A scale to measure parental attitudes toward certain aspects of children’s behavior

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•SCALE TO MEASURE PARENTAL ATTITUDES TOWARD CERTAIN ASPECTS OF CHILDREN TS BEHAVIOR

A D iss e rta tio n P re se n te d to t h e F a c u lt y o f th e G ra d u a te S c h o o l U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a li f o r n ia

In P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D eg ree D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y

by Jo h n H e r b e r t W ile y May 1 9 5 0

UMI Number: DP31974

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Th is dissertation, writ ten by JOHN..WCLET under the guidance of h.xs... F acu lty C o m m i t t e e on Studies, an d a p p r o v e d by all its memb ers , has been pr ese nte d to and a c c e p t e d by the C o u n c il on G rad ua te S t u d y and Rese arch , in par ti al fu l­ fillment of requirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y

Committee on Studies

Chairman

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER X.

^AGE

THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS The p r o b l e m .

.

.

.............................. ......

2

Im p o rta n c e o f th e

stu d y .

• • . • • * . • • • •

2

o f te rm s u s e d .

. . . . . . . . . . .

2

. . . . . . . . . .

2

. . . . . . ...................................

5

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . L ite ra tu re c h ild re n

4

on p a r e n t s o f s p e e c h d e f e c t i v e . . . . . . . .

.

L ite ra tu re

on p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s

L ite ra tu re

on m e th o d s o f a t t i t u d e

. . . . . . . . sc a lin g .

4 5

. . .

5

MATERIALS, SUBJECTS, AND TROCEDURES. . . . . . . .

9

S c a l i n g m e th o d u s e d *

* . ' . . » * . . * * * . * *

9

T est m a te ria ls used.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

PRESENTATION AMD ANALYSIS OF DATA. . . . . . . . .

27

G roups u s e d .

R e lia b ility .

........................................

Ite m e v a lu a tio n .

* i

S u b -sc a le c o r r e la tio n s V a lid ity

27 . ............................

§ #

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

27 29

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

O th e r r e s u l t s * V.

.

2

A ttitu d e s .

IV .

.

X

* • . * • • • • • • .

S c a le • • . . . i

III.

.

. . . .

S ta te m e n t o f t h e p ro b lem

D e fin itio n s

II.

.

OF TERMS USED.

4

SO

.*

46

...............................................

52

CHAPTER

PAGE SumniciX’y' * . . # . « . » . # * . * * . C o n c lu s io n s *



BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX

. . « * « .

5i3 54

....................................

. . . . .

.........................

56 58

LIST OF TABI.ES TABLE I.

BAGS S p lit-h a lf R e lia b ility Seven S u b - a c a le s

IX*

C o e ffic ie n ts

on t h e F i r s t

........................................................

*•SB

C o r r e l a t i o n s B e tw e e n S u b - s c a l e a n d T o t a l S c a l e S co res*

III.

SI

C o m p ariso n o f F o u r S t u d e n t G ro u p s ; S p r i n g ..............................

S e s s io n , 1S48 IF . F. FX .

*

33

C o m p ariso n o f F iv e S t u d e n t G ro u p s . . . . . . . .

35

C o m p ariso n o f E i g h t S t u d e n t G ro u p s.

36

. . . . . . .

C o m p ariso n o f B e fo re a n d A f t e r S c o r e s o f P s y c h o lo g y o f S p eech and H e a rin g C la s s and t h e B e fo re S c o re s o f T h e i r S p o u s e s , Summer S e s s i o n , 1 9 4 8 .

F IX .

of C h ild re n A tte n d in g T racy C lin ic .

. . . . . .

X I.

.........................................

C o m p a r i s o n o f G ro u p s o f P a r e n t s C h ild re n .

X.

. . .

40

. . . . . .

4B

C o m p a r i s o n o f S c o r e s B e tw e e n Two G r o u p s o f P a re n ts

IX .

38

C o m p a r i s o n o f S c o r e s B e tw e e n Two G r o u p s o f P a re n ts

F ill.

. . . . .

. . . . . . . .

of S tu tte rin g

....................................................

D e s c r i p t i o n o f a G ro u p o f " E x p e r t s "

.

. . . . . . .

47

C o m p a r i s o n B e tw e e n t h e Mean T o t a l S c o r e s f o r Men a n d Women i n S e v e n S t u d e n t G r o u p s • « . . • • • •

X III*

45

C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e Mean S c o r e s o f a l l G ro u p s S t u d i e d .........................

X IX .

43

48

C o m p a r i s o n B e tw e e n t h e Mean ' T o t a l S e o r e s f o r S i n g l e and M a r r ie d S tu d e n ts

i n T e n S t u d e n t G ro u p s *

. . .

50

THE PROBLEM AMD DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED C l i n i c i a n s d e a l i n g w i t h b e h a v io r p ro b le m s i n c h i l ­ d re n f r e q u e n tly f e e l th e need o f r a p i d ly a s s e s s in g th e a ttitu d e s p ro b le m s. it

o f p a r e n t s to w a rd t h e i r c h i l d r e n and t h e i r s p e c i f i c Many o f t h e s e

is p o ss ib le to

a t t i t u d e s m ay b eco m e a p p a r e n t i f

have a s e r ie s

s e ss io n s w ith th e p a re n ts . in te rv ie w s is n o t p o s s ib le .

of in te rv ie w s or c o u n se llin g

F re q u e n tly ,

such a s e r i e s o f

S o m e tim e s , s i g n i f i c a n t a t t i t u d e s

w i l l n o t be r e v e a l e d e v e n i f a num ber o f s e s s i o n s a r e p o s ­ sib le .

I n su c h c a s e s , a v e r b a l e x p r e s s io n o f a t t i t u d e s ,in

some s o r t o f s t r u c t u r e d

s i t u a t i o n w o u ld be h e l p f u l .

The

c o u n s e l l o r w o u l d b e a i d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y i f h e h a d some way of p la c in g p a re n ts a ttitu d e s .

in a ran k o rd er of "fa v o ra b le n e ss"

He m i g h t t h e n g i v e f i r s t

a tte n tio n

p a r e n t s w i t h t h e Ttl e s s n f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s .

of

to th o se If

such a s c a le

w e r e made u p o f s e v e r a l p a r t s , t h e n e a c h s u b - s c a l e c o u l d c o v e r a t t i t u d e s to w a rd a s p e c i f i c R e a c tio n s to

a sp e c t o f c h ild b e h a v io r.

i n d i v i d u a l ite m s o f b e h a v io r m ig h t i n d i c a t e t o

th e c o u n s e l l o r w here th e s p e c i f i c

d i f f i c u l t i e s w ere.

z I.

THE PROBIEM

The S t a t e m e n t o f tiie p r o b l e m . of th is

stu d y to

a ttitu d e s

c o n s t r u c t a s c a l e /b y w h i c h t o m e a s u r e p a r e n t a l

to w a rd c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f c h i l d b e h a v i o r .

q u e s tio n s c o n sid e re d w ere: fic ie n tly

I t was th e g e n e r a l p u rp o s e

re lia b le ?

p o s itiv e ly

S p e c ific

( I ) W ould s u c h a s c a l e b e s u f ­

( 2 ) W ould t h e s u b - s c a l e s b e r e l a t e d

(but n o t p e r f e c t l y

be s u f f i c i e n t l y v a lid ,

c o rre la te d ]?

u sin g th e

(3 ) W o uld t h e

g en eral c r ite r io n

sc a le

of c lin ic a l

j u d g m e n t on t h e g r o u p s s t u d i e d ? Im p o rta n c e o f t h e p a re n t’s a ttitu d e s

are

stu d y .

Many c l i n i c i a n s f e e l t h a t

i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i n g c a u s e s o f m any

ty p e s o f speech d i s o r d e r s .

"U n fa v o ra b le " a t t i t u d e s have a ls o

been re g a rd e d as r e ta r d in g a tte m p ts to t r e a t c h ild r e n ’s speech d e fe c ts .-* -

D i r e c t a tt e m p t s t o m easu re th e s e a t t i t u d e s by

d e v e lo p in g s c a l e s have b een few .

Of t h e a t t e m p t s t o m e a s u r e

p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s , m o st o f th em h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d to w a rd g e n e r a l b e h a v io r p ro b le m s i n c h i l d r e n . 2 o

II. S c a le .

BBFIHITIOH OF TERMS TJSEEX

"T he a im o f s c a l i n g i s

th e d e v elo p m e n t o r c o n ­

s t r u c t i o n o f a ’m e a s u r i n g ’ d e v i c e w h i c h w i l l d i s t r i b u t e

in d i-

3-Am elia K . W r i g h t , " E f f e c t o f M a t e r n a l A t t i t u d e s o n O u tc o m e o f T r e a t m e n t o f C h i l d r e n ’ s S p e e c h D e f e c t s . , " S m i t h C o lle g e S tu d ie s in S o c i a l W o r k ,.1 0 :1 2 3 -1 8 4 , 1939. . 2F o r e x a m p l e : R . M. S t o g d i l l , " A t t i t u d e s o f P a r e n t s , S t u d e n t s , a n d M e n tal H y g i e n i s t s to w a rd s C h i l d r e n ’ s B e h a v io r ," J o u r n a l o f S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y . 4 :4 8 6 -4 8 9 , 1933. R . M. S t o g d i l l , " T h e M e a s u r e m e n t o f A t t i t u d e s T o w a rd P a r e n t a l C o n tr o l and S o c i a l A d ju stm e n t o f C h i l d r e n . " J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y , 2 0 :3 5 9 -3 6 7 .

3

v i d u a l s a lo n g a c o n tin u u m r u n n in g fro m h i g h l y u n f a v o r a b le th ro u g h n e u tr a l to a h ig h ly fa v o ra b le a t t i t u d e . ”3 A ttitu d e s, titu d e s .

T h e r e a r e m any p o s s i b l e d e f i n i t i o n s o f a t ­

T h u s, T h u rsto n e d e fin e s a t t i t u d e s

o f a f f e c t about a p sy c h o lo g ic a l o b je c t. tio n s

in i t s

as:

A f f e c t h a s tw o d i r e c ­

p r i m i t i v e s e n s e , a p p e t i t i o n and a v e r s i o n .

h e r e u se d t o d e s i g n a t e p o t e n t i a l a c t i o n w h ic h i s to w ard a p s y c h o lo g ic a l o b je c t o r u n fa v o ra b le s tre n g th

of th is

a f f e c t w h i c h m ay b e p o s i t i v e

th e t r a i t m easured by t h e

a ttitu d e

us d e fin e a tt i tu d e s ro u g h ly as In th is

It

is

fa v o ra b le

or a g a in st i t . or n e g a tiv e

s c a le .R a m m e rs

d e f i n e a t t i t u d e s m o re s i m p l y b y s a y i n g :

th in g * " .

" .* * th e d e g re e

The

is .

a n d Gage

"For th e p re s e n t l e t

'f e e l i n g s f o r o r a g a i n s t som e-

s t u d y , a t t i t u d e s w ere r e g a r d e d a s d i s p o s i t i o n s ^ -

to w ard o v e r t a c t i o n .

V e rb a l d e c l a r a t i o n s w ere s tu d ie d p r i m a r i l y .

^ u i n n M cN em ar, " O p i n i o n - A t t i t u d e M e t h o d o l o g y , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n , 4 3 :2 8 9 -3 7 4 , J u l y , 194& . ^ L . L . T h u r s t o n e , " C o m m e n ta r y " i n S t a t i s t i c s i n S o c i a l S t u d i e s , e d i t e d b y S . A. R i c e . P h ila d e lp h ia ; § n iv e rs ity of P e n n sy lv a n ia P r e s s , 1930, p . 194. ^H . if* Remm ers a n d H . L . G a g e , E d u c a t i o n a l Me a s u r erne n t s a n d E v a l u a t i o n . Hew Y o r k ; H a r p e r a n d B r o t h e r s , 1 9 4 3 .

4

CHAPTER I I REVIEW O f THE LITERATURE L ite ra tu re

on -p a re n ts o f s p e e c h d e f e c t i v e c h i l d r e n .

th e p a s t s e v e ra l y e a rs , c h a ra c te ristic s h a v e h e e n m a d e .1

se v e ra l stu d ie s

In

o f th e p e r s o n a lity

o f th e p a r e n ts o f c h ild r e n w ith sp eech d e f e c ts In th e s e

s tu d ie s , p e rs o n a lity te s ts

v a rio u s ty p e s have heen u se d .

of

T hese in c lu d e d s e v e r a l p a p e r

and p e n c i l - t e s t s , su c h a s th e C a l i f o r n i a T e s t o f P e r s o n a l i t y and t h e B e r n r e u t e r , t h e M in n e so ta M u ltip h a s ic P e r s o n a l i t y I n v e n t o r y , a n d som e u s e o f t h e T h e m a t i c A p p e r c e p t i o n T e s t . O f th e se ,

o n ly t h e T h em atic A p p e rc e p tio n t e s t m ig h t he o f u se i n

e v a lu a tin g p a re n t-c h ild r e la tio n s h ip s .

In g e n e ra l, th e se

i n d ic a t e t h a t t h e p e rs o n a l a d ju s tm e n t o f th e p a r e n t

stu d ie s ^

(p a rtic u la rly

t h e m o t h e r ) may h a v e a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e c h i l d ’ s s p e e c h . far, ?

Thus

t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e i n d i c a t e d n o m o re t h a n a t r e n d w h i c h

needs to he in v e s tig a te d f u r t h e r . A n o th e r s tu d y h a s a tte m p te d t o e v a l u a t e t h e th e a t t i t u d e s

o f m o th e r s on t h e

in flu e n c e

of

su e c e ss of speech c o r r e c tio n

on t h e i r c h i l d r e n ’ s s p e e c h d e f e c t s . 2

T h is stu d y in d ic a te d t h a t

^ - P h i l l i p N . H o o d , K e n n o n H . S h a n k , a n d B o r i s B. W i l l i a m s o n , ’’E n v i r o n m e n t a l P § c t o r s i n R e l a t i o n t o t h e S p e e c h o f C e r e b r a l P a l s i e d C h i l d r e n , " The J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h an d H e a r in g D i s o r d e r s . 1 3 :3 2 5 -3 3 1 , D ecem b er, 1 9 4 8 . K e n n e t h S . W ood, " P a r e n t a l M a l a d j u s t m e n t a n d t h e f u n c t i o n a l A r t i c u l a t o r y D e f e c ts i n C h i ld r e n ," The J o u r n a l o f S peech D is ­ o r d e r s , 1 1 :2 5 5 -2 7 5 , D ecem ber, 1 9 4 6 . J o h n H . W i l e y , "T h e P e r s o n a l i t y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e P a r e n ts o f S t u t t e r i n g C h ild r e n ," (u n p u b lis h e d s tu d y o f th e a u th n r.) ^ W rig h t,

p i t . . 1 2 3 —1 2 4 .

5

n e g a tiv e a tt i tu d e s

to w a r d s p e e c h on t h e p a r t o f t h e m o th e r s

a d v e rse ly a ff e c te d th e

su ccess of th e

speech c o rr e c tio n

on t h e

c h ild . L ite ra tu re

on p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s .

A n u m b e r o f a t t e m p t s Ahave

h e e n m ade t o e v a l u a t e p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s y ears.

C o m p reh e n siv e e a s e

^ H ere f a c t o r s

d u rin g th e p a s t t h i r t y rz

s t u d y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e . '3

i n home e n v i r o n m e n t h a v e b e e n r e l a t e d t o c h i l d r e n ’ s

a d ju s tm e n t and i n t e l l i g e n c e .

A n o th e r s tu d y a sk e d p a r e n t s ,

s t u d e n t s and m e n ta l h y g i e n i s t s t o a one t o t e n s c a l e

ra te

70 i t e m s o f b e h a v i o r o n

of s e rio u s n e s s o r u n d e s ir a b ility of b e h a v io r.^

One s t u d y a s s i g n e d v a l u e s t o c e r t a i n p a r e n t a l r e a c t i o n s t o c h i l d r e n and e v a lu a te d

case h is to r ie s

in l i g h t o f th e se v a lu e s .5

Many o t h e r s t u d i e s Jiav e a t t e m p t e d t o e v a l u a t e p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s a n d g e n e r a l home e n v i r o n m e n t i n a l e s s f o r m a l m a n n e r . none o f th e s e a ttitu d e s,

s tu d ie s use a s p e c if ic

th e a u th o rs

se e m t o

fe e l,

t i t u d e s a re im p o rta n t in flu e n c e s L ite ra tu re

sc a le

W h ile ^

to m easure p a r e n t a l

g e n e ra lly ,

t h a t such a t ­

on c h i l d b e h a v i o r .

on m e t h o d s o f a t t i t u d e

sc a lin g .

T here a re

a

^ A lf r e d L . B a ld w in , Jo a n K a lh o rn , and Fay H. B r e e s e , " P a t t e r n s o f P a r e n t B e h a v io r ” P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g rap h s, 5 8 , Mo. 3 , W h o le Mumber 2 6 8 , 1 9 4 5 . , A l f r e d L . B a ld w in , Jo a n K a lh o r n , and Fay H. B r e e s e , "T h e A p p r a i s a l o f P a r e n t B e h a v i o r ” , P s y c h o i o g l e a l M o n o g r a p h s , 6 3 , N o . 4 , W h o le N um ber 2 9 9 , 1 9 4 9 . ^ S to g d ill,

o £ . c i t . , 4 x 4 8 6 —4 8 9 *

^ M a r i a n J . F i t z - S i m m o n s . , "Some P a r e n t - C h i l d R e l a t i o n s h i p s " T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o E d u c a t i o n , N o . 6 4 3 . Mew Y o r k ; C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 5 .

num ber o f d i f f e r e n t ways o f c o n s t r u c t i n g and e v a l u a t i n g a t t i t u d e sc a le s.

T h e s e h a v e b e e n w e l l su m m a riz e d i n a f a i r l y

re v ie w .^

recen t

Many s c a l e s h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g t h e m e t h o d s

d e v e lo p e d by T h u r s t o n e T h e s e m e th o d s , when f i r s t p r e s e n t e d , r e p r e s e n te d a m ajo r s te p fo rw a rd i n a t t i t u d e

sc a le

I n g e n e r a l , a m e th o d o f e q u a l a p p e a r i n g i n t e r v a l s

c o n stru c tio n . is used.

A

c o n s i d e r a b l e {group o f i t e m s d e a l i n g w i t h a v a x le JL y o f o p i n i o n s to w a rd a p a r t i c u l a r and e d ite d

issu e a re

c o lle c te d .

T hese a re

in fo rm a lly , to d is c a rd c o n fu sin g ,

or ir r e le v a n t s ta te m e n ts.

T hese s e l e c te d

screen ed

am b ig u o u s,

o v e rlo n g ,

sta te m e n ts a re p r e ­

s e n t e d t o a g r o u p o f j u d g e s who a r e a s k e d t o s o r t t h e m i n t o v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g a “s c a l e r a n g i n g f r o m e x t r e m e l y f a v o r a b le , th ro u g h n e u tr a l to c o n c e rn in g th e

issu e

in q u e stio n .

n e ss o r u n fa v o ra b le n e ss When t h e i s p la c e d

so rtin g

is

e x tr e m e l y u n f a v o r a b l e o p in io n s:

is

O n ly t h e d e g r e e o f f a v o r a b l e ­

to be c o n sid e re d in t h i s

c o m p le te d , t h e num ber o f t im e s e a c h s ta te m e n t

in e a c h c a te g o r y i s t a b u l a t e d , and a c c u m u la te d p r o ­

p o r t i o n s a r e co m p u ted f o r e a c h i t e m . ite m s r e p r e s e n t t h e m ed ian o f a l l ite m in th e

ju d g in g .

o f th e ^ v a lu e , sc a le ,

ju d g in g .

S c a le v a lu e s o f in d iv id u a l

th e v a lu e s re c e iv e d by th e

A m b ig u ity o f ite m s i s

o r th e q u a r t i l e

a b o u t 20 i t e m s a r e

ran g e.

ju d g ed by th e s i z e

To s e t u p t h e f i n a l

s e l e c t e d , w h i c h h a v e l o w % v a l u e s , v/

and w ith s c a l e v a lu e s f a l l i n g a t r e l a t i v e l y e q u a l ly - s p a c e d M eH em ar, o p . c i t . .



£89-3 74 .

7L . L . T h u r s t o n e , " A t t i t u d e s C an Be M e a s u r e d , " A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y . 3 3 :5 2 9 -5 5 2 , 1928. L . L . T h u r s t o n e , a n d E . J . C h a v e , The Me a s u r eme n t o f A ttitu d e . C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 2 9 .

7

d is ta n c e s a lo n g th e

c o n tin u u m .

Two s i m i l a r f o r m s a r e u s u a l l y

c o n s tru c te d , and s c a le r e l i a b i l i t y s c o r e s on t h e

tw o f o r m s o f t h e

can be found by c o r r e l a t i n g

sc a le .

i s t h e m ean o r m e d ia n s c a l e v a lu e

H ie i n d i v i d u a l ' s s c o r e

of th e

ite m s w i t h w h ic h he

ag rees. T hese m eth o d s h av e b e e n w i d e l y u s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e l a b o r i o u s , and t h e i r fu n d a m e n ta l a ssu m p tio n t h a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n t e r v a l s can be e q u a te d in t h i s f a s h i o n , h as o f te n b e e n a t ­ ta c k e d • S e v e ra l y e a rs a f t e r th e ap p earan ce

of T h u rsto n e fs s c a le s ,

a mew m e t h o d , d e v e l o p e d b y L i k e r t 8 w a s p u b l i s h e d . has been c h a ra c te riz e d

T h i s m e th o d

a s t h e m e t h o d o f su m m ated r a t i n g s .

V a rio u s s ta te m e n ts c o n c e rn in g an i s s u e a r e c o l l e c t e d , f a s h i o n t o T h u r s to n e * s m eth o d .

in s im ila r

In fo rm a l c r i t e r i a a re a g a in

u se d t o e d i t and s c r e e n s t a t e m e n t s . T hese c r i t e r i a have b een Q s e t up i n some d e t a i l b y Wang a n d w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . I f te r th is

s c r e e n in g , th e re m a in in g s ta te m e n ts a re p re s e n te d

t o a g r o u p o f s u b j e c t s w ho r e s p o n d t o e a c h s t a t e m e n t i n t e r m s of th e ir

own a g r e e m e n t o r d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e

U su a lly , fiv e

c h o ic e s of re sp o n se a re l i s t e d ,

A g re e , A g ree, U n d e cid e d ,

sta te m e n t.

such a s : S tro n g ly

D isa g re e , S tro n g ly D isa g re e .

T he

r e s p o n s e s can be w e ig h te d 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 , o r 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 , and s c o r e s a r e a s s ig n e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e r e s p o n s e m ade.

L ik e r t used a

^ e n s i s L i k e r t , "A T e c h n i q u e f o r t h e M e a s u r e m e n t o f A t t i t u d e s , * 1A r c h i v e s o f P s y c h o l o g y . 2 2 , N o . 1 4 0 , 1 - 5 5 , 1 9 3 2 . % . A. W ang, " S u g g e s t e d C r i t e r i a f o r W r i t i n g A t t i t u d e S ta te m e n ts ," J o u rn a l o f S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y . 3 :3 6 7 -3 7 3 , 1932.

8

m o re c o m p l i c a t e d w e i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e o r i g i n a l l y , w as no b e t t e r th a n t h i s i

c rite rio n

sim p le o n e - t o - f i v e s c o r in g .

T he

7

o f i n t e r n a l c o n s is te n c y i s used t o

th e f i n a l s c a le .

h u t found i t

s e l e c t ite m s f o r

C r i t e r i o n g ro u p s a re u s u a l ly th e u p p e r and

lo w e r te n p e r c e n t o f th e

su b je c ts

in te rm s o f t o t a l

sco re.

I t e m s w h i c h sh o w t h e l a r g e s t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m e a n s o f t h e u p p e r and lo w e r g ro u p a r e r e t a i n e d F in a l sc a le s

f o r th e

fin a l sc a le .

o f t h i s t y p e may c o n t a i n 20 t o 2 5 i t e m s , a l t h o u g h

L i k e r t f o u n d g o o d r e l i a b i l i t y w i t h s c a l e o f 1 2 a n d 14 i t e m s . L ik e r t p o in te d o u t in h i s o r ig in a l p a p er t h a t h is te c h n iq u e had th e a d v a n ta g e o f b e in g l e s s l a b o r i o u s ,

sc a lin g

e lim ­

in a te d th e d o u b tf u l a s s u m p tio n o f T h u r s to n e fs s c a l e s , and h is s c a le s had e q u a l o r h ig h e r r e l i a b i l i t y .

Many w r i t e r s 10 h a v e

com pared t h e m e th o d s , w i t h v a r y i n g o p i n i o n s . 1 *1

K en ney-LJ' c o n c l u d e d t h a t s c a l e s y ie ld e d h ig h e r r e l i a b i l i t y

E dw ards a n d

c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e L i k e r t m e th o d

c o e f f i c i e n t s w ith fe w e r ite m s and

} w ere l e s s

la b o r io u s th a n th o s e c o n s tr u c te d b y th e T h u rsto n e 1p te c h n iq u e . E y s e n c k a n d C row n h a v e d e v e lo p e d a m eth o d w h ic h c o m b in es t h e L i k e r t an d T h u r s to n e t e c h n i q u e s ,

and seem s t o

h a v e b e e n u s e d , b u t n o o n e p r e e m i n e n t l y s u c c e s s f u l m e th o d h a s been d e v is e d .

In t h is p a p e r, a m o d ific a tio n of th e L ik e rt

m e th o d h a s b e e n u s e d . 10 McMemar, o p . c i t . 2 8 9 - 3 7 4 . 1 1 l l l e n L . E d w a r d s a n d K a t h r y n C l a i r e K e n n e y , nA Com­ p a r i s o n o f th e T h u rs to n e and L i k e r t T e c h n iq u e s o f A t t i t u d e S c a le C o n s t r u c ti o n , n J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y , 3 0 :7 2 -8 3 , 1946. 12H . J . E y s e n c k a n d S . C ro w n , ,TAn E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y i n Op i n i o n - A t t i t u d e M e t h o d o l o g y , ” I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f O p i n i o n and A t t i t u d e R e s e a r c h . 3 :4 7 - 8 6 , 1949.

CHAPTER I I I MATERIALS, SUBJECTS, M B PROCEDURES S c a l i n g m eth o d u s e d * by th e

T h is s c a l e w as c o n s t r u c t e d l a r g e l y

u se o f M e th o d s d e s c r i b e d b y L i k e r t * 1

In th e s e le c tio n o f s ta te m e n ts , e x p re s s io n of d e s ire d ^ b e h a v i o r , n o t o f f a c t , w ere u s e d .

E ven i n a r e a s w h e r e t h e r e

w a s som e e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e , s t a t e m e n t s w e r e w o r d e d t o 2

b rin g f o r th th e re sp o n d e n t* s a t t i t u d e ,

n o t h i s f a c t u a l k n o w le d g e*

The c r i t e r i a f o r w o r d i n g s t a t e m e n t s s e t up b y Wang lo w e d , i n g e n e r a l* a ttitu d e

These c r i t e r i a

in c lu d e d th e

s ta te m e n t m ust be d a h a t a b l e .

g iv e n is s u e sh o u ld b e lo n g t o th e

w ere f o l ­

id e a t h a t an

A l l s t a t e m e n t s on a

sam e a t t i t u d e v a r i a b l e , a s

n e a r l y a s can be ju d g e d .

S ta te m e n ts sh o u ld be s u s c e p t ib l e

o n ly one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

A ttitu d e

to

s ta te m e n ts sh o u ld c o n t a i n

o n ly one c o m p le te t h o u g h t ; t h e y s h o u ld n o t be " d o u b le b a rre lle d .”

S ta te m e n ts sh o u ld be s h o r t , and in s im p le , u n d e r­

sta n d a b le la n g u a g e . " m e re ," " j u s t , " th a t..."

Such te r m s and e x p r e s s i o n s a s " o n l y , ”

" m e re ly ," " I t h in k t h a t . . . , "

sh o u ld be u sed s p a r i n g ly .

and " I b e l i e v e

S im p le s e n t e n c e s a r e p r e ­

f e r r e d , b u t c o m p l e x o n e s a r e b e t t e r t h a n co m p o u n d s e n t e n c e s . C o lo rle s s s ta te m e n ts , or th o se a v o id e d .

/

la c k in g in a f f e c t , s h o u ld be

P o s i t i v e e x p re s s io n sh o u ld be used w h en ev er p o s s i b l e ,

lik e rt,

0 ]d.

c i t ..

1 -5 5 .

J

10

i and d o u b le n e g a tiv e

sh o u ld be a v o id e d .

T he a c t i v e v o i c e

is

p re fe ra b le t o th e p a ssiv e v o ic e . The a u t h o r a l s o t r i e d

t o w ord s t a te m e n t s s o th e m odel 7

r e a c tio n t o th e

s t a t e m e n t w o u ld b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n t h e m id d le

of th e p o ss ib le

resp on ses.

S i g h t a r e a s w ere s e l e c t e d ta in e d

in th e t o t a l s c a le s .

and d e s c r ib e d b e fo re t h e

f o r th e e ig h t

s u b - s c a le s con­

T hese a r e a s w ere f i r s t d e fin e d

i n d i v i d u a l ite m s w ere s e t u p .

T hese

d e s c r ip tio n s a re g iv e n in th e d e s c r ip tio n of t e s t m a te r ia ls . The e i g h t h s c a l e th a t

o n C r y i n g w a s a d d e d w h en i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d

ite m s p e r t a i n i n g to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f o r a l e x p re s ­

s i o n d id n o t seem t o f i t

in any o f th e

o th e r s c a le s .

The

w rite r re lie d

o n c l i n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , b o o k s on c h i l d r e n ’ s rz b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y T r a v i s a n d B a r u c h >, p r e v i o u s

* stu d ie s,

and s u g g e s t i o n s fro m D r.. T r a v i s and o t h e r s k i l l e d

c lin ic ia n s.

T he i t e m s w e r e d i s c u s s e d w i t h f e l l o w

g rad u a te

a s s i s t a n t s a n d r s t a f f m em b ers o f t h e S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g C l i n i c o f th e U n iv e rs ity

o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a .

Ite m s w ere d i s ­

c a r d e d w h ic h d i d n o t seem t o m eet t h e c r i t e r i a F in a lly ,

s e t up b y W ang.

a g ro u p o f 160 ite m s w ere d e v e lo p e d , d i v i d e d

e ig h t su b -s c a le s. resp o n ses:

B ach i te m w as s e t up w i t h f i v e

b e in g sc o red

d iffe re n t

S t r o n g l y A pprove; A p p ro v e; U n d e c id e d ; D is a p p ro v e ;

S tro n g ly D isa p p ro v e . o n e -to -fiv e

in to

E a c h i te m was a r b i t r a r i l y

s c o r e d on a

s c a l e , w ith a p p ro x im a te ly one h a l f o f t h e one on t h e S t r o n g l y A pprove r e s p o n s e ;

ite m s

and h a l f

3L e e T r a v i s a n d D o r o t h y B a r u c h , P e r s o n a l P r o b l e m s i n E v e r y d a y L i f e . Hew Y o r k : D . A p p l e t o n - G e n t u r y a n d C om pany , 1 9 4 1 .

IX

sco red as f iv e ,

For th is

s c a l e , th e lo w e r t h e s c o re a c h ie v e d ,

t h e m o re " f a v o r a b l e " t h e a t t i t u d e . T he c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s a s s i g n e d e a c h r e s p o n s e was t e s t e d by a p p l y i n g t h e t e s t

of in te r n a l c o n siste n c y

t o e a c h ite m , u s in g th e * f i r s t 172 c a s e s .

The s c a l e

p re se n te d

i n t h i s p a p e r c o n t a i n s t h e f u l l 16© i t e m s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r . M ost o f t h e of th e

ite m s w ere fo und t o be d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g ;

i t e m s s e e m e d t o h a v e som e v a l u e

in in d ic a tin g

and th e r e s t sp e c ific

a re a s f o r c o u n s e llin g , as w e ll as p o s s ib ly c o n tr ib u tin g t o th e " v a lid ity " of th e s c a le . T est M a te ria ls U sed. sta n d a rd s.

V A r e a One w a s t h a t o f g e n e r a l home

T h is c o n c e rn e d s ta n d a r d s o f n e a tn e s s and o r d e r l i n e s s

i n t h e h o m e; t h e f r e e d o m a l l o w e d t h e v itie s;

c h ild

in c h o ic e

of a c ti­

a n d t h e t y p e , f r e q u e n c y , a n d p u r p o s e o f p u n i s h m e n t . The

f o llo w in g ite m s w ere in c lu d e d i n t h i s

area:

1. I t i s u n w ise f o r p a r e n t s t o c o r r e c t a c h i l d ’ s b e h a v io r b y s a y i n g , "When I w a s a c h i l d , I n e v e r d i d t h a t . 2. A c h ild sh o u ld be p e rm itte d t o e x p re s s h is of a d u lts fre e ly . 3. I t i s norm al f o r th e h i s to y s l y in g aro u n d .

o p in io n s

c h ild of th r e e or fo u r to le a v e

4. A c h i l d o f t h r e e o r f o u r s h o u ld be a llo w e d a lm o st c o m p le te fre e d o m i n h i s p la y a c t i v i t i e s . 5. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e p e r m i t t e d t o p l a y i n s a n d a n d mud i f th e y w ish t o . 6. n e ig h b o r ’ s , r e l a t i v e ’s , and f r i e n d ’ s o p in io n s sh o u ld be ig n o r e d i n th e r a i s i n g o f y o u r c h i l d r e n . 7. P l a c i n g a c h i l d o f s i x y e a r s on a c h a i r , o r l o c k i n g h im i n h i s ro o m i s a g o o d f o r m o f p u n i s h m e n t . 8# T a l k i n g t h e p r o b l e m o v e r ^ t i t h t h e c h i l d i s t h e b e s t w ay o f d e a l i n g w i t h u n s a t i s f a o f b ^ y b e h a v i o r .

^

12

9. l a g e n e r a l , p a r e n ts s h o u ld n o t p u n is h t h e i r sm a ll c h ild re n . 10. T h e b e s t w ay t o d e v e l o p a c h i l d i n t o a s a t i s f a c t o r y a d u l t i s t o t r a i n h im a t a n e a r l y a g e . 11. ru le

’’S p a r e t h e r o d a n d s p o i l t h e c h i l d ” i s a g o o d g e n e r a l to fo llo w .

12. A stu b b o rn c h il d sh o u ld be ta u g h t e a r l y t h a t h is p a r e n t ’s w i l l i s s tr o n g e r th a n h i s . 15. P a r e n t s s h o u ld a d m it t o m is ta k e s fro m tim e t o t i m e .

t h e i r c h i l d r e n t h a t t h e y m ake

14. The o n l y r e s t r i c t i o n s p l a c e d o n a y o u n g c h i l d s h o u l d he t h o s e n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e r v e h i s l i f e and t h e l i v e s o f th e p e o p le a ro u n d h im . 15. P a r e n t s s h o u ld b e c a lm w hen t h e y p u n is h t h e i r c h ild re n . 16. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e r a i s e d so t h a t e v e r y o n e i n t h e n e ig h b o rh o o d f e e l s t h e y a r e good c h i l d r e n . 17. P a r e n t s s h o u ld com pare a c h i l d ’ s b e h a v i o r t o t h a t o f h i s b r o t h e r s o r s i s t e r s ; o r n e i g h b o r h o o d c h i l d r e n , w h en t h e y w a n t h im t o b e h a v e b e t t e r . 18. A n e a t , w e l l - o r d e r e d home i s o ne o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s a p a r e n t c a n p ro v id e a c h i l d i n g ro w in g u p . 19. A c h ild sh o u ld b e c o n s t a n t l y u rg ed to keep h im s e lf c l e a n u n t i l h e l e a r n s t o do s o b y h i m s e l f . 20. A c h ild h i s to y s and

s h o u ld l e a r n by t h e a g e o f t h r e e t o p i c k up keep h is th in g s in o rd e r.

21. One o f t h e b e s t w a y s t o c o r r e c t a c h i l d h i m y o u d o n ’ t l i k e h i m w hen h e i s b a d .

is to t e l l

22. A c h i l d s h o u ld be a llo w e d t o p la y o n ly w i t h t h i n g s t h a t a p a r e n t c h o o s e s f o r h im .

th o se

23. P a r e n t s s h o u ld a lw a y s t r y t o b e a s p e r f e c t a s p o s s i b l e in fro n t of th e ir c h ild re n . A r e a Two d e a l t w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d s t h e p a r e n t s a p p l y t o th e

c h il d ’s v e rb a l o u tp u t.

o p p o rtu n ity th e

c h ild has to

T h i s c o n c e r n e d how m uch t i j n e a n d ” s p e a k f r e e l y ” i n t h e h o m e;

15

w h e th e r th e p a re n ts c o r r e c t sp eech e r r o r s , a n d , g e n e ra l,

it

co n cern ed th e

c h ild ts

Phef o l l o w i n g i t e m s w e re i n c l u d e d

i f s o , how .

"v erb al rig h ts "

in t h i s

in th e

In home*

area:

1. A c h i l d s h o u ld he t a u g h t b y t h e age o f t h r e e t o a lw a y s s a y , " p l e a s e " , " t h a n k y o u " , a n d " e x c u s e m e" t o a d u l t s . 2. I t is a c c e p ta b le t h e i r c h i l d r e n up t o

f o r p a r e n ts to use "baby t a l k " th e age of th re e o r fo u r.

to

3. C h ild re n sh o u ld u s u a l ly be in c lu d e d i n fa m ily con­ v e rsa tio n s . 4. A c h i l d o f tw o o r t h r e e c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o h e s i t a t e and s tu m b le a good d e a l i n h i s s p e e c h . 5. P a r e n t s s h o u ld a lw a y s w in a rg u m e n ts th e y have w ith th e ir c h ild re n . 6. P a r e n t s s h o u l d m ake e v e r y e f f o r t t o p r e v e n t a c h i l d f r o m b e c o m in g s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a b o u t h i s s p e e c h . 7 . E r r o r s i n a y o u n g c h i l d Ts s p e e c h s h o u l d b e i g n o r e d b y th e p a r e n ts . 8. A c h i l d who d o e s h o t s p e a k w e l l s h o u l d be k e p t o u t o f t h e w ay w h e n t h e r e a r e v i s i t o r s i n t h e h o m e . 9. " C h ild r e n s h o u ld b e s e e n , and n o t h e a r d " , g e n e r a l r u l e t o fo llo w *

is

a good

10. A c h i l d s h o u ld be u rg e d to t a l k c l e a r l y and u n ­ h e s i t a t i n g l y fro m t h e b e g in n in g . 11. P a r e n ts sh o u ld f r e q u e n t l y u rge t h e i r c h il d r e n t o speak b e t t e r . 12. f h e c h i l d who s t u t t e r s to s tu tte r .

re a lly

t r i e s v e ry h a rd n o t

13. I f a c h ild has tro u b le w ith h is sp e e c h , h is p a re n ts s h o u ld p o i n t o u t th e e r r o r e a c h tim e he m akes i t . 14. C h i l d r e n s h o u ld be p e r m i t t e d t o when t h e y a r e t a l k i n g .

in te rru p t a d u lts

15. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d be p e r m i t t e d t o a r g u e t h e i r b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s . 16. P a r e n t s s h o u l d a lw a y s t r y t o g i v e o p p o r tu n ity to say w h a te v e r th e y w is h .

f r e e ly w ith

th e ir c h ild re n an

14

17. C h ild r e n s h o u ld he p e r m itte d t o p a re n ts.

arg u e w ith t h e i r

18. C h ild re n sh o u ld he p e rm itte d to w ish to t a l k .

t a l k w henever th e y

19. C h ild r e n s h o u ld he p e r m i tt e d to l i s t e n t o m ost o f t h e i r p a r e n t ’ s c o n v e r s a tio n s , i f th e y w ish t o . 20. A c h i l d who s p e a k s t o o r a p i d l y a n d s t u m b l e s o v e r h i s w o r d s s h o u l d h e t o l d t o s p e a k m o re s l o w l y a n d c l e a r l y . 2 1 . W hen a c h i l d m i s p r o n o u n c e s a w o r d h e h a s p r e v i o u s l y s a id c o r r e c t l y , he sh o u ld he p u n is h e d . 22. A good w ay t o im p ro v e a c h i l d ’ s s p e e c h i s t o h im a h o u t h i s m i s t a k e s . 23. P a r e n ts sh o u ld i n s i s t h o m e , s o h e w i l l h a v e go o d

te a se ^

t h a t a c h ild speak w e ll speeeh as an a d u lt.

at

24. U s u a l l y , a c h i l d who s t u t t e r s c o u l d s t o p s t u t t e r i n g i f he r e a l l y w a n ted t o s t o p . 25. S t u t t e r i n g i n c h il d r e n r e s u l t s fro m t h e i r t h in k in g f a s t e r th a n th e y can t a l k . 26. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e h e s t w ay t o h e l p a c h i l d ’ s s p e e c h i s f o r t h e p a r e n t s t o t a l k t o h im a good d e a l , an d l e t h im t a l k f r e e l y . A cea T h ree c o v e re d a t t i t u d e s h o s tility

in th e c h ild .

h o s tility

(and i f

S h o u ld

s o , how much}

to w a rd s e x p re s s io n s o f t h e c h i l d h e a llo w e d t o

to w a rd s:s i b l i n g s , p a r e n ts ,

o t h e r c h i l d r e n , home o b j e c t s , a n d o t h e r a d u l t s . in c lu d e d v e rb a l h o s t i l i t y ,

ex p ress

T h is a r e a

s w e a r in g , and “d i r t y ” w o rd s .

Item s

in t h i s a re a w ere: 1. C h i l d r e n s h o u ld a lw a y s he p o l i t e th e i r p a r e n t s . 2. A c h ild w o rd s.

of fiv e

and c o u rte o u s to

s h o u ld he p u n is h e d f o r s a y in g d i r t y

3 . ; A c h i l d s h o u l d h e p u n i s h e d f o r b r e a k i n g h i s own t o y s in a f i t o f an g er. 4. A c h il d s h o u ld he p u n ish e d f o r th in g s in th e house.

in te n tio n a lly b re a k in g

15

5. A c h i l d s h o u ld a lw a y s g e t a lo n g w e l l w i t h th e c h ild r e n in th e n e ig h b o rh o o d . *

o th e r

T

6. A c h i l d s h o u ld he p u n ish e d f o r s t r o b i n g h i s young b ro th e rs or s i s t e r s . 7* A c h i l d t e a s e s h im .

s h o u l d b e p u n i s h e d f o r s t r o b i n g so m e o n e w ho

8. I t i s norm al f o r a c h il d t o f i g h t w ith o th e r c h i l d r e n , o c c a sio n a lly f 9. A c h ild sh o u ld be p e rm itte d to h is p a re n ts.

say,

1©. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e p e r m i t t e d t o p a re n ts.

*1 h a t e y o u " t o

" ta lk back" to t h e i r

11. P a r e n t s s h o u ld ig n o re p r o f a n i t y u se d by t h e i r young c h ild re n . IE . A c h ild s h o u ld be p e rm itte d t o r e p e a t d i r t y o r p ro fa n e w ords he h e a r s . 13.

A c h il d s h o u ld b e p u n ish e d f o r e x p r e s s in g a n g e r .

1 4 . When a c h i l d t o w ork o f f ste a m

i s a n g ry , he sh o u ld b e g iv e n a chance i n some r e l a t i v e l y h a r m l e s s a c t i v i t y .

15. I t i s norm al f o r a c h ild to s t r i b e c a s i o n a l l y , w hen he i s a n g r y . 16. P a r e n ts sh o u ld p e rm it a c h i l d o ff" o c c a sio n a lly .

h i s p a re n ts oc­

"to t e l l o th e r c h ild re n

17. A c h i l d s h o u ld be c o m f o r te d , r a t h e r th a n p u n is h e d , i f he s t r i b e s a n o th e r c h il d . 1 8 ., G e n e r a lly , s p e a k in g , a c h ild sh o u ld be p e rm itte d to s t r o b e b a c b w hen som eone h i t s h im . 19. The c h i l d who i s a l w a y s q u i e t a n d p e a c e f u l b e s t b in d of c h i l d t o h a v e .

is th e

EG. I t i s bad to c h ild re n i f th e y a re p e rm itte d to f ig h t w ith o th e r c h ild re n . A rea P o u r d e a l t w ith w e a n in g , f e e d in g , and th u m b -su c k in g — a ll

o ral a c tiv itie s .

T h is a r e a in c lu d e d w h e th e r th u m b -su c k in g

s h o u l d b e p e r m i t t e d , how a n d when w e a n i n g s h o u l d b e a c c o m p l i s h e d , w h e th e r o r n o t b r e a s t fe e d in g i s d e s i r a b l e ;

h ow , w h e n , a n d w h a t

c h ild

sh o u ld e a t*

In c lu d e d

ite m s in t h i s

a re a w ere:

1* F e e d i n g a t t h e b r e a s t i s m o re s a t i s f y i n g f o r a c h i l d th a n f e e d in g fro m a b o t t l e . 2.

E a r l y w e an in g i s h a rm fu l t o th e

3. I t food.

i s norm al f o r a c h ild

c h ild .

to w ant t o m ess w ith h i s

4. P r e v e n t i n g a c h i l d f r o m s u c k i n g h i s th u m b w h en h e w a n t s t o , m ay b e b a d f o r t h e c h i l d . 5. Too l o n g f e e d i n g a t t h e b r e a s t i s a p t t o m ake t h e b a b y t o o d e p e n d e n t on t h e m o th e r . 6 . I n g e n e r a l, c h ild r e n sh o u ld be p e rm itte d to e a t th e fo o d s t h a t th ey l i k e . 7.

A c h i l d s h o u ld b e f e d w hen he i s h u n g ry .

s8 . A c h i l d s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d some c h o i c e a s t o t h e o f fo o d he i s g o in g t o e a t a t a m e a l. 9.

am ount

E a t i n g b e tw e e n m e a ls s h o u ld n o t b e p e r m i t t e d .

1 0 . A c h ild sh o u ld e a t a l l on h i s p l a t e .

o f th e fo o d t h a t i s p la c e d

11. P a r e n t s s h o u ld t e a c h t h e i r c h i l d r e n good t a b l e m an n ers a t an e a r l y a g e . 12*

A young c h ild sh o u ld be fe d s t r i c t l y

on

a sc h e d u le .

13. A c h ild sh o u ld be r e q u ir e d t o e a t fo o d s t h a t a re g ood f o r h im , e v e n i f h e d o e s n o t l i k e th e m . 14.

T h u m b -su ck in g i s

a bad h a b it .

15.

T h u m b - s u c k i n g w i l l make t h e t e e t h

16. A c h ild sh o u ld le a r n to age of t h r e e .

s tic k o u t.

fe e d h im s e lf n e a t ly by th e

17. T h u m b -su ck in g s h o u ld be c u rb e d b y t h e u s e o f m e d ie in e and g lo v e s . 18. P a r e n ts sh o u ld p e rm it t h e i r c h il d r e n t o th um b s a s l o n g a s t h e y w i s h . 19. A p a r e n t s h o u ld rem in d th e th u m b e v e r y t i m e h e d o e s .

suck t h e i r

c h ild n o t to suck h is

20;. A c h i l d s h o u l d b e w e a n e d a s e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e , e v e n t h o u g h h e m ay p r o t e s t s o m e w h a t .

£1. a c h il d sh o u ld be p e rm itte d t o e a t h is food w ith h is hands . A rea F iv e c o v e re d t o i l e t t r a i n i n g .

When s h o u l d t o i l e t

t r a i n i n g b e g i n , a n d be c o m p l e t e d ; w h a t m e t h o d s s h o u l d b e u s e d t o a cc o m p lish i t ,

and w hat sh o u ld t h e

h is e lim in a tiv e fu n c tio n s be?

c h i l d 's

In c lu d e d

a ttitu d e

in th is

to w a rd s

a re a w ere:

I. P a r e n t s s h o u ld d e v e lo p , in t h e i r c h i l d r e n , a f e e l i n g o f p r i d e a b o u t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e i r bow el m o v e m e n ts a n d u r i n a t i o n . 28. I f a c h i l d m a k e s o c c a s i o n a l s l i p s a f t e r h e h a s b e e n t o i l e t t r a i n e d , h is s l i p s sh o u ld be ig n o re d . 5. f o r m a lly , a c h ild i s bo rn w ith th e f e e lin g t h a t h is f e e e s and u r in e a r e d i r t y and u n p le a s a n t. #. A p a r e n t ' s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t he be v e ry c le a n a b o u t h i s t o i l e t h a b i t s m ay b e d i s t u r b i n g t o a . c h i l d . 5. a young child should have his diapers changed im­ mediately after he soils himself. @. A c h i l d s h o u l d b e t a u g h t e a r l y t h a t h i s u r i n e f e c e s a re n a s ty and d i r t y .

and

7. T he f e e l i n g t h a t u r i n a t i n g a n d d e f e c a t i n g a r e u n ­ p l e a s a n t p r o c e s s e s , sh o u ld be d e v e lo p e d in th e c h il d a s soon as p o s s i b l e . 8. A .c h ild sh o u ld be ta u g h t e a r l y t o d o o r w hen h e i s g o i n g t o t h e ' t o i l e t .

c l o s e t h e b a th ro o m

9. F r e e d i s c u s s i o n o f t o i l e t - g o i n g i n t h e home w i l l m ake t h e c h i l d u n d u l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h s u c h t h i n g s . 10. T o ile t t r a i n i n g sh o u ld be s t a r te d o f s i x m o n th s. II. th e

a t about th e age ^

A c h ild sh o u ld be c o m p le te ly t o i l e t t r a i n e d age o f one y e a r .

about

12. A f te r a c h ild h as been t o i l e t - t r a i n e d , he sh o u ld be p u n is h e d f o r an y s l i p s he m ak es. 1 5. I t i s norm al f o r a young c h i l d t o b e i n t e r e s t e d h i s b o w e l m o v e m e n ts a n d u r i n a t i o n .

in

14. A young c h il d sh o u ld be p e rm itte d t o t a l k a b o u t g o in g t o t h e t o i l e t i n f r o n t o f g u e s t s and v i s i t o r s i n t h e hom e.

18

-J 1 5 . A tw o -y e a r o ld c h il d sh o u ld he p e rm itte d to w ith h is f e c e s .

p la y

16. A c h i l d s h o u ld he p e r m i tt e d i n t h e b a th ro o m ev en i f one o f h i s p a r e n t s i s i n t h e r e . 1 7 . A c h ild sh o u ld he p e rm itte d to t a l k a b o u t h is bow el m o v e m e n ts a n d u r i n a t i o n w h e n e v e r h e w i s h e s . 18. P r e v e n tin g a c h i l d fro m d r i n k in g l i q u i d s i n t h e l a t e a f t e r n o o n o r e v e n in g i s a good w ay t o p r e v e n t b e d - w e t t i n g . 19. P a r e n t s s h o u l d t r y t o m ake g o i n g t o t h e t o i l e t p le a s a n t p ro c e ss f o r th e c h ild .

a

A r e a S i x c o n c e r n e d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s e x u a l b e h a v i o r and in te r e s t in c h ild re n .

W hen, w h e r e , a n d how s h o u l d c h i l d r e n

g e t t h e i r se x in f o r m a tio n , and w hat sh o u ld t h e i r a t t i t u d e s b e ? T h is a r e a in c lu d e d th e f o llo w in g ite m s : 1. I t m akes l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e w h e th e r c h i l d r e n g e t t h e i r in f o r m a tio n a b o u t se x fro m t h e i r p a r e n t s , o r o th e r a d u l t s . T he b e s t w a y t o t e a c h c h i l d r e n a b o u t s e x i s t o g i v e th e m some c a r e f u l l y c h o s e n b o o k s t o r e a d . 3. A c h i l d ’ s c u r i o s i t y a b o u t s e x s h o u l d b e c u r b e d i f he i s t o g ro w i n t o a s a t i s f a c t o r y a d u l t . 4. I t i s b e s t i f c h i l d r e n g e t m ost o f t h e i r in f o r m a ti o n a b o u t se x fro m a d o c t o r , o r f a m ily f r i e n d , r a t h e r th a n fro m t h e i r p a r e n t s . ^5. P a r e n t s s h o u l d t r y t o m ake t h e i r c h i l d r e n a f r a i d sexual re la tio n s h ip s .

of

6. P a r e n t s s h o u l d t r y t o d e v e l o p a n a t t i t u d e •t o w a r d s e x i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n t h a t i s f r e e fro m f e a r . 7. C h ild re n sh o u ld be ta u g h t a b o u t s e x u a l f u n c t i o n s in te rm s o f hum ans, r a t h e r th a n p l a n t s and lo w e r a n im a ls . 8. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d g e t m uch o f t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a t t i t u d e s ab o u t s e x fro m t h e i r p a r e n t s . 9. Human c o n c e p t i o n s h o u l d b e a c c u r a t e l y e x p l a i n e d c h ild re n . 10. C h ild re n sh o u ld be ta u g h t th e t h e i r s e x u a l o rg a n s and f u n c t i o n s .

s c ie n tific

to

term s f o r

11. P a r e n t s sh o u ld t e l l t h e i r c h il d th e v u lg a r te rm s a s w e l l a s th e s c i e n t i f i c nam es f o r t h e i r s e x u a l o rg a n s and fu n c tio n s. IE . P a r e n ts sh o u ld t a l k to t h e i r c h ild r e n a b o u t se x a s s o o n a s t h e c h i l d r e n show a n y c u r i o s i t y a b o u t i t . 13. A c h il d sh o u ld be fo rb id d e n to p la y w ith h i s s e x u a l o rg an s. 14. F r e e d i s c u s s i o n o f s e x b y p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n in t h e home w i l l e n c o u r a g e s e x u a l l o o s e n e s s i n t h e c h i l d r e n . , 15. I t i s no rm al f o r c h i l d r e n t o be c u r io u s a b o u t th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n b oys and g i r l s . 1 6 . P a r e n t s s h o u ld w arn t h e i r a d o le s c e n t c h i l d r e n a b o u t th e d an g ers of m a s tu rb a tin g . 17. I t is unusual fo r c h ild re n to u n t i l t h e y b ecom e a d o l e s c e n t s .

t h i n k much a b o u t s e x

?18. S e x u a l f u n c tio n s sh o u ld be ta u g h t t o c h il d r e n in te rm s o f f l o w e r s , b e e s , and lo w e r a n im a l s , r a t h e r th a n b y d i s c u s s i n g human b e i n g s . 19. P a r e n ts sh o u ld p u n ish a c h i l d o f f i v e o r s i x i f t h e y c a t c h h im i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s e x u a l o r g a n s o f a c h ild o f th e o p p o site sex . SO. A c h i l d s h o u l d r e c e i v e h i s f i r s t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t sex a t th e b e g in n in g o f h is a d o le sc e n c e . ^ E l. C h ild re n sh o u ld be p e r m itte d t o s e e t h e i r p a r e n ts m ak in g l o v e t o e a c h o t h e r . EE. The b e s t a d v i c e p a r e n t s c a n g i v e c h i l d r e n a b o u t s e x i s t o t e l l t h e m t o k e e p a w ay f r o m i t u n t i l a f t e r t h e y are m a rrie d . S3. h is

I t i s n o rm al f o r a s m a ll c h il d t o w ant to sexual o rg an s.

E4. C h ild re n sh o u ld be p e rm itte d th e o p p o s ite sex u n d re s se d .

p la y w ith

to see t h e i r p a re n ts

of

A rea Seven d e a l t w i t h p a r e n t ’s a t t i t u d e s to w a rd s d i f ­ f e r e n c e s i n r a i s i n g boys and g i r l s . g i r l s have speech d e fe c ts a ttitu d e s

(e s p e c ia lly

S i n c e m any m o re b o y s t h a n s tu tte r in g ) , p a re n ta l

a b o u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n b o y s a n d g i r l s may b e

20

a fa c to r,

A r e c e n t m o n o g rap h by H i l d r e d S c h u e l l 4 was c o n s u l t e d

b e f o r e th e ite m s w ere s e l e c t e d . a ttitu d e s

T h is a r e a co n cern ed p a r e n t fs

to w a rd s d i f f e r e n c e s to w ard c l e a n l i n e s s ,

te n d e n c ie s , need f o r a f f e c t io n ,

e t c •,

a g g re ss iv e

in boys and g i r l s ,

such a s

th e fo llo w in g : 1. O rd in a rily , l i t t l e boys.

little

g irls

d e v e lo p

speech f a s t e r th a n

2. Boys s h o u ld b e t a u g h t e a r l y " t o t a k e w h en t h e y a r e h u r t . 3. L ittle g irls as l i t t l e boys. 4.

B o th l i t t l e

it

l i k e a m an"

sh o u ld be e x p e c te d t o be a s s e l f - r e l i a n t b o y s and l i t t l e

5. B o ys s h o u l d b e t a u g h t t o b e age th an g i r l s . 6. L i t t l e boys and l i t t l e t h e same w a y .

g irls

7.

B oys a r e m o re t r o u b l e t o

8.

L ittle

g irls

g irls

lik e

to g et d irty .

in d ep e n d en t a t an e a r l i e r s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t up i n

b rin g

a re h e a l t h i e r th a n

up t h a n g i r l s . little

9. B oys o f f o u r a n d f i v e y e a r s r e q u i r e and lo v in g a s g i r l s .

boys.

a s m uch c u d d l i n g

10. By t h e t i m e a b o y i s f i v e o r s i x y e a r s o l d , he sh o u ld be t a u g h t t o be a " l i t t l e m an". 11.

L ittle

g irls

a re n a tu r a ll y d a i n t i e r th a n l i t t l e

boys.

12. Boys s h o u ld b e e x p e c te d t o do a s w e l l i n w r i t i n g , s p e l l i n g , a n d s p e a k i n g i n s c h o o l a s g i r l s o f t h e same a g e . 13.

L i t t l e boys are

n a tu ra lly

14.

L it t le boys a re

n a tu ra lly c ru e l.

15. th a n

L i t t l e g i r l s s h o u ld b e g i v e n m ore l i t t l e boys.

4

d i r t i e r th an l i t t l e

g irls .

c a re anda t t e n t i o n

H i l d r e d S c h u e l l , D i f f e r e n c e s W h ic h M a t t e r . T he D e l t a K a p p a Gamma S o c i e t y , 8 0 4 L i t t l e f i e l d B u i l d i n g , A u s t i n , T e x a s .

16. L i t t l e boys a re n a tu r a ll y p h y s ic a lly to u g h e r th an little g irls . 17. L i t t l e b o y s s h o u l d b e g i v e n a s m uch a t t e n t i o n home a s l i t t l e g i r l s . 18. L i t t l e b oys can be e x p e c te d t o c r y little g irls .

in th e

j u s t a s much a s

19. L i t t l e g i r l s s h o u l d b e e x p e c te d t o do a l i t t l e i n s c h o o l t h a n b o y s o f t h e sam e a g e .

b e tte r

20. L i t t l e g i r l s sh o u ld be p r o t e c te d fro m th e o u ts id e w o r l d m o re t h a n l i t t l e b o y s . I r e a E ig h t d e a lt w ith c ry in g . w hy p a r e n t s t h i n k c ry in g .

c h ild re n c ry ,

The i t e m s c o v e r i n g t h i s

H e r e we w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h

and t h e i r r e a c t i o n s

to th a t

a re a w ere:

1 . H o ld in g and c a r e s s i n g a b a b y w hen he c r i e s f o r h im .

i s good

2. A young c h ild sh o u ld be p e rm itte d t o c ry i t out i f t h e r e seem s t o b e n o t h i n g s e r i o u s l y w ro n g w i t h h im . 5. is 4.

P a r e n t s s h o u l d i g n o r e t h e i r c h i l d ’ s c r y i n g w hen i t ju st fo r a tte n tio n . When a c h i l d

c rie s,

h i s p a r e n t s s h o u l d c o m f o r t h im .

5. P a r e n ts sh o u ld p u n ish t h e i r c h ild r e n e x c e ssiv e ly . 6.

C h i l d r e n s h o u l d n e v e r b e m ade t o

7.

A c h ild sh o u ld n e v e r be p e rm itte d to c r y .

T h ese ite m s w ere sc a le .

in te rm ix e d

Each t o t a l s c a l e ,

pages of le g a l th e

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i n random o r d e r i n t h e t o t a l

i n m im e o g r a p h e d f o r m , c o v e r e d e l e v e n T he i n s t r u c t i o n s w h i c h a p p e a r e d a t n

E x p ress your h o n e st o p in io n o r f e e lin g about each o f t h e Item s b e lo w . G-ive y o u r own o p i n i o n , e v e n t h o u g h i t may n o t . a g r e e w i t h w h a t y o u h a v e r e a d i n b o o k s , o r h e a rd in c la ss ro o m s . T h ere a re f i v e a l t e r n a t i v e answ ers t o e a c h o f t h e ite m s — S t r o n g l y a g r e e ; A gree; U n d e c id e d ; D isa g re e ; S tro n g ly D isa g re e . E n c i r c l e th e m ost a p p r o p r i a te resp o n se f o r you. A nsw er e v e r y i te m .

On m o s t o f t h e th e ir

sc a le s,

t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w ere a s k e d o n ly t o g iv e

sex, ag e, m a rita l s ta tu s ,

th e l a s t th re e

and num ber o f c h i l d r e n .

s tu d e n t gro up s t e s t e d ,

t h e i r o c c u p a tio n

On

s t u d e n t s w ere a l s o a s k e d

( s i n c e t h e s e w e r e sum m er s c h o o l g r o u p s ) ,

U n iv e r s ity c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , m a jo r, y e a r s o f c la ss ro o m t e a c h in g e x p e r i e n c e , y e a r s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , and th e g r a d e s ta u g h t or su p e rv ise d . G roups u s e d .

Four U n iv e rsity

^ c l a s s e s w ere g iv e n t h i s Two o f t h e

of S o u th e rn C a li f o r n ia

s c a l e d u r i n g th e S p rin g S e m e s te r o f 1948.

c l a s s e s w e re lo w e r d i v i s i o n T o ic e Im provem ent e l a s s e s ,

ft-o n e t a u g h t b y t h e w r i t e r , in th e d e p a rtm e n t.

and th e

o th e r by a g ra d u a te a s s i s t a n t

T h e s e tw o g r o u p s w e r e m o s t l y F r e s h m e n a n d

S o p h o m o res, m a jo r s i n S p e e c h , D ram a, and R a d io .

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s t u d e n ts w ere s i n g l e . The t h i r d le v e l co u rse

c l a s s was a n u p p e r d i v i s i o n and b e g in n i n g g r a d u a te

in P h y s io lo g ic a l P sy c h o lo g y .

ta u g h t by D r. T ra v is .

T h is c o u rs e w as

The c o u r s e m a t e r i a l i n t h e s e t h r e e

was n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d

to

th e

a ttitu d e s th a t th is sc a le

c la s s e s p u r­

p o rts to m easu re. The f o u r t h g r o u p w a s a n u p p e r d i v i s i o n u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d b e g in n in g g ra d u a te s tu d e n t c la s s H e a rin g , ta u g h t by D r. T r a v i s . r e la te d to

a ttitu d e s

i n th e P sy c h o lo g y o f S p eech and The m a t e r i a l o f t h i s c l a s s w as

to w a rd c h i l d r e n .

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t h o u g h t t o b e m o re " s o p h i s t i c a t e d " , on t h e a tt i tu d e s th a n th e f i r s t th re e The a t t i t u d e

av erag e,

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s c a l e s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f

a r e g u l a r c l a s s m e e tin g , and th e s t u d e n t s w ere g iv e n th e f u l l

25 c la s s hour to f i l l

out th e

sc a le .

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t h e i r a g e , s e x , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t th e y , h ad a n y c h ild re n .

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as p o ss ib le .

out th e

s c a le s a s h o n e stly

T hey w e r e n o t a s k e d t o s i g n t h e i r n a m e s.

D u rin g th e

sum m er s e s s i o n o f 1 9 4 8 , t w o m o re " u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d * *

s t u d e n t g ro u p s w ere s t u d i e d . S p e a k in g c l a s s ,

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p r i m a r i l y c o m p o s e d o f F r e s h m e n a n d S o p h o m o re

s t u d e n t s , w as ta u g h t by a g ra d u a te a s s i s t a n t i n th e d e p a rtm e n t. The o t h e r c o u r s e was P h y s i o l o g i c a l P s y c h o lo g y t a u g h t by D r . T ra v is.

T h e sam e t e s t i n g

c o n d i t i o n s w e r e u s e d f o r t h e s e tw o

g ro u p s a s f o r th e f o u r s tu d e n t g ro u p s in th e p re v io u s s e m e s t e r . * T h e sum m er s e s s i o n c o u r s e

i n P s y c h o lo g y of S p eech and

H e a r i n g w as t e s t e d a t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t w eek and a g a i n d u r i n g ^ th e

l a s t w eek o f t h e c o u r s e .

th e p e o p le in t h e

At th e tim e o f t h e f i r s t t e s t i n g ,

c o u rse w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o f i l l

out th e s c a le

a s t h e y w o u ld h a v e a t t h e b e g in n i n g o f t h e

co u rse

b efo re).

i f th e y had had th e

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in d ic a te

(one w eek

c o u r s e , M e n tal H y g ie n e , o r t h e c o u r s e i n S peech P a th o lo g y ta u g h t by D r. T ra v is . c o m p a rin g th e p o ss ib le

A g a in , no nam es w e re s ig n e d t o t h e s c a l e . in fo rm a tio n l i s t e d ,

and t h e h a n d w r it i n g ,

t o p i c k o u t t h e " b e f o r e " and " a f t e r " s c a l e s

t h e m e m b e rs o f t h e c l a s s .

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i t w as

of 42 o f

The s c a l e s t h a t c o u l d n o t b e m a t c h e d

w ere n o t u s e d . T he m a r r i e d m e m b e rs o f t h i s c l a s s w e r e a s k e d t o t a k e c o p y home t o t h e i r

spouses.

A g a in , th e a n o n y m ity o f th e p e r s o n

t a k i n g t h e t e s t was p r e s e r v e d .

T h u s , i t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o

m a tc h h u s b a n d ’ s a n d w i v e ’ s s c o r e s on t h e s c a l e s . was t e s t e d

o n ly o n ce.

a

T h is g ro u p

I n a d d itio n to th e s e g ro u p s o f s tu d e n ts , s e v e r a l g ro u p s is' o f p a r e n t s w ere s t u d i e d . B a re n ts of c h ild r e n e n r o l l e d in th e S peech and H e a rin g C l i n i c

a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn

C a l i f o r n i a d u r i n g t h e Summer S e s s i o n w e r e o f f e r e d t h e s c a l e . A num ber f i l l e d

th e

s c a le o u t and tu r n e d

it

in .

m o re m o t h e r s t h a n f a t h e r s c o n t r i b u t i n g s c a l e s . m o th e rs w ere a b le t o f i l l c h ild re n . tio n .

C o n s e q u e n tly , i t w as e a s i e r t o e n l i s t t h e i r c o o p e ra ­

p r o b l e m s o f m an y v a r i e t i e s . s ig n in g o f th e se

id e n tifie d , A- .O n ly t h o s e

cases had speech a n d /o r h e a rin g B e c a u se no e m p h a sis w as p l a c e d

s c a l e s , th e m o th e r c o u ld n o t a lw a y s be

and r e l a t e d t o th e ty p e sc a le s f i ll e d

w ere p o s i t i v e l y gro u p .

F r e q u e n tly , th e

in th e s c a l e s w h ile w a itin g f o r t h e i r

The c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e

on t h e

T h e r e w e r e many

o f p ro b le m th e c h i l d h a d .

o u t by th e p a r e n ts

id e n tifie d ,

of s tu tte rin g

and s e p a r a t e d fro m t h e r e s t

Two o t h e r s m a l l g r o u p s o f p a r e n t s o f s t u t t e r i n g

c h ild re n

o f th e c h ild re n

who w e r e n o t c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g C l i n i c w e r e s e n t th e

sc a le s.

Los A n g e le s.

T h ese g ro u p s w ere fro m s u r b u r b a n d i s t r i c t s

of

T he g r o u p o f p a r e n t s o f s t u t t e r i n g c h i l d r e n f r o m

t h e S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g C l i n i c w e r e c a l l e d C ro u p A .

C roup A I

had been c o u n s e lle d c o n s id e ra b ly by th e c i t y sp eech e o r r e c t i o n i s t and h ence r e p r e s e n te d a " p a r t i a l l y p a re n ts o f s tu tte r in g c o u n se lle d a l i t t l e c o u n s e llin g by th e by th e w r i t e r . le ss

c h ild re n .

s o p h is tic a te d " gro u p o f

Some o f th e m h a d a l s o b e e n

by th e w r i t e r .

C roup A I I h a d a l i t t l e

c o m m u n ity s p e e e h c o r r e c t i o n i s t a n d a l i t t l e

I n g e n e r a l , th e y w ere th o u g h t t o b e a l i t t l e

"so p h istic a te d "

i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t h a n C roup A I .

c a s e s , h o w ev er, a p o s s ib le s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r

In b o th

o f b e in g w i l l i n g to

c o o p e ra te b ia s th e

in t h i s

s tu d y w as o p e r a t i n g .

The d i r e c t i o n

of th is . ^

i s unknown, a lth o u g h i t n i g h t be p resum ed t o o p e r a te d ire c tio n

in

o f s e l e c t i n g t h o s e p a r e n t s w i t h m o re " f a v o r a b l e ”

a ttitu d e s . Two g r o u p s : o f p a r e n t s stu d ie d . th e

o f c h i l d r e n w ith h e a r i n g d e f e c t s w ere

G ro u p B I c o n s i s t e d

o f m o th e rs o f c h i l d r e n

e n ro lle d

in

summer s e s s i o n o f t h e T r a c y C l i n i c , a p r e s c h o o l f o r d e a f

c h ild re n .

vT h i s g r o u p h a d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e

th is p e rio d .

G ro u p B I I

c o n siste d

o f m o th e rs and f a t h e r s o f

c h i l d r e n who a t t e n d e d o r h a d a t t e n d e d t h i s th e y e a r.

c o u n s e llin g d u rin g

S c a l e s w ere s e n t o n ly t o

sam e s c h o o l d u r i n g

t h o s e p a r e n t s w here th e

m o th e rs had r e g u l a r l y a tte n d e d th e g ro u p c o u n s e llin g o ffered

s e ss io n s

once a w eek d u r in g th e p r e v io u s y e a r by D r. T r a v i s .

I n t h e sum m er o f 1 9 4 9 , t h r e e U n iv e rs ity

stu d e n t g ro u p s a t th e

o f N e b rask a w ere s t u d i e d .

to f u r th e r e v a lu a te m a rita l s ta tu s

th e a f f e c t s

on t h e s c o r e s .

T hese g ro u p s w ere in c lu d e d

of age,

d iffe re n c e s

i n s e x and

T hese gro u p s in c lu d e d th r e e

c o u r s e s i n E d u c a t i o n a l P sy ch o lo g y ;; E d u c a tio n 6 2 , E d u c a tio n 2 6 2 , and E d u c a tio n 289. se m e ste r.

T hese s c a le s w ere a d m in is te re d e a r ly in th e

E d u c a t i o n 62 w a s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e

g r o u p , a l t h o u g h som e o f t h e s t u d e n t s h a d h a d som e t e a c h i n g e x p e rie n c e .

E d u c a tio n 262 and E d u c a tio n 289 w ere p r i m a r i l y

g ra d u a te g ro u p s, w ith th e m a jo rity te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e .

o f t h e g r o u p h a v i n g some

T h e s e g r o u p s w e r e p r i m a r i l y p e o p l e w ho

in te n d e d to b e , o r w e re , c la ssro o m te a c h e r s or s c h o o l a d m in is­ tra to rs.

The g r o u p s w e re l a r g e l y com posed o f E d u c a t i o n m a j o r s .

A gro u p o f " e x p e r t s " ,

g ra d u a te

s t u d e n t s a n d f a c u l t y m e m b e rs

26

i n t h e S p e e c h a n d P s y c h o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t s , who m i g h t b e p r e s u m e d t o b e ns o p h i s t i c a t e d ” i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e s , w e r e s t u d i e d . not a ll

o f t h e s e p e o p le s u b s c r ib e t o

th e

B ecause

sam e ^ s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t ”

c o n c e r n i n g c h i l d r e n ’ s ; - r e a c t i o n s t o p a r e n t a l t r e a t m e n t , som e v a r i a t i o n m ig h t be e x p e c te d .

PRESENTATION AID ANALYSIS OP BATA R e lia b ility . first

172 c a s e s t e s t e d ,

in d iv id u a l s c a le . it

R e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e r a n on t h e

c o n ta in e d

u s i n g t h e s p l i t h a l f m e t h o d on e a c h

S c a le S ig h t w as n o t in c lu d e d

o n ly se v en ite m s .

num bers o f i t e m s , t h e l a s t c o e ffic ie n ts.

In th e

case

in th is ., sin c e

o f s c a l e s w i t h odd

ite m was o m itte d f r o m .t h e r e l i a b i l i t y

P e a r s o n P r o d u c t M om ent r f s w e r e c o m p u t e d on e a c h

s e a l e , and t h e P ea rso n -B ro w n P ro p h e cy fo rm u la w as a p p li e d to c o rre c t fo r le n g th . T a b le I .

T hese r e l i a b i l i t y

^ S in ce a l l r e l i a b i l i t i e s

d a t a a r e show n i n

on t h e s e v e n s c a l e s f o r t h e s e

172 c a s e s w e re a b o v e * 8 0 , t h e s c a l e s w e re t h o u g h t t o b e s u f ­ fic ie n tly re lia b le

fo r

Ite m E v a lu a tio n .

fu rth e r in v e s tig a tio n . The " c o r r e c t n e s s " o f t h e

a ssig n e d to th e f iv e re s p o n s e s to each u sin g th e

c rite rio n

o f th e

i n d iv id u a l ite m

s u b -s c a le .) th e

ite m w as m e a su re d by

of in te rn a l c o n siste n c y .

m ig h t a l s o be th o u g h t t o

y i e l d a rough

( a s com pared t o

a r b itr a r y v a lu e s

T h is te c h n iq u e

i n d i c a t i o n o f th e v a l i d i t y th e t o t a l s c o re

of th e

H ig h c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n an i n d i v i d u a l ite m and

s u b - s c a l e w as n o t assum ed t o b e any n e c e s s a r y p r o o f t h a t t h e u

ite m n o r th e s c a l e m easured a u n i t a r y v a r i a b l e . ^ T he f i r s t 1 7 2 c a s e s w e r e s t u d i e d e v a lu a tio n .

in t h i s p a r t o f t h i s

T h is i n c l u d e d t h e tw o c l a s s e s

i n ¥ o ic e Im p ro v em en t,

^\F. P . G u i l f o r d , f u n d a m e n t a l S t a t i s t i c s i n P s y c h o l o g y a n d E d u c a t i o n . Hew Y o r k ; M c G r a w - H i l l B ook C o m p an y , I n c . ; 1 9 4 2 . p>p. 2 9 4 - 2 9 5 .

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i s c o r r e c t e d f o r l e n g t h By c o r r . p®a r s o l i -.Brown p r o p h e c y f o r m u l a

39

y t h e P h y s i o l o g i c a l P s y c h o lo g y and P s y c h o lo g y o f S p eech and H e a rin g c la s s e s f o r th e S p rin g S e m e ste r, 1948. s c a l e , t h e t o p a n d l o w e s t 10% o f t h e

Por each su b ­

s c o r e s w ere s t u d i e d .

S e v e n te e n c a s e s w ere u sed i n e a c h g ro u p .

The i n d i v i d u a l ite m s

w e r e c o m p a r e d b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e m ean, i t e m s c o r e f o r t h e l o w e s t s c o r i n g g ro u p fro m th e h i g h e s t

s c o rin g g ro u p .

f e r e n c e p o s s i b l e w o u ld be f o u r p o i n t s , r a n g e d fro m one t o

fiv e .

The g r e a t e s t , d i f ­

s in c e th e s c a le v a lu e s

A verage d i f f e r e n c e s

o f m o re t h a n tw o

s c o r e p o i n t s w ere c o n s id e r e d a s " i m p o r t a n t , ” a v e ra g e d i f f e r e n c e s o f o n e o r m o re a s

" fa irly

th a n one, b u t p o s itiv e , a n e g a tiv e s c o re . The i t e m w a s :

as " d o u b tfu l."

" L ittle

g irls

sco re

o f 0 .4 7 p o i n t s .

a re h e a l t h i e r th a n l i t t l e

7, and l i s t e d

of le s s

O n ly o ne ite m y i e l d e d

T h is ite m had a n e g a t iv e

an ite m from s u b - s c a l e ^ T h is

im p o r ta n t," and d i f f e r e n c e s

b o y s ,"

a s 33 i n t h e t o t a l s c a l e .

i t e m h a d b e e n s c o r e d a s o n e on t h e S t r o n g l y A g r e e r e s p o n s e .

The i n d i v i d u a l ite m s and t h e i r s c a l e p o i n t d i f f e r e n c e s a r e lis te d

i n A p p e n d ix A.

s u ffic ie n tly re la te d a ssig n e d

In g e n e r a l , th e to th e

i n d i v i d u a l ite m s w ere

s u b - s c a le s t h a t th e

in s c o r in g w ere th o u g h t to be

sc a le v a lu e s

ju stifie d .

Wo a t t e m p t

w a s m ade t o w e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l i t e m s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r a p p a r e n t " v a lid ity ." in d iv id u a l o f th e

I n L i k e r t ’ s o r i g i n a l s t u d y ,2 he fo u n d t h a t w e ig h tin g ite m s d id n o t c o n t r i b u t e

s i g n i f ic a n t l y to th e v a li d i ty

sc a le .

S u b -sc a le

c o rre la tio n s.

s u b - s c a le s and th e t o t a l

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e

s c a l e w e re e v a l u a t e d by c o m p u tin g

P e a r s o n P r o d u c t Moment r f s b e t w e e n e a c h o f t h e

2L i k e r t ,

op. c i t . , 1 -5 5 .

s u b -s c a le s and

th e t o t a l

o f th e o th e r seven s c a le s .

p re se n te d

i n T ab le I I .

These c o r r e l a t i o n s a re

They w e re c o m p u ted f o r t h e

th e P h y s i o lo g i c a l P sy c h o lo g y c l a s s

in th e

90 c a s e s i n

sp rin g of 1948.

These

c o r r e l a t i o n s v a r y fro m 0 .7 8 f o r S c a le 5 (E x p re s s io n o f H o s t i l i t y ) to

0 .5 2 f o r S c a le 8 ( C r y i n g ) *

c o rre la tio n tis tic a lly

S in c e th e

i s c o m p a ra tiv e ly s m a ll, sig n ific a n t.

p ro b a b le e r r o r of each

each c o r r e l a t i o n

They i n d i c a t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e

is

sta ­

re la tio n ­

s h i p b e tw e e n t h e s u b - s c a l e

s c o r e s and th e t o t a l

th e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s u b - s c a l e

sc a le s.

and t o t a l

Some p o s i t i v e

s c o r e s was e x p e c t e d , s i n c e

a ll

of th e se

w e r e t h o u g h t t o h a v e some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o b e h a v io r.

P ro m t h i s ,

th re e

a ttitu d e s

f i r s t fiv e

th e t o t a l s c o r e ; w h ile t h e

s c a le s a re r e l a t e d , but not so c lo s e ly .

p o sitiv e

sco res

th e c h il d * s sp e e c h

i t w o u ld seem t h a t t h e

s c a l e s r e l a t e m o re c l o s e l y t o

o f th e r e s t o f

sub­ la st

T hese s ig n if ic a n t

c o r r e l a t i o n s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e

t h a t th e s c a le s

a l l m e a s u r e t h e same v a r i a b l e . T a lid ity . or sc a le

is to

One m e t h o d o f e s t i m a t i n g v a l i d i t y com pare s c o r e s e a r n e d b y a c e r t a i n

on a new t e s t g roup w ith

t h e i r s c o r e s on a w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d t e s t p u r p o r t i n g t o m easu re t h e sam e v a r i a b l e ,

o r a s im ila r v a ria b le .

f i n d no w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d th e

sam e a t t i t u d e s ,

sc a le

S in c e th e w r i t e r c o u ld

t h a t was e s t a b l i s h e d t o m e a su re

i t w as n o t p o s s ib l e t o

use t h i s m eth o d .

A n o th e r m eth o d o f m e a s u r in g v a l i d i t y w o u ld h e t o a ttitu d e b e h a v io r.

sc a le If

s c o r e s w i t h some l a b o r a t o r y t e s t a s a tis f a c to r y la b o ra to ry t e s t

a m eth o d m ig h t be v a l u a b l e .

3

c o rre la te

of re la te d

can b e d e v is e d , su ch

No s u c h l a b o r a t o r y t e s t

c o u ld be

*%>ouglas 1 . B r a y , " T h e P r e d i c t i o n o f B e h a v i o r P ro m Two A t t i t u d e S e a l e s , 11* The J o u r n a l o f A b n o rm a l a n d S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . 4 5 , 1950, 6 4 -8 4 .

T A B LrfE .II CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SUB-SCALE AJB TOTAL SCALE* SCORES . S c a le r# PEj.

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* c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e a c t u a l l y B e tw e e n e a c h s c a l e and th e t o t a l o f th e r e s t o f th e s c a l e s . # P e a r s © m - P r o d u c t Moment r *

d e v is e d by th e

a u th o r f o r a l l th e gro up s s tu d ie d h e r e .

The m a i n a t t e m p t t o s c o r e s on t h e a t t i t u d e th e g ro u p s t a k in g th e e s tim a te th e

e s t a b l i s h v a l i d i t y w as b y c o m p a rin g

s c a le w ith " c l i n i c a l " sc a le .

ju d g m e n ts c o n c e r n in g

T h u s , a n a t t e m p t w a s made t o

" s o p h i s t i c a t i o n ” o f each gro u p b e f o r e th e

a d m in iste re d .

I t w as f e l t

s c a le w as

t h a t g r o u p s who h a d b e e n e x p o s e d t o

c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n o n c h i l d r e n 1s p r o b l e m s , a n d t h o s e who h a d been c o u n se lle d m o re f a v o r a b l e

o n t h e i r c h i l d r e n ’ s p r o b l e m s w o u ld t e n d s c o r e s on t h e

n o t had such i n s t r u c t i o n

a ttitu d e

s c a l e t h a n t h o s e who h a d

or c o u n se llin g .

I f th e

e x p e rie n c e d speech and p s y c h o lo g ic a l c l i n i c i a n s v e r y lo w s e o r e s .

to have

sc a le

w ere v a l i d ,

sh o u ld a c h ie v e

A g ro u p o f t r a i n e d c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g is ts : and

p s y c h o a n a lis t s m ig h t be e x p e c te d t o a c h ie v e

a " p e rfe c t” or " id e a l”

s c o r e , w h ile l e s s e x p e r i e n c e d c l i n i c i a n s m ig h t a c h ie v e a v e r y fa v o ra b le

sco re.

T he o r i g i n a l g r o u p o f 1 7 2 c a s e s s t u d i e d t h i s h y p o th e s is .

A c o m p a riso n o f th e

S p e e ch and H e a rin g c l a s s w i t h th o s e c la s s and th e T a b le I I I *

of t h e P h y s i o l o g i c a l P sy c h o lo g y

lo w e r s c o r e s ,

is p re se n te d

in

c l a s s t h a t h a d h a d m o re t h a n a

h a l f se m e ste r o f s p e c ia l i n s t r u c t i o n sig n ific a n tly

s c o r e s on t h e P s y c h o lo g y o f

tw o T o i c e I m p r o v e m e n t c l a s s e s

The m e m b e rs o f t h e

ten d e d t o b e a r o u t

i n c h i l d r e n ’ s: p r o b l e m s h a d

on t h e a v e r a g e ,

th a n th e

o th e r th re e

c la ss e s. The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e la rg e ;

o t h e r t h r e e g ro u p s w ere n o t so

none o f th e m w e re s t a t i s t i c a l l y

e v a lu a te

th e p o s s ib le

advanced s tu d e n ts

s ig n ific a n t.

To f u r t h e r

d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n b e g in n in g s t u d e n t s and

(sh o w n i n t h e s e

t h r e e g r o u p s ) , tw o f u r t h e r

TABLE III COMPARISON OF FOX® STTJDENT GROUPS; SPRING SESSION , 19 4 ® G ro u p

T o ta l

1

2

3

4

5

®

?

®

P h y s . M 4 0 3 .1 9 P s y c h , (p 5 1 .6 4 N -90 5 .4 7

5 7 .2 4 6 3 .5 7 5 6 .0 1 5 7 .6 8 4 9 .1 0 5 1 .2 7 4 8 .7 6 1 9 .5 7 8 .8 6 9 .3 2 1 0 .3 7 1 0 .3 3 7 .5 7 8 .6 9 6 .5 3 3 .8 0

V o ic e Im p .I N -22

M 4 4 5 .4 6



4 6 . 6 8 5 2 . 0 9 4 5 . 9 4 4 3 . 2 9 4 0 . 4 1 4 4 . 7 9 4 4 . 6 2 1 5 .5 ® 8 .3 8 9 .1 9 9 .0 6 1 1 .0 8 6 .2 3 7 .5 8 6 .0 3 3 .3 9

VALUES OF CRITICAL RATIOS (F IS H E R 'S t ) OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MEAN TOTAL SCORES. Phys. Psych.

P h y s . Psyche V o ic e Im p el

2 .8 2

V o ic e Im p . I I

1 .5 1

V o ice Im p .I

V o ice Im p . I I

CO . C\2

G roups

1 .5 1 1 .4 4

1 .4 4

3^ 3^ jJ?

34

" u n s o p h is t ic a te d " g ro u p s w ere s tu d ie d

i n t h e Summer S e s s i o n .

T hey w ere a P u b l i c S p e a k in g C l a s s a n d a P h y s i o l o g i c a l P s y c h o lo g y c la ss .

The c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e f i v e g r o u p s a r e p r e s e n t e d

i n T ab le I T . Tha m ean t o t a l s c o r e f o r t h e f e l l b e tw e e n t h o s e c ritic a l ra tio

of th e

sum m er P u b l i c

tw o Y o i e e I m p r o v e m e n t c l a s s e s .

(F ish e r* s t )

d a ta ,

it

The

b e tw e e n T o ic e Im provem ent I I and

P u b lic S p e a k in g a p p ro a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e e v e r, fro m th e s e

S p e a k in g c l a s s

(a t th e

a p p e a re d t h a t th e

5$ l e v e l ) .

th re e

How­

b e g in n in g

sp e ec h , c l a s s e s w e re a so m ew h at h o m o g en eo u s g r o u p ; a n d t h e tw o a d v a n c e d c l a s s e s w e re a som ew hat hom ogeneous g r o u p . i n d i c a t e a p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s e

b e g in n in g s tu d e n ts ,

a n d g r o u p s o f o l d e r , m o re e x p e r i e n c e d s t u d e n t s . was n o t n e a r l y a s g r e a t a s t h e and th e

" so p h istic a te d "

T h i s w o u ld

T h is d i f f e r e n c e

d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e s e g r o u p s

stu d e n t g ro u p s.

F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s e r e l a t i v e l y

" u n so p h istic a te d "

g ro u p s w as added by s tu d y in g th r e e e d u c a tio n c la s s e s a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska in th e com pared t o t h e

summer o f 1 9 4 9 .

fiv e p re v io u s ly stu d ie d

e x p e c t t h e m ean s c o r e

on t h e

T hese, groups.: a r e

i n T ab le ¥ .

We m i g h t

g r o u p i n E d u c a t i o n 68 t o b e s i m i l a r

t o t h a t o f t h e lo w e r d i v i s i o n c l a s s e s p r e v i o u s l y s t u d i e d ; s m a ll d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e m eans b e a r t h i s T hese d i f f e r e n c e s a re n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y th e

sm a ll c r i t i c a l

ra tio s.

o u t.

s i g n i f i c a n t , a s sh o w n b y

The r e l a t i v e l y h i g h m ean s c o r e s o f

t h e E d u c a t i o n 862 and 8 89 c l a s s e s a r e e x p la in .

re la tio n sh ip

and th e

T hese s c o r e s do n o t d i f f e r

so m e w h a t m o re d i f f i c u l t t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y fro m th o s e

of

t h e f o u r l o w e r d i v i s i o n c l a s s e s ; b u t t h e y do d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y

COMPARISON GF F IT E STUDENT GROUPS

G roups Pub. Sp. N -2 8

M easures

C r i t i c a l R a tio s B e tw e e n M ean V o ic e V o ic e Im p . I .1 1

of D iffe re n c e s l o t a l S co res. Phys. Phys. Psych. P s y c h .-

M (P ^

4 4 0 .5 4 5 9 .0 7 7 .5 2

0 .3 8

1 .9 9

M