DK Visual Encyclopedia
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THE DORLING KINDERSLEY
:/f“^ A
■4
VISUAL Encyclopedia
DORLING London
●Nhw
KINDERSLEY Yo r k
●Si
uttgart
p 9
A
ADorun(;
Kindkrslky
Book
Senior I^ditor Anna Kru|^cr Senior Art Editor (Jillian Shaw Section Editors
Sue (^opscy, Marie (ireenwood, Fran K. Jones, James Bickford FMitors
lluw Clough, (Fircy Denton, Deborah Murrell US Editor Jill Hamilton Art Editors
Shirley Cjwillym. Rebecca Johns, Floyd Sayers, Dominic Zwemmer Desii^ners \\'aync Holder, Marcus James, Joanna Pocock, Wilfrid Wood DTP Designers Mathew Birch, (Firol 'Fitchener, Noel Barnes
Picture Manager Forna Ainger
Research and Editorial Assistance
Alex'Finley, Feo Vita-Fin/,i, Fim Hetherington, (dies Portman, Deslie Fawrence Production (Fitherine Semark, Samantha Farmour j
Deputy Editorial Director Sophie Mitchell Deputy Art Director Miranda Kennedy Models in Human Body section are original SOMSO models
l-'irst American Kdition, 1995 246H 109 75 31
Puhlished in the Inited Stares hy Dorling Kindersley Piihlishing, Inc., 95 Madison Avenue New ^’ork. New ’i’ork 10016
(a>pyriglu ©1995 Dorling Kindersley Fimiced, Fondon All rights reserxed under International and Pan-American (Copyright (a>n\entions. No part of this puhlication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in (ireat Britain by Dorling Kindersley Fimited. Distributed by Houghton Mif in Ca)mpany, Boston Library ofLongress Oaculoging-in-Pul^licarioti Data The Dorling Kiiulerslcy \isiial cncyclopcilia P-
c
m
.
Includes index. I.SBN 1-5645H-98.S-4
1. Children's cTteydopcdias and diecionaries. A(;5.D72 n31--dc2()
1994 94-4.S7S.S
fl
Reproduced by Coloursean. Singapore Printed and bound in Italy by New Interlitho
Consultants U n i v e r s e
Matthew Robertson
SCIENC^E
Professor Heather Couper
Professional entomologist. Former Head Keeper, Invertebrate Hou.se,
Peter Bailes
[>ondon Zoo.
Science Museum, London.
Assoociation. International author.
Ray Rogers
Marina Benjamin
Nigel Henbest
Horticulturist and gardening editor.
Science writer and journalist.
Television and radio broadcaster. Past
president of the British Astronomical
Jack Challoner
International writer and science
broadcaster. Past consultant. Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Science and Engineering Research Coucil. Doug Millard Associate curator. Space Technology,
Human Body
l-'ormcrly with the Education Unit,
D r. S a r a h B r e w e r
Science Museum, l^ondon. Science author.
General practitioner and medical author. Dr. Thaddeus M. Yablonsky
Eryl Davies Science and technology writer and
Physician and medical consultant.
consultant.
Kimi Hosoume
Science Museum, London.
Beliefs, Cus'poms, and Society
Mathematics and science educator,
E a r t h
W. O w e n C o l e
Maurice Crewe
Lawrence Hall, University of California at Berkeley.
Fellow, Royal Meteorological Society. Gaily Hall Museum geologist. Mineralogy Department, Natural History
Lecturer and writer in religious studies. John Gray Fellow in Politics, Jesus College, University of Oxford. John Keyworth
Museum, London.
Curator, Museum of the Bank
Donna Rispoli Ecology and energy consultant. Bob Symes Associate keeper, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History
of England.
Museum, London.
Lecturer in Anthropology; F'ellow ,St. John’s College, University of Cambridge.
B a r b a r a Ta y l o r Internationally acclaimed science and natural history writer. Wa r r e n Ya s s o Professor of Natural Sciences, 'I'eachers
College, Columbia University. I'extbook author.
Living
World
Keith Banister Government consultant on
sheries,
broadcaster, writer. David Burnie
Zoologist, biologist, and internationally acclaimed writer of science and nature books.
Barry Clarke Curator, Amphibians, Natural History Museum, London.
Joseph DiCostanzo Researcher, Great Gull Island Project, American Museum of Natural History. Past president, Linnaean Society of
James Nicholson
Carole Stott
Former curator of Astronomy, Greenwich Royal Observatory, London. Science author.
Transportation, COMMUNICA'I'IONS, AND
Financial journalist, Guard'uin
I n d u s t r y
newspaper.
Christine Heap Curator, National Railway Museum, York, England. Eric Kentley
Helen Watson
C u r a t o r, N a t i o n a l M a r i t i m e M u s e u m ,
Arts and the Media
London.
Christopher Cook Documentary lm maker and arts presenter for BBC Radio. Film advisor. National Gallery, London.
Bob
Alistair Niven
Senior curator. Aeronautics, Science
L i t e r a t u r e D i r e c t o r, A r t s C o u n c i l o f
Museum, London.
England Brigid Pepin Lecturer Art History and Architecture, University of North London. Penelope Vita-Finzi Former lecturer, English Literature and Theatre, Thames Valley University,
Lynda Springate, Anice Collette,
England.
McWilliam
Senior curator. Civil Engineering, Science Museum, London, Andrew Nahum
Marie Tieche Curators, National Motor Museum,
Beaulieu, England. International
World
Dorling Kindersley Cartography in conjunction with leading cartographic
Rodney Wilson Film, Video, and Broadcasting Director, Arts Council of England. Ann Wingate Independent lm producer, including
consultants, embassies, and consulates.
Howards End
t o E d w a r d K e n n e d y.
H i s t o r y
Brian Dooley Political journalist. Former Senate aide Margaret Mulvihill
Yo r k .
Theresa Greenaway Botanist and natural history author. Miranda Macquitty Zoologist and best-selling natural
Sports
H i s t o r i a n a n d w r i t e r.
Norman Barrett
Philip Wilkinson
Sports writer and consultant.
H i s t o r i a n a n d w r i t e r.
David Heidenstam
Charles S.Wills
history author.
Sports writer and editor.
US History consultant.
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Collections information manager
How TO USE THIS BOOK Each i>a(;h or ooi'BLK-paok spread in The Visual Encyclopedia is aself-contained unit, carefully designed to present the maximum number of facts about its subject in the most accessible manner. Information on each page follows aclear, logical order, beginning with the main feature and most important factual topics, then moving on to records, strange comparisons, and fascinating, collectible facts.
Main feature
Focuses on the subject and provides the most important facts.
Running head -thematic Te l l s r e a d e r s w h i c h t h e m a t i c
LIVING WORid)
section they are in. Dinosaur's brains
Dinosaurs
Portrait of adinosaur
small lor their
body size.
Abrief text introduction de nes
Kidney
as some that were
their limbs out to their sides.
vertebra
Tough,
/scaly skin Claw Liver
Types of DiNOSAUTr
main subject. Kach page contains an average of 10 subject-related topics.
Caudal
Heart
N o b o d y k n o w s w h y.
the reader to suhfcaturcs within the
more
whereas reptiles crawl, or walk with Lung
smaller than acoyote. Dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago. Topic headings .. Kasy-to- ncl topic headings draw
cere
advanced than today’s reptiles. They walked \s ith their limbs directly under their body like mammals and birds,
\Ovary Trachea
animals ever to have lived on land, as we
skin. Dinosaurs. howe\’cr.
(lollimimiis
Backbone
years. They included the largest
tlie subject and proyides anumber of key facts.
Like reptiles, dinosaurs had ascaly
‘t-j
Dinosaurs domina ikd the Earth for more than 150 million
Introductio
'Ehere are two oalerstsce p.72)
●Dinosaur fossils discovered to
of dinosauj>TTicy arc classi ed
date probably represeiu less
Tlig to the arrangement of eir hipbones.
a c c o
Cloaca (body opening)
Intestine
Dinosaur facts
Dinosaurs /
7
/
Tibia
than 0.0()0I% of the individuals rluic once lived.
●The name 'Eyrannosaunis means “tyrant lizard."
Gallimimus
used their tail
alizard-hipped
tor balance.
d i n o s a u r.
Fibula / Legs extended , directly below the body, lifting
Bipedal (two-footed)
Te n d o n
dinosaurs could
the dinosaur
walk upright.
off the ground.
●The most intelligent Detailed artwork
.Stunning, full-color cutaway
h
artwork stimulates learning and provides maximum information.
.i/.iird-hippcd dinosaurs (SaiirischiLins) I) lizards. Indmics both berbivc
Dinosaur-like reptiles
dinosaurs were probably about as intelligent as chickens.
While dinosaurs roamed the land, huge reptiles
ew in the air and
●More than .xSO species of
swam in the oceans. These marine and Hying reptiles were closely
dinosaur have so far been
related to the dinosaurs.
itlentiUcd -probalMy only a
Rhampliorhviclnis
h ' I n y. m n i n
riny percentage of those that existed.
DUS (plain-caving) and
c a r n i v o mnis
(mcat-cating) species.
●Stnithioiiiinius could sprint at speciis of up to SOmph (80km/h): as fast as an ostrich. Plf-rmiiKiyl
F LY I N G K E F T I E E S
Key facts Bulleted key facts and gures give the reader the most essential facts at aglance.
Ancient ying reptiles, called pterosaurs, readied bilge sizes. 'I'licir uings were ered with skin, aiul their body
Bird-iiipped dinosaurs (Ornichi.schi )
Hips similar to birtls. All of the bird-hippeil dinosaur species were
iierbivorous.
riiesc were some of die
ercest and
uils thesea. Thev largest; breatlied air, so they bad to come to tbe surface regularh to ll tlieir lungs.
was usually furry. 'ITiey bad liglu.
These reptiles hunted sh and other
delicate bones for Hying.
sea
ere;
MAJOR D I N O S A T R
GROUPS Within
Boxed types 'Lo provide maximum information, an example of every major type of plant, animal, or object is illustrated.
two
the
orders,
dinosa
divided into
rm
ve
subgroups. There are three
siibgroiijis of ornithischians. and
two
subgroups of saiirisdiia ns.
Thyreophorans (Ornithischians) .Armorcil lierbivores: ,s of protective Studs, places, r s j i i k e s d o w n the back, c.g. Stegosaiiriis.
Thcropods (Saiirischians) Marginocephalians Mostly bipedal carniiorcs (Ornitliischians)
Ornithopods (Ornitliischians)
Sauropodomorphs (Saurisdiians). Herbivores;
witli an S-shaped neck and clawed, fmir-tocd
Ilerbivores; many with
1lerbiiores; horny beak
bony frill at back of
and liirdlikc feet. e.g.
small head, long neck, bulky body, and long tail,
feet. e.g. Tyivummiiirus.
skull, e.g. Sfyniiosiiiinis.
(ioiyl/iostiimis.
Land Joined in die superconcinent of I’angaea vird the (see p.40). IHrst tlinosaurs evolve and,
Identify types and special features and clarify complex
Melaiiorosiu
end
of die period, split i groups: li. bird-hipp
information.
c.g. Saluismirus.
.Jurassic Period: 213-144mya
Triassic Period: 248-21.3mya (million years ago)
Clear labels and annotation
l^ingaca breaks apart: .Atlantic Ocean begins to form: .Africa splits from .South .America. In late Jurassic times, huge herbivorous dinosaurs ihimirinrc life
('Awlophssi!
m
4^.
TFitN.
-k
m
SUisMuni.'
i s a u r n s
-tfs Staurikosatuns Ihynmurns
70
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HOW 'FO USK 'FHIS BOOK
MEASUREMENTS AND ABBREVIATIONS Some words and measurements
"C =degrees C.elsius
ft =foot
B.C. =before C^irist
are abbreviated, or shortened, in
°F =degrees Fahrenheit
yd =yard
A.l). =Anno Domini, after
sq mile =square mile
the birth of (ihrist
cm =centimeter
mph =miles per hour
b. =born
m
g=gram
r. =reigned
km =kilometer
kg =kilogram
d. =died
stj km =stpiare kilometer km/h =kilometers per hour
oz
in =inch
e. before adate =about
mm
The Visual Knrylopedia. 'Fhe following list explains what the abbreviations stand for:
=m
=
m
e
t
i m e t e r
e
r
enS =(>ommon\vealtli of
=ounce
1800 Dinosaur footprints
1820 Ii? Air treatment system Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) allows astronaut independent
and water for cooling
Weightlessness
movement in space. Movement
controlled by bursts of nitrogen gas from 24 small thrusters.
Kvant 2stores equipment that astronauts use when Small rockets on the
side of Mr adjust its position to keep its
Seams and seals must
orbit
be airtight to withstand the vacuum of space.
Space station Aspace station enables astronauts to live and work in sp-aee for long periods. Scienti c experiments in low gravity that are impossible on Earth can be carried out over
months or years. Space stations arc too large to put into space all at once so are assembled in pieces on separate journeys.
constant.
Solar panels. keep Mir supplied with
working outside Mir.
7arge cracks appear in the ground. .Some buildings collapse.
XWater slops out of rivers. Inderground pipes torn apart. Most buildings destroyed.
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XI Few buildings remain standing. Bridges collapse. Railroad tracks buckle. Large landslides.
VIII Dif cult to drive.
Considerable damage to buildings. Chimneys fall. Free branches break.
XII .\lmost all
constructions destroyed. Wa\ es seen on ground. Fix ers change course.
Earthquake side-effects Earthquakes on land may atten cities and towns, cause landslides and avalanches, and start
res. Earthquakes beneath the sea may cause giant waves called seismic
FIRE
L A N D S L I D E
S E I S M I C S E A W AV E
If an earthquake breaks gas mains, the slightest spark can cause huge res.
An earthquake may cause ahuge chunk
Aseismic sea wave can
of mountainside
devastation
to break away, burying ail in
when it hits ✓
cause terrible
the coast.
sea waves or tsunamis.
These can travel many miles across the ocean,
building into ahuge wall of water as they approach the coast.
Seismic sea wave
Worst earthquake DAMAGE ON RECORD
(tsunami) records
The most destructive
HIGHEST
SEISMIC
SEA
WAV E
earthquake happened in Kwanto, Japan in 1923. In nearby Tokyo, where many of
was estimated at 279ft {85m) high, almost yS as high as New York’s Statue of Liberty.
the houses were built of wood
MIsland, japan.
5It appeared on April 24, 1971, off Ishigaki
and paper, the shaking ground overturned stoves, setting the houses on
1FASTEST SEISMIC SEA WAVES ®have been recorded traveling at £approximately 560mph (900km/h), more Sthan 186mph (300km/h) faster than the
re. A re-storm then
engulfed the city. Almost 144,000 people were killed, and
Sworld water speed record of 345mph
,S75,000 homes were destroyed.
Tokyo was devastated by the 1923 earthquake (556km/h), achieved by ahydroplane.
San ANDREAS FAULT At the San Andreas Fault in
California, two plates are sliding past each other at arate of about 2in (5cm) every year.
Earthquakes and tremors happen frequently and are sometimes severe. San
Francisco is very close to the San Andreas Fault.
Worst earthquake death tolls Location
Date
Shansi, China
1556
830,000
Calcutta, India
1737
300,000
Tangshan, China
1976
255,000
Aleppo, Syria
11 3 8
230,000
856
200,000
Gansu, China
1920
200,000
Nr. Xining, China
1927
200,000
Damghan, Iran
Estimated deaths
893
150,000
Kwanto, Japan
1923
144,000
Messina, Italy
1908
70-100,000
Ardabil, Iran
Earthquake-proof BUILDINGS In earthquake-prone areas, specially designed buildings can lessen the effects of aserious earthquake. For example, a pyramidal or cone-shaped building is less likely to topple over than a ^The central btiilding with vertical walls.
r Tc o l u m n o f t h i s -7Japanese
^~pagoda helps
11SanFrancisco's
;;to absorb
k\ TransAtnerica Mi building
^earthquake shocks.
Strongest known earthquakes Location
Date
Magnitude Richter scale
Colombia
1906
8.9
Morioka, Japan
1933
8.9
Lisbon, Portugal
1755
8.75
Assam, India
1897
8.7
.S'rrrr Andreas Fault, California
Earthquake facts
Moonquakes
●Most earthquakes last less than aminute. ●Longest recorded earthquake lasted
●EartlK|uake shock wav es travel through rock at approx 16,()00mph (25,00()km/h): more than 20 times the speed of sound. Fhey slow down in sand and mud.
Most moonquakes
known earthtiuakes, but killed only 115 people due to low population density.
●.Some scientists believe animals can
●First instrument for recording
behavior includes; dogs how ling; chiekens
stirface. Moontitiakes are monitored by seismometers left by
earthtiuakes was the seismoscope, invented
eeing roosts; rats and mice leaving holes; and sh thrashing about in ponds.
four minutes. Occurred on March 27, 1964,
in Alaska. It was one of the strongest
in China in .\.l). 132.
sense an earthc|uake’s approach. Strange
■are caused by
meteorites smashing
-m J f *
'
J
into the Moon’s
.American astronauts.
St’ismowi'li'rs on llu’ Moon
.
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EARTHQUAKES
Rocks and minerals
Geological time chart Rocks are dated according to ageological timescale that divides the Earth’s history into eras, periods, and epochs.
At any poin'e on the earth’s sureace, if you dig down far enough, you will come to rock. Rocks are the building blocks of the Eiarth’s crust. 'There are many different types of rock, and they [ ¬
Era
Period
Cenozoic
Quaternary
Limi’stnm' is
Rocks
asedimf.nULty rock (see below). About 75% oj land is covered with sedimentcuy rocks.
The study of rocks is called petrology. All types of rock fall into one of three categories: igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. w m
m
Extrusive and intrusive igneous rock Igneous rock cliat erupts from a
m
/surface
\olcano onto tile E a r c l Ts s u r f a c e i s
extrusive. Igneous
cool and solidify within the
●»]
Karch’s crust. Basal! is an
Mesozoic
before it readies tlic Extrusiv
igneous rock.
I n t r u s i v e
igneous roc
igneousrock
7
S E D I . V I E N TA R V R O C K Rocks are weathered into fragments that are carried awa>- bs' water, wind,
2
Pliocene (epoch)
5
Miocene (epoch)
25
Oligocene (epoch)
38
Eocene (epoch)
55
Palaeocene (epoch)
65
Cretaceous
1 4 4
213
Triassio
248
Permian
286
Pennsylvanian
320
Mississippian
360
Devonian
408
Silurian
438
Ordovician
505
Cambrian
590
Paleozoic
m p
Granite mouulaitts in Yosemite, Californ/a: intrusive igneous rocks have been exposed by the erosion of overlying rocks.
Precambrian
4,600
The rock cycle
J'-Va,'
All rocks are constantly passing through arecycling process.
and ice. These sediments are laid
Igneous rocks are weathered away and
Wl,
down in lakes, ri\’ers, sand dunes, and on the sea
Pleistocene (epoch)
Jurassic
'
AJ'
basalt, an extrusive igneous rock.
0.01
t...
rock that solidi es surface is intrusive.
The CianTs Caivu'way in Xorlhern Ireland is formed from
Holocene (epoch)
Te r t i a r y
Earth's
IGNEOUS ROCK Igneous rock starts off deep within the Hatch as magma (molten rock). 'I'he magma rises toward the surface, where it mav erupt from avolcano, or
Million years ago
are all composed of one or more minerals %
washed into the ocean
o o r. O v e r m i l l i o n s
of years they are compressed, forming layers
Sa/i(l.slo)ir i.s a
I
sedimeuiaty rock.
ofsetl imenta r\' roc ks.
Ayns Rock Uliint) in central Australia is composed of .sandstone.
M H TA . M O R P H I C R O C K
Metamorphic rock is igneous or sedimentary rock that has been
changed by heat and/or pre.ssure. Heat may come from rising magma, and pressure mav
Mineral particles
Heat from molten rock Rock may melt and rise to the sink to the sea oor changes surrounding
occur when rock is s(]ueezc(.i during mountain building.
Gneiss is ametamorphic rock.
Minerals Amineral is anatural, non-li\ ing substance. Examples include gold, silver, gypsum, c|uartz,
This landscape in northwest Scotland is formed from gneiss. ORH MINERALS Ore minerals contain metals, and about 80 types of pure metal are e.xmictcd from them.
where they are compacted into sedimentary rock.
igneous rock.
Agood conductor, widely used in the
common metal, \used in batteries and engineering.
y-ji-
it cools to form
Chopper
The softest
.A light, strong metal
surface where
sedimentary and igneous rock into metamorphic rock.
Lead
Titanium
a n d s u l f u r.
e l e c t r i c i t v i n d u s t r v.
used in aircraft manufaeture.
rock-eor.mint; .minerals Different combinations of minerals Untile
form different tvpcs of rock. Quartz
-
(
titanium ore
Granite is composed (>! the minerals ffnartz, pddspar.
e
and the manufacture of consumer g( Bauxite aluminum ore
seicnritle
TA J
tlie manufacture of
< r ra.
Ilemalilr irnn
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k
e
manufaeture of steel.
in
nstruments, and in drugs and pesticides.
46 fl
Mercury 'Ised
and in the
saucepans. \lnminnm
'Gopper pipe
1'sed in eonstmetion, .jj*|
i
)ds, c.g.
Mica
fi
C.halfopsrite copper ore I r o n
IAcd in construction,
Feldspar
1
ilena -
lead ore
r
A l u m i n u m
anil mica.
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EARTH
ore
-
Sl inle.'i.s \lrel fork
(■i n n a h a r mere/iiy
-
ore
Mereiny thermometer
'
Crystals
m
t
Mineral
\ ■ .
f
Crystals grow from
HARDNESS
molten minerals, or minerals that are
K-
2J ■.^■^.,Ty.yB^Aziirile forms in regions of
Rofk
Wcryslal -
dissolved in liquids, such as water. Eightyve percent of the
one form of (funrlz
The hardness of amineral is
. V ■' S u l f u r forms brighl
”copper (Uposits.
melall/r
yellow nysUiLs.
Azurite
Sulfur
Pyrile
Earth’s rocks and
Hardness: 7
Hardness: 3.5
Hardness: 1..5-2.5
Ihardness: 6.5
minerals are formed
System: hcxagonal/trigonal System: monoclinic One of the most common bright blue mineral once used as a minerals. Most popular material for crystal balls. pigment (coloring).
System: orthorhombic
System: cubic
Forms around volcano
.Sometimes mistaken for
materials.
graded on ascale of 1to 10,
Quartz
from crystalline
devised by (ierman
eraters. Referred to in the S^)ld, hence its popular Bible as “brimstone.” name “fool’s gold.”
mineralogist Friedrich Mohs
(1773-1839). MOHS’ SCALF
C R Y S TA L SYSTEMS
The geometrical shape in which a mineral crystallizes is called its crystal system. 'Fhere are six main systems.
Cubic
Examples: diamond, galena,
Te t r a g o n a l Examples: zircon, rutile,
garnet
vcsLivianite
Gemstones
Hexagonal/ trigonal Examples: corundum, beryl
,Diamond
Monoclinic
Triclinic
Examples: sulfur, olivine,
Examples: malachite,
topaz
gypsum
Examples: rhodonite, kyanitc, turquoise
ORGANIC
■
o
minerals valued for
their beauty, rarity, and durability.
Orthorhombic
Ruby
Gemstones are
..
GEMSTONES
a
t ●
i
Jr-
types of gemstone. Diamond
Ruby-
Ivmerakl
include diamonds,
Hardness: 10 .System: cubic
Hardness: 9
Ilardncss: 7-8
System: hexagonal System: trigonal Sources include: Russia, Sources include: S.Africa, Sources include: India, Australia, Brazil, Russia 'Ehailand. Burma, Sri Lanka IS, Zambia, (A)loiTibia
and sapphires.
2: Gypsum
fossilized resin of
Emerald
The most valuable
emeralds, rubies,
1 : Ta l c
Organic gemstones are those that have aplant or animal origin. B'hey include pearls, shell, jet, and amber. Amber is Ihe
%
'There are about 100
3: Calcile
BIRTHSTONES
Some gemstones are Januaty
associated with
February Amelhyst
Carnet
different months of
-i-Si;
Marc A Aquamarin
p
r
i
i l Diamond
the year. The custom of wearing birthstones
ply
became popular in the 18th century.
Ruby
Giant gems The largest diamond was the Cullinan, found in South
Africa in 1905. It weighed the same as an average pineapple.
Au^st
HB September
Peridot
Q
October
Sapphire
Opal
\ovemher
Topaz
weighed 3,106 carats (1lb6oz/0.6kg).
of Tao-tze, found in the Philippines in 1934 in the shell of agiant clam. It
weighs about the same as a
Lao-tze, weighs
Afour-month-
old baby
f
December
Turquoise
M I N E R A L FA C T S ●More than half the
the same element -carbon -but their hardness varies because of their different internal structures.
gold mined returns to
Diamontl
bank vaults.
Earth: it is buried in
%
the hardest of all
●The word crystal
minerals. Kaeh atom
conies from the Greek
"%
y-%
Arrangement of
ring
diamond atoms
that had frozen so hard
( j i Ti p h i t e In graphite,
Graphite is
the atoms arc
pencil lead.
it would ne\ cr thaw .
*9
used in
●.About one in ev ery thousand oysters and
arranged in layers that easily slip over
weak striictiire.
Q 8: Topaz
one In every three
e a c h o t h e r. ' T h i s
gi\ es graphite its
6: Orthoclase
kyj'os, meaning ic\ cold. It was once thought that rock crystal was ice
Y«
Diamond
thousand mussels
Arrangement of graphite atoms ●-
contains apearl.
f o u r - m o n t h - o l d b a b v. The Pearl of
Pearl
Rock and
Apineapple
'The largest pearl is the Pearl
fata'
Emerald
Amineral’s hardness depends on the arrangement of its atoms. Diamond and graphite are different forms of
is strongly bondctl to four others, forming a compact, rigid strueturc.
The Cullinan diamond
May
Mineral structure
Diamonds arc
Carats and beans
141b loz
'The weight of agemstone is
(6.37kg).
measured in carats: one carat =
O.OOboz (0.2g). 'The term carat comes from the Greek word for carob seed. 'These seeds
were once used as weights.
Carob seed
1-carat -
ruby
The purity of gold is also measured in
carats: the purest gold is 24 carat. This gold bar is 23.5 carats.
I
9: Corundum
♦
10: Diamond
e
47 h
fi
~
fi
ROCKS AND MINERALS
EARTH
Ocean T'he ocean
oor is the largest
oceans are mountains as high as the Himalayas, arugged mountain range that circles the Eiarth, vast plains, deep canyons, and trenches plunging thousands of yards into the lithosphere. Most of this fascinating landscape is still unexplored.
Va s t u n d e r s e a
mountain ranges form where two tectonic
plates are pulling apart. T
^.7
Kuril Trench
Reykjanes Ridge _
I
Izu-Ogasawara Trench Mariana Trench
the Ocean
Smokers
Paci c ^i. Ocean
__ New Britain
Smokers are tall, chimneylike vents on the ocean
Pue^o Rico
c'^nch
Deepest point in
Yap Trench
oor that belch out clouds of
Atlantic
super-heated water. They occur at volcanically active spots on mid¬ ocean ridges. Heated water
'i*
A.merica
. T r e n c h
1
\
/
i^lorth New /
P a c i
Hebrides Trench
Ocean
^^outhwest —
-;:,y\Tonga Trench Submarine Yr \Kermadec Trench
\Deepest
Southeast
T^^ian Ridge j
c
Indian Ridge
Canyon
Highest Seamount
,:!N
erupts in tall jets O'
V
Temperature of
Life
heated water
Smokers support strange life forms that derive energy not from the Sun,
,"Chimneys” up to
164ft(50m)high build up from minerals deposited by the hot water.
Smokers were discovered in 1977 ■ r
by the American
around
smokers
may be up to 662°F (350“C)
like other life forms
Deepest trenches 'I'he depth of deep-sea trenches is measured from sea \cxe\. Depth
Trench
Ocean
M a r i a n a Tr e n c h
meters
feet
West Paci c
10,920
35,827
oil Earth, but from v ' o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y.
Tonga Trench
South Paci c
10,800
35,433
Water seeps deep
Philippine Trench
West Paci c
10,057
32,995
Kermadec Trench
South Paci c
10,047
32,963
Izu-Ogasawara Trench
West Paci c
9,780
32,087
K u r i l Tr e n c h
West Paci c
9,550
31,332
N o r t h N e w H e b r i d e s Tr e n c h
South Paci c
9,175
30,102
N e w B r i t a i n Tr e n c h
South Paci c
8,940
29,331
P u e r t o R i c o Tr e n c h
West Atlantic
8,605
28,232
Yap Trench
West Paci c
8,527
27,976
submersible “Alvin.” Tube worms Heated water
down into the sea
rises back to the
oor where it is
surface of the ocean o o r.
heated by volcanic activity.
I T;
Clams
Features of the ocean
oor
'I’he ocean oor is where the lithosphere is created and destroyed. X'olcanic acti\ ity associated with mid-occan ridg;cs and subdtiction /.ones (see pp.40—H) creates many ocean oor features.
SUBMARINE CANYON vSediments deposited by a river owing into the sea
S E A M O U N T
to erode acanyon in the
ABYSSAL PLAIN Vast plains formed from a deep layer of sediment lie approximately 1l,480-18,040ft (3,500-5,500m) below
ocean
sea level.
surrounding plain.
form acurrent that helps o o r.
Aseamount is an underwater volcano that
rises 3,280ft (1,000m) or more above the
Oil rig Mid-ocean ridges
Submarine canyon
4""
are about 620 miles
Abyssal plain
(1,000km) wide. ,
Seamount
As two tectonic plates pull apart, magma rises to ll the gap, forming HRW
/
/
/
on
n
'4’
Continental shelf /
/
Continental slope / /
Continental rise /
C O N T I N E N TA L S H E L F
C O N T I N E N TA L
'Fhc continental shelf is
the gently sloping rim
'Fhc continental slope descends steeply from the
of acontinent.
continental shelf to the
Beyond the steep continental slope tiicrc may be agentler slope called the
abyssal plain.
continental rise.
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/
'I'he major features'of the ocean oor form at the boundaries of the plates that make up the Earth’s crust (see pp.40-41). Mid-ocean ridges form where two plates are pulling apart, and trenches form at subduction zones, where one plate is plunging beneath another.
landscape on Earth. Beneath the
T .
fl
Major ridges and trenches
oor
SLOPE
C O N T I N F N TA L
RISF
MID-OCEAN
Along, range ridge, plates
RIDGE
undersea runs along wlicre two are pulling
mountain the mid-oecan tectonic apart.
v;
S>-
OCEAN FLOOR
Ocean
Found on the ocean
oor sediment
Close to the coast, sediment consists mainly of mud. sand, and silt washed off the land by rivers. 'Lire deep ocean oor is blanketed with ooze, the remains of dead marine plants and animals. The amount of sediment and ooze can help scientists calculate the age of the ocean oor.
oor
Many useful products are found on or under the ocean oor. 'They include diamonds, oil, gas, coal, sand, and metals from manganese nodules.
m
DI.4MONDS 'These are found
SAND, GRAVEL,
m
,»«|&AND
LIMESTONE
in shallow
'Fhese are found in
waters off the coasts of Africa
coastal waters.
and Indonesia.
NewK'
formed rock 5million years later .\t the mid-ocean ridge, 'Fhe rock has moved the new volcanic rock of 311 miles (500km) from the the ocean oor is almost ridge. Sediment has started free of sediment. to gather in hollows.
C O A L
OIL
Coal is mined beneath the
About 20% of oil comes from the
sea as well as
ocean
on land.
Natural gas is
10 million years later
covered with athick blanket of sediment.
Mapping the
Formation of oil and gas Under certain conditions, oil and gas form from the remains of dead plants and animals that accumulate on the oor of shallow seas. sedimentary sreyal
layer of
Sandstone
sandstone
sa G
i t s t r a n s m i t t e r.
Organic
oor Sea
Oil
remains
Water The time taken
for the signal to bounce back to
the ship indicates the depth of
to the very depths of the ocean.
A®''.
the ocean.
1Dead plant and animal 2Sediments of sand
3Increased pressure
remains sink down to the and mud washed off
from further layers of
door of the continental
sandstone and other
shelf. Bacteria break the remains down into
organic material.
oor facts
●Aparticle of ooze sinks
●T'he Mariana trench cotdd
l-lOft (O..V3m) per day. Ac this
hold 28 Empire State Buildings standing on top of each other.
rate, it would take 25 years for the
●Oldest parts of the ocean oor are about 200 million years
remains of adead
shrimp to sink
old. Oldest rocks on land are
from the ocean ^ surface to the
Further
Mud and sand form
organisms
—The ship sehds down asignal from
submersibles -that can descend
Ocean
about .3.5 billion years old.
oor
of adeep-sea trench.
●At agrowth rate of about 0.08in (2mm) every million years, it
●The tube worm AhineUa
pompejana can live on smoker walls where the temperature is 221°E (1()5°C) -higher than any
takes 10 million
land animal can tolerate.
reach the size of agrape.
manganese nodule to
Oil tanker
Highest
On
SEAMOUNT
29,028ft
AND DEEPEST SUBMARINE CANYON 'I'he highest
sedimentary rock turns the organic remains into oil and gas.
land
Beneath the sea
Mt. Everest
(8,848ml
Highest seamount 28,560ft (8,705m)
Grand Canyon 5,499ft (1,676m)
Deepest submarine canyon 5,906ft (1,800m)
seamount is near
the 'Longa 'Lrcnch between Samoa and New Zealand. The
deepest submarine canyon is 25 miles (40km) south of
years for a
the land by rivers form layers of sandstone, covering the organic remains.
Esperance, Australia.
Deep-sea trenches are about 62 miles (lOOkm) wide. They may
Island arc l
be thousands of kilometers long.
Depth m(ft) Sea level
i'
1,000 (3,280) \
2,000 (6,560) 3,000 (9,840)
/
4,000(13,120) 5,000(16,400)
G U Y O T
T R E N C H
.A guyoc is a at-topped
Acurved line of volcanic Adeep trough may form at a SLibduction zone, where one plate islands, called an island arc. plunges beneath another. Ocean oor often forms close to a subduction zone. is destroyed at subduction zones.
seamount that once rose above the surface of the ocean as a volcanic island.
ISLAND
ARC
One plate is plunging
6,000 (19,690)
beneath the other, forming a deep trench.
7,000 (22,970) 8,000 (26,250) 9,000 (29,530)
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o o r.
deposits.
Remains of dead marine
ocean FLOOR Early explorations of the ocean oor were made from ships using alead and line to estimate depth. Scientists today use echo-sounding techniques and special submarines -
GAS
found with oil
'The rock has moved
620 miles (1,000km) from the ridge. It is
AND
EARTH Baf n Island
Ellesmere 1.
fi
.
52
'3
Va l l e y s a n d c a v e s
The river valley begins high in the mountains as a
narrow gully.
The forces of erosion are constantly
attacking the land, changing its appearance. Rain ows into rivers that cut valleys into the landscape. In limestone areas, rainwater may seep into the rock, eating it away to form caves.
In the river's upper course, the valley is acharacteristic
V-shape.
ill valley \s upper course
Features of avalley stream. As it
wide, level
Ty p e s o f v a l l e y
As the river reaches the
gentler slopes of its middle course,
ows down toward lower
its rate of
ground, the river slows down and the valley widens. As it nears the sea the river
^Cross-seclion of ariver
r
Ariver valley usually begins in the mountains as asteep-sided gully cut by afast- owing
ow
slows down
The river meanders
ows across a
back and forth,
ood plain.
widening the valley.
Some rivers fan out
into
Miljord Sound, Nev> Zealand
a
FJORD
delta at their
In glaciated areas of the world, deep valleys are scoured out hy glaciers. When aglacier melts, for example at the end of an ice age, the sea level may rise, ooding the valley to form afjord.
estuary (see
pp.564s7).
The valley oor is covered in a thick carpet of sand and mud.
\Delta
Estuary (see p.56)
(see p.56)
Caves
Cross-section of alimestone cave
Caves are large, naturally occurring hollows in the ground,
Limestone
4c
T v.
>■ ●
rainwater. _
C AV E
L 4T- :
limestone areas, because this type of rock is soluble (dissolves) in rainwater.
T
plunges under- ,1 ground at a
-■' T T
|— sink hole.
away at the rock, forming acave.
Most caves occur in
SEA
^
JAsirearfr T Rainwater eats
LIMESTONE
Cross-section of ariver valley's lower course
dissolves in
in cliffs, or in ice.
I.Stalactites '
lA/aterfall
Water
^enlarges j cracks and ■f' Sjoints. African Rift Vcdley RIFT
C AV E
ICE
VA L L E Y
Rift valleys form when along, narrowblock of land sinks between two faults, at places w-here two tectonic plates are pulling apart (see pp.40—H).
Waves crashing against cliffs erode away the rocks, forming sea caves. C AV E
Ascream of meltwater
running beneath aglacier may carve out an ice cave. L AVA
C AV E
When the crust of alava ow hardens, the molten Stalagmites build up
lava beneath may How out, leaving alava ca\ e.
on the cave
/A stalactite and stalagmite have joined, forming acolumn.'
o o r.
■
Limestone cave features
Va l l e y a n d c a v e r e c o r d s
Water dripping in limestone caves leaves behind tiny amounts of calcite. These mineral deposits build up to form distinctive
LONGEST
limestone cave features. It can take from
four to four thousand years for astalactite or stalagmite to grow one inch (2.5cm). W Stalactite.
s
LONGEST
Greenland, which extends 194 miles (313km) inland.
f A
6
Fircone
^
stalagmiteA\
3', (V,
'■\Cd
GORGE
is the Grand Canyon in (349km) long and up to 5,499ft (1,676m) deep. C AV E
CHAMBER
Sarawak, Malaysia, which has an area of l,751,300sq ft (162,700sq m). 'Fhe cave chamber is 2,300ft (700m) long, and has an average width of 980ft (300m). 4'he
lowest part of the roof is 230ft (70m) high.
Plate stack stalagmite
' T '
Grand Canyon, Arizona
G AV E
GORGE
is the Mammoth Cave li s y s t e m , K e n t u c k y,
AND
CANYON
Agorge is adeep ravine with walls that arc almost vertical, Acanyon is agorge, usually with water owing through it, found in the desert. The source of its
which is 348 miles LARGEST
is the Sarawak Chamber in
Column
r
SYSTEM
is Nordvest Fjord,
LARGEST
AStalagmite
F. I O R D
Arizona, at 217 miles
Curtain stalactite
river is often outside the desert.
(560km) long. L O N G E S T S TA L A C T I T E
is 20ft 4in (6.2m) lon^ It is in the Poll an
lonana, acave in Co. Clare, Ireland. TA L L E S T S TA L A G M I T E
Valley of Kings, Egyptian desert
is 105ft (32m) tall, in the Krasnohorska cave in the Czech
Republic. Size of tallest stalagmite compared to an adult
■ y
W A D I
Awadi is anarrow, steep-.sided desert valley that is usually dry. Awadi’s characteristic shape is carved out by the ash oods that occur after torrential desert rainfall.
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VA L L E Y S A N D C AV E S
Glaciated regions
Glaciation
This map shows the areas .of
More 'ehan aien'i ii of the
0
miles
682sq
world
with
permanent snow e o v e r. ' T h e t o t a l
' :«●
\area of snow and
throughout the year. Ice sheets and sea ice blanket the polar areas, and glaciers
the
M.^00sq mjles » ~ ( 1 7 0 , 6 7 9 s q km)
h e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e i s c o v e r e d w i t h i c e
\iee is about
I6,()2(l.000sq miles
●J
ow down the
y^orni America
^0.232sqmiles
slopes of high mountain ranges.
pe.SOOsqkm)
Glaciers are found even on
/(15,6()0.000sq
.●V
r'i
K f U -
jkm): one-and-a-
STR.U.ASl.X
'half times the
j392sq miles
Hl.Q15sq km)
A.marctica
size of Europe.
£ 7
4,860,252sq miles
mountains at the equator.
(12,588,000sq km) The Antarctic ice sheet contains 90% of the world’s ice.
Formation of AN ICE CAP 2'I'hc temperature rises in blankets the land. Fresh
the blanket of ftrn b e c o m e s t h i c k e r.
Features of
moimcain.s, Alost
ow at arate of up to 7ft (2m) per day, although glaciers on steeper slopes may ow much more c|uickly. It may take thousands of years for ice to
colder or higher ground. 'Fongues of ice ll the valleys, forming glaciers.
successive winters,
rn.
AGLACIER Glaciers usually begin high in the
it to tlow down from
melt the iee. Over
layers compress the older snow beneath, turning it into an iev mass called
3Kventually the rn forms an icc cap. Gravity causes
summer, but on hi/^h ground it is not warm enough to
1Heavy winter snowfall
Headwall Firn
Freshwater
Apyramidal peak forms when amountain is attacked by glaciers from several sides.
eld
RESERVOIR
The glacier starts in an Ice-worn hollow, called
The crack between the
acirque
headwall and the rn eld is the
or
More than 7.S% of the world’s freshwater is frozen in ice
Asharp ridge called an arete forms between
come.
sheets, ice caps, and glaciers.
two glaciers.
Bergsehrund.
Ice
Crevasses are
deep cracks in the surface of
the glacier. Lateral moraine is
carried along at the side of the glacier.
Water
reach the end of a
slow-moving glacier.
Proportion of ice
The end of
About 12% of sea and 10% of
the glacier is the
land is permanently covered
snout
with ice.
Astream of meltwater
ows oui
from the snout
r
The glacier scours out rocks, forming debris called moraine.
L
Media! moraine is carried in the center
where two glaciers have joined.
Sea
L a n d
Te r m i n a l moraine
is
dumped at the snout.
When glaciers retreat, for example at the end of an ice age, they leave behind U-shaped valleys, fjords (see p..53), and deep lakes. Piles of moraine form drumlins (small hills) and moraine ridges.
Longest glaciers 'I’he glaciers listed below are the longest in each of the major glaciated regions of the world.
Ice-sculpted landscapes
Glacier
Hanging valleys open high on the sides of the
Region
Length k m
miles
Antarctica
515
320
Petermanns Glacier
Greenland
200
124
Hubbard Glacier
Alaska-Yukon, N.America
128
80
Siachen Glacier
Karakoram, Asia
7 5
47
Skeidararjokuil
Iceland
48
30
Ta s m a n G l a c i e r
New Zealand
29
18
Aletsch Gletscher
European Alps
24
1 5
Gyabrag Glacier
Himalayas
21
13
Lambert-Fisher Ice Passage
main valley.
Before glaciation: aV-shaped river valley
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EAR'I’H
After glaciation: aU-shaped river valley
Snowline
Ice ages
Temperature
The snowline is the level that di\ ides yearround snow from snow that melts during
Icc ages occur when the Karth’s average temperature becomes slightly cooler and
_17
warmer weather. The closer amountain area IS
_16 (61)
icea g e
Oce
the amount of icc increases.
to the equator, the higher the snowdine.
°C (°F) (63)
Ice "31 5 -
ag(
Scientists believe that four
15 (59)
age
14 (57) \ t
major ice ages and many
13 (55)
-V-
smaller ice advances
12 (54)
occurred during the last
Ye a r s
two million years.
800,00
600,00
400,00
2
0
0
,
0
0
0
0
ago
Most recent ice age The last ice age began about 72,000 years ago, and ended about 10,000 years ago. 'This map
Mt. Vinson, Antarctica, is covered in snow
,Huge ice sheets covered much of
North America,
shows the areas of the world that
and ice from foot to summit.
were covered with icc. 'I'he sea level was about 490ft
Europe, and
Asia.
/ a
(150m) lower than / today, because so /
c>
much water was
Mt. Kenyj which is close -
to the equator, has glaciers on its summit.
r
I
locked up in ice. \
] The land where \
N e w Yo r k n o w s t a n d s
On the equator
In the European Alps
In polar regions
the snowline lies about
the snowline lies about
the snowline lies at
Ib.OOOft (4,90()m) high.
9,()()(}ft (2,700m) high.
sea level.
\
Southern Argentina / was covered by an ice sheet.
\
New Zealand was covered
Up to 30% of the Earth’s surface
by an ice cap.
was giaciated.
An malanchc is amass of snow
and ice that suddenly crashes down amountainside. It may be
The extra weight of snow, combined .i-
up to 0.6 miles (1km) across, and can move at up to ZOOrnph (,520km/h). If atown or village lies in the path of an avalanche, houses may be attened and people killed.
with asudden rise
■if.'
\
A
in temperature, triggers an avalanche.
●,r'
mountain slope.
Sea ice Ta l l e s t i c e b e r g
temperature falls below 29°F
'Fhe tallest iceberg ever
(-1.9°C). Sea ice is never more than about 16ft (5m) thick.
●An avalanche can generate winds of up to I86mph (.5()()km/h). ●About 18,()0() Austrian and Italian soldiers
●'I’he biggest avalanches usually occur on slopes with an angle of 30° or more.
snow cover on this
The sea freezes over when its
Avalanche facts
are thought to have been killed in asingle day in 1916 by more than 100 avalanches in the Dolomites, northern Italy. Many of these avalanches were started by gun re.
Heavy snowfall adds extra weight to the
Icebergs Icebergs are large chunks of ice t h a t b r e a k o ff t h e e n d o f i c e
reported was 550ft (167m) high -taller than St. Paid’s Cathedral, London. It was
sighted off Greenland in 1958.
sheets, ice caps, and glaciers, and
oat out to sea. 'The
process of ieebergs breaking off abody of ice is called
*A;f) ' ;■jIK 'll
IS
'Pir'l'A'
i r r
a|
IIIL
calving. The rising and falling tide, together with buffeting from the waves, breaks the iceberg off the end of th _ glacier.
ecn O
Jf:/ an iceberg
Ay has broken
C
Sea ice of] the western Antarctic coast ●A
Icy records FASTEST-MOXING
\
was covered with ice. /
Avalanches
LARGES'f
M:
IClillERG
is the Quarayaq, Greenland,
recorded was more than
wInch can
(20-24m) per day.
208 miles (335km) long and 60 miles (97km) wide -an area
THICKEST
about the size of Maryland.
ow 66-79ft ICE
Only asmall proportion of an iceberg -about
Iceberg facts
12% -is visible
●.'\bout 10,000 icebergs ayear break away from the glaciers of
above the surface of the ocean. The remainder
ever recorded is 3miles (5km)
G R E AT E S T
deep, in Wilkes Land,
D E AT H S
Antarctica. 'Phis would reach
was 5,000 at Iluaras, Peru, on
over halfway up Mt. Kt ercst.
December 13 1941.
NUMBER FROM
AN
controlled by ocean currents and the wind.
The largest iceberg ever
GLACIER
away, its
^movements are
OF AVA L A N C H E
is hidden beneath the w a t e r.
western Greenland. ●Scientists estimate that the
average age of the ice in icebergs is 5.000 years.
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0
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e
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0
33 y
^
G I . A C I AT I O N
Great
Rivers
Lena R.
Bear Lake,
Ob-irtysh R.
Mackenzie R.
Huron
/Mississippi-
Yangtze R. Amazon R;
Mekong R.
). Congo R.
Titicaca
\largest lake (the \Caspian Sea) covers
■V i c t o r i a
Lake
/longest river (the Murray R,
Nile) could stretch from New ’)’ork
Antarctic
— ^
A
has no rivers
to Berlin. AnIARCI'IC.N
o r l a k e s : a l l o f i ts freshwater is frozen.
Ty p e s o f r i v e r RIVER ow all
year round. They arc usually found in temperate and tropical areas (see pp.60-61),
Features of ariver
Many rivers begin in
Ariver is abody of water that ows downhill in achannel, usually
mountain
Rainfall runs off
ranges.
the mountain
slopes into the river system.
toward the ocean. Rivers have three
sections; the upper coutse, middle course, and lower course.
where rain falls
throu hoiit the year.
' /
Tributary
The Nile: afmennial river SEASONAL
LJpper course The youn^, fa.st-tlow ing
RIVER
Sea.sonal rivers ow only during wet seasons,
have seasonal rivers that
hard rock, forming awaterfall.
The waterfall wears away
ow in the winter .season, b u t a r e d r v i n s u m m e r.
the rock and moves
Seasonal river in Crete during summer.
River water sources
slowly upstream, cutting adeep gorge.
All
Where the river
ows
down asteep slope of hard rock, it forms
0\
swirling rapids. _
^In its upper course, the river T h e To d d R i v e r i n c e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a .
RIVER
widening the meander
w a t e r. W h e r e t h e w a t e r t a b l e
(loop). Middle course
RIVER
T'he mature rixer's
cut off after
is the Murray, Australia, which is 1,609 miles (2,.S89km) long.
jgradient is
ooding
[more gentle,
forms an oxbow lake.
and its rate of
D F T TA
ow
s l o w e r. I t s n a k e s
is the Ganges and Brahmaputra ,T),000s(| miles (7,S,000sq km). t into it
In It.s old age sc,gmcnt, with almost no gradient, the rix er Rows sluggislily and drops its The river
w a t e r f a l l
estuary is where
The Angel Falls
meets salty
fresh river water
sediment load. It
frctiiiently Roods and changes eonrse.
i n Ve n e z u e l a
The wide, at oodplain is submerged
have atotal drop of ,^,212ft (979m): almost
when the river
three times as
high as the Kmpire State Building.
The river may block its own route with sediment, forcing it to split into separate streams. These fan out, forming adelta.
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a
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56
M E LT W AT E R
Many rivers ri.se (begin) in glaciated regions of the world, where they are fed by melting snow and ice.
Longest rivers
Lower course
with room to spare.
Highest
(the upper surface of the groundwater) meets the ground surface, aspring may > L ' C u r .
over the oodplain, forming meanders.
delta, which covers about
fl
ow
i n t o t h e m a i n r i v e r.
Rain soaks into the ground and is absorbed into the a(]uifer -a layer of rock that can hold
into the bank,
Ameander
fl
tributaries eventually
obstacles.
LONGEST
South Carolina would
...
i- % /
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
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s
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A
I
ower.
1Each pollen grain wliich grows toward
2I’wo male gametes (reproductive cells) from the pollen grain
3I'he embryo plant and the endosperm (food store) develop
t h e o v a r v.
enter the ovule.
inside the seed.
sends out atube, Bee picks up pollen from anthers.
endosperm,y'/
A
Pollen slicks to
stigma of Peduncle
nuclei to form
form embryo.
up pollen and carries it to the next ower. 'I
European linden (Tilia xeuropaea)
/fuses with polar
gamete fuses
ower’s nectar picks ^
76
15.41b (7kg).
orescence
(k)mmon elder
in
owers.
●'I'he largest ower, giant raf esia (Raf esia arnoldii), grows up to 3.5ft (lOScm) across and weighs up to
%
in
GRAIN
Apollen grain
( ower stalk)
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Flower structure
Flowers
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LIVING WORLD
Leaves
Leaf structure
Midrib
Leaf textures Smooth, waxy leaves allow water to ow ofY, so they do not become waterlogged.
MOS'l' LEAVES HAVE aStalk,
petiole, and ablade, or lam Chlorophyll, apigment tha
Rhododendron - L a m i n a
leaves use in photosynthes
Hard, spiky leav es help prevent the
(see p.74), makes them gre
ower and leaf VA S C U L A R
SYSTEM
buds from being
Phlox
eaten bv animals.
T'he vascular system, made up of phloem and xylem, carries nutrients around the leaf.
Holly
VY
Hairy leaves trap alayer of air, so they do not burn in sun, or freeze in cold
S W E AT E R
frees lose water through their leaves. An average bireh
/
w e a t h e r.
●
\
tree with 200,000 leaves
can lose up to 106 gallons
Petiole
Phloem carries
sugars around the plant.
Stoma (pore
Ta n a c e h u n
(400 liters) on ahot
Needle-shaped
day -enough to
leaves offer little
ll
resistance to wind, preventing it from damaging the plant.
about 1,200 soft
through which gases ow in and out)
Xylem carries
drink cans.
water and minerals
around the plant.
('.\/)ress
Leaf records
Leaf examples
/
f.ARGEST
f K . AV K S
belong to the raf a palm {Raphia farinifem) and the Amazonian bamboo palm {Raph 'ui taedigem)gxQw\ng up to 64ft (20m) long. Hornbeam maple iAcer a/rpinifoliiwi)
Conifer" (1'a‘m'an'm cnptoinennidi’sj
Castor aralia
iKalopiiiiiix pi(ius)
Asparagus (Asparagus)
Bur
SMALLEST LlvW'ES ( owering plants) are those of a oating duekweed (Wolf a angusta). Leaves grow to about 0.2in (0.6mm) long and 0.1 in (0.3mm) wide.
Poisonous leaves
0
The leaves of many plants eontain poisons. Rhubarb leaves eontain high coneentrations
[of oxalie acid, which is particularly dangerous for people suffering
oak
Swiss cheese plant (. Monstcra deliciosa)
(Quemis
Lily family (Liliiim)
Lungwort (Rulnionaria ojftcuial'is)
rfrom rheumatism or arthritis,
kJimson weed and aconite leaves
\
macrorarpa}
can also cause sickness in humans.
Black locust
Sassafras
Blue echeveria
Black wattle acacia
Rhubarb (Rheum
(Robinia xholdth)
(Sassafras aIhid urn}
(Erheveria)
(Acacia lueanisii)
rhaponticum) leaves contain
Jimson weed (Datura Aconite (Aconilum stramonium) leaves napellus) leaves contain atropine. contain aconitine
oxalic acid.
Leaf mold
Plants, such as this bluebell, thrive in
When dead plants and leaves decay and are broken down they form topsoil, which contains nutrients essential for plant growth.
the fertile topsoil.
f
1Fallen leaves and dead plants lie on the surface. T'hey slowly decompose, forming alayer of leaf mold.
2T'iny animals, such as earthworms, eat the leaf mold, grinding it, breaking it down, and mixing it with the soil.
and ephedrine.
Leaf
raft
The leaves of the giant water lily (Victorici iiimizon 'iai) can grow up to 8ft (2.4m) across. They can support the weight of ayoung child.
3N’aluable nutrients are released in
the process, forming arich layer of topsoil in which new plants grow.
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L E AV E S
'
,●> ^
.
>
'
Tree structure Broadleaved trees, like most owering plants, have amain stern, or trunk,
£
T'rkks ark gknerally tall plants,
ft I--.
usually with asingle trunk (main stem). They are all perennial (live for
I
Leaves
__ Fruit of the oak tree is anut, called an acorn. Nuts arc hard, dry fruits with only one seed.
Buds appear in early /
Liee cycle
Atree trunk grows new layers of cells outside the old layers. 'I’rees grow (|uickly in favorable
called catkins.
owers, fruits,
and seeds
Seed grows into sapling (young tree).
e a c h y e a r. Seed falls on
fertile ground.
Fruit protects
Inside the trunk
spring. T’hcy will soon ^row into owers
Once atree is mature, it can
produce
leaves, owers, fruits, and seeds.
X
many years), and most are broadleaved plants, which bear owers.
English oak (Quercus rohtir) in spring and
conditions, and slower in less
favorable ones, forming visible rings in the trunk. Heartwood consists of dead cells, containing
a u t u m n
seed.
chemicals such as tannins or Roots
resins, which produce rich, Heartwood deep colors.
Fertilized owers
produce fruits.
Flower buds
ROOTS
appear on mature tree.
Atree’s roots take up water from the soil. 'The va.scular system
Sapwood
(see p.77) transports the water around the tree.
Ty p e s o f t r e e
\
One year’s growth ring
/
B R O A D L E AV E D T R E E S
N E E D L E - L E AV E D
'There are many thousands of species
'The group called needle-
'i'he palm fainilv
of hroadleaved trees. Most are
leaved trees includes
contains about
deciduous (shed
pines,
2,800 species.
their leaves
'There are over
Palms have
seasonally). ^
500 species of needle-
only one growing point, called the apical
TREES
rs, and yews.
leaved trees, most of which are evergreen.
41
PA L M
TREES
hud. If this is
damaged, the tree dies.
Waterproof layer of
cor
Bark
S|
/
1
Hardwoods and SOFTWOODS Broad leaved trees are ' sometimes referred to as
hardwoods, and conifers as softwoods. However, some Most hroadleaved trees, as their name suggests, l
have broad,
Many conifers have needle-shaped leaves, hut some arc strap¬ shaped, or even oval.
Palm trees have this
Most needle-leaved
Palm trees, like hroadleaved trees, are owering plants.
name because the leaves arc often
shaped like ahand.
conifers, such as Douglas r and yew, produce harder wood than many broadicaved trees. Balsa, the softest of all, is abroadleaf.
at leaves.
fe..
All the trees in this
i
group are angiosperms ( owering plants).
trees hear seeds in woodv cones.
Fine is aso wood. Its Limber is soft and open-grained.
Trees around the world 'I'rccs grow wherever there are at least Sin (200mm) of rain each year, and a temperature of at least .S()°F (10°C) in s u m m e r. T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t m e t i n
the white areas on the map. In the Arctic tundra, in Antarctica, or on very high mountaintops, no trees grow. MaI' kkv Boreal forest
Tropica
(conifers)
rainforest
M a n g r o v e s
(broadleaved)
Te m p e r a t e
Limited
Tropical dry
Limit of
forest
forest
forest
palm trees
(mixed)
c o v e r
(deciduous)
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l
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78 k
fl
-
Trees
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IJVING WORLD
Walnnt is a hardwood with a d i s t i n c t i v e c o l o r.
'I'REES
Leaf
fall
Bark
Tree records
Atree’s bark consists of dead cells, which protect the living cells of the sapwood. As the tree grows, the outer layer of bark splits and is replaced by anew layer. Sometimes many layers are visible at the same time.
TA L L E S T L I V I N G T R E E
In harsh conditions, leaves
is acoast redwood (Sequoia sewpeivireiis) in Redwood
do not photosynthesize properly,
National Park, California.
be replaced if the ground is dry
It is36.Sft(II1.25m) tall, ^ about the same as an a
or frozen. So atree withdraws
Apollo space rocket. *
leaves, and then sheds them.
Younger, pinkish layer shows
Lenticels (cell areas}
beneath peeling outer layer.
allow the tree to breathe.
Height ft(m) 365 (111.25)
and water lost from them cannot
:hc useful substances from its
OLDEST KNOWN TREE, J abristlecone pin ^ (Pintis (ongaeva) i
^
Nevada, was over
,S,100 years old. M O S T D R O U G H TR E S I S TA N T T R E E ,
the baobab (Mansouia T'he paper birch iHetuld papytifera) has avery pale bark.
fUgjtata) of Africa, can store up to ,35,900 gallons
River birch (Belula
This cherry tree (Prunm serrula) has adark, glossy bark.
(1,56,000 liters) of water in
ni^ra) Ivas bark that peels in aky layers.
its swollen trunk.
Deciduous forest in autumn, Nno England
Autumn colors
Tree facts ●The Bishop pine (Piuus muricata) can reproduce only
●l.,5 cubic yards (1 cubic-
after aforest re. It needs the heat of the re to crack
2,2711b (1,0.50kg). The same volume of balsa weighs only 2,541b (160kg).
open its cones.
meter) of dried ebonv weighs
●Mangroves are the only trees that can grow in salty water. 'I'hey have special roots that help them take in oxygen.
(Sequoia se?iipe/vireus) grow up to 25ft (7.6m) across.
carotenoids and
remove the tree. ! r - "
k
W n
I
A d u l t
human.
6ft (l.Sm)
(3 m)
(7.5m)
Birch
(Betula),
30ft (9m)
B A R K Cinnamon from the bark of the cinnamon {Cinnanwmum
zeylaninim). Cork from the bark of
the cork oak (Quercus super). (Acer
pseii oplatanus)
t'lirnitiirc.
for violins.
PI
LE
PRODUCTS
Paper i,s made from the pulp of many kinds of trees. Pulp is used for paper prodticts such as paper towels, tissues, and books. FIBER
PRODUCTS
Rayon fabric is made from cellulose using wood bers from many species of trees.
Ebon> (Diospyros) for carving
PRODUCTS
Kapok stuf ng is made from the hairs char cover the seeds of the kapok or silk-cotton tree (CrihapetilnnHra).
they are dead. They may remain on the tree for many months. Alayer of
work.
abscission layer, develops as the leaf changes color, forming at the base of the leaf stalk.
'Phis layer causes the leaf to fall.
Amaple leaf as if dies, changes color dramatically.
SAP
Maple syrup from the sap of the sugar maple (Acer sacduirinn).
Endangered timber trees Scienti c name Abies
Chewing gum from the sap of the sapodilla tree (Muiiilkura zapolaj. Tu r p e n t i n e f r o m the sap of the longleaf pine (Pituts palnstris). Amber fossilized
SEED
Douglas r (P.scudoisuga), 40ft (I'2.2m)
cells, called the
WOOD
Poplar (Popuhis) for buildings (some countries).
anthocyanins, from sugars in the leaves, give them their wide range of color. Many leaves are brown because
Oah jnnipfn(lunipcrus), (Qucrcus), 10ft 25//
Common uses of trees
for
arrives.
Other color
as they age, turning from yellow through orange to red. Both
It is sometimes easier to cut
(Quercus)
autumn
Carotenoids'darken
trees after 1.5 years.
through the trunk than to
Maple
break down when
carotenoids, now show through.
'frees grow at different rates. Below and right are the heights of some
Californian redwoods
rst
pigments, such as
Growth rates
Trunk road
Chlorophyll is the leaf pigment to
resin from conifer trees that are now extinct.
Common name
(Fir)
Location North and Central America
guatemalensis Aniba duckei
Bois de rose
South America
Dalbergia nigra
Bahia
South America
Hopea
(Dipterocarp family)
Southeast India
(Nettle family)
Central America
(Dipterocarp family)
Sumatra
erosa
Rousselia erratica Va t i c a
soepadmoi
rosewood
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79
Fruit The fruit is the part of a/A
Many itpes of plant are important food sources for humans. They include fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, and cereals.
ower that develops to£/
Pedicel ( ower stalk)
\
S T- ' '
Carpel (section
. S
of fruit
contain the seed or
containing vesicles)
seeds. Fruits can be
--
r
succulent or dry. Succulent fruits, such
Fruits form an important part of the human diet. 'Phere i
s
a
Seed
Endocarp (inner layer of pericarp)
as lemons, are eshy and brightly colored.
Fruit examples
■
Exocarp (outer
layerofpericarp)
Pericarp (fruit wall) y
huge variety of wild and cultivated fruits, some of which are
Mesocarp (middle layer of pericarp)
Vesicle (juice sac) /
shown beloc\'. Lemon {Citrus Union)
Hemains of style (see p.76)
T E M P E R AT E N U T S
Peduncle
Nuts arc atype of dry fruit. 'I'hcy have ahard
(in orescence stalk) Remains of stigma [see p,76)
wall around their seed Remains of male
Remains of style (see p.76)
in orescence
Apple {Mall/S domestica)
Cherry
Strawberry {Fragarid)
{Primus uvium)
(see p.76) Woody pericarp (fruit wall)
Spiky cupule A (husk around fruit)
TROPICAL
Sweet chestnut {Castanea sativa) SEEDS
I
I'Lieh fruit contains one or more seeds that will
Hilum (point of attachment to ovary)
germinate and grow into new plants if conditions arc suitable. Some types of fruit, such as cherries and peaches, contain just one Papaya
D u r i a n
Star fruit
{Carica papaya)
{Durio zihethiuns)
{Averrhoa caranibola)
Testa (seed coat) ,
seed. Other fruits, such as strawberries and apples, contain several seeds.
Lemon seed
Development development of ahlackben-y Uiiihiis fruticosus)
N U T S
OF AFRUIT Aplant’s fruit begins
Ovaries begin to swell: s t a m e n s w i t h e r.
to form after fertilization has taken
place (sec p.76). Walnut
Brazil
{Jug/aus regia)
{BerthoUetia exceha)
{Corylus aveUaua)
Nerv York, to a
depth of 407ft '2^
LARGEST
TREE
FRUIT
comes from the jackfruit tree (Artocarpus /lererop/iylliis): it can weigh up to 11 Olb (,50kg). Csi
ve fruit Annual worldwide
consumption (tons) Bananas (Musa)
37,943,874
Oranges {Citrus sinensis)
34,010,585
[Citrullus lanatus)
21,308,658
Plantains {Musa)
19,985,304
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fl
expand and begin to change color.
Carpels mature intc
drupelets; small eshy fruil with asingle seed in each.
Fruit origins 'Phis map shows the origins of several fruits now found worldwide. K f y
9Cherries (Egypt)
Watermelons (Africa)
Peaches (China)
Strawberries (North and South America)
ANCESTORS
Lemons (India)
Passionfruit (Brazil)
The size, shape, and avor, of many food plants have been altered by selective breeding. Wild InmatOfs
{Lycoper.sicon csculcntuni) are
about llie size of *gtapes and sweeter
Watermelons
fl
eshy.
Food plant
44,750,700
Apples {Malus domestica)
80
more
Carpels continue to
coco de mer palm (l.odoicea iiialdlviai), which can weigh up to 551b (25kg).
bury Manhattan,
Fruit
and become
Drupelets ripen fully. Fruit is ready to eat.
SEED
i.s the “double coconut” of the
grape harvest would
To p
Carpels expand
Hazelnut
LARGEST
One year’s worldwide
(124m). ,
nut
Fruit records
Grape scott!
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fl
Food plants
\
y
LIVING WORLD
than cultivated tomatoes.
/ The jmmilive fnnn of acom plant (Zea mays) with its enh is much smaller than amodem corneoh.
i.
-;t.L
a , T-
.
.
Li) ■■
Vegetables
Ve g e t a b l e e x a m p l e s
'The term vegetabl
Vegetables can be leaves, stalks, owers, tubers, or shoots.
describes an edibl
Leaf
/
,
/ X
plant, or part of aplant.
L E AV E S
Some fruits, such as tomatoes
and eggplants, are also commonly called vegetables.
/ Petiole
/
(leafstalk) //
Ve g e t a b l e r e c o r d s Cabbage (Brnssica oleracea)
All of the following records arc held by Mr. Bernard Lavcry (born 19.'58) of Idanharry, Wales, UK. Mr. I^avery also holds three other world records for growing large vegetables.
Lettuce
Spinach oleracen)
{Lactuai sati^a)
S TA L K . S ■»
Asparagus {Asparagus of aualis)
LARGEST CABBAGE
Bean sprout {V 'lgna ra 'uita)
Celery {Apii/m graveolens)
Root tuber
(swollen root): the part eaten as a vegetabl t
Sweet potato {Ipomoea batatas)
weighed 1241b (36.24kg).
FLOWERS
LARGEST SQUASH
{Ciiairb'itripepo) weighed 108.11b (49.05kg). LONGEST Globe artichoke
Cauli
ower
(Cynara seolymiis)
(Brassira oleracea)
Know your onions
PA R S N I P
Broccoli
{Pasfmaca sativa) was 14..3ft
(Brassira oleracea)
(4.36m) long. LONGEST CARROT
ROOTS
was 16.9ft (5.14m) long. LARGEST
Onions, chives, garlic, and leeks all belong to the lily family. Different parts of each plant are eaten as vegetables; the bulbs of onion and garlic, the stems of leeks, and the leaves of chives.
CELERY
weighed 461b (20.89kg). Turnip {Brassira rapa)
Carrot
{Daunts rarota)
{Beta vulgaris)
Fruit and vegetable facts ●For 2,000 years the Chinese have considered lychees (l.'itchi ch'mensh) to be the nest fruits. Relays of horsemen took them
To p
LARGEST BRUSSELS SPROUT
weighed 18.21b (8.25kg).
ve vegetables Annual worldwide
Vegetable
consumption (tons)
to court, and in some districts, tax collectors
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)
63,410,656
demanded them as payment.
Cabbages (Brassica oleracea)
37,939,923
●Even the hottest chili pepper (Capsicum
Onions tpilium cepa)
28,597,608
Cucumbers/gherkins {Cucumis sativus)
17,473,076
Carrots {Daucus carota)
12,912,025
annuum) derives all its heat from no more than 0.1% of the fruit.
●There are 6,000 varieties of potato in Peru.
Fruit eaten as vegetables
Spice examples
Some foods usually regarded as vegetables are in fact fruits. Familiar examples are shown below.
Spices are strongly avored plants used in cooking.
To m a t o
Peppers (lyeopersieon esculentum) (Capsicum)
Eggplant {Solatium mehugeua)
Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo)
extracted from several fruit and
{Lawsouia iuermis). Loofahs
People use dried loofahs {Luffa ryliiirlrica), a tropical fruit, to
Herb examples Herbs are used to
avor food,
and in medicine. (Oeimum hasHieum)
Chili peppers (Capsicum auuuum)
Coriander
Cloves
Spearmint
(Syzygium aromatieum)
(Mentha spicata)
(Coriandrum sativum ]
Colossal cucumber The largest cucumber ever grown
weighed 20lb (9.1kg). 'This would have provided enough slices to make 1,137 cucumber sandwiches.
p o w d e r.
Chocolate Chocolate comes
Coffee
from the beans
produced from the ground
Coffee is
' P
{Theohroma).
(Allium porrum)
cosmetic face
of the cacao
wash in the bath.
Leeks
(Allium saUMim)
used to make
.seeds, including olives {Oka europaea).
and henna
Garlic
Basil
Face powder Finely ground walnut {Juglaus regia) shells are
Cooking oil Cooking oils arc
(.\llium cepa) (Allium schocnoprasum)
(Cinnamomum)
Many products in daily use come from fruits and vegetables. Ve g e t a b l e d y e s Dyes are made from plants such as indigo {] urUgofera)
O m o n
Cinnamon
Fruit and vegetable products
beans of the
Coffea tree.
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e
e
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81 e
fi
FOOD PLANTS
LIVING WORLD
Fungi and lichens Fungi were once classieied as plants,
but since about 1969 botanists have treated
them as aseparate kingdom. Most fungi
Fungus STRUCTURE Mushrooms and toadstools are Gills
produce and
Cap curls upward to
store spores. /T *
relea.se the
the fruiting bodies of fungi. They grow up out of the soil to spread their spores (reproductive bodies).
spores.
are immobile, like plants, but cannot make
Lichen structure
theit own food. Instead, they feed on living or dead plants or animals, dung, and other
Lichens consist of fungi living in association with algae (simple plants) or cyanobacteria, the only
organic materials.
organisms apart from plants that can photosynthesize.
Fungus examples
Soredium may develop into a new lichen
Ihere are about 65,000 known species of fungus and 20,000 lichens. Many more may be discovered.
:-T
Hyphae form the mycelium
Corfnir//i//.s
(main body) and anchor the
armillatuis
Fungal mycelium
sporophorc (fruiting body).
Life cycle
Cap curls upwards
Mature
to release spores
sporophore
Orange peel fungus
Oak maze-gill
Water-measure
(Aleur'ui
Eungi reproduce through spores,
(Daedah-a tjumina)
Earlhstar (Astrneus hygromctiinis)
which arc the equivalent of aplant’s
urantia)
Hypof^'mnia physodes
produces
^ S p o r e
seeds. The fungal mycelium spreads
germinates, and mycelium develops
underground until it meets another
mycelium of the same species. They bond together and, given the right conditions, produce afruiting body
4 Fly agaric (Amauitd miiscar ia)
that generally grows above ground.
Green wood-cup
Cdwuli/iopsh
(Chloroahorid (leruginascens)
hehola
Sporophore grows above ground level
^Mycelium spreads, meets another one, and bonds; forms sporophore
Symbiotic relationships Many fungi live in
6
close association,
or symbiotic relationships, with plants and animals. The three main
Scarlet hood
Chanterelle
Common stinkhorn
(Hygm-yhe ivcc'ineii)
(Crintiuirelliis rilmriiis) (Phallus impiidinisl
Ty p e s o f l i c h e n I'hc many species of lichen grow in ve distinct ways. Three of these are shown below.
kinds of .symbiotic relationships arc parasitic,
PA R . A . S I T I C
mutiialistie, and saprophytic.
cause galls and can e\'cn kill the plant they live on.
h'oliose
.Squamulosc
(C.lar/onia portentosa) (Hypogymuia physodes) (Cladon'ia oerkmna)
Truf
'I'ruf es (fungi that produce sporophores tindergroirnd) arc delicious. 'I’he white
found in the ciitieic, or
costs about
$3„^08 per
C,%iTi^llU$i,500 per kg).
outer layer, of some animals, such as insects.
●[lichen extracts produce orchil, the dye used for litmus paper, as well as the
is giant puft all (] .yroperdon gigantea), which
belong to Peiiidlliiim genus. They are used in blue cheeses, and the antibiotic penicillin.
can measure up
to 6.6ft (2m) in circumference.
Poisonous fungi Name
Fahy ring
●Eairy rings are formed when amycelium spreads outward. Mushrooms grow from the youngest part of the mveelium.
●Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution, and several kinds are used to indicate
Scottish tartans.
pollution levels.
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matter in the .soil.
BIGGEST FRUITING BODY
dyes once used to color
82
■Some fungi live on dead wood, animals, and other organic
Gtimxlerma (ipplaiiatum, can live for as long as fty years.
lichen facts ●Etingus cells contain a light, strong substance called chitin. Ghitin is also
truf e (TuPer magnatnm) from Italy
the presence of a fungus for their seeds to germinate.
LONGEST LIVING MUSHROOM,
Fungus and
e treat
SAPROPHYTIC
Fungus records
M O S T I M P O R TA N T F U N G I h'riitieosc
.MUTUALISTIC
Some parasitic fungi Many orchids need
Poison
Symptoms
Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria)
muscarine
Stomach pain, haiiucinations, delirium, convulsions; rarely fatal
Death cap (Amanita phalloides)
amanitine,
Nausea, liver and kidney failure, abdominal pain; can be fatal
False morel
gyromitrin
(Gyromitra escuienta)
phalloidine
Stomach pain, nausea, jaundice; can be fatal
Never eat wild mushrooms unless they have been identi ed by an expert as edible.
Cytoplasm
Protozoa
Microorganisms
I’rotozoa are neither animals nor plants. 'I'hey belong to aseparate kingdom (see p.72). Protozoa have just
^Nucleus
AMICROORGANISM IS alife-form
one cell, which carries out all the
that is usually too small for the human eye to see. The most
functions necessars' for them to
Food
live and reproduce. They live in watery environments, from damp soil and puddles, to lakes
vacuole
familiar types are protozoa, bacteria, and viruses. Some
VCell
microorganisms are harmful, but many are vital: without them, life
and oceans.
wall
Feeding
■ V -
Portrait of an amoeba
as we know it could not continue.
ow out from the body
Ty p e s o f p r o t o z o a
Many proco/.oa trap their food, which includes algae and other protozoa, by engul ng it with part of their jellylike body.
.Amoebas arc irregularly sliapcd protozoa chat crawl about on the bottom of ponds.
a ;P e u d so p i extensions that
Reproduction
I'here are more than 40,000 species of protozoa, in seven phyla (see p.72). Two phyla are shown below.
Afully grown protozoa
Most protozoa reproduce by splitting
c>4-: \
themselves in two. ^The nucleus and cytoplasm spilt into two equal halves.
Kaeh of the two halves i
then becomes asingle cell. 'This process is Ciliates
(C-iliophora) H.OOO spccic.s
called binar\
Flagellates, amoebae, opalinids (Sarcoma.stigophora) 27,000 species
{ ■■
Some bacteria
have
■
Z'
Tw o i d e n t i c a l The amoeba's
protozoa
agella.
Some types of bacteria
Food is trapped, forming a
pseudopodia surround its prey.
result
this way.
Bacteria, together with blue-green algae, belong to the Moneran kingdom. Monerans are the simplest, and probably the most ancient, forms of life on Karth. Bacteria are found everywhere, from the depths of the oceans to the upper atmosphere.
r
ssion.
Many types of bacteria also reproduce in
Bacteria
Viruses Avirus is atiny package of chemicals surrounded by aprotein coat. The many virus shapes include rod-shaped, round, and many-sided forms. I'hey are all so small (the largest are about 0.000,1mm) that they can be seen only with an electron microscope.
food vacuole.
Head
\ DNA
look hairy, ^ « = >
Collar
£>so
Arigid wall protects
In uenza virus panicles seen through av
o
s i
the
I
bacteria.
electron
Bacteriophage:
microscope.
avirus that
Vimses cause
\Cell
may be surrounded
Material stored
by aslimy capsule.
in granules
Bacteria do not have a
Athin
membrane
nucleus; their genetic material oats freely.
surrounds the
manufacturing machinery oats freely.
from the common cold to yellow fever. 7 Ta i l
HOW
cell contents.
ABACTERIOPHAGE
VIRUS BACTERIA
invades bacteria
many diseases,
The cell wall
SHAPES
according to their shape, which is spherical, rod¬ shaped. or curved.
Coccus
M U LT I P L I E S
Avirus shows no signs of life until it invades the cell of aliving organism. The bacteriophage is acomplex virus that reproduces by inv^ading bacteria cells. It is replicated at arace of 300
Bacteria arc often classi ed
liacUtus
\Tail
bers
c v e i A ' h a l f - h o u r. USEFUL sV''
BACTERIA
Bacteria arc nature’s most
important recycling agents. Thev break down dead
A
plants and animals, and
Armpit city
I
return the materials to
ObCC
the ecosystem. Most
%
i
bacteria arc harmless to
(»■ I600 million 'I'here bacteria are in about
humans. Some are vital:
l
and on ahuman body. The skin of an armpit
may be home to up to ,S16,000 per .square inch (800 bacteria per square millimeter).
without them wc could
1T'hc virus
4T’hc cel! bursts
lands on the wall
2It injects l)NA (see p.68) into
3T’hc bacterium
not digest our food.
makes copies of
of the bacterium.
the bacterium.
the virus's DNA.
open, releasing copies of the virus.
Bacteria are important in the production of many foods.
Vinegar
Microorganism facts
.iO
●It would take aciliate (protozoa) ●'I'he largest species of ve minutes to swim the protozoa ever to have lived grew to over Sin (20cm) in diameter: length of this page. ●One gram of .soil may the width of this page. It has now beeome extinct. contain over 1.SO,000 protozoa. about
Cheese
YagnrI
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MICROORGANISMS
Animals
Ty p e s o f a n i m a l INVKRTEBRATES
More ^LHAN amillion animal
About 97% of aninval species are invertebrates (have no backbone). Some of the most important phyla (see p.72) are shown here.
species have been discovered.
They have adapted to just about every habitat: some even spend their entire life inside the body
Wo r m s
Sea anemones, corals, jelly sh, hydras (Cnidaria) Ring of tentacles armed with stinging cells surrounds the mouth.
At least ten phyla, including segmented worms (Annelida) and roundworms (Nematoda).
of another animal.
Animal characteristics Animals, unlike
animals take in food
manufacture
through the
their own food, so
they have to eat other organisms. 'I'hey have many cells, can
Mollusks (Mollusca) Most have ahard shell to protect their soft body. Includes snails and slugs, .squid and octopuses, clams, mussels, and scallops.
Most
plants, cannot
Arthropods g (Arthropoda)
Star sh, sea urchins,
r\
and sea cucumbers
Jointed limbs and atough external skeleton. Includes insects, arachnid.s, and crustaceans.
(Kchinodermata) Marine: body usually made up of ve identical parts.
mouth.
ssfsc-:
V E RT E B R AT E S
Only about 3% of animal species tire vertebrates (animals with abackbone). There arcmore thtm 40.000 species, in seven classes (see p.72). Three
Most / Land-dwelling
animals
vertebrates
have
reproduce, and
breathe air
through their
can sense and
of these clas.ses are
nostrils.
sh.
respond to their
surroundings.
' ' A
Fish (Agnatha, (diondrichthyes,
Amphibians (Amphibia)
Osteichthyes). 'Three classes: jawless tlsh, sharks and rays, and
Can live both on land and in
bonv tlsh.
newts, and .salamanders.
Birds (y\ves)
Mam mals (M am malia) Teed young on milk produced in female’s body. Most have
water. Includes frogs, toads,
All animals have
Most animals
an excretory system that gets
move around at
rid of waste
some stage in
products.
their lives.
Reptiles (Reprilia)
W-
Scalv skin: most
Vertebrates have an internal
bony skeleton to support the body.
1
■■
-(V/
species lay eggs. Includes
Cov'cred with feathers. Ilave
-snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and turtles.
Skin may be covered in scales, feathers, or fur, to protect the animal and keep it warm.
Muscles enable move in search of food.
Many animals have legs to help them move ef ciently.
CJray crowned crane {Balearica regnlonim)
'I'he female tarantula wasp (Pepsls) paralyzes atarantula with her sting. She then bites off its legs to make it easier to carry-, puts it in aburrow, and lays an egg on it. When the larva hatches, it feeds off
the still-living spider. ii
f u r o r h a i r.
Animal reproduction
Animal lifespans
The main function of an animal’s life is to
Idfcspans range from afew days for some insects, to more than 200 years for agiant clam {'Irid aaw). Most mammals
Asexual reproduction Some organisms, c.g. hydras, reproduce by budding: part of the
have about the
ysame number of heartbeats
Sexual reproduction Most animals
Hin
reproduce sexually: acell from amale (a sperm) joins
detached and
female (an ovum). 'The egg grows into
form.s anew indix idual.
anew individual.
Elef)lianls and ahmos luwe asimilar number of heartbeats during their lives, but the shrew's heart beats much fasterduring its short life.
Animal facts ●Only about 0.3% of animal species arc mammals, and only
●Alarge locust swarm can eat 90,000 tons of food in aday:
about 0.7% are birds. Most creattires on Earth are insects
etiuivalent to the amount of
or
f a m i l i e s i n a v e a r.
worms.
their lifetime.
with acell from a
parent becomes
Larva’s larder
wings, abeak, and no teeth. Most species can tly.
continue its species. Some animals reproduce without mating (asexual reproduction), but most mate with apartner to produce offspring (sexual reproduction).
animals to
food eaten by 3.S,0()0 American
Animal groups Acast of hawk.s Acovert of coots
Abazaar of guillemots .A pride of lions
Feeding
Aelowder of cats
Some animals have specialized diets, while others eat almost anything. Animals have evolved different teeth to suit their diet. Mongoose skull
Gazelle skull
Moonral
skull
Aleap of leopards Asloth of bears Askulk of foxes
Monkey skull
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Alabor of moles Acrash of rhinoceroses
Carnivore
Herbivore
Insectivore
Omnivore
Ashrewdness of apes
Meat-eater; sharp
Flanc-eater:
Insect-eater; sharp, pointed teeth
Meat- and plant-eater; .sharp and at teeth
.A pod of dolphins
canine teeth
84
i t
L * ■
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LIVING WORLD
at molars
'Ll
I
Invertebrates The vaS'E majority of creatures are invertebrates -animals without a
backbone. They include insects, spiders, crabs, worms, jelly sh, and corals. Many invertebrates are tiny, but others, such as the giant squid and the Japanese spider crab, can grow to be larger than humans. Ty p e s o f i n v e r t e b r a t e
Earthworm
I N V E R T E B R AT E Invertebrates range from simple microseopic animals to eomplex, intelligent mollusks, such as octopuses.
many identical segments
Clitellum Dorsal
(saddle)
surface
Prostomium
Invertebrates do not have an internal
skeleton: their body shape is maintained either by atough, external coat, called an exoskeleton, or by body uid pressing out against the skin.
Pygidium
Earthworms are
hermaphroditic (both male and female in the Intestine
same individual).
Prostomium Mouth
Dorsal blood \
vessel
Pharynx
ganglion (simple brain)
Esophagus Circumesophageal vessel (pseudoheart) /
There are more than amillion known
.species of invertebrate, in about ,10 phyla (see p.72). Some of the largest and most important phyla are shown below; the number of species in each is approximate.
Body is formed of
Portrait of an
Cerebral
Ve n t r a l nerve cord
/
Nephridium (excretory organ)
Body shape maintained
Crop ,Gizzard (part
\of stomach)
by
Ve n t r a l b l o o d
uid
Coelom (body cavity surrounding internal organs)
vessel
[/
Gonopores
Spermatheca (reproductive organ)
\Ovary (reproductive organs)
■- r
Sea anemones, corals, jelh' sh, liydras (Cinidaria) 9,.s00 species
S p o n ff e s (I’orifera) 9,000 species
% C
Flatworms, ukes, and tapeworms (Platyhelminthcs) 15,()()0 species
Roundworms
(Nemacoda) 2(),0()0 species
Life cycle
Life cycle of ajelly sh
There is ahuge diversity of inx ertcbrate life cycles. Most species lay eggs, then many pass through several larval stages that may look very different to the adult stage. Other species hatch as miniature
Adult
Female jelly sh releases fertilized
adults. Some invertebrates, such as
larvae which settle
house ies, live for just
on the sea bed.
afew' weeks, but
others may live for many years: the giant
Ephyrae break free and become free-
swimming adults.
dam (Tr 'uiaaui) can 200 years old. Mollusks
Worms and leeches
(Mollnsca) ,S 1,000 species
(.Annelida) 18,600 spccic.s
Worm eacts
Ta p e m e a s u r e
●Roundw'orms are probably
The pork tapeworm (Taenia solium) can grow to over 2.1ft (7m) long
the most numerous
animalsonEarth.20,000^
inside the human body: as long as
1
X.
'Vi Star sh, sea urchins, and sea cucumhers
Arthropods (Arthropoda) 1,092,000 species
Larvae grow into *small polyps called scyphistoma.
At the right temperature, polyps divide into eight-armec buds called ephyrae.
live to be more than
(EchinodcrmLita) 6,000 species
four adult humans. It has as many as l,.S0() segments, each containing 80,000 tapew'orm embrv'os. Tapeworms can cause death if
species have bee
®
discovered, bu
^
scientists believe there Ni are at least .S00,000 species. ●Lip to 500 million hookworms may be found in asingle human.
thev enter the bloodstream.
Echinoderms
Arthropods
Zooplankton
Invertebrate
Echinoderms include star sh,
An echinoderm’s body is
animal kingdom, including
divided into ve parts radiating out from acentral point, and it moves using tiny, water- lled
insects, crustaceans, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, and horseshoe crabs. All arthropods ha\ eatough exoskeleton, jointed limbs, and anerve cord running the length of the body.
Plankton is made up of small invertebrates (zooplankton) and plants (phytoplankton) that drift along in w'ater currents. Zooplankton includes jelly sh
RECORDS
sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.
This huge phylum contains the largest variety of creatures in the
and the larvae of sea creatures
capillata), which |
tube feet. All echinoderms live in the sea. Slai sh are among (he slnmgesl animals for their size: they can fnize apart the shells of bivalve Eg mollusks,such
such as star sh and crabs. '/Moplankkm |1 (
LARGEST
. l E L LY F I S H
is the giant North Atlantic
if
jelly sh (Cyanea ^ grow's to more I than 6.6ft (2m) in I diameter, and I may have tentacles nearly 121.4ft (17m) long.
3
LONGEST
as scallops.
EARTHWORM
is the Mirochaetus earthworm The tiger centipede (Scolopcndra hardwickii) is the largest species of centipede. It grows to just under I2in (30cm) long.
from South Africa, which grow'S up to 19.7ft (6m) long.
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I N V E RT E B R AT E S
Mollusks
Eye
Portrait of amollusk
Te n t a c l e
divided into the head, the foot, and
Mollu.sks form the second
ahump containing the main organs.
largest group of animals on Earth.
'This hump is covered by afold of skin
They range from tiny snails to
protected by ahard slicll.
Heart
Kidney Collar
Foot
called the mantle. The body is usually Lung
Ovotestis
(reproductive organ)
ri.
Mantle
are found all over the world.
T'hey live in oceans and seas, in
Shell
A
Atypical mollusk has asoft body-
the giant squid, which grows as long as asperm whale. Mollusks
Crop Brain
Mucus
gland
Hermaphrodite duct
1'
(digestive tract),
Snails have both
fresh water, and on land.
male and female
reproductive organs Mouth
Types of
\
Stomach
MOLLUSK Oviduct
'I’here are n-iore than
.SO.OOO species of mollusk. They are
(Chitons
divided into seven
(Poiyplacophora)
classes (sec p.72).
coat-of-mail shells
Giant African Radula
land snail
(toothed tongue) Reproductive organs
500 species
Salivary gland
Life cycle marine (seadwelling a
Soleno^aslers
Monoplacopliorans
species hatch into tiny
(Aplacopliora)
(Monoplacopliora)
larvae. Othe
wormlike marine mollusk.s
deep-sea limpets 10 species
5,540 species
Anus
Excretory glanO
Life cycle of an oyster
Most mollusks
t
Egg hatches into
o
Young adult
free-swimming larva, called a trochophore
sinks to sea bed and settles in
mollu.sks, such as ^ some snails, hatch
Larva grows larger, shell develops. This stage called a veliger larva
Mollusk facts (Scapliopoda) 350 species
Bivalves
(Bivalvia) cwo-shclled mollusks
e.g. oyster, clam 8,000 species
Gastropod sS ((j-ascropoda) c.g. slug, snail, whelk 35,00{) species
Cephalopods ((-ephalopoda) squid, octopuses,
Feeding feeders, sifting tiny organisms from the water. Most other
mollusks have atoothed tongue, called aradula, which they use to scratch
suitable place
i
into miniature adults.
Tu.sk .shells
(Acluitinti)
Bivalve mollusks are fdter
lay eggs. Many
food into their mouth.
('/asr-Kp of n
snail's radula
●The giant clam {'Jni-lanu/) is the longest-
●The mucus secreted by
lived animal in the world: it can live more than
they can crawl along the edge of arazor without
200 years.
cutting themselves.
s n a i l s i s s o e ff e c t i v e t h a t
●Larger species of
●Limpets have such
octopus can measure
strong teeth on their
up to 20ft (9m) across
radula that they leave
with their tentacles
scratch marks on rocks
spread out.
when they browse.
showing rows ofras ngteelh
T/w giant dam's gills sift food froyn the water.
The gills are also used for breathing.
nautiluses, cuttle sh
600 species
To p o f t h e c l a s s -. Octopuses are intelligent
Mollusk movement
\animals and have the
-J ability to learn. An octopus
Some mollusks, such as mussehs ^
at [jondon Zoo in
anchor themselves to one place. Most
Fngland learned how to twist the lid off ajar
mollusks, however, move around in search
of food and to escape from predators.
sS
to
reach
the
crab
inside.
B I VA LV E S
Some bivalves, /. e.g. scallops. i
CEPHALOPODS
suck in water and
then expel it rapidly by clapping their two shells together. This propels them
through the water in aseries of'jerks.
Cephalopods, such as S(juid, take in water and then force it out again,
(ilross-section of asquid’s mantle
pushing themselves rapidlv backward. They also have ns which they u.se to pull themselves forward.
GASTROPODS Gastropods create awave of mii.seic contractions that runs from the rear of the foot to the front.
This wave slowly drags them along.
Slugs and snails secrete a slimy mucus that helps them to slide along. This Euglandina snail is the fastest
,
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mollusk on land.
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LIVING WORLD
ILxpanded mantle cavitytakes in water
(ilontracted mantle
cavity shoots out jet of water, propelling stjuid along
MOLLUSKS
CHANGING
SQUIRTING INK Octopuses, squid, and cuttle sh stiLiirt acloud
Defense and attack Molkisks have evolved several
unique ways of protecting
of ink at their enemies.
themselves from enemies. Many
This allows them to
escape screen. type of squirts
carnivorous (meat-eating) molkisks are also ef cient predators. STINGING
COLOR
Squid, octopuses, and ciitclcrish can change color in less than asecond to blend in with their surroundings. 'I'hey also change color to indicate their mood. Male cuttle sh turn black with
behind adark Heteroteulhis, a deep-sea stjuid, acloud of
anger; octopuses turn white with fear, and blue with rage.
luminous bacteria to
Some sea slugs eat jelly sh, and can
daz7.1c its enemy.
.swallow the
Sc iid squirting ink from its siphon
stinging cells without being stung. 'The cells
SAFETY
are then carried to
IN
SHELLS
Many molkisks, including gastropods
the slug’s back, where they protect
and bivalves, retreat into their shell if
it from enemies.
Cuttle sh with mottled brawn and while coloring
danger threatens. POISONOUS HARPOONS
Mollusk facts
(k)ne shells have H
●The ink stiiiirted by
long, barbed teeth H on their radiila
H
●The Mediterranean
cuttle sh was the
'I'hey thrust one of I
fan mussel {Pimm iiobilis)
original sepia coloring used by artists.
these into their prey like aharpoon, deliver avenomous h sting, then pull the ,
impaled victim back ^ into their mouth. ™
anchors itself to the sea
bed with strong, golden
●Several species of cone
brown threads. These
shell can kill ahuman
threads were once used to
with their sting.
make “cloth of gold.”
The same cuttle sh has turned red. It is probably signalmg to another cuttle sh.
How PEARLS FORM Mollusk shells
Some molkisks form pearls in their shells. Oyster pearls arc highly valued.
Mollusk shells are made of
layers of calcium carbonate secreted from the mantle. They form in ahuge variety of shapes, sizes, patterns, and colors.
1Atiny piece of grit ■V
West African margin shells
or aparasite lodges in the oyster’s shell, causing irritation.
V V v \
2The oyster .secretes mother-of-pearl (nacre) around the
Paci c thorny oyster
cause of irritation.
\
t \ ■
Cockle shells
\
3The pearl breaks
\
free of the shell,
n
removing the source of irritation.
i £ ;
Oyster shell
Marlinspike
Nautilus: the only
'lugn-
Rose-branch
cephalopod with atrue
m i i r e x
exUmal shell
L
I
Pearl
Elephant tusk shell
Cuban snail
land
Mollusk records LARGEST
MOLLUSK
LONGEST
SHELL
and largest invertebrate (see p.8.^), is the giant Atlantic squid (A/rhreuthis), which can grow up to 66ft (20m) long.
was over 16.4ft (.Sm) long. It belonged to aprehistoric cephalopod.
LARGEST
is the giant African land snail, which can grow up to l.S.4in
B I VA LV E
MOLLUSK
is the giant clam, which can weigh over 6611b (.lOOkg): the same as three large humans.
LARGEST
LAND
SNAIL
(.lOcm) from snout to tail. It has taken just over one minute for
SMALLEST
MOLLUSK
is the gastropod Ammonireni, which is only 0.04in (1mm) long.
I.ammellose o r m e r
this Euglandina snail to crawl
along the bottom of these two page
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87
Insects
Portrait of an insect
There are more species of insect than of any other animal phylum. For every human,
\'I'hey have six jointed legs, and atough
Thorax (middle
Antenna
Insects have three distinct body regions:
\the body)
eye
Foregut
Abdomen
Heart
(rear part of the body)
Ovary (reproductive organ)
Midgul
Insectshavenoveins:^
blood ows freely around the body.
Brain ... —
rainforests, polar lands, deserts, and pools of gasoline.
Mandibles
(mouthparts) J
□
□
the animal
\
\stage during their life.
everywhere, incltidiu^''^
about 8.5% of all
Wing
Compound
\Most insects have wings at some
insects. They live just alopjiL-—
OF INSECTS Insects make up
\
\outer skeleton called an cxoskeleton.
there are about 200 million
Proportion
Exoskeleton
section of
(feeler) /
the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.
I n s e n t R
Anus
Ovipositor (egglaying tool)
Other invertebrates12.5%
Air enters through holes (spiracles) in the insect’s sides and
Hindgut
species on Earth.
goes directly to muscles and organs.
Ve n t r a l Vertebrates
nerve cord
2.5%
Katydid (female)
Life cycles
Ty p e s o f i n s e c t There are over amillion known species of insect, nirh perhaps .50 million still to be discovered, d’hey are grouped into .52 orders (see p.72), including those illustrated below.
I'he series of changes an insect goes through during its life is called its metamorphosis. Coinplete metamorphosis: butter
Incomplete metamorphosis:
s
grasshopper
Winged
Yo u n g
adult
hatrhR.c;
emerges
from pupa
May ies (Kphemeroptcra) 2.()(KI species
Dragon ies (Odonata) ■S.OOO species
Yo u n g
Winged adult
hatches as
emerges from nal
wingless ^nymph
molt
Grasshoppers, crickets (Orthoptera) 20.000 species _ a r v a
molts
r Stick and leaf insects (Phasmida) 2..S00 species
Earwigs (Dcrmaptcra) 1..S00 species
Cockroaches (Blattodca) .5,700 species
Larva changes into pupa
Nymph
to grow larger
Nymph
resembles
molts to
adult
grow larger
Molting ■A young insect’s tough exoskelcton cannot stretch, so the insect has to molt (shed its skin) several times in order to
I
1Two hours after leaving the water, the nymph has
A
become an adult
damsel y. Its old
grow. The sequence below show-s the nal molt of adamsel y, as it changes from nymph to adult.
Praying mantids
Te r m i t e s
(Mantodea) 1,800 species
(Isoptera) 2„500 species
Biting lice (Mallottapliajta) 2,700 species
skin is left behind on the stalk.
A
4 ‘.V I -
Damsel y nymphs live u n d e r w a t e r, but climb
Beetles
Bugs (I Icmiptcra) 82.()()0 species
(C'oleoptera) 3()(),()()() species
Ants, bees, and wasps (Mvirienoptcra) 11 (),(){)() species
out when
kThe
skin
I'llp has split ■. \along the
K\back of the thorax, and
A ;
The young
mg adult grips the plant
stem and
they are ready to
the adult head
pulls Itself up and away
become adults.
has emerged.
from its old skin.
Insect facts
\
'-m
●If all the animafs on Earth were weighed, ants would make up 10% of the total.
IIt will take aafew
Butter
ies and moths
(Lcpidoptcra) 1.56,800 .species
Flies
Fleas
(Dipteral y8„S00 species
(.Siphonaptcra) 1,800 species
●Queen termites can lay one egg per second for more than 14 years. This gives atotal of more than 440,000,000 babies from one queen.
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'0
more
days for the damsel y to develop its Mbrilliant colors.
●Abee must visit over 4,000
one tablespoon of honey.
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LIVING WORLD
owers to make
a
adult
INSECTS
Insect wings
Defense and attack
Wings enable an insect to escape from predators, and to y
Insects have developed many ways of defending themselves against enemies. 'I’hese include camou age, stinging, and squirting noxious chemicals. In
to new areas in searc
_
of food.
r
several cases these methods arc also
The orchid mantis
useful for attacking prey.
Mol/i wing
^{Hymenopus
coronatus) is camou aged as
The insect curls its
an orchid
o w e r.
body, completing its leafy disguise.
Ants squirt stinging formic acid
CAMOUFLAGE Many insects arc so wdl-camoutlagcd that
Dragon y wing
they arc almos
impossible for predators to
Bcelle. forewing (elytron)
C H E M I C A L S
from their abdomen at
^
enemies.
STINGING
\\'asps and bees
spot. The green markings of
defend themselves
this Javanese leaf in.sect {PhyUium biorulatum).
by delivering a painful sting.
complete with liolcs and browr
M I M I C R Y
edges, make it look just like a dying leaf.
The hover
v's
colors resembl
"
the warning stripes of wasps. 'This may put off predators.
i
Insect sizes Insects range from tiny wasps smaller than aperiod, to beetles as big as ahuman
Insect vision ,\n insect’s compound eyes are made up of hundreds of individual lenses. Dragon ies have (he largest eyes of any insert.
hand. (The insects below are not shown actual size.) When the Javanese leaf insect sits on a
/
twig or branch, it blends e>.
< y -
Imitation /
.
4
Imitation
leaf midrib
in completely with its leafy surroundings.
leaf vein
SMALLEST
INSECTS
are fairy y wasps, which measure onlv 0.2mm long.
Insect homes Bees, wasps, termites, and ants are the only insects that build permanent homes. These range from asimple hole in the ground to complex termite mounds up to ,^9ft (12m) high.
Insect records LOUDEST
X
INSECTS
are cicadas, which can be heard
H E AV I E S T
up to 1,312ft (400m) away. F. 4 S T E S T
F LY I N G
This umbrella-shaped mound is home to the African
INSECTS
are dragon ies, which have been recorded ying at speeds of over 31mph (.SOkm/h). FASTEST
RUNNING
termites C.uh'iwrmc .
V:
^
{Periplaiieta tinierimiw), which can run at speeds of almost 3mph (5km/h).
The biggest insect ever to have lived was aprehistoric dragon y. It had awingspan of 29.Sin (75cm): about the same as aEurasian kestrel’s.
Co7nmon wasps (Vespula vulgaris) Aiu'W their nests from chewed-up wood bers.
Inside wasps' and bees' nests are combs of cells. Asingle lama dmelops in each cell.
Helpful insects
Harmful insects ^
BEES
FLEAS
Bees pollinate many types of crops, and produce honey (the rst sweetener used by humans) and bee.swax.
Diseases carried by tleas and Hies have caused more than half of all
SILK
BODY
MOTHS
DUNG
BEETLES
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Dung beetles were introduced to Australia to eat the large amounts of dung produced by cattle.
AND
FLIES
human deaths since the Stone Age. LICE
More than ,1.800 body lice can live on one person. In unhygienic situations thev can transmit disease. LARGEST KILLER
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Giant stick Insect’s lea. actual size
Silk is produced from the cocoon (pupa) of the silk moth Honihyx niori. Each cocoon produces athread of silk that may be o\ er 0.6 miles (1km) long.
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INSECT
is the giant stick insect (P/mrnada serraPipes). which measures up to 17.7in (45cm) from leg tip to leg tip.
INSECT
y
are the goliath beetles {Goimtluis), which weigh up to 3.9oz (1 lOg); about the same as an apple. LONGEST
is the American cockroach
Giant dragon
J
INSECTS
BEES
An aggressive type of African honey bee {Apis mellifera ac/ansonii) attacks humans without provocation. More than 300 people have been killed.
W I N G - S PA N
i.s that of the owlet moth
(I'hysania agnpina). which measures up to 12in (30cm) across.
SoMK OF itif: world’s least loved
animals are arachnids. They include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites. Most arachnids live on
land. They are found all over the world in almost every habitat: there is even aspecies of spider that lives high on Mount FTerest.
A h r i n m
n
Ta i l
Arachnids have eight legs, and their body is divided into the cephalothorax (front and middle), and the abdomen (rear). They have apair of leglike or pincerlike pedipalps for feeling and feeding.
f
Exoskeleton \
\Poison
(outer skeleton)
Simple Heart
eye
\
gland
^Cephalothorax
Sting Intestine
l\;J Chela (claw of
Brain
the pedipalp) Esophagus
There are no
Ty p e s o f a r a c h n i d
veins: blood
ows freely
There are more than 73,000 species of
inside the
b o d y.
arachnid, divided into ten orders (see p.72). Six orders arc illustrated below.
(air hole) Ve n t r a l nerve cord
w
y
MOST VENOMOUS SCORPION
:F'!)))ir
that hatch into Eggs are laid in aprotective silk
(shed their skin)
LARGEST
Harvestmen
(Opilioncs) 4.500 species
egg sac Adult
Some mites live
of Ilin (28cm),
just afew weeks; larger species of spider may lir eup
it can cover a
to 30 years.
dinner plate. Yo u n g spiderling
Spiderling molts to
resembles adult
grow larger
Ballooning spiders Mites and ticks (Acari) ,V),0(l() specic.s
Spiderlings can “balloon” from one area to another, traveling up
Spiders (Arancae) 40,(100 species
/U X.
a c r e o f m e a d o w.
passing meal
TRAPDOOR
BOLAS
SPIDER
'Fhc bolas spider
When an insect
v
passes, it ips open the trapdoor and leaps on its prey.
I
n \
\
OR-g-WEBWEAVER^
S PfDER ^r' Orl^wcaviiEi&'Splnanintricate Kvelj^Avhich to catch prey. fl
90
'I'hc net-casting spider spins asticky net
throw over a
scaled with ahinged door spun from silk.
t
SPIDER
its front legs, ready to
lives in aburrow
-
NET-CASTING
that it holds hetween
'The trapdoor spider
L
●There are more than 2million
spiders lurking in an average
by the wind.
All spiders are carnivorous (meat-eating), feeding mainly on insects and other spiders. 'Fhey arc skillful hunters, and have developed ingenious ways of capturing prey, tAfter trapping ameal, they paralyze it with venom, then wrap it in silk.
●Alore people die from bee stings than from the bites and stings of all the venomous arachnids put together.
at heights of more than 9,843ft (3,000m). 4'hey release a abdomen, which is picked up
Spider attack
Arachnid facts
to 1,243 miles (2,0()0km)
thread of silk from their
1
ARACHNID
is Leblondis’ goliath bird-eating spider {T/ienip/ios(i lebloudi)-. with aleg span
several times before
Camel spiders (Solifugac) 900 species
.lUMPING
SPIDER
riie jumping short, strong can jump 40 body length. itself to the
spider has legs, and times its It anchors ground with
asilk^thrcad, then
pounds on its prey.
WEB
up to 10ft (3m) across.
nymphs resembling adults. 'They molt
they are mature.
SPIDER
is spun by the tropical orb spider (Nepli/lr/). It measures
Life cycle of aspider
Arachnids lay eggs Wliip scorpions (Uropygi) 60 .species
is the Israeli gold scorpion (Leiurus qmiiquestriatiis). LARGEST
Life cycle Scorpions (Scorpiones) 2.0(10 spccic.s
Arachnid records
Claw
Imperial scorpion (Pandinm imperator)
Muscles
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Portrait of an arachnid
Arachnids
»
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LIVING WORLD
SPIDER
C R U S TA C E A N S
Crustaceans
Portrait of acrustacean
Common lobster (female)
Antenna
(feeler)
(Homarusgammarus) Most crustaceans have abody divided into
three parts: the head, thorax (middle), and abdomen (rear). In some species the head and thorax are joined to form the cephalothorax. Crustaceans have compound eyes and
CruS'I'ACHANS range from tiny water
Antennule
eas invisible to the human
(feeler)
eye, to giant spider crabs with legs longer than aperson. Most crustaceans are aquatic (live in water). 'They are found all over the
■jK. two pairs of antennae. 'I'he body is ●.● UK.. Carapace
oors of
j.. Heart
(shell
' *■
Compound eye made up of many lenses
eepest oceans.
'I'here are more than 55,000 species of crustacean. They are grouped into eight classes (see p.72), including the four i l l u s t r a t e d b e l o w.
water
Copepods (Copepoda) tiny marine and freshwater organisms 13,000 species
eas
LOGO species
intestine
V.
is
Dorsal abdominal
artery Abdomen
Ty p e s o f c r u s t a c e a n
Branchiopods (Branchiopodii) c.g. fairy shrimps,
exoskeleton.
a M o u t h
world, from rivers and shor^.lines to. the
covered by atough coat, called the
Brain
Cephalothorax Anus
Life cycle
Stomach
Most crustaceans lay their eggs in water. After hatching, many species pass through several larval stages. Crustaceans molt (shed their skin) to grow bigger.
/
Ventral nerve cord
Ovary (reproductive organ) Ventral / abdominal artery
Crustacean
Life cycle of ashrimp
RECORDS Adult
SMALLEST Egg hatches into rst larval stage, called nauplius; has single eye; uses antennae for swimming
C R U S TA C E A N S
are the water
eas Aloiiellti,
which grow only O.Z.Smm long. H E AV I E S T
C R U S TA C E A N
is the North Atlantic lobster
Barnacles
Mal acostracan s
(Cirripedia) 1,220 species
(Malacostraca) e.g. crabs, lobsters 30,000 species
Second larval stage, called zoea; has more appendages and two eyes Final post-iarval stage; uses abdominal limbs
for swimming
Third stage, called mysis; uses limbs on thorax for swimming
Crab defense
Crustacean facts
Most crabs have ahardened
●(ilopepods are probably
exoskeleton, called acarapace,
the most numerous animals
to protect them from predators. Many crabs also use camou age, burrowing, and running away as
on Earth, forming much of the plankton that oats in
Many crabs, such as this gliost crab {()(Spode), burrow to escape predators. Their eyes may stick up above tlie ground, keeping alookout for danger.
(Homarus americanus) and the
robber crab (Birgus latro) can live for over 50 years. ●Sowbugs are the only
S I D E WAY S
them to enter their
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)
burrow sideways because of their body shape.
Some crab.s, such as this decorator crab {Camposcia retitsa)^ cover their slicil with plants and sea creatures to disguise themselves on the sea bed.
Supershrimp deliver ablow with the same
17()sc| miles (440sq km) and weigh over 2million tons. C A M O U F L A G E
-JafUiTtese^pidh'
'The mantis shrimp can
(malacostracans) can cover
Scuttling sideways is the fastest method of c.scape for many crabs. It is easier for
A
successfully adapted to life ●Aswarm of krill
RUNNING
C R U S TA C E A N
is the Japanese spider crab (Macrocheira kaempferi)-. its leg span can reach nearly 13ft (4m). T
crustaceans that have on land.
POWER
LARGEST
●The North Atlantic lobster B U R R O W I N G
'The robber crab {H 'u'gus Ultra) defends itself with formidable pincers. 'These are so strong that this crab could cut its way out of acake tin.
weighs up to 441b (20kg).
the ocean.
effective defensive tactics.
PINCER
(Homarus americanus) which
●The pancarid, atype of shrimp, is only found in asingle Tunisian pool the size of abath.
force as asmall caliber ri e.
It can easily punch its way out of a sh tank.
LIVING WORLD
Amphibians Most amphibians can live both
on land and in water. They need
Brain
Portrait OF AN AMPHIBIAN Amphibians are
Shoulder blade
(outline) ,Spinal cord Backbone
p.8.3). riieir skin
their skin is not waterproof and they rapidly lose body water in dry conditions. Amphibians have, nevertheless, adapted to awide
has no hair or scales,
'They are found on every
Eardrum
eye
vertebrates (see
amoist environment because
range of habitats, even deserts.
Large bulging Vocal sac
i
and is important for keeping the correct
Stomach
Adults can
♦
breathe through
*-si
balance of water in the
their skin.
d n e yK i
body. Most adult amphibians i have lungs, but can also breathe through
European common
i
'a
their skin.
y -
continent except Antarctica.
-
Intestine --
Lungs /
toad
(Bufo bufo)
y
/
Frogs and toads have
Liver
no tail.
Types of amphibian There are more than 4,200 species of amphibian, divided into three orders (see p.72).
Life cycle .Most amphibians lay their eggs in water.
The young pass through aseries of changes, called metamorphosis, before becoming adults. Life spans range from abrief breeding season to more than .SO years for the Japanese giant salamander {Aiulrias
Caring for eggs and young Many amphibians lay their eggs and then leave the young to fend for themselves.
Others protect them in avariety of ways.
Life cycle of anewt
Froj«s and toads (Anuru) 3.700 species
Caecilians (Apoda) 170 species
Gills disappear; adult has lungs
Newly hatched larva, called a
and can live on
tadpole, has gills and
l a n d o r i n w a t e r.
Front
legs appear about
seven to
eight weeks after hatching.
three weeks after
hatching.
toads are toadlets.
●Amphibian comes from the Greek words cimpin and Inos, meaning “double life,” because amphibians can live both on land a n d i n w a t e r.
young develop into toadlets under her
skin, then hatch out of her back.
tip their arrows with their poison.
Scienti c name
in female toad’s skin
Size (approx) m
d
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{A/y/fs ohstetricans) wraps his string of eggs around his back legs and carries them until they are ready to hatch.
almost covered. 'I'he
e n d o f t h e b o d v.
'The Afrit an clawed toad (Xeitopus) /ra.v webbed feet for swimming and claws for gri/ ng siijfeiy surfaces.
midwife toa
them until they are
I.ength is measured from the snout to the
The White’s treejrog
pool or stream.
out one at atime.
.skin swells around
(native) people of South .America
Common name
on its back to anearby-
female’s hack. Her
Largest frogs and toads
sticky disks on its toes for gri/i/hng leaves.
T'he poison-dart frog {Dendrohates) carries its newly hatched tadpoles
{Rhinoderma) swallows his tadpoles into his vocal sac for protection. \\’hen they become froglets, he spits them
(Pipa p'tpn) eggs arc placctl on the
●Poison-dart frogs are so named because the indigenous
(l.ilt)ria caorulca) has
W A T E R
'I'he male Darwin’s frog
U . A’ D E R T H E S K I N
(10.4mm) long.
The tiger .salamander (.\ml)y.stouia ligriuum) has /kittened feet for hiiirowing.
CARRYING TO
The .Surinam toad’s
●The smallest frog in the world, Psyllophiyne dulaclylii, is smaller than a ngernail at just 0.41 in
Till’ iKilmale nnol (Ti iuinus helveticiis) has wi’hbed feet for swimming.
SAC
liROODER
T'he male
●YoLing frogs are called froglets, and young Amphibians’ feet are adapted for their particular way of life. .Many species have webbed feet for swimming, while others are adapted to burrow or climb.
VOCAL
EGGS ON LEGS
Amphibian facts
Amphibian feet
r
lives i n w a t e r.
Back legs appear at
Newts and salamanders (Urodela) 350 species
S
3k. W I k
m
in
Goliath frog
Conraua goliath
358
American
Pyxicephalus adspersus
230
bullfrog Cane toad
Bufo marinus
230
9
Rococo toad
Bufo paracnemis
230
9
1 4
Big tadpole, little frog 'The South American paradoxical frog {P.'ieui'/ispnradoxd) is larger when it is a tadpole than when it turns into an adult frog.
AMPHIBIANS
Amphibian colors AND SHAPES Amphibians have evolved a wide range of shapes and colors to suit their habitat and lifestyle. Many poisonous species are brightly colored to warn predators to keep away, while others have colors and shapes that help them blend in with their surroundings.
IIlls tmghtiy colored golden manlella (Mamella
auraiuiaca) is npoisonous frog from MadagcLscar.
Mottled colonng helps disguise this South American horned load (Ccraiopliiys). The shape and colors of this Asian leaf frog (Megopliiys iiasuta) resemble adead leaf.
●
^
This South African shovel-nosed frog (HcMiiisus guttatus) uses its shovel-shaped snout for humnoing.
-
\ The tiger salamander’s (Ambystoma ligrinnm) spots are asigtial to predators that it may make an unpleasant meal.
Deeense and attack Amphibians are carnivorous (meat-eating), and many species rely on camou age to stay hidden from prey as well as from predators. Other defensive tactics include oozing poison, looking erce, and startling enemies.
The colors and shape of this Malaysian nanvw-moulhed toad (Kiiloula pukiira) may fool predators info thinking it is awet stone.
Amphibian records
Leap frog
LARGEST
The African sharp-nosed frog WO'clnideiui oxyr/iy/ir/ms) holds the frog long jump record. One individual leaped 17.5ft (5.55m) at the Calaveras County Frog Jubilee, California, in 1975.
'['he
SALAMANDER
is the Japanese giant salamander, which grows up to 5ft (1.5m) long. SMALLEST
SALAMANDERS
are the Mexican lungless
SURPRISE
salamanders {T/wrius), which
re-bellicd toad
grow only O.SSin (14mm) long.
{Bombinci bomhiua) relics on its camou age to stay bidden from
MOST
POISONOUS
AMPHIBIAN
is the golden yellow poison-dart frog {P/iyllobates terrihilh). d'he poison from the skin of a single frog could kill up to
enemies. But if it is
attacked, the toad displays the bright warning colors on its belly,
20,()()() mice.
hoping that the startled nt. predator will leave it alone i
MOST
EGGS
are laid by the female cane toad {Riifo marinusY she can produce up to 35,000 eggs in one year.
S C A R I N G TA C T I C S If this Budgett's frog {Lepiciobatrarhus dsper) is attacked, it puts on a fearsome display. It opens its mouth, screams, and makes loud grunting noises. If this performance fails to scare away the enemy, the frog may
POISON
If apredator tries to eat them, many amphibians ooze anasty tasting poison from their skin. 'Phis should make the To a d t r i e s t o m a k e
attacker spit them out.
Itself look bigger
bite it. STICKY
TONGUE
Ihe longue is attached to
Frogs have along, sticky tongue for icking out at prey,
the front of the mouth.
such as insects.
P R I C K LY
European common frog (Rana lemporaria) attacking prey
.tdi
LEAPING
AND
RIBS
The ribs of the Spanish sharpribbed salamander {Pleurodeles waht) have needlclike tips. If a predator tries to cat it, the ribs pass through its skin giving the predator asharp surprise.
LOOKING
FIERCE
'I'his European common toad is confronting an enemy. It has puffed up its body, and is standing on its toes to make itself appear larger.
If attacked, the red eft, the young form of the eastern newt (Noiopluhalimis \’iridcscens), secretes poison from special glands in its skin. An oriental re-bellied toad (Bombina orieniali.s) swimming away from danger.
SWIMMING
If afrog is attacked, for example by a bird, it quickly leaps out of danger using its powerful back legs. If the frog is close to apond or stream, it will dive into the water and swim out of the
predator’s reach.
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Poison-dart frogs are the most poisonous of all amphibians. Their slatilhig colors make lliem easier for enemies to spot and avoid.
'The attened shape of this hinroxvingjrog (Rhinophrv’nus doi salis) helps it to slip easily through the soil.
LIVING WORLD
Portrait of areptile
Reptiles
Mouth
ReP'I'ILES range from tiny lizards to snakes up to 33ft (10m) long. They live in oceans, lakes, rivers, and on land. All reptiles have ascaly skin. They depend on their surroundings for warmth, so they are more numerous in hot countries.
Ty p e s o f r e p t i l e There are nearly 6,000 species of reptile, grouped into four orders (see p.72).
Most reptiles (excluding snakes) have four legs and atail. 'I’heir .scaly skin
Nostril
\
IPfr, retains water inside the body, enabling them to live in dry, barren regions. Brain Small
Vertebral column
intestine
(backbone)
Esophagus Trachea
(windpipe)
Life cycle
Kidney
Most reptiles lay leatheryshelled eggs, although some give birth to fully developed young. Reptiles continue to grow after reaching maturity, so older individuals may reach a huge si/.e. Life cycle of agecko
Eyed lizard (female)
t
(Lacerta lepida) Claw
Sloughing
Reptile skins
Snakes and lizards slough (shed)
The outer layer of areptile’s skin is thickened, forming waterproof scales. 'I'hese scales are composed of keratin: the
their skin from time to time,
either in large akes or in one piece. This allows them to grow, and replaces worn-out skin.
Egg
Lizards and snakes (.Squamata) 5,700 species
y i a r i
same substance that hoofs, hair,
Gecko reaches
and ngernails are made of.
maturity after
Grocodilians
ajLtg. about 18 months
●tTS LVe-. ■J
Crocodilians
have acou^rh, armorlike skin made of
^
rough, horny scales (scutes).
Egg hatches Into young that
Crocodilians
Caiman skin
resembles adult
(Crocodylia) 23 species
Snakes Most snakes have
Reptile shells
Tiiatara
Turtles, tortoises, and terrapins have abony shell covered with horny plates or leathery skin. The shell is for protection, and often acts as acamou age.
(Rhynochocephalia) 2species
asmooth skin.
Turtle and terrapin Aturtle's shell is lighter and Hatter than a tortoise’s shell. The
The
scales
.
overlap so that : the snake can
bend easily.
streamlined shape
Snake skin
enables the turtle to '
glide through the water.
Lizards Lizard skins
range from smooth and
slippery, to rough and spiky. Gecko ski
T'urtles, tortoises, and terrapins ((’helonia) 200 species
To r t o i s e
Soft-shelled turtle
Tortoi.se.s usually ha\ eastrong, high-
These turtles have alight, at, shell for boiiyancy ( oating), and for hiding
domed shell to protect the body from predators’ jaws.
in the sand and mud of the riverbed.
Longest snake Ehe longest and heaviest snake in the world is the
anaconda (h'.iinectes muriims).
Reptile colors CAMOlPLAGE Many repcile.s have skin colors and patterns that enable them to blend in
The colors of this diadem snake
'Ehe longest anaconda on
(Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi)
record measured 33ft 8in
make It dif cult to spot in its
(10.26m): longer
desert habitat
than abus.
with their surroundings, from bright green forest lizards, to dull brown desert snakes.
WARNING GOLORS Many venomous snakes, such as the
Eastern coral snake {Mim/nisf///vj//s), have bright colors to warn
predators to keep away. Some harmless species have also developed these colors, to fool enemies into thinking they are dangerous; this is called B a t e s i a n m i m i e r v.
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94
'pmShi Jiill*
Reptiles on THE
AT TA C K
Most reptiles are carnivorous (meat-eating). Eroni deadly venom to sticky tongues and snapping jaws, they have evolved some of the most ef cient methods of attack in
the animal kingdom.
V E N O M
CONSTRICTION
STICKY
Poisonous snakes, such as this green mamba {Dendroasfm angustireps), kill
prey by biting it and injecting venom
Pythons and boas, such as this anaconda, coil their body around their prey, slowly stiueczing the animal until
through their fangs.
it suffocates.
Chameleons have along tongue with asticky tip that they shoot out at prey. 'The chameleon’s tongue is as long as its body and tail combined.
TONGUE
Reptile records LARGEST
CROCODILIAN
is the saltwater crocodile Alligators can grow jp to 50 new sets of t eth in alifetime
(Crocodyh/sporosus), which can grow up to 20ft (6m) long. LARGEST
LIZARD
is the Komodo dragon (Vimiiiiis komodoensh), which grows up to IOft (,3m) long. SNAPPING
BEAKS
d'ortoises and turtles do not
have teeth: instead, they have a sharp, horny beak. Ckirnivorous turtles, such as snapping turtles. have strong jaws for grabbing and chopping up apassing meal.
SMALLEST apink, worm-like tongue for luring
TERRIRLh
sh into its mouth.
Oocodiles and their relativ'cs have
of
HISSING
Many reptiles have developed effective ways of putting off their enemies. Apredator attacking areptile may receive an unplea.sant surprise.
AND
REPTILE
is the British Virgin Island gecko {Sphaerodactyliis parthenopion), with abody just ().7in (18mm) in length.
TKRTH
formidable sharp, pointed teeth for grabbing prey and tearing off chunks
Defensive tactics
esh.
When they are alarmed, cobras spread the skin of
SPITTING
Cobras rear up oITtlic ground and hi.ss
their neck into ahood.
t o s c a r e o f f a n c n c i n v. M o s t c o b r a s
inject deadly \cnom by biting. but spitting cobras sriuirt jets of venom into their attacker's eves.
LOOKING PIERCE
When startled, the Australian frilled
Monodi’d cobra
(Naja naia kaouihia) NASTY
SMELLS
SQUIRTING BLOOD
The stinkpot turtle {Stenwtherus odoratus) emits afoul-smelling yellow licjuid to put
Some horned lizards
off attackers.
may contain irritants.
lizard (Chhimytlosaiirus kingi) erects alarge, rutflike ap of loose skin on its neck. This usually scares away the attacker.
Reptile facts
(IVijjnosoma) squirt drops of blood from their eyes
●Some snakes push their windpipe out of their mouth to avoid being suffocated when swallowing alarge animal.
at enemies. 'The blood
Deadliest snakes Some ,30,000-100,000 people die each year from snake bites. These are some of the worst culprits. Common name
WALKING
ON
WAT E R
F LY I N G
Basilisk lizards {/^c/sdhrus) Some lizards, such as drop onto water and run tills ying dragon {Draco across the surface on vo/ans), escape attack their back legs to escape by leaping and gliding from tree to tree. from apredator. LOSING
THE
TA I L
Many lizards can shed their tail if an attacker grabs hold of it; this allows thcni to escape. Anew tail eventually grows in its place.
Scienti c name
and distribution
u
This lizard has
recently lost part of its tail while escaping from apredator.
No. of deaths
per year (approx.)
Asian cobras (Asia)
Naja
15,000
Saw-scaled vipers (Asia and Africa)
Echis
10,000
Russell’s viper (Asia)
Daboia russelii
5,000
Kraits (Asia)
Bungarus
3,000
●When asnake charmer’s
snake weaves to and fro, it
is not dancing to the music, but following the snake charmer’s movements.
●Achameleon’s eyes can
Lance-headed vipers (Central and South America)
move independently. One eye can look up while the other looks down.
●Spitting cobras can s(|uirt their venom up to 9ft (2.7m). Bothrops
3,000 After eight months the tail has almost reached
Tw o m o n t h s l a t e r t h e
its original length. .y
tail is growing back.
m The small vertebrae
(back bones) along the lizard’s tail have special weak points where the tail can break off.
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REP'l'ILES
Portrait of a
Fish
Lateral line
sh
Operculum
(sense organ)
(gill cover)
Fish are vertebrates (see p.83). The most familiar and numerous are the
T'iirrk is no such thing as a
Dorsal
bony sh, which have askeleton made of bone, aswim bladder for buoyancy, and agill cover, called the
typical sh: the three groups are as different from each other as a camel is from acrow. All sh live
operculum. Most
m
V -
n
»
Backbone
Stomach
sh are
\Scales
Kidney
covered with scales.
Spinal cord
in water, although some species
Caudal
n
Dorsal artery
Swim
can spend time on land. 'Their
/
bladder
Brain
habitats range from the cold, inky depths of the deepest oceans, to warm, sluggish, tropical rivers. Types of
Gill arch Gill slits
sh
Mouth
'I'here are more than 20,000 species of sh, the vast majority of which are bony sh. Fish are divided into three classes (see p.72).
Pharynx \ H e a r t
Cloaca (anus and urinogenital opening)
Pectoral Intestine
.lawless
sh
Life cycles
(Aj^nacha)
(Carassins carassius)
Life cycle of atrout
some give birth to fully /x formed young. Many s / / produce thousands of ^
75 species
f \ 9
eggs at atime, because
m )
Adult gives birth to up to 40 live young. Adult
so few survive to beeome
adults. Life spans range from afew
sh
months, to over
(Chondrichchycs) sharks, rays, and chimaeras 800 species
Shark Trout takes from
100 years for the giant sturgeon
8months
to
called afry,
{Hi/so huso).
3years to mature, depending on species.
adult trout.
Gill rakers sieve the
.Pharynx (connects mouth with esophagus).
sh take?
through its mouth.
Fish movement
FASTEST
down; and left and
SWIMMER
right. They use different
ns to control
these movements.
(6mm) long, while
ows
about lOft (3m).
R O L L
\ A W
'Fhc sh uses its dorsal, pectoral, and pelvic ns
Acombination of
to roll.
to the left and right.
Peak
V
P I TC H n
movements steers the
Fhc sh
sh swivels its
pectoral and peh ic ns to rise, stay level, and dive.
Peak
I f
First n
\ P e l v i c
The S-shaped wave begins xvhen the sh swings its head to the right.
fi
h
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fi
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fi
fi
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fi
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are about 0.25in
and backward: up and
dorsal
96 fi
hatched sun sh
Fish mov'e in three
I
liead to tail.
fi
V\\\
times bigger than its young: newly
dimensions: forward
Doi^lsh
along the body from
fi
Water
is the goby {Pandokapygniaea), which grows just 0.3in (7.6mm) long: smaller than ahouse y.
Fish swim by creating aseries of S-shaped waves that travel ^
fi
'.yv
is about 60 million
adults measure
FISH
Swimming
fl
V
past the gills.
is the tunny (T/wmins), which has been recorded swimming at 44mph (71 km/h).
fl
ows
out through the gill cover (operculum).
in water
typus), which grows to more than .soft (LSm) long.
fi
BEGINNINGS An adult ocean
Water The
is the whale shark {Rli 'imodoii
fi
Small
sun sh {Mold iiiola)
l.AROliST FISH
fi
pup, resembles adult, but its head projectiles are bent back. T T T T r - r r
thin membranes into the blood.
Fish records
fi
called a
15 years to mature, depending on species.
resembles
w a t e r.
SMALLEST
Yo u n g ,
from 5to
young,
Fish “breathe” using their gills. As water ows over the gills, oxygen passes through
Bony sh (Ostcifhthycs) c.it. plaice, carp, cod 2(),()00-22,000 spccic.s
takes
Ti n y
How EISH BREATHE
fi
Life cycle of ahammerhead shark
Most shreleaseeggs,although^-i
hag sli and lampreys
Cartilaginous
n
Crucian carp (female) Pelvic hn .
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LIVING WORLD
The jH'dk of the wave fun traveled to the re}rion of the f>e/vie and rst dorsal ns.
n
The peak is noiv behueen the two dorsal ns, and the tail
'The peak reaches the tail, and the head swings for
begins to thrust to the right.
the next wave.
Caring for
Fish shapes
Ik
Fish have evolved
s
Y O U N G
many different shapes to suit their particular way of life, from
Many sh do not look after their eggs and young, leaving PROTECTIVE POUCH The female seahorse lays her eggs into aspecial pouch on the male seahorse’s body. 'The eggs grow inside the pouch, and arc “born” v\’hen the young arc developed.
themselves. Others are caring parents,
ercely protecting their offspring from predators.
Feeding and diet Fish feed in avariety of ways, depending on their diet. There are plant-eaters, meateaters, scavengers (feed on dead plants and animals), and parasites (see below).
MOUTH BROODING Many cichlids keep their eggs in their mouth while they develop. After hatching, the
PA R E N T N I B B L I N G 'The common brown discus
sh (Sym hysodon) secretes a Special nourishing substance
young usually stay in the mouth from its skin for the young to nibble. 'Fhey feed on their parents for about four weeks.
for safety, nally leaving it when they are large enough.
shaped for fast swimming, to at sh that lie motionless on the sea
o o r.
The John Dory (Zeus) approaches prey headon. Its slim shape makes it dif cult for the victim to spot.
F I LT E R F E E D I N G Filter feeders, such as this paddlc sh {Pohodon spat/iula), sift
Box-shaped
food from the water
with their gill rakers.
Fish facts
Protective bony plates beneath the cow sh's skin give it adistinctive, boxy shape.
●The basking shark
/
(Cetorhinus maxim us)
●■i L i
A ,
lters
about 396,000 gallons (l,500cu m) of water per hour: enough to ll 66,000 baths. TEARING
i)
streamlined sharks
them to fend for
TEETH
SUCKING
.Many sh, such as this great white shark (Cairburoiliin tiiirlmrim), have razor-sharp teeth for biting chunks out of their prey.
BLOOD
The lamprey is aparasitic sh (feeds on living things). It attaches itself to
prey with asucker, rasps at the esh with its teeth, then sucks its blood.
Defensive tactics Many sh rely on camou age to stay hidden from predators. Several species are poisonous, while the electric eel (K/ectrophorus electricus)
●Needle sh are the only that have green bones.
●In times of drought, the African lung sh (Protop/erus)
delivered
spines.
PUFFING
survive for at least three years by digesting its own muscles.
C A M O U F L A G E
The long-nosed gar (Lepiso.sleus osscus) has along, thin shape for quick dashes.
Carp, characins, and
Fakes and
cat sh are some of
Upside-down cat sh
the most common
altitudes of up to 16,000ft (4,900m).
freshwater
Loach: probably the highest living species /
sh.
Shorelin
^
Some species
Mudskipper
&
that live on the shoreline can survive
their homes.
for long periods out of the water. Coastal waters
In tropical coastal waters, coral reefs are home to many brightly
The pipe sh resembles apiece
On the attack Most sh rely on speed and surprise to catch prey. Some species have developed other
colored
M a n d a n n
sh.
Jish
SQUIRTING 'Fhe archer
sh
Open ocean Many species of sh that live in the open ocean grow to ahuge size.
squirts water at
its prey, knocking i t i n t o t h e w a t e r.
L U R E S
Caves
Some
Several species of
catch prey. Deep sea angler sh have a luminous organ on the end of along, polelike n ray. Prey are attracted by the light, and are snapped up by the waiting sh.
from above
almost invisible on the seabed.
Lakes and rivers
of seaweed.
sh use lures to
Plaice seen
plaice’s (PleuronecLcs) at shape allows it to remain
Mountain
FivSh live at
Some sh, such as these pipe sh, look exactly like the vegetation where they make
methods of attack.
T h e
Fish habitats s t r e a m s
the world.
body
buries itself in mud. It can
UP
When attacked, the porcupine sh in ates its body and erects its spines in the hope that it will be too large and prickly to be eaten.
POISON More than 50 species of sh are poisonous. 'I'his lion sh {Pterois volitcins) is one of the deadliest in
hatche.t .sh “ es” for short distances above the water. Its devp body shape keeps it steady.
Deep
●It would take 2,000 gobies (smallest sh) to equal the length of awhale shark (largest sh).
Poison is
through sharp
The freshwater
sh
●Some sharks give birth to just one live young: the rst to develop inside the mother eats all the other eggs and embryos.
can deliver a500-volt shock.
cave
Paci c manta ray
sh have no
eyes: they do not need them since
they spend their lives in darkness.
; aboy reaches this height by the age of 9.
}
●Aperson is about 0.4in (1cm) taller in the morning than in the evening. 'This is because the pads of cartilage in the spine become more compressed during the day.
fl
fi
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fi
131 fl
fi
hormone testosterone. 'This
new cell has 46 chromosomes -
causes muscles to develop,
C H I L D
fi
Egg and sperm cells each contain 23 chromosomes. When
f o r s e x u a l m a t u r i t v.
●Aboy’s testes produce the TWO-
Genetics an egg and asperm cell join, the
●Agirl’s ovaries produce the hormones progesterone and estrogen. 'These cause breasts to develop, hips to broaden, and pubic hair to
rst breath of fresh
air. The newborn baby can hear well but cannot focus its eyes properly.
\Vagina
physical and psychological changes that prepare them
grow. At this time
^make towers of blocks.
babv soon takes its Placenta
few weeks of
Most babies learn to crawl, can pull pregnancy, the baby turns around so its head is themselves upright on facing downward, ready to be born. furniture, and can stand unsupported for asecond or n'>(^nths, they may have up to eight ●When children reach teeth and weigh three puberty, they undergo times their birthweight.
T
BABY
After about 40 weeks, or 9months, of development, the baby Is ready to be
HUMAN BODY
Medicine
c. 10,000 B.G. Trepanning is practiced in Europe and /'
2700 B.C. First named doctor
America. Holes arc
agreat reputation for healing. He
is Imhotep of Egypt. EIc acquired
drilled into aperson’s
THROUGHOirr 'FHE ages, people have tried to nd ways to cure illness. In early times, it was believed that disease was apunishment from the gods. Today, scientists are constantly searching for new ways of treating and preventing illness. c.A.D. 130 Galen, a
The four humors: choleric (with
Greek physician, introduce
sanguine (xvilh ape),
mood depends on th
mdanchohe hog). (wuh
the idea that aperson’ balancing of four
phlegmatic (with sheep) emit
skull to cure illness.
later became
People believed that evil spirits left through
known as the
these holes.
of medicine.
Trej)anning
1300s Leeches are used to
1543 First accurate anatomical drawings of the human body arc drawn by Flemish doctor
C.1590 Compound microscope invented. Outchman, Zacharias
A n d r e a s Ve s a l i u s
some illnesses. Blood-letting is used to treat avariety of illnesses, such as tumors, fevers, and gout ,
bile (melancholy), yellow bile (choleric), blood (sanguine), and phlegm (phlegmatic).
2700 B.C.
suck blood from the body, much blood was the cause of
humors, in the body: black
Imhotep
10,000 B.C.
since it was believed that too
uids, or
Egyptian god
Jan.sscn (1580-e.l638)
(1514-64). .Stolen J
makes len.ses held
corpses are used for
his studies
™
in two iron tubes, one i n s i d e t h e o t h e r.
Ij!ech
First anatomical drawings
A.D.130
Early microscope
1543
A ^
1590
1300
1683 Bacteria
rst seen under
amicroscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), a Dutch scientist.
1796 Vaccination against
1800 Effects of
1810 Homeopathy is
smallpox is discovered by English doctor Edward Jenner (1749-1823). He innoculatcs an eight-year-old boy witii cowpox
electricity on muscles de.scribed by Italian physicist Volta (1745-1827).
introduced by German physician Samuel Hahneman l
systemisbasedonthe\|
taken from asore on the hand of a
dairymaid.
principle of curing like
1805 Moi-phine, a painkiller, is separated from opium.
Coin issued c.1800 to celebrate
with like.
Samuel
Edward Jenner’s discovery of vaccination. 1796
1683
i
(1755-1843). This new !l
180
1805
Hahnemann
1810
N T
Antonie van Leemoenhoek
1854 Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), born in Florence, Italy,
1860 Antiseptic, in
1864 Red Cross Society
nurses soldiers during the Crimean War (1854-56) in the hospital at Scutari, ’ irkey. She becomes known as “the lady with the lamp.” Four years later, she opens the Nightingale Training
the form of weak
carbolic acid, is used to
founded in Geneva, Switzerland, by Swiss
prevent infections
businessman Henri
during operations by English surgeon Joseph Lister (1827-1912).
Ounanc (1829-1910), after helping casualties
School for nurses in
London, which greatly improves nursing
/ ■
standards.
j
at the Battle of
Solferino(1859).
> Henri
Joseph Lister
Florence Nightingale
Dunant
7
a . 1854
1860
1895 Psychoanalysis founded by Austrian doctor
1895 X-rays discovered by German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923). He
SigmundhVeud(1856-1939). He treats people with mental disorders by talking
hand for the
1902 Radium and polonium discovered by Polish-born Marie Curie (1867-1934) and her husband, Pierre Curie (1859-1906), of France.
them about their
u s e s h i s w i f e ’s
^now used i radiatio
childhood
pictures.
therapy t
experiences. One of the rst X-rays
Sigmund
: H
Freud
1953 Structure of genetic material
1 9 5 2 Va c c i n e Jfv
(DNA) discovered by American biologist James Watson (born 1928) and English biochemist Francis Crick (born 1916).
American
and Crick
Jonas Salk 1952
fi
e
s
s
fl
n
fl
fi
.
.
fi
.
n
o
n
132
1958
1920 First EEG
1910 Four blood groups, A, B, AB, O, discovered by Austrian pathologist Dr.
machine is
Karl Landstcincr
electrical brain
(1868-1943).
developed to rccorc w a v e s .
1921 First birth 1912 Vitamins discovered
control clinic
,by British biochemist Sir 1h'rederick Gowland
founded by Marie Stopes (1880-1958:
jHopkins (1861-1947).
in London.
1910
1954 Heart-lung machine developed for use during heart surgery.
1954
1953
/
fi
treat cancer ■ j
1958 Endoscope, a exible telescope that looks inside the body, is developed.
Watson
fi
/
pacemaker htted in Stockholm, Sweden.
Jonas Salk (born 1914).
0
-llixAA'
1954 First internal heart
. ^
scientist
and Curie
1902
1895
against polio produced by
Marie Pime
These elements are ^
dreams and
rst
1864
1912
1967 First heart transplant,
performed by South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard (born 1922). The patient survives 18 days. 1970 Heart pacemakers in general use. Christiaan Barnard
1967
1970
1921
MEDICINE
2B.C. Acupuncture,
400 B.C. Greek physician 600 B.C. The Canons of ledicine is written in China. Hippocrates (c.460-377 B.C.) :includes an account of blood teaches that the rst duty of a doctor is to do what is best for rcLilation.
puncturing the skin with
cure illness, is practiced
his patients and makes rules for ^
in China.
the basis of the Hippocratic
1India. Surgeons perform
mputations and skin grafts and Oath, which doctors still f o l l o w t o d a v.
:movc cataracts from eves. Qj'
>600 B.C.
o
1000 B.C.
-
Hippocrates
1628 First description of the circulation of the blood by
600s Quinine is used to eat malaria in .South mcriea.
KEnglishman William Harvey (LS78-16.57),
615 First thermometer
ar taking human amperature invented by
physician to King James Iand King Charles Iof England.
talian physician Sanctorius 1,S61-16,%).
1615
1628
1846 Ether used as an
1849 First
IV French doctor Rene
anesthetic by William Morton (1819-68), an
female medical graduate in the
.aennec (1781-1826).
American dentist.
US is Elizabeth
816 First stethoscope aade from aroll of paper
Blackwell
844 Laughing gas
1847 Chloroform is
nitrous oxide) is rst used sageneral anesthetic by lorace Wells (18LS-48).
(1821-1910).
^used as an anesthetic by Sir James Young Simp.son (1811-70). Elizabeth Blackwell
Rene Laennec
1844
1846
865 Elizabet
H
Jarrett Anderson i
V
Chiropody
Feet
Dermatology
Skin
Endocrinology
Hormones
Gastroenterology
Stomach, intestines
Geriatrics
Elderiy peopie
Gynecoiogy
Female reproductive organs
Hematoiogy
Biood
Neuroiogy
Brain and nerves
Ophthaimoiogy
Eyes
Osteopathy
Manipulation of back and iimbs to ease pain
Pediatrics
Chiidren
Pharmacoiogy
Drugs
Physicai therapy
Exercise and massage of the body
Psychiatry
Mentai iliness
Obstetrics
Pregnancy
Oncology
Grovrths and tumors
Orthopedics
Bones, joints, muscles
William Hawes with Charles I
Sanctorius ’thermomeler
816
Cardioiogy
Heart and arteries
2B.C.
400 B.C.
Acupuncture chart
1600
■■I’l
1849
Ituberculosis and cholera IIdiscovered by German
t.
irst woman to practice 9
1847
1883 Bacteria that cause
■i c m m h
scientist Robert Koch
ledicine in Britain.
cat-treat food and kill acteria.
M
Louis Pasteur
X-rays
Renal medicine
Kidneys
Surgery
Operations
Drug types Name
Analgesic
N
Counteracts acid in the stomach to
Antibiotic
Treats infections by killing bacteria,
T
1936 First mobile
'22 Insulin discovered bv Canadian scientists Banting 391-1941) and Best (1899-1978).
1950s Birth control pill developed for women. By the early 1960s, it is widely used.
blood-transfusion
service organiz.ed by '28 Penicillin
Canadian doctor
i
eming (1881-19,3.3), in af#
Norman Rcthunc.
!
Reduces fevers, such as those caused by in uenza.
Bronchodilator
Eases breathing in diseases such as asthma.
Decongestant
Common cold treatment; works by unblocking nasal passages.
1950 First kidney transplant performed in Chicago, Illinois.
■ft
a t e .
Birth control pill
Alexander Fleming
P S ."M
8 2 9 1
1950
1976 Bionic,
'70s CT (computerized mography) scan introduced, oduccs more detailed picture of ternai organs than an X-ray.
1980s-1990s Laser surgery used in eye operations and to
transistorized arm is tted to the victim of
remove cancer cells.
aroad accident in
laging) scan uses radio waves
1978 First test tube
Keyhole surgery is practiced: operations arc performed through small incisions in the body.
produce pictures of the inside the body.
baby, Louise Brown,
Gene transplants performed:
Australia.
RI (magnetic resonance
MRI
defective or missing genes arc replaced with arti cial copies.
is born in Britain.
scan
197
70
1978 V
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6
133 2
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Antipyretic
bjOlIl,
acn mold growing on al^i
2
Counteracts allergies such as hay f e v e r.
1886
Operation, 1S8()s
scovered by Scottish ctcriologist Alexander
Provides relief from pain, such as
relieve heartburn, indigestion, etc.
local anesthetic during an eye operation.
1883
Use
Antacid
Antihistamine 865
uids
headache and stomachache.
■* 1 8 8 3 C o c a i n e u s e d a s a
●astciir (1822-95) to
Body tissues and
Radiology
1886 Surgical instruments
4
VFrenchman Louis
Pathology
are srerilized by steam. Masks, gowns, and capes are used by surgeons in operations.
., ;(184.3-1910).
Pasteurization invented
What it deals with
Name
needles to
000 B.C. Surgery' practiced his pupils to follow. They form
Branches of medicine
Nutrition
ABALANCED DIET The food pyramid was developed bv American nutritionists in the earlv
AGOOD DlK ris an essential part of ahealthy
1990s. It represents the proportions in which the ve food groups should
lifestyle for children and adults. Rich in vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, abalanced diet will assist growth and help ght disease.
be eaten each dav for a
Sugars, fats, and
oils (use sparingly)
balanced diet.
Vital components oe eood
Dairy products
Nutrients are the essential elements for healthy
Meat, poultry, seafood, eggs,
(2-3 sen/ings)
eating and include:
oeans, nuts
(2-3 servings) Vegetables (3-5 servings)
Vitamins
Minerals
Fiber
These aid the release of
'These help growth and repair processes, the release of energy from nutrients, and help form
The indigestible part of fruit, vegetables, bread,
energy from glucose, and assist the body’s growth and repair.
and cereals,
Fruit (2-4 servings)
ber aids
normal bowel function.
new tissues. Grains and grain products (5-12 servings)
Food facts ●Surprisingly, frozen \egctables arc just as good for you as fresh vegetables. Carbohydrates These are compounds of
'Fhese supply concentrated energy. They also help form chemical “messengers,” such as hormones.
'Phis is asubstance the
bod\’ needs for grow th and repair. Ic is found in foods such as meat, sh, cheese, and beans.
Food words Acid A.sub.stancc produced by the Stomach that helps digest food. Antibodies Proteins in the blood
●In India, many people are vegetarian, following the Hindu
Protein
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, such as starch and sugar, that provide the body with energy.
belief that all life is sacred.
●All vegetables contain some protein, but dried peas and beans have large amounts.
that protect the body by
ghting
bacteria and viruses. Antioxidant Asubstance added to
foods to prevent them from oxidizing and going stale. Calorie Aunit used to measure the
energy content of foods. Carnivore Person who eats meat. Cholesterol Achemical found in
certain foods, such as eggs, and produced in the liver from
Main vitamin sources and requirements Where found
Type of vitamin
saturated fats.
Required for
Digestion 'Phe breaking down of
Liver, sh-liver oils, egg yolk, and yellow-orange-colored fruit and vegetables.
Growth, healthy eyes and skin. Fights infection.
food in the stomach so that
Vitamin B-| (Thiamine)
Whole grains (whole-grain bread and pasta), brown rice, liver, beans, peas, and nuts.
Flealthy functioning of nervous and digestive systems
Glucose Asugar, released from the
Vitamin B2 (Ribo avin)
Milk, liver, cheese, eggs, green vegetables, brewer’s yeast, lean meat, and wheat germ.
Metabolism of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Keeps tissues healthy.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
Liver, lean meats, poultry, sh, nuts, whole-grain cereals, and dried beans.
Production of energy and ahealthy skin.
Vitamin B5 (Pyridoxine)
Liver, poultry, pork, sh, bananas, potatoes, dried beans, and most fruit and vegetables.
Metabolism of protein and production of red
Vitamin C
Citrus fruit, strawberries, tomatoes, and potatoes.
Flealthy skin, teeth, bones, and tissues, and for ghting disease.
Vitamin D
Oily sh (such as salmon), liver, eggs, cod-liver oil, and sunlight.
The absorption of calcium and phosphorus.
Margarine, lettuce, leafy green vegetables, whole-grain cereals, and nuts.
The formation of new red blood cells. Protection
Saturated fat Fat that tends to increase the amount of unwanted
of cell linings in the lungs.
cholesterol in the blood. Mostly
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
blood cells.
nutrients may be absorbed into the body. digestion of starch and sucrose, that is the body’s main energy source. Hormone (Chemical “messenger” that moves in the bloodstream and
controls the functions of the body. Kilojoule Aunit of measurement showing energy content in food. One kilojoule equals 1,000 joules. Metabolism 'Fhe chemical
processes occurring in the body that result in growth, production of energy, and elimination of waste. Nutrient .An e.ssential dietary factor -carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamin, and mineral.
found in animal fats.
calorics at different rates.
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134
that is an important part of the
Male: 815
'I'he energy from food is measured in calories. But if your calorie intake exceeds your energy and body maintenance requirements, you will put on weight. Physical activity helps you avoid putting on weight by burning off calories. ITiffcrent activities will burn off
Starch Apolymer found in plants
.1 Lido
Burning calories
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HUMAN BODY
human diet.
calorics per hour
Unsaturated fat Fat that helps decrease unwanted types of
Female: 702
calories per hour
V
Running
Basketball
Male: 810
Malc:.S80
cholesterol in the blood. Most
(i
vegetable fats are unsatiirated. Vegan Person who does not eat or use any products or by-products
Nr
from animals.
.-.A
calorie.s per hour
calorics per hour f)
I'emale: 69.8
l-'cmalc: 49
calorie.s per hour
calorics per hour
^
Vegetarian Person who does not eat animal products, sometimes with the exception of sh and eggs.
TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
Early healing
Traditional MEDICINE More and more people are now
turning to traditional, or alternative, forms of medicine to improve their health or simply to
■y
For thousands of years, people have used plants and minerals to ease pain, heal wounds, and relieve the symptoms of illness. In ancient Egypt, records from about 1600 B.C. list plant remedies, such as gentian, senna, and thyme, that are still used today. Archaeologists have also found in China lists of herbs carved on oracle bones dated about the same time.
stay well. Many of these therapies treat the whole person and aim to restore the body’s natural state of
This detail from the I2tli-rerihiry Persian
Booh of Antidotes shows the growing of plants for medicinal pufcoses.
balance, or harmony. ACUPUNCTURE
ALEXANDER TECHNIQUE
A R O M AT H E R A P Y
.Veupunctiirists treat illness by inserting
This therapy aims to treat and prevent arange of disorders by improving posture. Australian
'this form of treatment uses
channels, known as meridians, that are linked to internal organs. T'he
actor F. Matthias Alexander (1869-19.S.S) developed the
needles unblock, increase, o
technique when he found that bad posture had caused him to
chemist Rene Gattefossc
needles into the skin at particular points.
'I'hcsc points lie along invisible energy
'
decrease the ow of energy (called Qi) to restore balance and health.
highly concentrated oils extracted from plants. T'he oils can be used in massage, added to baths, or inhaled. E'rench (1881-1950), who treated soldiers
during World War I, was apioneer
lose his voice.
of modern aromatherapy. The acupuncture points on
2.
AfO)rect posture, far right, based on the Alexandtr technique.
each meridian are numbered.
soothing effect
A Y U R V E D A
CHINESE HERBALISM
CHIROPRACTIC
'The oldest system of Indian medicine is Ayurveda, from the Sanskrit word meaning
'I'his natural method of treatment is
Chiropractic relieves pain
“the science of life.” Remedies, mainly
based on restoring the balance of Yin (female) and Yang (male) in the
plants, are chosen for their
body’s energy channels.
ability to harmonize the balance betw'cen apatient
Combinations of herbs are selected
and supplied in the form of tea,
and the basic in uences of
powder, pills, or pastes.
■X.
by manipulating the joints, especially those of the spine. It can be used to
Js.
aid people with disorders of the joints, muscles, and spine. .American David Daniel
life, such as diet, work, and
Palmer (1845-1913) is
In Chinese medicine, the ve elements of xoood, re, earth, metal, and watei- are used in diagnosis.
home life.
Om -the symbol for the life force in Ayuivedic medicine.
1lomeopathy uses aminute dose of a substance that, in large amounts, produces the same symptoms from which the patient is suffering. The aim is to
$:j stimulate the body’s ydefenses, .so they
considered the founder
of modern chiropractic.
ght the
sprays, is used in hydrotherapy to stimulate the body’s pow'cr to heal itself The rst hvdrotherapy center in Britain was founded by aDominican monk, Sebastian Kneipp (1821-97).
disease. Its founder was
German physicist Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843).
When the body’s framew'ork is out of alignment, osteopaths can diagnose and treat disorders. They use their hands to mas.sage and manipulate the joints to restore norma! movement. Osteopathy w'as founded by American d o c t o r A n d r e w Ta v l o r
Hot and cold ivater
Still (1828-1917). ■
sprays stimulate circulation
Hahnemann
^
REFLEXOLOGY
S H I AT S U
Y O G A
In this form of therapy, areas on the feet, knowm as re ex areas, relate to certain parts of the body. By skillful massage of the related area, blockages in the energy channels are released, allowing the affected part of the body to heal. 'Phe practice was developed in the United States by Eunice Ingham (1889-1974).
Shiatsu is aJapanese w'ord meaning “ nger pressure.” T'he therapist uses pressure on hundreds of surface points along the body’s
'Phis well-know'n Hindu system combines physical, mental, and spiritual health. The most common form is Hatha yoga, a
meridians to rebalance the
popularized bv T'okujiro
w//'"
n■ , ,
Namikoshi (1905-94).
Re ex areas
ShouUUrrs and spine out of alignment
course of exercises and
tiuality and (juantity of encrg\’. The system was
Achiropractor checks the spine.
O S T E O PAT H Y
HYDROTHERAPY Water, in the form of hot and cold baths or
H O M E O PAT H Y
Samuel
Rose oil has a
The yin-yang symbol rejmesents harmony or balance in the body.
postures designed to promote physical and mental well¬ being. Yoga has been practiced in India for thousands of years.
The lotus position
Feverfew can help relieve migraines
Plants in medicine
and arthritis.
Wild owers such as evening primrose
●Chinese medicine uses dried seahorse in
{Oenothera biennis) and feverfew (Tanacetum
preparations to treat kidney problems.
Medicine facts
parthenium) arc among the most widely used medicinal herbs. Research has con rmed
evening primrose is used for skin problems.
their power to heal.
●In Ayurvedic medicine, the esh from a pit viper is given to relieve muscular pain.
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135
First aid First aid is the
rst assistance
or treatment given to aperson for any injury or sudden illness,
Learning the a, b, and c
The A(Airway), B(Breathing), and C(Circulation) of any unconscious person must be established within three minutes in order to prevent permanent injury.
before the arrival of an -
»
ambulance, doctor, or other
quali ed help. The main aim of
rst aid is to prevent the injury from becoming worse. Keep the head tilted back.
AIS FOR AIRWAY
BIS FOR BREATHING
CIS FOR CIRCULATION
Airway must be opened and kept open. Tilt the head of the injured person (victim) back and lift the chin forward to open the airway.
Breathing must be established and maintained. If breathing has stopped, then start mouth-tomouth resuscitation by blowing your own expelled air into the victim’s lungs.
Circulation of blood must be maintained. Be sure the heart is
beating by feeling for apulse. If the heart has stopped, chest compressions can be applied, together with arti cial respiration. In the US and Canada, the hand nearest the victim’s feet should be
Recovery position Use two
ngers
to check pulse.
Check for apulse If the heart is beating, there will be apulse
used for compressions.
If an injured child is unconscious but still breathing and has apulse, place her or him in the recovery position. Place foot
Adjust child’s hand under
her
rheek.
Clasp under thigh
at on the
and bend at knee.
ground.
in the neck. 'Filt the head back and feel for
the Adam’s apple with the pads of two ngers. Slide your ngers back into the gap between the windpipe and the muscle that runs beside it. Feel for
V
ve seconds before
deciding that the pulse is absent. Keep this leg straight.
Bend top leg into aright angle to prevent her from rolling forward.
Gall an ambulance or DOCTOR FOR: ●Unexplained drowsiness or loss of consciousness
●Severe bleeding ●Unexplained convulsions of any sort ●Dif culty in breathing ●Severe abdominal pain ●Sudden blurred vision or seeing colored halos around lights
First-aid kit Every home and car should have a rst-aid kit containing items needed for emergency treatment. Keep th
.
box clean and clearly labeled,
First, lay the child on her back and straighten her legs. Bend the arm nearest to you and lay it on the ground with the palm up. Bring the other arm across her chest and hold the palm of your hand against her cheek. Use your free hand to pull her knee up.
Replace items as soon as you use them.
Gently pul! on the thigh of the bent leg, and roll the patient toward you and onto her side. Bend this same leg into aright angle to prevent her from rolling forward. 'Filt her head back to make sure the airway is still open. Call an ambulance.
Home safety facts
Advice note This page supplies some basic information on rst aid. It does not offer complete procedures, and readers are advised to refer to a rst-aid manual for full guidance.
Although most people think of home as the safest place, you are more likely to have an accident in the home than at work or school.
'I'o make the home asafer place: ●Do not use electrical equipment in the b a t h r o o m o r n e a r w a t e r.
Scissors for cutting
●Keep saucepan handles turned inward so they do not hang over the work
bandages
and out of reach of children. Different injuries require avariety of dressings and bandages.
i V v
surface, and use back burners of astove
rst.
●Store dangerous items on ahigh shelf, out of the reach of
Tweezers for
removing splinters
children. Safety pins to hold dressings in place.
Cotton is useful for
●Do not put toxic substances in afamiliar f o o d o r d r i n k c o n t a i n e r.
cleaning wounds.
●Run the cold water into the bath Adhesive bandages protect minor cuts and scrapes while they heal. Eye bath is useful for washing the eye clean of chemicals such as bleach.
keep testing the temperature as you add the hot water. ●Do not hold ahot drink when
you have ababy on your lap. Elastic bandages stretch to provide support for sprained ankles.
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HUMAN BODY
Antiseptic cream protects minor cuts against infection.
●Do not put an iron on the to cool; put it out of reach.
oor
rst, and
LIE
5
Customs, and Society
Focusing on the way we live, this seetion provides detailed faets and gures on religion, politics, philosophy, and money around the world, as well as describing all kinds of strange customs and rituals. Myths and Legends ●Faith Systems ●Other Faiths Great d'hinkers ●Patterns of Family and Society ●Customs and Rituals Celebration and Decoration ●Money ●Politics ●Law and Order
On pages 139 to 143, B.C.E. (Before the Common Era) and C.E. (Common Era) stand for the same dates as B.C. and A.D.
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137
Myths and legends
An AZTEC MYTH QuctzalcoacI, the chief god of the Aztecs, who lived in Central Mexico, took the
LROM ANClEN'l' I’lMES people have invented stories to explain the world around them. Myths
form of afeathered serpent, hie created humans and gave them knowledge, but
then he sailed away on araft of serpents.
help explain events such as how the world was created and why people die, as well as natural
The Aztecs believed that their world
would end upon his return.
phenomena such as the weather. Legends are closely related to myths but may be
This mask, rt^meseiiling Ihegod Qiietzalcnatl, is made of turquoise mosaic.
1based on actual events.
FIGURE OF VENUS
Earth goddess
King Arthur
For thousands of years, people in different parts of the world worshipped images of the Earth Goddess, or Great
Afamous British legend tells how the magic sword Excalibur was
.Mother. As the “mother of the world,”
of the Lake. Another version tells
she was believed to give life to plants,
how he proved himself king by-
given to King .Arthur by the Lady
1hi.s clay tisiirc fro i animals,andhumans,becausethepower r Willendorf, dated 2.S.OOO B.C the future of Austria shows the \enus ot -t -i
Her full gure represents the fertility of the goddess.
humanity, earth goddesses have always played an important role in mythology.
pulling the sword from astone. It
is thought that Arthur may have been areal king or chieftain in ,Sthcentury Britain.
Creation myths
Arthur rualrhes the sword
Excalibur rise from the lake.
Stories that try to answer the mystery
THE
of how the world began are called creation myths.
R AV E N
ANative American myth tells how araven, could
IZANAGl AND IZANAMI
ying over water,
nd nowhere to land. He
dropped pebbles to make
The Japanese thought tltl: Earth was once a shapcle.ss mass. Agod and goddess, Izanagi and Izanami, stirred the mass with along spear. CJradually the mixture thickened and dropped off the spear to form an island. The god and
islands and then created trees. Beasts lived in the forests and sh in the sea. When the raven had made the
rst man and
woman out of wood and clav,
goddess married and had children who became
the world was
the eight islands of Japan.
THE
WORLD
T’hc
Name
Form
Ra (Amun-Ra)
Universal god, takes many forms
Anubis
Jackal or dog
Apis
Bull
Bastet
Cat
Hathor
Cow
Isis
Woman with th ro n e o n h e r h e a d
Khepri
Scarab
Mut
Vulture
Nut
Woman with long body, or cow Mummi ed man
Set, or Seth
Fantastic beast
Sobek
Crocodile
Te f n u t
Lioness
Thoth
Ibis or baboon
/;
features.
l/lun/ (Ayers Rock)
far away in the mystical beginnings of Polynesia.
Mythical beasts 'Ehere are some frightening creatures in mythology that may have been created to represent evil. Some appear as half-human, half-
animal; others take on shapes they can change at will.
Greek and roman mythology The Greeks had 12 main gods and goddesses who cared for different aspects of their life. 'Lhe Romans later adopted many Greek gods as their own, but with new names. Greek
Roman
Zeus
Jupiter
King of the gods, god of thunder
Hera
Juno
Queen of the gods, protector
Aphrodite
Ve n u s
Goddess of beauty and love
Apollo
Apollo
Sun god, and god of prophecy
Ares
Mars
God of war
Artemis
Diana
Goddess of hunting, protector
Role
DEMONS
Demons, or c\ il spirits, arc often shown as grotc.sr|iic beings who haunt cemeteries and force people to commit \iolcnc acts, d'hey appear in various forms in the religions of rhe world, sometimes with cloven feet, horns, and along tail.
MA This gure sliows a gorgon, afemale monster
of women
Athena
Minerva
Goddess of wisdom and war
Demeter
Ceres
Goddess of fertility and of fruit and crops
Hephaestus
^from (ircck mythology, f e w i l d l i a d s n a k e s f o r l i a i r.
fv)
y.MediLsa is the most famous of tile three
\
Ygorgons. Even after she
W^was beireaded by Perseus, her head still had tlic
.
r
m
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place to the Aboriginals. Paintings in rock
of animals and children
Osiris
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Uluru, Australia, is aspecial
Zealand, is where spirits of the dead depart for 1lawaiki,
MONSTERS
138 fi
from at the Last Supper.
Gape Reinga, New
above the water. Alarge bird called the Great Cacklcr alighted on the land and laid the world egg, which brought the rst life.
Gods in Egypt often had ahuman body and the head of an animal or bird to represent their power.
where the power of the Earth Spirit is strong. Glastonbury Tor, England, is one of the reputed resting places of the Holy CJrail, the cup Christ drank
who formed its
■e S
rst dry land -aprimeval mound -rose
Egyptian mythology
MoLint Shasta, California, is aNative American site
journeys of the ancestral beings
EGG
In Egyptian mythology, life began from water.
Sacred sites
shelters show the
complete.
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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY
©
^power to turn anyone v-ho looked at it into stone.
Vulcan
God of
Hermes
re
Mercury
Messenger god, god of travelers
Hestia
Ve s t a
Goddess of the hearth and home
Poseidon
Neptune
God of the sea
FA I T H S Y S T E M S
Faith systems FaIT'H systems ARK sets of
beliefs that help to explain some of the mysteries of life and death. Most people who have a faith believe in either one god or several gods.
Division of major faiths by geographic area
Figures are given in percentages. (L.A. =Latin America. N.A. =North America) Faith
Africa
Asia
Europe
L.A.
Christianity
17.9
15.6
22.55
23.75
Islam
28.66
65.56
1.30
0.14
Hinduism
0.2
99.37
0.1
Buddhism
0.01
99.42
Sikhism
0.14
Judaism
1.89
N.A.
Oceania
Eurasia
To t a l
1.2
6.0
(100%)
0.29
0.01
4.04
(100%)
0.1
0.17
0.059
0.001
(100%)
0.08
0.17
0.18
0.01
0.13
(100%)
97.2
1.2
0.05
1.36
0.05
0.00
(100%)
31.35
8.24
6.13
39.29
0.55
12.55
(100%)
13.0
To p s i x f a i t h s Faith
Number of followers
Christianity
1,833 million
Islam
971 million
Hinduism
733 million
Buddhism
315 million
Sikhism
13.5-16 million
Judaism
13-14.3 million
World percentages T'his bar chart shows the percentage distribution of the major world faiths. The gure for “Others” includes those who do not follow afaith system. 71
History of religions (Before the Common Kra) and (^.K. ((Common Kra) stand for the same dates as B.Ch and A.I).
^Judaism /C.2000 B.C.E.
C.1200 B.C.E.
Judaism
Sikhism
Buddhism
Hinduism
Islam
Others
Christianity
0 . 3 %
0.3%
5 . 7 %
13.4%
17.7%
29.2%
33.4%
z
587 B.C.E.
C.900 B.C.E.
■1
c.2000 B.C.E.
c.1200 B.C.E. Hebrews settle in
Abraham, patriarch of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, is born in Ur, in present-day Iratp
931 B.C.E. Hebrew
Canaan, mainly present-day Israel, after the Hxodus from K^ypt.
the
rst
ve books of
the Bible, is written.
i A
0Islam
kini^dom divides into Israel and Judah. c . 9 0 0 B . C . E . To r a h .
*
587
B.C.E.
rN
C.E. 70 Herod’s
Herod’s
i\\ Temple
Jerusalem, in present-day Israel, is captured by the Babylonians and the Jews sent into exile.
7
C.E. 70
Temple, Jerusalem, is destroyed by the Romans, d'oday, only the Western Wall remains.
1
C.2000 B.C.E.
/C.E. 570
7
c.C.E. 622
C.2000 B.C.E. Abraham
C.E. ,S70-632
c.C.E. 610-632
and his son, Ishmael, build Ka'ba, an Islamic shrine, in Mecca (Makkah), in presentday Saudi Arabia.
Muhammad, the last and most important Islamic prophet, is born
Koran {Qtir'an), the Islamic scriptures, is
Muhammad goes to
revealed to Muhammad
Saudi Arabia. 'This
in Mecca.
by the angel Gabriel.
marks the beginning of
Mecca, Saudi Arabia C.1700 B.C.E.
C.1400 B.C.E.
c.1750 B.C.E.
c.1700 B.C.E.
Beginning of Hinduism
Hindu beliefs are
in India is in uenced by the Aryan people, who v\’orship many gods.
revealed to the ris/iis. or holy men, and passed on by word
U D D H I S M
of mouth.
c.1400 B.C.E. Rig Veda, the earliest and most important book of _the Vedas, which contain Hindu beliefs, is written.
The rishis
C.563 B.C.E.
C.100 B.C.E.
c.563-483 B.C.E.
c.lOO B.C.E. The Pali
Siddharta Gautama, later known as Buddha, founder of Buddhism,
Canon, or Tripitaka
lives in northeast India.
Buddhists, is written.
(three baskets), the holy book of'Fheravada
TChristianity z
Medina, in present-day
t h e I s l a m i c c a l e n d a r.
^Hinduism C.1750 B.C.E.
c.C.E. 622
Mgod,the
Wmasculine
^form of Brahman
7
e.C.E. 20-200 The Sutras (collections of sayings), the earliest holy books of Mahayana Buddhists, is written.
r
n
r
C.1300 Shwe Dagon Pagoda, major Buddhist temple, is built in Rangoon in Burma. It is said to
3^
Slave Dagon Pagoda
contain the hairs of Buddha.
4
V. 5
c.4 B.C.E. Jesus
e.C.E.30,Iesusis
c.C.E. 40-100
C.1506 St. Peter’s
Christ, founder of (ilhristianity, is born in Bethlehem, in present-
cruci ed on across.
N e w Te s t a m e n t o f t h e
'I'hree days later he is
(diristian Bible is
Basilica, amajor Christian church, is
raised from the dead
dav Israel.
(the Resurrection).
written. Christianity spreads throughout the Roman empire
llie Cruci xion
1 r
Jeremy Bentham
G . W. F. H e g e l (1770-1831), German idealist, says that the
(1748-1832), English utilitarian, judges an action to be right by the
# 1
historc- of events and
extent to which it
thoughts is aprocess of con ict, which will lead to
promotes happiness or minimizes pain.
i
f
Existentialism Belief that the individual has free will and must
take responsibility for his or her actions in aworld where there are
no de nite rights or wrongs.
f
Schopenhauer
1770
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche
(1844-1900), German philosopher, argues that people are driven in life by the “will to pow'er,” and that society will evolve into arace of “supermen.” He rejects Christianity, and in uences the Nazi party.
/:!
live and behave.
wdthoLit reason.
1.4
Hegel 1748
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), German idealist, saw art as the only escape from aworld
r
an inevitable conclusion.
Empiricism Belief that all knowledge is based on experience. At birth, the mind is ablank sheet, on which experience then makes Epistemology Study of the theory of knowledge: what knowledge is, how we come to know things, how much we can hope to know, etc. Ethics Study of moral systems, or ideas about how people ought to
1632
1596
and the mental.
its mark.
John Locke
Descartes
m
are two distinct types of substance in the world: the physical
cannot doubt the existence of
our own thoughts.
:
i
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German philosopher, develops the basic ideas of phenomenology (descriptions of human experience).
Idealism Belief that the world is in
some way created by the mind. Idealists do not deny that the world exists, but deny that it can be separated from aperson’s perception of it.
Logic Series of statements that necessarily follow from each o t h e r. A l s o c a l l e d a c h a i n o f reasoning.
Materialism Belief that everything that exists is either matter
Nietzsche's “Ubermenschen ”('‘.supermen")
(substance), or is dependent on matter for its existence.
1844
Metaphysics Study of principles of
1859
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-86),
Michel Foucault
French existentialist and founder
(1926-84), French philosopher, looks at ways in which ‘
of modern feminist philosophy. Willard van Orme Quine (born
the individual is
1908), American pragmatist,
controlled by
points out inconsistencies in early analytic philosophy.
Jacques Derrida (born 1930), French founder of deconstructionism, which rejects the idea of any xed truths in language and p h i l o s o p h y.
society's rules. Michel Foucault
SimoJie de Beauvoir 1906
1908
Philosophy facts ●Pythagoras refused to eat beans,
since he believed they had souls. ●Knglish philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) died of
pneumonia, caught while stuf ng a dead chicken with snow on
Hampstead Ileatli, London, in an early attempt to preserve it by refrigeration. ●'The most in uential philosopher of the 20th century, Ludwig Wittgenstein, published one work
●In his will, Jeremy Bentham left his body to University College, London. His corpse was preserved and dressed, and crowned with awax head. Hie
corpse was kept in aglass case, along with his real head, which
1930
was mummi ed. Bentham’s
dressed corpse is still on display at the university. ●Rene Descartes was tutor to
the Swedish monarch Queen Christina (1626-89). She made
him give her philosophy lessons at dawn, even though she knew of his preference for lying in bed and meditating until 11 o’clock in the morning.
person’s mind; the opposite of s u b j e c t i v i t y. Pragmatism Apractical view of philosophy: the truthfulness of usefulness of its results. Rationalism Belief that reason
alone, w'ithout any reliance on experience, can reveal the basic truths of the Universe, and that everything can be explained by a single system. Realism Belief, usually contrasted with idealism, that physical objects exist independently of the mind. Relativism Belief that there arc no
universal standards or truths; usually arejection of absolute rights and w'rongs.
Skepticism Belief that nothing can be known for certain.
Subjectivity Existence inside a person’s mind; the opposite of objectivity.
●LIntil the 18th and 19th
Solipsism Belief that the only
centuries, the term
Utilitarianism Belief that
“philosophy” included many
Tmeh/tus Loffcn-philosophicus were written in the trenches during
branches that have since
was on sentry duty.
Existence outside a
an idea is seen in terms of the 1926
in his lifetime. Parts of his
World War I(1914-18), while he
nature, such as being, identity, substance, time, and space. Objectivity
become areas of study in their own right: physics, biology, mathematics, and engineering.
reality is inside your owm mind. actions arc right if they result in happiness, wrong if they
rT--"'
result in
unhappiness.
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145
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY
Patterns of family
Dreaming Aboriginal Australians
AND SOCIETY
believe the land
and all the living creatures
Every human society (community of people) in the world is based on the family. Types of fomily and marriage arrangements, however, vary from one society to the next. Organization and living habits can also be very different, according to how and where people live and work.
were
formed by spirit ancestors in the dawn of time called the
Dreaming.
Aboriginal Rainbow Snake Dreaming
Kinship Key
Kinship is away of describing bonds between people of the same family. Afamily may be de ned as just parents and children, or it may include other types of relatives.
Family
= M a l e
WORDS
=Female
^Ancestor
Ancestor An earlier member of the
family.
7
Clan Afamily group Great
Grand¬
Grand¬
Grand¬
Grand¬
Great
aunt
father
mother
father
mother
uncle
descended from a Husband
Wife
Daughter Son
common
/
X
X
X
7 Grand-
Uncle
Mother
Father
X
Ego
*
EGO-FOCUSED
Husband
Aunt
daughter son
X
X Sister
Grand¬
X Grand¬
Grand-
daughter
s o n
Wife
X X
Grea
G r e a t
Great
Great
grand
grand¬ daughter
grand-
grand¬ daughter
s o n
KINSHIP
s o n
ANCESTOR-FOCUSED
X
This is called ego-focused kinship.
Lineage Aline of family relations.
Marriage Alegal bond between two
people. Tr i b e A g r o u p o f people linked to an
KINSHIP
People can trace their roots to aknown ancestor who starts
People can use themselves as the starting point from which to construct afamily tree. T’hey trace their roots back as far as they can through both their fathers’ and mothers’ families.
ancestor.
Dowry’ Awedding payment from the bride to the groom.
a n c e s t o r .
off the family tree.This is called ancestor-focused kinship and is found, for example, in Scottish clans where everymne shares
We s t e r n s o c i e t y People living in
the same last name.
industrialized areas.
Descent The system linking families to their ancestors is called descent. Inheritance of family property and titles is based on rules of descent.
Green line shows
Orange line
patrilineal line of
shows matrilineal
descent
line of descent ^
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
PAT R I L I N E A L D E S C E N T Descent traced through the male line
M AT R I L I N E A L D E S C E N T
is called patrilineal descent. The Duke
descent through female relatives. Many tribal societies, such as that
Matrilineal families trace their
of Westminster inherited his title as
the Duke of Westminster, aBritish aristonat
of the Trobriand Islanders of the
rst-born son -afeature of atype Trobriand Island mother and child
of European patrilineal descent.
southwestern Paci c, are matrilineal.
Households Ahousehold is a K 1 E CIE;
group of people who live together as a family. I'he number of people in afamily household can vary widely around the
'-f
■m
'M V
m
world; so can the
w
way in which members of a
household organize family life and bring up their children.
Kibbutzim
In communities in Israel called kibbutzim families live and work together, helping to
bring up each others’ children.
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146 t
^ J i
Extended family In many tribal societies several generations of the same family live together and share the responsibility for domestic duties.
Nuclear family
Anthropologists use the term nuclear family to mean ahousehold consisting of two
parents who bring up their own children.
Marriage records
Traditional brides
LARGEST GROUP WEDDING
Brides who want atraditional
Exogamy Marriage between members
PLUNGE On September 13, 1991,
was between 60,000 members of the Uni cationist Church on
wedding can choose from many different styles of out t.
of adifferent family or elan.
Dustin and Becca Webster
Monogamy Marriage of one man to
of California completed their wedding by diving
August 25, 1992, in the Seoul Olympic Stadium, Korea.
Endogamy Marriage between members of the same family or elan.
one wife.
Bigamy Marriage of one man to tw'o
husbands at the same time.
Polyandry Marriage of one woman to several husbands at the same time.
inMav 1981.
Polygyny Marriage of one man to
MOST MARRIED MAN
several wives at the same time.
Sororate Remarriage of aman to his
Western brides
wear along dress A\and veil in white, symbolizing purity and
from 1949 to 1981.
d e a d w i f e ’ s s i s t e r.
Wedding customs
Marriage and divorce Divorces 197
per year 1991
US
9.9
9.4
5.0
4.73
Japan
8.5
6.0
1.1
1.27
New Zealand
8.0
6.8
1 . 6
2.7
Australia
7.8
6.8
1.3
2.49
France
7.1
5.0
1.0
1.87
Cuba
7.0
15.0
2.4
4.05
Italy
6.7
5 . 4
0.3
0.48
Sweden
5 . 5
4 . 7
2 . 7
2.20
Guatemala
4.1
5.3
0.1
0.18
U K
7.7
2.0
●In Egypt the bride’s father signs her wedding
-
traditional kimono. This contrasts with the
eontract while she sits
black costumes
alone in aseparate room.
of the brides’ attendants.
●Japanese couples take three sips of sake (rice wine) to complete their wedding ceremony.
Hindu
if
^nd both bride and
●Jewish couples do not rst
Society
Asymbol is something, such as an object, asign, or amark, that stands for something else. All the symbols shown below have a clear meaning.
TYPES Work and home life in uence how
people live. City dwellers Many city dwellers live in apartment buildings or housing developments.
b o n d t o e a c h o t h e r.
brides
wear ared dress
o .
Symbols
Wedding ring
Japanese brides may dre.ss in a brightly colored
seven times around a re.
gave pieces of wedding cake to guests.
Awedding ring is worn by both the bride and the groom to show their
dates from the
^19th centLirv.
●Indian couples tie their clothes together and walk
●Ancient Romans
( gures given per thousand people)
innocence. This custom
●Greek Orthodox couples wear wedding crowns linked by ared ribbon.
S TAT I S T I C S per year 1991
and pearls.
New York, who married 104 times in 15 different countries,
h e r d e a d h u s b a n d ’ s b r o t h e r.
197
aveil made from feathers
was Giovanni Vigliotto from
Eevirate Remarriage of awoman to
Marriages
dress of pierced metal strips, often silver, with
Mohammed, son of Sheik Rashid Bin Saeed Al Maktoum, and Princess Salama, in Dubai,
woman to several wives or several
Country
may wear a traditional head¬
was 20 million dollars for
swimming pool.
Polygamy Marriage of one man or one
Chinese brides
MOST EXPENSIVE WEDDING
70ft (21.30m) into a
wives or one woman to two husbands.
eat or drink on their
wedding day until the
/.i
ceremony is over.
L'-J
groom wear colorful garlands of
A owe rs aro Li nd their necks.
Society words Rural People who live and work in the countryside. Urban People who live and work in towns or cities.
Suburban People who live on the edges of alarge city. Migrant People who have moved from one region ro another, or one country to another.
The Scout Association
'The symbol of the Scout \ssociation stands for this worldwide movement for
boys and girls, which started in 1908.
Hunter-gatherers Hunters and gatherers live in small groups of .several families. They move home from one
place to another in search of wild animals
US Navy
and plants to eat.
Commander
Three equal lace stripes on the sleeve are worn by US Navy commanders. Pastoral nomads
Olympic rings Five colored rings are the symbol that stands for the International
Olympic Committee.
Nomads arc groups of people who have no xed home, but who move with their animals
from one grazing ground t o a n o t h e r.
One world Different societies’ customs can travel all over the world via
lm and television. ACampa Indian boy from Peru now enjoys agame with afrisbec.
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.
Ta k i n g t h e
Marriage types
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PATTERNS OF FAMILY AND SOCIETY
Customs and rituals
The JAPANESE TEA CEREMONY In Japan, drinking tea is along-established
Throughout 'i hr world, different societies have their own traditions for marking important events such as the birth of achild, or the harvesting of
ritual that is based V
crops, d'hese traditions ate called customs and
1^ on the teachings of
Z e n B u d d h i s m . Te a
“is prepared and served
rituals, and many are based around the cycles of nature, and the mystery of life and death.
in aspecial tea room or tea house.
Birth rites
Death rites
Birth and death facts
The Azande people of the Sudan gently wave newborn babies through smoke to protect them against witchcraft and to help them grow up strong and healthy.
'I'raditional 'I’aoist (see p.14.1) funerals involve the burning of imitation money. The smoke will carry it to the dead to spend
●Many Christian babies are baptised in
in afuture life.
holy water in achurch font.
●Jewish baby boys are circumcised eight days after birth. ●Romany gypsies press agold ring against their baby’s hand to bring it wealth. ●Pregnant women in New Guinea live alone until their baby is born. ●Death rites in Melanesia last for several
years, until the deceased becomes an
ancestor.
●Chinese cof ns are painted white to give ithe dead ahappy future life. Azande birth rites
Taoisl funeral
Greetings
Initiation rites
Agreeting is ameans of friendly communication, between two or more people.
t v
Initiation is arite to welcome adolescents
into adulthood in many traditional societies.
Kf --
'Fhe White Mountain
Wf
Apache from North America perform a ritual for teenage girls, called the Sunrise Dance.
Handshake
B o w
Nose
rub
Wa v e
The gripping and shaking of hands is a formal greeting around
Bowing is agreeting in the Far East, showing politeness by lowering
This Maori greeting is called a/loiigi. It is usually made on
Afriendly waving of the
the world.
the head.
ceremonial occasions.
around the world.
hand and arm means
hello or goodbye, all
1Ground-up plants and colored rocks are daubed over
the girl’s head with a brush made from
plant stalks.
Gestures Agesture is an action that sends avisual signal to
f.\ i':
2'The girl kneels
a n o n l o o k e r.
facing the sun, acting out the legend of the creation of the First Woman.
Thumbs up Raising the thumb is a friendly gesture. It is asign of approval, or that all is going well.
Vfor victory This victory' gesture was made famous by
■S i r W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l
during World War II.
Ssshh!
Beautiful!
A nger pressed to the lips is aworldwide sign meaning “keep quiet” or “keep this asecret.”
This Native American
gesture means beauty. It combines the signs for “good” and “looking.”
Finally, as a woman, she is given the powers of agoddess for four days.
4-leaf clover
Charms People keep or carry certain objects to bring them good luck or to /
Pocket-sized Buddhas arc
charms worldwide.
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Aclove of garlic has many powers: it cures warts and keeps vampires away!
^is said to bring
H Horseshoe
^Hanging a Whorseshoe
good luck.
doorway brings good luck to
Cork
the household.
&coin
Acoin wedged into a
popular good-luck
148
Garlic
Finding arare 3four-leaf clover
over the
ward off evil.
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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY
champagne
un: cork acts as a
vi:!.'.?, I
lucky charm.
Charm
bracelet
T'his chain holds
avariety of tiny lucky charms.
OB «
Sugar skull 'This lucky candy is eaten during the Mexican Day of the Dead Festival.
C E L E B R AT I O N A N D D E C O R AT I O N
Celebration facts
Celebration and
●Dragon Boat Festival of China is held to give thanks for food and water in the dry
D E C O R AT I O N
season, with races of decorated boars.
●On Thanksgiving Day in the US and Canada, families sit down to aspecial meal
Celebrations that involve the whole
in celebration of the harvest.
community mark events
●Diwali Festival in India celebrates the
harvest with decorative lights and offerings to Lakshmi, Hindu goddess of prosperity.
such as the passing of the seasons and holy
●Inti Raymi is the Peruvian Festival of the Sun god. Inti, held in an Inca fortress.
days. These events contain amixture of
●'Fhe Rio de Janeiro Carnival is amass parade of costume and dance, based on the
customs, using music, dance, and costume.
Christian celebration of the end of Lent. Mexican Day of the Dead Festival ^Wimple
Dress codes
Eye-slits
T
W'earing certain items of clothing helps to identify what aperson is or does. Mortarboard
Nun’s
Arab
habit
burka
Graduate’s gown
Nuns wear a
'I'hc burka is a
College students wear ablack gown
plain robe
single length of cloth worn by
called ahabit.
and ahat called a mortarboard at
their graduation
Arab women.
rheir head is
b o d y, e x c e p t for the eyes.
awimple.
c e r e m o n y.
Rio de Janeiro Carnival
It covers the
covered bv a hood called
Dancing for .ioy Dancing is one of the earliest known
Devil mask
activities of humankind. Some dances are To q u e
Bearskin ,
Bolivian dancer’s
Welsh
m a s k
C-hefs wear
'I'his Devil mask is
Various army regiments, such as
Guard
Chef
worn as part of the
the Welsh Guards,
colorful costume
wear ceremonial
clothing they call their whites,
at the annual
uniforms topped by hats made of
and atall white
Diablada Festival in Bolivia.
h t ! a r f u r.
atociLic.
purely for fun; others are important rituals.
swhites
starched white
cloth hat called Aritual
tnbal
dance
The jitterbug;, popular in the. US in the 194(Fs.
from Kenya.
Body
Most
d e c o r a t i o n Decorative jewelry and body scars are part of aperson’s appearance. Each
t a t t o o s Tom Leppard, a Scotsman, has
leopard skin Earring Aring through the ear
Lip plug Kaiapo men from the
draw's attention to the
Brazilian Amazon wear a
about what makes
Forehead spot Hindu women paint a red spot on their forehead called a
a.s asymbol of wisdom.
eyes and adds to the beauty of the face.
wooden lip plug to
the body beautiful.
society, however, has different ideas
tattoos covering
99.2% of his body.
decorate their mouths.
I >
Cosmetic surgery 'Fhe three most popular cosmetic surgery operations in the US in 1990 were: Scari
cation
Samoan tattoo
Many African tribal people decorate their face and body with scars to add to their beauty.
Men from the Paci c islands of Samoa are
tattooed all over the body as asign of manliness.
Punk jewelrv' Safety pins and ocirer unusual objects are worn as jcweliy' for their startling effect.
Sikh hand-painting Sikh brides paint decorative patterns on their hands w'ith dye from the henna plant.
Women
Men
(87% of all operations)
(13% of all operations)
Liposuction
Nose reshaping
Breast enlargement
Eyelid surgery
Collagen injection
Liposuction
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149
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY
Money Money comes in the form of cash, which
consists of coins and banknotes. Anything that represents cash, such as the computer records of abank account, acheck, or a
Early money
The
'I'he oldest recorded use of money was in ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq), about 4,.S00 years ago. Inscribed tablets describe payments made with weighed amounts of silver. Other early forms of money include cowrie shells, used in ancient Egypt, and feather money
The
on Santa Cruz
credit card, is also money. Today, many people prefer to pay for things with cards
island. Paci c
rather than carry around cash.
Banknotes i■' h a v e
complicated designs with special security features, to make it as dif cult as possible for forgers to copy them. The four main stages of making a banknote are design, papermaking, ink-mixing, and printing. When the notes are printed, three separate processes are used.
and silver called
clectrum. They were stamped at mints to con rm their weight and value. 'Foday, most cheaper metals. Burnisher for
Paper money
extremely
were made 2,700 years ago in Lydia, lYirkey, from amixture of gold
coins are made out of
V
Ocean.
rst coins rst known coins
Sharp burins
smoothing
Paper money -banknotes -was invented by the Chinese in the 10th century. People tired of carrs'ing coins around and left them with merchants instead. I N TA G L I O
Merchants provided vouchers (receipts) for the money and people exchanged the vouchers among themselves, rather than turn them back into cash
E N G R AV I N G The features of the note
arc engraved onto asteel place by hand, using special sharp tools, called burins. The engraved area
t m t
BACKGROUND
I
DESIGN
3
T'lii.s tic.sign u.scs eight different colored inks. First, these arc printed on three sheets in groups
is then inked.
of colors: blues,
yellows, and
SKETCHES
reds.
.An artist makes two preliminary sketches for the note: the
V
rst one
shows the main features; the second shows the backgrotind details.
SECURITY
THREAD
Banknote paper is made _ with aplastic thtead
/
●scaled inside it i j L "
This feature is yTy"”'’:
'b'
extremely dif cult for forgers to copy.
Position of main features Inks for each color
number on each banknote.
group are combineef on asingle sheet.
FINISHED NOTE 'This type of specimen banknote is produced by the company,
;
Colored
mBMAS-DEIARBE
Money records BIGGEST MINT
in the world is in Philadelphia, US, where 15 billion coins are
T'homas dc La Rue, to show to its customers
background
NUMBERING Numbering barrels print adifferent serial
m a d e e a c h v e a r.
all over the world.
FIRST CREDIT CARD
Amazing money
World’s richest people
The people of Yap, aI’aci c island, used large stone disks for money. I'he largest was
(excluding heads of state) Name
Country U S
Discount store chain
big as two adults standing on
Mars family
U S
Confectionery (sweets)
each other ’s shoulders.
Du Pont family
U S
Nylon and Lycra
Pausing Brothers
Sweden
Packaging
Yo s h i a k i Ts u t s u m i
Japan
Land, railroads, leisure
Bill Gates
U S
Computer software
●'I'hc ancient Greeks put a silv'cr coin into the mouths of
corpses. 'I'he purpose was to pay the ferryman, Charon, to carry
collect coins. Gold coins arc the
oldest and most precious.
smashed to extract the money.
●Numismatists are people who
.
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150
●Forgers try to make copies of notes and pass them off as genuine. Forgers are highly skilled professional criminals. ●“Piggy banks” have been used for saving money since the 14th century. 'Fhe rst pigs were made of clay and had to be
their souls across the River .Styx.
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Business
Walton family
Money facts
fi
card enabled the
rst 200
members to eat on credit at 27
about 12ft (3.7m) across -as
fi
was the Diners Club card, issued in the US in 1950. The
N e w Yo r k r e s t a u r a n t s . G R E AT E S T G O L D R E S E R V E S
are held by the United States at Fort Knox, Kentucky. 'Fhe gold bars are stored in bomb¬ proof vaults, surrounded by armed guards.
5:
iffeliyy .
n
■- “ 3 ,
Fort Knox
Banks
M
Most people nd it convenient to keep their money in abank. The bank keeps arecord of how much each person takes out or puts into their account. 'I’his information is printed out in the
i
Banking facts
●Checks, C
●Automatic teller machines
written instructions to
allow people to withdraw money hours aday. ●Banks today arrange insurance, pensions, and mortgages (loans to buy houses), as well as keeping money safe.
f-'J
d.
Automatk leller machine
^ V'-
■i
\VI
n o r t h e r n I t a l y.
Financial words
People can invest in acompany by buying shares (stocks) in it. If the company makes a pro t, the shareholders arc entitled to some of it. Share prices can rise or fall according to the company’s performance. Share prices are displayed in the nancial sections of
Company
Accountant .A person who keeps
Price Weekly change
line! checks nancial records for a person or business Credit An amount of money made available to make purchases on the basis that they will be paid for later.
+ / Birch Inleriors
69
C.un/i Properties
44
.MARKET
-2
46
+2
Kruger Corpoivuion
162
+7
Shaw .-Associates
121
Kennedy 1loldings PI.C
newspapers. STOCK
'"I iu. ■>
K
●Banking began in the 14th century, in Lombardy,
Stocks and shares
THE
r-jp^
make payments, \ can be written on I anything, even acow.
from their bank accounts 24
form of abank statement.
Crash Avery quick and huge drop
in the price of shares, causing people to lose agreat deal of m o n e y .
'I'hc stock market is aplace where shares are bought and sold. People who want to invest in acompany
Dividend Share of acompany’s pro ts that is paid out to
Shares listing (imaginan) as shown in many nnospapers
cmploy astockbroker who buys and sells the shares
shareholders.
for them. 'The activity of astock market refects the
Exchange rale I'hc amount of one country's currency needed to buy a xed amount of another country’s
economic performance and prospects of acountry.
Key stock exchanges
currency.
Index
City
Country
Merchant bank .A bank that deals
Japan
Tokyo
Nikkei Average
in tlnance and loans for businesses.
United States
N e w Yo r k
Doiw-Jones
Share index Shows the price of selected shares being traded.
United Kingdom
London
FTSE-100'
Stoekbroker/Broker
Germany
Frankfurt
DAX-
of astock exchange who buys and
Amember
sells shares.
●Financial Times Slock Exchange 100
Takeover When one company b u v s a n o t h e r.
*● Deutsche Aklien Index
Exchange
Foreign currency Every country has its own money, or currency. Some currencies hold their value
longer than others because they re ect the economic strength of the country. Stable, widely traded currencies are known as hard currency. Dealers buy and sell them on foreign currency markets.
Key hard currencies Currency
Country France
Franc
Germany
Deutschmark
Japan
Ye n
Switzerland
Swiss franc
United Kingdom
Pound sterling
United States
US dollar
Currency
In ation rc.siilts when prices increase and the purchasing power of money decreases. \’ery rapid price rises, called ’‘hyperin ation,” took place in Germany between 1921 was worth so little that children
used banknotes for building blocks. Cmnan in ation, 1923
Nearly every country has its own money, or currency. Usually each currency can be broken down into 100 smaller units. Currencies are worth different amounts, as you can see from the cost of an ounce (28.35g) of gold in each currency in this table. Country
Galloping inelation
and 192,1. At this time, money
Currency values (1994)
Va l u e
Cost for an
ounce of gold Chile
Peso
100 centavos
China
Yuan
100 fen, 10 jiao
3,480
Ethiopia
Birr
100 cents
2,400
Germany
Deutschmark
100 pfennigs
India
Rupee
100 paise
164,800
To d a y ’ s m o n e y
CHARGE
Increasingly, plastic cards are taking the place of cash and
You cun pay for something with a charge card at astore or pay for goods o\‘cr the phone. 'Fhc credit company
CARDS
cheeks as aform of payment.
records all transactions and sends abill
Banks, credit companies, and
each month.
stores issue credit, or charge,
cards. 'Ehese allow people to buy things and pay for them
4MVetls
later. The latest cards, smart
cards, use microchips to store information
j;‘ ■araaiaQaaca asscPoi^SL ■ i 0 8 5 0
418: J
640 12,400
Japan
Ye n
100 sen
Papua New Guinea
Kina
100 toea
Poland
Zloty
100 groszy
8,960,000
United Kingdom
Pound
100 pence
267
U S
Dollar
100 cents
400
40,000 380
SMART
CARDS
Money from abank
ViSA
account can be
SuperSmart Card
i t l l T B m N
be used to pay for many things, from goods in stores to electricity bills.
Charge cards
transferred onto asmart card. This card can then
Ax,,
O
m
m
Smart card
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MONEY
i
Politics is concerned with the organization of
Democracy means “rule by the people.” Democratic traditions of debate and voting
society. Political parties are groups of people who agree about the way in which acountry should be run and who seek to gain power in government.
rst appeared 2,500 years ago in the ancient Greek city-state of Athens. Aregidar general assembly was held where every male citizen was free to speak and vote. Daily running of the city was in the hands of an elected
Political systems
slaves, however, were not allowed to vote.
W'--
“Council of Five Hundred.” Women and
Every political system has acentral authority called agovernment that is responsible for organizing the duties of the state. 'The most
common form of government in the world today is the presidential
Pericles, leader of Alhens al the height of its power
system. This system has three branches.
r - i i
Bill Clinton is sxoorn in as US President.
US CoHf^ess, Washington D.C.
US Supreme Court, Washington D.C.
PRESIDENT
L E G I S L AT U R E
J U D I C I A R Y
In apresidencial system, an elected president is
T'he legislature is an assembly of elected representatives. Every new law must be pa.sscd by this assembly. Ir may propose laws itself and votes on those proposed by the president. In most presidential systems, the legislature is composed of two assemblies, or houses. In the US, the legislature is called Congress.
T'he judiciary is alegal body that reviews the
the head of state and chief executive. Ile or she
proposes new laws and sends them to the
legislature, which may or may not pass them, and can also refuse to pass laws proposed by the legislature. T'he president is (A)mmander-in-
Chief of the army and controls foreign policy.
laws passed by the legislature and ensures that
they are in line with the country’s written Constitution. In the US, the highest legal body is the Supreme C^ourt. It can judge the activities of the executive and legislative branches, and reverse judicial decisions made by lower courts.
Political facts
US State Departmeni
E X E C U T I V E
I'lic president, its chief e.xceutive, is rcspon.sibic for the administration of
●The word “government”
the state and for putting into practice new acts of lav\'. ile or she appoints
giihernare. meaning “to steer.'
the heads of the many administrative departments sueli as Defen.se. 'I’rade, lAliication, Agriculture, and .State.
●In .Switzerland, voting in elections is compulsory -it is regarded as every citizen’s duty.
comes from the latin word
●The terms right and left wing come from France’s Assembly of the 1790s: conservatives sat on
the right of the speaker’s chair, and reformers sat on its left.
●Until the 1980s, Soviet leaders PA R L I A M E N TA RY
SYSTEM
were able to rule Communist
-3S!' if
● a
USSR as virtual dictators -with
In aparliamentary system, political aetix ity focuses on an assembly where
●-
more power than US presidents.
I
matters are debated and laws are
passed. Citizens elect members to act as their representatives. In Britain, the political party with the largest number
Political records
of members elected to the House of
MAKING
Ciommons forms the gox ernment. T'he leader of that party becomes the Prime
is the Althing in Iceland. It was
OLDEST
M i n i s t e r, o r c h i e f e x e c u t i x ' e . A l l
executive power is held by the Prime Minister and his or her cabinet.
During debates in the British House of Commons, the leaders of the government and opposition stand at two sw'ords’ lengths from each other. This is asymbol of the parliamentary rule that members should never use violence to solve
RECORDED
LAW¬
BODY
French
AssendAs,
C.I865'
OLDEST
which was written in 1787. LARGEST
consisted of 40 local priest-
is the National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China.
1800 but then restored in 1843.
Communism
C O M M U N I S M
political and economic system, which he called Communism, in which all property is owned by the
Under
communitv and everyone shares in the country’s wealth.
the factories
In 1917, the U.S.SR became the rst communist state. Wealth
' i i i u r
Communism, workers own and share
their pro ts equally.
was shared more or less equally communist state, asingle party, the .Soviet Communist party, wielded total power and was able
C A P I TA L I S M Under
capitalism, afew people own all (he
t o u s e i t u n f a i r l y.
factories, hut
Communist magazine, showing aworker smashing the chains oj capitalism.
pro ts with
do not share
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LAW-MAKING
German thinker Karl Marx (1818-83) devised anew
kMlITFPf HH011A/\ Jbut. unlike Marx’s ideal
LS2
CONSTITUTION
.still in use is that of the US,
formed in about A.D. 9,30 and chieftains. It was abolished in
Ilouse of Commons -the political focus of Parliament and of British democracy
Peaceful parliament
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The birth of democracy
Politics
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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY
the workers.
BODY
POLITICS
Political organizations
Political words
AND PRESSURE GROUPS Throughout the world, people and
Anarchism Movement in favor of the abolition of the state.
countries with shared interests form
Cabinet Group of advisors to a
organizations to promote and defend their
head of state.
interests. Some, such as the United
Capitalism Economic system where invested capital (accumulated wealth) and pro t-
Nations, the Arab League, and the
European Community, are concerned with
makingdrives industry.
the common interests of member states.
Coalition 'Temporary alliance
Others, such as the environmental group Greenpeace and the human rights group Amnesty International, devote themselves to aparticular cause.
Voting People hold elections to choose people to represent them. Each person usually casts one vote, and the candidate who receives the most votes is elected to of ce. This system is used in electing one representative for each constituency. An alternative system, proportional representation, allocates the seats in numbers proportional to the total number of votes given for each party.
between different parties for combined action.
Members of Greenpeace protest against plans for anuclear power station. .
Women’s voting
6
m
m . *
RIGHTS
economic system in which all property is commonly owned and each person is paid according to their needs and abilities.
Congress US legislature composed of two houses -the
Women have not always shared in decisions about the
Senate and the House of
Representatives.
way they were governed. Country
Communism l\)litical and
Constituency 'The residents in an
First vote
electoral district. Constitution Basic set of laws
New Zealand
1893
Australia
1902
Finland
1906
Constitutional monarchy
Norway
1913
System of government authorized by aconstitution with amonarch as
Denmark
1915
the head of state.
Former USSR
1917
Coup d’Etat Violent overthrow of
Britain
1918
US
1920
Japan
1945
that set out the instituti(Mis through
which political power is exercised.
government by asmall group. South African citizen casts her
vote in 1994
elections for president and parliament.
Emmeline Pankhursl, aBritish
supporttr of women sx/oting rights, airested dating aprotest.
Democracy System of government by the whole
population or its representatives. Dictatorship Government by a ruler who holds unrestricted
a u t h o r i t y. Electorate Body of people
Government examples around the world
entitled to vote in an election.
To t a l i t a r i a n r e g i m e s China is ruled by one party, the Communist Party, and other parties are forbidden.
Military dictatorships Myanmar (Burma) is ruled by aI9-mcmber military council.
Monarchies
Facade democracies Iran holds elections for its
absolute monarcliy with no political parties.
presidency, but candidates
Presidential republics France’s democracy has both apresident and prime
Fascism Extreme right-wing
■Saudi Arabia is an
ate cliosen by those in power.
m i n i s t e r.
the elected chamber of Parliament.
Power may be held by groups or individuals. Democracies
may differ in structure.
Executive Branch of government that carries out laws and performs general administration. nationalist movement.
House of Commons In Britain, Judiciary All the nation's judges.
False starter
Key political thinkers Thinker
Dates 429-347 B.C.
Plato
Niccolo Machiavelli
Thomas Hobbes
1469-1527
1588-1679
Biographical details Greek philosopher, rejected democracy In The Republic and Insisted that government was ascience, requiring experts. Italian political thinker and diplomat, wrote a book. The Prince, that described methods of achieving political unity. English philosopher, argued in Leviathan that human nature made absolute
monarchy desirable and inevitable.
Bolivia’s political system has experienced great turmoil. In the 156 years from its independence from Spain
Legislature Assembly or group that passes laws. Lobby Group of people seeking to in uence law-makers. Prime minister Chief executive
of government in countries with a
(1825) to 1981, Bolivia has
parliamentary system.
had 192 changes of government. I'his is an average of anew government
Republic State in which power is
every ten months.
held by the people or their elected representativ'cs. Revolution Forcible overthrow of
agovernment or social order. Socialism System in which the means of production (factories, etc.) and distribution are owned by the community as awhole.
1712-78
French philosopher. His Social Contract argued that people sacri ce their rights in return for protection by ahead of state.
1760-1825
French social scientist, believed that society should be organized along industrial lines.
Suffrage Right to vote in a
John Stuart Mill
1806-73
English philosopher and political activist, argued for truly representative democracy.
Suffragette Awoman who protests for her right to vote.
Karl Marx
1818-83
German philosopher and economist, founder of Communism. Wrote Das Kapitai.
Emile Durkheim
1858-1917
French founder of sociology.
To t a l i t a r i a n i s m D i c t a t o r i a l
Max Weber
1864-1920
German economist. Described the
system of government that extends
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Comte de Saint-Simon
relationship between economy and society.
political election.
Trade union Group of workers or professionals united to protect and promote their rights and interests.
its control to all social institutions.
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153
Law and order
Legal words
Every count ry has aset of rules or laws designed to
Accused Person
cliargcd with committing a
protect the rights of its citizens. Laws are usually enforced by government through the police and the courts. In most countries, legal systems are the result
crime. Arson Criminal
damage caused l)y re.
_of years of development and reform.
physically harm aperson.
Bail Money given to gain
About 4,000 years ago, King Hammurabi of Babylon set out some of the
temporary release of aprisoner facing trial.
Scales of justice
rst recorded codes of
behavior. He devised laws, as well as penalties, covering family, property, slaves, and wages. 'I’liese laws were engraved on astone pillar.
Bankruptcy Situation in which a
The Statue of Justice at the Old Bailey, London (above), holds scales to
person is unable to pay their debts.
show that justice weighs opposing evidence the way abalance weighs goods. I'he sword repre.sents
practices in the higher courts. awarded as compensation for loss or injury.
Defendant Person prosecuted in a
freedoms instead of upholding them.
criminal action.
Defense Defendant’s case in a law suit.
Ty p e s o f l a w
rst courts
Evidence The means used for proving adisputed fact in
'I'hcre are several branches of the law',
In about 450 B.C., the Romans formed a system of courts in which trials were held;
Barrister In Britain, alawyer who Damages Money claimed or
punishment. Some countries abuse their legal powers and remove
Hammurabi meets the god of justice.
The
Arson
Assault Threat or attempt to
Early law
each devised to meet the different
judges decided w'hether aperson had broken
the law. In serious cases, the accused paid a law'yer, called an advocatus. to speak for him. Most European law is based on Roman law.
legal action. Ja
Felony Acrime
problems of society. CRIMINAL
j, regarded by the law as
LAW
«.serious, usually
'I'his branch of the law covers acts such as murder, arson, rape, and robbery. In the US, these are broken t
into rst, second, third, and fourth degrees, depending on the state of mind of the accused.
Tr i a l b y j u r y Anyone accused of aserious crime has the right to atrial by ajury, usually 12 men and
CIVIL
rights have been infringed. It covers
y-jUf day-to-day events such as buving a
The judge helps the jury on points of
^^§5?;houseormakingawill,aswellas
the law, listens to the evidence, and passes sentence if there is aguilty verdict
*involving violence.
English judge
Fraud Deliberate trickery to gain an advantage, often nancial. Insolvent Situation in which a
LAW
\i ^'This law deals with cases in which no ij ^crime has taken place, but someone’s
women, chosen at random.
resolving disputes between companies.
company is iinaldc to pay its debts.
Judge Of cial who hears and tries c a s e s i n a c o u r t o f l a w.
Jury Group of people who give a verdict in criminal ca.ses on the
basis of evidence given in court.
Kidnap T'o carry off aperson against their will.
RELIGIOUS
Prisoner on trial
Libel Words published about
LAW
'This law deals with ca.ses in which religious code determines the law. For example, Islamic Law -is based on the Koran and the teachings of
(the accused)
Muhammad and is the basis for the law in
people that may harm their good reputation.
Murder 'I'o kill aperson. Oath I'ormal declaration as to the
truth of something.
North Africa and the Middle East.
Perjury To willfully tell an
Prosecuting lawyer/
untruth when under oath. Probation An alternative to a
Prison population
COURT PROCEDURE Aprosecuting lawyer tries to convince the jury that the accused
is guilty, while adefense lawyer
western EUROPE (1994)
prison sentence whereby an offender must report regularly to a probation of cer.
Country
Prosecution 'I'hc carrying on of
secs out to prove the person’s
innocence. After listening to evidence from various witnesses, the jury has to decide whether the prosecution has proved guilt.
Jury of 12 men and women chosen from members of the
publio aged over 18
.Prosecution tries
to prove guilt.
Prisoners per 100,000 population
convince the jury that the prisoner is
m
not guilty.
Prison facts ●Early prisons were lthy, and people often died of akind of typhus known as “jail fever.”
convicts tried to
break free, no one
woman in Thailand, for fraud.
escape.
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●The longest prison sentence was 141,078 years, passed on a
154 fi
island off the California
ever managed to
Rape 'To force aperson to hav-e
92.1
Spain
91.8
Sentence T’he judgment and
Austria
87.5
punishment pas.sed on aperson in criminal proceedings.
Switzeriand
84.9
France
83.9
Portugal
8 2 . 0
Germany
78.8
Denmark
63.0
Finiand
62.6
Belgium
60.5
●The world’s most secure
prison was Alcatraz, on an
legal proceedings.
U K
_Defense tries to
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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY
sexual intercourse against her will.
Slander Words spoken about people that may harm their good reputation. Subpoena Awritten demand that aperson appear in court. Sue 'I'o begin legal proceedings. Summons
Acall
to appear before ajudge or magistrate. T h e f t ' To t a k e a n o t h e r ’ s
property without their c o n s e n t .
T H E D E AT H P E N A LT Y 'The death penalty is still legal in 105 countries, although many of them never carry out the sentence. Offenses range from murder to drug traf cking or counterfeiting banknotes. 'The rst country to abolish the death penalty was Austria, in 1787.
Subpoena
Trial Legal proceedings to determine issues
between parties. Verdict Decision made in acriminal case. Warrant Written authorization
allowing police to search property and make arrests.
THE Media All the major art forms, from architecture to music, are given detailed treatment in this section. Timelines present key
developments in the arts, and tables list famous painters, composers, architects, and writers. The media pages feature the latest in modern technology, including virtual reality. Architecture ●Fine Arts ●Artists and Alaterials ●Photography I ' h e a t e r ● D a n c e ● B a l l e t a n d M o d e r n D a n c e ● Tr a d i t i o n a l Wo r l d D a n c e
Music ●Classical Alusic ●Popular Music ●Musical Instruments
Writing ●Printing ●Radio ●Television ●Movies ●Animation Video ●Newspapers
■‘ K
155
prehistoric Europe’s most complex stone monuments, is erected
C.6500 B.C. (^atal Hiiyiik in 'Eurkey, one
science of designing and constructing buildings. Modern steel-and-glass structures are now
of the rst known towns, has rectangular houses
e.2650-2150 B.C. Pyramids are constructed in the lower Nile \’alley, Egypt. ’I’he famous Step Pyramid at Saqtiara is designed by Imhotep, a
built from mud bricks.
doctor and the
afeature of cities worldwide. 700-400 B.C. Ancient Greece. Architects of (jreek temples develop three architectural “orders”: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each order has its owm style and proportions, ba.sed on
Indian stupa
C.200 B.C.-A.D. 500 Roman architecture takes over the Greek orders and the Etruscan arch, 'fhe Romans
develop concrete and use it to construct huge vaults and domes. I'heir public buildings include courts, bathhouses, temples, anc amphitheaters.
! t
Vii JjiiiiiiiiwiriliiP*" e.300 B.(A Buddhist stupas appear in India and Southeast Asia. 'Phese solid
pleasing to the Greek gods.
mounds symbolize the dome of heaven and contain sacred Buddhist relics.
Colosseum, Rome
w
S' / z
o -
607-670 Japan’s temple of the Hoiy uji Buddhist monastery, Nara,
690-850 Early Islamic mosques,
I'- ■ p r
618-782 China. Nanchan
Buddhist temple, Shaanxi
style of architecture develops in western Europe.Romanesque
rgg!igyigigt.iiaMi churches h-.,v c
and vaulted porches. Surface -decoration is often mosaic -patterns of gla.ss, stone, or marble pieces.
m a s s i v e
rubble- lled walls with small windows. Arches are
'"IIP 11 Pisa Cathedral, Italy
semicircular in shape and stand on top of huge cvlindrical columns.
7
/ Z
t t X T X ' T f . t . T Tr r r
i-i
Chine.se timber-framed building.
Horyuji Temple
around courtyards. Mostpies have minarets (prayer towers), arcades,
778-850 Borobtidur Buddhist temple, Indonesia, has 8stone Great Mosque, SaiTiana terraces and 72 bell-shaped stupas.
province, built on aholy mountain, is the earliest surviving traditional
A
c.900-1150 Romanesqui
jSp palace.s, and houses are designed
is the world's oldest surviving wooden building.
4
m'K
rst recorded architect.
-‘“S
Parthnion, Athens
r *
SUmehei
purposes.
4 1 .1
_mathematics and geometry, ■;Zi. chat arc thought to be
'-A.
for reli|^ious
»●
z
c
C.2200 B.C. Stonehen^Je. a massive stone eirele that is one of
ARCHrrKC'l'URR IS the art and
607
6 1 8
778
/
T
T
C.1420 Renaissance
The Duomo,
begins in Florence, Italy.
C.1650 Baroque style in Europe reinterprets
Florence,
Key gures are Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and Alberti (1404-72). This study of and adaptation of classical
Italy
m
m [irt
I1750-1840 Neo-Classicism. \‘j
AArchitects rediscover the
-
■ y
Roman and Renaissance
proportions and details of 1
styles. Architects are commi.ssioncd by the ;li|
ne example is the
|| church of Sainte
royalty to build large-scale, grand, and very ornate churches and palaces.
tcchni(|Lies soon spreads through western Europe. n r
SGenevieve, Paris, later y
grenamed the “Pantheon.”
t
Church of St. Mcho/as, Prague
[nrrSaSir
Roman and then Greek
\classical architecture. A
Catholic Church and the
Roman styles and building
Panlheor
X
;??r) C.1420
c.1650
I900-40s American architect
1750
1919-33 Bauhaus, Germany, an in uential design school led by Walter (Jropius (1883-1969), teaches design based
Frank Lloyd Wright (18671959) promotes “organic” V- a r c h i t e c t u r e - b u i l d i n g s that blend in with
nature, such as Falling Water, Pennsylvania.
J V
1920s
1970s High-Tech style.
International
In the steel-and-glass buildings of Richard Rogers (born 19.33) and Norman Foster (born 193.S), parts of the
Modernism.
11
Leading Swissborn architect. Le Gorbusier
K
on modern industrial
(1887-1965) de nes
structure and services
technologies.
ahouse as“a machine
(pipes) arc left exposed. Atypical example is the Lloyds Building, London.
for living in.” Bauhaus, Dessau
Falling Water
Le Corbusier
1919 S
7
ORDERS
i!j!!!!!!l!|itM!||ii
In classical Greek
T
architecture, an order
consists of an upright column supporting a horizontal entablature.
Acornice, afrieze, and an architrave make up
( 0
statues are used as
S iS
supporting col urn ns.
frieze
■4
c
.architrave
Atlas (male caryatid)
^il column
1
1
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D
orders are Doric,
156
Caryatids
cornice
The three Greek Ionic, and Corinthian.
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the entablature itself.
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^Step I^ramid
Architecture
:
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A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A
Doric
Ionic
Corinthian
I'hc (hecks used
From 600 B.C., this order appeared
'Phis decorative
in western Asia.
Athens in 500 B.C.
this order from about 700 B.C.
order originated in
Pedestal
ARCHri'bXTURE
Ziggural, Ur
c.lSOO B.C. Minoan Palace
800-200 B.C.
DOMES
of Knossos is rebuilt on the
Etruscans, in modernday 'ruscany. Italy, use
'I'hcse curved roofs are
island of Crete, Cirecce. Paintings decorate the walls.
the arch in the construction of their
e. 1700-1200 B.C. Beehive tomb (fholos) is constructed by the Mycenean civilization
: 11 2 - 2 0 9 5 B . C .
merians build ziggurats. ssive, .stepped temples of id bricks, in Mesopotamia.
convex (arched) in shape, and are often afeature of religious buildings worldwide. Hcm isph mm Ido me
●Hv
on the Greek mainland.
f U
H
Prdace of Knossos,
.
Crete
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t : ^ $3'
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D. 300-1540 Pre-Columbian ilizations build stepped pyramids stone, crowned with temples,
A.D. 330-1453 Byzantine architecture develops
ic of the
Imperial capital moves to
when the new Roman
nest to survive is the
Onion
dome
lyan pyramid, known as the ant Jaguar, built before
Byzantium (now Istanbul). It re ects both Roman and
ROOFS
D. 800 in the ceremonia Tiplex at Tikal, latemala ^
Middle Eastern styles. 'Ehe
Roofs are de ned by the shape and structure of their
_
largest domed church of its day, Ilagia Sophia. Istanbul, is completed in 537.
t
supporting frames. Coverings range from tiles to reeds.
Giant Jaguar
Hagia Sophia c. 1100-1500 Gothic style is
Anglior \Vat
r\
t
1113-c.l 150 Angkor Wat, avast stone
^temple city, is built by the Khmers
rst used for
at their capital in Cambodia. It
(diristian churches in
northern Europe. New
is crowned with lotus-bud
A s
spires and covers almost 495 acres (200 hectares).
construction methods-
the pointed arch and the ying buttress -result
C>(d)le-and-valley roof
in much taller, lighter s t r u c t u r e s .
k'.mi*:
Amiens Cathedral, France
T
VA U LT S A N D A R C H E S Vaults are arched roofs or ceilings, and there are four main types. Arches
1113
span openings and carry weight. L830-1930S Gothic
19th-century Industrial
^vival. Architects attempt recapture the style of ;dieval buildings. 'I'hcy also nto create anew style ing modern building
Revolution results in ma.ss-
produced materials that transform construction. Elate
glass is used from the 1840s, steel from 1856, and
h
‘thods and materials as in
Casa Batllo, Barcelona
reinforced concrete from the
1890- early 1900s Art
1860s. Following the invention of the elevator,
ePennsylvania Academy of ne Arcs, Philadelphia.
Nouveau
-“new
art”
-is
inspired by plant forms. Buildings are very ornate.
Home Insurance Building, steel-framed skyscrapers arc Chicago rst erected in Chicago.
1890
? / xMid-1970s Postmodernism
1980s Environmental
devclop.s, astyle that refers tc
concerns, such as energy saving and recycling, are taken into account by
past styles, sometimes in a humorous way. Buildings arc often strong, bright colors,
■i, ii£2i
3
Groin vault
W
.some architects. Such
new buildings are more e n v i r o n m e n t - f r i e n d l y, and may feature greater
such as the Neue
Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, Germany.
insulation and .solar
Xeue Staatsgalerie
heating and power.
Pointed arch
Lobed arch
Lloyds Building WINDOWS
C A P I TA L S
BITTRESSES
The top .section, or head, of a column is called acapital.
Made of stone or brickwork,
buttre.s.ses are built against walls to strengthen them.
Awindow is an opening to let in light and air. Its materials, shape, and design re ect abuilding's architectural style.
Flying buttresses transfer
C.asemenl ui/ndow
the weight of the upper
part of awall to an exterior support.
Flying hullress Egyptian capital
Romanesque capital
capital
Oeihde-Boeuf (Ox-eye) xt>i)idow
l
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Saucer dome
Polyhedral dome
Seven wonders of THE WORLD
'Femple of
Artemis
Originally erected in
about .S.SO B.C., this marble temple was btirned down and later rebuilt. The gold statue of Artemis was destroyed, and only one of the original 127 Ionic columns remains.
Architecture facts
Records
●Ancient (Jreeks painted the inside and outside of their temples in brilliant colors, I'he present whitened marble is due to weathering and bleaching by the hot sun.
BIGGEST
●There is about 100 times more stone and
TA L L E S T R E S I D E N T L A L B L O C K O F F L AT S
brick in the Great Pyramid of Cheops than there is in the Kmpire State Building.
is Lake Point'Power, Chicago, Illinois. It has 70 oors and is 639ft (195m) high.
●Our ancestors’ homes were dark caves.
BIGGEST SHOPPING CENTER
Today, in the mining community of Coober Pedy, Australia, people live in welletpiipped dugouts with 'I'Vs and showers.
in the world is West Kdmonton Mall, Alberta, Canada, which is as big as 90
CASTLE
in the world is Prague Castle in the Czech Republic. Founded in about 850, the castle now co\ ers about 20 acres (8 hectares).
American football
elds.
Tr a d i t i o n a l h o m e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d A F R I C A
I
.IP
Zulu kraal, South Africa Mausoleum
Pharos
at Halicarnassus
of Alexandria
Built in about 297 B.C.,
'I'his vast marble
Masai house, Kenya 'The Masai people build their
Kraals arc traditional dome-
rounded houses from bent
shaped, ^rass-eo\'cred houses with low openinjj;s at the front.
branches covered with cow dun".
tomb of'I'urkish ruler this lighthouse stood on Mausolos was built in the island of Pharos, about 350 B.(7 On Alexandria, Egypt. At site, only the night a re burned, foundations remain, re ected by bronze but some statues are in London’s British Mu.seum.
mirrors. Three
earth(]uakes reduced the building to rubble.
Dogon village, Mali
O C E A N I A
In these West African
Longhouse
villages, houses are built of mud-brick,
'These communal
and storehouse roofs are thatched.
on wooden stilts
..
"" ●’■As:; and 246.S B.C. T'he
f
T :
.A-'f ●A
vn y/.
.7.
—
■J ’ ●
.y I'hese pyramids were built at Giza, Egypt, bbetween about 2575
Mouses are packed tightly together, so that as little of the house as possible is exposed to the blistering heat of the sun.
to keep animals out. A
Pyramids of Giza
-A?
Algerian desert village
houses are raised
■
m
■i
i
'JO.-ciSid''-.-: EFROPE
Great Pyramid of Cheops is said to have taken 100,000 men 20 tears to build.
m
m
Swiss moLinlain chalet These traditional wooden chalets
have sloping roofs to stop too much snow from collecting.
Scandinavian house Roofs of traditionally built
Mediterranean village house
houses in such cold climates arc
this region re ect the sun’s heat, keeping the interior cool.
turf covered to keep in the heat.
'The whitewashed stone houses of
A S I A
Statue of Zeus,
Colossus of Rhodes
Olympia
'This bronze statue of
This huge statue of the king of the gods was made from i\ory and gold. The head
the Sun god, Helios,
alone measured 43ft
h a r b o r. G r e e c e . A n
(13m) in height.
carthciLiake toppled it.
stood more than 11 Oft
(35m) high at the entrance to Rhodes
A'urt
Japanese house
Chinese house
Nomads from Iran to Mongolia
'Traditional timber-framed houses
live in thc.se willow-framed tents
have sliding walls and doors that can be opened to the outside.
In China, traditional houses arc arranged around acourtyard. 'The main part is on the north side.
covered in felt and canvas.
A.MERh’A^
Hanging Gardens
of Babylon Nebuchadnezzar II
(c.60.5-562 B.C.). King ’ of Babylon, built these magni cent terraced gardens for one of his wives. Although descriptions exist, archaeologists are still looking for the site.
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ARTS AND THE MEDIA
Amyara Indian house
Adobe houses
New England house
On Lake'Titicaca, Bolivia,
In New Mexico, traditional
'The walls of these North American
Amyara Indians live in houses
houses arc built with adobe -
constructed from wo\ cn reeds.
bricks of sun-baked mud.
houses ha\'C overlapping wooden boards (clapboards).
p
ARCHITECTURE
Cross-section of askyscraper HONG KONG AND SHANGHAI BANK, HONG KONG External maintenance
Illuminated display
Mast
Key architects N a m e
Dates
Filippo Brunelleschi
1377-1446 Italian
Building*
Nationality
Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, Italy Dome of St. Peter’s, Vatican City
c r a n e
Michelangelo Buonarroti 1475-1564 Italian Curved Circular access
glass
1
Andrea Palladio
1508-80
Italian
Inigo Jones
1573-1652 British
P'ranyois Mansart
1598-1666 French
Christopher Wren
1632-1723 British
\’illa Rotonda.
\’icenza, Italy Banqueting House, London, Kngland Chateau de Maisons, Paris, France St. Paul’s, London. Kngland
platform
ii: .r A
Face panel Mullion .
SHU f-nririiaii ii BU
French
Jacc|ucs-Germain Souf ot 1713-80
Ove hrang
Steel column
Handrail
4'hc Pantheon,
I’aris, France ’Phe Admiralty, St. Petersburg, Russia Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany La Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain Falling Water, Pennsylvania Viceroy’s House,
Andrevan Zakharov
1 7 6 1 - 1 8 11 R u s s i a n
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
1781-1841 German
Antonio Gaudi
1852-1926 Spanish
Frank Lloyd Wright
1867-1959 American
P'dwin Lutvens
1869-1944 Bridsh
Adolf Loos
1870-1933 Czech
Scheu Ilouse,
Walter Gropius
1883-1969 German
Vienna, Austria Bauhaus,
Mies van der Rohe
1886-1969 German
P'rich Mendelsohn
1887-1953 German
Le Corbusier
1887-1965 Swiss
Notre Dame du Haut,
R. Buckminster Fuller
1895-1983 American
Ronchamp, France USA Pavilion, P'xpo 67,
Philip Johnson
b.l906
American
'Phe Glass Plouse,
Oscar Niemeyer
b.l907
Brazilian
Ieoh Ming Pci
b.l917
American
A r t h u r PA i k . s o n
b. 1924
Canadian
Richard Rogers
b.l933
British
Norman P'ostcr
b.l935
British
Escalato
Top beam
Fire escape staircase
New Delhi, India Outer diagonal beam
External staircase
Dessau, (jermany vSeagram Building, New York, US Kinstein Power, Potsdam, Germany
Inner diagonal . b e a m
Overhang \ Te r r a c e
Montreal, Canada Connecticut Overhang Full-height glazing
m Si
si
Glazed curtain /
Lightweight steel and
wall
I
concrete
South face
Entrance lobby
oor
\Plaza
1
Ta l l e s t b u i l d i n g s
On ahigh skyscrapers were erected,
Towers (not illustrated)
red-hot rivets were driven
KTHI-TO Mast, North Dakota, US
into holes in narrow steel
beams hundreds of feet up in the air with nothing
2 3
When the Manhattan
Height m
629
ft 4
2,064
KSlA-iy Mast. Louisiana, US
579
1,900
CN Tower, Toronto, Canada
5 5 5
1,821
f \
®I 7
8
10
I
Building and location
Mohawk Indians
tinii
show no fear of
1Sears Tower, Chicago, US
443
1,453
heights and have
2World Trade Center, New York, US
417
1,368
put up many of these
3Empire State Building, New York, US
381
1,250
n i l
4Bank of China, Hong Kong
368
1,207
n
Pi I* Kk
.:li
Hii^t
n
t
346
1,135
6John Hancock Center, Chicago, US
344
1,129
7Chrysler Building, New York, US
319
1,047
8Nations Bank Plaza, Atlanta, US
312
1,024
III u n n
310
1,018
305
1,001
IE
I
PHI II
H
i .Mi
■● >
i n n
Illllllll
_nil”! ’Kill nil"' i
10 Texas Commerce Tower, Houston, US
i
n
I!! ii m
5Amoco Building, Chicago, US
9First Interstate, Los Angeles, US
m i
mnli
n
C
5 i
n n
beneath. lrot|uois and
skyscrapers.
Government Buildings, Brasilia, Brazil Louvre Pyramid, Paris, I"ranee Canadian Kmbassv, Washington D.C., US Lloyds Building, London, England Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, Hong Kong
i - i o a M n i
M
IIS titn mil m n
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159
c.27,000 B.C. “Venus” gurines,
Every culture has its own works of art. In some
, small clay statues of ^' ptrcf^nant women, appear across Kiiropc.
cultures, artistic styles have changed signi cantly; others have remained more or less the same over thousands of
Figurine, Lesjmgie, France
years. Movements in Western art have been given
Horse, Lascaux
names and dates by specialists called art historians.
i
c.500-323 B.C. Greek
323-31 B.C. Greek
c.lOO B.C.-A.D. 400 A.D. 100-400
Classical sculptors study the
Hellenistie sculptors
form of the human bodv and
make statues that
explore its movement, making detailed gures of gods and
emphasize the body’s
Roman decorative art Gandharan scLilpture ourishes. Relief in uenced by Greek art,
athletes in marble, bronze, and
gracefulness. 'I'he portrait is developed and pro les
clay. Phidias, afamous sculptor,
of Greek rulers appear on
makes ahuge statue of Athena for the Parthenon, Athens,
coins.
^carvings (standing out develops in the Indus
Kfrom the surface), often Valley region (Pakistan). Sculptures show scenes ^depicting Roman military victories, adorn from the Buddha’s life.
f, arches and columns.
Detail, Trajan \s column
between 445 and 432 B.C.
Bronze charioteer,
/o-
Greece
Gandhara Buddha teaching i j
/
o -
3 1880s-90s
'M 1880-1905 PostImpressionist artists Paul
Expressionism develops
^Cezanne (1839-1906), ^3 Vincent Van Gogh
in Europe. Intense color and free brushstrokes
^(1853-90),andPaul ^9 Gauguin (1848-1903),
communicate
different directions.
Drawing, Kirchner
ji While Horse, jA.r
artists
feelings. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880-1938) is a key gure in Germany.
develop in their own
■G a u g u i n , 1 8 9 8
1880s-90s Symbolist artists create images that portray inner feelings and suggest what may lie beneath the surface of things. Key painters include Gustave Moreau (1826-98).
1905-7 Fauves, agroup of French painters that includes Henri Matisse (1869-1954), represent the world in brilliant color harmonics.
▶v '
1920s Surrealism develops
1940s Abstract Expressionism appears in New York. Artists create abstract images, while experimenting with the physical properties of paint and different ways of applying it to the canvas. Jackson Pollock (1912-56) develops his paint-dripping tcchnicjue as away of expressing his feelings more directly.
from Dada and Freud’s
theories of psychoanalysis (sec p.l32). Artists such as Salvador Dali (1904-89) and Max Ernst (1891-1976) use dreams to explore their hidden feelings. Salvador Dali. 1971
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Fine arts
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A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A
Mid-1950s Pop Art develops in the US and
Late 1950s Performance
Britain. Artists use
art forms -painting, music, theater, lm, video -in
consumer goods and images from the media ' in their work. Akey gure is Andv Warhol (1928-87). Andy Warhol, 1971
artists combine different
itheir work. Key gures arc j j ■4 ^
iGilbert (born 1943) and HGeorge (born 1942), and
fJoseph Beuys (1921-86). Planted, Gilbert and
George. 1992
c. 15,000 B.C, Lascaux caves, France, arc decorated with images
c.4000-1000 B.C. Egyptian art includes
of animals. Artists use
from limestone, wall and scroll paintings, and ne precious stones.
reeds.
Dynasty- craftsmen, China, discover how to cast
2000-1100 B.C. Minoans on Crete, an island near Greece, decorate the walls of their huge palaces with
in bronze and make
v
terracotta
gurines
of humans with
emphasized.
for food and wine.
N o k
¥
¥ 7 Z
produces lifelike individual features
beautiful decorated vessels
colored murals.
/Nefet li, Queen of Egypt
.
culture, Nigeria, West Africa,
1600-1027 Shang
gold jewelry, set with
applying them with ngers, brushes, and by blowing through hollow
C.500 B.C. Nok
Bull-leaping, Crete
V
painted statues sculpted
natural mineral colors,
terracotta head
N . *
618-907 T’ang Dynasty, agolden age
4 0 0 - 11 0 0 M e d i e v a l
6 0 0 - 11 8 5 I c o n s
Mayan carvings
European monks
combine ornate
produce illuminated
(religious portraits) are developed. Painters in
human gures with hieroglyphs (picture-writing). Carving is done
manuscripts, stich as
the Eastern Christian
period, the great
the Book of Kells -
Church follow strict
tradition of Chinese
rules that govern how religious gures must
landscape painting develops, and gure
be shown.
(people) painting
A.D.
100-1000
the four gospels copied out and illustrated by a9theentury Irish friar.
without metal tools.
'
i
e
m "
in Chinese art. In this
continues.
Icon, Madonna and Child
Mayan incense burner
Tang “blue and green ”landscape
6 0 0
/'»● The Annunciation,
1400-1500 Early Renaissance ^^
Leonardo da Vinci
starts in Florence, Italy, with a
revival of interest in (Classical ^
Late 1400s Islamic
sculpture and architecture. ||: ^ Masaccio (1401-28) is th
miniature painting
Z
mi
tlourishes in Persia
rst painter to us ^ perspective (sec p.l62).
.11
(Iran). Paintings are brightly colored and highly detailed.
^-
1500s-1600s High Renaissance period The Flood, Paolo IJcello, c.1445
15th-cenliny miniature
1848 Pre-Raphaelites in England arc inspired by
1840s Realism develops in France with painters such as Gustave Courbet (1819-77) who show ordinary people and their surroundings in adirect,
painters before Raphael but develop their own style and symbols. T'he group includes Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82) and J.E. Millais (1829-96).
n a t u r a l , a n d l i f e l i k e w a v.
in Italy, particularly Rome and Venice. Major artists arc Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), and Michelangelo (1475-1564).
1860s-90s Impressionism originates in France. Painters, notably Claude Monet (1840-1926) and Edouard Manet (1832-83), try to capture their impressions, in particular the light, of a eeting moment in time. Neo-Impressionism develops, led by (Jeorges Seurat (1859-91), whose work is based on dots of pure colour.
The Winnowers, Courbet, 18?5
Wa l c r l i l i e s , M o n e l , 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 1848 nP
NP
1907-1920S Cubism
1910-50 Abstract movement
develops in Paris.
appears, in which artists’ paintings and sculptures do not directly resemble people or things in everyday life. 'Phe rst abstract painting may be a work (c. 1910) bv Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944).
France, with Pablo
Picasso (1881-1973) and Georges Braque (1882-1963), who u,sc geometric shapes to portray what they see. Picasso, 1955
1916 Dada movement, originally aprotest against World War I, rejects traditional forms of art. Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), selects and displays everyday objects, which he calls “ready-mades.”
llornform, Kandinsky, 1924
Most expensive paintings SOLD
at
auction
Title, artist, date sold
Price in US$
Portrait of Dr. Gachet,
82,500,000
Van Gogh. 1990 Au Moulin de la Galette,
78,100,000
R e n o i r, 1 9 9 0 1916
From
1970s
/rises, Van Gogh, 1987
53,900,000
Les Noces de Pierette,
51,895,000
1980s Art in Nature.
Picasso, 1989
Artists such as Richard Long (born 1945)and Andy Goldsworthy (born 1956)
Self Portrait: Yo Picasso, Picasso, 1989
47,850,000
Au Lapin Agile,
40,700,000
Video
ArtivSts use video and
computer technology. Their installations
create outdoor works of art that
(exhibitions) feature video projection. A key gure is Koreanborn Nam Jun Paik
are in harmony with the landscape. Materials -stones, leaves, etc. -are found on-site.
(born 19,32). l'!(noin: Andy Goldsworthy, 1992
IniHITi
7" »s?
Picasso, 1989
Sun owers, Van Gogh, 1987
40,342,500
Portrait of Cosimo Ide
35,200,000
Medici, Pontormo, 1989 Source: Sotheby’s. London
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FINE ARTS
Artists and materials
Layers of apainting
Ar i'IS'I’S use PAIN'r to create images of the world as they see it. Originally they painted on cave walls, using the most basic materials. Today, an artist can choose different materials and techniques to
'I'hcrc are several layers to an oil painting. These can help modern historians to date a picture accurately, and also to spot
Va r n i s h
whether it is afake. This artwork,
showing asection of Caravaggio’s Youth with uRam, reveals the layers through Drawing atypical 17th-century oil painting.
Paint layers
layer
express his or her ideas
and feelings.
Artist facts ●Architect and artist Leon
Materials .*■ ■'^1
Battista Alberti (1404—72) wrote a
;1 l
key book about perspective in
'
Artists paint on many surfaces using a range of materials. One person may spread thick blobs of oil paint on acanvas with aknife, while another will apply delicate brushstrokes of watcrcolor onto asheet of paper. Some artists paint with their ngers, or employ traditional methods such
' ■ V i-.
Imprimatura
14.Vr. 11 is methods enabled artists to
\Priming !»
create
a
geometrically controlled space
' '.i
Size
“'TH on atwo-
\ G r o u n d
T M 3
dimensional surface.
as egg tempera. PIGMENTS
DRAWING
Paint is made from
rst found in natural substances such as carbon
(black), chalk (white), and red and yellow
TOOLS
Malachite
earths. 'Phe ancient
Conte crayon
Egyptians added mineral colors such as malachite
(green) from copper, and ultramarine (blue) from lapis lazuli.
●Making copies of paintings by
BRUSHES
Artisc-s often make sketches {c|iiick drawings) to record what they see, or to prepare for a nished work. Many drawings arc sold as nished works of art. Avariety of tools is available.
pigments (powdered colors). Pigments were
ILiintbrushes fall into two main
groups, soft-hair brushes, mostiv used for watercolors, and bristle brushes, used in oil painting and acrylics. Within the.se groups there are three main types (round, at, and lbert) de ned by the length and shape of the hairs.
h'ncil R o u n d
Lapis lazuli
Old Masters was considered an
essential part of ayoung painter’s training. Edouard Manet made copies of both Delacroix and I'itian while
w'orking as astudent. ●Pablo Picasso’s famous work
Cuen/ira (1937) depicts scenes from the Spanish Civil War.
Charcoal
Picasso refused to let the
painting hang in .Spain until the
Graphite
Material facts
country was free. It remained in
●'I'he pigment Indian yellow used to be made by boiling the urine of cows fed only on mango leaves. The urine was mixed with earth, heated, and dried.
Fl(U
/
●Brushes were once made by tying white hog bristles to astick. The brush was then used to whitewash awall
until the bristles became supple.
N e w Yo r k u n t i l 1 9 8 1 , w h e n
democracy was restored.
/
●Katsushika Hokusai Reed pen
Filbert
and ink
PA I N T S
Oil paints These are amixture of
dry pigment and an oil usually linseed oil. They were rst tused by 15thcentury painters, such as jan \an Eyck.
Wa t e r c o l o r p a i n t s These are pigments bound with gum arabic a n d d i l u t e d w i t h w a t e r.
'They became popular with 18th-century landscape artists, such as j . M . W. ' f u r n e r.
Acrylic paints 'fhe.se were developed in the US during the 1920s. Acrylic is applied with aknife, or diluted and used with abrush.
.Acrylic was used by .Andy Warhol.
(1760-1849) was amaster of the
Japanese ukiyo-e (pictures of the oating world) school. He made beautiful woodblock color
prints showing views of
Mt. Fuji.
Fake facts
●'I 'housands of years ago, artists in Australia mixed paint, such as
●Paint can be dated by analyzing its content. Cobalt blue, for
red ocher or charcoal, in their
mouths and spat the color into paintings on the cave walls.
example, was not produced before 1802, but is used by forgers when they need acheap
Watercolor
Oil paint
paint
substitute for ultramarine.
Popular European GALLERIES (1993) Art Gallery
Sculptor facts
Labor of love
●When Rodin exhibited his
Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the .Sistine Chapel in
rst major work, 'I'he Age of Visitors
Rron-z
lifelike he was accused of
1,828,058
casting it from aliving model.
complete.
Uf zi Gailery, Florence
1,020,972
●Henry Moore’s work was in uenced by the carvings of the Aztecs. Asculpture of their ancient rain god, 'Flaloc, gave
Alte Pinakothek, Munich
850,952
575,880 325,84
his statues of
Reclining
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162
i
●Many signed drawings and paintings, supposedly by Rembrandt, were actually done by artists of his school. ●Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa was stolen from the Louvre in 1912. It took
three years to nd, during which time six
him the idea for
Women.
e
Rome. 4’he fresco covers more
5,000,000
London
fl
a
gure was so
Prado, Madrid
National Gallery,
fl
caused
Louvre, Paris
Amsterdam
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it
sensation. The
than 9,688sc] ft (900sci m), and took four and ahalf years to
Van Gogh Museum,
●
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ARTS AND THE MEDIA
ii ^
forgeries turned up in the L.S, each selling for a very high price. J
Artists’ words
Key artists
Airbrushing Spraying on color under pressure with an airbrush.
Name Donatello
Alla prima Adirect form of painting made in
Jan van Flyck
one session, llsed by artists when they want to
paint spontaneously. Casting To make an object, often asculpture, by pouring metal into amold and letting it harden. Chiaroscuro The treatment of light and shade in drawing and painting.
Chroma I'he intensity or saturation of acolor. Collage Apictorial technique in wliieh various materials are arranged and xed to abacking. Craquelure 'Phe network of small cracks that appears on apainting when, in the course of time, the
pigment’s varnish has become brittle.
Engraving The various processes
of cutting adesign into aplate or block of metal or wood, and the prints taken from these plates or blocks.
Craquelure
Etching .A method of engrat'ing in which a corrosive acid “eats” adesign into ametal plate.
Ferrule The metal part of abrush that surrounds and retains the hairs.
Fresco Powdered pigments mixed in water and applied to wet lime-plaster. Fresco means “fresh”
Dates c. 1386-1466 c.1390-1441
Nationality
Key work
Italian
David
Flemish
Piero della Francesca Sandro Botticelli Albrecht Diircr
e. 1420-92
Italian
c. 1445-1510
Italian
Arnolfuii and his Wife Dream of Constantine Birth of Venus
1471-1528
German
Melancholia
Michelangelo Buonarroti Raphael
1475-1564
Italian
David, The Creation of Adam
1483-1520
Italian
The Sistine Madonna
Titian
c.1487-1576
Italian
Assumption of the Madonna
Leonardo da V'inci
1452-1519
Italian
Mona Lisa
Pieter Bruegel the FJIder Michelangelo da Caravaggio
e. 1525-69
Flemish
1573-1610
Italian
ACountry Wedding The Supper at Emmans
Peter Paul Rubens
1577-1640
F'lemish
P e a c e a n d Wa r
F'rans Hals
1580-1666
Flemish
Artemisia Gentileschi Nicholas Poussin
1593-1651
Italian
1594_i665
F'reneh
Laughing Cavalier Judith and Hohfenies Et in Arcadia F,go
Diego do Velazquez
1599-1660
Spanish
Las Meninas
Claude Lorrain
1600-82
F'reneh
Rembrandt van Rijn
1606-69
Dll tell
Jan Vermeer
1632-75
Duteh
Antoine Watteau
1684-1721
French
Landscape with Sacri ce to Apollo The Night Watch Young Woman with aWater Jug Fanbarcation for the Isle ofCythera
Antonio Canaletto
1697-1768
Italian
'TheStonemason’s Yard
'I'homas Gainsborough F'ranciseo dc Goya yLucientes Jac-1957
Romanian
Endless Column
Paul Klee
1879-1940
Sw'iss
F'ernand Legcr
1881-19.55
F'reneh
Spanish
in Italian.
Gesso Atraditional surface for tempera and oil
is used to bind the color together, llsed since the 18th centuiyc Ground The surface on which color is applied. Gum arable Gum from the acacia tree, which is
used as abinding material in the manufacture of watercolor paints. Impasto Paint put on so
thickly that it stands up from the surface.
Imprimatura Athin overall lm or stain of translucent color
over awhite priming. Pigment The coloring matter, Lisuallv powder, which forms the basis of all paint.
Monet
Jane The Kiss
Pablo Picasso
1881-1973
support before painting.
Georges Braque
1882-196.3
French
S’graf to Atechnique using ascalpel or sharp knife in which dried paint is scraped off the painted
Marcel Duchamp
1887-1968
F'reneh
Ambassador of Autumn 'The Outing Les Demoiselles d’Avignon Man w'lth aPipe 'The Large Glass
Georgia O’Keeffe Egon Schiele
1887-1986
American
Ulies
surface. Used to create texture.
1890-1918
Austrian
Death and the Maiden
Size Material such as glue or gelatin used to
Max Flrnst
1891-1976
German
prepare canvas prior to priming or to reduce the
Joan Miro
189.3-1983
absorbency of paper.
Rene Magritte Henry Moore
1898-1967 1898-1986
Spanish Belgian Fmglish
On the 'Threshold of Liberty The Birth of the World The Use of Words Reclining Figure
Alberto Giacometti
1901-66
Swiss
The F'orest
Tempera Usually refers to egg tempera, a
Mark
1903-70
American
Blue, Orange, and Red
pigment bound with egg white instead of glue. Most important technique for panel painting (wood) in Europe from 13th to 15th centuries
Barbara Hepworth
190,3-75
.Salvador Dali
1904-89
F'rancis Bacon
1909-92
Fhiglish Spanish English
Premonition of aCivil War 'The Screaming Pope
beforeoil.Layersofpaintarcbuiltupslow^.
Jackson Pollock Joseph Beuys Jean Tinguely Robert Rauschenberg Andy Warhol Jasper Johns Bridget Riley
1912-.56
American
Lavender Mist
1921-86
German
The Pack
b. 192.5-
Swiss
Homage to New York
b. 192,5-
American
Bed
1928-87
American
b.l930-
American
Marilyn Monroe Three Flags
Priming 'I'hc preliminary coating that is put onto the
S’gmf to
Support The material on which apainting is made, such as paper, canvas, or awooden panel.
Tone The degree of darkness or lightness of acolor.
Tr o m p e - l ’ o e i l A s t i l l - l i f e p a i n t i n g
-if'
I
designed to give an illusion of reality. ^|B;t Varnish Protective surface over a.yUf nished painting that gives a glossy or matt appearance. Wash Athin, transparent layer of paint.
Rothko
Gilbert and George
Fmglish Fmglish b.194.3-, 1942- Fmglish
Anselm Kiefer
b. 194,5-
David Hockney Wash
Wave
b.l931-
Late Morning
b.l937-
ABigger Splash
German
Vndenieath the Arches Scorched Earth
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A RT I S T S A N D M AT E R I A L S
' ,4*
11th century
Photography
1727 Johann Schulze
Camera obscura ^ (“dark room”) is
(1687-1744), aGerman doctor, |
Photography is away of recording images using alens and some lightsensitive material. Taking agood photograph depends more on the photographer’s visual skills than on the equipment used z
'
discovers that silver nitrate
>'■
invented in
t
darkens when exposed to light.
Arabia for
observing solar eclipses. It later
1827 First photographic image 3 is produced bv Joseph Nieephore ●
forms the basis
18th-centuiy camera
of photography.
Niepce (1765-1833). It takes
obscura includes amirror, eight hours of exposure time. 1727
First photographic image
1827
N
1839 Daguerrotype process is developed by
1839 Galotype
Frenchman Louis
process is invented , by Fnglishman
Daguerre (1757-1851).
William k'o
Daguerrolype
Ta l b o t ( 1 8 0 0 - 7 7 ) . . T
\ .tS
1907 First practical color photographic
Frederick Archer
b'reneh brothers Auguste
^
William Fox Talbot
^7>V,9/ Kodak color lm
1851
1913
1924 The Leica I, thc r.st 35mm camera, is
193.S Kodachrom
launched commercially.
allowing colo by American Edwin Lan scientist photographs abulle focusingisproducedin transparencies to b (1909-90), is marketed b passing through an apple a Japan Konica. byis It
1947 First instan
lm is invented
Its frame counter runs to
Leica I
Auguste and
Louis Lurniere
Frederick Archer
1839
1975 Using special camera
picture camera, invente
36 exposures, setting the both projected an standard for later cameras, reproduced.
Polaroid Corporation
1976Firstcompact
and limits, an America
one three-millionth of
1990 First “Eye-Start”
automatic camera with
system is introduced. The camera lens automatically zooms in on the subject when you look through
called tlic Konica C35AE.
second exposure.
!
t h e v i e w n d e r.
1939 First important |
negative color lm is produced by Agfa.
■
Edwin
Q
1924 193
1
9
1994 First integral 35mm still and video camera is launched.
Land 3
lm is rst time.
(1862-1954) and Louis (1864-1948) Lumicre.
negatives allow paper prints to Wbe made.
allowsphotographs^
1913 35mm used for the
process is introduced by
Hpiglass-plate
positive process | to be copied
1851 Collodion process is developed by English sculptor
K(1813-57). His
'Phis negative- J
c a m e r a
9
1975
11
1990
Photography facts ●'I'he
rst successful camera
weighed 511b (23kg), which is the same weight as ared¬ necked wallaby. ●Every day, more than two million photographs are taken
1994
Photography WORDS Aperture 'I’hc opening in the camera lens that controls
the amount of light passing on to the
lm.
around the world.
Auto-focus A.system in the camera which adjusts the focus automatically.
●Until about 1930,
Darkroom Alightproof room used for developing photographic lm.
photographers made ash lights by creating small explosions with magnesium powder.
on acamera that is needed for
●One 35mm transparency
Electronic
ash The light source
taking pictures after dark, indoors, or in dim light. Enlargement A i; ,M photographic print that
(slide) can hold as much
information as asingle highdensity oppy disk for a personal computer.
1 is larger than the
Inegative from which it was developed. Motor-drive
'I’he rst cameras ret|uired long exposure times, so people
enables you to take arapid sequence of photographs.
SLR (single-lens re ex) Atype of
had to stand still ^
camera where the view through the view nder is what will actually be
in order to
recorded on the
avoid
Transparency Apositive
for long periods ^ blurre
/J
^
image. T’he T photographer ® also attached a
damp to the subject’s head and body.
t-
*
I I;
4 4
W
lm.
image, in black and white or color, that is produced on a transparent lm.
Tripod Astand that supports acamera to keep it steady and avoid blurred images. View
nder The device on
acamera that shows what
will be in the photograph.
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The
device on acamera that
Stiff shot
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A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A
Inside acamera
The light path
Acamera is basically alightproof box
INSIDE THE CAMERA This diagram shows how
that has ahole, or lens, at one end.
Flash-ready
An open lens allows light to enter and shine on apiece of lm (lightsensitive paper) inside the camera, forming an image. The most
a
m
r
illuminating the subject is re ected through the camera lens.
light is adjusted when it
indicator
Rear view nder n
Light source 'I'he light
Lens Apiece of curved glass that rcnects the light rays.
travels through the camera to form an image on the light-
a
sensitive
lm.
Diaphragm Adevice for controlling the amount of light entering the camera, made of metal plates.
important parts of acamera are the lens, shutter, and diaphragm. Frame counter .
Aperture control '■ing
L Shutter speed
fj It forms an adjustable
/
/
aperture (hole).
/
Shutter 'The shutter I
T
can be set to open
Shutter release ,
and close at different
button
speeds, which determines for how
Light path through the
Strap
long the lm is exposed to the light.
c a m e r a
attachment
Focal plane and lm 'The focal
Front lens element
□D O D O O Q Q ' O Q O O O O O C
plane is where the
DQOOOQOOOODOODOC
light from the lens is brought into focus, coinciding with the position of the
Film take-up spool
Lens housing
Ty p e s o f l e n s e s Lenses can be
tted onto the
Filters arc
of vision.
are attached to the
at,
colored disks that front of acamera lens to alter or
Fishtye lens
types of cameras to create different effects in aphotograph or to help take abetter picture of dif cult subjects.
distort the subject.
O o Green
Standard lens shows the scene
Wide-angle lens allows 50% more of the subject to appear on the
almost as it appears to the naked eye.
lm than astandard lens.
Wide-an^le
lm.
Film speed
Fisheye lens is awide-angle lens which covers up to 210°
basic camera lens of certain
Film comes in various speeds, which are shown on the package as ISO (International Standards Organization) numbers. This table shows their uses for different situations and subjects. ISO
Speed
Situations and subjects
3 2
Slow
Well lit, still life
200
Medium
General subjects and lighting levels
400
Moderate-fast
Dimly lit, moving subjects
Famous photographers
Standard lens
Julia
Robert Capa
Margaret Cameron
(1913-54) Hungarian-
(1815-79)
born war
British-born
photographer. In 1947 Capa
portrait photographer.
and CartierBresson founded
Telephoto lens is used to take close-
ups of subjects from adistance and to make them appear bigger.
Magnum Studios. Super telephoto lens is aspecialized lens that needs a tripod to support its weight.
Henri
7 '
Telef)hoto lens
I
R e d
Cartier-
Richard
{born 1923)
1908) French ^
America
photographer '
photographe
to
establish
i
photo¬ journalism as
Aphotograph is developed by xing the image onto special photographic paper using chemicals. 'I'his process is done
Ye l l o w
S',-he exposed
onto white
imprint the ^
paper using
white paper is developed
image onto
an enlarger. ^
acolor -either blue. green, or red. The emulsion layers record
the
lm.
IEachgrainof
3:
3F
processed before the image can be seen.
lm has three
4TTc negative is printed
Fhe pictures on the _are called negatives because the light and
lm must be
I
chemicals
Equipment lm
I
layers of light-sensitive
2
Developing and xing
in the dark.
The
famous fo portraits and ● i fashion pictures.
Color
Developing
silver on the
,
an art form.
Su] telephoto lens
changes when it is exposed to light.
Avedon
Bresson (horn
who did much '
A
\
[ft f
Developing tray Enlarger lm
and set with chemicals.
\
emulsion. Each reacts to
how much of each color
there is in the image.
^Aftertheprint has been
developed, it is
dark areas arc
w'ashed and dried, i
reversed.
Negatives
Finished
print
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PHOTOGRAPHY
Theater Modern wes tern iiieat er has
c. 1000 B.C.
ceremonies all over the
Chinese and
world include music, dance,
Indian dance-
and elements of drama.
dramas develop
i -
ancient Greek word
534 B.C. Thespis, the
actor to step outside the chorus of singers and dancers, arrives
Egypiiati hntiiers
in Athens.
1000 B.C.
x y
c. 1200 Traveling story¬
1453
tellers in Middle Eastern
Renaissance
countries use mime to break
Noh theater becomes the
begins in Italy, and soon spreads to the rest of Europe. Roman plays are revived, and .t buildings re ect the style of classical
dominant form in Japan.
architecture.
^ O -
c. A.D.
l-lOO
of theater in which
B;actors used gesture ■
f
through language barriers.
and movement to act
■ out tragic stories, was ■k p o p u l a r i n R o m e
c. 1300 Indian folk theater develops, following the
8;throughout the
d e c l i n e o f S a n s k r i t t h e a t e r.
B r s t c e n t u r v.
J :
oiiri.shcs in India. c y
and .soon comedy, develops in Greece.
in style.
3000 B.C.
^Pantomimus, aform
1Sanskrit
384-322 B.C. Aristotle, Greek philosopher, explains his theories of tragedy in The Poc cs.
rst
534 B.C.
500 B.C. A9 /320B.C.
The
}c. 1500 Gommedia delFArte
■.
^ c o m p a n i e s from Italy travel widely in Europe, greatly in uencing theatrical styles.
Panlomimu.s
200 B.C.
.0'
c. 500 B.C. Tragedy,
!.
Villi:;. ■
O '
●7
theater (piickly
1
more formalized
A T
/ O' /
meaning “place for viewing.
c. A.D.
Tlmpis’s carl
I
and become
its origins in ancient Greece 7/ iIt
c. 200 B.C. Romans adapt Greek comedies. Plautus (254-184) and 'I'ercnce (190-159) are among the most popular playwrights.
a
c. 3000 B.C. Reli} C
1913 Nijinsky E
1927 Rudolf von
uses turned-in
Laban (1879-1958), Hungarian dancer and choreographer,
feet in his ballet, j The Rite of Spring. 1 9 2 0 s Ta p , charleston, jazz, and many other dance forms in uenced by African.American dancing, are increasingly popular.
1927 Martha Graham, (189-1-1991). American
7popular jazz dances,
modern dancer and
choreographer,
invents amethod of
founds
recording ballet movements using geometric sketches,
her own
company
1930s Jitterbug and - j i v e a r e t w o l i v e l y, d 1 9 3 3 Te d S h a w n
(1891-1972), American dancer, forms an all¬ male company to show
M
men as dancers in their
called Labanotation. Martha Graham
Nijinsky in Ciiscllc
1913
Vi
own right, not just as
1^ supports for women.
V
1933 Fred Astaire (1899-1987)and Ginger .——' Rogers (born 1911), American dancers, appear in the lm Fred Flying Do’nsn to Rio. . Astaire More lm M f o l l o w, i n c l u d i n g ^ ' ' The Cay Divorcee and Top Hat.
1933
1927
>$>
1945 Latin American rumba, samba, calypso, and cha-cha are added to the established ballroom dances.
1960s Post-modern dance develops in New York. It is experimental, and often improvised.
1950s Rock and roll de\ elops as a social dance, mainly for teenagers.
in Europe and the US.
1970s Disco dancing is popular
1952 Merce Cunningham (born 1919), American dancer and choreographer, forms his own company. Ile uses natural mo\ ement to create a Rock-and-roll dancers, 1956
free- owing effect. 1945
1952
/
7
1 9 7 6 Tw y l a T h a r p (born 1942), American tlancer, choreographs Push Comes to Shove. 'Eharp uses elements of many other styles in her dances.
1990s DV8 and
1980sBreakdancing
and body-popping are born. Dancers spin
other companies design dances for
their backs and
;heads, and imitate robotic
television as well as stage.
m o v e m e n t s , e
'●■-w 'l he.se styles appear in other media, such as lm.
Break dancing
I)V8 Physical Theatre
1976 K
N?
'
»s?
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People have been dancing since prehistoric times. Over
1
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Dance
f
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DANCE
6T
f
i
Ballet
Ballet and
V
The three main
styles of ballet are Romantic, Classical,
Ballet is acombination
and modern. The
of music, dance, and mime,
style of ballet is usually re ected in the type of
with set steps and techniques. Modern dance developed from
costume that the d a n c e r s w e a r.
it as afreer, more natural form.
W
Most Romantic ballets feature spirits and magic. Dancers often wear white, calf-length dresses.
The FIVE POSITIONS
Modern dance
In ballet there are
In the late 1800s, Isadora Duncan and Loie
ve basic
positions for the arms, and ve for the feet.
t
Positions of the arms Second, fourth, and fth positions have variations, c.g. in (iemi-seconde, the arms arc raised half-way between
Virst position
s
i n n o v a t o r.
pioneered
developed.
of dance notation: Benesh and Laban. The
Benesh method, which is usually used for ballet, was devised by Rudolf (1916-75) and Joan Benesh (born 1920). Labanotation,
named after Rudolf von Laban (see p.l69), is mainly used to record modern dance.
^choreography. was
Top of head
Wstar the
' D a n c e
Ballets Russes.
Company).
JV techniques are 8^ .still being a
Like music, dance is written down using asystem of symbols. There are two forms
and innovative
■H e
X
Dance notation
athletic style
I R a m b e r t
modem dance
'
●'modem dance.
famous for his
I(now the
Third position
-
Today, new
(
\
D u n c a n
Russian Classical dancer, was
Rambert
t.A
modem dance
-
Isadora
Vaslav Nijinsky (1890-1950)
Ballet
A
darmrs usually wear simple costumes.
was alater
Many dancers have become choreographers and teachers, passing their style and skills on to others.
founded the
Second position
In modem ballets,
wear short dresses, called tutus,
to show off their footwork.
■ t
Fuller (see p.l69) felt ballet movements were unnatural, and developed anew, freer style. Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham (see p.l69) are the two most famous dancerchoreographers of the modern dance movement.
Marie Rambert {1888-1982) Polish teacher and dancer,
In Classical ballets, dancers
Twyla Tharp (see p. 169)
Famous 20th century dancers
rst and
second positions.
-
STYLES
MODERN DANCE
Top of shoulder Waist
Fourth position Positions of the feet
Margot Fonteyn (1919-91)
Arthur Mitchell (born 1934)
British, and Rudolf Nureyev (1938-93),
A m e r i c a n d a n c e r. I n 1 9 6 9 h e founded the Dance 'fheater
^Russian,
Fifth position O
Almost every movement danced
in aballet begins and
Aformed the 9world’s most ^famous and most popular partnership.
Crand plie in Benesh notation
of Harlem, the
rst dance
company with only black dancers.
This grand plie (a deep knee bend) is recorded (right) in two forms of dance notation.
ends with one of
the
' a
ve positions
of the feet.
First position
1
9 1 /
,
Ballet records M O S T C U R TA I N C A L L S
was 89, taken by Margot Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev after aperformance of Swan Lake in Austria in 1964.
Second position
Third position MOST EXPENSIVE COSTUME
I
v-. 1
Fourth position
Fifth position
Choreography Choreography is the art of designing and devising the steps of aballet or dance routine. The term comes from the ancient
Greek words khoreia (dancing) and graphos (writing). Choreographers -the people who devise dance routines -
work with dancers to compose a dance sequence, then record it using notation.
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170 1
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.
ARTS AND THE MEDIA
Famous ballets Title
La Sylphide
Choreographer Filippo Taglioni (1777-1871), Italian
1832
Lev Ivanov (1834-1901), Russian
1892
Swan Lake
Lev Ivanov and Marius Petipa (1818-1910), French
1895
Manon
Kenneth MacMillan (1929-93), British
1974
Ballet facts
(see p.l61), the costume fetched $42,000 at auction in 1984.
regularly wears out about ten pairs of pointe dao&'s, each month.
Barre Fhe bar that
dancers use to help them balance during exercises
●Aballerina who dances
●During the average-length career, dancers practise for eight hours aday, six days aweek: in total, about ve-and-a-half years.
Feet feat
Pas de chat Ajumping step Pas de deux Adance .
X
First danced
Nutcracker
was made for the part of the Chinese conjurer in Parade. premiered in Paris in 1917. Designed by Pablo Picasso
Ballet terms
Grand plie in Labanotation
British dancer
% for two people (male ^
Wayne Sleep
and female), usually the principals
(born 1948) achieved six
Pirouette A
A
Battement Abeating movement of the leg (many forms)
complete .360° turn on one leg
Corps de ballet T'he chorus of dancers (those not dancing solo roles)
Plie Akncc-bcnding movement
,Tete Ajump from one leg to the other
the toes (female dancers)
r
Pas de deux
Pointe On the points or the tips of
entrechats in 1973,
crossing and uncrossing his legs six times while still in the air.
Traditional world dance Mos'l' COUNTRIES OF the world have atraditional form of dance that has evolved over many
years. These dances have often developed from simple religious or tribal rituals into
SOUTHEAST ASIA Classical dance is
performed by highly
European folk dancers
ASIA
part of theatrical dance drama, e.g. (Chinese opera. Japanese gcigaku and hugaka
Most East Asian dance forms
are the world’s oldest forms of traditional court dance.
themselves into atrance as a
way of communicating with spirits and gods. 'I’hey may perform acts that would normally be dangerous, but
Polynesian ●. dancer
Indian Unnple dancer I N D I A
Indian classical dance developed from religious rituals in which dancers told stories about the lives of the gods. There are six styles of dance, including katJwkali and bharata natyam.
includes Sun- and
Moon- worshipping, weapon, fertility, and hunting dances.
Low-down limbo Caribbean limbo dancers can
Country
42
off the ground.
Maypoie
England
The maypole is afertility object symbolizing atree. People danoe around it, holding ribbons that represent branches.
Weapons
Worldwide
The use of weapons, e.g. swords, clubs, and shields, dates back to religious ceremonies in which the gods were asked for help in battle.
Snakes
N. America
The Hop! people use snakes in their
Worldwide
rain dances. Snakes are believed to be
Dance facts
brothers of the spirits that control
●In North Africa, belly dancers are judged
clouds and rain.
bv how well they move their shoulders.
Dancers often wear or use
●Judges at Irish jigging contests sit under the stage to assess the speed and precision of the dancers’ steps.
Indian dancers.
●The cakewalk was the
FA S T E S T TA P D A N C E
was 32 taps per second by Englishman Stephen Gate (born 1967), in 1990.
●Between 1910 and 1920, animal dances
LONGEST CONGA
such as the chicken scratch and the
was the Miami Super Conga in
control over their facial muscles that
grizzly bear were popular in the US. Not everyone approved: awoman was
1988, which consisted of
119,986 people.
f®
they can laugh
m
with one side of
rst African-
American dance to be taken up by white Americans. It developed from dance competitions where the prize was usually acake.
Dance records
take up to four hours to apply their makeup. They have such
pass underneath bars as low as 6in (15cm)
Signi cance
instruments to accentuate the rhythm of adance, e.g. castanets in Spanish amenco; bells worn by olassical
Katliakali dancers
ancestors, and gods.
Native American
Props (items in addition to costume that adancer mayuse) are important in many traditional dances. Prop
goodwill of spirits,
% d a n c e r
Dance props
Instruments
Face facts
ceremonies to win the
Most African dance has its roots in tribal rituals. It
which leave them unharmed.
Barong dancers in Bali strike themselves with daggers lohile in atrance.
dance at special
Polynesian culture. Women often swing and rotate their hips rapidly,
dancer
folk dances have their roots in
In many cultures, people dance
Native Americans
role in traditional
AFRICAN DANCE
EUROPEAN DANCE Many traditional European
Trance dances
AMERICAN DANCE
Dance plays an important
hand movements.
Japanes d a n c e r EAST
religious rituals. For example. dancing in acircle probably originated from circling around an object of worship.
P O LY N E S I A N D A N C E
e.g. in the Hawaiian hula.
trained artists. Dancing is slow, with complex
complex dance forms with set movements.
jailed for 50 days for doing the turkey trot, m -“T
the
\ ■ '
adance that was of cially denounced by Va t i c a n .
their face and cry w i t h t h e o t h e r. ¥
●Flamenco dancers can tap their heels at a rate of up to 16 taps per second.
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TRADITIONAL WORLD DANCE
A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A
Musical sounds and notation
Music
Most Western music is based on major and minor scales -traditional patterns of pitches that sound pleasing to the ear. Composers write down these pitches using notation -acode of signs and symbols that enables a musician to interpret and play amusical composition.
From aPRiMrrivK
war cry to the complex sound of
of notes. The key signature shows which key the music is in.
orchestra, music
Allegro
has been created
Anatural sign cancels the
Apiece of music is divided into measures, each with
preceding sharp
the same number of beats.
When more than two notes
or
The bar line shows where
are played together, the tones
particular note.
at on that
the measure ends.
produced are called achord.
/
by every known society. Vibrations
note that indicate anote should be
raised by ahalf step (sharp) or lowered by ahalf step ( at).
The tempo marking tells the musician how /fast the music should go. Allegro means fast.
Akey is arelated set
asymphony
Sharps and ats are signs before a
Rests show the The
m
ve horizontal
lines are called the staff.
are the source of
all musical sound.
The clef, here a^ treble clef, shows
Dynamic markings tell the player how loud or soft to play
of the staff.
S C A L E
letters: A, B, D, K, F, and G. This series of letters
to be silent.
The stem and coloring of anote indicate its length. These are eighth notes.
Sfoizando means that the note should
be played loudly with special emphasis.
The time signature shows the number of beats in ameasure
the music. ?/(/'stands for iiu^o-forle, or
Pitches arc named from low to high using seven
I
S
mf
which pitches are represented by the lines and spaces
musician where, and for how long,
This sign, called aaescendo, indicates
and which type of note gets one beat.
moderately loud.
that the music becomes gradually louder.
is repeated as the notes continue to ascend in pitch. Pitches lying in between the staff's lines and
spaces are shown using sharp (#)
and at ([.) signs.
Ill III
Cmajor notes
i
on staff
H S r
One octave (eight notes) of the scale of Cmajor
E
G D
F
G
A
B
correspond to white keys on the keyboard.
C
C
Musical words
Time signatures
Pianissimo (pp) Very soft
Time
D
E
F
G
A
2
Mezzo-piano (mp) Medium soft
4
Mezzo-forte (mf) Medium loud
3
Meaning
E
Cmajor scale. White key on keyboard
Grave \’crs' slow and solemn 2beats per measure; quarter note =1beat
Twinkle, twinkle little star; Beethoven's Fifth Symphony
Adagio .Slow and leisurely
Happy Birthday: My Country Tis of Thee
Allegretto Moderately fa.st
Forte if) Loud
4
Fortissimo (ff) Very loud
4 4
4beats per measure; quarter note =1beat
Auld Lang Syne:
6 8
6beats per measure; eighth note =1beat
For He’s aJolly Good Fellow Pop Goes the Weasel
Crescendo (cresc.) Getting louder
D
some of the notes of the
Largo Very slow and broad
Examples
3beats per measure; quarter note =1beat
Forte-piano (fp) Loud then suddenly soft
C
notes that lie between
Te m p o m a r k i n g s
signature
Piano (p) Soft
B
Black keys represent the
Andante Moderately slow
Allegro Fast and brisk Vivace Lively and quiek
America the Beautiful
Presto Very fast Prestissimo Extrcmelv fast
Diminuendo (dim.) Getting softer Dolce Sweetly
World music eacts
Legato Smoothly
●Indian music uses patterns of notes called ragas. There are about 1,30 commonly used ragas, and each one has a special association. It can be an emotion, atime of day, or aseason of the year.
Leggiero Lightly Pizzicato (pizz.) Marking for stringed in.struments meaning that the player should pluck the string
Accelerando (accel.) Accelerate or speed up
Name
Sforzando (sf) Note or chord played loudly, with special emphasis
J J
Quarter note
changing tones of their language.
re
Rest
O
Half note
use it to recreate the
Staccato Short, separated notes
Sign
Whole note
●Strings on one African drum can vary the tension in the drum-head to produce different notes. Players can
Ritardando ( t.) or rallentando Slow down
Con brio With
Note values
Eighth note
7
16th note
T'
32nd note
Nigerian "lallJug” dnun
725 Orchestra der eloped 1480 F'irst in China. Tliese oreliestra.s printed mu,sic
Dates in music history C.4000 B.C. Flutes and
A.D.
600
Schola
harps played in Egypt.
C a n t o r u m
included iites, guitars, goiigs, and drums.
founded
Egyptian tomb painting showing court musicians
in Rome. 'This
/
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o
group of poets and
f
Traditional Chinese orchestra 7
2
5
1480
1709 Early pianoforte built by Italian Bartolomeo Cristofori
(1655-1731). 1727 German J.S.
musicians -in
Bach (1685-1750) composes choral work
Florence, Italy.
S/. Matthew' Passion.
Early music friuted from rawed woodhlochs.
,-v
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the Cameratd -a
h U
order of Pope Gregor\' the Great (c.540-604). A.D.60
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CO be developed by
.'4
^' founded on the
developed into its early form in Europe.
1600s Opera begins
- 1
-— was an early ; music school,
- /
in Europe.
1553 Violin design
1553
1600
J.S. Bach 1709
1727
;
MUSIC
Musical groups Groups range from duos, which have two performers, to symphony orchestras, which contain up to 120 (see p.l74). Most classical music groups play written music. Jazz groups take atheme and invent
Major composers in western music Nationality, dates
Composer
Flemish, c.1400-74
Church music and secular pieces
Josquin des Pres
Flemish, c.1445-1521
Choral church and secular music
variations on it as they play.
Giovanni Palestrina
Italian, c.1525-94
Choral church and secular music
D u o
William Byrd
English, 1543-1623
Church music, string music, keyboard music, and madrigals
In aduo, one player usually plays a brass, string, or
Claudio Monteverdi
Italian, 1567-1643
Orfeo (1607), Vespers {1610)
wind
Fleinrich Schtitz
German, 1585-1672
Symphoniae Sacrae (1650)
Jean Baptiste Lully
French, 1632-87
Operas, church compositions
Baroque (1600-1750)
instrument and tire other
Flenry Purcell
English, 1659-95
Dido and Aeneas (1689)
Antonio Vivaldi
Italian, 1678-1741
Four Seasons (1725)
Jean Phillippe Rameau
French, 1683-1764
Castor and Pollux (1737)
Johann Sebastian Bach
German, 1685-1750
Brandenburg Concertos (1721), St. Matthew Passion (1727)
George Frederic Handel
German, 1685-1759
The Messiah (1741), Music for the Royal Fireworks (1749)
Classical (1750-1820) Joseph Haydn
Austrian, 1732-1809
London Symphonies: 1st set (1791-92)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Austrian, 1756-91
Ludwig van Beethoven
German, 1770-1827
Symphonies No. 3(1802), No. 5(1809), and No. 9(1823)
Romantic 1820-1900 Franz Schubert
Austrian, 1797-1828
Piano Quintet in A(1819), "Un nished" Symphony No. 8(1822)
Hector Berlioz
French, 1803-69
Symphonie Fantastique (1830), The Trojans (1859)
Frederic Chopin
Polish, 1810-49
Piano compositions. Preludes (1839)
Franz Liszt
Hungarian, 1811-86
Piano Sonata in BMin (1853), Hungarian Rhapsodies (1839-85)
Richard Wagner
German, 1813-83
The Flying Dutchman (1841), The Ring of the Nibelung (1848-74)
Giuseppe Verdi
Italian, 1813-1901
Aida (1871), Requiem Mass (1873), Otello (1887)
Johannes Brahms
German, 1833-97
Violin Concerto in DMajor (1878), Symphony No. 4(1884)
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Russian, 1840-93
Piano Concerto No 1(1874-5), Swan Lake (1876)
Edvard Grieg
NonA/egian, 1843-1907
Piano Concerto in AMinor (1869), Peer Gynt (1876)
Edward Elgar
English, 1857-1934
Enigma Variations (1899), Violin Concerto (1910)
Modern 1900 to present Claude Debussy
French, 1862-1918
Pelleas and Melisande (1892-1902), Images (1905-07)
Arnold Schoenberg
Austrian, 1874-1951
First String Quartet (1897), Pierrot Lunaire (1912)
Bela Bartok
Hungarian, 1881-1945
Six String Quartets (1939), Concerto for Orchestra (1944)
women, who sing four
Igor Stravinsky
Russian, 1882-1971
The Firebird (1910), The Rite of Spring (1913)
parts. Most choirs sing Qj
Sergei Proko ev
Russian, 1891-1953
Romeo and Juliet (1935), Peter and the Wolf (1936)
Lili Boulanger
French, 1893-1918
Faust and Helene (1913)
George Gershwin
American, 1898-1937
Rhapsody in Blue (1924), Porgy and Bess (1935)
apiano. Pieces for two players are called duets.
Cello and piano duo
T r i o Trios have three
players. A string trio uses aviolin, viola, trios are written
for violin, cello, and piano. Quartet Jazz groups often use
quartets (groups of four players). String quartets contain two
violins, aviola, and acello.
Quintet Quintets use ve players and usually contain *
.ri
wind or brass instruments oi instruments
^
from different families.
!
Mixed quintet
93«€Ui?»
C h o i r
'if'-'
Achoir is agroup of
singers. Amixed voice
Piano Concertos in CMajor and DMinor (1785),
The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787)
choir contains men and
religious music. Small church choir
LARGER GROUPS
●Large groups of wind, brass, and percussion players, called bands, play for
Dmitry Shostakovich
Russian, 1906-75
Symphonies No.5 (1937) and No.10 (1953)
outdoor concerts and military ceremonies.
John Cage
American, 1912-92
Music of changes (1951), 4' 33" (1954)
●Amedium-sized string group, often including afew wind instruments, is called achamber orchestra. Many composers have written for this group.
Pierre Boulez
French, born 1925
Le Marteau sans Maitre (1954), Memoriales (1975)
Karlheinz Stockhausen
German, born 1928
Groups (1955-57)
Philip Glass
American, born 1937
Einstein on the Beach (1976)
1874
folfgang A. Mozart (17.S6-91) amposes opera, Don Giovanni.
composer Richard
1808
German
Wagner (181.3-8.3) nishes The Ring of the Nibelung.
German
1940 Synthesizers appear, giving composers new electronic sounds.
c o m p o s e r
C.1900 Jazz music
Ludwig van
appears in New Orleans,
(1770-1827)
US. It combines
African rhythms with W e s t e r n h a r m o n y.
.Symphonies
1787
No..S and No.6.
1808
Ludwig van Beethoven
USv /if/r/v jazz music 1950
1874
195.S Roek m
u
s
i
c
appears in LLS.
Rock singer Chuck Hern
Beethoven
composes
he young Mozart lasing the piano
Off beat jean Baptiste Lully (16.32-87), court musician to Louis XIV of France, stabbed his foot with the long staff that he banged on the
oor in order to
keep his orchestra in time. Me later died from an abscess
caused by this injury.
N.-'
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London Symphonies: 2nd set (1793-95),
and cello. Piano
787 Austrian composer
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Major work(s), date(s) composed
Renaissance (1450-1600) Guillaume Dufay
ARTS AND 'I'HE MEDIA
Drums
Classical
Vi b r a p h o n e
PKRCUSSION
Symphony Symphonies arc pieces
MUSIC
of music written for a
full range of orchestral
When people 'piiink
Trombone
instruments. I'herc is no dominant soloist.
of classical music, most think of orchestras and
symphonies, and opera.
BRASS
Concerto
French horn
In aconcerto, asoloist is Tr u m p e t
accompanied by an orchestra. A concerto orchestra usually has fewer brass and percussion instruments, which allows the
WOODWIM)
Orchestra 'I'he orche.stra i.s
s o l o i s t t o b e h e a r d m o r e c l e a r l y.
the largest grouping of instruments in
STRINGS
classical music.
Double bass
STRINGS /
Harp
Strings sit in ,
small groups / called desks. L
\
\
3rd desk ol 1st violins
1st violins
Leader 1st violins
1st desk of 2nd violins
An orchestra usually contains about 90 people.
2nd desk of 2nd violins
Conductor
(principal violinist)
CONDUCTOR -A conductor direct.s
/ I
y
of the music. He or
she traces patterns through the air with abaton, according to the time signature of the piece.
Bouncing back
\
the performance, indicating the pace
\
In Tosca, the heroine jumps to her death from easric battlements. In 1960, angry stagehands backstage substituted a
Two beats
Three beats
Four beats
Five beats
trampoline for the usual mattress.
in
in abar
in
in
'Eosea reappeared ES times
abar
abar
Diafrram.s show (raditional halon movements.
Opera
abar
before the curtain fell. Madam Butter y sings soprano part.
Operas are musical dramas in which singers, accompanied by an orchestra, act out a story. They can be sung throughout, or sung and spoken.
ST^'-k
f '
Madam Hutterfh', amoving love story, was created by Puccini in 1904. It centers on aJapanese heroine, Madam Butter y, whose betrayal by an American sailor ends with her suicide.
US Navy Lieutenant F. B . P i n k e r t o n
sings tenor part.
Key opera SINGERS Tito (jiobbi
(191.S-84), Italian operatic baritone, made his debut in Rome in 1938.
Solos by major characters are called arias.
Royal Opera House
Kathleen Ferrier
(1912-53), Kngli.sh contralto singer, made her
production, London
debut as Lucrctia in
Opera facts ●'I'here are six commonly accepted ranges of voice. From lowest to highest these arc bass,
Key operas Title
The Marriage of Figaro
baritone, tenor, contralto,
me/./,o-soprano, and soprano. ●Many people believe that the quality of an opera singer’s voice improves with extra bodyweight. In fact, aperson’s weight is irrelevant: thin people may possess the
nest voices.
●Some people can identify the pitch of any note that they hear, without needing to refer to an instrument. 'This ability i.s called “perfect pitch.”
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174
Benjamin Britten’s The Rape of IMcretia \x\ 1946.
The Barber of Sevilie
Composer
1786
Gioacchino Rossini
1816 Rome
(1792-1868), Italian Otello
First performed
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91), Austrian
Vienna
Luciano Pavarotti
(horn I9.LS), Italian operatic t e n o r, m a d e h i s international dehut as Rudolfo in Puccini's
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901), Italian
1887
Richard Wagner (1813-83), German
1876
Kir
Bayreuth, Germany
Carmen
Georges Bizet (1838-75), French
1875
(born 1944), New Zealand operatic soprano, made
La Boheme
Giacomo Puccini
1896
debut in 1971, as
(1858-1924), Italian
Turin, Italy
the Countess in
Benjamin Britten (1913-76), British
1945
The Ring of the Nibelung
Peter Grimes
Hohfme'm 1961.
Milan, Italy
Paris
i Te
Kanawa
her international
London
Moz arc’s The
M rrlage of bfgaro.
j
Popular music Many oifferen'p styles of music
COliNTRY
AND
DISCO
WESTERN-
In the 1970s, new
(Country and Western
music centered around
music takes its
the disco movement.
have evolved in the twentieth
inspiration from the country life of the
century. Here the most popular
American West. Its
It was promoted by lms such as Saturday Night /'VtiYrand by a
Western styles are described.
performers, often dressed as cowboys of the Old \\ cst, sing
FOLK
with the accent of
Ml.iSIC
In the 19th century,
southern I"S and are
America’s southern
accompanied by
black population, including transport
instruments such r c u M u S K o r
revival of interest in
1950s music by black artists such as James Brown (born 19.TD. Disco artists include
Johnny Cash The Johnny Cash Collection
as the banjo, ddle, and guitar. Performers include Hank Williams (born 1923), Johnny Cash (born 1932), and 'Tammy Wynettc (born 1942).
workers on the railroads
and riverboats, as well as cotton workers, sang
Saturday Night Fever
D o n n a S u m m e r.
Punk music exploded onto the scene at the close of the 1970s. led
songs at work, or at the end of the day. 'They created anew kind of
folk song in which they mixed the complex, overlapping rhythms
Album oj early AfricanAmerican songs
ROCK AND ROLL Rock and roll began in
by the British groups
the 1950s as amix of
'The Clash. It had a
rhythm-and-blues and country music and was played loudly on newly
savage character, and appealed to young people whose dre.ss, langtiage, and
T'he -Sex Pistols and
and free melodies of West African music with the
invented electric
harmonies of Western music. 'This combination
guitars, ’i'hough this style aro.se in black communities, white singer and guitarist Elvis Presley (1935-77) greatly increased its popularity.
behavior were
ROCK
dance rhythms. Major pop artists and groups
formed the foundation for music that would
dominate popular tastes during the 2()th century. B L U E S
'The blues express the troubles and emotions
1980s POP MUSIC
Pop music in the 1980s became lighter and
roll was abbre\ iated to
included Michael
“rock” music. Rock
Jackson, 'The Pet Shop Boys, Madonna, and Bryan T'erry. Pop videos, in which the music was accompanied Michael Jackson Tlnillcr by images, made it possible for aperformer to be seen on television by millions at the same time as
music has aheavy, driving rhythm, with eight eighth notes to Leadbelly L e a d b c l l v ’s L a s t S e s s i o n s
the bar and accents on the second and fourth
beats. Early rock bands included 'The Beatles, 'The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd,'The Who, and 'The Jimi Hendrix Experience.
J A Z Z
Jazz emerged in the early 1900s in New Orleans, US, as a mixture of blues, religious gospel singing, and European in uences. Driven by the urgent rhythms of
ARMSTRONC
the release of their record.
'The Rolling Stones Their Satanic Majesties Request
1990s
POPULAR
M U S I C
Aspecialized form of dance music, called house music, emerged in the 1980s, based on \ery rapid rhythms and
REGGAE
West Indian reggae music was spread abroad bv West Indian
West African music
communities
and using the melodic style of the Blues, jazz Louis Annslrojig musicians improviseLaughing Louis they recreate the melody of apiece each time it is performed. This allows each player to
express their emotions through their special version of the music. Major artists of the “jazz age” of the
overseas.
electronic sounds. T'he
It is closely associated ^ with the Rastafarian
technology for making and mixing these sounds is now widely available to musicians,
k'
V
religion. Its most famous artist was Bob
Marley (1945-81), whose music calls for
4
\
‘ ■7 T
A
an end to racism and
political repression.
Bob Marin and The Wallers
Single
Performer/group
BIG
White Christmas
Bing Crosby
30,000,000
In the 19,30s and early 1940s, swing, aform of ja/.z, was played by “big bands,” under great
Rock Around the Clock
Bill Haley
17,000,000
/ W a n t t o H o l d Yo u r H a n d
The Beatles
12,000,000
bandleaders such as
I t ’s N o w o r N e v e r
Elvis Presley
10,000,000
Hound Dog/Don't Be Cruel
Elvis Presley
9,000,000
Diana
Paul Anka
9,000,000
Hey Jude
The Beatles
8,000,000
I’m aBeliever
The Monkees
8,000,000
Can't Buy Me Love
The Beatles
7,000,000
Do They Know It's Christmas?
Band Aid
7,000,000
AND
3... CHABUE PARKER
■'
bird
trumpeter Miles Davis (1926-91) and .saxophonist John Coltrane (1926-67).
Copies sold (approx.)
lives
Duke Ellington (1899-1974). Later, a new style emerged, called be-bop. It was pioneered by trtimpeter Chnrlif Ptirkrr Bird Lives Dizzy Gillespie (born 1917) and saxophonist Charlie Parker (1920-S,S). Hedrop led to more complex schemes of harmony. Major artists included
Orb
Blue
Room
since developed into the related styles of acid house, techno, trance, ambient, and jungle music.
Best-selling singles worldwide
BANDS
The
and their music has
1920s included American trumpeters Louis “.Satchmo” Armstrong (c.1898-1971) and Bix Beiderbecke (1903-31), and the orchestral composer George Gershwin (1898-1937).
BE-BOP
Damned
Damned, Damned, Damned
traditional tastes.
In the 19b0s, rock and
12 bars of music. The
variations.
The
designed to outrage
more concerned with
of the performer in a simple but strict form. 'The performer sets three lines of poetry to blues u.se abasic, .set pattern of harmonies (chords), over which the performer invents
The Bee Gees
'The Bee Cees and
P U N K
and listened to folk
Pop music records MOST
EXPENSIVE
G U I TA R
was aFender Stratocastcr belonging to Jimi Hendrix (1942-70). It was sold forS180,(l00 (U.S $27.S,940) at ■Sotheby’s, London, in 1990.
and His Comets
MOST
SUCCESSFUL
SONGWRITERS
are Patil McCartney (born 1942), who has had .32 number one singles in the US and 28 in the UK, and John Lennon (1940-80), with 26 number one singles in the U.S and 29 in the UK.
fi
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POPULAR MUSIC
Stringed instruments
Musical instruments
Astringed instrument consists of aseries of
Violin bow
stretched strings connected to ahollow box that ampli es the string’s vibrations. The string is set in motion by being plucked, as with aharp; by the friction of abow, as with aviolin; or by being struck, as with apiano.
Musical ins erumen isare designed to make vibrations that our ears and
brain recognize as musical sounds. 'They are usually classi ed into percussion, stringed, woodwind, brass, and keyboard. Archaeologists excavating the sites of ancient /
Horse-
V'
F-shaped sound hole
Tuning peg
typical of
connected to
violin
4
family
hair
strings
each string
Carved
Ivory tuning
>
m
pegbox
peg Thinnest
string produces highest jnotes.
Alesopotamian cities (see p.375) /
Heart-
shaped sound hole
Triangular¬ shaped body
have found evidence for every j
\
Fish¬
basic instrument type. V I O L I N
instrument
f^Brd ige
supports strings.
the violin between the chin and the
shaped body
Spike to keep
/ j
'I'hc violin is the smnllcst stringed instrument. It also produces the highest sound. 'The player holds
steady —-
shoulder, drawing the bow across the strings to produce aclear tone. Frog provides grip for bow.
Mouthpiece
Hi
Iranian spike ddle, Middle
Russian
Portuguese rajao
balalaika
is afolk, music
Eastern ancestor of
uses two to four
the violin, typically has along neck.
strings and may sit on the ground.
instrument originating in Madeira, an island off North Africa.
/
with reed — S c r e w //
Upper octave key
Woodwind
Double ree
INSTRUMENTS
-.A
Awoodwind instrument i.s
Ornate
laquer
Pads lined
either atube that the player
Flute
decoratio
with cork and
blows acros.s or into or atube
blown
felt cover
through hole cut ;
Vi
toneholes.
that ampli es the vibrations
in side.,
of athin reed at one end.
Thumb _ knuckle
-Key to
Most woodwind instruments
Operate
\
f
operates
have holes running down the tube. 'I'he player covers and uncovers them to produce
Ring for -_neck sling
Bell projects ;
these
Openin
keys.
adjusted i by hand
50und-
to change
different notes.
n o t e .
emerged
head
/' I
r
from a gmnt
ute. Oboe,
Dragon
produces a deeper sound
or lung-ti tliite, i.s used
an orchestral Ilute
entertain
instrument, is with pircli
than astandard
in Chinc.se
used tir tunc controlled
the guests.
clarinet.
ceremonies.
the orchestra, by hand.
Guyanese
Brass instruments
THE
Brass instruments have a
instrument. It has changed vers' little since its invention and is the dominant instrument in many bands and orchestras.
TRUMPET
This trumpet is amodern version of the oldest brass I
\
I f 1
I
[ii
1
u
r~-\-
r
v
i
Cup-shaped mouthpiece allows variety of
the pitch of the
notes to be
note to be
Water key drains trumpet of
made with lips.
changed.
c o n d e n s e d w a t e r.
brass section
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Detachable
176 fi
H.iae..
Te n o r
horn
1780s horn
is adescendant
is coiled for
of the bugle.
case of playing.
French
Serpent horn
Pistons enable
,Mouthpiece
xed together and taken apart after u.sc.
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-i-’.
pie to
Alto clarinet
bra.ss sections that are
fl
In 1454, French knights from
20 musicians
is atrumpet used in Islamic religious festivals. It is 5ft (1.5m) long and is made from
g
Pied pipers
dragon’s
the instrument itself, hut by the
n
L
wooden
metal. It can produce aharsh, raw tone, but it also carries asmooth, lilting melody with great sensitivity. Clarinettists may easily play the saxophone since they share acommon type of reed.
nftr
bend is then sliced off.
tube for sound
woodwind instrument made of
Moroccan
them into astaple {cork tube). 'Fhe
Curved
deep
ute, i.s a
player’s lips pressed against this mouthpiece. The player alters the pitch by changing the tension in the lips, and by changing the length of tubing tiirough wliich the vibrating air passes.
ends of abent strip of cane and tting
which more than
Carved
S A X O P H O N E
mouthpiece shaped like afunnel. Vibrations are produced not by
REED
Adouble reed is made by binding the
Fleece held abanquet in
thumb to support instrument body.
'The saxophone, like the
DOUBLE
the Order of the Golden
'}
Holder uses
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ARTS AND THE MEDIA
Decorative
carrying cord
horn
has awide ared bell.
has two sets of
ngerholcs.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Percussion Crash cymbal loosely tted to
INSTRUMENTS
allow vibrations
Percussion instruments
III
DRUM KIT Adrum kit consists of different types
of drums and cymbals. 'I'he player uses both hands and feet to operate it.
are played by being To m - t o m
struck, rubbed, or
drums
High-hat
shaken; they usually provide the rhythmic
1
uses two
cymbals.
Ride cymbal Snare
beat in an instrumental
group. 'They include snare drums, bass drums, tambourines,
^Floor t o m - t o m
Key to adjust height
cymbals, gongs, castanets, maracas, tom¬
Egyptian
Oriental gong i.s .struck in the
Nigerian gourd
Chinese
darabuka
is an example of the goblet drum popular in many
center to cause the
rattle
d r u m
rattle
frreatest vibrations.
.Arab countries. Gourd
toms, timpani, bells, the xylophone, celesta, marimba, vibraphone,
V \
Tambourine / has cymbals ®
and chimes.
4
bass
drum bass
pedal
Keyboard INSTRUMENTS
set into frame, wiiieh sound “
with resonating gourd.
when shaken.
drum
covered
gives deep
beater
thud.
Keyboard instruments have an arrangement of levers or keys that
Brazilian berimbau
Most expensive INSTRUMENTS
Raised lid _
gives fuller Instrument
sound.
activate the sonrcc of sound. I’heir
Date
Va l u e
made
popularity arose from acapacity to play melody and accompaniment at the same time. 'The three major keyboard instruments are the pianoforte or piano, the harpsichord, and the organ.
“Mendelssohn"
1720
1,382,766
“Cholmondeley” cello by Stradivari
1698
950,460
“Bonjour” cello by Stradivari
1690
927,465
duration of
Violin by Joseph
1743
797,160
sound.
del Gesu 1709
659,190
1712
539,616
1715
339,560
0.1750
339,560
“Monlagnana" violin by D. Montagnana
1741
314,265
Jimi Hendrix’s
1968
275,940
,iron frame
violin by Stradivari Hammers
Left or soft
Right or sustaining pedal controls
pedal moves hammer nearer
PIANOFORTE
to strings, allowing softer
Tbc kcy.s of apianoforte manipulate feltcovercci hammers. These strike wire
tone.
strings, causing them to resonate. The player can sound many notc.s at once and can vary tbc loudness of individual notes.
\Tuning pins
“Marie Hall” violin Strings plucked by wooden jacks.
88-note keyboard
by Stradivari “Schreiber” violin Wooden
by Stradivari
soundboard
Ji ISquare mpianoforte HJ made in
^England in i1773.
Electronic
Italian spinet
Violin by Pietro
of 1550s used
Guarneri
afour“Ex-Kosman”
o c t a v e
violin by G. Guadagnini
k e y b o a r d
Electronic
INSTRUMENTS The electronic synthesizer creates sound by arti cial means. It changes electric impulses into sound, and every aspect of the sound can be controlled. I'he synthesizer player can generate virtually any sound imaginable, from those of the natural world or of
traditional instruments, to new,
unique, “space-age” sounds.
keyboard can change a sound wave to
produce a great variety
Stratocaster guitar
of sounds.
Futuristic V-shaped wooden body
Drum pad cniits electric
signal when struck, to produce electronic
Pickups that convert
drum sound.
string vibrations into electrical impulses.
Output socket
Music facts ●Italian violinist Niccolo
●In 1846,
●The drum used on British
Paganini (1782-1840) was the
Belgian
most skilled violin virtuoso of
instrument
the 19th century. He was the
maker
explorer Sir Francis Drake’s ship hangs in Buckland Abbey, England. It is believed to roll by
Adolphe Sax
itself when
invented the
England
saxophone.
faces
fastest violinist in the
world, playing his own Mouvement
-.I’l Perpetue! in tliree
ii.
i
"
Cristofori (1655-1731) .The
rst
iron-framed piano appeared in 1859.
danger, it
minutes, three
●'I'he harmonica is the world’s
was last
seconds. This
most popular instrument. In
heard in
translates as 12
1965, more than 28 million
World War I
were sold in the US.
(1914-18).
notes per second.
●In 1709, the rst piano was built by Italian Bartolomeo
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3000 B.C. The
Writing
Egyptians invent a
%
form of writing using picture signs called hieroglyphs. I'hey
The rst wre ng began as a
j
poet Sappho, from the Greek island of Lesbos, composes lyrical poetry on themes of love
Egyptian hieroglyphs '>■
'Greek poet Sappho t j -
2000 B.C.
O
'
600 B.C.
is written as aconversation
writes
paper, which they _
woodblock-
between Arjuna and Krishna.
biography. Parallel Lives,
100
A.D.
rst
105
868
The
printed book, with woodcut
which details
pulp of bers from mulberry
the lives of
trees. 'Phey keep \
Greek
invention asecret
.soldiers.
for 600 vears.
Plutarch (A.D.46-119)
illustrations, is y
the Diamond
Sutra, printed in Ghina.
Making paper A.D.105
A.D.868
Wm =;
1605 Miguel de Cervantes : u
BSf.?
1719 Englishman (1547-1616) writes Don Quixote, Daniel Defoe acomic satire about the travels (1660-1731) writes Robinson Crusoe. Defoe of an elderly Spanish knight. is one of the
rst
170 bibles.
1 6 9 7 F r e n c h a u th o r C h a r l e s p e o p l e to w r i t e m a j o r
1593 William
Perrault writes Tales of Mothe
Shakespeare writes one of his rst plays, The Taming of the Shrew.
1007-1320
A.D.
make from the
A.D.100
(c.1397-1468) invents printing by movable typo. First printing is
to record the oral part of their history as astory. This is known as asaga.
Pitcher.
earliest known
the Heian eoiirt of Japan. It is the
1190-1320 Wi-iters in Iceland begin
The Crow and
wedge-shaped pen used for writing.
Chinese invent
Gutenberg
Khayyam writes the The Rubaiyat.
Cried IKo^and
named after the
Plutarch
C.1450 Johann
1048-1123 Persian poet Omar
of The Hoy Who
A.D.
500-200 B.C.
rst novel.
writer Aesop composes his fables, including the storv
500 B.C. The most famous Hindu text, the B/uigavad-Cita,
1007 Murasaki Shikibu (973-1014) writes The Tale of Genji, based on life in world’s
600 B.C. Greek
Sumerian epic
3000-2000 B.C.
200 B.C. Parchment (the skin of sheep or goats created to make asmooth surface) is invented in the Greek city of Pergamum. Parchment is used in the West for 1,000 years.
and jealousy.
1
from papyrus reed.
and to learn about the world. 610-580 B.C. Female
2000 B.C.
poem GUgomes is recorded on 12 clay cablets using cuneiform, ascript
TP:- ^
write on scrolls made
way to keep accounts and to record details of history. Today people read books for pleasure
1450
works of literature in
Goose, acollection of oral folk tales that includes Cinderella
Gutenberg bible
and Beauty and the Beast.
1593
1605
(
an “ordinary” or natural style. Early cetpy q/'Robinson Crusoe
1697
1719
V
1800s Charles
Dickens’s novel. The Old Curiosity Shop, is published a chapter amonth.
1847 Charlotte Bronte
1837 First book for the blind, A Summary of French History, Century by Century, is printed using braille,
yNXMcsJaneF.yre, alove story that breaks the rules of Victorian society. She uses the pseudonym of Currer Bell, since it is still unacceptable for
asystem of raised dots invented bv Louis Braille (1809-52).
C r o w d s a t N e w Yo r k docks shout “is Little Nell Dead.^”
as ship arrives with the next installment. Scene with Little Nell
1 8 4 1 A m e r i c a n a u t h o r, E d g a r Allan Poe (1809^9), creates 'The Murders in the Rue Morgue, which is the rst true detective story.
1800
1837
women to write
1873 First typewriter in the
(1828-1905) writes AJourney to the Center of the Earth, which is
world is produced and sold by the American Remington C o m p a n y.
1 8 5 2 H a r r i e t B e e c h e r S t o w e ’s book. Uncle 'Tom's Cabin, draws attention to the injustice of slavery in the United States.
ction.
-7^ 'Charlotte Bronle (1816-55)
1841
1864 Jules Verne
the
1847
1901 French poet Sully Prudhomme (1839-1907) becomes rst person to win Nobel Prize for
(4
Scene from Uncle Tom’s C’abin
World War Isoldiers
1914-18 World War I.
shown in action
Agroup of English poets that includes Rupert Brooke, Wilfred Owen,
literature. His work includes The Broken Vase. \
She must not move \ before the gun is red, or afalse start is called.
9 9 9 Relay ●Kach of the four team members
runs one stage, or leg, of arelay. ●Abaton is carried by the rst runner and passed on to the next team member in atakeover zone.
●Adropped baton must be picked up by the runner who dropped it.
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Average stride length of 2m
Front knee
Hf.
■^x The winner is the person
lifted high
crosses the nish line rst.
The take-over
4\ lOOM
tone
In this relay race, an athlete
whose torso, or trunk,
Baton length: 28-30cm
measures
B AT O N
22yd (20m)
The baton is asmooth, hollow cube made of wood, metal, or plastic.
stretches back his hand to cake the baton from his
I.
A
FBC
teammate, %
without looking behind him.
■
A'
4 X 4 0 0 M
I
fcN
/
\
In this relay race, an athlete will look back to receive the baton from her teammate.
I
^W-
/.
Hurdles
TECHNIQUE The athlete should clear each
●All races have ten hurdles
Thf athlete stays in mid ighl for as short atime as possible., to minimizi’ loss of speed.
hurdle quickly and smoothly.
in each lane.
In the 100m and 1K)m three strides between
/
disquali ed for knocking down
each hurdle
4
H
n
r
●An athlete’s rear
'f
leg must not trail
O jir Knee of lead /
Wooden bar is 1.2m wide.
Trail leg
fW leg is bent on approach.
around the outside
>
E
(
x\
hurdles.
of the hurdle.
{
hurdles the athlete takes
●An athlete is not
times their
arm’s length overhead (the jerk).
own body weight in the clean and jerk. Power lifters can lift more than 5 times their own body weight.
●At the end of the clean, the
lifter may rest the bar on the
As in the snatch, the
collarbones, chest,
or fully bent arms, and may change his grip.
Knees may be split or bent.
lifter can take any Imigth of time, oveithe recovery position.
●v4-
Snatch
J
The lifter must not let the bar touch his body until it has
Clea
reached his shouldms.
- - 4
and jer y During the clean the lifter must not let his elbozus or upper arms touch his knees or thighs.
Pozoer lifting
Record breakers FIRST
MAN
TO
CLEAN
AND
.lERK
more than three times his own
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body weight was Stefan T’opurov (born 1964), of Bulgaria, who lifted 180kg in Moscow, USSR, in 1983.
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SPORTS
T
G E A R
Gymnastics
Men wear vests and long pants. They may \
wear shorts for the
Artistic
●There are two Olympic events; artistic gymnastics, and rhythmic gymnastics, which is for
oor and vault
exercises. Women wear leotards, and may
GYMNASTICS ●Gymnasts are awarded marks out of ten for their performances on various pieces of equipment. ●Women perform four types of exercise, men perform six.
●The gymnast must combine acrobatic agility and muscle power with grace of movement.
r
wear gA-mnastic slippers or go barefoot. Handguards may be worn for the ring
i
and bar exercises.
Gymnasts use achalky poxvder to keep their hands diy while using the apparatus.
/
women only,
BEA
QQ Rhythmic GYMNASTICS ●Gymnasts perform routines set to music, using small, hand-held pieces of equipment, which must be kept moving at all times. ●Balletic, rather than acrobatic, movements are
S '
bounces, throws and catches
Ribbon
Clubs The gymnast \throws, rolls, and juggles \with two clubs.
The gymnast
Adjustable wooden bars
provide plenty Length of bars:
ribbon form
*Height:
the air and
195cm
o o r.
throws and catches it.
Width between bars: 42cm
^Weighted
\Rope The gymnast Hoop The gymnast rotates
.of spring.
I
moving patterns in on the
1
350cm
makes the
the hoop around her, and
performed.
Ball The gymnast
BARS
This event is for men only. The gymnast performs swinging and balancing movements on the parallel bars.
circular
the pommel horse f~ with his hands. Q
jumps and skips while throwing and catching the rope.
I
metal frame \
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GYMNASTICS
SPORTS
M
Combat sports
A
●In combat .sports, competitors use either striking (e.g. boxing) or holding (e.g. judo) technitjues against their opponents. ●Some combat sports, such as fencing and kendo, use weapons.
A R E A
Weight table
Contestants must ght «ithin the contest area, and not step outside the danger zone.
Judo
The contest area is
●In judo (“the soft way”), competitors are judged on their throwing and holding technicpies. ●About can last for up to
9-1 Om X9-1 Om.
Danger zone
20 minutes. GRADING SYSTEM Contestants wear different-colored belts to show their grade. Black belt is usually the highest level reached, but
mule
or
off-white jacket and pants are.
Female
under 60kg
under 48kg
Feather
under 65kg
under 52kg
Light
under 71kg
under 56kg
Light-middle
under 78kg
under 61 kg
Middle
under 86kg
under 66kg
Light-heavy
under 95kg
under 72kg
Heavy
over 95kg
over 72kg
B O U T
w o r n .
there are even higher grades, awarded
Male
Bantam
Category
for length of service. Ared-and-white striped belt is worn by the sixth, seventh, and eighth E)an. Very few people have ever reached ninth and
T'he competitors are judged on their technitiues. An outright winning technitiLie scores an ippon (one point).
Contest area
tenth Dan.
An ippon is awarded for:
Belt
S TA R T
Grade 1
^
9-10th Dan
Lifting the opponent above shoulder height
('ompetitons
)
face each other at adistance of
1st-5th Dan
4m and take
1!
abow.
Aforceful throw
1st Kyu
An effective stranglehold or
2nd Kyu
hanimerloch
Judo words Dojo'i’raining hall.
Kyu Student grade. Senshu Champion
G E A R
Gake Hook or block.
competitor.
(a)ntestants wear
Hajime Referee's call to begin. Judo-gi Judo jacket and
Tsuri Lift up. Waza-ari I-Ialf apoint,
D a n L e a d e r o r t e a c h e r.
3rd Kyu
4th Kyu
loose- tting pants, w'ith ajacket w’hich is 5th Kyu
held in at the waist
t r o u s e r s .
with aeotton belt.
OTHER
MARTIAL
ARTS
awarded for aless than
Karate
clean technique.
Contestants aim punelies and kicks at their opponents. Aikido
The foil
Fencing
Competitors must wear white clothes that give freedom of movement and maxinnim protection.
●In fencing, two opponents compete in about using one of three weapons: foil, epee, or saber. ●About lasts until the agreed made, or until the time limit has been reached,
Ju Jitsu
A
f r
time limit of six
C e n t e r ■-
minutes.
line
/
As in judo, throws and holds are used in this self-defense sport. Kendo
Contestants in atmor
the head.
r
PISTE
In events using elect ron ic e(j uip men t, ametallic overjachet
is v’orn, to show xohen
line
ahit has been scored.
A
padde glove is wor on the sword¬
BOUT
.-\t the start, the opponents face each other, 4m apart, at the center of the piste. 4'hc president orders en garde, asks the players if they arc ready,
.
* . A
X
then calls allez to start about.
\
holding hand.
Weapons and target areas SABER
FOIL
EPEE
The target
The target
atea is the
area is the
upper body (A
trunk only.
whole body.
and arms.
The area
The area
The area must
must be
must be
be sttuck with
struck with
sttuck with
the point or with the blade edges.
the point of
the point of
the swotd.
the swotd.
ateaisthc ,
Max weight: 500g Blade length: 88cm
Max weight
A
500 Blad
770g II
,
U
:
:
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.
his atm outstretched.
■
Max weight
r Blade length:
-T^len^g.
198
In the attack, the fcncct thtcatens the tatget with
In the parry, the attacker’s sword is dcnected by the defender ’s sword.
*j
^ In the riposte, the defender makes aquick return thrust after the parry.
j^
90o ^
m
The tatget
Ns
i
N FENCING
On-guard
ght
with bamboo swords.
K
I
The fencing area (piste) measures 14m X2m. j
I
off balance.
Amash made of vE steel or plastic ,mesh is worn to ^ protect
number of hits have been
e.g. ve hits within a
Flowing mo\ ements are used to thrown the opponent
G E A R
GEAR
Boxing weights
Boxers wear padded, laeed-up leather gloves.
Boxing ●In boxing, competitors use their gloved hands to punch each other
Professional
Categories
Professional boxers amateurs wear shorts and avest. The shorts
are loose- tring and
●Fights can be won on points, or because the opponent is counted out, retires, or is judged un t to continue.
traditionally made of
Amateur
●satin. The “belt” of
boxers wear
the shorts must be a
headshields
eontrasting eolor, since hitting below the belt
Ri.\g
Mini yweight/ straw weight
105
47.6
Light
108
49
48
Flyweight
11 2
50.8
51
Super
11 5
52.2
Bantamweight
11 8
53.5 55.3 57.2
yweight
yweight
c
o
r
n
e
r
54
Super bantamweight
122
Boxing hoots are
Featherweight
126
liglilweight; they provide sappoii for
Super featherweight
130
59
Lightweight
135
61.2
60
Light welterweight/ super lightweight
140
63.5
63.5
Welterweight
147
66.7
67
Super welterweight/ Light middleweight
154
70
71
Middleweight
160
72.6
75
Super middleweight
168
76.2
Light heavyweight
175
79.4
tall amt R e d
kg
kg
is against the rules.
Contests are held in asquare “ring” surrounded by ropes. Neutral corner
Amateur
lb
wear shorts only,
in speci c areas of the body.
the boxer's antdes and allow him to
move qaiekty around the ring. Blue corner
Agumshield is
/worn to protect
'the mouth.
Hands are bandaged underneath the gloves for extra protection. Maximum size; 20ft square.
He may aim for the
side of the head.
Bout 'I'he boxer must aim for the
He must
front or sides of his opponent’s trtink, and the front or sides of the head. Points arc given for good hits, and, in
not hit
below the xoaisL
57
81
Cruiserweight
190
86.2
Fleavyweight
over 190
over 86
.
91 over 91
Super heavyweight
professional boxing, for defensir^e mor es and style. Knock-down The boxer must strike abloiu
In aknock-down, a
Fighting
count of ten begins. If
'fhe longest boxing
the fallen boxer
using the knuckle part of the glove.
the
.Andy Bowen fought Jack Burke
ght. If he rises,
referee to be
goes
ght
wrestlers must not use their legs or
Sumo wrestling
grip an opponent below the hips.
●Ritual and tradition play an important part in Sumo wrestling.
M A T
●Points are awarded for
The contest circle, which includes the red band, is 9m in diameter. Red c o r n e r
Wrestlers wear one/
piece leotards that leave upper chest
/m
Wr e s t l i n g surface N,
and shoulders bare. wears red, and the
c o r n e r
other blue. Wrestlers must
not oil or grease their bodies. Wrestling boots are tall and lightweight, have no heels, rings or buckles.
●Bouts are won by pushing an opponent out of the ring, or by making him touch the ground with any part of his body other ●Pushes, slaps, and holds are the main techniques.
Wrestling weights
Rice is tlmnvn
Category
up at the beginning of the bout.
Weight limits in kg
1
48
2
52
3
57
Aloincloth
wrapped 62
The main aim in wrestling is to achieve a“fall,” by forcing the opponent's shoulder blades
4 5
6 8
onto the mat for one
6
7 4
7
82
referee
to
to
himself tom her
is
w o r n t o o
around the waist
second, or for as long as it takes the
}●
SU.MO GRADINGS
.Sumo wrestlers are graded according to skill, not weight. There are ten grades: .lonokuehi Novice
Komusubi Second
.lonidan Quali ed
grade junior champion Sekivvake Junior champion Ozeki Champion
Sandamne
Lower
jtinior Makushita
Leading jtinior .luryo (Contender
Maegashira Senior
Yo k o z u n a
Grand
champion
than the soles of his feet.
/
One competitor
=●●-.5
on.
Greco-Roman.
GEAR
‘Tf.
n a l l y d e c l a r e d a d r a w.
●In Greco-Roman contests,
successful moves and holds.
.
over 110 rounds, and the match was
t to
continue, the
Wrestling
ght on record
count ends, he loses
cannot rise before the
●There are two Olympic wrestling events: freestyle and
t
lasted 7hours, 19 minutes and was held in New Orleans, US, in 1893.
and is judged by the
and
Heavy weights 'Fhe heaviest Sumo wrestler
weighs .S.Sllb (250kg): equal to the total average weight of four teenage boys. This is about twice the weight of the heaviest world champion boxer, and almost twice the
behoeen
maximum weight
the legs. i
i
8
9 0
9
100
10
130
s
permitted foranOly
V
' v r c s t l e r.
IT lb Wrestler
Sumo wrestler
/hi ^'V
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COMBAT SPORTS
SPORTS
COURT
Court games
Baseline
'I'ennis can be played
indoors and outdoors. Height of net:
/
I'lie court surface may be 3ft 6in
grass, wood, clay, or
Te n n i s
G E A R
arti cial.
Traditionally, clothing is white, though today the only
●'The aim is to hit aball over the net with aracket so that it
professional tournament
lands inside the court, and
court
\
Wimbledon, England.
cannot be returned.
service Doubles sideline
that insists on white is
●T court V .
The gear, which is similar in a "court sports,
●Amatch is divided into sets
Length of court: 78ft
is ashirt and
and ends when one player has won three sets (for men) or two
shorts for men,
Singles sideline
and ashirt and
sets (for women). ●Each set is divided into
Icnnis racket frames arc made from wood, metal, or a
/
I
The maximum length and width of the strung surface is
R A C K E T
skirt, or adress, ,for wotnen.
1 5 . 5 X 11 . 5 i n .
com bination
games, and aplayer must win at least six games, and have a
B A L L
of materials,
'Ten nis
two-game lead, to win aset.
Maximum length
balls are yellow or white. T'hey weigh
and width of the whole
●Atie-breaker is used if the set
reaches six-all: the rst player to score seven or more points, with atwo-point lead, wins. ●Amatch lasts for amaximum of ve sets for men and three sets for women.
Wristbands are
racket is 32 x12.5in.
worn for wiping the
n
Rubber-
keeping palms dry.
soled shoes
«i 7/if' racket
arm is fully outstretched Socks are cushioned to
protect soles and heels.
The ball is Ihrozon uf) and to the right of the leading shoukUr. (m
The racket arm is bent bock behind the neck.
f
SCORING AGAME
After scoring 4points aplayer wins agame. But, if the players tic at 3 points each (that is, 40-all, ox deuce), play continues until one player has a2-point lead.
about 2oz.
/
t
forehead and
The weight is thrown forward.
zvhen hitting the hall.
f
In the follow-through, the racket arm comes across
the body. S E R V I N G
-.
.-a
4'hc player sen-es
4.
behind the baseline. He throws the ball in the air and hits it before it
touches the ground. 'Lhc
Scoring agame Points
Score
0
love
1
15
2
3 0
3
4 0
ball must clear the net
without bouncing and touch ground in the opposing service court.
/
il Backhand Forehand drive
'This basic stroke is
The player receiving the
'I'his is the most natural basic
less instinctive than
serve must let the ball
groLindstrokc in the game. A right-handed playci
the forehand drive.
bounce once before
In the follozuthrough, the fully extended.
left side.
net or passes outside the net post, as long as it Ihe leading
lands in the opposing
player’s side
shoulder is
The ball is hit once
turned azoay
it is to the front of the right foot.
from the ball.
of the court.
'The shoulders turn as the racket
swings back.
'The zveight is pul onto the front foot.
Martina Navratilova
Record breakers RECORD NUMBER OF WIMBLEDON SINGLES TITLES
held is nine, bv Martina Navratilova, US (born in the
Wimbledon
at Wimbledon is Boris Becker, Germany (born 1967), who won the singles title in 1985, aged 17.
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t o u r n a m e n t s .
MOST SINGLES CHAMPIONSHIPS
YOUNGEST .MALE CHAMPION
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Players who achieve the “grand slam” hold, all in the same year, the singles titles at these four major
former Czechoslovakia in 1956). won in grand slam tournaments is 24, by Margaret Court, Australia (born 1942),
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Grand slam
To u r n a m e n t
United States Open Australian Open French Open
Place
Surface
Te n n i s w o r d s
London, UK
Grass
Ace .A ser\ icc beyond
Rally Along series of
t h e r e a c h o f t h e r e c c i t ' c r.
hits.
Flushing Meadows, New York, US
Arti cial material
Advantage T’he rst point scored after deuce.
Kooyong stadium, Melbourne, Australia
Synthetic
Roland Garros stadium, Paris, France
Clay
grass
Let Aserve tltar scrapes the top of tile net before landing in the correct court; it is irlaycd again.
Seedings List showing vvliere aplayer is expected to nish in a t o u r n a m e n t .
Straight-sets Winning the match without losing a s e t .
f
racket arm is
Aright-handed player plays it on his
returning it. .A return is still plays it on his good if the ball touches the right side,
4
drive
P L A Y I N G
N.
●Usually, amatch is decided by the winner of two games.
Badminton
waist level. If it is not returned, it must land within the service court diagonally
●In doubles and men’s
singles, the rst side to score US points is the winner; in women’s singles, it / is the rst player
opposite. Only the server can score points.
Short service line
Arm is bent, and
Length of
the rackel held hphind the shoidder
court: 44ft Left
Right
service
service court
court
to score 11
SERVING 'The player serves iincierhand and must hit the shuttlecock below
COURT
●In badminton, players hit a shuttlecock over ahigh net.
points.
Height of net: 5ft
Grip should be relaxed, not too tight, hij.l not Inn loose.
Rachel is angled
Width of court: 20ft
SHUTTLECOCK At top-class level, the shuttlecock is made of a “skirt” of 14-16 goose feathers
doxonward.
Long service line for doubles
Long service line for singles
Racket is raised directly upxoard,
RACKET d'hese are usually made of metal or carbon ber, and strung with gut.
xed in acork base.
Ta b l e t e n n i s ●In this indoor game, the players use rackets, or bats, to hit ahollow ball across atable over alow net.
and the arm straightens on making contact with the shuttlecock.
P L AY I N G
T A B L E
The receiver must return
The chipboard top is usually dark green.
the shuttle over the net
Width: 1.52m
before it touches the
ground in the serving
Height of net: ^
court. Most badminton
15.25cm
shots are played overhead.
●The rst side to score 21 points wins the game, but if the score reaches 20-all, the game continues until one side has a2-point lead.
SERVING 'The ball must be
GRIPS
thrown vcrticallv at
There arc two main grips used in
least 16cm from
table tennis.
the fat palm of the hand, and the ball must not spin.
●Amatch is decided by the best of ve games (for men), or three games (for women). Length: 2.74m Pimpled
Height:
At the moment of
76cm
striking, the racket
\The ball
must be behind
rubber
is hit as
it begins mfofall.
the end of the
B A T
table. 'The ball
Originally, bats were made of wood only. The
r
pimpled rubber face was
added in the 1920s to allow
players to give the ball spin.
must bounce on B A L L
the server ’s
The lightweight
side
plastic ball is either
f-
rst.
Handshake grip
Penholder grip
'The bat is held as
'The bat is held as
though the player is shaking hands.
though the player is holding apen.
w h i t e o r y e l l o w. Out-of-court line
B A L L
Squash ●Sc]uash is played using all four walls of an enclosed court.
There are four varieties of squash ball: the slower balls are used in hot conditions, and the faster balls arc-
Length: 32ft Cut line
SERVING
used in cold conditions.
The player must stand
●The ball is hit against the front wall
with at least one foot
Yellow dot: very slow
rst and must be
in the serr ice box,
retutned before it has bounced
throw the ball into
White dot: slow
twice on the
o o r. Red dot: fast
●Amatch consists of the best of
JaI ALAI
Racquetball
●In the fast court game of Jai
In racciuetball, players use a short-handled racquet and a
narrow and has three
w. i
^playing
Width: 21ft
tlic cut line, but
C O U R T
abadminton or tennis racket.
place of rackets. The court is long and
the front wall above Blue dot: very fast
RACKET The head of asquash racket is smaller and rounder than that of
alai, or Pelota, players use wicker baskets, ealled cestas, in
the air, and hit it at the rst attempt.
Service box
The ball must hit
ve games; the winner of agame is the tst to score nine points.
hollow rubber ball. The
■fhe white, concrete walls of a.sc|uasli court must be completely smooth. In tournaments, courts are often made of glass and Perspex, so
line, without bouncing elsewhere
rst.
that spectators can watch the match from all sides of the court. In the US, squash is played on anarrower court with aharder ball.
Tlw srivtr mil use
atiy khul of stroke.
To p b a l l s p e e d s
ball can be hit against the ceiling, as well
Jai alai
as all four
Squash
walls of the ● c o u r t .
below the out-of-eoim
188mph (302km/h)
i
144mph (232km/h)
r. Te n n i s
138mph (222km/h)
walls. Badminton The player xeears arubber
glove, which is snun onto the c c s l a .
The fast game of racquetball is similar in many
' Ta b l e t e n n i s
124mph (200km/h) 106mph(170km/h)
ways to squash.
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COURT GAMES
SPORTS
Basketball
The rim of the net
C O U R T
is 3.05m off the
The dimensions given
ground.
for this court are based on international
GE.A.R
999
rules. In the US, the courts ar J
Players wear brightly
Facts
colored singlets and
●'I'he aim of basketball is to throw the
shorts.
ball into abasket at the opponent’s end
Singlets ^
of the court.
slightly bigger. £ Backboard
Three points are
●There are ten players in each team;
on the front
only ve are on the court at any one time,
and back, j
awarded for baskets scored from outside
the semicircl
●Players may throw and bounce the ball, but must not carry or kick it.
B A L L
●Agame consists of two halves of 20
rubber encased in
minutes each.
leather, rubber, or
a r e
scored from inside the
End line
Width: 15m
semicircle.
Basketball world champions Action
Aplayer may remain in the restricted area between his opponent's end line and the free-throw line.
Aplayer may hold onto the ball. The team with the ball must move
from the back court to the front court.
The high, padded sides of basketball
30 seconds
awarded for baskets
synthetic material.
Time limit
10 seconds
Two points
The ball is made of
Ti m e r u l e s
5seconds
/
Length: 28m
have large e numbers
3seconds
Free-throw line.
The team with the ball must try for
boots give support.
agoal.
rm
Ye a r
Men
Ye a r
1950
Argentina
1953
U S
1954
U S
1957
U S
1959
Brazil
1959
USSR
1963
Brazil
1964
USSR
1967
USSR
1967
USSR
1970
Yugoslavia
1971
USSR
1974
USSR
1975
USSR
Women
S TA R T I N G J U M P
SHOOTING
MOVING WITH THE BALL
1978
Yugoslavia
1979
US
.At the beginning of amatch,
When attempting
Aplayer who lias stopped while
1982
USSR
1983
USSR
to score abasket, a
liolding tile bail may pivot on one foot, at the same time stepping in
1986
US
1986
US US Brazil
the referee throws the ball up and two opponents jump
player holds the ball high above his
^to hit it. Aplayer
head and throws it toward the net.
^may tap the ball
any direction with the otlier foot. Amoving player may take one
1990
Yugoslavia
1990
stride with the ball.
1994
US
1994
^twice after it has reached its
D R I B B L I N G
highest point.
Aplayer can progress with the ball b i dribbling. He can take as many steps as he wishes while
The player stands near the centerline,
bouncing A the ball.
in his own half of the court.
/ /
Netball
Length of court: 18m
●'Fhe aim in nerball is to throw
Volleyball
the ball into the opponent’s net.
/
i
●Volleyball is aball game played between two teams of six players each.
,
/
●I'he game is played between two teams of seven players each.
t -.''i
●Each player must keep to a particular area of the court.
●'I’he aim of volleyball is to use any part of the body above the waist to send a
Height of net: 1m
ball over anet, so that
the opposing team is
/ ■
.'tV
unable to return it.
●Ateam may touch the ball up
Handball Width of court: 9m
it over the net.
●The aim is to pass or dribble the ball with the
hands until agoal is scored. UP AND OVER
Because of the height of the net, players have to jump up high in the air to hit the ball. Players must not touch or reach over the net. The ball is smaller than a basketball or netball.
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R-
«ID Wing defense
Goal attack
c Center
13
" U r
G K
Goal defense
Goalkeeper
The player must not hold onto the bal for longer than three seconds.
to three times
before returning
NETBALL POSITIONS Players wear letters to indicate their positions, and to show which zone they should stay in.
Wing attack
●It is played between two teams of seven players each. ●Players may take three steps when holding the ball.
Although rugby is atough
●Rugby Union is the earliest and most widely played form of rugby.
Facts ●The aim of rugby is to score points byplacing an oval-shaped ball on or over
the opponent’s goal line (a try), or by
I N T E R N AT I O N A L RUGBY TEAMS Each major
GEAR
Rugby union
Rugby
game, players arc not allowed to wear protective
●The game is played by a m a t e u r s o n l y.
incernadonal
clothing, apart from a
rugby team has
scrum cap made of soft leather, shin guards, and agum
its own svmbol.
I
Australia
shield. .Sweat
kicking it over the opponent’s crossbar.
●There are two teams of
bands are also
15 players each.
often worn.
●Players may carry, pass, or kick the ball, but they cannot throw the ball in
B A L L
U'hc oval-shaped ball is
SHOES
front of them.
u s u a l l v m a d e o f l e a t h e r.
Players may wear shoe.s similar to those worn bysoccer players, or highsided shoes to support
●Agame consists of two halves of 40 minutes each.
the ankles
iMiir
●There are two types of rugby: Rugby Union (R.U.), and Rugby Ueague (R.I,.).
England
France
Length; 28cm
Scoring Type of goal
Points R.u.
FIELD The eld usually has a grass surface, but may be made of clay or sand.
Action
R.L
Try
5
4
Placing the ball by hand on or over the goal line.
Dropped goal
3
1
Ball is dropped and kicked over
Ireland r
5m line
I
LL«- ■ 10m line
t h e c r o s s b a r. Halfway line
Length of eld Penalty goal
3
2
Apenalty kick awarded for
between the
afoul.
goal lines: 100m
New
Zealand
Scotland Conversion
2
2
Agoal kick awarded after atry.
“:7
/
Goai line
The goal is 5.6m wide; the height of the crossbar is 3m.
PA S S I N G
THE
/
BALL
Apla'Y’cr can run while
Correct throw bail line
holding the ball, but
Width of
must not pass forward. He should,
ho\\evcr, pass to the front of the receiving player, to enable the player to run on
eld: 69m
Ascrum is used to restart play, usually after afoul.
South
Africa
SCRU.M
Players from both teams close
up around the ball and link arms. The front row must be
Foul throw
made up of three players: a “hooker” and two “props”
to the ball.
who stand on each side of him. The ball is thrown into
Whales
the scrum and the hooker will
L I N E - O U T
trv to hook the ball to his
Aline-out is used to
reammates behind him.
restart play after aball crosses the touchline, or
Rugby words
is “in-touch.”At least two
Backs Players who position
players from each team form separate lines at right angles to the
The scrum must not break up until
themselves behind ascrum.
the ball is cleared.
Dummy Pretending to pass the ball to another player, while keeping possession. Goal Combination of atry and conversion, worth seven points. Knock-on 'The ball bouncing
tOLichlinc. The ball must
be thrown straight between the two lines of players.
Olympic rugby Rugb-y was last staged at the Olympics in 1924, in Paris. There were
Rugby league ●This game developed from Rugby Union, and is played by professionals and a m a t e u r s .
●It is pla-y-ed by two teams of 13 players each. ●Rugb-y- League, although very- similar, follows slightK-
three entrants: P L AY T H E B A L L R U L E
Romania, US, and
Atackled player is allowed to drop the ball before kicking it in any dircetion, usually to ateammate behind him. This may be done for
France. US won
ve consecutive tackles. After the sixth tackle, the
team must give up possession.
Tw o m e m b e r s o f t h e
opposing team may stand directly in front of th , player with
different rules from those of
Rugby Union. Rugby League, players can restart the game after a tackle with the “play the
the gold medal.
forward off the hand or arm of
a p l a y e r. Loose-head prop The prop who is nearest to where the
ball is put into the scrum. Mark Place at which afree-
kick or penalty kick is given. Maul Ascrum around a
player carrying the ball. Punt Dropping the ball and kicking it before it touches the ground. Ruck scrum around a
player who has dropped the ball.
Touchdown Aplayer grounding the ball in his own
●One difference is that in \
in-goal area. Up-and-under Aball kicked high in the air, while players run Lip cld to catch it.
ball” rule.
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RUGBY
G E A R
FOOTBALL
F I E L D
leavers wear jerseys
Width: 50-100yd
Soccer boot
with numbers on the back. The soles of the boots mav be tted with studs
Soccer
or bars.
●Soccer, or Association football,
Center circle Fat rubber studs
is aball game played by two
for hard ground.
teams of 11 players each.
Aluminum for
●The aim is to hit the ball into
●
Length: 100130yd
o
#
wet, slippery ground.
the opponent’s goal, and the team that scores the most goals wins. ●Players use their feet, head, thighs, and chest to hit or control
©
/
/ /' Penalty spot //
Nylon for soft ground.
JL Penalty l!
area
1/
Goal a r e a
the ball; only the goalkeeper may touch the ball with his hands or arms. ,\
Goal line
Goalpost length: 8yd; height: 8ft
●Agame consists of two periods, or |
halves, of 4.S minutes each
I
professionalplayaremadeofJhephyn
.Soccer i.s ahcxihlc game, but most tcam.s start tvith players in aparticular formation.
Uruguay
Uruguay
1934
Italy
Italy
1938
France
Italy
1950
Brazil
Uruguay
1954
Switzerland
West Germany
1958
Sweden
Brazil
1962
Chile
Brazil
1966
England
England
1970
Mexico
Brazil
In oniei' to get round him, the piayer may pretend to
1974
West Germany
West Germany
g o o n e w a y.
1978
Argentina
Argentina
1982
Spain
Italy
1986
Mexico
Argentina
1990
Italy
West Germany
1994
US
Brazil
in attack.
When dribbling, the player
approaching his ophnnenl.
keeps the ball close to his feet, to prevent an opposing player taking the ball from him.
The 4-3-3 formation
,»■ i t
i
f
li'
■hfWeif
Winner
Host country
halt while
DRlIiliLlNG
i
Date
rubber encased in leather the djcontrol of 1 9 3 0
The one shown below is 4-.^-.S. It uses four defenders, three mid elders, and three
V
World cup competitions
bioccer balls used in
F O R M AT I O N S
He then confuses his opfwnent by ttmihig to go in the opposite direction.
DEFENDING
GOALKEEPING
GOAL SCORING
.A defender will often mark, or guard, one opponent throughout the game. Defenders must
'Fhe goalkeeper can touch the bail with his hands, but only within his own
Any player in ateam may score agoal, but the main
make strong tackles in order to take possession of the ball from their opponents.
penalty area. Me i.s not allowed to pick up aback
shoot and head the ball accurately.
Good timing is essential The defender must be careful
/le slides down
in front of his opponent and
not to foul his opponent.
tackle.
goal-scorers are called strikers, who must be able to
pass from ateammate.
fora clean sliding
For ashort pass, a goalkeepei' will throw or
Ideally, the ball is rolled along the ground for
roll the ball underarm.
Opportunist sliding shot into goal.
an accurate r.v.v.
■%
A
M.4.I0R
TRAMS
T'hc.sc arc the
©
basic colors worn
by some of the top international teams. 'Fhe ags are not part of tlte uniform.
B
C J
B
Argentina
B
B
.
.
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Belgium
B
Mexico
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SPORTS
B
Netherlands
a S
B
Brazil
B
B
Nigeria
B
O
Bulgaria
B
B
Norxoay
B
B
Cameroon
B
B
Poland
B Colombia
a B
H
Spain
■
Denmark
B
B
Sweden
B England
France
a B Switzerland
B
Romania
B
(ienna)i^
a B
B
Uruguay
G E A R
American football
B A L L
Helmets are
'There is alot of physical contact in
●American football is played by two teams of 11 players each, though frequent substitution is allowed and up to 40 people can play for each team.
The oval-shaped ball is made of / leather, and has N laces and apebbled nish to provide a good grip.
made of tough plastic.
American football, so players wear several
layers of protective clothing. ,Face mask Chest
protector
●Ateam earns points by making atouchdown {putting the ball behind the opposing team’s goal line), or by kicking the ball between the goal posts.
FOOTBALL LEAGUE American football is the major
national sport in the US. 'There arc 28 teams in the National Football
Groin
League (NFL), each with its own
protector
distinctive helmet design. Atlanta Falcons
●Agame consists of four quarters, of IS minutes each.
Ti g h t , knee-length pants lace
/■ r
up at the / front.
GRIDIRON
The
/
.
a
eld is commonly called the gridiron,
because the lines make it look like a r
cooking grill. 'The eld is marked out in yards to show how far ateam has advanced.
Buffalo Bills
Chicago Bears
Cleveland Browns
Dallas Coiuboys
Cincinnati Bengals
Shirt numbers
. 1 .
NFL players are numbered according to their positions.
End line , End zone
Number Ya r d l i n e
Position
1-19
Quarterbacks, punters, kickers
20-49
Running and defensive backs
50-59
Centers and linebackers
60-79
Defensive iinemen, offensive guards, and tackles
80-89
Wide receivers and tight ends
90-99
Defensive linemen
every
5yds
Length: 360ft fHeight
of
crossbar; 10ft
Goal line
Width of goal: 18ft 6in
Detroit Lions
fj
Green Bay Packers
Denver Broncos
Houston Oilers
Width: 160ft
OFFENSE
T'he team that is in possession of the ball is the offense, or attacking team. 'They are allowed four attempts, or downs, at advancing with the ball by at least 1Oyd. If they fail to do this, their opponents gain possession of the ball.
B L O C K I N G
Ablocker may use the
upper part of his body to obstruct an opponent who docs not have the ball.
The snap is the start
Indianapolis Colts
Kansas City Chiefs
Los Angeles Rams
Miami Dolphins
Los Angeles Raiders
Me may use his arms to
of the down.
push, but not grab hold of, him. Blocking is used by offensive and defensive
players. /
DEFENSE \
Minnesota Vikings
The team that does not
\
have the ball uses its
defense players, usually the biggest men, to try to
Scoring Score
prevent the offense from Points
To u c h d o w n
6
advancing and scoring. A defender needs to be agood
Action
Taking the ball across the opponent’s goal line, or gaining possession within the opponents’ end zone.
t a c k i e r. H e i s a l l o w e d t o
r u n n e r. I f t h e d e f e n s e
Field goal
3
Place-kicking the ball through the goal posts.
Safety
2
Tackling an opponent who is carrying the ball behind his own goal line.
Extra point (conversion)
1
Kicking the ball through the goal posts from ascrimmage, after scoring atouchdown.
Australian
football
New England
Neio Orleans Saints
N e w Yo r k G i a n t s
Pittsburgh Steelers
l^hiladelphia Eagles
Patriots
push, pull, or grab the person in possession of the ball, who is called the manages to get hold of the ball, it is called aturnover, and possession changes to
New lorn jets
the other team. One point is given for scoring between the outer, or “behind”
W A
'A
V
t
.
V',.?
F I E L D
●The game is played by two teams of 18 players. The aim is to score goals by kicking an oval-shaped ball between two tall posts.
'The game is played on an oval-shaped eld. Six points
●Aplayer can kick, punch, and run
the
St. Louis Cardinals San Diego Chargers
San Francisco
Forty-niners
are scored for a
kicking the m bail between mi two
Mm
/
with the ball, but he must not throw it. central “goal”
●Agame consists of 4quarters, lasting 25 minutes each.
posts.
Seattle Seahawks
Tampa Bay
Washington Ri'dskins
Buccaneers
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FOOTBALL
SPORTS
Batsmen and close
Cricket
elders
wear protective helmets
WICKET
made of metal or berglass.
'This has three stumps
Facts
along which two bails are placed.
Batting gloves give good protection, while allowing the batsman to grip
●Cricket is aball game played by
Scoring Runs
Balls
Action
1
One run: every time the two batsmen pass
e a c h
other and reach the opposite wicket.
1
No ball: bowler steps outside the batting creases or throws, rather than bowls,
and wield
two teams of 11 players each.
the bat.
●The teams take turns to bat and
the bail.
eld.
Width of
The b-tic i.s
●Dttring each “innings,” the team W
▼
made of
up at bat aims to score runs between \
i
I
wicket;
1
Wide: adelivery is too high or wide of the stumps for the batsman to play the ball.
4
The ball reaches the boundary after touching the ground.
6
The ball reaches the boundary without touching the ground.
9in
willow, and has acane
two wickets; the elding team aims to get the batting team out.
covered with
●Amatch consists of one or two
rubber
handle
innings per side.
Maximum length of bat: .?ft 2in
GEAR
T'raditionally, cricketers wear white or cream shirts, long pants, and asweater.
B A L L
DISMISSING
Acricket ball is made of
Bowled The ball breaks the striker's wicket
THE
B AT S M A N
Colored clothing i.s worn during some
layers of cork and wool,
Caught A elder catches the ball after it
one-day matches.
c o v e r e d i n r e d l e a t h e r.
has hit the batsman’s bat or gloves,
Run out 'The wicket is broken by Shoes have
FIELD
T'he playing eld surrounding the pitch can be any length. Below arc the major positions for a right-handed
spiked or rubber soles.
Leg pads are worn by batsmen and wicket-keepers.
elding
the Fielding team before the batsman reaches the popping
Wicket-keeper's gloves are heavily paddec and are larger
c r e a s e .
than
'The batsman obstructs a
Leg Before Wicket (Ibw)
batsmen’s
Long leg
Sightscreen
batsman.
Deep
gloves.
ne leg
delivery that would I
otherwise have touched the wicket, without
previously playing the ball with his bat.
Stumped T'he wicket-keeper breaks
Fine leg
Third man
Wicket-keeper beg slip Slips ’ Batsman
short leg
the batsman’s wicket while the
Deep square leg
Backward
batsman is outside his ground when receiving aball.
Square leg
Short
Hit wicket The batsman breaks
square leg Mid wicket
Forward
Deep mjd-wleket
his wicket while playing ashot.
short leg Backward point Point
\ \
Onside
Qul'y Silly_point Silly mid-off Bowler
Mid wicket T
P I T C H
Mid-on I
?1
Cover Short extra cover
; *
Extra cover
side of the
MOST
T'he pitch is
two wickets,
Deep extra cover
Long on
which are
FIRST
placed 66fc
eld
behind the batsman as
SIX
apart.
in one over was Sir Gar eld
for Nottinghamshire against Glamorgan, at Swansea, Wales,
The ball must be bowled
in 1968.
with astraight arm. not
Bowling
thrown.
●Bowlers take turns to bowl “overs”
Popping crease
of six (or eight) balls at alternate wickets.
Bowling crease
●'I'hey must have par: of the front foot behind the popping crease while making adelivery. BOWLED
Return crease
OVER
Bowlers often rub the ball on their trousers
Cricket words
to make the ball shiny on one side. This gives the ball extra swing, or movement, in midair. Bowlers use various techniques to achieve results. M'hilc afast bowler uses speed and
Bouncer Afast delivery, pitched short, that reaches the batsman at shoulder
height or above. Bye Run made when the ball passes the wicket untouched by the bat.
swing, aspin bowler will depend on spin to confuse the batsman.
Close
Batting
In this forward defensive stroke, the batsman brings his left leg forward
●'I'he aim of the
batsman is to guard his wicket and to make runs.
BATTING STEAD The batsman holds the
able to read adelivery well W keep his eye rmly on the ball, o and decide in an instan I T how to play the stroke.
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206
The stroke is controlled with his left arm.
■/
d /
eld Fielders clo.se to the batsman.
Deep Part of the eld near the boundarv’. Delivery .A bowled ball. Duck Azero score. Extras Runs made without the bat.
\
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bat
with both hands. He must be liU
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SCORE
Sobers, West Indies (born 1936), Offside
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TO
receive adelivery; the front of the batsman.
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B AT S M A N
SIXES
he stands waiting to offside is the area to the
●
WICKETS
taken is 19 for 90 runs by Jim Laker (1922-86) for England against Australia in 1956.
the area between the
Mid-off
The onside, or legside, is the
Record breakers
Silly mid-on
/J
Follovv-on T'he team batting second may be asked to bat again if their total falls short of their opponent’s. Leg-bye Run made when the ball is unintentionally de ected off the batsman’s body in the process of playing astroke. Maiden over An over in which no runs are scored.
Maximum length; 42in
Baseball
thick wire and
●'* Bats arc made of wood, for top-class play, or aluminum. The barrel must M
/
helmet
Catcher
foa
^ B A T Hard plastic
●Ball game played by two teams of nine players each.
The catcher's face mask is made of
Facts
[
a
padding.
be smooth and well rounded.
Face ^
/
mask /L
B A L L
●'The game is similar to
Each
The ball is made of
large leather glove.
cricket in that teams take
cork or rubber and is
turns to bat and
covered in cowhide
eld.
Out
\
side is to score runs
elder wears a
1^' A.A
Ma.)OR leagues
or horschide.
●The aim of the batting
eld
There are two major baseball leagues in the US. Kach team has its own symbol.
around the four bases. (
I
●Amatch consists of
nine innings.
A M E R I C A N
)
{
Padded
L E A G C E
Second base I
i
chest-
protector
Orioles
i) and shin
that may be mistaken for abaseball. The
guards
numbers on each shirt must be at least
bin high. 'The catcher wears more Batter
protective clothing than any other player.
mound
\ \
Boston Red Sox
Pitcher’s
Knee
Players must not wear any emblems
Ballimore
Third base Tr ●●
\
G E A R
_
First base
F I E L D
T'he playing eld is made up of an in eld and out eld, known as fair territory: any
Home base, or home plate
California Angels
o t h e r a r e a i s f o u l t e r r i t o r y.
Chicago Wiite Sox
4
Clet/eland Indians
Pitching Pitchers can throw the ball at speeds
●The pitcher tries to throw the ball through the strike zone; he must
not pitch the ball directly
Detroit Tigers Kansas City R o m l s
a t t h e b a t t e r.
Mihmukee Brewers
●He may rub the ball with his hands, but must not shine it on his clothes,
or rub it on the ground.
i v i n n i e s o t a
l\ew lork Ya n k e e s
Seattle
Iexas Rangers
●He may throw the'ball to abase before he pitches.
Oakland Athletirs
Batting ●The batter must stay within the batter’s box on receiving the ball.
LS 18
/
to the batter is either astrike or aball.
Catcher catches the third The blue balls indicate astrike.
STRIKE
N AT I O N A L
Ioronto
Blue
Jays LEAGUE
.strike and tags the batter or he tlirows the ball to
rst base.
Batter taps, or bunts, the
ZONE
This is the area over home plate and between the batter’s armpits and knees If th e b a l l fa l l s i n si d e th i s zo n e a n d th e
batter fails to hit it. it is astrike. .A ball is called when apitch, ; thrown oiitside the strike zone, is not struck at by the batter. After four balls, the batter may walk to
Mariners
before it bounces by a elder.
●Kach ball, or pitch, delivered
rst base.
I
The red balls indicate a
ball dow nin front of him into
foul territory; only the
Atlanta Braves
rst
two fouls count as strikes. Batter strikes the ball three
R E D S
times, and is tagged before reaching rst base.
Cincinnati
Colorado Rockies Florida Marlins
-
Record breakers APERFECT
Running ●If arunner is approaching a base that already has arunner on it, then that runner must go on to the next base (force
NINE
INNINGS
GAME
(which means the pitcher allows the opposition no hits, no runs, and does not allow aplayer to reach
Houston
Los Angeles Dodgers
Montreal
nutadHphin
Piltsbiirgll
Phillies
PirnteK
T. x h o s
rst base) was rst achieved bv Lee Richmond (1857-1929) of the
U.S for Worcester against Cleveland
play). ●Arunner must touch base before the elder touches him or the base with the ball.
in 1880. MOST
HOME
RUNS
in aseason is 61 by Roger Maris (1934-85) of the New York Yankees
●Arunner may run to a
in 1961. 'This beat the record of 60
base while the ball is
that another Yankee, Babe Ruth (1895-1945), set in 1927.
pitched to abatter (a steal).
S(. I.outs
Cardinals
San Diego
San Francisco
Padres
GiarUs
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BASEBALL
SPOR'l'S
MStick games
P I TC H
Hockey is usually played outdoors,
Olympic hockey
on grass or on arti cial surfaces.
CHAMPIONS (men)
Width:
Ye a r
Hockey
GKAR
●Ilockey has 11 players on each team; the aim is to shoot a ball with hooked sticks into the
opposing team’s goal.
Players wear ashirt and skirt, or shorts, and guards on their .shins and ankles. The goalkeeper wears extra protective clothing. Ca{ifkrrj>rr’s gi’ar
●Goals may be scored only from within the striking, or shooting, circle.
Helmet with
elbow pads
Length: 100yd
Goal height: 7ft
Shooting circle; goals
Goal width: 12ft
can only be scored
S T I C K Padded
Hockey sticks arc steam bent, so that the grain of the wood follows the bend.
over boots to
protect the
at face of
feet when
i:
kicking the
t
hard ball.
Light
up to 23oz for women. B A L L
Britain
1928
India
1932
India
1936
India
1948
India
1952
India
1956
India
1960
Pakistan
1964
India
1968
Pakistan
1972
West Germany
1976
New Zealand
“Kickers" are worn
This helps strengthen the stick. The ball may be
guards /
The ball is
f
traditionally
from inside here.
gauntlets
The stick weighs between 12oz and 28oz for men, and
1920
Shoulder and
minute halves.
t h e s t i c k o n l v.
Britain
face mask
●Agame consists of two 35-
struck with the
Country
1908
Olympic hockey
CHAMPIONS (women) Ye a r
Country
1980
Zimbabwe
1984
Netherlands
1988
Australia
1992
Spain
1980
India
1984
Pakistan
1988
Britain
1992
Germany
Ice HOCKEY penalties
white and is made of cork and
Minutes in “Sin Bin'
Ty p e
twine, with aleather casing.
Ice hockey
B U L L Y
●Icc hockey has six players, with up to 14 substitutes.
The btdly is adistinctive feature of hockey. It is used CO restart the game after certain stoppages. Aplayer from each side
Misconduct
●'I'he aim is to send adisk,
opponent’s goal j
They tap the ground and each other ’s sticks
●There are three
alternately three times before attempting to play the ball.
periods, of 2
10*
Match
Rest of game**
●Substitute may replace immediately. '●Substitute may replace after 5minutes.
A
J
5
Major
called apuck, into the .
stands over the ball.
2
Minor
,
/
Goalkeeper’s stick ^
mimitcs each. ^^
T T 0
Out elder’s stick
Olympic ice-hockey
Lacrosse
CHAMPIONS
●Plav ers use anet on the
ICE
HOCKEY
STICKS
Puck is traditionally '
The out elder ’s stiek has a
black and made from
shaft with an angled blade. The goalkeeper’s stick is heavier
v u l c a n i z e d r u b b e r.
end of their stick (crosse) to
Ye a r
Country
carp' and pass aball and tr\' to send it into the opposing team’s goal.
1920
Canada
1924
Canada
1928
Canada
1932
Canada
1936
Britain
1948
Canada
1952
Canada
1956
USSR
1960
US
1964
USSR
1968
USSR
Hockey speeds
1972
USSR
1976
USSR
1980
US
1984
USSR
Ice hockey is the fastest team game in the world. The puck is hit at speeds of up to 118mph (190km/h). Ahockey ball is hit at speeds of up to lOOmph
1988
USSR
1992
CIS
1 9 9 4
Sweden
There are four face-off circles.
●'I’he men’s and women’s
games are played under different rules. One of the main differences is that
physical contact is allowed i the men’s game, but not in
and has awider blade.
Width: 29-30m
n
the women’s.
Women klacrosse
Goal width: 2.53m
Goai height;
Length: 60-61 m', R I N K The rink i.s an iced surface surrounded b v
Lacrosse rules Men’s lacrosse
Women’s lacrosse
10 players per side; nine
12 players per side; one
substitutes allowed.
substitute allowed.
Shoulder-to-shoulder contact
No physical contact
and body-checking allowed.
allowed.
Time; four 15-min.periods.
Time; two 25-min periods.
Playing
No measured boundaries.
eld usually measures
100m X55m. Crosse measures; 1-1.8m.
.
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Crosse measures; 0.9-1.1m.
wooden boards.
(160km/h).
GOLF
FA C T S ●Astandard golf course has 18 holes of various lengths
W o o d
I r o n
Woods, or drivers, are used for long shots. They are
Irons are used for
I
Putter
_mainly on the
'Phe steel heads
Hputting green. ■■ Unlike the other
numbered 1-9.
arc numbered
Their large heads may be made
1-10. The lower numbers hit the
from wood,
ball farthe.st
plastic, or light
and
(a round).
●There are two main types of competition; stroke play and match play.
Striking distances
Putters are used
avariety of shots.
wood
r
240yd (219m)
Iclubs, they have b
4 w o o d
.two striking faces. H 'Phey are the I-
t i g * . -
215yd {196m)
lightest of the
'3 iron
lowest.
i 190yd (174m)
metal.
!5 iron
CLUBS
a170yd (165m)
Players may not start or play around of golf with more than 14 clubs. Most players use three or four woods,
●In stroke play, the player who completes a
7iron
nine or ten irons, and one putter. 150yd (137m)
■|
round in the
B A L L
fewest strokes wins the
Golf balls are covered in
match; in match play the
more than 400 dimples. They help the ball travel farther and straightcr
winner is the one who wins the most holes in around.
9iron
J^130yd
(119m) \. .
3
!Sand i
jwedge
90yd (82m)
Golf bag through the air. and trolley TEES ●
COURSE
Tecs are small, usually
Major golf tournaments
plastic, pegs on which
To u r n a m e n t
First held
British Open
1860
US Open
1895
us PGA
1916
US Masters
1934
Ryder Cup (male team event)
1927
Curtis Cup (female team event)
1932
the ball is placed for the rst shot to ahole.
Courses
vary in lengt
^ The fairway is aclosely mown strip of ground whioh
from too to 600yd (90-5.S0m). The length determines the “pur” of each hole: the average number of strokes needed to get the hall into the hole.
stretches from tee to
green, along which the players attempt to play the
The teeing ground, from which the rst stroke is made, is a
-
Diameter of hole: The head is
swing up and back j (theback'aving).
4.25in (10.8cm)
down
1he apron is the short grass surrounding the green.
The putting green is the smooth, grassy area that
1
surrounds the hole.
The body faces the target as the club is brought past the left
As the club is
brought down, the weight is moved from the back foot to the front fool.
s h o u l d e r.
Long shot In aqualifying match in Pennsylvania, in the early 1900s, one entrant drove her ball into a river at the 16th hole. She set
Fourball Two play against two, each player having one ball, the lower score of each pair being their score at ahole.
Hole Acomplete section, from tee
out in aboat to reach it, and
to putting green; the round hole into which the ball is played.
166 shots.
Foursome I'wo play against t\^■o, each side having one ball and taking
Par The standard score for ahole or
Birdie score of one stroke under
par for ahole.
alternate strokes at each hole.
Bogey Ascore of one stroke o\ cr par
Handicap Number of strokes aplayer may subtract from his or her score for a round; enables players of different abilities to compete on eciual terms.
Golf words Approach Shot played to the green from the fairway or rough.
for ahole.
Eagle Ascore of two strokes under par for ahole.
round (18 holes) on acourse, based on what atop player would be expected to shoot, and allowing for two putts.
Tee T'he ground that marks the start of ahole; apeg on which the ball is put for the rst stroke of ahole.
nally completed the hole in
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209
SPORTS
B ^ W a t' E R
Event Safety helmets are worn by canoeists on rough or rocky
Rowing ●Rowing is aracing sport for boats containing one, two, four, or eight rowers, sometimes with a
c o u r s e s .
cox
canoeists.
to
Olympic rowing events
S P O RT S
Approximate length of boat
Sculls
26ft (Sm) ✓
Light, padded buoyancy aids are worn by
steer.
IV
33ft (10m) V.
●In sculling, each rower uses two
J
Wetsuits give _ protection in
oars instead of one.
Double sculls
'
.
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Green ball (3 points Ye l l o w
ball (2 points)
Women
V
Sport pistol
Kneeling
Free ri e -prone -3positions
V V
Air ri e
V
V
Running target V
Standard ri e
V
Shotgun -Skeet -Trap -Double trap
V
V
Seven colors 6
l i
Apool table is smaller than asnooker table.
One black
Seven stripes
Chalk is rubbed on
the tip of the cue to improve contact with the cue ball.
i/:
One white cue ball
'I'he cue, used in both snooker and pool,
218 fi
V
●Any billiard game played with 15 variously colored balls on an oblong table with six pockets.
T
is atapered stick with aleather tip.
fl
Rapid- re pistol
Pool
Fifteen red
balls (1 point each) —
Free pistol
V
Air pistoi
Prone
C U E
fl
Standing
are exposed for only 4-8 seconds, * and free pistol shooting in which m competitors re at a xed target.
Cue ball _
fl
V
Men
●Pistol shooting includes rapid- re 7 pistol shooting, in which 5targets I
Brown ball (4 points)
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V
90m
Olympic shooting events
●Ri es, pistols, and shotguns are used in shooting sports. 'I'he size of the target varies with the weapon and distance.
balls. Acue is used to hit acue ball
fl
70m
SHOOTING
POSITIONS
targets released randomly from aspring-catapult.
count double or treble.
fl
RIFLE
barreled gun at saucer-shape |
outer ring. Certain areas
7
V
face
●Shotgun is
the numbers on the
)
QUALIFYING DISTANCES 30m
Shooting
●Opponents take turns to throw
Cushion /
Olympic archery
a r r o w s
Darts
,
Straw butt
ve colored
Paper target
Quiver for carrying
^
J
I
\
into different scoring sections, indicated by
rubber or plasti
rings, each with an inner and an outer part. ■Scores range from one point
carbon shaft
of the target an arrow lands, the higher the score.
the two middle ngers I
The pins arc arranged in atriangular pattern at one end of the lane, which is made of plastic or wood.
TA R G E T
i
\
●'I'he closer to the center
Dart
I
BALL
Ball made of hard
IThere -are
arrows at targets set at different distances.
Snooker
The bowling ball has three holes for the thumb an i
L A N E
given for knocking down all ten pins in one roll (a strike) or two rolls (a spare).
Jack
AND
TENPIN
The pin.s arc made from maple wood covered with plastic.
,knocked down. Bonuses are
when roiled.
BOW
PINS
●Points are scored for each pin
side so they curve
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SPORTS
Two-piece cue
Science and Te c h n o l o g y From the atom to the latest in information technology, this section offers awealth of scienti c facts and gures. Matter ●Atoms ●Periodic Table ●Energy Forces and Machines ●Electricity and Alagnetism ●Light and Color
Sound ●Electronics ●Computers ●Alathematics ●Weights and Measures Time ●Engines ●Space and Time ●Natural Science Physical Science ●Weapons
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219
Matter
31ass: transparent solid
'Ihrarhim, containing many types of matter
Everything is made up of matter. It can be a
Droplets of
solid, such as wood or iron, aliquid, such as water
condensed
w a t e r
from vapor
or oil, or agas, such as air. Heat or pressure can change matter from one state into another. States of matter Matter exists in three basic forms, called states, depending on how their atoms and molecules (see p.222) are arranged. GAS
Agas is asubstance tliat does not liave a xed
volume but lls all the space it occupies. Gas particles are not bound together and move rapidly and freely in all directions
■Gas particles, free to move around
LIQUID
Aliquid has a xed volume but can change shape to t the space it occupies. Its particles are in contact with each other but can move around with some freedom.
Liquid particles, able to move short distances
SOLID Asolid is asubstance with ade nite size and
shape. Asolid’s particles are tightly linked by strong bonds, making a rm structure. Solid particles, held in arigid pattern
Three IN ONE
ICE
WAT E R
STEAM
Water is solid when
Water is liquid when it has atemperature of between 32“F(0“C) and 212"F (100°C).
Water turns to
Wa t e r i s o n e
its temperature is below 32°F (0°C)-
substance we
what we know as ice.
often
steam, agas, when it has atemperature of more than 212°F
Ty p e s o f m i x t u r e 'There are two main types of mixture: colloids and solutions.
In asolution, two or more
nd in
its different
Liquid
lls up
its container to s t a t e s . T
-
.i,-:
Ice forms solid
ahorizonta
L
Liquid turns
surface.
blockswith
substances are broken down into individual atoms or molecules. A
colloid is amixture of larger particles of one substance, d i s t r i b u t e d i n a n o t h e r.
de nite shapes.
Emulsion
Changing states
Paint is an emulsion
Changes of state
of oil particles dispensed in another liquid, water.
Evaporation and condensation
Particles can free themselves from the body of aliquid (evaporation). Above the boiling point, all of the liquid becomes gas. When the gas cools, it becomes aliquid (condenses) again
Gel
Freezing and melting Aliquid bccome.s asolid (freezes) below atemperature called its freezing point. It becomes alit|uid again (melts) if the temperature rises above the freezing point.
Hair gel is composed of particles of oil suspended in asolid. F o a m
Some substances, such as carbon dioxide, will change from asolid to agas when heated, without becoming
Shaving foam is composed of bubbles of gas suspended in liquid. Mist Steam from akettle
Web feat
Liquid glass
Some of the
Over long periods of time and pressure, glass behaves m
threads in a
spider’s web are stronger than a
like aliquid.
steel wire of the same width.
\
glassware has
attened.
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Iif?
I
I
been found
slightly
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'
Ancient Roman
I
'.X f;-
z:)
Sublimation
liquid in between. This is sublimation. The reverse process, from agas to asolid, is also called sublimation.
!
'
N
fl
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
r 7 / .■
is amist of liquid particles suspended in agas. Smoke
Abon re gives off acloud of smoke composed of
Air speed
solid matter
Each of the billions of air molecules that
ll aballoon
travels at the average speed of ajet plane.
suspended in air. Solution
A.solvent, .such as water, makes asolution by di.s.solving another stilxstanec, the solute.
Compounds
C O M P O U N D
M I X T U R E
Savory sea
Elements that exist on their
220 gallons (leu meter) of typical seawater contains
own are rare in the natural world. Most substances are
made up of two or more elements bonded together by chemical reaction to form a
compound. When iron and sulfur are heated together, a chemical reaction bonds their atoms into asolid structure.
1.4cu inches (23cu cm) of salt
Iron \ lings and sulfur
A n e w
Iron lings and sulfur car be mixed up together,
When iron and sulfur are
but their atoms will not
atoms bind to form anew
be chemically bound unless achemical
compound of iron sul de. It is acompletely new
reaction takes place.
substance.
substance,
(sodium chloride). Seawater
iron sul de
also contains other dissolved
heated together, their
Physical properties
Combustion (burning)
'I'here is awide variety of matter, with a range of different properties. I'hese properties help identify the substance, and also determine to what use it can be put.
Asubstance burns when it reacts
Viscosity Viscous matter is liquid that does not ow easily. Friction between molecules makes a
with oxygen, releasing heat. A
Acids and alkalis
candle is made from carbon and
Acids are substances that
hydrogen. These elements burn to form carbon dioxide and water. -i" "tACandle
ame
Acandle
ame contains
liquid viscous. Honey is highly viscous, whereas
tiny particles of carbon. As they burn, they
water is not.
become so hot
dissolve in water to form sour-
tasting solutions. Alkalis dissolve in water to form soapy solutions. Both acids and alkalis
r
that they glow bright yellow. Ductility and malleability
Burning food
can be corrosive. The strength
Food dissolved in your blood burns” as it tcacts with oxygen. The heat released provides you
of an acid or alkali is measured
by its pH.
w'ith the energy you need to live. Alkaline
Ductile matter can be
Caustic soda
Plastic
drawn out into awire.
Most synthetic plastics' are made from chemicals in oil in achemical process called polymerization. I’o make I’VC, small molecules of chlorethene polymerize to form along chain, or polymer.
Malleable matter can be molded or beaten into
other shapes. Elasticity
In atable snake made of PVC
Elastic matter can be
Household M cleaners
Stretched or squeezed and returns to its
original size and shape. Density Two objects of the same size may not have the same mass, so they will not weigh the same. The denser of the
two will weigh more, because it ha.s more matter packed into the same space. Conductivity Pure water
Matter that transfers heat
pH 7 (neutral]
and electricity is conductive. Many solids have acloseknit molecular structure that causes
Polystyrene
Packaging, cups, bowls, ceiling tiles
Polyester
Arti cial
Polyethylene
Carrier bags, bottles, food wrapping
Antimatter
Nylon
Arti cial
For every type of particle that exists, such as the electron (see p.222), there is a corresponding antiparticle. Just as matter consists of particles, antimatter consists of antiparticles. If matter and antimatter are brought together, they will violently destroy
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
Raincoats, garden hoses, gutters
Polyurethane
Plastic packaging foam, adhesives
Polymethyl methacrylate (perspex)
Substitute for glass
them to be cold to the
touch, because it conducts heat away quickly.
bers,
7
berglass
Iap water
Warm stone retains heat.
each other, to become energy.
bers, carpets,
6
shnets
Vinegar (acetic acid) pH 4
4
Degradability 3 The worst qoid rain
2
1
0 c o r e
False-color image of subatomic particles
days to decompose.
c a n
m o r e
100 years to decompose.
m o r e
4,000 years to decompose.
Acidic
fi
fi
fi
fl
fl
fl
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
221 fl
fi
MATTER
The illustration below
Atoms
Atom facts
distorts the real sizes of the
atomic components -the nucleus is very large compared to electrons, and
EVERY'rHING AROUND YOU is
electrons orbit at agreat distance from the nucleus.
made up of tiny particles called atoms. Different atoms make up
●Quarks are named after aword
●Scientists have discovered
that appears in the novel b'imiegaii's Wakeby Irish writer James Joyce (1882-1941).
many particles that are smaller than atoms. They have weird names, such as gluons, leptons, and tans, and properties such as charm, strangeness, and avor. 'They appear brie y when larger particles arc smashed in massive “particle accelerators.”
●Some atomic isotopes are highly dangerous -if stored in large enough c|uantities, a
d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f m a t t e r.
nuclear reaction can result.
Elements Elements are substances made
up of one kind of atom only.
Isotopes
One element is
Some atoms of the same
uorine.
Fluorine-1 nluieu *
element may have different
Inside the
^
Extra neutron /
numbers of neutrons. These
E L U O R I N E AT O M
different kinds of atoms are
If a uorine atom could be cut
called isotopes. 'These two nuclei are from isotopes of
open, it might look like this.
Fluonne-18 nucleus
uorine. Eluorine-19 has 10
neutrons, while
Nucleus
uorine-18
has 9neutrons.
/
I’hc central core of die atom is
'■N.,
called the nucleus. It consists
Into the atom
of protons and neutrons. 'Ehe nucleus makes up 99.9% of an atom’s mass, but only atiny part of its volume.
What would happen if you could tear this book in half, and then Protons
Inner electron shell
Protons arc particles
Electrons
in anucleus that
Electrons are negatively charged particles. 'I'hey surround the nucleus in regions called orbitals.
Neutron
becomes an ion. If it loses an electron, it becomes positively charged and is called a cation. If it gains an electron, it becomes negatively charged and is called an anion.
i t s a t o m i c n u m b e r. Fluorine has nine. The book becomes...
Quarks Protons and neutrons
are made up of even smaller particles, called tiuarks.
Carbon
Double bond
Molecules
in an atom is called
Neutrons are particles in a nucleus, d'hey have no electric charge. 'Fhey cling to the protons and to each other, keeping the nucleus together.
When an atom loses or gains an electron, it
nucleus
Fhcrc arc two
'There are only about 100 millions of different substances called
compounds. Most Hydrogen a t o m
particular combinations of
scraps of paper, which
main types of quark. Up ciuarks ha\’c apositive charge. Down quarks have anegative one. Neutrons have one Up and two Down (]uarks. Protons ha\ etwo Up
kinds of atoms, but
substances are made of
in half again and again -until you broke it down into the tiniest particles possible?
carry apositive electric charge. 'The number of protons
4
Ions
Molecule of ethylene iCUH.,)
atoms, called molecules.
become...
Proton, with
two Iy; quarks and
wood pulp
one Down
become...
bers, which
and one Down.
Atomic bonding ■sg;
Z7i^
.
® 9 "9'3®
Unit
Joule equivalent
Joule (J)
66 days and is known as aleap vear.
D AY S
AM)
YEARS
the same time, the Earth spins on its own axis. It completes one spin in asingle day and .>65 V' spins in ayear. 'The (|uarter day is impractical, so after four years they are
'Hu’ Earth completes one spin
such as clocks and
on its axis in one das.
watches.
Y e a r Sun
2
Standard time The time measured at Earth
Greenwich, London, is the standard time for the whole
world. For e\ ery LS degrees of longitude east or west of
Tin- Earth lakes ayear to travel round the Suit.
Greenwich, the time is one hour M O N T H
ahead of or behind
While the Iwirth orbits the .Sun. the
Greenwich time.
Time facts
5
R/o deJaneiro, Brazil:
a . m .
Moon orbits the Earth. The phases of the moon add up to 29.5 days. 'This cycle is the lunar iiKnith and is the basis
There are 24 time
zones around the globe.
'4. ■'
●The Earth is slowing down: a tew million years from now leap
of our pre.sent-day months.
years will not be needed.
Earth
●H'he Sumerians of
Mesopotamia (present-day Iracp rst divided hours into 60
minutes, and minutes into 60 seconds in about .MKK) B.C.
They used 60, because it was easily divisible by 2, -L and 4.
Time words
are on the .same meridian.
a.m. Before noon (ante nicridieni)
Meridian Line of longitude
Equinox 'The two times in ayear
p.m. After noon (post meridiem)
when the .Siin crosses the e(|uator and day and ni^ht are of e([iia! length.
Local time ’I'lie time at points tliat
History of timekeeping People originally mea.sured time by the position of the Sun in the sky. Later, they began to rely on machines for timekeeping, with mechanical motions that were repeated over and ox er again. Today, people use
when the Sun is farthest from the
C.2200 B.C. Stonehenge stone circles, England,
c.1500 B.C. Sundials are used by the
may have been used by Neolithic people to tell the time. 'The position of the circles allows the Sun to shine through or rise abo\ ecertain stones.
Egyptians. .A shadow east by the Sun's rays indicates the time ■h
Position of the stars is
Vpiril iLsed by the peoples of Babylon. Egypt, and
/o/S)'
/
/
1500 B.C.
/
/ ^ /
1364 First known domestic
1386 Oldest
clocks made bv Giovanni Dondi
mechanical clock
(1318-89) of Italy, d'hese early
still working is built at f
clocks are small versions of turret
.Salisbury Cathedral, hingiand.
clocks, with the addition of an
I
'f
A
1510 First portable clocks made by Peter Ilenlein (1479-1542), a(Jerman locksmith. 'I’he.sc small clocks
are driven by aspring. 'I'he open
hour hand.
The dock in Salishuiy
built throughout Europe.
I
y '
Cathedral is drwen by a
f a c e h a s a n h o u r h a n d o n i v.
Early portable clock
rex'olving dnnn. /
c.1730 Ciluckoo clocks
/
1364
rst
introduced in the Black
Eorest. (Jermany.
1754 Lever escapement, combined with the balance
spring, gi\-cs an accuracy to within ten seconds aday.
7
1386
1759 An accurate marine
1800s Cheaper clocks arc
timekeeper, Harrison 4, is introduced by Englishman John Harrison (1693-1776). It can withstand the changing movement and temperatures on board ship
developed in ISbv .American Eli
'I’erv (1772-1852).'
and has less than one minute of
1840 Flectricity is used to dri\ e clocks that in turn control distant, subsidiary clocks. These clocks are
error after
known as the master and its slaves.
ve months at sea.
173
fi
fi
242
1754
1510
1880 Greenwich time, time measured at the Royal Ob.scr\ atory, Greenwich,
Ibecomes standard time in !Britain. Eour years later it becomes standard time for
!the whole world. --4^1 Early electric clock
Cuckoo clock w-
a *
(diina to tell the time.
O- /
1335
\
1759
Sundiai
on amarked surface.
Stonehenge
/
Turret docks are later
Moon .
equator. 'I'he.sc are the shortest and the longest days.
s>- /
133.S E"irst mechanical clock is erected in Milan, Italy. 'I'hc turret, or tower, clock, has no face, but simply strikes the hours.
iv.
Solstice d'he two times in the year
clocks and watches that can measure time in fractions of asecond.
0
fi
SCIENCE AND 'I'ECHNOLOGY
1800
1840
1880
'I’lME
Gregorian calendar on the time it takes for the Earth to
, « f
rst, the Romans
vT
began their year in March, which is why September to December are
i7 i\
This calendar, based on the Sun and the Moon, is no longer used in Ghina, but is still in use in some
The longest year ever was 46 B.G., which lasted for 44.S
Gregorian calendar, which is based circle the Sim. At
Ancient Chinese calendar
Longest year
Most Western eouiitries use the
Asian countries. It is divided into 24 seasons.
days. Lengthened by 90 days to bring it in
Season
line with the solar
● W-
Meaning Spring begins
Feb. 5to Feb. 19
Yu S h u i
Rain water
Feb. 19 to Mar. 5
Jing Zhe
Excited insects
M a r. 5 t o M a r. 2 0
Chun Fen
Vernal equinox
Mar. 20 to Apr. 5
Qing Ming
Clear and bright
Apr, 5to Apr. 20
G u Yu
Grain rains
Apr. 20 to May 5
year, it became
named after the Latin numbers
seven to ten. laiter, in about l.SO
known as the 'I'ear
\ \ \
II
B.G., January became the rst month of the year.
of Gonfusion.
NAMES OF THE MONTHS
jig[ .Tanuary Janus, god of gateways .3 February l-'cirrua, fcsti\al of puri cation March Mars, god of war
i
Summer solstice
June 21 to July 7
Xiao Shu
Slight heat
July 7to July 23
Da Shu
Great heat
July 23 to Aug. 7
LiQiu
Autumn begins
Aug. 7to Aug. 23
Chu Shu
Limit of heat
Aug. 23 to Sept. 7
Bai Lu
White dew
Sept. 7to Sept. 23
Qui Fen
Autumn equinox
Sept. 23 to Oct. 8
Han Lu
Odd dew
Oct. 8to Oct. 23
Gregorian date
Muharram
Sept. to Oct.
Safar
O c t . t o N o v.
Rabi I
N o v. t o D e c . Dec. to Jan.
Rabi II
Shevat
Jumada I
Jan. to Feb.
Adar
Jumada II
F e b . t o M a r.
Shuang Jiang
Frost descends
Oct. 23 to Nov, 7
Mar. to Apr.
Li Dong
Winter begins
N o v. 7 t o N o v. 2 2
Little snow
Nov. 22 to Dec. 7
Nisan
Rajab
.July Julius (laesar lyar
Sha’ban
Apr. to May
Xiao Xue
Sivan
Ramadan
May to June
Da Xue
Heavy snow
Dec, 7to Dec. 22
June to July
Dong Zhi
Winter solstice
Deo. 22 to Jan. 6
Little cold
Jan. 6to Jan. 21
Severe cold
Jan. 21 to Feb. 5
Ta m m u z
September .Septem, se\en October Oeto, eight
Shawwal
Av
Dhu ai-Qa’dah
July to Aug.
Xiao Han
Elul
Dhu al-Hijjah
Aug. to Sept.
Da Han
November \ovem. nine December Deeem. ten
June 5to June 21
Xia Zhi
Te v e t
yemperor
May 21 to June 5
lls
CALENDARS 'I'he.se are based on the Moon's cycle.
Kislev
%August Augustus, the rst Roman
May 5to May 21
Grain
Mang Zhong
Heshvan
.June Juno, goddess of tite Moon
Summer begins
Hebrew and Muslim
Ti s h r i
fMay Maia. goddess of fertility
LiXia Xiao Man
Grain in ear
Hebrew months Muslim months
April .Apcrirc. to open
c.A.D. 890 Clock candles
C.1400 B.C. Water clocks
A-
lv30()s Monasteries use
1100s Hourglasses used in na\ igation. by physicians to time apulse, and by teachers
simple machinery that sounds bells at regular
are used by the Knglish king, Alfred the Great (849-899). When acandle,
and preachers to time lessons
The passing of time is shown by adrop in the lex'cl of water, which lines up
Mhich has hours marked
and sermons. Sand drains from
down its length, has burned
the top glass bulb to the
down to amark, it indicates
bottom. Some glasses measure !'
with one of the marks
that an hour has passed by.
15 or 30 minutes as well as up |
are used by the Egyptians, bowl with ahole in the bottom is
l l e d w i t h w a t e r.
/ o - /
1400 B.C.
intervals to call
jJworshippers to prayer. A
person called aclock jack rings the bells.
X
Hourglass 1300
11 0 0
A.D. 890
/
/
is shown by Italian
1657 First pendulum clock is made by Dutch astronomer (diristiaan Huygens (1629-95). 'Lhe pendulum controls the
scientist Galileo
rotation of the wheels of the clock.
1582 Regularity of
apendulum’s swing (1564-1642).
1670 Long, or seconds, pendulum is introduced by William Clement (c. 1638-1704), an Knglish cloekmaker.
Galih'o ’v drsign for afuaidulum
1657
1582
1675 Spiral balance spnng, giving clocks an accuracy to within two minutes aday, is invented by 1luygens.
C.1690S AvStrononiers
at the Royal Observatory. A
Greenwich,
London, measure
i
the stars to
Iluygtois' balancr spring '
J
determine time.
1675
1670
1690
»«?
Roya/ Obsercaton 1939 First quartz cr\ stal clock is installed at Greenwich. 'The (|uart/. ciNstals \-ibratc 1()(),()()() times per
C.1900 First wristwatches introduced. At
rst only Momcn wear
second. 'Lhese vibrations are
t h e m , u n t i l W o r l d Wa r 1
controlled, counted, recorded, and used to establish precise time. 'The
(1914-18), when they become popular with men in the trenches. EarR xoristumteh 7"
US. of times
of asecond per day.
from 24 countries. 1948
3(),0()() vears.
1970s-i990s Digital watches narc increasingly popular.
;.| Amicrochip changes the
established by using 80 atomic clocks
accurate to one .second in
dock
whole world is now
maximum error is two-thousandths
1939
1900
1948 First atomic clock de\ eloped in the It works by counting the natural vibrations cesium atoms, which vibrate 9,192,631,770 liarh atomic per .second. Time for the
1970 Atomic clock is
/ t / ;
.1
9’
numbers every second, so that the time kept is \'cr\' preci.se. 1970
N?
fi
fi
fi
.
fi
fi
243 fi
fi
to one or two hours
Walrr
themselves bcin^;
(1800-77) and Frenchman Louis Dasuerre (1789-1851).
reactions without
Daguenolype image oyi copper plate
used in the reactions.
1839
1836
1831
A " : Marconi
1888 Existence of radio vA'aves demonstrated b\-
German phvsicist IIcinrich
Tv
»'3R7r’
w
Hertz (1857-94). Induction motor invented
I%k ]
Heinrich
Herli
chemist Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Ihcrrc Curie (1859-1906). She calls the powerful
1896 Effects of radioactivity
discoN cred by French physicist
emissions of
Marie
(1856-1940).
Pierre Curie
189
j
1919 New Zealand-born
S
pliNsicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
changes one elemen
(1890-1971)
into owgen nuclei.
’
U
1
Mineifd with n y. s l a l l i n e
Finest lliilheipiid
a l n i i i i c s t r u c t u i e '■
189
Maiman (born 1927). based on ideas tiev elo|ie(.l In .\merican jvliv sicist Gordon (ioiild in 1957.
1964 F'xistence of quarks, the constituent parts of neutrons and protons, proposed by Murray Gell-Mann. (born 1929).
showing (luarh.s \ 4 9 6 4
/
1935 Nylon de\ elopcd by
discoNcred bv British phvsicist
w|
chemist Wallace 11 . ( i a r o t h e r s
physicistsCockcroft j. (1897-1907) J ■
and Finest Walton (born 190.W
I’i) Mparticle
I‘ositron. aparticle of antimatter, i isco\ered bv .\merican phvsicis
American
(1890-1937).
(Kirleraloi. hui/l at Mttuehe.sh'r
1
Carl l)a\id .\nderson (iMirn 1905)
I 1931
F u i v r r. s i l y, I ' K
1932
1935
1983 TNistence of two important subatomic particles (W±. /')
with extremelv low resistance to
mathematicians, based
con rmcil at CIG2N laboratories in
electricits. are tlcw eloped.
on the unpredictabilitv
Sw it/.erland.
1980s Chaos theory dev eloped by .\merican
of nature. (lhaos theorv
is iLsed to tr\ to predict complex systems. Fraelal: computergeiierated pattern derived pom chaos tlieoiy
Atomic nucleus. ●,
t
1931 Neutron (particle in nucleus)
1919
1960 T'irst laser built by .\mcriean phvsicist riieodore
and
189 8 9 8 1
1932 T'irsl subatomic particle accelerator built by British
con\erts nitrogen nuclei I V
189
^James Chadwick (1891-1974).
m
j
into another. II |
,\merican physicist
“radioactivity."
invented by 20-ycar-old Italian Giigliclmo Marconi (1874-1937).
imented b\ British father aiul
1915
radiation
phvsicist Joseph John 'Thompson
son ph\sicists. William 11, Bragg (1802-1942)and l.awrence Bragg M
polonium isolated by Folish-born
1897 Electron discovered by British
1888
nding out the structure of crystals,
1898 Elements radium and
phvsicist Wilhelm Roentgen (1«45_1925).
1894 Radio communication
1876
1915 X-ra> cr\ stallograpln ,away of
1895 X-rays discovered by (ierman
.\ntoinc-I Icnri Bcc Royce (see
(1S41-190S)and
Oldsmobile. is
assembled on amoving production line. Ilenrv Toiil (sec opposite page)
Ta n i l e L e \ a s s o r ( 1 S 4 4 - 9 7 )
opposite page) introduce their protlucetl by Ransom 40/.s0 horsepower Rolls Roxcc car
produce acar that establishes
T. l i ( ) l d s ( 1 8 6 4 - 1 9 5 0 . s c r i e s , w I n c h i n c h u l c s t h e
the classic
.\merican).
lavoiit.
1891
OldMiiohile
1901 N?
252
'These cars ha\ c
1S91 T'renehmen
1.
> s r
berglass
skin.
(hill-w ing ear
Most ha\ ctwo scats.
large loatling space at the rear.
r
m a n u f a c t u r e r. s t u r n e d d o w n t h e chance to make the German
Racinj^ ear Racing cars are
those that
.
ows around
the engine.
Types of car
fi
lter cleans the air before
it is mixed with the gasoline. Battery
billion cars on the
fl
engine in the front, and room for at least two passengers. This illustration shows the parts of a
Fuel tank
has grown dramatically: there will probably be a
fi
Most cars have four wheels, an
Rear bumper
around the world
Veteran
Parts of agar
\\ m i r r o r
enable the engine to run at ef cient speeds while the
reduces noise
The FIRS rmass-
d
fi
fi
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY
.S/kr/'d/zos/
^
iiurotluccs the M o d e l T.
1913 .Mass produelioi begins in Britain with Will iam \lor ris's (sec
opposite page) Morris Oxford.
.Mnnis
Oxford
CARS
Fastest luxury SEDAN CARS Car
Top speed mph
km/h
Aston Martin Vantage
285
1 7 7
Lotus Carlton
282
175
BMW 8501
256
Henry Ford (1863-1947)
was the
talented
Noble (born 1946) in Thrust U.
engineering partner of Rolls Royce.
American
At this speed, it would take less
He once said:
introduced
"There is no
mass-prodtiction into car manufacturing.
159
256
159
Mercedes-Benz 600 SL
256
159
BMW M5
254
158
Aston Martin Virage 5.3
253
157
set tip his own
Mercedes-Benz 500 SL
253
157
rm in
Mercedes-Benz 500 E
251
156
Mercedes-Benz 500 SE
249
155
wa,s
is 633mph (l,019km/h), achieved by American Richard
a
mechanic.
than 40 hours to drive round
He
such thing as good enough.” Herbert
the equator.
Frederick Lanehester
Austin
(1868-1946) designed
(1866-1941)
To p g a r - o w n i n g
WORLD LAND SPEED RECORD
Henrv Royce (1863-1933, British)
Mercedes-Benz 600 SEL
cars in Britain from 1896.
Thrmt
Britain after
His key
working for W'olscicy car
inventions
manufacturers.
automatic gearbox.
William
Ettore Bugatti (1882-1947)
L
Morris
engineer who
Total cars registered
Morris and
built the
141,251,695
played an important
Classic type .AS racing car.
30,776,243
role in the
as well as
British motor
beautiful touring
industry.
models.
Japan Germany
29,190,322
italy
23,500,000
France
22,370,000
U K
20,923,423
CIS
15,874,700
Canada
Kiicbiro
To v o d a
LONGEST
PRODUCTION
//
CAR
was the Bugatti Royale (below) with alength of more than 22ft (6.7m). The rst was produced in 1927, but only si.\ were made.
was an Italian
"Bullnosc"
U S
A
incltidcd asemi¬
(1877-1963) produced the
COUNTRIES Country
Gar records
Famous motor men
I
t
Alexander
(1895-1952)
'■* s \
Issigonis (1904-88)
founded
'Toyota cars in Japan. His
'Turkish car
dream was to
designer who
11,900,000
see as many cars on the
went to the
Brazil
11,760,459
streets of Jajian
1le designed the
PRODUCTION
Spain
10,787,424
as on those of .America.
Morris Minor and the .Mini.
is the Daihatsu Charade Diesel
was
IKin
a
1922.
.MOST
L
ECONOMICAL CAR
Turbo (below), \\ hieh can
Gar facts ●The luxurious interior of
the popular Morris Minor, which was built
a1927 Rolls Royce in .Aubusson silk tapestry.
the “poached egg.
Before indicators were inv ented, drivers used
1
Phantom 1was upholstered for 31 years. Ile called It
hand signals.
%: -4^
This false hand
clipped onto the car door. It mimicked each signal.
World’s top car manufacturers Company
Total annual car production
HIGHEST
PA I D
EOR
A
5,662,843
To p c a r - p r o d u c i n g
CAR
Ford Motor Company
4,234,583
COUNTRIES
To y o t a
3,093,692
Country
was over $1.S,330,000 for a1962 Ferrari 250 G'FO (below) in
Volkswagen
2,748,152
Japan
9,052,406
Peugeot-Citroen
2,227,528
US
6,823,097
Nissan
2,016,626
Germany
4,563,673
Flat
1,790,631
France
3,409,017
Renault
1,767,516
Italy
1,971,969
Total annual production
1935 World’s llrsl parking meter i.s
1949 'The
itr-oen (1878-1935)
installed, in Oklahoma. U.S.
rroduees front-wheel
1936 Austrian Dr. T'erdinand
ive Klraclinn aca/U). 'This
Forsebe (1875-1951) is insmietcd by 1litler (sec p.404) to make a"people's ear" and dev elops the Beetle.
C i t r o e n 2 C V, M i n i i s Ta u n e b e d . It can seat four the people's ear (tf Ftanee. ireople des[-)ite its
:v elopmenr bankrupts itroen. who dies avear t e r .
1930s
is laimehed. Ciimi-n
THROUGH
sma' 2CV
s i z e .
Aiisliii
Mini
P R I N ' AT E
SALE
1989. The vendor had bought the car for $7,665 in 1971.
1958 'The Austin 1979 'The catalv tie converter is
■ Ktvllr
Cihoiht
introduced. It reduces pollution from ear exhausts.
1988 Fastest speed by asolarpowered vehicle is achiev ed by tbe (ieneral Motors Siruruym' (see p.2,S4). which reaches 48.71 mph (78.4km/h).
1990s New safety features, such as air bags, are developed. Other safety options are researched; the experimental Vc/ms has two cameras to help the driver see the road in bad conditions.
A
I'eri us r
^'3 1934
/ / /
1935
1936
1949
1958
1979
1988 K
'
fi
253 ,
fi
PRICE
General Motors
)34 T'renebman Andre
\
achie\ ef>,S.9mpg (28km/l) at a steady ,S6mph (90km/h).
Helping hand
●William Morris hated ^\a\
Marques and makes
Motoring words
ROLLS
Automobile manufacturers each have abadge, called a mar{|ue, to identify their vehicles. Some well-known marc|Lies are sho\s nbelow.
Air bag Asafety device that
lls
with air on impact to protect the driver in acollision.
Antilock braking system (ABS)
V
JAGUAR
Asystem that prevents skidding by detecting if awheel is about to lock during braking.
Ferrari
w
Brake horsepower (BHP) The power of an engine calculated in terms of the force needed to stop it. Catalytic converter A lter that absorbs many exhaust pollutants. Fuel injection (FI) 'fhe direct introduction of fuel under pressure into the engine.
TOYOTA
Ignition 'The mechanism that starts acar's engine. Power steering Asteering system that reduces the effort needed to
park and maneuver at low speeds.
V
O
L
V
Roll bar An ox erhead bar that
V A U X H A L L
O
strengthens the car, protecting passengers if the vehicle overturns. Spoiler An extension that improves acar’s road-holding at high speeds.
A
ROVER
GROUP
Supercharger .A mechanism that supplies air or fuel to the engine at above-normal pressure to increase ef ciency.
N I S S A N
^AND^
MITSUBISHI
Turbo charger Asupercharger
R O V E R
MOTORS
driven by aturbine powered by the engine’s exhaust gases.
Car facts
Many in amini
●Andre (ntrocn (sec p.253) used many attention-srabbinji; forms of publicity. 1Ic once
■S i n c e t h e A u s t i n M i n i w a s
rst
produced (see p.2.S,2), records ha\e been set and broken for how many people can sciuce/.c Inside one.
h i r e d t h e K i f f e l To w e r i n P a r i s , and had hi.s name illuminated in
Ml,
I'he record currentiv stands at 24.
lights dow nthe side. More than 2.S(),000 light bidbs were used.
k 'I
●The ear that reached a
●.\ Lincoln Gontinental
production of one million in the shortest time was the \olkswagen
presidential limousine built in
-Pk.
the ISin 1968 weighed .S.9 tons
●In the early da\s of dri\ ing, Italians dro\e on the right-hand side of the road in the country,
to 1896, British law stated that
Golf Introduced in 1974, it
(.S..AS tonnes), more than one-
and on the left in tow ns. One of
ewerv car on the road had to
passed the million mark in
half of which was protectlt e armor plating.
the last tow ns to end this
ha\ eaperson running along in front of it wax ing ared Hag,
,M months.
- s i r.
●From 1865
practice was Milan, in 1926.
Amazing cars
''
"H
●●●
●●0
Gar designers ha\ e produced some unusual models ox er I
the years. Some have been built
purely to break records, others as
experiments in car design.
Ilonda's Genius h. holds
'The /Vf'/i.s one of the
4'h
the record for loxx est
smallest cans cx’cr
ga.solinc consumption. It achiex ed b,40dmpg (2,27ykm/l).
built, at only 4.4fr (l.o4m) long, it has no
solar cnergv. It has special panels that conxert sunlight into electrical energy.
Most expensive cars sold AT
AUCTION
Make
Car
Berlinetta Competition GTO Bugatti Rolls
Royce MercedesBenz
8,853,690
1931 Bugatti Type 41 Royale Sports Coupe
7,665,000
1907 Rolls Royce Silver Ghost 40/50hp tourer
2.386,706
Special Roadster
fi
fi
fi
rex erse gear.
2,222,850
runs
Dashboard
Signaling lights are
AND CONTROLS
t h i s l e v e r.
Pedals to control the
The driver slows
car ’s acceleration,
icked on and off with
brake pedal..
The driver
lexels, temperature,
and so on are usually dashboard.
limousine built in the [Shad 2b wheels and xxas
more than Q.Sft (,sOm) long. It hatl asx\ imming pool and a helicopter landing pad. ,Speedometer indicates the
car’s speed. ,Steering wheel
the car with the
situated on the car o o r. I n s t r u m e n t s t o
indicate speed, fuel
on
down and stops
clutch, and brakes are
found on the
1936 Mercedes-Benz 500 K
254 fi
Price $
1 9 6 2 F e r r a r i 2 5 0 G r a n Tu r i s m o
Any car
c
fl
fl
TRANSPOR'l'ATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY
_Small items are stored in
the glove compartment.
pushes down the clutch
pedal when changing gear. Accelerator controls c
the car’s speed.
--Gear
lever Handbrake
stops the car from moving when it is parked.
RACING CARS
Racing cars Racing cars ark designed to
compete on arace track. 'They range from simple stock cars to high technology Formula 1 racing cars, which can achieve speeds of more than 190mph (300km/h). Motor racing facts ●Ferrari is the only motor-racing team to have competed in the Formula 1world championship every year since it started in 1950.
●I'he youngest world champion racing driver was Brazilian
Flmerson Fittipaldi (born 1946), who won his
rst world
championship in 1972, at the age of 25 years and 9months, ●'File oldest world Emerson Eitlipaldi
champion racing driver was Argentinian Juan Manuel Fangio (born 1911). When Fangio won his last world championship race in 1957, he w'as 46 years and 41 days old.
Winning formula It takes 150 Renault-Sport staff to produce one of their h'ormiila
1engines,
including ,55 mechanics and 25
Racing records
WORST
FASTEST
in amotor race occurred at Fe Mans in 1955:
PIT
8.5 spectators xvere killed and more than 100 xverc injured xx hen acar somersaulted oxer the safety barrier, burst into tlamcs, and disintegrated. Fhe drixer also died.
COFXTin
LONGEST
WTTH
.MOST
R A L LY
XX as from Gox ent Garden. Foiulon. FK, to
1DRINERS
from 1950 to 199.5 was Great Britain, which
the .Sydney Opera Ilouse, .\ustralia: a
had 1.51 drix ers (219f of total drix ers).
distance of 19..529 miles (.51,107km).
History of motor racing 1‘henrL S:
1895 k'irst motor
race with ■iasoline engine \ehieles takes place, tVom Paris to
CRASH
(break in arace for refueling or servicing) was four seconds, made by /\merican Robert William "Bobby” Fnser(born 19,s4) in the 1976 Indianapolis 50(1. FORMFLA
engineers.
STOP
1907 R'irst track couslmcted for
1 9 11 F i r s t I
motor car racing opens: die
Indianapolis W
Brooklands .\lotor (lourse. IK.
0/
V
500 race I
mkc.s place in B
1906 IHrst
Indianapolis, k
(irand Prix in l.c Mans,
BordeaiiN. l-‘ranee, and
l-'ranee, is won
[lack. 'I'he rst ear past the nishing; line a\erases l.smph
by .\ii.stroIlnn,”arian
(24km/h) For the race.
(!.S7,y-1970).
1929 Bentley cars cake Ilrst. second,
l●'erene/ .S/is/
[hire.!, and Fourth
i j
1895
places at 1 c!e
Rear
Racing bicycles arc fast, lightweight, and multigeared, with drop handlebars.
derailleur
3
' /
Toe clip
\ W
●'*1
\\ P e d a l
"TLl
\\ C h a i n r i n g s
\
\Chain Valve
Mountain bicycle
Sidewall
-
fo
These bicycles are built for
off-road cycling. 'They have thick tires, a
Bicycle ownership
lightweight frame, and awide range of gears.
AROUND
the
world
I'his table shows the number
of bicycles owned in varirriis
BMX (Bicycle Motocross)
different countries.
The BMX bike is
Country
designed for rou^^hterrain cyclinsr. and is
Bicycles (millions)
China U S
Ta n d e m
Tandems arc bicycles for two riders, with two saddles, two handlebars, and
103
Japan
60
India
45
Mexico
12
Netherlands
11
Bicycle rickshaw
South Korea
Rickshaws arc
at acomfortable rate.
the chain from one
cog to another.
travel fast downhill
extra force for
or on
climbing uphill.
at ground.
Bicycle records
Bicycle facts
LONGKST
●I'here arc 800 million
BKT'CLE
bicycles in the world: they
6.8
Built in 1988, it was ridden
outnumber cars two to one.
6
by four riders for adistance
●I'hc Belgian army added elbow rests to the bicycles ridden by their regimental
of 807ft (246m),
Argentina
carry two passensrers bchini.1 or in front, in a
Egypt
1.5
(front-w heel diameter) is
Ta n z a n i a
0.5
the i'l'aiikcimclc, with a
L.MUTST
lilCYCl.H
diameter of Klft (.TO.Sm).
History of bicycles
bands, so that thc\ could
play their instruments whilc CN cling.
PlfDAL POWER
I790 'I'he re/ih-ifere, a
1SI3 The Dniisieiinc is 1S39 1^'irsl bicNcle
woollen. hobb\ horsc-like
built by (iarl \’on I)rais
willi pedals turning
machine, is builr b\ a
(1 7