Divine Headdresses of Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic Period 9780860544272, 9781407346069

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Preface
Table of Contents
DIVINE HEADDRESSES OF MESOPOTAMIA IN THE EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD
PART I: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE TWO TYPES OF EARLY DYNASTIC DIVINE HEADDRESS
INTRODUCTION
I. THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF THE TWO TYPES OF DIVINE HEADDRESS CONSIDERED ACCORDING TO THE CONTEXT IN WHICH THE DIVINITY IS FEATURED
II. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
PART I: NOTES
PART II: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE HORN TYPES OF THE EARLY DYNASTIC DIVINE HEADDRESS
INTRODUCTION
I. THE HORN TYPES OF THE DIVINE HEADDRESS
II. THE HORN TYPES OF BOVID ANIMALS, BULLMEN AND HUMAN-HEADED BULLS
lII. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE HORN TYPES OF BOVIDS AND COMPOSITE FIGURES WITH BOVID CHARACTERISTICSAND THE HORN TYPES OF THE DIVINE HEADDRESS
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
PART II: NOTES
PART III: THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTORY NOTES TO THE STATISTICAL TABLES
PART IV: THE CATALOGUE
INTRODUCTORY NOTES TO THE CATALOGUE

Citation preview

Divine Headdresses of Mesopotamia in the · Early Dynastic Period

Iris Furlong

BAR International Series 334 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S334,1987: 'Divine Headdresses of Mesopotamia'

©

Iris Furlong, 1987

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544272 paperback ISBN 9781407346069 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544272 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

P REFACE T his s tudy o f t he d ivine h eaddresses o f M esopotamia i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod w as p resented t o t he U niversity o f B irmingham f or t he d egree o f D octor o f P hilosophy, 1 986. I w ould l ike t o a cknowledge m y d ebt t o J .J . O rchard, M A C antab., F SA, o f t he U niversity o f B irmingham , f or a ll t he a dvice a nd h elp g iven d uring t he c ourse o f t his r esearch a nd f or h is o riginal s uggestion t hat t he r epresentation o f t he d ivine f igure i n M esopotamian a rt w ould f orm ar ewarding s tudy. I w ould a lso l ike t o t hank M r. H . B uglass o f t he D epartment o f A ncient H istory a nd A rchaeology, U niversity o f B irmingham , f or h is a ssistance i n t he p reparation o f t he d rawings a nd s tatistical t ables f or p ublication.

C ONTENTS P age I NTRODUCTION P ART I

1

AC OMPARATIVE S TUDY O F T HE T WO T YPES O F E ARLY D YNASTIC D IVINE H EADDRESS I ntroduction : I .

T he g eographical a nd c hronological o ccurrence o f t he t wo t ypes o f d ivine h eaddress c onsidered a ccording t o t he c ontext i n w hich t he d ivinity i s f eatured: 1 .

S cenes w ith t he b oatgod:

2 .

B oating s cenes o ther t han t he b oatgod s cene:

1 0

3 .

C ombat s cenes:

1 2

4 .

D ivinities r epresented a rmed w ith w eapons:

1 4

5 .

D ivinities f eaturing i n c ontexts c onnected w ith m ilitary v ictory :

1 6

6 .

T he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene:

1 8

7 .

S cenes f eaturing w orshippers:

2 3

8 .

D ivinities r epresented i n a ttitudes o f w orship o r p rayer:

2 5

L ibation s cenes:

2 7

1 0.

P resentation s cenes:

2 9

1 1.

D ivinities p articipating i n c ultic r ituals:

3 1

1 2.

D ivinities a ssociated w ith i nscriptions r ecording r oyal b uilding a nd c onstruction a ctivities:

3 5

D ivinities f iguring i n o ne o f t wo r egisters i n s pacer p anels o n s eals:

3 9

D ivinities r epresented a s s emi-clothed o r u nclothed h uman f igures :

4 0

9 .

1 3.

1 4.

I I.

4

6

S ummary a nd c onclusions:

4 2

N otes t o P art I , N os.

4 6

1- 9 2

i ii

P age P ART I I

AC OMPARATIVE S TUDY O F T HE H ORN T YPES O F T HE E ARLY D YNASTIC D IVINE H EADDRESS I ntroduction: I . I I.

I II.

T he h orn t ypes o f t he d ivine h eaddress :

5 4

T he h orn t ypes o f b ovid a nimals, b ullmen a nd h uman-headed b ulls:

6 0

Ac omparative s tudy o f t he h orn t ypes o f b ovid a nimals a nd c omposite f igures w ith b ovid c haracteristics a nd t he h orn t ypes o f t he d ivine h eaddress: 1 .

2 .

3 .

I V.

5 3

H orn t ypes c ommon t o t he d ivine h eaddress, t he h uman-headed b ull a nd t he b ullman w ith w ith t he h ead p resented f ull-face:

6 4

H orn t ypes c ommon t o b ovid a nimals a nd t he b ullman w ith h ead p resented i n p rofile w hich d o n ot o ccur i n t he d ivine h eaddress:

6 6

H orn t ypes o f t he d ivine h eaddress n ot o ccurring i n r epresentations o f b ovid a nimals o r c omposite f igures w ith b ovid c haracteristics:

7 3

S ummary a nd c onclusions:

8 8

N otes t o P art I I, N os. 9 3 - 1 56

9 0

B IBLIOGRAPHY : P ART I II

P ART I V

9 6

T HE S TATISTICAL A NALYSIS I ntroductory N otes t o t he S tatistical T ables:

1 05

T ables N os .

1 06

1- 2 7:

T HE C ATALOGUE

1 61

I ntroductory N otes t o t he C atalogue:

1 62

S cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod, A l -A 38:

1 69

B oating s cenes o ther t han s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod, B l - B 2:

2 09

S cenes o f c ombat f eaturing d ivinities , C l -C 7:

2 13

S cenes i n w hich d ivinities a re r epresented w ith w eapons o r a ssociated w ith t he t heme o f w ar, D 1 -D 8:

2 25

i v

P age " Building a Z iggurat" s cenes , E l - E 7:

2 43

S cenes f eaturing w orshippers a nd o ffering-bearers, F l - F 9:

2 53

L ibation s cenes, G 1 -G 7:

2 65

P resentation s cenes, H 1 -1 2 :

2 79

S cenes i n w hich t he d ivinity p articipates i n c ultic r ituals , J 1 -J 9:

2 85

D ivinities r epresented i n a ssociation w ith i nscriptions r ecording r oyal b uilding a nd c onstruction a ctivities, K 1 -K 3:

2 97

D ivinities f iguring i n o ne o f t wo r egisters i n s pacer p anels o n s eals, L i -L 4 :

3 05

G oddesses r epresented s emi-clothed o r u nclothed, M 1 -M 2:

3 11

F oundation f igurines , N i -N 9:

3 17

A dditional i llustrations I - X XXVI:

3 37

D IVINE H EADDRESSES O F M ESOPOTAMIA I N T HE E ARLY D YNASTIC P ERIOD

I NTRODUCTION T he d ivine h eaddresses o f M esopotamia i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod h ave b een t he s ubject o f c onsiderable s tudy a nd f requent r eferences t o t he d ivine h eaddress a ppear i n t he l iterature d evoted t o t he i conog raphy a nd m ythology o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. H owever, n o t reatm ent o f t he s ubject s o f ar p ublished h as b een b ased o n a s tatistical, q uantitative m ethod o f i nvestigation. T his m ethod o f e xamination, w hich i s a dopted i n t his s tudy, h as r evealed s ome a spects o f t he n ature a nd s ignificance o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress w hich h ave n ot s o f ar r eceived c onsideration. T he t wo i nvestigations u ndertaken i n t his s tudy a re b ased o n a s tatistical a nalysis o f 1 66 e xamples o f t he d ivine h eaddress r epresented o n o bjects o f E arly D ynastic d ate, w hich a re c atalogued a nd d escribed i n d etail i n P art I V . F or t he p urposes o f t hese i nvestigat ions, i t w as c onsidered a ppropriate t o i nclude h orned h eaddresses w hich h ave s urvived i n a ll m edia a nd n ot t o r estrict t he a nalysis t o i conographical r epresentations o nly. E xamples o f t he h orned h eaddress o n a f igurine a nd o n f oundation f igurines o f E arly D ynastic d ate a re, t herefore, i ncluded i n t he c ompilation, a s w ell a s r epresentations o f t he d ivine h eaddress o n s telae, v otive p laques, s tone r eliefs, e ngraved s hell, s eals a nd s eal i mpressions. T he f irst i nvestigation, w hich f orms t he s ubject o f P art I o f t his s tudy, i s c oncerned w ith t he t wo t ypes o f d ivine h eaddress w hich a re t o b e o bserved i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. T he s tatistical a nalysis d emonstrates, f irstly, t hat t here i s a r egional d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes d uring t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a nd, s econdly, t hat i n E arly D ynastic I IIb, i n t he s outh, t here i s a n a ssociation b etween t he t ype o f h eaddress a nd t he r ank o r s tatus o f t he d ivinity. I nformat ion r evealed i n t he c ourse o f t his i nvestigation p rovides e vidence f or n ew i nterpretations o f c ertain s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod a nd t he c eremony d epicted i n t he s o-called " Building a Z iggurat" s cene. T he m arked d iversity i n t he s hape a nd f orm o f t he h orns o f E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses i s t he s ubject o f t he s econd i nvestigation i n P art I I o f t his s tudy. C omparative a nalysis r eveals t hat, o f t he 1 66 d ivine h eaddresses c atalogued, i n a t l east 2 3 c ases ( representing a pproximately 1 4% o f t he t otal), t he o riginal i ntention w ould n ot a ppear t o h ave b een t o r epresent t he d ivinity w ith a h eaddress i ncorporating t wo c attle h orns. C omparative a nalysis i ndicates t hat i n s ome E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses, t he h orns a re t hose o f a s pecies o f a nimal o ther t han c attle, n otably, g azelle h orns, a nd a lso t hat t he d ouble-peaked c ultic h eaddress o f t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr

1

p eriod w as s till i n u se a s t he d ivine h eaddress u p t o t he t ime o f U r N anshe. I conographical e vidence f rom t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod i s a dduced i n s upport o f t he v iew t hat t his t ype o f h eaddress i s f ashioned i n t he f orm o f a s acred r eed b yre o r s heepfold. P ROVENANCE T he c ompilation c omprises h eaddresses w orn b y d ivinities a ppearing o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance f rom S umer, t he M iddle a nd U pper E uphrates, t he D iyala v alley a nd H amrin B asin a reas, a nd r epresented o n o bjects o f u nknown p rovenance w hich, o n s tylistic g rounds, m ay b e a ccepted a s o riginating f rom t hese r egions. I n c iting t he p rovenance o f a n o bject, p reference i s g iven t o t he n ame, a ncient o r m odern, b y w hich t he s ite i s m ost c ommonly k nown. T hus, i n t he c ase o f U r, t he a ncient n ame i s p referred t o m odern T ell a l-Mu c layyar, w hile i n t he c ase o f F ara, t he m odern n ame i s p referred t o a ncient S hurrupak. D ATING A s ystem o f d ating b ased o n t he m ethod a nd t erminology e mployed b y H . F rankfort i i n h is w ork o n t he s eals a nd s eal i mpressions o f t he D iyala r egion*' h as b een c onsidered t he m ost s uitable f or t he p urposes o f t he p resent s tatistical a nalysis. T his s ystem o f d ating m ay b e s et o ut i n d etail a s f ollows: E D I I

E D I IIa

E D Il lb

A ssigned t o E D I I ( Early D ynastic I I) a re: 1 .

O bjects f ound i n a rchaeological l evels a scribed t o E D a t s ites i n t he D iyala r egion.

2 .

O bjects d ated o n s tylistic g rounds b y s ome a uthors t o M esilim p eriod.*'

3 .

S eal i mpressions f rom F ara i n t he l inear s tyle.* 3

I I

t he

A ssigned t o E D I IIa ( Early D ynastic I IIa) a re: 1 .

O bjects f ound i n a rchaeological l evels a scribed t o E D I IIa i n t he D iyala r egion.

2 .

O bjects d ated b y i nscription t o U r N anshe.

3 .

S eal i mpressions f rom F aa a ssigned b y s ome a uthors t o t he I mdugud-Sukurru p eriod.*'

A ssigned t o E D Il lb ( Early D ynastic I IIb) a re: 1 .

O bjects f ound i n a rchaeological l evels a scribed t o E D I IIb a t s ites i n t he D iyala r egion.

2 .

O bjects d ated b y i nscription t o E anatum a nd h is s uccessors a t L agash.

3 .

S eals i n t he s tyle o f t hose w ith i nscriptions M eskalamdug a nd M esanepada f ound a t U r.* 5

2

o f

4 .

E D Il lb/Akkad

O bjects d ated o n s tylistic g rounds p y s ome a uthors t o p eriod o f t he F irst D ynasty o f U r.*" A ssigned t o A kkad) a re:

E D I IIb/Akkad ( Late

E arly

t he

D ynastic/Early

O bjects w hich d isplay f eatures w hich b ecome c haracteristic o f t he A kkadian p eriod b ut a re f oreshadowed i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, a nd c annot, t herefore, b e a ssigned w ith c ertainty o n s tylistic g rounds t o e ither E arly D ynastic I IIb o r E arly A kkad. E D I II

D esignated E D I II ( Early D ynastic I II) a re: O bjects w hich o n s tylistic g rounds c annot b e a s e arly a s E arly D ynastic I I b ut t he e xact p hase o f E arly D ynastic I II i s u ncertain.

" ED"

D esignated " ED" a re: 1 .

O bjects w hich o n s tylistic g rounds c annot b e d ated t o s pecific p hase o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod.

a ny

2 .

O bjects f rom a rchaeological l evels, t he d ate o f w hich i s d isputed, i ncluding s ealings f rom t he R oyal C emetery a t U r f ound i n u qspecified l evels o r i n S eal I mpression S trata ( SIS) 4 -8.*'

R eference i n t he t ext t o h eaddresses c atalogued a nd d escribed i n P art I V, i s b y C atalogue R eference N umber ( Cat. R ef. N o.). W here m ore t han o ne f igure w earing a d ivine h eaddress a ppears o n t he s ame o bject, e ach i s i dentified s eparately b y a l etter o f t he a lphabet. T hus , i n C at. R ef. N o. 1 , t he b oatgod i s r eferred t o a s C at. R ef. N o. l a , t he p assenger i n t he b oat, C at. R ef. N o. l b. A dditional i llustrations i ncluded i n P art I V f or t he p urposes o f c omparison, a re n umbered s eparately ( Add. I llus. I- X XXVI). I ndividual f igures i n t hese a dditional i llustrations a re a lso i dentified s eparately b y al etter o f t he a lphabet, t hus t he t wo b ullmen i n s eal, A dd. I llus. X II, o ne o n t he l eft a nd o ne o n t he r ight, a re r eferred t o a s A dd. I llus. X IIa a nd X IIb r espectively.

3

P ART I A C OMPARATIVE S TUDY O F T HE T WO T YPES O F E ARLY D YNASTIC D IVINE H EADDRESS

I NTRODUCTION I n h is s tudy o f t he d evelopment o f t he d ivine h orned c rown f row t he E arly D ynastic p eriod t o t he A kkadian p eriod, R .M . B oehmerv° d emonstrates t hat d ivine h eaddresses o f t wo d ifferent t ypes e xist c ont emporaneously i n t he i conography o f M esopotamia i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n o ne t ype ( Boehmer's C ategories ( 1) a nd ( 3)), t he h orns a re r epresented a s r ising d irectly f rom t he h ead o f t he d ivinity, " die H örner s ind a ls T eil d es H auptes s elbst a ufgefasst w orden". Ad ivinity w earing t his t ype o f h eaddress w ould a ppear t o b e v isualised a s d ifferi ng a natomically f rom a m ortal i n t hat t he d ivine h ead i s f urnished w ith h orns. I n t he s econd t ype o f d ivine h eaddress ( Boehmer's C ategories ( 2), ( 4) a nd ( 5)), t he h orns a re i ncorporated i nto a h eaddress w hich i s w orn b y t he d ivinity, " das w ir a ls e chte H örnerkrone a nsprechen d ürfen". A d eity w earing t his t ype o f h eaddress w ould a ppear t o b e v isualised i n f ully h uman f orm, t he h orns w hich s ignify t he d ivine s tatus o f t he w earer b eing i ncorporated i nto a h eaddress w orn a s p art o f t he d ivine r egalia. T he t wo t ypes o f h eaddress w ould a ppear t o r epresent t wo s eparate a nd d istinct r esponses t o t he i dea t hat h orns w ere t he d istinguishing f eature o f a d ivinity. T he p urpose o f t his s tudy i s t o e xplore t he p ossibility t hat t hese t wo q uite d ifferent t reatments o f t he d ivine h orned h eaddress m ay b e e xplained:

a )

O n a r egional b asis, o r

b )

B y s ome d ifference i n t he c haracter o f t he w earers o f t he t ypes o f h eaddress.

t wo

T he t wo t ypes o f h eaddress a re d escribed h ere a s T ype A w here t he h orns a ppear t o b e i ncorporated i nto a h eaddress w orn b y t he d ivinity a nd T ype B w here t he h orns a ppear t o r ise d irectly f rom t he h ead. I n o rder t o r eveal a ny p ossible c onnection b etween t he t ype o f h eaddress a nd t he i dentity o f t he w earer, t he 1 66 e xamples o f t he d ivine h eadd ress a re c lassified a ccording t o t he s cene o r c ontext i n w hich t he d ivinity i s f eatured. T he c lassification c onsidered t o b e m ost u seful f or t his p urpose i s a s f ollows:

4

1 .

S cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod.

2 .

B oating s cenes o ther t han t he b oatgod s cene.

3 .

S cenes o f c ombat.

4 .

S cenes i n w hich d ivinities a re r epresented w ith w eapons.

5 .

S cenes i n w hich d ivinities f igure i n c ontexts c onnected m ilitary v ictory.

6 .

" Building a Z iggurat" s cenes.

7 .

S cenes f eaturing w orshippers.

8 .

S cenes f eaturing p rayer.

9 .

L ibation s cenes.

d ivinities

i n

a ttitudes

o f

w ith

w orship

o r

1 0.

S cenes o f p resentation.

1 1.

S cenes i n w hich t he d ivinity p articipates i n c ultic r ituals.

1 2.

D ivinities r epresented i n a ssociation w ith i nscriptions r ecording r oyal b uilding a nd c onstruction a ctivities.

1 3.

D ivinities o n s eals.

f iguring i n o ne o f t wo r egisters i n s pacer

1 4.

D ivinities f igures.

r epresented

a s s emi-clothed

o r

u nclothed

p anels

h uman

E ach g roup i s a nalysed s eparately o n as tatistical s ystem d esigned t o d emonstrate w hat e vidence t here i s f or e ither c hronological o r r egional d ifferences i n t he d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes. T he s tatistical a nalysis i s s et o ut i n T ables N os . 1 -20 a nd a c ommentary o n t he a nalysis o f e ach c lassified g roup i s c arried i n t he t ext. T he t wo q uestions r elating t o t he t wo f orms o f E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress w hich c onstitute t he a im o f t his i nvestigation a re t hen r e-considered i n t he l ight o f t he i nformation g ained f rom t he s tatistical a nalysis.

5

, T HE G EOGRAPHICAL A ND C HRONOLOGICAL O CCURRENCE O F T HE T WO T YPES O F D IVINE H EADDRESS C ONSIDERED A CCORDING T O T HE C ONTEXT I N W HICH T HE D IVINITY I S F EATURED

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS F EATURING I N W ITH T HE B OATGOD

S CENES

D ivinities r epresented i n s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod a ccount f or a l arge p roportion o f t he t otal n umber o f d ivinities r epresented o n o bjects s urviving f rom t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. A s m ay b e s een f rom T ables N os. 1 a nd 5 , o f t he 1 66 d ivinities r epresented w ith a f orm o f h orned h eaddress c atalogued h ere, 5 8 a ppear i n s cenes f eaturing t he b oat w ith a n a nthropomorphous p row . T hese s cenes a ppear i n t he g lyptic r epertory o nly, t he e arliest k nown e xample o ccurring o n a s eal f ound i n a n E arly D ynastic I I l evel a t K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 8). T he b oatgod r emains i n t he g lyptic r epertory o f t he A kkadian p eriod. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 5 , t he T ype A h eaddress i s w orn b y t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger o n o ne s eal o f u nknown p rovenance d ated t o t he L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian p eriod ( Cat. R ef. N o . A 28). Ad ivinity w ho f ollows t he b oat a lso w ears a T ype A h eaddress o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance o f E arly D ynastic I IIb d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 31c). I n a ll o ther c ases i n w hich t he f orm o f t he h eaddress c an b e a scertained, t he b oatgod a nd t he p assengers a re r epresented w ith a T ype Bh eaddress. T his r elative d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes o f h eaddress ( 3:46) d iffers s ignificantly f rom t he d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes o f h eaddress w orn b y d ivinities f eaturing i n a ll o ther s cenes. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o . 4 , d ivinities r epresented i n c ontexts o ther t han t he b oatgod s cene a re s hown w ith t he T ype A h eaddress a lmost a s f requently a s t he T ype B h eaddress ( 42:47). T he c onsistency w ith w hich t he b oatgod a nd h is p assengers a re r epresented w ith T ype B h eaddresses t hroughout t he E arly D ynastic p eriod r equires e xplanation. S cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod a ppear m ost f requently o n s eals o f n orthern a nd n orth w estern p rovenance.* 9 O f t he e xamples o f k nown p rovenance c atalogued h ere, i n w hich t he b oatgod a lone o r t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger a re r epresented w ith a d ivine h eaddress, f our a ppear o n s eals f rom K ish , t hree o n s eals f rom M ari a nd 1 4 o n s eals f rom s ites i n t he D iyala V alley a nd H amrin B asin. O nly t hree o r p ossibly f our a re o f s outhern p rovenance. T he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger a re r epresentvA a s d ivinities o n t wo s eal i mpressions f rom F ara , o n o ne s eal f rom U r*'' a nd o n o ne s eal o f u nknown p rovenance w hich m ay h ave c ome f rom T ello.* T he s eal f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 24) i s c ertainly o f l ocal o rigin b ecause t he d esign i ncludes a b ird d rawn i n p rofile w ith o ne w ing r aised, s tanding o n t he b ack Q f ah uman-headed b ull, a m otif w hich a ppears o n o ther o bjects f rom U r* ' 2 b ut w hich d oes n ot a ppear i n s cenes w ith t he b oatgod o n s eals o f a ny o ther p rovenance.

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A s t he e arliest e xample o f a s cene f eaturing t he b oatgod a ppears o n a s eal f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o . A 8), a nd t he d istribution p attern s hows a c oncentration i n t he M iddle E uphr a te s a n d D iy a la a reas,* " i t w ould s eem t hat t he f igure o f t he b oatgod w as a n orthern i nvention . T he t ype o f h eaddress o f d ivinities a ppearing i n s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod, t herefore, m ay b e a ccepted a s r eflecting a r egional p reference f or t he T ype B h eaddress i n t he n orth a nd n orth w est. H owever, t he o nly e xamples o f t he T ype B h eaddress o n o bjects f rom U r a re e xhibited b y t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger o n a s eal o f l ocal m anufacture , d ated t o E arly D ynastic I IIb. C loser s tudy o f t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger p rovides s upport f or t he v iew t hat i n t he s outh, i n t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, d ivinities o f ac ertain c ategory o nly a re r epresented w ith d ivine h eaddresses o f T ype B a nd t his t ype o f h eaddress c arries w ith i t a n i ndication a s t o t he r ank o r s tatus o f t he w earer. S trictly s peaking, t he b oat w ith a n a nthropomorphous p row i s a c omposite b eing, c omparable t o t hose u sually t ermed " monsters", s omet imes h orned, s ometimes n ot, w hich a ppear f requently i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. T here i s, h owever, o ne f actor w hich j ustifies t he c ommon p ractice o f r eferring t o t he a nthropomorphous b oat a s a d ivinity. T he h eaddress o f t he b oatgod c an b e o f a n e laborate f orm w ith a d ecorative c entral f eature c ontained b etween t he h orns, r esembling t hat o f t he p assenger i n s ome v ersions o f t he b oatgod s cene. T he c omposite b eings i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography u sually r eferred t o a s " monsters" m ay h ave a h uman t orso a nd b e f urnished w ith h orns r ising f rom t he h ead, b ut i n t he c ourse o f t he e xtensive r esearches u ndertaken f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy o f t he d ivine h eaddress , n o s uch f igure h as b een f ound w here t he h eaddress i s a s e laborate a s t hat o f t he b oatgod i n C at. R ef. N os. A 2, A 24 a nd A 26. T he b oatgod a ppears i n a t l east t wo d ifferent s cenes.* 1 4 I n o ne s cene, t he b oatgod h as t wo p gssengers w ho a re r epresented s eated a nd r owing ( Cat. R ef. N o . A 20).*'' A s t hey a re s hown w ithout h orned h eadd resses, t hey m ay b e p resumed t o b e t wo h uman p assengers. T he q uadruped w ho a ppears i n t his s cene i s r epresented w alking t owards t he b oat w ith i ts h ead t urned b ackwards t o l ook o ver i ts s houlder. T he s econd s cene s hows t he b oatgod w ith a s ingle p assenger d ressed i n a k ilt a nd t herefore p resumably m ale , r epresented s eated a nd r owing o r s teering. T his s cene i s c haracterised b y t hree d istinctive m otifs, a v ase t ilted o n i ts s ide, a p lough a nd a q uadruped w hich , i n t his c ase, i s r epresented w alking i n t he s ame d irection a s t hat i n w hich t he b oat p rogresses. T his s cene, w hich a ppears m ore f requently t han t he s cene i n w hich t he b oatgod h as t wo h uman p assengers, i s r eferred t o h ere a s t he c lassic b oatgod s cene. O ther s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod m ay b e v ariants o f o ne o r o ther o f t hese t wo s ceny2 o r m ay r epresent t he b oatg od i n s ome d ifferent c ontext a ltogether.* I" O n t he g ylptic e vidence, t he m ain r ole o f t he d ivine b oat i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, i s t o p rovide t ransportation f or h uman o r d ivine p assengers. T he h eaddress o f t he b oatgod i n a s cene o n a s eal f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. A l2) p rovides s ome i ndication o f h is r ank i n t he d ivine h ierarchy. T he b oatgod i s s hown o n t his s eal w earing a h eaddress v ery s imilar t o t he c aps o f t he o arsman a nd s teersman . M inor d etails o f c utting m ay i ndicate t hat a n u nusual f orm o f h orned h eadd ress i s i ntended , b ut t he r esemblance t o t he s ecular h eadgear o f t he

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o arsman a nd s teersman s uggest t hat t he s ame c ap i s i ntended i n a ll t hree c ases. I n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod e a c ap o f t his k ind i s w orn b y w arriors, d ignitaries o r o fficials.* 1 T he b oatgod's h eaddress t hereby i ndicates h is p lace i n t he d ivine h ierarchy a s t hat o f a f unctionary i n t he s ervice o f g ods o f h igher r ank. S ome i nsight i nto t he c haracter o f t he b oatgod's p assenger i n t he c lassic b oatgod s cene m ay b e g ained f rom a c omparative e xamination o f a ll t he e xamples c atalogued h ere ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 2, A 4, A 6-A10, A 13, A 14, A 17, A 24-A28, A 30, A 31 a nd A 33). T his p assenger i s c ommonly r epresented a s ad ivinity w ith a h orned h eaddress, b ut h e m ay a lso b e s hown w ithout h orns. I n o ne s cene t he p assenger i s s hown w ith l ong h air a nd n o h orns ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 14) a nd i n a nother s cene h e i s r epresented w ith a p igtail a nd s ecular h eadgear ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 33). A s i n e ach o f t hese s cenes t he b oatgod i s r epresented w ith a h orned h eaddress, i t w ould s eem t hat t he i ntention w as t o s how t he p assenger a s a h uman b eing a nd n ot a d ivinity. I n t wo c ases t he h ead o f t he p assenger i s r epresented w ith n o h orns a nd n o h air, w hile t he b oatgod i s r epresented w ith a h orned h eaddress a nd a p igtail h anging d own a t t he b ack o f h is h ead ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 27 a nd A 30). I n t hese c ases t he i ntention w ould s eem t o b e t o r epresent t he p assenger w ith a s haven h ead, w hich i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod i s c haracteristic o f a h uman w orshipper o r s upplicant. A s t he b oatgod i s r epresented w ith h orns a nd t he p assenger i s s hown w ithout a d ivine h eaddress i n f our o f t he 1 8 v ersions o f t he s cene a ssembled h ere, i t w ould a ppear t hat t he p assenger i n t he c lassic v ersion o f t he b oatgod s cene i s a h uman b eing w ho c ould a lso b e v isualised a s a d ivinity, i .e., a d ivinised m ortal. T he b oatgod s cene m ay b e r epresented o n s eals i n o ne o f t wo r egisters w here i t a lways a ppears i n t he u pper r egister. T he s cene m ost f requently r epresented i n t he l ower r egister i n a ssociation w ith t he b oatgod s cene i s t hat r eferred t o i n t his s tudy a s " Building a Z iggurat".* I 8 A s d emonstrated l ater ( see p . 1 9ff.), t he " Building a Z iggurat" c eremony d epicts a r itual p erformed i n c onnection w ith t he c elebration o f am ilitary v ictory a nd t he e stablishment o f t erritorial b oundaries a fter a s uccessful b attle. O n o ne s eal o f E arly D ynastic I IIb d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 31), a v ersion o f t he c lassic b oatgod s cene a ppears i n t he u pper r egister w hile i n t he l ower r egister t he t heme o f m ilitary v ictory i s r epresented i n t he c onventional s ymbolism o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, b y a w ar c hariot, a rmed w arriors a nd a d og o f w ar. O n t his s eal, t he p assenger i n t he b oat, C at. R ef. N o. A 31b, i s d epicted w ith g ives r ising f rom b ehind h is s houlders a nd h olding a c urved o bject.*'' G iven t he p resence i n t he s cene o f a f igure a rmed w ith a l ong-shafted m ace w ho f ollows t he b oat a nd t he m artial t heme o f t he s cene a ppearing i n t he l ower r egister, t he c urved o bject h eld b y t he b oatgod's p assenger i s m ost r eadily i dentified a s a s ickle s word w hich, i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, i s a r oyal w eapon, p ossibly o f s ome s ymbolic s ignificance a nd m ay b e s een, f or e xample, h eld b y E anatum d epicted a t t he h ead o f h is t roops o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures. •W hile, i n t his v ersion o f t he c lassic b oatgod s cene, t he b oatgod ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 31a) i s r epresented w ith a m arkedly l ong p igtail, t he p assenger i s r epresented w ith h air d ressed i n t he m anner o f t he R oyal

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b un , i ndicated b y t wo d rill h oles, o ne a bove t he o ther, a t t he b ack o f t he h ead. I n a s cene o n a s eal, p ossibly E arly A kkadian i n d ate , ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 28), t he b oatgod i s a gain r epresented w ith h air d ressed i n a l ong p igtail w hile a p rotuberance a t t he b ack o f t he h ead o f t he p assenger i n t he b oat s uggests t hat t he h air i s d ressed i n a s mall k not, a nother f orm o f r oyal h airstyle, t o b e o bserved, f or i nstance, o n t he s o-called b ronze " Head o f N aram-Sin". A s i n e ach o f t hese t wo s cenes, t he b oatgod i s r epresented w ith a l ong p igtail, t he d ifference i n t he t reatment o f t he h air o f p assenger a nd b oatgod m ust b e a ccepted a s i ntentional. I n t he A kkadian p eriod, d ivinities a re c ommonly r epresented w ith h air d ressed i n aR oyal b un , b ut t his t reatment o f t he h air i s r arely u sed f or d ivine f igures i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his i nvestigation , o nly t hree g ods c an b e i dentified w ith c ertainty a s p ortrayed w ith h air d ressed i n t his m anner, t wo o n a v otive p laque f rom N ippur ( Cat. R ef. N o . G 3 aa nd b ), a nd o ne o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance, ( Cat. R ef. N o . G 5a), a nd i n e ach c ase, t he h air i s d ressed i n a l ock c urled o nto t he s houlders a t t he b ack o r i n a p igtail, i n a ddition t o t he d ouble k not. I t w ould a ppear, t herefore , t hat i n C at. R ef. N o. A 31 a nd p ossibly i n C at. R ef. N o. A 28 a lso, t he i ntention o f t he a rtist/craftsman w as t o d epict t he p assenger a s a d ivinised k ing , w ith h air d ressed i n a m anner w hich s ignified h is r oyal s tatus. I n C at. R ef. N o. A 33, t he p assenger w ears a s ecular h eaddress w hich t akes t he f orm o f a c ap w ith v ertical s ides a nd a r ounded t op. A p arallel f or t his c ap a ppears o n a s tone r elief f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o . D 6) w here i t i s w orn b y a f igure w hose h air i s d ressed i n t he R oyal b un. A c ap o f t his k ind w ould t hus a ppear t o b e a f orm o f r oyal h eadg ear i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. A n o pen r ectangular m otif a t t he b ack o f t he c ap w orn b y t he b oatgod's p assenger a ppears t o b e a s tylised h uman e ar. I n t he E arly D ynastic i conography, a h uman e ar i ncorporated i nto a p iece o f h eadgear i s t he p erogative o f r oyalty. T he h elmet w orn b y E anatum o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures d iffers f rom t he h elmets w orn b y h is t roops i n t hat i t i s d ecorated w ith a n o vers ized h uman e ar, w hile t he s oldiers ' h elmets a re p lain. O ne o f t he d istinctive f eatures o f t he " Gold H elmet o f M es-kalam-dug" a re t he e ars. T he h elmet i s f ashioned i n t he l ikeness o f h air o r aw ig d ressed i n p laits a nd c urls . T he e ars a re n ot c oncealed b y t he s ide c urls b ut a re s uperimposed o ver t hem . T he h elmet w as f ound n ext t o t hg h ead o f a m an b uried i n G rave N o. P G 7 55 i n t he R oyal C emetery a t U r.* L0 P .R.S. M oorey c onsiders t hat t his g rave i s ar oyal t omb a nd m ay b elong t o o ne o f t he E arly D ynastic k ings o f U r w ho, i n l ife , " had a ssumed a d ivine o r s emi-divine ,tatus, l ike s ome o f t he r ulers o f t he l ater T hird D ynasty o f U rI t. * LI

O n t he e vidence o f t he 1 8 e xamples c atalogued a nd d escribed i n t his s tudy, t he p assenger i n t he c lassic b oatgod s cene i s ah uman b eing w ho c ould b e r epresented e ither i n t he r ole o f p ious w orshipper o r s upplicant w ith a s haven h ead, o r w ith a r oyal h eaddress, o r w ith t he h orned h eaddress o f ad ivinity. H e i s p rimarily a ssociated w ith t he t heme o f m ilitary v ictory a nd c ould b e r epresented w ith w eapons r ising f rom b ehind h is s houlders, s ymbols o f d ivine m artial p ower. T hese c haracteristics r eveal t he p assenger i n t he c lassic b oatgod s cene i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod t o b e ad ivinised k ing, r enowned f or h is

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m ilitary p rowess. T he c oncept o f a d ivine k ing i s w ell a uthenticated i n S umerian m ythology a nd m ay b e p reserved i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a t U r. O n t he E arly D ynastic Il lb s eal c ut i n t he l ocal s tyle o f U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 24), t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger a re b oth r epresented w ith t he T ype B h eaddress. T hese a re t he o nly t wo d ivinities a ppearing o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance f rom U r t o b e s hown w ith t he T ype B h eadd ress. I n c hoosing t o r epresent t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger w ith t his t ype o f h eaddress, t he s eal c utter m ay h ave b een f ollowing a n e stablished t radition d eriving f rom t he n orth. H owever, t he c hoice o f h eaddress m ay h ave b een g overned b y t he s tatus a nd c haracter o f t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger. O ther e vidence i n s upport o f t he v iew t hat, i n t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, i n t he s outh , t he T ype B h eaddress w as t he f orm o f d ivine h eaddress w hich d istinguished d ivinised m ortals o r d ivinities o f l ow r ank i n t he d ivine h ierarchy i s d iscussed l ater i n t he c ontext o f f oundation f igurines f ound a t T ello ( see p . 3 7).

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D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS F EATURING I N S CENES O THER T HAN T HE B OATGOD S CENE

B OATING

D ivinities i n b oating s cenes a part f rom t he b oatgod s cene a ppear i n t he g lyptic r eper4Rry o f t he s outh o nly. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 6 , t wo e xamples* " h ave s urvived o n s eal i mpressions, o ne f rom F ara ( Cat. R ef. N o. B i) a nd o ne f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. B 2). T he s eal i mpression f rom F ara m ay b e d ated t o t he E arly D ynastic I I p eriod b y t he c ostume w orn b y t he d ivinity h auling t he b oat. T he d ate o f t he s eal i mpression f rom U r i s u ncertain. W hile s ome f ragments o f t he i mpression w ere f ound i n S eal I mpression S tratum ( SIS) 2 d ating t o t he l ater p hase o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, 9 1 0 je f ragment w as f ound i n a n u nspecified l evel " by G rave N o. P G 1 527"* . T he v egetal m otif i n t he d esign i s t ypical o f d esigns f ound o n s eal i mpressions f rom t he S eal I mpression S trata ( SIS) 4 -8 s o t he d ate o f t he i mpression c ould b e a s e arly a s E arly D ynastic I .* 4 I f t his i s s o, t he s eated f igure i n t he b oat i s o ne o f t he e arliest r epresentations o f a d ivinity w earing a f orm o f d ivine h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. B oth s cenes w ould a ppear t o d epict t he p rogress o f b oats o f s ome d ivine n ature b y w ater o r t o i llustrate m yths p ossibly e volved a s a n e xplanation f or t he r itual p rocessions o f " sacred b oats" a long t he c anals. L ater t extual r eferences b oth t o " sacred b oats" o r t o j ourneys m ade b y d ivinities b y b oat f rom o ne c ity t o a nother* 2 5 s uggest t hat t emple p ersonnel o r d ivine i mages w ere c ustomarily c onveyed b y b oat i n r itual j ourneys. O n t he e vidence o f t he F ara s eal i mpression , t he c ustom w as a lready e stablished i n t he s outh b y t he E arly D ynastic I I p eriod. T he h ead o f t he p assenger i n t he b oat i n t he s eal i mpression f rom U r i s, u nfortunately, d amaged, a nd i t i s n ot p ossible t o a scertain w hether a T ype A o r aT ype B h eaddress i s i ntended. I n t he s eal i mpression f rom F ara , t he d ivinity h auling t he b oat ( Cat. R ef. N o . B la) w ears a T ype A h eaddress. O ne o f t he t wo p assengers s eated i n t he b oat ( Cat. R ef. N o. B ic) i s r epresented w ith a s haven h ead a nd m ay, t heref ore, b e a ccepted a s r epresenting a h uman b eing a nd n ot a d ivinity.

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T he h ead o f t he s econd s eated p assenger ( Cat. R ef. N o. B ib) h as u nique f eatures. T he h orns r ise d irectly f rom t he t op o f t he h ead s o t hat t he h eaddress i s T ype B . I n t heir s hape a nd a ngle o f e mergence, h owever, t he h orns r esemble t hose o f a s pecies o f s heep a nd t here i s n o p arallel f or h orns o f t his n ature i n a ny d ivine h eaddress a ppearing o n a n o bject o f e ither n orthern o r s outhern p rovenance. T he h ead i s a lso f urnished w ith a nimal e ars, a characteristic w hich i s r are i n r epresentations o f d ivinities i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here i s o nly o ne o ther e xample o f a d ivinity r epresented w ith a p air o f a nimal e ars, a nd t hat i s t he b oatg od o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance, C at. R ef. N o. A 30a. O n a nalogy w ith t he d ivinities r epresented i n t he c lassic b oatgod s cene, t he h orned p assenger i n t his s cene m ay b e i ntended a s a d ivinised m ortal o r a g od o f l esser r ank ( see p p. 9 a nd 3 7). T he d ivinity h auling t he b oat o n t his s eal i mpression f rom F ara ( Cat. R ef. N o. B la) m ay b e c ompared w ith t he d ivinity w ho a ppears i n a s cene o f c ombat o n a s eal o f c ontemporary d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. C 7a). T he p rovenance o f t his s eal i s u nknown. B oth d ivinities a re s imilar i n t heir p hysical p roportions a nd b oth w ear k ilts w hich, a lthough d iffering i n s tyle, l eave o ne l eg f ree, a t ype o f c ostume n ot w orn b y d ivinities e lsewhere i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. W hile t he d ivinity w ho i s r epresented i n t he c ontext o f a r itual p rogression b y w ater w ears a T ype A h eaddress, t he d ivinity i n t he c ombat s cene i s r epresented w ith a T ype B h eaddress. T he s cene r epresented i n C at. R ef. N o. B i i s k nown o nly f rom a n i mpression o n c lay. I f t he i mpression p reserves a n a ccurate i mprint o f t he s eal a nd i s t rue i n a ll i ts d etail, t hen t his s eal i s o f p articular i mportance i n t he s tudy o f t he d evelopment o f t he d ivine h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I t p rovides e vidence t hat i n t he E arly D ynastic I I p eriod, i n t he s outh, h eaddresses w hich d istinguished s upranatural b eings f rom o rdinary m ortals, c ould t ake m ore t han o ne f orm a nd t hat, a t t his t ime, a p air o f b ull's h orns w as n ot a n e ssential c omponent o f t he d ivine h eaddress. A s upranatural b eing c ould b e v isualised a s h aving a h ead f urnished w ith a nimal e ars a nd h orns o f a s heep, a s i n C at. R ef. N o. B ib, o r c ould b e v isualised a s f ully h uman i n a ppearance, w ith o nly t he h eaddress t o d enote t he d ivine s tatus o f t he w earer, a s i n C at. R ef. N o. B la. H eaddress ( a) m ay h ave t aken t he f orm o f a h orned c rown, b ut, a lternatively, a s d iscussed i n f urther d etail i n P art I I, ( see p . 7 8), i t c ould h ave t aken t he f orm o f t he c ultic h eaddress i n u se i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod, f ashioned i n t he l ikeness o f a s acred b yre o r s heepfold.

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3 .

D IVINITIES S CENES

W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS F EATURING I N

C OMBAT

A p redator's a ttack u pon h erd o r g ame a nimals i s a t heme f requently r epresented i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. I n t he m ost c ommonly o ccurring v ersion o f t he t heme, r eferred t o i n t his s tudy a s t he c ombat s cene, s upernatural c haracters p articipate i n t he c onflict b etween p redator a nd p rey. T hese s upernatural c haracters i nclude t he b ullman w ith h is h ead i n p rofile, t he b ullman w ith h is h ead e n f ace, n aked h eroes a nd k ilted h eroes. T he

m any a mbiguities i n t he a ction p ortrayed i n t he c ombat s cene a nd s ignificance d ifficult t o i nterpret. T he l ion's p rey i s f requently a b ovid w hich c ould e qually w ell r epresent a d omesticated a nimal o r a ,wild b ull. L ions a re a lso s hown a ttacking g ame a nimals,quch a s d eer*'" o r a n a nimal w hich h as t he c haracteristics o f a b ison*.'' T he s cene w ould n ot, t herefore, a ppear t o b e p rimarily c oncerned w ith t he t heme o f t he p rotection o f d omesticated a nimals a gainst p redators. make

i ts m eaning

T he r ole p layed b y t he s upernatural c haracters i n t he c ombat s cene i s a lso e quivocal. F or e xample, t he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile i s s hown t hreatening a l ion w ith a w eapon o r s tanding b etweq a t wo l ions w ith h is a rms o utstretched t o g rasp t hem b y t he t hroat.*'" B ut t his t ype o f b ullman i s a lso r epresented i n a n i dentical p osture b etween t wo b ovids* 29 s o t hat t he s ignificance o f t he g esture i s o bscure. T he s ame a mbiguity a pplies t o t he r ole o f t he k ilted a nd n aked h eroes. B oth t ypes o f h ero t hreaten a l ion w ith a w eapon* 30 a s i f i n d efence o f t he l ion's p rey, b ut t hey a re a lso r epresented h olding c aprids o r g ame a nimals h ead-downwar 4 b y t heir h ind l egs o r t hreatening a b ovid o r i bex w ith aw eapon* -". w hich i dentifies t hem w ith t he p redator. T he n aked h ero i s s hown w ith a rms o y4stretched t o t ouch a l ion o n o ne s ide a nd a g ame a nimal o n t he o ther*'' s o t hat h is a ttitude t o p redator a nd p rey i s a mbivalent. T he n aked h ero a pd t he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rof ile m ake a c ombined a ttack o n a l ion*'' b ut t his t ype o f b ullman a lso a ppears i n c ombat w ith a k ilted h ero.* 34 D ivinities a re r epresented o nly e xceptionally i n t he c ombat s cene i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. O ne d ivinity a ppears i n t his c ontext o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance o f E arly D ynastic I I d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. C 7), w here h e i s r epresented i n a r ole s imilar t o t hat o f t he b ullman. T his d ivinity, l ike t he b ullman, i s a rmed w ith a c rescentic-handled w eapon w ith w hich h e t hreatens o ne o f a p air o f l ions w ho c ombine i n a n a ttack u pon a h orned a nimal. T he d ivinity w ears a l ong k ilt w hich i s r olled u p o n o ne s ide t o l eave o ne l eg f ree, a c ost we w orn b y t he k ilted h ero i n o ther e xamples o f t he c ombat s ce e.* 33 T his m ode o f d ress a ppears o n a l imestone i nlay f ound a t K ish*'" w here i t i s w orn b y a f igure w ho c arries a c urved w eapon a nd p ushes a b ound p risoner b efore h im . T he k ilted f igure s hown i n t his c ontext m ay b e a ccepted a s p ortraying a t riumphant a nd v ictorious w arrior. O n t his a nalogy, t he l ong k ilt r olled u p o n o ne s ide w ould b e a n a ppropriate c ostume f or a d ivinity v isualised a s a s uccessful w arrior o r h ero w ho, i n a m ythol ogical c ontext,

a ttacks a nd s lays l ions.

I n t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, d ivinities a re r epresented i n c ombat w ith c omposite b ull-creatures o r h orned h eroes

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b ut n ot i n t he c ontext o f t he c ombat s cene t ypical o f t he E arly D ynastic I I/III p eriod. T wo d ivinities a re s hown o n a n E arly D ynastic I IIb s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef. N o. C 6a a nd b ), o ne i n c ombat w ith a b ull, t he o ther w ith a h uman-headed b ull. A g od i s s hown i n c ombat w ith a n a nthropomorphic b ull i n t he p resence o f a s eated d ivinity o n a s eal o f L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian d ate f rom K ish ( Cat. R ef. N o. C la). A h orned h ero, a rmed w ith a d agger, t hreatens a d ivinity i n t he p resence o f a w orshipper o n a s eal f rom T ell A grab a lso o f L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. C 2a). G ods, e ither w earing s hort k ilts o r n aked, r epresented i n p airs w restling o r t hreatening e ach o ther, a g enre w hich b ecomes c haracteri stic o f t he A kkadian p eriod, i s f oreshadowed i n t he i conography a t t he e nd o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t heir a ctions a nd g estures, t hese d ivinities c losely r esemble t he s upernatural c haracters w ho a ppear i n t he c ombat s cenes o f t he e arlier p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T he d ivinities w ho s tretch u p t heir a rms t o g rasp t he h orns o f t heir o pponents ' c rowns i n C at. R ef. N os. C 4 a nd C 5 m ay b e p aralleled ( a) b y t he f igures o f b ullmen a nd h eroes w ho s tretch o ut t o g rasp t he h orns o f b ovid a nimals o r h uman-headed b ulls 4 s cenes o n s eals o f E arly D ynastic I I o r E arly D ynastic I II d ate* J I a nd ( b) b y t he b ullman a nd k ilted h ero w ho t igeaten e ach o ther o n t he E anatum s eal i mpression f ound a t A l H iba.* J ° T he s cenes o n t hese t wo L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian s eals w ould, t herefore, a ppear t o i llustrate t he s ame t heme r epresented b y t he E arly D ynastic c ombat s cene b ut b y t he b eginn ing o f t he A kkad p eriod, t he p rotagonists h ave b ecome f ully a nthropom orphised a nd a re r epresented a s d ivinities w earing h orned c rowns. A s m ay b e s een i n T able N o. 7 , t he d ivinity f eaturing i n t he c ombat s cene o n t he E arly D ynastic I I s eal, C at. R ef. N o. C 7, w ears a T ype B h eaddress, w hereas a ll d ivinities r epresented i n c ombat o n s eals a nd s eal i mpressions o f L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian d ate w ear T ype A h eaddresses. A s a lready n oted ( see p . 1 1), i n E arly D ynastic I I, a g od w ho i nhabits t he s ame m ilieu a s h eroes a nd m ythical b ullc reatures i s v isualised a s h aving a h orned h ead a nd i s t hus r epresented w ith a T ype B h eaddress ( e.g., C at. R ef. N o. C 7), w hile b y c ontrast, a g oddess o f c ontemporary o r n ear-contemporary d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6) w ho i s r epresented e nthroned a nd m ay t herefore b e p resumed t o b e o f c osmic o r h igh r ank i n t he p antheon w ears a T ype A h eaddress. B y t he c lose o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, t he T ype h eaddress h ad a ll b ut d isappeared f rom t he M esopotamian i conography*39 a nd d ivinities, w hate ver t heir r ank, s tatus o r i dentity, a re a ll r epresented w ith h eadd resses o f T ype A . T his m ay b e o bserved o n a s eal i mpression f rom K ish ( Cat. R ef. N o. C l), w hich m ay b e E arly A kkadian i n d ate. T he s cene f eatures t hree d ivinities, o ne o f w hom i s s eated o n a t hrone, o ne, c learly o f l ower r ank, w ho s tands w ith h ands c lasped i n a n a ttitude o f s ubmission o r p rayer a nd a t hird w ho i s r epresented i n c ombat w ith a b ull-creature. A ll t hree d ivinities w ear T ype A h eaddresses, t hose w orn b y t he e nthroned d ivinity a nd t he d ivinity i n c ombat w ith t he b ull-creature b eing i dentical, n ot o nly i n t ype, b ut a lso i n t heir d ecorative d etail.

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4 .

D IVINITIES W EARING W ITH W EAPONS

AF ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS

R EPRESENTED

A RMED

T he f igure o f ad ivinity a rmed a nd s eated o n at hrone, m akes i ts f irst a ppearance i n t he i conography o f t he n orth i n t he E arly D ynastic I IIa p eriod a nd i n t he i conography o f t he s outh i n t he E arly D ynastic T IIb p eriod. T he w eapons h eld b y t hese d ivinities i nclude m aces ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 31c, D 1, D 2 a nd D 3), a s pear ( Cat. R ef. N o. H 2b) a nd a c urved w eapon s ometimes d escribed a s a s ickle s word ( Cat. R ef . N o. D 2). T he d ivinity m ay h old t wo w eapons i n o ne h and; t wo m aces w ith d iffering f orms o f m ace h ead i n C at. R ef. N o . D 1, a m ace a nd a c urved w eapon i n C at. R ef. N o. D 2. B oth m ale a nd f emale d ivinities a re r epresented e nthroned a nd h olding w eapons. A n a rmed g od a ppears o n a n E arly D ynastic I IIa s tone r elief f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 2) a nd a n a rmed g oddess o n a n E arly D ynastic I IIb s tone r elief f ragment f rom N ippur ( Cat. R ef. N o . D 1). I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t his s tudy, n o a rmed g oddess a ppears o n a n o bject o f k nown p rovenance f rom t he n orth a nd n o a rmed g od c an b e i dentified o n a n o bject o f k nown s outhern p rovenance. E nthroned d ivinities a re a lso r epresented w ith w eapons a rising f rom b ehind t he s houlders. T hese w eapons m ay b e i dentified a s m aces i n C at. R ef. N os . D 1, D 5a a nd D 7a , a s t hey h ave s traight s hafts a nd k nobbed t erminals. T he p rojections w ith c urved s hafts a rising f rom b ehind t he s houlders o f t he g oddess o n t he E ntemena s tone v ase f ragment, C at. R ef. N o. K 2, m ay b e i ntended t o r epresent w mons, b ut t his i dentification i s n ot a ccepted b y a ll a uthorities.* ' I n h er h airstyle a nd h eaddress, t his g oddess c losely r esembles t he g oddess w ith m aces b ehind h er s houlders o n t he s tone r elief f ragment f rom N ippur, C at. R ef. N o. D 1, b ut u nlike h er, s he d oes n ot h old w eapons i n h er h and. T he c urved p rojections m ay t herefore b e i ntended t o r epresent s ome f orm o f v egetal m otif. T wo o f t he d ivinities w ith m aces a rising f rom t he s houlders a ppear i n s cenes a ssociated w ith t he t heme o f m ilitary v ictory ( see p . 1 6). O ne o ccurs o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures ( Cat. R ef. N o . D 5a) a nd o ne o n a s eal , i mpression f rom U ruk o f L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 7a). A rmed d ivinities a lso a ppear i n m ythological s cenes ( Cat. R ef. N os. D 3, D 4 a nd D 8). O f a ll t he r epresentations o f a rmed d ivinities a ssembled f or t his s tudy, t he o nly g od w ho a ctively u ses a w eapon a ppears i n a s cene o f m ythology o n a n e ngraved s hell p laque o f u nknown p rovenance o f L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 8). T he d ivinity i n t his s cene i s a rmed w ith a s ickle s word w ith w hich h e c uts o ff o ne o f t he h eads o f a s even-headed m onster. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 8 , a ll e xcept o ne d ivinity i s s hown w ith a T ype A h eaddress, t he e xception b eing t he p assenger i n t he b oat i n a n u nusual v ersion o f t he c lassic b oatgod s cene o n a n E arly D ynastic I IIb s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef . N o. A 31b). T he s eal i s d ivided i nto t wo r egisters , t he b oatgod s cene a ppearing i n t he u pper r egister. I n t he l ower r egister i s a s cene s ymbolic o f m ilitary v ictory f eaturing w arriors, aw ar c hariot a nd a d og o f w ar. T he m ilitary t heme i s a gain r eflected i n t he b oatgod s cene b y t he p resence o f a n a rmed d ivinity w ho m arches b ehind t he b oat c arrying a l ongh andled m ace. T he d ivine p assenger i n t he b oat i s r epresented h olding

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a c urved o bject i n h is r ight h and a nd h as k nobbed p rojections r ising f rom b ehind h is s houlders. G iven t he m artial c ontent o f t he s cenes i n b oth t he u pper a nd l ower r egisters o n t his s eal, t he o bject h eld b y t he d ivine p assenger i n t he b oat m ay b e i dentified a s a s ickle s word a nd t he p rojections r ising f rom h is s houlders a s m aces.* 4 1 A s a p lough , aq uadruped a nd a v ase t ilted o n i ts s ide, t he t hree m otifs w hich d istinguish t he c lassic b oatgod s cene ( see p . 7 ) a ll a ppear i n t his s cene, t he d ivine p assenger h ere m ay b e a ccepted a s t he s ame d ivinity w ho f eatures i n a ll i nstances o f t he c lassic b oatgod s cene, t hough n owhere e lse i s h e s hown e ither c arrying a rms o r w ith w eapons r ising f rom h is s houlders. F rom t his i t m ay b e c oncluded t hat w eapons w ere n ot t he e xclusive a ttribute o f a ny s pecific d eity. T he E arly D ynastic d ivinities r epresented h olding w eapons o r w ith w eapons a rising f rom b ehind t he s houlders n eed n ot, t herefore, n ecessarily b e g ods o r g oddesses o f w ar. T hey c ould b e d ivinities w ho a ssume t hese m artial a ttributes o nly f or s ome s pecific p urpose o r e vent s uch a s t he c elebration o f am ilitary v ictory. T he p ossible i dentity o f a t l east o ne o f t he a rmed d ivinities r epresented w ith a T ype A h eaddress i s d iscussed l ater ( see p . 1 7).

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D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS F EATURING I N C ONTEXTS C ONNECTED W ITH M ILITARY V ICTORY

R epresentations o f d ivinities m ay a ppear i n a ssociation w ith i nscriptions r ecording m ilitary v ictories, a s o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures, o r t hey m ay a ppear i n s cenes i n w hich t he t heme o f w ar a nd m ilitary v ictory i s e xpressed i n s ymbolic i magery. T he s ymbolism u sed t o d enote m ilitary v ictory i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod i ncludes : B ound p risoners b eing c lubbed o n t he h ead. T he p rone a nd n aked b odies o f t he e nemy b eing t rampled u nderfoot b y s oldiers o r r idden d own b y w ar c hariots. F iles w ar.

o f a rmed w arriors, w ar c hariots a nd d ogs

o f

Ab ound o r p rone p risoner s erving a s a t hrone f or a s eated d ivinity. T he f igure o f a p risoner, k neeling w ith a rms b ound b eh jAd h is b ack , i s a n i mage g oing b ack t o U ruk/Jemdet N asr t imes.*'' T he e arliest r epresentation o f s uch a f igure i n t he E arly D ynastic m aterial a ssembled f or t his s tudy, a ppears o n a s tone r elief f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6), w here t he b ound p risoner i s b eing d espatched w ith a c lub w ielded b y a f igure w ith h air d ressed i n t he s tyle o f t he R oyal b un w ho m ay b e t aken t o r epresent a k ing. T he d ate o f t his r elief i s u ncertain b ut i t m ay b e p re-Ur N anshe i n d ate. T he s ame i magery o f t he c aptive b eing c lubbed o n t he h ead a ppears i n t he E arly D ynastic I IIb p eriod o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures ( Cat. R ef. N o . D S). T he s ymbolism o f t he w ar c hariot a nd o f t he e nemy t rampled u nderf oot b y s oldiers f irst a ppears i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography 4 t he E arly D ynastic I II p eriod i n t he m onumental m edium oL.t he s tele,* ' 3 o n t he " Standard o f U r" a nd i n t he g lyptic r epertory.*'' P rone f igures s erving a s a t hrone f or a rmed d ivinity i s a f orm o f s ymbolism u sed i n t he A kkadian p eriod.* "" A s imilar i mage a ppears o n a s eal o f L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian d ate r ecently f ound a t T ell S uleimeh i n t he H amrin B asin ( Cat. R ef. N o. E 6), w here a f igure l ying f ace d ownw ards o ver a m ound s erves a s a t hrone f or t he g oddess w ho p resides a t t he r itual r eferred t o i n t his s tudy a s " Building a Z iggurat". T he i nterpretation o f t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene a s a r itual p erformed i n c onnection w ith t he c elebration o f m ilitary a chievements i s d iscussed o n p . 1 9ff. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 9 , d ivinities r epresented i n a ssociation w ith t he t heme o f w ar a nd m ilitary v ictory r epresented o n o bjects o f s outhern p rovenance w ear t he T ype A h eaddress i n a ll c ases w here t he t ype o f h eaddress m ay b e a scertained, i ncluding a d ivinity w ho a ppears o n a s eal i mpression f rom U ruk ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 7b). T he d ivinity o n t he s eal f rom T ell S uleimeh ( Cat. R ef . N o. E 6) w ears t he T ype B h eaddress. A s t he s eal i mpression f rom U ruk a nd t he s eal f rom T ell S uleimeh a re c ontemporary , t hey m ay b e t aken a s r eflecting a g eog raphical p reference f or t he t wo t ypes o f d ivine h eaddress r evealed i n o ther c ontexts ( see p . 7a nd 2 4), t he T ype B h eaddress b eing f avoured

1 6

in the north, the Type A in the south. A regional preference for the Type A headdress in the south may not be ,the only factor governing the type of headdress worn by the divinities on the Stele of the Vultures. This study has revealed that in the Early Dynastic III period, the type of headdress is related to the rank or status of the divinity who. weats it. The Type B headdress is worn by divinities of lower rank or divinised human beings (see p. 9 and 37), while the Type A headdress is worn by divinities whose rank or status is such that they are housed in temples (see p. 28). The inscription on the Stele of the Vultures records not only the military victories of Eanatum, but also an account of the rituals performed in connection with the ratification of the peace terms imposed upon Umma. The divinities on the Stele may be present in their capacity as witnesses to the swearing of the peace oaths. The two divinities whose heads are still partially preserved (Cat. Ref. Nos. DSa and b) could, therefore, represent divinities of the Lagash city pantheon or any of the high gods of the Sumerian pantheon who are invoked by name and, in all but one case, by locati�n, in connection �ith the ratificati�n of the peace oaths, namely,d Enlil of dNippur, Nin-Hursa a of Ke�, Enki of the Apsu (Eridu(?)), Sin of Ur, Utu of Larsa and 8 Ninki. The divinity with weapons rising from behind the shoulders is represented.on the Stele of tne Vultures in �ssociation:with a standard (Cat. Ref. No. DSa). E Sollitrger suggests that, on textual evidence, this divinity could be 0 Utu.* Commenting that in the text "Nin-Girsu promet en reve a Eanatum qu'Utu marchera a sa droite" he observes of this armed divinity ''j'y verrais Utu accompagne d'un porte-�tendard, marcher comme promis". As already demonstrated, any Early Dynastic divinity could be represented with arms rising from the shoulders (see p. 15). The divinity so armed �n the Stele of the Vultures may, there­ fore, be intended to represent Utu.

17

6 .

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS " BUILDING A Z IGGURAT" S CENE

F EATURING

I N

T HE

T he s cene r eferred t o i n t his s tudy a s " Building a Z iggurat" a ppears i n t he g lyptic r epertory o nly a nd o f t he 3 9 e xamples w hich m ay b e q uoted* 4 / a ll t hose o f k nown p rovenance , w ith t wo o r p ossibly t hree e xceptions,* 48 a ppear o n s eals f rom K ish, a nd f rom s ites i n t he D iyala v alley a nd H amrin B asin. T he s cene d epicts t wo f igures, o ne o n e ither s ide o f am ound a nd k ilted f igures w ho a pproach t he m ound e ach w ith a n a rm r aised t o s teady a n o bject b alanced o n h is h ead. T he o bject i s f requently r epresented b y a n u nworked d rill-hole, b ut i n s ome e xamples ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. A 28 a nd A 30), i t c an b e s een t o b e a c ontainer w ith o utward-sloping s ides, t he c ontents h eaped u p i nside. A s m any a s t hree s eated f igures m ay b e s hown i n t he s cene ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 28), a lthough t he c eremony u sually t akes p lace i n t he p resence o f o ne s eated f igure. T he s eated f igure b efore w hom t he a ction t akes p lace m ay b e a d ivinity , b ut t his f igure i s m ore f requently r epresented w ithout a f orm o f h orned h eaddress. O f t he 3 9 k nown e xamples o f t he s cene, o nly 1 0 s how t he c eremony t aking p lace i n t he p resence o f a d ivinity. T here w ould a ppear t o b e n o c orrelation b etween t he p rovenance o f t he s eal a nd t he r epresentation o f t he s eated o fficiant a s a d ivinity, s ince b oth v ariants o f t he s cene o ccur o n s eals f ound a t K ish, K hafajah , T ell A smar a nd T ell S uleimeh. I n c ertain c ases ( e.g . C at. R ef. N os . E l, E 3 a nd E 6), t he t reatment o f t he h air i ndicates t hat t he d ivinity i s f emale a nd t he d ivinity m ay b e i ntended a s ag oddess i n a ll c ases. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 1 0, a ll e xamples o f t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene f eaturing a d ivinity a ppear o n s eals f rom K ish a nd s ites i n t he D iyala v alley a nd H amrin B asin . W here t he t ype o f h eadd ress m ay b e a scertained, t he d ivinity p resent a t t he " Building a Z iggurat" c eremony w ears a T ype B h eaddress e ven w hen a n e laborate m otif i s c ontained b etween t he h orns ( e.g . C at. R ef. N o. E 6) o r w here t he h orns t ake a n u nusual f orm , a s f or i nstance, t he t wo s traight l ines w hich r ise t o f orm a t riangle o n t op o f t he h ead ( Cat. R ef. N o . E 5). T wo o bservations m ay b e m ade o n t he f indings o f t he a nalysis i n T able N o. 1 0 . F irstly, a s eated d ivinity m ay b e r epresented w ith a T ype B h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic I II p eriod o n o bjects o f n orthern p rovenance w hereas t his f orm o f d ivine h eaddress i s n ot u sed f or e nthroned d ivinities i n t he c ontemporary i conography o f t he s outh ( see T able N o. 4 ). S econdly, t he s eated d ivinity i n t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene m ay b e i dentified a s ag oddess i n s ome, i f n ot a ll c ases ( Cat. R ef. N os. E l, E 3 a nd E 6). I n t he n orth , t herefore , t he c oncept o f t he d ivine h ead a s f urnished w ith h orns i s n ot r estricted t o m ale d ivinities o nly, b ut a pplies e qually t o g ods a nd g oddesses. N ot a ll a uthors a gree t hat t he s cene r epresents t he b uilding o f a z iggurat o r e ven a r itual p erformed i n c onnection w ith t he b uilding o f a t emple t ower.* 49 T wo r ecent d iscoveries f rom w idely s eparated s ources, a s eal f rom T ell S uleimeh a nd a d ocument f rom t he p alace a rchives a t E bla/Mardikh, t ogether p rovide e vidence f or a n i nterpretat ion o f t he s o-called " Building a Z iggurat" s cene n ot h itherto c onsidered.

1 8

T he n ewly-discovered s eal f rom T ell S uleimeh, C at. R ef. N o. E 6, s hows a f igure o f as eated d ivinity r epresented i n l arge s cale , w ith a v ersion o f t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene i n t he l ower r egister a nd a b oating s cene i n t he u pper r egister. L . a l-Gailani-Werr i nterprets t he f igure o f t he d ivinity a s t he m ain s ubject o f t he d esign a nd d escribes t he f igure a s a g oddess, h olding a p lant a nd d rinking f rom a t ube, s eated u pon a t hrone " made o f ah uman f igure h oldipg w hat l ooks l ike a b undle o f s traw(?) a nd b ending o ver a h aystack".*'' I n h er v iew , t he s cene r epresents a h arvest f estixal a nd t he s eated d ivinity i s a g oddess, p robably dN inlil, w ife o f ' Enlil, " whose t hrone i s D UKUG , t he " holy m ound", i .e., t he s torage p ile o f g rain a nd w ool". T he e vidence s upports a n a lternative i nterpretation o f t he s cene r epresented o n t his s eal. F irstly, t he d ivinity a ssociated w ith t he " Building a Z iggurat" c eremony i s r epresented e lsewhere e ither h olding a b ranch ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 16 a nd E 4) o r p erforming a d rinking r itual w ith a v essel a nd d rinking t ube ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. A 30 a nd E 3). T here i s, t herefore, n o r eason t o c onsider t he d ivinity i n i solation a nd i n s pite o f t he l arge s cale o f t he f igure, i t m ay b e a ccepted a s r epresenting t he s ame d ivinity w ho p resides a t t he r itual i n o ther v ersions o f t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene. S econdly, t he l imbs o f a ll t he f igures i n t he s cene a re t reated i n a s tylised m anner a lthough t he a rms o f t he f igure l ying p rone o ver t he m ound d iffer i n t heir t reatment f rom t hose o f o ther f igures o n t he s eal. A s hort, v ertical l ine a t a p oint c orresponding t o t he e lbows s uggests t hat t he i ntention w as t o p resent t he p rostrate f igure, n ot a s h olding a b undle o f s traw , a s s uggested b y L . a l-Gailani-Werr, b ut a s a p risoner w ith a rms b ound t ogether a t t he e lbows. T he s tylised r endering o f t he f orearms i s n ot u nlike t he t reatment o f t he f orearms o f a p risoner w ith a rms b ound b ehind h is b ack o n t he E arly D ynastic s tone r elief f rom T ello, C at. R ef. N o. D 6. T hirdly, j udged o n s tyle, t he s eal f rom T ell S uleimeh i s L ate E arly D ynastic o r e ven E arly A kkadian i n d ate. W hile a h uman f igure s erving a s a t hrone f or a s eated d ivinity d oes n ot o ccur e lsewhere i n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, i t d oes a ppear i n t he i conography o f t he A kkadian p eriod. Ad ivinity w earing a h orned h eadd ress e nthroned u pp t wo p rostrate h uman f igures a ppears o n a n A kkadian s eal f rom T ello*'' a nd a d ivinity o n a n A kkadian s eal o f u nknown p rovenance* 5L i s r epresented s eated u pon a p rostrate h uman f igure w hose r obes t ake t he f orm o f am ound. I n b oth t hese c ases, t he d ivinity i s s hown h olding w eapons . O ne d ivinity h olds a f our-headed m ace, t he o ther i s r epresented w ith m aces r ising f rom b ehind h er s houlders a nd h olding a m ultiple-headed m ace i ncorporating t wo s pearheads a nd t hree m ace-heads. T he d ivinities ' a rmament i ndicates t hat i n t he A kkadian p eriod, t he i magery o f h uman f igures s erving a s a d ivine t hrone h as m ilitary c onnotations a nd i s n ot c onnected w ith r ituals a ssociated w ith t he c elebration o f t he h arvest. T he p rone f igure w ith a rms b ound s een o n t he s eal f rom T ell S uleimeh m ay b e a ccepted a s r epresenting t he d efeated e nemy, i n t he s ame w ay t hat t he b ound p risoner b eing c lubbed o n t he h ead o n t he s tone r elief f rom T ello, t he p rone h uman f igures t rampled u nderfoot b y E anatum 's t roops o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures o r b eing r idden d own b y c hariots o n t he S tandard o f U r, r epresent t he v anquished f oe. T his s eal t hus p rovides e vidence t hat t he s o-called " Building a Z iggurat" s cene r epresents a r itual i nvolving a m ound w hich

1 9

i s p erformed, n ot i n c onnection w ith t he c onstruction o f a s acred b uilding, o r t he c elebration o f t he h arvest, b ut i n t he c ontext o f m ilitary v ictory. Al etter w ritten b y E nna-Dagan, E n o f M ari, t o t hp,En o f E bla w as f ound i n t he a rchives o f t he p alace a t E bla/Mardikh .*'' T his l etter c ontains a r ecord o f c ampaigns c onducted b y f our o r p erhaps f ive r ulers o f M ari d escribed a s e ither L ugal o f M ari o r, a s i n t he c ase o f E nnaD agan h imself, E n o f M ari. I n t he c ourse o f o ne o f t hese c ampaigns, I plul-il, L ugal o f M ari i s r ecorded a s r eceiving t he t ribute o f E bla s o i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hese c ampaigns w ere f ought o ver a n a rea o f S yria b etween M ari a nd E bla . T he l etter r efers t o t he h eaping u p o f m ounds a fter s uccessful m ilitary o perations b y t he M ari f orces, i n o ne c ase t he m ound b eing s ituated o n t he b orders o f t he s ubdued d istrict a s i f t o e stablish o r m ark t he t erritorial f rontiers. T he p hrase u sed f or t he h ea l4pg u p o f t he m ound i s d u 6SAR...gar, t he v alue o f S AR b eing u nknown*. I n s ome c ases, as pecific n umber o f s uch m ounds i s m entioned n umbering e ither 2 o r 7 . T his l etter f rom E nna-Dagan , E n o f M ari, p rovides t extual e vidence t hat a t M ari i n t he l ate p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, t here w as a c ustom o f h eaping u p am ound i n c onnection w ith m ilitary s uccesses a nd t he d efence o r d emarkation o f t erritorial b oundaries. C ontemporary n orthern s eals d epict a c eremony i nvolving a m ound w hich , a s p roved b y t he n ewly-discovered s eal f rom T ell S uleimeh , i s p erformed i n c onnect ion w ith m ilitary a ctivities. T he p oints o f s imilarity m ake i t d ifficult t o a rrive a t a ny c onclusion o ther t han t hat t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene i s ag raphic r epresentation o f t he a ct o r c eremony d escribed i n E nna-Dagan 's l etter a s d u 6SAR...gar. T he p ractice o f h eaping u p m ounds i n c onnection w ith m ilitary c ampaigns a nd t he e stablishment o f t erritorial f rontiers a ppears i n r oyal i nscriptions a nd i n t he i conography o f t he s outh i n t he E arly D ynastic I IIb p eriod. T he i nscription o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures r ecords a t E anatum o f L agash d efeated U mma a nd " heaped u p 2 0 m ounds".* "" T he p hrase u sed i n t his i nscription i s s abar-dulT AG 4 ** d ub. A n i nscription o f E ntemena , ag eneration l ater, r e-states t hat E anatum " heaped u p m ounds" a nd r ecords t hat E ntemena , i n t he c ont inuing d ispute w ith U mma, k illed 6 0 r ip o f U mma, a bandoned t heir b ones a nd " heaped u p f ive o f t heir m ounds"* .'" T he s cene o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures s pqwing a m ound o f p rostrate n aked b odies i s t aken b y E . S ollberger* . " a s r epresenting " l'acte r ituel a ccompli ä l a f in d 'une b ataille" e xpressed b y t he p hrase s abar-dul-TAG 4 ..dub. T here a re c ertain c orrelations b etween t he s cene r epresented o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures a nd t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene r epresented o n s eals, w hich m ay b e s et o ut a s f ollows :

2 0

T HE S TELE O F T HE V ULTURES

T HE " BUILDING A Z IGGURAT" S CENE

K ilted f igures c limb o ver a m ound c arrying o n t heir h eads c ontainers w ith a f lat b ase a nd o utward-sloping s ides, t he c ontents h eaped u p i nside.

K ilted f igures a pproach a m ound c arrying o n t heir h eads c ont ainers w ith a f lat b ase a nd o utward-sloping s ides, ge c one nts h eaped u p i nside.* "

Ar ope p asses o ver t hp top t he m ound o f b odies.*''

o f

Ar ope i s i nvolved i n t he s truction Af t he m ound o r o ver

T he m ound i s c omposed p rostrate h uman b odies.

o f

A p rostrate h uman f igure l ying o ver a mA ind s erves a s a d ivine t hrone.*"' T he s cene t akes p lace i n p resence o f ad ivinity.

T he s cene t akes p lace i n t he p resence o f d ivinities, r epresented o n t he o bverse f ace, i f n ot t his f ace o f t he s tele, ( see C at. R ef . N o. D 5).

c onh eld

t he

T he i conographical e vidence i ndicates t hat, i n c ertain r espects, t he r itual d epicted o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures r esembles t he " Building a Z iggurat" c eremony d epicted o n s eals. A s s hown i n T able N o. 1 0, t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene a ppears o n s eals d ated t o E arly D ynastic I I/III ( "ED"), s ome o f w hich m ay b e a s e arly a s E arly D ynastic I I. T his f act, p lus t he p redominately n orthern p rovenance o f s eals w ith v ersions o f t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene, s uggests t hat t he c ustom o f b uilding o r p lacing m ounds a fter a s uccessful b attle o riginated i n t hese a reas. E anatum c ould h ave e ncountered t he c ustom d uring h is c ampaign i nto t he M iddle E uphrates a rea d uring wgch h e d efeated M ari, a n e vent, r ecorded i n o ne o f h is i nscriptions,* " w hich p robably t ook p lace e arly i n h is r eign. L ater i n h is r eign , E anatum " heaps u p m ounds" a fter s uccessful b attles d uring t he c ourse o f h is f rontier d ispute w ith U mma . A s t he s cene o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures s hows, a t L agash , t he b odies o f t he f allen e nemy a re i ncorporated i nto t he m ound h eaped u p a fter t he b attle. I n t his r espect, t he r itual a ssociated w ith t he " heaping u p o f m ounds" p erformed i n t he s outh d iffers f rom t he c omp arable c eremony e nacted a fter a s uccessful b attle i n t he n orth. T here i s n o i ndication o f h uman b odies i ncorporated i nto t he m ounds i n a ny " Building a Z iggurat" s cenes r epresented o n E arly D ynastic I I/III s eals f rom K ish o r f rom s ites i n t he D iyala v alley a nd H amrin B asin. T he i mage o f t he p rostrate b ody o f a b ound p risoner l ying o ver a m ound a nd s erving a s a t hrone f or a d ivinity d oes n ot a ppear i n t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene u ntil t he c lose o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod o r t he b eginning o f t he A kkadian p eriod. T he d ivinity i n t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene i s r epresented i n e very c ase w ith a T ype B h eaddress, w hereas t he t wo d ivinities o n t he S tele o f t he V ultures b oth w ear T ype A h eaddresses. O n p resent e vidence ( see p . 1 8), t his w ould a ppear t o r eflect a g eographical d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes o f d ivine h eaddress, t he T ype A b eing f avoured i n t he s outh , t he T ype B i n t he n orth. H owever , t he

2 1

d ivinities o n t he S tele m ay h ave b een p resent i n t heir c apacity a s w itnesses t o t he p eace t reaty o aths a nd t heir r ole a t t he " heaping u p a m ound" c eremony d epicted o n t he m onument m ay n ot h ave b een t he s ame a s t hat o f t he d ivinity w ho p resides a t t he " Building a Z iggurat" c eremony d epicted o n t he n orthern s eals. A s a lready s uggested ( see p . 1 7), a n a lternative e xplanation c ould b e t hat t he c hoice o f h eaddress w as g overned b y t he s tatus o f t he w earer, t he T ype A h eaddress b eing w orn b y d ivinities o f o nly t he h ighest r ank i n t he S umerian p antheon.

2 2

7 .

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS I N S CENES W ORSHIPPERS

F EATURING

I n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, s cenes i n w hich h uman w orshippers a re r epresented i n t he p resence o f a d ivinity m ay b e d ivided i nto f our g roups: 1 .

H uman w orshippers i n a ttitudes o f d evotion o r p rayer w ith o ne a rm r aised o r ah and o utstretched, a dvancing i nto t he p resence o f a s eated d ivinity. T he w orshipper i s p resented a s i f h e i s s eeking o r h as b een g ranted a n a udience w ith t he d ivinity, a g enre w hich b ecomes c haracteristic o f s cenes o f w orship i n M esopotamian i conography i n l ater p eriods.

2 .

H uman w orshippers s tanding i n f ront o f, o r a dvancing t owards, a d ivinity i n s cenes o f c ultic r itual. I n t hese s cenes, t he a ct o f h uman w orship w ould a ppear t o b e a s econdary a nd n ot t he p rimary s ubject o f t he c omposition.

3 .

H uman f igures i n a ttitudes o f w orship s tanding b ehind t he d ivinity s o t hat t heir p resence i n t he s cene w ould a ppear t o b e t hat o f a ttendants r ather t han w orshippers . H ere a gain, t he a ct o f w orship w ould n ot a ppear t o b e t he p rimary s ubject o f t he s cene.

4 .

H uman w orshippers a dvancing i nto t he d ivine p resence a nimal o ffering i n t he f orm o f a l amb o r ak id.

c arrying

a n

I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here i s o nly o ne e xample o f a s cene i n w hich t he a ct o f w orship a nd s upplicat ion c onstitutes t he p rincipal s ubject o f t he c omposition ( Group 1 a bove). T his a ppears o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 6) w hich, a lthough i t i s d ifficult t o d ate, i s p robably t o b e a ssigned o n s tylistic g rounds t o l ate i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t his s cene, t hree h uman f igures a pproach a s eated d ivinity, t he l eading f igure w ith a n a rm o utstretched a s i f i n s upplication, t he t wo f ollowi ng f igures r epresented w ith a rm r aised i n t he c onventional a ttitude o f w orship. H uman w orshippers a re r epresented i n s cenes d epicting a cts o f r itual p erformed i n t he p resence o f a d ivinity o r c ultic r ituals i n w hich t he d ivinity p articipates ( Group 2 a bove). W orshippers s tanding w ith h ands c lasped b efore a d ivinity a ppear i n t wo l ibation s cenes o f E arly D ynastic I IIb d ate, o ne o n av otive p laque f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 4), t he o ther o n a s eal f rom U mma ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 6). W orshippers w ith o ne a rm r aised a pproaching o r s tanding i n f ront o f ad ivinity w ho p articipates i n a c ultic r itual a re r epresented o n t hree s eals, a ll o f w hich a re d ifficult t o d ate c losely b ut m ay b e a ssigned t o E arly D ynastic O ne o ccurs o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 5) w here w orshippers a dvance t owards a d eity w ho a ppears t o e nact o r t o e mbody a r itual, p ossibly i n c onnection w ith t he g rain h arvest. T he s econd o ccurs o n a s eal f rom T ell A smar ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 4) w here a w orshipper w ith a rm r aised s tands b efore a d ivinity w ho p articipates i n ar itual d rinking c eremony. T he t hird o ccurs o n a s eal f rom M ari ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 8) w here h uman w orshippers a re r epresented i n t he p resence o f ad ivinity w ho i s e ngaged i n a n a ct o f r itual s eated b efore a n a ltar.

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H uman f igures i n a ttitudes o f w orship r epresented a s i f t hey w ere i n a ttendance u pon a d ivinity ( Group 3 a bove) a ppear i n m ore t han o ne c ontext. A s cene s howing a w orshipper w ith o ne a rm r aised, s tanding b ehind t wo f igures, o ne o f w hom w ears a d ivine h eaddress, o ccurs o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 4). O n a s eal f rom K ish ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 8) t wo w orshippers, o ne w ith h ands c lasped, t he o ther w ith o ne a rm r aised, s tand b ehind t wo d ivinities a s i f i n a ttendance d uring t he p erformance o f a n a ct o f d ivine r itual. A nother s eal f rom K ish ( Cat. R ef. N o. A l) s hows t wo w orshippers w ith a rm r aised f ollowing t he b oatgod w ho i n t his s cene c arries a d ivine p assenger, p erhaps a g oddess. A s eal i mpression f rom F ara ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 7) i s i ncomplete, b ut t he w orshipper i n t his s cene i s p robably a lso r epresented i n t he r ole o f a ttendant a t s ome c ultic c eremony p ossibly i ntended t o r epresent t he m ystical a ffinity b etween a nimals a nd t he d ivine w orld. I n a ll t hese c ases, t he s eal o r s eal i mpression c annot b e d ated c losely b ut m ay b e o f e ither E arly D ynastic I I o r E arly D ynastic I II d ate. T wo s cenes o n s eals w hich m ay b e E arly A kkadian i n d ate f eature h uman w orshippers r epresented a s i f s tanding i n a ttendance u pon a d ivinity, o ne i n a s cene o f p resentation ( Cat. R ef. N o. H 2), t he o ther i n a s cene i n w hich t he d ivinity i s e ngaged i n c ombat w ith a h orned h ero ( Cat. R ef. N o. C 2). W orshippers c arrying a nimal o fferings i n t he f orm o f a l amb o r k id o ccur f requently o n s eals a nd v otive p laques o f E arly D ynastic d ate. T here a re, h owever, o nly t hree s cenes i n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t his s tudy, i n w hich t he f igure o f a n o ffering b earer a ppears i n t he p resence o f a d ivinity ( Group 4 a bove). T hese o ccur o n s eals o f u nknown p rovenance, a lthough o ne ( Cat. R ef. N o. F l) m ay h ave c ome f rom T ello.* 63 A ll t hree s eals ( Cat. R ef. N os. F l, F 2 a nd F 3) a re t o b e d ated t o t he e nd o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod o r m ay b e E arly A kkadian i n d ate. A p arallel f or t he d istinctive m otif w hich m ay b e i nterpreted a s a c ult v essel i n a nthropomorphic f orm i n t he o ffering s cene i n C at. R ef. N o. F l a ppears i n a s imilar s cene f eaturing a n o ffeE pg b earer o n a v otive p laque o f E arly A kkadian d ate f ound a t N ippur.* °' 4 T he a nalysis o f t he h eaddresses w orn b y d ivinities i n s cenes f eaturing w orshippers a nd o ffering b earers s et o ut i n T ables N o. 1 1 a nd 1 2 s hows a m arked d ifference i n t he r egional d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes o f d ivine h eaddress. A ll s ix e xamples o f t he T ype B h eaddress o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance c ome f rom K ish, T ell A smar a nd M ari a nd n o e xample o f t he T ype B h eaddress a ppears o n a ny o bject o f s outhern p rovenance. O f t he t hree T ype A h eaddresses o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance, t wo c ome f rom t he s outh ( Ur a nd U mma) a nd o ne a ppears o n a s eal f rom T ell A grab w hich m ay n ot b e E arly D ynastic b ut E arly A kkadian i n d ate. O n t his e vidence, i t c an b e s aid t hat i n s cenes f eaturing h uman w orshippers i n t he E arly D ynastic I I-III p eriod, d ivinities i n t he n orth a nd n orth-west a re r epresented w ith T ype B h eaddresses w hile d ivinities i n t he s outh a re r epresented w ith T ype A h eaddresses.

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8 .

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F A TTITUDES O F W ORSHIP O R P RAYER

D IVINE

H EADDRESS

R EPRESENTED

I n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, d ivinities i n a ttitudes o f o r p rayer a re f eatured i n t he f ollowing c ontexts:

I N

w orship

1 .

I n s cenes w here a d ivinity w ith h ands c lasped t ogether t owards o r s tands i n t he p resence o f a s uperior d ivinity.

a dvances

2 .

I n a s cene o f p resentation w here t he d ivinity w ho i s r aises o ne a rm i n a g esture o f w orship o r s ubmission.

p resented

3 .

A s a s ingle f igure s tanding w ith h ands c lasped r egisters o f a s pacer p anel o n a s eal.

4 .

D ivinities w ith h ands c lasped i n p rayer r epresented i n t he f orm f oundation f igurines.

i n

o ne

o f

t wo

o f

A s cene o n a s eal i mpression f rom K ish ( Cat. R ef. N o. C l) s hows a d ivinity w ith h ands c lasped, s tanding b ehind t he f igure o f a n e nthroned d ivinity ( Group ( 1) a bove). As eal i mpression o n a t ablet o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 9) f eaturing t hree d ivinities , t wo p rocess ing t o t he r ight a nd o ne t o t he l eft, w ould a lso a ppear t o b elong t o G roup ( 1). T he i nscription o n t he s e , w hich i s n ot i ncluded i n t be p gblished d rawing o f t he i mpression*, u 3 r eads d N IN-URTA E NSI N IBRU ki , "uN in-Urta, E nsi o f N ippur". T his s uggests t hat t he s eal i s t he p roperty o f t he g od , t hat i s, a n o fficial s eal o f t he N inurta T emple a t N ippur. T he d ivinities o n t his s eal a re v i§ualised a s p raying o r p ayi ng h omage t o a s uperior d eity , p resumably uN inurta w ho i s n amed i n t he i nscription a s t he o wner o f t he s eal. A g oddess w ith o ne a rm r aised a ppears i n a s cene o f p resentation ( Group ( 2) a bove) o n a n e ngraved s hell p laque f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. H lb). T he g oddess b eing p resented r aises o ne a rm , w hich i n t his c ontext, m ay b e i nterpreted a s a g esture o f e ither w orship o r s ubmiss ion. T he d ivinity s tanding w ith h ands c lasped i n p rayer r epresented i n o ne o f t wo r egisters o f a s pacer p anel o n a s eal ( Group ( 3) a bove) m ay b e a g od ( Cat. R ef. N os. L i, L 2 a nd L 4) o r ag oddess ( Cat. R ef. N o . G 5b). T he b oatgod a lso a ppears i n t he l ower r egister o f a s pacer p anel ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 15), b ut t he s urface o f t he s eal i s t oo d amaged t o a scertain w hether t he b oatgod o r h is p assenger i s r epresented w ith h ands c lasped. I n t hree c ases ( Cat. R ef. N os. G 5, L i a nd L 4) t he u pper r egister o f t he p anel i s b lank, b eing p resumably r eserved f or t he n ame o f t he p rospective o wner o f t he s eal. T he r ole p layed b y ad ivinity r epresented w ith o ne a rm r aised o r w ith h ands c lasped t ogether i s n ot t he s ame i n e very c ase. E arly D ynastic d ivinities r epresented i n a ttitudes o f w orship o r p rayer f all i nto t wo s eparate c ategories . I n o ne c ategory, t he d ivinity p erforms a cts o f h omage o r p rayer l ike a h uman w orshipper; i n t he o ther, t he d ivinity p rays o n b ehalf o f ah uman s upplicant. D ivinities i n G roups ( 1) a nd ( 2) a bove , p lay a r ole s imilar t o t hat o f h uman w orshippers r epresented i n c omparable s cenes e lsewhere. F or e xample, t he d ivinity s tanding i n a ttendance b ehind a n e nthroned d ivinity ( Cat. R ef. N o. C lb) h as a c ounterpart i n t he h uman f igure, a lso s hown w ith h ands c lasped, s tanding b ehind a n e nthroned d ivinity i n C at. R ef. N o. F 8a). T he

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d ivinity b eing l ed i nto t he p resence o f a s uperior d ivinity, C at. R ef. N o. H lb, i s r epresented w ith o ne a rm r aised l ike t he h uman f igure b eing p resented t o a n e nthroned d ivinity i n C at. R ef. N o. H 2. B y c ontrast, t he f unction o f d ivinities r epresented i n t he f orm o f f oundation f igurines i s t hat o f ad ivine i ntermediary. I nscriptions o n t he f oundation f igurines o f E nanatum I a nd E ntemena o f L agash , o r o n t ablets a ssociated w it ! gt hem ( Cat. R ef. N os . N i, N 2 a nd N 5-N7) i dentify t he g od p ortrayed a s uS hulutula , t he p ersonal g od, n ot o nly o f t hese t wo r ulers, b ut o f a ll t he r ulers o f t he L agash d ynasty. T he i nscript ion a ssociated w ith t he f oundation f igurines o f E nanatum I s tates t hat t he f igurine w as p laced i n p osition b y t he r oyal b uilder s o t hat " his g od dS hulutula m ight,pray f or e ver t o I nanna i n t he I bgal f or t he w ellb eing o f E nanatum . ou A s d ivine i ntercessor o n b ehalf o f t he r uler, t he g od i s p ortrayed w ith h ands c lasped t ogether i n p rayer. T he d ivinities r epresented i n s imilar a ttitudes o f p rayer i n t he l ower r egister o f s pacer p anels ( Group ( 3) a bove) w ould a ppear t o s erve a s imilar p urpose o f i ntercession f or t he o wner o f t he s eal w hose n ame w ould a ppear i n t he b lank r egister a bove. A s a ll o bjects f eaturing d ivinities i n t his c ontext a re E arly D ynastic I IIb o r E arly A kkadian i n d ate ( see T able N o. 1 9), t he c oncept o f ad ivinity w ho c ould a ct a s i ntercessor o n b ehalf o f ah uman b eing w ould a ppear t o h ave b een f ormulated i n t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I t h as a lready b een d emonstrated t hat s cenes i n w hich h uman w orshippers m ake a d irect a ppeal t o a d ivinity b y p rayer o r s upplication a lso a ppear f or t he f irst t ime i n t he i conography o f t he l ate E arly D ynastic p eriod ( see p . 2 3), s o t hat t he t wo c oncepts w ould a ppear t o h ave d eveloped c ontemporaneously. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 1 3, d ivinities r epresented i n a n a ttitude o f w orship o r p rayer o ccur m ost f requently o n o bjects o f s outhern o rigin, o nly o ne e xample a ppearing o n a s eal i mpression f rom K ish. T he a nalysis a lso s hows t hat t he T ype B h eaddress i s w orn b y d ivinities i n t he f orm o f f oundation f igures o nly. T he d istribution a nd c hronology o f f oundation p eg d eposits w ith t he t op i n t he f orm o f ah orned d ivinity i s d iscussed l ater ( see p . 3 6). H ere i t m ay b e n oted t hat d ivinities i n t he f orm o f f oundation f igurines f rom T ello a nd A l H iba a re f urnished w ith h eaddresses o f T ype B a t a t ime w hen a t b oth c entres, t he T ype A h eaddress i s w orn b y d ivinities r epresented i n o ther c ontexts a nd i n o ther m edia. I t h as a lready b een s uggested t hat t he T ype B h eaddress m ay b e a ssociated w ith d ivinised k ings a nd h er9es ( see p p. 9 a nd 1 3). T he p ossibility t hat a p ersonal g od, s uch a s uS hulutula , b elongs t o t his c ategory o f d ivine b eings i s e xamined o n p . 3 7ff.

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9 .

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS F EATURING I N L IBATION S CENES

S cenes o f a l ibation r itual p erformed i n t he p resence o f a d ivinity a re p reserved i n t he m onumental m edium o f s tone r eliefs a nd o n s eals o f a h igh t echnical s tandard, s uggesting t hat t he l ibation c eremony w as p erformed i n c onnection w ith t he c elebration o f e vents o f m ore t han c om ppplace s ignificance. O n t he S tele o f t he V ultures ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 5)*"' t he l ibation c eremony i s a ssociated w ith a n i nscription r ecording t he r ituals p erformed i n c onnection w ith t he r atification o f t he t erms o f t he p eace t reaty i mposed b y E anatum a fter h is d efeat o f U mma. T he i nscription o n t he v otive p laque f rom N ippur ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 3) m ay, i ndirectly, s uggest am ilitary c ognection a s i t r eads, " Dedication o f U r-Enlil, t he g reat f ighter, t o uN inni-edin". I n o ther c ases, t he o ccasion f or t he e nactment o f t he l ibation c eremony i s n ot e xplicit. T he d ecoration o f t he v essel i nto w hich t he l ibation i s p oured ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. G 2 a nd G 5) s uggests t hat t he c eremony m ay b e c onnected w ith v egetal f ertility i n s ome c ases. T he l ibation c eremony i s p erformed b y a n o fficiant b efore t he d ivinity w ho i s e nthroned a nd t akes n o a ctive p art i n t he r itual. T he o fficiant m ay b e r obed ( Cat. R ef. N os. G 5 a nd G 6) o r r epresented i n a s tate o f r itual n udity b y w hich h e m ay b e r ecognised a s ap riest ( Cat. R ef. N os. G 1-G4). T he a ct o f p ouring t he l ibation m ay b e r epresented ( Cat. R ef. N os. G 2 a nd G 4) o r t he r itual m ay b e r epresented s ymbolically b y t he p resence o f t he p riest h olding u p a s pouted l ibation v essel ( Cat. R ef. N os. C l, G 3 a nd G 6). L ibation r ituals a re p erformed b efore e nthroned g ods ( Cat. R ef. N os. G l, G 3a a nd b , G 4, G 5a a nd G 6) a nd a n e nthroned g oddess ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 2). O n t he s eal f rom U mma ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 6), t he d ivinity i s r epresented e nthroned b efore a t emple f acade o r d oorway. T he v otive p laque f rom U r ( Cat . R ef. N o. G 4) i s d ivided i nto t wo r egisters. T he s cene i n t he u pper r egister s hows a l ibation c eremony p erformed b efore a s eated d ivinity, w hile i n t he l ower r egister a s imilar l ibation c eremony i s d epicted t aking p lace b efore a t emple d oorway. O n a s eal i mpression f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 7) a l ibation i s p oured b efore a s eated f igure w hose h eaddress h as s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f a c ontemporary f eminine s tyle o f h airdressing. T wo n aked p riests a ppear b ehind t he s eated f igure, h olding b etween t hem a n o bject d isplaying t he f eatures o f a t emple f acade w hich i s p resumably a t emple c ult o bject. T he s eated f igure i n t his s cene i s p robably i ntended t o r epresent n ot a d ivinity b ut a p riestess o f t he t emple s erving a s d ivine s urrogate. S cenes d epicting a l ibation c eremony p erformed b efore a n e nthroned d ivinity f irst a ppear i n t he i conography i n t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 1 4, i n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, a ll e xamples o f t he l ibation c eremony p erformed i n t he p resence o f a d ivinity a re o f E arly D ynastic I IIb d ate a nd a ll e xamples o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance a re o f s outhern o rigin ( Ur, U mma , T ello a nd N ippur). I n e very c ase , t he d ivinity w ears a T ype A h eaddress. O n t he b asis o f t he e vidence r evealed b y t his a nalysis , c ertain o bservations c an b e m ade. F ive o f t he s even v ersions o f t he l ibation r itual a ppear o n v otive p laques a nd a s tele, b ut a s t he c eremony a lso

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o ccurs o n s eals ( Cat. R ef. N os. G 5 a nd G 6), t he c onsistent u se o f t he T ype A h eaddress c annot b e e xplained i n t erms o f t he m edia a lone. T he g eographical d istribution m ay b e i nterpreted a s r eflecting a p reference f or t he T ype A h eaddress i n t he s outh d uring t he E arly D ynastic I IIb p eriod. O n t he o ther h and, t he a bsence o f a ny o bject o f k nown n orthern p rovenance m ay b e i nterpreted a s i ndicating t hat t he l ibation c eremony w as n ot f avoured a s a s ubject i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography i n t he n orth. A s t he p resence o f t he t emple f acade m otif i ndicates t hat t he l ibation c eremony w as a t emple r itual, t he d ivine f igure b efore w hom t he l ibation i s p oured m ay b e p resumed t o b e t he d ivinity t o w hom t he t emple b elongs. W here t he c eremony i s p erformed i n t he p resence o f a d ivinity, t he h eaddress w orn b y t he d ivine f igure i s a lways T ype A , s o t hat i t m ay b e i nferred t hat, d uring t he E arly D ynastic I IIb p eriod, i n t he s outh, d ivinities w ho w ere h oused i n t emples w ere v isualised i n f ully h uman f orm .

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1 0.

D IVINITIES W EARING P RESENTATION S CENES

A

F ORM

O F

D IVINE

H EADDRESS

F EATURING

I N

T here a re t wo s cenes o f p resentation i n t he E arly D ynastic m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy. T he e arlier e xample o ccurs o n a n e ngraved s hell p laque f rom U r o f E arly D ynastic I IIb d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. H 1). T he s econd e xample o ccurs o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef. N o. H 2) d ated t o t he l ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian p eriod. T he e arlier o f t he t wo s cenes d iffers f rom p resentation s cenes w hich b ecome c haracteristic o f t he i conography o f t he 2 nd m illennium i n t hat i t d epicts, n ot t he p resentation o f a h uman b eing, b ut t he p resentation o f o ne g oddess b y a nother. T he p resenting g oddess g rasps t he a rm o f t he g oddess s he i s p resenting i n ag esture n ot u nlike t hat o f t he L ama g oddess w ho p resents a h uman b eing t o a n e nthroned d ivinity i n p resentation s cenes i n t he O ld B abylonian p eriod. T his s hell e ngraving f rom U r s hows t hat t he c oncept o f a d ivine p resenter w ho a cts a s a n i ntermediary g oes b ack t o t he E arly D ynastic I IIb p eriod, a lthough t he c ircumstances a nd t he m otivation o f t he p resentation c learly d iffer i n t he e arly a nd l ater v ersions o f t he s cene. T he h eaddresses w orn b y t he d ivinities i n t his E arly D ynastic p resentation s cene a re s imilar i n t heir b asic c onstruction , b ut s how a n i nteresting d ifference i n d etail. T he t wo h eaddresses a re b oth o f T ype A a nd h ave a c entral f eature c onsisting o f a t urret f lanked b y s ingle s prigs. B ut w hile t he t urret i n h eaddress ( a) h as c oncave s ides a nd i s o pen a t t he t op, t he t urret o f h eaddress ( b) h as s traight s ides a nd i s s urmounted b y a c rescent. D ivine h eaddresses l ike h eaddress ( a), f eaturing a t urret w ith c oncave s ides a nd f lanked b y s ingle s prigs o ccur o n a v otive p laque f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 2) a nd o n a f ragment o f a s tone r elief f rom N ippur ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 1), w here t he t urret, l ike h eaddress ( a) i s o pen a t t he t op. N o d irect p arallel, h owever, c an b e f ound f or h eaddress ( b). D ivine h eaddresses w ith a c entral f eature c onsisting o f a c rescent m ounted o n a s tem a ppear o n o bjects f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N os. D 3, G 4 a nd K 1), b ut i n n o c ase i s t he c entral f eature f lanked b y s prigs. D ivine h eaddresses w ith a c entral f eature c onsisting o f a t urret w ith f acial f eatures s urmounted b y a c rescent a nd f lanked b y p airs o f f eathers ( i.e., w ith t he m id-rib t apering t owards t he t op), a ppear o n o bjects f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N os . D 5a a nd b , K 2). I n t hese h eaddresses, t he f acial f eatures o n t he t urret a nd t he f eathers m ay b e i nterpreted a g a s tylized r epresentation o f t he l ion-headed I mdugud b ird, e mblem o f uN ingirsu , t utelary g od o f L agash.*"' I n v iew o f t he s imilarity i n s ome o f t heir d etail, t he h eaddresses o f t he t wo g oddesses o n t he U r s hell e ngraving m ay b oth b e i ntended t o r epresent v ariants o f t he I mdugud c rown o f L agash. B ut, i n t he a bsence o f a ny d irect c omparison, t his i s n ot c ertain i n t he c ase o f h eaddress ( b), ( i.e., t he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess b eing p resented). T he d ifference b etween t he t wo h eaddresses o n t he s hell e ngraving w ould a ppear t o b e i ntentional, a lthough t he s ignificance o f t his d ifference , i n t he s pecific c ontext o f a p resentation s cene, i s o bscure. S cenes o f p resentation c haracteristic o f l ater p eriods s how t he i ntroduction o f ah uman b eing b y a d ivinity i nto t he p resence o f a n

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e nthroned d eity. T his v ersion o f t he s cene i s f oreshadowed o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance o f l ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. H 2). I n t his s cene, t he s eated d eity h olds a l ongs hafted s pear, s o t hat t he o ccasion o f t he p resentation m ay b e c onnected w ith v ictory i n w ar. T he h air o f t he h uman f igure b eing p resented i s e laborately d ressed a t t he b ack o f t he h ead i n a m anner s uggestive o f t he R oyal b un. T he t ype o f h eaddress w orn b y t he p resenting d ivinity i s, u nfortunately, u ncertain . I t i s, t herefore, n ot p ossible t o s ay w hether i n t he l ate E arly D ynastic p eriod, t he p resenting d ivinity i s v isualised i n f ull xh uman f orm , o r w hether, l ike t he p ersonal g ods o f c ity r ulers s uch a s ' Shulutula , w ho f ulfil a c omp arable r ole o f i ntercession ( see p . 2 6), t he p resenting d ivinity i s v isualised w ith a h orned h ead.

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1 1.

D IVINITIES W EARING C ULTIC R ITUALS

AF ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS

P ARTICIPATING

I n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, d ivinities r epresented a s a ctive p articipants i n t he f ollowing r ituals: 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 )

I N

a re

D rinking w ith a t ube a nd v essel. D rinking w ith a c onical b owl. R itual f easting. R ituals p erformed a t a n a ltar o r t able.

T he d ivine p articipation i n ar itual m ay c onstitute t he m ain s ubject o f t he c omposition o r m ay a ppear a s a s econdary m otif i n t he s cene. F or e xample , w hile b oth f orms o f d rinking r itual a re t he m ain s ubject o f t he s cene i n C at. R ef. N os. J 2, J 3 a nd J 4, t he r itual o f d rinking w ith a t ube a nd v essel i s p erformed b y t he d ivinity w ho p resides a t t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene i n C at. R ef. N os. A 30c, E 3 a nd E 6 , a nd a d ivinity h olding a c onical b owl a ppears i n a s cene s ymbolising t he c elebration o f am ilitary v ictory i n C at. R ef. N o. D 6. T he l iquid d runk f rom a v ase b y m eans o f a t ube c an b e i dentified a s a t ype o f b eer. I n t heir t reatise o n b eer a nd b rewing t echniques i n a ncient M esopotamia , L .F . H artman a nd A .L . O ppenheim s tate t hat i n t he 3 rd m illennium t here i s e vidence o f " a s pecific t echnique o f b rewing w hich y ielded a b eer t o b e d runk o nly b y m eans o f a r eed o r t ube t o p revent t he h ulls o f t he m alted b arley f rom s poiling t he p leasure o f t he d rinker" a nd t hat t his p articular t echnique o f b rewing " was n ative i n t he ( mountain) r egions t o t he n orth nst o f M esopotamia a s i t i s w ell a ttested f or A sia M inor, S yria , e tc."* " A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 1 6a , s cenes i n w hich a d ivinity p articipates i n t his f orm o f d rinking r itual ( Group ( 1) a bove), a ppear o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance f rom t he n orth o nly ( Ishchali a nd T ell S uleimeh). W hile t his t ype 0 o f d rinking e quipment i s r epresented i n t he i conography o f t he s outh*, / d rinking b y m eans o f at ube f rom a v essel a s a r itual a ct p erformed b y a d ivinity w ould a ppear t o h ave i ts o rigins i n t he n orth o r n orthwest. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 1 6b, s cenes i n w hich a d ivinity i s p ortrayed h olding a c onical b owl ( Group ( 2) a bove), a ppear i n t he i conography o f t he n orth a nd t he s outh f rom E arly D ynastic I I t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod. E xamples a ppear o n a s tone r elief f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6) a nd o n a s eal w hich m ay h ave c ome f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. F l) a nd o n s eals f rom T ell A smar a nd F ara ( Cat. R ef. N os. J 4 a nd J 6). T he c onical b owl i s h eld b y t he d ivinity s o t hat t he b ase r ests i n t he p alm o f t he h and. T he b owl m ay b e t ilted t owards t he m outh ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 3) b ut i s m ore f requently h eld u p i n f ront o f t he f ace ( Cat. R ef. N os. D 6, F l, J 4 a nd J 6). T here i s o nly i ndirect e vidence t o i ndicate w hat w as c ontained i n t he b owl a nd t he c ontents m ay n ot h ave b een t he s ame i n a ll c ases. W here a n a ttendant h olding a g oblet s tands b efore t he d ivinity ( Cat. R ef. N os. J 4 a nd J 5) o r w here a s pouted j ar i s f eatured i n t he s cene ( Cat. R ef. N os . F l a nd J 3), i t m ay b e p resumed t hat t he b owl c ontained a l iquid. O n t he e vidence o f ad rinking s cene o n a v otive p laque f rom K hafajah ,* 7 1 t his l iquid c ould b e b eer. I n t he

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u pper r egister o f t his v otive p laque, t wo f igures, o ne m ale a nd o ne f emale, a re s eated f ace t o f ace, e ach h olding a c onical b owl. I n t he r egister b elow , a l arge c ontainer w ith a p ointed b ase i s c arried s uspended f rom a p ole w hich r ests o n t he s houlders o f t wo b earers. I n M esopotamia i n t he 3 rd m illennium , av es 1 w ith a p ointed b ase i s t he c haracteristic e quipment o f t he b rewer*'' s o t hat t his v essel m ay b e i dentified a s a b rewer's v at. T he l iquid d runk b y t he p articipants a t t his c eremony m ay b e a ssumed t herefore t o b e b eer a nd b y e xtension , t he c onical b owls h eld b y d ivinities i n o ther d rinking r ituals ( e.g. C at. R ef. N o. J 3) c ould a lso h ave c ontained b eer. T he l iquid m ay n ot, h owever, h ave b een b eer i n a ll c ases. T he f igure o f a r ampant s heep b etween t wo s eated c elebrants i n a d rinking r itual, o ne o f w hom m ay b e ad ivinity, o n as eal f rom F ara ( Cat . R ef. N o. J 6) c ould i ndicate t he n ature o f t he l iquid c ontained i n t he c onical b owls. I n c ertain c ircumstances, p erhaps l imited t o t he s heepr earing a reas o f t he s outh o nly, t he l iquid m ay b e e we 's m ilk a nd t he d rinking r itual m ay h ave b een p erformed i n c elebration o f s ome p oint i n t he y early c ycle o f a nimal h usbandry. A rchaeological e vidence f rom A bu S alabikh t aken t ogether w ith t extual e vidence f rom U r c an b e i nterpreted a s i ndicating t hat t he c ontents o f t he c onical b owl m ay n ot a lways b e a l iquid b ut i n s ome c ases c ould h ave b een s olid f ood. A n e laborately f urnished g rave a t A bu S alabikh ( Grave N o . 1 ), d ated n ot l ater t han E arly D ynastic 4Ia , w as i dentified b y N . P ostgate a s t he b urial o f a n e ntu-priestess .* " A c onspicuous f eature o f t he g rave g oods w ere 12 c onical b owls w hich h ad b een d eposited i n v arious p arts o f t he g rave a nd " all o ver t he a rea o f t he g rave o ccupied b y t he s keleton...placed e ither s ingly o r i n s tacks o f u p t o f ive, p redominantly u pside d own". T extual e vidence o f t he I sin-Larsa p eriod t estifies t o o fferings o f b utter, c heese a nd d ates m ade t o t wo d eceased e ntu-prieste ees " in t he p lace o f l ibation ( ki a -nag) w ithin t he G iparu a t Ur.* "4 T he b owls d eposited o ver t he b ody o f t he e ntu-priestess a t A bu S alabikh c ould t herefore h ave c ont ained d rink c onsumed b y t he m ourners d uring t he f unerary c eremonies , b ut, o n t he e vidence o f t he l ater t exts f rom U r, i t i s m ore p robable t hat t he b owls c ontained f ood a nd d rink o fferings t o t he d ead p riestess. A fter t he c ompletion o f t he a ppropriate l ibation o r o f r ituals, t he e mpty b owls w ere t hen d eposited u pside d own i n t he g rave. T he c onclusions t o b e d rawn f rom t he e vidence p rovided b y t his g rave o f a n e ntu-priestess a t A bu S alabikh a re o f p articular r elevance t o t he i nterpretation o f s cenes i n w hich a d ivinity i s r epresented h olding u p a c onical b owl i n f ront o f t he f ace. T hese c onclusions m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows: a )

T he c ontents o f t he b owl c ould h ave b een e ither a l iquid s ome f orm o f s olid f ood s uch a s b utter, c heese o r d ates.

b )

S cenes i n w hich a g od o r ag oddess i s r epresented h olding a c onical b owl m ay b e i ntended t o d epict t hese d ivinities i n t he a ct o f c onsuming t he f ood o r d rink p rovided f or t hem i n t he c ourse o f a n o ffering r itual.

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o r

W ith r egard t o ( b) a bove, i t m ay b e n oted t hat l ibation s cenes i n w hich a l iquid i s p oured f rom a s pouted v essel b y a p riest s tanding b efore a s eated d ivinity a ppear i n t he i conography o f t he s outh i n E arly D ynastic Il lb o nly ( see p . 2 7), b ut o nly o ne s cene i n w hich a d ivinity i s s hown h olding a c onical b owl c an b e d ated t o l ater t han E arly D ynastic I IIa. O ne o f t he m ain f unctions o f t he e ntu-priestess i n t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd m illennium w as t o p articipate i n t he s acred m arri4ge r ites a t w hich s he a ssumed t he r ole o f t he h uman w ife o f t he g od.* " A s c onical b owls f eature c onspicuously i n t he f unerary r ites o f t he e ntu-priestess a t A bu S alabikh, i t i s p ossible t hat b owls o f t his p articular t ype w ere u sed a t r ituals e nacted i n c onnection w ith t he s acred m arriage f estival. S cenes d epicting a m ale a nd f emale f igure s eated f ace t o f ace, i n w hich t he f emale f igure, i f n ot b oth f igures, h old c onical b owls a s i n t he s eal f rom F ara ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 6), m ay t herefore r epresent n ot a d rinking r itual p er s e, b ut a r itual p erformed i n t he c ourse o f t he a nnual c elebration o f t he s acred m arriage. S cenes o f f easting, p ossibly o f ar itual n ature, a t w hich h uman b eings a re p resent, o ccur o n s eals o f E arly D ynastic d ate, b ut i n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here i s o nly o ne s cene i n w hich d ivinities a re r epresented a t a f east ( Group ( 3) a bove). T his o ccurs o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 7). T he i ntention h ere m ay b e t o r epresent t he d ivinities f easting o n t he f ood p rovided f or t hem a s o fferings. T he f ood o n t he t able t akes t he f orm o f a l eg j oint o f m eat a nd a n a nimal 's h ead. A s cene i n w hich a d ivinity i s i nvolved i n a r itual p erformed b efore a n a ltar o r t able ( Group ( 4) a bove) a ppears o n a s eal f rom M ari ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 8). T he d ivinity, p ossibly a g oddess, i s s eated w ith h er h ead t urned t o l ook b ackwards o ver h er s houlder i n a p ose, u nique i n M esopotamian i conography, t he s ignificance o f w hich i s n ot c ertain. O ne h and i s r aised t owards t he t ail o f t he s corpion b ehind h er, t he o ther r ests o n t he t op o f a n a ltar o ver w hich a d iminutive h uman f igure i s b ent. T he a ltar i s r ectangular a nd h as c ross-struts a nd a s econd s corpion a ppears b eneath i t. A nother s cene f eaturing a s eated d ivinity p articipating i n ar itual p erformed a t a n a ltar a ppears o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance , C at. R ef. N o. J 9. H ere t he a ltar i s r ectangular a nd h as v ertical a nd h orizontal c ross-bars a s w ell a s c ross-struts. A bove t he a ltar i s a t wo-legged f rame o r c anopy, i nside w hich l ies a g lobular j ar o n i ts s ide. T he d ivinity, w ho i s s eated o n a t hrone i n t he f orm o f a b ird o n i ts b ack, s tretches o ut a n a rm t owards t he t op o f t he f rame. A s corpion a ppears b ehind t he d ivinity, a s o n t he M ari s eal. T he p resence o f t he s corpion a nd t he r ectangular s hape o f t he a ltar s uggest t hat t he t wo s eals m ay h ave a c ommon p rovenance. T he n ature o f t he r ituals d epicted o n t he t wo s eals i s o bscure. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 1 6, d ivinities p articipating i n r itual c eremonies a ppear i n t he i conography o f M esopotamia f rom E arly D ynastic I I t o t he c lose o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod o r t he b eginning o f t he A kkad p eriod. T he a nalysis a lso d emonstrates a d ifference i n t he g eographical d istribution o f t he t ypes o f h eaddress w orn b y t he d ivine c elebrants. O f o bjects o f k nown p rovenance w here t he t ype o f h eaddress m ay b e a scertained, t he d ivinity o n t he s tone r elief f rom T ello w ears a T ype A h eaddress, w hile d ivinities o n s eals f rom

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I shchali, T ype B .

T ell A smar, T ell S uleimeh a nd M ari a ll w ear

h eaddresses

o f

S cenes d epicting d ivinities p articipating i n c ultic r ituals p rovide e vidence w hich i ndicates a n i mportant r egional d ifference i n t he c oncept o f t he d ivine p resence d uring t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T he i dea t hat a d ivinity c ould t ake a n a ctive p art i n ar itual i s w ides pread i n t he n orth a nd t he n orthwest a nd c ontinues t o b e h eld u ntil t he c lose o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod . T he c oncept o f d ivine p articipation i n a r itual i s c urrent i n t he s outh i n t he e arly p hases o f t he p eriod ( e.g . C at. R ef. N o. D 6), b ut b y E arly D ynastic I IIb i t h as b een a bandoned.

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1 2.

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS A SSOCIATED W ITH I NSCRIPTIONS R ECORDING R OYAL B UILDING A ND C ONSTRUCTION A CTIVITIES

D ivinities a re r epresented i n a ssociation w ith i nscriptions r ecording r oyal b uilding a ctivities i n t he f ollowing m edia : 1 ) 2 ) 3 )

O n t wo s telae. O n a s tone v ase c arved i n l ow r elief. I n t he f orm o f f oundation f igurines.

T he t wo s telae b oth h ave i nscriptions o f U r N anshe, o ne f ound a t U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. K 1), r ecording t he c onstruction o f a c anal, t he o ther f ound a t A l H iba ( Cat. R ef. N o. K 3) r ecording t he b uilding o f a t emple. T he s tone v ase ( Cat. R ef. N o. K 2) h as a n i nscription r ecording t he b uilding o f t emples b y E ntemena . T he f oundation f igurines a re e ither t hemselves i nscribed o r w ere f ound t ogether w ith a t ablet c arrying a r oyal b uilding i nscription. T hese i nscriptions r efer t o t emples b uilt b y E nanatum I a nd E ntemena o f L agash. T he d ivinities o n t he U r N anshe s telae a nd t he E ntemena v ase f ragment a re a ll g oddesses, r epresented s eated a nd h olding a n o bject w hich . ) !as b een i nterpreted a s a s tylised b ranch o r a c luster o f d ates*' b ut w hich c ould b e t he f lowering s tem o f t he m ale p alm t ree. A ll t hree g oddesses a re s hown w earing • T ype A h eaddresses i n w hich t he h orns a re j oined b y ab ar. T he b ar p asses a cross t he f orehead i n t he f ull-face v iew o f t he h ead ( Cat. R ef. N os. K 2 a nd K 3) a nd f rom t he f ront t o t he b ack o f t he h ead i n t he p rofile v iew ( Cat. R ef. N o. K l). I n t heir d etail, t he h eaddresses w orn b y t he t wo g oddesses o n t he U r N anshe s telae s how i nteresting d ifferences. T he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he s tele f ound a t U r, C at. R ef. N o. K l, h as a c entral f eature c onsistiqg o f t hree c rescents, s et o ne i nside t he o ther. A s t he m oon g od, ' Sa rum , i s t he c ity g od o f U r, t he c rescents i n t he d ivine h eaddress c an b e i nterpreted a s s ignifying t hat t he g oddess i s a m ember o f t he p antheon p resided o ver b y t he t utelary g od o f U r. T he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he s tele f rom A l H iba , C at. R ef. N o. K 3, i s u nique i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography i n t hat t he h air d oes n ot a ppear f rom b elow t he h eaddress, b ut i s a ttached t o t he h eaddress, p erhaps t o t he h orns t hemselves. T his d istinctive t reatment o f t he h air i s a f eature o f t he h eaddress w orn b y a f emale f igure a ssociated w ith t he I nanna s ymbol o n a s eal o f L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr d ate ( Add. I llus. X XIV). T he p ossibility t hat, i n i ts c onstruction , t he d ivine h eaddress o n t he U r N anshe s tele, C at. R ef. N o. K 3, f ollows a t radition g oing b ack t o e arlier t imes i s d iscussed o n p . 7 3ff. C ertain o f t he f o pdation f igurines a re i dentified b y i nscription a s r epresentations o f ' Shulutula ( Cat. R ef. N os. N i, N 2, N 5, N 6 a nd N 7) a nd a4 d ivinities i n t he f orm o f f oundation f igurines a ppear t o b e m ale.* " T he h orns o f t he h eaddresses w orn b y t hese d ivinities a re t reated i n t wo d ifferent w ays. I n s ome c ases ( e.g . C at. R ef. N os. N i, N 2 a nd N 3), t he h orns r ise i ndependently f rom t wo b ands, o ne o n e ach s ide o f t he h ead, s imilar i n a ll o ther r espects t o b ands o f h air. T he t wo b ands c arrying t he h orns a re s eparated a t t he b ack b y t he c entre p arting. F oundation f igurines a ttributed b y i nscription t o E nanatum I a re o f t his t ype. I n o ther c ases ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. N 5, N 7 a nd N 8), t he h orns a re j oined t ogether t o f orm a c ontinuous b and w hich e ncircles

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t he b ack o f t he h ead. H ere t he c entre p arting i n t he f ront e xtends b etween t he t ips o f t he h orns o nto t he t op o f t he h ead b ut s tops s hort o f t he b and j oining t he t wo h orns a t t he b ack o f t he h ead. F oundation f igurines a ttributed b y i nscription t o E ntemena a re o f t his t ype. T he t reatment o f t he h orns o f t he E nanatum I f oundation f igurines s uggests t hat t he i ntention i s t o r epresent t he h orns a s i f t hey e merge f rom b eneath t he h air. T he h eaddresses w orn b y t hese d ivinities a re , t herefore, a ccording t o t he s ystem o f c lassification a dopted i n t his s tudy, d ivine h eaddresses o f T ype B . T he h eaddresses w orn b y t he E ntemena f oundation f igurines c annot b e c lassified s o r eadily b ecause t hey d isplay s ome, b ut n ot t he m ost c haracteristic o f t he f eatures o f t he T ype A h eaddress . T he h orns a re p ositioned o n t op o f t he h ead a nd a re j oined t ogether a t t he b ack. T he b and f rom w hich t he h orns a rise d oes n ot, h owever, e xtend a cross t he f orehead a s m ay b e s een i n t he T ype A h eaddress, C at. R ef. N o. K 2. V iewed f rom t he s ide, t he h orn l ies i n a h orizontal p lane a cross t he t op o f t he h ead w ith t he t ip o f t he h orn t urned u pwards, r esembling i n i ts p lacement t he h orn o f t he b ullman w ith h is h ead i n p rofile r epresented i n t he c ontemporary i conog raphy. V iewed f rom t he f ront, t he E ntemena f oundation f igurines a re i ndistinguishable f rom t hose o f E nanatum I , t he t wo h orns a ppearing o ne o n e ach s ide o f t he ' N O. B oth t ypes o f h eaddress, m ost p lausibly a f orm o f h orned w ig* / ° ,w ould a ppear, t herefore, t o b e d esigned t o s uggest t hat t he h orns a re n ot i ncorporated i nto a c rown b ut a re a n a natomical f eature o f t he h ead. T his b y d efinition m akes t hem d ivine h eaddress o f T ype B a nd t hey h ave b een c lassified a s s uch f or t he p urposes o f t he s tatistical a nalysis. T here a re t wo t ypes o f f oundation f igurine s urviving f rom t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n b oth t ypes t he t op o f t he p eg t akes t he f orm o f am ale t orso. B ut w hile i n o ne t ype t he h ead i s r epresented w ith e laborately d ressed h air a nd h orns, i n t he o ther, t he h air i s a lso e laborately d ressed b ut t here a re n o h orns. I n t he f ormer c ase , t he f igure r epresented i s a g od, n amed i n s ome i nscriptions a s dS hulutula. I n t he l atter c ase, t he a bsence o f h orns i ndicates t hat t he f igure r epresented i s ah uman b eing a nd n ot a d ivinity. T he t wo t ypes o f f oundation f igurine a re r eferred t o h ere a s t he d ivine a nd n on-divine t ype r espectively. O f t he 7 0 f oundation f igurines q g E arly D ynastic d ate w hich m ay b e c ited, 2 2 a re o f t he d ivine t ype* " a nd 4 8 a re o f t he n on-divine t ype.* 80 A n a nalysis o f f oundation f igurines o f b oth t ypes w hich c an b e a ssigned t o s pecific r ulers b y i nscription , i s s et o ut i n T able N o. 1 8. T his t able s hows t hat, o n p resent e vidence, o nly E nanatum I a nd E ntemena o f L agash a dopted t he c ustom o f f ashioning f oundation f igurines i n t he f orm o f ah orned d ivinity . T he f oundation f igurines o f U r N anshe ( e.g.. A dd. I llus. I II a nd I V), t hose f ound s tratified i n t he p re-Ur N anshe l evels a t T ello ( e.g., A dd. I llus. V ) a nd t he f oundat ion f igurine o f L ugalkisalsi o f U ruk , t he o nly r uler o f ac ity o ther t han L agash t o w hom a f oundation f igurine i s a ttributable b y i nscript ion, a re a ll o f t he n on-divine t ype. I t h as b een s uggested a t t he U r N anshe f oundation f igurines r epresent t he r uler h imself,*'' b ut o ther r epresentations o f U r-Nanshe d o n ot s upport t his i dentification. O n t wo v ot e p laques w ith i nscriptions r ecording t he b uilding o f t emples,*' U r N anshe i s

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d epicted c arrying a b asket o n h is h ead, a nd e ach t ime h e i s s hown w ith a s haven h ead. Af igurine p laced a s a t emple f oundation d eposit i s, t herefore, u nlikely t o p ortray U r N anshe i n a n a ttitude o f p rayer a nd w earing a n e laborate h airstyle o r aw ig. T he U r N anshe f oundation f igurines m ust r epresent a h uman b eing o f r ank o r s tatus s uperior e ven t o t he r uler h imself w hich e ntitled h im t o a ppear b efore t he g reat d eities o f t he S umerian p antheon w ith h is h ead u nshaven. F oundation f igurines o f b oth t he d ivine a nd n on-divine t ype a re r epresented i n t he s ame p osture w ith h ands c lasped i n p rayer a nd, b y c ontext, a ppear t o s erve t he s ame f unction o f i ntercession o n b ehalf o f t he r oyal b uilder. T he f oundation f igurines o f E nanatuT I a nd E ntemena a re i dentified b y i nscription a s r epresentations o f ' Shulutula , t he p ersonal g od n ot o nly o f t hese t wo r ulers b ut o f a ll t he r ulers o f t he L agash d ynasty. T he i nconsistency b etween t he n on-divine f oundation f igurines o f U r N anshe a nd t he p re-Ur N anshe p eriod a nd t he d ivine g oundation f igurines o f E nanatum I a nd E ntemena w ould b e r esolved i f ' Shulutula , l ike t he p assenger i n t he b oat i n t he b oatgod s cene, w ere a d ivinised h uman b eing. Ac omparative e xamination o f t he h eaddresses w orn b y b oth d ivinities p rovides i ndirect s upport f or t his p ossibility. I n t wo c lassic v ersions o f t he b oatgod s cene o n s eals o f E arly D ynastic I II d ate, ( Cat. R ef. N os. A l3 a nd A 26), t he p assenger i n t he b oat i s r epresented w ith t he s ame t ype o f h eaddress a s t hat w orn b y t he d ivine f oundation f igurines. B oth h ave h air d ressed i n p arallel s trands h anging d ownwards a t t he b ack a nd h orns r ising d irectly f rom t he h ead. I n ac lassic v ersion o f t he b oatgod s cene w hich m ay b e s lightly e arlier i n d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 14), t he p assenger i n t he b oat i s r epresented a s am ortal w ith l ong h air a nd n o h orns. T he f igure w ith t he e laborate h airstyle o r w earing a w ig r epresented i n t he n ond ivine f oundation f igurines o f U r N anshe a nd t he p re-Ur N an * p eriods ( e.g., A dd. I llus . I II - V I), c ould, c orrespondingly, b e ' Shulutula , v isualised i n h uman f orm . A f oundation f igurine o f t he n on-divine t ype f ound a t T ello p rovides f urther s upport f or t he v iew t hat ' Shulutula w as a d ivinised m ortal. T his f oundation f igurine, A dd. I llus. V II, i s i n t he f orm o f a n aked m ale f igure r epresented n aturalistically t o a lmost k nee-level, t he l egs f rom t he k nees d ownwards b eing f used t ogether t o f orm a p eg. I n i ts p hysical p roportions a nd i n i ts s tyle , t his f igure r esembles th f igures o n a s tele, f ragments o f w hich w ere a lso 84 f ound a t T ello*'' w hich i s p robably t o b e a ttributed t o R imus.* T his f oundation f igurine i s n ot i nscribed, b ut, o n s tylistic g rounds, i t m ay b e a ssigned t o ar uler w ho w as b uilding a t L agash s ome t ime d uring t he e arly p hases o f t he A kkadian p eriod. T he f igure i s r epresented w ith h ands c lasped t ogether i n t he s ame a ttitude a s t he f oundation f igurines o f E nanatum I a nd E ntemena. A s i t s erves t he s ame f unction, t his f oundation f igurine i s a lso m ost p robably a r epresentation o f t he r uler 's p ersonal g od a nd i s, t herefore, l ike t hq . f oundation f igurines o f E nanatum I a nd E ntemena, t o b e i dentified a s uS hulutula . I f t his i s s o, t hen t he u nknown r oyal b uilder a t L agash i n t he A kkadian p eriod r everted t o t he c ustom o f t he U r N anshe a nd p re-Ur N anshe p eriods i n p ortraying h is p ersonal g od a s am ortal a nd n ot a s a d ivinity w earing a f orm o f h orned h eaddress. I t

h as

a lready

b een s uggested o n o ther e vidence

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t hat,

i n

t he

s outh, i n E arly D ynastic I II, g ods o f l ower r ank o r d ivinised m ortals w ere p ortrayed w ith T ype B h eaddresses w hile c osmic d eities o r d ivinities o f t he h ighest r ank i n t he S umerian p antheon w ere d istinguished b y d ivine h eaddresses o f T ype A ( see p . 2 6). T his d istinction i s t o b e o bserved i n r epresentations o f d ivinities o n o bjects a ttributed t o E ntemena o f L agash . Ag oddess i s d epicted o n a s tone v ase a ttributable b y i nscription t o E ntemena ( Cat. R ef. N o. K 2). S he i s s eated u pon a t hrone a nd h as w eapons r ising f rom b ehind h er s houlders a nd i s c learly a d ivinity o f h igh , i f n ot t he h ighest, r ank . S he i s p ortrayed w earing a d ivine h eaddress o f T ype A . T he f oundation f iguI.i nes o f E ntemena a re i dentified b y i nscription a s r epresentations 9 f uS hulutula, t he p ersonal g od o f t he r uler. A s ad ivinised m ortal, ' Shulutula w ears a d ivine h eaddress, p robably i n t he f orm o f a h orned w ig, i n w hich t he t wo h orns w hen v iewed f rom t he f ront a ppear t o r ise f rom h is h ead. T his t ype o f h orned h eaddress i s c learly d ifferent i n f orm f rom t he h orned h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he E ntemena v ase a nd a ccording t o t he s ystem o f c lassification u sed i n t his s tudy, i s a d ivine h eaddress o f T ype B .

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1 3.

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS F IGURING I N O NE T WO R EGISTERS I N S PACER P ANELS O N S EALS

O F

D ivinities r epresented i n o ne o f t wo r egisters o f as pacer p anel a ppear o n s eals a ll o f w hich a re d ated t o E arly D ynastic I IIb o r t he b eginning o f t he A kkadian p eriod. T he d ivine f igure m ay b e a s tanding m ale d ivinity ( Cat. R ef. N os. L 1-L4), a s tanding g oddess ( Cat. R ef. N o. G 5b) o r t he b oatgod ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 15). T he s eal f eaturing t he b oatg od i s d amaged s o o4 hat t he p resence o f t he p assenger i s n ot c ertain a lthough P . A miet* "" r estores a p artially p reserved f iguE2 s eated i n t he b oat. W here m ale d ivinities, i ncluding t he b oatgod*'" f eature i n t he s pacer p anel, ac ombat s cene a ppears a s t he m ain t heme o f t he d esign. A l ibation s cene a ppears a s t he m ain t heme o n t he s eal i n w hich a g oddess f eatures i n t he s pacer p anel. T he s tanding d ivinities, C at. R ef. N os. G 5b, L i, L 2 a nd 1 4 a re r epresented w ith h ands c lasped i n w orship o r p rayer a nd i n f our c ases ( Cat. R ef. N os . A 15, G 5, L i, L 4), t he u pper r egister i s b lank , p resumably i ntended f or t he n ame o f t he o wner o f t he s eal. T hese s eals h ave a lready b een d iscussed i n c onnection w ith t he c oncept o f a p ersonal g od w ho a cts a s i ntercessor o n b ehalf o f ah uman b eing w hich f irst a ppears i n t he i conography i n E arly D ynastic Il lb ( see p . 2 6). A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 1 9, o nly o ne o f t he d ivinities a ppears o n a s eal o f k nown o rigin a nd t hat i s t he b oatgod r epresented o n a s eal f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 15). T he b oatgod i s r epresented w ith a T ype B h eaddress w hich, a s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 5 , i s c ustomary f or t his p articular d ivine f igure t hroughout t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. A ll t he o ther d ivinities a re r epresented w ith t he T ype A h eaddress .

• •• • •

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1 4.

D IVINITIES W EARING A F ORM O F D IVINE H EADDRESS R EPRESENTED A S S EMIC LOTHED O R U NCLOTHED H UMAN F IGURES

A d ivinity r epresented a s a n u nclothed o r s emi-clothed h uman f igure i s a r arity i n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. A r ow o f s even g ods r epresented i n t hree g roups , w restling o r i n c ombat w ith e ach o ther, a ppears o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance w hich i s L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian i n d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. C 5). T his s eal h as a lready b een d iscussed i n c onnection w ith t he a nthropomorphosis o f t he c haracters f eaturing i n t he E arly D ynastic c ombat s cene t o b e o bserved a t t he e nd o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod o r b eginning o f t he A kkadian p eriod ( see p . 1 3). I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here a re o nly t wo d ivinities r epresented s emi-clothed o r u nclothed o n o bjects w hich m ay b e d ated t o E arly D ynastic I I-III a nd t hey a re g oddesses. O ne g oddess i s r epresented o n a n e ngraved s hell p laque a nd t he o ther i s i n t he f orm o f a f igurine , b oth o f w hich c ome f rom M ari. N either o bject c an b e d ated c losely. T he e ngraved s hell p laque , C at. R ef. N o. M 2, w as f ound i n t he T emple o f I s a r i n a l evel s aid t o d ate t o t he f irst h alf o f t he 3 rd M illennium .* T he f igurine , C at. R ef. N o. M l, w as f ound b uried i n a j ar i n t he p re-Sargonic p alace t ogether w ith o ther o bjects i ncluding a b ead i nscribed w ith t he n ame o f M esanepada. T he g oddess o n t he s hell p laque i s r epresented i n a s emi-frontal p osture, w ith o ne h and r aised t o t ouch h er h eaddress, t he o ther b ehind h er b ack. S he w ould a ppear t o b e c lothed i n a t ransparent g arment, i ndicated b y t he s errated h em a cross t he l egs a t a nkle l evel , a nd a s lashed o r p anelled c loak d raped a cross h er b ack a nd o ver o ne s houlder. T he g oddess i s i dentified b y M .-T . B arrelet a s I shtar 2 g t he U nderworld, w hom s he s ees a s c lothed i n t he w ings o f t he d ead.*'' T he g oddess i n t he f orm o f a f igurine i s r epresented u nclothed. I n i ts p hysical p roportions, w ith t he n arrow w aist a nd e xaggeratedly s welling h ips, t his f igure d iffers m arkedly f rom t he c anon o f p roport ion o f f iguERs i n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic I II p eriod i n t he s outh.* " T his g oddess m ay, p erhaps, b e b est r egarded a s a 3 rd M illennium p redecessor o f t he s emi-nude g oddess w hich o ccurs i n t he S yrian g lyptic r epertory o f t he 2 nd M illennium . A s s hown i n T able N o. 2 0 , w here t he t ype o f h eaddress c an b e a scertained, t he g ods o n t he L ate E arly D ynastic o r E arly A kkadian s eal w ear T ype A h eaddresses a nd a ll s even d ivinities a re p robably r epresented w ith t he s ame t ype o f h eaddress . T he h orns o f t he g oddess i n t he f orm o f a f igurine a re n ot i ncorporated i nto a h eaddress b ut e merge t hrough t he h air. O n t he s ystem o f c lassification u sed i n t his s tudy, t his i s a h eaddress o f T ype B . T he g oddess o n t he s hell p laque i s r epresented w ith a T ype A h eaddress. T he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he M ari s hell e ngraving, C at. R ef. N o. M 2, h as a lready b een t he s ubject o f s tudy. P . A miet d escribes t he h eaddress a s " une e toile c ontenue d ans l e c rescent...ugg t iare a strale, e n r elation p robablement a vec I shtar d es e toiles".*'' R .M . B oehmer r econstructs t he h eaddress 4 0 a d ome-shaped m otif c ont ained b etween t he h orns o f t he c rescent.*'' I n i ts p resent c ondition ,

4 0

h owever, t here i s l ittle e vidence t o s upport e ither o f t hese r eco p q s tructions . I n h er s tudy o f t he g oddess 's h eaddress, M .-T . B arrelet*'' p oints o ut t hat t he h air i s d ressed i n a c hignon t ied a t t he n ape o f t he n eck , a s tyle o f f eminine h airdressing t ypical t hroughout M esopotamia i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. H owever, t he c omparative s tudy o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress u ndertaken h ere , h as r evealed o ne p articular f eature o f t his h eaddress t hat h as n ot s o f ar r eceived a ttention. T he t wo h orns j oined t ogether t o f orm a c rescent r est o n a b ase w hich t apers t owards t he f ront a nd i s s haped t o f ollow t he c ontour o f t he h ead. T his s uggests t hat t he h eaddress t akes t he f orm o f a c ap w ith t he c rescent m ounted o n t op o f t he c ap. T he o nly o ther e xample o f a T ype A h eaddress w ith a s haped b ase i ndicating t hat, l ike t hat w orn b y t he M ari g oddess, i t t ook t he f orm o f a c ap , a ppears o n t he E arly D ynastic I IIa s tone r elief f rom K hafajah , C at. R ef. N o. D 2. N o T ype A h eaddress w ith a s haped b ase a ppears o n a ny o bject o f s outhern p rovenance d ated t o t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t he s outh, t he h orns o f t he T ype A h eaddresses e ither a rise f rom a s traight b ar o r t he b ar j oining t he h orns t ogether h as a s traight l ower e dge. T his a pplies w hether t he h ead o f t he d ivinity i s s hown i n p rofile o r f ull-face. T he h eaddresses w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he M ari p laque a nd t he g od o n t he K hafajah s tone r elief a re t he o nly T ype A h eaddresses t o a ppear o n o bjects o f n orthern o r n orth-western p rovenance d ating t o t he E arly D ynastic I I-III p eriod. T he T ype A h eaddresses o n o bjects o f s outhern p rovenance o f c ontemporary d ate d o n ot h ave a s haped b ase, a f eature c ommon t o t he M ari a nd K hafajah d ivine h eaddresses. T his e vidence s uggests t hat, i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, t he h eaddresses i ncorporating t he t wo h orns o f d ivinity , c lassified h ere a s T ype A , d iffer i n t heir c onstruction i n t he n orth a nd n orth w est f rom t hose i n t he s outh.

4 1

I I.

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS

B efore c onsidering t he t wo q uestions w hich f ormed t he p urpose o f t his i nvestigation o f t he d ivine h eaddress , ( see p . 4 ), s ome g eneral o bservations m ay b e m ade c oncerning t he r epresentation o f t he d ivine f igure i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. 1 .

D ivinities r epresented w ith a f orm o f h orned h eaddress a re r elatively r are i n M esopotamia i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. O ut o f t he h undreds o f f igures o n o bjects w hich h ave b een e xamined i n t he c ourse o f t his s tudy, o nly 1 66 r epresentations o f d ivinities w earing h orned h eaddresses h ave b een i dentified, 1 26 o n s eals a nd s eal i mpressions, t he r emaining 4 0 o n s telae, v otive p laques, s tone r eliefs, s hell e ngravings a nd i n t he f orm o f f igurines ( see T able N o. 1 ). D ivinities d istinguished b y ah orned h eaddress o ccur o nly e xceptionally i n t he m edium o f i nlaid d ecoration o f m obilia , a nd o nly o nce o n a s tone v essel. S uch f igures n ever a ppear i n t he f orm o f a mulets n or a re t hey e mployed i n t he d ecoration o f o bjects i ntended f or p ractical o r p ersonal u se , o ther t han o n s eals, a lthough m ythical c reatures o f ac omposite n ature s uch a s b ullmen a nd h uman-headed b ulls a re u sed c ommonly f or t his p urpose o n o bjects s urviving f rom t he p eriod.

2 .

R epresentations o f d ivinities w earing a f orm o f d ivine h eaddress a re r are i n t he e arly p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t he l ater p hases o f t he p eriod, t here i s a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f o bjects w ith r epresentations o f d ivinities a nd i n t he n umber o f d ivinities f eaturing i n a s ingle s cene.

3 .

T here i s ar egional d ifference i n t he m edia i n w hich d ivinities a ppear. R epresentations o f d ivinities o n o bjects o f n orthern o r n orth-western p rovenance a re , w ith o nly t hree e xceptions, a ll o n s eals, t he e xceptions b eing o ne d ivinity o n a s tone r elief f rom K hafajah a nd t wo d ivinities f rom M ari, o ne i n t he f orm o f a f igurine, t he o ther e ngraved o n a s hell p laque. B y c ontrast, i n t he s outh, r epresentations o f d ivinities a ppear o n s telae, v otive p laques, s tone r eliefs, i ncluding a v ase s culpted i n l ow r elief, e ngraved o n s hell a nd i n t he f orm o f f oundation f igurines a s w ell a s i n t he g lyptic r epertory.

4 .

O n t he b asis o f t he i nformation r evealed b y t he s tatistical a nalysis, s ome g eneral o bservations m ay a lso b e m ade r egarding t he r elative d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes o f E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress. a )

D ivinities r epresented w ith h eaddresses o f T ype B f ar o utnumber t hose w ith T ype A h eaddresses f or t he p eriod a s a w hole. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 , t here a re 4 5 d ivinities r epresented w ith T ype A h eaddresses a s c ompared w ith 9 3 r epresented w ith d ivine h eaddresses o f T ype B .

b )

D ivinities i n t he f orm o f f igurines a ll h ave T ype B h eadd resses. T he r elative i ncidence o f t he T ype A a nd T ype B h eadd resses w orn b y d ivinities r epresented i n t he i conography o nly, e xcluding f oundation f igurines a nd t he f igurine o f a g oddess, s till s hows a p reponderance o f t he T ype B h eaddress ( 71:45).

4 2

c )

D ivinities a ppearing i n s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod a ccount f or o ver o ne t hird o f t he t otal n umber o f d ivinities i n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t his s tudy ( 58:166). A s m ay b e s een i n T able N o. 5 , t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger a re c ustomarily r epresented w ith T ype B h eaddresses i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. A n a nalysis o f t he h eaddresses w orn b y d ivinities i n a ll m edia e xcluding t hose a ppearing i n t he b oatgod s cene ( Table N o. 4 ), a gain s hows a p reponderance o f t he T ype B h eaddress, a lthough t he d istribution o f t he t wo t ypes i s m ore e qual ( 47:42).

T he t wo q uestions p osed a t t he b eginning o f t his i nvestigation m ay n ow b e c onsidered i n t he l ight o f t he e vidence r evealed b y t he s tatistical a nalysis. 1 .

A RE T HE T WO T YPES O F E ARLY D YNASTIC H EADDRESS T O B E E XPLAINED O N R EGIONAL B ASIS?

T he e vidence i ndicating a r egional d istribution o f t he t wo o f d ivine h eaddress m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows:

A

t ypes

1 .

A s m ay b e s een i n T able N o. 2 , 7 5% ( 18:24) o f t he T ype A h eadd resses a ppear o n o bjects f rom t he s outh , w hile n early 7 0% ( 43:63) o f t he T ype B h eaddresses a ppear o n o bjects o f n orthern o r n orthw estern p rovenance. O f t he t otal n umber o f 2 4 T ype A h eaddresses w hich a ppear o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance, 1 8 c ome f rom t he s outh ( Fara, U r, U ruk , U mma, T ello, A l H iba a nd N ippur), c ompared w ith s ix f rom t he M iddle a nd U pper E uphrates a nd t he D iyala r egion ( Kish , M ari, K hafajah a nd T ell A grab). O f t he 6 3 T ype B h eadd resses, 4 3 a re o n o bjects o f k nown p rovenance f rom t he M iddle a nd U pper E uphrates , D iyala a nd H amrin B asin a reas ( Kish , M ari, K hafajah , T ell A grab, T ell A smar, I shchali a nd T ell S uleimeh), c ompared w ith 2 0 f rom s ites i n t he s outh ( Fara , U r, T ello a nd A l H iba).

9 .

I n s cenes w hich a re o f n orthern o r n orth-western o rigin o r w hich a ppear e xclusively i n t he i conography o f t he n orth a nd n orth w est, d ivinities a re c ustomarily r epresented w ith t he T ype B h eaddress. T hese i nclude:

3 .

a )

S cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod ( see T able N o. 5 ).

b )

T he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene ( see T able N o.

1 0).

W hen o bjects w hich m ay b e E arly A kkadian i n d ate ( ED I IIb/Akkad) a re e xcluded, t he t wo t ypes o f d ivine h eaddress a re s een t o h ave a c learly d efined r egional d istribution: 1 )

D ivinities r epresented o n o bjects o f n orthern o r w estern o rigin w ear T ype B h eaddresses e xcept f or:

a )

T he g oddess M 2).

b )

T he g od D 2).

n orth-

o n a s hell p laque f rom M ari ( Cat.

R ef.

N o.

o n a s tone r elief f rom K hafajah ( Cat.

R ef.

N o.

4 3

T he h eaddresses w orn b y t he g od o n t he s tone r elief f rom K hafajah t akes t he f orm o f a c ap a nd t he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he s hell e ngraving f rom M ari i s p robably o f s imilar c onstruction. T his t ype o f d ivine h eaddress d oes n ot a ppear i n t he s outh. 2 )

D ivinities r epresented o n o bjects o f d ivine h eaddresses o f T ype A e xcept f or:

s outhern

o rigin

) D ivinities r epresented i n t he b oatgod s cene o n s eals a nd T ello ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 24 a nd A 25).

f rom

f rom

w ear

U r

b )

A d ivinity i n a b oating s cene o n as eal i mpression ( Cat. R ef. N o. B ib).

F ara

c )

D ivinities i n t he f orm o f f oundation f igurines f rom T ello, A l H iba a nd B ad T ibira o r a ttributed b y i nscription t o E nanatum I a nd E ntemena o f L agash.

T he b oatgod s cene i s o f n orthern o r n orth-western o rigin s o t hat t he T ype B h eaddresses w orn b y t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger o n t he s eals f rom U r a nd T ello a re i n c onformity w ith t he n orthern t radition f rom w hich a rea t he t heme d erives. T he d ivinity i n t he b oating s cene o n t he s eal i mpression f rom F ara w ears a u nique f orm o f d ivine h eadd ress w ith s heep h orns, w hich a ppears n owhere e lse i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. T he h eaddresses w orn b y t he d ivinities i n t he f orm o f f oundation f igurines a re n ot i n c onformity w ith t he s outhern t radition a nd a n e xplanation f or t heir T ype B h eaddresses i s o ffered i n ( 2) b elow . A ccording t o t he i nformation r evealed b y t he s tatistical a nalysis, i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod t here a re t wo s eparate t raditions o f r epresenting t he d ivine h eaddress, o ne d eriving f rom t he n orth, t he o ther f rom t he s outh . I n t he t radition d eriving f rom t he n orth a nd n orth w est, t he d ivinity i s v isualised a s h aving h orns w hich r ise d irectly f rom t he h ead a nd i s r epresented w ith a f orm o f h eaddress d escribed i n t his s tudy a s T ype B . I n t he s outhern t radition, d ivinities a re v isualised i n h uman f orm a nd w ear d ivine h eaddresses d escribed i n t his s tudy a s T ype A . I n t he m aterial e xamined i n t he c ourse o f t his s tudy, t here a re o nly t wo d ivine f igures r epresented w ith T ype A h eaddresses o f n orthern o r n orth-western p rovenance w hich c an b e a ssigned w ith c ertainty t o t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. B oth h eaddresses a ppear t o b e s imilar i n t heir c onstruction, t aking t he f orm o f a c ap o nto w hich i s m ounted a c rescent i n t he c ase o f t he g oddess o n t he e ngraved s hell p laque f rom M ari ( Cat. R ef. N o. M 2), a nd, i n t he c ase o f t he g od o n t he r elief f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 2), a p air o f h orns w hich, a s w ill b e a rgued l ater i n P art I I, p . 8 0ff, a re t hose o f a s pecies o f g azelle. F rom t he e nd o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod o nwards, a c ap c ontained b etween t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress s erved a s a f oundation f or a n u pright c arrying s ubsidiary p airs o f h orns. T his m ethod o f c onstruction c an b e d emonstrated, f or e xample, i n t he m ultiple-horned h eaddresses w orn b y k neeling d ivinities h olding f oundation p egs, a f orm o f f oundation d eposit a ttributable b y i nscription t o G udea. T here i s, h owever, n o i conographical e vidence t o s uggest t hat, i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod,

4 4

i n t he S umerian c ities i n t he s outh, t he h orns w hich d istinguish t he w earer a s a d ivinity w ere m ounted o n a c ap, s o t hat, f rom t he A kkadian p eriod o nwards, i n i ts c onstruction, t he d ivine h eaddress o f M esopotamia w ould a ppear t o d erive f rom a n orthern p rototype w hich c an b e d emonstrated i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. 2 .

I S T HE W EARER?

T YPE O F D IVINE H EADDRESS R ELATED T O T HE C HARACTER

O F

T HE

I n t he i conography o f t he U pper a nd M iddle E uphrates, D iyala a nd H amrin B asin r egions, t he T ype B h eaddress i s w orn b y d ivinities r epresented i n m any d ifferent c ontexts a nd n o r elationship b etween t he t ype o f h eaddress a nd t he w earer c an b e d emonstrated. I n t he s outh h owever, t here i s e vidence t o s uggest t hat i n t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod , t he t ype o f h eaddress i s r elated t o t he r ank o r s tatus o f t he w earer. I n t he i conography o f t he s outh i n E arly D ynastic I IIb, t he T ype A h eaddress i s w orn b y d ivinities w ho m ay b e i dentified b y c ontext a s c osmic d eities o r g ods a nd g oddesses o f h igh r ank i n t he S umerian p antheon. T he T ype B h eaddress i s w orn o nly b y t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger a nd b y t he d ivinity r epresen;ed i n t he f orm o f a f oundation f igurine, i dentified b y i nscription a s ' Shulutula, t he p ersonal g od o f t he r ulers o f L agash. T hese t hree d ivinities a re a ll o f l owly s tatus i n t he d ivine h ierarchy. T he b oatgod i s a f unctionary i n t he s ervice o f t he g ods a nd h is p assenger i g a d ivinised m ortal. dS hulutula i s a g od o f l esser r ank w ho p rays t o ' Inanna o n b ehalf o f t he L agash r ulers a nd m ay a lso b e a d ivinised m ortal. O n t his e vidence, i n t he E arly D ynastic I IIb p eriod i n t he s outh, t he T ype A h eaddress w ould a ppear t o b e r egarded a s t he p erogative o f d ivinities o f h igh r ank o r c osmic s tatus w hile d ivinities o f l ow r ank o r d ivinised h uman b eings a re d esignated a s s uch b y h eaddresses o f T ype B .

4 5

P ART I :

N OTES

1 .

F rankfort ( 1955).

2 .

M oortgat ( 1969); B oehmer ( 1967).

3 .

F rankfort ( 1939a),

4 .

e .g. M oortgat ( 1969),

5 .

T he r elative c hronology o f U r N anshe a nd M esanepada i s d isputed. B örker-Klähn ( 1980), p p. 3 3 f f. a rgues t hat t hese t wo r ulers m ay h ave b een c ontemporary.

6 .

M oortgat ( 1969),

7 .

P .R .S. M oorey ( 1979), p p. 1 16 f f., d iscusses t he p roblem o f d ating t he s ealings f rom t he S eal I mpression S trata ( SIS) a t U r a nd s ummarises t he d ating o f s ealings f rom S IS 4 -8 p ut f orward b y a uthors s ince t heir o riginal p ublication b y L egrain ( 1936).

8 .

B oehmer ( 1967),

9 .

S cenes f eaturing t he b oat w ith a n a nthropomorphous p row i n w hich n either t he b oat n or t he p assenger i s s hown w ith a f orm o f h orned h eaddress h ave n ot b een i ncluded i n t his s tudy. E xamples o f t he b oatgod s cene o f k nown p rovenance o utside t he a rea o f t his s tudy, e .g. o n s eals f rom S usa a nd B ani S urmah, i n w hich t he b oatgod o r b oth t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger a re r epresented w ith h orned h eaddresses, h ave a lso b een e xcluded. A l ist o f s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod o n s eals a nd s eal i mpressions o f k nown a nd u nknown p rovenance i s g iven b y M oortgat a nd M oortgat-Correns ( 1974), p . 1 55 f f.

1 0.

D esigns i ncluding a p lough, a v ase t ilted o n i ts s ide a nd a q uadruped, t he t hree d istinctive m otifs t ypically a ssociated w ith t he b oatgod, a ppear o n t wo f urther s eals f rom U r ( Woolley ( 1934) P l. 1 92, N o. 1 2; L egrain ( 1951) N o. 9 1). T hese s eals a re n ot q uoted b y A . M oortgat a nd U . M oortgat-Correns i n t heir s tudy o f t he d istribution o f t he b oatgod t heme ( Moortgat a nd M oortgatC orrens ( 1974), p . 1 55), a nd t hey l ist o nly t wo o f t he f ive e xamples o f t he t heme o n s eal i mpressions a nd a s eal f rom F ara ( Heinrich ( 1931) T af. N os. 5 6(h); 5 8(d); 6 3(p); 6 5(h) a nd 6 5(1).

1 1.

P arrot ( 1950),

1 2.

A b ird d rawn i n p rofile w ith o ne w ing r aised s tanding o n t he b ack o f ah uman-headed b ull a ppears o n a s eal i mpression f rom t he R oyal C emetery ( Legrain ( 1936) N o. 2 98). Al ion-headed b ird w ith t he b ody d rawn i n p rofile s tanding o n t he b ack o f a h uman-headed b ull a ppears o n a s eal i mpression ( Legrain ( 1936) N o. 5 17); o n a s eal, U 11734 ( Woolley ( 1934) P l. 1 92, N o. 1 2) a nd o n o ne o f t he s helli nlaid e nd p anels o f t he " Standard", U 1164 ( Woolley ( 1934) P l. 9 3.

p p. 4 4-50. P .

3 6.

p . 3 6 f f.; B oehmer ( 1967).

p . 2 73.

p .

1 15.

4 6

1 3.

T he d istribution p attern o f s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod w as n oted b y M oortgat a nd M oortgat-Correns ( 1974), p . 1 59) w ho s ay, " Sie s ind z u b elegen a uf S iegeln o der A brollungen v on T ell B rak b is U r u nd S usa ( mit j eweils e inem E xemplar), w obei d er S chwerpunkt a ber e indeutig i n M ittel-Mesopotamien l iegt m it r und d reissig E xemplaren a us d en G rabungen v on M ari, K isch u nd d em D ijalaG ebiet."

1 4.

A s cene a ttested i n t he A kkadian p eriod, i n w hich t he b oatgod c arries a f ish o r s corpion o r a s tar a nd f aces a c ouchant h orned a nimal ( a g oat?) ( Qualls ( 1981) N os. 2 95, 2 99 a nd 3 01), m ay b e f ore-shadowed i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod i n a s eal f rom K ish ( Buchanan ( 1966), N o. 2 56.

1 5.

A nother k nown v ersion o f t his s cene ( Amiet ( 1980a) N o. 1 778) h as n ot b een i ncluded i n t his s tudy o f t he d ivine h eaddress a s t he b oatgod a nd t he p assengers a re n ot r epresented w ith h orned h eadd resses.

1 6.

T he f act t hat t he b oat w ith a n a nthropomorphous p row a ppears i n m ore t han o ne c ontext h as n ot b een g iven d ue c onsideration i n p revious i nterpretations o f t he m eaning a nd s ignificance o f t he b oatgod t heme. S tudies o f t he s ubject h ave b een m ade b y v an B uren ( 1935); F rankfort ( 1939a) a nd ( 1955); P arrot ( 1950) a nd A miet ( 1980a).

1 7.

D ignitaries w earing s imilar b road, f lat c aps, t he o uter e xtremities o f w hich a re p ointed, a ppear o n t he " Standard" f ound a t M ari ( Parrot ( 1956), p . 1 42, N o. 8 2). T hree o f t he f our d ignitaries ( Nos. 4 72, 4 73, 4 74) c arry s ocketed a xes, a f ourth ( p. 1 47, N o. 5 47) m ay b e u narmed. As imilar c ap i s w orn b y a w arrior w ith a s ickle-sword w ho p ushes a b ound p risoner b efore h im o n a n i nlaid p anel f rom t he p alace a t K ish ( Mackay ( 1929) P l. X XXV(2)).

1 8.

E leven s eals w ith a s cene f eaturing t he b oatgod i n t he u pper r egister a nd a " Building a Z iggurat" s cene i n t he l ower r egister a re l isted i n M oortgat a nd M oortgat-Correns ( 1974) p . 1 55 f f., N o. 4 0. T o t his l ist m ay b e a dded t he u npublished s eal i n t he O riental I nstitute, C hicago ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 30).

1 9.

H . F rankfort i dentified t he p assenger i n t his s cene a s t he s ungod w ith r ays r ising f rom h is s houlders ( Frankfort ( 1955) p . 3 6). P . A miet d escribes t he p rojections r ising f rom t he p assenger's s houlders a s " tiges v 6g6tales" ( Amiet ( 1980a) p . 1 64, N o. 1 435). H owever, g iven t he f igure o f ad ivinity a rmed w ith a l ong-handled m ace w ho, i n t his s cene, f ollows t he b oat a nd t he m artial t heme o f t he s cene i n t he l ower r egister, t he m ost a cceptable i nterpretat ion o f t he p rojections w ith s traight s hafts a nd k nobbed t erminals a rising f rom t he p assenger 's s houlders i s t hat t hey a re m aces s imilar t o t hose w hich r ise f rom b ehind t he s houlders o f t he g oddess i n C at. R ef. N o. D l.

2 0 .

W oolley ( 1934), F rontispiece a nd P l.

2 1.

M ooney ( 1977), p . 4 0.

4 7

1 50.

2 2.

T he s cene o n a s eal i mpression f rom U r w hich m ay p ossibly d epict a f igure s eated i n a b oat a nd a n a rmed d ivinity ( Cat. R ef . N o. D 3) h as n ot b een i ncluded i n t his g roup a s t he n ature o f t he l ongn ecked a nimal m otif i s a mbiguous.

2 3.

L egrain ( 1936),

2 4.

T he S eal I mpression S trata ( SIS) 4 -8 a t U r a re d ated b y D .P . H ansen t o E arly D ynastic I o n a nalogy w ith s eal i mpressions f ound i n E arly D ynastic I l evels a t N ippur. ( Hansen 1 971).

2 5.

T here a re r eferences t o " sacred b oats" i n t he h ymns o f G udea a ccounts o f d ivine j ourneys b y b oat i n t he m yth r elating j ourney o f E nki f rom E ridu t o N ippur a nd t he m yth o f " Inanna E nki". ( Kramer ( 1963), p p. 1 38, 1 60-162).

2 6.

H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 4(n); W iseman ( 1962), P l.

2 7.

T he b ovid a nimals w ith m anes i n , e .g. F rankfort ( 1955) N o. 3 30 , M oortgat ( 1940), N o. 8 7 a nd H einrich ( 1931) T af. 5 0(g) m ay b e i ntended t o r epresent b ison.

2 8.

A b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile t hreatens a l ion w ith a w eapon i n W iseman ( 1962) P l. 2 0(f); H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 6(f) a nd s tands w ith a rms o utstretched b etween t wo l ions i n H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 9(f); 5 1(i) a nd 5 5(a).

2 9.

H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 8(e); 5 0(g).

3 0.

A l ion i s t hreatened w ith a w eapon b y an aked h ero i n ( 1936), P l. 5 7, N o. 5 18 a nd b y ak ilted h ero i n F rankfort P l. X I ( h) a nd H einrich ( 1931) T af. 5 5(c).

3 1.

H orned a nimals a re h eld b y t heir h ind l egs b y ak ilted h ero i n H einrich ( 1931) T af. 5 5(f) a nd b y a n aked h ero i n H einrich ( 1931) T af. 5 0(h). A k ilted h ero t hreatens a n i bex w ith a s word i n B uchanan ( 1966) N o. 1 53 a nd a n aked h ero t hreatens a b ovid a nimal

p . 4 3, N. 4 92.

w ith a c urved w eapon i n W iseman ( 1962) P l.

1 6 ( b) a nd ( c).

L egrain ( 1939a)

2 0(f).

3 2.

P arrot ( 1956) P l. L XV , N o. ( 1962) P l. 1 4(c).

3 3.

L egrain ( 1936) N o. 5 17.

3 4.

H ansen ( 1973),

3 5.

e .g. M oortgat ( 1940) N o. 8 1; H einrich ( 1931) T af. 5 5(a).

3 6.

M ackay ( 1929) P l. X XXV N os.

3 7.

A b ullman r eaching t owards t he h orn o f ah uman-headed b ull a ppears i n H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 2(c); F rankfort ( 1955) N o. 3 70 ; a nd g rasping t he h orn o f ab ovid a nimal i n F rankfort ( 1955) N o. 3 53. T he k ilted h ero g rasping t he h orn o f ab ull a ppears i n F rankfort ( 1955) N o.

p . 6 2, N o.

1 081;

a nd t he a nd

F rankfort ( 1955) N o. 2 58 ; W iseman

1 9.

2a nd 3 .

2 46.

4 8

3 8.

H ansen ( 1973)

3 9.

T he T ype B d ivine h eaddress m ight b e r etained a s a n a rchaic f eature i n A kkadian v ersions o f t he b oatgod s cene. T he h eaddress w orn b y t he b oatgod o n a s eal i mpression o f A kkadian d ate ( Buchanan ( 1966) N o. 2 90) m ay b e o f t his t ype b ut t his i s u ncertain a s t he i mprint i s p oorly p reserved.

4 0.

T he p rojections r ising f rom t he s houlders o f t his d ivinity a re n ot a ccepted a s w eapons b y P . A miet. H e d escribes t hem a s r epresenting m ost p robably " boutons d e p avots". ( Amiet ( 1980a) p . 1 64).

4 1.

T he p assenger i n t he b oat i n t his s cene i s i dentified b y H . F rankfort a s t he s ungod a nd t he p rojections r ising f rom b ehind t he s houlders a s t he r ays o f t he s un ( see n . 1 9).

4 2.

e .g. M oortgat ( 1969) P l. L , N o. 3 .

4 3.

T he n aked b odies o f t he e nemy t rampled u nderfoot b y E anatum 's t roops a re r epresented o n t he s ide a nd t he r everse f ace o f t he S tele o f t he V ultures. T he o bverse o nly o f t he S tele i s i ncluded i n t he C atalogue, P art I V o f t his s tudy ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 5).

4 4.

B uchanan ( 1966), N o. 2 55; M oortgat ( 1940), N o. 1 00. Aw ar c hariot f eatures i n t he l ower r egister o f t he s eal o f u nknown p rovenance, C at. R ef. N o. A 31.

4 5.

D elaporte ( 1920) P l. 4 , N o. 5 ( No. T 87, L ouvre N o. A O 2 879; D elaporte ( 1923) P l. 7 0 , N o. 1 ( No. A 131), L ouvre, N o. A O 4 709.

4 6.

T his v iew i s e xpressed b y E . S ollberger i n al etter d ated 1 .5.67 q uoted b y M .-T . B arrelet ( Barrelet ( 1970) p . 2 44, n . 2 5 b is).

4 7.

M oortgat a nd M oortgat-Correns ( 1974), p . 1 55 f f., l ist 3 5 e xamples t o w hich m ay b e a dded t hree e xamples f ound a t T ell S uleimeh ( alG ailani-Werr ( 1984), p . 6 8, N os. 8 , 9a nd 1 0) o f w hich o ne i s i ncluded h ere ( Cat. R ef. N o. E 6) a nd t he u npublished e xample i n t he U niversity o f C hicago O riental I nstitute ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 30).

4 8.

T he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene a ppears o n a s eal f rom S usa ( Amiet ( 1980a) N o. 1 450), a nd a v ersion o f t he t heme a ppears o n a s eal f rom A dab ( Amiet ( 1980a) N o. 1 457). T he s cene a lso a ppears o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance w hich m ay h ave c ome f rom T ello ( Delaporte ( 1923) P l. 7 0, N o. 5 , ( No. A 126); P arrot ( 1950), P . 15).

4 9.

T he s cene i s d escribed a s " Zikurrat-bau" b y A . M oortgat a nd U . M oortgat-Correns ( 1974) P . 1 52) a nd i s n amed " The B uilding o f a T emple T ower" b y H . F rankfort ( 1939a, p . 7 6). H . F rankfort e xpresses t he v iew t hat t he s cene d epicts e ither t he b uilding o f a t emple t ower o r ar ite a ssociated w ith t he b uilding o f a t ower, b ut h e a lso a dds i n af ootnote ( Frankfort ( 1939a), n . 2 , p . 7 6) •t hat t he s cene m ay r epresent a n a gricultural r ite. P . A miet r efers t o t he s cene a s, " La C onstruction d 'un E difice ä E tages" b ut c ommenting o n t he p roportions o f t he m ounds w hich a re n owhere

P .

6 2, N o.

1 9.

4 9

m uch a bove m an-height a n d a re u sually s maller, h e i nterprets t he m ounds a s " jouant l e r öle eautels a e scaliers" ( Amiet ( 1980a) p p . 1 81, 1 82 a nd 1 84). 5 0.

a l-Gailani-Werr ( 1984),

5 1.

D elaporte ( 1920) P l. 4 , N o. 5 ( No. T 87), L ouvre N o. A O 2 879.

5 2.

D elaporte ( 1923) P l.

5 3.

P ettinato ( 1981),

5 4.

I a m i ndebted t o D r. M ark G eller o f t he D epartment o f H ebrew , U niversity C ollege, L ondon , f or h is e xposition o f t he t ext i n " Ebia i n i ts M esopotamian C ontext", ( Egyptian a nd N ear E astern S eminars ( Session 1 984-1985), U niversity C ollege, L ondon , 5 .11.1984).

5 5.

S tele o f t he V ultures, L ines V II 1 2 -X VI 1 1 ( Sollberger e t K upper ( 1971), I C5(a), p p. 4 7-50).

5 6.

E ntemena C one, L ines I 1 3-31 ( Sollberger e t K upper I C7(i), p p. 7 1-74 , n ote(e), p . 7 4).

5 7.

S oliberger e t K upper,

5 8.

C at. R ef. N os. A 28 a nd A 30.

5 9.

T he s ignificant f eatures o f t his r ope w ere n oted b y L . H euzey ( Heuzey ( 1891-1915), p . 5 9ff. H e o bserves t hat i t i s a r ope a nd n ot a l adder, a s t he f eet o f t he b asket-carriers n ever g o b ehind t he r ope a nd t hat t he r ope h as n o v isible f ixture. C ommenting o n t he a bsence o f a ny i ndication o f e arth c overing t he b odies, h e c oncludes t hat t he s cene r epresents r ites w hich t ook p lace b efore t he c ompletion o f t he m ound.

6 0.

A miet ( 1980a), p . 1 83, n otes t he p resence o f a r ope o r c ord i n t he a ction r epresented i n s ome v ersions o f t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene, a s f or e xample i n C at. R ef. N os. E l a nd E 6.

6 1.

C at. R ef. N o. E 6.

6 2.

E anatum b oulder, L ines V I 6-V II 2 . N o. I C5(b), p . 5 9.

6 3.

P arrot ( 1950),

6 4.

H ilprecht ( 1903),

6 5.

S teinkeller ( 1977),

6 6.

B iggs ( 1975),

p .

p .

P .

7 2.

7 0 , N o.

i l ( No. A 131), L ouvre N o. A O 4 709.

p . 9 9 f f.

( 1971),

N o.

p . 5 7, n . 6 .

13. p . 4 75. p . 4 2, N o.

1 85.

5 0

1 .

( Sollberger e t K upper ( 1971)

6 7.

T he l ibation c eremony a ppears o n t he r everse f ace o f T he f igure b efore w hom t he c eremony i s p erformed m issing, t he f eet o nly a nd a s mall p ortion o f t he p reserved.

6 8.

F or t his i nterpretation o f t he h eaddress w orn b y d ivinities o n o bjects a ttributed b y i nscription t o r ulers o f t he L agash d ynasty, Ia m i ndebted t o J. J. O rchard.

6 9.

H artman a nd O ppenheim ( 1950),

7 0.

e .g., W oolley ( 1934) P l. 1 94, N o. 2 2 ( U 1 2374), N o. 2 3 ( U 1 2387) a nd N o. 2 9 ( U 1 0823). A s ilver d rinking t ube d ecorated w ith g old a nd l apis l azuli ( U 1 0450) w as f ound w ith a l arge s ilver p ot ( U 1 0462) a mong t he g rave f urnishings o f P uabi a t U r, ( Woolley ( 1934), p . 8 1 and p . 5 57.

7 1.

F rankfort ( 1939b), P l.

7 2.

F rom t he t ime o f t he F ara t exts o nwards, t he c uneiform s ign f or t he b rewer ( Sumerian : k ag), d epicts a c ontainer w ith a p ointed b ase, r eferred t o b y H artman a nd O ppenheim ( 1950) a s a k ag-vessel ( p. 8 ) o r ak ag-vat ( p. 9 ).

7 3.

P ostgate a nd M oorey ( 1976), p p.

7 4.

W eadock ( 1975), p .

1 04.

7 5.

W eadock ( 1975), p .

1 01.

7 6.

P arrot ( 1948),

7 7.

S ome o f t he f oundation f igurines a re d escribed b y s ome a uthors a s r epresenting f eminine f igures. F or e xample, A dd. I llus. V I i s d escribed a s a f eminine f igure i n t he B ritish M useum G uide t o t he B abylonian a nd A ssyrian A ntiquities ( 1922) p . 9 0 a nd v an B uren ( 1931), p . 6 ; C at. R ef. N o. N 6 i s d escribed a s a f emale d ivinity b y P arrot ( 1948), p . 1 05.

7 8.

T he i dea t hat t he d ivine h orned h eaddress c ould t ake t he f orm o f a h orned w ig d erives f rom a c omment m ade b y P . A miet w ho, i n d escribing t he h eaddress w orn b y t he n aked h ero i n a s cene o n a s eal f rom T ell A grab ( Cat. R ef. N o . C 2b) s ays, " On p eut p enser q u 'il e st c oiffe d 'une p erruque c ornue p lutöt q ue d 'une dare p roprement d ite ." ( Amiet ( 1955), p . 5 4 ; N o. 3 ).

7 9.

S .A. R ashid l ists 2 1 e xamples ( Rashid ( 1983) N os. 7 6), t o w hich m ay b e a dded C at. R ef. N o. N 8.

8 0.

R ashid ( 1983) N os.

8 1.

H ussey ( 1931), p . 8 1.

8 2.

M usee d u L ouvre , N o. A O 2 344; M oortgat ( 1969) N o.

8 3.

d e S arzec a nd H euzey ( 1884-1912), P l. 5 b is, 3 a , c .

p .

p .

1 07, N o.

t he s tele. i s l argely r obe b eing

1 2.

1 87.

1 50-153

1 02.

4 9-62;

1 -48.

5 1

1 11.

6 4-69;

8 4.

F oster ( 1985), p . 2 7.

8 5.

A miet ( 1980a), N o.

8 6.

T he b oatgod i s f requently r epresented w ith a p igtail. A s t he p igtail i s am asculine h airstyle i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t he b oatgod i s r egarded a s am ale d ivinity.

8 7.

B arrelet ( 1952),

8 8.

B arrelet ( 1952), p . 2 92.

8 9.

e .g. s tatues a nd f emale f igures o n s tone r eliefs f rom U mma a nd T ello o f E arly D ynastic I I-III d ate ( Moortgat ( 1969), P ls. 3 3 , 3 4 , 9 9, 1 00 a nd 1 09).

9 0.

A miet ( 1980a), p .

9 1.

B oehmer ( 1967), T ab. I II, C -D/10.

9 2.

B arrelet ( 1952),

1 406.

p . 2 85.

1 62.

p . 2 86.

5 2

P ART I I

AC OMPARATIVE S TUDY O F T HE H ORN T YPES O F T HE E ARLY D YNASTIC D IVINE H EADDRESS

I NTRODUCTION I t i s a w idely a ccepted v iew t hat i n a ncient M esopotamia , d ivinities w ere d istinguished f rom h uman b eings b y a h eaddress c omprising o r i ncorporating b ull's h orns,* 93 w hich , i n t he w ords, o f E . D horme, " venues l e s ymbole d e l a f orce, d e l 'orgueil, d e l a t oute p uissance".* 4 H owever, i n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress s how a m arked d iversity o f f orm t o t he e xtent t hat i t m ay b e a sked w hether t hese h orns a re, i n a ll c ases, i ntended t o r epresent b ull 's h orns. P art I I o f t his s tudy i s c oncerned w ith t he q uestion o f t he n ature a nd s ignificance o f t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T he q uestion i s d ealt w ith i n t hree s ections. I n S ection I , t he c onventions u sed t o r epresent t he t wo h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress a re e xamined o n t he b asis o f a s tatistical a nalysis o f t he h orn t ypes o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses s et o ut i n T ables N os. 2 1-23. I n S ection I I, c attle a nd c omposite a nalysis o f t he h orn p rofile, b ullmen w ith T ables N os. 2 4-27.

t he c onventions u sed t o r epresent t he h orns o f b ull c reatures a re e xamiR O, u sing a s tatistical t ypes o f b ovid a nimals,*'' b ullmen w ith h ead i n h ead f ull-face a nd h uman-headed b ulls, s et o ut i n

I n S ection I II , t he h orn t ypes o f t he d ivine h eaddress a re c omp ared w ith t he h orn t ypes o f c attle a nd c omposite b ull c reatures a nd s ome e xplanations a re o ffered t o a ccount f or t he t ypes o f h orn w hich a ppear i n t he d ivine h eaddress b ut a re n ot u sed i n r epresentations o f a nimals o r c omposite b ull f igures. T he t erminology u sed t o d escribe t he h orn t ypes o f t he d ivine h eaddress ( see P art I V , I ntroductory N otes t o t he C atalogue), i s a lso u sed t o d escribe t he h orn t ypes o f b ullmen a nd h uman-headed b ulls. O bjects f eaturing a nimals, b ullmen a nd h uman-headed b ulls a re d ated a ccording t o t he s ystem u sed i n t his s tudy, d etailed o n p . 2 . O bjects d ated t o E arly D ynastic I IIa a nd E arly D ynastic I IIb a re i ncluded u nder " ED I II", i n T ables N os. 2 4-27.

5 3

I

T HE H ORN T YPES O F T HE D IVINE H EADDRESS

T he t ypes o f h orn a ppearing i n t he d ivine h eaddress o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a nd t he t erminology u sed i n t his s tudy t o d escribe t hem a re s et o ut i n d etail i n t he I ntroductory N otes t o t he C atalogue , P art I V. A s m ay b e s een f rom T ables N os. 2 1-23, i n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t he h orns o f d ivine h eaddresses a nalysed a ccording t o t heir t ype f all i nto t he f ollowing g roups: 1 .

C urved h orns.

2 .

T hick h orns w ith l ittle o r n o c urvature.

3 .

A ngled h orns.

4 .

A symmetrical h orns w here o ne h orn i s a ngled a nd t he o ther c urved o r s traight.

5 .

H orns r epresented b y s traight l ines.

6 .

H orns r epresented b y t riangular p rojections.

7 .

H orns o f u nique t ype:

1 .

C urved h orns

m iscellaneous.

I n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, h eaddresses w orn m ost c ommonly r epresented w ith c urved h orns. I n t he f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, w here t he h orn t ype 7 2% ( 80:111) o f t he d ivine h eaddresses h ave h orns o f b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 1, t hese c urved h orns m ay b e s ub-groups: a )

b y d ivinities a re m aterial a ssembled c an b e v erified, t his t ype. A s m ay d ivided i nto f ive

C urved h orns o f l ow t o m edium h eight

D ivine h eaddresses o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a re m ost c ommonly r epresented w ith h orns o f t his s ub-group. H orns o f l ow t o m edium h eight, w hich c urve u pwards, i nwards o r o utwards, a ppear i n o ver h alf o f t he t otal n umber o f d ivine h eaddresses i n t he m aterial a nalysed ( 60:111). A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 1a, l ow t o m edium c urved h orns a ppear i n d ivine h eaddresses o f b oth T ype A a nd T ype B , r epresented i n a ll m edia f rom E arly D ynastic I I t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod. D ivine h eaddresses w ith l ow t o m edium c urved h orns a ppear o n o bjects f rom t he s outh, f rom t he M iddle a nd U pper E uphrates a nd f rom s ites i n t he D iyala r egion. b )

T all c urved h orns

T all c urved h orns a ppear i n T ype B h eaddresses o nly, t hese b eing w orn b y d iviniLies a ppearing e ither i n s cenes t eaturing t he b oatgod o r i n t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene. A s o bserved o n p ages 7 a nd 1 8, b oth t hese s cenes a re o f n orthern o r n orth-western o rigin. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 1b, d ivine h eaddresses w ith t all c urved h orns a ppear o n s eals w hich c annot b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic

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p eriod ( "ED") b ut w hich, j udged o n s tyle, c ould b e a s e arly a s E D I I, a nd o n s eals d ated E D I II. H eaddresses w ith h orns o f t his t ype o n o bjects w hose p rovenance i s k nown c ome f rom U r, K ish, M ari a nd s ites i n t he D iyala r egion. c )

C urved h orns j oined t ogether t o f orm a n a rc o r c rescent

D ivine h eaddresses i n w hich c urved h orns a re j oined t ogether t o f orm a n a rc o r c rescent a ppear o nly r arely i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n c ertain c ases, t he c rescentic o r a rc-like s hape f ormed b y t he j oining o f t he t wo h orns m ay b e d ue t o a n i mprecision i n t he c utting o f t he s eal o r p ossibly t o t he c hance e ffect o f s urface d amage ( e.g. C at. R ef. N o. C 5f). H owever, i n t he m aterial a nalysed, t here a re f our h eaddresses i n w hich t he i ntention w ould a ppear t o b e t o r epresent t he t wo h orns i n t he f orm o f ac rescent. T hree o f t hese h eaddresses a ppear o n s eals, t he f ourth i s o n a n e ngraved s hell p laque. I n t wo c ases ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 31c a nd L 4), t he h eaddress i s p ositioned a bove t he h ead o f t he d ivinity, a c onvention n ot u sed i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod f or d ivine h eaddresses o f a ny o ther f orm . A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 1c, o ne o f t he d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he h orns a re j oined i n t he f orm o f ac rescent c annot b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"), w hile t he o ther t hree a re d ated t o E D I IIb o r E D I IIb/Akkad. D ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he h orns a re t reated i n t his m anner o n o bjects w hose p rovenance i s k nown c ome f rom M ari a nd U ruk . d )

C urved h orns w ith e verted t ips

U pward-curving h orns w ith e verted t ips a ppear r arely i n t he d ivine h eaddresses o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t he m aterial a nalysed, t here a re t wo h eaddresses w ith h orns o f t his t ype. T hese h eaddresses, b oth o f T ype B , a re w orn b y t he b oatgod a nd h is p assenger i n a n u nusual s cene f eaturing t he b oatgod ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 37). A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 1d, t he s eal c annot b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED") a nd t he p rovenance o f t he s eal i s u nknown. e )

L yriform h orns

L yriform h orns, i .e., h orns w ith a p ronounced o utward c urve t o t he u pper p art o f e ach h orn, a re u sed o nly r arely t o r epresent t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. I n t he m aterial a nalysed, t here a re o nly t hree d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he h orns c ould j ust c onceivably h ave b een o f t his t ype. O ne a ppears o n a s eal w hich h as s urface d amage a nd t wo a ppear o n s eal i mpressions w hich a re i mperfectly p reserved. T he i dentification o f t his t ype o f h orn m ust, t herefore, b e r egarded a s u ncertain i n a ll t hree c ases. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 1e, n one o f t hese t hree d ivine h eaddresses c an b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"). T he t wo s eal i mpress ions a re f rom F ara a nd t he s eal i s f rom K hafajah. 2 .

T hick h orns w ith l ittle o r n o c urvature

• I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here a re t hree d ivine h eaddresses, a ll o f T ype A , i n w hich t he h orns a re t hick, w ith l ittle o r n o c urvature, a nd p ositioned s o t hat t hey s tand

5 5

v ertically a t r ight a ngles t o t he b ase o f t he h eaddress. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 2, a ll t hree h eaddresses a re o n o bjects o f s outhern p rovenance a nd a ll m ay b e a ssigned t o t he e arly p art o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T wo o f t he h eaddresses a ppear o n s telae f rom U r a nd A l H iba d ated b y i nscription t o U r N anshe. T he t hird h eaddress a ppears o n a l imestone r elief f rom T ello w hich m ay b e d ated o n s tylistic g rounds t o t he p re-Ur N anshe p eriod. T he U r N anshe s tele f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. K l) i s o f g ranite a nd t he l ack o f d etail o r s ubtlety i n t he t reatment o f t he h orns m ay b e a scribed t o t he i ntractable n ature o f t he s tone i n w hich t he c raftsman h ad t o w ork. H owever, i n p roportion a nd o utline, t he t wo h orns o f t he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t his s tele c losely r esemble t he t wo h orns o f t he h eaddress w orn b y a g oddess o n t he l imestone r elief f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6). T he h eaddress o n t he T ello r elief i s i n a f air s tate o f p reservation, t he t ips o nly o f t he h orns b eing l ost t hrough s urface d amage. T he U r N anshe s tele f rom A l H iba ( Cat. R ef. N o. K 3) h as s uffered s ome s urface d amage, b ut t he p reserved r emains a nd t he p osition o f t he h ead o f t he d ivinity w ithin t he s culpted a rea i ndicate t hat t he h orns o f t he h eaddress a re t hick a nd p ointed v ertically. I n t heir p roportions a nd p lacement, t he h orns o f t hese d ivine h eaddresses h ave n o p arallel i n h orned h eaddresses o f t he p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. 3 .

t hree l ater

A ngled h orns

D ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he t wo h orns a re a ngled a ppear i n t he g lyptic r epertory o nly. D ivine h eaddresses w ith t his t ype o f h orn a re a lways o f T ype B . H eaddresses w ith a ngled h orns a re w orn b y d ivinities a ppearing i n s cenes o f w orship a nd r itual, i n s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod a nd i n a s cene o f c ombat. I n o ne s cene f eaturing t he b oatgod ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 17), t he p assenger w ears a h eaddress w ith a ngled h orns w hile, b y c ontrast, t he b oatgod i s r epresented w ith a h eaddress w ith t all c urved h orns. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 2, h eaddresses w ith a ngled h orns a ppear o n s eals w hich c annot b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED") a nd o n s eals d ated t o E D I II. H eaddresses w ith h orns o f t his t ype o n o bjects w hose p rovenance i s k nown c ome f rom M ari a nd T ell A smar, s o t his m anner o f r epresenting t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress c annot b e e xplained a s t he i diosyncrasy o f a p articular s chool o f s eal c utting. 4 .

A symmetrical h orns

D ivine h eaddresses w ith a symmetrical h orns, i .e., w here o ne o f t he p air i s a ngled w hile t he o ther i s s traight o r c urved, o ccur i n t he g lyptic r epertory o nly, a lthough t here i s o ne h eaddress o n a s tone r elief f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 2) w hich m ay b elong t o t his g roup ( see p . 8 0). I n h eaddresses w ith a symmetrical h orns, t he a ngled h orn i s m ost c ommonly o n t he r ight. I n t he m aterial a nalysed, t here i s o nly o ne h eaddress i n w hich t he a ngled h orn i s o n t he l eft. T his a ppears o n a s eal f rom K ish ( Cat. R ef. N o. A la). A s econd e xample o f a d ivine h eaddress w ith a symmetrical h orns f rom K ish ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 4a) s hows

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t he a ngled h orn o n t he r ight. D ivine h eaddresses w ith a symmetrical h orns a re a lways H eaddresses w ith h orns o f t his t ype a re w orn b y d ivinities i n t he " Building a Z iggurat' s cene, i n s cenes f eaturing t he i n a r itual d rinking s cene w hich a ppears o n a s eal f rom ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 4).

o f T ype B . r epresented b oatgod a nd T ell A smar

A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 2, o ne d ivine h eaddress w ith a symmetrical h orns a ppears o n a s eal d ated t o E D I I f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 8b). A ll t he o ther e xamples o ccur o n s eals w hich c annot b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"). H eaddresses w ith h orns t reated i n t his m anner o n o bjects w hose p rovenance i s k nown c ome f rom T ello, K ish, K hafajah, T ell A smar a nd T ell S uleimeh. O n t he s eal f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 25b), t he h eaddress w ith a symmetrical h orns i s w orn b y t he b oatgod i n a c lassic v ersion o f t he b oatgod s cene. A s o bserved o n p ages 7 a nd 1 8, t he b oatgod t heme a nd t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene a re b oth o f n orthern o r n orth-western o rigin. T his e vidence, t aken t ogether w ith t he d istribution p attern o f d ivine h eadd resses w ith h orns o f t his t ype, s uggests t hat t he c onvention o f r epresenting t he t wo h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress a s a n a symmetrical p air i s c haracteristic o f t he i conography o f t he n orth. 5 .

H orns r epresented b y s traight l ines

D ivine h eaddresses i n w hich a s traight l ine i s u sed t o r epresent o ne o r b oth o f t he h orns a ppear i n t he g lyptic r epertory o nly. T he h orns o f h eaddresses o f b oth T ype A a nd T ype B m ay b e r epresented b y s traight l ines. H eaddresses i n w hich b oth h orns a re r epresented a s s traight l ines a re w orn b y d ivinities a ppearing i n a s cene f eaturing t he b oatgod, a s cene o f o ffering a nd a r itual d rinking s cene. H eadd resses i n w hich o ne o f t he p air o f h orns i s r epresented a s a s traight l ine a re w orn b y d ivinities i n t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene a nd s cenes o f r itual d rinking a nd f easting. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 3, i n t he m aterial a nalysed, t here a re t hree d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich b oth h orns a re r epresented b y s traight l ines, a ll a ppearing o n s eals o f u nknown p rovenance. O ne s eal i s d ated t o E D I I, o ne t o E D I II a nd t he t hird c annot b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"). H eaddresses i n w hich o ne o f t he p air o f h orns i s r epresented b y a s traight l ine a ppear o n t hree s eals, n one o f w hich c an b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"). O f t he t wo s eals w hose p rovenance i s k nown, o ne c omes f rom T ell A grab a nd t he o ther f rom i shchali. o .

H orns r epresented b y t riangular p rojections

I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here a re t hree d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he h orA2 h ave t he a ppearance o f t riangles r ising f rom t he t op o f t he h ead.*"" A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 3, t hese t hree h eaddresses a ppear o n s eals, n one o f w hich c an b e d ated c losely w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"). T he

o riginal

i ntention

t o r epresent

5 7

t he

h orns

a s

t riangular

p rojections i s, i n e ach c ase, f ar f rom c ertain. I n t wo c ases ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 5 a nd A 32) t he s urface o f t he s eal i s w orn a nd t he a pparent s hape o f t he h orns m ay b e d ue t o t he e ffects o f s urface d amage. I n t he t hird c ase ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 34), t he s eal i s i n g ood c ondition a nd t he b oatgod i s c learly r epresented w ith t hree t riangular p rojections r ising f rom t he t op o f t he h ead. H owever, t he s cene c ontains s o m any u nique f eatures i t c annot b e a ssumed t hat t he i ntention w as t o r epresent t he b oatgod w ith a f orm o f d ivine h eaddress. T he t reatment o f t he b oatg od's h ead i n t his i nstance h as m uch i n c ommon w ith c ertain h eroes w ho a re r epresented i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography w ith h air e n b rosse. 7 .

H orns o f u nique t ype:

m iscellaneous

T here a re f our d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he h orns a re o f a t ype n ot f ound e lsewhere i n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy. i )

A s cene o n a s eal i mpression f rom F ara d ated o n s tyle t o E arly D ynastic I I ( Cat. R ef. N o. B 1) f eatures a d ivinity h auling a b oat i n w hich t here a re t wo s eated p assengers a nd a b oatman. O ne o f t he s eated p assengers i s r epresented w ith h orns, w hich, g iven t he c ontext, m ay b e a ssumed t o i ndicate t hat t he f igure i s i ntended t o r epresent a d ivinity. T he h ead o f t his d ivinity i s s hown w ith t wo a dditional p rojections, o ne o n e ither s ide o f t he h ead, w hich s eem t o b e i ntended a s a nimal e ars, b ut t heir s hape, a s p reserved i n t he i mpression , g ives n o i ndication o f t he s pecies o f a nimal c oncerned. I n t heir o utline a nd i n t heir h orizontal p osition i n r elation t o t he h ead, t he h orns m ore r esemble t hose o f a s pecies o f s heep t han t he h orns o f c attle.

i i)

H orns o f au nique t ype a ppear i n a h eaddress w orn b y a d ivinity s eated a nd h olding w eapons, o n a f ragment o f a s tone r elief o f E arly D ynastic I IIa d ate f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 2). T he l eft h orn i s l ong a nd s lender a nd c urves o ver t he t op o f t he h ead. V estiges o f r idges a nd g rooves s till p reserved o n t he o uter e dge s uggest t hat o riginally t he l ower p ortion o f t he h orn w as d ecorated w ith t ransverse p arallel b ars. T he t ip o f t he r ight h orn m ay b e m issing, b ut i ts p reserved l ength d iffers f rom t he c orresponding p ortion o f t he l eft h orn. T his h orn i s b roader i n s ection t han t hat o n t he l eft a nd m idway a long i ts p reserved l ength t here i s ac hange i n t he d irection o f t he c urvature n ot o bservable i n t he l eft h orn. I t i s p ossible t hat t his i s a n e xample o f a d ivine h eaddress w ith a symmetrical h orns k nown e lsewhere o nly o n s eals ( see p . 8 0).

i ii)

I n a " Building a Z iggurat" s cene o n a s eal f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. E 5) t he e xact d ate o f w hich w ithin t he E arly D ynastic p eriod i s u ncertain ( "ED"), a s eated f igure i s f eatured. T his f igure i s s hown w ith a h eaddress r epresented b y t wo s traight l ines w hich r ise f rom t he t op o f t he h ead a nd s lope i nwards t o f orm a t riangle o r c one.

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i v)

O n a s eal i mpression o n a c lay t ablet o f u nknown p rovenance o f E arly D ynastic I IIb d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 9), t hree d ivinities a re r epresented. O ne o f t he d ivinities ( Cat. R ef. N o. F 9b) i s s hown w ith a h eaddress w hich c omprises a s eries o f p rojections r ising f rom t he t op o f t he h ead. T hese s tart a t t he f orehead a nd p ass o ver t he c rown o f t he h ead t o t he n ape o f t he n eck. T his h eaddress i s u nique i n t he i conography o f M esopotamia, b ut i t d oes h ave a p arallel i n a h eaddress w orn b y a f igure w hich b y c ontext m ay b e i dentified a s a d ivinity o n a s eal i mpression f rom S usa ( Add. I llus. X b).

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I I

T HE H ORN T YPES O F B OVID A NIMALS, B ULLMEN A ND H UMAN-HEADED B ULLS

I n u ndertaking a s tudy o f a s pecific f eature o f a n a nimal r epresented i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography, t he i nitial p roblem i s t o d evise a m eans b y w hich t he a nimal m ay b e r eliably i dentified. A s t he r epresentation o f t he h orns i s t he s ubject u nder i nvestigation, p hysical c haracteristics o ther t han t he h orns h ad t o b e s elected o n w hich a n i dentification o f t he a nimal c ould b e b ased. A s urvey o f aw ide r ange o f a nimals o n o bjects o f E arly D ynastic d ate r evealed t hat c ertain c onventions w ere a dopted b y t he a rtist/ c raftsman f or r epresenting t he t ails o f d ifferent s pecies o f a nimal. A mong t he a nimals r epresented i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography, o nly t hree a re c ustomarily s hown w ith l ong t ails : l ions , b ovids a nd a v ariety o f l ong-tailed s heep. O f t hese t hree s pecies o f a nimal, t he l ion i s d istinguishable f rom b ovids a nd s heep b y t he a bsence o f h orns. T he t wo s pecies o f h orned a nimal r epresented w ith l ong t ails a re d istinguishable f rom e ach o ther b y t heir c oats , s heep b eing r epresented w ith l ong f leeces, b ovids w ith s mooth h ides. O n t he b asis o f t his s urvey, t herefore , i t w as d ecided t hat a h orned a nimal w ith a l ong t ail a nd a s mooth h ide c ould, w ith r easonable c ertainty, b e a ccepted a s i ntended t o r epresent a s pecies o f b ovid. T his s ystem o f i dentification i s a pplied t o a ll r epresentations o f a nimals a ppearing o n t he m aterial s elected f or t he a nalysis. T he r igorous a pplication o f t he d iagnostic c riteria o f al ong t ail a nd a s mooth h ide h as r esulted i n t he e xclusion o f r epresentations o f a nimals w here t he h indquarters a re l ost b ecause o f s urface d amage a nd o f a nimals r epresented c ouchant w here t he t ail i s n ot c learly v isible, e ven t hough i n s ome o f t hese c ases t he i ntention w as a lmost c ertainly t o r epresent a b ovid a nimal. T he b ovid c haracteristics o f as mooth h ide a nd a l ong t ail a re a lso u sed a s am eans o f i dentifying c omposite c reatures w ith c ombined h uman a nd a nimal a ttributes. I n t he m aterial s elected f or t he a nalysis, o nly t hose c reatures r epresented w ith a l ong t ail a nd s mooth h ide a re a ccepted a s a f orm o f b ull-creature . A gain , t he r igorous a pplication o f t his m ethod o f i dentification h as r esulted i n t he e xclusion o f f igures w here t he h indquarters a re o bscured o r l ost t hrough s urface d amage, s ome o f w hich w ere a lmost c ertainly i ntended t o b e b ull-creatures. T his s ystem o f i dentification s erved t o r eveal t he a mbiguous s tatus o f t he h orned h ero w ho a ppears i n av ariety o f c ont exts i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography, i ncluding t he c ombat s cene. T he h orns o f t his f igure m ay h ave b een i ntended a s c attle h orns, b ut i n t he a bsence o f t he c haracteristic l ong b ovid t ail, t his t ype o f f igure w as e xcluded f rom t he a nalysis. A f igure i s d escribed a s a b ullman i f i t h as a h uman t orso a nd t he h indquarters a nd l ong t ail o f ab ovid o r w here t he f igure h as t he a natomy o f a b ovid a nimal b ut i s p resented i n a h uman p osture.* 97 F igures w ith t he c omplete a natomy o f a b ovid e xcept f or t heir h uman f acial f eatures a re d escribed a s h uman-headed b ulls. I n s electing t he m aterial w hich w as t o f orm t he b asis s tudy, t he c riteria a dopted w ere t hat o bjects s hould b e :

6 0

o f

t his

a )

O f t he s ame p rovenance a s o bjects b earing r epresentations t he d ivine h eaddress.

b )

W ithin t he s ame d ate r ange a s o bjects b earing o f t he d ivine h eaddress.

c )

I n t he s ame m edia a s t hose i n w hich r epresentations d ivine h eaddress h ave b een p reserved.

o f

r epresentations

o f

t he

R epresentations o f t he d ivine h eaddress a ppear o n s telae, s tone r eliefs, s hell e ngravings, s eals a nd s eal i mpressions r anging i n d ate f rom E arly D ynastic I I t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod. T his s tudy i s b ased, t herefore, o n r epresentations o f a nimals a nd c omposite c reatures w ith a nimal a nd h uman a ttributes a ppearing o n s telae, s tone r eliefs, s hell e ngravings , s eals a nd s eal i mpressions r anging i n d ate f rom E arly D ynastic I I t o E arly D ynastic I IIb f rom a ll s ites w here r epresentations o f t he d ivine h eaddress h ave b een f ound. T he a nimals a nd c omposite f igures w ith h uman a nd a nimal a ttributes r epresented i n t he m aterial s elected f or t his s tudy w ere e ach e xamined i ndividually. U sing t he s ystem d escribed a bove f or t he i dentification o f b ovid a nimals , b ullmen a nd h uman-headed b ulls , t his e xamination r evealed: 1 54 a nimals w hich c ould b e a ccepted a s b ovid a nimals. 9 2 c omposite c reatures w hich c ould b e a ccepted a s b ullmen , o f w hich 7 5 w ere p resented w ith h ead i n p rofile a nd 1 7 w ith h ead f ull-face . 5 1 c omposite b ulls.

c reatures w hich c ould b e a ccepted

a s

h uman-headed

T he h orn t ypes o f t hese b ovid a nimals a nd b ull-creatures w ere a nalysed u sing t he s ame t erminology e mployed t o d escribe t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress s et o ut i n d etail i n t he I ntroductory N otes t o t he C atalogue , P art I V . T he r esults o f t he a nalysis a re s et o ut i n T ables N os. 2 4 -2 7. I n t he d iscussion w hich f ollows, t he h orn t ypes o f b ovid a nimals, b ullmen a nd h uman-headed b ulls w ill b e c ompared w ith t he h orn t ypes a ppearing i n t he d ivine h eaddress i n o rder t o s ee h ow f ar t hey r esemble o r d iffer f rom e ach o ther. H ORN T YPES:

B ovid A nimals

T he a nalysis o f t he h orn t ypes o f a nimals i dentified a s b ovids i n t he m aterial s urveyed, i s s et o ut i n T able N o. 2 4. O f t he 1 54 b ovid a nimals i dentified, a ll a re r epresented w ith t he h ead i n p rofile. A ll t he a nimals e xcept o ne, a re r epresented w ith a s ingle h orn i n p rofile. T he e xception o ccurs o n a s eal i mpression f rom F ara w here t he a nimal i s r epresented w ith a p air o f i nward-curving h orns. T he s eal f rom w hich t his i mpression w as m ade w as c rudely c ut a nd c annot b e d ated o n s tyle t o a p articular p hase o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod.

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H ORN T YPES:

B ullmen

I n t he E arly D ynastic i conography, b ullmen m ay b e r epresented w ith h ead i n p rofile o r f ull-face. I n t he a nalysis o f t he h orn t ypes, t hese t wo f orms o f b ullmen a re t reated s eparately. I n t he m aterial e xamined, t here a re 7 5 f igures o f t he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile o n o bjects r anging i n d ate f rom E arly D ynastic I I t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 5, t his t ype o f b ullman i s a lways r epresented, l ike t he a nimals, w ith a s ingle h orn i n p rofile. T he b ullman w ith h ead s hown f ull-face a ppears l ess f requently t han t he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile ( 17:75). A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 6, o f t he 1 7 e xamples n oted, 1 a re d ated t o E arly D ynastic I I a nd t hree a re d ated t o E arly D ynastic I II. O f t he t hree e xamples w hich c annot b e a ssigned o n s tyle t o a p articular p hase o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"), o ne i s t he f igure o f a b ullman w ith h ead s hown f ull-face w hich a ppears o n a s eal i mpression f rom F ara ( Add. I llus. X I). O n t he b asis o f c omparison w ith s cenes o n s eal i mpressions f rom U r, t he F ara i mpression c ould b e a s e arly a s E arly D ynastic I .* 98 I f t his i s s o, t his f igure i s o ne o f t he e arliest r epresentations o f a f ull-face b ullman t o a ppear o n a n o bject o f k nown M esopotamian o rigin.* 99 T he f ull-face b ullman i s a lways r epresented w ith a p air o f h orns o f l ow t o m edium h eight. I n 1 6 c ases, t he h orns a re o f t he i nwardc urving t ype, i n o ne c ase, t he h orns h ave e verted t ips. I n t he m aterial s urveyed, t here i s n o e xample o f a f ull-face b ullman w ith l yriform h orns, a h orn t ype c ommonly a ssociated w ith h uman-headed b ulls. H ORN T YPES:

H uman-headed B ulls

I n t he m aterial s urveyed f or t his s tudy, t here a re 5 1 e xamples o f h uman-headed b ulls. O f t hese, 5 0 a ppear o n o bjects d ated t o E arly D ynastic I II a nd o ne o n a s eal w hich , j udged b y s tyle, c annot b e a ssigned t o a p articular p hase o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod ( "ED"). T his e vidence s uggests t hat t he h uman-headed b ull e ntered t he E arly D ynastic I conography l ater t han e ither o f t he t wo t ypes o f b ullman. T he h uman-headed b ull i s a lways r epresented f ull-face a nd w ith a p air o f h orns. A s m ay b e s een f rom T able N o. 2 7, t he h uman-headed b ull i s r epresented w ith h orns o f t hree d ifferent t ypes: i nward-curving h orns, h orns w ith e verted t ips o r h orns o f t he d istinctive l yriform t ype. T he p roportion o f l yriform h orns m ay b e e ven h igher t han i ndicated i n t he T able b ecause a n umber o f e xamples a re k nown f rom s eal i mpressions o nly a nd a n i mperfect s ealing o f t he l yriform h orn m ay a ppear a s a n i nward-curving h orn. T his ma y U 0 b e s een , f or e xample , i n t he c ase o f a s eal i mpression f rom F ara* I i n w hich t he d esign i s r epeated t wice o ver. I n o ne i mprint o f t he d esign t he h orns o f t he h uman-headed b ull a ppear t o b e o f t he i nward-curving t ype . T he s econd, r ather b etter i mprint, s hows t he h orns c learly t o b e o f l yriform t ype. A s l yriform h orns d o n ot a ppear i n t he r epresentation o f o ther f orms o f b ull-creature, t his t ype o f h orn m ay b e t aken a s b eing a c haracteristic f eature o f t he h uman-headed b ull.

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S UMMARY O F T HE F INDINGS O F T HE A NALYSIS T he a nalysis o f t he b ovid a nimals, b ullmen a nd o f i nterest w ith r egard t o h eaddress w hich m ay n ow b e

c onventions u sed t o r epresent t he h orns o f h uman-headed b ulls h as r evealed i nformation t he h orn t ypes o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine s ummarised a s f ollows:

1 .

T he h orn t ype w hich o ccurs m ost c ommonly i n t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress, i .e., a p air o f i nward-curving h orns o f l ow t o m edium h eight, i s a lso u sed t o r epresent t he h orns o f t he b ullman w ith h ead s hown f ull-face a nd f or t he h orns o f t he h uman-headed b ull.

2 .

A s ingle h orn i n p rofile, t he c onvention u sed t o r epresent t he h orns o f b ovid a nimals a nd b ullmen w ith h ead i n p rofile, i s n ot u sed i n r epresentations o f t he d ivine h eaddress. A lthough d ivinities a re c ommonly r epresented w ith t he h ead i n p rofile i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography, t he d ivine h eaddress i s a lways s hown w ith t wo h orns a s i f v iewed f rom t he f ront.

3 .

A c omparison o f t he h orn t ypes r epresented i n t he d ivine h eaddress ( see T ables N os. 2 1-23) a nd t he h orn t ypes o f b ovid a nimals, b ullm en a nd h uman-headed b ulls ( see T ables N os. 2 4-27) s hows t hat c ertain c onventions u sed t o r epresent t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eadd ress a re n ot u sed t o r epresent t he h orns o f b ovid a nimals a nd b ull-creatures. T he t ypes o f h orn w hich a ppear i n t he d ivine h eadd ress b ut d o n ot o ccur i n r epresentations o f b ovid a nimals a nd b ull c reatures a re: i ) i i) i ii) i v) v )

T hick h orns w ith l ittle o r n o c urvature. A ngled o r a symmetrical h orns. T all h orns. H orns j oined t ogether t o f orm a c rescent. H orns r epresented b y s traight l ines.

T hese f indings w ill b e c onsidered i n f urther d etail b elow a nd s ome p ossible e xplanations a re e xamined t o a ccount f or c ertain o f t he v ariations i n t he h orn t ypes t hat o ccur i n t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress.

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1 11

1 .

AC OMPARATIVE S TUDY O F T HE H ORN T YPES O F B OVIDS A ND C OMPOSITE F IGURES W ITH B OVID C HARACTERISTICS A ND T HE H ORN T YPES O F T HE D IVINE H EADDRESS H ORN T YPES C OMMON T O T HE D IVINE H EADDRESS, T HE A ND T HE B ULLMAN W ITH H EAD P RESENTED F ULL-FACE

H UMAN-HEADED

B ULL

T he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a re m ost c ommonly r epresented a s a p air o f c urved h orns o f l ow t o m edium h eight ( Table N o. 2 1). A ll b ut o ne o f t he b ullmen w ith t he h ead p resented f ull-face ( Table N o. 2 6), a nd s ome, b ut n ot t he m ajority o f t he h uman-headed b ulls ( Table N o. 2 7), a re r epresented w ith h orns o f t his t ype. B ovid a nimals a re n ot r epresented w ith a p air o f h orns e xcept f or o ne a nimal p reserved i n a n i mpression o f a c rudely c ut s eal o f u ncertain d ate f rom F ara ( Table N o. 2 4). W here t he d ivine h eaddress f eatures a p air o f c urved h orns o f l ow t o m edium h eight, t he a ssociation w ould a ppear t o b e t herefore w ith t he h uman-headed b ull a nd t he b ullman w ith h ead p resented f ull-face r ather t han w ith b ovid a nimals t hemselves. I n o rder t o a rrive a t a n u nders tanding o f t he m eaning a nd s ignificance o f t his t ype o f h orn i n t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress, a s tudy w as m ade o f t he h uman-headed b ull a nd t he b ullman w ith h ead i n f ull-face w ith t he a im o f d iscovering t heir p articular c haracteristics. T he H uman-Headed B ull T he c haracteristics o f t he I ? a n-headed b ull, w hich h ave b een n oted a nd d iscussed b y P . A miet,* 1 a re i ts m arked p assivity a nd i ts a ssociation w ith m ountains. T he h uman-headed 1 m ) ,1 m ay b e r epresented w ith a f orelimb r esting o n a s tylized m ountain* 1 u ' a nd i n o ne c ase, gq h indquarters o f t he c reature t ake t he f orm o f a s tylized m ountain.* 1' A s m ountains w ere, f or t he a ncient M esopotamian, t he l and o f t he r ising s un, a c onnection b etween t he s un a nd t he h uman-headed b ull i s i mplicit i n t he i conography. T he h uman-headed b ull i s f requently r epresented a s c ouchant, a n e ssentially n on-aggressive p ose. C ommonly t he c reatures a ppear i n p airs, i n m ore t han o ne c ontext, i ncluding v ersions o f t he b oatgod s cene a nd t he c ombat s cene w here i t m ay b e r epresented a s p assant o r r ampant. I n a ll c ases, h owever, i t p reserves i ts n on-aggressive c haracter. I t i s t he v ictim o f a ttack b y l ion-headed b irds, b irds, w inged m onsters a nd l ions, a gainst w hom i t m akes n o c ounter-attack c omparable t o t he b ull w ho g ores t he u nderbelly o f a n a ttacking l ion o n s eals a nd s eal i mpressions fpy l l U r a nd s ites i n t he D iyala, a s, f or e xample i n A dd. I llus. X II.* 1 u4 E ven w hen t he h uman-headed b ull i s r epresented r ampant, t he f orelimbs a re f lexed o r u praised i n a p ose s imilar t o t hat o f t he a nimals w ho a re t he v ictims o f t he p redators. S ince t he h uman-headed b ull d oes n ot s eem t o h ave e ntered t he i conography u ntil t he E arly D ynastic I II p eriod ( see p . 6 2 a bove), t he i magery r epresented b y t his c reature c annot h ave h ad a ny d irect i nfluence o n t he d evelopment o f t he d ivine h eaddress i n t he e arly p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T his o bservation i s s upported b y t he f act t hat t he l ow t o m edium i nward-curving h orns m ost c ommonly f ound i n t he d ivine h eaddress a re n ot t ypical o f t he h uman-headed b ull.

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M ore f requently, t he h uman-headed b ull i s r epresented w ith l yriform h orns w hich c annot b e c onfidently a uthenticated f or t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress i n a ny e xample c atalogued h ere ( see p . 5 5 a bove). L yriform h orns a re n ot u sed t or t he d ivine h eaddress u ntil t he b eginn ing o f t he A kkadian p eriod. B ullman w ith H ead P resented F ull-Face A s o pposed t o t he h uman-headed b ull, t he b ullman w ith h ead p resented f ull-face m ay b e t he e arliest f orm o f c omposite b ull c reature t o a ppear i n t he i conography o f M esopotamia. T he f igure o f a f ull-face b ullman a ppears o n a s eal i mpression f rom F ara, w hich, j udged o n s tyle, c ould b e a s e arly a s E arly D ynastic I ( see p . 6 2, n . 9 8). T his i mpress ion, A dd. I llus. X I, s hows a f ull-face b ullman, i dentifiable a s s uch b y h is l ong t ail, s tanding o n o ne s ide o f a t emple f acade. F rom t he g ateway o f t he b uilding t he h ead a nd f orequarters o f a n a nimal e merge. T he s pecies o f t his a nimal i s n ot c ertain i n t hat i t m ay b e a l amb o r a c alf w hose h orns a re j ust b udding. O n a nalogy w ith s cenes f eaturing a y oung a nimal e merging f rom a s acred b yre o n s eal i mpressions f rom U r,* I°5 t he b uilding m ay b e i dentified a s a s acred b yre o r s heepfold. T he b ullman e xtends b oth f orelimbs t owards t he b yre, o ne l imb r eaching t hrough t he d oorway t owards t he y oung a nimal. T his s cene c learly e stablishes t he f ull-face b ullman i n s ome s pecial r elationship w ith d omesticated a nimals a nd s uggests t hat i n t he e arliest p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, h e w as r egarded a s p rotector o f t he t emple f locks a nd h erds. I n E arly D ynastic I I a nd E arly D ynastic I II, t he f ull-face b ullman a ppears i n v ersions o f t he c ombat s cene, a lthough h e o ccurs i n t his c ontext l ess f requently t han t he b ullman w ith h ead p resented i n p rofile. W hile s haring s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f t he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile, t he f ull-face b ullman 's r ole i n t he c ombat s cene d isplays c ertain s ignificant d ifferences. B oth t ypes o f b ullman m ay b e a rmed b ut t he f ull-face b ullman d irects h is a ttack o nly a gainst p redators a nd, u nlike t he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile, i s n ot r epresented i n c onflict w ith b ovids, c aprids o r a ny f orm o f g ame a nimal. T his i s c learly i llustrated i n a s cene o n a n E arly D ynastic I I s eal f rom T ell A grab ( Add. I llus. X II) r epresenting t wo b ullmen i ntervening i n a n a ttack b y a l ion u pon a b ull. T he b ullman o n t he l eft s eizes t he l ion's t ail a nd d irects h is d agger t owards t he p redator; t he b ullman o n t he r ight, i n a s imilar p osture, s eizes t he b ull's t ail, b ut h is d agger i s d ir yI 1 '" ed , n ot t owards t he b ull b ut t owards t he l ion. I n o ther s cenes,* t he f ull-face b ullman i s h ims elf t he v ictim o f t he l ion 's a ttack, s uggesting t hat t he b ullman i s i dentified w ith t he p rey r ather t han t he p redator. T he h ead o f t he f ull-face b ullman i s t reated a s i f i t w ere a h uman h ead f urnished w ith h orns a nd a nimal e ars. F or e xample, t he b ullman i n t he s cene o n a n E arly D ynastic I I s eal f rom T ell A grab ( Add. I llus. X IIb) i s s hown w ith a nimal e ars, a lthough h is h air i s d ressed i n p arallel b ands o n e ither s ide o f a c entre p arting w ith s ide l ocks h angi ng d cwn o n e ither s ide o f h is b eard. T he t reatment o f t he t op o f t he h ead a nd t he h orns o f a f ull-face b ullman d rawn o n a n E arly D ynastic I IIa c lay t ablet f rom F ara ( Add. I llus. X III) c omes v ery c lose t o a r epresentation o f a d ivine h eaddress. Am otif c ontained b etween t he h orns r esembles a m otif a ppearing i n s ome E arly D ynastic d ivine

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h eaddresses w hich i n t his s tudy i s t ermed a t urret ( see t he I ntroductory N otes t o t he C atalogue, P art I V). T his m otif c annot b e a ccepted i n a ny w ay a s a s tylisation o f t he t op o f t he b ullman's h ead, a nd a lthough n o e xact p arallel a mong E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses c an b e q uoted, t he e ffect i s a s i f t he f ull-face b ullman w ere n aturally e ndowed w ith a c rown o f d ivinity. B ut, e ven h ere, t he b ullman i s s hown w ith a nimal e ars. T he c haracteristics o f t he t wo c omposite c reatures w hose h orn t ype a ppears m ost f requently i n t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress m ay, t hen, b e s ummarised a s f ollows: T HE H UMAN-HEADED B ULL : T his c omposite c reature i s m arked f or i ts p acific n ature a nd i ts a ssociation w ith m ountains, s ymbolic o f t he l and o f t he r ising s un. T HE F ULL-FACE B ULLMAN: T his t ype o f b ullman h as c haracteristics w hich d ifferentiate h im f rom t he b ullman r epresented w ith h ead i n p rofile: 1 .

H e i s n ot r epresented i n c onflict w ith b ovids a nd g ame a nimals , b ut o nly i n a ttacks u pon p redators. F urther, h e m ay h imself b e r epresented a s t he p redator's p rey. T hus, t he f ull-face b ullman m ay b e r egarded a s t he d efender o f t he h erds o r a p ersonification o f t he h erd i tself.

2 .

I n a n e arly r epresentation o f a f ull-face b ullman ( Add. I llus. X I), p ossibly p re-dating t he e arliest e xamp 4,of t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress ( Cat. R ef. N o. B 2),*''' h e i s r epresented i n a ssociation w ith a n a nimal h oused i n a s acred b yre a nd m ay b e r egarded a s h aving s ome s pecial r elationship w ith d omesticated c attle, p robably i n t he c apacity o f p rotector.

3 .

I n a n E D M a r epresentation o f t he f ull-face b ullman ( Add. I llus. X III) t he f ull-face b ullman a ppears t o b e r egarded a s b eing n aturally e ndowed w ith a f orm o f d ivine c rown.

W hatever s ymbolic s ignificance m ay h ave b een a ttached t o t he b ull's h orns i n l ater p eriods, o n t he b asis o f t hese f indings, i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress w hich m ay b e a ccepted a s b ovid h orns r esemble t hose o f t wo b ull-creatures, o ne m arked f or i ts p acific c haracter a nd a ssociated w ith m ountains, t he o ther a ssociated w ith t he t heme o f t he d efence o f t he h erds a gainst p redators a nd t he p rotection o f d omesticated a nimals. 2 .

H ORN T YPES C OMMON T O B OVID A NIMALS A ND T HE B ULLMAN W ITH H EAD P RESENTED I N P ROFILE W HICH D O N OT O CCUR I N T HE D IVINE H EADDRESS

D ivinities a re f requently r epresented w ith t he h ead i n p rofile i n t he M esopotamian i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. B ut w hile t he h ead o f t he d ivinity i s s hown i n p rofile, t he d ivine h eaddress i s a lways r epresented a s i f v iewed f rom t he f ront s o t hat b oth h orns a re v isible. I n t he m aterial a ssembled f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here i s n o c ase i n w hich t he d ivine h eaddress i s r epresented b y a s ingle h orn d rawn i n a p rofile v iew , a lthough t his m anner o f r epresenti ng t he d ivine h orned h eaddress o ccurs i n t he c ontemporary i conography

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o f S usa ( see A dd.

I llus.

I X).

T he a nalysis o f t he h orn t ypes o f b ull c reatures a nd b ovid a nimals s hows t hat, i n t he m aterial s urveyed, a ll t he b ullmen w ith h ead p resented i n p rofile ( Table N o. 2 5), a nd a ll t he a nimals e xcept o ne ( Table N o. 2 4), a re r epresented w ith a s ingle h orn i n p rofile, t he e xception o ccurring o n ac rudely c ut s eal f rom F ara. A s tudy o f t he r epresentation o f b ovid a nimals a nd t he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile w as, t herefore, u ndertaken w ith t he a im o f a scertaining w hether t here i s a ny i conographical e vidence t o i ndicate w hy t he c onvention o f s howi ng o ne h orn i n p rofile w as n ot a dopted f or r epresentations o f t he d ivine h orned h eaddress i n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T he B ullman w ith H ead i n P rofile T he b ullman w ith h ead p resented i n p rofile i s t he f orm o f b ullman w ho i s m ost f requently r epresented i n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile a ppears i n v ersions o f t he c ombat s cene o n s eals d ating f rom E arly D ynastic I I t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod a nd o n e ngraved s hell i nlays i ntended f or t he d ecoration o f m obilia . T his t ype o f l man i s s ometimes s hown w ith a h ead r esembling t hat o f a n a nimal*''' b ut h e i s m ore o ften r epresented w ith a h ead w hich i s h uman i n a ppearance e xcept f or t he p resence o f a n a nimal e ar a nd h orn. H e i s c ommo gx r epresented w ith a h eard a nd w ith h air d ressed i n v ertical s trands* ' o r i n a p igtail.* I1 0 T he r ole p layed b y t his t ype o f b ullman i s b oth c omplex a nd e quivocal. T he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile m ay b e a rmed w ith a d agger w ith w hich h e a ttacks l ions a nd l eopards, b ut h e i s a lso s hown i n a s tance w hich c an b e i nterpreted o nly a s a n a ct o f a ggression a gainst c aprids a nd g ame a nimals, g rasping t he i nverted a nimals b y t heir h ind l egs,* 1 H e w ould, t herefore, a ppear t o b e v isualised a s a d efender o f t he f locks a nd h erds, w hile, a t t he s ame t ime, e xhibiting s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f t he p redator. O n t he b asis o f t his e vidence, t he d ifference b etween t he t wo t ypes o f b ullmen w ho f eature i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows: a )

T he f ull-face b ullman r epresented w ith t wo h orns o f a t ype m ost c ommonly o ccurring i n t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eadd ress, a ppears i n a ssociation w ith a t emple b uilding a nd p lays t he r ole o f d efender o f t he f locks a nd h erds.

b )

T he b ullman w ith h ead i n p rofile r epresented w ith a s ingle h orn s hown i n a p rofile v iew , a c onvention n ot u sed f or t he d ivine h orned h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, e xhibits s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f t he p redator a nd c annot b e a ccepted u nequivocally a s t he d efender o f t he f locks a nd h erds.

B ovid A nimals T he c onvention o f r epresenting o ne h orn i n p rofile i s u sed f or a ll a dult b ovid a nimals i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, i ncluding t hose w hich

6 7

m ay b e i dentified b y c ontext a s d omesticated c attle a nd t he M vids a ttacked b y l ions w ho a re s ometimes d escribed a s w ild b ulls.*' A s tudy b y M .R. B ehm-Blancke h as d emonstrated t hat b ovid a nimals r epresented i n E arly D ynastic i conography a re n ot, i n a ll c ases, n aturalistic r epresentations o f p articular s pecies o f c attle.* 13 I t i s p erhaps n ot s urprising t hat f or t he a ncient d raughtsman o r s eal c utter, t he p hysiological t raits w hich d ifferentiate t he b ison f rom t he a urochs o r b os p rimi enius f rom l ong-horned d omesticated c attle a ccording t o t he m odern s ystem o f c lassification, h ad l ittle o r n o s ignificance. F or h im , a n a nimal o f t he b ovid s pecies c ould d isplay d ifferent f eatures -a c urled m ane o r s mooth w ithers, l ong o r s hort h orns, a h uman d isposition o f f eatures o r a b eard, s ome o f w hich c ould, i n h is v iew , e ndow t he a nimal w ith v arying d egrees o f d ivine a ffiliat ion. T he p oint o f r elevance t o t his s tudy o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress i s t hat a ll a dult b ovid a nimals , w hatever t heir b reed, d omestic o r w ild, a re a lways r epresented w ith o ne h orn i n p rofile w hile t his c onvention i s n ever u sed f or t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress. T he r epresentation o f c attle w ith t he h ead a nd a s ingle h orn i n p rofile i s s o c ommonplace i n M esopotamian i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod t hat t he s ingularity o f t his m anner o f r epresenting t he h orns h as n ot b een g iven d ue c onsideration. I n E arly D ynastic t exts, t he

l ogogram f or o x/cattle

p ictogram

*1 14

( Sum.

g ud; A kk.

g u4 ) d erives

f rom

w hich r epresents t he h ead o f t he a nimal a nd

a t wo

h orns s hown i n f ull-face. T his t reatment o f t he h ead i s n ot u sed i n r epresentations o f c attle i n M esopotamia, a lthou2b i t d oes a ppear i n 1 5 t he c ontemporary g lyptic r epertory o f S usa.* T I n M esopotamian i conography, h orned a nimals a re c ustomarily r epresented w ith t he h ead i n p rofile, a nd w ith m ost s pecies o f a nimal b oth h orns a re r epresented. I n s ome s pecies, f or e xample s heep ( as i n C at. R ef. N o. G 3), t he h orns a re r epresented a s a p air e n f ace. I n o ther s pecies, s uch a s t he m ouflon o r i bex ( as i n C at. R ef. N os. A 27, A 36), t he t wo h orns a re r epresented i n p rofile a nd i n p arallel, o ne a bove t he o ther. W hile n on-bovid a nimals m ay o ccasionally b e r epresented w ith a s ingle h orn i n p rofile ( as f or e xample t he s heep o r g oat i n t he u pper r egister o f C at. R ef. N o. B 2), b ulls a nd c ows a re c onsistently r epresented w ith a s ingle h orn s hown i n a p rofile v iew . T he c onvention o f r epresenting a dult b ovid a nimals w ith o ne h orn i n p rofile w as a lready e stablished i n t he i conography o f t he U ruk p eriod. I n t his e arlier p eriod, y oung c alves a re s hown w ith t wo u pward-curving h orns v iewed a s a p air e n f ace, w hile b ulls a nd c ows a re r epresented w ith a s ingle h orn i n p rofile. T his m ay b e o bserved, f or e xample, i n a s cene f eaturing t he f eeding o f t he h erd b y t he " man i n t he n et k ilt" o n a s eal o f U ruk I V d ate ( Add. I llus. X XXIII) a nd a s cene f eaturing t he s acred b yre o n a s eal o f L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr d ate ( Add. I llus. X V). T his d ifference b etween t he r epresentation o f t he h orns o f t he y oung a nimals a nd t he h orns o f t he a dult a nimals i s d ifficult t o a ccount f or o n i conographical g rounds. A p ossible e xplanation f or t he d ifference i n t he a ppearance o f t he h orns o f t he j uvenile a nd a dult a nimals i s, h owever, p rovided b y a s uggestion m ade b y F .E . Z euner. I n h is A H istory o f D omesticated C attle, Zener m ade a n o bservat ion a bout c ertain r epresentations o f c attle,* 1 1 " t he i mplications o f w hich h ave n ot a s y et b een e xplored i n t he l iterature. T his w as t hat 6 8

i n t he t reatment o f t he h eads o f c attle o n o bjects o f L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr d ate, t here o ccurs a f eature w hich h e i nterpreted a s e vidence f or t he u nilateral d ehorning o f c attle a t t his t ime. H e p ointed o ut t hat t he m anner o f r epresenting o ne h orn o n t he a nimal's h ead i s " not t he c onventional w ay o f s howing t he s ide v iew o f o ne h orn h iding t he o ther, i n w hich c ase t he n earest a nd t herefore t he c oncealing h orn w ould b e e xpected t o b e s hown". R ather, t here m ay b e s een " the i ndication o f a s car w here t he r ight h orn w as c ut o ff". T he e xamples q uoted b y h im o f a nimals w hose h e a re t reated i n t his m anner a ppear o n a s tone b owl f rom T ell A grab,* 1 ' o n a s eal f rom K hafajah ( Add. I llus. X V) a nd o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance ( Add. I llus. X VI). O ther e xamples w hich m ay b e a dded t o t hose c ited b y Z euner a ppear o n a s tone b owl o f L ate U ruk/ J emdet N asr d ate f rom K hafajah w hich w as f ound i n a n E arly D ynastic l evel ( Add. I llus. X IV) a nd o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance o f U ruk I V d ate i n t he Y ale B abylonian C ollection ( Add. I llus. X XXII). W hile Z euner p hrases h is s uggestion i n t erms o f t he p olling o f t he r ight h orn, t here i s, i n o ne e xample q uoted b y h im , a n i ndication t hat, a lternatively, t he l eft h orn m ight b e p olled i n s ome i nstances. T his o ccurs i n a s cene f eaturing t he s acred b yre o n a s eal f rom K hafajah ( Add. I llus. X V). I n t his s cene t he a nimal o n t he r ight o f t he b yre f aces l eft a nd t he i ndication o f a s car w here t he h orn w as p olled a ppears o n t he n ear s ide, i .e., t he l eft s ide o f t he h ead. S ince t his s cene i s a s ymmetrical c omposition w ith a nimals o n e ither s ide o f t he b yre, i t i s n ot c lear w hether t he a rtist-craftsman i s r epresenting f actual r eality o r w hether h e i s m erely r epresenting t he a nimal o n t he r ight a s i f i ts l eft h orn w ere p olled s o a s t o m aintain t he s ymmetry o f t he d esign. I n t he m ajority o f c ases, w here t he p henomenon c an b e o bserved, t he m issing h orn i s o n t he r ight. T he m ark o n t he n ear s ide o f t he a nimal's h ea l i 1. i nterpreted b y Z euner a s " the s car l eft b y p olling o f t he h orn",* "' i s n ot a lways t reated i n t he s ame w ay. O n t he v ase c arved i n l ow r elief ( Add. I llus. X IV), t he m ark i s r epresented b y i ncised c oncentric c ircles. O n s eals, i t m ay b e r epresented b y a d rill h ole ( e.g. A dd. I llus. X VI) o r b y a s emi-circle ( Add. I llus. X XXII). A s t he m ark a ppears o n t he n ear s ide o f t he h eads o f a nimals r epresented i n d ifferent m edia a nd t akes d ifferent f orms e ven w ithin t he g lyptic m edium ( e.g. A dd. I llus. X VI a nd X XXII), i t i s v ery d ifficult t o a ccept t he p henomenon a s n o m ore t han a t echnical d evice o r s tylistic m annerism a dopted f or t he p urpose o f r epresenting t he b oney r idge o n t op o f t he s kull f rom w hich t he h orns a rise. O n c ertain E arly D ynastic I IIa c lay t ablets f rom F ara, t he b lank a rea u noccupied b y s cript i s d ecorated w ith i ncised d rawings, s ome o f w hich d epict c attle. I n s ome d rawings t he h orn r epresented a ppears t o b e t he n ear s ide h orn, s een p rofile v iew , a rising f rom t he r idge o n t op o f t he a nimal's s kull.* 1 19 I n f our d rawings, h owever, t he h ead s hows f eatures s imilar t o t hose o bserved b y Z euner o n o bjects o f L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr d ate. I n t hese c learly i ncised d rawings ( Add. I llus. X VII-XX) t he f ar h orn, n ot t he n ear h orn, i s r epresented: t he f ar h orn i s t erminated a bruptly b y t he f orepart o f t he a nimal's h ead. I n o ne i nstance ( Add. I llus . X X), w here t he e ye a nd t he e ar a re c learly d rawn, t here a ppears o n t he n ear s ide f rontal a rea o f t he c ranium a c urious s hape w hich c ould b e t aken t o i ndicate t he s car l eft b y p olling t he h orn o n t he r ight s ide.

6 9

T he e vidence o f t his s eries o f d rawings f rom F ara m ay b e i nterpreted i n t wo w ays. T he i ntention o f t he a rtist m ay h ave b een t o r epresent f actual r eality, i .e., i n o ne c ase a b ull ( Add. I llus. X VII), i n o ther c ases t he h ead o f e ither a b ull o r a c ow ( Add. I llus. X VIIIX X), w hose r ight h orn h as b een p olled. O n t he o ther h and, i n d rawing t he h eads o f c attle i n t his m anner, t he a rtists m ay h ave b een f ollowing a n e stablished t radition o f r epresenting o nly o ne h orn o n t he f ar s ide o f t he h ead. T his s till l eaves u nexplained t he o rigins o f t his m anner o f r epresenting t he h orns o f c attle. I f u nilateral p olling o f c attle w as p ractised i n M esopotamia a s p ostulated b y Z euner, t he p ractice w as c ertainly n ot a pplied t o a ll c attle. E xamples o f b ulls o r c ows w ith t wo h orns c arved i n h igh r elief o n s tone v ases a nd h eads o f c attle w ith t wo h orns c ast i n m etal h em . s urvived f rom t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr a nd E arly D ynastic p eriods.* "" T he i conographical e vidence t hat t his c ustom w as p ractised, a t l east i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod, r aises t he q uestion w hether i t w as a pplied t o a c ertain g roup o f a nimals o nly. S ome i nformation a bout t he c attle w hose h eads a re t reated a s i f o ne h orn w as p olled c an b e d educed f rom t he s cenes i n w hich t hey a ppear. T here a re f our o bjects o f L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr d ate ( Add. I llus. X IV , X V , X VI a nd X XXII) o n w hich c attle a re d epicted w ith o ne h orn a nd am ark o n t he n ear s ide o f t he h ead t hat m ay b e i nterpreted a s t he s car l eft b y t he p olling o f t he s econd h orn. O n s eal A dd. I llus. X VI, t wo u nilaterally p olled a nimals a re s hown i n p rocession. O ne i s m anifestly a b ull, t he s econd m ay b e p resumed t o b e a c ow . T he t ip o f t he b ull's r emaining h orn i s l opped o r p added, a s tock-rearing p ractice n ot u ncommon w ith egmals a s f ierce a nd d angerous a s a n u ngelded b ull k ept f or b reeding.* " I E ars o f g rain, r epresented o ver l ife-size, a re a lso i ncluded i n t he c omposition. A p rocession o f d omesticated a nimals a ssociated w ith o ver-size e ars o f g rain i s a f orm o f s ymbolism f requently u sed i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod i n c onnection w ith c ultic c eremonies, a nd a ppears, f or e xample, o n t he W arka V ase. T he s cene o n s eal A dd. I llus X XXII d epicts a u nilaterally p olled c ow i n t he a ct o f g iving b irth t o a c alf. T he c ultic o r a llegorical n ature o f t his s cene i s i ndicated b y t he p resence o f a k neeling m ale f igure w ho i s r epresented n aked a nd t hus m ay b e t aken t o b e a p riest o r a colyte. H e i s a rmed w ith a l ong-handled s pear w ith w hich h e d efends t he c ow a gainst t he a ttack o f a l ion. A b ovid h ead, a lso o f a u nilaterally p olled a nimal, a ppears i n t he f ield. U nilaterally p olled a nimals a re r epresented i n t wo s cenes f eaturi ng t he s acred b yre, o ne o n a s tone b owl ( Add. I llus. X IV) a nd o ne o n a s eal ( Add. I llus. X V), b oth f rom K hafajah. T he s cene o n t he s tone b owl ( Add. I llus. X IV) s hows t wo a nimals, p resumably c ows, o ne o n e ither s ide o f t he b yre. T he f igure o f t he c ow o n t he r ight o f t he b yre i s d amaged a nd n o d etail o f t he h ead i s r ecoverable. T he c ow o n t he l eft o f t he b yre a ppears t o h ave a m ark o n t he n ear s ide o f t he h ead w here t he r ight h orn h as b een p olled. T he t wo c alves h oused i n t he b yre a re r epresented w ithout h orns, s o t hat t hey a re e ither n ewly b orn o r v ery y oung a nimals. I n

t he

s cene f eaturing t he s acred b yre o n s eal A dd.

7 0

I llus.

X V,

t here a re 1 2 a nimals d epicted, e ight u nilaterally p olled a dults a nd f our c alves, t wo h oused i n t he b yre a nd o ne f ollowing a n a dult a nimal i n t he p rocession b oth i n t he u pper r egister a nd t he l ower r egister. A ll t he c alves a re s hown w ith a p air o f h orns w hich h ave n ot y et a ttained t heir f ull s ize. T here a re, i n a ddition, t wo f urther s cenes o n o bjects o f L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr d ate i n w hich t he a nimals r epresented a re p robably u nilaterally p olled c attle, a lthough t he s car l eft b y t he r emoval o f t he s econd h orn i s e ither o bscured o r n ot e xplicit. O ne i s a s cene f eaturing t he s acred b yre w hich a ppears o n a f ragment o f as tone v ase o f u nknown p rovenance i n t he L ouvre ( Add. I llus. X XXI). H ere t he a nimal, p resumably a c ow w hose c alf i s h oused i n t he b yre, i s d epicted w ith a s ingle h orn d rawn a s i f i t e merges f rom t he c entre o f t he b row , w hile t he t reatment o f t he n ear-side o f t he t op o f t he h ead m ay b e i ntended - t hough t his i s n ot c ertain - t o r epresent t he s car w here t he r ight h orn w as p olled. T he s econd, a v ersion o f a s cene s howing t he r itual f eeding o f t he h erds, a ppears o n a s eal, s aid t o c ome f rom W arka ( Add. I llus. X XXIII). T his s eal, s urmounted b y w hat i s d escribed b y B . B uchanan a s a " byrel ike l oop" f or s uspension , i s l arge , w ith a n o verall h eight o f 6 .3cm , a nd i s c ut i n a n u nusual m anner. I n B . B uchanan 's v iew , " it s eems p robable t hat t his p iece w as i ntended f or u se a s a v otive o bject r ather t han a s eal, f or t he d rill w ork h as s uch d epth t hat i t i s v irtua 4x i mpossible t o c apture a ll t he d etails o f t he d esign i n a r olling."* "' T he s cene s hows t he " man i n t he n et k ilt" o ffering b ranches t o t wo c alves, e ach o f w hom i s f ollowed b y t wo a dult a nimals. T he c alves a re e ach d epicted w ith t wo p artially-grown h orns, t he a dults w ith a s ingle h orn. D ue t o t he d eep c utting t echnique u sed f or t his s eal, t he t reatm ent o f t he h eads o f t he a dult a nimals c annot b e i nterpreted w ith c ertainty. I t i s n ot c lear f rom t he p hotograph o f t he i mprint w hether t he d eep c utting a t t he b ase o f t he h orn o f e ach o f t he a dult a nimals i s i ntended t o r epresent t he s car w here a h orn h as b een p olled o r t he b oney r idge o n t op o f t he h ead f rom w hich t he h orns e merge. T he d eep d rill h ole , c learly v isible a t t he b ase o f t he h orn o f o ne o f t he a dult a nimals i n t he l ower r ow s uggests t hat, a t l east i n t his c ase, t he i ntention w as t o r epresent t his a nimal a s i f i t w ere u nilaterally p olled. I t m ay a lso b e n oted t hat a b ovid h ead a ppears b etween t wo c onical o ffering c ontainers i n t he t op r egister o f t he W arka V ase. T he h ead i s d ep icted w ith o ne h orn o n t he f ar s ide o f t he h ead. T he t op o f t he h ead c orresponding t o t he p oint o f e mergence o f t he n ear-side h orn i s s mooth a nd r ound. W hile t here i s n o c lear i ndication o f as car l eft b y t he r emoval o f a h orn o n t he n ear-side o f t he h ead, t he i ntention c ould h ave b een t o r epresent t he h ead o f au nilaterally p olled b ull o r c ow , c omparable t o t he b oy 4h ead w hich a ppears i n t he c ultic s cene o n s eal A dd. I llus. X XXII.* " 3 T he h ead o n t he W arka V ase f aces l eft s o t hat i f t his i s, i ndeed , t he h ead o f au nilaterally p olled a nimal, t he l eft a nd n ot t he r ight h orn h as b een r emoved. T he s ix s cenes d epicting u nilaterally p olled c attle o r c attle w hich a re p robably u nilaterally p olled ( Add. I llus. X IV, X V , X VI, X XXI, X XXII a nd X XXIII) p rovide i nformation r egarding t his c ustom a s p ractised i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod, w hich m ay b e s ummarised

7 1

a s f ollows: 1 )

F rom A dd. I llus. X VI a nd X XXII i t m ay b e c oncluded t hat t he p ractice o f u nilateral p olling w as a pplied t o b oth b ulls a nd c ows a nd t hat t he a nimals w ere o f b reeding s tock.

2 )

T he s cene o n s eal A dd. I llus. X V f eatures a t otal o f 1 2 a nimals, e ight u nilaterally p olled a dults a nd f our u npolled c alves. T his s cene s uggests t hat t he p ractice o f u nilateral p olling w as a pplied t o a h erd o f c attle w ho w ould t hus b e d istinguished f rom o ther h erds o f o rdinary d omesticated c attle i n t hat e ach a dult m ember o f t his h erd h ad o nly o ne h orn.

3 )

F rom A dd. I llus. X V i t i s a lso p ossible t o a rrive a t a n a pproximate e stimation o f t he a ge o f t he a nimal w hen t he h orn w as p olled. T he a nimals d epicted o n t he s eal a re a b reed o f l ong-horned d omesticated c attle. T he c alves h oused i n t he b yre a re n ot n ewly b orn a s t hey, l ike t he y oung a nimals f ollowing t he a dults, a re r epresented e ach w ith t wo h orns w hich h ave n ot y et g rown t o t heir f ull l ength. T he h orns o f l ong-horned d omesticated c attle a ttain t heir f ull s ize w hen t he a nimal i s a bout t wo y ears o ld. A t t he a ge o f o ne y ear, t he h orns o f t his b reed o f c attle h ave r each e 1 2 d 4 a s ize o f a bout h alf t o t hree-quarters t he l ength o f t he e ar.* E ven m aking d ue a llowance f or a rtistic i nterpretation a nd t he s malls cale i n w hich t he a rtist-craftsman w as w orking, t he c alves i n t his s cene m ust b e a t l east o ne y ear o ld. A s t he a dult a nimals a re s hown w ith f ully d eveloped h orns a nd a re t herefore t wo y ears o ld o r m ore, t he p olling o f o ne o f t he h orns m ust h ave t aken p lace a t s ome t ime d uring t he s econd y ear o f t he a nimal 's l ife.

4 )

O f t he s ix s cenes f eaturing u nilaterally p olled c attle o r c attle w hich w ere p robably u nilaterally p olled , f ive a re o f a r itual o r a llegorical n ature c oncerned w ith t he t heme o f f ertility o f t he h erd a nd t he n urture o f t he y oung c alves. A dd. I llus. X XXII s hows au nilaterally p olled c ow i n t he a ct o f p arturition. U nilaterally p olled a nimals a ppear i n t hree s cenes f eaturing t he s acred b yre ( Add. I llus. X IV , X V a nd X XXI) a nd i n t wo c ases ( Add. I llus. X IV a nd X XXI) t he c alves h oused i n t he b yre a re e ither n ewly b orn o r v ery y oung a nimals. I n a f ifth s cene, A dd. I llus. X XXIII, a v ersion o f t he r itual f eeding o f t he h erds, t he " man i n t he n et k ilt" o ffers b ranches t o t he t wo c alves .

O n t he e vidence o f t he s ix s cenes s tudied i n d etail h ere , i t m ay b e c oncluded t hat, i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod, ( a) t he p ractice o f u nilateral p olling w as a pplied t o b ulls a nd c ows o f a s pecial h erd o f c attle o nly a nd ( b) t hese u nilaterally p olled a nimals a re f eatured m ost c ommonly i n t he c ontext o f m yth a nd r ituals a ssociated w ith t he t heme o f t he f ertility o f t he h erd a nd t he n urture o f t he y oung c alves. I n t he c ourse o f h is d iscussion, Z euner s uggested t hat t he p ractice o f u nilateral p olling o f c attle w as p erformed " perhaps i n c onnection b r ith s ome a gricultural t echnique o r s ome r eligious p ractice I t. *1 23 T he q uestion w hether u nilateral p olling c ould h ave s erved a p ractical p urpose w as p ut t o G .B . E dwards o f t he R oyal V eterinary C ollege, L ondon . H e c ould s uggest n o p ractical p urpose

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w hich w ould b e s erved b y p olling t he r ight h orn a nd h e c ould q uote n o i nstance o f t he c ustom o f u nilateral p olling b eing p ractised i n a nimal h usbandry.*' 2 1 ° I n v iew o f t he v eterinary e vidence a nd t he c onclusions t o b e d rawn f rom t he i conographic e vidence, t he c ustom o f u nilateral p olling a ppears t o h ave b een p erformed i n c onnection w ith a c ultic r itual i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod. I t h as a lready b een e stimated t hat t he h orn w as p olled s ome t ime d uring t he s econd y ear o f t he a nimal's l ife ( see p . 7 2). I t i s c onv entional s tock-rearing p ractice t o m ate a b ull o r a c ow f or t he f irst t ime a t t he a ge o f a bout o ne y ear w hen t he a nimal i s s exually c apable o f r eproduction b ut t he h orns h ave n ot y et r eached t heir f ull s ize. T he e stimated t ime o f t he p olling o f t he h orn t hus c oincides w ith t hat p eriod i n t he a nimal's l ife w hen t he f irst m ating u sually t akes p lace. A s a u nilaterally h orned c ow i s d epicted i n a c ultic s cene i n t he a ct o f p arturition, i t c ould b e e xpected t hat t he m ating, a nd i n p articular t he f irst m ating o f s uch a n a nimal, w ould b e a ttended b y s ome c ultic r itual. T hat t he p olling o f o ne h orn a nd t he f irst m ating w ere, i n s ome w ay, r elated, m ust b e c onsidered, a t l east a s a p ossibility. T he o nly e vidence t hat c ertain c attle w ere u nilaterally p olled i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod i s l imited t o o ne d rawing o f t he h ead o f a b ull o r c ow o n a c lay t ablet f rom F ara ( Add. I llus. X X). W hether a t t his t ime, a s a rguably i n t he e arlier p eriod, t here e xisted a s pecial h erd o f c attle d istinguished f rom o rdinary c attle b y h aving o nly o ne h orn, i s u ncertain. A s f or t he i nfluence t his p ractice, e ither c urrently e mployed o r r emembered i n t radition, m ay h ave h ad o n t he d evelopment o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress, i t c an o nly b e n oted t hat t he c onvention u sed i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography t o r epresent t he h orns o f a ll a dult c attle, i .e. a s ingle h orn i n p rofile, i s n ever u sed f or t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress, a s i f t o d issociate t he h orns w hich d istinguish t he d ivinity f rom a ny c onnection w ith t he h orns o f t he u nilaterally p olled " sacred" c attle. 3 .

H ORN T YPES O F T HE D IVINE H EADDRESS N OT O CCURRING I N R EPRESENTATIONS O F B OVID A NIMALS O R C OMPOSITE F IGURES W ITH B OVID C HARACTERISTICS

T he c omparative s tudy o f t he c onventions u sed t o r epresent t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress a nd t he h orns o f b ovid a nimals, b ullmen a nd h uman-headed b ulls h as r evealed f ive h orn t ypes w hich o ccur o nly i n t he d ivine h eaddress ( see p . 6 3, S ummary o f t he F indings o f t he A nalysis). T he d ivine h eaddresses w hich h ave t hese t ypes o f h orn a re e xamined i n d etail b elow. i )

T hick h orns w ith l ittle o r n o c urvature

T here a re t hree d ivine h eaddresses, a ll w orn b y g oddesses, i n w hich t he h orns a re t hick, h ave l ittle o r n o c urvature, a nd a re p laced s o t hat t hey r ise a t r ight a ngles t o t he b ase o f t he h eaddress. T wo o f t hese h eaddresses a ppear o n s telae d ated b y i nscription t o U r N anshe ( Cat. R ef. N os. K l a nd K 3) a nd o ne a ppears o n a s tone r elief, w hich, j udged o n s tyle, m ay b e p re-Ur N anshe i n d ate ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6). T his t ype o f h orn d oes n ot a ppear i n d ivine h eaddresses o f t he E arly D ynastic I IIb p eriod a nd a s a lready r emarked ( see p . 5 6) t he h eadd resses w orn b y t hese t hree g oddesses a ppear t o b e o f a f orm w hich h as n o c ontinuation i nto t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod.

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T he t hree g oddesses w earing h eaddresses o f t his t ype a lso d iffer f rom g oddesses r epresented o n l ater o bjects i n t he t reatment o f t heir h air. I n E arly D ynastic I IIb, g oddesses a re c ustomarily r epresented w ith h air d ressed i n t resses w hich f all t o t he f ront a nd b ack o f t he s houlders ( e .g. C at. R ef. N os. D 1, G 2, G 5c, H 1 a nd K 2). T he g oddess o n t he U r N anshe s tele f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. K l) i s r epresented w ith v oluminous h air d ressed t hickly a t t he n ape o f t he n eck, i ts m ass r esti ng o n t he s houlders a t t he b ack . T he h air o f t he g oddess o n t he U r N anshe s tele f rom A l H iba ( Cat. R ef. N o. K 3) i s d ressed i n p laits w hich a re a ttached t o t he h eaddress a nd a ppear t o a rise f rom t he h orns t hems elves. T he g oddess o n t he s tone r elief f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6) i s r epresented w ith h air t reated a s i f i t w ere t wo f eathers j oined t ogether w hich e merge f rom t he b ase o f t he h eaddress a t ap oint w hich m ay b e t aken a s t he b ack o f t he h ead w hile t he h eaddress i tself e xtends b eyond t he b ack o f t he h ead. N o h airstyles l ike t hese c an b e f ound o n o bjects d ated l ater t han U r N anshe, b ut p arallels f or a ll t hree h airstyles c an b e f ound o n o bjects d ated t o t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod. T he h airstyles a re w orn b y t he f emale p articipant i n a c ultic r itual a ssociated w ith t he g oddess I nanna. W hether t his f emale f igure w as i ntended t o r epresent t he g oddess h erself o r ap riestess s urrogate i s as ubject o f d ispute, w hich w ill b e d iscussed l ater ( see p . 7 7). F or p resent p urposes, h owe ver, s he i s r eferred t o a s t he I nanna f igure. A mong t he l arge n umber o f o bjects f ound i n t he s o-called S ammelfund a t U ruk w ere f our s eals, e ach o f w hich s hows a v ariant o f a s cene w hich i s a lso a ttested o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance i n t he B ritish M useum . S ince t hese f ive s eals ( Add. I llus. X XI-XXV) f eature a f emale f igure, t he " man i n t he n et k ilt", t he I nanna s ymbol a nd c onical c ontainers p iled h igh w ith o fferings, i t m ay b e p resumed t hat t he r itual i s t he s ame a s t hat r epresented o n t he w ell-known W arka V ase ( also f rom t he S ammelfund), w here a f emale f igure, t he " man i n t he n et k ilt", I nanna s ymbols a nd c onical c ontainers a lso a ppear. T he s imilarities b etween t he h airstyles o f t he I nanna f igures o n t he s eals a nd t he V ase, o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he h airstyles o f t he t hree E arly D ynastic g oddesses ( Cat. R ef. N os . D 6, K l a nd K 3) o n t he o ther, m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows: a )

T he I nanna f igure o n t he W arka V ase ( Add. I llus. X XVIa) i s r epresented w ith v oluminous h air d ressed t hickly a t t he n ape o f t he n eck, i ts m ass r esting o n t he s houlders a t t he b ack. T he g oddess o n t he U r N anshe s tele f rom U r ( Cat. R ef. N o. K l) h as h air d ressed i n t he s ame s tyle.

b )

O ne o f t he f our s eals f rom U ruk ( Add. I llus. X XIV) s hows t he I nanna f igure w ith h air d ressed i n a l ong p igtail. T his p igtail s prings, n ot f rom t he h ead, b ut f rom t he h eaddress i tself a nd i s a ttached t o t he p rojection o n t he r ight. O n t he U r N anshe s tele f rom A l H iba ( Cat. R ef. N o. K 3) t he d istinctive f eature o f t he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess i s t hat t he h air i s d ressed i n l ong p laits w hich a re a ttached t o t he h orns o f t he h eaddress .

c )

O n t he u nprovenanced s eal i n t he B ritish M useum ( Add. I llus. X XV), t he I nanna f igure i s a lso r epresented w ith h air d ressed i n a l ong

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p igtail. T his e merges f rom b eneath t he h eaddress a t a p oint c orresponding t o t he b ack o f t he h ead, w hile t he b ase o f t he h eadd ress e xtends w ell b eyond t he b ack o f t he h ead. O n t he E arly D ynastic s tone r elief f rom T ello ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6) t he g oddess i s r epresented w ith h air t reated a s i f i t w ere t wo f eathers j oined t ogether t o f orm a c ommon s tem w hich e merges f rom b eneath t he h eadd ress a t a p oint c orresponding t o t he b ack o f t he h ead. A s o n t he B ritish M useum s eal, t he b ase o f t he h eaddress e xtends w ell b eyond t he b ack o f t he h ead. I n t he t reatment o f t he h air, t herefore, t he t hree e arly D ynastic g oddesses w ould a ppear o n t he a bove e vidence t o f ollow t raditions o riginating i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod. T hese t raditions w ere a bandoned a t t he e nd o f t he U r N anshe p eriod, a fter w hich t ime g oddesses w ere r epresented w ith t heir h air d ressed i n t resses f alling t o b ack a nd f ront o f t he s houlders. T he h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod i s n ot s tandardised a nd c ould t ake o ne o f t he f ollowing f orms: i )

T he I nanna f igure i n A dd. I llus. X XI a nd X XII w ears a l ow , f lat h eaddress w ith s ides s loping o utwards t o f orm t wo p eaks. I n A dd. I llus. X XI, t he t op o f t he h eaddress h as a c oncave p rofile; i n A dd. I llus. X XII t he u pper p rofile o f t he h eaddress i s c onvex. Ah eaddress s omewhat s imilar i n f orm i s w orn b y t he " man i n t he n et k ilt" i n A dd. I llus. X XIII.

i i)

T he h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure i n A dd. I llus. X XIII a ppears t o h ave a l oop o n t he l eft a nd a n u pwardc urving p rojection o n t he r ight, t hough t his a symmetrical e ffect m ay b e d ue t o s urface d amage t o t he s eal. T he h eadd ress m ay p ossibly b e r epresented a s i f s een f rom t he f ront, b ut t his i s n ot c ertain.

i ii)

T he manna f igure i n A dd. I llus. X XV w ears a l ow , f lat h eaddress w ith a d omed u pper p rofile a nd a h orizontal b ase. T he h ead i s s lightly d amaged, b ut f rom t he p ortion o f t he h eaddress p reserved i t i s c learly d ifferent i n c onstruction f rom t he d omed c ap w orn b y t he " man i n t he n et k ilt" i n t his s cene a nd i n A dd. I llus. X XII. A s t he b ase o f t he h eaddress e xtends b eyond t he b ack o f t he h ead, t he w idth o f t he h eaddress a ppears t o h ave e xceeded t he w idth o f t he h ead.

i v)

T he s eal A dd. I llus. X XIV i s c ut i n ad ifferent t echnique f rom t he o ther s eals w ith w hich i t w as f ound. T he d esign i s e ngraved i n s hallow l ines a nd t he s tyle i s g enerally m ore a bstract. T his s ketchy t reatment i s, h owever, i nformative i n t hat i t m akes c lear w hat f or t his s eal c utter c onstituted t he e ssential e lements o f t he h eaddress. H ere t he h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure i s r educed t o ah orizontal l ine w ith , a t e ach e nd, a s hort l ine p ointing u pwards a nd o utwards, p roducing t he e ffect o f a h eaddress w ith t wo s ymmetrical p rojections. A s a lready n oted, t he

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h air i s d ressed i n a l ong p igtail a nd s prings f rom t he p rojection o n t he r ight. T he h eaddress i s p resented a s i f v iewed f rom t he f ront. v )

T he h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure o n t he W arka V ase ( Add. I llus. X XVIa) i s o nly p artially p reserved, t he l eft s ide o f t he h eaddress h aving b een l ost w hen t he r im o f t he v essel w as b roken a nd r epaired i n a ntiquity w ith a s tone p atch t hat i s p lain s ave f or t he r eserved r im a t t he t op. T he p art o f t he h eaddress w hich i s p reserved c onsists o f a t hick , u pward-pointing p rojection. T he p osition o f t his p rojection a s p reserved ( i.e. a bove t he h ead, o n t he r ight) s uggests t hat, l ike t he h eaddress w orn b y t he f emale f igure o n s eal, A dd. I llus. X XIV , t his h eaddress w as a lso r epresented a s i f v iewed f rom t he f ront.

A dd. I llus. X XVIb s hows a r econstruction o f t he h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure o n t he W arka V ase w hich w as b ased o n t he e xtant r emains a nd t he e vidence p rovided b y t he s eals. T he r econstruction i ncorporates t wo a ssumptions, n amely: 1 )

T he h eaddress w as o riginally s ymmetrical a nd h ad t wo p rojections o f s imilar s hape a nd s ize o f w hich o nly t hat o n t he r ight i s s till p reserved.

2 )

T he c urved r idge a bove t he e yebrow w hich e xtends f rom t he o uter e dge o f t he p reserved p rojection o n t he r ight t o t he o uter e dge o f t he b row o n t he l eft r epresents t he l ower e dge o f t he h eaddress.

A p rojection o f t he s ame s ize a s t he o ne s till p reserved w as r estored o n t he l eft o f t he h eaddress. I n d eciding t he p osition a nd p lacement o f t his p rojection , t he h eaddress o n s eal, A dd. I llus . X XIV , w as t aken a s a g uide. T he s eal s hows t he p rojection o n t he l eft o f t he h eaddress r ising f rom t he b row . A ccordingly , i n t he r econstruction, t he r estored p rojection w as p laced s o t hat i ts o uter e dge r ises i n l ine w ith t he b row . T he j unction o f t he i nner p rofiles o f t he t wo p roject ions i s c onjectural b ut, a gain t aking t he h eaddress o n s eal, A dd. I llus. X XIV , a s am odel, a nd i n t he a bsence o f a ny i ndication t hat i t w as o therwise, t he l owest p oint o f t he p rojection o n t he r ight a s p reserved w as j oined t o t he c orresponding p oint o n t he r estored p roject ion o n t he l eft. T he h eaddress a s r econstructed b ears a s trong r esemblance t o t he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he p re-Ur N anshe s tone r elief f rom T ello, C at. R ef. N o. D 6, a s imilarity n oted b y P . A miet, w ho f urther c omments , " en o utre, s a c oiffure p ouva 4,,etre l 'ancetre d e l a t iare c om es d es d ieux d e l 'epoque s uivante".* I LI T he d ouble-peaked h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod t hus a ppears t o h ave b een a dopted i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a s a f orm o f d ivine h eaddress. T he t wo t hick, u pwardp ointing " horns" o f t he h eaddress w orn b y t he d ivinities o n t he U r N anshe s telae a nd t he P re-Ur N anshe s tone r elief, C at. R ef. N os . D 6, K 1 a nd K 3, w hose h airstyles r esemble t hose o f t he I nanna f igure i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod, m ay, t herefore, b e i nterpreted a s r epresenting n ot b ull's h orns, b ut t he t wo p rojections o f t he d oublep eaked h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure o n t he W arka V ase.

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T he q uestion w hether t he f emale f igure o n t he W arka V ase r epresents t he g oddess I nanna h erself o r a h uman s urrogate h as b een l inked i n ON p ast t o t he q uestion w hether o r n ot s he w ears a h orned h eaddress.*' ` °T he p ortion o f t he h eaddress w hich i s s till p reserved d oes n ot s uggest t hat t he i ntention o f t he s tone c arver w as t o r epresent a b ull's h orn. I n i ts f orm a nd p lacement, t he p reserved p rojection o f t he h eaddress b ears n o r esemblance t o t he h orn o f t he h ead o f a b ovid w hich a ppears b etween t he t wo c onical c ontainers b ehind h er. T he a nimal h ead i s r epresented w ith a s ingle h orn s hown i n a p rofile v iew, w hich i s t he c ustomary w ay o f r epresenting t he h orns o f b ulls a nd c ows i n t he i conography o f t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod a s i t w as i n t he s ubsequent E arly D ynastic p eriod. W hile t he o riginal i ntention w ould n ot s eem t o h ave b een t o r epresent a h orned h eaddress, t his d oes n ot c onstitute p ro f t hat t he w earer i s n ot a d ivinity. I t o nly s erves t o i ndicate t hat u manna o r t he p riestess e nacting t he r ole o f t he g oddess a t a r itual, w as v isualised w earing a h eaddress w ith t wo p eaks. W hat t he s ymbolic s ignificance o f t his t wo-peaked h eaddress m ight h ave b een i s aq uestion t he a nswer t o w hich c an b e l ooked f or i n t he c ontemporary i conography. I nanna s ymbols a re p resent i n c ultic s cenes f eaturing b oth s heep a nd c attle i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod. T he u nderlying t heme o f m any o f t hese c ultic s cenes i s t he n urture, p rotection a nd f ecundity o f t he f locks a nd h erds. F or e xample, manna s ymbols a ppear a bove t he s acred s heepfold ( Add. I4xs. X XVII) a nd i n s cenes d epicting t he r itual f eeding o f t he f locks.* "' I t w ould n ot b e i nappropriate, t herefore, f or ' Inanna t o h ave w orn a h eaddress w hich s ymbolised h er c oncern f or t he w ell-being a nd i ncrease o f d omesticated a nimals. F or t his r eason i t w as d ecided t o i nvestigate f urther a s uggestion m ade b y L . L egrain t hat t he e arliest S umerian d ivine h eaddress w as f ashioned i n t he l iken ess o f a s acred b yre. T he r eason t his s uggestion h as b een a ccorded l ess a ttention t han i t d eserves i s p robably b ecause o f t he d ubious e vidence L egrain c ited i n s upport o f i t. D escribing a s tylised r epresentation o f a r eed s hrine p reserved i n s everal s eal i mpressions f rom S eal I mpression S tratum ( SIS) 4 a t U r, L egrain o bserved t hat i t w as " very l ike t he b yre r epresented o n t he W arka t rough" a nd t hat i t b ore " a c urious r esemblance t o t he o ldest S umerian c rown m ade o f o ne p air o f h orns w ith f eathers b etween". T hese t wo o bservations w ere c learly i nspired b y t he v ery f ree r endering o f t he s t;l isture t o b e s een i n h is p ublished d rawi ng a fter t he i mpressions.* I' " T he m otif c ontained b etween t he t wo u pright p rojections o f t he r eed h ut, a s p reserved i n t he o riginal i mpressions, b ears n o r esemblance e ither t o t he b undles o f r eeds t ied t ogether t o f orm t he d ome o f t he s heepfold o n t he s tone t rough ( Add. I llus. X XVII) o r t o t he c entral m otif c ontained b etween t he h orns o f t he h eaddresses w orn b y d ivinities o n o bjects a ttributable t o r ulers o f t he L agash d ynasty b y i nscription ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. D 5a, b a nd K 2). A d rawing o f t he s hrine, m ade f rom t he p ublished p hotographs o f t he o riginal i mpressions ( Add. I llus. X XIX) s hows t he b uilding t o b e c onstructed f rom b undles o f r eeds, t he b inding o f t he r eeds b eing r epresented s tylistically b y p arallel o blique l ines. T he b uilding i s f ormed b y b inding s ome o f t he r eed b undles t ogether t o f orm a n a rch, w hile o thers s tand u pright o n e ither s ide o f t he a rch. T he m otif c ont ained b etween t he t wo u pright r eed b undles c an b e i dentified a s a

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s tylised r epresentation o f t wo manna s ymbols i ndicating t hat t he r eed s tructure r epresents t he s acred b yre o r s heepfold b elonging t o t he g oddess manna. O n a s eal i mpression f ound i n aJ emdet N asr l evel i n t he E anna p recinct a t U ruk i s p reserved a m otif w hich c onsists o f t he u pper p art o f a s acred b yre ( Add. I llus. X XVIII). I n i ts d etails, t his m otif d uplicates e xactly t he u pper p art o f a s acred b yre t hat i s t o b e s een o n a s tone v ase f ragment o f u nknown p rovenance i n t he L ouvre ( Add. i llus. X XXI), s ave t hat i n t he i mpression t he r inged p ost o n t he r ight i s o nly p artially p reserved. W hat t he m otif o n t he E anna s eal i mpress ion r epresents i s d ifficult, i f n ot i mpossible, t o a ssess. I t m ay b e i ntended t o r epresent t he s acred b yre o r s heepfold i tself o r a s hrine i n t he f orm o f a s acred a nimal s helter. A lternatively, i t m ay r epresent a c ultic o bject f ashioned i n t he f orm o f t he t op o f a s acred b yre. W hatever t he a nswer, i t i s c lear t hat t he t op s ection o f t he s acred b yre m ight e xist i n i ts o wn r ight a nd, o n t he p rinciple o f t he p art r epresenting t he w hole, c ould r epresent t he s acred b yre i n i ts e ntirety. T his i s o f p articular r elevance t o t he i nterpretation o f t he n ature o f t he d ouble-peaked h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure o n t he W arka V ase. S acred b yres o f s everal d ifferent f orms a re r epresented o n o bjects d ated t o t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr a nd E arly D ynastic p eriods, a s m ay b e s een i n A dd. I llus. X IV, X V , X XVII, X XVIII, X XIX, X XX a nd X XXI, o ne o f w hich, A dd. I llus. X XIX , c an b e i dentified a s b elonging t o t he g oddess I nanna b y t he p resence o f h er s ymbols c ontained b etween t he t wo t all r eed b undles w hich r ise v ertically, o ne o n e ach s ide o f t he a rch. I n t heir s hape, p roportions a nd p lacement, t hese t wo r eed b undles a re s o l ike t he t wo p eaks o f t he h eaddress o n t he W arka V ase a s r econstructed ( Add. I llus. X XVIb) t hat t he manna f igure o n t he V ase m ay b e a ccepted a s w earing a h eaddress f ashioned i n t he f orm o f t he g oddess s acred b yre. A s t he t hree E arly D ynastic g oddesses, C at. R ef. N os. D 6, K 1 a nd K 3, w ear h eaddresses o f t he s ame t ype o f c onstruction, t he t hick, u pward-pointing " horns" o f t heir h eaddresses m ust, t heref ore, a lso r epresent n ot a nimal h orns b ut r eed b undles. A s a lready o bserved o n p . 7 5, t he h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod w as n ot s tandardised. M ore t han o ne f orm o f t he " sacred b yre" h eaddress m ay, t herefore, h ave c ont inued i n u se a s t he d ivine h eaddress i n t he o pening p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T he s acred b yre m otif p reserved o n t he s eal i mpression f rom U ruk, A dd. I llus. X XVIII, i s s o l ike a d ivine h eaddress w ith t wo l ow, i nward-curving h orns t hat i t w ould b e i dentified a s s uch i f p laced o n t he h ead o f a d ivinity r epresented o n a n o bject o f E arly D ynastic d ate. W here, t herefore, o n o bjects d ated t o E arly D ynastic I I o r E arly D ynastic I IIa, a d ivinity i s r epresented w earing a h eaddress w ith t wo l ow , i nward-curving h orns a s f or e xample, C at. R ef. N o. B la, i t m ust b e c onsidered, a t l east a s a p ossibility, t hat t his w as a lso i ntended t o r epresent a s acred b yre o r s heepfold, n ot a h orned h eadd ress.* 3 1 T he I nanna f igure a nd t he " man i n t he n et k ilt" w ore h eadd resses o f s imilar f orm i n t he U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod ( see p . 7 5 ( 1)). T here i s, t herefore, n o i ntrinsic r eason w hy g ods a s w ell a s g oddesses s hould n ot b e r epresented w earing a v ersion o f t he " sacred b yre" h eadd ress i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod.

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O n t he b asis o f t he i conographical e vidence e xamined h ere, t he d ivine h eaddress u nderwent c onsiderable c hange a nd d evelopment i n t he s outh d uring t he c ourse o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. R epresentations o n o bjects f rom t he a ncient c entres o f U r, L agash ( Al H iba) a nd G irsu ( Tello) s how t hat a c hange i n t he f orm o f t he d ivine h eaddress t ook p lace a t t he e nd o f t he r eign o f U r N anshe. I n t he f irst p art o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, f ollowing a t radition e stablished i n t he p recedi ng p eriod, d ivinities w ere r epresented w earing a d ouble-peaked h eadd ress. T his f orm o f d ivine h eaddress f ashioned i n t he l ikeness o f a s acred b yre o r s heepfold, s ymbolised t he r elationship b etween t he d ivinity a nd t he w ell-being a nd f ertility o f t he f locks a nd h erds o f d omesticated a nimals. A fter t he t ime o f U r N anshe, t he d ouble-peaked h eaddress w as a bandoned i n f avour o f a d ivine h eaddress i ncorporating t wo c attle h orns. W hether t hese h orns w ere i ntended t o r epresent b ull's h orns o r w hether, i n c ertain c ases, p articularly i n t he h eaddresses w orn b y g oddesses, t hey w ere c ow 's h orns, i s u ncertain b ut t he i conographical e vidence s ummarised o n p . 6 6, s uggests t hat t he s ymbolism o f t he d ivine h orned h eaddress i n E arly D ynastic I II w as s till r elated, i f o nly i ndirectly, t o t he t heme o f t he s acred b yre a nd t he p rotection o f d omesticated a nimals. i i)

A ngled a nd A symmetrical H orns

D ivine h eaddresses i n w hich e ither o ne o r b oth o f t he h orns a re a ngled, a ppear i n t he g lyptic r epertory o nly. W ith o ne p ossible e xcept ion, d ivine h eaddresses w ith h orns o f t his t ype o ccur o n s eals f rom M ari a nd f rom s ites i n t he D iyala a nd f rom t he H amrin B asin , t he e xcept ion b eing o n a s eal b elieved t o b e f rom T ello ( see T able N o. 2 2 ( 3) a nd ( 4)). T he d ivine h eaddress o n t his s eal ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 25b) i s w orn b y t he b oatgod i n av ersion o f t he b oatgod s cene, w hich, a s a lready n oted ( see p . 7 ), i s o f n orthern o r n orth-western o rigin. T he c oncept o f t he d ivine h eaddress w ith o ne o r b oth h orns a ngled w ould, t herefore, a ppear t o b e an orthern i nvention. I n t he g lyptic r epertory o f t he D iyala r egion, a nimals w ith a ngled h orns a re t o b e o bserved i n t he e arly p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. O ne s eal f eaturing a n a nimal w ith a p a 4,2f a ngled h orns w as f ound a t K hafajah i n a n E arly D ynastic I l evel* "' a nd o thers w ere r ecovered f rom l evels 44ed t o E arly D ynastic I I a t K hafajah , T ell A smar a nd T ell A grab.* I 33 I n m ost c ases, t he a nimals d epicted w ith a ngled h orns o n t hese s eals a re r epresented i n s o s tylised a m anner t hat t he s pecies o f a nimal c annot b e i dentified w ith c ertainty. F or e xample, o n a s eal f rom T ell A grab ( Add. I llus. X XXV), t he b odies o f t he c ouchant a nimal w ith a ngled h orns i n t he l ower r egister a nd t he a nimal w ith b ackward-curving h orns i n t he u pper r egister a re r endered i n s o s imilar a m anner t hat o nly t heir h orns e stablish t hem t o b e o f t wo d ifferent s pecies. T he a nimal w ith b ackward-curving h orns i s p robably d w ild g oat a nd t he c ouchant a nimal w ith a ngled h orns a g azelle,* 1 34 b ut i n v iew o f t he s tylised t reatment o f t he b odies o f t he t wo a nimals, t his i dentification c annot b e m ade w ith c ertainty. T here i s, h owever, o ne s eal w hich i s c ut i n a s ufficiently n aturalistic m anner f or t he a nimals w ith t wo a ngled h orns t o b e i dentified w ith m ore a ssurance. T his s eal, A dd. I llus. X XXIV, w as

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f ound i n a n E arly D ynastic I I l evel i n t he S hara T emple a t T ell A grab. W hile t he h eads o f t he t wo a nimals i n t he u pper r egister h ave b een o bliterated b y s urface d amage, t he h eads o f t he t wo a nimals i n t he l ower r egister a re c learly d epicted w ith a ngled h orns. I n o ne c ase ( animal a ), t he h orns a re o f e qual l ength, i n t he o ther ( animal b ), t he r ight h orn i s l onger a nd m ore s harply a ngled t han t he l eft h orn. B oth a nimals a re d epicted w ith p ointed e ars, l ong l egs, a s lender b ody a nd a s hort t ail. T hese a re t he p hysical c haracteristics o f t he g oitred g azelle, G azella s ubgutturosa , w hich i s k nown t o h ave b een p resent i n t he D iyala r egion i n t he 3 rd M illennium B .C.* 1 35 I n G azella s ubgutturosa, t he f emales a re u sually h ornless b ut t he m ales h ave t wisted, l yrate h orns, w hich , w hen v iewed f rom t he f ront, a ppear t o r ise u pwards a nd o utwards f rom t he h ead a nd t hen t o b end i nwards. T hese t wo a nimals m ay, t herefore, b e i dentified a s m ale g oitred g azelles* I 36 a nd t he a ngular t reatment o f t he h orns w ould a ppear t o b e a s tylistic r endering o f t heir t wisted, l yrate h orns. I n t he m aterial s urveyed f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy, t here i s n ot a s ingle e xample o f a b ull o r a c ow w ith a ngled h orns, w hereas a ll t he a nimals w ith a ngled h orns s how p hysical c haracteristics w hich a re n ot i nconsistent w ith t hose o f a g azelle. T here i s, i n a ddition, i ndependent e vidence w hich s upports t he v iew t hat, i n c ertain i nstances, t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress a re g azelle h orns a nd n ot b ulls' h orns. 1 .

Ad ivine h eaddress d escribed i n a " Göttertypentext"

P art 4,4 s o-called G öttertypentext i s p reserved o n a t ablet f ound a t A ssur.*''' T he t ext, w hich i s p robably a n A ssyrian c opy o f a n O ld B abylonian o r ginal, c ontains d escriptions o f d ivine s tatues, i ncluding a s tatue o f ' AM .MA .KUR.KUR. A ccording t o t his t ext, t he g oddess w as r epresented w ith a t urban a nd t wo g azelle h orns. H er h air w as d res 4 s o t hat i t " falls o nto t he n ape o f h er n eck f rom b etween h er h orns". 1 3 ' § he i s d escribed g s a n a colyte o r , , c ompanion o f dE regkigal, ' AM .MA.KUR.KUR ü tu-ti ' ERES.KI.GAL .su-ut ' ERE§.KI.GAL . A s i n t he t ext, h er n ame i s w ritten w ith t he d ivine d eterminative, s he i s c learly r egarded a s a g oddess, a lthough f rom t he d escription o f t he s tatue, s he w as v isualised a s a c omposite c reature h aving a h uman t orso, t he h indq uarters o f a d og a nd a w ebbed t ail l ike a f ish. 2 .

A h eaddress w orn b y ad ivinity o n a s tone r elief f rom K hafajah

T he h orns o f t he h eaddress w orn b y a d ivinity o n a n E arly D ynastic s tone r elief f rom K hafajah ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 2) a re a symmetrical a nd, a s a lready n oted ( see p . 5 8), t his m ay b e a n e xample o f ad ivine h eaddress w ith o ne c urved a nd o ne a ngled h orn, k nown e lsewhere o nly i n t he g lyptic r epertory. T he h orn o n t he l eft i s l ong a nd s lender a nd c urves i nwards a t t he t op. V estiges o f t ransverse r idges a nd g rooves a re s till p reserved o n t he l ower p ortion o f t his h orn. T he h orns o f g azelle a re t ransversally r inged ( annulated) a lmost t o t he t ip. A s t he h orns o f c at g 2a re n ot a nnulated, t his h orn m ay b e i dentified a s a g azelle h orn.*'''

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3 .

G azelle h orns f ound i n E arly D ynastic t emples a nd g raves

T he r ecovery o f g azelle h orn c ores f ound i n s itu i n t emples a nd g raves h as b een i nterpreted b y m ore t han o ne a uther a s i ndicating t hat, i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, g azelle h orns w ere u sed i n c ultic p ractices. i )

H orn c ores o f t he g oitred g azelle, G azella s ubgutturosa, w ere f ound i n t he c ella o f t he S ingle-Shrine T emple a nd i n a r oom i n t he N orthern P alace a t T ell A smar. T he h orn c ores w ere f ound w ith p ieces o f f rontal b one s till a ttached. I n t he o pinion o f M . H ilzheimer, w ho e xamined t he f aunal r emains f rom t his s ite, " it m ust b e a ssumed t hat t he h orns w ere b roken f rom t he s kulls i n a ntiquity a nd w ere b rought t o T ell A smar m erely a s t rophies o r f or s ome 1 _ 40 r itualistic p urpose".*

i i)

H orn c ores o f t he g oitred g azelle, G azella s ubgutturosa w ere f ound i n o ne h uman g rave a t A bu S alabikh a nd i t i s p ossible t hat o ther h orn c ores o f g azelle f ound a t t his s ite w ere a lso a ssociated w ith h uman b urials. J . G luttonB rock w ho e xamined t he f aunal r emains f rom A bu S alabikh w rites, " The r etrieval o f g azelle h orn c ores w ithout s keletal m aterial b ears a c lose r esemblance t o t he f inding o f t welve h orn c ores a t T ell A smar, a s d escribed b y H ilzheimer. H e s uggested t hat m aybe g azelle w as n ot e aten a t t hat s ite b ut t hat t he h orn c ores h ad s ome r itual o r o ther s ignificance. F rom b oth s ites t he h orn c ores w ere c omplete o n b urial a nd h e 5 1 b een c hopped f rom t he s kull a round t he f rontal b one. u *141

i ii)

H orn c ores o f g azelle w ith p ortions o f t he c raniw p s till a ttached w ere a lso f ound a t F ara i n T rench I V(t).* I' 4 2 T his t rench i s i n t he c entre o f t he t ell, i .e. i n t he v icinity o f t he T emple a rea. T hese h orns, l ike t hose f ound a t A bu S alabikh a nd T ell A smar, w ere s imilarly b roken f rom t he s kull i n a ntiquity s o t hat i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hese g azelle h orns w ere a lso b rought b ack t o t he s ite f or s ome r itual o r o ther p urpose. H orn c ores o f g azelle w ere f ound i n g raves i n O N R oyal C emetery a t U r, i ncluding G rave N o. P G 1 050.* 1 " T his g rave, i n w hich t he s eal o f A kalamdug w as f ound, c ontained m ultiple b urials a nd i s p robably t he g rave o f o ne o f t hose m embers o f t he t emple e stablishment w ho b y r eason o f t heir r ank o r r ole i n t he c ult w ere, i n t he w ords o f P .R.S. M oorey, " entitled t o b e b uried w i0 ; r , t he a ttendant " sacrifice" o f m en, w omen a nd c hildren".* I 44

T he c ontemporary a rchaeological a nd i conographical e vidence, t aken i n c onjunction w ith t he t extual e vidence o f t he l ater p eriod, s upports t he v iew t hat i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, c ertain d ivinities w ere v isualised a s w earing h eaddresses w ith g azelle h orns. I t m ay, t heref ore, b e a ccepted t hat w here, i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography, a d ivinity i s r epresented w ith a h eaddress i n w hich o ne o r b oth h orns a re a ngled, t he i ntention w as t o r epresent n ot b ulls ' h orns b ut g azelle

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h orns. S upport f or t his i nterpretation i s p rovided b y t he t reatment o f t he h ead o f t he b oatgod i n a v ersion o f t he b oatgod s cene o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance, C at. R ef. N o. A 30 . H ere, t he b oatgod i s r epresented w ith a p air o f a ngled h orns a nd t wo e ars, e longated a nd e liptoid i n s hape. I n t he m aterial e xamined f or c omparative p urposes, t here i s n o e xample o f a b ull o r a c ow r epresented w ith l ong, e liptoid e ars. O n t he o ther h and, a nimals w ith a ngled h orns a nd p hysical c haracteristics n ot i nconsistent w ith t hose o f a g azelle, a s, f or e xample, t he c ouchant a nimal i n t he l ower r egister o f t he s eal, A dd. I llus. X XXV , a re r epresented w ith e ars w hich a re e liptoid i n s hape. I t m ay, t herefore, b e a ccepted w ith r easonable c ertainty, t hat t he b oatgod, C at. R ef. N o. A 30a, i s d epicted w ith t he e ars a nd h orns o f a g azelle a s am ark o f h is d ivine s tatus. i ii)

T all,

I nward-Curving H orns

D ivine h eaddresses f eaturing t wo t all, i nward-curving h orns a ppear i n t he g lyptic r epertory o nly a nd a re a lways o f T ype B . A s s hown i n T able N o. 2 1 ( lb), d ivinities w earing h eaddresses w ith h orns o f t his t ype a ppear o n s ix s eals o f k nown p rovenance, o f w hich f ive c ome f rom K ish, M ari a nd s ites i n t he D iyala r egion a nd o ne f rom U r. D ivinities w earing h eaddresses w ith t all, i nward-curving h orns a ppear i n s cenes f eaturing t he b oatgod a nd t he " Building a Z iggurat" s cene, w hich, a s a lready n oted ( see p . 7a nd p . 1 8), a re b oth o f n orthern o rigin. T wo t all, i nward-curving h orns r ising d irectly f rom t he h ead w ould, t heref ore, a ppear t o b e e ssentially a n orthern c oncept o f t he d ivine h eadd ress. T he s urvey o f m aterial u ndertaken f or t he p urposes o f c omparison r evealed n o a nimals w ith t all, i nward-curving h orns, w hich, b y t heir p hysical c haracteristics, c ould b e i dentified a s c attle ( see p . 6 1). I n t he m aterial e xamined, h owever, t wo a nimals w ith h orns o f t his t ype w ere f ound b oth o f w hich a ppear i n am ythological o r r itual c ontext. T he f ir e a ppears o n a s eal f ound i n a n E arly D ynastic I I l evel a t T ell A grab,* 1 45 w here i t i s s hown b eing a ttacked b y a b ird-headed m onster. T he h orned a nimal h as l ong l egs, a c ompact b ody a nd n o t ail. I n t he a bsence o f a ny s pecific p hysical c haracteristics, t he s pecies o f h orned a nimal r epresented r emains d oubtful. T he s econd a nimal w ith t all, i nward-curving h orns a ppears o n a s eal w hich w as f ound i n ah ouse i n t he E astern S ector o f t he I shtar T emple a t M ari ( Add. I llus. X XXVI). T his s eal, j udged o n s tyle, c ould b e e ither E arly D ynastic I I o r E arly D ynastic I II T he a nimal, d escribed b y A . P arrot a s " un a nimal ä t riple c orne",* 1 46 s tands b efore a n e nthroned f igure. I t h as a l ong f leecy c oat a nd t he g eneral p hysical a ppearance o f a s pecies o f c aprine . T he h ead i s r epresented i n p rofile a nd b etween t he t wo h orns a n u pright r ises a lmost t o t he f ull h eight o f t he h orns t hemselves. O n t he b asis o f i ts p hysical a ppearance, D r. J . C lutton-Brock o f t he B ritish M useum ( Natural H istory) i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he a nimal d epicted c ould b e a w ild g oat. O f t he n ine e xamples o f d ivine h eaddresses w ith t all, i nwardc urving h orns c atalogued h ere , f ive o f t hem ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 2a , A 24a ,

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b a nd A 26a , b ) h ave a d ecorative m otif c ontained b etween t he h orns, a f eature n ot c ommon i n h eaddresses o f T ype B . T he d ecorative m otif c onsisting o f t wo V -shaped m otifs o r a n u pright w ith l ateral p roject ions r ises, l ike t he h orns t hemselves, d irectly f rom t he t op o f t he d ivinity's h ead, i n t he s ame w ay t hat t he c entral u pright r ises f rom t he h ead o f t he g oat o n t he s eal f rom M ari. T he t all, i nward-curving h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress m ay b e i ntended t o r epresent b ull 's h orns a nd t his p articular t reatment o f t he h orns, n ot f ound e lsewhere o n r epresentation o f t he a nimals t hemselves c ould b e e xplained o n t he g rounds o f a s tylistic m annerism . H owever, a n a lternative e xplanation, t hat t he h orns a re i ntended t o r epresent g oat 's h orns, m ay a lso b e p ossible i n t he l ight o f o ther e vidence p roduced b y t his s tudy . A s cene d epicted o n a s eal i mpression f rom F ara, C at. R ef. N o. B i, s hows a d ivinity, i dentifiable a s s uch b y h is h orned h eaddress, h auling a b oat i n w hich t wo p assengers a re s eated. B oth p assengers a re p ortrayed a s w earing k ilts, b ut w hile o ne i s s hown w ith a s haven h ead, t he o ther ( Cat. R ef. N o. B ib) i s d epicted w ith a nimal e ars a nd t wo h orns, w hich, b y t heir s hape a nd a ngle o f e mergence f rom t he h ead, a ppear t o b e t hose o f a s pecies o f s heep. I n t he c ontext o f t he s cene, t his p assenger w ould a ppear t o b e a d ivine b eing o f s ome k ind w ith s heep 's h orns w orn a s t he d istinguishing m ark o f h is s upernatural s tatus. I n t he l ight o f t his e vidence , t herefore, t here w ould s eem n o r eason w hy t he h orns o f o ther s pecies o f c aprine s hould n ot h ave s erved t he s ame p urpose, a lso. E arlier i n t his s tudy ( see p . 7 9ff.), i t h as b een a rgued t hat t he h orns o f s ome E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses a re t hose o f ag azelle. D ivine h eaddresses i ncorporating g azelle h orns a ppear o n o bjects o f n orthern o rigin o r a re w orn b y d ivinities i n s cenes o f n orthern o r n orth-western o rigin . I n t he n orth a nd w est, t herefore, t he h orns o f h eaddresses w orn b y d ivinities w hich d istinguished t hem f rom o rdinary m ortals w ere n ot a lways n ecessarily b ull 's h orns b ut c ould b e t he h orns o f s ome o ther s pecies o f a nimal. D ivine h eaddresses w ith t all, i nwardc urving h orns h ave t he s ame d istribution p attern a s d ivine h eaddresses w ith g azelle h orns. T hey o ccur o n s eals f rom K ish, f rom s ites i n t he D iyala r egion a nd f rom M ari. T he s eal s howing a n a nimal w ith h orns o f t his t ype, i dentified a s aw ild g oat, a lso c omes f rom M ari. W hile n o c onclusive a rgument c an b e b ased o n t he e vidence o f as ingle e xample, t he a nimal w ith t all, i nward-curving h orns o n t he s eal f rom M ari m ust b e t aken a s i ndicating a t l east t he p ossibility t hat w here t he d ivine h eaddress i s r epresented w ith h orns o f t his t ype, t he i ntention w as t o r epresent n ot b ull's h orns b ut t he h orns o f a s pecies o f g oat. i v)

H orns J oined T ogether t o f orm a C rescent

A c rescent l ying o n i ts b ack i s f eatured i n m any d ivine h eadd resses f rom E arly D ynastic I IIa t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod. C rescents a ppear m ost f requently a s c omponents o f t he d ecorative f eature c ont ained b etween t he h orns o f t he h eaddress. T he t wo h orns o f t he h eadd ress m ay b e j oined t ogether a nd r epresented a s a c rescent, b ut, a s s een i n T able N o. 2 1c, t his i s r are, a nd o nly f our h eaddresses o f t his t ype h ave b een i dentified.

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C rescents l ying o n t heir b acks a re i ncluded i n t he c entral f eature o f h eaddresses w orn b y d ivinities o n f our o bjects f rom U r. O f t hese, o ne ( Cat. R ef. N o. K l) t akes t he a ncient f orm o f t he d ouble-peaked c ultic h eaddress o f t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod ( see p . 7 6) a nd o f t he o ther t hree, a t l east o ne i s a h orned h eaddress ( Cat. R ef. N o. H 1b). I n C at. R ef. N os. D 3 a nd G 4, t he c entral f eature c onsists o f a c rescent l ying o n i ts b ack s upported o n a s hort s tem . I n C at. R ef. N o. K l, t here a re t hree s uch c rescents n ested o ne i nside t he o ther, t he l owest o f w hich i s s upported o n a s hort s tem . T he h eaddress w orn b y o ne o f t he t wo g oddesses o n t he e ngraved s hell p laque, C at. R ef. N o. H lb, h as a c entral t urret w hich i s s urmounted b y a c rescent l ying o n i ts b ack. T he p resence o f c rescents i n t hese f our h eaddresses m ay b e a ccepted a s s ignigying t hat t he w earer i s am ember o f t he d ivine f amily o f t he m oon g od, u N anna, t he c ity g od o f U r. A c rescent l ying o n i ts b ack a lso a ppears i n h eaddresses w orn b y d ivinities o n o bjects a ttributable b y i nscription t o r ulers o f t he L agash d ynasty ( Cat. R ef. N os. D 5a a nd b , K 2). I n t hese h eaddresses, t he c rescent s urmounts a c entral t urret c arrying f acial f eatures a nd f lanked b y f eathers, w hich c an b e i n erpreted a s a s tylised r epresentat ion o f t he I mdugud b ird, s ymbol o f uN ingirsu, t utelary g od o f t he c ity o f L agash. I n t hese h eaddresses, t he c rescent c ould b e i ntended a s a s tylistic r endering o f t he e ars o f t he l ion-headed I mdugud b ird. A lternatively, t he i ntention m ay h ave b een t o r epresent I mdugud w earing a h orned h eaddress w ith t he h orns j oined t ogether t o f orm a c rescent, o r a d ivine h eaddress i n t he f orm o f t he c rescent m oon. I n s ome E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses, p articularly t hose o n s eals d ating t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. C 2 a nd C 5), t he t wo h orns o f t he h eaddress o r s ubsidiary p airs o f h orns e merging f rom t he s ides o f a c entral t urret t ake a c rescentic f orm . T he i ntent ion h ere c ould h ave b een t o s how a h orned h eaddress w ith a c entral f eature c onsisting o f c rescents l ying o n t heir b acks s upported o n a c entral u pright a s i n h eaddress C at. R ef. N o. K l. I t i s m ore p robable, h owever, t hat t hese h eaddresses a re e arly e xamples o f a t ype o f h orned h eaddress w hich b ecame p opular i n t he A kkadian p eriod i n w hich m ultiple p airs o f s ubsidiary h orns a re m ounted o n a c entral u pright.* 1 47 I n l ater t exts, t he t wo c usps o f t he c rescent m oon a re s ometimes r eferred t o a s " horns" ( Sum : S i; A kk: q arnu). I n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod t he t wo h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress, a t l east i n s ome c ases, m ay l ikewise h ave c arried c onnotations o f t he " horns" o f t he c rescent m oon. I f t his i s s o, i t i s t o b e e xpected t hat t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress w ould s ometimes t ake t he f orm o f a c rescent l ying o n i ts b ack. T here a re, h owever, f our E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he t wo " horns" a re j oined t ogether t o f orm a c rescent a nd t he n eaddress i s p ositioned a bove t he t op o f t he h ead i n a m anner t hat s uggests t he i ntention w as t o r epresent t he c rescent m oon i tself. E xamples o f d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he t wo " horns" a ssume t he f orm o f a c rescent a ppear o n t wo s eals o f u nknown p rovenance d ated t o E arly D ynastic I IIb ( Cat. R ef. N os. A 31c a nd L 4). I n e ach c ase, t he h eaddress i s p laced o ver a nd c learly a bove t he t op o f t he h ead o f t he d ivinity. A s imilar e ffect m ay b e o bserved i n t he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he e ngraved s hell p laque f ound a t M ari, C at. R ef. N o. M 2. H ere t he c rescent i s p oised a bove a s haped b and w hich p robably

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r epresents a c losely-fitted c ap ( see p . 4 1). T his e lement o f t he g oddess's h eaddress i s a ccepted a s a c rescent m oon b y P . A miet, w ho d escribes i t a s t iare a strale, e n r elation p robablement a vec I shtar d es b toiles".* I 48 A f ourth h eaddress w ith h orns j oined t o f orm a c rescent i s p reserved o n a s eal i mpression o n c lay f ound a t U ruk ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 7b), w hich m ay b e l ate E arly D ynastic o r e ven E arly A kkadian i n d ate. T he d esign o f t he s eal i s i mperfectly p reserved i n t he i mpression a nd t he f iner d etail o f t he h ead o f t he d ivinity i s l ost. I t i s n ot p ossible, t herefore, t o b e c ertain w hether t he h eaddress w as p laced o n t he h ead o f t he d ivinity, a s i n C at. R ef. N o. M 2, o r p ositioned a bove i t, a s i n C at. R ef. N os. A 31c a nd L 4. T he e arliest e xample o f t his t ype o f " crescent m oon" h eaddress i s w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he e ngraved s hell p laque f rom M ari, C at. R ef. N o. M ?, 9 w hich m ay b e d ated t o t he f irst p art o f E arly D ynastic A nother " crescent m oon" h eaddress a ppears o n a s eal o f u nknown p rovenance w here i t i s w orn b y a n a rmed d ivinity i n a v ersion o f t he b oatgod s cene ( Cat. R ef. N o. A 31c). A s a lready n oted ( see p . 7 ), t he b oatgod s cene i s o f n orthern o r n orth-western o rigin. I f t hese " crescent m oon" h eaddresses r epresent a s eparate t radition i n w hich t he m ark o f d ivinity w as a h eaddress v isualised n ot a s b ull's h orns, b ut a s a c rescent m oon, t hen o n p resent e vidence, t his t radition w ould a ppear t o h ave i ts o rigin i n t he r egion o f t he U pper E uphrates o r S yria. v )

H orns r epresented a s s traight l ines

A s s hown i n T able N o. 2 3(5), t here a re s ix E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses i n w hich t he t wo " horns" a re r epresented a s s traight l ines o r i n w hich o ne o f t he p air i s r epresented a s a s traight l ine. T he l ines r epresenting o ne o r b oth o f t he t wo p rojections i n t hese h eadd resses v ary i n t heir l ength a nd w idth a nd i n t he a ngle a t w hich t hey a re s et i n r elation t o t he b ase o f t he h eaddress o r t he p lane o f t he h ead. T he l ines m ay b e n arrow ( e.g. C at. R ef. N o. F 2) o r t hick a nd s quare c ut a t t he e nd ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. J 2 a nd J 7a). T hey m ay r ise v ertically f rom t he h ead ( e.g. C at. R ef. N o. A 29b) o r s lope i nwards ( e.g. C at. R ef. N o. A l6b) o r o utwards ( e.g. C at. R ef. N os. F 2, J 2, J 3 a nd J 7a). D ivine h eaddresses i n w hich o ne o r b oth o f t he p rojections a re r epresented a s s traight l ines a ppear o n s eals o nly. T his p articular f orm o f s tylisation, t herefore, m ay h ave d eveloped a s a c onsequence o f t he m iniaturistic s tone-working t echnique e mployed i n c utting t he d esign o n t he s eal. A s imilar f orm o f s tylisation w as u sed b y s ealc utters i n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod t o r epresent t he d oublep eaked h eaddress w orn b y s ome p articipants i n c ontemporary c ultic r ituals. F or e xample, i n a c ultic s cene f eaturing t he I nanna s ymbol o n a L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr s eal, A dd. I llus. X XIV, t he t wo-pointed h eadd ress w orn b y t he f emale f igure i s r epresented s chematically b y t wo o utward-sloping l ines r ising o ne f rom e ach e nd o f a h orizontal l ine. T he d ouble-peaked h eaddress w as m ost p robably f ashioned i n t he l ikeness o f t he s acred b yre o r s heepfold ( see p . 7 7ff.), s o t hat t he t wo o utward-sloping l ines o f t his h eaddress m ay b e i nterpreted a s a s tylised r epresentation o f t he t ops o f t he r eed b undles f orming t he

8 5

u pper p art o f t he s tructure. T he v iew t hat, f rom E arly D ynastic I I o nwards t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod, d ivinities w ere, a s a g eneral r ule, d istinguished f rom h uman b eings b y ah eaddress i nco usrating o r c omprising t wo b ull's h orns, i s o ne t hat i s w idely h eld.*''' A ccording t o t his v iew , E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses w ith o ne o r b oth o f t he p rojections r epresented a s s traight l ines, p ointing e ither u pwards, i nwards o r o utwards , a re a ll i ntended t o r epresent h orned h eaddresses f eaturing t wo b ull 's h orns. H owever, t his s tudy h as r evealed e vidence w hich i ndicates t hat t here w as a g reater d iversity i n t he f orms t aken b y t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress t han h as b een s uggested h itherto. W hile i n s ome E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddresses a s traight l ine m ight b e i ntended a s a s tylised r epresentation o f a b ull's h orn , t his a ssumption c annot b e m ade i n a ll c ases w ithout r eservation. T he e vidence i n s upport o f t he v iew t hat f rom E arly D ynastic I I o nwards t o t he e nd o f t he p eriod, t he h orns o f s ome d ivine h eaddresses w ere t hose o f g azelle i s s et o ut i n d etail o n p p. 7 9ff. T his e vidence i ndicates t hat w here t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress a re r epresented a s a n a symmetrical p air, o ne o f w hich i s a ngled, t he i ntention w as t o r eprese 1 7 14 a p air o f g az9lle h orns. I n t he G öttertypentext f ound a t A ssur,* 1 31 t he s tatue o f ' AM .MA .KUR.KUR i s d escribed a s h aving , " a h orn l ike a g azelle 's, o ne ( horn) i s p ointed t oward h er b ack , ( she h as) a h orn l ike a g azelle's, o ne ( horn) i s c urved t owards h er f ront, ( h h air f alls o n(to) t he n ape o f h er n eck f rom b etween h er h orns".*''' T his i s a n a pposite d escription o f t he h airstyle a nd h eaddress o f t he g oddess r epresented o n t he s eal f rom I shchali, C at. R ef. N o. J 2, w here t he r ight-hand ( front) p rojection o f t he h eaddress i s c urved, t he l efth and ( back) p rojection o f t he h eaddress i s s traight a nd p oints b ackwards a nd t he h air f alls o nto t he n ape o f t he n eck. I t m ust , t herefore, b e c onsidered a s a p ossibility t hat w here t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress a re r epresented a s a p air, o ne o f w hich i s c urved w hile t he o ther i s s traight, a s i n C at. R ef . N os. A l6b, J 2 a nd J 7a, t he i ntention w as t o r epresent n ot b ull's h orns b ut g azelle h orns. T he e vidence i n s upport o f t he v iew t hat t he d ouble-peaked c ultic h eaddress o f t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod s urvived i nto t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a nd w as s till i n u se a s a f orm o f d ivine h eaddress u p t o t he t ime o f U r N anshe, i s d iscussed o n p . 7 7ff. T he t hree E arly D ynastic h eaddresses w hich a re i dentified a s t aking t his a ncient f orm ( Cat. R ef. N os. D 6, K l a nd K 3), a re a ll w orn b y s eated g oddesses, o ne o f w hom , C at. R ef. N o. D 6, i s d epicted h olding a c onical b owl. W here, i n a r itual d rinking s cene d epicted o n a n o bject d ated t o E arly D ynastic I I o r I IIa, a s eated g oddess i s s hown w ith a h eaddress r epresented a s t wo s traight l ines, i t m ust b e c onsidered a s a p ossibility t hat t he i ntention w as t o s how h er w earing a d ouble-peaked h eaddress r ather t han a h orned h eaddress. T he r itual d rinking s cene d epicted o n s eal, C at. R ef. N o . J 3, f eatures t wo f emale f igures s eated f acing e ach o ther. T he h ead o f t he f igure o n t he l eft i s l ost t hrough d amage, b ut t he f igure o n t he r ight w hich i s c ompletely p reserved, i s i dentified a s a g oddess b y h er h eadd ress. T he h eaddress i s r epresented s tylistically b y t wo s traight l ines r ising f rom t he t op o f t he h ead a nd s loping o utwards a t a n a ngle l ike t he t wo p eaks o f t he h eaddress w orn b y t he I nanna f igure o n t he

8 6

L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr s eal, A dd. I llus. X XIV. G iven t he c ontext i n w hich t he d ivinity i s f eatured , h er h eaddress i s m ore r eadily i dentified a s r epresenting a d ouble-peaked h eaddress t han a s h eadd ress f eaturing t wo b ull's h orns a s s uggested b y R .H . B oehmer.* I 5 3 A s t he d ouble-peaked h eaddress w as i tself m ost p robably f ashioned i n t he l ikeness o f t he s acred b yre ( see p . 7 7ff.), t he t wo s traight l ines o f t he h eaddress w orn b y t he g oddess o n t he E arly D ynastic s eal, C at. R ef. N o. J 3, a re, l ike t hose o f t he h eaddress w orn b y t he f emale f igure o n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr s eal, A dd. I llus. X XIV , m ost p robably i ntended t o r epresent t he t ops o f t he r eed b undles f orming t he u pper p art o f t he s acred r eed b yre o r s heepfold a nd n ot a p air o f b ull's h orns. A d ivinity d epicted o n a n E arly D ynastic I II s eal, C at. R ef. N o. F 2, i s s hown w ith a l ong p igtail a nd a h eaddress r epresented a s t wo o utward-sloping l ines. A s t he p igtail i s am asculine s tyle o f h aird ressing i n t he l ater p hases o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, t he d ivinity m ay b e i dentified a s a g od. T he s tylisation o f t he g od 's h eaddress g ives i t a s uperficial r esemblance t o t he d ouble-peaked h eaddress r epresented s tylistically o n t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr s eal, A dd. I llus. X XIV . T here i s, h owever, n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he d ouble-peaked c ultic h eaddress o f t he L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr p eriod s urvived a s a f orm o f d ivine h eaddress a fter t he U r N anshe p eriod a nd t he h orned h eaddress a ppears t o h ave b een e stablished a s t he d istingui 4img m ark o f d ivinity b y t he l atter p art o f t he r eign o f E anatum .* I J4 J udged o n s tylistic g rounds, t he s eal, C at. R ef. N o. F 2, i s t o b e d ated t o l ate i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, s o t hat t he g od's h eaddress m ay b e a ccepted a s a s tylised r epresentation o f a h orned h eaddress. I n t his c ase, t he t wo o utward-sloping l ines o f t he d ivine h eaddress m ay b e a ccepted a s a s tylised r epresentation o f t wo b ull 's h orns.

8 7

I V.

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS

T his s tudy h as r evealed m ore d iversity i n t he f orms t aken b y t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress t han h as b een s uggested s o f ar i n t he l iterature. O f t he 1 66 e xamples o f t he d ivine h eaddress c atalogued, a t l east 2 3 ( representing n early 1 4% o f t he t otal) d o n ot f eature b ull's h orns. I n t hree c ases, t he d ivine h eaddress i s f ashioned i n t he f orm o f a s acred b yre o r s heepfold a nd i n f our c ases, t he m ark o f d ivinity i s r epresented b y ah eaddress r epresented a s ac rescent m oon . I n 1 6 c ases, t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress a re n ot b ull 's h orns b ut t he h orns o f g azelle. O n t his e vidence, t he g enerally h eld v iew t hat, i n t he w ords o f R .M . B oehmer, " In d er gel s ind d ie K opfbedeckungen d er G ötter m it S tierhörnern v ersehen",* 1" d oes n ot a pply t o d ivine h eadd resses r epresented i n t he i conography o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. A n i mportant c orollary t o t hese f indings i s t hat, i n E arly D ynastic i conography, t he p resence o r a bsence o f a h orned h eaddress c annot b e r egarded a s ar eliable i ndication o f t he d ivine o r n on-devine s tatus o f t he w earer. T he a mbiguity s urrounding t he d ivine o r n ond ivine i dentity o f t he f emale f igure w earing a d ouble-peaked h eaddress r epresented o n t he W arka V ase, a pplies e qually, n ot o nly t o t he f emale f igures o n E arly D ynastic o bjects r epresented w ith h eaddresses o f a s imilar t ype, c onventionally d escribed a s g oddesses, b ut t o a ll f igures w earing d ivine h eaddresses o f a ll t ypes. Av iew w hich p robably c omes n earest t o t he r eality i s e xpressed b y P . A miet w hen h e s a uz " incertitude m ontre...combien p roche d e l 'humanite s ont l es d ieux".* I' " H owever, i t m ay b e s afely a ssumed t hat t he s urrogate p riest o r p riestess w ould b e a ttired i n t he r obes a nd r egalia v isualised a s t he d ivinity's a nd i n t hat s ense t he h eaddresses w orn a re d ivine h eadd resses. T his s tudy h as r evealed t hat t here w as m ore t han o ne t radition o f r epresenting t he d ivine h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod a nd t hese t raditions h ave a r egional o r g eographical d istribut ion. I n o ne t radition , p articularly f ound i n t he n orth a nd n orth w est, t he d ivinity i s v isualised a s h aving a h ead f urnished l ike a n a nimal's, w ith h orns. T he h orns m ay b e t hose o f c attle, o f g azelle o r, i n s ome c ases, p ossibly o f a s pecies o f c aprid. T his f orm o f h eaddress w as a dopted i n t he s outh t owards t he e nd o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod f or d ivinised h uman b eings a nd d ivinities o f m inor r ank , t o d istinguish t hem f rom c osmic g ods o r d ivinities o f t he h ighest s tanding i n t he S umerian p antheon . T here i s a nother t radition , t he o rigins o f w hich a ppear t o b e l ocated i n S yria o r t he r egion o f t he U pper E uphrates, w hereby t he m ark o f d ivinity w as v isualised a s ah eaddress i n t he s hape o f a c rescent m oon. I n t he s outh, f rom E arly D ynastic I I o nwards, d ivinities o f h igh r ank i n t he S umerian p antheon w ere v isualised i n f ully h uman f orm a nd t he h eaddresses t hey w ear w ere t he s ole i ndication o f t heir d ivine s tatus. I n t he e arlier p hases o f t he p eriod , t hese d ivine h eaddresses t ook t he f orm o f a s acred b yre o r s heepfold, b ut t his t ype o f h eaddress d id n ot s urvive a fter t he U r N anshe p eriod. I n E arly D ynastic I IIb, t wo h orns w ere i ncorporated i nto t he d ivine h eaddress b ut e ven h ere , t he h orns w hich m ay b e a ccepted a s c attle h orns w ere n ot n ecessarily a lways b ull's h orns. I n t heir t reatment a nd p resentation, t he c attle h orns o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress b ear a c lose r esemblance t o t he h orns o f t he f ull-face b ullman, a m ythological f igure w ho i s

8 8

r epresented i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography a s p laying a r ole o f s ome b enign s ignificance i n r elation t o t he f locks a nd h erds a nd m ay h ave b een r egarded a s g uardian o f d omesticated a nimals. T he h orns o f t he S umerian d ivine h eaddress m ay, t herefore, c arry c onnotations o f d omesticated c attle. G iven t he i mportance o f t he t heme o f t he f ertility o f t he f locks a nd h erds i n S umerian r eligion a nd m ythology, t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddresses, p articularly t hose w orn b y g oddesses, m ay, i n s ome c ases, h ave b een v isualised a s c ow 's h orns r ather t han b ull's h orns. I t w as o nly l ater, p erhaps a s a r esult o f t he i mpact o f A kkadian c ulture o n S umerian t raditions, t hat t he h orns o f t he d ivine h eaddress m ay h ave b ecome e ndowed w ith t he q ualities o f v irility a nd p ower, s ymbolised b y b ull 's h orns.

8 9

P ART I I:

N OTES

9 3.

U nger ( 1938); B oehmer ( 1972);

9 4.

D horme ( 1949),

9 5.

T he t erm " bovid" i s u sed b y z oologists t o d escribe a ll s pecies o f a nimals o f t he F amily B ovidae w hich i ncludes a ntelope, s heep a nd g oats a s w ell a s c attle. I n t he l iterature r elating t o t he i conography o f t he N ear E ast, t he w ord i s c ustomarily u sed w ith t he m eaning " of o r p ertaining t o t he o x" t o d ifferentiate c attle f rom c aprids, d eer, a ntelope, e tc. I t i s i n t his s ense, g iven a s t he p rimary d efinition i n t he O xford E nglish d ictionary, t hat t he t erm " bovid" i s u sed i n t his s tudy . I n s o f ar a s t he a nimals r epresented o n o bjects o f E arly D ynastic d ate, d escribed h ere a s b ovid a nimals, m ay b e i dentified z oologically, t hey w ould a ppear t o b e l iving a nd e xtinct s pecies o f d omesticated a nd w ild c attle d escribed b y z oologists a s b elonging t o t he F amily B ovidae, S ubfamily B ovinae, T ribe B ovini. ( See M orris ( 1965), p . 3 65; C lutton-Brock ( 1981), p . 6 4).

9 6.

A p air o f t riangles w ith t he t ips p ointing u pwards i s q uoted b y B oehmer ( 1967, T ab. I , A /1 ( oben)) a s o ne o f t he f orms o f d ivine h eaddress i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. H e c ites a s a n e xample D elaporte ( 1910) N o. 5 0. A s, h owever, i n t his h eaddress ( Cat. R ef. N o. J 3), t he t wo p rojections a re u niform i n w idth, b lunt a nd n ot p ointed a t t he t ip , t his e xample h as b een i ncluded i n " Divine h eaddresses w ith t he h orns r epresented a s s traight l ines", T able N o. 2 3 ( 5).

9 7.

T he c reatures i n H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 2(c) a nd 4 8(a) a nd S chmidt ( 1932/3) P l. X III, N o . 6 , a ppear t o b e a nimals i n a n a nthropom orphic p osture c omparable t o t he a nimals p laying m usical i nstruments o n t he s hell i nlay o f t he s ound b ox o f t he m usical i nstrument f ound a t U r, ( Woolley ( 1934), P l. 1 05, N o. U 1 0556), b ut a s i n t hese t hree c ases t hey a ppear i n t he s ame p osture a nd c ontext a s b ullmen t hey a re c ounted a s s uch i n t his a nalysis.

9 8.

A n E arly D ynastic I d ating f or t he s eal i mpression, A dd. I llus. X I, i s b ased o n e vidence f rom s eal i mpressions f rom U r. T wo s cenes, o ne s howing a n a nimal i nside a c urved, b uttressed e nclosure, t he s econd f eaturing a h uman o r s ub-human f igure w ho e xtends a n a rm(?) o r f ore-limb(?) a bove a n a nimal s tanding i nside a r ectangular, b uttressed b yre(?), a ppear o n s eal i mpressions f rom t he S eal I mpression S trata ( SIS) 8 a nd 4 a t U r ( Moorey ( 1979), p . 1 06, N o. 1 84 a nd p . 1 09, N o . 5 62). Ad irect p arallel f or t he s cene i n N o . 1 84 o ccurs o n as eal i mpression f rom F ara ( Heinrich, T af. 6 6 ( i)); t he s cene i n N o. 5 62 i s a pparently a v ariant o f t he s ame t heme w hich i s d epicted i n A dd. R ef. N o. X I. T hese F ara s ealings w ould a ppear, t herefore, t o b e c ontemporary w ith s ealings f rom S IS 4 -8 a t U r w hich a re d ated t o E arly D ynastic I o n t he b asis o f c omparable m aterial f rom E arly D ynastic I l evels a t N ippur, ( Hansen ( 1971), p . 4 7 f f.).

P .

( 1980-1983).

1 4.

9 0

9 9.

Af ragment o f ac hlorite o r s teatite b owl, c arved i n l ow r elief, f ound i n a n E arly D ynastic I I/IIIa l evel a t K hafajah, ( Frankfort ( 1935), P . 4 8 , N o. 5 4) s hows t he f igure o f ab ullman w ith t he h ead p resented f ull-face . T his e xample c ould n ot b e i ncluded i n t he a nalysis, b ecause t he h ead i s d amaged a nd t he h orns a re m issing. T his b owl i s d ated o n s tyle t o E arly D ynastic I b y F rankfort ( 1936), p . 6 8. T he b owl m ay n ot, h owever, b e o f M esopotamian o rigin . P orada, ( 1976), p . 13, s uggests i t m ay b e o f e astern o rigin a s " the c losest c orrespondence o f e lements i n t he d esign c an b e e stablished w ith a p laque f rom T epe Y ahya".

1 00.

H einrich ( 1931) N o. 4 4(n).

1 01.

A miet ( 1980a), p . 1 38.

1 02.

W oolley ( 1934) P l.

1 03.

L egrain ( 1936), N o . 2 98.

1 04.

O ther e xamples w hich m ay b e q uoted a re F rankfort ( 1955) N o. a nd L egrain ( 1936) N os . 2 15, 2 17.

1 05.

L egrain ( 1936), N os. 3 40-342 a nd 3 44-348.

1 06.

W iseman 5 4.

1 07.

F or t he d ating o f t he F ara s eal i mpression, A dd. I llus. X I, s ee n . 9 8 . F or t he d ating o f t he s eal i mpression f rom U r , C at. R ef. N o. B 2, s ee n . 2 4.

1 08.

e .g. H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 2c; 4 8a.

1 09.

e .g. 4 64.

10.

e .g. H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 5e; 4 5k; W oolley ( 1934) P l. 1 98, N o. 7 3; P l. 2 01, N o . 18. L egrain ( 1936) N o. 5 17; F rankfort ( 1955) N o. 3 80; N o. 3 32.

1 11.

H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 7i.

12.

H ilzheimer ( 1926),

13.

B ehm-Blancke ( 1979), p . 4 9.

14.

I n t he a rchaic t exts f rom U ruk , t he s ign i s t urned t hrough a nd a ppears t hus: At) ( Falkenstein ( 1936) S ign. N o. 4 4).

15.

D elaporte ( 1920) P l. 2 6, N o. 6 ( S 3 23).

16.

Z euner ( 1963), p . 2 18 f f.

1 92, N o. 1 2.

( 1962) P l. 1 4a , B M 8 9538 ; F rankfort ( 1935), p .

4 8 ,

8 00

N o.

F rankfort ( 1955) N o. 3 30.

H einrich ( 1931) T af. 4 6f; 5 0g; 5 5a .

F rankfort

( 1955)

N o.

L egrain ( 1936) N o. 5 15.

p . 1 5.

9 1

9 0°

1 17.

Z euner ( 1963), P . 2 19, N o. 8 :19. T his e xample w as n ot i ncluded a mong t he A dditional I llustrations i n P art I V a s, i n p hotographs o f t he b owl w hich a re a vailable, t he h orn i s c learly s hown o n t he f ar s ide o f t he h ead b ut t he m ark w hich i s i nterpreted b y Z euner a s t he s car l eft b y p olling o ne h orn o n t he n ear s ide i s n ot v isible. T he s cene r epresented s eems t o b e ah erding s cene.

18.

A n e xplanation f or t he s car l eft a fter r emoval o f t he h orn w as g iven b y G .B . E dwards o f t he R oyal V eterinary C ollege, L ondon , i n a p ersonal c ommunication d ated 1 1.9.1978. H e w rites , " If r egrowth o f h orny t issue i s t o b e a voided t he h orn h as t o b e r emoved b elow t he r ing o f h orn-producing t issue a t i ts b ase. B y d oing s o a h ole a pproximately 3 -4cm i n d iameter i s l eft i nto t he f rontal s inus o f t he s kull b ecause t he s inus c ontinues i nto t he h orn p rocess i tself". O ne m ethod o f r emoving t he h orns o f a dult c attle, e mployed e ven t oday, i s b y s awing w ith a b utcher's s aw . T his, a ccording t o G .B . E dwards, r esults i n c opious h aemorrhage " which h as t o b e c ontrolled b y l igating o r t wisting t he s evered b lood v essels...I h ave e ncountered o ther c rude m ethods o f h aemostasis w hich h ave b een e mployed b y s tockmen s uch a s c overing t he w ound w ith a h andful o f c obwebs w hich a ct a s am esh t o t rap r ed b lood c ells a nd r esult i n r apid c lotting... T he a nimal's n atural r esistance a llows u ncomplicated h ealing t o o ccur i n a ll b ut t he e xceptional c ase".

19.

H einrich ( 1931) T af. 2 8 ( a).

1 20.

e .g. a s tone v ase c arved i n h igh r elief o f L ate U ruk/Jemdet N asr d ate f rom U ruk ( Heinrich ( 1936) T af. 2 3 , N o. W 1 4506 g 3 ; h eads o f b ulls i n c opper/bronze o f E arly D ynastic d ate f rom K hafajah ( Frankfort ( 1939b) P l. 1 04); f rom T ello ( de S arzec a nd H euzey ( 1884-1912) P l. 5 ); a nd a h ead o f a b ull o f u nknown p rovenance i n t he S taatliche M useen , B erlin , N o . V A 3 142 ( Moortgat ( 1969) P l. 5 3).

1 21.

D ating f rom t he O ld B abylonian p eriod, b ut p ossibly r eflecting a n a ncient c ustom , t he H ammurabi L aws i nclude a c lause ( No. 2 51) d ealing w ith i njury c aused b y a n o x k nown t o b e d angerous w hose h orns h ave n ot b een c apped o r l opped. T he p hrase u sed i s q arni äu l ä u äarrim , t he v erb g arämu m eaning " to l op" o r " to c ap". ( von S oden ( 1959-1981).

1 22.

B uchanan ( 1981) N o.

1 23.

I t h as b een s uggested t o m e b y J .J . O rchard t hat t he h ead o n t he W arka V ase a nd t he h ead o n t he s eal, A dd. I llus. X XXII c ould b e a n u nrecognised l ogogram f or t he g oddess 's p olled c attle, i .e. t he h ead i s n ot a n o bject b ut a s ymbol.

1 24.

F or t his a nd m uch o ther i nformation r egarding t he p ractical a spects o f c attle r aising, I a m i ndebted t o M r. A lbert C otton o f G islingham , S uffolk, w ho h as h ad 5 5 y ears ' e xperience o f f arming a nd s tock r earing.

1 25.

Z euner ( 1963),

p .

1 34.

2 19.

9 2

1 26.

I n ap ersonal c ommunication d ated 1.9.78, G .B. E dwards w rites, " I k now o f n o a gricultural p ractice w here u nilateral d ehorning w as c arried o ut. E ven d raught o xen w ith l ong o utwardly p rojecti ng h orns w hich w orked i n p airs t o m y k nowledge w ere n ever d ehorned. E ven i f t here w as a ny r isk o f d amage t o o ne a nother t he r ight h orn f rom o ne, a nd t he l eft f rom t he o ther, w ould n eed t o b e r emoved."

1 27.

I n d escribing t he g oddess ( Cat. R ef. N o. D 6), P . A miet s ays, " la d eesse p orte u ne t iare r appelant b eaucoup l e b onnet ä p ointes d e c elle d e v ase ä U ruk". ( Amiet ( 1953), p . 2 5 a nd n . 4 ).

1 28.

H . F rankfort ( 1970), p . 2 7, i dentifies t he f igure a s t hat o f t he g oddess h erself. AM oortgat ( 1969), p . 1 3, s ays t hat t he s cene m ay r epresent " the g oddess I nnin a nd h er l over - t his w ould s eem p ossible i f t he h ead-dress o f t he m ain f igure r eally i s h orned". T he v iew e xpressed b y B oehmer i s t hat t he f emale f igure d oes n ot w ear a h orned h eaddress b y w hich t he w earer c an b e i dentified a s a d ivinity ( Boehmer ( 1957-71), Ghterdarstellungen i n d er B ildkunst.

1 29.

e .g. M oortgat 1 16722.

1 30.

L egrain ( 1936) N o. 3 89.

1 31.

B oehmer ( 1967), p . 2 74, T ab. I , A /4.

1 32.

F rankfort ( 1955) N o . 2 36.

1 33.

F rankfort ( 1955) N os . 2 57, 3 02, 4 60, 8 21 a nd 8 67.

1 34.

T he i dentification o f t he t wo a nimals o n t his s eal w as s uggested b y D r . J . C lutton-Brock , B ritish M useum ( Natural H istory).

1 35.

R emains o f G azella s ubgutturosa ( Hilzheimer ( 1941), P . 2 2).

1 36.

D r. J . C lutton-Brock s uggests t hat t he a nimals c ould b e i ntended t o r epresent e ither g oitred g azelles o r h artebeest. H owever, w hile h artebeest w ere p resent i n t he L evant i n t he B ronze A ge, t here i s n o a vailable e vidence t o s uggest t hat t heir d istribution e xtended f urther t o t he e ast. I n v iew o f t he u ncertainty o f t he d istribution o f h artebeest i n t he 3 rd M ill. B .C ., J . C luttonB rock c onsiders t hat t he t wo a nimals o n t he T ell A grab s eal a re m ore p robably g azelle.

1 37.

K ocher ( 1953), p . 5 7 f f.

1 38.

T his t ranslation o f t he r elevant s ection o f t he t ext i s g iven t he A ssyrian D ictionary u nder t he e ntry c l arnu , h orn .

( 1940), N o. 2 9a , b ; W iseman ( 1962),

9 3

w ere

f ound

a t

P l.

T ell

l a ;

B M

A smar

i n

1 39.

I n t he o pinion o f D r. J . C lutton-Brock, t his h orn c ould b e t hat o f G azella s ubgutturosa o r h artebeest b ut i n v iew o f t he u ncertainty o f t he d istribution o f t he h artebeest i n t he 3 rd M ill. B .C . ( see n . 1 36) t he e vidence i s i n f avour o f t his b eing a g azelle h orn.

1 40.

H ilzheimer ( 1941),

1 41.

C lutton-Brock a nd B urleigh ( 1978),

1 42.

H einrich ( 1931),

1 43.

W oolley ( 1934), G rave N os. P G 1 050 a nd 1 81.

1 44.

M oorey ( 1984),

1 45.

F rankfort ( 1955), N o. 8 82.

1 46.

P arrot ( 1956),

1 47.

e .g. B oehmer ( 1967) T ab.

1 48.

A miet ( 1980a),

1 49.

T his s hell p laque i s d ated t o M eskalamdug/Ur IStufe b y ( 1967), T ab. I II, C -D/ o).

1 50.

T his v iew i s e xpressed i n m ore t han o ne c ontext i n t he R eallexikon d er A ssyriologie u nder t he e ntries D iadem u nd K rone ( written b y E . U nger), G ötterdarstellungen i n d er B ildkunst, H örnerkrone a nd K opfbedeckung ( written b y R .M . B oehmer). U nder t he e ntry D iadem u nd K rone, i t s tates, " Die e infache H örnerkrone, d .h . e in P aar S tierhörner v on v orn g esehen, a uch m it e iner A rt f lachen M ütze v erbunden, i st K ennzeichen d er G ottheit". ( Unger ( 1938). U nder t he e ntry G ötterdarstellungen i n d er B ildkunst, i t s tates, " Götter u nterscheiden s ich i m A lten O rient i n d er R egel d urch d ie f ast n ur v on i hnen g etragene H ornerkrone s owie d urch b estimmte G ewänder v on d en g ewöhnlichen S terblichen. D arstellungen v on e indeutig a ls G ottheiten z u b estimmenden W esen s ind v or d er M esilim-Zeit n icht z u b elegen". ( Boehmer 1 9571 971). S imilar v iews a re e xpressed i n t he e ntry K opfbedeckung a nd i n t he e ntry H örnerkrone w here i t i s s tated, " Die ä ltesten B elege f ür d ie H ornerkrone f inden s ich i n d er K unst d er M esilimZ eit ( Früh-dyn. I I)" ( Boehmer ( 1972) a nd ( 1980-1983)).

1 51.

K ocher ( 1953),

1 52.

A ssyrian D ictionary, V ol.

1 53.

R .M . B oehmer s ees t his h eaddress a s r epresented b y t wo t riangular p rojections r ising f rom t he t op o f t he h ead a nd c onsiders i t t o b e i ntended t o r epresent a h orned h eaddress ( Boehmer ( 1967), p p .273 a nd 2 78, T ab. I A /1).

p .

p .

p .

p .

P .

2 3. p. 9 5.

p . 8 6 , T af. 3 8 ( 6); N os .

F 651 a nd F 539.

1 7.

1 95, P l.

L XVII, N o . M 593.

I II, T ypes H /14, 1 115 a nd J /14 .

1 62.

7 2,

B oehmer

I V 6 f f. 1 3,

9 4

p .

1 36, c l arnu 1 (c).

1 54.

T he S tele o f t he V ultures c ontains a r ecord o f a n umber o f E anatum 's c ampaigns, s o i t i s p robably t o b e d ated t o t he l ater p art o f h is r eign. T he d ivinities r epresented o n t he S tele w ear h eaddresses w ith h orns w hich m ay b e a ccepted a s c attle h orns.

1 55.

B oehmer ( 1980-1983) K opfbedeckung.

1 56,

A miet ( 1980a),

p .

1 61.

9 5

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A rchaic S eal I mpressions .

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L ondon.

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V orläufiger B ericht ü ber d ie v on d em D eutschen I nstitut u nd d er D eutschen O rient-Gesellschaft D eutschen F orschungsgemeinshaft u nternommenen U ruk-Warka . B and X VI.

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V orläufiger B ericht ü ber d ie v on d em D eutschen I nstitut u nd d er D eutschen O rient-Gesellschaft D eutschen F orschungsgemeinschaft u nternommenen U ruk-Warka . B and X XIV .

1 00

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( Art

P ropyläen K unstgeschichte

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1 02

S chmidt, E . 1 932/3. " Excavations a t F ara, 1 931". T he M useum J ournal, P ennsylvania S tate U niversity V ol. X XIII: p . 1 93 f f. S ollberger, E . e l'0bgd".

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1 948.

" Fish O fferings".

I raq X :

p . 1 01 f f.

v on d er O sten, H .H . 1 934. A ncient O riental S eals i n t he C ollection o f M r. E dward T . N ewell. ( The U niversity o f C hicago O riental I nstitute P ublications V ol. X XII). C hicago.

1 03

v on d er O sten, H .H . 1 936. A ncient O riental S eals. C ollection o f M rs. A gnes B aldwin B rett. ( The U niversity o f C hicago O riental I nstitute P ublications V ol. X XXVII). C hicago. v on S oden , W . 1 959-1981. A kkadisches H andwörterbuch , B and I - B and I II. ( Heidelberger A kademie d er W issenschaften). W iesbaden.

W ard, W .H . 1 909. C ylinders a nd O ther A ncient O riental S eals i n t he L ibrary o f J . P ierpont M organ. N ew Y ork. W ard, W .H . 1 910. T he S eal C ylinders o f W estern A sia . ( Carnegie I nstitution o f W ashington P ublication N o. 1 00). W ashington . W ard, W .H . 1 920 . C ylinders a nd O ther A ncient O riental S eals i n t he L ibrary o f J . P ierpont M organ. Y ale U niversity P ress. W atelin, L . C h. a nd L angdon , S . P aris.

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V ol. I II.

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1 934.

E xcavations a t K ish.

V ol. I V.

W eadock, P .M .

1 975.

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W estern A siatic S eals i n t he B ritish M useum .

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T he

W oolley, S ir. C .L . 1 934. U r E xcavations V ol. I I: T he R oyal C emetery. ( Publications o f t he J oint E xpedition o f t he B ritish M useum a nd o f t he M useum o f t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania t o M esopotamia). L ondon. W oolley, S ir. C .L . 1 955. U r E xcavations V ol. I V : T he E arly P eriods. ( Publications o f t he J oint E xpedition o f t he B ritish M useum a nd o f t he M useum o f t he U niversity o f P ennsylvania t o M esopotamia). P hiladelphia a nd L ondon.

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1 963.

AH istory o f D omesticated A nimals.

1 04

L ondon .

P ART I II T HE S TATISTICAL A NALYSIS

I NTRODUCTORY N OTES T O T HE S TATISTICAL T ABLES T ables N os. 1 -2 0 a re c oncerned w ith t he t wo t ypes o f E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress w hich a re t he s ubject o f i nvestigation i n P art I . T he c haracteristics o f t he t wo t ypes o f d ivine h eaddress r eferred t o i n t he s tatistical t ables a s T ype A a nd T ype B , a nd t he m ethod o f a nalysis a dopted f or t he p urposes o f t his i nvestigation, a re s et o ut i n t he I ntroduction t o P art I , p . 4 ff. T ables N os. 2 1 - 2 7 p rovide s tatistical i nformation f or t he c omp arative s tudy o f t he h orns o f t he E arly D ynastic d ivine h eaddress w hich f orms t he s ubject o f i nvestigation i n P art I I. T ables N os. 2 1 2 3 a re c oncerned w ith t he t ypes o f h orn f eaturing i n d ivine h eaddresses o f t he E arly D ynastic p eriod. T he h orn t ypes a nd t he t erms u sed t o d escribe t hem a re s et o ut i n t he I ntroductory N otes t o t he C atalogue, P art I V. T ables N os. 2 4 -2 7 a re c oncerned w ith t he h orn t ypes o f c attle a nd c omposite b ull-creatures r epresented i n t he E arly D ynastic i conography. T he m ethods u sed i n t he s election o f i tems f or t his a nalysis a re s et o ut i n P art I I, S ection I I, p . 6 0ff. I tems c ited i n T ables N os. 1 - 2 3 a re i dentified b y C atalogue R eference N umber, a s d escribed i n t he I ntroduction , p . 3 a nd a re l isted a fter e ach t able. W here t wo o r m ore d ivinities a re r epresented o n t he s ame o bject, e ach w earing a d ifferent t ype o f h eaddress, t he o bject a ppears i n t he c olumn " Number o f O bjects" w ith a n a sterisk ( *) d enoting t hat i t a ppears m ore t han o nce. T he C atalogue R eference N umbers c ited f or t hese i tems a re a lso m arked b y a n a sterisk ( *) t o i ndicate t hat t he o bject a ppears i n m ore t han o ne c ategory. S ource r eferences f or i tems c ited i n T ables N os. 2 4 -2 7 a re l isted a fter e ach t able. T he s ystem o f d ating o bjects c ited i n T ables N os. 1 - 2 3 i s d etailed i n t he I ntroduction, p . 2 ff. T he s ame s ystem o f d ating i s u sed f or i tems c ited i n T ables N os. 2 4 - 2 7, o bjects o f E arly D ynastic I IIa a nd E arly D ynastic I IIb d ate b eing l isted u nder E arly D ynastic I II ( ED I II).

1 05

TABLE No.

REPRESENTATIONS

1 '

IN ALL MEDIA OF D IVINITIES WEARING A FORM OF HORNED HEADDRESS

NUMBER OF D IVINITIES

a )

OBJECTS

Of known provenance: Seals and s eal

i mpressions:

6 4

4 3

Votive plaques

5

4

Stelae:

4

3'

Stone reliefs:

4

4

S hell

3

2

1

1

engravings:

Figurines: Foundation

f igurines:

Total

1 3)

NUMBER OF

1 5

1 5

96

7 2

6 2

3 8

Of unknown provenance: S eals and S hell

s eal

i mpressions:

engravings:

Foundation

f igurines:

1 06

1

1

7

7

Total

7 0

46

TOTAL

1 66

1 18

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS OF

a )

ITEMS CITED IN TABLE No.

1 .

Items of known provenance:

S eals and s eal

i mpressions:

A l-A25;

B i;

E l;

E 3-E6;

J 4;

J8.

Votive plaques:

G l-G4

Stelae:

D5;

K l;

K3.

S tone reliefs:

D l;

D2;

D6;

S hell

H l;

M2.

engravings:

Figurines:

M l.

Foundation f igurines:

N i

( 9

B2; F l;

C l; F 7;

C2; F8;

D3; G6;

D 7; J2;

K2.

s pecimens );

N 3;

N5;

N6

( 4

s pecimens)

b )

I tems of unknown provenance:

S eals and s eal

impressions:

A 26-A38; F9;

S hell

engravings:

Foundation f igurines:

C3-C7;

G5;

H 2;

N4;

N 7

J 1;

D 4;

E 2;

E 7;

F2-F6;

J 3;

J5;

J 7;

J9;

L l-L4.

D 8. N 2;

1 07

( 3

s pecimens);

N8;

N9.

TABLE No. REPRESENTATIONS HEADDRESS:

2

IN ALL MEDIA OF DIVINITIES WEARING A FORM OF HORNED

GEOGRAPHICAL & CHRONOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION AND TYPE OF HEADDRESS.

NUMBER OF

PROVENANCE

D IVINITIES

DATE ED

I I

ED

I IIa

ED

I IIb

ED

I IIb/

" ED"

ED

I II

Akkad HEADDRESS TYPE A Fara

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

Ur

5

-

1

3

-

1

-

Uruk

1

-

-

-

1

-

Umma

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

Tello

5

-

-

4

-

1

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

Nippur

4

-

-

4

-

-

-

Al

Hiba

Kish

3

-

-

-

3

-

-

Khafajah

1

-

1

-

-

Tell

1

-

-

-

1

_

_

1

-

-

-

-

1

_

2 1

-

-

8

4 5

1

3

Agrab

Mari Urprovenanced: Total

2 0

1 2

-

1 7

3

HEADDRESS TYPE B Fara

1

1

-

-

-

-

Ur

2

-

-

-

-

2

2

-

Tello

7

-

-

5

-

Al

Hiba

9

-

-

9

-

-

-

Bad Tibira

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

8

2 -

Kish

1 0

-

-

-

2

2

1

-

6

Tell

Agrab

2

-

-

-

-

2

Tell

Asmar

9

-

-

-

6

3

2

-

' _

-

2

7

-

Khafajah

1 1

Ishchali

2

-

-

-

Tell

2

-

-

-

7

-

-

-

Suleimeh

Mari

3 0

2

-

8

-

9 3

5

2

2 4

-

3

-

-

Ur

1

-

-

Uruk

1 1

-

-

Tello

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1 9

-

-

4

1 0

2 8

-

-

4

1 1

Unprovenanced: Total TYPE OF

1 5 4 6

5 1 6

HEADDRESS

UNCERTAIN Fara

Khafajah Tell

2

Asmar

1

Unprovenanced: Total TOTAL

•

-

1 66

1 08

-

_

3

_

-

1

1

-

_

-

1

-

-

2

-

1

-

5

-

1 3

-

.

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS OF ITEMS CITED IN TABLE No.

PROVENANCE

DATE

2 .

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBER

HEADDRESS T YPE A Fara

E D

I I

B la

Ur

ED

I IIa

K 1

ED

I IIb

G4;

" ED"

H la,H1b.

D3

Uruk

ED

Umma

ED I IIb

G6

Tello

ED

D5a,D5b;

Al

H iba

I IIb/Akkad

D 7b

I IIb

" ED"

D6

ED

K3.

I IIa

G2;

Nippur

ED I IIb

D l;

Kish

ED

I IIb/Akkad

C la-c.

Khafajah

ED

I IIa

Tell

ED I IIb/Akkad

C2a

Mari

" ED"

M2

Unprovenanced:

ED I IIb

A31c;

ED I IIb/Akkad

A28a,A28b;

Agrab

G l;

HEADDRESS

G3a,G3b.

D2

J5; ED

I II

C6b;

B ib

ED

I II

A 24a,A24b.

Tello

ED

I IIb

N3;

" ED"

Kish Khafajah

Tell Agrab

ED

N6

( 4

I IIb

N i

ED I IIb

N5

" ED"

A la,Alb;

ED I II

A2a,A2b.

( 9

s pecimens ) A3a, A3b;

ED

I I

A8a,A8b.

I IIa

A l3a,A13b.

ED

I IIb

A 15

A4a;

" ED"

A9a,A9b;

" ED"

A l6a,A16b. A l8b, A18c;

A l9a,A19b;

ED I II

A l7a,A17b;

E l.

ED

A21b;

E 3; I II

A l0a,A10b;

C7;

ED I IIb

A31a,A31b;

" ED"

A27a;

A29b;

A37b;

E 7a;

I II

A l4b;

E5.

A20a;

J4.

A7a,A7b;

J8;

M l.

J3. N2;

N4;

N7

( 3

A30a,A30c; F 4a;

A26a,A26b;

A33a;

A22b;

F 7.

s pecimens);

A32a;

F5a;

J 1;

F 2;

N9.

" ED"

B2

Uruk

ED

Tello

" ED"

D7a

I IIb/Akkad

F l

Khafajah

A llb;

Tell Asmar

A l8a.

Unprovenanced:

A23;

ED

I IIb

C6a;

ED

I IIb/Akkad

C3;

F9a-c.

A29a;

" ED"

1 09

A l2a.

C4a-d; A35a;

C5c-e; A35b;

F3;

H2a.

A38a;

A34a;

J 7a,J7b;

TYPE OF HEADDRESS UNCERTAIN

Ur

E

E6. A6a,A6b;

ED I I

ED

F8a,F8b,

J2.

A5a;

Mari

Fara

H2b;

s pecimens)

ED

I shchali

Unprovenanced:

D 8;

A25a,A25b.

Tell Asmar

Tell Suleimeh

L4.

TYPE B ED I I

H iba

G5a-c;

F6

Fara

Bad Tibira

D4a,D4b;

C5a,C5b,C5f,C5g;

L 1-L3.

Ur

Al

K2.

E2a.

N8.

A37a, J9.

TABLE No.

REPRESENTATIONS HEADDRESS,

IN ALL MEDIA OF

EXCLUDING DIVINITIES

3

DIVINITIES

WEARING A FORM OF HORNED

FEATURING IN SCENES WITH THE BOATGOD

NUMBER OF DIVINITIES

a ;

OBJECTS

Of known provenance: Seals

and

seal

impressions:

2 5

2 0

Votive plaques:

5

4

Stelae:

4

3

Stone

reliefs:

4

4

Shell

engravings:

3

2

1

1

Figurines: Foundation

figurines:

Total

b )

NUMBER OF

1 5

1 5

57

4 9

43

2 6

Of unknown provenance: Seals

and

Foundation

seal

impress ons:

7

figurines:

1 10

7

Total

5 1

3 4

TOTAL

1 08

8 3

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS OF ITEMS C ITED

a )

I N TABLE No.

I tems o f known provenance:

S eals

a nd s eal

i mpressions:

A l6b; C2a;

A l8c; D 3;

F 8a,F8b; Votive plaques:

G l;

Stelae:

D 5a,D5b;

Stone

r eliefs:

D l;

Shell

engravings:

H la,H1b;

F igurines: F oundation

b )

3 .

G2;

D2;

B la,B1b;

D 7a,D7b; G6;

E l;

J2;

J 4;

G3a,G3b;

G4.

K l; D6;

B 2;

C la,C1b,C1c;

E 3-E6;

F l;

F 7;

J8.

K 3. K 2.

M2.

M l. f igurines.

N i

( 9

( 4

s pecimens)

s pecimens );

N3;

N5;

N6

I tems of unknown provenance: S eals and s eal

i mpressions:

A30c; C6b;

S hell

engravings:

Foundation

f igurines:

C3; C 4a,C4b,C4c,C4d; C7;

D 4a,D4b;

E 2;

E 7;

F9a-F9c;

G5a-G5c;

H2a,H2b;

J 7a,J7b;

J9;

C5a-05g; J 1;

J3;

L l-L4.

D 8 N2;

N4;

N7

( 3

S pecimens);

C6a,

F 2-F6;

N8;

N9.

J 5;

TABLE No. REPRESENTATICNS IN ALL MEDIA HEADDRESS,

E XCLUDING

GEOGRAPHICAL

OF DIVINITIES WEARING A FORM OF HORNED

D IVINITIES

& CHRONOLOGICAL

PROVENANCE

4

FEATURING

IN

SCENES WITH

THE

BOATGOD:

DISTRIBUTION AND TYPE OF HEADDRESS.

DATE

NUMBER OF DIVINITIES ED

I I

ED

I IIa

ED

I IIb

ED

I IIb/

Akkad

" ED"

ED

III

,

HEADDRESS TYPE A Fara

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

[ Jr

5

-

1

3

-

1

-

Uruk

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

Umma

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

Tello

5

-

-

4

-

1

-

Al

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

Nippur

4

_

-

3

_

4

Kish

-

3

_

_

Khafajah

1

-

1

-

-

Tell

1

-

-

-

1

_

_

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

7

-

1

1

3

3

1

Hiba

Agrab

Mari Unprovenanced: Total HEADDRESS

1 8 42

,

1 9

1 0 1 5

,

TYPE B

Fara

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

Tello

5

-

-

5

Al

9

-

-

9

_

-

_

Bad Tibira

1 3

_

_

1 _

_

-

Kish

3

_

Hiba

Khafajah

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

Tell

Agrab

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

Tell

Asmar

3

-

-

-

-

2

1

2

-

-

-

. -

2

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

-

-

-

2

-

1 8

2

-

6

_ 8

2

4 7

3

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1 6

-

-

4

1 0

2

_

1 9

-

-

4

1 1

4

,

Ishchali Tell

Suleimeh

Mari Unprövenanced: Total

2 1

-

1 9

4

TYPE OF HEADDRESS UNCERTAIN Fara

1

Ur

1

Uruk

1

Unprovenanced: Total TOTAL

1 08

1 12

-

_ __

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS OF

PROVENANCE

ITEMS CITED

DATE

I N TABLE No.

4 .

CATALOGUE REFERENCE N UMBERS

HEADDRESS TYPE A Fara

E D

I I

Ur

E D

I IIa

B la. K l.

E D

I IIb

G4;

" ED" Uruk

E D

I IIb/Akkad

D 7b.

Umma

E D

I IIb

G6.

Tello

E D

I IIb

Al

H iba

D 5a,D5b;

" ED"

D6. K3.

E D

I IIa

Nippur

E D

I IIb

Kish

E D I IIb/Akkad

D l;

G l;

G2;

G3a,

K 2.

G3b.

C la-Clc.

Khafajah

E D I IIa

D2.

Tell Agrab

ED I IIb/Akkad

C2a.

Mari

" ED"

m2.

Unprovenanced:

H la,H1b.

D 3.

E D I IIb

C6b;

ED I IIb/Akkad

C5a,C5b,C5f,C5g;

ED

F 6.

I II

D4a,D4b;

G5a-G5c; D8;

L4.

H2b;

J 5;

L 1-L3.

HEADDRESS TYPE B Fara

E D

I I

B ib.

Tello

E D

I IIb

N3;

Al

H iba

ED I IIb

N 1(9 . s pecimens)

Bad Tibira

E D I IIb

N5.

K ish

" ED"

E4;

Khafajah

" ED"

E 5.

Tell

Agrab

" ED"

A l6b.

Tell

Asmar

" ED"

A l8c;

E D I II

E l.

I shchali

" ED"

E3;

Tell

E D I II

E 6.

Mari

" ED"

J8;

M l.

Unprovenanced:

E D

Suleimeh

TYPE OF

I I

J4.

J2.

C7>

J3.

N2;

N4;

" ED"

A30c;

E D

F 2;

I II

HEADDRESS

s pecimens)

F 8a,F8b.

ED I IIb

N7(3

E 7;

F4;

" ED"

Ur

" ED"

B 2.

Uruk

ED I IIb/Akkad

D 7a.

F5;

J 1;

N8.

J7a,J7b;

N9.

F 7.

E D

I IIb

C6a;

E D

I IIb/Akkad

C3;

C4a-C4d;

E 2;

F l.

" ED"

s pecimens);

U NCERTAIN

Fara

Unprovenanced:

N6Z4

F9a-F9c. C5c-05e;

F3;

H 2e.

J 9.

1

1

-

. , , i r n . : r

I . .

, — .

1 . — . c r L C ,

I c C V

. 1 . d

e

1

1 1

I C V

. 1

• Z r

I C V

e 4

0 1

l c e .4 c, )

w — ,

I

I

r n

a

m

L O . 4

I

i

I 1

C V C V

)C D

r " )

i c

C N I C V

( 7 )

l

. 4

( NI

4 1 e

GI

I

4 e

e 4

1

I

1

I

I

C V

I N

I

1 C • 1 L f ) L t )

I N . i

I 4

. /4

I

i n

I

C Y )

N

• 1

I I

1

1

I .,

1

1

1

1

1

II

I

c v c v . — &

I

e

I

0)

1

1

I

1

1

I

3

I

11

1

1

1

1

I

I

2

EDIIIb

1 4

C V

I

I

I

1

1

1

2

EDIIIb/Akkad

.

1 C V

I

1 0

1

2 9

EDIII

TOTAL

. 4

1

4 1

11

3 0

CHARACTER OF DIVINITY

BOATGOD PASSENGER OTHER

OBJECTS

4 1

" ED"

NUMBER OF

I

s ,

I c . 4

IN

1

I

1

I

I

C V

1

N 1

I

1

1

1

1

• • 1

, . / 4 1 . 0 . — i i n

. , 4

W 5 r l i T s G ) . _ ) . 4 -.1 R I t r, C I )

C i ] c r )

r i l

C " . C ) 4 C 4

x

0

( t i

, 1 C A r d , 4 , I , i > 1 W • , f 4 w G . ) a ) o z s E i > 4 > 4 E.-4 E 4 E A z

r C I W 0

c o W 0 C Z

n

Unprovenanced:

O4 > 1 E i

Tell

4 1

Asmar

Total C M

Unprovenanced:

c v c v . — .

c q

9

0

e i

Total

, 3

( V C V N

Total

. 4 0, . /

Unprovenanced:

NUMBER OF

D IVINITIES

PROVENANCE

11

1

Khafajah

1

1

Fara

1

1

TYPE OF HEADDRESS

1

1C,11

UNCERTAIN

I

•

I

4 6

1

'

EDII

EDIIIa

r 4 E 1 < ( 2 1

HEADDRESS TYPE A

S CENES WITH THE BOATGOD:

1 4

E 4

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS

PROVENANCE

OF

ITEMS CITED

I N TABLE No.

5 .

DATE

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBER

Unprovenanced

ED I IIb

* A31c.

Unprovenanced

E D

HEADDRESS TYPE A

I IIb/Akkad

A28a, A28b.

HEADDRESS TYPE B Ur

ED I II

A24a, A24b.

Tello

" ED"

A25a,A25b.

Kish

" ED"

A la,Alb;

ED I II

A2a,A2b.

Khafajah

ED I I

A8a,A8b.

ED

A l3a,A13b.

I IIa

ED I IIb Tell Agrab Tell Asmar Tell

Suleimeh

A3a,A3b;

A4a.

A 15.

" ED"

A9a,A9b;

" ED"

A l6a.

A l0a,A10b;

" ED"

A l8b;

ED I II

A l7a,A17b.

ED I II

A21b.

Mari

" ED"

A 5a;

U nprovenanced:

ED I IIb

A l9a, A19b;

A6a,A6b;

A l4b.

A20a.

A7a,A7b.

*A31a,A31b.

" ED"

A27a;

* 29b;

A30a;

A32a;

A37a,A37b. ED I II

A26a,A26b;

A33a.

TYPE OF HEADDRESS UNCERTAIN Fara

" ED"

A22b;

A23.

Khafajah

" ED"

A llb;

A l2a.

Tell Asmar

" ED"

*A18a.

Unprovenanced

" ED"

*A29a;

A35a;

A36b;

CHARACTER OF D IVINITY A divinity wearing a horned headdress, passenger(s),

appears

in one

s cene

other

f eaturing

than

t he boatgod and

t he boatgod:

HEADDRESS TYPE A Unprovenanced: .

ED

I 11 b

A31c.

A 38a.

A34a;

16

T otal

I IIb

ED

I IIb/Akkad =

0

I

1 I

I I 1

I I I

I

. 1

I

. e -I

2

ED

c ) f x i

I

3

. -4

Ur

. -I

UNCERTAIN

I IIa ( 2 1 C L 1

TYPE OF HEADDRESS

IN BOATING

=

Fara

TYPE B

ED

FEATURING

SCENES

OBJECTS

NUMBER OF

HEADDRESS.

H I H t — I

HEADDRESS

I I

HEADDRESS




I

C r ) 2 i n — 1

I IIa

HEADDRESS.

2 .

1

,1

Unprovenanced

a ) c u r d 4 T 2 1

ED

OF

=

C\ I

Khafajah

o

>

I I

. 1

Nippur

0 4 4

ED

4 4

u )

DIVINITIES

> 0

OF

H

NUMBER

app

TYPE

1 1 / 4 1 1

Tello

WEAPONS

H

2

Ur

WITH

• •

TYPE A

DIVINITIES

CHRONOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTI ON AND

OF

No.

w f x . 1 H


I

HEADDRESS TYPE A

c u , C 4 )

o c S

• , 1

NUMBER OF

, 1 t 4 4 c n E D C w O

I

DIVINITIES

, 1 3 , C 0 c o 3 , 1 > , i • H • 0 1 )

( l C I

PROVENANCE

C r, n i . . 4 T . / U • H Q 4

W 4 g i 0 4 a , 0 a l a ) . 4 • H

the presence of

a divinity

i n --I " c i ) e c 5 u ),i g i l i ) C l ( I O E a ) 3 t y, u )

i n

CHRONOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

TABLE No.

OF

e t— . 1

represented

HEADDRESS.

,

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS OF

MEDIA:

PROVENANCE

HEADDRESS

I N TABLE No.

Votive plaques: Seals

CONTEXT:

I TEMS CITED

and s eal

G4. impressions:

a )

F 5;

F 6.

b )

A l;

F4;

F 8;

H2.

c )

C 2;

F 7;

G4;

G6;

DATE

J 4;

Al;

F4-F8;

TYPE A E D

I IIb

E D

I IIb

G6.

Tell Agrab

E D

I lb/Akkad

C2.

Unprovenanced :

E D

I IIb/Akkad

H2b.

E D

I II

F 6.

G 4.

TYPE B

Kish

" ED"

A la,Alb;

Tell Asmar

' ,ED "

J4.

Mari

" ED"

J8.

Unprovenanced:

" ED"

F4;

TYPE OF HEADDRESS UNCERTAIN " ED"

G6;

H2;

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBER

Ur

Fara

C2;

J8.

Umma

HEADDRESS

1 1.

F 7.

F S.

F8a,F8b.

J4;

J8.

0

TYPE B

I IIa

ED

I IIb

ED

I IIb/Akkad . -

1 28 , .,

I I I I

I I I I

I I I I

3

TOTAL

I

3

2

I

TOTAL

NIL

OBJECTS

NUMBER OF

Total

OFFERING:

e1

2

I

UNCERTAIN

OF

I

a -I

Total

i

HEADDRESS

I

TYPE OF

a -,

Unprovenanced

ED

OF HEADDRESS

SCENES

I

Tello

II

TYPE

IN

H V I

Unprovenanced

HEADDRESS

Nil

ED

AND

r = C 0

TYPE A

OF

DIVINITIES

NUMBER

DISTRIBUTION

E-4

HEADDRESS

C D

PROVENANCE

& CHRONOLOGICAL

U)

T .4

0

i

-

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS

PROVENANCE

ITEMS CITED IN TABLE No.

DATE

HEADDRESS

HEADDRESS

E D

I II

F2.

UNCERTAIN

Tell° Unprovenanced:

F1 . ED

1 2.

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBER

TYPE 1 3

Unprovenanced: TYPE OF

OF

I IIb/Akkad

1 29

F3.

PRAYER

e 1

e e l

L f l 0

L . 0

r -

91

C \ 1

r d

OR

5 . 4

0 E1

OF WORSHIP

I

1

1

1

1

1

I

1

I

1

1

e-i

•

3 r t ,

• r d • g i O

I Ib/Akkad

IN ATTITUDES DRESS

‘ H

C -H

3 0 -

-

c N1 c \ )

o c •-)

1

0

C 4 I a ) _ . . 4J

••

› . 4 W

r d

1 . 1 )

W

1 J

— 1

0 c d • , 1 , C

H C D .

5 0

> . C d , 1 0 V — 1

I

I

1

• z r

HEADDRESS

B

E L I

P I

, 4

c n ,

I 1 4 E l

Unprovenanced:

3

Total

E 4

DIVINITIES

0

A

C d

PROVENANCE

OF DIVINITIES REPRESENTATIONS

G ) . , 1 C Z

I

c o , 1

NUMBER OF

U )

With hands

u ) u ) ; N , c a ) e c , , i c ) t p o , I c 1 C d 4 ) W a ) r o e . 1 c , i r c l

I

HEADDRESS

—1 r d ( 1 )

C U V u ) ( 1 ) H 0 , ( 1 : 1 U ) a l r 1 E U

UNCERTAIN

0 . , . 1 H U ) > 4 4 r d e

C D

TYPE OF

a ) c t r

. 4

2 2

$ 1

G ) a ) u ) a ) Sn ) . 4 -4 )

Total

( 3 . ,

, ( f ) V t »

L C )

7

4 . ) , 1 g ) . g ) n i

C D

C T \

Unprovenanced:

2 .4 r d

1 . C 1

1

( i ) ✓

— 1

u ) . u ) u ) a )

C ' J

9

g i

o e a ) u ) c i ,

a )

5

t g i

a ) 4 ) c

TYPE

3 • H

00

V

HEADDRESS

• •

u ) c o

Unprovenanced:

TABLE No.

c n

O

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS OF

ITEMS

CITED

IN TABLE No.

1 3.

MEDIA: S hell

e ngravings:

Foundation Seals

a nd

H lb

f igurines:

N I-NY.

impressions:

D ivinities

are

With one With both

Cl;

F9;

L i;

L2;

a z in

raised:

hands

DATE

HEADDRESS

H lb

clasped:

C lb;

CATALOGUE

F9a-F9c;

L i;

Ur

ED

I IIb

H lb

ED

I IIb/Akkad

C lb

HEADDRESS

ED

I IIb

L 4;

G5b.

ED

I IIb/Akkad

L i;

L2.

TYPE B

Tello

ED

I IIb

N3;

Al

Hiba

ED

I IIb

Ni

Bad T ibira

ED

I IIb

N5

Unprovenanced

ED

I IIb

N2;

ED

I II

N9

TYPE OF

N6 ( 9

( 4

ED

I IIb

N4;

F9a-F9c.

1 31

s pecimens)

s pecimens)

HEADDRESS UNCERTAIN

Unprovenanced:

REFERENCE NUMBERS

TYPE A

Kish Unprovenanced:

GS.

represented:

NI-NY.

PROVENANCE

L4;

N7

( 3

specimens );

N8.

L 2;

L4; G5b;

TYPE A

1 32 ED

HEADDRESS

IN

LIBATION

I IIb/Akkad

the presence

FEATURING

1 1

I I I

I 1 1

e --4

r ) I

f' ) (N

o g,

c l t

1 0

HORNED

I

Nil

OF

I

10

WEARING A FORM

I

TOTAL

« .. 1

I

HEADDRESS

DIVINITI ES

NUMBER OF

DIVINITIES

Total

OF

I N

Unprovenanced :

HEADDRESS

REPRESENTATIONS

N

• 1

C D e1

I

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS

OF

ITEMS CITED

IN TABLE No.

1 4.

MEDIA: Stelae:

D5.

Votive plaques:

G 1-G4.

Seals:

G5,G6.

DATE

PROVENANCE HEADDRESS

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBER

TYPE A

Ur

ED

I IIb

Umma

E D

I IIb

G6.

Tello

ED

I IIb

D5a,D5b;

Nippur

ED

I IIb

G l;

Unprovenanced:

ED

I IIb

G5a,G5c.

1 33

G4. G2.

G3a,G3b.

• O 0

• O 0

• 2 4

O W

eN

1 34

Unprovenanced:

0

HEADDRESS

r t i

UNCERTAIN

the

HEADDRESS following media:

I IIb/Akkad

—

ED

"

HEADDRESS

OF

H W r d > 14 O 0

Unprovenanced:

engravings:

presentation

AND

•

HEADDRESS

of

& CHRONOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

TABLE No.

h ;

I • H r C ) 0 >

e 4 4

a ) a )

G )

-

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS

OF

ITEMS CITED

IN TABLE No.

1 5.

MEDIA: Shell

engraving:

H l.

Seal:

H 2.

CONTEXT: The presentation ( ?)

royal

of

a non-divine

person:

The presentation

of

H2. one

divinity by another

DATE

PROVENANCE HEADDRESS

divinity: Hl.

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBER

TYPE A

Ur

ED

I IIb

Unprovenanced:

ED

I IIb/Akkad

TYPE OF HEADDRESS Unprovenanced:

H la,H1b. *H2b.

UNCERTAIN ED

I IIb/Akkad

1 35

*H2a.

1 6.

TABLE No. REPRESENTATIONS PARTICIPATING GEOGRAPHICAL MEDIA:

CONTEXT:

OF DIVINITIES WEARING A FORM OF DIVINE HEADDRESS

IN CULTIC RITUALS: & CHRONOLOGICAL

D ISTRIBUTION AND TYPE OF

Scenes

of

in

ceremony

t he

r itual

i n which appear

Stone

reliefs:

Seals

and

Divinities a )

t he

participates

following

media: 1

s eal

are

t he divinity

i n

HEADDRESS.

i mpressions.

represented

in

1 3 t he

following

cultic

rituals:

Drinking

with

a tube and vessel:

5

b )

Drinking

with

a conical

6

c )

Ritual

d )

Rituals performed at

bowl:

feasting:

2 an

a ltar or

table:

2

DATE NUMBER OF

PROVENANCE

DIVINITIES

EDII

EDIIIa

EDIIIb

EDIIIB/

" ED"

EDIII

Akkad a )

NUMBER OF OBJECTS ,

DRINKING WITH A TUBE AND VESSEL

HEADDRESS TYPE B Ishchali

2

-

-

-

-

2

-

2

Tell

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

2

-

-

-

-

Suleimeh

Unprovenanced: Total

5

b )

-

-

2

-

4

1

-

1

-

1 1

-

DRINKING WITH A CONICAL

_

2 Total

5

BOWL

HEADDRESS TYPE A -

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

2

-

-

-

1

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

Tello

1

Unprovenanced:

1 Total

HEADDRESS Tell

-

-

Total

2

TYPE B

Asmar

Unprovenanced: Total ,

2

1

-

-

-

1

-

1 1 ' Total

2

TYPE OF HEADDRESS UNCERTAIN Fara

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

Tello

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

2

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

2

-

Total -

c ) HEADDRESS

TYPE

RITUAL

2

FEASTING

B

Unprovenanced:

_ .

-

2 d )

HEADDRESS TYPE

Total

RITUALS

PERFORMED AT AN

1

ALTAR OR TABLE

B -

-

-

Mari

1

Unprovenanced:

1

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

Total TOTAL

1 1

2

1

-

1

-

Total TOTAL

1 5

1 36

2 1 4

,

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBERS OF

ITEMS CITED

IN TABLE No.

1 6.

MEDIA:

CONTEXT:

Stone

reliefs

Seals

and seal

Divinities

are represented

in

cultic

E3;

Drinking with a tube and vessel:

A30c; D6;

c )

Ritual

d )

Rituals

a conical

bowl:

f easting: performed at an

J8;

E 3; ED

I II

" ED"

Unprovenanced:

J 2.

E6. A30c;

J 1.

DRINKING WITH A CONICAL BOWL HEADDRESS

TYPE A

Tello

" ED"

D6.

Unprovenanced:

ED

J5.

HEADDRESS Tell

I IIB/Akkad

TYPE B

Asmar

Unprovenanced: TYPE OF HEADDRESS

" ED"

J4.

ED

I I

J3.

I I

J6.

UNCERTAIN

Fara

ED

Tello

" ED"

F l.

" ED"

J 7a,J7b.

c )

R ITUAL FEASTING HEADDRESS

TYPE B

Unprovenanced: d )

R ITUALS

PERFORMED AT AN ALTAR OR TABLE

HEADDRESS

E6;

J 1;

J2.

J3-J6.

J9.

CATALOGUE REFERENCE NUMBER

TYPE B

Suleimeh

E3;

F l;

J 7a,J7b.

DRINKING WITH A TUBE AND VESSEL

Tell

J 1-J9.

altar

table:

I shchali

F l;

r ituals:

Drinking with

DATE

HEADDRESS

E6;

a )

PROVENANCE

b )

A30;

b )

or

a )

D 6. impressions:

TYPE B

Mari

" ED"

J8.

U nprovenanced:

" ED"

J9.

AND

I C \

I IIb/Akkad

4. 1

=

N U M B E R O F O B J E C T S

I I I I

I I I I

1 1

I

t I 1 1

" -4

t

1

Tibira

ED

TYPE OF

INSCRIPTIONS HEADDRESS.

RECORDING

H

ROYAL