 Hypotension: as cause of failure of resuscitation, 44 in donors, 157 effect of: on alkali reserve, a“ on renal circulatio: See also Transfusion; poplacement therapy Ice,

provision of, at ARC blood donor centers, 214 Icing en route, 206 Teterus index: effect of red blood cell transfusions on, 315 plasma reactions,

671

Identifieatio of blood groups, of donors with latent hepatitis, 679 Identification tags, errors in blood groups on, 420, “a 501, 567, 5 598 I. G, Far! n Laboratories, 788 Teocollis in reactors to plasma, 671 Immobilization of fractures, 56

PROGRAM

Immune globulin,6: mmune serum aobulin, 362-368, 637 from discarded bloods in Korean War, 750 Immunization, role of, in reactions to dextran, Immunohematologic response to roultiple ood transfusions by non-O recipients, 805-806 Immunologie studies on bovine albumin, 327-328, 333 Impending shock, 39 tranafusion in, 635 Implementation of— dried

plasma

program,

102-104

planning for Okinawa operation, on oe provision of blood for forward hospi ETOUBA, 496-498 recommendations for oversea transfusion service, 463-464 Improvisations— in Korean War, 713, 714 in BWPA, 594-595, 598 of equipment after D-day, 553 Improvised equipment: at 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 453 in World War I—6, 9 Improvised facilities for base collection centers in MTOUBA, 431-432 Improvised refrigeration in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 504 Improvised transfusion sets in ETOUSA,

185-191, 474

Inadequate mobilization of fractures as cause of shock, 688 Incidence of— allergic reactions, 650 burns, 77 ntamination: in Blood for Britan, 14 in place blood, hemolysis, hemolytic reactions, 653 hemorr 77 posttran: ansfusi ion chills, 219 pyrogenic reactions, 652-653 reactions, 649-650 after donations, 1 5a 154, 165-156 after fire! sodium citrate, 651 at MountSinai Hocvttal 651, 652

in ETOUSA,

60

in Korean War, 756 of Rh agelu tinogen population, 246

in general

white

INDEX of serum hepatitis in Korean War, 778, 781 of serum siekmess, 335 of shock, of wound ‘Dteotion,yn, 57 on well controlled services, 649-650 with proper cleaning of equipment, 652 Tnoompatble blood: fect of, on recipient. agglutinins, 240 fatalities after transfusion with 435 Incompatible (cadaveric) blood, Incompatible donor cells, hatravascular hemolysis of, 653, 656-6. 6-657 Incompatible isoagglutinins, transfusion of, 664 Incompatible transfusion, 4, 259 effect of age of blood on, 569 reactfons, gs. 850, 659, 663-664 ainere gnosis of, 655-656 in Kore 744, 804 Incontinence atee * donations, 157 Increase— of capillary permeability as cause of shock, 30 of hemoconcentration in shock, 32 Peubation periodof serum hepatitis, 679 ia, 18 aa onal en program in, 642 Indian Arm: Indian Medal Directorate, 643 Indianapolis, 118, 291, 695 Indications for— fat emulsions, 795-706 brin film, gelatin injections, 377 glucose infusions, 383 physiologic ealt solution, 383 plasma, 297, 391, 462, 696-697 in Korean War, 796 North Africa, 392 replacement therapy, 457

in Spanish CivilWar, 11-12 in SWPA, 635 in World ‘War I—7, 10

863 shown by coppersulfate test, 255-256 Individualization of— blood replacement, 690 inf » 697 resuscitation, 559 Indoctrin before i uzon 1 operation, 619 in ETOUSA, 459-460 inawe operation, 624-625 on plastic cawipment, 759-760 Inductees as don 129 Industrial Hy,yeione© Foundati Industrial Mobilization Board, DOD, , 774 Industrial plan’ lants, provision for accidents in, 91 recruitment of donors in, 118, 125 Industr: ‘y, role of in blood pro; gram, 491 Infected pooled plasma, storage of, at room 80 abeence of, ontter

transfusions in France,

after eam 187 after transfusi as cause of ceatory collapse, 32 ag cause use off death, 56 of failure of resuscitation, 44 BS cause use of shock, 34 as indication for transfusion, 10, 12 effect of multiple transfusions on, 444 in Korean War, malnutrition complicated by, 569 plasma in, 266, 297 prophylayis of, in wounds of extremities, 705 serum albumin in, 336 Infectious diseases, rejection of donors with, in World War I—6 Infectious hepatitis, 352, 460, 423, 675, 678, 679 eaused by fraction II—363 in potential donors in Japan in Korean ‘ar, 731 prophylaxis of, 359, 363 Tufluenza, 362, 363 pl infusions in, 7 Influenza epidemic, 120 Information, dissemination of, 79, 80 IncrawaM, F. D., 367, 36!

864 Initial wound surgery: Brit tiah Provision f blood for, 397 mn a net of volunteers with treated ma, 780 Inoperable malignancy, red blood cell transfusions in, 317 Inspection of— airlift te ak. open 103, 495, 552 blood ion, on Continent, commerclal proccasing laboratories, 275, 298-299 by NIH, 81 facilities offered for plasma production, 312 liquid plas ma centers, 307-308 plasma equipment firms, 203 Tuspection trips: request for permission for, 467-468 to oheck distilled water ruolliien, 387-388 to MTOUBA, 443-445 to oversea theaters, 449-444, 466, 495, 590-595, 603-605 Instability of fat emulsions,7! Tnetitute of Experimental Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 62 Tomtitae et ‘Tropical Diseases, Sydney, 590 In: sir for ila transfusion unite, 544 on plasma packay on serum albumin ‘package, 198 Tneulated con’ for airlift to ETOUSA, 214, 491, 760 for Australian aati 581, 587, 608-609 for emerge: shipment of whole blood, 397 for oversea transfusion service, 463 for Pacific airlift, 208, 603, 609-611 in British rood program, 17 ETOUSBA, 573 in Korean Wer, eos in Luzon operation, 620 ia MTOUSA, 208, 417, 447, 448, 450 54 in SWPA, 590, 604, 607 in World War II—7 Tategreton of civilian and military health urces after Word War II—714-715 Intercostal nerve block, 710 Intergroup hemolysia of incompatible donor cells (A, B, 0), 653, Intermediate eetalbelana in late shock, 34

BLOOD

PROGRAM

“Internal transfusion,” 6, 383 International Fauipment Co., 203 International Health Division, Rockefeller Foundation, 275 International (Landsteiner) classification of blood groups, 233 Interstate commerce, 81 prestine? excretion of dextran, 790 In tre-ar' rial tres‘ansfusio! 96-801 with plastic eauipment t, 759 Tntragroup hemolysis of incompatible donor lis (Rh), 653 Intrasternal transfusion, 636, 694 Intrattoracie injury as cause of circulatory 2 ntravannie agglutination due to injection of isoagglutinins, 658 Intravascular hemolysis 8 compatible donor cells, incompatible donor veil 358-056 recipient cella, 653 Totravenous fluids, ineffectiveness of, in shock, 31 Intravenous soluti commer cial procurement of, 71, 382-383, complaints about, 384-388 preparation of, by forward hospitals, 397 provision of, in MTOUSA, 398 Teactionns to 385, 387 Intravenous the Tapy: ment

for,

78

’ ‘med Forces, recommendationa for, 70-73, 464, 469, 472 train og in,

jee algo Transfusion; Replacement therapy. fava of Normandy, immediate prepara8 for, 547, 5 Investigations of reactions, 649-650 vitro teatingof fibrin foam, 364 Ion-exchange column, 758, 70 760, 769-771 Towa City, 220, 221, 242, Tron, administration of, to “doner, 158, 159, Irradiation of plasma against hepatitis virus, Irreversible pathophysiology in sbock, 443 Irreversible shock, 36 Ischemia after jntre-arterial transfusion, 801 gelatin in, 377 Tsinglass, 379

INDEX

865

Island Command, 607, 628 osetia | Uter, of plasma, 669 Tsoagglut in fraction TH —359 in globulin fraction of plasma, 237 in high-titer blood, 656 Pp oetes on, in Korean War, 806 suppression of s pooled plasma, 51 Isoagglutinoge! Ioantbodis ‘ini "rections IJ and ITI—362 83, 598 plasma, 258 Teotonio buffer solution 222 ing of frozen red blood cells in, lta of preservative solutions with ood ser um, 218 Ttal linn 38, 420, 435, 448 Italy, 2, 35, 57, 192, 355, 391, 406, 407, 417, $e 442, 445, 448, 451, 452, 453, 484, 552, 692 legal e ohibition of transfusion in, 1 Itinerary of— blood from ZI to Guam, 606-607 inspection ae tor com 591 oversea. airlift n War, 746 Two Jima operation, wre 622, 627 Jacksonian epilepsy, 368 Jan y, C. A., 32, 261, 327, 328, 331, 335, 358, 382, 725, 726 Jansxy, J., Japan, $11, 642, 739, 740, 741, 746, 748, 752, 754,

757,

763,

765,

bh procurement ‘in, in Korean War, -733 invasion of, 620 See Operation OLY MPIC. ese bloods, incidence of Rh-negative types in, 731-732 Japanese donors in Korean War, 729-730 Japanese Red Cross, 730 2 jpaneee-Russian Border War, 21 Japanese surrender, 110, 130, 589 Jaundice, 249 after injection of serum albumin, 674 after red blood cellaranatusions, 318 after transfusion, with outdated "Sloe, 657 after yellow fever immunization, 674-675 in sont 142 a roe 399, 423 plasma in,

rajection of donors with, 675 rejection of donora with history of, WPA, 598 51 University School

in of

Johns Boke University School of Publio Hea JouNEON Mh ML 37 johnson, "Secretary L, Jobnston Island, 591, ‘sor Joint Chief ef Staff, 715 Joint const (¢ Command, Public InformaJournal. , ‘narican

Medical

79, 305, 300, 314, 669

Association,

Junior Red Cross, 121

K-30 Periston, 790 Kahn nt 17, 111, 143, 262, 399, 404, 508 422, 426, 432-433, 442, 492, moe, 643 Kamikaze suicide bombings, 631 Kansas Cit Keassrroi N, ¢ 266 Katzen, E, M Kaira, A. J., Kexwicr, A, O66 Kanorice, Col. D. B., 49, 53, 54, 55, 61-62, 64, 69, 72, 73, 76, 80, 81, 95, ar a 101, 159, 163, 166, 171, 173, 175, 1, a , 309, 310, 340, 344, 385, 387, 388, 391, 421, 443, 444, 459, 461, 462, 463, 464, 467, 468, 492, 493, 495, 531582, 554, 555-556, 558, 559, 567, 590, 591, 594, 599, 603, 604, 605, 611, 612, 616, 618, 619, 622, 623, 624, 628, 633, 636, 637, ee 641, 666, 670, 707, 721, 733, 757, Kanpeicss, Col. EB, J., 531 Kerosene refrigerators, 416, 454 Kharkov, 24 Kidney( di; damage in shock, 56 decapsulation of, 656 fibrin foam in surgery 365 function of, effect of elin on, 377 depositionof pectin in, 378 effect of blood v lume ‘deficiency on, 665 feet ot aoe intracapillary agglutinaeffect ‘of oneal cotton on, 380

BLOOD

866 Kidney (s)—Continued effect of status of, on hemolytic reactions, 650 excretion of colloid solutions by, 62 functional capacity of, in reactions, 650 status of, after resuscitation, 666 EILDUPTE, x A., 1, 225, 245, 658 berton,

Kiumoven, ‘Col. J. C., 471-472, 479, 482. 483, 485, 486, 487, 406, 580, 546, 557 Kimpton-Brown Wanefusion technique, ne Brig. Gen. E., Kiex, Maj. Gen. N. "T, 228, 225, 265, 488, 489, 490, 192, 640, 557, 591, 599 Kjedahl nitrogen technique, 328

480, 509, 5, 10 311, 560,

Korean War, 260, a0, 377, 381, 421, 575, 713-808 blood program for, 727-738 initial steps in blood procurement for, organizational developments in DOD before, 714-717 Plasma fractionation program in, 782-784 rogram in, 773-7: refrigerated shipping containers in, 760766 Krovuuics, Lt. J. ao 407 Kwajalein, 501, 6! L-5 planes in MTOUSA, 420 Labeling of blood, 503, 504 at processing laboratory, Travis AFB, 44-745 in MTOUSA, 426, 442 Labels— for plasma package, 167, 168, 169 for seru to albumin Pe ckage, an Labile components of plasma,2 Labile factor wotivitien after atorage, 805 Labor difficulties in commercial processing laboratories, 295 Labor-management committees in group ment of donors, 1

Labor’ uniong,

e

125 Laboratories attachment of blood bank gpuecting sections to, in nM TOUSA 4

PROGRAM

attachment of transfusion units to, 411 in evacuation hospitals in MTOUSA, 432-433 Laboratories, blood bank detachment— Laboratories, medical— 1, 03, 4 5, 4 6, 447, 497, 499, 500, 503, 509, 525, 532, 5 549 2d—39, 403, 440, 441 4th—451, 695 Laboratories, medical ence ral— 15th—400,

401-404,

408,

411,

477, 470, 513, 514,

417,

418,

422, 424, 425, 126, 440, 445-446, 447, 451, 453, 454, 499, 655 19th—589, 629 406th—728, oho 739, 746, 752, 765, 803 Laboratory for d Transfusion, 22 Laboratory Me nny Army Whole Blood Prot ‘ou! Se Laboratory. of Biologics "Control, 81, 725, Laboratory specimens, transportation in MTOUSA, 419 Laboratory studies in shock, 31 Laboratory tests, 466 in Blood for Britain, 1 in Naples blood bank, 428-490, 442 ue shock or Lacerati ‘ter donations, 157 Lackland airw Force Base, 734 Lahore, 642 Lauice, Capt. J. J., . 393-424 Lalich study on shock, 38-39 AMantra,

E.,

714

blood pe om “639 in BWPA serum nibumin handing ship, tank asn, 500 d. fo: use on,5 wearien by, in ETOUSA. 485 loading of, for Normandy invasion, 512 ion

by—

on D-day, 549 to Anzio, ‘17, 4 to Leyte, 616-217, to Luzon, 620

618

of,

INDEX

867

Landing ship, vehicle (LSV-6), 623 Landin Blood jor in Operation OLYMPIC,

640-

in southern wrance, 447 Landiaines, 391, 7 Lanpots, L., Landsteiner classification of blood groups, 233 LAaNpbstEIner, K., 4, 245 Language difficulties in Korean War, 730 Large plasma package, 172-175, 290, 311, delayed receipt of, in ETOUSA, 104 nx, edema of, 651 Lassitude aner donations, 156, 157 Late ehoc! Lateral entiele, effect of thrombin on, 364 Latexx tubing, 171, 179, 595 urin package, 328 RAI F. D., 7 Lawson General Hospital, 129 ration of equipment as cause of ‘ogenic reason,

651-652

Lead: aneephali Leakage of rubber tubing with positive pressure tecimiaue, 53 Learning curve, Le Bourget ahold, 515, 535 Lederle Laboratories (Division of American Cy nami id Co.), 241, 250, 280, 288, 289, 291, 342, 343, 365 Lez, Lt. Gen. J. C. H., 524-525 Lee, Maj. R. Leeds, 5 Legal as pects, of— blood program, 71, 81-85, 145, 300 commercial production of serum albumin, 341-342 plasma program, 92-93 Legal Division, OTSG, 71, 294 Legal implication:

Later Leukemi

General Hospital, 741

in donors, 142

red too cell transfusions in, 317 Leukocytes after storage, 805 Tekoeytos eaused by blood substitutes, 373 Leukopenia after injections of bovine albumin, 331 LEVINE, ™. " a Levine, P., Levinacn-Onpenketmaer technique of drying lasma, 278-279 Levinson, 8. 0., 278, 279 Lewisburg, 781 Lewtsonn, R., 1, 4, 218, 219, 220, 651, 652, 7

Leyte, 590, 595, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 614, 615, 616, 618, 620, 621, 630, 631, 632, 633, 639 blood bank, 620, 622, 632, 668

operation, 880, 616-618, 619

Liaigon betw: Army and ‘Nav British and U.'3. ni officers, 469-470 Navy and NIH, 8 NRC and NIH, al OTSG and ARC, 70, 464 OTSG and Army Medical School, 63 OTSG and way non OTSG nd NIH, OTSG and pilot seru m albumin plant, Harvard Medieal School, 70-71 OTSG and Subcommittee on Blood Subs: , NRC, 70 Liaison officer at ‘British Blood Bank, 496, Liége, 521, 522 "Life Line,” 126-127 Life of plasmodium in stored blood, 143-144 Life of spirochetes in stored blood, 143

Ny o

Legal Oe nonaibi of transfusion, Legal ri nsibility of ARC ‘load donor centers, 160 Legal restrictions on use of donated blood, 93-094 Leghorn, 4 18, 442 aislatl ion for viele standards for blood d derivatives, Lend Less e plrovisic ion of plasma to Free h, 94 Leptoninnis 656

Lethal poetics of blood, 605, 638 Lethalit; nemolytie reactions, re 6: improperly handled blood, 575, 605 shock 085686

717-408458

Lilly Research Laboratories, 87

BLOOD

868 Limitations(s) of— lood banka, 706 dosage of plasma, 284-285 fluids in chest wounds, 21, 706 in

head

injuries,

308 personnel for, 86

696

in lower er nephron nephrosis, 769 gelatin, 377 high-titer group blood to group

O

recipients, 424-426, 442, 444, 489-490,

496, 5: on-the-] Cet ‘collections, £6 plesma, 48, 55-57, 391, 183, 461462, 467, 686-687 Plasm a prpanders, 74 albumin, 702 transatlantic ‘airlift, a8 transfusion in blast injuries, 21 unds of central nervous system, 21 Limited.“approval of Periston in Korean War, 789, 790 Limited service personnel in 127th Station ospital Blood Bank, 514 Linpeman, E., 4 Lingayen Gulf, 620 Lipemia, losses due to, in Korean War, 747, Lipoid

PROGRAM

tranamission of malaria by, 144

ee in donors, 140 from, in Okinawa

in, 359 Liquid plasvaa, 50, 65, 05, 268-269, 274-275, 462 British use of, 16 clinical use of, 96 mitamination of, 270, 303, 306-308 dating perlod of, 96 dosage of, 96 early use of, 266-267 first plans for, 101 for ZI hospitals, 95-96, 176, 195, 274-275 from British sources in ETOUSA, 469 from unrefrigerated blood, 210 in Blood for Britain, 19-15 in rns, , 271 270 in 42, in World War I—7 provision of-— for Chinese in CBI, 645 for Office of Civilian Defense, 92 reactions to, 96, 669 rate of injection of, 96 relation of, to serum hepatitis, 674 rage of, 195, 266, 27: subotebation of whole blood for, 192

tinting of plasma in Army Supply Catalog, Lier * Col D. E., 501, 513, 530, 548, 558 Literature blood subetitut ep, 65 mercurial preservatives, 284-285 pectin, 377 plasma expanders, 785-786 shock (plasma), Livi depen of pectin in, 378 effect of bleo volume deficiency on, 665 effect of diffuse intense capillary agglutination on, 6! effect of Periston on, 381 fibrin foam in surgery of, 365 function studies to detect latent hepatitis in, 679 rupture of, in Chinese soldiers, 646 storage of blood substitutes in, 373 storage of Perjaton in, 7 8 Liver damage in ehock,35, 56 Loading of blood on hd 511 Local application of dried plasma, 698 Local blood donor committees, 121 Local blood loss as cause of shock, 29 Local collections of blood,1 after Ouga gurrender, 629 in ETOUSA verseas, toca loss of feud asas causeeof shock, 36 al loss of plasma as cause of shock, 30 Vocal Cnedical profession, relations of ARC nor centers with, 160 Local sogsiation of ARC Blood Donor Ser S-111 Local preparati ion of plasma, 128-129 Local procurement in SWPA, 582-586 Local reactions to donations, 155, 157 Localization of renal lesions in ineompatibility renotions, wey 55 Locations(s) of— advanc of, to ope! rational Sficieney, 615 ARC blood donor centers, base collecting center, in vouthern France, 451

INDEX Medical General Laboratory. 406 base we ieoting sections in Italy, 431 distributing center, 6713th Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.}, 407 ETOUSA Blood Bank, 499 hospitals, effect of, on use of blood, 437hospitals in Italy, 420 plasme-processing plants in Korean War, 4 shock wa ‘7 iS advance blood bank, 505-506 76 , 52, za mh 330, 338, tenia requirements ofarrisoement therapy ‘am, 717, 720 Logistic hina of 6703d Blood arransfusion Unit (Ovhd.) to ETOUSA, 45 Logisti(s) Oe airlift in MTOUSA, 418-421 ‘ARC Blood Donor Service, 103 blood bank in MTOUSA, 420-421 blood banks, 397, 406-407 in NATOUSA, 55 to Arm Freee 52, 64, 268, 269, 758 a from Uni ingdom to Continent, 5:e592, “534-535 dried plasma, forward Suttibution in southern France, 0 intravenous therapy, 77 a transistusion. ‘service, 463, 466-467 plastn a, 269 serum *Ibumin, 347, 352 transfusion in forward hospitals, 465 See algo Transportation, Storage, Airlift, Packaging, eto. London, 6, ae 541, 666 Long Island, 413 Loa ‘Angeles, 209, 292, 310, 599, 600, 603, 606 Los Negros Islands, 591 Loss of circulating blood volume: as cause of shock, 29, 30, 36, 54, 336 in hemorrhage, 265 in shock, 26 in untreated3 quantitative wvlntiun 0of, to blood pressure, Loss of circulating red blood cell mass after trauma, 805

869 Losses— due to breakage, aoe. fa 305 in Korean War, 747, due to clotting, 200-30, Typ9-310 in Kor » 147 due to collections by inexperienced due

personnel,

110

to contamination, 300-401, 304, 306-308 in Blood for Britain, 14 in MTOUBA, 442 due te eure of refrigeration in ETOUSA, due

“treczing in Korean

War, 744, 750

1 750 to incomplete filling of collection bottles, 304 due to incorrect estimates of needs— due

due to lack of refrigeration, 2 mia in Korean War 747, 750 due to outdating, 306 in MTOUSA, 441, 442 in Okinawa operation, 639 due to positive serology, 261, 304, 504 periods, 222 during airlift to ETOUSA, 552 during landings in SWPA, 632 during transportation, 397 from

diseards

on

Pacific

airlift,

213

in commercial ETOUSA, 566-5per inn Korean var 747, 750 in MTOUSA 438-440, 441-442 in Okinawa operation, 624, 627 o plasma program, 305-310 in 6825th Blood ‘Transfusion Co., 455 in southern France, 450 in SWPA, 631-633 in unit hospital system, 397 30" from indequne ‘arying, 773 from lipemia, 773 from. m reprecen, 772 Louis XIV— Louisville, 201

Loutit-Mollison solution, 224, 225-228 Loveday ”) for Okinawa operation, 623, 624 Loveacs, W. z. JII—716, 733

870

BLOOD

Lovzrr, R. D. 734, 737 Low Countri 9, 20 Low titer vralitinine, Low-titer antl-A agglutinins, 194 Low-titer group-O blood: desirability of use of, 259-260 for airlift in Korean War, 743 for resuscitation in Korean War, 745 in MTOUSA, 424-426 Lowell General Hospital, 97, 695 Lower nephron nephrosis, 426, 569, 657-650, 6 6: in incompatibility aes 654-655 Himitatione of fluids in, 796 Lowsng, R., Lowry Air "Force Base, 734 Lomsen, Lt. Cdr. E. L., 144, LST(H)'s in Operation OLYMPIC, 639, 640 LST 464, blood bank on, for leve operstion, 594-505, 616, 617-618, 620 LST(H) 929, blood bank on, for Okinawa operation, 622, 623, 627, 628 Luciana,2! Lucg, J. Of ” 160, 351, 359 Luer-typa- tip glass connie for needles, 198 , Maj. Gen. 84, Lunpy, J. B., 62, 7, OL 792 Lunéville 45: Lung, fibrin foam in surgeryof, 365 Luzon operation, 615, 619-622, 632, 634, 635 Lymph nodes, storage of dextran in, 791 Lyons, Maj. C., 443, 444, 703 Lyophilizing process, destruction of spirochetes by, 261 Maastricht,

5

D., 73 0 MacFrx, Col. W. F., 200, 487, 488, 489, 493 Macrodex (Swedish dextran), 792 Madrid Bloo d Transfusion Institute, 12 Manoney, E, B., 266, 336 Maintenance of— blood bank vehicles ini MTOUSA, 416 equipm on Continent, 550, 551 lasma ma expanders) reserve, 720 stile, 387-388 supply during invasion, 511

PROGRAM

transfusion equipment, 17 weAINWARING, B. R. S., 230 1p 2 Major lense, rejection of donora with, 651 alaria, 42: 8 in CBI, 643-644 in Chinese patients, 6t-648 in donors, 142, 143-14 in Japan in Korean War 731 in SWPA, 468, P82 583, ob 597-598 reactivation of, 144 rejection of donors with .D program, in MTOUSA, 397, 09, 423, 426 wanetusions for, in CBI, 642-643 aria Conf Malere Research Group, 8 98 Malaria’ Boo production of plasma from, n CBr 643 Male donors, 158 rejetion rate in, 141, Mauory, Lt. Col. T. B. at, 569-570, 655, Malnutrition: in Filipinos, 672 postoperative transfusion for, 691 Management of— icreastln 8, 651 tibility reactions, 654, 656-657 lower nephron nephrosis, laema reactions, 671, 672 ehock, concepts of, 684-686 urticarial reactions, 651 Manila, 629, 631, 639, 640, 671 Manila blood bank, 589, 629 Many, . oo 31, 265, 335 Manpnpow see from serum hepatitis, 775-776 shorlages 0of, 206 bleeding centers in MTOUSA, 408“Manual of Therapy,’’ European Theater of Operations, 487 Manual on blood grouping, 248-249 Manual on shock, 30, 706 Manual oer for use with training film plasm Manuals preper by American Red Cro: by Subcommittee on “iiood Substitutes, NRC, for use of Office of Civilian Defense, 93

INDEX Manufacturers of equipment, role of, in plasma program, 267 Manus Islanda, 591 Manuscripts, review of, at Army Medical Scho oh 6567 § Margheri Mariana Ttionde 504, 606, 615 Market Forge Co., 382 Marking of vehicles in ETOUBA, 500, ed Mi ite ee 312, 504, 509, 532, 535,5: 540, 541, return of, from * Continent, 551 Mareeille, 451, 452, 453, 573 -» 126, 727 Marshall Islands, 591, ‘607 Martha Dump (Medical Supply Depot, First U.S. Army), 518 Martin, 276 MARTIN, Brig. Gen. 7 ay 398, 400, 440 M x, Col. W. B., Martineburg, 695 Mason, Col. J. B., 472, 479, ‘an 496, 497— 498, nine 509, ‘520, 521, Maas blee for Daa po sonore in ETOUSA, Manne grouping of military personnel 733-296 production of dried plasma, 289-293 Massachusetts Department of Correction, 331, 332 Massachusetts General Hospital,6 Massachusetts InstiLute of Tochnolvey, 230, 37 Massachusetts Memorial Hospital, 227, 230 Massive hemorrhage: red blood cell transfusions in, 317 replacement therapy in, 34 Maasive plasma infusions, 697, 698 Massive transfusions, 22, 36, 225, 630 in Korean War, 803

in SWPA, 634, 635

in wounds of extremities, 21 atrix for Abri n film, 364 for thrombin, 364-366 Maycocs, W. v'A. Mayo Clinic, 62, 371, 384 Maye General Hospital, 605 McCloskey General Hospital, 677 McC cours, R. D., 26 MeFarlane, X-protein of, 859 McGill modification of De Gowin et al. solution, McGill solution, 224

McGill University, 221, 222 M cGraw, Maj. J. J., 69, 213, 259, 267, 274, 402, 443, 445, 460, 551-562, 608, 641 McIwrima, Adm. R. T., 102, 599, 726-727 Measles, 76 antibodies, 83, 84 comme globulin in prophylaxis of, n n Wa prophase of, 359, 362-363 Mechanism h immunization, 246-248 Mediastinurn, puncture of, 694 Mediate transfusion, 4 Medical AAdminlstrative Corps, 500 Medi:cal ianinistrative personnel in blood Medical “havicory Committee on ARC National Blood program, Medical Advisory Council, Department of Defense, 716 Medical and Health Advisory Committee, A Medical and ifealth Bervioe, ARC, 84 Medical battalion: plasma renctione in, in SWPA, 673 58th Medical Battalion, 450 Medical ee ar No. 14, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 474 Medical” ¢Commie, Industrial Hygiene Foundati Medical Department Supp! Catalog, 234 Medical depot companies: Ist—512, 553 34th—621 Medical Director, Veterans’ Administration, 716 Mediea! Field Service School, 54, 87 Medical personnel: for ARC blood donor centers, 70 transportation of, by blood plane in

MTOUSA, 419

See alao Personnel, Professional personnel, and Enlisted personnel. Medical Policy Council, DOD Medical Research Council of Great Britain,

80, 293, 371, 496, 581

Medical Section, Joint Logistie Command, 731 Medien!Service nom Office of Secretary se, 715— Medien! Suenk, plead. as item of, 479

BLOOD .PROGRAM

872 Medical Supply Board, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUBA, 543-544 Medical supply channels: distribution of blood through, 420-421, 479, 545-546, 574-575, 604, 638, 641 gh, in Korean 57 Medieal supply depots, blood bank sections in Korea, 728 Medial “supply platoons: 15th (Aviation), Medical Supply Section,

USASOS,

SWPA,

Modicolegal aspects of collection of blood, 145 Mediterranean theater, 37, 48, 48, 54-57,

69, 193, 208, 258, 250, 310, 391, 457,

459, 500, 658, develo

460, 461, 468, 476, 482, 484, 489, 530, 564, 605, 624, 631, 633, 653, 678, 684, 703, 706, 707 pment of concept of shock therapy 8-4! development of shock therapy in, 37-38 incidence of serum bepatitis in, 676 lower nephron nephrosis in, 424-426, 666-

organization a transfusion service in, 48 reactions in, 659-6 requirements for resuscitation in, 485 Setings. See Professional meetings. Meiji Park, 731 Marna, R. L., 716, 721, 726, 727 Ma.a ,F

Merthiolate, 237, 307 addition, of— bovine albumin, 334 to dried plasma, 284 to liquid plasma, 14, 96, 283 ma albumin, 352, 354 Mesentery, wounds of, 685-686 Metabolic changes in shock, 36 Metabolic om effect of hemoglobin tions on, 361 Metabolism of red blood cells, 203 Methy] alcohol, 237 Methyl Cellozolve, 278, 282

solu-

Methylene blue in group B serum, 16 Methylene blue test for bilirubinuria, 423,

426,

442

Metz, 520 Marz, Maj. H., 697 MippueTon, Col. W. S., 475, 496, 524 Mignano, 40 MIH solution, 24, 219 MIH. See also Moscow Institute of Hematology. Military advantages of plasma, 48, 51, 57 Military Air Transport Serviee, 741, 746 Military Air Transport vice Group, Pacific Division, 739 Military-oiviian medical foordination after orld War II—715-717 Militar donors with syphilis, 262-263, 503 Military Medical Advisory Council, DOD, 717 Military Medical Advisory Group, DOD, 7: Military personnel, masa grouping of, a3 23 Military requirements for refrigerators, 203204 Military significance of Rh factor, 246-248, 249 Military tame of fraction II—362-363 Military Tran + Services, 614 Militar of bovine albuminritria for, 320-330 of frozen plasma, 271 Milk route delivery ini ETOUSA, Milk run (flight) rom United ‘Gegdom to utinent, 534-53. Mills Industries, Inc., 206, 208 Milne Bay, 5! 81 Milwaukee, 291 Minimum hemoglobin level for donors, 139, 140, 158-160 Minimum requirements for dried plasma (NIH), 142, 284, 287,21 Minimum “tandar ds for cooperating blood banks, 727 Minimum titer against A, and B cells, 16 Minneapolis, Minor injuries, donors with, in World ar I—6 Misconeeption of— handling of blood before Korean War, 720-7: magnitude of total blood loss, 31 properties

of plasma,

310, 482

31, 47,

51, 55-56,

57,

INDEX

873

wounding effects on containing memes, 31 Misuse of transfusion , 649 Mission to Z1 concerning airlift to ETOUSA, 489 Mitooes in ee cells after Perliston ther: Mobile edi unit(a), 89, 110, 114-118, 154,

159,

293

in ETOUSA, 501-502, 569 in Japan in Korean War, 731 in Marseille collecting center, 451 in MTOUSA, 406-407 Mobile hospitals, rerriger ation im| 307 Mobile surgical u: in ETOU: 463, 476 Mol en transfusion netivities in OTSG Moaiheate "0 (8 ) of— aluminum refrigerator for airlift, 206 British bleeding bottles in North Africa, 433 DeGowin et al. preservative solution, 222 Ebert-Emerson transfusion set, 185-189 equipment, expendable ‘ranstusion set, 554 plasma equipm ent, 163 plasma package, 106 Rous-Turner solution, 219-220 Schulz technique of slobin production, 362-363 suggestions for, in plasma equipment, 177 techniques of aye plasma, transfusion sets tubing forplasma infusion, 171

Monobasic sodium phosphate, 222 Monaauan, J, F., Montefiore Hospital, 319 Montreal, oon, V. H., 32 Moore, C. V., 159, 160, 726 Moone, , Capt. F. R., 59 Moral restrictions on use of donated blood, 93-94 Tale: effect of donations on, 148, effect on of provision of a for casual3,8 “Moore ‘Than Meets the Eye,” 59 Moraan, Brig. Gen. H. J., 680 Morlaix, 520 Morphine in Shock, 32 Mortalitity oi operation, 627 On operation, influence not whole Blood on, 57, 395 w,

23,

of 127th Station Hospital blood bank, 522 of 152d Station Hospital blood bank, 546, 549-550 Movement,

Molar sodium chloride, maldithon of, to serum albumin, 350, 352 Morr sodiura phenylacetate, 350 lecular size of dextrins, 318 Molealer weight " Periston, 381 Pp lasma, § X-protein of McFarlane, 359 Motecwe of bovine albumin, despeciation of, 328, 3 Moutuison, P. L., 221, 230, 312, 315, 475

24

Moscow Institute of Hematology, 24, 219 Moss, W. L., 4 Motion pictures of blood bank activities in A 413 Motor mechanics, 454 Motor torpedo beats, transportation in, 448 Motoreyeles for field transfusion unita, 543, 0-551 Mount Sinai Hospital, , 78, 319, 651, 652 i 420

effect oh

on

blood

pressure

in

ahock, 686-68’ Movements of forward distributing section, 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 449-450 Moving te theaters, recruitment of m1.

121,

125

Morer=a®, MTOUSA (Mediterranean Theater of Operations, U.S. Army). See Mediterranean theater. Mocrenruss, Col. R. 8., 477, 480, 482, 497, 498, 8, 50. 511, 513, 546, 548 5, 277, 278, 336 Mele nephelometer, 351 Moerues, R. O., 217, 230 Mornanay, Lt. E. E., 594, 595, 616

874

BLOOD

Multiple depots in Korea, effect reserves, 7 Multiple donations, 119, 120, 158 by professional male donors, 158 effect of, on hemoglobin, 158-160 estimates of in ET: . falae positive serologic testa

of,

on

106,

after,

262-2

Multiple injections of— blood substitutes, 373 bovine albumin, 327, 328, 330, 331 serum albumin, 338, 339, 344 Multiple Injuries from high-velocity missiles, 266, 616 Multiple synchronous transfusions, 437, 635, 99 Multiple transfusions, aaa alkalinization during,4 compatibility problems iter, 605 in Korean War, 748, 80: in Leyte operation, 617 reactions due to, 660 Rh factor in,246, 247, 248, 249 riak of high-titer O blood in, 657 with plastic cauipraents 758 Mumps, 76, 362, 36: after

donation,

345

Munich crisis, 15 Munitions Board, 720 ‘di harge of, after fatal transfusion, 1 Monray,Y, “R, Muscle as matrix for thrombin, 365 Musele damage, role of, in lower nephron 67 +» OI Myocardial insuffi Jen of failure of ‘eauseitation, 44 overloading orciremiasion in, 225 ‘um album: ‘02 Myoglobinuria. i in “lower nephron nephrosis, 667 Namur, 522, 523 Nancy, 452 Naples, 398, 401, 406, 407, 413, 418, 424, 425, 40, 44 2, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 451, 52, 45 , , 659 Naples blood bank, 42, 180, 396-445, 660 Nasogastric suction, plasma infusion with, 697 National Academy of Sciences, 73 o-

784

National blood program, necessity for, before

PROGRAM

Korean War, 720 National Director, of— RC, 2 ARC Blood Donor Service, 92, 104, 105, 107,

294

National emergency, blood-plasma necds in, National Formulary, 377 National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, National Guard, 85 National Headquarters, ARC, 109, 118, 121, National Tstitute(e) of Health, 61, 70, 81, » 109, 118, ed 165, 169, 173, 84, 206,

261, 269,

279,

290, 294, 303, 304, pa 345, 353, 354, 672, 673, 719, 725, 726, 727, 767, 776, 779, 781 Minimum aretulrements of, for dried , 142, 284, 287, 290, 303 National Library of Medicine, 786

National Military Establishment, 715, 726,

Nation Naval Medical Center, 72, 258, 297 National Research Co. National Revearch Council, 36, 50,61, 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 103, 118, 172, as, 287, 271, 298, 326, 371, 381, 460, 461, 464, 714, 721, 738, 767, 784, 786, 788, 795 activities of, in post-World-War II period, 724, 726 historical noe eon, 73 in Kore: 4 craton of committees of, 73-75 Tole of, in blood program, 49-54, 267 studies on shock 1, 33-36 National Security .‘Act of eed 716 National Reso: Board (NSRB), 715, 727 ational Supervisory Group for ARC Blood Don vice. See Subcommittee on Blood Siete Native globin NATOUSA (North African Theaterof Operations, U.S. Army). See North African theater. Naval Air Transport Service, 136, 214, 604, 607 Naval base hospitals in SWPA,6; Naval Medical Research Institute, O88, 297 Naval Medical School, 143, 211, 269, 274, 298, 308, 344

INDEX Naval Medical Supply Depot, Oakland, 740, 741 Naval BoA. aay donations from, in MTOUSA 422 Navy: acceptance of plasma by, 52-53 construction battalions in, 628 contracts for— byproducts of plasma fractionation, 0 AT fibrin foam, 365 serum albuaain, 111, 237, 267, 342, 351 cooperation in invasion of southern distribu tion educational

program

for

Operation

in serum

albumin,

xperience with ADC solution, 228 {information department 121 insuleved convene ros 211, 213-214 in Korea: laboratories iin, oo liaison of— with Army, with comercial aboratories, 299 with h medical pers an on LST 464, donations from, 595 use of, in bleeding centers, 109-111 Peter Nes for plasma, for serum on 340, 341, 699 procurement of serum albumin from, in Korean War, 782 representation of, in Blood for Britain, 13 requirements, for— dried plasma, 271, 289, 291, 293 Luzon operation, 620 serum albumin, 341, 342, 344-345, 355 Tresponsibilit; for Pacific airlift, 225, 590 in Al Blood Donor Service role of, in plasma program, 267 specifications for commercial serum albunin, 344 aurgery by personnel of, on LST's, transfer by, of ownership of byprodute to ARO, 83 utilization by, of Pillemer serum, 241 Navy Air Forces, 608 Navy-Army Coord ‘dination— in Leyte operation, 618, 619

in SWPA, 590, 594 Navy Department, 726 Navy-Marine operation on Iwo Jima, 622 9 Navy Medical Department, 33 Need for blood: for combat casualties, 461-462, 464 increasing awareness of, in ETOUSA, 474-484 N B: difficulties with, 553-554 for field transfusion unita, shortages of, 544 168 36 lasma package, 165 Naere, J. R., 67! Negroes, Rh factor in, 246 Ne phelometers, 351 Nephelometry, 328, 332 Nephritis aoe i in, 698 red blood cell transfusions in, 317 Nephrosis, globin in, 783 Nephrotie properties of dextran, 790-791 Nephrotic syndrome, serum albumin in, 352, 354 NESE N. 266 ‘fbrin 1fl in, 363-364, 367-368 fibrin foam in, 363-367 ew Britain, 591 y Oedonie, 385, 591, 594 New Delhi, 6: New Guinea, 382, 587, 590, 591, 597, 620, 630 donors on, 582-583 New Hebrides, 591 Newark, 239 Newfoundland, 212 Newuovssr, Capt. L. R., 53, 72, 73, 76, 81, 84, 101, 144, 159, 163, 166, 171, 175, 198, 209, 213, 228, 269, 271, 286, 296, 299, 300, 340, 243, 351, 387, 468, 492, 590, 591, 594, 599, 616, 636, 637, 670, mT Newt . Baker General Hospital, 695 New Onleeue 292,3. New South Wal Red cross Blood Transsi Y¥ Academy dicine, 219 New York ARC Blood Donor Center, 105 New York Blood Transfusion Association, 13, 101, 158, 236, 283

BLOOD

876 New York Chapter, ARC, 15, 101 New work City, 21, 104, 108, 110, 111, 119, 128, 204, 214, 218, 291, 305, 309, 310, ye 310, 387, 490, 492, 493, 494, 600, 2, 719 New Fork City Board of Medical Control, 13 New York City eee Institute, 377 New York City Department of Health, 144 Now York City experience with red blood cell transfusions, 113-118, 317 New York State Journal of Medicine, 275 Newepaper releases, 121 Nice, 573 Nicnous0n, Lt. (jg.) G. E., 614 Nielson Airfield, 622 NIH. See National Institute(s) of Health. in lower nephron nephrosis, 769 in shock, 380 Nitrogen, packaging of plasma in, 168, 169, Nitrogen retention— 2 incompatibility reactions, 654 in lower nephron nephrosis, 666, 667 Noomfver Island, 595, 620 Noavcui, H., 276 No menclature of— blood pa,4 blood eubtte, 55, 371 albumin, 343 serumim hepatitis, 674 shock, 31-33, Special Representative to the Surgeon General on Blood and Plasma Transfusions, 98 Nominal | labeling of plasma, 128 Nonexpendable e quipment in unit hospital a em, 39 Nonfasting donors, 650 Nonhemorrhagic shock, plasma in, 617 onpolar anions, 360 Nonprofit blood banks in operation before Kor ‘ar, 719 No onprotein nitrogen of von e shocks 38 Norfolk State Prison Colon. , 832 Normandy, 55, 520, 537, 00 Bri ‘ish supply of blood for U.S, casualties n, 55 landings, 119, 136, 171, 699 North African theater, 35, 37, 55, nig 192, 194, 244, 394, 395, ‘on "430, 2, 435, 443, 448, 462, 480, 482, 532, 552, 556, 675

PROGRAM

tishexperience in, 54, 55 British supply of plead for U.S. casualties See also "Mediterranean theater. Northern Ireland Base Section, ETOUSA, Norway, airlift to, from Great Notification of military donors 262-263 Nottingham, 473 Nouméas, 591, 595 Novgorod, 219 Novoeain, 149, 191 NRC. See National Research CK, 1 Nurses: administration of blood by, in ARC blood donor centers,

Britain, 19 with syphilis,

Council. 198 109, 111, 120,

in ARC mobile bleeding units, 116 in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 499-501 Nutrient factor, effect of, on stored red blood lls, 663 utri erect of F gelatin on, 663 failure of, as indication for transfusion, 2 of red blood cells in ACD solution, 226 Nutritional deficiencies, postooperative transedema a infusionsin 70 albumin in, 3: problems inin Korean

Notion

War,

795-

Oakland, 221, 292, 600, 603, 606, 610, 739, Obstetric service, Rh testing on, 248, 249 Obetetri ock: plan in 266, 336 }, 336 Occupational restrictions in blood donors, 140 OCD. See Office of Civilian Defense O’Connor, B.,50 600 Odd bloods: bleo in ETOUSA blood bank, 503, 567 losses from, 56° Offensives: estimated need for blood in, 442

Office of Adjutant General, 526

INDEX Office

of Assistant Secretar: of Defense “(Health and Medical 1), 715 Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 528, 660, 66 Office of civiten Defense, 76, 70, 81, 91-93, 128, 171,2 Office at Defense * Mobilization, 733, 735, 737, 783, 784, 795 Office of Medical Services, DOD,7 Office of Sclentific Research and Development, 334, 335 Office orSecretary of Defense, 715, 716, 717,

877

of hospital blood banks in bret 474 Operation OLYMPIC, 638. Operation OVERLORD, 480, 82, "509 513 during, 651 Operation TIGER, 5 timing of, in relation to resuscitation, 36, 39, , 40 transfusion during, 36 In World War I—7 traumatic effect of, 31 whole blood in preparation for, 57, 177 Operational factors in airlift to Pacific, 606— 612 ome oe‘Surgeo n, canmunications Zone Operational responsibility for blood program Forward, ETOUSA, in Korean War, 720-723 Office of Surgeon, Firat US3. Army, 553 Operational structure of ETOUSA Blood one of Surgeon, Luzon Base sein, 673 nk, 501-507 Office of Surgeon, NATOUSA Operation (e) of— Office of The Surgeon General, "48, 64, 55, 61, © mobile bleeding units, 118 62, 64, 71, 82, 85, 94, 177, 192, blood bank in Japan in Korean War, 727729 Continental Blood Bank, peo ETOUSA Blood Bank, 5. 319, 391, 395, 492-493, 551-552, 604, uring Normandy vavasion, “512-613 641, 671, 680 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), blood program in, 67, 73 Office of War Information, 121 446-447 Operations Division, Office of Chief Surgeon, Office apace in ARC blood donor centers, 113 ET , 497, 498, 499, 500,5: Ohio State University, College of Medicine, OP et Officer, Blood Piaeme ranch, 158 Outer, Maj. W. R., 8, 31, 384 Sur Bervice, OTSG,4! Operations Section, Office of Chiet Surgeon, Okinawa, 603, 606, 615, 622, 638 ETOUSA. 527 Okinawa operation, 615, 622, 629, 631, 632, OpreE: mer, F., 275, 278,2' 638, 639, 640 Optimum dilution factor of on aolution, Oligemia: 221 as cause of failure of resuscitation, 44 Ordnance, cooperation of, in move of quantitative relation, of: ETOUSAA Blood Bank to Continent, 18 degree of,to hypotension, 43 Organic heart disease, overloading of c to blood ‘volume deficit, 43 ulation iin, 225 oneeme ehock, 658 Organization of— Ollguri: C Blood Donor Service, 103-106 after "transfusion with eroun | ° blood, 424 blood program in OTSG, 6' Blood Research Branch, Army Medical limitation ofws in, 796 School, 61-62 Ou 776 blood supply from ZI for ETOUSA, 476Omaha Teoh 515, & 518, 558 477 On-the-hoof bieeding in ETOUSA, 466, 478, British Army Transfusion Service, 16-18 481-482, 547 ETOUSA Blood Bank, 496-498 Oozing after multiple transfusions, 804 medical division, Department of Defense, 193, 46: post-World-War IT period, 715-717 National Research Council, 73 BR. Wales Transfusion Service, inadequacy of plasma in preparation for, 56 of blood plane in MTOUSA, 418-420

878 Organization of —Con tart ation Howitt “Blood

BLOOD

Bank, 513-

Posife‘cant, t, 599 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Prov.), 445— 6713th Blood Transfusion Unit (Prov.), 404-406 Soviet Union blood program, 21-22 ole blood supply for ZI hospitals, 97 6 87, 591, 597 Ortho toluidine reactions, 671 Osaka, 72' Osmotic activity of plasma proteins, 31 Osmotic effec! of— bovine album in, 326 crystal id volutions, 371 albumin, 339 Oamote fragility ofof Preserved blood, 222 Osmotic fragility test, 229 Ommnts function or ” plasma proteins, 266, 36-337 Osmotic pressure of— aldobionic acid, 379 lood substitutes, 372 gelatin, 5 aan ave 376 xidizedSevton, 380 epeiolorie salt solution, 383 rum albumin, 336-337, 340 Osmotic resistance of red blood cells, 229 OTSG. See Office of The Surgeon General. Orrsnpera, R., 1, 4 Outdated blood: effect of. in exsanguination, 229 hemolysis caused by, 650 in ETOUSA, 554-555, 567 in MTOUBA, 441, 442 losses from in ETOUSA, 572 in Okinawa operation, 627, 639 in SWPA, 632-63: processing of, into plasma, 473, 474 reactions to, 633, 657, 668 salvage of, 511 successful use of, in France, 1940—229 use of, in swra5 14 Outdated pias: before Korean War, 772 eg from, 30 Outdated serum albumin in Korean War, 782

PROGRAM

Outdoor advertising space, contributions of, 121

Output oF Armed Forces blood banks, before Korean War, 7. Overhydration ini | chest wounds, 635 Overloading of circulation, 127, 198, 444, 804 Oversea preparation of intravenous fluids, 282 Oversea stocks of dried — 1945—411 Oversea transfusion pro, initial ac tivities for, in ZL, ‘461-464 logistics of, 465, 466-467 Ove oreeas Branch, "supply Division, Office of

urgeon General, 213, 531

Overmaee operations, for, 397, 399

provision

of blood

Owi, 591 ers!

Oxygen capacity technique for hemoglobin determination, 254 Oxygen- carrying corpuscles, need for, in shock therapy, 3l Oxygen-carrying properties: lack of, in gelatin, 787 lack of,in plasma, 35 of red blood cells, 8, 52 of whole ieoey 54-55, 391, 416 Onyeen ¢defici ondary azemia, 56 inn shock, 384 Oxygen therapy, training in, 442

Oxypolygelatin, 726. 786-787

Pacific reas, 81, 169, 171, 208, 214, 227, 258, 262, 391, 425, 581-641, 453 aaift ‘to, 213-214, 262, 599-615 donors in, 595-59! staff visits to, 590-595 training of transfusion teams in, 78 use of reserve stocks of dried plasma in, Pacific coast, cstablishment of unsupervised blood banks on, 91 Packaging of— anticoagulant solution with glass beads, 185 blood in Spanish Civil War, dried plasma for ZI hospitals, ‘e177

INDEX

879

fibrin foam, 366 field transfusion units in ETOUSA, 544 plasma, 50, 52, 75, 163-177, 636 serum albumin, 75, 198 -drawnh mountain troops, eerum albumin for, 347 Pain, relief of, in shock, 56 Palawan Task Force,63 Panel on Plasma Volume Expanders, NRC,7! Panel on Preservation of Whole Blood and d NRG, 771 Paper cups for ARC blood donor centers, 72, 295 Parche delivery, 538 n Luzon operation, 622 in Okinawwa operation, 623 of penicillin, 534 SWPA, 613 of insulated containers in Pacific alrllft, 214, 610 Paradoxical respiration, 688 Paraffin-tube technique t of transfusion, 10 Paralytic poliomyelitis, gamma globulin in prophylaxis of, 783-7. Paraplegi compat Sisieultics in, 695 plasma fo! Parenteral ‘Guide, roelusion of, in transne,

a

Paris, 24, 58, , 212, 214, 215, 247, 452, 496, a 58, 516, 517, 522, 523, 535, 549, 558, 573, 665 lood Bank. See Continental Blood Bank; ETOUSA Blood Bani Parke, Davis and Co., aig 175, 289, 292, 312 Parese, Col. R. L. Parsons, E., 29, a Parsons, Maj. W. B., 586 Passive transfer i sensitivity, 650-651 Patent rights, ipfringement of, 290 Parenson, J. H., 230 Pathogenesis of— incompatibility Teactions, 655 lower nephron nephrosis, 665-666 post ‘usion kidney, 655 Pathologic process in incompatibility Teac55 Patrol orafty escort coon) eatin i ’s 622 Patrol torpedo boats, transportation

at

Marseille bleeding

center,

453

in ETOUSA, 473, 482-483, 528, 530

in MTOUSA, 423-424 in Pea ock , W.C., 230 Peat Harbor, 34, 53, 111, 119, 136, 168, 213, 289, 338, 339, 582, 591, 504, 607, 610, 694 with serum albumin at, 338-339 experimentel studies on, 377-379 properties 78 yield of, froma citrus fruit, 378 Peleliu, 60° Prost, Lt. Col. J. J., Penalty clause in lacraa ‘contracta, 302, 304 PENFOLD, W. J., 651 Penicillin airlift of, with blood from United | Kingdom to Continent, 534, 5: hendling of, by blood honk detachments. 512 in SWPA, 591 introduction of, in MTOUSA, 44: local administration of, with Med plasma, local use of— with fibrin film, 367 with fibrin foam, 364-365 transportation of, by blood plane in TOUSA, 419 Peni n transfusion therapy in MTOUSA, Pesala ‘bee Section.

MTOUSA,

401

Penrose ran Sia Pentagon, Peptie Meer complicated by transmitted mali aria, 507 Peptone, 218, 312 Pspys, S., Peripheral nerve suture, fibrin film in, 368 Peripheral vessels in shock, 32 Periston, 380-381, 726, 776, 787-790 cancellation of contracts for, 705 cial studies on, 789-790 stockpiling of, in Korean War, 789, 790 Peritoneal contamination in shock, 40, 688 Peritonitis: as cauee of shock, 32, 38 serum albumin in, 354 Perry, M. C., 219 Perry, Col, W. L., 496, 497, 541, 542 Personal equation in blood grouping, 242-244

880

BLOOD

Personnel: augmentation of, in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 500 congervation of, in blood program, 195 deferment of, 34 for direct tranefusion, for Kimpton-Brown transfusion technique, for Luzon operation, 619, 620 for Okinawa operation, 623 for oversea transfusion service, 185, 463or production of Stay depots of ETOUBA Blood eeu “505. 506 in ARC blood donor centers, 145, 148, 492 in ARC Blood Donor Service, 103, 104-106 in bleeding centers in Japan in Korean War, 730 in bloo d ban ks overseas, 78-79, 195, 467 in blood program before Korean War, 717 of bee od

590, 604 ant unit in Japan in Korean

of Bruel visoding teams, 17 of British mete {ransfusion units, 17 as, 407 st Gontinosiat ‘plood bank, 516-517 of Division of Surgical Physiology, Army Medical Schi of ETOUSA Blood Bank, 498, 499-501, 50 training of, 501 transfer out of, 501 of field transfusion units, of 15th Medical General ‘Laboratory Blood jank, 401-404 of General Board, ETOUSA, 574 of LST 464—593, 595 of Madrid Blood Tr ansfusion route, 12 of mobile bleeding uni ARC, 116-118 of ie sation Moepttal Blood Bank, of oversea a cietributing teams, 467 of processing laboratory, Travis AFB, 741 of shock wards, 709-710 of 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Prov.), 44. of 6713th Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 407-411

of Supply

Division,

Office of Chief Sur-

geon, ETOUSA, 546

of transfusion service in SWPA,

605-606

PROGRAM

of transfusion teams in Spanish Civil War, of ZI centers supplyi ETOUSA airlift, 490-491, 492-493 Pacific airlift, 599 Tole aein pyrogenic reactions, 651-652 shor of, in SWPA, 591 training Me of, in Personnel Branch, OTSG, , 492 Personnel nein, Office of Chlef Surgeon, ETOUSA, 487 Personnel Divhion, OTSG,5: Peter Bent Brigham Heepited, 328, 364, 65, 770 Perma Col. F. H., Be, 586 Perron, Col. R. E. Preirrer, D. C., O78, 80 r fibrin film, , 367 for plasma

fractionation,

359

PH of ACD solution, 228, 229 ver's solution, 228 blood collected by ion-exchange technique, TI blood 1 Preserved i in ACD solution, 226, 228 Periato reconstituted plasma, 286-287 eee red blood cells, 315 Phago of tree tniron: pigment, 229

Pharmecia,

7,

tepresentation of, in 13 en 794

Philadelphia, 102, 292, 310, 600 Philippine Island Civil Affaira Unit, 622 Pallippines. 595, 604, 606, 607, 616, 629, 630,6 PHILLIPS, Lt. R. A., 253 Phosphorus retention in lower nephron nephrosia, 667 Photoelectrie colorimeters, 159 Physical disabilities, personnel with, in 110 in rreuscitatien 687-688 of don 423 trau maati¢ effect of, 31 Physical reasons for rejection of donors, 120

INDEX Physicochemical studies of pectin, 378 Physiologio functions, depletion of, in shock, Physiologic salt eolution, 383, 381, 461 addition of gelatin to, 377 commercial pro: curement of, 382

In worn War a 9 properties of,5 Physiologie : studies |in| field, 79-80 Physiology of blood, Picket s, E. G., 275, 279 Pigment exeretion in Incompatibility reac-

in crushing injuries, 696 Pigmented casts in incompatibility reactions, est Pittemes, Lt. L., 237, 239, Pilleme: r teebnique of blood ‘mouping, 237 Pilot run on Pacific airlift, 602 Pilot studies on bovine albumin, 325 Pincorrs, Col. M. C., 583, 584

iga,

406, 418, 442

Pitressin therapy in shock, 34 Pitebure Blk Pittsburgh Blood Donor en 110 Placental ‘blood, 23, 24 Plane rea loss of blood | be 587 Pianx, Maj. Gen. E. Planning Branch, Oncrevions Division, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 483 Planning for— airlift to Continent from United Kingdom, 531-

airlift to ETOUSA from ZI, 490-491 donors in ETOUSA, 478, 524-525 ETOUSA Blood Bank, 496-498 Leyte operation, 616-617 local supplies of blood in SWPA, 592-586 Operation OVERLORD, 509-513 agencies

in,

Plans and Operations Division, Office Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 511, 547 Pua R, Lt. J. A., 521 Plasma, 236, 457, 464, 468, 488, 600

rtime activities,

cooperating

of

before evacuation, 698

by hypodermoclysia, 698 suring Grst aid, 687-688 in reauscitation, 600 advantages of, 35, 48, 51, 57, 157

between World Wars, 266-267 biochemical pimilarity of, to serum, 268 clotting of, coagulatio: on on recalcification, 270 clleetion of blood for, 61, 102-104, 109 n Blood for Britain,1 in Korean War, 767-769 commercial | production of: Korean Wear, 717 in Korean War, 734 comparison of, with gelatin, 376 components of, 270, 273, 336, 361 contracts for, 267, 301, 304, 310 convenience of transportation of, 35 crossmatching of, 266, 269 dating period of, 27 definition of, 267-21 demonstration packages of, 87-91 disposition of surplus of, 310-311, 714-725 5 early concepts of 310, 302, 438, 584, 706 early discuasionof early preference for, in ZI heepitals, 695 early provision of, in ETOUSA, 469-470 effecta of, 34-35 emergency use of, for Allied casualtivs, 93equipm a arinieen rm of, 163-177 commercial production of, 293-205 Teeonstitution of, £ estimates of requirements for, before Korean War, 773 evaluation of, in NATOUSA, 55-57 experimental studies on, 51, 268 fibrinogen content of, 268 field studies of, 80 filters for administration of, 169-171, 287288 filtration of, 19 flocculation of, 286 for Allied nations, 93-95 for Free French, 94 fractionation of, 237, 261, 336, 343, 372, from lower animals, 50

B82 Plasma—Continued gr cup spears and unpooled, 22 grouping of, 269 gum acacia ‘as replacement for, 8 3 after storage, 805 hemoglobin, determination of, 805 historical note on, 265-267 inm Pattelion aid slations, 57-59 burns, 35, 55, 617 inn rabing injuries, 35, 55, 267 in decompression sickness, 698 in experimental shock, 266 in German blood program, 22 in heat dehydration, 55 in hematopneic shock, 56 n hypoproteinemia, 635 in incompatibility reactions, 654, 656 in intravaseular hemolysis of recipient , 656-657 in Lovie ‘operation, 617, 618 in Luzon operation, 622 i ric shoc 36

BLOOD maintenance

(restoration)

PROGRAM of circulation

‘Ys

manual on, 76 military advantages of, 48, 51, 57 misconception of properties of, 31, 47, 51, 55-56, 57, 482 Navy preference for, 50 NIH minimum requirements for, 142, 284, 287, 288, 290, ee nominal labeling Parachute livery’ ‘ot inn Lugon operation, 622 processing of: from Chinese donors, 645 from excess blood in Pacific airlift, 602 from. outed blood, 473, 474, 567, 590 procurem before orca War, 773 in Korean War, 773-776

protein concentration in burns, 697

protein content, 52, 296-297, 430

damage of, from ultraviolet radiation, determination of, 43, 626, 710

cotime . on 2”,

legal obstacles to use of, for Free Fren legal problems of commercial production of, 71, 81-1 limitations of, 48, 55-57, 391, 443, 461464, 467, 476, 686-687 dosage of, 284-285 for preoperative preparation, 56 literature of, 6: local use of, in burns, 690 logistica of, 269 loss of — * as cause of shock, 30, 33, 286 during infusion, 43-44 in processing laboratories, 300-301 in relation to red blood cell loss, 43-44 atability of, 163

serum albumin, 362 al sulfate technique,

focculation on O74 fractionation of, 81, 359 in shock, 38, 40 osmotic activityof, 31 osmotic function ot, 266, regeneration of, a!

336-337

7 Sooation,

159

sensitization to to, eat status of, after ultraviolet sterilization, 776 provision of— for Chinese in CBI, 645-646 for ZI hospitals, 95-96 quantitative relation of administration of, é of shock, 39, 267 quantitative use of, on Continent, 556-566 rate of administration of, in burns, 697-698 rationale ofl— early use of, 47 initial acceptance of, 52-53 selection of, for Armed Forces, 268-270 use of, in shock, 57, 266-267

reactions to (complications of), 50, 52, 79, 258, 259, 269, 298, 566, 668-674 in civillan hospitals, 669 in ETOUSA, 669-671 in SWPA, 669, 671-674 reconstitution of, 50, 88, 608 refreezing of, 273 refrigeration of, 50 release of, to Office of Civilian Defense, 83-84, a replacement of, in experimental hemor7 reprocessing of, before Korean War, 772, reserves, allocation of, in Korean War, 775-776 reserves in Korean War, 733, 737 retention of, in bloodstream, 44 return of, from overseas, 310 role of, in shock therapy, 31 ge of in shock, 254 shipment of, in Blood for Britain,1 stockpile inventory of, before Kone War, stockpiling of,5 fore Korean War, ma

772-773

technique of administration of, 698 temporary storage of, zen state, 271 thawte, of, 296-298 of frozen red blood cella in, 771 of, 87 training in reconstitution of, 91, 413 transmission of serum hepatitis by, 510, 674-680 in Korean War, 713, 775, 776-782, 795 transmission of virus infections by, 726 transportability of, 48, 51 transportation of, by blood plane in MTOUSA, 419 ultraviolet sterilization of, 776, 778-779, 781-782 use of: at rear Harbor, 582 at Tari 9 for Allied casualties, 528 in ETOUSA, 486, 566 in forward hospitals, 21, 180 value in Pacife fighting, 582 in protein depletion, 569-570

versus serum albumin, 35 versus whole blood, 51, 55-59 of,7. va on 268, 135-286, 298-300, 303, 304, gamma slobulin from, 363 globin from See aleo Liquid pn Dried plasma, Conted plasma, Plasma: blood tatio estimates of, 461 “462 orean War, 719 in ETOUSA, 482, 487, 556-557 in forward hospitals in ETOUSA, 566 Plasma-blood replacement therapy inSpanish Civil War, 11-12 Plasma bottles, rubber stoppers for,1 Plasma-casualty ratio in ETOUSA, 356-587 Plasma expanders, 371, 723 in Korean War, 713, 714, 783, 785-796 limitations of, 714 Uterature ¢of, ees , 720 ood substitutes. Pasta Faction), 359-368

mpone:

359-360

00!onecrvation ot blood by use of, 361 sensitivity of,

See also Byproducts; special fract: Plasma npractionation Laboratory, "Depart of Physical Chemistry, Harvard Med 4. Piast fractionation program in Korean Pr, 782-785 Plose fractionation studies continuation of, after World War II—714 techniques of, 348, 359 use of discarded bloods for, in Korean War, 747 Plasma infusionmB: ia due to, 43, 658 equipment t for, 168 hemolytic reactions to, 259 incidence of serum ‘hepatitis after, in Korean War. individualization ‘of, 697 rate of, 165 Plasma package, 50, 52, 75, 128, 163-177, 36, 698 breakage of, 175 components

of,

166-168,

160-172

development of, 165-168 increase in size of, 172-175

BLOOD

884 Plasma package—Continued labele for, 167, 168, 169

i

171 of, overseas for transfusion, 184-185 Plasma potassiura, 803-804 col g@ blood, 555 Plasma-proceasing facilities in Korean War, 774-7 Plasma program, 265-319, 491 accounting practices in, 300-305 after World War fauepment for, 293-295 orean war as, 772-782 tossca in, 30: priorities for, 203-204 propertiesof, 48, 51, 52-53, 266, ah 466 prophylactic ‘administration of, termination of— after World War II—714 in ee War 7 780-782 Plasma oncentration in burns, 697 Plasma substitutes not derived from human blood, Plasma supply in CBI, 642 Plasma therapy, 696-698 Plasma volume: dec: ease of, in burns, 697 determination of, 3 effect of dextran on, 792 tect of gelatin on, ‘787 feet of serum albuminon, 354-355 ase of, in lower nephron nephrosis, 667 Plasmin, 359 Plasminogen, 359 Plasmodia, destruction of, in refrigerated blood, 589-590, 595 Plasmodium knowles, 1 43 Plasmodium, ife of, in transfused blood, 143-144 Puass, E. D., 50, 51, 52, 74, 219, 220, 471 Plastic ba ackaging of dextran in, 795 Plastic equipment, 758-760 criteria for, Plastica, replacement of rubber by, 78 Platelets after storage, 805 Pneumothorax in shock, 688 Po Valley offensive, 408, 420 Policies evolution of, in MTOUSA, 391- a of ARC mobile bleeding units, 118 Poliomyelitis, 363

PROGRAM

Polyoythe emia— excessive transfusion, 804 after multiple transfusions, 805 Polyvinyl aleobo! polymers, 788 olyvin yl eat Polyinlpyoldne See Periston. Pompeii, 454 Pooled plasma, 140, 276, 306, 363 contamination of, 288 controled heating of, 779-780 tehing of, 266 effect cof multiple infusions of, 663 trae of recipient cella after infusions 657 srouping of, 266 isohemagglutinins in, 51, 258 number of bloods in, 306, 674, 781 relation of, to serum hepatitis, 674 risk of multiple infustons of, 664 ested use of red bl cells in, Pooling of donor Bloeds ina Australign *lood Bank, 581 Pooling technique of collection inin SWPA, 580 Poor-risk casualties, World War I— 7 1 Port of epabariation (PEMBARK), 494495, 53 Portable kit toe copper sulfate her 253 Portable refrigerators RC mobile bleeding units, 115 Portable surgical hospitals in SWPA, 534, Portland, England, 509 Portland, Oreg., 292,aia Positive pressure techni a edministration, 6697 553 losses from, 304, 504 in ETOUSA, ‘567, 568, 572 MTOUSA, 41 Postdonation anemias in female donors, St 180 Post m after ae nero. 791, 703, 794 after Periston ther: 9 in incompatibility

reactions,

654

in lower nephron nephrosis, 658, 666 in plasma reactions, 672 in reactions from contaminated blood, 665

INDEX

885

Postoperative plasma infusions, 691-692 development of, 221-228 Postoperative transfusions, 691-692 effect of, on red blood cell survival, 260in World War I1—7 261 Postpartal hemorrhage: for ainift to ETOUSA, 208 as indication for transfusion, 1 in Ki War, 766-769 autotranstusion in, | 23 in MTOUSA, 437 ansfusion with red blood cell in 1941—268 residua, 3rd in SWPA, 606, 611-612 Posttransusion kikidney, 655 satonicity of, with blood se 218 Postural m in prevention of shock, 34 testing of, at Army Medical school, 224Post-World: Wer fII interim, 714-71 ee Potassium chloride in MIH solution, 24 tes 229 Potassium content— Preserved blood, 50, 52 of blood, effect of ion exchange resins on, datingperiods for, 220, 222, 224 77 definition of, 217 of preserved blood, hemoglobin levels of, 229 Potassium level after storage, 805 Potassium salts, addition of, to serum albumin, 349 y, 22 Potencyof rabbit grouping sera, 233, 234 Tecommendations to Armed Forces on Potential contamination of blood,1 use of, 221 Practice runs in commercial duction of storage of, 222, 463 m albumin, 343, 344 studies on, 217-220 Precautions against sabotage, 129, 295 survival of red blood cells in, 217 Precautions necessary with group-specific transfusion with, in World War I—5-6 blood, 650 Pressure-bulb collection technique, 193 Precipitation of fibrin, 224, 273 Pressure-bulb transfusion technique, 193, 194 Pressure gravity transfusion technique, 635, Precipitation testa of bovine albumin, 328 Precipilin testa of serum albumin, 326 636 Precombat preparations for transfusion in Pressure transfusion techniques, 493 World War I—8 Prestwick, 209, 212, 488, 489, 493-494, 527, Prefabricated huts for base collection scc536, 540, ane poh 560 tions in MTOUBA, 431 Preventive ine Division, Office of hief Susnmeon “ETOUSA, 245 Pre Preventive Medicine Division, Office of Rb factor in, 246, 2: transfusion with td blood cell residua in, Surgeon General, 235, 680 Prewar studies on bovine albumin, 325-326 313 Pregnant donors, rejection of, 139 Principles of— Preoperative preparation, 461-462 ARC Blood Donor Service, 103 eee also Memuecitation National Blood Program, 735-738 Pre tion of donor sets in MTOUSA,4 replacement therapy in Korean War, 796-801 Preparation of equipment in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 502-503 resuscitation, 683-684 Presbyteri: ital, 104, 312 Preservation of blood, techniques of, 85 Preservativve(s): from aa Kingdom to Continent, xicity of, in blood substitutes, 354 Provervat tive solutions, 50, 51, 52, 179, 217230, 461, 468, 726 ontaining dextrose, 203 criteria of, 217, 221, 222 definition of, 217

533- aM in SWPA, to ET USA, "495, 46 for allocation of blood in National Blood ‘ogra, for changeover to large plasma package, 173-175

886

BLOOD

Priorities—Continu for equipment pa ARC blood donor eentera, 294—20. for plasma program, 293-29: for surgery, determination - on shock ards, in SWPA. 604, 608 in transportation in ETOUSA, 479, 496, 545-546 artime, 8 of critical mates 06 of transfusion teams for SW: Priorities Division, War Prodveuin By Board, 294 Prisoner-of-war donors— in ETOUBA, 530 in MTOUBA. “2 Prisoners, dopations fomy 407 Processing labora‘ aintribation of dovetin to, 201-293 ‘ologic testing at, 261-262 Prooeng of blosd for Korean airlift, 743—for Pacific airlift, of 800. 603 in ETOUSA, 476,4 Processing of blood cutetitutes, 77 Processing of dried Pie 275-276 experience wit 95 Proving of liquid waar at Army Medical 8c Processing ‘of plasma:

>

53

ao

BSaa

5 eRe gs z

Processing of serum albu’ ‘ocessing section of ETOUSA “blood Bank, 102-! 502-503 Procurement Division, American Red Cross, 294 Procurement of— blood— for at te ETOUSA, 477, 490, 401492, for Posie vit, 599-602 for serum albumin program, 340, 343, 355 in Seventh U.S. Army, 445 problems of, 718 demonstration plasma packages, 89-91 3-734, equipment for blood donor Program, 70 equipment for plasma pr Ceram 93-294, plasma in Korean War, 773-7

PROGRAM

facilities for plasma: after D-day, 484-485 dismantling of, 772 of blood eubstitutes, 372 of dextran, 7! 90, 791 of Plasma at Army Medical School, 65 of serum albumin, 361 Production capacity for gamma globulin in orean War, 78aProduction capacity of ETOUSA Blood Bank, 560-561 Production egumaues, role of, in plasma 8, 670 note of piasma fractionation, 590 Profewtenal donors, , 18 handlingof blood from, 421, 576, 638, 639, 752-754 Professional meetings— Albumin and By-Products Group, NRC— }— 240

3—300,3. Allied Conference on Shock sion—

and Transfu-

May 1945—20

American Medical Association— June 1942—156 merican Society of Refrigerating Engineers— 7 Dec. 1943—203, 273 Armed Forces Medical Policy Council, DO. 17 Mar. 1952—775 Blood and Plasma Conference, NRC— 24 Mar. 1943—299 Blood Procurement Conference— 14 Feb. 194: 2—91 Committee on Blood and Blood Derivatives, NREC— 83 Dec. 1949—725, 726, 790 mmittee on Medica] Research, OSRD— 9. 29 Committee on Transfusions,

NRC—

31 May 1940—49-51, 101, a™ 325, 326, 371, 24 July 1940-51

468,

269,

INDEX

887

Conference for Revision of Army Manual lood Grouping, NR 24 one 1943—248-249, 252-253 Conference of Albumin and By-Products G , NRC— 28 uly 1943354, 362, 376, 381 14 Dec, 1943—354, 476, 763 Conference ot lood Donor Service 15-16 Dec. 1943—119, 125, 127 18-19 Jan. 1944—118-119, 125, 127 Conference on airlift of ETOUSA— 15 Aug. 1944—200-210 Conference on Albumin, NRC— 339-340, 342, 352, 694 oiFeb, 1942—340 22 Mar. 1943—345 19 July 1943—352-353 Conference on Albumin and By-Products, NRC— 15 Apr. 1942—342 Conference on Albumin reatin an 19 Oct. 1942—198, 331, 332,3 mference on Blood Group Specific Substances A & B, NRC— 19 Mar. 1945— Conference on Blood Grouping, NRC—

23 Mar. 1943-53, 82, 238, 239-240, 242, 248, 249

24 June 1943—248 Conference on Blood Preservation, NRC— 19 Jan. 1945—110, po 213, 226 8 Feb. 1945—226-227 2 Dee. 1949—769-770 Conference on Blood Preservation and Resuspension, NRC— 6 Dec.

1045—229,

248

Conference on Blood Transfusion Equipment, OTSG— 6 Dec. 1944—194-195 Conference on Bovine Albumin, NRC— 16 July 1942—328, 330 Conference on Derivatives of Plasma Fractionation, NRC— 28 Oct. 1953—-776 Conference on Differential Agglutination Eryt H R 17 “sept 1952—769

Conference on Epidemiology myelitis, NRC— 14 Feb.

of

Polio-

1953—884

Conference on Fat Emulsions for Intravenous Therapy, NRC— 24 May ee —795 19 Mar.1 Conference on o Fibrinolysis 69 Conference on gener: problemas of Blood Donor Service, ARC— 19-20 Jan. 1943—119 Conference on Gtobin, NRC—

21 Apr. 1944—36:

Conference on ‘Tmmune Giobulins, NRC— 8 Feb. 1953—362 Conference on Pectin, NRC— 24 Feb. 1943— Conference on pleome Fractionation, N 14 Mar. 1945—361 Conference on Preparation of Normal Human Plasma—

Conference on Production of Normal Human Serum Albumin and Its ByProducts, NRC— 19 July 1943—353 rence on Radioactive Dextran, N 29 Aug. 1951—792-793 Conference on Resuspended Blood Cells, NR

18 May 1945—260

Conference 059 May

on Shock SA—

and

1945—15-16,

656

Transfusion,

Conference on Technical Operations of Blood Donor Service, ARC— 7 June 1942—11 Conference on Transfusion Equipment and Procedure, NRC— 25 Aug. 1942—76, 85, 184, 221, 238 Conference on Uses of Gamma Globulin, NRC— 5 Aug. 19 Cooperating agencies— 11-12 July 1950—727 First Conference on selatin, NRC— 10 Nov. 1942—37: First Conference on eheck, NRC— 21 June 1941—

BLOOD

888 Professional meetings—Continued Fourth Congress of Ukrainian Burgeons, 1930—: Malaria Conference, 144 Panel on Preservation of Whole Blood and Red Cells, NRC— 28 Mar. 1951—771 Research Society of American Red Cross in France— 22-23 Nov. 1919—9-10 Second Conference on Blood Storage, N 2 Mar. 1944—223-2! cond Gonferenee on Galan, NRC— 23 Feb, 1943—374— Second C onterence on "Shock — 1 Dec. 1943—34-35, 258 Socigts ‘Null de Chirurgie, Paris, —24 Southers Surgical Association, December 19:

Special

coer ha Albumin, NRC, 1942— Subcommittee tor. *standardizution of Dispensin RC—

23 June

PROGRAM

1942—81-82, 91, 143, 242, 329,

20 Ont 194253, 79, 221, 332, 372, 373, 379, 674 10 Nov. 1942—374, 380 15 Dec. 1942—53 173, 261, 333 24 Feb. 1043—67 9 Apr. 1943—80, 180, 184, a 392, 468 13 May 1943—54, 240-241, 345-346, st "eee 372, 381 28

July

10

Aug. ‘1043229,

19493—241 241,

249

24 Sept. wo 80, 222, 224, 241, 381 17 Nov. ee 223, me 362, 375 § Jan. 1944—159, 223,3 3 Mar. 1944224, 225 226, 362, 376 21 Apr. 1944362, 376 2 June 1944—140, "226, 251, 335, 699 13 July 1944—-142, 144 16 Mar. ee 352, 362, 381 18 May 1945—260, 263 Subcommittee on Shock, NRC— 3

, NRC— 22 Jan.

1943—237,

349,

362,

364

Subcommittee on Blood and Bleod Derivaives, NRC—

san 1951—783

Subcommittee on Blood Procurement, NRC— 18 Aug. 1951—104 Subcommittee on Blood Substitutes, NRC— 31 May 1940—79-81 30 Nov. 1040—62, 80, 101, 270, 283, 325, 336-337 19 Apr. 1941—37, 52-53, 85, 163, 165, 169, 177, 269, 270-271, 290, 327, 32! 8 May 1941—168, 275, 279, 329 23 May 1941—165, 236, 276, 283, 291,

308, 337, 698 18 July 1941—165-166, 236, 239, 269, 271, 275, 341 18 Aug. 1941—104, 139, 208 , 284, 378 2143, 329, 342, 373 12 May 1942148, 242, 340, 669, 674

9

. 1952—80:

Subcommittee on steriliestion of Blood and Plasma— 8 et. 1952—' 4 Feb. 1953—781-782 Symposium on Blood Preservation, 2 Dee. 194978, 771 i on Structure and Ceiluler Dynamics of Red Blood Cells, NRC— 1J-12 June 1953—169 Third Conference on Bicod Storage, N 30 Aug. 1944—-224, 226 Third on terence on ‘Gelatin, NRC— 4 Sept. 1943—375 Professional personnel: in ETOUSA, indoctrination of, 459-460 of forward distributing centers, 409 operation of ARC blood donor centers by, 109. 110 Professional responsibility for airlift to ETOUSA, 492-493 8

889 Professional Services Division, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 476, 497, 524, 529, 546, 547, 557 Office of Surgeon General, 61, 102 Professional supervisi of blood program in: ETOUSA, 547 of driedtents) program, 102

Progress

report(s)—

of ETOUSA Blood Bank, 508of hospital blood banks in *RTOUBA, 473-474 Prohibition of shipment of transfusion equipment

Projec'

for

overseas,

Continental

Operations

Donor Service, 121 for group | recruitment of donors, 126 through labor unions, 125 Promotions in§ ETOUSA Blood Bank, 498 Properties of — 806 bovine albumin, 326, 327, 328 colloid solutions, 52 corn

syrup,

317-318

crystalloid solutions, 371 dextran, 790-791 dried plasma, 271, 279-280 fibrin foam, 364, 367 zen pli a, 273 gelatin, area 376, 377 gum la, 384 isinglnea, “9 oxidized cotton, 380 Pectin, 378 Periston, 381 plasma, 48, 51, 52-53, 55-57, 266, 391 rabbit grouping scra, 23! serum, 43 serum albumin, 4337, 340, 341, 344, 345, 352, 353, 699 Prophylactic administration of plasma, 392 Prophylactic transfusion, 460, in Luzon operation, 635 Prophylactic use of physiologic salt solution in shock, 35 Prophylaxis of— early shock, 34 experimental shock by plasma, 266 hemolytic reactions, 657 infectione in wounds of extremities, 705

infectious hepatitis, 350, 363 influenza, 3 lower nephron nephrosis, 667 mone }, 359, 362-363 363 paralytic poliomyelitia, 783-784 poliomyclitis, 3 py rogenic reactions, 653 ions, 650 » 363 serum hepatitis, 363, 670 shock, 33-34,3 for standardization of British transfusion equipment, for use of supply channele for distribution of blood, 420-42 Proatration after

donations,

158

Protein chem , 336 Protein component of fibrin film, 367 Protein concentration of rabbit typing sera, 236 Protein content of plasma, 52 Protein deficits, postoperative tranefusion for, 681 Protein depletion, Pissms in, 697 Protein determin: a8 Protein Foandation, 3 Protein losses, amin os ackda tn, 380 Protein supplement, use of globin as, in Korean War, 7 teinuria— inn incompatibiity 3 iene ee ephron Prothrombin, 270, 273, ne,"287, 362, 363, of plasma, 702 in traction TII-2—359 Prouprit, Capt. W.S., 451 Provision— for intravenous fluids in MTOUSA, 398 for transfusion in North Africa, 394 of blood— by unit bowie system, 396-399 for Office of Civilia: n Detenae, 91-93

of plasma for Office of Civilian Defense, 1-63 of professional personnel for ARC blood lonor cen! Provo, 783 Proximal tubules, necrosis of, 655

890

BLOOD

Pryor, Lt. R. E., 533, 5: Pseudoagglutination after gelatin injections, Pseudoglobulins, 237, 243 Psychie factors in postdonation reactions, 157 Pe ehae stimuli in shock, 32 hrophilic contamination, 650 mie Information Office, General Headin Korean War, 730 Pui Tatrmaton Office, Joint Logistic mand, in Korean War Public. Information aevie ARC, Public Law 196, 77th Congrese, 30 July icity Publicit; for ARC Biood poner Service, 107, 110, 111, 119, 120, ier. ARC mobile ceding unite, 118 arly campaigns for donors, 121 Publis ite, 121 auguration

of

Pacific

airlift,

602-608

Puerperal hemonhaee, transfusion for, Puerto Rico, 143 Putaski, Lt Col we J., 792 Pulmonary dam as cause of failure ©of resuscitation, 44 as contraindication to replacement therPulmonary e edem: after plasma infu ions, 570 after serum albumin seministration, 702 after transfusion, 20-21, in cheat wounds, 7! inann fephron nephrosis, 667 lasma reactions, 667 ina eek, 42 isk of, with multiple transfusions, 437 Pulmeonsry irritations as contraindication to trans n, 34 Pul effect of plasma on, 298, 698 in incompatibility reactions, 654 in plasma reactions, 670, 67: in reactions from contaminated blood, 665 Pu Pressures ‘effect, of hemoglobin solun, 36. 1 Purchasing and Contracting Office, New York Army Medical Depot, 301 Pure Food and Dmg Administration, 375 Purposeof lood grouping, 234 Purpuric renctione to bovine albumin, 935

PROGRAM

Pusan, 7728, 752 Pornal 364 Pyrogen tree blood, 195 gen on intravenous solutions, 384-385 on serum albumin, 345 Pyrogenic reactions, 193, 219, 429, 461, 552, 572, 612, 651-652, 656, 660, 661-663 causes of, 179, 651-653 differenti al diagnosis of, 653 due to hemolysis, 663 due to lax preparation of transfusion sets, inin BTOUSA, 652-653, mblance of, to Bvncompatity, role of distilled water in, 482,6

246

Pyrogenicity of fat emulione 706 in fractionation of plasma, 343

eee Supstitutes, 372 albania, 344, 348 conaltivity to, after multiple transfusions, 804 Qualifications of transfusion officer, 472 Quantitative administration of plasma, 697698 Quantitative blood replacement, 690-601 criteria for, 559 Quantitative errors in tranefusion in North a, 393 Quanta factor in incompatibility reac650, 654 Quantitative relation of— b plasma administration to degree of shock, 39 replacement therapy to degree of shock, 39 tranefuah tr to degree of shock 34, 39, 635 tranefusion to hemorrhage, Quantitat: replacement “here, 20 Que ntitative use of b MTOUBA, arise on Continent, 556-566

INDEX

391

Quantitative ususe of plasma, 267 n Contiment 586-56 66 Quartan Guartermaster ster Corp 463 Quartermaster Refrigerator Con ba Queries about blood program, Ques stionnaire— lasma package, 168 Quotas

ini ARC

of enlisted personnel at ARC centera, 111 Ratio of— blooa to | Seeualtics, 180, iw re Korean War,

Blood Donor Service, 120

Rabbit grouping sera, 236-237, 230 for mass

military

use,

233,

236-237

Rabbit thermal! test of serum albumin, 344, Rabies, 140, 142 of donors, 139 Mate notification of arrival Luzon,

of blood

on

621

Radio Publi, _ in ETOU: Radio veavesta Tot blood from Australia, 5 6-5: Radioactive cell-tagging ‘ecinique, 217, 221-222, 227, 28, 7 Radioactive studies m Per: » 789 Radioautographs after Priston ‘therapy, 790 Rail transporatio jon in—

en‘orean War, 729, 742, 744 ZI, 2 205 Relay BEnprese hoon Railw: Agency,y tee., 204-206, 603,

26, ve

Rang, L., 288 Rangers, 447 Ranxrn, Brig. Gen. F. W., 64, 69, 80, 211, 213, 464, 465, 467, 468, 489, 490, 492, 493, 579, 599, 680 Raprarort, Maj. E. M., 679 Rate of— blood flow i in shock, 30 hemolysis effect of tempera on, 208 in stored blood, 218 plasma infusion, 96, 165 red blood cell survival in preserved blood, 217 Tejection of commercial plasma, 296 transfusion, 4, 12, 21, 22, 34, 36, 194, 198, 5 6, 690, 799 Ratings— in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 498 71T-409—04——39

bleeding

in Luzon operation, in Middle t, 480 MTOUSA, 398 in Okinawa operation, 631 in Operation OLYMPIC, 640 in , 615, 630, 633-634 blood to plasma, 4 Blood: plasm a-casualty requirements before Korean War, 773 plasm: ato anus in ETOUSA, 556-557 replacement fluids to each olher in British ighth Army, “tI 462 trecatson sets to combat casualties, 544 Ratio of— saeantance of plasma, a 53 concentrated plasma, flying unrefrigerated plead to ETOUBA, 2 initial acceptance of plasma, 52-53 Plasma in shock, 266-267 plasma replacement, 57, 265 in burns, 697 270 separate

336, 339-340

intravenous

therapy

service

in

Armed For whole bloodrepre 57, 177-179 .» 338,_339, 385, 716, Ravorn, Brig. Gen. 786, 792, 704 Reaction(®) va aad 77, 179, 429, 464, 469, 569 after ‘onations 145, 153-158 causes of, 649-6: confusion of, with preexisting conditions, 649 “ierential diagnosis of, 649 dui

improper cleaning of recipient sets, 444

892

BLOOD

Reaction(s)-" Continued ue inued im oper "sleasing of funn, 434 Oa, 186, 6: » 193, 219, reuse of auipment, 461 Rh factor, Rh factor, water Toultiple transfusions,

46,

247, 248, 249

Rh incompatibility, 246, 249 erroneous conceptsof, 657- $e in ETOUSA, 657-650, 660-66: in evacuation hospitals in ETOUSA, 670 in Filipinos, 668 in general hospitals, 572 Korean War, 8 804, 806 in MTOUSA,6: in Okinawa ciperation, 627 in SWPA, 35, 788 incidence of, 6 fount Sinai Hospital, 651-652 at Walter Reed General Hospital, 652, 696 in ETOUSA, 247, 660-661, 664-665 erly cleaned equipment, 652 , 649 650 of tissues to fibrin film (foam), 365, 367— 3 le of distilled water in, 651 routine investigation of, 649-650 to blood airlifted to— ETOUSA, 661-663 awry ine albumin, 326 327, 330-332, 335 to codaverie lood, to contaminated blond 665 to dextran, 791, 792, 793 to fra etion TI—362 to gelatin jnlections, 375, 386 to globin in Korean War, 3 to groupspecie blood after massive 0 transfusions 805 to gum aecaci: ution, 10 to hemoglobin solutions, 361 to high-titer group O blood, 424-426, 696 to high-titer plasma, 259 to homologous serum, 266 to intravenous solutions, 385, 387, 558 to Haul plasma, 96 to outdated blood, 633 to placontal blood, 25 to Piss, 50, 52, 79, 258, 250, 260, 208, 566, 636, 668-6. 80

PROGRAM

to plasma fractions, 361 to preserved blood in German Army, 22 to red blood cell transfusions, 312, 316 to serum, 336 to serum albumin, 338, 330, 344, 345 to transfusion— with ith with with with

Aeever’ ’s eoltion 225 al. solution, 200 incompatible blood, 186 modified Rous-Turner solution, 224 red celis from unrefrigerated blood, 210 with unrefrigerated blood, 210 See also Com mplications; Sequelae of donatio Reactivetion of‘World War II Subcommittee d Substitutes, NRC, 724-725 Rear! oepttale Rh testing in, 248 Ruaxpon, area . H., 485, 52 Recaleificat of conteainated plasma, 302, 303 of plasma, 270 Reception rooms in ARC blood donor centers, » 113 Recipient, ‘passive transfer of sensitivity Recipient blood, survival of red blood cella in, 220 Recipient celis: hemolysia of, 663 intravascular hemolysis of, 653 replacement of, by transfused cells, 805 Recipient sets, 508 delivery of, to FECOM, 765 for airlift to ETOUSA, 491, 492 improvisation of, in MTOUSA, 423-434 in plasma package, 17 in SWPA, 593 preparation of, in MTOUSA, 659-660 turn of fom Continent, 551 short in ETOUSA, 483 in MT ‘OUSA, 440, 694 pave fo ‘or, in shipping containers, 761 Recipient susceptibility, 653-654 Recipient urine, bowe albumin in, 327 Recognition of donations, 127-128 Recommendation for ac solution ‘for airlift lo ETOUSA,

INDEX

893

fors addition of: and B substances to blood, 260 cose to stored blood, 222 for additional personnel for blood banks, for

454

additional refrigerator truck equipt blood banks, 4. for additives to serum albumin, 352 for administration of blood program in 0 T! , O1 for alvance ble blood banks in ETOUSA, 510 for airlift, ETOUSA, 2 209-210, aria 466-467, (i8, 480-487 490-49 ea thea 465 for blood bank “Tacilitice, 431 in Japan in Korean War, 756-757 for blood donors with malaria, 144 for blood for combat casualties, 53, 461464, 465-466, 467, 468-469 for blood supply in— Central Pacific, 594

South Pacific, 594

SWPA, 591-595 for central Jaboratory in MTOUSA, 398 for change to serum albumin in Korean War, 781 for commercial procurement— of intravenous fu ice G82 388 of serum album for distribution vonter afloet in Okinawa mn, 628 fordnb ot a blood by ETOUSA Blood Ban! for double ranefusfon units, 408-409 for facilities for trausfusion overseas, 303 for field investigations, NRC, 79-80 for group-specific transfusions after group O transfusions,8 for handling of blood in re 604-605 for hemoglobin level of donors, 159-160 for indocLrination of amphibious task force ersonnel, 628 for intravenous therapy service in Armed Forces, 53, 76-79 for ihmaitation of use of plasma in Korean 1 fer location of SWPA blood bank, 591-504 modification of Chrysler refrigerator, for operation of blood bank on LST 464— for

594-595

organization of NATOUSA, 401

transfusion

unit,

for overses airlift, 222-223, 476 for oversea transfusion service to The Surgeon General, 462-464, 465-467 for plasma, 75, 76, "268, 269, 337, 474, 629 from serologically positive blood, 744 for preservative solutions in MTOUSA, for Professions! supervision of distribution ms,

628

for provisionmn of blood: for plasma program by ARC, 101 in MTOUSA by unit hospital system, 398 for purchase of plasma by Armed Forces, for record-keeping on ETOUSA airlift, 212 for reprocessing of outdated plasma before Korean 3 for shock teams in amphibious operations, for standardization— of fold relrigerators, 208 f A equi ipm ent, 165 for stockpiling plasma befor e Ko ‘orean War, 773 transfusion equipment before Korean War 778 for atu blood ea metivutes, 75 2 for survey of needs for blood in ETOUSA, for ayphilitic donors, 143 for Table of ag eanization for Army blood banks,4 for temperature for transportation, 226 for termination of plasma program i Korean War, 784 for testing of serum albumin, 344 for training in ms and transfusion, 85-91

for a

ement overseas with improvised ment, 180-185 for transfusion service in Korean War, 756— for treatment of shock by transfusion, 35 for universal use of group O blood, 53, 54 for of— preserved blood, 2: erum albumin, a7, 339-340 stored blood, 53 of civilian committees in post-World-War II period, 715-717

894 Recommendation Oe of General Board, ETOUBA, of Babcommittes on Biood ‘Gabetitutes, NRC,to A 7 of Task Group on ploee program before Korean War, 719-721 oD own rship 0 byp roduets, 83-84 to Secretary of Defense on blood in Korean War, , 726 Reconstitution of plasma, 34, 50, 88, 91, 165, 698 Record-keeping: in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 501, 504 in processing laboratory, Travis AFB, 740 in ZI, 45. on shock wi Record sector, STOUBA Blood Bank, 501, Recording of blood groups on identification tags, 233, 295, 238, 242, 244, 499, 444 Records— in ARC blood donor centers, 145, 152-153 in forward hospitals, o ARC Blood Donor Service, 70, 103 plasma infusions, 676-6' et reactions, discrepancies in, 649 of transfusions— at Walter Reed General Hospital, 696 in Spanish Civil War, 11 with red blood cell residua, 313 on airlift to ETOUSA, 214 required of commercial processing labora, 207 Recovered Allied Military Personnel, 565, 5 Recovery ward, reactions ie 651 Recreation Corps, ARC, Recruitment of donors, "0%, 111, 118, 119128, 139 by groups,1: in ET nea, 74, 524-627 in India, 642 in Korean War, 730-731, 737-738 in MTOUBA, 421-422, 442-443 in SWPA, 596-597 Reorystallization of bovine albumin, 327, 328 ecumbency alter donations, 145 Red Ball Poaster F reight Service, 509, 537 Red blood c unt— after voasatusion with unrefrigerated red lood cel s, from capillar Ty b ed. 30 in combat casualties, 461

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Red blood cell formation, inhibition of, after wounding, Red blood cell residua, 312-319 clinical eexperiences with, 313, 314-319 19

of, 313 elas of collection of, 313-314 Red Bloo cells: effec onidl ia cotton on, 380 transportation on, "920-221 er unrefrigenated bleed, 210 in Korean War, 785 loes of, in relation to plasma loss, 43-44 metabolism of, 203 nutrition oh in ACD solution, 226 of recipi effect of»serum albumin on, 336 offers on of blood from dangerous unial don r, 804 oxygen-earrying properties of, 8, 31, 52, preparation of globin from disearda of, in War, 769 apposed coe of, to ETOUSA, 490, 493, reduction of, in burns, 338 release of, to ZI hospitals, 82 selective destruction of, after transfusions,

806

O-blood

storage of, 82 suggested field use of, 319 survival0! iter tenon, oe 229, 260-261, 769 in ACD solutio in dextro: on restrved blood, 220 transfusion with, 143 in World War I—5-6 vale oh in chest wounds, 706 Redue'! or vate of | blood flow in shock, 30 volume flow of blood in shock, 30 wttetrenen" grouping sera, 241 Refined Syrups and Sugars Corp., Reflex vasomotor paralysis theory be * shock, Refreezing of plasma, 273 Refreshments after ra 148 Refrigerated trucks, 212 in British blood program, 17

INDEX

895

in ETOUSA, 467, 478 stops

during

Refrigerating equipment, 468 Refrigeration, 203-215, 227, 421, 718, 719 aiter deplanement, 208, 209 before enplanement, 208, 200 development of 416 arly lack of,5 tei for ARC blood donor centers, 114, 152

failure of, 567, 650, 664

for airlift, from— United Kingdom to Continent, 478, 532, 538 ZI to ETOUSA, 208-213, 227, 476, 489, 491, 492, 493, 494, 538-539, 540, 541 for ARC mobile bleeding unite. 115 for hase collection centers in MTOUSA, for detachments on Continent, 520, 521 for ETOUSA blood bank, 496, 502, 503— 504, 510, 511 for fed te 52, 454, 543 in — 268 for Tervad hospitals, 464 issma, 65

for processing lal for 6803d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd. ), 454 for storage of dried Disamoy 102 in Australia Blood Bank, 581 in Britis! h eta transfusion units, 17 in CBI, 6 in ETOUSA, 212, 476, 541-543 in evacuation hospitals, 180 in OM a, 422 in FECOM, 766 in forward hospitals— in general hospitals in United 473, 474 in Korean Wer, 8 in MTOUSA, 414-417, 454

Kingdom,

in in in in

proposed unit hospital oe 397 southern sean. “46, 4 48, 450 Spanish Civil War, 11 SWPA, 584, 585, ‘Oa, 590, 593, 598, 604, 5, 606, 607, 608, 611, 612, 614

in ETOUSA, B07 in SWPA, 631. maintenance on in Brilish Army Transfusion Service, 17 on Continent, 550, 551

0 of Paoie‘equipment, 738 of replacement agents, of resuspended red Blood cell residua, 313 of serum albumin, 349, 637 of shipping containers, 765-766 no Guam, 614 ls, 50 on Normandy’beaches, 485, 509, 512, 518 reactions caused by failure of, 651 requirements in ET A, 541-643 orponeibility of Supply Division for, in ‘OU! 46, role of, in reactions, 668 eee ane for, 203-204 412 with ‘Alsever’s solution, 224 Refrigeration, mechanics of, 416 Dee Blo od Bank, 498, 506, 514 uthern France, 454 Refrigerators standardization of, 208 Regeneration— of hemoglobin a! fter donations, 158-160 of plasma proteins after donations, 159 Regimental aid posts in World War I—6 Regional programs of ARC in Korean War, 737 an technical supervisors in ARC 119 Pro, Regrouping of blood, 476 Regulations for use of wed blood cell residua, 313 Reichel Division of Wyeth, Inc., 252, 289 3, 289, 292 technique

of drying

‘p & Dohme plasma, 280

BLOOD

896 Re-icing— on airlifts, 214 m test airlift, 221 Rejectio iio donors, 20, 139, 140, 141-144 causes

of,

140-141

in Korean War, 731 with major allergies, 651 with syphilis, 261, 262 recommendation for, oversea transfusion e by ose 74, 78, 465-466, 469, 480, 490, 4 Rejection rate of commer veeial plasma, 296 Relation of degree of hemolytic reaction to amo transfused, Release required before donations, 140-141, 145 Relief of pain in shock, 56 Religious meetings, recruitment of donors at, 125 Remodeling of facies for ARC blood donor cente 2 Renal changes in> incompatibility Tteactiona, 654-655 Renal complications— after globin injections, 782, 783 in incompatibility reactions, 653-656 Renal damage— from Merthiolate, 284 in serum sickness, 331 Renal dysfunction in shock, 555 Renal excretion of dextran, 790 Renal failure, plasma potassium in, 803 et of Periston on, 789 combat casualties, 781 lower nephron nephrosis, 667 nal tolerance of hemoglobin, 555 Ren negotiation Division, OTSG, 301, 304 Renegotiation phase of plasma program, in Ra

301-312

Reorganization

of ARC Blood Donor Serv-

Reorganization a No, 6, DOD, 716 Reparative surgery in wounds of extremities, 703-705 Replacement: of recipient 1 red blood cells by transfused cells, See also Totrevenous therapy, Transfusion. Replacement agents, 726, 684 in World War I—8 responsibility for, of Surgical Consultant, ETOUSA, 470

PROGRAM

Replacement depot(s): Conti donore ‘rom, in» MTOUSA, 422 24th—453 Replacement therapy as specialized breach of medicine, 464, 469, 472 British equipment for, concepts of, after World ‘War I—31 development of anemia during, 34 effecta of, 34-3. evaluation of, in World War I—9-10 field studies in, hemoglobin solutions in, 361 in li f evacuatio! in Prevention of shovk, 34 jock, 36 Soviet Union. 21-22 WPA, 637-638 indications for, 457 01 ik wards, 710 principles of, orean War, 796-801 quantitative administration of, 20 quantitative relation of, to degree of shock, 39 Tecurrence of hemorrhage aang 34 re One 5-646 andardization of equi ont for, 467 training in, in British bloodd supply depot, soe Report (s) blood srevements at Prestwick, 541 bovine albumin program, 327-328 1950 Task Group to Secretary of Defense, a sa Report. military donors with syphilis, 262-263, 503 plasma reactions in SWPA, 668, 660, 673reactions in ETOUSA, 660-661 Reproces: of plasma before Korean War, 772, 773 of World War II blood derivatives, 718 1

lood from a in Korean War, 713, 729, 739 surplus plasma, 310-311 Requirements Coordination, Munitions joard, 720

INDEX

897

Requirements for— airlift 203-204 med Forces in Korean War, 733 Mood after oan 8 in MTOUSA, ‘ar-488 blood program before Korean War, 721 donors i in Pacifie, 582-583, 584 dried eee 142, 284, 287, 288, 289, 290— 471 Renee landings, 471, 480-481 Operation OLY MPI Transfusion service, replacement therapy in Ca 15-646 m alburnin, 342, 344 Requisitions for blood supplies— in crows. 2 541, 546, 547, 615 in SWPA, 6

equipm

for ipa ships in CPA, 504 in SWPA, 593-594 Research— during Korean War, on Blood reeervation before Korean War, on due’ plasma, volunteer donors for, 101-102 Research contracts before Korean War, 725 Research Department, California Fruit Grower's Exchange, 3' Research Division, Army Medical School, Research section, ETOUSA Blood Bank, 500 Research Society, American Red Cross Fran Reserves of “plood, excess of, in Korean War, 752, 756 Residual impurity in bovine albumin, 328 Respiratory insufficiency as cause of death, Rest camps, donors from, 462 Restoration— of blood pressure in shock, 34 of blood volume as basia of shock therapy, Resuscitation, 443, 455, 4’ by British fie! Id transfusion units, 16, 17-18 concepts of, 683 development of, in MTOUSA, 684 diagnostic routine in, 687 estimates of blood for, in ETOUSA, 485— failure

of, 44,

285

film strips on, 55 in oon Nar 781 np Okinawa operation, 626 individualisation of, 550

timing of operation in relation to, 36, 39, 4

training in, 87, 442 for Okinawa operation, 624 whole blood requirement in, 57, 192 with whole biood i in a Africa, 395 Resuscitation office Resuscitation ‘ahoek} wards, 683 Resuscitation teams in World War I—7-8, Retention of— oxypolygelatin in plood stream, 787 Periston in body, Personnel iin ETOUSA Blood Bank, 501 in bloodstream,4: Retiulendotblal system, 229 or dextran in, 791 of Periston in, 788 Return— of marmite cans from Continent, 509 of transfusion equipment from Continent, Review

of manuscripts

School, 63-67

at

Army

Medical

olds Metal Co., 214 Rh agglutination, natura! incidence of, 247

in red blood cell transfusions, 314 in SWPA, 598 military significance of, 2448, 249 Rh groupings in A,4 Rh immunization, 246-248, 20 Rh incompatibility, 245~251 Rh-incompatible cells, survival of, 246, 247, Bh-negative brood 582 ciden in Japan

in Korean

War,

898

BLOOD

Rh negative broods Continued ipm SP ETOUSA, 250, 251 to Korea, 748 Rh-negative Persone, + 2a, 247, 248, 249 Rh-positive bloods,4! Rirpositive cells in Tih-negative recipients fi ‘ansfusion, 656 Rh-positive 1 persons, 246, 247, 248, 249 Rh-positive recipients, effect of red blood cell transfusions on, 315 Rh sensitivity, reactions due to, 660 Rh-specifie bloods in Korean War, 729 Rh testin, indications for, 248-250 Rh testing serum, 248-251 Rb-verified blood for airlift in Korean War, 43, Rhesus monkeys, 14: bine pier 522, 523, 537 8, C. 2, 103 HA: RicHAaRDsoN, Ringer's solution, 8, 383 Risk (s)— of airlift of unrefrigerated blood, 208 of transfusion, 9 Roaeerson, L. B., RosERTSON, Maj "or i , 5, 6, 8, 74, 80, 218, 312, 384 Rosinson, Col. E. §., 353 Rosinson, G. C., 92, 101, 104, 107, 109, 139, 144, 205, 28, 262, 290, 294, 301, 313 ler Foundation, 2 Rockefeller Institute for Medical

13, 253, 2

Research,

Roentgenolo, gic examination: in resuscitat n, 689 traumatic effect of, 31 Roer River, 52: Hocens, Brig. Gen. J. A., 550, 557 now See Republic of Korea. Rol oft National Research Council in Biood Program, of Subemmittes | on Blood Substitutes, RC,in blood program, 49-54 Rome, 406, 407, 418, 420, 440, 446 Room temperature, storage of infeeted oled plasma at, Ross, capt i W., 717 RosEnat,2' Roeavawia, N, 219, 651, 652

PROGRAM

Ross, Capt. J. B., 229 Ross, J. F., 221, 230, 260 Rotation— od bank personnel, 413 personnel in bleeding centers, 111 Rouleaux formation— after gelatin iniections, 377 in slide technique of blood grouping, 240 Rovs, P., ‘208, a7, 219, 222, 223, 265, 312, 383 Rous-Turner solution, 217-218, 219-220

modifications of, 222, 223-224

Routes of administration of serum albumin, 1 itine— at Hollandia Blood Bank, 595-596 of donations in AIRC blood donor centers, 145-148 of blood collection during Korean War, of blood replacement in resuscitation, 68 of Posttransfusion cleaning of equipment, Mount Sinai Hospital, 651-652 Walter Reed General Hospital, 652 Rowntnes, L. G., 21 Royal Ai moet training of personnel of, in bloo gram, 16

Royal nem

Me dical Corps, 78, 396, 528

training of personnel, of in blood program,

Royal Infirmary, Salisbur. 473 Royal Navy, training ot ” personnel

of, in

components of ‘transfusion sets, ‘oper cleaning of, 651, 652 a f stoppers for intra-

Rubber stoppers for— distilled water, $85 plasma package, 163, 185, 166, 169 serum albumin package, 198 transfusion bottles, 196" Rubber tubing, 463 durability of o in ow 638 for donor for plas! ra package M5 for recipient set, 436 for serum albumin package, 338, 343, 344 for transfusion set, 196

890 shortages o in ETOUBA, 544 Ruoopea, F., Ruhr Basin, i Rumors, tialof on donations, 125, 129, 329 Rumpel-Leede test, 335 Ruptured cetopie. regrancy, 23 u 6, 735 Russian Red Croas, 95 Russo-Finnish War, 1840-41—40 Rusting of intravenous plasma needles, 172 Sabotage, 129, 295 Saccharose, 218 Sacus, H., 243 Safety— of airlift of unrefrigerated ETOU! 213

blood

to

Sorcen int Screen

Saipan, 591, 594, 605, 607, 614, 615, 622, 626, 120 480, 481, 516, 532,

from, 260 354-355,

Salvage of aging blood in— ETOUSA,

511,

550

MTOUBA, 440 Salvaged materials from wrecked planes, 424 Sammons, M. E., Sample testing of commercial plasma, 296 San Antonio, 292, 734 San Diego, 292, 600 San Fernando, 622

San Francisco, 213, 220, 202, 310, 489, 599, , 606, 615, 618, 719, 741, 742,

San Lazaro Hospital, 671, 673 Sanidad Militar of Spanish Republic, 12 717-409—_#4—_60

42 Schools, drives a parental donations in, 125 Schouten Grou Schula technique or globin production, 362 Scuwanrz, Lt. Col. F. N., 69, 71, 205, 302,

492, 493, 603

1 1 Saint Mawgan, 211, 212 St. Paul, 292 Saint-Trond, 521, 523

640 Sano. Capt. ¥., 799 Sale of plasma, rumors concerning, Salerno, 398, 05 Salerno-' Salisbury, England, E 195, on “m3, 493, 194, 499, 500, 512, 513, 534, 546, 54! Salisbury, N.C., 211 Saliva A substanee i in, 806 derivation of A and B substances Salt-free plasma, 285-286 t-free serum albumin, 35]-352,

Sanitary Compe, 111, 500 nsapor, Someta 8asary tal P. E., 675, 680 Satono’ Baxron,. @ 3. 12 Beabics, patients with, as donora in World ‘er I—9 Seand/aavian countries, 790 tina, 363 Scarcuanp, G., 345, 359, 381 Schedules of delivery to processing labora-

ee 488, 494, 512, 514, 536

for roup Obl blood, 251-252 in MTOUSA,

Cc Blood Storage, "NRG, 223 Gelatin, NRC,3’ Shock, NRC, sa Secondary anemio, oxygen deficit in, 56 Secondary hem gelatinin, 374 transfusion for, 485-486 Secondary h: ypotension, 803 Secondary shoe! 59 Secretary of Air Force, 716 Secretary of Defense, 715, 716, 717, 721, 726, 733, 734, 737, 776 Security measures in ETOUSA, 548-549 Sedimentati before airlift t irin Korean War, 746 esused by dextranlike eubstances, 791 in Consinental Blood Bank, 552 in SWPA, 607, 613 sedimentation. constant of bovine albumin, 326 Sedimentation rate: after gelatin injections, 374, 375 effect of blood substitutes on, 373 Sedimentation technique of plasma production,

13,

286,

203

SEELEY, Col. S., ay 62, 800 Szisert, F. B.,

BLOOD

900

224-225,

489,

353 blood through, 143 ETOUSA for 491,

airlift, 224—

ETOUSA 492,

493,

airlift, 494,

553-554, 611 casualties for surgery, 683-684 by Brit field transfusion teams, 17 mo overseas, donore a 2 MTOUBA, 424-426 Selectiveros ice, Semiclosed vellection technique, in CBI, 642 Senior Consultant(s) in— Medicine, fice of Chief Surgeon, T Shock and Transfusion, Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 496, 547 Surgery, Office of Chit Surgeon, ETOUSA, 193, 475, 5! Sensitivity: passive transfer of, 650-651 to blood substitutes, 373

to pyrogens after multiple transfusions, 8 to sulfonamides, 140 Seoul, 752 Sepsis: as cause of frock, 688 plasma in, Septic sore ‘rot ini donors, 142 Septicemia— after donation, 157 as indication for transfusion in World I— Wi Sequelae of donations, 139, 153-160, 730 Serologic testing, 97, 142-143, 151, 261-262, 275, 462, 463, 466, 476 before ETOUSA airlift, 490, 491, 494 before Pacific airlift, 603 in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 501, 502 in German blood program, 22 in Korean War, in MTOUSA, 430 in processing laboratories, 297 of cadaveric blood, on

LST

464—595

PROGRAM

Serologically positive blood: dried plas we omy 643, 744 in ETOUSA 6, 568 in Japan in ioresn War, 731 in MTOUSA, erum, 65 agglutination of, by recipient’s red blood cells, 4 complement i in, 336 drying of, 276 in ,

Po

Seitz filter, 287, 326, passage of malarial Selection of— ACD solution for 22. Alsever’s solution

in experimental shock, 265 in German blood program, 22 in infections on shock, 2 presptation tl Sbrin in, | 266 Processing ol t 20th General Hospital, 642 from Chinese donors in CBI, 645 from discarded Australian bloods, 582 production of, in India, 642 properties of, 336 reactions

to,

266,

336

109, 300, 335-355, 359, 398, 457, 464, 67, 600, 664 addition of antibacterial agents to, 349351, 352-354 supplemental Buide pith, 347 are reactions t Army requi iremente "ton 347-348 snl testing of, 337-339, 345, 354-355 rejal pro: eoseing of, 71, 76, 84, 237, ='500, 341-347, 361 ontamination of, 350 definition of, 267-268 dosage of, 34, 338, 339 effects of, 34 equipment for commercial production of, field studies of, 80 filtration in production of, 353 freezing of, in Korean War, 782 historical note on, 335-336 in in m in in

hemorrhage, 354, 355 hepatie cirrhosis, 352, 354 ypoproteinemia, 52 Korean War,713, 781, 782 nephrotic syhdrorne, 352, 354

INDEX

901

in nutritional edema, 354 in peritonitis, 354 in plasma reactions, 671 in resuscitation, in shock, 34, 3, 354, 355 in SWPA, 63 incications tor 702 n Korean War, 796 jaundice after injection of, 674 laboratory development of, 336-337 le; gel P roblems in commercial production licenee’ for production of, 81 limitations of, 702 of, 347, 352 multiple injections of, 339 Navy contracts for, 111, 267 8-337 Pearl Harbor experience with, 338-339 processing of, fro: contaminated las, 88, 302, 308, 345346, discarded bloods in Korean War, 750 outdated plasma in Korean War, 773 ies of, 326, 353 provision of, for OCD, 92 rationale of— selection of 338-340 f, reactions to 337, 338, 339, 444, 345-346 recommendation of, to Arnmed Forces, 39-340 refrigeration of, 349 specifications for commercial production stability of, 345, 360 sterility of, 353 stockpiles of, after World War II—772 storageof, 341 supervision of commercial production of, 340, 342 techniques of processing of, 337

of, 127, 302, 346-347, 782 Serum albumin package, components 198, 702 Serum albumin program, 120, 491 procurement of blood for, 109, 343 termination of, 355

of,

Serum capi

therapy, 699-702 gs, in MTOUSA, 442 Serum hepa 142, 310 diagnosis of, 675 in Korean War, 713, 775, 776-782, 795, 803 in World War ron 775, 776, 705 in ZI hospitals, incidence of, in Korean War, 778, 781 prophylactic gamma globulin in, 679-680 prophylaxis of, 363 sterilization against virus of, m5, 776, 782 of serum albumin for, ag hall War, 782 transmission of, by— plasma, in Korean War, 775, 776, 782, Serum

ranefusion, 720 aisickness, 327, 328, Sos,

7 rvice orconel donations from, in ETOUSA, 473, 476, 4 Ve

ea

399,

iD,

in SWPA, 58 Services of Supply, 477 Sex distribution 7 donors—

446,

335

462, 466 452-453

276-277

SHaINMARK, Capt. A. C., 522 Shaking: during tests of Alsever’s sowwsion, 225 effect of, on red blood cells, 220 Vv, 24

arp hme, 65, 163, 240, 275, 280, 289, 290, 292, 309, 346, 719, 774, "783 Sharples centrifuges, 342, 343 SHa’ N, Lt. F.S., 521 Shall freezing technique of drying plasma, 273, 276, 281-283, 774 Shell- froven "dextrose (glucose) in demonstration plasma packages Sheppard‘Air Force Base, 73: 4 Suerranp, S. E., 374 Shipping section, ETOUSA Blood Bank, 503-504,

515

902 Shipping spec conservation “of, 18. for intravenous guide, 382 shortages of,1 Shock, 29-44, 28 after gelatin injestions, 787 amino acids in, 380 and transfusion service, recommendation 79 anesthesia aa cause of, 32, 34 arterial Peres 88 criterion of, 36 as cause of low ephron nephrosis, 426 as indication for ‘ransfusion, 22 i ar I—7 asphyxia in, 665 ase deSciency in, 40

burns as cause of

myositis as cause of, 38, concepts “ ao 37-38, el 42, aB_086 in Wor! ar I—7, 5-6, 8+ 3 cnt \seboratory ‘etude | in, 31 dec: of— blood volume flow in, 32 cardiac output in, 30-32 peripheral circulatory blood volume as cause 0 ous return as cause of, 30, 32 deSnition of a 33, 37-38 degree 559 deplation a physiologic functions in, 32

lextran in, 792 differentiation from— hemorrhage, 1 2, 29, 51 patibility ‘reaction, 655-656 cy onan of prophylaxis of, 706 of, 252 cy anus of, by NRC, 50-51 effec ctuceoe solution in, 34 physiologic aalt solution in, 8, 34, 383 mpirical use of citrated blo od in, 31 catimntes of blood needed in, 480-481

BLOOD

PROGRAM

evolution of— concepts of, res come management of, in TerOUBA, 5atherapy of, 37-38 experimental studies on,oe 37-38 between World wars 29-40 field studies in, fluid shifti gelatin in, 374, 376 German management of, 43 globin in, 783 gum acacia in, 384 head injuries, as cause of, 38 heat in, 32 heat in " prevention of, 34 hematocrit in, 4 hemoconcentration in, 30, Ao, 43-44, 51 hemoglobin solutions in, hemogiobinurie nephrosis in, 855 hemorrhage as cause of, 7, 8-9, 31-32, 33, 38, 4 1-44, 4 historical note on, 29 impairment of renal function in, 555 in burna, 69° in dysenter ry in CBI, 642-6: in incompatibility reactions, 654 in lower nephron ne; phrosisy 666-667 in malaria in CBI, 642-643 in plasma reactions, o70 in renrtions fom contaminated blood, 665 in SWPA jneidence of, crease ofCapillary permeability as cause of, increase of hemoconcentration in, 32 ineflectiveness of gelatin in, 787 infection as cause of, 34 ts of, 30-33 rial transfusion in, 799-901 lethality of, 56, 665-666 literature

of, 65

joss of — circulating blood volume as cause of, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37, 40, 54 local fluid as cause on 29, 36 lasma

as

cause

of,

management. of in “orrard hospitals, 268 metabolic chang in, 36 morphin 32 nomendate on 31-33, 37 oliguria in, on operat: en 443 overtranafusion in, j 804

INDEX

903

pectin in, 379 perit toneal

contamination,

as

cause

of,

3U

Peritonitls, as cause of, plasma in, 13, 31, 34, 266-267, 268, 297, 298, 480, 617 in North Africa, 392-393 plasma protein concentration in, 40 pleural contamination as cause of, 39 res in prevention of, 34 34, 36 quantitative relation of: to amount of hemorrhage, 31, 41, 42, 685-686 transfusion to degree of, 39 rate of transfusion in, 22 recommendation(s)—

for studies of blood substitutes in, 75 of plasma for treatment of, 268-269 recurrence of after resuscitation, 56 reductio! rate of blood flow in, 2 volume flow of bloo lation of cardiac output degre of, 36 renal effect of hemoglobinemia in, teplacement therapy in, 34 replacement therapy, in prevention of, 34 mblance of severe malnutrition to, 570 Ringer’s1 solution in, salt-poor serum

sodium glycerol polysuccinate in, sourcesof blood for management ot. 476ATT special studies o A 3 atus of vasomotor center in, 30 studies on blood substitutes for, in World War I—471 studies on, in World War I—29 theories o! between “World Wara, 20-30 in World War I--29 therapy of, 32, 50-51, 633-710 by British methods, 471 initial errors in, 29 for oxygen-carrying corpuscles in, timing of therapy of, 36

tissue anoxia in, 36 tissue asphyxia in, 30 tone eof peripheral vessels in, 32 toxemic theory of, 29, 30 ‘usion as basic component of therapy » 41-42, 47: transfusion with cadaveric blood in,2: use of aging blood in, in ETOUSA, 555 striction a 32, 194 tio!

32

wi of, 3 wounds central nervous system, 88 cause of, 32 Shock centers, in World War I— Shock Committee, in World War I—20 Shock position, 32 Shock Reports, NRC, 33-36 Shock (resuscitation) wards, 683 reactions on, 707-710 Shock teams, 668, 706-707 in ETOUSA, 463, 472 in North Africa, 393 in Okinawa operation, 625, 626-627 WPA, Swoog, Col. bs ., 07, 175, 204, 294 Short collections, losses due to, in Korean War, 747, 750 Shortage(s) of— anti Rh serum 249-251 auto! baxter bottles ini ETOUSA, 193 blo od— after D-Day, 460, 486-487, 561 in ETOUSA, rumors concerning, 552 in North Africa, 438 centrifuges,

298, ‘204,

342

for serum albumin program, 343 642 Chureh containers, 204-205 components of improvised transfusion set, distilled water—

, ARG blood donor centers, 294-295 to‘or plasma Production, 290, 291 er serum albumin program, 343 in ETOUSA wood Bank, 7308-509 in SWPA, 591, 598-599 overseas, 462

904

BLOOD

Shortage(s) of—Continued field transfusion units in ETOUBA, 544, 5 laboratory supplies for Pacific airlift, 603 latex , 171 rsee— "tor bleeding centers,1 in general hospitals in TTOUSA, 501 pape for publication of experimental tudies, 79 rs 206 for plasma production, 290, 291 in ARC bleeding centers, 408-409 in SWPA, 591 in 6703d Blood Transfusion Unit

(Ovhd.),

446

professional personnel for bleeding centers, 109-110 recipient

sets i

ETOUSA, first ETOUSA shipments, 494-495 MTOUSA, 440, 694 shipping space, 180, 465-4 specialist personnel in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 499 stainless steel filters, 170-171 stills, 462 technical personnel overseas, 462 tin for plasma package, 172 transfusion equipment, in— ‘OUBA, 469 North Africa, 432-434, 438 vehicles, for deliveries in MTOUSA, 420 Shuttle delivery on Continent, 535-536 Sicily, 5Br,0 905 ae 422, 656 of, 395, 396 Siegiried Line, ee

PROGRAM

Smallpox vaccination, false positive serology after, 262 Mears, examination of, for Plasmodia in— ETOUSA, 462, 463, 466 MTOUBA, 399, 411, 423, 442, 453 60 Swvoms, Col i e “, 393, 395, 424, 425, 690 Sodtan bicarbonate, 394

in Alsever’s solution, 222 in MIH solution, 24 Sedium chloride concentration

in

rabbit

Sodium ‘chloride solution, intra-arterial fusion with, 796 Sodium strate, ‘180, 1 193, 491 anticoagulant oper of, 217 e, 285 attribution of renctions to, 651 effect of—

in-

loss of, in bleeding bottles, 309 shortagesof— in ETOUSA, 180 oe North Afric: Bilicon-coating of ‘lesting bottles, 727 special studies 2, "718-219 Simmons, Col. F. A. toxicityof, 142 Simmon fg. Gen. i 5., 680 Sodium citrate solution in Baxter bottles, 437 Sinusitis {in denon, 142 Sodium citrate technique of transfusion, 4 War I—6, 9, 10 Bioux City, 7 18S eyelet trauma, transfusion in, 35 Sodium viveeral | polysuccinate, 380 Sodium hydroxide in MeGill solution, 222 kin testing with bovine albumin, 329-330 Skitocovsky Institute, 24 Sodium mandelate, 350, 351 Sodium oxalate, ae utinin titrations in MTOUSA, 442 Slide techniq Sodium-r-lact: of eroupine, 3-24 Sodium vulfathizeole, addition of, to blood of mass grouping, 237, 238, 240 in SWPA, 589-590 Slightly wounded casualties, donations from, graphic

“Blough Sludging,

ee

221

Center,

413

Soft-tissue rounds in i shock, 688 SoroLow, N. 1,

INDEX

906

Sotanpt, D. Y., 266 SOLOC (Southern Line of Communientions). commercial clasma 2709, 296-297 lyophilized serum, 3 serum albumin, 340 Soluble cellulose, 365 Solution for joint collection of whole blood and blood for plasi me, 767 769 Soluvae giving set, S81, 5 SOP. See Standing Operating Procedure. 80S (Services of Supply). 80s, funetien of, in transportation from ited Kingdom to Continent, 531 80s advance blood banks in ETOUSA, 505SOS troops, donations from in ETOUSA, 477, 478, 279, 481, 482-483, 7, 496, 525, 529 on Continent, 516 SOS type advance depots of ETOUSA Blood Bank, 498 urces— of donations in World War I—6, 9 of pectin, 377-378 Pacifie recon mendations ter blood supply in, 594 Southampton, 515, 5 Souther Section” ETOUSA, 499, 509, Pe 526, 530 Southern prance: 417, 442, 445, 446, 447, 440, 450,451, 516, 552 Southern ine of Communications, 450 » 5

ea, 467, 5 complaints about oe venous fluids in, 3, 385 plasma reactions in, i 671-674 reactions in, 668 request tor ‘visit of inspection to, 467-41 Southwvestem Pennsylvania Chapter, ARC, 2, 269 Soviet Union, 21, 24, 95 blood program in, 21-22 experiences of, in production of dried plas! medical caritary battalion, 22 Kingdom to Continent, 531

Spacing

of donations,

139

in Soviet Uni in Spanish Civil War, 12 in World War 1—9 Spacing of transfusions, 318

Special Representative on Blood and Plasma Transfusions, OTSG, 53, 54, 63, 67, 6! 95, ne 450-460, 492, 558, 603, 641, 673 Special stu AandB subatences, 260 Accuracy of blood grouping, 242-244 ACD solution, 226-227, 229, 767-769 addition of Merthiolate to serum albumin, 352-353

Alsever's solution, 224-225 asymptomatic donors, 679 blood clotting, 309-310 blood compatibility, 560 blood loss in severe wounds, 557 blood preservatives, 229-230 blood substitutes in World War I—371 bovine albumin, 305326, 327-328 is hum: bumin, 335 elinieal use of liquid and dried plasma, 297-298 DeGowin's solution, me dried plasma, 65, 101-102 effects of high- titer O blood on incompatible recipients, 696 fibrin film,3 fibrin foam, 304-365 field studies in Korean War. B06 eld teat of dextran in Korean Wan 793794

filtration of serum albumin, 353 gelatin, 65, 373-374, 375-377 German management of battle cagualtics, 22-23 globin, 65, 361-362 aroup ° blood, 65, 110 gum ia, 384 Fomoglobin solutions, 361 hematologic response to transfusion in Korean War, 805 pemormiage, 266 arterial transfusion, 796, 799 ion exchange resins, 770-771 inglass, 3’ keeping properties of blood, 19 laboratory studies in shook, 31

906

BLOOD

Special studies—Continued liquid plasma, 65 lower nephron nephrosis, 666-667 measles antibodies, 83 merits of blood substitutes, need for plasma and blood, 301- 392 OTE a in, 65, 377-3 Periston, "39790 plasma reactions in ETOUSA, 670-671 preservative solutions, 229-230 Preserved blood, 52, 217-2 20 ival in Naples Blood nk, 430 red blood cell transfusions, 107-112, 314319 refrigerated root 210-211 us-Turner olution, 223-224 salt content of serum albumin, 350-352, 355 salt-free (aalt-poor) serum albumin, 35)— . 355 serum, 336 serum albumin, 337, 338, 339 serum hepatitis, 675-678, serum in omperimee shock, 265 shock, 33-36, Pe tween, World ¥Var, 29-30 I—29 sodium citrate, 218-219 sodium glycerol ee oe 380 solutions and equipm 0 stored blood, 217 survival of red blood cells in recipient, , 260-261 survival’ of spirochetes, 261 synthetic plasma, 6: thrombin, 364 titration of blood (plasma), 258-260 ‘ranefrsions of incompatible isoagglutinins, 663-664 et refines §2, 220-221 of wu erated blood, 210-213 use of Blood” and blood substitutes, ARC, 101

speoific gravity of urine in lower nephron nephrosis, 667 specie gravity measurements of hemarit, 2. Speintin for— by commercial processing nboratorice, 301 Army insulated containers, 215

PROGRAM

blood bank on LST, 593 commercial production of serum albumin, 348 donors, 139-141 gelatin a military use, 374 processing

of plasma,

in Chinese

troops,

81

retention, nan ne album: tranepertation, "309-204, 206 Speed shock, 36, 96 Sp’ inal cord | tumors 368 Spi 43 Spirochacta vallidum, 261 pirrodhetes, destruction of, in refrigerated ood, 261, 589-590 splanehni block, 65 Spleen lood loss in wounds of, 635-686 deposition of— blood substitutes in, 373 pectin in, 378 fibrin foam in surgery of, 365 hemostasis in surgeryof, 364 rupture of, i Chinese troops, 646 Splenomegaly, after Se ‘therapy, 381 646

alaria, 1 Splinting { in» prevention of shock, 34 Spot radio announcements , 121 Sprains, donors with, in World War I—6 6 65 tes, 373 © albumin, 926, 328, 332, 333 of dried lasma, 1 of gelatin, a4, 375, of se! min, a7, "0, 341, 344, 345, 3499,7 352, 360 Stabilization of plasma (serum) by removal of water component, 265 taff Assistance Corps, ARC, 111 Staff sergeants at bleeding centers, 111 Staff visits to Pacific, 590-595 Staffing of shock wards, 700-710 Staging areas, donors trom i in MTOUSA, 422 Stainless steel for plasi eedles, 172, 175 Stainless

steel

filters,

170-171,

Standardizati f— and B substances, 260 ACD solution, 437 bleeding techniques, 145-148

193,

196,

224

INDEX

907

eanipmen

10 Korean War, 720, 727 be ‘Army an avy jointly, 73 for ARC blood donor centers, 76 for replacement therapy, 467 fibrin foam, 365 ion-exchange collection technique, 771 plasma equipment, 270 procedures before Korean War, 727 Processing equipment for plasma program, 294

refrigerators, 208 thrombin, 365 transfusion equipment in MTOUSA, 435ain Standing Operating Procedure for— Saline of blood to Continent, 520-521 invasion of Continent, 511-5 616 Leyte invasion,

27th Station Hospital Blood Bank, 589Stanpuez, Col. E., 404-405, 408-411, 431 Stanford University, 350, 351 Staphyloc aureus, contamination by, 307, 308, 673 sires and Stripes, 451, 574, 730 Stare

ivr of Iowa College of Medicine, , 158, 210, 220, 224, 471, 694 Stitate Viivenity of Iowa Hospital, 85 tals, 87 version on inte ETOUSA Blood Banks. 513 check of blood grouping in,

in ETOUSA, 244-245

in ZI, 175-176 overseas, 180 provision of field transfusion units for, 45 reaction rate in, 660-663 Statistics absenteciom, after donations, 153 airlift— to Anzio Beachhead, 418 to ETOUSA, 559-560 Anzio beachhead, 440 ARC Blood Donor Service, 109-110, 120, 130, 137 Australian Blood Bank, 582 Barcelona, Blood- Tranghusion Service, 11

battle casualty rates in MTOUSA, 37 blood bank in— Japan in Korean War, 731-733 MTOUSA, blood clotting, “30-31 10 blood collections, ooh Medical General bor: Blood for Britain, 13 blood grouping sera, processing laboratory, Travis AFB, 744 blood in SWPA, 6 blood ae on ists for Normandy ndings, 512 blood veplucement in MTOUSA, 692-693 Board for Study of Severely Wounded, 40-42

British use of blood in Western Desert, 391 casualties in landings in southern France, 447 clinical tecrne of— gelatin serum ‘ibumin, 338, 339, 344 clinical use of— dried and liquid plasma, 297-298 ted blood cell residua, 312 collection at ETOUSA Blood Bank, 4 at U.S. hospitals in Uaived. Ki Kingdom, in British blood program, 17 commercial production of— dried plasma, 289, 291-292 serum albumin, 345-347 comparative blood grouping study, 244

242-

Continental Section, ETOUSA Blood nk, 212 deaths from shock without hemorrhage, 38 deliveries: by C-64 planes on Continent, 536 in Okinawa operation, 623-624, 625 of donations to processing laboratories, 291-293 to ZI hospitals, 97 discrepancies, in ETOUSA figures, 660663 distribution center on Guam, 631 donations, at— blood donor centers, 119 Marseille bleeding center, 453 early use of plasma, 265-267 errors in blood grouping in Armed Forces, 244-245

908

BLOOD

Statistioe “Continued “er

o‘ETOUBA, 494 on operation, 720 Operaation OLYMPIC, 640-641 European theater,556-568 ta] studies on pectin, 378 fatalities les: after transfusion, 650 from contaminated blood, 665 fibrin film, 36 fibrin foam, neurosurgery, in 43d General Hospital blood bok 572 uitment rot donors, b hi group O thood in MTOUSA, 428 incidence of transfusion reactions, 649 issue of blood in Tauson operation, 622 large plasma package, 173 Leyte operation, B18 losses— from contamination in Blood for Britain, from syphilis, 261 in plasma program, 305-306, 309-310 in SWPA, 631-63: of preserved blood, in ETOUSA, 5665 malarial donors in MTOUSA, 423 mobile bleeding units, ARC, 114, 118 modified Rous-Turner solution, 223- 224 multiple donations, 15 Naples Blood Bank, 437-442 Navy airlift to Pacific, 213, 600, 603, 615 nontransportable casualties, 42-44 darth Station Hospital blood bank, 614 sea airlift in Korean War, 739, 747Periston therapy, 789 fracti etionation 361

processing laboratory,

Travis AFB,

747-

professional male donors, 158 provision— of liquid plasma for ZI hospitals, 96 of plasma for OCD, 9: pyrogen tests on serum albumin, 345 ratio, of casualties to blood requirements wn Continent, 480-481

PROGRAM

reactions, 649 Mount Sinai Hospital, 65: at Walter Reed General Hospital, 401, 696 in ET OUBA, fen bes in SWPA, 5 8 to Gonetions B87 with ACD folution, 612 red blood cell

trang: fusions,

314-316,

317,

31 . peleetion of donors, 140-141, Rh in mpatibility reactions, ‘249 serum albumin production, 338, 343 m hepatitis, rn ZI hospitals, 675-678 chipme of Races blood to neo 251 to Seventh U.S. Bhock and. ‘hem morr hay a TOU BA, 39 6703d Blood Tranefasion Unit (Ovhd.), eriseh Blood saaetusion

Unit

(Ovhd.),

stockpiles ofof plasma ‘ome after World War II— euppiice, for invasion of southern France, supply of Australian blood to U.S. Bases in SWP. » 5 surplus plasma, after World nor yr timing of operation in MTou ti ma package v2 titration of pooled plasma, 258-259 Tokyo Blood Depot, 757 training courses in Army Medical School, 87 oe (gs): in Army and base areas, MTOUSBA, 404— in fractures of long bones, 703-704 of incompatible blood,2! with cadaveric blood, A with DeGowin et al. solution, 220 use of blood— by shock teams on Okinawa, 627 in forward hospitals in MTOUSA, 437438 in France, 1940—20 volunteer services, Blood Donor Service, ARC, weekly quotas, in ARC blood donor centera,

yields of plasma from blood, 299-300

INDEX

909

tatus— of heart in shock, 30 of vasomotor center in shook | 0 Braver, Maj. Gen. M. C,, Steam siector technique, stvarying

for collecting bottles for ACD solution, 227 for intravenous solution bottles, 387

rage:

plasma,

Sreze, Lt Col. A., 755, 756, 757 Srurren, G. 1., 27 r Sram, Lt. E. E.,5: Sre: BON, Capt, ‘c. 8., 49, 50, 928, 337, Stephensville, Bterile technique te tor collection of blood, 148162, 431 Sterillty of— frozen plasma, 271 intravenous plasma

solutions,

fractions,

343,

385 359

samples of plasma, 304 serum albumin, 341, 353 Sterility teste— in commercial processing laboratories, 297 on red blood cell residue, 313 Steriliaation— agsinst hepatitis virus in Korean War, 775, 776-782 of A and B substances, 260 of blood substitutes, 373 of of of of

donor sets, 196 equipment, 113 gum , 384 franafusion equipment, 9, 652 oe 190-191 ital banks in ETOUSA, 474 Sterilising Properties of alcohol, 353 Srmwant, Col. J. D Stewart- Warner study on shock, 39-40 Stick measureme! of plasma losses, 30: Still pictures of ocd bank activities, TOUSA, 413 Btills, shortages of, 462 BStockpiles of am albumin after World War II— Stockpiling oe dextran in Korean War, 705 plasma, before Korean War, 772-773 Periston, in Korean War, 789, 700 Stones, J., Jr., 336, 359, 362, 679 8ronz, Col. W. 8., Stoppers, 78 for Blood for Britain, 14

at forward distributing center, 414 cell swelling during, 222 effect of on red blood cell survival, 2601, 805 of A and B substances, 260 of blood, 50 for field use, 179 of blood substitutes in viscera, 373

of gum acacia in tissues, 371 of infected | Pooled plasma at room temperati of liquidplans, 16, 51, a 266, 268, 273 of Periston in body, 789, of plasma “fractions, 259 loss of co! ponents uring, 286 of preserved blood, 2: of red blood cells rom unrefrigerated blood, 210 of serum albumin, 341 of unrefrigerated blood, 210 on Continent, 510 optimu m temperatures for, 203 under vacuum, 2 in

in in in in in

British

bottles,

193

ETOUSA, 481 general hospitals overseas, 185 MTOUSA, open vontelne overseas,1 808 advance banks, in TETOUSA, 505-

in Spanish Civil War,1 Btorage section of SLOUSA Blood Bank, 503-504, Storage space in ARC blood donor centers, 113, 215 Stored blood: definition of, 217 of temperature on, 210, 222

for addition of glucose to, 222 for f, 53

BLOOD

910 Stored blood—Continued special studies es on, 217-220, 229-230 transmis: of experimental syphilis by, 143 by,

Sulfonamides:

sensitivity to, 140, 655

143-144

Stenap, Maj. J. J., 5

5, 74, 93, 101, 102, 159, 163, 165, 166, 171, 222, 227, 266, 267, 260, 270-271, 274, 280, 285, 286, 287, 288, 296, “208, 336, 362, 385, 669, 771,

785 Srurais, C. C., 74, 80 m, 763

Albumin and By-Products, NRC, 237, 349, 362, 364, 36. Anesthesia and Shock, NRC, 33 Blood Procurement, Blood Substitutes 4, 70, 74, 75, #3. 84, as" 92, 109, 110, 139, 159, 163, 165,

NRC, 75, ie NRC, 13, 16, 35, 4976, 77, 78, i 80, 81, 93, 101, 104, 106, 107, 140, 142, 143, 144, 158, 169, 173, 180, 184, 202,

220,

221,

222,

224, 225-226,

228,

230,

261,

262,

267,

268,

275,

279,

236, 240, 241, 242, 244, 249, 251, 260, 283, 309, 335, 384, 674,

269,

271,

294, 286, 289, 291, 296,3 313, 325, 327, 328, 329, 332, 333, 336, 337, 340, 341, 342, 381, 382, 385, 392, 461, 464, 467, 468, 669, 694, Soe 702, 721, 724, 725, 776, 0, Burns,Commie an Surgery, ae’ 726 Shock, NRC, , 253, 376, 384, 714, 782, 787, 788, 70, 790, 791, ed 794, 795, 802 Standardization of Dispensing Equipment,

NRG, 163, 165, 337

Sterllization of Blood and Plasma, NRC, 781 Succinate therapy in late shock, 34 Sucking wounds of chest, 688, 710 Sucrose, 315-316, 790 Suction

collection

technique,

14,

195 Suggestions from m publie, 1128 Sulfadiazine,| with fibrin ek 367 with fibrin foam, 364-365 Sulfathiazole, sensitivity to, 140

151,

186,

use of, by donors, 140 Sulfonated polystyrene copolymer, Sulfuric acid as desiccant, 2 Suturvan, Lt. Col. E. R., bh 394, 401, son 421, 443,4 Superintendent of Hospitals, City York, 128 Supernatant pla: hemogl ob content of, 210, 211, 273

758 395, 400, of New 426, 552

of bloed prea overseas by trained personnel, of commercial production of serum albumin, 341-342

Supplies: in ZI for Operation OLYMPIC, 641 footing of new lots of, 344 pply "and demand, adjustment of, in— ETOUSA airlift, 557-558, 567

2

of malaria

PROGRAM

Sulfonamide derivatives as plasma additives,

field studies in, 80-81 of blood— in CBI, 642-643 to Continent from

United

ter D-day, 484-487

Kingdom

Pith vu: S. Army, 39) spitals, a7 ara Catal listing— of expendable donor set, 435 of expendable recipient set, 436 valves for don t, 435 upply channela: ver: of ipment through, in MTOUSA, 420-421, 435 distribution or blood through, 574-575, 638 ET A, 479, 545-546 in Korean Wer, 752-755 604 limitations of, in blood program, 16 roposal for use of, 4 1 Supply Division Office of Chief Surgeon, ETOUSA, 485, 510, 545-548, 575 Office of The Surgeon General, 70, 293, 387, 492, 541, 740-741

INDEX

911

Suppression

of

isoagglutinins

in

pooled

m8,

Suppressive treatmacnt of malaria In SWPA, Supreme Allied Commander, 574 Supreme Abie d H eadquerters, Allied Expeditionary Force, 4! Surfacecraft, celive ery oy vauring Normandy landings,5.

Surface rae ortation— United Kingdom to Continent, 537-5 in Okinawa operation, 622, 623, 627, 631 in Operation OLYMPIC, 639 in

SWPA,

587-588,

590,

594

Surgeon ADSE: Eighth Ar Force, 520 Fi S. Army, 550, 557 Forward Echelon, Headquarters, ComTmunications Zone, ETOUSA, 487 NATOUSA, 680, 683, 692 Subbaso D (Port Moresby), 586-587 Third U: 12th ‘Army Group, 486,5: United Kingdom Base, ETO USA, my Forcea in Far East (USAPFE), Army Forces, Pacific Ocean Areas » USATEOA), 606 Surgeon General: Air aie 5, 716 15, 50, 53, 61, 69, 71, 75, 76, 77, 80, 93, 101, 102, 110, 127, 172, 179, 192, 204, 215, 221, 222, 237, 258, 262, 271, 273, 275, 293, 295, 311, 319, 339-340, ae? 404, 408-408, 411, 431, 435, 443, 464, 465, 466, 468, 469, 475, 477, 480, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 495, 552, 599, 605, 606, 636, 674, 715, 716 Navy, 15, 53, 61, 76, 77, 80, 83, 102, 11 127, 221, 237, 273, 339-340, 363, 599, 603, 715, 716 U.S. Public Health Service, 716 Surgery: after forward transfusion in World War 16 base of resuscitation, 683-685, 691 ag indication for, influence of transfusion on, 490

Surgery

Division,

OTSG,

55,

461, 469, 490, 491, 493, 538

67,

69,

88,

Surgical Consultant, Sixth U.S. Army, 604 Surics Consultants Division, OTSG, 48, Surgioal emergencies, plasma in, 57 Surgical preparation before venipuncture, 150 Surgical Research Team in Korean War, 803Surgical risk ounds of extremities, 703 reduction ob by transtusion, 443 ¢ Shock. Surgicals| Surgical techuicians, training of, in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 500 Surplus blood derivatives, 724-725 Sur TPs equipment Plegina production + World War 77 Surplus gamma globulin, atsiuto of, by ARC after World War II— Surplus plasma distribution of e103, 772 eee Surv airlift ‘a o ETOUSA, 551-553 blood-plasma needs before Korean War, blood program in MTOUSA, 443-445 German management of battle casualties, 22-23 serum hepatitis in ZI general hospitals, transfusion

facilities

in MTOUSA,

395,

transfusion practices in ZI hospitals, 694-496 whole bloode recommendation. for, in ETOUSA, 466 in TECOM, 754, 755-757 Survival o ted ood ocells, 217, 220, 227, 229, 260-261,

Rh-incompatible cells, 246, "oa 250 spirochetes, 261 Survival rate after intra-arterial transfusion,

799 Sweden, 790, 791

912

BLOOD

Swedish dextran, reactions to, 792, 793, 794 Swedish experience with dextran, 791 Swiaart, a 733 Swindon, WPA. Sea Southwest Pacific Area. Sydney, 582, 590, 591, 616, 618 SYMINGTON, "Secretarary W.8., 716, 727 Sympo: on Blood Preservation NRO, 7 on Structure Cellul tr Dynemice of Red Blood ‘Cells, NRC, 769 Synchronous transfusions, 437 Synthesis of— new hemoglobin from breakdown hemo-~ globin Broducta , 221 Feristom 7 Synthetic bleed, ste, 336 Synthetic rubber 169 Synthetic seru em albonin 825-326 Synthetics, reriae ement of rubber by, 78 Syphilis, 422,4 donors with, 6, 142-143, 261, 262-263, 423 in German Blood program, 22 losses from, in Blood for Britain, 14 transmission of, by transfusion, 261, 744 Syphilitic donors, acceptance of, overseas, Syphilitie military donors, reporting of, 262 Syringe-cannula technique in World War ISyringe technique of transfusion, 4, 10 Tables e rcipment for blood transfusion units, 43 organ nizatio:

+ blood ¢ transfusion units TOUSA

Blood

Bank,

497-498

orguntzation and equipment, 15 Ce 1944—604 Tacloban, 621 Tactical employment of transfusion units, 463 Tactical situation: in Italy, in MTOUSA, 399 on Okinawa, 624 relation of, to blood requirements, 752 avist hemoglobin technique, 158, 159 plasma package, 16: Task Force on Federal Medical (Voorhees Committee), 715

Services

PROGRAM

Task jones. on National Security (Eberstadt Committee),7 Task Group to etudy replacement therapy requirebefore Korean War, 717-721 report, of, STL, 773 implementation of proposals of, in Korean an 721-723 Tarom, W. L. TaYrLosg, Maj. ~ , 91, 104, 156, 158, 159, 204, 205, 258, "369, 286-287, 294, 299,

302, 304, 305, 308, 317, 349, 492

Tarior, F. H. L., Teams in ARC blood. donor centers, 145-149 Technical Coneuants Volunteer Donor Berv, AR Teohaiel viele of administration, in Okinawa operation, 527 Technical Dieter ARC Blood Donor Service, 91, 104, 105, 106, 268, 294, 317 Technical directors, ARC chapters, 108-109, Te chai eal Division, OTSG, 208 Technicale in blood rounin 242-243 nm with cadaveric blood, 24 role off in> plasma reactions, 67a, 674 Technical Memorandum No. 13, Offfice of Chief Surgeon, USAFFE, 21 Sept. 1944—58: Technical pers deferment of, trom military service, 70 shortages of, overgeas, 462 Technical procedures in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 497 Technical ratings of personnel in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 498, 499 Technical sergeants at ARC blood donor » 111 mTechnieal supervisors

of

ARC

chapters,

106

Technicians, training of, at Naples Blood Bank, 413 Technique (6): at liquid plasma centers, 307, 308 of administration of— dried plasma, 698 serum albumin, 702-703 of blood collection, 14, 87,1 at ARC blood donor “enters, 148-152, 491-492

at 20th General Hospital 642 at 27th General Hospital 589-590

blood bank, blood bank,

INDEX

913

effect of, on hemolysis, 438 in Blood for Britain, 13-15 in British Army Transfusion Service, 17 in ETOUSA hospitals,4’ in Korean War, 729.730, 743-744 inSWPA, elo 426-428 in SWPA, training in,

f eee ation a

blood, 85

, 337 of removal of cadaveric bloo: of screening test for group o‘blood, 251252 of test for Rivineompatibility. 250-251 of testing of serum al , 344 of titration, 428, 552 of transfusion, 3-5, 85, 196, 466, 636, 693-604 in Spanish Civil War, in World War 156, 8 10 with Ebert-Emerson equipment, 186 with red blood cells, 313, with red blood cells in Werld: War I—5-6 of ultraviolet sterilization of plasma, 778-77! standardization of, 101 cial techniq ues. in ARC blood donor centers, Temperature (s) during airlift: from United 5 to ETOUSA, 211-212, "489, 494, 541 to FECOM, 767 during Australian airlift, 581 effect. of— hemolysis on, 219 ver's solution, 224-225 on fraction Il]—362 on gelatin, 3 on intravenous fi 6 o of hemolysis, 203 on reconstitution of plasma, 170 on stored blood, 210, 222 elevations of: ter firet use of sodium citrate, 651 afte r gelatin injections, 374 differential diagnosis of, 649 for aint 226 for trove’ heating of infected pooled ‘plas for drying of plasma, 277, 282

for Sonia te of plasma, for m freezing of whole "blood, 771 for a ieeration, 203, 719 r storage, 599, 657, 771 in SWPA, 614 of plasma, 273 of serum albumin, 341, 349 for transportation, 203, 476 in SWPA, 610 in prompatibility reactions, 654 inn Pacific are plasma reactions, 670, 672 inn pyrogenic reactions, 653 m contaminated blood, 665 , 638 nance of f, with Dry Ice, 454 of blood, effect of, on plasma yield, 300 of donors, 139, 140, 145 of preserved blood, 217 of room storage of infected pooled plasma, of storage of resuspended red blood cells, 313 stored blood on Luzon, ot tranapoted blood in SOUSA ial runs with Army Tnealnted con-

ers, 215

stability tests of, in fractionation of lasma,3 Temperature chart on airlift te ETOUSA, 212, 213 Temperature coeffietents in hematocrit deermination » 25: Tension p 688, 710 Tentage ‘of shock wards, 707 of agreement, with ARC Blood or Service, Terrain in eee 420 Terre Haw Tertian valerie, 144 Test (s): before transfusion, 462 for differentiati ion of hemolytic and nonmolytic reactions, 655-65 for in vivo survival of red blood cells, 229 od substitutes for yoxielt ¥, 372 of transportability, 220-22 Test injection in lieu of plod. grouping, 6-7, 22 Testing of— ACD solution, 225-226 commerciat producta, 71 mimercial serum albumin, 344-347 concent ‘ated plasma, 275

914 Testing of—Continued distilled water, 344 dried plasma, 50, 269 eauipien Medical School, 65 for intravenous therapy, 464 field transfusion unit, 192 fraction [I—362 a, 240-241 lutions, 364-385 Navy insulated container, 214 plasma, 296-298 plasma equipment, pea plasma package,1 Preservatives: 224 205. 229 rabbit 236-237 serum ‘albumin for serum hepatitis virus, 782 Tetanus, 140 Tetany after donations, 157 Thalhimer modific.ation of copper sulfate test, 18, 160, 257-258 Thalhimer technique of diluting red blood ” THALHIMER, we, 3, 105, 159, 240, 494, 669 That teham, 532,5: hawing of fro: sere tlalasma, 273 Theater Chief Surgeon, wt 192, 470, 475, 470, 480, 521, 524 Theater Personnel, procurement of blood fro Theate: gum jurgeon, NATOUSA, a. 398 Theater transfusion officer, 638,6: in World War I—29 meer of drying of plasma, 279 Ther of reactions after donations, 157 of shock, 32, 50-51, 638-710 evolution of, 37transfusion, as basic component of, 41-42 traumatic effect of, 31 Trrmonuclear attack, 786 ‘Therm 18s ‘rTansportation of blood in, in SWPA. Third eeaferenve— on Blood Storage, NRC, 224, 226, 229 on Gelatin, NRC, 37. Thomas M, England General Hospital, 97, Tuomas, R. A., 277 THOMPEON, Capt. W. T., Jr., 435

BLOOD

PROGRAM

Thoracoabdominal wounds, 706 Trorre, Capt. H. H., 607, 619, 621, 632 Thrombin, 76, 83, 84, 359, 362, 363, 364, 365, 637, 770 matrix for, 364-361 special studies on, ‘see virus of hepatitis in, 364 Thromboplastin, 359 Thrombosis after pectin injections, 377

incomcanis F reactions, 654 lower nephron nephrosis, 666, 667 ‘plasma reactions, 672 melag: between wounding nd Lospitalisation, 566 between wounding a esuscitation, 40, 558-559, 683 effect of,on

resuscitation,

487

in use of reconstituted plasma, 284 Timing of— blood supply in combat areas, 639 collection of blood for D-day, 548-549 donations by combat troops, 529 operation in relation to resuscitation, 39, transfusion Blood grouping, 494 PY, n Wo rid War I—7 Tin for plone package, 163-165, Arve 172,175 ne serum albumin package, n, 607 Toda centrifuge technique of titration, 259 Tispaut, Maj. L. H., 269, 600, 696 Tissue anoxia in shock, Tissue asphyxia i in shock, 30, 56 deposition of gelatin in, 374, 375

muscle matrix, 365 storage of gum acacia in, 371 i — anti-Rh serum, 250 globulin preparations, 240 grouping sera, 235, 238, 239, 240 human er ra, 23 plasma in modified hemolytic reactions, rabbit grouping sera, 236

INDEX

915

Titration of blood, 111, 258-260

t 656 Titration techniques, 428, 552, 657 criteria of, 428 Tokyo, 728, 729, 742, 739, 746, 757, 765 Tone of peripheral vessels in shock, 32 Tonnage [or airlift: from Uni fed Kingdom to Continent, 532, 534 o ETOUSA, 538-539 Tonsillectomy, 364 Tooth extractions, 140,31 Toploading of blood on speedboat, 537 Torney General Ifospital, 97 Tournique Towner, Con r., 717 Toxemia from. les tridial myositis, 39 Toxemic theory of shock, 29, 30 Toxic reactions after gelatin ‘infusions, 786 Toxicity of— wnticoagulant agents, 218 blood substitutes, fm 373 cadaveric blood,2 gelatin, 378 375 globin, in, 3 362 um acacia, 371 hemoglobin solutions, 361 mmereurial presorvatives, 283-286 pee! Periton,

381

plasma, 79 prevarvatives in Blood substitutes, 354 replacement agents, 726 sodium citrate, 142 sodium glycerol polysuccinate, 380 Toxicity controls in Blood for Britain, 14 Toxicity tests in commercial processing laboratories, 297 Toxins— in bloods ane 373

for, 413 Be8 from clotting, 309 for commercial production of serum albumin, 342

in British Blood Supply Depot, 470-472 in handlingof plasma, 27 in intravenous therapy, 77, 78 management of chock inj British depot, 471 in mass blood grouping, 241 in MTOUBA hospitals, 442 in operation of blood donor centers, 86 in oversea theaters, 85 in production of grouping sera, 241 inn reconstitution of plasma, 1 replacement therapy, 442, 463, 469 inns easton, a7 in ee albumin administration, 341 transfusion techniques in World War we —8 in of— dried plasma, 177, 463 resuspended red blood cells, 494 transfusion equipment, 179 in wound ma t, 8 in ZI, 85-91 of blood bank Permonnel 398, 412-413 before Korean War, in Korean War, 736 of British transfusion personnel, 17, 706—7 of Chinese personnel in ZI, 642 of enlisted personnel— in ETOUSA Blood Bank, 500 in plasma administration, 637 of ETOUSA Blood Bank personnel, 500, 501, 509 of persoonnel— in processing laboratory at Travis AFB, 74l

in SWPA, 607, 608 of vain Station Hospital Blood Bank, of

oe

ee ee" hd.), 44: of transfusion teams, no, 706-707

for SWPA,

606

Unit

recommendations for, by Subsommittes lood Substitutes, NRC,8 ‘Training courses: at Army Medical School, 86-87 for operation of liquid plasma processing center, 87 Training film Training functions of home depot, British my Transfusion Service, 16-17

BLOOD

916 Transfer (s) of— personnel: ‘om Continental Blood Bank, 516 to ETOUSA Blood Bank, 499-600 urplus plasma to ARC, 311 Truong pollepeed veins, 436 Transfused isoagglutinins, 806 Tramtin() 3, 20-21, 36, 266 after opera ation in World War I—7 amount

of, in—

ETOUSA, 482 Spanish Civil War, 11-12 World War I—7, 9 as basic component of shock therapy, 41, before initial wound surgery, 395 Brilish experience with, 37 case fatality mates in, 1,2,3 in Worl 16 clotting

during,

553-1 654

concept(s) of, 29, 47-49 criteria for amount of, in ETOUBA, 559 ig, 12 during operation, 686, 687, 691 in World War I-—7 effects of, 34-35 evaluation of, in World War I—-9~-10 evolution of use of, for combat casualties, 9 experimental, 1 failure of, 2 indication for surgery, 557, 558, 559 fatalities atten, 1, 2, 3, 469, 649, 650, 651 field studies in, 80-81 for MTOUSA, 398 for oversea use, 177-179 hematocrit determinations as indications for, » 255-2 56 hemor! rhage aa indioation for, 1, 2 as indication for, in World War I—7 during, 44 improvisation of, in ETOUSA, 192, 104 in base hospitals in om iy in British blood pro, in

casualty

leariog eet

tions

War I—5-6, 265 in civilian practice, 48 in Gesperate cases, 3 n World War I—5, 6, 7 A, 177

in

World

tion hospitals, 180, 392-393

in fixed hospitals, 193

PROGRAM

in forward hospitals, 180, 193, 194 in & nich Civil War, in‘Frane , 1940—20 in general "hospitals, 180, 185, 302-303 m massive hemorrhage, 34 in MTOUSA, 397, 432-437 in North Africa, 177, 392, 393, 394-395, in unit hospital system, 397 inin World ar I—5-10 wounds of extremities, 703-705 inin BI hospitals, 177, 269, 694-696 incidence of serum hepatitis after, in an War, 778 inition for, 1-3, 5, 34, 255-256 in Chinese troops, 645-646 in Korean wan r, 796 in Soviet Union, 22 in Spanish Civil War, 11-12 in SWPA, 635 in World War I—7 infection— after, 5 as indication for, 7, 10 influence of, on— incidence of wound infection mortal ity rates, 57 kidney, 569 lack of, in North Africa, 194, 392, 393-394 legal Prohibition ©of, 1 limitation of,i blast i injuries, 21 chest injuries, 21 wounds of central nervous system, 21 maintenance of, 17 ual on, 76 misuse of, 649 overseas with improvised equipment, 180-185 postpartal hemorrhage as indication for, 1 precombat preparations for, in World War I—8 ure techniques of, 193, 194, 466, 693 puerperal hemorrhage as indication for, 1 pulmonary edema after, 20-' quantitative errora in, 393 quantitative relation of, to— degree of shock 34, 39, 635 hemorrhage, rate of, 4, 12, ate "2, 34, 36, 194, 198, 533, 636, 690, 799 requests for, from MTOUSA, 435 tisks of, 78-79

INDEX septicemia

as

indication

for,

in

World

shock ssas indication for, in World War I—7 shortanes a in ETOU! North atic 432-435 sodium citrate technique of, 10 spacingof, 318 timi

ja by, in MTOUSA, 397 malaria by, in SWPA, 597-598 measles by, 720 imps by, 345 serum hepatitis y 143, 261, 720, 744 syphilis by, 143,2 44 vital ns ag ietieation for, in World —7 with devinated blood, 4 with DeGowin et al. preserved blood, 220 with incompatible blood, 4, 24 with preserved blood in World War I— 5-6 with red blood cells, 317, 319 in World War I—5-6 Tranefusion Branch, OTSG, 67-73, 97, 192-193, 319, 468 Transfusion equipment, 1, 4-5, 476 availability of, for oversea use, 185 War, 717 id. conditions, 179, 186, 190 development of, 180-185 at Army Medical School,1 development of expendable ‘ye of, 195198 for field se, yee Transfusion kit, Transfusion athe (6): in ETOUSA, 48 in distributing units, 467 in oaation hospitals 420 in SWPA, lack of, in orean War, 756, 757 MTOUSA, 401 on staff of. theater surgeon, 463, 467 overseas, 463 Transfusion-penicillin therapy in wounds of extremities, 703-705

Transfusion practices in German Army, 1 2 ‘ansfusi ion reactions (complications), , 4, 464, 649from aging blood in ETOUSA, 554-555 eek of records of, 649 0 bloodairlifted to SWPA, 213 Transfusion service in British Arm 15-18 in hospitals in ETOUSA, 480 inclusions of all parenteral Fildes | in, 53 or,ganization of in MTOUSA, Transfusion criteria of, or oversea ust, 186

in mobile surgical units, 476 in Spanish Civil wor in SWPA, 604, 605 Transfusion

ein,

a 4.5,

85,

196

in epanish Civil War in SW) 636 in Wena War Wort in, rid War I—8 training of‘British transfusion unit perpenne in, 17 bert-Emerson equipment, 186 transfusion unita: establishment of, in MTOUSA, 398, 400403 ‘raining of in British Army Transfusion Ser 16-1 Transit hospitals, blood supply for, 512 Jransmissible diseases inj donors, 142-144 Transmissi leukemia by transfusion, 142

K

, 176-7!

syphilis by transfusion, 143, 261, 720, 744 virus infections ny plasma, 726 Transport Air Group, 604, 607 Transporiabilit ualties, 710 ar plasma 48, 51 testa of, 920-221

918

BLOOD

Transportation, 203-215 of,on re blood cells, 220-221 for. “ARG mo ile bleeding units, 115-116 for Continental Blood Bank, 516 for detachment of ETOUSA Blood Bank, for donors, 453 for field transfusion units, 543 for Leyte operation, 614-618 for ore, of ETOUSA Blood Bank to Cont it, 515 for e703a Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), from collection centers— in War, 742, 744 to airport in ZI, 492 in CBI, 642 in ETOUSA, vant in MTOUBA,4 7 in southernTrance 448, 450 in Soviet Union, in SWPA, 590. 64, 606-608 in ZI, 204—+206 maintena on on Continent, 550, 551 16

¢

io British Eighth Army, 532 1940—20 inn Spenien Civil War,1 o front in ETOUSA, i6-477 to processing laboratories, 103, 152-153 to processing laboratories, cost of, 136— 1387 of delivery teams, 467 of donors to bleeding centers in MTOUSA, 406-407 of dried plasma, 15 of frozen plasma, 271 of red blood cell Tresidua, of unrefrigerated blood, 08 218 relation oth emolysis to, 613-614 specifications for, 203-204. testing of Alsever's solution 224 See alao Aichi Delivery, Stevan PackTransports: attack (APA's), 622 11 red blood cells, tests of effect of,

PROGRAM

Traumatic amputation(s ), 703 loss of red blood cell mass after, 805 Traumatic rupture of liver (spleen) in Chinese oops: 646 Travis AFB jood processing laboratory, 730 783, 0, 761, 763, 765 Trench fev Tréviéres, 500° Trial distribution of blood in East Anglia, 480 Trialr on Pacific aint 718 ou 612 with ACD solu with Army cneulated.container, 215 Turns, Col. I. R., 6 Triple-distilled waters 652 Trisodium citrate, 219 Troop Carrier Command, 418, 488, 531-532, 533 Truck (s):

molouse of, for other purposes on Continent,

regen of, 206, 212 Truck dri in ETOUSA Blood Bank,5 training of, in ETOUSA ‘Blood Bank, 500 Truck requirements I in ae oe 541-543 Truck transportatio in United Kingdom, 532 on Continent, 536-537 Tevsta, J., 12 ROMAN, President H. b» 715, 735 Tube racks = Seventh U.S, Army Blood Bank, 4 Tubercululosit in donors, 42 red blood cell tranefusions in,3. rejection of dono ith, in Gamen prom, 22 isn ma package, 171 Tune, 38, oni 398, 692, 698 Tunisian ca ign, 37, 38, 55, Aae Turbidity off reconstituted plasm: Touner, J. R., 203, 217, 218, 219, 222, 223 Turner, T. B., 744 Tuscany, 420 Tyndali’s Phenomenon, 238 Typhus fever, Typing. See Grouping, Mass grouping.

Ulithi, 607, 624

INDEX Ultracentrifugal analysis of serum albumin, 351 Ultracentrifuge studies of Periston, 3! Ultraviolet sterilization of plasma, "16, Te 770, 781-782 Titraviclet therapy, 6 Unavoidable error in ved blood cell counting, ‘318 ean fever in donors, 142 Unaer, L. J., Unit. Hospital ‘ystem for blood supply in A, 387-39! United Kingdom, 16, 459, 473, 475, 477, 478, he 481, 489, 498, 504, 510, 511, 613, 514, 517, 518, 523, 526, 527, 531, a oa 536, 537, 543, 554, 560, 567, United * nedom Base, ETOUSA, 527 United Nations, 756 United States. See U.S., and Zone of Interio! U.S. Army Blood Procurement Program, 529 US. Army Forces:

Far East (USAFFE), 589, 756

Pacifie CUSAFPAO), f 629, Pacific Ocean Areas USAFPOA), 603, 606 Western Pacific (USAFWESPAC), 629 U.S. Army rvices of Supply, SWPA (USASOSSWPA), 595, 605 US. fisttions, donations from, in MTOUSA, US. Dieiplinary Barracks, Indianapolis, 695 US. expe perience in World War I—8&-10 US. lia ison officer at British Blood Supply Depot, 478 US. medical personnel, training of, in British Blood | program ir Base eee 631 U: 8. Naval weet Center, 274 US. Naval Medical Schoo 17 U.S. Naval Medical Supply Depot, 346 US. Naval Preflight School, 242

hai "352 US. Public Health Service, | 84, 92, 143, 222. 269, 290, 783 U.BS.: Achinar, 628 Anco 623 730 Sonatitan, 594 Solace, 623

Universal donors, 4, bed -240 titer of blood of,2. See a Group O "blood, Dangerous unial donors. University of— Chicago School of Medicine, 74, 780 Illinois College of Medicin: 379 Louisville School of Medien, 374 archigen Medical School, 74 Minnesota Graduate Soba of Medicine, sota Medical School, 74, 325 Peavey lean Graduate School of Medie, 74, 376, 377, 788 Penneylvania Schocl of Medicine, 65, 336, 576 am? Upsa: Wisconsin School of Medicine, 74 Unvefrigerated blood: b ‘eactions to transfusion with, 210 studies on, 210-213 Upjohn Co, 292, 300, 375, 774 Upper respiratory infections: after Gonations, 155, 156 in 142 Urea addition of, to gelatin solution, 786 hehe clearance, 7 crushing injuries, i 65-67 in incompatibility reactions, 654 in lo wer nep! hrop nephrosis, 658 Urinalys after red t blood cell1 transfusions, 315 in incompatibility reactions, 654 Urinary acidity in lower nephron nephrosis, 667 Urinary excretion of— aldobionic ecid, 379 gelatin, 374, 375 exited cotton, 330 137 arene ‘output, effect of serum albumin on, Urobilinemia, 222 Urobilinogen output, 229 Urticari

ions,

651

651 to plasma, 269, 298, 636, 668, 669, 673, 674

Utah beach, 518, 522, 523

Utilization of blood substitutes in body, 373 V-1 bombing, 521 Vacuum drying of frozen plasma, 276-277

BLOOD

920 Vacuum-drying equipment for plasma, 65 Vacuum-sealed storage of blo och an Vacuum-sesling of plasma pac! , 169 Vacuum technique of Lar clean, 15 hemolysis in MTOUSA, in Blood for Britain, Me Valves for— donor sets, 435 in Pacific, 595 oversea transfusion set, 463 Van Si , D. D., 23, 254, 257 Vanderpilt

Dakesity

School of Medicine,

Vaseular injuries in Korean War, 803 Vasoconstriction in shock, 32, 194 Vasodilatation in shock, 32 Vasomotor center, status of, in shock, 30 Vasomotor response to wounding, 39-40 V-E Day, 522 Vegetable refrigerators, 447 Vehicles for ETOUSA Blood Bank, 506, 509 southern France, 446 , 17 shortages of, in MTOUSA, 420 Vein-to-vein transfusion, yen collapse of, 684, 693, 698 , M. ¥., 81, 82, 205, 206, 261, 262, mon, 279, 284, 285, 290, 300, 303, 305 Venafro, 40 Venereal Disease Division, U.S. Public Health Service, 143 Venipuncture, training in,4 Venous Prceoure technique‘a blood collectio

Venour return in shock, 30, 32 verona, 407, 442 Veterans’ Administration, 716, 725, 726 Vice Chai merican Red Cro in Charge of Danette Operations, ARC, 101 Vicxorgn, Col. A., 151 Vinyl noctate ee 471 Vinylite resin, ipule, 163 Virus of hepatitis ini thrombit 364 Virus infections in donors, nsmmission ofof oy sas, 726 ‘ay Visceral changes i in nek, 36, 41-42 Visceral damage in late shock, 34

PROGRAM

Visoometry, 374 Viscosity of— blood (plasma), 265 blood substitutes, 373 bovine albumin, 326 gelatin solutions, 373, 374, 377 gum

acacia, 384

Periston, 381 serum

albumin,

337,3.

Viscosity measurements at dextran, 791 Visit of inspection to— ZI hospitals 387-388 Vital si ag indoton for transfusion

in

Worid

in donors, 139, 140, 145 in shock, 684 observation of, in serum albumin testing, 339 Yanmin coenzyme

systems

in late

shock,

34

Vitry-aur-Sei 516 Voasnaal 377 Volume of Alsover' a solution, 437 Volunteer Aid Detachments, 17 Volunteer Special Servicos, ARC, 111 Volunteers in— ARC blood donor centers, 8 ARC mobile bleeding units,1 bovine albumin program, 925, 330, 331hepatitis studies, fatalities among, 778, 781 testing of gelati von Zremasen, H., 4 Voorhees

Committee,

Vycor envelopes, 778

715

Wacnun, J. A., 336 Wake Island, 746 Waxim, K. G., 796 Wales, 512

WANGENSTEEN, O. H., 74, 325, 331, 333, 334, 335, 375, 686

328,

330,

INDEX War Activities Committee, Motion Picture Industry, 121 War Department, 233, 543, 13, 604, 726 wer eparemment Cireule 123, 24 Jun 938 Ne, 70, 14 July St 233, 234 War Department Teenie! Bulletin (TB MED), 24 ont 1945—72, 650 War Medicine,4 War eon n Boar, 171, 172, 175, 204, War ross before ‘Korean War, 720 of plasma (plasma expanders) 0

before

Wastage— in Britich system, 397 'OUSA due to outdating, Washington, 72, 211, 214, 271, 302, 310, 387, 480, 492, 494, 591, 600, 652 Washington Blood Douor Center, 86, 96, 490 Washington University School of Medicine, 159

Wartess, R. M., 74 Watson, G., 7 W.D., AGO Form No. 24 (Service Record), 2: W.D., M. D, rom No, 81 Geetinn

on deliveries ini southern on donations, 120

France, 450

Wren, L. H., 49, 80, 82, 83, 102, 103

Wistta Falla, 7: Wienes, A. S., 0, 245, 251 Winincon, J. F., 230 Wns, Brig. cen. J. M., 603, 606, 627 Nn, G. W., 265, 383 Wis, It. Col. aw C., 32

A

and

2

B

group-specific

sub-

Woendi Island Women’s ‘Army. Corps wan, 501 Woop, Brig. Gen. J. R., 79 Woopuoocss, Col. K. W., 509 Worcester, 474 Workload of— bleeding centers in MTOUSA, 408-409 bleeding teams in ETOUSA, 476 collecting sections of ETOUSA Blood jank, processing laboratory, Travis AFB, 742-

J. T., 74

Weekly Newsletter No. 136, Division Medical Sciences, NRC, 226-227 Weight of donors, 140, 157 Wau, Lt. Col. N., Jr., 509 Wer, R., 4, 219

94 Blood, Replacement therapy, Transfusion. Whole Blood and Blood Derivatives Program, 721 Whole Blood Processing Laboratory, Travis AFB, 739-743, 760, 761, 763, 765 Whole good Service Committee, ETOUSA,

Witebsky’a

Weakness after donations, 156, 157 ‘Weapons carriers, in— Weansn,

wane S., 2 Welfare Island, 331, 375, 377 Welabach gas mantles, 544 Wesrerre_t, Col. F. B., 603, 622 Western Base Section, ETOUSA, 524-$25 Western Desert, 16, ae Wet tung ini shock, Wet See anid plasma. Ww ati film, 367 WF fibrin film, 367 Whatman filter, 287 Whisky after donations, 148, 424, 482, 597 Wuitay, Brig. Sir L. E.H., 12, 16, 17, 18, 20, 87, 192, 462, 469, 472, "476, 528, 542, 657

of

6703d Blood Transfusion Unit (Ovhd.), 446 shock wards, 709 Wonaman, Lt. W. G., 349, 744, 766 Workrooms in ARC blood donor centers, 113

922

BLOOD

World War blood bara in, 218

British tranaportaton of blood in, 220 citrated blood in, 9 concepta— of placement therapy after, 31 of shock i in, 8-9, 31-32, 51 donors in,9 gum acacia in, 384 hemothorax in, 23 indications for transfusion in, 7 Medical General Laboratory at Dijon in, ; National Research Council in, 73 phrsooge salt solution in, 7 plasma reactions to transfusion in, 9 replacement therapy in, 8, 9-10 resuscitation teams in, 7-8, 384 shock ce in,8 techn of transfusion fai 9, 10 timing of transfu ‘usion in,

Youna,

I.

M.,

Woun

1 defici

Zephiran,

315

283

ZI. See Zone of Interio. Zoutncer, Col. R. M., 193, 487, 509, 556, 789 Zone of © Interi inistrative considerations in, i 61-08 expendable

9, 47-54 tranctusion equipment

of concept

of transfusion

in, in,

initial activities in, for oversea transfusion ‘vice, 461-464 malaria bloo: d donors in, 143 oversea briefing in 1-392 procurement of intravenous Buids in, 382 provision of— dried plasma for, 95-96, 175-177 frozen plasma for, 271-272

796

Wound infection as indication for transfusion, 12 ‘Wound shock, 38 Wounding agents in SWPA, 616 wee N, Sir C., 1 HT, D. 331 WatMt Field, 539 ere’ War Board, 121 Wrenorr , R. W. G., 279 Wyckoff- Lagden “pig” technique of drying plasma, 279, 280 X-protein of MoFarlane, 359

230,

Yuoiw, 8. 8., 1», 24

evolution

U.S. experience in, 8-10 Wound(s): as cause of shoo! influence e niood on» incidones of, 57 lethality of, 56 proposal to use plasma for, 266 management of, 87 a alee wounds of special regions. Wound dehiscence, 796

PROGRAM

Yarss, J. L., 23 Yellow fever, 142 immunization against, 674-675 Yield of— gamma globulin f from plasma, 363 globin from pla: pectin from titrus‘trait, 78 plasma from blood, 52, 127, 268, 285-286, 299-300, 303, 304 serum from blood, 52, 268 serum albumin from blood, 342, 346-347, 782 Yokohama, 729, 732, 757 yortan Airstrip, 623

whole blood for, 97, 292 in,

455

rtierton for @airlift in, i 206-208 request for bloo ‘om, in Korean

War,

Rh-testing in, 248 Rh-te testing for avi in, 251 gerum hepatitis in, 674 stocks of dried pase in, 311 training in,

transfusion capmant in, 177 transportation in, 85-91 use of blo od in,"260, 604- 96 Zone of Interior hospitals, equipment distilled water in, 388 U.S, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE1964

for

UH 215 A2

S9md pt

0014773

WIC My

NLM

O5059754

3