Divine Motive in the Hebrew Bible 9781463205324, 2015019789, 1463205325

Table of contents :
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
CHAPTER 2. THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH
CHAPTER 3. THE PLAN OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER 4. THE DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENT: SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 5. DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL
CHAPTER 6. DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX: TEXTS CONTAINING A DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

Divine Motive in the Hebrew Bible

Gorgias Biblical Studies

64

In this series Gorgias publishes monographs on the history, theology, redaction and literary criticism of the biblical texts. Gorgias particularly welcomes proposals from younger scholars whose dissertations have made an important contribution to the field of Biblical Studies. Studies of language and linguistics, the archaeology and cultures of the Ancient Near East, Judaism and religion in general each have their own series and will not be included in this series.

Divine Motive in the Hebrew Bible

A Comprehensive Survey and Analysis

J. Michael Thigpen

9

34 2015

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2015 by Gorgias Press LLC

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. 2015

‫ܛ‬

9

ISBN 978-1-4632-0532-4

ISSN 1935-6870

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thigpen, Michael. Divine motive in the Hebrew Bible : a comprehensive survey and analysis / by Michael Thigpen. pages cm. -- (Gorgias biblical studies, ISSN 1935-6870) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4632-0532-4 1. God (Christianity)--Love--Biblical teaching. 2. Bible. Old Testament--Criticism, interpretation, etc. 3. Bible. Jeremiah--Criticism, interpretation, etc. 4. Bible. Ezekiel--Criticism, interpretation, etc. I. Title. BS1192.6.T45 2015 221.6--dc23 2015019789 Printed in the United States of America

Title of the Book

Do not delete the following information about this document. Version 1.0 Document Template: Template book.dot. Document Word Count: 12772 Document Page Count: 254

To my wife, Bonnie, whose unfailing encouragement and support made this work possible.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents ..................................................................................... v Acknowledgments .................................................................................. vii List of Tables............................................................................................ ix Chapter 1. An Introduction to the Study ............................................. 1 Chapter 2. The History of Research ...................................................... 7 Motive Clause Research.................................................................. 7 Form-Critical and Theological Studies....................................... 14 Chapter 3. The Plan of the Study.........................................................41 Text Selection Criteria .................................................................. 42 Examination of the Textual Data ...............................................43 Defining Motive.............................................................................44 The Nature of the Study ...............................................................45 Chapter 4. The Divine Motive Statement: Survey and Analysis ..... 47 Distribution of Texts and Motive Types ................................... 47 The Form of the Divine Motive Statement ..............................50 Sample Passages and Key Features of the Motive Statements ..............................................................................60 Major Categories of Divine Motive ............................................67 A Theological Summary of Divine Motive ...............................80 Chapter 5. Divine Motive in the Book of Ezekiel ............................83 The Distribution of Divine Motive Statements in Ezekiel ..... 83 The Form of the Divine Motive Statement in Ezekiel ............85 Divine Motive and Key Themes in Ezekiel ..............................96 Key Motive Texts in Ezekiel .......................................................98 Conclusion ....................................................................................138 Chapter 6. Divine Motive in the Book of Jeremiah ........................141 The Distribution of Divine Motive Statements in Jeremiah ...............................................................................141 The Form of the Divine Motive Statement in Jeremiah .......143 Divine Motive and Key Themes in Jeremiah ..........................147 v

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Conclusion ....................................................................................185 Chapter 7. Conclusions........................................................................187 Divine Motive in Jeremiah and Ezekiel ...................................187 The Temple, the Land, and Divine Motive .............................189 Popular Sayings, Audience Quotation and Divine Motive ..................................................................................192 The Knowledge of YHWH and Divine Motive .....................199 Summary and Suggestions for Future Research .....................204 Appendix: Texts Containing a Divine Motive Statement ..............207 Bibliography ..........................................................................................211 Index .......................................................................................................225 Biblical References ......................................................................225 Authors..........................................................................................243

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my enduring gratitude to Dr. Samuel Greengus, whose wise counsel and love of learning has enriched me academically and personally. I will always cherish the opportunities I have had to discuss the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel with him. I also wish to thank Dr. Barry Kogan, my second reader, for his keen insights and feedback, which not only improved the quality of my dissertation, but also helped me to be a better writer and theologian. I am grateful to the Executive Committee of the Evangelical Theological Society for their encouragement and practical support in the final stages of my writing. This project would not have come to fruition without the wonderful help of the Gorgias Press team, especially Dr. Melonie Schmierer-Lee and Dr. George Kiraz. Finally I wish to thank my wife, Bonnie, and my daughters, Abby and Hannah, for their love and devotion.

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Distribution of Divine Motive Statements by Book (p. 48) Table 2 Distribution of Divine Motive Types by Book (p. 49) Table 3 Distribution of Order Types in the Prophetic Books (p. 51) Table 4 Distribution of Order Types in the Non-Prophetic Books (p. 52)

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CHAPTER 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Research into the various uses of motive clauses in the Hebrew Bible has been a fruitful line of inquiry since B. Gemser’s groundbreaking investigation in 1953, “The Importance of the Motive Clause in Old Testament Law.” 1 The research that followed has addressed the form and function of motive clauses primarily in legal and hymnic texts. Outside of these lines of inquiry, work on motive clauses has been sparse. While the analysis of prophetic speech forms has frequently dealt with “reasons” within the overall structure of the judgment speech, most of that work has focused on determining whether the reason is an independent speech form, part of a larger original form, or a later addition to the judgment speech. 2 Relatively little attention has been given to the theological significance of the reasons. Although the motive clauses found in the prophetic speech forms bear many similarities to those found in texts of the various law codes and the psalter, there is one striking difference. Given the nature of prophetic speech, the motive elements found in the prophetic texts are often reflective of divine not human motivations. This has not, however, been a focal point in the study of prophetic Berend Gemser, “The Importance of the Motive Clause in Old Testament Law,” VTSup 1 (1953): 50–66. 2 See here the work of Hans Walter Wolff, “Die Begründungen der Prophetischen Heils- und Unheilssprüche,” ZAW 52 (1934): 1–21, who argues for a two part form with a reason and announcement. For a history of the research on judgment speech, see, Claus Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech (Translated by H.C. White, Repr. ed.; Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1991), 13–89. 1

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speech forms. Rather, work has been focused predominantly on the formal elements of the speech—syntax, style, the constituent elements of the original form, the development of the form, the prophet’s role as messenger, and the identification of the source of the motive clause from a variety of Sitze im Leben—and not on the nature and function of divine motives per se. Divine motive clauses are not confined to prophetic texts, but can be identified in virtually every type of literature. That this is a topic worthy of consideration is suggested by the more than 1,500 verses that contain a reference to divine motive in the Hebrew Bible. 3 The current state of affairs, then, is that despite significant and sustained work on motive clauses, one key dimension has not been pursued systematically—divine motive. Volume alone however, is not the only indication of the value of the inquiry. In addition to the number of textual references, there are a variety of works that mention the topic of divine motive and suggest its significance. One such work is Muilenburg’s “The Linguistic and Rhetorical Usages of the Particle ‫ כּי‬in the Old Testament.” 4 He noted the importance of motive clauses, including those that refer to divine motive. “It is clear that the many motive clauses throughout the literature of ancient Israel, in all their literary guises and patterns, in all their varying contexts and settings, constitute a major feature, not merely of a manner of speaking or of the formal structures in which thoughts are ordered and articulated, but also of the faith of Israel.” 5 Focusing on divine motive, he went on to assert that with these statements of motivation YHWH is confirmed to be 3F

4F

See appendix for the complete list of texts that include a divine motive statement. The appendix lists 854 verses. These represent just the verses that contain the actual text of the motive statements. If the local literary unit for each motive statement were included, the number of verses directly involved with the divine motive statements is well in excess of 1,500. 4 James Muilenburg, “The Linguistic and Rhetorical Usages of the Particle ‫ כי‬in the Old Testament,” HUCA 32 (1961): 135–160. 5 Ibid., 154. 3

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

3

justified in his acts and words. He does not act capriciously; he has a reason for his course of action, he has a plan and a purpose and a design behind his divine rule in the world. But more than that, in the motivations, Israel can confirm voluntarily that the ways of God are right, that his ways should be their ways also, and that his intentions should be the source of their illumination, the guide of their actions, and the motives for their desire to do what they ought to do. 6

Both classic and contemporary theological works make frequent mention of divine motive despite the lack of comprehensive research on the topic. Gerhard von Rad, for example, throughout his work on Old Testament theology explored the manner in which “Jahweh had bound [the divine name] up with the free manifestation in history of his self-revelation in history.” 7 In particular he noted the many explicit statements of purpose in Ezekiel using the phrase “and they will know that I am YHWH.” In the second volume of his work, he linked this idea with the deuteronomic theology of the word of God expressed in the prophetic literature. As he analyzed the deuteronomic theme, von Rad argued that the word of God is “the real motive-force and creator of Israel’s history.” 8 Tracing these themes into Ezekiel, von Rad wrote that Ezekiel understood the canonical history of Israel as a series of unsuccessful divine attempts to change Israel coupled with Israel’s consistent failure to obey. Yet, Ezekiel saw that the whole of Israel’s history continued despite this because of “God’s regard for the honour of his name among the nations.” 9 Ezekiel then brings this understanding to bear in the exposition of the history of Israel and the proIbid., 155. Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology Volume I: The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions (Translated by D.M.G. Stalker, New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 185. 8 Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology Volume II: The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions (Translated by D.M.G. Stalker, New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 95. 9 Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions, 227. 6 7

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phetic announcements of the judgment to come which are intended to make clear the divine motive for the exile. 10 Walter Brueggemann, in his 2007 work, The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah, spent significant time addressing divine motive in Jeremiah. 11 For Brueggemann, any hope that might be found in the book of Jeremiah, which features such ‘radical judgment,’ is founded on the concept “that YHWH does not—cannot and will not— quit at that nadir point, precisely because YHWH’s most elemental passion is for his people. Thus, the move beyond radical judgment is rooted, according to prophetic imagination, in YHWH’s own elemental resolve.” 12 He went on to observe that the radical articulation of hope in the Book of Jeremiah concerns YHWH’s singular intention, which does not depend on Israel’s repentance. We conclude that such hope is a genuine novum in the Book of Jeremiah. That hope cannot be understood in terms of antecedent traditions but is in fact a great theological leap beyond Deuteronomic symmetry. 13

Brueggemann’s understanding of the role of divine motive in Jeremiah is quite reminiscent of views we will encounter regarding Ezekiel’s theocentric focus. The question of whether such a view of divine intention and the hope it engenders is unique to Jeremiah or to Ezekiel is one that this study will address. Fundamentally, to inquire into motive is to ask the question, ‘why?’ The answer that we seek in asking ‘why?’ is not the cause of an action, but rather the interpretation of an action. 14 Seeking interpretation(s) of the divine acts narrated in the texts of the Hebrew Bible is at the heart of theological inquiry. Abraham Heschel, for example, addressed the question of ‘why?’ with regard to divine anger in his work on the prophets. Heschel argued against an arbiIbid., 229. Walter Brueggemann, The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 12 Ibid., 38. 13 Ibid., 40. 14 Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe, Intention (Harvard University Press, 1957), 19. 10 11

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

5

trary view of divine anger, saying, “There is no divine anger for anger’s sake. Its meaning is, as already said, instrumental: to bring about repentance; its purpose and consummation are its own disappearance.” 15 Although his arguments are compelling, our study will strengthen this understanding by presenting the evidence from the prophetic statements about the divine motive(s) related to acts of judgment as well as acts of compassion. As Heschel noted, “It would be easier if God’s anger became effective automatically: once wickedness had reached its full measure, punishment would destroy it. Yet, beyond justice and anger lies the mystery of compassion.” 16 It is to these types of mysteries—divine anger and compassion— that this study addresses itself. This work adds depth and breadth to the existing lines of inquiry by providing both control and context through the systematic review of the data. It examines the literary use of divine motive, however, unlike previous works, the study will not limit the exploration to a single motive, or to a single form-critical assessment. Rather, it will pursue a broadly comprehensive approach to divine motive by examining the explicit statements of motive found throughout the texts of the Hebrew Bible. To be certain, I will not be so presumptuous in this study as to seek to proclaim a definitive answer to any of the questions raised above. However, the catalog of data and the broad analytical and synthetic statements that I derive will serve to further the discussions related to these questions and others. It is to this end that this work is pursued. Before laying out the proposed method for the study, I will first consider the past streams of research with which the study connects.

Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Prophets, Part II (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 66. 16 Ibid., 67. 15

CHAPTER 2. THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH Although the divine motive clause has not been the sole focus of any major study, relevant research, upon which the present work builds, is found in two key lines of inquiry: 1) motive clause research, and 2) form-critical and theological analyses of prophetic texts. This chapter will survey relevant representative works from these fields.

MOTIVE CLAUSE RESEARCH B. Gemser, in his 1953 article, “The Importance of the Motive Clause in Old Testament Law,” 1 was the first to give serious attention to legal motive clauses. Working broadly with all the major legal texts, he defined motive clauses as “grammatically subordinate sentences in which the motivation for the commandment is given.” 2 Although motive clauses may be introduced in a variety of ways, Gemser found the particle ‫ ִכּי‬to be the most common. This article does not exhaustively survey the various constructions of the motive clause but it does highlight the role of ‫ ֶפּן‬in introducing negative, “dissuasive” motive clauses and the use of ‫ ְל ַֿמ ַﬠן‬to introduce positive “promissory” motive clauses. 3 Perhaps the most significant aspect of Gemser’s work was the analysis of the contents of the legal motive clauses. He identified four primary “kinds of motivation: 1) the motive clauses of a simply explanatory character, 2) those of ethical contents, 3) those of a religious kind, cultic as well as theological, and 4) those of religious18F

Gemser, 50–66. Ibid., 96. 3 Ibid., 100–101. 1 2

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historical contents.” 4 With regard to the present study Gemser’s third and fourth categories are the most significant as they frequently deal with ideas related to the name of God, divine presence, divine jealousy, and the great historical acts of salvation—the exodus and the giving of the land. 5 Gemser argued that the legal motive clauses were “an instructive compendium of the religion, theology, ethics and democratic, humanitarian outlook of the people of Israel as represented in the Old Testament laws.” 6 Similarly this study explores the religious and theological ideas represented by divine motive clauses. The first major study to build on Gemser’s groundbreaking work, was Roger Uitti’s, The Motive Clause in Old Testament Law. 7 This 1973 dissertation worked with an expanded set of texts and sought to demonstrate the origin of legal motive clauses was in the realm of the covenant renewal ceremony. 8 Uitti differed from Gemser in his approach to the classification of motive clause content. First, Uitti differentiated between the purpose or general thrust of the clause to warn, exhort, or to explain and various arguments used to support the motive statement. 9 Uitti found appeals in the human realm made to 1) logic, reason and common sense; 2) desire for blessing, and self-preservation; and 3) the constraints of conscience and ethical concerns. 10 When dealing with the realm of YHWH, the areas of appeal Uitti noted were 1) YHWH’s person, nature and will; 2) YHWH’s word and commandments; and 3) YHWH’s acts of salvation as seen in creation, election and redemption. 11 Uitti’s categorization of the motives is a helpful addition to the early work of Gemser. However, his separate treatment of the Ibid.,103. Ibid., 105–110. 6 Ibid., 112. 7 Roger William Uitti, “The Motive Clause in Old Testament Law” (Ph.D. diss., Lutheran School of Theology, 1973). 8 Ibid., 135–136. 9 Ibid., 92. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 4 5

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

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motivational purpose or intent of the clause and the motivational arguments which support the clause raises a significant definitional issue as each of these could be designated by the term “motive”. I will need to define terms clearly and seek to understand the nature of motive and intentionality in order for this study to further the understanding of these clauses. Pinchas Doron analyzed legal motive clauses based on form and content, much as Gemser had, in a 1978 article entitled “Motive Clauses in the Laws of Deuteronomy: Their Forms, Functions and Contents.” 12 In the first half of the article, Doron classified and analyzed the motive clauses on the basis of the conjunction or particle which initiates the clause. For each clause form, key examples were given followed by a summary of the functions of that particular form. Doron recognized clauses beginning with ‫כּי‬,ִ ‫ו‬, ‫ל ַֿמ ַﬠן‬,ְ ‫פּן‬,ֶ ‫ ַﬠל ֵכּן‬, ‫ ַﬠל ָדּ ָבר ֲא ֶשׁר‬, ‫ ַֿתּ ַחת ֲא ֶשׁר‬, ‫ ֲא ֶשׁר‬, along with clauses that are asyndetic, prefatory, and clauses which begin with ‫ ִכּי‬but which are all associated by the assessment of a prohibited action as an abomination, ‫תּוֹﬠ ָבה‬ ֵ . 13 Doron’s analysis of the function of each form significantly advanced the inquiry beyond Gemser’s original work. In particular, Doron’s observations on ‫ ְל ַֿמ ַﬠן‬are important. Although Gemser had limited ‫ ְל ַֿמ ַﬠן‬to the introduction of promissory clauses, Doron demonstrates that ‫ ְל ַֿמ ַﬠן‬is also used to introduce the intended result of some laws to provoke a “certain spiritual or psychological attitude.” 14 Finding Gemser’s four content categories overly broad, Doron suggested four new categories for the content of the legal motive clauses in Deuteronomy: motives of a humanistic nature, motives based on Israel as God’s chosen people, motives that 28F

29F

Pinchas Doron, “Motive Clauses in the Laws of Deuteronomy: Their Forms, Functions and Contents,” HAR 2 (1978): 61–77. 13 An asyndetic construction is the simple juxtaposition of clauses without an intervening conjunction or preposition. Doron distinguished between asyndetic motive clauses and prefatory motive clauses which preface the law to which they are attached and lack a conjunction due to their position. Ibid., 61–72. 14 Ibid., 67. 12

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promise reward for obedience, and motives that seek to educate the reader on the proper course of living. 15 Although completed in 1975 before Doron’s article appeared, Rifat Sonsino’s dissertation study of legal motive clauses was not published until 1980. Sonsino’s work is now considered to be the classic study on this subject. Building upon the work of Gemser and Uitti, Sonsino sought to analyze the motive clauses found in Pentateuchal legal texts. Although Uitti had acknowledged the presence of motive clauses in ancient Near Eastern legal texts, contrary to Gemser’s assertion about the uniqueness of the form in biblical law, Sonsino sought to fully incorporate an examination of extra-biblical legal motive clauses in his analysis of the biblical form. Like the other studies we have surveyed, Sonsino’s work included an analysis of the motive clauses by content. He identified four different categories of motive clauses which are characterized by their general orientation: (1) motive clauses which express God’s authority, (2) motive clauses which allude to historical experiences of the people, (3) motive clauses which instill a fear of punishment, (4) motive clauses which promise well-being to the compliant. 16

Although there are distinctions between these categories and those mentioned in prior works, it is clear that enough consensus exists between the various lists to broadly recognize motives based on: 1) YHWH’s great acts of salvation, 2) YHWH’s commands, 3) pragmatic appeals to blessing and reward, and 4) YHWH’s character and person. With regard to his analysis of form, Sonsino’s work is the most comprehensive. His study is the only one encountered so far in the survey which compared legal motive clauses with motive clauses in other genres. Sonsino’s list of particles which were used Ibid., 73. Rifat Sonsino, Motive Clauses in Hebrew Law: Biblical Forms and Near Eastern Parallels (SBLDS; Chico: Scholars, 1980), 109. 15 16

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

11

to open motive clauses will be used in this study as well. 17 His list included: ‫כּי‬, ‫למען‬, ‫ו‬, ‫פּן‬, ‫לבלתּי‬, ‫אחרי אשׁר‬, ‫תּחת אשׁר‬, ‫על דּבר אשׁר‬, ‫למען אשׁר‬, ‫בּ‬, ‫תּחת‬, ‫בּגלל‬, ‫ל‬. Appearing in 1981, the year after Sonsino’s study was published, Donald Gowan’s essay, “Reflections on the Motive Clauses in Old Testament Law,” does not interact with Sonsino’s work. 18 This study was built on the foundation laid by Gemser while also interacting with other more general form-critical works on the law. Like Gemser and Doron, Gowan’s definition of a motive clause is straightforward—“usually brief statements attached to individual commandments to explain why they should be obeyed.” 19 In what is perhaps the strongest statement regarding the value of the study of motive clauses, Gowan asserts that their study might yield much more than form-critical knowledge of legal texts. Rather, he cogently argues that These motive clauses may bring us as close as we can get to explicit statements about the conceptions and convictions underlying the laws of the Old Testament and the ethos they sought to preserve and protect. In considering what Israelites believed to be “motivating” we may also get some additional insights into the anthropology of the Old Testament. 20

Likewise the divine motive clause may give us a window into the “conceptions and convictions” which undergird the various theological views represented in the Hebrew Bible. Another significant advance found in Gowan’s study is the addition of time as a salient category for the analysis of both form and content. Following this observation, Gowan groups the texts in Ibid., 118–120. Although Sonsino lists the forms from legal texts and other genres separately, the lists are virtually identical and are combined here. 18 Donald E. Gowan, “Reflections on the Motive Clauses in Old Testament Law,” in Intergerini Parietis Septum (Eph. 2: 14): Essays Presented to Markus Barth on his Sixty-Fifth Birthday (ed. Dikran D. Y. Hadidian; PTMS Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1981), 111–127. 19 Ibid., 111. 20 Ibid., 112. 17

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

his study by their reference to the past, the present, or the future. 21 In the group of clauses that reference the past, Gowan notes that the past acts or situations to which an appeal is made as a motivation are ones that elicit either “the emotions of gratitude or of hatred.” 22 In this set of references he finds the most significant historical analogs are found in Israel’s bondage in Egypt. 23 Gowan’s study of texts with a reference to the present indicates that these motive clauses frequently appeal to logic, reason, and an assumed desire to please YHWH. 24 Gowan’s analysis of the last group, motive clauses that reference the future, notes that these texts are indicative of results rather than past acts. Although ‫ כּי‬is found as the opening particle in this group, its prominence is greatly diminished. Instead, these future-oriented clauses are introduced most often by ‫ למען‬and ‫פּן‬. 25 Time reference may be a significant part of understanding divine motive clauses. In this study I will need to account for the temporal orientation of divine motive clauses, and if relevant compare and contrast the findings with Gowan’s insightful work on legal motive clauses. The last work in this survey of motive clause research is J. Kenneth Kuntz’s “Grounds for Praise.” 26 Working from Sonsino’s general observation that motive speech is an inherent part of many genres, Kuntz hones in on Sonsino’s specific notation of motive clauses in Israelite hymnody. 27 Kuntz argues that 40F

If one of the main functions of Torah motive clauses is to make Yahweh’s commandments more comprehensible to his covenant people, then, conversely, motive clauses advanced in Ibid., 114. Ibid., 115. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid., 116–117. 25 Ibid., 118–119. 26 J. Kenneth Kuntz, “Grounds for Praise: The Nature and Function of the Motive Clause in the Hymns of the Hebrew Psalter,” in Worship and the Hebrew Bible: Essays in Honor of John T. Willis (ed. Steven S. L. McKenzie; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 148–183. 27 Ibid., 154–155. 21 22

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

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psalms of individual lament might, from a human perspective, be viewed as most useful in making human plight more comprehensible to the deity … It is [also] not difficult to assume that, in the context of congregational worship, the one who has recently been delivered … might invite his companions to join him in thanking Yahweh and, in the process, provide apt motivations for doing so. 28

After discussing past approaches to motive clauses, Kuntz surveyed Psalms which classically illustrate the use of motive clauses. He concluded the study by enumerating three “expressions of praise” that are used as motivations for praise: 1) YHWH’s attributes, 2) YHWH’s great acts of salvation, creation, and deliverance; and 3) the logical benefits and rightness of the upright praising YHWH. 29 These categories resonate with those brought forward in the legal motive clause studies referenced above. This high degree of continuity should prove useful as I examine the content categories related to divine motive clauses. Following Gemser’s observation that ‫ כּי‬is the most prevalent particle introducing legal motive clauses, Kuntz recognized that although ‫ו‬, ‫ למען‬and ‫ פּן‬are all found opening motive clauses in some psalm Gattungen, they are completely missing in hymnic motive clauses. Hymnic motive clauses are either asyndetic or opened with the particle ‫כּי‬. 30 He followed this observation with a discussion of asyndetic examples and then with a long excursus on the role of ‫ כּי‬in the motive clause. The various studies which have contributed to my understanding of motive clauses present a number of essential elements which will need to be accounted for in the study. These include: 1) the categorization of the motivating event or condition, 2) categorization by the particle or conjunction which begins the clause, 3) categorization by type of motive: backward-looking, motive-ingeneral, or intention, and 4) a comparison and contrast between appeals which seek to motivate YHWH and the explicit statements Ibid., 156–157. Ibid., 182–183. 30 Ibid., 161–162. 28 29

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of divine motive. 31 Along the way I will be able to compare and contrast my work with the results of these studies which have paved the way this far in the understanding of motive clauses.

FORM-CRITICAL AND THEOLOGICAL STUDIES The task of selecting works for inclusion in this category was quite difficult. The obvious relationship between my work and the studies on legal and hymnic motive clauses made their selection simple. In this section, however, there are many, many works that mention divine intention or divine motive in a passing way. Yet most of these references are to “programmatic passages,” or to a theological understanding of divine motive based on the broad narrative sweep of the Hebrew Bible. 32 Fewer are those works that address the topic directly, that is, divine motive—whether noting textual elements that indicate divine motive, addressing the broad theological category of divine intent, or analyzing a specific text or text type that is heavily intertwined with the idea of divine motive. Despite these difficulties, there are several significant works that do address divine motive directly, and a number of others which, even though they are not framed to specifically address divine motive, expound texts and themes that are integral to my work. Although my work is broadly based, I will ultimately focus These three motive types based on Anscombe, Intention. For a full presentation of motive types, see chapter 3 below. 32 See for example Eugene H. Merrill, Everlasting Dominion: A Theology of the Old Testament (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2006). Merrill’s work on divine purpose is grounded primarily in Exod 19:4–6. Transparently presenting his presuppositions, Merrill writes, “True to the method we have adopted, it will be best to turn to that programmatic passage first in order to lay the foundation for a fuller understanding of God’s intentions, first for Israel and then for the whole world.” (128). Or consider John Goldingay’s generalized summary of divine purpose. “God intends that Israel should enjoy blessing, increase and possession of its land, and intends to have the whole world seek the blessing it sees in Israel (Gen 12:1–3). God’s design is that all the nations should flock to Jerusalem to listen to God (Is 2:2–4).” John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology Volume 2: Israel’s Faith (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2006), 85. 31

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

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on divine motive within the texts of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. As such, the works selected for this section are those that address divine motive from the perspective of these focal texts, from a theological, or from a form-critical perspective. The literature on Ezekiel has been the most productive in this respect, but there are works on Jeremiah which also make a contribution. For this section I will treat, in their entirety, those discussions which focus directly upon divine motive, but I will treat only the relevant portions of the works in which they are embedded, since these works each have a scope that makes further review unproductive for the purpose of this study. In this way I can demonstrate the manner in which this study connects with the larger field of research. I begin our survey in this section with H. W. Wolff’s article, “Die Begründungen der prophetischen Heils- und Unheilssprüche.” 33 In one of the first major studies of prophetic speech forms, Wolff argued that the reason clauses found in the judgment and salvation speeches of the prophetic texts were integral to the speech and should not, as had been previously thought, be considered a later insertion. 34 Wolff began his study by surveying the various arrangements of the reason and the announcement. He concluded that the two components could be freely arranged and repeated without altering the basic form, although the most frequent arrangement was reason-announcement. 35 Wolff’s work is typical of much of the work on prophetic speech forms. In his study, he illustrated eight types of connections between the reason and the announcement. 36 When we observe Wolff’s description of the categories and their exemplars, it is clear that while each addressed the content of the reason in some way, the categories primarily represent an analysis of the stylistic manner in which the parts of the speech are related, rather than an analysis of the content itself. As such, Wolff sought to show the logic beWolff, “Die Begründungen,” 1–21. For an assessment of Wolff’s work and its place in the history of the study of prophetic speech forms, see Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech, 56–62. 35 Wolff, “Die Begründungen,” 1–3. 36 Ibid., 11–27. 33 34

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hind the reason-announcement complex and how the various means of connection might accomplish the prophet’s purposes. 37 The most significant of Wolff’s categories for our study is his last, Innergöttliche Begründung. Unfortunately this category receives the least attention in his work. This category is important in that it reflects divine motives similar to what others will refer to as theocentrism and it spans both judgment speeches and announcements of deliverance. This supplements Wolff’s analysis of reason categories by analyzing the content of the reason statements and by comparing and contrasting these prophetic statements with other divine motive statements across the whole of the Hebrew Bible. In the fourth chapter of Sheldon Blank’s well-known work, Prophetic Faith in Isaiah, Blank addressed the way in which YHWH is portrayed in Isa 40–55, commonly referred to as Second Isaiah. 38 Blank summarized both the negative and positive arguments put forth in these chapters in favor of YHWH’s divinity, and his position as the only true deity. Fundamentally, Blank argues, “According to the argument of Second Isaiah the test of divinity is the ability to reveal the course of future history. The claimant must fulfill two conditions: not only must he possess foreknowledge, but he must also be able to communicate such foreknowledge to his people.” 39 Negatively, the argument of Isa 40–55 is that no prophecy has been made by any claimant other than YHWH and no worshippers have brought forward a prophecy of their god. Positively, the argument asserts that YHWH has identified himself as the God who announces what will take place in the future. According to the argument of these chapters, “The fact that Israel’s God ‘foretold,’ revealed through Israel’s prophets in advance of the event, his divine intent, and history, God-made history, then of course fulfilled the revelation, that fact is for Second Isaiah the proof of his divinity.” 40 The ultimate purpose of such revelation and fulfillment is so that both the nation of Israel and all the nations of the world might Ibid., 11–16. Sheldon H. Blank, Prophetic Faith in Isaiah (New York: Harper & Row, 1958). 39 Ibid., 54. 40 Ibid., 58. 37 38

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know that YHWH is God, and that they might know him as their God. 41 The evidence for YHWH’s divinity comes both from predictions and fulfillments past, as well as those yet to come. It is the thrust of the argument in these chapters that “[e]vidence and demonstration must lead to knowledge, conviction, belief.” 42 This understanding of the purpose of prophecy and fulfillment comports well with that of Zimmerli whose study on proof-sayings will be addressed shortly. Blank’s assessment that the purpose of divine revelation via the prophets was to produce knowledgeable, faithful witnesses is intimately linked to this study. One part of the quest of my work is to examine how widespread this intent is in the Hebrew Bible and in what ways it is presented via divine motive clauses. The second significant chapter in Blank’s work that I must address is his sixth, entitled “For the Sake of His Name.” It is readily apparent that this phrase is frequently found in divine motive clauses as the reason YHWH has or will act. As Blank understood it, “The ideas of the profanation and the sanctification of God’s name and the idea of such activity, human or divine, as may be undertaken for the sake of God’s name are the approach to a notable aspect of the religion of later Isaiahs and, indeed, to a whole important phase of biblical thought.” 43 After discussing translational difficulties in Isa 52:5 and the history of the text’s interpretation, Blank commented that “Divorced from its context, the statement that God’s name suffers profanation “because of” his people can mean either of two things, (a) that God is defamed by the shameful conduct of his people, or (b) that God is disgraced because of the disgraceful condition of his people.” 44 While Blank understood Isa 52:5 to be an example of the latter, he acknowledged that the former is certainly present in a number of texts both in Isaiah and elsewhere. What is most significant here, however, is that Blank asserts that only Second Isaiah and Ezekiel use the formula “to Ibid., 62–66. Ibid., 67. 43 Ibid., 117. 44 Ibid., 121. 41 42

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profane God’s name” in this way. 45 Texts such as Isa 52 and Ezek 36 which address this theme often contain not only the idea of the profanation of God’s name but the idea of its rehabilitation as well. The latter is … “the sanctification of God’s name,” God’s activity on his own behalf, “for the sake of his name.” The one theme, of course, is the obverse of the other, and the two are normally paired. The theme here newly broached, the idea of God’s activity on his own behalf, “for the sake of his name,” is the more fertile dynamic concept. 46

Blank continued his assessment of this theme by looking at related motifs that appear in the same texts such as “It is I, YHWH, who have spoken,” “and they shall know that a prophet was among them,” and “they shall know that I am God.” In each case, Blank asserted that the motivation of the statement was the same: “They shall know that I (Yahveh, the speaker, the God of Israel) am God (the one God, unrivaled).” 47 And this motive is based on the fundamental desire of YHWH to act for the sake of his name— whether the impending threat to his name is from the conduct or condition of his people. 48 After an additional discussion of Second Isaiah’s dependency on Ezekiel for this theme, Blank concluded the chapter with a discussion of texts outside Isaiah and Ezekiel where this theme is found. Like Zimmerli, Blank understood that the prominence of this theme is most marked in the book of Exodus. Furthermore, he astutely connects the prevalence of exodus and Egyptian imagery in later texts with the occurrence of this theme in Exodus. Returning to Isa 52:5, Blank applied his observations this way: “It now appears no accident that this verse is introduced, as it is, in the verse Ibid., 123. Although a significant portion of this section in Blank’s work is devoted to developing the idea that Second Isaiah adopted this theme from Ezekiel, it is beyond the scope of this study to address issues of dependency. 46 Ibid., 125. 47 Ibid., 129. 48 Ibid. 45

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preceding it, by a reference to the sojourn in Egypt. As the sojourn was a reproach to God, because it was the reverse of his promise to the patriarchs, so now the exile is a disgrace to him, and he bestirs himself to clear his name.” 49 Blank’s work in Isaiah is an excellent demonstration not only of the way in which divine motive is operative in individual texts, but the way in which the theme of divine motive shapes the use of imagery and promotes intertextual connections between disparate parts of the Hebrew canon. Blank’s work models a textual sensitivity which I will seek to employ as I look broadly at the function of divine motive clauses. The next work is actually a trio of essays by Walther Zimmerli, conveniently published together in translation as I am Yahweh, edited by Walter Brueggemann. 50 Originally published from 1953 to 1969, these articles which were forerunners of his seminal commentary on Ezekiel which continue to shape and influence the understanding of both prophetic literary forms and the theology of Ezekiel. The first essay, “I Am Yahweh,” seeks to determine and exposit the origin and development of the phrase ‫אני יהוה‬. 51 Beginning with its appearance in the decalogue and working through its appearances in the Holiness Code, Zimmerli’s form-critical assessment led him to conclude that the short from, ‫ אני יהוה‬is indeed the original form although it is frequently expanded in various ways. Regardless of the expansions, Zimmerli understood the short form and the slightly fuller form, “I am YHWH, your God” to be a selfintroduction. The fuller form, “I am YHWH, your God,” according to Zimmerli “does not intend to add an extraneous or new element to the first, but rather intends to be merely the appropriate development of the first. Israel does not know Yahweh except as its God. More precisely: Yahweh never made himself known to Ibid., 135. Walther Zimmerli, I Am Yahweh (Translated by D.W. Stott, Atlanta: John Knox, 1982). 51 Walther Zimmerli, “I Am Yahweh,” in I Am Yahweh (ed. Walter Brueggemann; Atlanta: John Knox, 1982), 1–28. 49 50

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Israel except as Israel’s God.” 52 Other expansions of the phrase, however, including relative clauses and participial phrases are so extensive as to cause the self-introduction to become lost, “degraded to the status of an attribute of the subject.” 53 Tracing the self-introduction into Ezekiel, Zimmerli found that the same variety of expansions were found as in the Holiness Code. Although the “pure self-introductory formula” is found only in Ezek 20, Zimmerli recognized it was present extensively in Ezekiel in the expanded phrase, “You will know that I am YHWH.” Zimmerli referred to this expanded phrase as the statement of recognition (Erkenntnisaussage). 54 Although the self-introduction only relates to divine motive in a tangential way, Zimmerli perceived that In the short formula we believe we can recognize the process of Yahweh’s self-introduction. In the extended statement of recognition this process has been made into the object of human recognition or knowledge, recognition which itself emerges, usually at the conclusion of larger speech units, as the intended goal of Yahweh’s activity. Yahweh acts, judges, and is merciful so that his people or people at large (the subject can vary) will know that “I am Yahweh.” 55

Recognizing that this longer statement of recognition could well be phrased more economically as “they will know me,” a phrase found in Ezek 38:16, Zimmerli asserted that the reason for the longer statement is to retain a connection to the profound content associated with the self-introduction, “I am YHWH,” which is bound within the statement of recognition. It is, in effect, retained for its connotative power. Zimmerli argued that the origin of the self-introduction was to be found in the priestly literature and more particularly in Exod 6. 56 After comparing and contrasting the usage of the formula in Exod Ibid. 4. Ibid. 4–5. 54 Ibid. 5. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 7. 52 53

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6 and Ezek 20, Zimmerli asserted that the positioning of the first use of the formula in Exod 6, and the way Ezek 20 frames the formula, indicates that all the revelation that follows, the law and the miracles of the exodus, rest upon the self-revelation of God to his people. Zimmerli understood this to indicate that The most profound intention of the divine action on behalf of the people will be fulfilled when the following insight emerges: “You shall know that I am Yahweh” (6:7). In this final statement we again stand before the event in which the name is revealed. The entire historical task of leadership to which Moses is commissioned draws its God-willed significance not only from subsequent events, but also from the impact of precisely this fundamental, revelatory truth: the knowledge of Yahweh’s name as an event of Yahweh’s self-introduction. 57

The functional effect of this intention is that the self-introduction of YHWH “calls the people (and the surrounding peoples) into a movement of recognition that is not a state of enraptured vision, but rather is life, activity, and movement toward a goal. And the goal of this recognition can only be described with the formula of the initial revelation: ‘They will know that I am Yahweh.’” 58 After a brief comparative analysis of introductory statements from Mari and Neo-Assyrian prophetic texts, Zimmerli moved to consider the use of the formula of self-introduction in Second Isaiah. In his examination of the content associated with the formula, Zimmerli concluded that “the statement is laden with final significance.” 59 It is employed in the monotheistic argumentation, and is the ground for the prophecies of consolation. 60 These conclusions resonate with Blank’s understanding of Isaiah and signal that this study will need to look closely at those texts in which the knowledge of God and the protection and proclamation of his name are cited as divine motives. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 59 Ibid. 19. 60 Ibid. 20–21. 57 58

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Although the title and topic of Zimmerli’s second article is narrowed to Ezekiel, Zimmerli presents a very holistic analysis of the statement of recognition, “and you shall know that I am YHWH,” based on its occurrences throughout the whole of the Hebrew Bible. 61 Zimmerli begins by considering why the concept of the knowledge of God in Ezekiel is uniquely and rigorous tied to the statement of recognition. Through an examination of representative texts from Ezekiel, Zimmerli concluded that In the book of Ezekiel, the organization of the statements of recognition shows that knowledge of Yahweh is not the emergence of an image that has first become clear in the human interior; neither is it a process of speculative combination nor the result of one’s own creaturely condition. Knowledge or recognition of Yahweh is rather an event occurring in the face of Yahweh’s acts, acts to which the prophet as proclaimer draws one’s attention … Not one of the 78 (or 80) passages under question in the book of Ezekiel offers us a description of Yahweh’s essence or being. It is always a matter of Yahweh’s intervention, either in history of the hostile nations or of the people of God themselves. 62

While Zimmerli’s assertion is that the conveyed knowledge of God is never a theological description of YHWH’s attributes, there is perhaps more here than Zimmerli has allowed. Zimmerli’s approach focused exclusively on the rhetorical act, the prophet’s speech, and how that rhetoric was transmitted in the written text. What seems to be missing is an appreciation for the role of these statements in the literary characterization of YHWH. These explicit statements coupled with the narration of the accompanying event is intended to characterize YHWH for the reader. They do disclose information about YHWH’s essence and being not in overt theological formulations, but rather as part of the characterization of Walther Zimmerli, “Knowledge of God According to the Book of Ezekiel,” in I Am Yahweh (ed. Walter Brueggemann; Atlanta: John Knox, 1982), 29–98. 62 Ibid. 35–36. 61

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YHWH found within the text at hand. 63 My study will supplement Zimmerli’s work by addressing the topic of the characterization of YHWH via divine motive clauses. Exploring the statement of recognition outside of Ezekiel, Zimmerli examined examples of the form in 1 Kgs 20, the priestly material (chiefly from Exodus), the deuteronomistic material related to Moses, and Second Isaiah. His survey revealed that Ezekiel was not the originator of the statement, but that this usage is consistent with the earlier materials with the exception of the frequent inclusion of motive clause markers such as ‫ למען‬and ‫ בעבור‬in the older texts which underscore the intent of the divine acts. 64 Although present in many of the texts he surveyed, the deuteronomistic materials make a clear connection between the knowledge of God which results from his acts, and an explicit obligation on the recipient of the knowledge. The recognition of YHWH is a veiled imperative which demands obedience. 65 Seeking to understand the recognition event holistically, Zimmerli outlined the various stages that might be involved in the process. In doing so, Zimmerli was rightly adamant that the basic sequence of YHWH’s act followed by man’s recognition of YHWH must not be altered. 66 Zimmerli recognized the following as potential parts of the process of recognition: 1) prayer requesting divine action, 2) prophetic message announcing impending divine acts which includes the statement of recognition 3) public recognition 79F

80F

For a discussion of characterization, see Yaira Amit, Reading Biblical Narratives: Literary Criticism and the Hebrew Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), 69–102. I grant that many of the texts discussed by Zimmerli are not narrative, per se, but many of them are and as such are relevant to the overall characterization of YHWH within the book even if the study did not consider characterization in non-narrative contexts. 64 Zimmerli, “Knowledge of God,” 36–56. 65 Ibid., 51–53. This is consistent with an assertion Zimmerli made earlier in the article that “we need to consider the translation, ‘(I will act), and they should recognize that I am Yahweh.’ This allows the imperative that confronts human beings to resonate … and calls them to obedience” (37). 66 Ibid., 64. 63

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of YHWH (via his action), and 4) the retelling of the act and recognition event. 67 Next Zimmerli explored what he referred to as the strict statement of recognition, “you will know that I am YHWH,” which is so characteristic of Ezekiel, and sought to examine its origin and in particular the relationship between the statement and its primary verb, ‫ידע‬. 68 After examining a number of texts in which phrasing parallel to the statement of recognition occurs, Zimmerli concluded that the statement of recognition is most closely associated with proof signs. 69 The connection with proof signs, however, does not address why the formula is so tightly held or why freer forms are not used more regularly. Here, Zimmerli incorporated the insights from his study, “I Am Yahweh,” and asserted that the stricter form is held onto so that the element, “I am YHWH” might continue to connote the theophanic self-introduction in which the phrase has its origins. The key here is that by retaining the self-introduction in the statement, the connection between the name and the historical events associated with the self-introduction is maintained. This then means that the statement of recognition is also to be seen as tied to historical events and not merely to knowledge about God. 70 Zimmerli summarized the significance of his finding for understanding Ezekiel with five key observations. First, the sheer number of occurrences in Ezekiel suggests that the recognition of YHWH must be considered a central feature of the book. 71 Second, although the majority of the occurrences refer to Israel’s recognition of YHWH, like Second Isaiah, Ezekiel does extend this recognition to the rest of the world. 72 Third,”[b]y his very choice of the long fixed form of the strict statement of recognition, Ezekiel makes it clear that for him none of the preconditions for the recognition of YHWH reside in human beings or in any preliminary human understanding; they lie totally within the divine initia83F

84F

85F

Ibid., 64–69. Ibid., 72–79. 69 Ibid., 79. 70 Ibid., 81. 71 Ibid., 87. 72 Ibid., 88. 67 68

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tive.” 73 Fourth, the knowledge of God to which Ezekiel refers is not found in myth, introspection, or other analyses, but rather in the encounter with YHWH as he introduces himself via an authoritative prophetic proclamation. 74 Fifth, the events of history to which Ezekiel appeals are not mere events, but are intended acts of YHWH which are part of his self-disclosure via the prophetic word. 75 Finally, Zimmerli summarized the content of the selfintroduction as found in Ezekiel. He noted that the “the recurring direct association of the judgment of Israel with the strict statement of recognition virtually identifies it as the locus at which Yahweh reveals himself in his most personal essence. Yahweh’s revelatory self-introduction is to be recognized in his judgment over Israel.” 76 At the same time, Zimmerli concluded that Israel’s salvation is equally connected to the self-revelation of YHWH. According to Zimmerli’s analysis, a text such as Ezek 20:24 “clearly and expressly rejects any motivation of Yahweh’s future action stemming from a new attitude on the part of Israel. Yahweh’s actions are motivated by him alone. Again we hear about his personal mystery; Yahweh acts ‘for his name’s sake.’” 77 Despite the tension of these two observations, Zimmerli found that Ezekiel provides no passage which attempts to uncover a doctrinally determinable overall concept for this contrasting action in judgment and beneficence, a concept that might reflect equally both the element of Yahweh’s judgment and that of his mercy to Israel. The only phrase that combines both kinds of action and fully asserts the ultimate unity of both kinds of divine action is the strict statement of recognition in reference to Yahweh’s free personal mystery manifested in both. “I am Yahweh.” 78 Ibid. Ibid., 89. 75 Ibid. 76 Ibid., 93. 77 Ibid., 95. 78 Ibid., 96. 73 74

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These two works by Zimmerli are most instructive for this study. Focused on particular texts, but also broadly ranging across the whole of the canon, Zimmerli demonstrated a remarkable adeptness for moving back and forth between form-critical and theological analysis of the text. While I will not pursue the form-critical task fully, the descriptive nature of the project will mirror this kind of work in many ways. Similarly, the conclusions and observations Zimmerli made, which recognized both tensions and connections between various texts, are much like the kind of analysis I am attempting here. The long-lasting nature of Zimmerli’s influence insists that both the content and method of his research should be influential as I go about our study. The last work by Zimmerli that I will survey is a relatively short piece that continues his work on the recognition statement. “The Word of Divine Self-Manifestation (Proof Saying): A Prophetic Genre,” builds on Zimmerli’s assessment of the theological content and the origin of the statement while seeking to determine the Sitz im Leben of the form and its place in prophetic speech. 79 Beginning with an analysis of 1 Kgs 20, Zimmerli argued that the proof-saying has its origins in “a critical situation of decision for the people of Yahweh, one in which the prophet, as the authorized speaker, announces Yahweh’s help to his people.” 80 Although this form shares much in common with a variety of announcement types, Zimmerli found that the addition of the recognition as a characteristic part of the form was significant in that it defined the intention or motive for making the announcement. As such, the announcement itself “recedes into a penultimate position that is subordinate to recognition, the ultimate goal … [and] assumes the subservient function of proof.” 81 The form of the proof saying consists of three parts. Although not always present, an introductory question often prefaces the form and calls the hearer to give attention to the situation. This is Walther Zimmerli, “The Word of Divine Self-Manifestation (Proof Saying): A Prophetic Genre,” in I Am Yahweh (ed. Walter Brueggemann; Atlanta: John Knox, 1982), 99–110. 80 Ibid., 101. 81 Ibid., 103. 79

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followed by the first full element, the legitimation. Often in the form of a ‫ יען‬clause, the legitimation expresses the situation to which the divine action responds. The middle element of the form is the prediction, or announcement. The final element of the form is the recognition formula. Of the three, this part of the form is the least variable. 82 Although subsequent research has cast doubt on whether or not this literary form is truly an independent genre, Zimmerli’s observations, on the whole, have been well received. 83 The elements he identified are significant for my study as it is clear that there is an intersection between the powerful and pervasive statement of recognition and an explicit motive clause. Given Zimmerli’s analysis of the meaning of the statement of recognition, these passages might be considered “doubly” marked for divine intent. They include both a specific citation of the motivating event or condition and conclude with an explicit statement of the divine intent for the outcome of the event. Certainly these texts are central to this study. Thomas Raitt, in a 1974 article entitled “Jeremiah’s Deliverance Message to Judah,” sought to examine Jeremiah for evidence of “a dramatic shift from words of judgment to promises of salvation,” similar to the shift seen in the prophecies of Ezekiel. 84 Even though Raitt’s study rarely addresses divine motive clauses directly, his search for “evidence of a comparable shift in the way that Jeremiah interpreted God’s will,” addressed texts and issues in Jeremiah (and Ezekiel) which lie at the heart of my study. After setting out the method and limits for the study, Raitt identified six key texts that he believed were the “textual foundations” of Jeremiah’s message of deliverance to Judah: 24:4–7; 29:4– 97F

Ibid., 107–109. Marc Vervenne, “The Phraseology of “Knowing Yhwh” in the Hebrew Bible: A Preliminary Study of Its Syntax and Function,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken (eds. J. J. V. Ruiten and Marc Vervenne; BETL Leuven: University Press & Peeters, 1997), 467– 492. 84 Thomas M. Raitt, “Jeremiah’s Deliverance Message to Judah,” in Rhetorical Criticism: Essays in Honor of James Muilenburg (eds. Jared J. J. Jackson and Martin Kessler; PTMS Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 1974), 166. 82 83

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

7, 10–14; 32:6–15, 42–44; 31:31–34; 32:26–41; and 33:6–9. 85 Raitt’s study was founded on the presuppositions that the above texts are genuinely Jeremianic, and that they accurately represent his thoughts about Judah after exile. 86 Raitt, however, did not deal with other significant passages in Jeremiah that are included in this study. Beginning with Jer 24, Raitt addressed the disparity between the announcement of deliverance for those in exile and the opposite announcement of judgment for those who remain in the land. Noting the similarities that exist with Ezekiel, Raitt argued that neither Jeremiah nor Ezekiel announced “deliverance to Judah on her land as a continuation of the theo-political state and the relationship to God traditionally understood.” 87 Rather, in both Jeremiah and Ezekiel “the people’s accountability for their sin [and] God’s attitude and intention toward them are radically shifted when the exile becomes a fact. The punishment itself creates an entirely new situation.” 88 Taking this insight back to his discussion of Jer 24, Raitt observed that commentators had been too quick to view the relative conditions of those in exile and those left in the land as due to some “interior difference” between them. Raitt proposed that this is not the case; that in fact, “Jer 24 never says that God is going to treat the Golah with favor because they are good; and it never says that those left are bad. The ‘good’ finds it primary rootage in the intention of God’s action: ‘I will regard as good,’ ‘I will set my eyes upon them for good.’” 89 What Raitt highlighted in his discussion of this passage is what Goshen-Gottstein and Joyce have referred to as theocentrism in the context of Ezekiel. 90 These observations raise the issue of divine intention to the forefront if we are to seek to understand the various actions of God presented in the prophets that are explicitly not related directly to the interior condiIbid., 169. The arrangement of the texts indicates the relative certainty he had with regard to their authenticity. 86 Ibid., 169. 87 Ibid., 171. 88 Ibid. 89 Ibid. 90 See below for Goshen-Gottstein and Joyce on theocentrism. 85

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tion of those effected by divine action. Summarizing his understanding of the centrality of divine intent, Raitt noted that the way Jeremiah uses ‫ טוב‬and ‫ שלום‬points to the paramount nature of God’s sovereign intent. The promised good that lies in Israel’s future is characterized by God setting his eyes upon them for good and making them good as 24:7 shows so clearly. Thus judgment and its requirements are not glibly forgotten; deliverance is affirmed in tension with judgment. This makes for an altogether realistic and convincing movement from judgment toward deliverance on the part of the prophet Jeremiah.” 91

Raitt’s study proceeded by laying out the constituent elements of Jeremiah’s prophecies of deliverance. One of the elements he discussed is the declaration of God’s intention as an ‘I will’ statement. Raitt commented that the ‘I will’ statement “may have a goal or intended result (changed conditions, changed relationship, changed people), but it does not have an explanation in a ‘ground,’ ‘basis,’ or ‘motivation’ like the accusation section of and Oracle of Judgment.” 92 It is clear that Raitt relies upon an implicit distinction between ‘motivating events’ and ‘divine intention’ which is not fully fleshed out in his study. The nuances of the distinctions between YHWH acting in response to a motivating event or YHWH independently seeking to bring about a particular intention needs to be addressed more directly. In light of Raitt’s emphasis on YHWH’s sovereignty, it is clear that past actions or conditions do not force YHWH’s actions. The response of YHWH to an existing condition is his sovereign choice. Likewise his intention to bring about a specific future is also his sovereign choice. So, the question remains to be clarified, how do ‘motives,’ that is, motivating conditions or events, and ‘intentions’ differ. As noted above, I will need to address this question and seek to bring clarity to the discussion with regard to the various kinds of motives and motivations that are reflected in the text with regard to divine actions. 91 92

Ibid., 172. Ibid., 174.

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After a discussion of the elements of Jeremiah’s prophecies of deliverance, Raitt surveyed promises of hope in the Deuteronomistic histories and compared those with several additional oracles in Jeremiah. Then Raitt turned his attention to a comparison of Jeremiah’s promises of deliverance with those found in Ezekiel. Raitt found that Ezekiel’s prophecies of deliverance differed from Jeremiah’s in five significant ways. 1) Unlike Jeremiah he shows a repeated concern about the observer nations, and the shame and disgrace which Judah has brought upon God by what has happened to her … 2) In conjunction with this it may be stressed that God is taking the saving initiative “for his name’s sake” and not out of consideration for Judah … 3) True to his priestly background, Ezekiel’s description of the people’s wrong gravitates toward imagery involving some idea of uncleanness … 4) Accordingly, Ezekiel carries the idea of God forgiving through the imagery of a cleansing action … 5) Also in accord with Ezekiel’s background on the election of Zion, the Temple, and David, he stresses repossession of Jerusalem, resanctification of the Temple, reinitiation of the Davidic kingship, restoration to the land as originally an inheritance much more than Jeremiah. 93

Raitt’s study concluded with a discussion of how Jeremiah and Ezekiel legitimately transitioned from prophecies of judgment to prophecies of deliverance in part by maintaining references to past judgment in their announcements of salvation. Raitt further suggested that Jeremiah and Ezekiel accepted “the burden of responsibility to make sense of the movement of God’s initiative toward salvation without ignoring the reality and justice of the judgment God brought on Judah.” 94 I will need to explore, in connection with this observation, what role Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s understanding of divine motive played in the transition from prophesying judgment to announcing deliverance. Perhaps, if YHWH is sovereignly motived, then the reality, the remembrance, of judgment need not be undone, but can be fully embraced in their prophecies 93 94

Ibid., 181. Ibid., 184.

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of deliverance since judgment need not be overcome by the people via repentance or change. Rather YHWH is sovereignly motivated to restore them and to regard them as good. The questions and tensions raised by Raitt’s study lead to our next work which sought to address them from Ezekiel. M. Goshen-Gottstein, in a 1982 address, which has received surprisingly little attention in the literature, considered the issue of theocentricism in Ezekiel. 95 In this study of Ezekiel, GoshenGottstein saw a developing theological consolidation along the lines of theocentrism, or absolute divine sovereignty. 96 The theocentric stance in Ezekiel is born out of the tensions and struggles found in his ministry which spanned between the prophecies of destruction and deliverance. It is the tension observed by Raitt in which the prophet must acknowledge both the judgment and the deliverance; acknowledging the justness of the judgment while gratefully receiving the unmerited deliverance. 97 The address began with a theological analysis of Ezekiel’s visions of the cherubim and the departure of the glory of the Lord from the temple. The analysis suggested that a central theme in the visions is the changing of the cherubim from stationary, static images of YHWH’s presence in the temple to dynamic images of YHWH’s movement away from the temple. From a human perspective YHWH (and the cherubim) seemed bound to the temple in an inescapable way. Yet, all is not as it seemed. YHWH was in fact not inextricably bound to the temple. As he had sovereignly chosen to bind himself to that place, so too he could sovereignly choose to release himself and sever his connection to that place and even to that people. 98 Next, the study addressed the tension felt by the sovereign decision to implement judgment at that moment. Certainly sin had happened before; the people could point to past prophetic judgM. Goshen-Gottstein, “The Theocentric Trend in Ezekiel’s Prophecy,” in ‫( יחזקאל בספר עיונים‬ed. Y. Avishur; Jerusalem: Kiryath Sepher, 1982), 69–77 (Hebrew). 96 Ibid., 70–71. 97 Ibid. 98 Ibid., 71–72. 95

32

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

ments leveled against their forefathers. Yet, YHWH had sovereignly chosen to delay the implementation of the prophecies of great judgment. ‘Why now? Why us?’ were the questions addressed to Ezekiel. There was also the tension between those left behind in Jerusalem and those already in exile. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel had to address both YHWH’s continuing judgment and his proclamation of anticipated deliverance. Goshen-Gottstein’s analysis of Ezekiel suggested that for Ezekiel, the resolution was in a theocentric understanding of YHWH. These tensions are expressed most clearly in the transition from the language of chapter 18 where the people are commanded to perform acts of repentance and change (“cast away from you all the transgression that you have committed, and make yourselves a new heart and a new spirit!”) and the language of chapter 36 where repentance and change are in gifts from God (“I will give you a new heart and a new spirit I will put within you.”) 99 Tracing the transition between the two connections, GoshenGottstein’s analysis suggested that the impact of the condition of YHWH’s people in exile (36:20) and YHWH’s concern for his name, was key. YHWH declared that he would act for the sake of his name to ensure that his reputation was not damaged by the condition of his people in exile. It is at this point that the promise of divine action granting a new heart and a new spirit for the people is given. As Goshen-Gottstein noted, there is no mention of repentance or of work on the part of the people. The actions in this promised deliverance are initiated and completed by YHWH alone. 100 The resonances between this study and the work of Raitt in Jeremiah are striking. Likewise the observations by Blank regarding Isaiah 52:5 are relevant as well. The tension present in the texts over the motives and actions of YHWH in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are compelling and need additional attention. Raitt and Goshen-Gottstein in particular have contributed to our understanding of these issues, yet more is to be done. The direct study of the explicit statements regarding divine motive may be able to bring additional clarity and depth to the discussion. 99

Ibid., 72–74. Ibid., 74–75.

100

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

33

Paul Joyce in his 1989 book, Divine Initiative and Human Response in Ezekiel addressed the same theological issue as GoshenGottstein. 101 Seeking to find the connection between the imperative of Ezek 18:31 and the gift of Ezek 36:26, Joyce explored Ezekiel’s twin poles: “a strong insistence upon Israel’s responsibility before her God and … a remarkable assurance that Yahweh will enable his recalcitrant people to obey him.” 102 Joyce carried out his dissertation research by focusing on the exegesis of chapters 9, 14, and 18 and by investigating the activity of YHWH in Ezekiel via a study of four key formulae: ‘you shall know that I am YHWH,’ ‘in the sight of the nations,’ ‘for the sake of my name,’ and ‘I will vindicate my holiness’. 103 After surveying the context of Ezekiel’s ministry and questions regarding the unity and authorship of Ezekiel, the study focused on the responsibility of Israel for the present crisis as depicted in chapters 18, 9, and 14. Joyce began his assessment of Ezek 18 by offering this insight: “Ezekiel offers a key to understanding the disaster which had engulfed the nation: this is not, he asserts, meaningless chaos; it is the just punishment of sinful people by their powerful God.” 104 Working through the legal language and metaphors of Ezek 18, Joyce sought to demonstrate that “Far from constituting an argument for ‘individual responsibility’, the purpose of the chapter is to demonstrate the collective responsibility of the contemporary house of Israel for the national disaster which she is suffering.” 105 Although Joyce’s conclusions are provocative, his argument for the collective nature of chapter 18 has not been widely adopted in Ezekiel studies. Nevertheless, his analysis of the theocentric theology of Ezekiel is a valuable contribution to the overall field of study. Turning his attention to Ezek 9, Joyce likewise argued that the marking of the foreheads should not be seen as overly individualisPaul M. Joyce, Divine Initiative and Human Response in Ezekiel (JSOTSup; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1989). 102 Ibid., 11. 103 Ibid., 11–12. 104 Ibid., 34. 105 Ibid., 36. 101

34

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

tic either. He argued that the marking motif served to make it clear, by the exemption of any who are righteous, that the judgment is just, and to emphasize that none of the guilty will escape. Joyce readily acknowledged that this motif signals an element of individualism, however, given his assessment of the subordinate role the marking motif plays in the chapter, he sought to demonstrate that the chapter as a whole is, like chapter 18, focused on corporate responsibility and judgment. Joyce asserted that “If we recall the historical setting of Ezekiel’s ministry, namely the subjugation of Judah by Babylonia, such complexities are readily understandable. Though the prophet might well feel some concern for the fate of the righteous in a general punishment, the nature of this great catastrophe was such that, in one way or another, all were inevitably involved.” 106 After pursuing the exegesis of chapter 14, Joyce summarized his three key findings from the first part of his research: 1) Chapters 9, 14, and 18 all argue that the destruction and exile of the nation are just punishments. 107 2) Although themes of individualism occur in these chapters, they serve not to introduce a great new individualism into Israel’s theology, but rather they are used “to further [Ezekiel’s] primary purpose of stressing the imminent and thorough judgment of Israel by Yahweh.” 108 3) Although repentance is used as a rhetorical device in these chapters, these texts are understood to teach that repentance will not stem the tide of judgment. “The nation as a whole is under judgment and there is no suggestion that repentance would avert the disaster.” 109 In the second part of his study, Joyce began his exploration of theocentricity in Ezekiel by analyzing the formula, “You will know that I am YHWH.” Like Zimmerli, Joyce noted the absolute association of this formula with divine action. In his analysis Joyce found that Israel gains knowledge via its own punishment, the punishment of the nations, and through its deliverance. The nations are also said to gain knowledge via their punishment, and through Ibid., 65. Ibid., 76. 108 Ibid., 76–77. 109 Ibid., 77. 106 107

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

35

YHWH’s deliverance of Israel. Although knowledge is given both via deliverance and judgment there is a strong distinction between the events that effect the nations and those that impact Israel. 110 Joyce summarized his understanding of this phrase this way: “Although the formula does not generally begin with an explicit purpose clause, the notion of purpose is nonetheless prominent. The actions of Yahweh are, it appears, deliberately directed toward the end that it may be known that ‘I am Yahweh’.” 111 Joyce does not attempt to assess any differences between those examples of the formula that occur with an explicit motive clause and those that do not. Nor does he analyze explicit motive statements that occur outside of the four formulae that he addressed. The next formula Joyce addressed is ‘In the sight of the nations’. Joyce’s analysis of this phrase was primarily focused on refuting the idea that the phrase is based on legal language. Joyce argued that the language is generic and used rhetorically in support of the theocentric concerns of Ezekiel. As Joyce noted, “the references to the nations … are very bare and give no indication of any positive interest in their response for its own sake.” 112 Rather, in texts such as Ezek 36, “the concern is not with the nations knowing or witnessing Yahweh so much as with Yahweh being known and witnessed. The nations seem to be at most a backdrop to the promised vindication of Yahweh.” 113 Joyce understood the mention of the nations’ response to be a rhetorical device similar to the response of the heavens and earth in Isa 1:2. If the mention of the nations is merely rhetorical, Joyce argued, then it would follow that the focus of the passage is not on the nations coming to know YHWH, but rather the focus is on YHWH’s act of self-vindication. The third formula investigated in this study is ‘For the sake of my name’. It is here the Joyce sought to “consider the primary motivation of Yahweh’s deliverance of Israel, as presented in the book.” 114 Joyce posited three possible motivations for YHWH’s Ibid., 89–91. Ibid., 94. 112 Ibid., 97. 113 Ibid., 97. 114 Ibid., 98. 110 111

36

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

deliverance that one might expect could be at the heart of YHWH’s acts: an intent to punish the nations, an obligation to reward Israel with restoration after appropriate acts of repentance, and undeserved love such as is found in Deut 7:7–8. 115 Joyce rejected each of these in turn and instead found the primary motive for YHWH’s acts of deliverance expressed in the formula ‘for the sake of my name’. After examining Ezek 20 and 36, Joyce asserted that in Ezekiel, The ultimate motive of Yahweh’s activity is found in his desire to vindicate his ‘name’, the primary content of which is, it seems, not his reputation as a compassionate, forgiving or even a just god, but rather his reputation as a powerful deity. It would not be inaccurate to say that in Ezekiel Yahweh does indeed in a sense act out of ‘divine self-interest’. 116

It remains to be seen whether or not this view can be maintained once all the data regarding divine motive in Ezekiel is included. One of the limits of Joyce’s study is the selective nature of the formulae used. Whether Joyce’s conclusion are upheld, modified, or rejected, the strongest case may be made if all the explicit references to divine motive are included. The final formula with which Joyce interacted was ‘I will vindicate my holiness’. Noting the association between ‫ ֵשׁם‬and ‫קדש‬, and the interrelatedness of this formula with ‘in the sight of the nations’, Joyce argued that ‘I will vindicate my holiness’ continues the theocentric emphasis found elsewhere. 117 Joyce summarized his survey of the four formulae this way: “In the use of each we have found evidence of a distinctive emphasis on the absolute centrality of Yahweh and his self-manifestation, a radical theocentricity which is of an order difficult to parallel anywhere in the Old Testament.” 118 The final two chapters of Joyce’s study addressed the giving of a new heart and spirit to Israel in light of this theocentric emphasis 132F

13F

Ibid., 98–99. Ibid., 103. 117 Ibid., 103–105. 118 Ibid., 105. 115 116

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

37

in Ezekiel. Here Joyce noted the similarities between Ezek 11 and 36, and Jer 24, 31, and 32. It is significant that these passages likewise found prominence in Raitt’s work. Each of these passages also appears in the list of texts which contain a divine motive clause. 119 This indicates that my research does indeed address key issues that have recurred in a variety of studies but which have not been treated in a systematic way across the various books of the Hebrew Bible. Joyce concluded from his study that in Ezekiel, obedient human response to YHWH’s will is solely a product of divine initiative. “This is an attempt to give adequate expression to a tension which ultimately defies resolution and … it represents but one stage of a complete debate about ‘grace’ and ‘responsibility’ which has been a feature of the Judaeo-Christian tradition throughout the centuries.” 120 For Joyce the major contribution of Ezekiel towards addressing this tension “consists in the fact that here everything rests ultimately upon the mysterious nature of the God who acts that it might be known that ‘I am Yahweh’.” 121 The last work which I will survey is a 2002 article by David Glatt-Gilad entitled, “Yahweh’s Honor at Stake: A Divine Conundrum.” 122 Glatt-Gilad’s article examined the theme of YHWH acting to protect his reputation. Key to the article is a differentiation between those texts in which an appeal is made for YHWH to act to protect his name, e.g. Exod 32:12 and Josh 7:9, and those in which the protection of the name is presented as a concern of YHWH himself. 123 This study began with an investigation of the Sitz im Leben of the idea of concern for God’s reputation. Glatt-Gilad locates the theme in the ancient Near Eastern concept of the holy war in which “battles between nations … were construed as battles beSee appendix. Ibid., 128. 121 Ibid., 129. 122 David A. Glatt-Gilad, “Yahweh’s Honor at Stake: A Divine Conundrum,” JSOT 98 (2002): 63–74. 123 Ibid., 63–64. 119 120

38

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

tween their patron gods.” 124 According to the study, “the concept of Yahweh making his ‘name’ known to and through Israel by means of his saving power appears to provide the conceptual underpinnings for many of the appeals to God to act for the sake of his ‘name’.” 125 Following a review of various texts that demonstrate the connection between God’s reputation, or name, and demonstration of his might via military success, the article proceeds to a discussion of the theme in the realm of prophetic intercession, examining characters such as Moses and Jeremiah who appealed to the need for YHWH to protect his honor in the intercession for the nation. 126 In the final section of the article, Glatt-Gilad turned his attention to texts in which “the concern for Yahweh’s reputation is presented as emanating from Yahweh himself.” 127 According to the study, this presentation of the theme is found primarily in Deut 32, Second Isaiah, and Ezekiel. Although Glatt-Gilad found the Deut 32 passage to likely reflect a pre-exilic origin, he considered the primary thrust of the theme to be found in an exilic setting. 128 Along with the term ‫שׁם‬, ֵ the article noted the connection of this theme in Isaiah with ‫ תהלה‬and ‫כבוד‬. 129 The most significant expression of the theme in Isaiah is said to be found in Isa 48:3–11. There the reference to the prophetic announcement of Israel’s demise, and the announcement that Israel will not be permanently cut off, are intended to deny attribution of both to any god other than YHWH. 130 Working with Blank’s understanding of Isa 52:5, the study draws the conclusion that the punishment of Israel left YHWH in a difficult circumstance where the outworking of the divine plan actually served to undercut YHWH’s reputation. 131 14F

145F

146F

Ibid., 64. Ibid., 65. 126 Ibid., 67–69. 127 Ibid., 69. 128 Ibid., 69–71. 129 Ibid., 71. 130 Ibid., 72. 131 Ibid., 72–73. 124 125

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF RESEARCH

39

According to Glatt-Gilad’s analysis, this “theological conundrum … the dilemma that God himself faces when attempting to put his own plan of punishing Israel into practice” is directly addressed by Ezekiel. 132 After discussing the declaration in Ezek 20 that the withholding of punishment in the past was to protect YHWH’s reputation, Glatt-Gilad noted a significant change in the way in which Ezekiel approaches the theme. This change is introduced to ensure that God’s punishment of Israel may not be misunderstood by either Israel or the nations observing her. Although he does not cite Raitt’s work, Glatt-Gilad’s assessment that the change occurred “in the wake of the exile (36.16–36; 39.21–29)” is consistent with Raitt’s observations regarding the circumstance of an enacted punishment as constituting a new condition in which the prophetic message regarding Israel could be legitimately changed. Glatt-Gilad listed three specific changes in Ezekiel’s treatment of the theme. The first is Ezekiel’s assertion that Israel is responsible for the threat to YHWH’s reputation since it was their sin which made the exile necessary. The second change is an affirmation that the punishment due Israel will be carried out in full despite the challenge it represents to his name. The third change is that the nations will realize that God’s ‘hiding his face’ from Israel … was not an indication of his weakness but part of his providential plan (39.23–24). As such, the nations’ erstwhile impression of God’s powerlessness which perpetuated the situation of God’s name being profaned is to be corrected as its root level, and not merely deflected via a change for the better in Israel’s fortunes. 133

The works reviewed in this chapter offer a window into biblical studies that demonstrates the topic of divine motive is quite significant. The studies that touch on this topic range far and wide both in terms of the texts they cover and their methodological approaches. Yet, the confluence of attention given to Jeremiah and 132 133

Ibid., 73. Ibid., 73–74.

40

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

Ezekiel when discussing divine motive, and the attention to basic elements of form, suggest broad parameters for any new study addressing the topic. The highly specific nature of the past studies also indicates that a comprehensive work—comprehensive both in terms of the texts examined, as well as the forms included—is a welcome addition.

CHAPTER 3. THE PLAN OF THE STUDY In an essay on the theology of the Hebrew Bible, George Coats advocated that “the significant advances in OT theology … will come in the form of short probes, fundamental exegesis, perhaps programmatic suggestions” that are “particular in scope.” 1 This assessment is echoed by James Barr who argued that “Old Testament theology might be sustained and carried forward on the basis of essays on particular aspects, studies of terms and concepts.” 2 This study is designed to further theological and literary understanding of the Hebrew Bible in the manner described by Coats and Barr. It will address theological issues, not by constructing a general theology, but rather through the fundamental exegesis of motive statements related to divine activity. It will begin with a comprehensive survey and analysis of divine motive clauses and conclude with an analysis of the literary use of divine motive clauses in Ezekiel and Jeremiah. The ultimate goal of this research is to answer this question: How do motive clauses related to divine activity inform our understanding of the concept(s) of God in the Hebrew Bible, and more specifically, how do the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel use motive clauses related to divine activity to shape the concept(s) of God? The answer(s) to this broad question will be drawn from the insights gained by answering how the following details from the comprehensive survey contribute to an understanding of the conGeorge W. Coats, “Theology of the Hebrew Bible,” in The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters (eds. Douglas D. A. Knight and Gene G. M. Tucker; Atlanta: Scholars, 1985), 257–258. 2 James Barr, The Concept of Biblical Theology: An Old Testament Perspective (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1999), 58. 1

41

42

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

cept(s) of God in the Hebrew Bible: 1) the variety of divine motives found in the texts, 2) the variety of actions for which a divine motive is explicitly given, 3) sequences or patterns of motives and actions, 4) correlations between particular motives and particular actions, 5) correlations between motive statements and the recipients of the statements of motive, 6) correlations between motive statements and the recipients of the related divine actions, and 7) the variety of divine motives to which an appeal is made when petition is made to YHWH.

TEXT SELECTION CRITERIA The study is based on the collection and analysis of motive clauses that relate to divine activity. Building upon the prior research on legal and hymnic motive clauses, I have defined a divine motive clause as a logically subordinate clause or phrase, introduced by one of the following particles, which expressly indicates a divine motive for a particular divine action, whether that action is past, present, or future from the perspective of the text at hand. Based on the prior research, the following particles have been identified as initiating motive clauses: ‫ ל‬+ inf. construct, ‫ל ַמ ַﬠן‬,ְ ‫כּי‬,ִ ‫ﬠל‬,ַ ‫ﬠל ֵכּן‬,ַ ‫ﬠל ָדּ ַבר‬,ַ ‫ﬠל ָדּ ַבר ֲא ֶשׁר‬,ַ ‫ﬠבוּר‬,ֲ ‫ל ֵכן‬,ָ ‫גָּ ָלל‬, ‫א ֶשׁר‬, ֲ ‫ת ַחת ֲא ֶשׁר‬,ַ ‫בּ ְל ִתּי‬,ִ ‫פּן‬,ֶ ‫רק‬,ַ ‫לוּלא‬, ֵ ‫ﬠ ֶקב‬,ֵ ‫יַ ַﬠן‬, ‫אֹדוֹת‬, �‫א‬, ַ and ‫אוּלי‬. ַ 3 These terms were used as search criteria to find passages that potentially contained a divine motive clause. After reading the texts in context, those texts which contained a divine motive clause were collected into a comprehensive list which serves as the text set for this research. 4 It should be clearly stated that this group of texts, while comprehensive, is not exhaustive. Given the desire to catalog data across the whole of the canon, the asyndetic construction of motive clauses—the simple juxtaposing of clauses without conjunction or preposition 5—and the use of simple waw copulative to This list is based on Sonsino, supplemented by Doron, Gemser, Gowan, and Kuntz. 4 See appendix. 5 See Sonsino, Motive Clauses, 74. “In Hebrew, causality can be expressed not only by using particular particles but also by simply juxtapos3

CHAPTER 3. PLAN OF THIS STUDY

43

express motive have been excluded in an effort to keep the overall size of the research manageable. 6 Furthermore, it could well be argued that explicit citations of motive do not exhaust all that might be said of divine motive in the Hebrew Bible. A narrative might not contain a single divine motive clause and yet it might implicitly address the concept of divine motive. For the purposes of this study I will focus exclusively on explicit references made via a divine motive clause. Additionally, in order to bring this study to a manageable scope, the detailed analysis that will flow from the general overview will be limited to the books of Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. These two are a logical choice for a variety of reasons. First, when we examine the distribution of texts which contain a divine motive clause, these two books contain 25% of the occurrences. 7 Second, as seen in the survey of prior research, significant work has already been done with regard to divine motive in the prophets, especially in Ezekiel. Third, the prophets make an exceedingly appropriate choice for our examination because they are involved not only in the declaration of future divine intent but also in the explicit interpretation of that intent. 8 Finally the overlap in the historical setting of Jeremiah and Ezekiel is helpful for facilitating comparison and contrast in their usage of divine motive.

EXAMINATION OF THE TEXTUAL DATA A major part of the method of this project is the examination of significant features from the selected texts. These features are used to facilitate the analysis of the various aspects of the concept(s) of divine motive. The following features of each text are identified and considered: 1) the initiating particle, or motive marker, 2) the

ing the main clause and the causal clause … For instance: “Do not uncover the nakedness of your father’s sister, (for) she is your father’s flesh” (Lev 18:12).” 6 For a discussion of the use of these two constructions, see ibid., 70–71. 7 See appendix and Chapter 4. 8 See here von Rad, The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions, 80–125. In particular, his treatment of the word of God is especially insightful.

44

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

position of the divine motive statement relative to the motive marker and divine action statement, 3) the motivating condition or event, 4) the motive type 9, 5) significant themes, motifs, and images within the divine motive and action statements, and 6) the type and source of characterization. 10

DEFINING MOTIVE My understanding of motive is guided by Anscombe’s work in her groundbreaking study, Intentions. Her scheme for categorizing motive is three-fold. Backward-looking motives such as gratitude, revenge, and remorse are unique in that “something that has happened (or is at present happening) is given as the ground of an action or abstention that is good or bad for the person (it may be oneself, as with remorse) at whom it is aimed.” 11 Backward-looking motives are carefully distinguished by Anscombe from what she terms ‘motive-in-general’. Motives-ingeneral are explanations of “one’s own actions by an account indicating “a certain light in which the action is to be viewed.” 12 Anscombe deems this type of motive to be the most difficult. Examples of motive-in-general include “admiration, curiosity, spite, friendship … love of truth … and a host of others.” 13 Backward-looking motives and motives-in-general are distinguished from the third category, forward-looking motives or intentions. An expression of a forward-looking motive, or intention, is a “description of something future in which the speaker is some sort My approach to understanding motive is based on Anscombe, Intention. For a discussion of the three categories of motive, see below. 10 For a discussion of characterization see Amit, Reading Biblical Narratives, 69–102. Appeals for divine action will be included in the direct characterization category as they essentially function as a direct statement about the character of God from the view of the petitioner. Although many of our texts are not narrative they do all, from a theological perspective, characterize YHWH. 11 Anscombe, Intention, 20 (emphasis original). 12 Ibid., 21. 13 Ibid. 9

CHAPTER 3. PLAN OF THIS STUDY

45

of agent, which description he justifies by reasons of acting.” 14 Anscombe goes on to assert that generally in the discussion of intentions, one is interested not in the raw future action, but in the purpose to be accomplished by performing the action. In other words, “we are interested, not just in a man’s intention of doing what he does, but in his intention in doing it, and this can very often not be seen from seeing what he does.” 15 It is clear that all three of these categories will be encountered in the research. Backward-looking motives are frequent in the biblical text both in positive and negative associations. Motives such as the keeping of covenant or the punishment of a past sin would be two such motives. The most complex kind, motive-in-general, is seen in the motives related to the name of God (e.g. for my name’s sake). Intentions are present as well. One example of an intention, a forward-looking motive, is God’s announcement that he will perform miracles through Moses in order that the people might believe his commission.

THE NATURE OF THE STUDY Working from Anscombe’s categories the analysis of the data will not be strictly form critical as it is not expected that we will discover any new Gattung, but rather I will be working in areas that have already been well studied and described. This means that much of the analysis will be looking for correlations and patterns in the data. This will include identifying areas of density—that is: texts with high concentrations of occurrences as well as themes, motifs, and images that recur with great frequency. Once the data analysis is complete, the most significant occurrences from Jeremiah and Ezekiel will be treated exegetically, against the backdrop of the results of the comprehensive survey.

14 15

Ibid., 6. Ibid., 9 (emphasis original).

CHAPTER 4. THE DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENT: SURVEY AND ANALYSIS DISTRIBUTION OF TEXTS AND MOTIVE TYPES There are 509 passages that have a divine motive statement (DMS). These statements are found across the Hebrew Scriptures with the exception of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Habakkuk, Ruth, Song of Songs, Qohelet, and Esther. Table 1 shows the distribution by book in decreasing frequency. The mean number of statements is 16.38. The number of occurrences in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah indicate that the reference to divine motives in these texts is statistically significant. Accordingly the study concentrates on these books as I consider the various features of the motive statements. As outlined in the study method underlying this investigation, I have categorized the statements into three basic motive types: backward-looking motives (BLM), motives-in-general (MIG), and intentions (INT). 1 Table 2 indicates the distribution of these three motive types. As with the general distribution, there are several books whose number of occurrences is statistically significant in each of these categories. These books are highlighted in Table 2.

For the meaning of the various motive types, please consult chapter 3 of this study. 1

47

48

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

Table 1

No. of DMS % of DMS Jer 72 14.15% Ezek 54 10.61% Pss 52 10.22% Deut 43 8.45% Isa 42 8.25% Gen 35 6.88% 1 Kgs 29 5.70% Exod 24 4.72% 2 Kgs 18 3.54% 2 Chr 18 3.54% 1 Sam 13 2.55% Hos 13 2.55% Amos 13 2.55% Num 11 2.16% 2 Sam 11 2.16% Neh 9 1.77% Judg 8 1.57% 1 Chr 7 1.38% Mic 6 1.18% Lev 4 0.79% Mal 4 0.59% Josh 3 0.59% Zeph 3 0.59% Job 3 0.59% Lam 3 0.59% Dan 3 0.59% Ezra 3 0.59% Hag 2 0.39% Nah 1 0.20% Zech 1 0.20% Prov 1 0.20% Distribution of Divine Motive Statements by Book

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS No. of BLM No. of MIG No. of INT Gen 22 1 12 Exod 6 3 15 Lev 1 0 3 Num 10 0 1 Deut 15 4 24 Josh 0 0 3 Judg 4 1 3 1 Sam 9 3 1 2 Sam 4 4 3 1 Kgs 16 6 7 2 Kgs 15 3 0 Isa 18 13 11 Jer 49 12 11 Ezek 34 7 13 Hos 10 3 0 Amos 10 1 2 Mic 5 1 0 Nah 1 0 0 Zeph 2 0 1 Hag 1 0 1 Zech 1 0 0 Mal 4 0 0 Pss 27 17 8 Job 3 0 0 Prov 1 0 0 Lam 2 1 0 Dan 0 3 0 Ezra 1 0 2 Neh 3 2 4 1 Chr 2 3 2 2 Chr 13 2 3 Table 2 Distribution of Divine Motive Types by Book

49

The books that appear at the top of table 1 as having the highest number of divine motive statements, also naturally appear in table 2 as significant texts for the various motive types. We do see, however, the addition of Genesis and Exodus as significant for their use of backward-looking motives (Gen) and intentions (Gen and Exod).

50

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

THE FORM OF THE DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENT There is a remarkable variety in the form of the motive statements in the various texts covered by this study. The simplest formulations utilize a single conjunction or preposition as a motive marker (MM) to initiate the motive statement and link it to the statement of divine action (DAS). Gen 2:3 is a good example of a simple form using ‫כּי‬.ִ ‫יﬠי וַ יְ ַק ֵ ֖דּשׁ א ֹ֑תוֹ‬ ִ ֔ ‫�ה ֙ים ֶאת־י֣ וֹם ַה ְשּׁ ִב‬ ִ ‫יְב ֶר� ֱא‬ ֤ ָ ַ‫ו‬ ‫�הים ַל ֲﬠ ֽשׂוֹת׃‬ ֖ ִ ‫ר־בּ ָ ֥רא ֱא‬ ָ ‫אכ ֔תּוֹ ֲא ֶשׁ‬ ְ ‫ל־מ ַל‬ ְ ‫ִ ֣כּי ֤בוֹ ָשׁ ַב ֙ת ִמ ָכּ‬ And God blessed the seventh day and made it holy, because on it he rested from all his work of creation that he had done. 2

More complex examples weave together multiple motive statements with varying conjunctions, prepositions, and particles leading up to a final statement of motive. Exod 9:15–16 is a classic example of a text that deploys multiple motive statements, introduced by ‫ בעבור‬and concluding with ‫למען‬, which introduces the summative motive statement. ‫ן־ה ָ ֽא ֶרץ׃‬ ָ ‫ת־ﬠ ְמּ�֖ ַבּ ָ ֑דּ ֶבר וַ ִתּ ָכּ ֵ ֖חד ִמ‬ ַ ‫אוֹת�֛ וְ ֶ ֽא‬ ְ �‫ִ ֤כּי ַﬠ ָתּ ֙ה ָשׁ ַ ֣ל ְח ִתּי ֶאת־יָ ִ ֔די וָ ַ ֥א‬ ‫וּל ַ ֛מ ַﬠן ַס ֵ ֥פּר ְשׁ ִ ֖מי‬ ְ ‫את ֶה ֱﬠ ַמ ְד ִ֔תּי� ַבּ ֲﬠ ֖בוּר ַה ְרא ְֹת�֣ ֶאת־כּ ִ ֹ֑חי‬ ֙ ֹ ‫אוּלם ַבּ ֲﬠ ֥בוּר ז‬ ָ ֗ ְ‫ו‬ ‫ל־ה ָ ֽא ֶרץ׃‬ ָ ‫ְבּ ָכ‬ For by now, I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with pestilence, and you would have been erased from the earth. Nevertheless, for this reason I have raised you up—in order to show you my power so that my name may be made known in all the earth.

Although many individual variations exist, the arrangement of the divine motive and action statements can be viewed in three primary sets: texts that begin with a divine action statement (Order Type 1), texts that begin with a motive marker (Order Type 2), and texts that begin with the divine motive statement (Order Type 3). 3 All translations are mine unless otherwise noted. Order type refers to the ordering of the three components of the statement: Divine Motive Statement (DMS), Divine Action Statement (DAS), and Motive Marker (MM). E.g. Order type 1: DAS > MM > DMS 2 3

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

Isa Jer Ezek Hos Amos Mic Nah Zeph Hag Zech Mal Totals Table 3

51

Order 1 (DAS) Order 2 (MM) Order 3 (DMS) 21 15 6 39 9 24 23 22 9 7 3 3 2 8 3 3 0 3 1 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 1 103 57 51 Distribution of Order Types in Prophetic Books

In addition to being clear examples of simple and complex forms, the two texts cited above also demonstrate one of the more unexpected findings regarding the form of the motive statements. Given the preponderance of prophetic texts in the study, I had expected to see the classic “reason-announcement” structure to be the dominant form of the statements such that the majority of our texts would be from Order Types 2 and 3 which begin with the motive statement (Type 3), or the motive marker (Type 2). 4 The data, however, are quite different. By a significant margin, the vast majority of the occurrences begin with the divine action statement. 5 (Gen 2:3). Order type 2 MM > DMS > DAS (Gen 3:14). Order type 3 DMS > MM > DAS (Gen 20:6). There are an amazing variety of ways in which the elements can be combined especially when the components are repeated. Examples of more complex arrangements include: order type 1: Gen 8:21 (DAS>MM>DMS>MM>DMS>DAS); order type 2: Exod 20:20 (MM>DMS>DAS>MM>DMS>MM>DMS); order type 3: 1 Sam 2:29–30 (DMS>MM>DAS>MM>DAS). 4 For extended treatment of the “reason-announcement” sequence in prophetic speech see: Wolff, “Die Begründungen,” 1–21 and Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech. See also Donald E. Gowan, “The Use of ya’an in Biblical Hebrew,” VT 21/2 (1971): 173–75. 5 For all of the texts, 66% begin with the DAS, 20% begin with a MM, and 14% begin with the DMS. Even combining order types 2 and 3, order type 1 occurs almost twice as often in our texts.

52

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

The prophetic texts themselves show an almost even distribution with only a slight preference for Order Types 2 and 3 (when combined). Tables 3 and 4 show the distribution of order types across the prophetic and non-prophetic text sets. Gen Exod Lev Num Deut Josh Judg 1 Sam 2 Sam 1 Kgs 2 Kgs Pss Job Prov Lam Dan Ezra Neh 1 Chr 2 Chr Totals Table 4

Order 1(DAS) Order 2 (MM) Order 3 (DMS) 29 5 1 19 3 2 4 0 0 7 3 1 38 4 1 3 0 0 4 2 2 11 1 1 9 2 0 19 10 0 9 6 3 44 3 5 3 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 3 0 0 2 1 0 9 0 0 6 1 0 12 6 0 236 47 17 Distribution of Order Types in Non-Prophetic Books

The most common form, occurring 252 times is DAS > MM > DMS. When analyzed further with regard to motive type, 121 of these are backward-looking motives (48%), 44 are motives-ingeneral (17%), and 87 are intentions (35%). The overall pattern here is roughly reflective of the basic distribution of motive types with a subtle shift towards intentions and away from backwardlooking motives. 6 What is not typical, however, is the proportion of

6

57% BLM, 18% MIG, and 25% INT.

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

53

direct characterizations. 7 The entire research set is comprised of 42% indirect and 58% direct characterizations. A partial answer for the density of direct characterizations is the number of appeals that are a part of this set. Where the recipient of the statement is God (via prayer, intercession, direct address, etc.) 49 of the 67 texts are found in the DAS > MM > DMC form. 8 An additional nine examples can be added to this when we factor in more complex forms that also begin with the divine action statement. 9 This indicates that while the basic form of a prophetic speech with reason is patterned ‘reason-announcement,’ the basic form of an appeal to God where a reason is present appears to be the opposite, ‘request-reason.’ 10 Within Order Type 1, the second most common form is DAS > MM > DMC > MM > DMC. There are 38 occurrences of this form. When expanded to include more complex variations which “Direct characterization is provided by the narrator or by one of the persons in the story, while indirect characterization is the product of an analysis of the persona’s discourse and his/her actions and conduct.” Amit, Reading Biblical Narratives, 74. For more on direct and indirect characterization, see Shimeon Bar-Efrat, Narrative Art in the Bible (London: T & T Clark International, 2004), 53–69. As mentioned above, although not all of our texts are narrative, they do all characterize YHWH theologically. We will use the categories of direct and indirect characterization in both poetry and prose to indicate whether the source is the narrative or voice other than YHWH (direct) or whether the source is divine speech (indirect). 8 Exod 33:13; Deut 9:26–28; 2 Sam 7:21b; 1 Kgs 3:6; 8:25, 39–40, 43, 50–53, 59–60; Isa 63:17; Jer 31:18; Ps 5:9, 11; 8:3; 18:20–22; 22:9; 25:5–7, 16, 20; 26:1; 31:18; 39:13; 44:27; 56:14; 59:12; 69:17; 79:6–8; 86:1– 2; 119:94, 118; 143:10, 12; Lam 1:11; Dan 9:17; Neh 1:9; 3:37; 9:8–10, 20, 29, 31, 36; 1 Chr 17:21. 9 Jer 14:21, Ps 6:5–6, 31:3–5, 79:9, 86:3–4, 109:21–22; Dan 9:18, 9:19; Neh 3:36 10 I am adopting here the terminology of Westermann, Wolff, and Gowan. From a form critical perspective, the “basic form” of a prophetic speech includes a reason, and the reason precedes the announcement (reason-announcement). See, Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech, 85– 86; Wolff, “Die Begründungen,” 2; and Gowan, “Use of ya’an,” 173–174. 7

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

still feature a doubled motive statement that follows the action statement, the list expands to 50. 11 When we examine the variations on Order Type 2 (MM > DMS > DAS) we see a much tighter overall pattern than with Type 1. The basic form (MM > DMS > DAS) accounts for 43 of the occurrences. If expanded to include those that add a connector between the DMS and the DAS (MM > DMS > MM > DAS) another 29 are added bringing the combined total to 72. This accounts for 69% of the Order Type 2 forms. 12 The research shows that 82 of the 104 texts are backward-looking motives. This conforms to the expectations based on the established pattern of reason-announcement found in prophetic speech. With regard to Order Type 3 (DMS > MM > DAS), 41 of the 68 occurrences are the base form. 13 The most frequent variations on this form add a second divine action statement (DMS > MM > Gen 8:21; 15:7; 18:19; Exod 10:1–2; 33:3; Lev 17:10–11; 25:38a, 38b; Deut 4:10; 6:23; 8:14–16; 10:8; 12:5; 18:5; 21:5; 23:15; 30:6; 31:18; 32:26–27, 48–51; Josh 4:23–24; 11:20; Judg 3:1–2; 9:23–24; 1 Sam 2:28; 9:16; 12:22; 1 Kgs 11:13, 32; Isa 23:9; 57:15–16; 61:1–3; Jer 1:16; 5:10–11; 30:14–15; 32:26–30; Ezek 20:8–9, 13–14, 20–22, 25–26; Ps 6:5–6; 31:3–5; 102:20–22; 106:7–8; 109:21–22; Dan 9:18–19; 2 Chr 21:6–7; 25:20–21; 32:31. 12 Gen 3:14, 22–23a; 6:13; 22:16–17; Exod 1:21; 8:17; Num 14:24, 43; 20:12; Deut 7:12; 29:24–27; 1Sam 15:23; 2Sam 7:21–a; 12:14; 1Kgs 9:6–9; 11:11; 13:21–22; 14:7–10; 15:4; 16:2–3; 20:28, 42; 21:29; 2Kgs 1:16; 10:30; 19:28; 22:18–20; 24:20; Isa 3:16–17; 5:24–25; 8:6–7; 27:11; 28:15– 19; 29:13–14; 37:20–22, 29; 42:21; 43:14; 45:4; Jer 3:8; 5:14; 7:13–14; 9:12– 15; 26:2–3; 35:18–19; Ezek 13:8–9, 22–23; 16:35–37, 43; 21:9–10; 22:19– 20; 25:2–5, 6–7, 8–9, 12–13, 15–17; 26:1–3; 29:6b–9a, 9b–10; 31:10–11; 35:10–12a; 36:32; 39:23; 44:10–14; Hos 9:15; Ps 25:11; 132:10; 143:11; 1Chr 17:19; 2Chr 1:11–12; 24:20; 34:26–28. 13 Gen 20:6; Exod 6:5–8; 20:11; Num 18:23–24; Judg 10:13; 2Kgs 1:3–4, 6; Isa 7:13–14; 10:15–16; Jer 2:8–9; 4:3–4; 6:15, 20–21; 8:11–12; 9:5–6; 11:10–11; 16:19–21; 18:11–17; 21:12; 31:3, 20; Ezek 13:17–21; 18:29–30; 22:4; 23:8–9, 18–22; Hos 2:4–5, 10–11; Amos 3:1–2; 5:4–6; Mic 2:1–3; 6:16; Zech 1:14–16; Mal 3:24; Ps 25:8; 45:8; 50:22–23; 78:19–21; 95:10–11; Prov 24:17–18. 11

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

55

DAS > MM > DAS) or a second motive statement (DMS > MM > DAS > MM > DMS). 14 Backward-looking occurrences account for 56 of the Type 3 statements. 15 Again, this comports well with the expectations from the basic prophetic announcement speech pattern. Sonsino evaluated the form of the motive clauses in the law by separately analyzing the prepositions and conjunctions that are used to indicate motive clauses. 16 For this study the distinction is less useful. One of the most significant motive markers based on frequency is ‫ למען‬which is viewed lexically as both a conjunction and a preposition and functions as both in these texts. 17 There are 42 texts in our study with ‫ למען‬as a preposition, meaning “for the sake of.” 18 In 46 of the texts, ‫ למען‬functions as a conjunction with a teleological meaning “in order to, so that.” 19 Here the insights of 182F

E.g. 1 Sam 2:29–30 which adds a second DAS and 2 Kgs 23:25– 26 which adds a second DMS. 15 Gen 20:6; Exod 6:5–8; 20:11; Judg 3:12; 10:13; 1Sam 2:29–30; 2Kgs 1:3–4, 6; 23:25–26; Isa 7:13–14; 10:15–16; 53:11–12; 65:7; Jer 2:8–9, 35; 4:3–4; 6:8, 15, 17–19, 20–21; 8:8–10, 11–12; 9:5–6; 11:10–11; 14:14– 16; 16:19–21; 18:11–17, 20–22; 21:12; 23:11–12, 14–15, 38–40; Jer 25:4–9; 28:15–16; Ezek 13:17–21; 18:29–30; 22:4; 23:8–9, 23:18–22; 29:18–20; 34:6–10; Hos 2:4–5, 10–11; Amos 5:4–6, 14–15; Mic 2:1–3; 6:12–14, 6:16; Zeph 2:8–10; Zech 1:14–16; Mal 3:24; Ps 45:8; 50:22–23; 78:19–21; 95:10–11; Prov 24:17–18. 16 Sonsino, Motive Clauses, 70–74. 17 Köhler, Ludwig, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann Jakob Stamm, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (2 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1994), 2:614. 18 Deut 3:26; 1 Kgs 11:12–13, 32, 34; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19; 13:23; 19:34; 20:6; Isa 37:33–35; 42:21; 43:14, 25; 45:4; 48:9, 11; 62:1; 63:17; 65:8; Jer 14:7, 21; Ezek 20:8–9, 13–14, 20–22, 44; 36:20–23, 32; Ps 5:9; 6:5–6; 8:3; 25:7, 11; 31:3–5; 44:27; 79:9; 109:21–22; 143:11; Dan 9:17, 19; 2 Chr 6:32– 33; 21:6–7. 19 Gen 18:19; 50:20; Exod 4:4–5; 8:18; 9:15–16; 10:1–2; 11:4–7; 16:4; Deut 2:30; 6:23; 8:2–3, 14–16, 18; 9:5; 30:6; Josh 4:23–24; 11:20; Judg 3:1– 2; 1 Kgs 8:39–40, 43, 59–60; 11:36a; 1 Kgs 12:15; Isa 41:17–20; 43:10; 45:3, 5–6; Jer 10:18; 44:29–30; 50:34; Ezek 6:6–7; 11:19–20; 12:15–16; 14

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

Doron are helpful. “What is really important is the function of these clauses and not the exact type of their subordination.” 20 Another key marker in the study would also be problematic if the goal was establishing a singular function and tying the analysis to that function. ‫ לכן‬is often treated as a conjunction and simply translated as “therefore.” Goldbaum has argued that ‫ לכן‬does not ever mean “therefore,” but is rather an introduction to a vow. 21 Goldbaum’s work is provocative, but far from persuasive when all occurrences of the term are considered. 22 What it does help demonstrate, however, is that a monolithic view of ‫ לכן‬as “therefore” is woefully insufficient. Rather than focusing on finding a singular translation or setting for the term it is more helpful to note what is almost universally agreed upon about ‫לכן‬, that it functions to link the statement that follows with what precedes. It has a “typical dependency upon a previous statement of conditions.” 23 Used to link the preceding to what follows, ‫ לכן‬is frequently employed in combination with additional markers to bring emphasis to the connections between the divine action and the divine motive. 24 187F

14:1–5, 9–11; 16:62–63; 20:25–26; 25:10–11; 36:30; 38:16; Amos 9:11–12; Ps 78:5–6; 106:7–8; 2 Chr 6:30–31; 10:15. 20 Doron, “Motive Clauses,” 61–62. 21 Fredric J Goldbaum, “Two Hebrew Quasi-Adverbs: ‫ לכן‬and ‫אכן‬,” JNES 23/2 (April, 1964): 132–35. 22 For a critique of Goldbaum and a review of ‫ לכן‬from a much larger text sample that provides better results, see: W. Eugene March, “Laken: Its Functions and Meaning,” in Rhetorical Criticism: Essays in Honor of James Muilenburg (eds. Jared J. J. Jackson and Martin Kessler; PTMS Eugene, OR.: Pickwick, 1974), 256–284. 23 John Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 1–39 (NICOT, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 556. 24 This is not surprising as ‫ לכן‬has emphatic qualities as well. Cf. A. C. M. Blommerde, Northwest Semitic Grammar and Job (BIOr 22; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1969), 31–32. 2 Kgs 21:11–15 is an excellent example of the use of ‫ לכן‬alongside other markers. The text begins in v. 11 with ‫ יען אשׁר‬marking Manasseh’s abominations as the motive. In 21:12 the thought continues with ‫ לכן‬which links the motive to the divine action. The statement of divine action continues through v. 14. 2 Kgs 21:15,

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

57

These two examples illustrate why this research does not attempt to utilize the specific lexical category of the terms involved, but rather is focused on function in the motive statements. Furthermore, as laid out in the method above, this study is not a formcritical endeavor. Rather, the end goal of this study is to elucidate how the use of divine motive statements in the various texts of the Hebrew canon contribute to divine characterization, and to survey and analyze the broad categories of motives with which YHWH is characterized in the various texts. The most frequently used motive marker in the text set is ‫כּי‬, which occurs in 172 passages. The widespread use of this particle is in line with what the motive studies in the law, psalms and wisdom literature have found. 25 It most often introduces the motive statement and is not found following the statement. It does occasionally function emphatically, typically by introducing a second statement of the divine action. 26 It is only rarely used as the introduction to a summary motive when multiple divine motive statements are found in the same passage. 27 The second most frequent marker is ‫למען‬, which is found in 96 texts, or 19% of the study passages. This term is more significant, however, than ‫כּי‬, both for its association with key theological concepts in the study, and for its more specialized usage. Existing research on the term indicates that its two primary functions are to indicate the intended end of an action, or to express that an action 18F

189F

190F

beginning again with ‫יען אשׁר‬, closes the unit by providing another motive. This statement moves the reader from the singular actions of Manasseh in v. 11 to the sins of the people which predate those of Manasseh. For another example of ‫ לכן‬used in combination, see Isa 30:9–14. 25 Gemser, 53. See also Kuntz, “Grounds for Praise,” 161; and Sonsino, Motive Clauses, 70–71. 26 Jer 23:11–12, 14–15 27 Isa 30:15–18, 48:11. For extensive surveys of the meaning and function of ‫כּי‬, see Muilenburg, 135–160; and Anneli Aejmelaeus, “Function and Interpretation of ‫ כי‬in Biblical Hebrew,” JBL 105/2 (1986): 193– 209.

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was done “in view of, for the sake of, or in light of.” 28 Unlike ‫כּי‬ with its multitude of uses, ‫ למען‬is typically used “[f]or pure expression of a purpose or result.” 29 Of the 96 occurrences of ‫למען‬, there are 13 that introduce a backward-looking motive and 47 are found with an intention. What is more striking is that 36 times it is used to indicate a motive-ingeneral. 30 Given that there are only 90 motive-in-general passages in the study, it is clear that ‫ למען‬is significant for its close association with these motives. Additionally, ‫ למען‬occurs in 47 passages (22%) that are direct characterizations. As I seek later in the study to elucidate key themes in the motive statement passages, I will pay special attention to those associated with ‫למען‬, based on these unique features. The third most frequent motive marker found in the study is ‫יען‬. It occurs alone 42 times and an additional 23 times in combined forms: ‫יען כּי‬, ‫ יען אשׁר‬and ‫יען ביען‬. With an aggregate count of 65 passages, this form occurs in 13% of the study texts. The significance and basic form-critical features of this term have been covered in depth by Gowan. 31 The most significant of his findings 192F

194F

H. R. Laird, “‫למען‬,” Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. See also Jacob Chinitz, “L’maan: The Teleological Cause in the Pentateuch,” Jewish Bible Quarterly 26/3 (1998): 189–192. 29 Paul Joüon and T. Muraoka, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (rev. ed.; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2006), 357. See also H. A. Brongers, “Die Partikel ‫ למען‬in der biblisch-hebräischen Sprache,” in Syntax and Meaning: Studies in Hebrew Syntax and Biblical Exegesis (eds. C. C. J. Labuschagne, M. M. J. Mulder, and C. Leeuwan; OTS Leiden: Brill, 1973), 84–96. 30 Motive-in-general is a term drawn from Anscombe, Intention. It refers to internal motivations such as love, friendship, truth, etc. For a discussion of Anscombe and motive types, please refer to chapter 3 above. Examples of ‫ למען‬used with motive-in-general include: Exod 33:13; 1 Kgs 11:12–13, 32, 34; 2 Kgs 19:34; 20:6; Isa 37:33–35; 42:21; 43:14, 25; 45:4; 48:9, 11; 62:1; 63:17; 65:8; Jer 14:7, 21; Ezek 20:8–9, 13–14, 20–22, 44; 36:20–23, 32; Ps 6:5–6; 25:7, 11; 31:3–5; 44:27; 79:9; 109:21–22; 143:11; Dan 9:17, 19; 2 Chr 6:32–33. 31 Gowan, “Use of ya’an,” 168–185. 28

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59

for this study is that ‫ יען‬is exclusively used of past human acts which serve as the reason for a future action of YHWH. 32 Although it does occasionally occur with a promise, the vast majority of its occurrences are in judgment contexts. The virtually exclusive connection with prophetic judgment speeches almost gives ‫ יען‬the qualities of a technical term. 33 Due to the close association of ‫ יען‬and the prophetic judgment speech, the term is found in only three instances of direct characterization: 1 Sam 15:23; 1 Kgs 14:15–16; and Isa 8:6–7. In each of these cases, the speaker is a prophet, but the speech is the prophet’s not YHWH’s. As would be expected 99% of the occurrences of ‫ יען‬are in backward-looking motive texts. The sole text that is not a backward-looking motive is Ezek 21:9–10 where it functions much like ‫למען‬. Because of its unique characteristics, ‫ יען‬occurs almost exclusively in Order Types 2 and 3. Multiple uses of the term in the same passage functions to provide particular emphasis on the human event at the root of the judgment. This can be seen in 2 Kgs 21:11–15 where the sins of Manasseh lead to the prophecy of the exile. The passage opens with ‫יען אשׁר‬. It then transitions to the motive statement in 21:12 with ‫ לכן‬which is followed by the classic divine speech introductory phrase, ‫כּה־אמר יהוה אלהי ישׂראל‬. The divine judgment is laid out in 21:12–14. Like the beginning of the passage, 21:15 starts with ‫ יען אשׁר‬which brings the text back to a strong focus on the human cause. By utilizing this quasi-technical term in its typical location at the beginning, and by repeating it at 196F

Ibid., 170–172. The only exception to Gowan’s finding that appears in this study is Ezek 21:9 where the ‫ יען‬clause refers to the action of YHWH as a motive: “In order to (‫ )יען‬wipe out from you both the righteous and the wicked, My sword shall assuredly be unsheathed against all flesh from south to north.” (JPS). The presence of an unusual text does not diminish the focus on past human acts that dominates the occurrences of ‫יען‬. 33 Ibid., 174–177. 32

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the end of the passage, the writer of Kings has constructed an especially powerful condemnation of Manasseh. 34 Other significant motive markers include ‫( על‬frequently in combination with other terms), ‫ ל‬plus the infinitive construct, and ‫ לכן‬which was mentioned briefly above. These three, like ‫כּי‬, function in much less restricted ways and in line with expectations based on their common employment in Biblical Hebrew.

SAMPLE PASSAGES AND KEY FEATURES OF THE MOTIVE STATEMENTS Having surveyed the basic distribution of motive statements, the various orderings of motive and action statements, and the most significant motive markers, I will pause to explore a sampling of passages that are of special interest because they demonstrate key features of the various ways authors employed divine motive statements. I will begin with Exod 33:3. �֗ ‫ל־א ֶרץ זָ ַ ֥בת ָח ָ ֖לב ְוּד ָ ֑בשׁ ִכּי֩ ֨ל ֹא ֶ ֽא ֱﬠ ֜ ֶלה ְבּ ִק ְר ְבּ‬ ֛ ֶ ‫ֶא‬ ‫ן־א ֶכ ְל�֖ ַבּ ָ ֽדּ ֶר�׃‬ ֲ ‫ם־ק ֵשׁה־ ֨עֹ ֶר ֙ף ַ֔א ָתּה ֶפּ‬ ְ ‫ִ ֤כּי ַﬠ‬

This is a relatively simple text, but it illustrates the way in which two motive statements may be combined. If we compare two English translations we can see a difference in how this text is understood. Go up to a land flowing with milk and honey; but I will not go up among you, or I would consume you on the way, for you are a stiff-necked people. (NRSV) … a land flowing with milk and honey. But I will not go in your midst, since you are a stiff-necked people, lest I destroy you on the way. (JPS)

The NRSV is representative of one translation tradition that sees the ultimate motive in this text as the people’s sin. This translation rearranges the textual units and in doing so gives priority to the ‫כּי‬ clause. The JPS text, on the other hand, keeps the textual units as Burke O. Long, 2 Kings (FOTL 10; Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 1984), 249. 34

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61

they occur in the MT and by virtue of this, gives the greatest weight to the ‫ פן‬clause as the ultimate reason for YHWH not accompanying the people. The issue here is how to understand the relationship between the two motive clauses. Is the first clause summative and second explanatory, or is the first explanatory and the second the ultimate motive? Anscombe discusses this type of nested, or cascading motive statement. It is possible to have succeeding motives statements for one action where each motive statement “is dependent on wider circumstances, and each related to the next as description of means to an end; which means that we can speak equally well of” multiple intentions or “of one intention … the intention … with which the act in its other descriptions was done … [T]his intention so to speak swallows up all the preceding intentions with which the earlier members of the series were done.” 35 The placement of the ‫ פן‬clause in the final position, and the relative ubiquity of ‫ כּי‬clauses suggests that the emphasis is on the ‫ פן‬clause as the summative motive. This is reflected in the JPS translation. I might paraphrase this text as, “I will not go up with you, since you are a sinful people, because if I were to go up with you, I might destroy you, which I do not want to do.” As such this is actually a positive text indicating that YHWH is exhibiting mercy, and that despite the sinful condition of the people, he does not want to destroy them. Although the shift in nuance is subtle, it does help alleviate the tension that some interpreters find between the positive act of sending the messenger and the negative act of withholding of the divine presence. When viewed with the ultimate motive being the restraint of destruction, the “limited divine presence carries with it an element of mercy.” 36 When considered alongside Moses’ intercession in chapter 34, it suggests that “the covenant relationship does not so much depend on Israel’s obedience, but primarily on YHWH’s mercy and grace.” 37 This restraint then, also allows for the unimpeded com19F

Anscombe, Intention, 46 (emphasis original). Douglas K. Stuart, Exodus (NAC; Nashville: B&H, 2006), 692. 37 Michael Widmer, Moses, God, and the Dynamics of Intercessory Prayer: A Study of Exodus 32–34 and Numbers 13–14 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004), 35 36

62

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

pletion of the trek to the promised land, which would be in jeopardy if YHWH were to destroy the people en route. 38 Other examples of cascading motives include Hos 6:4–6 and Ps 102:20–22. In Hos 6, YHWH responds to the fleeting faithfulness of Ephraim with prophetic judgments, yet he goes on to explain that this is because of his desire for lovingkindness (‫ )חסד‬and knowledge of himself, not mere ritual. In the confession of hope and trust section of the lament in Ps 102, the reader finds a series of nested motives each indicated by an infinitive construct with lamed (102:20–21). YHWH looks down from heaven in order to hear the groans of the prisoners, in order to set free those doomed to death, but ultimately in order that his name might be praised. These cascading motive statements capture, in the final motive statement, what is a core concern in this central strophe of the psalm “the power of the divine name,” that is to say, the power of the one enthroned above, who will aid those who bear his name on earth. 39 The phenomenon of cascading motives requires that a nuanced reading must take into account the relationship between linked motive statements including an assessment of the placement of the statements and the relative prominence of the various ways of marking motive statements. Another text that serves as a helpful illustration of the use of divine motive statements is Amos 5:14–15. This text addresses a hypothetical situation—what might happen if the people were to repent in response to the prophetic message and “seek good.” There are a number of hypothetical or potential instances of repentance addressed in the research texts. 40 Three of these passages address the potential of a foreigner coming to the temple to seek 20F

209. See also R. W. L. Moberly, At the Mountain of God: Story and Theology in Exodus 32–34 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1983), 89–90 cited in Widmer. 38 Stuart, Exodus, 690–691. See John I. Durham, Exodus (WBC 3; Waco: Word, 1987), 436 for an extended discussion of the tension in this section and the various interpretive approaches. 39 Leslie C. Allen, Psalms 101–150 (WBC 21; Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2002), 22. 40 1 Kgs 8:39–40, 43; Isa 56:7; Jer 4:3–4; 6:8; 21:12; Hos 2:4–5; Amos 5:4–6; Zeph 3:9; Mal 3:24; and 2 Chr 6:30–31.

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YHWH (1 Kgs 8:43//2 Chr 6:30–31; Isa 56:7; and Zeph 3:9). In these, both the occasion for the divine action, repentance/seeking of YHWH, and the divine response, is positive. But, in each the motive is not the repentance, but rather the intent that the knowledge and fear of YHWH might spread. The remaining texts, Jer 4:3–4; 6:8; 21:12; Hos 2:4–5; Amos 5:4–6; and Mal 3:24 all relate a potential negative action by YHWH, judgment, unless repentance is sought. The motive statement in Amos 5:4–6 is instructive since it occurs in the immediate context of the text under examination. There the reader encounters the call for Israel to “seek YHWH and live” ‫ית־אל‬ ֽ ֵ ‫ין־מ ַכ ֶ ֖בּה ְל ֵ ֽב‬ ְ ‫יוֹסף וְ ָא ְכ ָ ֥לה וְ ֵא‬ ֵ֔ ‫ֶפּן־יִ ְצ ַ ֤לח ָכּ ֵא ֙שׁ ֵ ֣בּית‬ lest he burst out like fire in the house of Joseph and consume, with none to quench it for Bethel.

This is an example of a negative intention. YHWH intends to not carry out judgment if they seek him. But their not seeking him would motivate him to strike. The significance of these texts is that they assert a divine motive (YHWH will act because they did not do X, or YHWH will not act because they did X) and they also serve as motivation for the hearer to respond appropriately. What is unique about Amos 5:14–15 is that it is expressed positively. Instead of using a ‫ פן‬clause to describe the action that YHWH intends to take unless they repent, it instead uses a clause with ‫ אוּלי‬to describe the action that YHWH might take in response to their repentance. ‫י־צ ָב ֖אוֹת‬ ְ ‫�ה‬ ֽ ֵ ‫הוה ֱא‬ ֥ ָ ְ‫אוּלי ֶי ֱֽח ַנ֛ ן י‬ ַ ֗ ‫ִשׂנְ אוּ ָ־ר ֙ע וְ ֶ ֣א ֱהבוּ ֔טוֹב וְ ַה ִ ֥צּיגוּ ַב ַ ֖שּׁ ַﬠר ִמ ְשׁ ָ ֑פּט‬ ‫יוֹסף׃‬ ֽ ֵ ‫ ְשׁ ֵא ִ ֥רית‬. Hate evil and love good, and establish justice in the gate. Perhaps, YHWH, the God of Hosts will be gracious to the remnant of Joseph

The motive marker, ‫אוּלי‬, expresses the possibility of what might come. But remarkably here, the motivation for the people is the potential positive action of YHWH and not the potential negative consequence of disobedience. Given the normal use of the poten-

64

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

tial negative action and the heavy use of motive clauses in Amos for judgment, this rare positive formulation is striking. 41 Hag 1:9–11 is a good example of how the typical formulation of a motive statement can be altered to fit a unique literary style. ‫אתם ַה ַבּיִ ת וְ נָ ַפ ְח ִתּי בוֹ‬ ֶ ‫ל־ה ְר ֵבּה וְ ִהנֵּ ה ִל ְמ ָﬠט וַ ֲה ֵב‬ ַ ‫ָפּנֹה ֶא‬ ‫יתי ֲא ֶשׁר־הוּא ָח ֵרב וְ ַא ֶתּם‬ ִ ‫יַ ַﬠן ֶמה נְ ֻאם יְ הוָ ה ְצ ָבאוֹת יַ ַﬠן ֵבּ‬ ‫יכם ָכּ ְלאוּ ָשׁ ַמיִ ם ִמ ָטּל‬ ֶ ‫ל־כּן ֲﬠ ֵל‬ ֵ ‫ָר ִצים ִאישׁ ְל ֵביתוֹ׃ ַﬠ‬ ‫ל־ה ָה ִרים‬ ֶ ‫ל־האָ ֶרץ וְ ַﬠ‬ ָ ‫יְבוּלהּ׃ וָ ֶא ְק ָרא ח ֶֹרב ַﬠ‬ ָ ‫וְ ָה ָא ֶרץ ָכּ ְל ָאה‬ ‫וֹציא‬ ִ ‫ל־היִּ ְצ ָהר וְ ַﬠל ֲא ֶשׁר תּ‬ ַ ‫ל־ה ִתּירוֹשׁ וְ ַﬠ‬ ַ ‫ל־ה ָדּגָ ן וְ ַﬠ‬ ַ ‫וְ ַﬠ‬ ‫ל־ה ְבּ ֵה ָמה‬ ַ ‫ל־האָ ָדם וְ ַﬠ‬ ָ ‫ָה ֲא ָד ָמה וְ ַﬠ‬ ‫וְ ַﬠל ָכּל־יְ גִ ַי� ַכּ ָפּיִ ם׃‬ You looked for much, and behold, it there was little. And when you brought it home, I blew it away. Because why? declares the LORD of hosts. Because of my house that is in ruins, while each of you busies himself with his own house. Therefore on account of you, the heavens have withheld the dew, and the earth has withheld its produce. And I have called for a drought on the land and the hills, on the grain, the new wine, the oil, on whatever the ground brings forth, on man and beast, and on all the labor of your hands.

Interrogatives and messenger formulae are significant features of the style of Haggai. 42 As noted above, the typical form of prophetic Amos has one of the most dense concentrations of motive statements in the study. Despite its relatively small size, Amos has 13 divine motive statements. All of them except for 2:10; 9:11–12 (expressions of the divine intent for Israel to possess the land) and 5:14–15 are negatively related to judgment. Amos 3:1–2 is especially prominent because mentions of YWHW’s unique relationship with Israel are typically linked with positive actions, but here it serves as the motivation for judgment. 42 Kenneth M. Craig, Jr., “Interrogatives in Haggai-Zechariah: A Literary Thread,” in Forming Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D. W. Watts (eds. Paul P. R. House and James J. W. Watts; JSOTSup Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 224–44; Richard A. Taylor, “Haggai” in Haggai, Malachi (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 41

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

65

speech when ‫ יען‬is used to introduce the motive is reasonannouncement (or in the terms of our study, DMS > DAS). Yet, here in Hag 1:9–11, the typical order has been subverted to serve the question answer format and to allow for the insertion of the messenger formula. This is done by using the motive marker once after an initial statement of the divine action, as the opening to the question, ‫יען מה‬, and then again after the messenger formula. This second usage is the typical construction where the motive statement is introduced by the marker and followed by the statement of divine action. The doubled use of ‫יען‬, the doubled divine action statement, and the use of a secondary motive marker, ‫על כן‬, to transition from the divine motive statement to the second divine action statement combine to form an incredibly powerful text that is illustrative of extraordinary rhetorical technique. 43 The alteration of the typical motive statement with ‫ יען‬is a key part of the literary artistry of these verses. By noting the alteration of the typical formulation and by understanding the importance of interrogatives and messenger formulae in Haggai, the reader can see the specific literary choices that were made to give this text its distinctive shape. The final illustrative text I will consider is Ps 106:7–8. This text is an excellent example of how various motive statement themes can be woven together for great effect. Ps 106: 7 details the sins of Israel beginning in Egypt. These sins include: the failure to consider YHWH’s wonderful acts, a lack of remembrance of his abundant ‫חסד‬, and rebellion. The center point of the three, the failure to remember YHWH’s abundant ‫ חסד‬is extremely poignant from a motive perspective. Roughly 5% of the passages in our study contain ‫זכר‬. The uses include YHWH’s remembrance of the covenant (Exod 6:5; Deut 9:27; Jer 14:21; Ps 105:42), of his fatherly relationship with Israel (Jer 31:20), of Jeremiah’s faithful service (Jer 18:20), YHWH’s not remembering sin (Isa 43:25; Ps 25:7; 79:8), and the appeal to YHWH to remember mercy and ‫( חסד‬Ps 25:6–7). If we expand our search to include the use of ‫ חסד‬without remem-

2004), 61; and Mark J. Boda, “Haggai: Master Rhetorician,” TynBul 51/2 (2000): 298–300. 43 For more on the rhetorical strategies in this text, see ibid., 300– 301.

66

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

bering we find its positive use in motive statements in Deut 7:12; 1 Kgs 3:6; Jer 9:23; 31:3; Hos 6:6; Mic 7:18; Ps 6:5; 25:6–7; 44:27; 69:17; 103:11; 106:7; 109:21; 143:12; and Lam 3:32. The very things which have in other texts served to motivate YHWH, or with which appeal has been made to YHWH to intervene, are listed here as missing. This begs the question then of why might YHWH save? The answer comes in Ps 106:8 with a nested motive statement: ‫בוּר ֽתוֹ‬ ָ ְ‫הוֹד ַי� ֶאת־גּ‬ ֗ ִ ‫יﬠם ְל ַ ֣מ ַﬠן ְשׁ ֑מוֹ ְ֝ל‬ ֵ ‫יּוֹשׁ‬ ִ ‫ַ ֽו‬ He saved them for the sake of his name, in order to make known his power.

YHWH would act for the sake of his name in order that his power might be “acknowledged, a key motif in the exodus story and in Ezekiel (Exod 14:4, 18; Ezek 20:26, 38, 42, 44) and an aim for the deliverance the psalm longs for.” 44 The acknowledgement Goldingay references is what is captured in Zimmerli’s conception of the statement of recognition—“you shall know that I am YHWH.” 45 This is a significant motive category which will be discussed below. It is clear that this psalm has drawn together a number of themes which have strong correlations with divine motive statements and used them in the confession and in a statement of hope. We are not asserting direct, traceable dependence, but rather that the psalm draws on a well-recognized stream of tradition which has significant overlap with divine motive themes found elsewhere. Although the elements in this stream of tradition are readily identifiable, by viewing them through the lens of divine motive, we see even more clearly the ready connections and poignant irony nested in the sins of Ps 106:7 and the motive for deliverance in Ps 106:8. 46 John Goldingay, Psalms: Volume 3: Psalms 90–150 (BCOTWP; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008), 228. 45 Zimmerli, Brueggemann, I Am Yahweh. 46 For more on the psalms connections to major theological and historical themes, see Artur Weiser, Psalms: A Commentary (Translated by H. Hartwell, 3rd ed.; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1998), 676–683. 44

CHAPTER 4. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

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MAJOR CATEGORIES OF DIVINE MOTIVE Having surveyed the distribution, major forms, key markers, and illustrative texts of the divine motive statement, the study now turns to a survey of the major categories of divine motive: divine approval, the divine character, the acknowledgement of YHWH, and divine judgment of sin. After this survey is complete I will compare and contrast the categories that are used in appeals to motivate God with the characterization of God in the other divine motive statements. There are 46 texts in which the motive for the divine action is YHWH’s approval. 47 With the exception of Gen 2:3 (approval of creation) all of the motivating events are human. Broadly speaking the acts which are listed in the motive statements include: obedience 48, repentance 49, and the righteous character of an individual 50 It must be noted however, that hard lines cannot be drawn as there is a significant amount of overlap among the categories as in the case with many theological themes. As an example, in 1 Kgs 11 there are a series of motive statements related to David. In the context of the division of the kingdom, it is repeated that YHWH will not remove all of the tribes from Solomon’s son “for the sake of David and Jerusalem.” The initial statements of “for the sake of David” appear as motives based on YHWH’s relationship with David, and his faithfulness to that relationship (11:12, 13, 32) but beginning in 11:33, David’s obedience is mentioned and it is made Gen 2:3; 7:1; 20:6; 22:16–17; 26:4–5; 30:18, 27; Exod 1:21; 20:11; 33:17; Num 14:24; 25:11–13; 32:10–12; Deut 1:36; 7:12; 28:9, 13; 1 Sam 25:28; 1 Kgs 3:6, 11–12; 8:25; 11:12; 21:29; 2 Kgs 10:30; 21:8; Isa 26:3; 53:11–12; Jer 16:19–21; 24:7; 35:18–19; 36:2–3; 39:16–18; Ezek 29:18–20; Amos 5:14–15; Ps 18:21–22; 26:1; 45:8; 86:2; 106:23; 119:94; Job 42:8; Ezra 7:9–10; 1 Chr 5:20; 2 Chr 1:11–12; 17:3–4; 34:26–28. 48 Gen 22:16–17; 26:4–5; Num 14:24; 32:10–12; Deut 1:36; 7:12; 28:9, 13; 1 Sam 25:28; 1 Kgs 3:6; 8:25; 2 Kgs 10:30; 21:8; Jer 35:18–19; Ezek 29:18–20; Ps 18:21–22; 119:94; Job 42:8; Ezra 7:9–10; 2 Chr 17:3–4. 49 1 Kgs 21:29; Jer 16:19–21; 24:7b; 36:2–3; Amos 5:14–15; 2 Chr 34:26–28. 50 Gen 7:1; 20:6; 30:18; Exod 1:21; 33:17; Num 25:11–13; 1 Kgs 3:11–12; Isa 53:11–12; Ps 45:8; 86:2; 2 Chr 1:11–12. 47

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

an explicit part of the motive statement in 11:34. A further complicating element is added in 11:34. In addition to the notation of David’s obedience, there is the statement that David was chosen. With these various pieces of data the motive statements related to David could all be categorized all as divine approval since the final statement in the chapter specifically mentions obedience, or they could be categorized under the divine characteristic of choice, or under the broad heading of YHWH’s relationships. If I sought to harmonize them all, the categorization would hinge on which detail I chose as the lens through which all the occurrences would be viewed. Instead of this harmonizing approach, I have chosen in the research to categorize each occurrence separately based on the details and structure of the individual motive statement. Similar approaches have been taken in the study of legal motive clauses, where each constituent part has been allowed to stand without requiring harmonization. 51 The most intriguing use of divine approval as a motive is in 1 Kgs 21:29, which relates YHWH’s response to Ahab’s repentance. There are two key factors that make this text remarkable. The first, is that this is the first occurrence of divine approval of an individual’s repentance as a motive for a divine action. 52 The second is that the subject of the divine approval is Ahab. The uniqueness of this divine motive statement provides some support for the interpretation of Kings put forward by Gershon Galil in his 2001 article, “The Message of the Book of Kings in Relation to Deuteronomy and Jeremiah.” 53 Galil argues that “The message of the book of Kings is clear: The author did not present the history of the relationship between Israel and God as a process leading toward destruction and loss, but rather as an intricate and complex relationHere see Sonsino, Motive Clauses, 104–117 and his assessment of the various categorization schemes of prior work on legal motive clauses and the inherent difficulties in establishing absolute categories. 52 By first, I mean the first encountered in the canonical sequence of the texts in the MT. 53 Gershon Galil, “The Message of the Book of Kings in Relation to Deuteronomy and Jeremiah,” BSac 158 (2001): 406–414. 51

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ship … with sin, repentance, and forgiveness.” 54 One of the key aspects of Galil’s argument is the emphasis placed on warning and repentance in the book. 55 In particular Galil argues that because “repentance is expressed in the book through the wicked kings,” Ahab and Jehoahaz, it offers hope to the reader by suggesting that despite their sins, if there is hope for these kings, then there is hope for the nation. 56 Although one need not embrace Galil’s position to appreciate the uniqueness of this text, it is helpful to see the way in which the study of divine motive texts might complement existing studies. Another provocative aspect of this text is the scope of the divine action. Ahab’s repentance does not negate his judgment, it merely mitigates it by means of postponement. As I explored the extent of the divine response when YHWH is motivated by his approval of human behavior, I found an interesting pattern of mitigation, or limited action, that appears in Kings. In 2 Kgs 10:30, Jehu’s actions against the house of Ahab provide for four generations on the throne. For Josiah, in 2 Kgs 22:18–20, the judgment against Judah is held until after Josiah’s death, so that he will not experience the coming exile. The mitigation is made explicit in the following statement found in 2 Kgs 23:25–26. These mitigations occur alongside those that take place “for the sake of David.” Comparing these with the appeal for outright forgiveness in Solomon’s prayer (1 Kgs 8:39–40, 43) shows that although the occasion is the hypothetical future repentance and appeal of Israel or a foreigner, the actual motive for divine action is YHWH’s desire to make his name known and to cause the nations to fear him. As such, the motive statements of Kings allow for good things to happen in response to human actions, including obedience and repentance, but outright cancellation or remission of punishment is not found there. This is consistent with the statements on forgiveness

Ibid., 408. Ibid. 56 Ibid., 409. 54 55

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, where forgiveness and healing is theocentrically motivated. 57 The second broad category of divine motive is the divine character. Of the 509 motive statements in the study, 124 are related to a specific characteristic of YHWH. These characteristics include such traits as compassion/mercy, 58 lovingkindness, 59 righteousness, 60 faithfulness, love, and regard for the divine name. 61 The most significant of these are faithfulness, love/choice, 62 and the regard for the divine name. 63 The divine motive of faithfulness is found in relation to a broad range of subjects including: Abraham (Gen 26:24), Israel (Exod 6:5–8), Edom (Deut 2:5), Moab (Deut 2:9), Ammon (Deut 2:19), David (1 Kgs 15:4), and the psalmist as supplicant (Ps 25:5). What ties these together is the general concept that YHWH is E.g. Isa 48:9; Jer 14:7; and the multiple statements in Ezek 20. For an examination of the theocentric motivation of divine action in Ezekiel, see Goshen-Gottstein, “The Theocentric Trend,”69–77. 58 Gen 8:21; Exod 22:25–26; Deut 32:36; Judg 2:18; 1 Sam 9:16; 2 Kgs 13:4; 22:18–20; Isa 57:15–16; Jer 3:12; Hos 11:8–9; 14:5; Ps 25:16; 79:8; 86:1; Lam 1:11; Dan 9:18; Neh 3:36; 9:31; 2 Chr 36:15. 59 ‫ חסד‬Mic 7:18; Ps 6:5–6; 25:7; 44:27; 69:17; 103:10–11; Lam 3:32– 33. 60 Gen 18:26, 29, 31, 32; 2Kgs 24:20; Isa 30:15–18; 42:21; Jer 51:55– 56; Ps 5:9; 11:6–7; 25:8; Neh 9:8. 61 For an overview of the meaning of ‫ חסד‬and its theological role in the text, see D. A. Baer, “‫ח ַסד‬,” ָ NIDOTTE 2:206–214. The literature cited there also covers divine faithfulness and love. 62 Exod 18:8; 33:13; Num 3:11–13; 8:16–17; Deut 4:37–38; 7:7–8; 23:6; 1 Sam 16:1; 2 Sam 5:12; 7:21–24:25; 2 Sam 22:20; 1 Kgs 8:52–53; 11:13, 32, 34; Isa 43:3–4, 14; 45:4; 62:1; 63:17; 65:8; Jer 24:4–7; 31:3, 9, 20; Ps 18:20; 22:9; 132:13–14; 1 Chr 14:2; 16:21; 17:19. 63 Because of the significant role the texts related to the divine character play in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, we will explore this category most fully in the following two chapters. 1 Sam 12:22; 2 Sam 6:12; 2 Kgs 19:34; 20:6; Isa 37:33–35; 43:25; 48:9, 11; Jer 9:23; 14:7, 21; Ezek 20:8–9, 13–14, 20– 22, 44; 26:14; 36:20–23, 32; Hos 6:4–6; Ps 25:11; 31:3–5; 79:9; 109:21–22; 143:11; Dan 9:17, 19; 2 Chr 6:32–33. 57

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71

faithful to his relationships. The most remarkable of examples are the injunctions in Deut 2 against the seizing of land from Edom, Moab, and Ammon. In each case the motive for God’s refusal to give their land to Israel is the same: his prior relationship with the other nation and his continued faithfulness to his prior commitments. In general the faithfulness has its roots in the concrete past. It is often connected to the establishing of a covenant (Exod 6:5–8; 2 Kgs 13:23; 2 Chr 21:6–7). In the psalms the past and present trust of the psalmist in YHWH as the God of salvation and a source of refuge is frequently cited (Ps 25:20; 31:18; 39:13; 86:3–4; 143:10). Less significant aspects of this trait include his intentions for individual and communal roles. 64 One particular intent that flows from faithfulness that would be very easy to overlook, but appears to be strategically used, is the divine intent for Israel to possess and enjoy the land. Independently, each statement of this seemingly obvious intention appears to be relatively unimportant. But when we consider how this motive is employed across the texts, we see that it serves to underpin the characterization of YHWH. It affirms that his plans for the nation, from the beginning, were good. They were not just to enter the land; they were to possess it, and most significantly to enjoy it. The majority of these motive statements are found, as expected, in the Pentateuch. 65 It shows up again, however, in the prophets and writings and is used to emphasize the absolute goodness of YHWH’s intent for Israel. 66 The divine trait of faithfulness has a strong overlap with love/choice. In almost all of these relationships to which YHWH is faithful, we see motive statements indicating that the origin of the relationship lies solely within the sovereign will of YHWH. He chose the patriarchs, Israel, David, and Jerusalem, and for his own purposes he loves Israel and the psalmist (Deut 4:37–38; 7:7–8; 1 Sam 16:1; 2 Sam 5:12; 22:20; 1 Kgs 8:52–53; 11:13; Isa 43:3–4; Jer E.g. Gen 2:15; 3:23b; 19:13; Num 3:11–13; 8:16–17; Deut 4:20; 10:8; 12:1; 1 Sam 2:28; 2 Sam 7:8; Isa 50:4. 65 Gen 15:7; Exod 3:8; 6:4; Lev 25:38a; Deut 3:18; 6:23; 12:1; 15:4. 66 Jer 2:7; Amos 2:10; 9:11–12; Neh 9:36. 64

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

31:3; Ps 18:20; 22:9; 132:13–14). The close connections between the concepts of the origination of the relationship (divine love) and the continuation of the relationships (divine faithfulness) can make it difficult to determine which is in view in texts where there is little elaboration. This is especially true of non-verbal motive statements introduced by ‫ למען‬and ‫( בעבור‬e.g. Gen 26:24; 1 Kgs 11:12; Isa 37:33–35). The character trait of regard for the divine name is perhaps the most intriguing motive of all. I will treat it only briefly here as it will be addressed extensively in the following chapters on Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Fundamentally, when YHWH acts for the sake of his name, he is acting in accordance with who he truly is, and he is, through the action, demonstrating his true character. 67 The exceptionally wide range of activities that reflect the character of the divine name is seen in the paradigmatic announcement of the name in Exod 34:6–7 and in its subsequent echoes throughout the Hebrew Bible. 68 At its most basic level the pronouncement of the name affirms that both salvation and judgment are inherently part of the divine character. This duality is affirmed through the motive statements associated with the divine name. The combination is most readily observable in Isa 48:9–11 where both the motive for restraint/mercy and for judgment/refining is the divine name. Ezekiel is equally emphatic in tying both acts of judgment and acts of salvation to the divine name. 69 Although I will deal with this in much greater detail in the chapter on Ezekiel, I must at least introduce a core concept from John Goldingay, Psalms: Volume 1: Psalms 1–41 (BCOTWP; Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 597. 68 For a discussion of this text and the various echoes of it see Durham, Exodus, 453–455 and the literature cited there. See also Walter Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997), 215–228. 69 For an excellent summary the elements of Ezekiel’s theology that are tied to the name, see Donald E. Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books: The Death and Resurrection of Israel (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998), 125–133. See chapter 5 below on divine motive in Ezekiel for a thorough exploration of this theme. 67

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Zimmerli’s work on the Erkenntnisaussage, or “statement of recognition.” 70 Zimmerli argued that the final intent of the divine acts, including the divine act of self-revelation, is “to influence human beings and to create knowledge in them … and to elicit from them acknowledgement” of YHWH. 71 This intent, to create knowledge of himself, and to elicit an acknowledgement (often conceptualized as fearing YHWH) is one of the most significant motive categories. Although Zimmerli’s research was focused on the introduction formula, ‘You shall know that I am YHWH,’ this study has confirmed much of Zimmerli’s work and expands it by linking it more broadly to texts where the divine intent to create knowledge and elicit acknowledgement is found, and by linking it with the more general motive “for the sake of my name” mentioned above. I will briefly survey this motive here, saving extensive treatment for the chapter on Ezekiel. There are 33 occurrences where the motive is either to cause someone to know YHWH, or to cause someone to acknowledge (fear) YHWH. 72 It occurs in contexts of judgment (Exod 8:18; 9:14; Ezek 6:6–7; 12:15–16), salvation (Isa 37:20–22; 41:17–20; Zeph 3:9; Ps 102:20–22; Neh 9:20), the relationship between YHWH and Israel (Isa 43:10), and the conquest (Josh 4:23). 73 The greatest concentration is in the prophetic books with the greatest density occurring in Isaiah and Ezekiel. Obviously there is strong overlap with the character trait of regard for the divine name. These two often work in tandem. This Zimmerli, I Am Yahweh. The translation, ‘statement of recognition,’ is that adopted by the translator. See his comments on the choice of translation for this term, ibid., vii. 71 Zimmerli, “Knowledge of God,” 37. 72 Exod 8:18; 9:14–16; 10:1–2; 11:4–7; Deut 4:10; 8:3; Josh 4:23–24; 2 Sam 7:21; 1 Kgs 8:39–40, 43, 59–60; Isa 37:20–22; 41:17–20; 43:10; 45:3, 5–6; 61:1–3; Jer 10:18; Ezek 6:6–7; 12:15–16; 14:1–5; 20:25–26; 38:16; Zeph 3:9; Ps 56:14; 67:2–3; 78:5–6; 102:20–22; 106:7–8; Neh 9:20; 1 Chr 17:21; 2 Chr 6:30–31. 73 It is also possible to connect the theme of testing to this motive based on Exod 20:20 where Moses asserts that YHWH has come to test them so that they might fear him and not sin. 70

74

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

character trait expresses the inherent divine regard for the name as a basis for action (motive-in-general) 74 and the intent to cause acknowledgement of the name expresses the end towards which the divine actions are taken (intention). The combination of the two motives accounts for 13% of the divine motive statements in the study and as such must be considered one of the most significant motives. The final category of motive I will survey is divine judgment of sin. It is the single largest category with 207 occurrences. The categories of sin which are judged include: accusations or false statements against YHWH’s character (1 Kgs 20:28; Ezek 18:29– 30; Ps 78:19–21; Job 42:7), disobedience to YHWH’s word 75 (e.g. Exod 8:17; Deut 8:20; 29:24–27; Num 14:43; Judg 2:20–22; 1 Sam 13:14; 15:23; 1 Kgs 20:42), false prophecy, merely ritual worship (e.g. Jer 6:20–21; 8:11–12; 14:14–16; 23:38–40; 28:15–16; 29:30–32; Ezek 13:8–9, 17–21, 22–23); foreign attacks on and boasting over Israel (e.g. Ezek 25:2–5, 6–7, 8–9, 12–13, 15–17; 26:1–3; 29:6b–9a; 35:1–6; 35:10–12a; 36:2–7; Zeph 2:8–10; Zech 1:14–16; Ps 79:6–7; Neh 3:37); idolatry and divination 76; rejection of the divine word, knowledge of God, and the covenant relationship with YHWH 77, Ibid., 35–36. This includes violations of the prophetic word, the law, and the covenant more broadly. 76 There are 55 occurrences of this motive: Exod 32:35; Deut 31:18; 32:20–22; Judg 3:12; 10:13; 1 Kgs 9:6–9; 11:9, 31–33, 36, 39; 12:15; 14:7– 10, 15–16; 16:2–3; 2 Kgs 1:3–4, 6, 16; 21:11–15; 22:15–17; 23:25–26; Isa 2:6; 65:7; Jer 1:16; 3:8, 12; 5:10–11, 19; 9:12–15; 10:18; 11:17; 19:3–6; 32:26–30; Ezek 5:9–11; 6:6–7; 14:1–5; 16:35–37; 20:15–17, 23–26; 22:4; Hos 2:6–8; 4:9–11, 14; 9:15; 11:8–9; Mic 1:7; Zeph 1:17; 2 Chr 7:22; 10:15; 21:12–15; 24:24; 25:20–21; 34:23–25 77 There are 46 occurrences of this motive: Gen 3:23; Exod 8:18; 9:14–16; 11:4–7; Lev 17:10–11; Isa 5:24–25; 7:13–14; 27:11; 30:9–18; 65:12; 66:4; Jer 2:8–9; 5:14; 6:17–19; 7:13–14; 8:8–10; 9:5–6, 24–25; 11:10–11; 13:25–26; 16:10–12; 18:11–17; 19:15; 22:8–9; 25:4–9; 26:15; 29:15–19; 35:17; 40:3; 44:29–30; Ezek 5:7–8; 16:43; 39:23; Hos 2:10–11; 4:1, 6; 6:4–6; 9:17; Amos 2:4–5; Mal 2:2–3; Ps 95:10–11; Neh 9:29; 2 Chr 24:20; 25:15–16. 74 75

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pride (e.g. Isa 3:6–17; Jer 2:35; Neh 9:9–10), sexual sins (e.g. Gen 12:17; 20:3, 18), and violence (e.g. Gen 6:13, 17, Judg 9:23–24, 2 Sam 12:10). There are several smaller categories as well as some texts where the nature of the sin is not specified. 78 It is not surprising that idolatry and rejection of the divine word are the two largest categories. Yet, there are some patterns worth noting. First, direct disobedience to the word is limited to the historical books. In the prophetic texts, it generally cast not as disobedience to, but as rejection of the word. False prophecy, though addressed in many places is found primarily in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. I will explore this relationship more closely in the succeeding chapters. The final item of the survey is not a category per se, but more of a mode of motive statement: appeals made to God. The vast majority of the texts are statements of motive which are received by hearers of the divine and prophetic speeches, and readers of the various texts. When, however, one considers the appeals, these are statements that are intended to motivate God. As such they do reveal a different aspect of the characterization of YHWH and of the Israelite conception of YHWH—they reveal what the author/speaker/supplicant believes is motivating to YHWH. I will survey the texts, their distribution, and the primary motive categories in the appeals. I will then compare and contrast this with the other texts. There are 67 texts where God is the recipient of the motive statement. 79 Of these 28 (42%) are backward-looking motives, 26 E.g. the attack on Jeremiah (18:10–22); deception (Ps 119:118; Mic 6:12–14); failed leadership (Mic 3:4; 2 Chr 28:19; Ezek 34:20–21); foreign alliances (Ezek 23:8–9); godlessness (Isa 9:16) and sin generally (Jer 30:14– 15; 31:37; Ezek 22:19–20). Additionally there are in the various oracles against the nations which detail the sins of the nations (Amos 1 and 2; Nah 1:14). 79 Exod 33:13; Deut 9:26–28; 2 Sam 7:21, 21; 1 Kgs 3:6; 8:25, 39–40, 43, 50–53, 59–60; Isa 63:17; Jer 14:7, 21; 18:20–22; 31:18; Ps 5:9, 11; 6:5– 6; 8:3; 18:20–22; 22:9; 25:5–8, 11, 16, 20; 26:1; 31:3–5, 18; 39:13; 44:27; 56:14; 59:12; 69:17; 79:6–9; 86:1–4; 109:21–22; 119:94, 118; 132:10; 78

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(39%) are motive-in-general, and 13 (19%) are intentions. These ratios are significant for their variation from the basic distribution pattern. The basic distribution is 57% backward-looking, 18% motive-in-general, and 25% intention. The appeal texts show a much lower backward-looking orientation and a dramatically higher proportion of motive-in-general. Another unique feature of this set is the concentration of occurrences in Psalms. Of the 67 appeal texts, 35 (52%) are found in Psalms. Although significantly fewer, there is another noticeable pocket of density in 1 Kgs where we find seven occurrences in the opening section, chapters 1–11, with six of the seven located in 1 Kgs 8. It should be noted that there are no appeals in Ezekiel while there are four appeal texts in Jeremiah. I will explore this difference in the upcoming chapters. Lastly, with regard to distribution, it is noted that although Daniel has only three motive statements, all of them are appeals. When I analyze the motive categories associated with the appeal texts, there is a definite concentration in the divine characteristics. Forty-two (63%) of the texts use a divine characteristic as the motive for the requested divine action. The distribution of traits with which an appeal is made is as follows: compassion (Neh 3:36; Ps 25:16; 79:8; 86:1), faithfulness (1 Kgs 8:50–51; Ps 25:5, 6, 20; 31:8; 39:13; 86:3–4; 143:10, 12, Neh 9:1, 36), lovingkindness (‫)חסד‬ (Ps 6:5–6; 25:7; 44:27; 69:17), love/choice (Exod 33:13; 2 Sam 7:21a; 1 Kgs 8:52–53; Isa 63:17; Ps 18:20; 22:9; 1 Chr 17:19), mercy (Lam 1:11; Dan 9:18; Neh 9:31), righteousness/justice (Ps 5:9; 25:8; Neh 9:8) and regard for the divine name (Deut 9:26–28; Jer 14:7, 21; Ps 25:11; 31:3–5; 79:9; 109:21–22; 143:11; Dan 9:17, 19; 2 Chr 6:32–33). The remaining appeals use divine judgment on sin (Jer 18:20– 22; Ps 5:11; 8:3; 79:6–7; 119:118; Neh 3:37; 9:9–10), acknowledgement of YHWH (2 Sam 7:21b; 1 Kgs 8:39–40, 43, 59–60; Ps 56:14; Neh 9:20, 29; 1 Chr 17:21), and divine approval—of David and his sons (1 Kgs 3:6; 8:25) and of the psalmist (Ps 18:21–22; 26:1; 86:2; 119:94). Recognizing the overlap between the acknowledgement of YHWH and regard for the divine name categories, it is clear that 143:10–12; Lam 1:11; Dan 9:17–19; Neh 1:9; 3:36–37; 9:8–10, 20, 29, 31, 36; 1 Chr 17:19, 21; 2 Chr 6:32–33.

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the instances that are not related to the divine character traits are exceptionally few. The net impact is to see that with regard to the characterization of YHWH in the appeals, YHWH is primarily theocentrically motivated. That is to say, YHWH is motivated by his own character and it is to his character, to him as a unique person, that the supplicant appeals. This does not mean that YHWH is not responsive to people, but that ultimately he makes decisions sovereignly on the basis of his own personhood. Brueggemann’s comments about the echoes of Exodus 34 in prayers of complaint are worth quoting at length: Israel uses the positive recital concerning Yahweh in its prayers of complaint when it want to address Yahweh directly in the second person as the One who is expected to be gracious and faithful … The formula is used … to remind Yahweh of who Yahweh is, and who Yahweh declared God’s own self to be. The purpose of prayer is to motivate Yahweh to be Yahweh’s true self, and so to overcome the present situation of danger by a power show of solidarity. 80

One of the key questions posed regarding the book of Jeremiah is how should the reader understand Jeremiah’s turn from preaching judgment to salvation. 81 In chapter six below, I will explore the book to see if there are motive connections to this great stream of tradition that might help explain the shift in Jeremiah’s preaching. I will also explore the absence of direct appeals in the chapter on Ezekiel. Lastly, with regard to the appeals, it is instructive to look at the occurrences in the book of Lamentations. One might imagine that Lamentations would be filled motive statements. Explaining and lamenting the loss of the city would be the perfect occasion for many statements explaining why YHWH would destroy the city Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, 219. Raitt, “Jeremiah’s Deliverance Message,” 166–185. See also J. G. McConville, Judgment and Promise: An Interpretation of the Book of Jeremiah (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1993) for an overview of past scholarship on this issue. 80 81

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

and people who bear his name. Yet, the reader encounters only three divine motive statements in Lamentations. Their content and arrangement are an illustrative example of the way in which an author might strategically employ divine motive statements. The first statement in Lam 1:5 is a backward-looking motive, the divine judgment of sin. ‫יה ָה ְל ֥כוּ‬ ָ ‫עוֹל ֶ ֛ל‬ ָ ‫יה‬ ָ ‫ֹב־פּ ָשׁ ֶ ֑ﬠ‬ ְ ‫הוֹגהּ ַ ֣ﬠל ר‬ ֖ ָ ‫הוה‬ ֥ ָ ְ‫יה ָשׁ ֔לוּ ִ ֽכּי־י‬ ָ ‫ֹיְב‬ ֣ ֶ ‫אשׁ א‬ ֙ ֹ ‫יה ְלר‬ ָ ‫ָהי֨ וּ ָצ ֶ ֤ר‬ ‫י־צר‬ ֽ ָ ֵ‫ְשׁ ִ ֖בי ִל ְפנ‬ Her adversaries have become the head; her enemies are at ease, for YHWH has afflicted her because of her many of transgressions; her children have gone into captivity before the adversary.

Here, the “author reveals one of the book’s most significant theological concepts: what has happened to Judah has occurred because of her sins. How did the foe become her master? Why do they prosper?” because of the multitude of Israel’s transgressions. 82 This is the kind of motive statement that we would expect to be common in a book that seeks to explore the tragedy of the loss of the city. In general the Mesopotamian city laments, though not uniform in their structure and content, all address “in great detail the fall and destruction of the cities and states.” 83 The second motive statement in 1:11 is also a backwardlooking statement. ‫ל־ﬠ ָ ֤מּהּ נֶ ֱאנָ ִח ֙ים ְמ ַב ְקּ ִ ֣שׁים ֔ ֶל ֶחם‬ ַ ‫ָכּ‬ ‫א ֶכל ְל ָה ִ ֣שׁיב ָ ֑נ ֶפשׁ‬ ֹ ֖ ‫יהם[ ְבּ‬ ֛ ֶ ‫יהם ] ַמ ֲח ַמ ֵדּ‬ ֶ ‫מוֹדּ‬ ֵ ‫נָ ְתנ֧ וּ ַמ ֲח‬ ‫זוֹל ָ ֽלה‬ ֵ ‫יתי‬ ִ ‫יטה ִ ֥כּי ָה ִ ֖י‬ ָ ‫ְר ֵ ֤אה יְ הוָ ֙ה ְ ֽו ַה ִ֔בּ‬

351.

82

Paul R. House, Lamentations (WBC 23B; Nashville: Nelson, 2004),

Piotr Michalowski, The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur (Mesopotamian Civilizations 1; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1989), 5–6. For additional discussion of the features of the city lament, see Donna Lee Petter, The Book of Ezekiel and Mesopotamian City Laments (OBO 246; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 15–33. 83

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All her people are groaning searching for bread. They exchanged their precious things for food to stay alive. Look, YHWH, and take notice, because I am despised.

Although some translations and commentators read the ‫ כּי‬clause as a content clause, what YHWH is called to see, I read this as a causal statement that YHWH should regard them now, because they are despised. 84 Contextual support for the causal reading comes from the earlier call for YHWH to see in Lam 1:9. There the ‫כּי‬ clause lists the boasting, or greatness of the nations as cause for YHWH to give attention to their plight. Given the numerous passages where the boasting and taunting of the enemy is a motive for divine action (Ezek 25:2–5; 26:1–3; Zeph 2:8–10; Neh 3:36–37) it is reasonable to see this theme here as well. This would also make a fitting progression from the first motive statement in 1:5 which highlights the advancement of Israel’s foes which is contrary to the divine design (Deut 28:13, 44). 85 The later call to see in Lam 1:11, then, is also read as an appeal based on their plight. This appeal is based on YHWH’s great compassion for his people, and on his faithfulness to his chosen people. As such, we have progressed from the confession of the cause of their plight, to an appeal for divine attention in light of their plight. The next step is the most significant. In the third and final motive statement in Lam 3:32–33, the author is in the midst of a long response to the question of why it is better to submit to God in light of these dire circumstances. The poet’s “convictions about God’s character form the basis” of his argument. 86 The character trait in question is YHWH’s mercy. The poet asserts that “God’s heart is not in this sort of activity, even though he is well able to judge when needed, as Lamentations proves. If God prefers not to punish, then the hope remains that he will return to compassion, which Lam 3:22 and 3:32 strongly 248F

Compare the JPS, NET, and ESV renderings. See also, House, Lamentations, 356; and Heath Thomas, “The Meaning of zōlēlâ (Lam 1:11) One More Time,” VT 61/3 (2011): 496. 85 House, Lamentations, 350. 86 Ibid., 417. 84

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imply is the substance of his heart.” 87 The three-fold movement then is from confession, to a call for attention, to an appeal to the people to believe, and to YHWH to act in mercy. Given the prominence of the placement of this motive in the book, it is a key part of the poet’s overall characterization of YHWH.

A THEOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF DIVINE MOTIVE In some ways it is virtually impossible to summarize the data from this study. The sheer volume of texts, the diverse nature of the motive categories, and the tremendous variety in form, defy attempts to create a tidy summary. Yet, there are key themes that come through consistently. The character traits of mercy, justice, faithfulness, and the regard for the divine name are at the very core of the characterization expressed in the motive statements. With these themes in mind, a quite broad, but still representative summary, statement can be made. The most significant character traits listed above, combined with the judgment of sin are all conceptually related to the expression of the divine name in Exod 34. This key passage, long recognized as being at the heart of the Israelite understanding of God, is intimately linked with the way YHWH is characterized through motive statements. Similarly the emphasis on the revelation of the name and the acknowledgement of God’s revelation of himself that is found in Exodus leading up to the proclamation of the name in Exod 34, is matched by the similar emphasis on the selfintroduction and the required human response seen broadly in the motive statements. Each of these elements, the character traits, the judgment of sin, the self-introduction, and the required human response are all equally at home in the context of Exod 34 and the motive statements found across the canon. The ubiquity of these themes indicates that any summary of divine motive must be able to incorporate all of these. Furthermore, as in Exod 34, the motive statements make clear that the “two halves” of the description must not be separated. Any atIbid., 417. See also Jože Krašovec, “The Source of Hope in the Book of Lamentations,” VT 42/2 (1992): 223–233. 87

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tempt to wrest God’s mercy away from his just punishment of sin is resisted in the motive statements. The data from Jeremiah and Ezekiel make this abundantly clear. Additionally, the way the motive statements are employed it is clear that divine motive is conceptualized in relational terms. The divine motive statements are by their very nature expressions of the divine self-revelation, or to put it in Zimmerli’s terms, divine self-introductions. This means that just as Moses was compelled to worship in Exod 34 at the pronunciation of the name, so too, the broad intent of the motive statements as they are deployed across the canon is to prompt the proper human response to the divine self-revelation—worship. Finally, the last element of any summary must be the recognition of the mystery that the personhood of YHWH presents. 88 Though he has revealed his motives, and thereby himself, he still retains the mystery of his sovereignty. As in Exod 34, no explanation is given for how and when he chooses mercy or judgment. Both are grounded in his very nature; he is motivated to them because he is YHWH. Yet, neither can be presumed. Mercy can be found in the midst of overwhelming judgment. God can be and was a sanctuary to his people even when he has removed them from his presence. Similarly, judgment is not off limits even for the people that bear YHWH’s name and whose fortunes effect his reputation before the watching world of the nations surrounding Israel. In summary, YHWH is sovereignly motived by his character, the very nature of his person, to make himself known and to prompt proper human acknowledgement of his self-introduction so that his people might be rightly related to him in faithful covenant. Thus as in Exod 34:6–7, the expression of the divine intent is seen broadly in faithful, covenantal mercy and grace, and in faithful, just judgment. He is motivated to be who he is. Here I am not using “person” in a Trinitarian sense, but simply to indicate the YHWH is treated with personhood and all the mystery entailed in the choices of an individual rather than being treated as a collection of attributes, or as a theological abstraction. Thus his acts cannot be predicted or presumed, but rather they must be made known. 88

CHAPTER 5. DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL THE DISTRIBUTION OF DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENTS IN EZEKIEL Ezekiel has 54 divine motive statements distributed as follows. 1 Ezekiel’s Call (1:1–3:27)

3:25–27

Judgments against Israel/Judah (4:1–24:27)

5:7–8; 9–11; 6:6–7; 11:19–20; 12:15–16; 13:8–9, 17– 21, 22–23; 14:1–5, 9–11; 16:35–37, 43, 62–63; 18:29–30; 20:8–9, 12, 13–14, 15–17, 20–22, 23–24, 25–26, 44; 21:9–10; 22:4, 19–20; 23:8–9, 18–22

For the purposes of this study I will not be addressing the various questions related to authorship, originality, or authenticity of specific passages, or to the time of writing. I will work with the book’s implied author, audience, and setting as the framework for our assessment. This approach is similar in many ways to Greenberg’s “holistic interpretation.” Moshe Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20: A New Translation with introduction and Commentary (AB 22; Garden City: Doubleday, 1983), 18–27. For more on these issues, see Walther Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Translated by J.D. Martin, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 1–75; Walther Eichrodt, Ezekiel: A Commentary (OTL; Translated by Quin, Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970), 1–21; and Daniel I. Block, The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1–24 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 1–23. 1

83

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Judgments against the Nations (25:1–32:32)

25:2–5, 6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 12–13, 15–17; 26:1–3, 14; 28:1–7; 29:6b–9a, 9b–10, 15, 18–20; 31:10–11

Hope for Israel/Judah (33:1–48:35)

33:29; 34:6–10, 20–21; 35:1–6, 10–12a; 36:2–7, 20– 23, 30, 32; 38:16; 39:23; 44:10–14

The highest concentration of divine motive statements is in the second section, Ezek 4:1–24:27. This section has 27 motive statements with the greatest density of occurrences in chapter 20 which has eight statements of divine motive (15%). Other sections with marked density include chapter 25 (six motive statements), chapter 29 (four), and chapter 36 (four). Consonant with the number of statements found in the chapters dominated by themes of judgment, 63% (34) of Ezekiel’s divine motive statements are backward-looking, with 25 of them located in chapters 4–32. There are seven motive-in-general statements in Ezekiel; four of which are located in chapter 20. These four are extraordinary. In the midst of a chapter that focuses so intently on Israel’s failures, these four motive statements are all related to positive divine actions. I will return to explore chapter 20 in some detail later in this chapter. The final motive-in-general texts are found in chapters 26 and 36. The remaining 13 divine motive statements are all intentions. They occur almost exclusively in the two judgment sections found in chapters 4–32. The other two are in chapters 36 and 38. It is clear from a survey of the distribution of motive types, that the highest density of occurrences is related to judgment, though with the positive nature of the motive-in-general statements in chapter 20, the relationship to judgment is not all negative. The distribution survey makes it clear that the focus must be on chapters 20, 25, 29, and 36.

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THE FORM OF THE DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENT IN EZEKIEL As noted in chapter 4, there are no direct characterization motive statements in Ezekiel. All of the statements are indirect characterizations and all of them are from divine speeches. 2 In general the more distant nature of Ezekiel’s relationship to YHWH as compared to Jeremiah’s is reflected in the absence of direct statements of YHWH’s motive by Ezekiel. 3 In Jeremiah direct characterization of YHWH’s motives are found in his laments. The absence of intercession, at the command of YHWH, leads to a lack of direct motive statements from Ezekiel. The closest we come to an intercessory moment for Ezekiel is found in Ezek 11:13, but unlike Jeremiah’s interactions with YHWH, Ezekiel does not appeal for YHWH’s intervention and does not present any motivations for YHWH to act. 4 Rochester convincingly argues that Jeremiah, in the midst of a people who “have a superficial over-familiarity with Yahweh without genuinely ‘knowing’ him” is cast as the “one who genuinely ‘knows’ Yahweh” and therefore as one who “Yahweh, does indeed, This includes both divine addresses to Ezekiel and Ezekiel’s activity that might be characterized as messenger speech. “Direct characterization is provided by the narrator or by one of the persons in the story, while indirect characterization is the product of an analysis of the persona’s discourse and his/her actions and conduct.” Amit, Reading Biblical Narratives, 74. For more on direct and indirect characterization, see BarEfrat, Narrative Art, 53–69. 3 For an extended discussion of the differences between the relationship of YHWH to Ezekiel and Jeremiah, see Kathleen M. Rochester, Prophetic Ministry in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (CBET 65; Leuven: Peeters, 2012), 221–224. 4 It should be noted that some interpreters, following the LXX, read Ezekiel’s words as a question. (See the RSV for representative translation as a question.) Others, following the MT, read Ezekiel’s words as a declarative sentence. (See the JPS for a representative translation.) Either way, the words express Ezekiel’s realization that the end has come and the people will be destroyed. For a discussion of the various translation options, see Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 338–339. 2

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relate to … in intimate terms, in spoken dialogue in which the prophet feels free to be candid and argumentative.” 5 It is in this dialogue that the reader encounters Jeremiah’s direct characterization of YHWH. Ezekiel on the other hand, in the midst of a people who “have been forcibly removed from their land and their temple” and who therefore assume “that they have also been distanced from their God … must begin to perceive Yahweh from a different starting point: a point of distance.” 6 As an illustration of this distance, Ezekiel does not engage YHWH in the same personal way that Jeremiah does, so there is a corresponding lack of direct characterization of YHWH by Ezekiel that coincides with the absence of intercession. With regard to order type, 23 of the statements are order type 1 (beginning with the statement of divine action), 22 are order type 2 (beginning with a motive marker) and 9 are order type 3 (beginning with the statement of divine motive with the motive marker following). 7 The high number of type 1 is not unexpected given the results of the larger analysis of form from chapter 4. Yet, as noted in chapter 4, order type 1 is not the basic form of prophetic speeches with reason, so I will explore a bit further the distribution of this order type. All of the divine motive statements in chapter 20 are order type 1. Given the unique role of this chapter in Ezekiel and its presence on the list of chapters with a high density of motive statements, it is significant that all of the occurrences in the chapter have the more unusual order type. 8 The high correlation between Rochester, Prophetic Ministry, 221. Ibid., 222. 7 Type 1: 3:25–27; 5:9–11; 6:6–7; 11:19–20; 12:15–16; 14:9–11; 16:62–63; 20:8–9, 13–14, 15–17, 20–22, 23–24, 25–26, 44; 25:10–11; 26:14; 29:15; 33:29; 34:20–21; 35:1–6; 36:30; 38:16. Type 2: 5:7–8; 13:8–9, 22–23; 16:35–37, 43; 21:9–10; 22:19–20; 25:2–5, 6–7, 8–9, 12–13, 15–17; 26:1–3; 28:1–7; 29:6b–9a, 9b–10; 31:10–11; 35:10–12a; 36:2–7, 32; 39:23; 44:10–14. Type 3: 13:17–21; 14:1–5; 18:29–30; 22:4; 23:8–9, 18–22; 29:18–20; 34:6–10; 36:20–23. 8 For an overview of the features of chapter 20 and its role in Ezekiel see: Leslie C. Allen, “The Structuring of Ezekiel’s Revisionist History 5 6

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order type 1 and this chapter is due to the emphasis on the downward cyclical spiral of Israel’s sin, and YHWH’s recurring, but slowly receding mitigation of their punishment. 9 By placing the recitation of sin first, followed by the divine decision to punish, and then ending with the divine action of restraint, the emphasis of the concluding motive statement lands on the unexpected nature of the restraint. The unusual placement is enhanced by the use of motivein-general statements which emphasize the origination of the acts of grace within the divine character. 10 An overview of the motive statements is given below.

1 - vv. 5–9

Motivated Action

Motive

Comment

v. 9 “I acted”

‫למען שמי‬

The initial divine action in this passage is the oath to bring Israel out of Egypt and into the promised land. The oath is followed by a command to end idolatrous practices. This is then followed by the statement of Israel’s rebellion, the divine decision to punish, the divine restraint, and the divine motive statement.

Lesson (Ezekiel 20:3–31),” CBQ 54 (1992): 448–462; Alex Luc, “A Theology of Ezekiel: God’s Name and Israel’s History,” JETS 26/2 (1983): 137–143 and Lyle M. Eslinger, “Ezekiel 20 and the Metaphor of Historical Teleology: Concepts of Biblical History,” JSOT 81 (1998): 93–125. 9 Ibid., 99. See also Allen, “Structuring of Ezekiel’s Revisionist History,” 452–453. 10 Contra Fishbane who cites “the ancestor’s merits” as the basis for the otherwise undeserved deliverance of the people. Michael A. Fishbane, “Sin and Judgment in the Prophecies of Ezekiel,” Int 38/2 (1984): 143. This approach ignores the explicit motive statements.

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2 - vv. 10–14

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v. 12 “I gave”

‫ לדעת‬,‫להיות‬

v. 14 “I acted”

‫למען שמי‬

The first two actions in this second section (leading out and giving of rules and statutes) parallel the actions of section one (oath to bring out, and the commands against idolatry). A secondary unit in this section, introduced by ‫גם‬, adds the Sabbaths which are intended to be a sign that will cause Israel to know that the giver is YHWH and that it is YHWH who sanctifies them. This is an exact parallel to the restraint of wrath in section one.

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3 - vv. 15–17

vv. 15–16 “I swore”

‫ לא‬,‫יען מאסו‬ ‫ חללו‬,‫הלכו‬

89

Section three is introduced, like the secondary action of section 2 with ‫גם‬. This prompts the reader to perhaps expect a secondary positive element just as the ‫ גם‬addition above introduced a positive element. This is furthered by the divine action of swearing which has positive connotations from the first section. Yet here, the addition to the prior section is negative and the only motive is the sin of the people. The sins connect back to the prior two sections ending with a strong link to the idolatry of section one. Though a mitigation does exist, it does not include a motive statement. This “missing motive” is noticeable and is part of the literary construction of the chapter leading towards the concluding section.

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4 - vv. 18–22 v. 22 “I withheld”

‫למען שמי‬

,‫יען לא עשׂו‬ 5 - vv. 23–26

v. 23 “I swore”

,‫ חללו‬,‫מאסו‬ ‫היו‬

This fourth section does not begin with a divine oath or a divine action, but with a command for the children to not follow their parents’ ways. Interestingly here, the divine intent for the Sabbath seen in the second section, is here cast in the same terms as a motive for the people to keep the Sabbaths holy. Like the third, the fifth section, introduced by ‫גם‬, does not bring an addition of good news. It brings additional judgment. In an ironic reversal from the first ‫ גם‬addition in section 2, there are rules and statutes that are not good and do not lead to life. Parallel to the third section, the cause for this oath of punishment is also expressed with ‫יען‬.

CHAPTER 5. DIVINE MOTIVE IN EZEKIEL

v. 25 “I gave” v. 26 “I defiled”

‫למען שמם‬ ‫למען ידע‬

91

A second ‫ גם‬statement adds additional weight to this final section. The doubled ‫ למען‬statements provide both the “missing” motive from section 3 and the expected motive statement of this section. Yet, each is negative. Here as well, the intent to know YHWH, which was a positive motive for YHWH in v. 12 and a positive motive for the people in v. 20, is now the stated intent of judgment in v. 26.

In sum, there is a divine motive statement in each of the main sections of the chapter’s historical recital of Israel’s sins (20:5–26). 11 When examined, a clear pattern emerges. The motive statements in sections 1, 2, and 4 are positive. For the sake of his name, YHWH acts to restrain his punishment of Israel. 12

For an extended treatment of the various approaches to the chapter’s structure, see Allen, “Structuring of Ezekiel’s Revisionist History,” 448–462. I am following Allen’s five division structure: Ezek 20:5–9, 10– 14, 15–17, 18–22, and 23–26. For other five division variations see the literature cited in Allen: Siegfried Herrmann, Die prophetischen Heilserwartungen im Alten Testament (BWANT 85; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer,), 262–263 and Giuseppe Bettenzoli, Geist der Heiligkeit: Traditionsgeschlichtliehe Untersuchung des QDS-Begriffes im Buche Ezechiel (QdS 8; Florence: Istituto di Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali, 1979), 195–198. 12 Although these are parallel, there is some progression with the repetition of “but I acted” (‫ )עשה‬in vv. 9, and 14 which gives way to the weightier, “I held back my hand” in v. 22. So Allen, “Structuring of Ezekiel’s Revisionist History,” 456. 11

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Section three breaks the pattern of one and two in “a sinister development” with a “focus on future punishment.” 13 Even though there is a mitigation of punishment in this section, the only motive statement is the strongly worded ‫ יען‬clause, which lists the sin of the first wilderness generation as the cause for the divine promise forbidding them entry into the land. The glaring absence of a motive statement for the restraint has been noted by many commentators. 14 The use of ‫ גם‬is a key literary feature as it links this unit both to the positive addition of the Sabbaths (v. 12) which was designed to lead Israel to know YHWH, and to the negative oath in section five that the nation will experience exile, and to the divine act of giving statutes/laws which are “not good” that do not lead to life. 15 The fourth section shifts back to the pattern of sections one and two, with subtle adjustments. 16 First, there is no positive divine oath as in section one. The positive divine intent for the Sabbaths is included from the second section, but it is cast as a motive for the people’s obedience, and it is subordinated to the negative command which begins the section. 17 Allen notes the order of the appeal to the Sabbath command and its connection to the positive revelation of YHWH, but he does not address the shift from divine motive to motive for obedience that takes place. This shift is likely due to the increasing attention to obedience and disobedience that culminates in the excoriating judgment of the fifth section. The statement of the people’s sin is virtually identical to the statement from section two, continuing the strong parallel. The fifth section begins like the third with ‫ גם‬and a negative divine oath. Here YHWH swears that the nation will go into exile 26F

Ibid., 455. Ibid. 15 The expression, ‫הם‬ ֽ ֶ ‫וּמ ְשׁ ָפּ ִ֔טים ֥ל ֹא יִ ְֽחי֖ וּ ָבּ‬ ִ֨ ‫טוֹבים‬ ֑ ִ ‫אנִ ֙י נָ ַ ֣ת ִתּי ָל ֶ֔הם ֻח ִ ֖קּים ֣ל ֹא‬, ֲ is particularly vexing. For a survey of opinion on the meaning of this enigmatic phrase, see Ellen F. Davis, Swallowing the Scroll: Textuality and the Dynamics of Discourse in Ezekiel’s Prophecy (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2009), 113–114. 16 Allen, “Structuring of Ezekiel’s Revisionist History,” 455. 17 Ibid. 13 14

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in the future. The motive for this oath is expressed, as in section three, with a ‫ יען‬initiated motive clause. It is followed by a second ‫ גם‬statement which might lead one to hope for a continuation of the pattern of sections one, two, and four, with a statement of restraint, but it is instead followed with great irony by a final motive statement that YHWH’s judgment will be for the purpose of destroying them, so that they might know that he is YHWH. The doubled ‫ למען‬statement “appears to be sardonic reversal of the triple … “for my name’s sake” … that appeared in the positive divine reactions of the first, second, and fourth sections (w 9,14,22).” 18 The “missing” motive statement of the third section is found here in the final section, but is part of a doubled negative statement of judgment. Another ironic twist is the inclusion of the statement of recognition. Other uses of the statement and related themes in the chapter (vv. 5, 7, 9, 12, 19, and 20) are all positive, but here the final statement of section five indicates that Israel’s knowing YHWH will come through the final act of judgment. Thus, the concern for the divine name does not yield mitigation of the punishment; rather it assures its completeness. As will be noted later in this chapter, there is a noticeable emphasis on divine action in Ezekiel. 19 The high number of divine motive statements of order type 1, which front the divine action, may serve to help the reader focus on the element of divine action. Then by using repetitive patterns such as those in chapter 20 that end with an unexpected change in the motive statement, Ezekiel is able to leverage effectively the motive statements so as to make the greatest impact. The fronting of the divine action thus highlights the inevitable and consuming nature of the coming judgment. Although more widespread than the occurrences noted in chapter 20, there are other places in Ezekiel where the expected pattern of divine action and motive is altered for effect. Consider the following sequence. In Ezekiel’s call, the only divine motive 269F

Ibid., 456. For an overview and critique of various positions on the relationship between divine and human action in Ezekiel, see C. A. Strine, “The Role of Repentance in the Book of Ezekiel: A Second Chance for the Second Generation,” JTS ns 63/2 (2012): 467–491. 18 19

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statement is 3:25–27, where YHWH states that he will not allow Ezekiel to mediate for the people because they are rebellious. Yet when the divine word is given through Ezekiel, the people will be able to respond, either positively or negatively, of their own accord, because they are rebellious. 20 This is followed by a series of motive statements that connect YHWH’s judgment of the people to their idolatry. Ezek 5:7–8 begins with a typically ordered statement in which the reason is followed by the announcement. Then in Ezek 5:9–11 the reader encounters the following incredibly dense package: Divine Action Statement

Divine Motive Statement Divine Action Statement

Divine Motive Statement Divine Action Statement

5:9a I will do what I have never done and will not do again 5:9b because (‫ )יען‬of all your abominations—therefore (‫)לכן‬ 5:10 I will execute judgments against you

5:11a therefore (‫ )לכן‬as I live, because (‫ )יען‬you have defiled 5:11b I will withdraw, my eye will not be troubled, I will have no pity

By altering the order type, it allows the sequence to highlight the divine actions which stand at the beginning, center, and end of the unit. Exclusive use of the typical pattern of reason-announcement would not have allowed for this effect. This dense unit is followed by a simple motive statement, Ezek 6:6–7, which is fronted by the divine action. This statement is the first use in Ezekiel of ‫למען‬, which features so prominently in chapter 20. Here it is used to mark divine intent. God will destroy

On the phrase �‫מוֹכ ַי‬ ִ ‫אישׁ‬, as indicating mediation, see Mark J. Boda, A Severe Mercy: Sin and its Remedy in the Old Testament (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2009), 257–258; Robert R. Wilson, “An Interpretation of Ezekiel’s Dumbness,” VT 22/1 (1972): 91–104; and Joyce, Divine Initiative, 59. 20

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their false worship sites and idols. Combined with the significant death toll, this action is intended to cause them to recognize YHWH. This is the first statement of intention in Ezekiel, and it is not positive. It is the culmination of the prior backward-looking motives which were all negative as well (Ezek 3:25–26, 5:7–8, 9– 11). Then we come to Ezek 11. The chapter begins with another prophetic recitation of Israel’s sins and a culminating statement in 11:12 that the people will know that he is YHWH. Given the most recent statement of motive and the overall context of the chapters 4–10, this is not a positive statement. 21 It is significant, however, that this is not marked with an explicit motive statement. So when the reader comes to Ezekiel’s exasperated cry in 11:13, “Will you make a full end of the remnant of Israel?” the expectation is that the reply will be a resounding “yes.” This false expectation is set up by the prohibition on Ezekiel interceding for the people. 22 Two divine statements in Ezek 11:16 and 11:17 use ‫ לכן‬which in the prior texts linked the divine action statements to the negative divine motives. But here for the first time, there is a glimpse of something positive. Not only has YHWH been a sanctuary to them in exile, he promises to gather them back to the land, where they will cleanse the land from all its abominations. Then YHWH will give them a new heart. Towards what end? The intent is the “reinstitution of Yahweh’s covenant with his people.” 23 Here 274F

This is especially true in light of the many connections with Exodus where the phraseology of knowing YHWH is intimately tied to the judgment of Pharaoh. On Exodus and Ezekiel see: Rebecca G. S. Idestrom, “Echoes of the Book of Exodus in Ezekiel,” JSOT 33/4 (2009): 489–510 and Eslinger, “Ezekiel 20,” 93–125. 22 I will explore the theme and structural role of intercession in Ezekiel later in this chapter. For an overview see Boda, A Severe Mercy, 253– 259 and Daniel I. Block, The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 25–48 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 1998), 255. 23 Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 352. The term ‫ ברית‬occurs just 16 times in Ezekiel (16:8, 59–62; 17:13–16, 18–19; 20:37; 30:5; 34:25; 37:26; 44:7) yet the covenant relationship, expressed in its most basic form by “They shall be my people and I will be their God” (11:20), is referenced frequently through covenantal terms like ‫ חקות‬and ‫משׁפטים‬. Additionally as has long 21

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the second ‫ למען‬statement of the book shows the ultimate intention of YHWH to redeem his people and restore the relationship. Following the prior statement, it would seem then that even when used in the context of judgment as in 11:12, the sovereign acts of YHWH which lead to the people’s recognition of him, are ultimately intended for their good. Whether through acts of judgment or acts of salvation, YHWH’s intent is for Israel to know him. Clearly Ezekiel uses divine motive statements in combination, and in a variety of forms to achieve a marked rhetorical effect. Both overwhelming condemnation and surprising hope are highlighted through the multifaceted use of the divine motive statements. Having explored the distribution and form of the motive statement in Ezekiel, I will now turn to an examination of the expression of divine motive in connection with key themes in the book.

DIVINE MOTIVE AND KEY THEMES IN EZEKIEL The most significant and pervasive theme in Ezekiel is the “sovereignty of God.” 24 Whether or not one treats this as a summary theme as Brueggemann has done for Jeremiah, it is demonstrable that divine sovereignty has significant overlap with virtually every been recognized, references to obedience and life in Ezekiel, allude to the covenantal instructions in Lev 18:5. On this theme see Preston Sprinkle, “Law and Life: Leviticus 18.5 in the Literary Framework of Ezekiel,” JSOT 31/3 (2007): 275–293. When I refer to “covenant,” or to the “restoration of the covenant,” I do not mean in every case that there will be a return “to the way things used to be,” or that the specific stipulations of the covenant will be restored. Rather, I use “covenant” more broadly as a shorthand for YHWH’s relationship with the people which is the ultimate target of restoration in Ezekiel. 24 Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books, 128–133. Sovereignty is a broad term which would include related topics such as divine freedom and power, the divine name and the divine character. Although the term “sovereignty” does not occur in Ezekiel, I use this abstract theological concept as a summary term for these topics in Ezekiel. See also Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 36–39, 48–49.

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theological theme explored in this chapter. 25 Included in a discussion of the sovereignty of God in Ezekiel is: the statement of recognition, the relationship between the name and the historical activity of YHWH, divine freedom and power, the relationship between divine sovereignty and repentance, the judgment of and salvation from sin, false prophecy, and the word of YHWH. 26 A second key theological theme is aptly described by Gowan as Ezekiel’s “attack on complacency.” 27 This theme addresses the people’s misuse of “orthodox theological pillars” such as: the covenant with YHWH, the granting of the land, the choice of Jerusalem and the place for the divine name, and the Davidic covenant. 28 With regard to each of these, the people assumed that the eternality of each was a guarantee of their security despite the prophetic announcements of coming judgment. Understanding the past actions of YHWH, encapsulated in Ezek 20, the people were certain that the ultimate doom threatened by the prophets would be mitigated as all the past punishments had been. Convinced that their status as the people of YHWH in the land was inviolable, and supported by the false prophecies of “peace,” they shrugged off the prophetic call to repentance and assumed that the worst would never truly happen. Within this theme I will explore the prohibition on interBrueggemann, The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah. In his concluding statement on the theology of Jeremiah, Brueggemann writes, “In the end … all of this rich variety comes to fruition in a single conviction. The future is held firmly in the hands of a sovereign God who practices fidelity; the future is held firmly in the hands of a faithful God who practices sovereignty.” Ibid., 132–133 (emphasis original). 26 For a summary see Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books, 128–133. On the statement of recognition and proof sayings, see Zimmerli, Brueggemann, I Am Yahweh. See also Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 36–39. 27 Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books, 123–127. See also Block’s insightful listing of “pillars of orthodox theology” that the people misused. Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 15–17. 28 Ibid. Block does not present these “pillars” as the most prominent theological themes in Ezekiel, but rather as themes that the people inappropriately relied upon and which Ezekiel’s prophecies of judgment would “demolish” and his prophecies of salvation would “reconstruct.” 25

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cession that begins the book and which ends in Ezek 33. Breaking down theological complacency is a core theme that occupies much of the first half of the book. Two other themes that will not be explored independently, but will be seen at key points, are life and covenant. 29 The theme of life explores the nature of YHWH in relation to life despite the extensive presence of death that comes as a result of his judgments. This theme includes the significant role of �‫רוּ‬ ַ in the book, the restoration of the nation as portrayed in Ezekiel’s vision of the reanimation of the dry bones, and the mystery of forgiveness. Although covenant is intimately related to complacency, sovereignty, and life, the prominence of covenant terminology and references to the past and future covenant promises suggests it should be seen as a significant theme in its own right. 30 As I proceed to investigate these theological themes, I will make reference to the main categories from chapter 4 (divine approval, the divine character, acknowledgement of YHWH, and judgment of sin), however, because I am interested, in this chapter, in exploring Ezekiel’s theology of divine motive, I will use the theological themes of the book as our primary lens instead of the summary motive categories. I will also note items for consideration in the following chapter on Jeremiah. Because of the wide-ranging connections between sovereignty and the other theological themes, I will work through the other themes and then return to see how they together contribute to Ezekiel’s understanding of the sovereignty of YHWH. 281F

KEY MOTIVE TEXTS IN EZEKIEL I identified Ezek 20, 25, 29, and 36 as key to the study based on the distribution of motive statements in the book. In addition to these I will need to examine the first motive statement which is found in Ezekiel’s call, the motive statement in chapter 18 which has strong ties to Jeremiah 31, and the sole motive occurrence in chapter 33, Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 275–293. See also Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 50–51; and Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books, 132–137. 30 Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 48. 29

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which is a structurally significant chapter. 31 I will begin our exploration with the statement in 3:25–27. “Many have commented that these verses are the most difficult in this book. Controversy has raged concerning the nature of Ezekiel’s ‘speechlessness’ (v. 26) and its apparent contradiction with the call to be watchman (3:16–21), the call to speak to the house of Israel (3:4), and the several examples of Ezekiel giving oral messages to the people … before the lifting of the ‘speechlessness’. 32

Despite the difficulties associated with this passage, it is readily acknowledged that the placement of this text “produces a recurring theme of speechlessness which lends structural unity to the first section of the book.” 33 The theme of speechlessness is also used to link together the first and third sections of the book (1–24 and 33– 48). 34 Two passages within these sections, 24:15–27 and 33:21–33, are tightly connected. “The first passage … instructs Ezekiel that after he receives a visit from someone who escapes the destruction of Jerusalem, his mouth will be opened and he will no longer be ‘mute.’ The second … relates the fulfillment of the first.” 35 These two chapters represent transitional seams in the text. Chapter 24 marks the transition from the first major section of the book (4– 24) to the oracles against the nations, while chapter 33 marks the swing to hope and restoration which comes upon the news of the destruction of Jerusalem. By placing the speechlessness theme in “Ezekiel 33 functions as a hinge within the book … [and] signals a shift in the dominant mood of the book from judgment in chaps. 4–32 to hope in chaps. 34–48.” Boda, A Severe Mercy, 256. 32 Rochester, Prophetic Ministry, 49. 33 Ibid., 49. 34 Boda, A Severe Mercy, 254–259. The most basic structuring of the book is three sections: 1–24, 25–32, and 33–48. Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20, 6. See also Lawrence E. Boadt, “Mythological Themes and the Unity of Ezekiel,” in Literary Structure and Rhetorical Strategies in the Hebrew Bible (eds. L. L. J. Regt, J. de Waard, and J. J. P. Fokkelman; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 221–222. 35 Boda, A Severe Mercy, 254. 31

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chapter 24 and then resuming the theme after the oracles against the nations, the final removal of the restriction on Ezekiel signals “a dramatic shift in his ministry. He could finally resume the normal role of a prophet, interceding on the people’s behalf before Yahweh and offering messages of hope for the future.” 36 So regardless of the difficulties, it is clear that this text is connected to a remarkably significant theme that is deeply embedded in the overall movement of the book. Having sketched out the significance of the passage and its major theme, I will now turn to a detailed look at the text. Ezekiel’s call is comprised of four units. The first (1:1–28a) is a visionary experience with images focused on YHWH’s glory and absolute freedom of movement. 37 The second (1:28b–3:15) is the formal commissioning of the prophet. 38 This unit summons “Ezekiel to serve as a prophet, … seeks to allay the prophet’s fears and fortify him against the hostile reception of his messages” which would be necessary in light of the comforting words of the false prophets, and the express hopes and feelings of the people, who are described as they will be throughout the first section of the book (1–24), as a “nation of rebels” (2:3), against whom Ezekiel must stand. 39 The third (3:16–21) casts Ezekiel’s ministry as that of a watchman. Here “the formula ‘the word of Yahweh came (literally “was”) to me’ (‫ )וַ יְ ִהי ְד ַבר־יהוה ֵא ַלי‬introduces the new section. This is its first appearance in the book; it occurs more frequently in Ezekiel than in any other book. This formula calls for alertness to the words that Ezekiel is ready to receive (Ezek 3:10).” 40 These words indicate that Ezekiel is to be a watchman for his people, a common image for the prophetic task (e.g. Jer 6:17), but his duties are uniquely spelled out both with explicit consequences should he 291F

Block, Ezekiel 25–48, 255. Goshen-Gottstein, “The Theocentric Trend,” 71–72. See also Eichrodt, Ezekiel, 58–59 and Boda, A Severe Mercy, 256–257. 38 Some commentators further divide this unit in two, 1:28b–3:11 and 3:12–15. Cf. Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 78–79 and Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20, 72–75. 39 Ibid., 80. 40 Rochester, Prophetic Ministry, 45. 36 37

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fail and explicit limitations on his freedom. Instead of surveying the horizon and issuing a warning, Ezekiel as watchman is bound to give only the warning given to him by YHWH. “Ezekiel is not to assess the danger by his own powers of observation, but only to convey this divine warning.” 41 We now come to the fourth unit of the call (3:22–27) where the first divine motive statement is found. In this unit Ezekiel is commanded to shut himself within his house and is told that he will be bound and that YHWH will make his tongue stick to the roof of his mouth so that he will be speechless and unable to reprove them because they are a rebellious house (3:22–26). Further, however, an explicit qualification is given. He is told that when YHWH speaks to him, his mouth will be opened and he will deliver YHWH’s message (3:27). Ezekiel is told that the hearers will respond as they so choose: “He who will hear, let him hear; and he who will refuse to hear, let him refuse” (3:27 ESV). Then the divine motive is repeated, “because they are a rebellious house.” I will explore four aspects of this passage: the shutting in and binding of Ezekiel, Ezekiel’s speechlessness, the messages he will deliver when YHWH speaks to him, and the response of the rebellious house. Kathleen Rochester, in a recent survey of this passage, has noted that [i]n many ways this passage has a Janus function, pointing both backwards and forwards. There are references back to the call vision: instructions after being set on his feet by the Spirit (v. 24 cf. 2:2); the ‘rebellious house’ (vv. 26, 27 cf. 2:5, 6, 8; 3:7); those who will hear and those who refuse to hear (v. 27b cf 2:5, 7; 3:11). These suggest that the present command is related to the call vision to go out and speak. However, it can also be linked with the subsequent sign-acts, where communication is primarily non-verbal. 42

The first action, withdrawal, is something Ezekiel will himself fulfill. Subsequent texts do locate Ezekiel within his home (e.g. 8:1, and though not explicitly stated, 14:1 and 20:1). This action is iron41 42

Ibid., 45. Ibid., 49–50.

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ic given his commissioning to speak and to serve as a watchman, but it contributes to the larger theme of YHWH speaking into the desperate situation of the exile to which Ezekiel’s seclusion alludes. 43 The second and related action, binding, will be accomplished by others. Although many have attempted to read this text as a divine passive, there is no textual support for an alternate reading. 44 The two verbs, ‫( נָ ְתנוּ‬they will put cords on you) and �‫וַ ֲא ָסרוּ‬ (they will bind you) are both indisputably third person common plural verbs. The only appropriate plural subject in the context is the rebellious house, the exiles around him. 45 Unlike Jeremiah, there is no record of any physical restraint of Ezekiel. Following Klein, Greenberg, and Calvin, Rochester suggests that the patronizing complacency of the people towards his message and their tendency to treat him “as an entertaining teller of parables, or perhaps as one dealing in unreality (20:49; cf. 33:32)” constituted a metaphorical binding of the prophet’s ministry. 46 Complacency and the people’s willingness to disregard the prophet’s message is a common theme in Ezekiel. In addition to 20:49 and 33:32, we also have the proverbial sayings in 12:21–23, “the days grow long and every vision comes to nothing,” and 18:2, “the fathers have eaten sour grapes and the children’s teeth are set on edge.” In each there is a willingness to offset the prophetic message with popular wisdom. In the proverb of 12:21–23, 296F

297F

the complacency was based on the conviction Jeremiah also fought against, that Jerusalem was invulnerable. For the exiles, that provided a basis for hope that their sojourn in Babylonia would be brief. Surely Yahweh would intervene soon, and they would return to their homes in triumph. Ezekiel understood that this hope was built on sand and sought in a variety of

Ibid., 50. E.g. Wilson, “Ezekiel’s Dumbness,” 97–98 and the literature cited there; see especially fn. 1 on p. 98. 45 Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20, 102. 46 Rochester, Prophetic Ministry, 52. 43 44

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ways to convince them of its futility, but they found a way to resist hearing him, as the proverb quoted above shows. 47

If this binding is understood to be linked, at least in part, to the people’s complacency, then we would also see a connection to divine motive, not only in 3:26–27, but also in 14:1–5 where the elders seek to inquire of YHWH through Ezekiel without any regard for the incongruity of this request with their ongoing idolatry. The ensuing interaction is perhaps another form of binding. Because of their incredible disregard for the glory and holiness of YHWH, Ezekiel is bound; he is not permitted to answer them. Instead, YHWH himself will respond to them. Thus the normal role of the prophet is cut off. He is in effect bound by the sin of the people from performing his usual function, so that YHWH can directly capture their idolatrous hearts. 48 However one understands the binding, “it is clear that Ezekiel is not totally withdrawn and is not totally unknown as a prophet … [H]is reputation as one who speaks for Yahweh” is established and “[a]ny ‘binding’ by the people … is incomplete.” 49 Just as with the binding, the speechlessness of Ezekiel has generated an extensive discussion as commentators have sought to understand the meaning of the terms and the relationship of this passage to the prophetic messages delivered prior to the release of Ezekiel’s speechlessness in chapter 33. The key questions related to Ezekiel’s speechlessness are whether the effect is literal or metaphorical; whether it was in place until the release in chapter 33; whether it was intermittent; and whether it was related to all speech or was it limited to a particular form of speech. 50 Regardless of how one understands the limitation, a few things are clear from chapters 4–32. First, Ezekiel does speak prior to the release in chapter 33 (e.g. 12:28; 13:2–16; 14:4–6; Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books, 123. Leslie C. Allen, Ezekiel 1–19 (WBC 28; Waco: Word Books, 1994), 205–206. 49 Rochester, Prophetic Ministry, 52. 50 Ibid., 53. 47 48

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15:1–8; 16:1–63; 17:1–24; 24:3–14; 27:4–9). 51 Secondly, the passage itself expresses a qualification on the speechlessness. Ezek 3:27 notes that there will be occasions when YWHW will speak to Ezekiel. In these cases, YHWH will loosen his tongue and Ezekiel is under command to deliver the divine message. 52 Finally, whatever the exact meaning of the speechlessness, it has its basis in the people’s rebelliousness. The import of these observations is that absolute muteness is ruled out in light of the intermittent but consistent oral proclamation of the divine messages. Yet, with the lifting of the impairment in Ezek 33, it would seem that this is not simply an opening for Ezekiel to speak as he sees fits in contrast to the earlier part of the book where his speech is specifically circumscribed by YHWH’s command. The continuing pervasive presence of the messenger formula (37 occurrences) in chapters 34–38 would belie this approach. Therefore the answer must be found in an approach that recognizes the exception of Ezek 3:27 and pursues the precise nuance of the key phrase, �‫מוֹכ ַי‬ ִ ‫א־ת ְהיֶ ה ָל ֶהם ְל ִאישׁ‬ ִ ֹ ‫וְ ל‬. The fundamental meaning of the verb ‫ יכח‬is “to determine what is right.” 53 Primarily oriented towards the judicial proceedings, the verb is roughly equivalent to ‫ ריב‬and can be used for the entire range of judicial activity and for any party to the action. 54 Wilson has noted that 305F

when the verb is used in legal contexts it refers to the process of conducting a trial or arbitrating a dispute between two parties. This process may have involved assuring a fair trial and perhaps even arguing the case for one of the parties. The verb Rochester charts out changes in Ezekiel’s speech patterns from chapters 1–33 to chapters 34–38. She finds that after chapter 33 there is an absence of sign acts, commands to lament, and allegories. Positively, she finds that in chapters 34–48 inquiry of YHWH is once again permitted and the messages are dominated by hope. Ibid., 54. 52 Note how many of the speeches listed above employ the messenger formula and contain the explicit command to speak. 53 G. Liedke, “‫יכח‬,” TLOT 2:542. 54 J. E. Hartley, “‫יָ ַכח‬,” NIDOTTE 2:434. 51

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thus involves promoting dialogue between two parties, a fact which is illustrated by the frequent equation of ykḥ and rîb. 55

Following this understanding of the verb, it would mean that Ezekiel “was being forbidden the prophetic intercessory role of bringing the people’s dispute into the divine court.” 56 If this is the case, it would show the same prophetic limitation was instituted both for those in exile and those still in the land (Jer 15:1). Wilson’s view has been challenged by Renz and Bovati, who both see the core of the verb’s activity as censure even if arbitration is the end goal. 57 Glazov furthers Wilson’s view by linking the commanded silence of Ezek 3:26 with the silence experienced in grief after the eating of the scroll (2:8–3:3) and by seeing the action indicated by ‫ יכח‬as bilateral—that Ezekiel was forbidden from serving as an advocate who had the responsibility to rebuke both parties in a dispute. 58 Although the linguistic evidence is not conclusive, the correlation between the lifting of the ban and the destruction of the city, suggests that some form of intercession is in view. The lifting of the speechlessness “would signal a dramatic shift in his ministry. He could finally assume the normal role of a prophet, interceding on the people’s behalf before Yahweh and offering messages of hope for the future. So long as the temple and the city had stood, these basic functions had been denied him.” 59 Boda concurs observing that, “It is instructive that the prohibition on intercession is operative within the first half of the book (chaps. 4–32), the precise section that is dominated by judgment, whereas 309F

310F

Wilson, “Ezekiel’s Dumbness,” 100. Boda, A Severe Mercy, 258. See also Allen who understands his silence “to represent the silence of God in response to their pleas for his intervention on their behalf against victorious Babylon.” Allen, Ezekiel 1– 19, 28. 57 Pietro Bovati, Re-Establishing Justice: Legal Terms, Concepts and Procedures in the Hebrew Bible (Translated by M.J. Smith, Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1994), 44–48; and Thomas Renz, The Rhetorical Function of the Book of Ezekiel (Leiden: Brill,), 158. 58 Gregory Yuri Glazov, The Bridling of the Tongue and the Opening of the Mouth in Biblical Prophecy (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2001), 236–274. 59 Block, Ezekiel 25–48, 255. 55 56

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the prohibition is released with the fall of Jerusalem in chap. 33, just before the section dominated by salvation (chaps. 34–48).” 60 We now turn to the motive for YHWH’s restrictions on Ezekiel, the rebellion of the people. Twice in the passage, once after the divine prohibition of intercession, and then again after the announcement that the people will be on their own to hear or to refuse the word, YHWH states that this is happening because they are a ‫בית מרי‬, a “rebellious house.” The various synonyms for rebellion ‫מרה‬, ‫מרד‬, ‫מ ִרי‬, ְ occur 24 times in Ezekiel. 61 The citation of rebellion roughly bookends his ministry with occurrences in the call (Ezek 2:3, 5–8; 3:9, 26–27) and with a final usage in 44:6, which Block takes as an obvious allusion back to the call passages. 62 Yet, with the exception of this one final occurrence in 44, there is a marked divide in the appearances. Besides 44:6, the other 23 uses all occur in chapters 2–24. There are no occurrences of the terms in the subsequent chapters that shift towards themes of hope. Tracing the themes associated with the concept of Israel as rebellious will further the exploration of this divine motive. In 2:3, the first occurrence, the verb ‫ מרד‬is used twice to characterize the intended target of Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry as rebels who have rebelled. The primary meaning of the term is “‘to rise up in revolt against an overlord, to refuse allegiance to one’s sovereign.’ Ezekiel provides his own illustration of such a disposition in 17:12–15, where the word describes the rebellion of Jehoiachin against the king of Babylon (v. 15). In this context it expresses Israel’s response to their suzerain, Yahweh.” 63 Functionally this action is the opposite of ‫עבד‬, to serve. 64 By casting the nation this way, the 312F

31F

315F

Boda, A Severe Mercy, 258. 2:3, 5–8; 3:9, 26–27; 5:6; 12:2–3, 9, 25; 17:12, 15; 20:8, 13, 21, 38; 24:3; 44:6 62 Block, Ezekiel 25–48, 620. This emphasis on the continuity between the remnant and the pre-exilic people is evident in Jeremiah as well. For an exploration of this theme see Gary E. Yates, “New Exodus and No Exodus in Jeremiah 26–45: Promise and Warning to the Exiles in Babylon,” TynBul 57/1 (2006): 1–22. 63 Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 118. 64 Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20, 63. 60 61

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reader sees that this is not as a result of Ezekiel’s ministry and his experience, but rather it joins him to the long history of prophetic ministry to the nation, which in Ezek 20 will be shown to have been rebellious since its inception. 65 The rebelliousness of Israel is connected in 2:5 and 2:8 with the refusal to hear. Yet, despite this, YHWH asserts in 2:5 that whether hearing or refusing to hear, “they will know that a prophet has been among them.” Hearing is a key part of Ezekiel’s vocabulary for the normative human response to YHWH’s message. 66 In light of the potential, even likelihood, that Ezekiel’s message will be rejected, he is repeatedly told not to fear them, even though they are rebellious (2:6; 3:9). 67 It is in this context then that he is forbidden to function as an intercessor (3:25–27) and the people are left to their own devices to hear or not to hear, because they are a rebellious house. The next reference to Israel as rebellious in 5:6, describes them as more wicked than the nations around them, for their rebellion against the ‫ משׁפטים‬and for acts of wickedness. Israel has rejected the rules, ‫משׁפטים‬, and has not walked in the statutes, ‫חקות‬. This “stereotypical pair … denotes the total moral basis the Lord gave Israel, what rabbinic Judaism calls Torah. Jerusalem, the Lord says, has rebelled against this.” 68 The list of the sins that bring judgment in this unit includes a key term in Ezekiel, abominations, ‫תועבות‬. [I]n the overwhelming majority of cases … tôʿēbâ is used theologically of actions or objects abominable to God … [T]he word is central to the anti-idolatrous polemic of Deuteronomy. All idolatrous actions and objects are considered tôʿăbat yhwh, Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 133. Boda, A Severe Mercy, 266. 67 Zimmerli’s reading of this is surely correct. “The causal clause does not in fact provide a motive for fearlessness, but establishes that fear might well be aroused … [Ezekiel has] an obligation to speak with no consideration of success or failure.” Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 134. 68 Robert W. Jenson, Ezekiel (BTCB; Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2009), 60. 65 66

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE “Yahweh’s abomination.” Ezekiel’s usage of the term reflects strong Deuteronomic influence. 69

This section ends with the pronouncement that YHWH’s eye will not spare and he will have no pity. There are strong verbal links with this phrase throughout the first half of Ezekiel. The same announcement of judgment is found in Ezek 7:4, 9; 8:18; 9:5, 10; 16:5; and 24:14. There are two startling exceptions, however. In 20:17, the passage discussed above where mitigation of punishment is mentioned without a motive clause, there is the phrase, “but, my eye spared them.” Given the overwhelmingly destructive use of the phrase earlier in Ezekiel this usage now stands in even greater relief. Furthermore, the final use of ‫חמל‬, often translated as “pity,” in these passages, is 36:21 where the reader encounters YHWH’s statement, ‫וָ ֶא ְחמֹל ַﬠל־ ֵשׁם ָק ְד ִשׁי‬. This is followed by the motive statement in 36:22 where he specifies that his soon coming acts of deliverance are not for the sake of the house of Israel, but rather for his holy name (‫ם־ק ְד ִשׁי‬ ָ ‫ם־ל ֵשׁ‬ ְ ‫) ִכּי ִא‬. Remarkably, the concern that YHWH has sworn to withhold, with which he rescued Israel on one occasion (20:17) is the concern he has for his holy name. 70 The next cluster of occurrences of rebellion language is in chapter 12. These uses echo language from Isa 6:9 and Jer 5:21, which also note the people’s refusal to respond to the prophetic message. The use here is to combat the complacency of the exiles noted above in the discussion of the proverb recorded in Ezek 12:22. The final statement of the unit in 12:25 answers the proverb 321F

Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 203. For details on the usage of the term, see Paul Humbert, “Le substantif to’eba et le verbe t’b dan l’Ancien Testament,” ZAW 72/3 (1972): 227–231. 70 Block, Ezekiel 25–48, 348. Stroebe carefully distinguishes between ‫ חמל‬and ‫ רחם‬by noting that “The consequence of pity is not, as with rḥm … that one is (re)established in life-securing relationships but that one is spared from an impending fate or a decreed punishment.” As such, YHWH does not establish his name, but rather is rescuing it from the profanation to which it had been subjected by Israel. H. J. Stroebe, “‫רחם‬,” TLOT 3:1228. 69

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definitively. YHWH asserts that he will speak and that his word will be carried out in their days. The next two units that focus on Israel’s rebellious ways work in tandem. In Ezek 17:12 and 17:15, the example of Jehoiachin, who rebelled against his covenant with Nebuchadnezzar, is brought to the people. The final statement is a chilling rhetorical question, “Can he break a covenant and escape?” This then sets up the uses of rebellion language in chapter 20. In 20:8, 13, and 21, Israel is cast again as the rebellious nation that at every turn has refused to walk in the statutes or obey the rules (‫ משׁפטים‬and ‫)חקות‬, and that has profaned the Sabbaths. The statutes and rules are said to be sources of life (20:11, 13, 21) while the Sabbaths lead to knowing YHWH, who sanctifies them (20:13, 20). 71 Yet, at each turn, YHWH has acted not in kind, but has, for the sake of his name, acted to withhold judgment. We will explore the theme of the name later. The final reference to rebellion in 20:38 refers to YHWH’s future acts of judgment that will purge the rebels from Israel, so that they will not be allowed back into the land at the time of the return. This survey of the elements of 3:25–27 and especially the rebelliousness of Israel which serves as the motive in that passage, demonstrates that this text is intricately connected to all the major theological themes in Ezekiel and to the major categories of divine motive. In particular, there are connections to: the judgment of idolatry, the punishment of the rejection of the word, the acknowledgment of YHWH, repentance, and the divine character traits of mercy and holiness. I will explore these more fully in the summary statement at the end of the chapter. Because much of the content of Ezek 20 has already been discussed and because the use of the name as a motive is so central to Ezekiel and to the other texts in the study, I will hold a further review of chapter 20 until later as we seek to summarize and integrate the data from these key texts. We now turn to the motive statement in chapter 18. 32F

I will discuss the theme of life below. For an exposition of the relationship of life and sanctification with Lev 18, see Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 275–293. 71

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The occasion for the judgment in Ezek 18:29–30 is the false characterization of YHWH as unjust. The explicit motive, introduced with ‫ לכן‬which links it back to the false statement of the people, is the unjust nature of the people’s ways. The stated appropriate response to the judgment associated with the motive is repentance (v. 30). This motive statement comes in connection with the people’s use of the proverb, “the fathers have eaten sour grapes and the children’s teeth are set on edge” found in 18:2. I have already introduced the idea that Ezekiel was battling an ingrained complacency (Gowan’s term) as seen in this proverb and the proverb in 12:21–23. 72 As I explore this divine motive, I will also explore the core theological themes that connect this chapter to the rest of Ezekiel and to the divine motive statements: individualism, repentance, complacency, and false beliefs. Ezekiel 18 has long been recognized as one of the most sustained and explicit passages on the relationship between the individual and the community in terms of judgment and salvation. Although some scholars such as Joyce have sought to temper the individualism in the passage, the majority of scholars, while appreciating Joyce’s corrective to overly individualistic interpretations, have continued to understand that chapter 18 does indeed focus on individuality in judgment and salvation. 73 The individualism found here is not surprising, for as Porter has noted, “the idea of individual responsibility, as far as the law is concerned, is seen to be at least as primary and as early as group responsibility, and this, not 32F

“‘Complacency’ may seem a strange word to choose for these circumstances, but it will serve to describe two attitudes Ezekiel dealt with, one of them among the exiles and the other among those left in Jerusalem after 597.” Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books, 123. 73 The most judicious statement in Joyce, which seems to capture the relationship between corporate and individual elements in the chapter is “Whilst it is of course true that national repentance would necessarily involve change within particular individuals, it is no part of the purpose of Ezekiel here to argue for the repentance of individuals in isolation from the corporate people of God.” Joyce, Divine Initiative, 55 (emphasis added). 72

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only in Israel, but throughout the entire early Semitic world.” 74 Yet, even though there is a clear history of individualism in the canonical texts and in the ancient Near East, commentators still see this chapter’s individualism as a reversal of past prophetic activity. 75 Yet, as Allen astutely observes, “though there is a measure of orthodoxy in the” proverb when viewed in light of texts like Exod 34:7; 20:5; and Deut 5:9; and even Ezekiel’s own messages in Ezek 16 and 23, the contexts indicate that the communal, generational aspect of the punishment is a result the current generation’s “walking in their ancestors’ footsteps” and becoming “themselves as reprehensible” as the prior generation. 76 Taylor’s summary comment is worth noting here in full: This classic statement of individual responsibility must not, however, be taken in complete isolation. It is not a flat contradiction of the traditional view of corporate responsibility. It is rather a counterpoise to it. The corporate unity of the family or tribal group was of the esse of Hebrew psychology. It was bound up with the idea of the continuance of the family line by direct sonship, as well as with the covenant relationship that existed between the God of Israel and the community of Israel. To have denied all this would have needed more than a bare assertion. The whole attitude to life would have had to be radically rewritten and dogmatically reformulated by Ezekiel. Communal solidarity and corporate responsibility were facts, to which experience bore witness. Ezekiel’s aim is to show that they are not the only facts. God’s redeemed community is a nation of righteous or repentant individuals. And in the situation with which the prophet was immediately concerned, it was Joshua Roy Porter, “Legal Aspects of the Concept of Corporate Personality in the Old Testament,” VT 15/3 (1965): 365. 75 Jenson, Ezekiel, 146. 76 Allen, Ezekiel 1–19, 271. Allen notes this theme of comparability between the earlier and later generation in 20:30–31 and poignantly in Lam 5:7, 16. He observes that if read independently, 5:7 would be similar to the thrust of the proverb, but when combined with v. 16 “we also sinned” the relationship is clearly seen. 74

112

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE dangerous for the exiles to be concealing themselves behind an unbalanced view of their national responsibility in order to avoid the prophetic demand for repentance and a new way of life. 77

The essence of the complacency seen here and in the proverb of chapter 12 lies in the misappropriation of key elements of Israel’s theology. 78 As Block observes in his overview of the relationship between Ezekiel’s prophecies of judgment and salvation, the book of Ezekiel interacts with four key theological themes: 1) “Yahweh, the divine patron of Israel, has entered into an eternal covenant with his people.” 2) “Yahweh, the divine patron of Israel, has given the nation the land of Canaan as their eternal territorial possession.” 3) “Yahweh, the divine patron of Israel, has chosen Jerusalem as his eternal residence, from which he exercises sovereignty over his people.” 4) “Yahweh, the divine patron of Israel, has promised the Davidic house eternal title to and occupancy of the throne of Israel.” 79 In Ezek 4–24 the prophet exposes “delusions of innocence” and offers “a divine understanding of reality … by systematically attacking the pillars on which official orthodoxy constructed its notions of eternal security.” 80 Judah and Jerusalem are to be destroyed, says Ezekiel, not because YHWH has failed in his covenant obligations, but because “they have been unfaithful to him [and] the deity-nation-land relationships must be ruptured.” 81 After the fall of the city, Ezekiel’s ministry shifts to a reaffirmation John Bernard Taylor, Ezekiel: An Introduction and Commentary (TOTC 22; Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2009), 147–148. 78 A similar address of an erroneous saying is found in Ezek 33:23– 29. The irony of this instance is that it stands at the beginning of the second section which is dominated by the oracle of salvation. This salvation begins with the complete and unmitigated implementation of the disaster announced in 4–24. Cf. Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 277. 79 Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 15–17. See especially the chart on p. 16 for passages associated with the “demolition” of the misuse, and “reconstruction” of the proper use of each premise. 80 Ibid., 14. 81 Ibid. (emphasis added). 77

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of the theological truths on which the prevailing four aspects of their orthodoxy lie: Yahweh’s covenant promises are eternal. The earlier problem had not been the veracity of the divine word, but the illegitimate appropriation of that word by those who failed to keep the terms of the agreement. Accordingly, in his vision of the new day, Ezekiel offers hope by systematically reconstructing the pillars on which the nation’s security had been based in the first place. 82

The same wrestling with such theological complacency is found in Jeremiah and will be explored in the next chapter. The connection between the misappropriated theological truths and divine motive in Ezekiel is clear. YHWH is motivated to correct these false beliefs (12:15–16; 13:8, 19–20; 14:4–5, 9–11; 18:29–30; 33:29) One last element, however, needs to be added to our discussion of complacency. The people were aided in their reliance on faulty premises by the support of false prophets. False prophecy features significantly in the book with extended discussions in Ezek 12–14. Chapter 12 begins with two sign acts which are designed to teach the people that the nation will indeed be exiled. Yet, significantly, the message is given to those who, like Ezekiel, are already in exile. The purpose of this is expressed in the motive statement in 12:16—that the exiles would “declare all their abominations among the nations where they go, and shall know that I am YHWH.” This is a classic example of a cascading motive. Having come to know YHWH through his judgments, the people will finally be able to “come to their spiritual senses and at last feel the burden of ‘all their abominations’ that hitherto had burdened only Yahweh.” 83 One more sign act is recorded (12:17–20) and then the false prophets are introduced and connected to the people’s complacency. The transition occurs via the frame of 12:21–28 where the efficacy of the divine word is contrasted with the people’s proverbial rejection of its reality. Beginning with 13:1, Ezekiel directly addresses the false prophets. The motive statements for their judg82 83

Ibid., 14–15. Allen, Ezekiel 1–19, 182.

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

ments (13:8, 19, 22) focus on two key issues. The first is the character of their prophetic words. As opposed to Ezekiel’s, which are truly received from YHWH, their prophecies, visions, and inquiries are ‫שׁוְ א‬, ָ false/vain and ‫כּזָ ב‬,ָ deceitful/lying. 84 The primary meaning of ‫ ָשׁוְ א‬is “falsehood” or “deceit,” but there are also strong connections to vanity and uselessness as seen in the associations made between the term and idolatry (Ps 31:7; Jon 2:9; Jer 18:15 and Ps 24:4). 85 Given the judgment of those who would inquire of YHWH while still keeping hold of their idolatry in the closing frame of this section (14:1–11), perhaps the association with idolatry is broadly applicable here as well. This would fit well with the theme that they are to be judged because their source of knowledge is not YHWH. The second key issue in the motive statements related to the false prophets’ judgment is the practical outcome of their lying words. Souls that should die live, while souls that should live die (Ezek 13:19). The righteous are disheartened even though YHWH has not intended this, and the wicked have been encouraged instead of rebuked, so that they are not moved to repentance (13:22). Forhrer suggests that Ezekiel’s terminology, “prophets of Israel” in combination with the judgment in 13:9 that these false prophets shall not enter the land indicates that the false prophets were operative both in Jerusalem and among the exilic community. 86 This would fit well with the situation described in Jeremiah’s confrontations with the false prophets in Jerusalem and with Ezekiel’s attempt to maintain continuity between the two groups with regard to their equal responsibility for the national crisis. The connection to the life and death is especially critical in light of 11:14–21 which asserted that life was “a divine possibility even over the people under judgment.” 87 The connection between life and obedience is found throughout Ezekiel and is grounded in 36F

On the role of this word pair in the literary structure of Ezekiel see Shemaryahu Talmon and Michael A. Fishbane, “The Structuring of Biblical Books: Studies in the Book of Ezekiel,” Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute 10 (1975): 137. 85 J. Shepherd, “‫שׁוְ א‬,” ָ NIDOTTE 4:53–55. 86 Georg Fohrer, Ezechiel (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1955), 68. 87 Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 295. 84

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Ezekiel’s use of Lev 18:5. 88 The false prophets then stand in the way of the ultimate aim of the judgment, namely, the restoration of the people through their reanimation (chs. 36–37) and through their divinely appointed ability to keep the statutes and rules to which they have been heretofore disobedient (ch. 20). False prophecy combined with the people’s selective use of orthodox theological themes served as a means of denying the prophetic word, and thereby served as a means to death. As such, Ezekiel’s judgments are squarely directed at these two foundational elements of Israel’s disobedience with the goal that when they crumbled, the people might know YHWH and respond in repentance (Ezek 12:15–16; 13:9, 23; 14:5). This leads us to an initial discussion of the role of repentance in Ezekiel. The tension found in discussions of repentance is over the relationship between divine sovereignty and the human response of repentance, and between the collective and individual nature of the human response. Because of the central and unifying nature of sovereignty in Ezekiel, I will address sovereignty more holistically in the section below. For now, I will limit our exploration to the relationship between sovereignty (as expressed by divine initiative) and its relationship with repentance. Ezekiel has been generally understood as being primarily theocentric in its orientation. 89 The tension is between the abundant statements of theocentric divine motive (e.g. for the sake of my name) that emphasize divine sovereignty, and the statements of not just human moral responsibility, but individual moral responsibility. As formulated by Zimmerli, Cooke and Haag, the resolution is seen in tracing the connection between the individual and the community. 90 Ezekiel’s purpose was “to call individuals to repentance that the Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 275–293. For a broad discussion of history of scholarship on individualism and theocentricity in Ezekiel, see Jacqueline E Lapsley, Can These Bones Live? The Problem of the Moral Self in the book of Ezekiel (Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 2000), 15–42. 90 G. A. Cooke, “Some Considerations on the Text and Teaching of Ezekiel,” ZAW 42 (1924): 115; Herbert Haag, Was Lehrt die Literarische Untersuchung des Ezechiel-Textes? Eine Philologisch-Theologische Studie (Freiburg: 88 89

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community might live.” 91 Beyond the question of individualism versus corporatism, the more foundational question is whether “an absolutely sovereign God would … squeeze out the possibility of human responsibility.” 92 Ultimately Lapsley concludes that the resolution of the tension is found in the shift from the grounding of human moral being in action to knowledge, “which for Ezekiel is always theocentric knowledge.” 93 The theocentric knowledge to which Ezekiel moves is two-fold. It is first and foremost knowledge of YHWH. Secondarily, it is knowledge of self. 94 This solution accords well with the emphases found in the motive statements. Zimmerli argued that the statement of recognition texts indicated that YHWH’s selfrevelation is intended both to provide knowledge of himself to Israel and to require responsive acknowledgement of him from Israel. 95 To examine if this assessment is correct I will work through the motive statements in Ezekiel asking the question, what role do human responses play in the motivation of YHWH found in Ezekiel? When the motive statements are examined, one can see that repentance (as expressed by the verb ‫ )שׁוב‬is minimally present. It occurs in Ezek 13:22 where the false prophets have stolen the possibility of repentance by not warning the wicked. Even this hypothetical case illustrates that repentance is the response to divine Paulusdruckerei, 1943), 83; Walther Zimmerli, The Law and the Prophets: A Study of the Meaning of the Old Testament (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965), 85– 86. 91 Lapsley, Can These Bones Live, 23. 92 Ibid., 26. 93 Ibid., 157. 94 Ibid., 111–158. 95 On the required response to the recognition statement see Zimmerli, “Knowledge of God,” 29–98. More broadly on the knowledge of God see: E. A. Martens, God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology (N. Richland Hills, TX: Bibal, 1998), 91–111; von Rad, The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions, 236–237; and John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology Volume 1: Israel’s Gospel (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2003), 332–343.

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revelation and not the motive for divine action. 96 ‫ שׁוב‬occurs again in 18:30 as a direct call from YHWH in light of the correction of the people’s mistaken proverbial notions. Again the initiative is divine. The human act is responsive and not a motive for divine action. Lapsley has highlighted the human response of selfknowledge, especially as expressed by ‫( כלם‬to be humiliated) and ‫( בושׁ‬to be ashamed), as being significant in Ezekiel. 97 These concepts occur prominently in Ezek 16:63; 36:6 and 44:13. In 16:63, shame and the concomitant refusal to open the mouth with prideful rejection of guilt, or accusation against YHWH, is the intent of the divine reestablishment of covenant and self-revelation. 98 A past human act of shameful self-awareness of sin is not the motive; rather it is the result of the divine intent to create such a state of shame over past forgiven sins. In Ezek 36:6 the shamed state of Israel in exile is listed as a cause for divine action. Here, however, the motive is the state of shame, not on Israel’s attaining a self-aware shame for their sin. It is rather the sinful treatment of Israel by the nations which YHWH will now reverse by making the nations “come under the judgments which they intended for Israel.” 99 Finally, in Ezek 44:13, the use is 348F

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Even if one were to examine the resultant potential act of repentance as a cause for divine retraction of punishment, this too would inherently be part of the divine intent in issuing the prophetic warning as was seen in the survey of “lest” motives in chapter 4. 97 Lapsley, Can These Bones Live, 129–157. It is interesting that these terms (with respect to divine motive statements) are found exclusively in Jer, Ezek, Hos, and Pss. On shame and grace see also Boda, A Severe Mercy, 290. 98 “His intent was that her sins should be forgiven but never forgotten. Only a sober memory of the fate from which she was rescued could keep her from ever bragging again, as in v 56, that she was not like that sinner Sodom … Instead, it would provide motivation for bearing the fruit of repentance.” Allen, Ezekiel 1–19, 246. 99 Walther Zimmerli, Ezekiel 2: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Translated by J.D. Martin, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 96

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the judicial imposition of shame that the Levites will bear for their past sins. In none of these cases is a self-awareness of shame for past sins a motive for divine action. The terms walk, keep and hear (‫שׁמע‬, ‫שׁמר‬, ‫ )הלך‬are used frequently in Ezekiel to describe the people’s sinfulness so they might also be used to describe their actions which might motivate YHWH. When their usage is explored in connection with the divine motive statements one finds that the invitation to hear is made in the call (3:25–27), but this is in response to the divine act of revelation. In a key text, one of the few new covenant passages of hope in chapters 4–24, the reader finds in 11:20 that walking in the statutes (‫)הלך‬, keeping the rules (‫)שׁמר‬, and obeying the statutes and rules (‫ )שׁמע‬is the express intention and outcome of YHWH’s actions. These are not past human acts that have motivated YHWH; rather they are the intended effect of YHWH’s restorative work. So these human actions are motives for YHWH, but rather than being backward-looking motivations, they are intentions, forward-looking motives, which YHWH will bring to fruition. With the evidence so clear that the initiative resides with YHWH and that the acts of repentance and obedience are the intended effect of YHWH’s work, the study must consider why this continues to be a source of tension for readers of Ezekiel. In part, I will suggest that a lack of attention to the motive statements is at the heart of this dilemma. Strine is one of the most strident voices arguing against what he perceives to be an overly theocentric view of Ezekiel’s theology. 100 Although Strine acknowledges that “Ezekiel’s second exodus is entirely motivated by YHWH’s reputation and instigated solely by divine choice” he argues that “Ezekiel envisages the accomplishment of this purpose through the process of human repentance.” 101 The core elements of his argument for viewing repentance as a cause and not merely an effect are: the characterization of the call for repentance as echoing the challenge of Caleb and Josh238. See also Sheldon H. Blank, “Isaiah 52:5 and the Profanation of the Name,” HUCA 25 (1954): 7–8. 100 Strine, “The Role of Repentance,” 467–491. 101 Ibid., 467.

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ua to the faithless spies (chapter 14); the rejection of idolatry, acceptance of guilt, and choice of life as the hallmarks of the new covenant community (Ezek 20); the choice with which the remnant is faced to seek repentance which leads to life or to reject guilt which leads to death (Ezek 18); the cleansing judgment of the people prior to return (Ezek 33); and finally the placement of the return to the land and cleansing of the land from abomination as taking place prior to the giving of the new heart and spirit (Ezek 11 and 36). After examining Strine’s arguments, I find that the scholarly consensus is in general agreement with many of the basic contours of his interpretation of the key texts. Yet, it must be noted that his argument has largely ignored the explicit motive statements. Furthermore his argument does not account for the absence of motive statements within key texts despite the fact that his overall conclusion advocates for a specific role for repentance as a motive for divine action. 102 I will now explore the elements of divine motive that are missing in Strine’s argument. First, with regard to Ezek 14:12–23, the only explicit citations of divine motive occur earlier in the chapter (vv. 1–5 and 9–11) and deal with the refusal of inquiry from idolatrous men and the intent to remove false prophecy, so that the people might no longer be led astray. Neither of these deals with the obedience motif found later in Ezek 14:12–23 which Strine examines. He may be correct that there are allusions to the obedience of Caleb and Joshua based on the vocabulary of the passage. However, his conclusion that the passage serves to illustrate divine motive is far from convincing. He correctly cites Renz as being in substantial agreement with him that the survivors are negative examples who prove the justness of YHWH’s judgment as opposed Ibid., 491. Ezekiel “maintains that in the wilderness YHWH will consider the repentance or recalcitrance of the exiles and, in view of it, select who will dwell in the land … [F]or the book of Ezekiel it is clear that where the purpose of divine acclaim intersects with the process of human repentance the majesty of YHWH will be manifest and God’s blessing will ensue.” 102

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to the positive examples of Noah, Job, and Daniel. 103 He fails, however to disprove the conclusion Renz draws, which is the opposite of his. Renz concluded that the example provides motivation to avoid idolatry. Functionally the passage is an exhortation to obedience based on the righteous judgment of the sinners and the sovereignty of YHWH, and is as such not a statement of divine motive. 104 Turning to Ezek 18, it is true that the main message of the unit “is that the exiles are in a transitory period between life and death and must choose” whether they will doubt YHWH as did the first wilderness generation, or whether they will accept YHWH and, with that, “the rebuke, confess their guilt … and turn from idolatry.” 105 Yet, here too, Strine has neglected the sole divine motive statement in the chapter, found in Ezek 18:29–30. There YHWH is motivated by the exiles unjust ways and will in light of their slanderous accusations bring judgment against them in accordance with their behavior. The call to repent in order that the judgment might be averted certainly implies that YHWH would be motivated by their repentance. But two key nuances must be noted. First, although the divine motive, approval of repentance, is implied, it is not expressly stated. The interpreter must ask why this is so? It was observed in chapter 4 of this study that the “lest” format of divine motive is well-known and can express explicitly what is only implicit here. So why is the motive not made more explicit? The evidence suggest that the reason is that the repentance required of them, i.e., “cast away,” “make yourselves a new heart and spirit,” and more generally, “turn and live,” are, in Ezekiel not possible until YHWH himself acts first. Ibid., 473. Renz, Rhetorical Function, 192. One might argue secondarily that YHWH is motivated by obedience, but that is not explicitly present in this passage. One might think of this distinction as the difference between a motive statement in the law that explains why an Israelite should keep the law and a motive statement that explains why YHWH gave a particular law. Although there may be a clear relationship between the two, they are not equivalent and should not be conflated. 105 Strine, “The Role of Repentance,” 478–479. 103 104

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What is promised elsewhere as a divine act and as a gift (36:26–27) is now recast as a command. The use of the imperative mood does not mean that Ezekiel believes his audience capable of moral and spiritual self-transformation. The command create a new heart and a new spirit for yourselves is a rhetorical device, highlighting the responsibility of the nation for their present crisis and pointing the way to the future. The prerequisites for positive divine intervention are a wholesale reorientation of life and an internal change in disposition. The former will not happen without the latter. 106

The hypothetical nature of the sought after repentance leaves significant doubts as to whether this passage can bear the weight that Strine places on it in his quest to establish repentance as the motive for divine action in Ezekiel. Strine turns next to Ezek 33:10–20. He rightly notes the structural connections between chapter 33 and chapters 1–24 and the connections between 33:10–20 and the larger unit. 107 I would agree that there are significant resonances with Ezek 18, and to a lesser extent with chapter 14 as well. The issue here is virtually identical to that seen with Strine’s use of the material from Ezek 18. Repentance is strongly represented in this chapter and is in general a dominant theme in Ezekiel. Yet Strine has failed to address how repentance is to be found, and whether YHWH is motivated to act by demonstrations of repentance, or whether YHWH’s desire to produce repentance is the motive for divine action. The overall trajectory of the book and the resolution afforded by the new covenant promises in chapters 11, 16, 34, and 36 all point towards the latter. Up to this point, my primary critique of Strine’s argument has been one of perspective: the explicit citation of divine motive versus the implied divine motive attached to statements designed to motivate the exiles. With the transition to his exposition of chapter 20, the issues are much deeper. First, Strine’s summary of the import of the Ezek 20:1–31 is that idolatry “creates an insurmounta106 107

Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 588(emphasis added). Strine, “The Role of Repentance,” 481.

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ble barrier between YHWH and Israel.” 108 Although this is undoubtedly true and is a theme within Ezekiel, to frame this as the primary thrust of the passage completely ignores the movement within the passage created by the unexpected statements of divine motive that yield restraint, and the connection between YHWH’s acts of salvation and judgment which both lead to knowledge of him. Further it fails to fully trace out the well-known connections between the restraint here “for the sake of the name” and the restoration of chapter 36 which is expressly not for the sake of the exiles, but for the “sake of my name.” 109 Drawing his work to a conclusion, Strine affirms Mein’s assertion that the “restoration of Israel to the land is seen wholly as YHWH’s action, done for his own sake not that of his people, and without any action on their part to provoke it.” 110 Yet he goes on to argue that the exilic community’s repentance is in fact a necessary precondition for restoration. 111 He does so by appealing to the readings of Ezek 14, 18, 20, and 33 as portraying repentance as a divine motive for restoration. He augments this with the observation that in both 11:14–21 and 36:23b–38, “YHWH’s gift of the new heart and new spirit to the people is explicitly subsequent to their return to the land.” 112 As in the other pieces of his argument, an examination of the explicit divine motive statement in the context of Ezek 11 is missing. In 11:19, the only explicit statement of divine motive in the chapter, the stated motive of YHWH in his provision of a new heart and spirit, is the intention that with this act they might be obedient and live with him in a covenant relationship. Ibid., 483. See Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 275–293 for an example of a study that traces this linkage. Ironically, Sprinkle also connects Ezek 18 and 33 to his conclusion that “What was previously held out as a conditional promise—’the person who does these things will live by them’—is now in the age of restoration replaced by divine causation. Israel will indeed walk in the ‘statutes and ordinances’ of Yahweh, albeit through a different agency. The ‘life’ therein will be gained by spiritual revivification” (292). 110 Strine, “The Role of Repentance,” 487. 111 Ibid., 488. 112 Ibid. (emphasis original). 108 109

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Strine’s over-reliance on the narrative arrangement of the actions ignores the express statement that their obedience is divinely enabled. Given the strong correlations between “walking in the statutes” and “keeping and obeying the rules” with the elimination of idolatry in Ezekiel, it is virtually impossible to see the removal of the abominations in 11:18 as somehow the motive for the divine enablement of obedience expressly stated as the divine intent in 11:20. Although Strine’s translation, “Then I will give them another heart” (11:19) is certainly plausible, the explicit chronological reading is not required. Strine’s logical/chronological reading is unconvincing in light of the closeness of the express motive statement in 11:20. The movement of the passage with its culmination in this singular motive statement seems to be less of a chronological recital of events than a summative look at the various aspects of the renewal in light of YHWH’s ultimate motives. 113 Though there is much to appreciate in Strine, my largely negative reading here centers around two issues. The first is that the work consistently neglects the explicit divine motives in the text. The second is that Strine does not answer the question the people asked in Ezek 33, “How then can we live?” which Ezekiel answers with great clarity. They live, not because of their repentance; they live Strine appeals to Block for support on the chronological reading. Ibid. Although Block does state that the arrangement of the presentation of the restored relationship between Israel and YHWH is “both logical and chronological” he does not explicitly address the temporal relationship between the entry into the land, the removal of the idols, and the giving of the heart and spirit. Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 351. Rather he notes the relationship between the re-entry into the land and the original conquest. In both cases, “Whereas Yahweh promised to deliver his people himself, responsibility for ridding the land of its contaminants was left with the people.” Ibid., 352. A survey of translations shows that most do not read the opening of 11:19 as explicitly chronological “then,” but rather translate 11:19 as a new sentence, “I will give” (NRSV, JPS, NIV, NET), or begin it generically with “and I will give” (ESV). Zimmerli does not read the passage chronologically due to his proposed reconstruction of the original units. Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 262–263. 113

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in repentance and obedience because YHWH has poured out life on their lifeless bones, for the sake of his name. As I continue our survey of key texts in Ezekiel’s use of divine motive statements, I now turn our attention to Ezek 25 and 29. These texts, situated within the oracles against the nations, deal with the punishment of nations that gloated over Judah’s demise, or took advantage of them as YHWH judged them; the judgment of Egypt; and the reward of Nebuchadnezzar for his labors on behalf of YHWH. Divine motives related to the sins of Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the Philistines are dealt with in Ezek 25:2–5, 6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 12–13, and 15–17. In particular YHWH is motivated to judge Ammon for gloating over Judah’s defeat (vv. 2–7); Moab for denying the unique status of Judah as YHWH’s people (v. 8); and Edom and the Philistines for taking vengeance while YHWH was pouring out judgment on the nation (vv. 12–17). As is typical of oracles against the nations, the oracles serve to reassure the people that “[t]hough at the times defeated and weak, hated or even forgotten among the nations, their history was still central to God’s great plan of redemption for the world.” 114 The sins of Egypt are dealt with in 29:6–18 where we see their worthless, meddling support of wayward Israel, and the pride of Pharaoh as divine motives for punishment. In the only positive motive statement for one of the nations, 29:18–20 asserts Nebuchadnezzar’s work on YHWH’s behalf as motive for YHWH’s granting of Egypt as spoil to the Babylonians. Although the nations’ attacks on Israel are seen elsewhere as motivating divine actions, the frequent presence of the statement of recognition in these passages raises a significant question: what kind of knowledge of YHWH will the nations have as a result of their judgment? 115 The two basic answers that have been suggested are: 1) the knowledge will be covenantal and the nations will join Douglas Stuart, “Malachi,” in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary, 3 vols. (ed. Thomas E. McComiskey; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 1282. 115 For other passages where foreign attacks on Israel is the divine motive see chapter 4 above. 114

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Israel in their covenant relationship with YHWH or 2) In their defeat, the nations will come to knowledge—a recognition—of YHWH, as Pharaoh and the nations of the land did in the conquest. 116 The resolution to this question is bound up with the meaning of “for the sake of my name” in texts such as Ezek 20, where that phrase is frequented collocated with the nations’ knowledge of YHWH. John Strong addressed this issue in his 1995 article, “Ezekiel’s Use of the Recognition Formula in his Oracles against the Nations.” 117 Strong rightly sees that a key issue is understanding the connection between the oracles and the divine motive “for the sake of my name.” Following the work of McBride on the name, Strong concludes that Ezekiel’s use of the recognition formula in his oracles against the nations is fully nationalistic and does not envision the eventual inclusion of the foreign nations in the covenant with Yahweh. This use of the recognition formula, unlike the use in the oracles addressed directly to the house of Israel, states only that the nations will come to know Yahweh as the great Divine Warrior who brought order out of chaos at the time of creation. This content is made evident by the close association with the expression ‫ למען שׁם‬found in Ezekiel 20. 118 369F

Although some understand the import of Ezekiel’s statements to be more like those of Isaiah 40–55, Strong’s assessment of the meaning of the phrase ‫ למען שׁם‬as indicating a concern for the divine reputation among the nations is largely undisputed. GlattGilad, without referencing Strong’s work, comes to largely the same conclusion: YHWH’s need to protect his reputation, “appears

For a survey of opinions see John Strong, “Ezekiel’s Use of the Recognition Formula in his Oracles Against the Nations,” Perspectives in Religious Studies 22/2 (July, 1995): 115–133. 117 Ibid. 118 Ibid., 133. See also S. Dean McBride, “The Deuteronomic Name Theology” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1969). 116

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as a concern of YHWH himself and as a part of his rationale for delivering Israel” in Ezekiel. 119 It seems, nonetheless, that there are a few key questions which remain, and that these issues are surfaced when close attention is paid to the deployment of the divine motive statement in Ezekiel. Strong is quite correct in seeing a strong correlation between the motive statement, ‫ למען שׁם‬and the statement of recognition, including looser formulations of the theme of knowing YHWH. It remains to be seen, however, whether or not the statement of recognition and the motive statement, “for the sake of the name” should be equated or if they in fact represent different facets of Ezekiel’s theology. Strong functionally equates the two when he works through the material in chapter 20, seeking to identify the meaning of ‫למען‬ ‫ שׁם‬so that he can then apply the meaning in the context of the oracles against the nations. In his discussion of the final section, 20:23–26, Strong concludes, the exile, as with the punishment in the preceding two sections, is characterized as an attenuation of the total destruction Yahweh originally planned for the nation (v 23). Here the formula ‫ למען שׁם‬once again appears. And much like the petitions found in the Psalms, the phrase ‫ למען שׁם‬indicates that Yahweh will act compassionately, not because Israel’s actions deserve compassion, but because Yahweh wants to sustain Israel as a testimony to his power. 120 371F

Strong has missed a key component here, however. ‫ למען שׁם‬is not used as the motive for the exile, the laws which do not lead to life, or the defilement. Rather the motive, cast in the ‫ למען‬form is, ‫ ְל ַמ ַﬠן ֲא ִשׁ ֵמּם ְל ַמ ַﬠן ֲא ֶשׁר יֵ ְדעוּ ֲא ֶשׁר ֲאנִ י יְ הוָ ה‬. In order that I might desolate them so that they will know that I am YHWH. Glatt-Gilad, “Yahweh’s Honor at Stake,” 63. Further Glatt-Gilad agrees that the divine warrior motif is at the heart of this theological theme. Ibid., 64–67. 120 Strong, “Ezekiel’s Use of the Recognition Formula,” 127. 119

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Indeed the structure of the chapter, and the theology of Ezekiel as a whole, supports his assertion that exile is a mitigation of punishment. It comes rather than full destruction, for the sake of the name, but the text in view here illustrates that there is another purpose in YHWH’s actions. The exile happens so that they might be destroyed and in being destroyed that they might come to know that he is YHWH. Just as we have seen cascading motives in a single text, here we have complementary motives across the book which must be considered together without collapsing them into a singular statement of motive. This suggests that there may be a distinction between YHWH’s motivation to protect or even rehabilitate his reputation and the motivation to reveal himself. That the creator/warrior motifs are not sufficient to explain the self-introduction of the statement of recognition is seen in the absence of these motifs from the primary exposition of the name in Exod 34. Furthermore, as Goshen-Gottstein, has argued, the theocentric motif in Ezekiel serves to assert the fundamental sovereignty, or freedom, of YHWH. 121 The divine motive “for the sake of the name” does not explain why and when YHWH chooses to save “for the sake of the name” versus why and when he chooses to judge “for the sake of the name.” This resides within the mystery of YHWH’s person. 122 This subtle distinction points to the person of YHWH as being more foundational than the motive to protect the divine reputation. Luc is correct when he observes that the abandonment and return of the divine glory in Ezekiel 10 and 43 “were only the results of his decision to punish and to restore the people, while his decision was based on his concern for his name. Thus we see that God’s name played a more important role in Ezekiel’s thought” than God’s glory. 123 So, too, I am asserting that the selfGoshen-Gottstein, “The Theocentric Trend,” 72–73. Here I am not using “person” in a Christian trinitarian sense, but simply to indicate that YHWH is treated with personhood and all the mystery entailed in the choices of an individual. Thus his acts cannot be predicted or presumed, but rather they must be made known. 123 Luc, “Theology of Ezekiel,” 137. 121 122

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introduction is viewed in Ezekiel as more fundamental than the concern for the name. This conclusion is based on the deployment of the motive statements. As noted above, the concern for the divine reputation is the basis for the mitigations in Ezek 20 and Strong is correct in viewing the exile as a kind of mitigation. Yet, he does not address the actual motive statement for the purpose of the exile in chapter 20. As I have already noted the express intent to the cause Israel to know that he is YHWH. No mention is made here of the nations or of the concern for YHWH’s reputation. This is fundamentally the core of Goshen-Gottstein’s argument; in the theology of Ezekiel, YHWH frees himself from all constraints including the constraint of the concern for his own reputation. 124 Glatt-Gilad echoes this understanding in his assessment of Ezek 20: “For no longer does God’s decision to spare Israel arise from the effects of human intercession as in the Pentateuchal traditions (Exod. 32.12; Num. 14.13–16), but rather it represents God’s sovereign choice.” 125 We can see that simply equating the motive, ‫ למען שׁם‬and the statement of recognition is not a full explanation by exploring the lone motive statement in chapter 33. There, YHWH’s judgment, his utter destruction of the nation, which leaves only a remnant in exile, will result in Israel knowing that he is YHWH. This language is virtually identical to the usage in the oracles against the nations. It is clear that “Ezekiel makes use of the theme in order to bolster his reproof against Israel and to underscore the necessity for a deeper understanding of God’s role in history on the part of Israelites and Gentiles alike.” 126 Added to this is the specification that some of the exiles will serve to prove YHWH’s justness in the 37F

Goshen-Gottstein, “The Theocentric Trend,” 73. This does not mean that concern for the divine name is not at all related to the exile and return. Indeed it is explicitly linked in the motive statements of Ezek 36. I would argue that there may be an expression of multiple intentions for the same act. But just as Luc argued for the relationship between the glory of YHWH and the name of YHWH, I am suggesting that the self-revelation, the knowledge of YHWH is a more fundamental category. 125 Glatt-Gilad, “Yahweh’s Honor at Stake,” 73. 126 Ibid. 74. 124

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judgment (Ezek 14:21–32). The questions that remain then, Strong’s conclusions notwithstanding, are: what is the nature of the knowledge that Judah will gain when her abominations are fully judged by YHWH and is this knowledge different from that of the nations? If the knowledge is different, how is that signaled textually, and is there ambiguity? Finally, if there is ambiguity how is the decision to be made regarding the nature of the knowledge of the nations? These questions will be addressed below as I consider the summary theme of divine sovereignty. In particular I will pursue the relationship between the name and the reputation of YHWH, and the relationship between the statement of recognition, “you will know that I am YHWH” and the self-introduction, “I am YHWH,” and finally the use of the name alongside the frequent emphatic first person statements in Ezekiel. Before turning to the summary theme, sovereignty, and the motive statements in Ezek 20, I must first address chapter 36, the last of the focal texts in Ezekiel. There are four passages with divine motive statements in the chapter, 36:2–7, 20–23, 30, and 32. The range of motives include: the nations’ mistreatment of Israel and misappropriation of YHWH’s land which he gave to Israel (vv. 2–7); YHWH’s concern for his name in light of the nations’ misapprehension of the cause of the exile (vv. 20–23); YHWH’s intent to end the nation’s disgrace as the result of famine (v. 30); and a reiteration from 36:20–23 that YHWH is not motivated to act for the people’s sake, but for the sake of his name (v. 32). Together these texts focus on the connection between Judah’s judgment, the nations’ understanding of their judgment, and the reputation of YHWH. These are all core themes that have been seen in a variety of contexts in Ezekiel and which all relate to the core concerns of the motive statements in chapter 20. It seems that in virtually every section of this chapter there have been items that were related to chapter 20 or to the summary theme of divine sovereignty that could not be fully explored above. Now that we turn to chapter 20 and the theme of sovereignty in detail, I must acknowledge that not all can be answered in full. Tracing all the connections and implications related to this chapter and theme would be a separate work in its own right. Instead, I will seek to establish a trail through Ezekiel that demonstrates the utility of focusing on divine motive statements while at the same time

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showing how they connect with the theme of sovereignty, the statement of recognition, and formula of self-introduction. Having already treated the key textual details of Ezek 20 in the various sections above, the details and themes of the chapter will serve as the starting point for this trail which will hopefully point the way towards the key thoughts that were left undone above. Let me begin by restating a key contention introduced earlier about the progression of the chapter. The movement seen in the progression of motive statements is from ‫ למען שׁם‬to knowledge of YHWH through the intentional destruction of the nation. Mitigation for the sake of YHWH’s reputation among the nations gives way to full implementation of the prophecies of doom for the purpose of bringing Judah to a knowledge of the one responsible for their prior salvation and their current demise, YHWH. The chapter moves back out to the theme of the name and combines it with the recognition formula in Ezek 20:44, bringing the chapter full circle. After this the motive, ‫ למען שׁם‬does not return until chapter 36. 127 So what might this movement from “for the sake of my name” to “in order that they may know that I am YHWH” and back again indicate? In order to combat the errant, but prevalent, theological beliefs of the day, Ezekiel traces the movement from divine presence to divine absence, and back again to divine presence, through the movement of YHWH’s glory. 128 These errant beliefs which Ezekiel confronted included the claim that YHWH’s judgment was only on those in exile (Ezek 11:15; 33:24), the false hope that prophecies of judgment were for the distant future (12:22, 27), the assertion that YHWH had abandoned Israel and did not see sin (8:12; 9:9; 11:3), a fatalistic attitude of hopelessness (33:10; 37:11), and the accusation that YHWH’s ways were unjust (18:2; 33:17, 20). The movement of YHWH’s glory out of the temple and from the land confirmed that the judgment was at hand 378F

It is interesting that the exact form there emphasizes that it is not for their sake but rather for the name. 128 John F. Kutsko, Between Heaven and Earth: Divine Presence and Absence in the Book of Ezekiel (Biblical and Judaic Studies 7; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2000), 2, 150–153. See also Luc, “Theology of Ezekiel,” 137– 143. 127

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and the prophetic word would be vindicated through the destruction of the city, the temple, and the final exile in 587 BCE. It also affirmed that there would be judgment for the sins of the people of the land, which they thought were hidden from YHWH’s observation. YHWH’s presence with the people in the exile combatted the idea that YHWH had abandoned his people and that the relationship could not be restored. The emphasis on the individuality of salvation and judgment, and the acts of punishment and restoration, combined with the movement of YHWH away from and back to his people, demonstrated both his justness and his mercy despite the people’s accusation that his ways were unjust. The depiction of YHWH’s movement is buttressed by Ezekiel’s use of specific terms and images for divine presence, absence, and idolatry that emphasized both YHWH’s transcendence and immanence as creator. 129 This thematic treatment allows Ezekiel to “account for the exilic experience; … maintain God’s transcendence; … and employ an image of God’s proximity whose sentient quality the prophet can communicate to those who have no vision.” 130 Arguing that “Yahweh alone is God, despite all appearances,” and yet “emphasizing the absence of God, namely his lack of physical representation,” either in an idol or in the temple, “Ezekiel enabled his audience to perceive God’s presence in exile. Ironically the judgment against their idolatry provided the conceptual means for survival and for expectation of return.” 131 YHWH was present in his providential protection of the exiled people, but most importantly he was present in the voice of the prophet. “[E]ven without territory and temple, Yahweh still speaks through a prophet, who delivers a message that both justifies the punishment and subverts any apparent explanation that God’s absence indicated God’s powerlessness.” 132 Kutsko, Between Heaven and Earth, 152–153. See also Boadt, “Mythological Themes,” 229–230. 130 Kutsko, Between Heaven and Earth, 152. 131 Ibid., 27. 132 Ibid. See also Kutsko’s summary on p. 153, “Thus the rehabilitation of Israel both reveals the vanity of idols and reinforces the message that is basic to Ezekiel’s theology, namely, that humans are the images of 129

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So how is this movement from presence to absence to presence related to the shift in motive found in Ezek 20? Tryggve Mettinger noted in his insightful study, The Dethronement of Sabaoth, that there was a discernible movement in Ezekiel’s theology from the glory of YHWH as an attribute, to the glory of YHWH as a designation for YHWH. “Thus Ezekiel attests to the development from divine attribute to divine name.” 133 The glory of YHWH speaks, acts, moves, and at times must be understood as YHWH himself. 134 The reason for this shift from glory to name also accounts for the complete absence of the Sabaoth designation in Ezekiel. Sabaoth, with its royal military association, connoted a promise to Jerusalem that the divine presence was a guarantee of deliverance for the temple and more broadly Jerusalem. 135 Because Israel was being handed over to her enemies for punishment, the Sabaoth theology of divine protection and military victory was not helpful and as such was not utilized by Ezekiel. 136 The move to name brought with it the theology of theophany. The nuances of this included formlessness (Deut 4:12), immanence and transcendence (Deut 4:7; Exod 20:18–21), and the shift from the impact of the divine appearance to the attestation of the divine character (Exod 34:5–6). 137 An understanding of the name as the character of YHWH and by extension his perceived character or God, not the idols that humans create.” Ezekiel as the voice of YHWH to the people is the prime example of the human (son of man) as the image of YHWH. 133 Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, The Dethronement of Sabaoth: Studies in the Shem and Kabod Theologies (ConBOT 18; Translated by F.H. Cryer, Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1982), 106–107. 134 Ibid., 107. See Ezek 10:19–20; 43:2,4 and 43:2, 4 as cited in Mettinger. 135 Ibid., 109. 136 For more on the nuances of name and glory theology, see J. Gordon McConville, “God’s “Name” and God’s “Glory”,” Tyndale Bulletin 30 (1979): 149–163. 137 On theology of theophany in the context of this transition see, Mettinger, Dethronement of Sabaoth, 124–129.

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reputation is what Strong argued is implied by the use of the motive for the sake of the name. 138 So why does chapter 20 move from the motive “for the sake of my name” to the motive “in order that they might know?” First, much of the book of Ezekiel involves the demolition of the public theology represented by the various popular sayings that YHWH judges. 139 YHWH’s name, his perceived character, commitments, obligations, and power had been misapprehended by both Israel and the nations. Therefore, much of Ezekiel goes about drawing out these errors and correcting them. Yet, at its core, the shift in motive in chapter 20 is a signal that the primary means of correcting the errant public theology was by refusing to allow YHWH to be abstracted such that a single attribute could be used to predict his assured behavior. 140 Zimmerli has noted two key aspects of the theology of the knowledge of YHWH. First, by connecting the knowledge of YHWH to divine actions, and by using a form of introduction, it implies that in Ezekiel “knowledge of YHWH is not the emergence of an image that has first become clear in the human interior; neither is it a process of speculative combination nor the result of an analysis of one’s own creaturely condition.” 141 Thus the publicly derived theologies are invalidated by Ezekiel’s approach to the Strong, “Ezekiel’s Use of the Recognition Formula,” 125. See also Block’s concept of the “pillars of orthodox theology” that had to be torn down in order to be reconstructed. Block, Ezekiel 1– 24, 15–17. 140 The resistance to abstraction is not a resistance to theology or theological thought. One might argue that all conceptions about YHWH are a form of theological thought. Rather the argument here is that Ezekiel’s message resists the selective abstraction of YHWH’s person into favorable character traits which might be used to preclude any possible act of judgment by YHWH. It negates the presumption of mercy when judgment is due. In essence it forces the reader to leave the choice between the attributes in Exod 34:6–7a (mercy, grace, patience, lovingkindness) and 34:7b (declares guilt, visits iniquity) to the mystery of YHWH’s person, that is to the mystery of his sovereign choice. 141 Zimmerli, “Knowledge of God,” 35. 138 139

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knowledge of YHWH. A proper theology must acknowledge all that YHWH has revealed about himself, including the judgment he pours out on those abandon him for idols, who engage in violence and deceit, and who abandon the covenant. Furthermore, this recognition that a proper theology must embrace all that YHWH reveals, implicitly means that “none of the preconditions for recognition of Yahweh reside in human beings or in any preliminary human understanding; they lie totally within the divine initiative. Human recognition and knowledge” arise from YHWH’s actions and “are realized by Yahweh’s own self-introduction to human beings.” 142 The name YHWH, when used in the recognition formula which has its roots in the statement of self-introduction, is an inherently personal disclosure. “It is not a predicative statement that reduces God to a concept and subjects him to certain categories of understanding. The name remains a proper name, with all the irrationality of a proper name that in the first instance designates the unmistakeable identity of a person.” 143 This does not negate the theological impulse of the prophets or of the people as they considered YHWH’s statements and actions. Rather it precludes the assertions of the people that YHWH’s actions would be constrained by a single attribute of his character or the nature of his past actions. Zimmerli goes on to explain that with the use of the name, there is no predication. YHWH is not presented as the powerful one, or the exalted one, or the wrathful one, who seeks to prove himself and to be known to Israel in his proof. Rather all is expressed through the straightforward use of the proper name, the one recognizable in this activity is the one called by this name; through this very activity he will be identified and proven to be Yahweh. 144 Ibid. 88. Walther Zimmerli, The Fiery Throne: The Prophets and Old Testament Theology (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 2. 144 Ibid. See also Gowan’s discussion of the lack of love, grace, and compassion language in Ezekiel in connection with restoration as solely initiated by YHWH’s sovereignty. Gowan, Theology of the Prophetic Books, 142 143

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It is this shift to the name as reputation, to the name as person, that is behind the movement of motive statements in Ezek 20. In both Ezekiel and Isaiah YHWH judges “for the sake of his name,” and saves “for the sake of his name.” He acts to safeguard, extend and at times repair his reputation in Israel and among the nations. However, what the concept of name as reputation cannot explain is why he chooses to judge or save, or when he chooses to judge or save. Ezekiel’s view of YHWH is radically theocentric. That is to say, YHWH is free to act in accordance with his character, not just the publicly accepted aspects of his character. YHWH’s radical theocentricity also means that he is the initiator in revelation, and only through his willing revelation can he be known. The choice of when and where to save or judge, though it may be for the purpose of the establishing the right divine reputation is ultimately hidden with the mystery of the personhood of YHWH. The name signifies that he is not reducible to a set of attributes or a summary character trait. This tactic in Ezekiel does not invalidate the explanation of divine action by means of particular attributes. As demonstrated in chapter four, the appeal to the divine reputation, the divine name, and to particular attributes, is the dominant form of motivations with which the supplicant attempts to move YHWH to action. What it does do, however, is rob the public theology of its portrait of a one-dimensional deity, a deity who is inextricably chained to them without freedom or recourse. 145 This emphatic stress on the personhood of YHWH through the ever present repetition of ‫ אני יהוה‬may also explain the strict parameters of Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry and the nature of his discussion of idolatry. The restriction of Ezekiel’s intercessory speech means that the reader almost exclusively encounters “messenger speech.” Ezekiel is not an intercessor or an intermediary. He 134. Heschel’s chapter, “The Theology of Pathos” is also helpful here. Heschel, The Prophets, Part II, 1–11. 145 This is ultimately the idea behind Goshen-Gottstein’s approach to theocentricity in Ezekiel. By breaking free in movement, in judgment, and in restoration Ezekiel demonstrates YHWH absolute sovereignty.

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is a direct conduit for YHWH’s own speech. 146 This makes sense in the larger context of the book. Ezekiel is shaped to emphasize that man and not a manmade idol is the only appropriate representation of the divine image. 147 This concept is present in Jeremiah as well, where the reader sees that YHWH intended for Israel to be a name, praise, and glory for him (Jer 13:11). 148 The accentuation of the personhood of YHWH also finds support in the Mosaic parallels that have been recognized in Ezekiel. 149 Moses was the only one with whom YHWH spoke face to face (Exod 33:11; Deut 34:10) and he was the one who asked for access to the divine glory and received a revelation of the divine person and name (Exod 33–34). The direct nature of YHWH’s interactions with Ezekiel, like his interactions with Moses, is captured in the emphatic use of first person pronouns in texts such as Ezek 5:8; 8:18; 11:5, 20; 20:25, 31; 21:22; 34:15, 24; 36:22, and 36:28. Ezekiel’s portrait of YHWH is of a God who is radically sovereign, that is, a God who is free to act without constraint of tradition or expectation. In light of this carefully crafted portrait, what does Ezekiel present as the proper response to YHWH’s selfrevelation, and what is the relationship between sovereignty and the human response? As noted throughout the study, Ezekiel calls for repentance, obedience, and acceptance of the prophetic word. A motif that appears less frequently than these, but which is nonetheless strategically used, is shame. In Ezek 16:62–63, YHWH, in an underserved and unexpected act of grace, affirms that despite the sins of the nation, he will indeed reestablish a covenant relationship with them. The express intent of the restoration is to move them to shame and silence when they remember the act of exile. When contrasted with the many popular sayings recorded in the book and the See James M. Kennedy, “Hebrew pithôn peh in the Book of Ezekiel,” VT 41/2 (1991): 233–235. 147 Kutsko, Between Heaven and Earth. See his discussion of Kennedy (70). 148 I will explore this text further in the next chapter. 149 Moshe Greenberg, “The Design and Themes of Ezekiel’s Program of Restoration,” Int 38/2 (1984): 183. 146

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speech restrictions on the prophet, the future silence of the people, understood as a sign of their true recognition of YHWH and of their sin, is striking (Ezek 16:62–63). Although repentance is called for, Strine’s attempt to situate repentance as a cause of divine behavior rather than response to divine initiative fails. Sprinkle says it well, “What was previously held out as a conditional promise—’the person who does these things will live by them’—is now in the age of restoration replaced by divine causation. Israel will indeed walk in the ‘statutes and ordinances’ of Yahweh, albeit through a different agency. The ‘life’ therein will be gained by spiritual revivification.” 150 Ezekiel records a number of oaths that YHWH swears. Some feature the image of the lifted hand, but there are also several uses of the phrase “as I live” (e.g. Ezek 5:11; 14:16, 18, 20; 16:48; 17:16, 19; 18:3). In these, the inherent image is that the “life” of YHWH is the guarantor of the oath. If YHWH is alive, his words will come true. 151 The emphasis on life is reminiscent of Ps 115 which likens the worshipper to the worshiped. Those who make or trust in idols become like them—dead (vv. 4–8). But those who worship YHWH, the living God, will have life and will bless him forever (v. 18). YHWH is the source of life whether the life is mediated through direct divine action like the reanimation of the dry bones (Ezek 37), or if it is mediated through rules and statutes that give life, if one obeys them (Ezek 20). 152 The question of what the role of knowledge of YHWH plays for the nations remains. Is the intent nationalistic or internationalistic, to use Orlinsky’s terms? 153 The use of the recognition formula Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 292. Kutsko’s observations that the restoration of life is equivalent to the repair of the image is helpful for seeing the focus on divine initiative. Kutsko, Between Heaven and Earth, 112–142. 151 A related expression is “I have spoken and I will do it” as found in Ezek 37:14. 152 For a full exploration of the connection between life and the rules and statutes, see Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 275–293. 153 Harry M. Orlinsky, “Nationalism-Universalism and Internationalism in Ancient Israel,” in Translating and Understanding the Old Testament: 150

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and the motive “for the sake of my name” is inconclusive. Just as acts of judgment and salvation flow from these two for Israel, so might they for the nations. Other contextual features will have to be used to determine Ezekiel’s stance. Most of the nations receive some explicit notation of complete destruction without any mention of subsequent mercy which would indicate that the knowledge of YHWH brought about by his actions is not salvific. Yet, there is some softening with Egypt in Ezek 29. The actions taken with Egypt are roughly parallel to those taken with Judah. 154 Although this is positive, I agree with Block that this does not go as far as Isaiah’s statements which are much more explicitly positive in terms of a future participatory role for Egypt in YHWH’s worship. 155

CONCLUSION Having surveyed divine motive in Ezekiel and its relationship to key themes in the book, the last task in this chapter is to summarize broadly the relationship between what has been gathered from Ezekiel and the major features of divine motive explored in chapter 4. The major categories of divine motive were divine approval, the divine character, knowledge/acknowledgment of YHWH, and the judgment of sin. With regard to divine approval, there is a heavy emphasis on repentance, but repentance is largely out of reach, waiting for divine initiative. As Strine and others have noted there is a heavy reliance on Numbers traditions in Ezekiel. 156 This draws in the divine approval of Caleb and Joshua. Combined with the allusions to the Mosaic tradition, there is a strong undercurrent of divine approval, but virtually none of it comes through in actual motive statements in Ezekiel except as the intended outcome of divine action. Essays in Honor of Herbert Gordon May (eds. William W. L. Reed and Harry H. T. Frank; Nashville: Abingdon, 1970), 206–36. 154 Block, Ezekiel 25–48, 143. 155 Ibid., 145 fn. 81. 156 Strine, “The Role of Repentance,” 467–491. See also Greenberg, “Design and Themes,” 181–208.

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With regard to the divine character, there is a remarkable lack of character language in Ezekiel. This lack of character language imparts a dark tone to the book. Missing terms include: “words for petition or praise … for “to trust” (bṭḥ), “to be firm” (ʾmn), “to redeem” (gʾl, pdh), “to bless” (brk), and “to curse” (ʾrr). Also absent are references to “salvation” (yšʿ), “grace” (ḥnn), “love” (ʾhb), “covenant faithfulness” (ḥsd), “fear” (yrʾ) toward God by his people, and “blessed” (ʾšry).” 157 Even holiness is addressed primarily by a focus on the profaning of the divine name and the need to repair this damage to the divine reputation. The motives related to judgment are largely in line with those highlighted in chapter 4. The most prominent two motives for judgment are idolatry (often referred to with the broader term abomination) and the refusal to hear/walk/obey. The judgments on the accusations against the divine character that come from popular sayings (that YHWH’s judgment is unfair, that he will not keep his word of judgment, that there is no hope of salvation) is certainly more frequent in Ezekiel though it is found elsewhere. In the next chapter I will explore similar motives in Jeremiah where some of the same popular sentiments are addressed. Finally, the book of Ezekiel, like Exodus, is saturated, both in the motive statements and elsewhere, with references to the name of YHWH and to the knowledge of YHWH. These motives have roots elsewhere in the canon, but nowhere are they employed so pervasively as in Ezekiel. This emphasis derives from the unique circumstances of Ezekiel’s exilic ministry. 158 The study now turns to Jeremiah, which like Ezekiel addresses the coming exile and its aftermath. Although there are clear overlaps in their ministries, each filled a unique niche, which can be seen, in part, through their respective uses of divine motive statements. Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 40. For an exploration of these themes as an extension of the theological quandaries Ezekiel faced with the exile, see Luc, “Theology of Ezekiel,” 137–143. 157 158

CHAPTER 6. DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH THE DISTRIBUTION OF DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENTS IN JEREMIAH The book of Jeremiah has 72 divine motive statements distributed as follows. 1 For the purposes of this study the textual data is drawn from the Masoretic text. Although an assessment of similarities and differences between the divine motive statements in the MT and Septuagint versions of Jeremiah may yield illuminating insights, such comparison is beyond the scope of the present work. For a discussion of textual issues in Jeremiah, see Emmanuel Tov, “The Literary History of the Book of Jeremiah in the Light of its Textual History,” in Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism (ed. J. Tigay; Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 211– 239. Although the details of Jeremiah’s literary structure are enigmatic, the outline followed here has wide adherence. For an outline of the basic structure see Martin Kessler, “The Scaffolding of the Book of Jeremiah,” in Reading the Book of Jeremiah: A Search for Coherence (ed. Martin Kessler; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2004), 57–66, which highlights the structural role of the call (chapter 1), the summary of judgment and transition (chapter 25), and the oracles against the nations with special emphasis on Babylon (46–51). For detailed treatments of the structure see: T. Raymond Hobbs, “Some Remarks on the Composition and Structure of the Book of Jeremiah,” CBQ 34/3 (1972): 257–275; Gary E. Yates, “Narrative Parallelism and the “Jehoiakim Frame”: A Reading Strategy for Jeremiah 26– 45,” JETS 48/2 (2005): 263–281; and Kathleen M. O’Connor, ““Do Not Trim a Word”: The Contributions of Chapter 26 to the Book of Jeremiah,” CBQ 51/4 (1989): 617–630. 1

141

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Jeremiah’s Call 1:1–19

Judgments against Israel 2:1–25:38

Narratives and Oracles 26:1–45:5

1:10, 16 2:7, 8–9, 35; 3:8, 12; 4:3–4, 17; 5:10–11, 14, 19; 6:8, 15, 17–19, 20–21; 7:13–14; 8:8–10, 11–12; 9:5–6, 12–15, 23, 24–25; 10:18; 11:10–11, 11:17; 13:11, 25–26; 14:7, 14–16, 21; 16:10–12, 19–21; 17:4; 18:11–17, 20–22; 19:3–6, 15; 21:12; 22:8–9; 23:11–12, 14–15, 38–40; 24:4–7a, 7b; 25:4–9 26:2–3, 15; 28:15–16; 29:10–11, 15–19, 30–32; 30:14–15; 31:3, 9, 18, 20, 37; 32:26–30, 40; 33:5; 35:17, 18–19; 36:2–3; 39:16–18; 40:2–3; 42:8–10; 44:29–30

Oracles against the Nations 46:1–51:64

50:24, 34; 51:11

Historical Epilogue 52:1–34

51:55–56

The highest concentration of divine motive statements is in the second section, Jer 2:1–25:38, which has 44 occurrences. The greatest density of occurrences is found in chapters 6 and 9, each of which has four statements of divine motive (5.5%). The single highest concentration of divine motive statements is in chapter 31 which has five (7%). Other chapters with a high density include chapters 2, 5, 14, 23, and 29 which each have three occurrences. Unlike Ezekiel where 26% of the divine motive statement occurrences were concentrated in just two chapters (Ezek 20 and 25), the distribution in Jeremiah is more even. Like Ezekiel, however, there is a markedly higher percentage in the early judgment sections. 2 Consonant with the number of statements found in the chapters dominated by themes of judgment, 68% (49) of Jeremiah’s divine 50% of Ezekiel’s divine motive statements are in chapters 1–24. 61% of Jeremiah’s divine motive statements are in chapters 2–25. 2

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motive statements are backward-looking, with 35 of them located in Jer 2–25. There are 12 motive-in-general statements in Jeremiah. These represent 16% of the divine motive statements. Of the 12 occurrences four are concentrated in chapter 31. Given that “[t]he message of hope in Jeremiah is most prominent in the “Book of Consolation” (chaps. 30–33)” I will explore chapter 31 in detail below. The remaining 11 divine motive statements are intentions. The distribution of these is interesting. There is one in Jeremiah’s call in 1:10, where the key verbs ‫הרס‬, ‫אבד‬, ‫בנה‬, ‫נתץ‬, ‫ נתשׁ‬and ‫נטע‬ which characterize his ministry, are first encountered. There are three occurrences in chapters 2–24 (2:7; 10:18; and 13:11). Two of these three are related to positive divine acts towards Israel. This is significant in light of their placement in the judgment section. 3 412F

THE FORM OF THE DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENT IN JEREMIAH Jeremiah has nine motive statements with direct characterization. Four of the nine are appeals (14:7, 21; 18:20–22; 31:18). The others include divine motive statements by: hypothetical foreign observers of the exile (22:8–9); Jeremiah in defense of his prophetic ministry (26:15); Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard (40:2–3); Jeremiah’s interpretive comment on a battle command (51:11); and Jeremiah’s comment on the destruction on Babylon (51:55). 4 It is remarkable Jer 2:7 presents YHWH’s intent in bringing Israel in the land to enjoy its fruits and good things. Jer 13:11 shows the intent for Israel to be YHWH’s people, name, praise and glory which they miss by failing to obey YHWH’s word. The middle occurrence, 10:18, is an announcement that the people will be exiled from the land so that they will find out the reality of YHWH’s words. On the difficulties of the poetic language in 10:18, see Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1–20: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 21a; New York: Doubleday, 1999), 602. 4 On 51:11 as an interpretive comment that interrupts the flow of the underlying poetic unit, see Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 37–52: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 21c; New York: Doubleday, 2004), 444. 3

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that two of the five direct characterizations are from foreign characters. I will explore these statements later when I examine the use of quotations as a rhetorical device in the book. With regard to order type, 39 of the 72 motive statements are order type 1; nine are order type 2; and 24 are order type 3. 5 The A methodological comment is in order here. There is a long history of source criticism in Jeremiah. Beginning with Duhm and Mowinckel, it has been common to divide the book’s material into a number of sources with the most common being Mowinckel’s tripartite division. See D. Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jeremiah (HKAT 11; Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1901) and Sigmund Mowinckel, Zur Komposition des Buches Jeremía (Kristiania: Dybwad, 1914). However, in recent years the recognition of overarching themes and structures have led to more “holistic and book-centered” approaches to Jeremiah. Gary E. Yates, “Jeremiah’s Message of Judgment and Hope for God’s Unfaithful “Wife”,” Bibliotheca Sacra 167 (2010): 145 fn. 4. My work follows these more recent approaches. As such I refer to the voice of the narrator, the speaker in the prophetic sermons, and the petitioner in dialogue with YHWH as Jeremiah. I use this reference as well when making structural and thematic assertions about the trajectory of the book as a whole. This approach does not negate the questions about sources or authorship. Rather, it is a matter of focus. For this study, I am reading the extant text as a literary whole (regardless of how it came to be in this form). For more on structural and thematic approaches to the book, see Martin Kessler, ed., Reading the Book of Jeremiah: A Search for Coherence (Winona Lake: 2004). 5 The order types are based which element occurs first; the divine action statement (DAS), divine motive statement (DMS) or the motive marker (MM). Type 1 begins with the DAS (e.g. DAS > MM > DMS). Type 2 begins with the MM (e.g.MM > DMS > DAS). Type 3 begins with the DMS (e.g. DMS > MM > DAS). Type 1: 1:10, 16; 2:7; 3:12; 4:17; 5:10–11, 19; 9:23, 24–25; 10:18; 11:17; 13:11, 25–26; 14:21; 16:10–12; 17:4; 19:3–6, 15; 22:8–9; 24:4–7a, 7b; 26:15; 29:10–11; 30:14–15; 31:9, 18, 37; 32:26–30, 40; 33:5, 17; 39:16– 18; 40:2–3; 42:8–10; 44:29–30; 50:24, 34; 51:11, 55–56. Type 2: 3:8; 5:14; 7:13–14; 9:12–15; 26:2–3; 29:15–19, 30–32; 35:18–19; 36:2–3. Type 3: 2:8–9, 35; 4:3–4; 6:8, 15, 17–19, 20–21; 8:8–10, 11–12; 9:5–6; 11:10–11; 14:7, 14–16; 16:19–21; 18:11–17, 20–22; 21:12; 23:11–12, 14–15, 38–40; 25:4–9; 28:15–16; 31:3, 20

CHAPTER 6. DIVINE MOTIVE IN JEREMIAH

145

high number of order type 3 is noteworthy. Across the entire study, order type 3, which fronts the motive statement, represents only 14% of the total occurrences. In Jeremiah, the proportion is much higher with one third of the occurrences being order type 3. These statements which are opened by the motive statement (without an introductory motive marker) frequently follow quoted speech (Jer 2:8–9, 35; 6:17–19; 8:8–10*, 11–12*; 14:14–16; 16:19– 21*; 18:11–17; 23:11–12, 14–15, 38; 25:4–9; 28:15–16) and rhetorical questions (6:15, 20; 8:8–10*, 11–12*). 6 Jer 2:35 and 6:15 are good examples of these uses. Jer 2:35 you say, ‘I am innocent; surely his anִ ‫אמ ִרי ִכּי נִ ֵקּ‬ ְ ֹ ‫וַ תּ‬ ger has turned from me.’ Behold, I will ‫יתי אַ� ָשׁב אַפּוֹ ִמ ֶמּנִּ י ִהנְ נִ י‬ bring you to judgment for saying, ‘I ‫אתי׃‬ ִ ‫אוֹת� ַﬠל־אָ ְמ ֵר� לֹא ָח ָט‬ ָ ‫נִ ְשׁ ָפּט‬ have not sinned.’ (ESV) Jer 6:15 Were they ashamed when they committed abomination? No, they were not at all ashamed; they did not know how to blush. Therefore they shall fall among those who fall; at the time that I punish them, they shall be overthrown,” says the LORD. (ESV)

‫תוֹﬠ ָבה ָﬠשׂוּ גַּ ם־בּוֹשׁ לֹא־‬ ֵ ‫ה ִֹבישׁוּ ִכּי‬ ‫ם־ה ְכ ִלים לֹא יָ ָדעוּ ָל ֵכן יִ ְפּלוּ‬ ַ ַ‫יֵבוֹשׁוּ גּ‬ ‫ַב ֹנּ ְפ ִלים ְבּ ֵﬠת־ ְפּ ַק ְד ִתּים יִ ָכּ ְשׁלוּ אָ ַמר‬ ‫יְ הוָ ה׃‬

In 2:35, the motive is judgment of the false statement of innocence. It is given first and then followed by the divine action statement, the motive marker and finally a restatement of the divine motive. In 6:15, the answer to the rhetorical question is the motive statement. It is then followed by the motive marker and the divine action statement. These are typical of the motive statements found in the context of quoted speech and rhetorical questions. Appeals to YHWH (Jer 14:7; 16:19–21; 18:20–22) are also found with order type 3. This is somewhat uncharacteristic. As discussed in chapter four, the appeals frequently front the divine ac-

tures.

6

The asterisks indicate texts that have a combination of these fea-

146

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

tion (order type 1). In addition to being shaped by quotations and rhetorical questions at the beginning of the text, order type 3 is often found when the unit ends with a rhetorical question (9:5–6), or with a rejected appeal (11:10–11). Jer 9:5–6 Heaping oppression upon oppression, and deceit upon deceit, they refuse to know me, declares the LORD. Therefore thus says the LORD of hosts: “Behold, I will refine them and test them, for what else can I do, because of my people? (ESV) Jer 11:10–11 They have turned back to the iniquities of their forefathers, who refused to hear my words. They have gone after other gods to serve them. The house of Israel and the house of Judah have broken my covenant that I made with their fathers. Therefore, thus says the LORD, Behold, I am bringing disaster upon them that they cannot escape. Though they cry to me, I will not listen to them. (ESV)

‫ִשׁ ְב ְתּ� ְבּתוֹ� ִמ ְר ָמה ְבּ ִמ ְר ָמה ֵמ ֲאנוּ ַד ַﬠת־‬ ‫ ָל ֵכן כֹּה אָ ַמר יְ הוָ ה‬6 ‫אוֹתי נְ ֻאם־יְ הוָ ה׃ ס‬ ִ ‫י־אי� ֶא ֱﬠ ֶשׂה‬ ֵ ‫צוֹר ָפם וּ ְב ַחנְ ִתּים ִכּ‬ ְ ‫ְצ ָבאוֹת ִהנְ נִ י‬ ‫ת־ﬠ ִמּי׃‬ ַ ‫ִמ ְפּנֵ י ַבּ‬

‫בוֹתם ָה ִראשׁ ֹנִ ים ֲא ֶשׁר ֵמ ֲאנוּ‬ ָ ‫ל־ﬠוֹנֹת ֲא‬ ֲ ‫ָשׁבוּ ַﬠ‬ ‫�הים‬ ִ ‫מוֹ� ֶאת־ ְדּ ָב ַרי וְ ֵה ָמּה ָה ְלכוּ אַ ֲח ֵרי ֱא‬ ַ ‫ִל ְשׁ‬ ‫ֲא ֵח ִרים ְל ָﬠ ְב ָדם ֵה ֵפרוּ ֵבית־יִ ְשׂ ָר ֵאל וּ ֵבית‬ ‫בוֹתם׃ ס‬ ָ ‫ת־א‬ ֲ ‫יתי ֲא ֶשׁר ָכּ ַר ִתּי ֶא‬ ִ ‫יְ הוּ ָדה ֶאת־ ְבּ ִר‬ ‫יהם‬ ֶ ‫ ָל ֵכן כֹּה אָ ַמר יְ הוָ ה ִהנְ נִ י ֵמ ִביא ֲא ֵל‬11 ‫ָר ָﬠה ֲא ֶשׁר לֹא־יוּ ְכלוּ ָל ֵצאת ִמ ֶמּנָּ ה וְ זָ ֲﬠקוּ ֵא ַלי‬ ‫יהם׃‬ ֶ ‫וְ לֹא ֶא ְשׁ ַמע ֲא ֵל‬

Order type 3 is also found with “lest” clauses (Jer 4:3–4; 6:8; 21:12), and when a historical case is being made which concludes with contemporary application (31:3, 20). It would appear that the placing of the reason at the beginning with the motive marker transitioning to the announcement of divine action serves stylistically to highlight the connection between the reported speech, question, or appeal and the motive statement. That a connection exists between the presence of questions and quoted speech and order type 3 is supported by the data from Ezekiel where order type 3 statements are found following rhetori-

CHAPTER 6. DIVINE MOTIVE IN JEREMIAH

147

cal questions (Ezek 13:17–21; 14:1–5; 18:29–30; 22:4) and quoted speech (18:29–30; 36:20–23). 7 These findings support the assessment of Wolff, later affirmed by Gowan, that variability in the pattern is often impacted by the literary context including the presence of questions, specific narrative styles, oath formulae, and other less obvious stylistic matters. 8 Having surveyed the distribution and form of the divine motive statement in Jeremiah I will now turn to an examination of the expression of divine motive in connection with key themes and texts in the book. In particular this section explores divine motive in relationship to: Jeremiah’s call, idolatry, the covenant, YHWH’s word (including the prophetic word, false prophecy, and proper responses to the divine word), appeals to YHWH, rejected motivations, and the divine character (including the name of YHWH).

DIVINE MOTIVE AND KEY THEMES IN JEREMIAH The first motive statement in Jeremiah comes in the concluding commission of his call in Jer 1:10. There, as Clements powerfully conveys, the call narrative sees Jeremiah’s “pronouncements about God’s intentions as passing over inexorably into stark facts and

There are also in Ezekiel a few instances in which the reason and divine action are narrated and not cast as messenger speech. Order type 3 is used for these as well (Ezek 23:8–9, 18–22; 29:18–20; 34:7). 8 Gowan, “Use of ya’an,” 173–175; and Wolff, “Die Begründungen,” 1–2. It is interesting to note that Gowan mentions Jer 35:17–19 because it contains a judgment against Judah in announcement-reason order which is then followed by a promise for the Rechabites which is ordered announcement-reason. Gowan does not offer an explanation as to why this might be the case. I would suggest that by using two different orders, type 1 (DAS > MM > DMS) followed by type 2 (MM>DMS>MM>DAS), the two reasons are juxtaposed while the two divine actions begin and end the section. This is similar to the mixture of order types used in Ezekiel’s call which was discussed in chapter 5 above. The use of order variation to highlight two items is similar to what was proposed above for the presence of order type 3 with quotes and rhetorical questions. 7

148

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

realities.” 9 The new realities that Jeremiah would declare flow from YHWH’s intent to place Jeremiah over the nations: 10 �‫טוֹ‬ ַ ְ‫ִלנְ תוֹשׁ וְ ִלנְ תוֹץ וּ ְל ַה ֲא ִביד וְ ַל ֲהרוֹס ִל ְבנוֹת וְ ִלנ‬ to uproot, to tear down, to destroy, to overthrow, to build, and to plant

These verbs, which signal YHWH’s intent for Jeremiah’s ministry, are used programmatically throughout the book. 11 Largely picturing the movement of the book as a whole, the four negative tasks, plucking up, breaking down, destroying, and overthrowing, represent the judgment oracles of chapters 1–25. These oracles begin as contingent threats of destruction made with the hope that Judah

19.

9

R. E. Clements, Jeremiah (Interpretation; Atlanta: John Knox, 1998),

With regard to the nuance of Jeremiah’s ministry “over nations” see William McKane, Jeremiah Volume 1: 1–25 (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1986), 6–8. I read with Carroll, that in a “period when the nations hold dominance over Judah” his call “subtly reverses that domination by representing Yahweh’s prophet as the one with real power over these apparent dominant forces. He it is who, at Yahweh’s command, exercises control over the fortunes of the nations.” Robert P. Carroll, Jeremiah (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986), 95. 11 Various combinations of these verbs appear in 2:21; 4:9, 26; 6:21; 7:28, 31; 9:11; 10:15; 11:17; 12:2, 14–17; 15:7; 18:7, 9, 14, 18; 19:5; 22:13– 14; 23:1; 24:6; 25:10, 35; 27:10, 15; 29:5, 28; 30:18; 31:4–5, 28, 38, 40; 32:31, 35, 41; 33:4, 7; 35:7, 9; 39:8; 40:15; 42:10; 45:4; 46:8; 48:8, 36, 46; 49:7, 38; 50:6, 15; 51:18, 55; 52:4, 14. For a survey of the different uses of in Jeremiah see Saul M. Olyan, “To Uproot and to Pull Down, to Build and to Plant: Jer 1:10 and Its Earliest Interpreters,” in Hesed ve-Emet: Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs (eds. Jodi Magness and Seymour Gitin; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998), 63–72. The only place where all six verbs are found together again is Jer 31:28. The connection to the call is part of the shaping of the book of consolation. Rodney R. Hutton, “Are the Parents Still Eating Sour Grapes? Jeremiah’s Use of the Māšāl in Contrast to Ezekiel,” CBQ 71/2 (2009): 284. Jer 18:8–9 contains five of the six verbs assuring positive and negative responses to sin and repentance. 24:6; 42:10 and 45:4 each feature four of the six as opposite pairs: build vs. tear down; plant vs. pull up. Rochester, Prophetic Ministry, 19–20. 10

CHAPTER 6. DIVINE MOTIVE IN JEREMIAH

149

might hear and respond in repentance. In chapter 25, the contingent call turns to the assured promise of the coming judgment. Later in the book, the two positive tasks, building and planting, move towards prominence as hope for Judah blossoms on the other side of the exile. 12 These verbs recur in the context of other divine motive statements in Jer 6:20–21; 11:17; 18:7–9; 19:3–6; 24:4–7; 42:8–10; and 51:55–56. 13 The issues which these texts address are a microcosm of the key theological concepts addressed in Jeremiah. These key concepts include: judgment for ritualistic worship (6:21); idolatry (11:17; 19:5); the dynamic nature of YHWH’s relationship with humanity based on sin and repentance (18:7–9); the hope for the exiles (24:6); the offer of hope for those who remained in the land through obedience to the prophetic word (42:10); and the destruction of Babylon (51:55). 14 Jeremiah 42:8–10 is an intriguing text with verbal links to the call that can provide an avenue to explore the connections between obedience and divine motive in Jeremiah. Additionally, it contains key themes related to the three populations of Judah which remained after exile: those in the land, those who would travel to Egypt, and those who were in exile. The larger unit is 42:1–22 Kessler, “Scaffolding,” 60–66. Jer 18:7–9 is a unique example. There is no divine motive statement in Jer 7–9, but we do have two motive statements which follow in the immediate context, 18:11–17 and 18:20–22. These two play off of the material from 18:1–10. 18:11–17 begins with ‫ועתה אמר‬, “and now say” which casts this unit as prophetic statement flowing out of the observation of the potter. J. A. Thompson, The Book of Jeremiah (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 435. The second motive statement is an appeal to YHWH to defend Jeremiah. The conflict between Jeremiah and his audience is a core theme from his call which recurs throughout the book. Rochester, Prophetic Ministry, 6. 14 On the dynamic nature of the prophetic word see Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., “When Prophecy Appears to Fail, Check Your Hermeneutic,” JETS 53/3 (2010): 561–577. On the themes of hope, obedience, and judgment in relationship to the exiles and those remaining in the land, see Yates, “New Exodus and No Exodus”. 12 13

150

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

which breaks down in two sections: the Judean remnant’s request for Jeremiah’s intercession (42:1–6) and Jeremiah’s response (42:7– 22). 15 I will focus on the motive statement segment in 42:8–10 which reads as follows: ‫ן־ק ֵר ַ� וְ ֶאל ָכּל־ ָשׂ ֵרי ַה ֲחיָ ִלים ֲא ֶשׁר ִאתּוֹ‬ ָ ‫ל־יוֹחנָ ן ֶבּ‬ ָ ‫וַ יִּ ְק ָרא ֶא‬ ‫יהם כֹּה־אָ ַמר‬ ֶ ‫אמר ֲא ֵל‬ ֶ ֹ ‫ל־ה ָﬠם ְל ִמ ָקּטֹן וְ ַﬠד־גָּ דוֹל׃ וַ יּ‬ ָ ‫וּ ְל ָכ‬ ‫�הי יִ ְשׂ ָר ֵאל ֲא ֶשׁר ְשׁ ַל ְח ֶתּם א ִֹתי ֵא ָליו ְל ַה ִפּיל‬ ֵ ‫יְ הוָ ה ֱא‬ ‫יתי ְתּ ִחנַּ ְת ֶכם ְל ָפנָ יו׃‬ ִ ִ‫ִאם־שׁוֹב ֵתּ ְשׁבוּ ָבּאָ ֶרץ ַהזּ ֹאת וּ ָבנ‬ ‫ֶא ְת ֶכם וְ לֹא ֶא ֱהר ֹס וְ נָ ַט ְﬠ ִתּי ֶא ְת ֶכם וְ לֹא ֶאתּוֹשׁ ִכּי נִ ַח ְמ ִתּי‬ ‫יתי ָל ֶכם׃‬ ִ ‫ל־ה ָר ָﬠה ֲא ֶשׁר ָﬠ ִשׂ‬ ָ ‫ֶא‬ He called Johanan son of Kareah and all the army officers, and the rest of the people, great and small, and said to them, “Thus said the LORD, the God of Israel, to whom you sent me to present your supplication before Him: If you remain in this land, I will build you and not overthrow, I will plant you and not uproot; for I regret the punishment I have brought upon you. (JPS)

As Holladay has observed, there are marked similarities between this request and the request made by Zedekiah in Jer 37. It is likely that these similarities are designed to signal the significance of this event. 16 Beyond the allusion to Zedekiah’s request, Thompson has noted that the idiom in Jer 42:2, �‫ ִתּ ָפּל־נָ א ְת ִחנָּ ֵתנוּ ְל ָפנֶ י‬, also occurs in 36:7; 37:20; 38:26; and 42:9. In Jer 36:7, the phrase is part of Jeremiah’s instructions to Baruch where he expresses his hope that perhaps the people will repent and present a plea for mercy to YHWH. The second occurrence is Jeremiah’s request that ZedekiLundbom, Jeremiah 37–52, 125–127. William Lee Holladay, Jeremiah 2: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters 26–52 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989), 285. See also Walter Brueggemann, “The “Baruch Connection”: Reflections on Jer 43:1–7,” JBL 113/3 (October, 1994): 410 who points out an “if-then” parallel between the call for Zedekiah to surrender (37:17–18) and the call for the remnant to remain in Judah (42:9–17). 15 16

CHAPTER 6. DIVINE MOTIVE IN JEREMIAH

151

ah not return him to the house of Jonathan, the secretary. This plea is repeated in Jer 38:26 where Zedekiah commands Jeremiah not to reveal the word that he spoke to him. Finally, in 42:9 Jeremiah reiterates the situation to the remnant; he is returning a word from YHWH to whom the remnant had sent him to present a plea for mercy. In the book this phrase is clearly linked to the person of Jeremiah, to the urgent need for relief, and via Zedekiah and Jeremiah’s action, to the granting of pleas. These themes are all relevant here. The need was indeed urgent, as there was likely “some degree of panic among the refugees as to what should be their next move.” 17 Jeremiah’s role is obvious. He has been one who was hopeful that a petition for mercy from a penitent group might be made to YHWH (36:7) and he was both a maker and grantor of pleas for mercy (37:20; 38:26). Several questions, however, surround the event. Has the prohibition on Jeremiah’s intercession been lifted? 18 What is the remnant’s intent; do they really want a word from YHWH or merely a “blessing” for their predetermined plan? From the context it would appear that their intent was in fact already set. 19 This is supported by Jeremiah’s “cautious response” in Jer 42:4 which indicates that “he wanted to be sure that his answer would be accepted whatever it was. He knew enough about his people to realize that they might well reject whatever Yahweh might say, which is what they did.” 20 As for the prohibition against intercession, if Jeremiah’s ministry followed the pattern of Ezekiel’s ministry, the changed circumstances of the exile may have allowed for intercession to begin again. Yet, unlike, Ezekiel, there is no explicit citation of the reversal of the command. It is also possible that with the emphasis on the direct knowledge of YHWH that would be part of the new covenant (31:34), the return to prophetic intercession would actualThompson, Jeremiah, 663. Jer 7:16; 11:14; 14:11 19 C.f. Jer 41:17 which indicates their plan was already set. Gerald L. Keown, Pamela J. Scalise, and Thomas G. Smothers, Jeremiah 26–52 (WBC 27; Waco: Word Books, 1982), 250. 20 Thompson, Jeremiah, 664. 17 18

152

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

ly be a step in the wrong direction from the new covenant promises. 21 Jeremiah 42:10 is one of the places where four of six the verbs from the call of Jeremiah reappear. They are used in antithetical pairs indicating what YHWH will (plant and build) and will not do (tear down and uproot), if they are obedient and remain in the land. The text is clear, however, that their obedience is not the motive for these potential positive divine actions. Rather, the motive is ‫ִכּי‬ ‫יתי ָל ֶכם‬ ִ ‫ל־ה ָר ָﬠה ֲא ֶשׁר ָﬠ ִשׂ‬ ָ ‫נִ ַח ְמ ִתּי ֶא‬. Earlier in 18:18 the verb ‫ נחם‬was used to describe YHWH’s response to repentance. He would change his plans if there a change in behavior. Yet here the nuance seems to be different. 22 As Thompson suggests, the verb “should not be translated ‘repent’ … as though Yahweh realized that he had made a mistake and was sorry for it.” 23 Rather it has the sense that YHWH’s anger is over and he has moved past the incident. The structure of the text is clear that the people’s obedience was only the occasion for the divine act; it was not the motive for 431F

432F

Note the “from the least of them to the greatest” language is present in both Jer 42:8 and in 31:34. On the continuing prophetic role as a sign that the new covenant promises were not yet in effect, see Yates, “New Exodus and No Exodus,” 11. Yates also notes that the least to the greatest language occurs in reference to the destruction of those in Egypt in Jer 44:12. 22 For an examination of the verb and the theology of divine change of mind see H. Van Dyke Parunak, “The Repentance of God in the Old Testament” (Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1973); H. Van Dyke Parunak, “A Semantic Survey of NHM,” Biblica 56 (1975): 512–532; and Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., “Does God “Change His Mind”,” BSac 152 (1995): 387–399. 23 Thompson, Jeremiah, 666. Commenting more broadly on the theme of YHWH’s grief in Jeremiah, Brueggemann writes compellingly that “YHWH is not just an affronted ruler but a weary lover who suffers in alienation. Furthermore it is this suffering of the wounded lover that becomes the ground for hope in the tradition of Jeremiah and the ground for looking beyond devastation and alienation.” Brueggemann, Theology of the Book of Jeremiah, 85. See also Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Prophets: An Introduction (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 109–119. 21

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it. Rather the motive for the fulfillment of the positive aspects of Jeremiah’s call is intrinsic to YHWH’s character. In this case, the obedience is not forthcoming. The lack of obedience is one of the literary features which “highlight the continuation of the ‘old covenant’ conditions in the aftermath of the exile.” 24 We have not yet encountered how Jeremiah solves the issue of the continued disobedience to YHWH’s word, but there is here a very theocentric element which is reminiscent of the findings in Ezekiel. That is to say, YHWH’s motivation is found in his character and person. Texts where the judgment of idolatry is the motive for divine action are found frequently in Jeremiah. The vocabulary related to idolatry in the divine motive statements includes: forsaking YHWH (‫)עזב‬

1:16; 5:19; 16:11; 19:4

burning incense/making offerings (‫)קטר‬

11:17; 19:4

other gods (‫א�הים ֲא ֵח ִרים‬ ִ )

1:16; 11:10; 16:11; 19:4

worshipping (‫)חוה‬

1:16; 16:11; 22:9

work of the hands (‫יהם‬ ֶ ‫) ַמ ֲﬠ ֵשׂי יְ ֵד‬

1:16; 25:7; 32:30

adultery (‫)נאף‬

3:8

Baal (‫) ַבּ ַﬠל‬

9:13; 11:17; 19:5

polluted (‫)חלל‬

16:18

abomination (‫תּוֹﬠ ָבה‬ ֵ )

16:18; 19:4

gods not known (‫א�הים ֲא ֵח ִרים ֲא ֶשׁר לֹא־יְ ָדעוּם‬ ִ ) 19:4 high places (‫) ָבּמוֹת‬

19:5

child sacrifice (‫יהם ָבּ ֵאשׁ עֹלוֹת‬ ֶ ֵ‫) ִל ְשׂר ֹף ֶאת־ ְבּנ‬

19:5

The terms include both physical descriptions of idolatrous activity (making offerings, building high places, worshipping, and child sacrifice) and allusive terms that emphasize the covenantal violations of idolatry, often expressed through the marriage and family meta24

Yates, “New Exodus and No Exodus,” 11.

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phors, which are prominent in Jeremiah (forsaking, going after, adultery, pollution, abomination, not known). 25 Negative references to covenant themes not already covered in the vocabulary of idolatry include: not belonging to YHWH (‫)לוא ליהוה‬

5:10

breaking the covenant/law (‫)פרר‬

11:10

forsaking the covenant/law (‫)עזב‬

9:13; 22:9

not keeping the law (‫)שׁמר‬

16:11

Brueggemann’s helpful summary of the links between idolatry, covenant, and YHWH’s motives for judgment in Jeremiah, is worth quoting in full: For the tradition of Jeremiah, the die was cast in the first divine utterance in the theophany of Sinai … YHWH’s supreme sovereignty had been established and exhibited in the encounter with Pharaoh and the defeat of the Egyptian armies that signified the defeat of the Egyptian gods (Exod 12:12). There could be no legitimate rival for power, no competitor for legitimate authority. The entire covenantal tradition via the Deuteronomists had understood that Israel’s relationship with YHWH depended on singular loyalty to this holy, jealous God that is evidenced by obedience to YHWH’s commands. While the Exodus narrative situates YHWH’s victory and consequent authority vis-à-vis Egypt, in terms of Jeremiah the same matters obtain for false loyalties or self-securing autonomy. Both false loyalties (expressed as alliances) and autonomy constitute infringements on YHWH’s singular exclusive authority, infringements that will not be tolerated. Such violations of legitimate authority evoke YHWH’s effort to reestablish authority. That effort consists in juridical condemnation of the unfaithful partner and, where necessary, disciplinary sanc-

Pamela J. Scalise, “Justice and Judgment in the Book of Jeremiah: Discerning the Boundaries of God’s Wrath,” Ex auditu 20 (2004): 89, 94– 96. See also Yates, “Jeremiah’s Message,” 144–165. 25

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tions that may be extremely violent. That violence is designed to reassert divine governance. 26

Three connected motive statements in Jer 5 serve to illustrate Jeremiah’s use of covenant and idolatry themes in relationship to divine motive. 27 Chapter five continues the thought of 4:5–31 and “further develop[s] the theme of the judgment that is about to come upon the nation.” 28 The first motive statement follows a dialogue between YHWH and Jeremiah (5:1–9) addressing whether or not it is possible for the nation to be forgiven. 29 The rhetorical question with which the dialogue ends points to the certainty of judgment (5:9). The first motive statement in 5:10 summarizes the case for judgment. The vine’s branches are to be stripped away “because they are not YHWH’s.” The images of the people’s relationship YHWH leading up to the motive statement include: broken yokes and bonds (5:5), children who have forsaken their father (5:7), adulterers (5:7), those who visit prostitutes (5:7), and lusty stallions (5:8). These images are quite common in Jeremiah and function broadly under the marriage metaphor which is first introduced in chapter 2. 30 At its core, the marriage metaphor signifies “that Israel belongs exclusively to Yahweh.” 31 The shift in the family metaphor from the marriage to parent-child occurs elsewhere as well (3:14–4:14). Yates underBrueggemann, The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah, 75–76. Although there are clear subdivisions within the chapter, we find Bright’s more holistic approach, treating Jer 5:1–31 as a unit, helpful to see connections between the closely situated motive statements. John Bright, Jeremiah (AB 21; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), 35–42. 28 Ibid., 41. 29 Ibid., 41. 30 Yates, “Jeremiah’s Message,” 145. Yates is correct in stating that the marriage metaphor helps to “shape the message of the book as a whole.” See also Mark E. Biddle, A Redaction History of Jeremiah 2:1–4:2 (Zürich: Theologischer, 1990), 220–228 who views Jer 2:1–4:2 with its strong emphasis on the marriage metaphor as the “theological prologue” to the book as a whole. 31 Ibid., 147. 26 27

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stands the “overlapping family metaphors” to be a portrayal that “stresses the closeness of their bond and the fact that Yahweh had been intimately associated with His people from their inception (cf. Ezek. 16:1–14).” 32 Similar to the family metaphor, the vine imagery indicates YHWH’s unique and exclusive relationship to Israel. As the planter and caretaker of the vine, YHWH alone is its owner, and the only one entitled to it as his first fruits (2:3) 33 “Israel is portrayed as a vine elsewhere in the Bible (Ps. 80:8–16; Isa. 3:14; 5:1–7; Hos. 10:1) … The use of ‘vine’ or ‘vineyard’ imagery in the love poetry of the Song of Songs (2:13; 6:11; 7:12) and in Isaiah’s song concerning Yahweh’s unrequited love for Israel (Isa. 5:1–7) also demonstrates its association with marriage and sexuality.” 34 We also see language of belonging and ownership associated with garden imagery in Song of Songs. 35 The linkage of the marriage metaphor with the vineyard metaphor also serves to evoke two of the key verbs from Jeremiah’s call, ‫ נטע‬and ‫נתשׁ‬. Working from the variety of images in the preceding verses, the motive statement in Jer 5:10 indicates that because of her acts of infidelity, the nation no longer belongs to YHWH. The second motive statement in 5:11, “for the house of Israel and the house of Judah have acted very treacherously towards me, declares YHWH,” furthers the description of what is meant by Israel not belonging to YHWH. ‫ בגד‬is used in connection with spiritual adultery (3:8, 20; 9:2), false repentance (3:10), and those who have abused Jeremiah (12:1, 6). 36 It connects the punishment with the themes of the broken relationship with which the unit began. 45F

Ibid., 153. Angela Bauer, Gender in the Book of Jeremiah: A Feminist-Literary Reading (Studies in Biblical Literature; New York: Peter Lang, 1999), 22. 34 Yates, “Jeremiah’s Message,” 148. 35 See the transition in language from “my garden” to “my/his garden” in Song 4:16–5:1. G. Lloyd Carr, The Song of Solomon (TOTC; Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2009), 139. 36 On the theme of treachery in Jeremiah’s complaints, see Sheldon H. Blank, “The Confessions of Jeremiah and the Meaning of Prayer,” HUCA 21 (1948): 331–354. 32 33

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Despite the severe breach in the relationship, there is an element of reserve in the judgment. The vine itself is not to be removed; only the trailing branches are to be stripped away. This indicates that, from YHWH’s perspective, the vine is still his. The image of the stripping of branches is indeed one of a harsh judgment that will cut the people to their core, yet it remains a tender one as well which retains the essence of the relationship despite the nation’s rejection of it. 37 The treacherous nature of the nation is also expressed by the people’s rejection of the prophetic word and false statements about YHWH’s character. In Jer 5:12–13 the people are quoted as saying that YHWH will not act to destroy them and that the prophets do not, in fact, have YHWH’s word in them. 38 In response to this, the third motive statement of the chapter, 5:14, places the people’s false statements about YHWH’s character and word as motive for YHWH bringing the prophetic word of Babylon’s conquest of the nation to fulfillment. The rejection of the prophetic word and the employment of false or misused sayings is a common theme in Jeremiah. I will explore each of these along with false prophecy in the section below on the relationship between YHWH’s words and motives. Again, in 5:18 there is an element of restraint in the divine response. “A full end” will not be made of the nation. The restraint of divine judgment is a consistent theme in Jeremiah which will be explored more fully in the section on the relationship between YHWH’s character and motives. 39 Just as 5:10–11, the announceContra Carroll, Jeremiah, 181 who does not see a distinction between the vine and the branches. On his reading the image connotes complete destruction and the command to not make a full end refers to the ability to rebuild afterwards. This reading is less compelling than that of Thompson, Jeremiah, 243 and Peter C. Craigie, Page H. Kelley, and Joel F. Drinkard, Jr., Jeremiah 1–25 (WBC 26; Dallas: Word Books, 1991), 92. 38 Later in the section on divine motive and the prophetic word, I will consider more fully Jeremiah’s use of sayings, quotes, and audience reactions. 39 For an excellent treatment of the restraint of divine wrath in Jeremiah see, Scalise, “Justice and Judgment,” 89–105. 37

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ment of divine judgment and restraint, is followed by restatement of the divine motive for judgment. In 5:19, Jeremiah is instructed that when the people ask him why the exile took place, he should respond by telling them that it was because they had forsaken YHWH and served foreign gods in their land. The inclusion of Jer 5:19 as a motive statement needs some explanation. The study methodology requires that a marker such as a preposition or conjunction that can indicate motive be present for the passage to be included in the study. This means that I have not treated passages in which motive might be implied but in which the motive is not made explicit. In this case, the motive is marked in two ways. First causation or motive is required as the statement comes in response the people’s question, “why did YHWH do these things?” As has been seen in other texts, ‫ תחת‬can be used to introduce a motive statement. 40 Even if ‫ תחת‬was not a motive marker, the peoples’ question introduces the concept since motive is by definition the answer to the question of why someone did something. 41 Secondarily, I have treated ‫ כּאשׁר‬as a motive marker indicating the answer to the question of motive (‫ )תחת מה‬raised by the people. Although rare, Joüon notes that ‫כּאשׁר‬, can have a causal meaning. 42 Often translated in this verse as “just as,” which is its most common rendering (so ESV, NIV, RSV), its usage seems to indicate not just correspondence, but causation. Accordingly, both the JPS and NET versions translate it with “because” in this text. I would suggest that the use of ‫כּאשׁר‬, which can indicate motive, but which primarily signals correspondence, uniquely allows for both nuances in this text. The literary correspondence between the offense and the punishment is clearly seen in the verbal parallelism of 450F

Most often as ‫תחת אשׁר‬, Num 25:11; 2 Kgs 22:15–17; Isa 53:11– 12; Jer 29:15–19; 2 Chr. 21:12–15; 34: 23–25. 41 Anscombe, Intention, 7–16. 42 Paul Joüon and T. Muraoka, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, I (Subsidia Biblica 14/I; rev. ed.; Rome: Pontificio Istituto Biblio, 1991), 640. 40

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the two. 43 Taken together ‫ תחת‬and ‫ כּאשׁר‬function to mark the motive statement. In chapter 5 there have been four motive statements which link together motives related to idolatry, covenant relationship violations, the divine character, and the rejection of the prophetic word. At first glance, there would seem to be nothing remarkable in this constellation. To say that YHWH is motivated to judgment by sin, and that idolatry and rejection of YHWH’s word are prominent sins worthy of attention, is virtually to state the obvious. Yet, there is an element to each of these themes that speaks to something deeper, that speaks to the divine character traits and ultimately to the very nature of YHWH. The negative work of Jeremiah’s call, tearing down, uprooting, destroying, overthrowing, presupposes that the positive verbs, planting and building, have already been employed. If nothing has been planted and nothing has been built, then there is nothing to destroy. Indeed, the positive verbs will be needed again, but for the moment their first implementation requires attention. In Jeremiah, Israel is YHWH’s vine, planted by him (Jer 2:21; 11:17). The nation that is to be torn down was built by YHWH (45:4). This point, though somewhat obvious, presses the reader to ask the question, why did YHWH plant this vine in the first place? And in a related question, what will motivate YHWH to rebuild and replant this wayward nation? Here the presence of judgment motives points the way to deeper motives that unite the entirety of the sequence of building and destruction, planting and uprooting that are found in Jeremiah’s call. I will return to explore these themes below when I look at the relationship between YHWH’s character and YHWH’s motives. Before exploring those themes, word related sins in Jeremiah must be considered. There are three separate but related word themes in Jeremiah which have already been encountered in the exploration of the moOn the correspondence of offense and punishment in Jeremiah, see Patrick D. Miller, “Sin and Judgment in Jeremiah 34:17–19,” JBL 103/4 (1984): 611–623. For a broader treatment see Patrick D. Miller, Sin and Judgment in the Prophets: A Stylistic and Theological Analysis (Chico: Scholars Press, 1982), 111–119. 43

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

tive statements in chapter 5 above: quoted statements of the people, false prophecy, and disobedience to the word of YHWH. I will begin with Jeremiah’s use of quotations. The dialogical nature of Jeremiah is well-documented. 44 Like Ezekiel, Jeremiah interacts extensively with a wide variety of statements which are attributed to YHWH, popular sayings, and audience response to the delivery of YHWH’s word. 45 I agree with Overholt that it is likely that “Jeremiah may have selected from, altered, even created ‘audience reactions’ to serve as foils for his indictment of the people.” 46 Despite the literary license that may be at play, the broad consensus is that “the quotations … represent the general type of reaction Jeremiah experienced from some segment of his audience,” even where the sayings might have been altered for effect. 47 There are, however, inevitable disagreements in any given passage over where the quotation at hand lies on the spectrum. 48 John T. Willis, “Dialogue between Prophet and Audience as a Rhetorical Device in the Book of Jeremiah,” in The Place Is Too Small for Us: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship (ed. Robert R. P. Gordon; Sources for Biblical and Theological Study Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 205–222. See also Thomas W. Overholt, “Jeremiah 2 and the Problem of “Audience Reaction”,” CBQ 41/2 (1979): 262–273. 45 For an overview of dialogue passages in Jeremiah, see Willis, “Dialogue between Prophet and Audience,” 206–207. 46 Overholt, “Jeremiah 2,” 263. 47 Ibid., 263. 48 See here Willis’ critique of Overholt. Willis, “Dialogue between Prophet and Audience,” 220 and Brueggemann’s insightful comments on Jer 8:18–23 and 14:19–22. Walter Brueggemann, “Jeremiah’s Use of Rhetorical Questions,” JBL 92/3 (1973): 361–64. Hutton represents an outlying skeptical position that casts doubt on the ability of the quotations “to give anything close to a real reflection of the views and beliefs of Jeremiah’s audiences.” Hutton, “Are the Parents,” 281. For an extended discussion of the “vox populi” in the prophets, see James L. Crenshaw, Prophetic conflict: Its Effect upon Israelite Religion (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007), 23–38. 44

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With regard to divine motive, the following themes are found in the quotations: rejection of guilt/protestations of innocence (Jer 2:34; 5:19; 8:8), confident assurances that judgment is not coming (2:35; 5:12; 8:10; 14:15), rejection of Jeremiah’s word, and acceptance of false prophetic words (5:13; 6:17; 8:10; 14:15; 18:12; 29:15). We will turn our attention to the motive statements in chapters 6, 14, and 23 to illustrate the relationship between the divine word and divine motive in Jeremiah. Jeremiah 6 has five sections: a poem about the threat from the north (6:1–8); a dialogue between YHWH and Jeremiah (6:9–15); a judgment oracle denouncing the rejection of the prophetic word and ritualistic worship (6:16–21); another poem about the invading threat from the north (vv. 22–26); and another dialogue between YHWH and the prophet (6:27–30). There are divine motive statements in the first three sections (6:8, 15, 17–19, and 20–21). 49 The first motive statement in 6:8 closes out the opening poem which is a warning cry cast as the announcement of a watchman. 50 The voices in the poem include the watchman (6:1–3), here likely understood to be Jeremiah, the invader (6:4–5), and YHWH (6:6– 8). Having heard the warning, the intent of the attackers, and the divine decree that the city should be judged, the reader comes to the first motive statement. It is a “lest” clause which indicates what would motivate YHWH to pull back from the ensuing divine action. In this case the divine action which might be avoided is YHWH’s turning away from Jerusalem so that it might become an uninhabited desolation (6:8). What would motivate YHWH to turn from this proposed course of action? If Jerusalem would heed the warning, YHWH would relent. This is consistent with the basic theology of contingent divine action laid out in chapter 18. 51 Ulti-

So Thompson, Jeremiah, 253 and Craigie, Jeremiah 1–25, 97. For an alternate understanding of the structure see Lundbom, Jeremiah 1–20, 413– 453. Lundbom’s division is 6:1–7, 8–12, 13–15, 16–21, 22–26, 27–30. 50 McKane, Jeremiah 1–25, 139. 51 Chisholm, Jr., “When Prophecy Appears to Fail,” 536–568. 49

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mately the functional purpose of issuing a warning was to bring the hearer to repentance. 52 The second motive statement in Jer 6:13–15 is a cascading motive which moves from the greed and deception of the priests and prophets (6:13–14) to the lack of reaction by the people to the prophetic warning (6:15a). Leading up to this statement there is a reiteration of the extent of the judgment (6:9), the prophet’s rhetorical search for someone who would hear the warning (6:10), and another iteration of the coming judgment (6:11–12). Again as in the first unit, 6:1–8, the motive statement closes the last segment, 6:13– 15. Here not only have the people gone astray, but so has the leadership (6:13). In particular, the greedy false priests and prophets have only superficially healed Israel’s wounds with their cry of ‘peace.’ 53 What evidence is there that this message of peace did not really bring healing to the people? They were not ashamed when they committed abomination (6:15). The brazen and unabashed sinfulness of the nation is YHWH’s motivation for sending the coming invader. The two terms for shame, ‫ בושׁ‬and ‫כלם‬, were encountered in Ezekiel as well. There they figured prominently in chapters 16, 36 and 44 where shame was seen as being an appropriate response to the prophetic condemnation of sin. The number of occurrences of the roots ‫ בושׁ‬and ‫ כלם‬in Jeremiah indicate that they are equally significant in this book. Terms from these two roots occur 46 times. 54 That 29 of the 46 occurrences are in chapters 1–25 comports well with the focus on judgment in this section. In the latter chapters, there are positive references to Israel willingly bearing appropriate shame for sin in Jer 31:19; 48:13; the 463F

Thus one of the primary complaints we will see about the false prophet is that by failing to issue the warning of judgment, the sinner is not turned to repentance (e.g. Jer 23:14). 53 Presumably the greed here reflects the situation similar to that described in Mic 3:5 where the prophets “cry peace when they have something to eat.” 54 Jer 2:26, 36; 3:3, 25; 6:15; 8:9, 12; 9:18; 10:14; 12:13; 14:3–4; 15:9; 17:13, 18; 20:11; 22:22; 23:40; 31:19; 46:24; 48:1, 13, 20, 39; 49:23; 50:2, 12; 51:17, 47, 51. 52

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nations being shamed in their judgments in 46:24; 48:1, 13, 20, 39; 49:23; 50:2, 12; 51:47; and a general note of the shaming of idol makers in 51:17. The final occurrence of this theme is the statement of reproach the exiles bear as a result of their defeat by the Babylonians. Carroll notes, however, that this verse lacks the confession element present in texts like Jer 3:24–25 which indicates that though shamed, the exiles here “lack any sense of responsibility for the event.” 55 This perhaps suggests an open ending for the exilic community; will they bear the responsibility or simply the shame of defeat? 56 Jer 6:15 highlights their rejection of appropriate shame while other texts such as 3:25 and 31:19 indicate a time when the acceptance of shame would be part of the process of restoration to which Jeremiah looks forward. The third motive statement in Jer 6:19 repeats the earlier judgment. Despite YHWH’s call for them to walk in the good way (6:16a), and the warning calls of the prophets when they had departed from the good way (6:17a), the people have steadfastly refused both the offer of the good way (6:16b) and the warning of the watchmen (6:17b). Therefore, (6:18) YHWH is bringing judgment on them because they have failed to pay attention to his words and have rejected his law (6:19). The twofold motive statement weaves together the covenant failure of the people, the rejection of Torah, and the rejection of the prophetic word. In 6:18–19 the nations and the earth are called to be observers of the destruction that is about to take place. This is “reminiscent of the witnesses invoked in the covenant renewal ceremony (see Deut. 30:19; 32:1–2)” and in Mic 6:1–2 where the mountains are called as witnesses. 57 The final divine motive statement in the chapter, 6:20–21, addresses the purely ritualistic worship with which the people sought to maintain their relationship with YHWH. Again there are parallels with Mic 6, where in the midst of YHWH’s dispute with the people, the prophet entertains the possibility that the people might Carroll, Jeremiah, 850. For the open ended nature of the exilic experience as a call to obedience see Yates, “New Exodus and No Exodus,” 1–22. 57 Craigie, Jeremiah 1–25, 107. 55 56

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seek to appease YHWH with a multitude of sacrifices (Mic 6:6– 7). 58 Jeremiah also deals with Israel’s lack of wholehearted devotion and merely ritualistic performance in Jer 3:10 and 14:12. I will explore this theme further when we consider potential motivations that YHWH explicitly rejects. As this review of Jeremiah 6 comes to an end, there are three quotations which feature prominently in the chapter that should be highlighted. The first is the false prophets assurance of “peace, peace” in 6:14. The second and third are statements from the people. In 6:16 the people express their refusal to walk “in the good path,” while in 6:17 the people assert their refusal to attend to the watchmen’s warnings. The report of false prophecies of peace is widespread. In addition to 6:14, we see it again in 8:11; 14:13; 23:17; and 28:1–11. Outside of Jeremiah it is reported in Mic 3:5, 11 and Ezek 13:10. These false prophecies served to strengthen the people’s resolve to refuse the possibility that YHWH might actually carry out his judgment. These sentiments are found in Jer 5:12, 13; and 14:15. The other statements are part of the large number of quotations that Jeremiah employs in its dialogical rhetoric. Although genuinely reflective of the people’s attitudes and dispositions, it is unlikely that statements such as those in Jer 6:14 and 6:16–17 are actual quotations. Rather Jeremiah “used these statements for rhetorical impact, frequently casting his opponents as saying what was shocking, illogical, or absurd.” 59 The net effect of such rhetoric was to use the peoples’ words as testimony against them. Even where they might not have uttered such a phrase (e.g. “we will not walk in It is interesting that both of these passages, Jer 6:16–21 and Mic 6:1–8, have been classified as covenant lawsuits or disputes. Although the genre designation, covenant lawsuit, has fallen out of favor, so Michael De Roche, “Yahweh’s Rîb Against Israel: A Reassessment of the So-Called “Prophetic Lawsuit” in the Preexilic Prophets,” JBL 102/4 (1983): 563– 574, the linkage in form and content is striking. For a detailed look at the form and content of the passages see Julien Harvey, Le Plaidoyer Prophétique Contre Israël Après la Rupture de l’Alliance: Étude d’une Formule Littéraire de l’Ancien Testament (Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1967). 59 Yates, “Jeremiah’s Message,” 150. 58

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it”), by expressing their true sentiments, the prophet uses the beliefs they display by their actions, to shape the words they utter in the rhetoric of the dialogue. As seen in Ezekiel these false beliefs are a major target of the prophetic ministry because they are ultimately viewed as false characterizations of YHWH. Thus YHWH responds to these false accusations against his character. This is similar to the theme of the defense of the name seen in Ezekiel. Jeremiah 14 contains three motive statements: 14:7, 14–16, and 21. The trio is quite interesting inasmuch as the first and third represent our first look at the divine name as a motive in Jeremiah. The second motive statement deals with false prophecy. These statements are situated in what most commentators consider to be a long “editorial unit … Apart from the oracular introduction (14:1), the passage consists of two parallel laments (14:2–17a; 14:17b–15:4), followed by a divine lament (15:5–9).” 60 Clements understands this unit to be “built around the common understanding that it was an essential part of the prophet’s duty to intecede (sic) on behalf of his people.” 61 Thus the two communal laments represent “intercessory prayer offered by Jeremiah standing in the people’s place before God.” 62 Willis argues, in contrast, that the lament in Jer 14:7–9 should not be understood as Jeremiah’s intercession because of the rejection of the lament in 14:10. 63 Rather, according to Willis, the lament should be understood as an audience response to Jeremiah’s description of the drought. As such “[w]hether Jeremiah actually heard such a liturgy recited … or whether he himself composed it and placed it in the mouth of the people” it should be seen as representing the theology of the people. 64 This would mean then that the theology of the statement ought not be considered part of Jeremiah’s theology. 65 Craigie, Jeremiah 1–25, 199. Clements, Jeremiah, 89. 62 Timothy Polk, The Prophetic Persona: Jeremiah and the Language of Self (JSOTSup; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1984), 76. 63 Willis, “Dialogue between Prophet and Audience,” 221. 64 Bright, Jeremiah, 102. 65 Note, however, that Bright is much more positive about the tone and import of the lament itself. He comments that “its sentiments are 60 61

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Willis appears to consider only two options for understanding the lament. It is either to be viewed as a suggestive model given by Jeremiah for the people to follow, or as an audience response (actual or composed). He does not appear to entertain the possibility that the lament could represent Jeremiah’s prayer on behalf of the people, not as a model, but as a prophetic intercessory appeal on their behalf. 66 Beyond the rejection in Jer 14:10, the primary evidence that Willis offers for his conclusion that the lament is audience response and not Jeremiah’s model prayer, is that the “language appears to be stronger than what would be expected if one were suggesting to others what they should do.” 67 It is unclear what particular elements indicate to Willis that the language is too strong. Willis’ secondary evidence for his reading is the perceived disingenuousness of the words of the lament. Of 14:7–9 he writes “their words sound too precise and unfeeling to have originated in their heart. Instead they have the appearance of confessional or lament liturgies which the people were taught in the Jerusalem temple on fast days.” 68 Evidence from two observations is suggestive that the lament should be read as Jeremiah’s intercession, not an audience response, and that the issue is not the genuineness of the lament. exalted, and it breathes a heartfelt emotion and apparent sincerity. Nevertheless … because of the people’s chronic unfaithfulness, their prayers will not be answered.” Ibid., 102–103. Lundbom rejects the older, but similar view by Duhm, that “this is a bitterly ironic confession put into people’s mouths” as lacking conviction. Lundbom, Jeremiah 1–20, 699. 66 This is how Thompson, Jeremiah, 379 views it. 67 Willis, “Dialogue between Prophet and Audience,” 219. 68 Ibid., 219. He writes similarly of Jer 3:22b–25 that the words “sound staid and memorized, and probably reflect a repentance liturgy which was often stated or sung in the Jerusalem cult.” Ibid. 210. Here Willis cites Bright. Though Bright does view this as a liturgy, Willis’ assertion of insincerity is not supported by Bright. Instead Bright comments “Jeremiah places in the mouth of the people a liturgy of penitence in which they make abject, heartbroken confession of their sin.” Bright, Jeremiah, 25.

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First, there is no explicit citation that the laments are the people’s speech. In other places such as Jer 2:23, 35; 8:8; 13:22; and 23:38 the people’s speech is rhetorically situated such that the words are unmistakably attributed to the people. Similarly, both the incorrect and the reformed speech of the people are distinctly indicated in texts such as Jer 16:14–15 and 31:29–30. The repentant speech of Ephraim is likewise marked in Jer 31:18–19. In addition to the lack of evidence that the lament is to be attributed to the people, a close examination of the rejection statement in Jer 14:10, reveals that it is not the lament itself which is rebuffed. This is not the case in other places in Jeremiah where the false statements of innocence (2:35), hypocritical oaths (5:2), and cries for salvation in the midst of idolatry (2:27–28) are expressly rejected. Rather the appeal is rejected because of the people’s unfaithfulness, not because the appeal itself is hypocritical. In the broader context of Jeremiah, if this had been a disingenuous appeal of the people, it would likely have been called out as such. On the other hand, if this is Jeremiah’s intercession on their behalf, then the rejection is not of the appeal itself, but rather it is a rejection of the people who would be the recipients of the mercy he is requesting. Given the consonance of the motive in Jer 14:7–9 with the motive statements surveyed in earlier in our study, and the lack of rejection of the lament itself, Willis’ assessment of the lament as a ritual performance of the people is not convincing. 69 Turning now to the motive with which Jeremiah appeals to YHWH, we consider Thompson’s observations. He writes, “The only reason offered for Yahweh’s action is that his reputation and honor are at stake. He must act for the sake of his name (cf. Josh. 7:9; Ps. 23:3; 25:11; 31:4 [Eng. 3]; 79:9; 106:8; 109:21; 143:11; Isa. 48:9–11; Ezek. 20:9, 14, 22, 44; etc.).” 70 Pressing further into the theology of the name, Thompson suggests that “Jeremiah may be making a plea to Yahweh as the covenant-keeping God of Israel to It should also be noted that the language of the lament is not that dissimilar from many of the lament psalms where provocative and challenging questions are raised to YHWH. Cf. Ps. 44:23–26. 70 Thompson, Jeremiah, 380. This is certainly consistent with the findings of our review of divine motive outside of Jeremiah. 69

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act toward his people as befits his character as a God of mercy” which is represented by his ‘name.’ 71 This assessment is consistent with the conclusions in chapter four above that the primary motive in appeals is the character of YHWH, and it is consistent with the primary motives found in the book of Ezekiel. Raitt has investigated whether or not it is possible to discern in Jeremiah a rationale for the turn from judgment to salvation oracles. 72 He concluded that it was possible, and the answer was to be found in the juxtaposition of judgment and salvation. Jeremiah, like Ezekiel, maintained that salvation was to be found on the other side of judgment and that the origin of salvation lay in the character of YHWH and his intent to do good. In this way Jeremiah could demonstrate, through the tension between judgment and salvation, that YHWH’s decision to save was neither arbitrary nor unjust. The emphasis on punishment helped highlight his justice, while the motives given for salvation anchor its origin in his absolute sovereignty, his freedom of action, and not in any prior change in the people. 73 The motive with which Jeremiah approaches YHWH is consistent with this tension. He confesses the sinfulness of the people, yet casts his only hope for them on YHWH’s character, including YHWH’s concern for the divine name. The motive for salvation is not repentance, but YHWH’s character. Appealing to the name of YHWH is far less common in Jeremiah than Ezekiel where there is considerable emphasis on the damage to YHWH’s reputation among the nations. Perhaps the difference in emphasis lies in the relative locations of the prophets. Jeremiah, still in the land, focuses more on the restoration of the covenant relationship, while Ezekiel in exile focuses more on the impact to YHWH’s name among the nations. Despite the difference in emphasis, there is much in common between the two prophets with regard to motive. 74 I will explore these themes more thoroughly in the section below on the relationship between divine character and motive. Ibid., 380. Raitt, “Jeremiah’s Deliverance Message,” 166–185. 73 Ibid., 170–172. 74 Ibid., 181–185. 71 72

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The second divine motive statement in the chapter comes in Jer 14:14–16. After YHWH rejects Jeremiah’s intercession, he commands Jeremiah not to pray on behalf of the city (14:11). In his dialogue with YHWH, Jeremiah lays much of the blame for the state of the people at the feet of the false prophets who have assured them that peace is at hand (14:13). In response, YHWH affirms Jeremiah’s assessment of the prophets of peace and issues a judgment on them. The judgment is not on the prophets alone, however. Both the false prophets and the people will suffer YHWH’s wrath. 75 The motive given in Jer 14:14–15 for YHWH’s judgment is wide ranging. It includes: the lies of the prophets, prophets speaking without YHWH’s command or commissioning, the origination of false prophecy in the heart of the prophets, and the false statements of peace. It is clear that sins related to false prophecy are strong motivations for YHWH to act. As discussed above in chapter 6, the false prophecies of peace (6:14) are related to the people’s complacency. Their casual rejection of the prophetic rebuke was buttressed by the false prophets such that the people were not ashamed by the sin and did not heed Jeremiah’s call to repentance (6:15). The final statement of Jer 14:16 and the opening of the next lament in 14:17 provide additional nuance, however, that is needed to fully understand the connection of this motive statement to the broader themes of word related sins in Jeremiah. Jer 14:16 ends with this statement: ‫ת־ר ָﬠ ָתם‬ ָ ‫יהם ֶא‬ ֶ ‫וְ ָשׁ ַפ ְכ ִתּי ֲﬠ ֵל‬, “I will pour out upon them their evil.” The key interpretive task is the identification of “their evil;” whether it refers to the prophets’ evil, the people’s evil, or both. The opening of the lament in 14:17 refers to the people as suffering a great wound, ‫שׁבר‬. This same term was used in 6:14 where the false prophets are said to have healed the people’s ‫שׁבר‬ lightly. The result of their inappropriate treatment was that the people were not ashamed when confronted with their sins (6:15). The combination of failed leadership and exile is reminiscent of the connection between king and subjects in 1 Kgs 9:6–9 where the fate of the people is tied to the fate of the king. 75

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Similarly in Jer 8:11 the phrase is used again in the context of false prophecy’s light treatment of the people’s wounds leading to their lack of shame in the face of their sins. The end result of this inappropriate treatment of their wounds is seen in 30:12–15. There the wound is incurable. The false prophets, failing to produce repentance (23:14), have left the people without medicine, and the exile falls on them (30:13–14) as the inevitable result of their sin and guilt (30:14–15). 76 The motive for the judgment of false prophecy, then, is to be seen broadly as having two points of emphasis. The most obvious is the presumption of the prophets to speak when YHWH had not spoken to them. The more subtle emphasis in this motive is the effect the false prophecy had on the people, leaving them in their sins without calling them to repentance. Yet, the ambiguity of “their evil” in Jer 14:16 must not be forgotten. In 30:12–15, the people are struck with the incurable wound because of their sin and their guilt. There the emphasis is clear. The people are fully accountable for their sin. Just as both Jeremiah and Ezekiel rejected the people’s facile attempts to blame the ancestors for their exile (Ezek 18 and Jer 31:28–29), so too, Jeremiah will deny them the ability to blame the false prophets. The false prophets did not turn them from their sins and as such they themselves will be held accountable, but the sins from which the false prophets did not turn them, must be fully owned by the people. Their sinful path was not thrust upon them; they chose to walk in it (6:17; 18:12). “Their evil” in 14:17 is the people’s evil. Yet in the larger passage, the word-related sins of the false prophets and the sin of the people, in accepting the false words and rejecting the true words, combine to express the full depth of their “incurable wound” (30:12–15). I will return to this below, but we must see here the juxtaposition of judgment and salvation that Raitt observed. Here the nations who plundered them are judged because they assumed the wrong motive for Israel’s judgment. YHWH’s motive was the judgment of their sin and guilt, yet the nations proclaimed it was because YHWH had abandoned them and had no concern for Zion (Jer 30:17). 76

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The third motive in the passage comes in the midst of the second lament. As in Jer 14:7–9 the lament in 14:19–22 includes a confession of sin and an appeal to YHWH based on his name. Here the motive in the appeal is more expansive: �‫בוֹד‬ ֶ ‫אַל־תּנַ ֵבּל ִכּ ֵסּא ְכ‬ ְ �‫אַל־תּנְ אַץ ְל ַמ ַﬠן ִשׁ ְמ‬ ִ ‫ית� ִא ָתּנוּ‬ ְ ‫אַל־תּ ֵפר ְבּ ִר‬ ָ ‫זְ כֹר‬ Do not despise us, for the sake of your name; do not dishonor your glorious throne. Remember, do not break your covenant with us.

Mercy is sought on the basis of YHWH’s concern for his reputation and glory. The divine name is paired with YHWH’s glorious throne, and with his covenantal faithfulness. The throne and the covenant were both testimonies to YHWH’s greatness (Jer 3:17; 17:12; Deut 4:6–8) and to the relationship between YHWH and the people. Thompson sees in this passage a “a strange inconsistency … since it lays stress on Yahweh’s obligations and overlooks the strong obligations of Israel to Yahweh.” 77 It is likely, however, that the addition of covenant to the two obvious symbols of YHWH’s glory is not an emphasis on his obligations but on the status of the relationship and its effect on YHWH’s name. The sanctuary where he is enthroned stands for his character, reputation, and authority. Just as a human king’s ‘throne’ is affected by the condition of his subjects, so YHWH’s ‘sanctuary’ receives the impact of human imperfection among the surrounding Israelites … Their sins are incompatible with his righteousness. 78 Thompson, Jeremiah, 386. Yet there is actually a great irony. If YHWH is to remember his covenant with them, he will restore them, but he will first exile them (Deut 30:1–7). This fits the overall nature of the correspondence between sin and punishment in Jeremiah. Miller, “Sin and Judgment in Jeremiah,” 611–623. 78 Roy E. Gane, Cult and Character: Purification Offerings, Day of Atonement, and Theodicy (Winona Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 379. 77

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This is all the more clear when Jer 13:11 is considered. In that text it was YHWH’s intent that the nation should serve as an extension of his name garnering praise and glory for him. That is to say, they would be his people and he would be their God, and their status as the people of YHWH would reflect on the name and reputation of YHWH. The call, then, for YHWH to remember the covenant and not annul it by severing the connection with his people, is a call to not damage his reputation by casting away what should have been a symbol of his glory—his people and the temple. 79 This reading is in line with Ezekiel’s linkage between the fate of the nation and YHWH’s reputation. The three divine motive statements in Jer 23 cover much of the same ground as the texts already explored. The motive in 23:11–12 is the ungodliness of the false prophets and the priests. As seen in the previous section, the motive in 23:14–15 is the failure of the false prophets to turn the people from sin which led to a strengthening of the wicked in Judah. What has not been seen yet is the way in which the judgment of the false prophets in 23:38–40 would bring a final poetic justice to the issue. In 23:38 YHWH declares that he is motivated to punish the false priests because they have dared to declare that their prophecies are ‫מ ָשּׂא‬. ַ In a fitting judgment they will become a ‫ ַמ ָשּׂא‬that will be cast off. 80 The final statement in 23:40 is the capstone. The false prophets, who had not turned the people from their sin, would now bear the very shame they had encouraged their listeners to shrug off (6:15; 8:11). Additionally, “The mention of this judgment not being forgotten stands starkly alongside the previous reference to the prophets making the people forget Yahweh’s name (23:27). The people may forget 489F

So Freitheim, “… to return at the end of the explanation to the theme of Israel clinging to God is to suggest that God’s people remain intact, namely, ‘that they might be for me a people, a name, a praise, and a glory.’” Terence E. Fretheim, Jeremiah (Macon, Ga.: Smith & Helwys, 2002), 205. Contra McKane, Jeremiah 1–25, 333–334, who reads the covenant here as the Davidic covenant due to his focus on diachronic issues. 80 On the textual issues in the verse see Roland K. Harrison, Jeremiah and Lamentations: An Introduction and Commentary (TOTC; Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1973), 124. 79

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Yahweh’s name, but they will never forget the coming judgment.” 81 This subtle allusion to the name continues the theme seen in the appeals of Jer 14 and is consistent with the use in Ezekiel and Isaiah that YHWH both judges and saves for the sake of his name. Acknowledging shame for sin has already been seen as an expected but missing response from the people and the leadership of the nation (e.g. Jer 6:15; 8:12). The lack of shame is a motive in Jeremiah for YHWH’s judgment of the people and the false prophets. Other proper responses mentioned in Jeremiah’s divine motive statements include: circumcising one’s heart (4:4), heeding the prophetic warning (6:8), executing justice (21:12), listening (26:3; 36:3), returning/repenting (24:7; 26:3; 36:3); feeling the weight of judgment (10:18); obedience (35:18), and trusting in YHWH (39:18) 82 Circumcising one’s heart, heeding the prophetic warning, and executing justice all appear in ‫ פן‬clauses. As such they are given as motives that would bring about a change in YHWH’s planned actions. These actions include the release of wrath without mitigation (Jer 4:4; 21:12), turning away from the people (6:8), desolating the people (6:8), and making the land uninhabitable (6:8). Similar to the ַ clauses in 26:3 and 36:3. These potenthree ‫ פן‬clauses are two ‫אוּלי‬ tial outcomes which YHWH hopes will come to fruition are hearing (26:3; 36:3) and turning back (26:3; 36:3). As such, they constitute motives for divine action. It should be noted that the more negative ‫ פן‬clauses result in the pulling back of punishment while the more hopeful ‫אוּלי‬ ַ clauses would similarly motivate YHWH to relent from implementing his disastrous plans for the nation (26:3), but the occurrence in 36:3 also includes the forgiveness of their iniquity and sin (36:3). Craigie, Jeremiah 1–25, 354. So also Georg Fischer, Jeremia 1–25 (HThKAT; Freiburg: Herder, 2005), 709: “Das Thema, »vergessen« bietet am Schluß eine Umkehrung zu V 27: Nicht Gott wird letzten Endes vergessen werden, sondern diese Schande wird nicht vergessen. Daß sowohl Schande als auch Schmach »ewig« anhalten (Beides zusammen einmalig im AT), hebt die Unehre als außergewöhnlich hervor.” 82 For a survey of Jeremiah’s “vocabulary of human response” see Boda, A Severe Mercy, 227–231. 81

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Given the frequent occurrence of Jeremiah’s use of “listen” and “turn back” vocabulary, it is striking how infrequently these are actually identified as divine motives. 83 Lack of repentance is a frequent motive, but actual repentance is virtually missing. It may be that like Ezekiel, Jeremiah’s message is that this missing human response requires divine initiative. Two lines of evidence suggest that this reading is correct. First, like Deuteronomy, which includes both the command to circumcise the heart (Deut 10:16) and the promise that YHWH would circumcise the heart (Deut 30:6), and Ezekiel, which has the command to make a new heart (Ezek 18:31) and the promise that YHWH will give a new heart (Ezek 11:19; 36:26), so Jeremiah contains the command (Jer 4:4) and the promise that YHWH would change the heart (Jer 31:33). 84 This would imply that YHWH would provide for that which he commanded but which the people were unable to do on their own. The second line of evidence is that like Ezekiel (Ezek 16:63), Jeremiah links the new covenant activity to the forgiveness of sins. Although YHWH hopes for the people’s repentance and forgiveness in Jer 36:3, the statement of forgiveness in the book of Jeremiah is in 31:34 where YHWH will as a part of the new covenant “forgive their iniquity and not remember their sin again.” 85 One last link between these themes which points to divine initiative is “knowing YHWH.’’ As Fischer has noted there is a connection, a reversal, of Israel’s lack or need of knowledge (2:8; 5:4–5;

Ibid., 227. Fretheim, Jeremiah, 443. Clements also notes the connection between the command in Deut 6:6 to put the words of the law on their hearts to this promise in Jer 31:33. Clements, Jeremiah, 191. 85 The theme of forgetting here should be seen in light of the discussion above of the forgetting of YHWH’s name and the eternal remembrance of shame (Jer 23:27 and 23:40). Likewise the themes of shame and forgiveness are linked in Ezek 16:63 where Israel will finally accept the shame of their guilt and no longer falsely accuse YHWH when he atones for them. 83 84

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7:9; 9:2–6; 14:18; 16:21; 19:4; 24:7; 44:3) 86 Now in the new covenant the ability to know YHWH is given by YHWH. 87 In summary, what can be concluded regarding human response in the motive statements of Jeremiah is that they exist more frequently in the negative—in the command to return to appropriate responses or to cease inappropriate actions. However, due to the people’s inability, the eventual implementation of hearing, returning and obeying comes as the fruit of YHWH’s divine action on behalf of the nation. That is to say, it is ultimately grounded in his sovereign choice to express the generous and forgiving aspects of his character. In chapter four of this study it was noted that the divine character of YHWH, i.e. his compassion, faithfulness, lovingkindness, love, mercy, righteousness, was the most frequent motive for appeals made to YHWH. The broad observation is true of Jeremiah as well. To this point the study has not addressed potential motivations that are rejected by YHWH. More than a cursory review of a select listing is beyond the scope of the project, but there are several rejected motivations that occur in prominent texts in Jeremiah. YHWH specifically states that he will not act on the basis of sacrifice (Jer 6:17–20); cries of distress (11:10–11; 14:12); for the sake of the people (21:1–2); fasting (14:12); burnt offerings (14:12); or grain offerings (14:12). The reason he rejects these is specified in the context, namely, that the prescribed behaviors of crying out, fasting, and offering are negated by the continuing presence of idolatry, false prophecy, and the rejection of the divine word. The admixture of orthodox practices of repentance and supplication with wayward hearts is referred to in Jer 3:10 as ‫ֶֿשׁ ֶקר‬ which is a prominent term in Jeremiah, occurring 37 times. The 174.

86

Fischer, Georg, Jeremia 26–52 (HThKat; Freiburg: Herder, 2005),

Here, as in Ezekiel, Zimmerli’s observation holds true that the “knowledge of Yahweh is not the emergence of an image that has first become clear in the human interior; neither is it a process of speculative combination nor the result of one’s own creaturely condition.” Knowledge of YHWH can only come from YHWH’s willing selfdisclosure. Zimmerli, “Knowledge of God,” 35–36. 87

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occurrence in 3:10 is the first. The other occurrences link this term for deceit to idolatry (3:23; 10:14; 13:25; 16:19; 51:17), false oaths (5:2), false prophecy (5:31; 14:14; 20:6; 23:14, 25, 32; 27:10, 14–16; 28:15; 29:9, 21, 23, 31), greedy or unjust dealings (6:13; 8:10, 9:4; 37:14; 40:16), false beliefs (7:4, 8), false teaching (8:8; 43:2), and not knowing YHWH (9:2). The connection between the rejected motivations and falsehood reveals why these prescribed practices are not the basis for divine action. The emphasis on the people not knowing, even refusing to know YHWH, is contrasted with the penetrating knowledge that YHWH possesses and imparts. He knows Jeremiah in the womb (Jer 1:5); equips Jeremiah to know and test the ways of the people (6:27; 11:18); knows Jeremiah’s heart (12:3; 15:14–15; 17:16); will make the repentant nations know that he is YHWH (16:21); knows the actions of the wicked (18:23; 29:23; 48:30); will give Israel a heart to know him (24:7); and he knows the plans he has for the exiles (29:11). It is this knowledge that allows YHWH to see the pretense (3:10) of false repentance and idolatrous appeals for deliverance. Yet it is also YHWH’s knowledge and ability to impart knowledge that leads to salvation. 88 There are a number of motivations in appeals which are not rejected. These include: for the sake of the divine name (Jer 14:7, 21); the glory of YHWH’s throne (14:21); the covenant relationship with Israel (14:21); the nations’ confession of idolatry (16:19–20); obedience/true prophetic ministry (18:20); and a request for the restoration of the covenant relationship between YHWH and his now penitent people (31:18). These motivations are in line with those surveyed in chapter four of the study. They appeal to YHWH’s character and attributes, to the essence of his person, as expressed in his name (Exod 34). The sole exceptions are Jeremiah’s appeal to his faithful discharge of the prophetic office (18:20); and the nations’ confession of idolatry (16:19–20). Thompson notes the irony that the “basis of any conversion for [the nations] would be their willingness to cast away their idols and acknowledge

88

This will be explored further in the section on divine intent.

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the complete and only sovereignty of Yahweh, Israel’s God, a position that Jeremiah’s own people had abandoned.” 89 The choice of motives that are presented within the appeals in Jeremiah are consistent with those seen in the rest of the canon. They have, however, been selected and deployed strategically to strengthen the prevailing themes of the book. The primary motives of the appeals are to YHWH’s character and in concert with his stated intentions. It is to these two aspects of motive, character and intention that the study now turns. There are three basic categories of divine motives related to YHWH’s character in the book of Jeremiah: character traits, divine intentions, and the divine name/reputation. The category of divine intentions has the greatest number of occurrences among the three and will be examined first. Divine intentions in Jeremiah include: the specific activities of Jeremiah’s ministry (1:10; 26:15), Israel’s enjoyment of the land (2:7), feeling the impact of judgment (10:18), for Israel to be YHWH’s people, name and glory (13:11), for Judah to repent in response to the prophetic word (26:2–3), good plans for Israel after exile (29:10–11), giving Israel the fear of YHWH to keep the nation from turning away (32:40), vindication of the prophetic word (44:29–30), rest for the land (50:34), and the destruction of Babylon (50:34; 51:11). A number of these may be grouped together under the rubric of covenant benefits. That is, these all flow from the unique nature of YHWH’s relationship with his chosen people. This would include the intentions in 2:7; 13:11; 29:10–11; 32:40; and 50:34. Central to these is the concept of YHWH’s plans or intentions for the people. 90 The plan of YHWH for the people includes efforts to turn the people from sin (1:10; 10:18; 26:2–3, 15; 44:29–30) and to rebuild the people after the punishment for sin has been fully implemented (29:10–11; 50:34). Ultimately the design is for Israel to Thompson, Jeremiah, 416 (emphasis added). For a broad discussion of the concept of a divine plan for history in the Hebrew Bible, see Bertil Albrektson, History and the Gods: An Essay on the Idea of Historical Events as Divine Manifestations in the Ancient Near East and in Israel (ConBOT 1; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2011), 68–97. 89 90

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experience what was intended but never achieved due to sin— enjoyment of the land and true knowledge of YHWH—such that the nation would function as part of his name and glory which can be summarized as being his people. Contrasted with YHWH’s good plans (‫ )מחשׁבות‬are the wicked plans of the people (Jer 4:14; 6:19; 11:19; 18:12; 23:27) which include rejection of YHWH’s word, attacks on Jeremiah, and the forgetting of YHWH for Baal. Man’s plans are linked to ‫ְשׁ ִררוּת‬ ‫וֹ־ה ָרע‬ ָ ‫ ִלבּ‬, “the stubbornness of his evil heart” (18:12). Man’s stubbornness and corrupt heart are also seen in Jer 3:10, 17; 4:4, 14, 18; 5:23–24; 7:24; 9:13, 25; 11:8, 20; 12:11; 13:10, 22; 14:14; 16:12; 17:1, 5, 9–10; 20:12; 22:17; 23:16–17, 26; 48:29; and 49:16. When texts related to YHWH’s heart are included, the contrast between YHWH’s plans and man’s becomes even more stark. These also bring clarity to the relationship between YHWH’s plans for punishment and for restoration; they work together in tandem to accomplish all that YHWH has in his heart for the people. This sentiment is anchored in Jer 23:20 and 30:24 which read ‫ד־ה ִקימוֹ ְמזִ מּוֹת ִלבּוֹ ְבּאַ ֲח ִרית ַהיָּ ִמים‬ ֲ ‫ד־ﬠשׂ ֹתוֹ וְ ַﬠ‬ ֲ ‫לֹא יָ שׁוּב אַף־יְ הוָ ה ַﬠ‬ ‫ִתּ ְתבּוֹנְ נוּ ָבהּ‬ The anger of YHWH will not turn back, until he has put into effect and accomplished the purposes of his heart. In the latter days you will understand this.

These texts juxtapose the full unleashing of YHWH’s wrath with the latter days of the new covenant, when Israel would recognize and embrace YHWH’s work (c.f. Jer 31). The two sides of YHWH’s heartfelt plans can be seen in the texts that refer to his heart and plans. Jeremiah 3:15–17 follows the statement in 3:10 that Israel’s repentance was only pretense. Now we see that part of the remedy that will lead to true repentance is the giving of shepherds, of YHWH’s choosing, who will feed the people with knowledge and prudence. 91 This runs counter to the ubiquitous statements of the On the phrase ‫ כלבי‬see George Athas, “‘A Man after God’s Own Heart’: David and the Rhetoric of Election to Kingship,” JESOT 2/2 91

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failed leadership in Judah. The next text in this thematic thread is 23:20. Chapter 23:1–6 picks up the themes of leadership failures and the promise of a new shepherd seen in Jer 3. This is then linked to a new confession of the people; they will swear by YHWH who brought them not out of Egypt, but out of exile (23:7–8). In Jer 23:9–17 the critical issue of the false prophets and those who trust in their deceptive words is addressed. Then the passage turns to bring these themes to conclusion. The storm of YHWH has been unleashed (23:19) and it will not be stopped until the intentions of his heart are accomplished. The people will finally understand this clearly “in the latter days.” Although this passage clearly links the intents of YHWH heart with the punitive acts of exile, the connection to the ultimate redemption of the people is equally clear in Jeremiah. The close mention of the branch and the reference to the latter days when the new covenant will be implemented, push the intentions of YHWH’s heart beyond mere punishment into the realm of restoration. Although the connection to what lies beyond the punishment is not made explicit here, it becomes clearer as the theme’s trail is followed. After continuing the condemnation of the false prophets in the remainder of Jer 23, the reader encounters the good figs in Jer 24. The good figs represent those who went into exile, the punishment that will assuredly be accomplished according to our last text, Jer 23:20. We are told that the exiles are the good figs because YHWH chooses to regard them as good (24:5). Then, the verbs from Jeremiah’s call are reprised in 24:6. Using antithetical pairs, YHWH affirms that he will build and plant the exiles and that he will not tear them down or pull them up. This is followed by the YHWH’s promise ‫וְ נָ ַת ִתּי ָל ֶהם ֵלב ָל ַד ַﬠת‬ ‫א ִֹתי ִכּי ֲאנִ י יְ הוָ ה‬. Although this text is very similar to the statement (2013): 191–198. The role of the new shepherds is also seen in the promise of the branch (23:5–6), the new David (30:9), and the “prince” in (30:21). The davidic ruler in 23:5 is expressly cast as fulfilling what was missing in the leadership who were warned to repent or face YHWH’ wrath in 21:12. On the role the promised new davidic king and obedience in Ezekiel see Sprinkle, “Law and Life,” 290–291 and the literature cited there.

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of recognition, it is best read not as “I will give them a heart to know me, that I am YHWH” but as “I will give them a heart to know me, for I am YHWH.” 92 This forges the connection of the themes of judgment and restoration. As Thompson comments, “Heart renewal could evidently come only after judgment, so that judgment was the very means by which the new beginning for God’s people was to be achieved—an encouraging doctrine for those [already] in exile and for those who would follow.” 93 It is important to see that the grounding of the divine intent to punish and the divine intent to restore is in the character of YHWH, expressed here in the statement of self-introduction, I am YHWH. Although not nearly as common as in Ezekiel, the strategic placing of this statement here at the intersection of judgment and restoration, highlights the critical significance of YHWH’s person for Jeremiah’s theology of divine motive. As in Ezekiel, the foundation for all of YHWH’s motives and actions is ultimately his person. The statement here, as in Ezekiel, refuses neat categories or summary attributes. The sovereign personhood of YHWH himself is the essential motive for his actions. The linkage between knowledge, heart, judgment, restoration and the divine plan continues in the next occurrence in Jer 29:11– 14. There YHWH affirms that he knows his plans for the people and they are good plans for a future and for hope. Although different vocabulary is used, the antithetical parallelism here is reminiscent of 24:6. This text, though explicitly addressing the good YHWH has in store for them, is bittersweet as Jeremiah affirms that the exile will be for seventy years and that exile is indeed the place of blessing. The next occurrence of our theme is in Jer 30:23–24. Following a series of exhortations, including the promise of new leadership in 30:9 and 30:21, we get a repetition of 23:19–20. This time the “‘storm warning’ gives assurance of God’s justice. The same Lundbom, Jeremiah 1–20, 232. So also Fischer, Jeremia 1–25, 714. Lundbom also notes the similarity to 16:21 where the nations will be made to know ‫כּי שׁמי יהוה‬. Targum Jonathan likewise reads the phrase as causal ‫חל ִתי ֲא ֵרי ֲאנָ א יוי‬ ְ ‫ ְל ִמ ַידע ַד‬, as does JPS. 93 Thompson, Jeremiah, 508. 92

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two verses appear in 23:19–20 as an epitome of the divine word of judgment … It was the opposite of the false prophets’ message. God’s true word had this purpose, to turn the LORD’s people from their wicked way (23:22).” 94 Here as in 23:20 the linkage of YHWH’s intentions with both judgment and restoration is clear. The stark contrast between the overwhelmingly negative context of the first occurrence in Jer 23 with the tenderly comforting setting in Jer 30 makes the linkage that much more apparent when the two are read together. The theme continues in Jer 31:33 in the well-known new covenant passage and in 32:39–41 where the new heart imagery is expanded. Not only will Israel receive a new heart, Israel will fear YHWH and this will all be for their good and for the good of their children (32:39). In 32:40 the covenant to be made with them will be everlasting and YHWH himself will not turn away (‫ )שׁוב‬from doing good to them. Jer 32:41 completes the picture and again places the emphasis on the divine character and personhood of YHWH. He will plant them in the land ‫וּב ָכל־נַ ְפ ִ ֽשׁי‬ ְ ‫ל־ל ִ ֖בּי‬ ִ ‫ ְבּ ָכ‬, “with all my heart, and with all my soul.” Here the heart language comes full circle as we see the heart of YHWH is for the restoration of his people even though their path to restoration included the terrible judgment of the exile. This text is reminiscent of one detailed in chapter 4 of this study, Lam 3:32–33. ‫י־אישׁ׃‬ ִ ֵ‫ִכּי ִאם־הוֹגָ ה וְ ִר ַחם ְכּר ֹב ֲח ָס ָדיו׃ ִכּי לֹא ִﬠנָּ ה ִמ ִלּבּוֹ וַ יַּ גֶּ ה ְבנ‬ but, though he cause grief, he will have compassion according to the abundance of his steadfast love; for he does not afflict from his heart or grieve the children of men. (ESV)

Together they suggest a theology of divine motive that includes the willingness to cause his people grief because his heart’s desire is to bring his people back into relationship with him. This thematic trail which weaves together language of intent, the heart, stubbornness, and covenant ends in Jer 51:50 with an invitation to the reader to remember YHWH from afar. This is the same term used in 31:3 where the survivors of the sword who found grace in the wilderness (31:2) are loved with an everlasting 94

Keown, Jeremiah 26–52, 105.

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love by YHWH who continues his ‫ חסד‬towards them. The similarities between this text and 51:50 bring the elements of love and ‫ חסד‬forward into this passage. This trail ends where the first texts relating YHWH’s motives to his character began. Jer 2:7 states that it was YHWH’s intent for Israel to enjoy the land. His purposes for them were good. This good, as seen in 32:40, is YHWH’s continuing disposition towards them after exile. Why does he continue this way? Because, as he commanded Jeremiah to say to the north in 3:12, ‫עוֹלם‬ ָ ‫י־ח ִסיד ֲאנִ י נְ ֻאם־יְ הוָ ה לֹא ֶאטּוֹר ְל‬ ָ ‫אַפּיל ָפּנַ י ָבּ ֶכם ִכּ‬ ִ ‫לוֹא־‬ I will not look on you in anger, for merciful am I—declares YHWH. I will not be angry for ever.

His anger ends and the overriding purposes, even for judgment, are good because as YHWH he is ‫ח ִסיד‬.ָ This adjective signifies the one “whose life is lived in accordance with the principles of” hesed. 95 To be ‫ חסיד‬is to be godly, for YHWH’s very character and his revealed actions are ‫חסיד‬. YHWH’s faithfulness will continue even in exile, so the remnant who has survived the sword should actively remember YHWH and bring Jerusalem to mind. Shame will be followed by YHWH’s victory over the conquering Babylonians, because YHWH is a God of recompense who will in the end bring justice to bear (Jer 51:55). The cohesiveness and comprehensiveness of the theology of divine motive as seen in the final form of the text is indeed remarkable. 96 The observation of divine motive in the text is extraordinarily helpful when it comes to understanding some of the more difficult tensions in the text over judgment and restoration and even past tradition and future worship. D. A. Baer, “‫ח ַסד‬,” ָ NIDOTTE 2:206–214. Those who approach the text with a view towards a diachronic reading will likely see this differently. It is not the intent of this statement to dismiss those readings or to assert that the synchronic reading proposed here excludes observations based on conclusions about the development of the text. Rather, the intent is to demonstrate that the final form, read as a literary whole, shows a unified portrait that has been intentionally woven throughout Jeremiah. 95 96

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Rodney Hutton, in his 2009 study of the proverb quoted in Jer 31:29, ‫ָאבוֹת ָא ְכלוּ ב ֶֹסר וְ ִשׁנֵּ י ָבנִ ים ִתּ ְק ֶהינָ ה‬ The fathers have eaten sour grapes and the children’s teeth are set on edge

concluded that rather than the parable being a statement of the people’s belief which is “then countermanded by the correct word of Jeremiah … [i]t presents, rather, a vision of the people themselves coming to a new understanding that is about to mark the coming era, and the future is thus positioned over against the past.” 97 As evidence for his position, Hutton appeals to Jer 3:16–17 and 16:14–15 as two additional cases where the contrast is between “a past assumption over against a future vision.” 98 Drawing his argument to its primary conclusion, Hutton argues: In these three texts, therefore, venerable and highly regarded vestiges from the past are being retired for the sake of future promise: the ark of the covenant, the confession of deliverance and exodus from Egyptian bondage, and the central creedal confession of Yhwh’s nature as expressed in the parable of the sour grapes. Understood as such, the parable of the sour grapes finds itself in impressive company—the ark of the covenant is the central icon of divine presence, and the exodus from Egypt is the central confession of Yhwh’s action with Israel in its history. So the proverb of the sour grapes, far from representing an objectionable opinion of the people to be countermanded and refuted by the prophet, as in Ezekiel 18, serves in Jeremiah as a third icon of Israel’s sacred memory— its memory of the basic quality of Yhwh’s character that marked the past. As such, it is no more discredited or rejected than the ark or the exodus. All three, rather, are relegated to the honored memory of Israel’s past—retired, as it were, to their “hall of fame.” 99 Hutton, “Are the Parents,” 282. Ibid., 283. 99 Ibid. 97 98

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By understanding the proverb as representing a conflict between the correct old creedal confession of Exod 34, where YHWH was a God who was both gracious and merciful, and who extended punishments corporately, and the new creedal confession, that each one will be punished for his own sins, Hutton views the key theological development of Jeremiah to be the relegation of the old creedal confession to the past. There the old understanding of Exod 34 could be “retired alongside the ark and the exodus, alongside religious infrastructure and historical remembrance, and a new field was to be prepared to receive the seed of Israel’s future.” 100 Though Hutton’s work on the proverb itself is intriguing, due to the lack of attention to the prominent theme of divine motive and especially to divine character as the motive for both judgment and restoration in Jeremiah, the study fails to truly connect with the broad theological trajectories of the book. As demonstrated above the new covenant promises and the very “seed of Israel’s future” are rooted firmly in motives tied to the “old creedal confession” of Exod 34. There is tension, but the tension is resolved not by jettisoning the past revelation of the name, but by fully exploring the implications of the character of YHWH in the life of the community. Jeremiah does that dramatically as the full depth of YHWH’s pathos is on display in the storm that will not be stopped until all of his heart’s intents are fulfilled—both to judge and to restore the people. By disconnecting the promises of new life for Israel from the creedal confession, Hutton has also cut them off from their theological underpinnings in the divine motives which are on display throughout Jeremiah. The people certainly misused the old confessions. Their assumptions as represented in Jeremiah’s rhetorical quotations of them, seem to acknowledge only the first half of the exposition of the divine name in Exod 34, that YHWH is merciful. So despite their idolatry they cry out for YHWH to save them (2:27). They presume YHWH is not angry with them (2:35) and that he will not punish them (5:12), and they assume that YHWH would not destroy his temple or his city (7:4). As noted above this complacent attitude in which the people assumed the good of the covenant 100

Ibid., 285.

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relationship without acknowledging their covenant responsibilities, was supported by the constant affirmation of the false prophets that peace was at hand. The old confessions were not negated and relegated to the past. Rather, the people’s sinful clinging to only the positive aspects of the old confessions was negated. The reliance on the positive aspects of the confessions was negated because they could not hold onto the positive elements of the relationship with YHWH while simultaneously holding fast to their idols and rejecting the prophetic word.

CONCLUSION Divine motive is at the heart of the theological message and literary movement of the book of Jeremiah. Far different from Ezekiel with its strident refrain, “you shall know that I am YHWH,” Jeremiah displays YHWH’s motives in a more wide-ranging fashion. Just as the emotional tone of Jeremiah swings between the poles of YHWH’s passionate pursuit of his people, and his passionate determination to eradicate sin and vindicate his word, so too, the portrayal of motive swings between rock solid assurances of divine faithfulness and enduring love, and oath bound pronouncements of the storm that will not spare. Yet, both are grounded not merely in attributes of YHWH, but in his sovereign person. In this way, Jeremiah and Ezekiel are remarkably alike.

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS

Why do I want to tell him about an intention too, as well as telling him what I did? … because I want to tell him something about myself, which goes beyond what happened at that time. I reveal to him something of myself … Wittgenstein Philosophical Investigations §659

DIVINE MOTIVE IN JEREMIAH AND EZEKIEL Fundamentally, to express motive is to answer the question, “Why?” And it is with this question that I begin to draw this study to conclusion. It must be asked, why are divine motive statements concentrated in Jeremiah and Ezekiel? What is it about these books that between them they contain 25% of the divine motive statements in the biblical Hebrew canon? Wittgenstein points towards an answer. The expression of motive is ultimately an expression of self. The express statement of motive moves beyond the interpretation of the observer to the revelation of self. As Zimmerli has noted, the dominant theme of self-revelation is of paramount importance in Ezekiel as noted by the overwhelming presence of the various forms of the statement of recognition and formula of introduction. 1 With such an emphasis on self-revelation in Ezekiel, it would make sense that there would be a concentrated expression of divine motive in addition to the formulae that Zimmerli has so carefully studied. Yet, these formulae, are largely absent in Jeremiah even though divine motive is abundant in the book. So the pres1

Zimmerli, I Am Yahweh.

187

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

ence of divine motive is not to be solely explained by the presence of the recognition statement and formula of introduction. So, what do these books have in common that drive them to incorporate the most dense expressions of divine motive in the canon? The evidence suggests that it is the concentration of divine activity—divine activity that is on its surface confusing—vacillating between judgment and salvation, which seems to jeopardize Israel’s understanding of the very nature of YHWH; and which YHWH himself recognizes as potentially hazardous to his name and reputation. 2 The period leading up to and through the early moments of the exile is a unique moment in Israel’s history which brought unique challenges to the prophetic ministry. As Bullock has written, Even the ministry of Isaiah, which was punctuated by five Assyrian invasions into Israelite and Judean territory, was not marked by the level of anxiety, terror, and tragedy that stalked Jeremiah’s long ministry … Whereas Isaiah had seen the destruction of Samaria and the exile of her citizens to the distant east, Jeremiah lived to see the awful destruction of Jerusalem, that city that had stood almost inviolable through the days of his predecessors. 3

Ezekiel, who ministered during the latter part of this period, presents a complementary perspective on this period. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel addresses fundamental questions about the nature of YHWH and the people’s relationship to him. Offering perspective on this critical point in the nation’s history, these two prophetic texts use divine motive to expound on the character of YHWH, and the relationship between YHWH’s character, the present crisis, and the nation’s future. As I have shown in the study, there are many similarities between Jeremiah and Ezekiel including: restrictions on the prophet’s On the inevitable theological questions raised by the exile, see Luc, “Theology of Ezekiel,” 139–141. On the defense of YHWH’s reputation see Glatt-Gilad, “Yahweh’s Honor at Stake,” 63–74. 3 C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago: Moody, 2007), 187–188. 2

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speech by YHWH, strong calls to repentance, the opposition each faced in the community, the presence of false prophets, idolatry, complacency among the people with regard to their relationship with YHWH, and popular sayings that were used by the people to fend off the prophetic message of coming destruction. Key differences between the two include: the location of the prophet, the prophet’s primary audience, the primary titles used for YHWH, and the nature of the prophet’s relationship with YHWH. 4 As the study comes to a conclusion I will make observations on three themes which occur in both prophets that can helpfully illustrate the unique way each prophet operated and the unique use of divine motive in the two works. These themes are: the temple and the land, audience quotations, and the knowledge of YHWH. I will summarize, compare, and contrast the relationship between each of these themes and divine motive in Jeremiah and Ezekiel.

THE TEMPLE, THE LAND, AND DIVINE MOTIVE Rochester has rightly noted that both Jeremiah and Ezekiel “call for the person and presence of Yahweh to be regarded more highly than his temple and its cult.” 5 Yet as one observes Jeremiah’s temple sermon (Jer 7:1–15, 26:1–6) and Ezekiel’s vision of the temple in Ezek 8–11, there is a discernible difference in the way divine motive is used in each despite the presence of many comparable elements. Both the temple sermon and the vision of the temple are good examples of texts that feature wrong sayings on which the people rely (Jer 7:4; Ezek 8:12; 9:9; 11:3; 11:15); idolatry (Jer 7:9; Ezek 8:3– 6, 10, 14, 16; 11:18, 21); violence, greed, and oppression (Jer 7:5–6, 9–11; Ezek 8:17; 9:9; 11:2–3); false reliance on the cult (Jer 7:4, 10, 21–26; Ezek 11:15); and YHWH distancing himself from the temple (Jer 7:12–15; Ezek 8:6; 9:3; 10:4, 18–19; 11:16, 22–23). Despite this common backdrop centered around the temple, there are sigFor an overview of the similarities and differences in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, see Rochester, Prophetic Ministry. 5 Ibid., 221. 4

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

nificant variances that are illustrative of differences found throughout the two texts. The most striking difference is the way that landedness is treated in each. In Jeremiah, the land and the temple function to give the people a false sense of security (Jer 7:4, 10). Not only did they believe the presence of the temple would cause YHWH to protect them, they also sought to “console themselves with a theological claim to the land.” 6 Rather than accepting the deportation of a portion of the people as a call to recognize YHWH’s judgment and repent, those left behind “excluded themselves from this judgment. They ascribed the realization of judgment to the exiles, whilst to themselves they ascribed grace and the renewed offer of the assurances of this grace.” 7 Their conclusion, an inference of providence, was that their location indicated divine satisfaction, whereas the exiles place outside the land were seen to be bearing YHWH’s wrath exclusively. “The land was the sacramental assurance of the favor of Yahweh. Whoever lost the land had visibly lost the sign of his favor and was far from Yahweh’s salvation.” 8 Jeremiah and Ezekiel respond to this situation in opposite but complementary fashion, each using divine motive in their response. 9 For Jeremiah, the false reliance on the continued possession of the land and the temple, is countered with a repetition of the ubiquitous call to repentance (7:5–7), which could legitimately lead to their continued possession of the land; an exposition of their continued sin and false reliance on the temple as a guarantor of YHWH’s salvation (7:8–11); and finally with an express statement that they too, in fact, will be exiled and the temple upon which they have falsely relied will be destroyed, so that neither those in exile, nor those who remain, will be able to trust in the Allen, Ezekiel 1–19, 163. Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 261. 8 Ibid., 261. 9 On the complementary nature of these themes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, see James M. Hamilton, God’s Glory in Salvation through Judgment: A Biblical Theology (Wheaton: Crossway, 2010), 228–229. 6 7

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS

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false statement, “the temple of the Lord” any longer (7:12–15). 10 The express motive for YHWH’s destruction of the temple is his judgment of the continued sin of the people despite the constant call to repentance that had been issued through the prophetic message (7:13–15). In Ezekiel 11, the Jerusalemites’ contention that the people in exile have left YHWH is countered by YHWH’s two-fold statement that he himself has carried them off into exile (implying his presence with them on the journey) and that while in exile he has been a sanctuary for them. 11 Kutsko helpfully summarizes the import of this concept. “The absence of God from the Temple (the removal of the divine kābôd) is both theodicy and theophany: it allows the presence of God to be associated with Israel in exile.” 12 In this context the motive statement is not the justification of the destruction of the temple, nor the judgment of the Jerusalemites, nor the exile itself. Rather the motive statement expresses the intent of YHWH’s future work of restoration. The as yet future gift of a new heart and spirit to the exiles, who will be brought back to the land, is so that they might be obedient to the statutes and rules, which will be an outward manifestation of the restored covenant relationship with YHWH. This new reality is couched in the classic In Jer 26:3, the parallel summary of the temple sermon in chapter 7, the motive statement is a hypothetical statement that perhaps the people will repent and YHWH will be able to relent of the planned disaster. This matches the opening statement of repentance and its potential here in chapter 7, but the emphasis in 7 is on the actual eventuality. They will not repent and the divine motive for the destruction that will take place is spelled out in full. 11 The traditional treatment of the phrase ‫ מקדשׁ מעט‬in Ezek 11:16 is “little sanctuary.” The JPS translation of “diminished sanctity” understands the claim here to be that “God’s presence in the world, rather than the Temple’s presence in Jerusalem, insures their future.” Marvin A. Sweeney, “Ezekiel,” in The Jewish Study Bible (eds. Adele Berlin, Marc M. Z. Brettler, and Michael M. A. Fishbane; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 1061. For a discussion of the various proposed nuances of the qualifier (small, little while, etc.) see Kutsko, Between Heaven and Earth, 98. 12 Ibid., 99. 10

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

covenant phraseology, “they shall be my people and I will be their God” (11:20). 13 The distinctive nature of the two settings matches the distinctive nature of the two prophetic messages. Jeremiah’s message contradicts the people’s false understandings of YHWH and his intentions by using the statement of divine motive to make their judgment explicit. Ezekiel, in a complementary fashion uses divine motive to bridge the distance created by the punishment of exile, so that YHWH’s ultimate intention is made clear. Both are based on the popular understanding of YHWH’s actions, but the negative motive statement of Jeremiah and the shockingly positive motive statement of Ezekiel are oppositely stated based on the context of the two prophets.

POPULAR SAYINGS, AUDIENCE QUOTATION AND DIVINE MOTIVE As shown above, audience quotations, popular sayings, and dialogue are important aspects of both Jeremiah and Ezekiel. A survey of all the passages involved is beyond the scope of this work. Jeremiah alone has more than one hundred such occurrences. 14 There are 44 occurrences in Jeremiah and Ezekiel where an audience quotation, dialogue, or popular saying is used in conjunction with a statement of divine motive. 15 The division appears relatively even with 25 in Jeremiah and 19 in Ezekiel. However, there are 9 unique occurrences in Ezekiel that have no counterpart in Jeremiah. These include foreign nations gloating over Judah’s defeat (Ezek 25:2–7, 8–11; 26:1–3; 35:10–12; 36:2–7; 36:20–23), the boasting of foreign That the people in exiled wrestled with the idea that the covenant relationship might be at an end is made clear in Ezek 37:11, another context in which encouragement is based on future restoration. 14 Overholt, “Jeremiah 2,” 262. 15 Jer 2:5–9, 31–32, 33–34, 35; 5:10–14, 19; 6:14–15, 16; 7:10–14; 8:6–7, 8–9, 10–13; 13:11–12, 22–26; 14:13–16; 16:10–12, 19–21; 18:11–12, 18; 21:12–13; 22:8–9; 23:14–17, 33–40; 29:10–19; 31:18–20; Ezek 11:1–4, 13–21; 12:1–11, 21–28; 13:1–7, 10–11, 12; 16:43–44; 18:29–30; 20:32–44; 25:2–7, 8–11; 26:1–3; 28:1–9; 29:6–10; 33:29–33; 35:10–12; 36:2–7; 36:20– 23. 13

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS

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kings (Ezek 28:1–9; 29:6–10), and an inquiry over the meaning of one of Ezekiel’s sign acts (Ezek 12:1–11). If these texts are excluded and just those themes that are treated both in Jeremiah and Ezekiel are considered, the balance is quite different. Of the remaining 35 occurrences, Jeremiah contains 71% of them. This is in line with the well-recognized uniqueness of Jeremiah with regard to the sheer number of audience quotations employed in the book. I will explore four categories of audience quotation where divine motive intersects with the quotations in Jeremiah and Ezekiel: positive responses to YHWH and the prophetic word, assertions of innocence and accusations against YHWH’s character, the rejection of prophetic judgment and the embrace of false prophecy, and the rejection of YHWH. Positive responses to YHWH and his prophetic word are scarce in these texts. Even where they do occur, the overall use of the positive quotation is still an indictment of the people. Jer 2:6 and 8:6 are good examples. In each Jeremiah cites what is not said by Israel in the past and in the present to indict his hearers. In Jer 2:6, part of the indictment of the people is that their fathers did not ask the question, “where is YHWH?” His power and presence were indisputable for the early generations of Israel. Now, however, the people question YHWH’s power and presence and assert the freedom to go their own way (Jer 2:31–32; 6:16). In Jer 8:6 there is a statement of contrition, “what have I done?” in response to the recognition of sin. Unfortunately, the context is that “there is no man repenting of his evil” and uttering this lament. 16 These texts indicate that positive response is hard to find in Jeremiah’s ministry. The dearth of proper responses is ironically heightened in Jer 16:19–21 where the nations come forward to renounce their idolatrous ways, having finally understood that man cannot make a god for himself. The positive outcome is that YHWH will cause them to know his power and might. They will indeed know that his name is YHWH. This is tragically something YHWH’s own people do not know (Jer 5:4–5; 8:7; 9:3, 6). The power of this particular indictment is made even stronger by the assertion that YHWH has paid attention and listened for such contrition and still found it lacking (Jer 8:6a). 16

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

A truly positive response is found in Jer 31:18–20 where Ephraim recognizes his discipline and cries out for YHWH to take him back. YHWH affirms his parental love for Ephraim and assures the now repentant son that he will indeed have mercy on him (31:20). 17 The significance of this passage is its location in the book of consolation. Like Ezekiel, true reception of the prophetic rebuke is viewed as something yet future that will only be found after the full punishment of exile has been born by the nation. 18 The idea that the punishment must be completed before restoration is given is seen in the image of the storm which is used in a context of judgment in Jer 23:19–20 and then again in 30:23–24 in a context of salvation. Support is also found in the image of the cup which Judah must drink (25:15–18). Ezekiel, too, envisions that a full judgment precedes the restoration as seen in Ezek 20, especially 20:33–49. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel has little to say about positive responses. Ezek 13:12 casts the exiles as questioning the false prophet’s messages once the disaster has fallen. Their facile messages of peace were easy targets of critique after the promised sparing did not take place. Ezek 33:29–33 seems positive at first glance. There is an excitement about Ezekiel’s messages. The people talk about them around town and seek him out for insight. However, when YHWH relays their future response to Ezekiel he warns him that in reality, they are just seeking the sensational. They are greedy and only want to be satiated with scintillating tidbits; they will not act in There is some ambiguity here as to whether Ephraim refers generically to the nation, or more specifically to the north. Lundbom suggests that this represents “from the distant north the wimpering (sic) voice of Ephraim” which the people can hear. Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah 21–36: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 21b; New York: Doubleday, 2004), 444. If this refers to the north it may serve as a poignant reminder to the people that repentance can be found and that there is hope despite the coming judgment. 18 This passage does not tie the initiation of repentance to the new covenant promises, but its proximity would seem to imply a connection. That the reception of the penitent is based in YHWH’s own character and not in the acts themselves is specified in Jer 31:20. 17

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS

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accordance with the prophetic word (33:31–32.) The ironic parallel is that the coming disaster will indeed cause them to know that a true prophet was among them (33:33) just as the disasters will cause them to know that the initiator of the prophetic word is YHWH (33:29). Instead of responding positively to YHWH and his prophetic word, the people are presented—both in Jeremiah and Ezekiel—as fending off the message with assertions of innocence, claims to knowledge, and charges against YHWH’s character. Outright claims of innocence are found in Jer 2:33–35. A complementary idea is found in the claim of assured deliverance in Jer 7:10. The incongruity of claiming deliverance without being able to claim innocence is the foundation of the indictment of the people in Jer 7:8–9, and 13. The people assert their wisdom and knowledge in Jer 8:8–9 and 13:11–12. Ezekiel records that the people in Jerusalem were willing to entertain the rightness of the judgment, but only by applying to those who had gone in the first waves of the exile (Ezek 11:13–21). The most direct accusation in these passages is Ezek 18:29, where the people assert that the “way of YHWH is not just.” In the Jeremiah passages, accusations against YHWH’s character come primarily in the form of questions. The people want to know why YHWH would judge them (Jer 5:19; 13:22–26; 16:10–12). The assumption behind each of the inquiries is that they are truly innocent and undeserving of the prophetic message of judgment delivered by Jeremiah. The great irony is the assurance that in the future, when nations would consider the downfall of the people of YHWH, they would correctly diagnose the situation. Why did this happen? “Because they forsook the covenant of YHWH their God, and they worshipped other gods, and served them” (Jer 22:9). Similarly Ezekiel affirms that in the future people who use proverbs will employ this one, “like mother like daughter,” with regard to Jerusalem and Judah. Although the self-assessment of the people is faulty, the nations’ perspective will be accurate (Ezek 16:44). In both Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the people’s rejection of the prophetic word is coupled with the embrace of false prophecy. The basic stance of the people was that the words of judgment would not come true (Jer 5:10–14; 18:11–12, 18). This was supported by the false prophets who predicted peace and flatly rejected the com-

196

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ing of the sword of judgment (Jer 6:14–15; 8:10–13; 14:13–16; 23:14–17; Ezek 13:1–11). Where the basic prophetic vision of judgment was accepted, it was tempered by placing its onset in the far future where it would have no tangible impact on the contemporary hearers (Ezek 12:21–28). Ultimately, the assertions of innocence, charges against YHWH’s character, rejection of the prophetic word, and embrace of false prophecy lead to an outright rejection of YHWH and the covenant relationship with him. In Jeremiah the people avow that they “have broken loose” (2:31 JPS) from the relationship with YHWH and that they will no longer walk in it (6:16). The most brazen rejection is in Ezek 20:32 where the people state that they will be like the nations, worshippers of wood and stone. While in Jer 2 and 6 the response is judgment (2:35, 37; 6:19), the follow up to the people’s speech in Ezek 20 is far more detailed, encompassing both judgment and salvation. The statement in Ezek 20:32 begins the second section of the larger structure comprising 20:1–44. 19 Following the recital of Israel’s history and associated motive statements (20:1–26) the final portion of the first section (20:27–31) is a judgment oracle which recapitulates the longstanding nature of Israel’s struggle with idolatry and serves as a link to the second half of the chapter (20:32–44) by associating the current exiles with the same sins as their forefathers. As at the end of 20:1–27, there is no more mention of divine grace. The accusation leaves the people with no hiding place. “No longer can the people dismiss rebellion against Yahweh as a problem of their distant past, or even of their parents prior to the exile. As in ch. 18, people suffer the consequences of their own sins. The present problem is the exiles’ own!” 20 Various interpretive approaches to the people’s thought in Ezek 20:32 have been taken. At issue is whether the statement is an emphatic assertion of willfulness, “we will be like the nations,” or a request, “let us be like the nations,” or a defeatist statement of inevLeslie C. Allen, Ezekiel 20–48 (WBC 29; Dallas: Word Books, 1990), 5. 20 Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 645–646. 19

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197

itability, “we shall be like the nations.” 21 Zimmerli’s appeal to Ezek 33:10 and 37:11 as comparable statements in light of which this passage should be read is unconvincing. 22 Those passages deal, in a defeated way, with the inevitability of punishment not the inevitability of idolatry. There is no hint in the statement of Ezek 20:32 that punishment is in view. Judgment is not in the people’s perspective as presented here; it is, however, in YHWH’s. This is confirmed by the divine statement in Ezek 20:39, which would seem odd if the statement in 20:32 was representative of resignation and not rebellion. 23 The response to this rejection of the covenant relationship with YHWH is met with an express statement of judgment which ironically casts YHWH’s punitive acts in language typically associated with his salvation. 24 He will be their king; by dint of wrath, he will rule them. This decisive intervention is meant to break the cycle which has ruled Israel (Ezek 20:1–26). The intervention will include a new exodus (Ezek 20:34), a new encounter in the wilderness (Ezek 20:35–36), a re-establishment of covenant relations (Ezek 20:37), and the purging of the rebellious element from his people (Ezek 20:38). 25 Like the ending to the cycle in 20:27, here too, the end result is that they will know that he is YHWH. Coming back to the present situation, Ezekiel “challenges his fellow exiles to worship their idols, if that is what they desire (cf. Deut. 4:28). However, he reminds them that in the end those who return to the land will worship Yahweh with single-hearted devotion.” 26 The For a survey of approaches and literature see: Allen, Ezekiel 20–48, 13–14; and Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 648–649. 22 Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 414. 23 The positive nature of the later section is made possible through YHWH’s concern for his name. As such it does not inherently support a reading of despair. See Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 649; contra Allen. Allen, Ezekiel 20–48, 13 24 Compare Ezek 20:33 with Exod 6:6 and Deut 5:15. See also Jer 21:5 for a similar ironic use of the salvation language. Ibid., 14. 25 Block, Ezekiel 1–24, 651–652. 26 Ibid., 655. On holiness and YHWH’s name in Ezekiel, see Hamilton, God’s Glory in Salvation, 226–228. 21

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final section, Ezek 20:40–44, details the returned people properly worshipping YHWH, who will indeed accept their offerings. All of this will lead them to truly know that he is YHWH, when he deals with them for the sake of his name and not in correspondence to their sinfulness. The quotation and response in Ezek 20:32–44 highlights the distinctive contributions of Ezekiel. Although Jeremiah and Ezekiel deal with the topics often from similar perspectives, the unique emphasis in Ezekiel on divine sovereignty and the divine name comes through in this passage. The people may want to worship idols and to exchange their heritage as YHWH’s people for another god’s cult, but YHWH will not allow it. Through his sovereign action, he will purify his people and reestablish a nation who knows him in the land of Israel. Like Ezekiel, Jeremiah does link the restoration of the people to judgment. This is most clearly seen in the cry of Ephraim (Jer 31:18–19) and in the storm image (Jer 23:19; 30:23). Also like Ezekiel, Jeremiah ultimately links the restorative acts to YHWH’s person and character (Jer 3:12; 31:20). Yet, unlike Jeremiah, Ezekiel focuses on the impact of the sin-punishment cycle on the nations’ view of YHWH and YHWH’s plan to restore the nation and his name. 27 The linkage between mercy, judgment, restoration, and the name are seen clearly in chapter 20. Yet, as noted above in chapter 5, the shift at the end of the cycle in Ezek 20:25–26 from the name, to the person of YHWH is carried on throughout the rest of the chapter as well (20:38, 42, 44). Jeremiah’s use of divine motive with quotations is oriented primarily towards judgment. Often the direct motive for judgment is the false statement of innocence (Jer 2:35), or the rejection of the prophetic word (Jer 5:14). The questioning of YHWH’s justice also serves as an occasion to use divine motive to highlight the sinfulness of the people (Jer 5:19). Ezekiel links divine motive and quotations to positive outcomes more than Jeremiah (Ezek 11:14–21; 20:32–44) although the final positive outcome is often achieved Jeremiah does address the connection between Israel and YHWH’s reputation in Jer 13:1–11, but it is not a substantial theme throughout the book as it is in Ezekiel. 27

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS

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through judgment. Unlike Jeremiah, Ezekiel interacts with sayings of the other prophet’s audience (Ezek 11:14–15; 12:21–22; 18:2; 33:24). Both, however, quote the nations, asserting that they will, in the future, correctly understand the nature of the people’s judgment (Jer 22:8–9; Ezek 16:43–44). Finally, the connection between divine motive and the nations’ gloating over Judah’s demise, and the boasting of foreign kings, is unique to Ezekiel (Ezek 25:2–7; 25:8–11; 26:1–3; 28:1–9; 29:6–10; 35:10–12; 36:2–7, 20–23).

THE KNOWLEDGE OF YHWH AND DIVINE MOTIVE Knowledge of YHWH is primarily cast in Jeremiah as something that is missing. The priests, prophets (Jer 14:18), and the people (Jer 2:8; 4:22; 5:4–5; 8:7; 9:2, 6; 10:25) do not know YHWH or his ways. The format of the statements is often quite personal—they do not “know me” (Jer 4:22; 9:2, 6; 9:23; 24:7). Knowledge of YHWH is equated prominently with understanding YHWH’s character (Jer 9:23; 16:21) and acting on that knowledge (Jer 22:16; 31:34). Other themes related to YHWH and knowledge include idolatry, the worship of gods who have not been known by Israel (Jer 7:9; 10:14; 19:4; 44:3; 51:17); the recognition of true and false prophecy (Jer 28:9; 32:8; 42:19, 22; 44:28); and YHWH’s knowledge (Jer 1:15; 12:3; 15:15–16; 29:11; 29:23; 48:30). There are points of intersection between the knowledge of YHWH and divine motive in Jeremiah in the following passages: Jer 7:9–14; 8:7–12; 9:2–7, 23; 10:14–18; 14:14–18; 14:20–21; 16:19– 21; 19:3–6; 24:4–7; 29:10–11; 31:18–20; and 44:28–30. At the core, the intersection of divine motive and knowledge of YHWH in Jeremiah highlights the contradictory claims of the people and bases YHWH’s motives for his just judgment of them on these incongruities. The people are worshipping gods they have not known and yet claiming deliverance from YHWH, all while acting in ways inconsistent with true knowledge of him (Jer 7:9–14; 10:14–18; 19:3–6). They claim wisdom and knowledge, but reject true prophecy in favor of false claims of peace (Jer 8:7–12; 14:14– 18). Fundamentally, the problem is not a raw lack of knowledge; it is the refusal of knowledge. Their refusal leads to their destruction both at the hands of each other and by the acts of YHWH (Jer 9:3– 8). He judges them because they do not know him, because they refuse knowledge of him, because their treatment of each other

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denies knowledge of him, because they embrace false prophecy, and because they worship gods whom they have not known. As Thompson noted, it is possible to understand the idea of ‘gods that you have not known’ (Jer 7:9) as indicating gods that were not acceptable to Israel in the past. I agree with Thompson, however, that a more likely reading is that the knowing indicated here denotes “the relationship that exists between two people at a deep level of mental, emotional, and volitional commitment, as between a husband and wife.” 28 This is fitting of the way in which the relationship between Israel and YHWH is characterized throughout Jeremiah. I would also suggest that the knowing in Jer 7:9 may carry the connotation of revelation. The emphasis on the name in the temple sermon in particular, makes the connection that the place where they worship bears the name of one who revealed himself, his name, to them. These other gods that they worship have neither revealed themselves to Israel, nor have they established a relationship with Israel. The additional connotation of knowledge as revelation is supported by the positive references to knowing YHWH in Jer 9:23 and 24:4–7. In 9:23, we see that the one who knows YHWH understands his character, and acts in accordance with this knowledge. The source of these characteristics of YHWH is his own delight in these things. The terms used here to describe YHWH are prominent in Exodus. ‫ חסד‬features prominently in the primary exposition of the name in Exod 34:6–7 but is also present in Exod 15:13 and 20:6. The ‫ משפטים‬are revealed to and accepted by the people in Exod 21:9 and 24:3. Interestingly, one of the two instances of ‫ צדק‬in Exodus is 9:27 where Pharaoh confesses YHWH as ‫צדיק‬, despite having previously stated his lack of knowledge of YHWH in Exod 5:2. Although Jeremiah acknowledges the people’s guilt, he does not base his appeal for salvation on that knowledge. Instead he bases it on YHWH’s concern for his name and on his inherent faithfulness (Jer 14:20–21). This, too, suggests that Jeremiah has in mind YHWH’s character and person, as represented by the revelation of the name. 28

Thompson, Jeremiah, 280.

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201

When the concept of name is examined as it intersects with divine motive in Jeremiah this is confirmed. The temple sermon highlights the incongruity between the people’s sinful actions, their claims of deliverance, and the temple which bears YHWH’s name. Their character is not in keeping with his, yet it should be. He is the one that has revealed himself to Israel, not these gods whom they have not known. In Jer 10, YHWH is the one true, great God who is both the creator and the redeemer of Israel. Not only is YHWH himself great, his renown is great (10:6). Unlike the false gods Israel is worshipping, YHWH is their portion, and Israel is his inheritance (10:16). The terms and images of the chapter speak to YHWH as creator but also to his historical acts on behalf of the nation in giving them the land. 29 Here the reader finds the introduction of the title, ‫יהוה צבאות‬, which is prominent in Jeremiah but missing in Ezekiel. Early references suggest that it referred to the armies of Israel. But later the expression is used for the “host of heaven” (the heavenly bodies or even the angels) or “the hosts of heaven and earth” (the created universe). This latter sense seems closest to the prophetic usage, where the reference seems to be not so much to some concrete entity, but to the fullness of Yahweh’s power and authority throughout the creation. The phrase Yahweh, God of Hosts thus gathered up a considerable range of ideas and presented Yahweh as the ultimate power and authority in the universe. 30

It was in this name that Jeremiah would choose to address those of his people who now worshipped the created instead of the creator. Later it will be the power of the creator that will secure the new covenant promises (Jer 31:35). In passages like Jer 10:16, we see that “The God of all creation is the God who has taken Israel as a On the concept of YHWH as Israel’s portion and its connection to the land, see von Rad, Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions, 402–405. 30 Thompson, Jeremiah, 244. 29

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singularly cherished possession … [A]s all creation and all nations must ‘fear’ YHWH, so Israel is bound to YHWH in obedience.” 31 One key to understanding the intersection of name and motive in Jeremiah is to see that the people were to function as YHWH’s name in the world. In Jer 13:11 it was YHWH’s intent to have Israel be for him a people, name, praise, and glory. They were to be reflective of him, revelatory agents of YHWH’s nature, to the watching world. As such, they had to reflect him not just in the cult (Jer 6:20), but in their singular devotion and personal behavior which was to reflect the divine character (Jer 7:5–9). Even though the people failed, Jeremiah would still use the connection between Israel and YHWH’s name to appeal for YHWH’s mercy to be extended (14:7–9). This is very much in keeping with Ezekiel where YHWH’s merciful decisions were often motivated by his concern for the divine reputation (Ezek 20:1–24). Jeremiah 14 demonstrates the intimate connections between YHWH’s motives and his name by condemning false prophecy which damages his name by not prompting the people to act in accordance with the meaning of his name. Images of revelation abound: YHWH had not commanded them; he had not spoken to them; their prophecy was a deceit of their own hearts. Yet, again an appeal to act for the sake of the name is made in 14:21. Although the name was prominent in Ezekiel, there was a move beyond the name to the person of YHWH as seen in the progression of motive statements in the recital of Israel’s history in Ezek 20. I see a similar move in chapter 24 of Jeremiah. In the discussion of the good figs the salvation of the exiles will come as a result of divine initiative as in Ezekiel. The good figs are good because they are regarded so by YHWH (Jer 24:5–6). The good that he will do for them is to give them a heart “to know me.” 32 He does this because he is YHWH. The terms here are beyond knowing the name, the reputation of YHWH. They indicate a personal, intimate relationship, fitting of the image of marriage used throughout Jeremiah. And this relationship is initiated “because I 31 32

above.

Brueggemann, The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah, 47. On the interpretive complexities of this verse, see the discussion

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS

203

am YHWH.” It is a sovereign personal decision of YHWH to give them a heart to know him. 33 Like Ezekiel, the ultimate motive underlying even the concern for the divine name, is the very nature of YHWH. It is who he is. Although the emphasis is quite different in Jeremiah from Ezekiel, there is a remarkable complementarity between the two works, with each in its unique way working the reader towards an understanding that the ultimate motive of YHWH is hidden within his own person. The most fundamental answer to the question of why YHWH acts as he does is, “because I am YHWH.” The key distinctions between Jeremiah and Ezekiel are seen in how these prophetic books get to this ultimate motive and the relationship between this motive and their primary audience. Jeremiah focuses on the personal nature of the relationship via the marriage metaphor and the refrain of “know me” that occurs widely in the book. Jeremiah does appeal to the name of YHWH, but sparingly compared to the emphasis in Ezekiel. Jeremiah battles the complacent sense of the people that they truly do know YHWH. Ezekiel on the other hand battles the assertions of those still in the land that they were accepted by YHWH and the defeatist attitude of those in captivity that they are dried up and cannot live. Both emphasize the sovereignty of YHWH, but Jeremiah does so through the image of YHWH of Hosts, who is sovereignly acting to uproot, tear down, destroy, overthrow, build, and plant. Ezekiel emphasizes the personhood of YHWH who acts for the sake of his name so that both his people and the nations will recognize him through his sovereign actions on the world stage. This is accomplished through the use of the recognition formula, proof sayings, and through the title ‫אדני יהוה‬. As opposed to Jeremiah’s use of YHWH of Hosts, with its connection to kingship, the temThe use of the term sovereign here does not suggest that this is merely an issue of power, that he does so simply because he can. Rather it is used much like the term theocentric to indicate the decision and the ultimate choice or mercy or judgment lies solely within YHWH’s purview. He is not bound to act one way or the other. He is sovereign, free, to choose. Being merciful and judging are both part of his nature (Exod 34:5–7). 33

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

ple, and the defense of Israel by YHWH and his cosmic hosts, ‫אדני‬ ‫ יהוה‬emphasizes his role as “the divine lord who rules over all.” 34 He is free to act both against and for Israel as he works to vindicate his name and subsequently his people, as he moves them through judgment to restoration. Both Jeremiah and Ezekiel place divine initiative prior to human response, but maintain the tension that the people are truly called to respond, though they need divine intervention to enable them to do so successfully. Truly these are complementary texts which work much of the same ground yet each maintains a distinctive approach and tenor as they justify YHWH’s actions while also turning to the final hope for the nation in YHWH’s actions. 543F

SUMMARY AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH It is clear that divine motive is a vital category of thought that should be considered in exegetical and theological studies across the canon. Despite its abundance, relatively few studies have engaged divine motive directly. Yet, as this study has demonstrated, using divine motive as an additional interpretive lens can yield increased depth of understanding in a wide variety of passages and books. Working from here, this line of research would benefit from small scale studies that trace explicit and implicit motive statements in individual books beyond Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Additional large scale works linking the theological category of divine motive to core theological streams such as the exposition of the name in Exod 34 and all its echoes across the text, or the various divine titles, would also be of benefit. As I have argued throughout, statements of motive are ultimately statements of personal revelation. Whether it comes from divine speech, the prophet, the narrator, or the supplicant, statements of divine motive are by definition attestations of the personal revelation of YHWH. To the extent that we want to understand Peter Craig Hamilton, “Theological Implications of the Divine Title ‫ יהוה ֲאד ֹנָ י‬in Ezekiel” (Ph.D. diss., Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1990), 169. 34

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205

the way in which the Israelite authors understood the person of YHWH we must pursue the question “why” across the texts of the Hebrew canon.

APPENDIX: TEXTS CONTAINING A DIVINE MOTIVE STATEMENT Gen 2:3, 15, 19; 3:4–5, 14, 17, 22– 23a, 23b, 24; 4:15; 6:7, 13, 17; 7:1; 8:21; 11:7; 12:17; 15:7; 18:19, 26, 29, 31, 32; 19:13; 20:3, 6, 18; 21:13; 22:16–17; 26:4–5, 24; 30:18, 27; 45:7; 50:20

18, 20; 9:5, 26–28; 10:8; 12:1, 5; 13:4; 14:2; 15:4; 18:5; 21:5; 23:6, 15; 28:9, 13; 29:24–27; 30:6; 31:18; 32:20, 21–22, 26–27, 36, 48–51

Exod 1:21; 3:8; 4:4–5; 6:4, 5–8; 8:17, 18; 9:14, 15–16; 10:1–2; 11:4–7; 13:17; 16:4; 18:8; 19:9; 20:11, 20; 22:25–26; 23:29; 29:45–46; 32:35; 33:3, 13, 17

Judg 2:18, 20, 21–22; 3:1–2, 12; 7:2–3; 9:23–24; 10:13

Josh 3:7; 4:23–24; 11:20

1 Sam 2:28, 29–30; 3:13–14; 6:19; 9:16; 12:22; 13:14; 15:23, 29; 16:1, 7; 25:28; 28:17–19

Lev 17:10–11; 25:38a, 38b; 26:44

2 Sam 5:12; 6:7, 12; 7:8, 21a, 21b; 12:10, 11–12, 14; 17:14; 22:20

Num 3:11–13; 8:16–17; 14:24, 43; 18:23–24; 20:12, 23–24; 25:11–13; 27:12–14; 32:10– 11, 10–12

1 Kgs 3:6, 11–12, 13; 8:25, 39–40, 43, 50–51, 52–53, 59–60; 9:6–9; 11:9, 11, 12, 13, 31– 33, 32, 34, 36a, 36b, 39; 12:15; 13:21–22; 14:7–10,

Deut 1:36; 2:5, 9, 19, 30; 3:18, 26; 4:10, 20, 21, 36, 37–38; 6:23; 7:6, 7–8, 12; 8:2, 3, 14–16, 207

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DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

15–16; 15:4; 16:2–3; 20:28, 42; 21:29 2 Kgs 1:3–4, 6, 16; 8:19; 10:30; 13:4, 23; 17:26; 19:28, 34; 20:6; 21:8, 11–15; 22:13, 15–17, 18–20; 23:25–26; 24:20 Isa 2:6; 3:16–17; 5:24–25; 7:13– 14; 8:6–7; 9:16; 10:12–13, 15–16; 23:9; 26:3, 21; 27:11; 28:15–19; 29:13–14; 30:9–14, 15–18; 37:20–22, 29, 33–35; 41:17–20; 42:21; 43:3–4, 10, 14, 25; 45:3, 4, 5–6; 48:4–5, 9, 11; 50:4; 53:11–12; 56:7; 57:15–16; 61:1–3; 62:1; 63:17; 65:7, 8, 12; 66:4 Jer 1:10, 16; 2:7, 8–9, 35; 3:8, 12; 4:3–4, 17; 5:10–11, 14, 19; 6:8, 13–15, 17–19, 20–21; 7:13–14; 8:8–10, 11–12; 9:5– 6, 12–15, 23, 24–25; 10:18; 11:10–11, 17; 13:11, 25–26; 14:7, 14–16, 21; 16:10–12, 19–21; 17:4; 18:11–17, 20– 22; 19:3–6, 15; 21:12; 22:8–9; 23:11–12, 14–15, 38–40; 24:4–7a, 7b; 25:4–9; 26:2–3, 15; 28:15–16; 29:10–11, 15– 19, 30–32; 30:14–15; 31:3, 9, 18, 20, 37; 32:26–30, 40; 33:5; 35:17, 18–19; 36:2–3; 39:16–18; 40:3; 42:8–10; 44:29–30; 50:24, 34; 51:11, 55–56

Ezek 3:25–27; 5:7–8, 9–11; 6:6–7; 11:19–20; 12:15–16; 13:8–9, 17–21; 22–23; 14:1–5; 14:9– 11; 16:35–37, 43, 62–63; 18:29–30; 20:8–9, 12, 13–14, 15–17, 20–22, 23–24, 25–26, 44; 21:9–10; 22:4, 19–20; 23:8–9, 18–22; 25:2–5, 6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 12–13, 15–17; 26:1–3, 14; 28:1–7; 29:6–9a, 9b–10, 15, 18–20; 31:10–11; 33:29; 34:6–10, 20–21; 35:1– 6, 10–12; 36:2–7, 20–23, 30, 32; 38:16; 39:23; 44:10–14 Hos 2:4–5, 6, 7–8, 10–11; 4:1, 6, 9–11, 14; 6:4–6; 9:15, 17; 11:8–9; 14:5 Amos 1:3–5, 6–8, 9–10, 11–12, 15– 15; 2:1–3, 4–5, 6–8, 10; 3:1– 2; 5:4–6, 14–15; 9:11–12 Mic 1:7; 2:1–3; 3:4; 6:12–14, 16; 7:18 Nah 1:14 Zeph 1:17; 2:8–10; 3:9 Hag 1:9–11; 2:23

APPENDIX Zech 1:14–16

Lam 1:5, 11; 3:32–33

Mal 2:2–3, 9, 13–14; 3:24

Dan 9:17, 18, 19

Ps 5:9, 11; 6:5–6; 8:3; 11:6–7; 18:20, 21–22; 22:9; 25:5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 16, 20; 26:1; 31:3–5, 18; 39:13; 44:27; 45:8; 50:8– 10, 12, 22–23; 56:14; 59:12; 67:2–3; 69:17; 78:5–6, 19–21; 79:6–7, 8, 9; 86:1, 2, 3–4; 95:10–11; 102:20–22; 103:10–11, 13–14; 105:39– 42, 43–45; 106:7–8, 23; 109:21–22; 119:94, 118; 132:10, 13–14; 143:10, 11, 12

Ezra 1:1; 6:22; 7:9–10

Job 34:26–27; 42:7, 8 Prov 24:17–18

209

Neh 1:9; 3:36, 37; 9:8, 9–10, 20, 29, 31, 36 1 Chr 5:20; 13:9–10; 14:2; 16:21; 17:7, 19, 21 2 Chr 1:11–12; 6:30–31, 32–33; 7:22; 10:15; 17:3–4; 21:6–7, 12–15; 24:20, 24; 25:15–16, 20–21; 28:19; 32:31; 34:20– 21, 23–25, 26–28; 36:15

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Bright, John. Jeremiah. The Anchor Bible. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965. Brongers, H. A. “Die Partikel ‫ למען‬in der biblisch-hebräischen Sprache.” Pages 84–96 in Syntax and Meaning: Studies in Hebrew Syntax and Biblical Exegesis. Edited by C. J. Labuschagne, M. J. Mulder and C. Leeuwan. Oudtestamentische Studiën. Leiden: Brill, 1973. Brueggemann, Walter. “The “Baruch Connection”: Reflections on Jer 43:1–7.” Journal of Biblical Literature 113 (October, 1994): 405–420. ———. “Jeremiah’s Use of Rhetorical Questions.” Journal of Biblical Literature 92 (1973): 358–374. ———. The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ———. Theology of the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997. Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books. Chicago: Moody, 2007. Carr, G. Lloyd. The Song of Solomon. Tyndale Old Testament Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2009. Carroll, Robert P. Jeremiah. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986. ———. When Prophecy Failed: Reactions and Responses to Failure in the Old Testament Prophetic Traditions. London: SCM, 1979. Chinitz, Jacob. “L’maan: The Teleological Cause in the Pentateuch.” Jewish Bible Quarterly 26 (1998): 189–192. Chisholm, Jr., Robert B. “Does God “Change His Mind”.” Bibliotheca Sacra 152 (1995): 387–399. ———. “When Prophecy Appears to Fail, Check Your Hermeneutic.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 53 (2010): 561–577. Clements, R. E. Jeremiah. Interpretation. Atlanta: John Knox, 1998. Coats, George W. “Theology of the Hebrew Bible.” Pages 239–262 in The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Edited by Douglas A. Knight and Gene M. Tucker. Atlanta: Scholars, 1985.

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McBride, S. Dean. “The Deuteronomic Name Theology.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1969. McConville, J. Gordon. “God’s ‘Name’ and God’s ‘Glory.’” Tyndale Bulletin 30 (1979): 149–163. ———. Judgment and Promise: An Interpretation of the Book of Jeremiah. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1993. McKane, William. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Jeremiah. 1. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1986. Merrill, Eugene H. Everlasting Dominion: A Theology of the Old Testament. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2006. Mettinger, Tryggve N. D. The Dethronement of Sabaoth: Studies in the Shem and Kabod Theologies. Translated by Frederick H. Cryer. Coniectanea Biblica Old Testament Series. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1982. Michalowski, Piotr. The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur. Mesopotamian Civilizations. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1989. Miller, Patrick D. “Sin and Judgment in Jeremiah 34:17–19.” Journal of Biblical Literature 103 (1984): 611–613. ———. Sin and Judgment in the Prophets: A Stylistic and Theological Analysis. Chico: Scholars Press, 1982. Moberly, R. W. L. At the Mountain of God: Story and Theology in Exodus 32–34. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1983. Mowinckel, Sigmund. Zur Komposition des Buches Jeremía. Kristiania: Dybwad, 1914. Muilenburg, James. “The Linguistic and Rhetorical Usages of the Particle ‫ כי‬in the Old Testament.” Hebrew Union College Annual 32 (1961): 135–160. O’Connor, Kathleen M. ““Do Not Trim a Word”: The Contributions of Chapter 26 to the Book of Jeremiah.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 51 (1989): 617–630. Olyan, Saul M. “To Uproot and to Pull Down, to Build and to Plant: Jer 1:10 and Its Earliest Interpreters.” Pages 63–72 in Hesed ve-Emet: Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs. Edited by Jodi Magness and Seymour Gitin. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998.

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INDEX BIBLICAL REFERENCES Gen 2:3 2:15 3:14 3:22–23a 3:23 3:23b 6:13 6:17 7:1 8:21 12:1–3 12:17 15:7 19 19:13 19:26 19:29 19:31 19:32 20:3 20:6 20:18 22:16–17 26:4–5 26:24 30:18 30:27 50:20

Exod 1:21 3:8 4:4–5 5:2 6 6:4 6:5–8 6:5 6:6 6:7 6:8 6:17 6:18 9:14–16 9:14 9:15–16 9:27 10:1–2 11:4–7 12:12 14:4 14:18 15:13 16:4 18:8 19:4–6 20:5 20:6 20:11

50–51, 67 71 51, 54 54 74 71 54, 75 75 67 51, 54, 70 14 75 54, 71 54–55 71 70 70 70 70 75 51, 54–55, 67 75 54, 67 67 70, 72 67 67 55 225

54, 67 71 55 200 20–21 71 54–55, 70–71 65 197 21 54, 74 55, 73–74 73–74 73 50, 55 200 54–55, 73 55, 73–74 154 66 66 200 55 70 14 111 200 54–55, 67

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20:18–21 20:20 21:9 22:25–26 24:3 32:12 32:35 33:3 33:11 33:13

34:5–6 34:5–7 34:6–7 34:6–7a 34:7 34:7b

132 51, 73 200 70 200 37, 128 74 54, 60 136 53, 58, 70, 75– 76 67 136 61, 77, 80–81, 127, 176, 184 132 203 72, 81, 200 133 111 133

Lev 17:10–11 18 18:5 18:12 25:38a 25:38b

54, 74 109 96, 115 43 54, 71 54

Num 3:11–13 8:16–17 14:13–16 14:24 14:43 18:23–24 20:12 24:17–18 25:11–13

70–71 70–71 128 54, 67 54, 74 54 54 54–55 67

33:17 33–34 34

25:11 32:10–12

158 67

Deut 1:36 2:5 2:9 2:19 2:30 3:18 3:26 4:6–8 4:7 4:10 4:12 4:20 4:28 4:37–38 5:9 5:15 6:6 6:23 7:7–8 7:12 8:2–3 8:3 8:14–16 8:18 8:20 9:5 9:26–28 9:27 10:8 10:16 12:1 12:5 15:4 18:5 21:5 23:6

67 70 70 70 55 71 55 171 132 54, 73 132 71 197 70,71 111 197 174 54–55, 71 36, 70, 71 54, 66–67 55 73 54–55 55 74 55 53, 75, 76 65 54, 71 174 71 54 71 54 54 70

INDEX 23:15 28:9 28:13 28:44 29:24–27 30:1–7 30:6 30:19 31:18 32 32:1–2 32:20–22 32:26–27 36 36:48–51 34:10

54 67 67, 79 79 54, 74 171 54–55, 174 163 54, 74 38 163 74 54 70 54 136

Josh 4:23–24 4:23 7:9 11:20

54–55, 73 73 37, 167 54–55

Judg 2:18 2:20–22 3:1–2 3:12 9:23–24 10:13

70 74 54–55 55, 74 54, 75 54–55, 74

1 Sam 2:28 2:29–30 9:16 12:22 13:14 15:23 16:1 25:28

54, 71 51, 55 54, 70 54, 70 74 54, 59, 74 70–71 67

227 2 Sam 5:12 6:12 7:8 7:21–24 7:21 7:21a 7:21b 7:25 12:10 12:14 22:20 1 Kgs 1–11 3:6 3:11–12 8 8:25 8:39–40 8:43 8:50–51 8:50–53 8:52–53 8:59–60 9:6–9 11 11:9 11:11 11:12–13 11:12 11:13 11:31–33 11:32 11:33

70–71 70 71 70 73, 75 54, 76 53, 76 70 75 54 70–71 76 53, 66–67, 75– 76 67 76 53, 67, 75–76 53, 55, 62, 69, 75, 75–76 53, 55, 62–63, 69, 73, 75–76 76 53, 75 70, 71, 76 53, 55, 73, 75– 76 54, 74, 169 67 74 54 55, 58 67, 72 54, 67, 70–71 74 54–55, 58, 67, 70 67

228

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

11:34 11:36 11:36a 11:39 12:15 13:21–22 14:7–10 14:15–16 15:4 16:2–3 16:20 16:28 16:42 21:29

55, 58, 68, 70 74 55 74 55, 74 54 54, 74 59, 74 54–55, 70 54, 74 23, 26 54, 74 54, 74 54, 67–68

2 Kgs 1:3–4 1:6 1:16 8:19 10:30 13:4 13:23 19:28 19:34 20:6 21:8 21:11–15 21:11 21:12–14 21:12 21:14 21:15 22:15–17 22:18–20 23:25–26 24:20

54–55, 74 54–55, 74 54, 74 55 54, 67, 69 70 55, 71 54 55, 58, 70 55, 58, 70 67 56, 59, 74 57 59 56, 59 56 56, 59 74, 158 54, 69, 70 55, 69, 74 54, 70

Isa 1:2

35

2:2–4 2:6 3:6–17 3:14 3:16–17 5:1–7 5:24–25 6:9 7:13–14 8:6–7 9:16 10:15–16 23:9 26:3 27:11 28:15–19 29:13–14 30:9–18 30:9–14 30:15–18 37:20–22 37:29 37:33–35 40–55 41:17–20 42:21 43:3–4 43:5–6 43:10 43:14 43:25 45:3 45:4 45:5–6 48:3–11 48:9–11 48:9 48:11 50:4 52

14 74 75 156 54 156 54, 74 108 54–55, 74 54, 59 75 54–55 54 67 54, 74 54 54 74 57 57, 70 54, 73 54 55, 58, 70, 72 16, 125 55, 73 54–55, 58, 70 70, 71 73 55, 73 54–55, 58, 70 55, 58, 65, 70 55, 73 54–55, 58, 70 55 38 72, 167 55, 58, 70 55, 57–58, 70 71 18

INDEX 52:5 53:11–12 56:7 57:15–16 61:1–3 62:1 63:17 65:7 65:8 65:12 66:4 Jer 1–25 1 1:1–19 1:5 1:10 1:15 1:16 2–25 2–24 2:1–4:2 2:2 2:3 2:5–9 2:6 2:7 2:8–9 2:8 2:21 2:23 2:26 2:27–28 2:27

17–18, 32, 38 55, 67, 158 62–63 54, 70 54, 73 55, 58, 70 53, 55, 58, 70, 75–76 55, 74 55, 58, 70 74 74 142, 148, 162 141 142 176 142–144, 147, 177 199 54, 74, 142, 144, 153 142–143 143 155 142, 155, 196 156 192 193 71, 142–144, 177, 182 54–55, 74, 142, 144–145 174, 199 148, 159 167 162 167 184

229 2:31–32 2:31 2:33–35 2:33–34 2:34 2:35

2:36 2:37 3:14–4:14 3 3:3 3:8 3:10 3:12 3:15–17 3:16–17 3:17 3:20 3:22b–25 3:23 3:24–25 3:25 4:3–4 4:4 4:5–31 4:9 4:14 4:17 4:18 4:22 4:26 5

192–193 196 195 192 161 55, 75, 142, 144–145, 161, 167, 184, 192, 196, 198 162 196 155 179 162 54, 74, 142, 144, 153, 156 156, 164, 175– 176, 178 70, 74, 142, 144, 182, 198 178 183 171, 178 156 166 176 163 162–163 54–55, 62–63, 142, 144, 146 173–174, 178 155 148 178 142, 144 178 199 148 142, 155, 159– 160

230

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

5:1–9 5:2 5:4–5 5:5 5:7 5:8 5:9 5:10–14 5:10–11

155 167, 176 174, 193, 199 155 155 155 155 192, 195 54, 74, 142, 144, 157 154–156 156 157 161, 164, 184 161, 164 54, 74, 142, 144, 157, 198 157 74, 142, 144, 153, 158, 161, 192, 195, 198 108 178 176 142, 161, 196 161–162 161 161 161 161 161 55, 62–63, 142, 144, 146, 161, 173 161 162 162 162 161–162 162

5:10 5:11 5:12–13 5:12 5:13 5:14 5:18 5:19 5:21 5:23–24 5:31 6 6:1–8 6:1–7 6:1–3 6:4–5 6:6–8 6:8–12 6:8 6:9–15 6:9 6:10 6:11–12 6:13–15 6:13–14

6:13 6:14–15 6:14 6:15

6:15a 6:16–21 6:16–17 6:16 6:16a 6:16b 6:17–20 6:17–19 6:17 6:17a 6:17b 6:18–19 6:18 6:19 6:20–21 6:20 6:21 6:22–26 6:27–30 6:27 7–9 7 7:1–15 7:4 7:5–9 7:5–7 7:5–6

162, 176 192, 196 164, 169 54–55, 142, 144–145, 161– 162, 163, 169, 172–173 162 161, 164 164 164, 192–193, 196 163 163 175 55, 74, 142, 144–145, 161 100, 161, 164, 170 163 163 163 163 163, 178, 196 54–55, 74, 142, 144, 149, 161, 163 145, 202 148–149 161 161 176 149 191 189 176, 184, 189– 190 202 190 189

INDEX 7:8–11 7:8–9 7:8 7:9–14 7:9–11 7:9 7:10–14 7:10 7:12–15 7:13–15 7:13–14 7:13 7:16 7:21–26 7:24 7:28 7:31 8:6–7 8:6 8:6a 8:7–12 8:7 8:8–10 8:8 8:8–9 8:9 8:10–13 8:10 8:11–12 8:11 8:12 8:18–23 9 9:2–7 9:2–6 9:2 9:3–8

190 195 176 199 189 175, 189, 199– 200 192 189–190, 195 189, 191 191 54, 74, 142, 144 195 151 189 178 148 148 192 193 193 199 193, 199 55, 74, 142, 144–145 161, 167, 176 192, 195 162 192, 196 161, 176 54–55, 74, 142, 144–145 164, 170, 172 162, 173 160 142 199 175 156, 176, 199 199

231 9:3 9:4 9:5–6 9:6 9:11 9:12–15 9:13 9:18 9:23 9:24–25 9:25 10 10:6 10:14–18 10:14 10:15 10:16 10:18 10:25 11:8 11:10–11 11:10 11:14 11:17 11:18 11:19 11:20 12:1 12:2 12:3 12:6 12:11 12:13 12:14–17

193 176 54–55, 74, 142, 144, 146 193, 199 148 54, 74, 142, 144 153–154, 178 162 66, 70, 142, 144, 199–200 74, 142, 144 178 201 201 199 162, 176, 199 148 201 55, 73–74, 142– 144, 173, 177 199 178 54–55, 74, 142, 144, 146, 175 153–154 151 74, 142, 144, 148–149, 153, 159 176 178 178 156 148 176, 199 156 178 162 148

232 13:1–11 13:10 13:11

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

198 178 136, 142–144, 172, 177, 202 13:11–12 192, 195 13:22 167, 178 13:22–26 192, 195 13:25 176 13:25–26 74, 142, 144 14:17b–15:4 165 14 142, 161, 165, 173, 202 14:1 165 14:2–17a 165 14:3–4 162 14:7–9 165–167, 171, 202 14:7 55, 58, 70, 75–76, 142– 145, 165, 176 14:10 165–167 14:11 151, 169 14:12 164, 175 14:13–16 192, 196 14:13 164, 169 14:14–18 199 14:14–16 55, 74, 142, 144–145, 165, 169 14:14–15 169 14:14 176, 178 14:15 161, 164 14:16 169–170 14:17 169–170 14:18 175, 199 14:19–22 160, 171 14:20–21 199–200 14:21 53, 55, 58, 65, 70, 75–76, 142–

15:1 15:5–9 15:7 15:9 15:14–15 15:15–16 16:10–12 16:11 16:12 16:14–15 16:18 16:19 16:19–20 16:19–21 16:21 17:1 17:4 17:5 17:9–10 17:12 17:13 17:16 17:18 18 18:1–10 18:7–9 18:7 18:8–9 18:9 18:10–22 18:11–17 18:11–12 18:12

144, 165, 176, 202 105 165 148 162 176 199 74, 142, 144, 192, 195 153–154 178 167, 183 153 176 176 54–55, 67, 142, 144–145, 192, 193, 199 175–176, 180, 199 178 142, 144 178 178 171 162 176 162 161 149 149 148 148 148 75 54–55, 74, 142, 144–145, 149 192,195 161, 170, 178

INDEX 18:14 18:15 18:18 18:20 18:20–22 18:23 19:3–6 19:4 19:5 19:15 20:6 20:11 20:12 21:1–2 21:5 21:12 21:12–13 22:8–9 22:9 22:13–14 22:16 22:17 22:22 23 23:1–6 23:1 23:5 23:5–6 23:7–8 23:9–17 23:11–12 23:14–17

148 114 148, 152, 192, 195 65, 176 55, 75–76, 142– 145, 149 176 74, 142, 144, 149, 199 153, 175, 199 148–149, 153 74, 142, 144 176 162 178 175 197 54–55, 62–63, 142, 144, 146, 173, 179 192 74, 142–144, 192, 199 153–154, 195 148 199 178 162 142, 161, 172, 179, 181 179 148 179 179 179 179 55, 57, 142, 144–145, 172 192, 196

233 23:14–15 23:14 23:16–17 23:17 23:19–20 23:19 23:20 23:22 23:25 23:26 23:27 23:32 23:33–40 23:38–40 23:38 23:40 24 24:4–7 24:4–7a 24:5–6 24:5 24:6 24:7 24:7b 25 25:4–9 25:7 25:10 25:15–18 25:35 25:26–45 26:1–6 26:2–3 26:3

55, 57, 142, 144–145, 172 162, 170, 176 178 164 180–181, 194 179, 198 178–179, 181 181 176 178 172–174, 178 176 192 55, 74, 142, 144, 172 145, 167, 172 162, 172, 174 28, 37, 179, 202 27, 70, 149, 199–200 142, 144 202 179 148–149, 180 29, 67, 173, 175–176, 199 142, 144 141, 149 55, 74, 142, 144–145 153 148 194 148 142 189 54, 142, 144, 177 173, 191

234

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

26:15

74, 142–144, 177 148, 176 176 148 164 199 55, 74, 142, 144–145 176 142 27–28 148 176 192 28 142, 144, 177, 199 180 176, 199 74, 142, 144, 158 161 176 176, 199 148 74, 142, 144 176 143 181 179–180 170 170 54, 75, 142, 144, 170 170 148 179–180 180, 194 198

27:10 27:14–16 27:15 28:1–11 28:9 28:15–16 28:15 29 29:4–7 29:5 29:9 29:10–19 29:10–14 29:10–11 29:11–14 29:11 29:15–19 29:15 29:21 29:23 29:28 29:30–32 29:31 30–33 30 30:9 30:12–15 30:13–14 30:14–15 30:17 30:18 30:21 30:23–24 30:23

30:24 31 31:2 31:3 31:4–5 31:9 31:18–20 31:18–19 31:18 31:19 31:20 31:28–29 31:28 31:29–30 31:29 31:31–34 31:33 31:34 31:35 31:37 31:38 31:40 32 32:6–15 32:8 32:26–41 32:26–30 32:30 32:31 32:35 32:39–41 32:39

178 37, 98, 142– 143, 178 181 54, 66, 70–72, 142, 144, 146, 181 148 70, 142, 144 192, 194, 199 167, 198 53, 75, 142– 144, 176 162–163 54, 65, 70, 142, 144, 146, 194, 198 170 148 167 183 28 174, 181 151–152, 174, 199 201 75, 142, 144 148 148 37 28 199 28 54, 74, 142, 144 153 148 148 181 181

INDEX 32:40 32:41 33:4 33:5 33:6–9 33:7 33:17 35:7 35:9 35:17–19 35:17 35:18–19 35:18 36:2–3 36:3 36:7 37 37:14 37:17–18 37:20 38:26 39:8 39:16–18 39:18 40:2–3 40:3 40:15 40:16 41:17 42–44 42:1–22 42:1–6 42:2 42;4 42:7–22 42:8–10 42:8 42:9–17

142, 144, 177, 181–182 148, 181 148 142, 144 28 148 144 148 148 147 74, 142 54, 67, 142, 144 173 67, 142, 144 173–174 150–151 150 176 150 150–151 150–151 148 67, 142, 144 173 142–144 74 148 176 151 28 149 150 150 151 150 142, 144, 149– 150 152 150

235 42:9 42:10 42:19 42:22 43:2 44:3 44:12 44:28 44:28–30 44:29–30 45:4 46–51 46:8 46:24 48:1 48:8 48:13 48:20 48:29 48:30 48:36 48:39 48:46 49:7 49:16 49:23 49:38 50:2 50:6 50:12 50:15 50:24 50:34 51:11 51:17 51:18 51:47

150–151 148–149, 152 199 199 176 175, 199 152 199 199 55, 74, 142, 144, 177 148, 159 141, 142 148 162–163 162–163 148 162–163 162–163 178 176, 199 148 162–163 148 148 178 162–163 148 162–163 148 162–163 148 142, 144 55, 142, 144, 177 142–144, 177 162–163, 176, 199 148 162–163

236

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

51:50 51:51 51:55–56

181–182 162 70, 142, 144, 149 143, 148–149, 182 142 148 148

51:55 52:1–34 52:4 52:14 Ezek 1–24

99–100, 121, 142 1–33 104 1–3:27 83 1:28b–3:11 100 1:28b–3:15 100 1:1–28a 100 2–24 106 2:8–3:3 105 2:2 101 2:3 100, 106 2:5 101, 107 2:5–8 106 2:6 101, 107 2:7 101 2:8 101, 107 3:4 99 3:7 101 3:9 106–107 3:10 100 3:11 101 3:12–15 100 3:16–21 99–100 3:22–27 101 3:22–26 101 3:24 101 3:25–27 83, 86, 94, 99, 107, 109, 118 3:25–26 95

3:26–27 3:26 3:27 3:27b 4–32 4–24 4–10 5:6 5:7–8 5:8 5:9–11 5:9a 5:9b 5:10 5:11 5:11a 5:11b 6:6–7 7:4 7:9 8–11 8:1 8:3–6 8:6 8:10 8:12 8:14 8:16 8:17 8:18 9 9:3 9:5 9:9 9:10 10

103, 106 99, 101, 105 101, 104 101 84, 99, 103, 105 83–84, 99, 112, 118 95 106–107 74, 83, 86, 94– 95 136 74, 83, 86, 94– 95 94 94 94 137 94 94 55, 73–74, 83, 86, 94 108 108 189 101 189 189 189 130, 189 189 189 189 108, 136 33–34 189 108 130, 189 108 127

INDEX 10:4 10:18–19 11 11:1–4 11:2–3 11:3 11:5 11:12 11:13 11:13–21 11:14–15 11:14–21 11:15 11:16 11:17 11:18 11:19–20 11:19 11:20 11:21 11:22–23 12 12:1–11 12:2–3 12:9 12:15–16 12:16 12:17–20 12:21–28 12:21–23 12:21–22 12:22 12:25 12:27 12:28 12–14 13:1

189 189 37, 95, 119, 121–122, 191 192 189 130, 189 136 95–96 85, 95 192, 195 199 114, 122, 198 130, 189 95, 189, 191 95 123, 189 55, 83, 86 122–123, 174 95, 118, 123, 136, 192 189 189 108, 112–113 192–193 106 106 55, 73, 83, 86, 113, 115 113 113 113, 192, 196 102, 110 199 108, 130 106, 108 130 103 113 113

237 13:1–11 13:1–7 13:2–16 13:8–9 13:8 13:9 13:10–11 13:10 13:12 13:17–21 13:19–20 13:19 13:22–23 13:22 13:23 14 14:1–11 14:1–5 14:1 14:4–5 14:5 14:9–11 14:12–23 14:16 14:18 14:20 14:21–32 15:1–8 16 16:1–63 16:1–14 16:5 16:8 16:35–37 16:43–44

196 192 103 54, 74, 83, 86 113–114 114–115 192 164 192, 194 54–55, 74, 83, 86, 147 113 114 54, 74, 83, 86 114, 116 115 33–34, 119, 121–122 114 56, 73–74, 83, 86, 103, 119, 147 101 103, 113 115 56, 83, 86, 113, 119 119 137 137 137 129 104 111, 121, 162 104 156 108 95 54, 74, 83, 86 192, 199

238

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

16:43 16:44 16:48 16:59–62 16:62–63

54, 74, 83, 86 195 137 95 56, 83, 86, 136– 137 117, 174 104 106, 109 106 95 106, 109 137 95 137 32–34, 98, 109– 110, 119–122, 170, 183, 196 102, 110, 130, 199 137 147 54–55, 74, 83, 86, 110, 113, 120, 147, 192 195 110, 117 33, 174 20–21, 36, 39, 70, 84, 86, 93– 94, 97–98, 107, 109, 115, 119, 122, 125–126, 128–129, 132– 133, 135, 137, 142, 194, 196, 198, 202 196 121 196

16:63 17:1–24 17:12 17:12–15 17:13–16 17:15 17:16 17:18–19 17:19 18 18:2 18:3 18:18–22 18:29–30 18:29 18:30 18:31 20

20:1–44 20:1–31 20:1–27

20:1–26 20:1–24 20:1 20:5–26 20:5–9 20:5 20:7 20:8–9 20:8 20:9 20:10–14 20:11 20:12 20:13–14 20:13 20:14 20:15–17 20:15–16 20:17 20:18–22 20:19 20:20–22 20:20 20:21 20:22 20:23 20:23–26 20:23–24 20:24 20:25–26 20:25 20:26 20:27 20:27–31 20:30–31

196–197 202 101 91 87, 91 93 93 54–55, 58, 70, 83, 86 106, 109 87, 91, 93, 167 88, 91 109 83, 88, 91–93 54–55, 58, 70, 83, 86 106, 109 88, 91, 93, 167 74, 83, 86, 89, 91 89 108 90–91 93 54–55, 58, 70, 83, 86 91, 93, 109 106, 109 90–91, 93, 167 90, 126 74, 90–91, 126 83, 86 25 54, 56, 73, 83, 86, 198 91, 136 66, 91 197 196 111

INDEX 20:31 20:32 20:32–44 20:33 20:33–49 20:34 20:35–36 20:37 20:38 20:39 20:40–44 20:42 20:44 20:49 21:22 21:9–10 21:9 22:4 22:19–20 23 23:8–9 23:18–22 24 24:3 24:3–14 24:14 24:15–27 25–32 25 25:2–7 25:2–5 25:6–7 25:8–11

136 196–197 192, 196, 198 197 194 197 197 95, 197 66, 106, 109, 197–198 197 198 66, 198 55, 58, 66, 70, 83, 86, 130, 167, 198 102 136 54, 59, 83, 86 59 54–55, 74, 83, 86, 147 54, 75, 83, 86 111 54–55, 75, 83, 86, 147 54–55, 83, 86 99–100 106 104 108 99 84, 99 84, 98, 124, 142 124, 192, 199 54, 74, 79, 84, 86, 124 54, 74, 84, 86, 124 192, 199

239 25:8–9 25:8 25:10–11 25:12–17 25:12–13 25:15–17 26 26:1–3 26:14 27:4–9 28:1–7 28:1–9 29 29:6–18 29:6–10 29:6b–9a 29:9b–10 29:15 29:18–20 30:5 31:10–11 33–48 33 33:10–20 33:10 33:17 33:20 33:21–33 33:23–29 33:24 33:29–33 33:29 33:31–32

54, 74, 84, 86, 124 124 56, 84, 86, 124 124 54, 74, 84, 86, 124 54, 74, 84, 86, 124 84 54, 74, 79, 84, 86, 192, 199 70, 84, 86 104 84, 86 192–193, 199 84, 98, 124, 138 124 192–193, 199 54, 74, 84, 86 54, 84, 86 84, 86 55, 67, 84, 86, 124, 147 95 54, 84, 86 99 98–99, 103– 104, 106, 119, 121–123, 128 121 130, 197 130 130 99 112 130, 199 192, 194 84, 86, 113, 195 195

240

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

33:32 33:33 34–38 34 34:6–10 34:7 34:15 34:20–21 34:24 34:25 35:1–6 35:10–12 35:10–12a 36–37 36

102 195 99, 104, 106 121 55, 84, 86 147 136 75, 84, 86 136 95 74, 84, 86 74, 192, 199 54, 84, 86 115 18, 32, 35–37, 84, 98, 119, 121, 128–130, 162 74, 84, 86, 129, 192, 199 117 39 55, 58, 70, 84, 86, 129, 147, 192, 199 32 108 108, 136 122 121 33, 174 136 56, 84, 86, 129 54–55, 58, 70, 84, 86, 129 137 130, 192, 197 137 95 84

36:2–7 36:6 36:16–36 36:20–23 36:20 36:21 36:22 36:23b–38 36:26–27 36:26 36:28 36:30 36:32 37 37:11 37:14 37:26 38

38:16 39:21–29 39:23–24 39:23 43 44 44:6 44:7 44:10–14 44:13

20, 56, 73, 84, 86 39 39 54, 74, 84, 86 127 106, 162 106 95 54, 84, 86 117

Hos 2:4–5 2:6–8 2:10–11 4:1 4:6 4:9–11 4:14 6 6:4–6 6:6 9:15 9:17 10:1 11:8–9 14:5

54–55, 62–63 74 54–55, 74 74 74 74 74 62 62, 70, 74 66 54, 74 74 156 70, 74 70

Amos 1 2 3:1–2 4–5 5:4–6 5:14–15 9:11–12 10

75 75 54, 64 74 54–55, 62–63 55, 62–64, 67 56, 64, 71 64, 71

INDEX Jon 2:9

114

241 6:5 6:5–6 8:3 11:6–7 18:20 18:20–22 18:21–22 22:9

Mic 1:7 2:1–3 3:4 3:5 3:11 6 6:1–8 6:1–2 6:6–7 6:12–14 6:16 7:18

74 54–55 75 164 164 163 164 163 164 55, 75 54–55 66, 70

Nah 1:14

75

Zeph 1:17 2:8–10 3:9

25:8 25:11

74 55, 74, 79 62–63, 73

Hag 1:9–11

25:16 25:20 26:1 31:3–5

64–65

Zech 1:14–16

54–55, 74

Mal 2:2–3 3:24

74 54–55, 62–63

31:4 31:7 31:8 31:18 39:13 44:23–26 44:27

Ps 5:9 5:11

53, 55, 70, 75– 76 53, 75–76

23:3 24:4 25:5–8 25:5–7 25:5 25:6–7 25:6 25:7

45:8 50:22–23 56:14 59:12 67:2–3

66 53, 54–55, 58, 70, 75, 76 53, 55, 75–76 70 70, 72, 76 53, 75 67, 76 53, 70, 72, 75– 76 167 114 75 53 70, 76 65–66 76 55, 58, 65, 70, 76 54, 70, 76 54–55, 58, 70, 75–76, 167 53, 70, 75–76 53, 71, 75–76 53, 67, 75–76 53, 54–55, 58, 70, 75, 76 167 114 76 53, 71, 75 53, 71, 75–76 167 53, 55, 58, 66, 70, 75–76 54–55, 67 54–55 53, 73, 75–76 53, 75 73

242

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

69:17

53, 66, 70, 75– 76 56, 73 54–55, 74 75 53 74, 76 65, 70, 76 53, 55, 58, 70, 76, 167 156 75 53 70, 76 67, 76 53, 71, 76 54–55, 74 62 54, 62, 73 62 70 66 65 67 54, 56, 65, 73 65–66 66, 167 53, 54–55, 58, 70, 75, 76 66, 167 137 137 137 53, 67, 75–76 53, 75–76 54, 75 70, 72 76 53, 71, 76

78:5–6 78:19–21 79:6–9 79:6–8 79:6–7 79:8 79:9 80:8–16 86:1–4 86:1–2 86:1 86:2 86:3–4 95:10–11 102 102:20–22 102:20–21 103:10–11 103:11 105:42 106:23 106:7–8 106:7 106:8 109:21–22 109:21 115 115:4–8 115:18 119:94 119:118 132:10 132:13–14 143:10–12 143:10

143:11 143:12

54–55, 58, 70, 76, 167 53, 66, 76

Job 42:7 42:8

74 67

Prov 24:17–18

54–55

Song 2:13 4:16–5:1 6:11 7:12

156 156 156 156

Lam 1:5 1:9 1:11 3:22 3:32–33 3:32 5:7 5:16 Dan 9:17–19 9:17 9:18–19 9:18 9:19 Ezra 7:9–10

78–79 79 53, 70, 76, 78– 79 79 70, 79, 181 66, 79 111 111 76 53, 55, 58, 70, 76 54 53, 70, 76 53, 55, 58, 70, 76 67

INDEX Neh 1:9 3:36–37 3:36 3:37 9:1 9:8–10 9:8 9:9–10 9:20 9:29 9:31 9:36

53, 76 76, 79 53, 70, 76 53, 74, 76 76 53, 76 70, 76 75–76 53, 73, 76 53, 74, 76 53, 70, 76 53, 71, 76

1 Chr 5:20 14:2 16:21 17:19 17:21

67 70 70 54, 70, 76 53, 73, 76

243 2 Chr 1:11–12 6:30–31 6:32–33 7:22 10:15 17:3–4 21:6–7 21:12–15 24:20 24:24 25:15–16 25:20–21 28:19 28:19 32:31 34:23–25 34:26–28 36:15

54, 67 56, 62–63, 73 55, 58, 70, 76 74 56, 74 67 54–55, 71 74, 158 54, 74 74 74 54, 74 75 75 54 74, 158 54, 67 70

AUTHORS A Aejmelaeus, A. 57, 211 Albrektson, B. 177, 211 Allen, L. C. 62, 86–87, 91– 92, 103, 105, 111, 113, 117, 190, 196–197, 211 Amit, Y. 23, 44, 53, 85, 211 Anscombe, G. E. M. 4, 14, 44–45, 58, 61, 158, 211 Athas, G. 178, 211 B Bar-Efrat, S. 53, 85, 211 Barr, J. 41, 211 Bauer, A. 156, 211 Berlin, A. 115, 191, 212, 218, 221

Bettenzoli, G. 91, 212 Biddle, M. E. 155, 212 Blank, S. H. 16–19, 21, 32, 38, 118, 156, 212 Block, D. I. 83, 85, 95–98, 100, 105–106, 108, 112, 121, 123, 133, 138–139, 196–197, 212 Blommerde, A. C. M. 56, 212 Bluedorn, W. 212 Boadt, L. E. 99, 131, 212 Boda, M. J. 65, 94–95, 99– 100, 105–107, 117, 173, 212 Bovati, P. 105, 212 Bright, J. 155, 165–166, 213

244

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Brongers, H. A. 58, 213 Brueggemann, W. 4, 19, 22, 26, 66, 72, 77, 96–97, 150, 152, 154–155, 160, 202, 213 Bullock, C. H. 188, 213 C Carr, G. L. 156, 213 Carroll, R. P. 148, 157, 163, 213 Chinitz, J. 58, 213 Chisholm, Jr., R. B. 149, 152, 161, 213 Clements, R. E. 147–148, 165, 174, 213 Coats, G. W. 41, 213 Cooke, G. A. 115, 214 Craig, Jr., K. M. 64, 214 Craigie, P. C. 157, 161, 163, 165, 173, 214 Crenshaw, J. L. 160, 214 Criado, R. 214 D Davis, E. F. 92, 214 De Roche, M. 164, 221 Doron, P. 9–11, 42, 56, 214 Duhm, D. B. 144, 166, 214 Durham, J. I. 62, 72, 214 E Eichrodt, W. 83, 100, 214 Eslinger, L. M. 87, 95, 214 F Fischer, G. 173–175, 180, 214 Fishbane, M. A. 87, 114, 191, 212, 214, 221–222

Fohrer, G. 114, 215 Fretheim, T. E. 172, 174, 215 G Galil, G. 68–69, 215 Gane, R. E. 171, 215 Gemser, B. 1, 8–11, 13, 42, 57, 215 Glatt-Gilad, D. A. 37–39, 125–126, 128, 188, 215 Glazov, G. Y. 105, 215 Goldbaum, F. J. 56, 215 Goldingay, J. 14, 66, 72, 116, 215 Goshen-Gottstein, M. 28, 31–33, 70, 100, 127– 128, 135, 215 Gowan, D. E. 11–12, 42, 51, 53, 58–59, 72, 96– 98, 103, 110, 134, 147, 215 Greenberg, M. 83, 99–100, 102, 106, 136, 138, 216 H Haag, H. 115, 216 Hamilton, J. M. 190, 197, 216 Hamilton, P. C. 204, 216 Harrison, R. K. 172, 216 Harvey, J. 164, 216 Herrmann, S. 91, 216 Heschel, A. J. 4–5, 135, 152, 216 Hobbs, T. R. 141, 216 Holladay, W. L. 150, 216 House, P. R. 64, 78–79, 214, 217 Humbert, P. 108, 217

INDEX Hutton, R. R. 148, 160, 183–184, 217 I Idestrom, R. G. S. 95, 217 J Jenson, E. 107, 111, 217 Joüon, P. 58, 158, 217 Joyce, P. M. 28, 33–37, 94, 110, 217 K Kennedy, J. M. 136, 217 Keown, G. L. 151, 181, 217 Kessler, M. 27, 56, 141, 144, 149, 217–218, 220 Klein, R. W. 102, 217 Krašovec, J. 80, 218 Kuntz, J. K. 12–13, 42, 57, 218 Kutsko, J. F. 130–131, 136– 137, 191, 218 L Lapsley, J. E. 115–117, 218 Long, B. O. 60, 218 Longman, III, T. 218 Luc, A. 87, 127–128, 130, 139, 188, 218 Lundbom, J. R. 143, 150, 161, 166, 180, 194, 218 M March, W. E. 56, 218 Martens, E. A. 116, 218 McBride, S. D. 125, 219 McConville, J. G. 77, 132, 219

245 McKane, W. 148, 161, 172, 219 Merrill, E. H. 14, 219 Mettinger, T. N. D. 132, 219 Michalowski, P. 78, 219 Miller, P. D. 159, 171, 219 Moberly, R. W. L. 62, 219 Mowinckel, S. 144, 219 Muilenburg, J. 2, 27, 56–57, 218–220 O O’Connor, K. M. 141, 219 Olyan, S. M. 148, 219 Orlinsky, H. M. 137, 220 Oswalt, J. 56, 220 Overholt, T. W. 160, 192, 220 P Parunak, H. V. D. 152, 220 Petter, D. L. 78, 220 Polk, T. 165, 220 Porter, J. R. 110–111, 220 R Raitt, T. M. 27–32, 37, 39, 77, 168, 170, 220 Renz, T. 105, 119–120, 221 Rochester, K. M. 85–86, 99–104, 148–149, 189, 221 von Rad, G. 3, 43, 116, 201, 220 Routledge, R. L. 221 S Scalise, P. J. 151, 154, 157, 217, 221

246

DIVINE MOTIVE IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

Smothers, T. G. 151, 217 Sonsino, R. 10–11, 42, 55, 57, 68, 221 Sprinkle, P. 96, 98, 109, 112, 115, 122, 137, 179, 221 Strine, C. A. 93, 118–123, 137–138, 221 Strong, J. 125–126, 128– 129, 133, 221 Stuart, D. K. 61–62, 124, 221 Sweeney, M. A. 191, 221 T Talmon, S. 114, 222 Taylor, R. A. 64, 222 Taylor, J. B. 111–112, 222 Thomas, H. 27, 62, 79, 124, 151, 160, 211, 217, 220– 222 Thompson, J. A. 149–152, 161, 166–167, 171, 176– 177, 180, 200–201, 222 Tov, E. 141, 222 U Uitti, R. W. 8, 10, 222

V Vervenne, M. 27, 222 W Weiser, A. 66, 222 Westermann, C. 1, 15, 51, 53, 217, 222 Widmer, M. 61–62, 222 Willis, J. T. 12, 160, 165– 167, 218, 223 Wilson, R. R. 94, 102, 104– 105, 223 Wittgenstein, L. 187, 223 Wolff, H. W. 1, 15–16, 51, 53, 147, 223 Y Yates, G. E. 106, 141, 144, 149, 152–156, 163–164, 223 Z Zimmerli, W. 17–27, 34, 66, 73, 81, 83, 97, 107, 114– 117, 123, 133–134, 175, 187, 190, 197, 223