DK - Natural History, The Ultimate Visual Guide to Everything on Earth

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ATURAL HISTORY HE ULTIMATE VISUAL GUIDE TO

EVERYTHING ON EARTH

** :

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n
ides the

ganisms

oi

fossils

li>

I

marine

Ml

lUlltt.ISS

*

tlu-

tin-

development

algae to tlu sea Root

ol

around $80 million years ago, vertebrates had

begun

to

emerge from

tlu

m-.is

onto

l.uul.

wiili spini

s

Km :> in 51

.il

and

s, .ll

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I

EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY Until the nineteenth century,

when a number of theories were proposed,

was a matter forms had developed on Earth. Today, it

of speculation as to how such remarkably diverse life the theory of evolution and diversification, alongside geological evidence for changes in the distribution of continents, give a fascinating insight into the ever-changing life on our planet. EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

CHANGE OVERTIME All living things have the capacity to

change and adapt to

their surroundings. Tiny, subtle changes that are passed

down

from generation to generation are hard to see, but over sometimes thousands or even millions of years they time can alter the way a certain species looks or behaves. This

—

—

Comparison of the anatomy of vertebrate limb bones trom different show that, despite different appearances and functions, they derive from the same basic developmental plan and the same genes. species

FROG bones are modified swimming. Large muscles enable it to jump finger for

process

is

known

as evolution.

The study of fossils its

to unravel the history of

was

life

powerfully

in

that life evolved in the

oceans some 3.8 billion years ago, and that early simple

—

life

forms that

current

all

was from these

it

on Earth

life

As

life

reptiles

were

and on land

largely replaced by

in

to the present insects also

Cenozoic times

— when

mammals both

— from 65

bond bone

OWL

upper arm

The wing of a is powered bv

including plants, fungi, and animals. forms became more complex and moved from sea to land, the first forests and land diving invertebrates evolved. The Mesozoic era, around 250 millions years ago, with its successions of evolving plants and animals, produced the dominant dinosaur reptiles and their bird descendents. These

evolved

essential

escaping from predators.

then a vast amount of information supporting the theory of

We now know

—

finger bone

for catching prey and

early stages in Charles Darwin's day (see p. 2 5), and since

evolution has emerged.

upper arm bone

fhe frog's leg, arm, and

in the seas

the upper

arm and

finger bone lower

bones of the wrist, with greatly modified

and extended

fingers.

CHIMPANZEE is

arm

of

a

upper finger bone

chimpanzee

arm bone

anatomically very

similar to

flowering plants and their pollinating

bone

flight

muscles attached to

fhe

million years ago

bird

our own,

but has slightly difilerent

became abundant and

diverse.

proportions, with

elongated fingers

and

a

short thumb.

DOLPHIN


«

liii 1)

tided

.

-.

>arwin colle< ted

1

different spec

hes

iiu

voyagi

imens

i

il




CI

\ll

organisms are scored on

ol

hara< ters that are either primitive or derived

«.

Ki Dll mammals possess

.Mil

-

I

iii.nnni.il

to thi

heir distribution

alv» a\

,b straightforv* ard

s

.in

is

show n

in the diagi

ams below

cladogram can be constructed in numbei "I different w .\\ s and taxonomists have to choose between them I" >l>' tins the) adopt the the) hoose the ladogi am invoh n^ tlu K ast principle >>t parsimon) resulting

number

In hiiil

.>

t

relationships

explain

i>>

CANID

\K

III

null.

l

VI

51

1

tail

UK

1

S| \|

M

\\

modern

\li ist

l

l

MM R

III Mt


ften the

(

glands

\

lass

(

featui

not

I

,

li.n.i,

i,

C.

i

m

*

l>\

di

I

i

ived

i

Ii.h.h

I,

/

i

m

the bears, seals, tin scab and sealions, and the wall us

> UK

I

wins

c

\Ks

Ml

AND

VI s

si

A

si

r-

\1 S

SI

WALRUS

ions

l

C

C

rue character* differentiate the

tab and and walruses from

the outjre-..

onl\ the jur seals

sea lions,

the hear*

and

and

sea lions,

walrus

the walruses share chara

/

ii

the

mo

niu in this

I

ladogram

,

*

SHOR1

Ml

l

m

j|«

an

lions,

and the walrus

all

short

tails

1

1

harai tir

Canids. however.

I

hush\

have

re a sv

charaiter share

t

the

i

an.

t

limf>s ol seals, lur

and s« a lions, and thr walrus are unique. ( liai

1

napomorphit

il

modified

tin

seals

i

Character

tails

I

\niong carnivores,

'

primitive lomlition ami have j

Ks

II ll'I'l

Bears, seals, tur

2

i

I

opt i

Mill

I

harai

har.n ter

tin

i

is

this,

the sami

I,

further

ion ol

thn

tll.il

j

vel

i

.in

supp i

.it

-

«

I

from

1859. The lettered branches show

he thought

more branch its

theory might work

his

organism

1

),

the

S

HUM

TREE

organisms. Today

DNA

o

PROKARYOTES

more

will be. In 1879, Ernst

Hacckel took the idea further, with DARWIN

the

points separating an organism

ancestor (numbered

different the

—

ARCHAEA

BEGINS

in the Origin oj

UJ

o z

LIFE

a tree that

showed animals evolving from single-celled and protein analyses as well as morphology are

used to construct evolutionary trees and establish the genetic relationships

between organisms. Vast data sets require computers to generate the trees, which are continually refined as new species and information are discovered. Trees of life inevitably place most emphasis on vertebrate groups within chordates because their relationships are well known. The many microscopic prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria) and protists (those eukaryotes not classified

represented because

as plants,

animals or fungi) are often under-

relationships are

flieir

learned about microscopic

life,

more problematic. As more

is

the trees change.

MASS EXTINCTIONS Mapping

all life

STRUCTURE OF

forms that have ever existed on

over time, more than 95 percent of

mass extinction occurs when

all

a large

a tree

species have

number

is

difficult

become

extinct.

A

of species dies off at the same

time. This has happened five times in the past.

The best-known

LIFE

because,

extinction,

All

forms of

a cell

life

arc cither prokaryotic or cukaryotic. Prokaryotes lack

nucleus and are usually unicellular. Eukaryotic organisms tend to

be multicellular; each cell contains a nucleus, within which DNA is stored. This tabic shows which of these two groups the six kingdoms to. Despite appearances, most organisms are prokaryotic. The Archaea and Bacteria are the largest groups- -although only about 10,000 species have been described, estimates exceed 10 million species. Among eukaryotes, the phyla that make up the protists and invertebrates are far

belong

which wiped out the dinosaurs, occurred at the end of the Cretaceous Period; it is thought to have been caused by a meteor impact combined with volcanic activity,

it is

activity.

Because habitats are rapidly destroyed by

likely that there will

be another extinction event

human

more numerous

in

terms

of species than vertebrate groups.

in the future.

EXTINCTION TIMELINE

PROKARYOTES ARCHAEA

EUKARYOTES

BACTERIA

PLANTS 1VERWORTS MOSSES

PROTISTS

I

I

FERNS AND RELATIVES CYCADS, GINKGOS,

GNETOPHYTES FLOWERING PLANTS FUNGI mass

MUSHROOMS

extinction

SAC FUNGI LICHENS

event

ANIMALS r 400

300

MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO

200

100

INVERTEBRATES CYANOBACTERIA

CHORDATES

*0 S

ICHENS \m

U

—y—

Lichk

ihi partnership

I

US(.I.\

O

1

\Ms

-£? GLOMKROMYCI

**|& un

iKiniOMH

O

I

lis

«U&

NEO< ^LLIMASTIGOMYCliTES

I

MINERS ROCKS. FOSSILS

Life

Earth

Oil

that

shaped

is

beneath our

lie

combinations far-reaching

on

influence

on vegetation, and on the

)

these

rocks,

record of

form

lossils

lite in

of different

a

have

they

a

landscape,

the

soil.

rocks

the

Made

feet.

minerals,

ot

by

Preserved within detailed

highly

the distant past, showing the

path that evolution has followed over hundreds millions ot years.

ot

»

J

8

MINERALS building blo< ks ol

1m

1

roc ks.

haw -t

r

,1

mm< (

thousand rust, but

(

S(

\\

'.'

1.

w( .in

idespn ad

i

ROCKS

FOSSILS

1

arth's

ommon

ording

Classify

ainxJ

js

nuggets

i

Jllll \

\ \"»n .'

V

sands

ivei

h

i

s;i>l>l

in

MINI

SI

.iw.il' n

forms in bydrothermal veins and often weathers out to be found malleability,

m

nii

ili,

It

in

ihi

in

i

hombii

ii

nli

in. mi hi

in

in

H

2

antimony,

il

i

•

.

i

u,

ili,

•

r-

I

SG

,

i

i

4.63

is,

i

,M gi

l

Inn.

i

mini

ral

posil

.1,

.mil

i

66

I

this tl.uk grav

.intiiii. .in

il

-.1

I

Japan

a *

j-

* a granular or brarikhini;

Ill,

(.

i

\ii iinu,

u

iIinihI.ui, in

Ii

il

mined

leado

as

form.

mcrvuri globules

rod

.

w

..

I

M

MERCURl Hi

H ThiN

is

I.RI

I

1

1,

_,>nal

a

Liquid'

4.4

the onl\ metal that

in

liquid at

normal temprraturvv In liquid Form, mercurv appear- a» silvery globules.

II

alter




the samt properties

sulfur

combined

is

commonh

a metallic element

01 arsenit

>>l

silver,

\\

ith

copper,

semimetal, often antimom

Sulfosalts frequent!) occui in

hydrothei mal veins, usualb

in

small amounts

an important

oJ th. hismutli

lllrdk

III.

PI K

-

1

IRG1

luminal

1,

II

s,

.

'

Mso

ti

called

Kl

is

,

p

i

ub)

K

\M 1

1

Mom

ii

i

.in.l

v .l|l|H

ii

ion,

palybasiti I

H|l|l.

.11

It

I,

Is

.1111 iii

.

v

.i

sulfidi

Id ii..

i

and

ol silvei

\, In

mi.

I

icral

hah

lo< .ilK

I.

'I

I

I

linii

m

in

6.2

S.8

sulfidi

:'i.i\

.inn Is

ii

I.SG

•

bluish

thwhili

quantities ol silvci

i. .1

\

IIS. III.

II

i.

wi.l Kl

i:

1

m.

Son

ul>\ silver,

I

1

Vtimoi

red bla< k. but

llllll >|>lllll. .1.

l'«)l

I

j

i

ilnv sulfide •! silvi ,iihiiii..ii\

I

igonal

i

il

Ii

id

ml in/

nlh.l.

C

form fini .Mill

to

liki

r~

-n

/

>

IN \IU.III • il • SC

thorbombii

BOURNONITI

(

ilorcd lulfidc ol

ii

•

i

l«SG

'

S.7-S.9

oppcr and id

nl

l


N\

in -alimI

1

.

desert

invimnmi

i

I

HI KareK found, u-\

»hn
li

ied ui

y

I

;

•

and minerals

-,

lead occurring

sedimentai

l

where

then

ai e \

>

among

ipitated

,

layers

m> ha\e ken ahen

common

lead

.»r.

\1

Inn,

after galena

\

BORACIT1 'i


lil

veins

1/

COl

M I

1

MAN] f

-II

Inn.

111

1

•

S(,

I

|

Moii,., Inn,

!

nun borate hydroxidi foi mv h hen watei evaporates Ii was the main source ol boron until iln disi ovei \ ol kernite

his bydrati

saline

,

.1

.

al(

•

XI

I

1

S(,

.

I

II

!

hydrated sodium

\

>l(,

I

ium

-il,

i

urate hydroxide, ulexite 'a white, fibrous

down

ighl

,

rystals transmit

theii length

Ii

has

uses similai to borax

KHOIMK HKOMI1 J'Hl'i

4

•

SG

i.l

,|uah^ crystals i.ilhis manganese ale. in sha

found

in the

U\

,>ink, can be N.uth Africa, and IVru

iiunchxiktu

«

;

characteristic

UIRK'II

toriaa

A

blue

,

opper

,,r

CI

\l

-HI

Monodinic

I

I

2 • sc;

1

s>6

green colored /im Vionoi

irbonati hydroxidi

,

aurichalcite l,irm> in the

oxidized zones

..I

zinc

\

In.

copper deposits.

BORAX H 2—2 •

balk) h Im,

,

and

linii

s(,

•

sodium has man) I..

I.

.1

7

I

HOWLITE

ati

Mono.

applii in. ins, in. ludin

t

MM HKI

Hill 51 il

"S

Dl

I

and

glasses,

ti

lovt

I

medicines, laundn detergents,

M

Inn,

•

iv

.il,

III,

hydroxidi

xtili

i

i

Ii

halky,

li

common!) (arms

anadates are

\

as

med

>

l
\

elements and

metallic

clusters ol Uails pi ismatit crystals in

WAD

\

«S


ol

vanadate radical

thi

group of minerals contains mam ran examples, which tend to be dense and bright!) colored Vanadates often form w hen li\>li othi mal vi ins an altered b) permeating fluids Mosl vanadates have i\i>

altered iron deposits

rhis

i

i

mi

-•

ommen

i

impoi

iv .in

valut

ial

howevi

,

M "in ce

t.uii

notite

ai

i

,

i

m anium,

ol

lunJjt

nrin \MUNI \K\t)|

l

Monoclinii leneralh

HP

>

•

yellow

.

ui

,

i

H

»

II

I

2

powdci uranium

hydrati

,\

m

ai

i

\

Inv

I

to ca

ititi

vanadati

.1

(.6

;

-inil

.

ni

\. in. ui. n


i

>

similai in v in

anium deposits

nil in

alt


114. I

ibethenitc

iv

to dark green

.i

>

light

foi

ms

oxidizi

in tin >i

S

\

1

T

\

S

I

oppei

phosphate hydroxide li

R

\

upper

oneol

Vrsenates are

mosd)

composed

rare minerals

metallic elements and tin ars< nat< radi( \vt

"i

)

coppei deposits

have a

["hey generally

i

fairly

.il

|

ol

\v(

)

high specific

and low hardness, Man) arsenates have brighl

gravit)

I

adamite

inli'iv gi

is

MO\ •

.

II

i

en

blw

'i

i

•

•

1

m

I

v,

•

ui

i

iii

green, and clinoclase

oi

group

his

I

variet) ui geologic

\/l

yellow

is

minerals

ol

situations,

.il

I

i

i

urs in

il

man) arsenates

>nt

il

ill'

Mill

)A 'I

.ill.

iii

ii

/iik deposits,

altered metal deposits.

M

•

IliHIlliU

II

-SG4.3

arsenate hydroxide

ui

i

I

>l

3'/i

/mi

.i

A

il

|itn>ii.il

i

v.

.ii

nil

.ii

sometimes rystals

i

I'hovphau- minerals containing either

cerium, lanthanum, or neodvmium is monazite all hi

mined

I

ar< I

lor the

lydi ated

pin

\/ll

I

Will

I

pi. \.

i

i

:»•

H.liniv

•

II

red

i

mi;

I

I

i

idiatlng

i

SG

t

'

3.18

\anouv elements I

BR

K

Monoclinii -ill

I

i

i

obalt

pink IK ni

1

i

.in. nl. i

1

ai

senate

ystals ui

xamples

/"

i

tase

'i

.

n

i

ttah

ms

Foi

oating

i

oi

(Mi

ui

•

in

and Mora

in Hro/il, thi-

sodhan aluminum phosphate and tormv

in canities in

nraniuv

pt-gmatit.v

DOM

HA VI

Monoi 4

II I

i

lnv

opper,

umi.iIK \.

.

5.7

i,

,

d

in

ni

i

.nn.l

grci

.is

rusts

m

hydrothermal

.

dm

and

.nl.

Ii

l.

.u

II.

S(,

•

hydi

I

I

Inn.

.1

is

I.

oi

altered vi

ins

\/lll III

I

linie

H

S

'.

\ r< lati\el\

blue

gi

ran

.

!

I

semiprei

mstone,

OI IVIMII

olirenlu

1

mm

(

magnesium aluminum phovphate

F

h\dr

Irthi II

thiv iron

hombii 4.4

v(.

)liveniti

(

metamorphic ami igneous n» in

.1

•

i

iv

oppi

i

ii

•

gonal

•

H

I •

altered

•

ii|i|»

Ii

i

.Ii

oi

i

ui

posits,

Mum,, t'linm

loi ins

S(,

.

t

(

t

dark blue grei n

a

is

H 2'/]

•


.

8

•

SG

ate fluoi ide

hydroxide

usualh. small, but a giant crystal

5% lb (271 kg) is known from H

weighing

111

I

>i

Mom n i

\

i

is

I

10 ral

hydrous

nun

In-

i

Iron

.""'

.ili

I

an

illii ati

tabulai

n

l

an abundant nun.

^tal- "I

aluminum

'

linii

.sg 3.35-3

,.

pldou

1

ii

pi ismatii I'

iati

'I

\\l\lll 1

ii

1

Vxiniti ili

i

hoped

m

nun

i-

n

Inn.

:

•

Mn

iHMin

Will

titanium

h

silicate

rystals,

linit

•

II

6

tamoi i-

•

SG

3.6

phii .m!

iiin better

i

than

,

i

till l< til)

t

k hydrous

i

exct llcnt

in

in.

h'iLi.i hlot itiml

i

Jdum

III

sprt ad in in.

I.

M\IUI\

IN

II

at dis

1.4

n

iroi

shaped

•

3.2

hydrous

.i

aluminum boron sili< ate, u nli .i\. head

-

III

[inii

1.

.SG

-

ili.nti.'i\.l

prismjn

\M)\IIIMII >rthrhi>rnl>M.


i ili.

'

-'.

tunded crysta

MIMOKI'lllll

III

.Ii. )

li.iinl.i.

S(, silii ati

red zini

vai iabli

..In i

and

..I

zini

di

both

in

Hn

Ii

leal

ir,lll,l.

DANBURIT1 ii

!

itl

ils

I

..

|

..I-

Mil.,

i

re* mbli topaz, bul 'Mil. II

W

1

1

I

I

M

I

I

\

I

ISIIS

I

H

19

•

n-II i

l-ti-h.

and usualh.

m

Sillimaniu-

.

lim«

is

•

I

H

|\l

Will

II

but

it

7.SG

r.

'

an aluminum

i

Inn.

3 d

silicate

»nh

I

Willi

and

metamorpbov-ri

Will iii. .ii..

>nal

lliiiil

n

-.1

How,

ll

»

YCLOSI LICATES

C

I

NOSI LICATES

ACTINOLITE Monoclinic 6 «SG 3.0-3.44

H5

BENITOITE Hexagonal • 3.64-3.68

Actinolite

H 6-6'/) SG

more

a

is

iron-rich,

darker colored form of the

This usually blue barium titanium silicate occurs in serpentinite and

amphibole tremolite.

one

It is

of the asbestos minerals.

veins in schist. Gem-quality c

i

Wals tome from

California.

six-sided crystal

TOURMALINE Hexagonal / trigonal H7-7'/..SG 3.0-3.2 Tourmaline is the name for a group of hydrous boron silicate minerals with 1

the

same

1

TREMOLITE

crystal structure

• H 5 6 • SG 2.9-3.2 A widespread amphibole, this

Monoclinic

but varying chemistry.

hydrous --*._

„*^fes>» AQUAMARlNr

silicate

of calcium,

magnesium, and iron forms in metamni -plm meks. It has been used

as asbestos.

EMKRALD

V^

BERYL H

Beryllium aluminum is

r

Hexagonal 6V2-8 'SG 2.6-3.0

'

-

vitreous luster

silicate

both a source of beryllium and a gemstone. Gem

—

raJiatmq

*m/

cr\

emerald (green), sapphire (blue), and aquamarine (greenish blue). varieties include

PECTOLITE Triclinic

H 4

•

5 .

i

NEPHRITE

SG 2.74-2.88

1

Monoclinic

This sodium calcium silicate hydroxide

forms

MORGANITE 1

within basalt.

in cavities 111

HTA-S -SG is

a

form

of the

actinolite

2

•

SG 2.9-3.4

is

amphiboles tremolite and

commonly known

2.6-2.8

AEGIRINE • H 6 • SG 3.55-3.60

pink variety

Monoclinic

This brown, green, or black pyroxene is a sodium iron silicate. It forms in metamorphic and

additional cesium or

manganese.

It

SUGILITE

forms tabular

crystals in pegmatites.

H columnar, six-sided

S

,

Hexagonal 2-6 i.SG2.7-2.8 ,

This rare, hydrated

prismatic crystal

of

HELIODOR

dark igneous rocks.

silicate

potassium, sodium, iron,

aluminum, occurs

lithium, and

in

manganese metamorphic rock.

HORNBLENDE

Hexagonal

H7'/2 -8.SG2.6-2.8 Named after the Greek for

Monoclinic

Common

a yellow

in

•

H

6

5-

.

SG

3.28-3.41

igneous and metamorphic

rocks, dark amphibole or hornblende

variety of beryl. Fine examples

come from

common

the LIS, Canada, and England.

of beryl, colored by

is

6'

[exagonal

Morganite

"sun," heliodor

It is

H

•

This very tough, cream to dark green

is

a dark,

hydrous

magnesium,

Russia.

silicate

iron,

of calcium,

and aluminum,

with fluorine.

long

prismatK crystal

prous

mass

striated


i

•

I..

ii. .1

is

"I

lined mat)

gt

i\

MTCHSTON1 lhis glasM, dense \olcanu

DA
variable composition irul color, jikI j

[>it«.

hlik«

,

colon i.'

,

oai

This rink

h-is j

complex

mm

ikjli

rot k

«

>»1

da


igneous Inn uaion »>

u

O

t>'

is

•V

X

grained,

iwiumv

n

qt Ii

forms 73

igneous intrusions

depth.

UktPHIBOl

and

111

moderate hut an. deep in tru-

b\

..rust, tin-

lined

rock has an abundant hornbknuV ami pUgiodase, as

other minerals

In'

I

tin

IXiMISS

o n

and folded .ii great dark bands are hornblendi h plastii




granular texture

with equal sized grains, amis ol hornblende and

It

li.is

dark

biotite,

is

m

nal Ii

in

olorrul veins ol othi

prized as a carvine

and

pair bands ol quai i/ and feldspai

sheen.

i

metamorphism, marble n «iili

Cub ired greenish by

medium-grained, with oxide coating,

lis

rounded, equal-sized quartz grains ha\e been shaped b\ the wind.

< H Z w

is

this

in

This rock

sandstone also

Q

It

in

the

mean

is

colored red-brow n

or yellowish by the iron oxide mineral limonite, which coats its

usually has

medium-sized

# Y>*

quartz-rich sandstone

LIMONITIC SANDSTONE

quartz,

contains glittery flakes

of mica.

a

formed

MICACEOUS SANDSTONE Rich

the silicate

mineral glauconite, greensand

well-

medium

grains.

to line quartz grains.

C/3

quartz grains colored

iron oxide

h\

red

ives

t/3

iron oxides

SANDSTONE I

u o

his typically

occurs

as stratified layers ol

sand-sized particles,

held together In various mineral

cements

that

impart

different colors.

Most

are quartz-rich

SANDSTONF

ROCK GYPSUM

ROCK SALT Formed

of crystalline halite, rock

salt

A

is

i

rystalline rock associated with

potash rock and treated when salt water evaporates, rock

brownish and may contain clay. It is soluble and soft, and has a distinct taste.

gypsum

is

pale-colored, often

fibrous, and very soft and soluble.

CLAYSTONE

BOULDER CLAY Gray or brownish colored, boulder clay or till has a fine clay matrix filled with angular and rounded rock fragments.

Of varying rock di

is

color, this very fine-grained

composed mainly

of silicate clay

—

mostly minerals such as kaolinite rived from the weathering of feldspar.

TRAVERTINE A

pale-colored and often layered

rock, travertine bands of hematite

and

chert

calcite. It

is

is

pure

virtually

formed around hot

springs and volcanic vents.

OOLITIC IRONSTONE This rock small,

is

composed of

rounded sedimentary

grains (ooliths) of iron minerals

such

as siderite,

cemented by

other iron minerals, as calcite

we

as

and quartz.

LOESS A

clay

with very

dustlike grains

BANDED IRON FORMATION This marine deposit has alternating bands of black hematite and red chert. It is one of the best ores of iron.

the

fine

lift

wind from dry land

surfaces, loess

is

and lacks obvious

crumbly layerini

50

O n IUI

T. \

\\ tlu |>UVI|>UjIliHl

'mill

-

ambient Urmperalun,' ol

« ji.

r,

>ikIi

.in

hoi m

Ran l\ Ltml in composed almost itcd qiuu

I

in

also

i.'

n,

entirely of silica

grains

Icnown

.in

Kit

tlnv i»k k

>i

*

quai

i

thoqu

sui

PINK

li

li

ORTHOQUAHTZITI

\M

SI

in t.iln.iltl.

ii

\N(,

as

.

oppi

.iin.l.

"• niti

individual, il

li\

quai

n

I.I.

I'l

Kill

M

mi'

l

,

M

lli.

I

'.

.1

i,

i

NODUI nail)

\OIHII insil

man 1.

.1.

;am

i

i

n

.... .hi

I

and bra

-.

yellow Ji

cd cnlin U

m

lals

iduli

.11. .us

1

.

I

ol

and

II.

>•

i

thai >i

—

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

»

flattened pisoluh

or sea

12

lily,

"1

cemented by caleite

Jossiltzed cnnoid,

stem

CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE Crinoids are echinoderms that are attached to the

seabed by a flexible stem. Crinoida] limestone

U C

is

broken stems cemented bv hardened

a

mass

ot

am**-> \

lime mud.

FRESHWATER LIMESTONE

< H Z W

This limestone

NUMMULITIC A marine

brvozoan,

s»

the

in this rock.

caleite,

PISOLITIC LIMESTONE

Q

This rock

is

made

of pisoliths

pea-sized grains slightly larger

CO

CORAL LIMESTONE This rock

is

than ooliths, often flattened, and loosely

a

mass of fossilized corals cemented byIt is

This limestone

gray to white

of ooliths

or brownish.

o

cemented by

caleite.

OOLITIC LIMESTONE

fine-grained caleite.

U

—

is

composed

small, rounded,

concentrically banded

sedimentary grains rolled by seabed currents and

cemented by carbonate mud.

BRYOZOAN

LIMESTONE BRECCIA

LIMESTONE I

his

is

a gray

or

arse, angular rock and quartz fragments cemented by caleite 1

reddish organic limestone, which has

bryozoans in matrix of hardened,

fossils of

a

calcite-rich

are typical of this

rock, which forms

mud.

at

the base ot

cliffs.

FELDSPATHIC GRITSTONE Coarse-grained and pale- to dark-colored, this gritstone contains a lot of quartz and

up

to 25 percent feldspar.

QUARTZ GRITSTONE This gritstone

quartz with

and mica,

is

made

some all

DOLOMITE Often cream- or buH-colored, this

ARKOSE

GRAYWACKE and chlorite.

It

forms

in

marine

basins.

medium-

to coarse-grained,

arkose

a

is

sandstone with

a high

percentage

dolomite (calcium magnesium

carbonate).

Variable in color and

This dark rock contains quartz, rock fragments, and feldspar, set in a mass of finer clay

ot

rock contains

It is

to distinguish

also called dolostone, it

from the mineral.

a

high percentage of feldspar.

FOSSILIFEROUS SHALE Fine-grained marine sedimentary rocks such as shale often

large

contain

numbers of well-

preserved

fossils.

SHALE This fine-grained, layered rock varies in composition, usually

containing

silt,

clay minerals,

organic materials, iron oxides,

and minute crystals of minerals such as pyrite and gypsum.

"

shale

main

of

feldspar

of coarse

grain size.

\

&4

where the rock tormed.

main fossil The cement is originally lime mud. is

.

a pale, calcite-rich

rock with some quartz and clay. It contains fossils of freshwaterdwelling organisms, which indicate

LIMESTONE hlummulites

is

I'lini.l i

Ik

1

.

v

M

ONGLOMI a;

m -i

K

I

K

\l

I

grained sediment*!

\

poh/genetH conglomerate hamam different, rounded r>>vk ami

ris.k.

mineral fragments

in a fine

matrix

M

QUARTZ CONGLOMERATE Var\

in.

typii

.>

1

roci

in color, thii

1

1

has

v

'In i\

w

lull

,

pebble sized quartz fragments set in a finer,

darker matrix,

fine grained matrix

BRECCIA I

lii~

rock has

lai

angular fragRll Dtt ..I

cinik

n.

i

•

Purr calcite, chalk is hne-gr powders, and rasds crumbled

and mini

k-.

i

sand oi

Inn -~ 1

1

in. li

1

rail

l\ nl

ill

ran

I)

•-

madeofmin

I

foi

ll i%

Sll

organisms,

w H\ll

including coci otrtha a\-\ radiolariaas

l

n

M

Ihiv ilark

K

i

M

\KI

in layers.

IMOM

olored

r

m damp

grew

aiul lutl in

.

S

-Hi UL.

COAS1

IjwJium

in |urassi< strata,

related

I

L'ON

ONI

Juhium

habitats

U

v.,.,.

t

.

i.i.

Somt

JURASSK CONIFER rbis extinct •:..•.

i;i

t

I

i

..

evergreen

ovei

members ol !,000

yi ai -

oils CONII

I

l

R

roi

I

Ins

,

"mi.

«

grt

i

iw

In

amps (/)

have bet n found

oua and Ret ent

living

.in

giant

u

Glyptostrobui sp

.lui

In

U

Ing the

and Into

t

'rctaceous Pei iod

thi

Era

oil

(

Glyptosuobm was an Impoi tant

Sequoia

old

,

itn

...il

mine tra

mirj/

monke) bore

"i tin

..tit j

>.

in

.i\, ~

.

.jru

imoiil) CON1

ltl

Stauoia dakotensis

ypress

t

SUBFOSSU

puxzli tret

b.ii.it i>

i

rangi

.1

st

ilea

-itt.it

In

I

RESIN

Kauri pine ambei

istii

(bnialc cones with spirah .11

ltl

I

\niU

.1

is the hardened from pine trees, i

resin

ntral i\i-

mi

as K.iui

li

oci in it

i

i

i

pines

Ing in the

tai

eous,

it

I

ifti

i

h

I

si

ai l\

n

tains fossils "I insects tli.it

|"

i

iahed

ll.l.'l.llll. Itil

t

iJRBONIl

I

ROUS

t.t

MNOSP1

(M.AMOIMI KID

RM

Gigantopterls

rdaitei sp.

y *i

\n

.iiu

estoi

'

'l

the

t

onifet

s, i

ordaltes

\

gn w tint ing the Carboniferous and Permian Periods Itwasatrei sized plant

tli.it

it

produi

i

'I

b)

n

i

.him

lift

its

those

'I

spi

"I

i

It

Mil

A\ is

I

otianaefolia

nil

from Permian was so named

flowei less plant

times, this

I

"ii tin

k\

ies

leaves resembli d tiili.it

plants

(

PERMIAN GINKGO LEAVES Pi

gmophi

i

Still P

in

si

an

in

appeared

Period ,

Hum muhipaititum

iund

I"

I

in tin

tin

Pi

mian

he fan shaped Leaves

identified in i

'l

ginkgos

liin.i,

i

modern

i


i.ilnil.u.

li.uiilikt

stl

shallow

Villi

I.

i.in

i.

Ill

T)

,

in,

dui ing

-i .1-

lrdo\

i

ui iiih

u.h

iiooni lived in

in.

I

lllllt s

ii/lt,-

anial structure

s(

I

R

I

Shapi

.1

\i l\l \\ i Heandi ina sp, I

human

thi

lil.'

coral ha

on

I

I

I)

I

KM


0 SI

\

in \KI

IIK( IIIS

Hemi idan

lll H m 1/0

1

IIIS

«*.

I

O

;v

s

[flCI inn,-. s|>

Named

^^

>

If

'

I

*S

'

1

in

Y)

MMll

1

.uihi> abbrt

about 4

1

i

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES 82

those of invertebrates, since

where fewer

land,

W H


A

primitive, jawlcss, flattened fish," Loganellia

with toothlike to

—

4 J/4

in

lound

C/0

(

1

2

was covered scales.

cm)

long,

Up it is

Devonian rocks.

in

LOBE-FINNED FISH

o

Eusthcnopteron foordi

—

I

PSAMMOSTEID Drepanaspk

he bones in the heavily built

of this Late Devonian were similar to those in

fins fish

the limbs of land-dwelling

A

FISH

sp.

a

headshield.

lound only

vertebrates (tetrapods).

PLACODERM

jaw less, primitive fish,

Drepanaspis had

in

It is

Devonian

BOthriolepis canadensis

flattened

A Devonian placoderm

strata.

(an extinct group of jawless fish), Bothnolepis

had large head and

SHARK TOOTH l

?$

art harocles aurit alatus I

he serrated edges

the teeth of this

ol

Cenozoic

shark could easily cut

through

— jrr&nfg'*'

SHOAL OF DACE Leuciscus pachecoi

Found

STINGRAY

Heliobatis

stingray that

about in

bony

Eocene strata, was a primitive

in

1

2 in

grew

to

(50 cm)

length and had a

skeleton of cartilage.

DIPLOCAULID

AMPHIBIAN Diplocaulus magnicorms

A

salamander-like amphibian from the Permian Period,

Diplocaulus had protrusions

the sides of

up to

3% ft

its skull. It ( 1

m)

strata,

or dace resembled model n

Heliobatis radians

Found

Miocene

in

extinct species of Leuciscus

on grew

in length.

fish.

to 2'/iin

/

pachecoi

(6cm)

grew

in length.

flesh.

trunk-shields and spinelike pectoral fins.

nil

i

NODOIS

skin

I

i

Ptlanotuodon sp I

dii

Ins tuskless In

vnodonl

.i

bivore was

i

membei

"I

.i

.i

group

.I iiLiiiiin.il relatives thai lived In l\

ilii

Di mi

I

rRODON

skill

lor j sail like vlriu lure

OtmnroJoe was an

>

muni and

on

it>

skull

and

\

lu>;li

j

powerful bite

Mils VUR FLIPPER ryptoclidus tun menu I

Growing up in

length, Ion;;

i

to !6fl (8

M

m)

1

1

issilized

found

ryptoclidus «.is

|urtssi(

VRIN1 HIKII Puppigcrus

necked plesiosaui

From the

mat ine

Mesozoii

Period,

I

I

MDMIOR I

Kll 1!K

CYNODON \

li/aril,

"

in length

rov

It is

found

canine teeth,

I

mi in

skill

tui ties ai e

hea\ Ot

ti

om

the

Recent nuns

1

III

\

shell sl|

and

.11.1

I

rateronotus nivore with

monitor

I

.i

I

1

ottato

anging

i

ra to

had

i

skill

I

rassli

i

in i", ks

IS loilllll 111

\\

Pel iods

iassit

ba< k.

c

(.1

1

mammals

PI

11/ \Kl>\

1

I

jil\ relative ol

from thr Permian rVriod ikon snout translated into

i

•up ol

cynodonts

1

1

a

stout skull and

nt\;nj(/iii>

mammal It

is

l.n o,

belonged to

precursors called

touu.l in friassjc str.ua

«

SOIOIlM.lll /

Growing ]-.

don

\ll

plateasti

to aboul S'/*(\

\,1

bod) with a hippopotamus

h lived from l'ln« ene

'

PI

bn had like

head

,

m-

» FOSSIL VERTEBRATES:

DINOSAURS

PLATEOSAURUS SKULL PlateosauTus sp.

84

A

bulk\ plant eater

from the LateTriassic Plateosaurus grew to about 26

It

(S

ml

C/2

length and bail

UJ

ven

in a

small head.

i-

< bony spike

.

ca

H cC

m > t/5

-J

O

CiALLIMIMUS SKULL Gallimimus bulLuw.

Growing up

to 20

ft

(6

m) long

Galltmimus had a birdlike,

beaked

skull,

neck and

and long legs.

strong,

serrated teeth

J

ALBERTOSAURUS SKULL

ISr

Albertosaurus sp.

A

predator and close

relative of Tyrannosaurm rex, Albertosaurus

to 26

ft

(8

m)

DASPLETOSAURUS JAW

grew

in length

Dasplctosaurus tOTosus eous dinosaur had massive hind legs and small arms, and it grew to a length of 30 It 9 m ). It had a powerful jaw with the formidable teeth of a carnivore. I

and

is

found

in

Late

Cretaceous rocks.

his Creta


the cells of some, such as

cyanobacteria, can join together in spectacular, long filaments.

ARCHAEA

BACTERIA ME EH A NOCOCCOIDES BURTON1I This methane producer

bottom of Ace where no oxygen and the

lives at the

Lake there

in Antarctica, is

average temperature

is

33°F(0.6°C).

1

.

2

li

m

flexible cell wall

ACEEOBACTER

BACILLUS

BACILLUS

ACEEI

SU BEL LIS

THURINGIENSIS

Used

make

to

spci lev

vinegar, this

also a

iv

common

contaminant wherever is brewed, causing discolouration and souring ol alcohol

beer

in particular.

Up

to

one

lound

lound

It is

in

know

STAPHYLOEHERMUS MARINUS I

overed in a hydrothermal vent on the sea floor, this

)is
N"i

s

(85

best

discovered

in

had

In

that

It

forms grapelike clusters, an< can grow comparative!) large

\\

as

PERTUSSIS Ins species

causes

u hooping cough,

as

to doses of

experiment

therefore

pertussis, or

n

radiation in an

is

BORDEEEELA I

meat


|n.l.

10

tuse

mil .Us, mi, b.i, let .Ills,

,

fi

Ii

i

.ii,

i.i

-in

>

.

.ms.

i

\s few

\

ii,

ml,

.ill

>

produi es

1.1

shiga toxin, "In.

.'I

,

di

.1

.is

i"

linn

STHEPTOCOCl us p\i ii UONJ 1/ sent

cause In

hiUltvn

^

i

into

s

i

all

parl> ol the

l(

ion

it

//

/

us

moi'iiii us

it

iPHYLOi

si

ix

Found

in the intestine

and vagina,

tins

bacterium has nutritional and .111111111.rol11.il properties It is used in probiotii ,li inks and supplemi nts

skm

ili.

,

1

1,

.is

.ms, ,

al

bai

ti

part "i

ml,

rim

h Minis

/•li/HICl!

ium an l» found m normal flora, but .m

D(/)|

i

i

i

I

I

BRIO

itli

,i

end,

///

i

in. ibili

h_;lil\

1

single

i

ompromisi

/HI/ .n

oni

secretes a

n itoxin i

/

,1

immuni

patients,

IMOH \ll(

urved rods

ics

,

in,

causes

,

Hagellum

tins sp,

poti ni

holei

ib.it

I

Ins sp,,

Rill

i

us makes n,

maji It

n

1

1

impi mi

\i

i

111, 111

ki, t,i

Rososrin

i

SP.

illing a vital e< ological

i,

i

tills llltl lt\ llio sill

.

i.i

form

oxidizes nitrites

ammon .is

part

the nitrogi n cycle.

menu, plasm

/

MlfUHOll I

ili

il IS

.alb a

ham

inhabitant of the t

US 1/HS/N/

human

and vagma.

hum »nunctt and

mam

» mistant

antih

to

u

I

PISIIS

I

um

Ins spei ies

I

I

nl "I

|is\, In

«ln, vet

i

ili,

w

II

\(

R

R Ml MIR INS

II

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PROTISTS From microscopic amoebae

to giant kelp, the protists defy simple

description, yet this informal grouping of eukaryotes included the first life forms to evolve that were more complex than the prokaryotes. It still produces most of Earth's food and oxygen.

(

DOMAIN KINGDOM

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PROTISTA

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Protists are mainly single-celled creatures that, unlike

EUKARYOTA

SPECIES

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About 70,500 j

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prokaryotes, have cell nuclei. Their basic separates

nature

—

them from the higher eukaryotes plants, that later emerged from them.

lungi, and animals

The

cell

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protists include an incredible range of organisms

with diverse

and ecological niches. Most are

lifestyles

microscopic, ranging in size from 10 to 100 um, and

some

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as kelp, a

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