Diversity, Inclusion and Engagement [3° ed.] 0190308451, 9780190308452

Table of contents :
CONTENTS
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Outline of the Book
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
PART 1: SETTING THE SCENE
Chapter 1: Understanding Diversity, Inclusion and Engagement
Chapter 2: Australian Schools, Policy and Legislation in Perspective
PART 2: EMBRACING DIVERSITY
Chapter 3: Linguistic and Cultural Diversity
Chapter 4: Indigenous Perspectives and Cultural Identity
Chapter 5: Gender, Inclusivity and Engagement
PART 3: SUPPORTING DIVERSE LEARNING NEEDS IN THE CLASSROOM
Chapter 6: Students with Literacy Difficulties
Chapter 7: Assisting Children with Learning Difficulties in Mathematics
Chapter 8: Behavioural Engagement in the Inclusive Classroom
Chapter 9: Meeting Complex Communication Needs in the Classroom
Chapter 10: Supporting Students with Intellectual Disabilities
Chapter 11: Understanding Vision Impairment
Chapter 12: Understanding Hearing Impairment
Chapter 13: Supporting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Chapter 14: Supporting Diverse Gifted Students
Chapter 15: Understanding Physical Impairment in Young Children
Chapter 16: Supporting Mental Health and Well-being: Promotion, Prevention and Intervention
PART 4: CREATING DIVERSE AND INCLUSIVE SCHOOLS
Chapter 17: Creating Inclusive Schools
Chapter 18: Accommodating Transitions across the Years
Chapter 19: Inclusive Education: Ways to the Future
Glossary
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

colours used: CMYK

This book presents a clear, socially oriented approach to understanding and enhancing inclusion in education, and helps pre-service teachers develop strategies to engage students of all backgrounds, needs and abilities. It shows the advantages of promoting inclusive education policy implementation, while at the same time addressing the challenges many teachers face in today’s diverse learning environments.

MERVYN HYDE is Emeritus Professor of Education at Griffith University and Professor of Education in the Faculty of Science, Education, Health and Engineering at the University of the Sunshine Coast.

YD

E

ER • L T N ORE LEI CARPE

•

SH

EDITED BY

SHELLEY DOLE is Professor and Head of School in the School of Education at the University of the Sunshine Coast.

H

THIRD EDITION

HYDE CARPENTER DOLE

LORELEI CARPENTER is Adjunct Senior Lecturer in the School of Education and Professional Studies at Griffith University.

YN

• Guidelines for working under new national standards that make all teachers—not just those specially trained or working in ‘special schools’—responsible for supporting diverse learners.

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• A broader range of case studies, including voices of students, teachers, parents, teaching aides, and a wider age range of children, which illustrate how theory works in real life.

THIRD EDITION

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• New Chapter 16, which examines the needs of students facing challenges to their mental health and wellbeing.

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• Increased focus on early intervention with young children, as well as attention to changing assessment practices and to the use of technology in the classroom to support diverse learner needs.

EDITED

This third edition responds to constant change in schools, implementation of the national curriculum, new policies, other national and international developments, and heightened public and employer expectations of teachers. It includes:

DIVERSITY, INCLUSION AND ENGAGEMENT

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With extensive learning features that blend theoretical issues and context with practical skills, Diversity, Inclusion and Engagement provides pre-service teachers with the knowledge and understanding to be able to respond to classroom challenges and develop inclusive learning environments.

D I VE R S I T Y, I NC LUS I ON A ND E N G A G E M E N T

Prepare for diverse classrooms by understanding inclusion

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spine: TBC

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format: 248 mm x 204 mm

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title:

ISBN 978-0-19-030845-2

9 780190 308452 visit us at: oup.com.au or contact customer service: [email protected]

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DIVERSITY, INCLUSION AND ENGAGEMENT

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1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries. Published in Australia by Oxford University Press 253 Normanby Road, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia © Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole 2017 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted. First published 2010 Second edition 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organisation. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data Title: Diversity, inclusion and engagement / edited by Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter, Shelley Dole. Edition: 3rd edition. ISBN: 9780190308452 (paperback) Notes: Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects: Education—Australia. Educational equalization—Australia. Inclusive education—Australia. Other Creators/Contributors: Hyde, Merv. (Mervyn), editor. Carpenter, Lorelei Rita, 1950– editor. Dole, Shelley, editor. Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact: Copyright Agency Limited Level 11, 66 Goulburn Street Sydney NSW 2000 Telephone: (02) 9394 7600 Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601 Email: [email protected] Edited by Anne Mulvaney Text design by Jennai Lee-Fai Typeset by Newgen KnowledgeWorks Pvt. Ltd., Chennai, India Proofread by Liz Filleul Indexed by Mei Yen Chua Printed by Leo Paper Products Ltd Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

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CONTENTS List of Figures

xii

List of Tables

xiv

Preface

xvi

Outline of the Book

xviii

Acknowledgments

xxii

About the Authors

xxiii

PART 1: SETTING THE SCENE Chapter 1: Understanding Diversity, Inclusion and Engagement

1 3

Mervyn Hyde Introduction

3

Inclusion: what’s in a word?

5

A United Nations perspective

7

Some theory and a framework

9

Chapter 2: Australian Schools, Policy and Legislation in Perspective

14

Robert Conway Introduction

15

Goals for young Australians

16

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority

17

Australian Curriculum

17

The Australian Curriculum and students with special needs

19

Assessment of students with special needs in the context of NAPLAN

20

Legislation and special needs

23

Disability Standards for Education 2005

24

Adjustment levels in schools

26

Key changes in the identification and funding of disability

29

Teacher education and inclusive practices

31

Changing student skills and technology

33

Diversity in schools

33

PART 2: EMBRACING DIVERSITY

39

Chapter 3: Linguistic and Cultural Diversity

41

Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale Introduction

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CONTENTS

Where do Australians come from?

43

What are the languages spoken by non-Indigenous Australians?

45

Student sociolinguistic profiles

47

CALD students in the mainstream—who are the students?

48

Classroom practice

52

Developing models of literacy

59

Reading for meaning

60

Assessment and reporting

63

Technology

65

Chapter 4: Indigenous Perspectives and Cultural Identity

69

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter Introduction

69

The state of Indigenous education in Australia

72

Indigenous health statistics

77

Dominant curriculum–culture clash

78

Understanding Indigenous learning: a clash in learning styles?

80

Some theoretical solutions: two-way education

83

Improving current practice

87

Chapter 5: Gender, Inclusivity and Engagement

93

Michael Nagel and Laura Scholes Introduction

93

Understanding the term ‘gender’

94

Understanding the biology and psychology of gender

95

Understanding the sociology of gender

101

Technology

106

Assessment

106

Effective practice

107

PART 3: SUPPORTING DIVERSE LEARNING NEEDS IN THE CLASSROOM Chapter 6: Students with Literacy Difficulties

111 113

Gary Woolley Introduction

113

Understanding the terms ‘learning difficulties’ and ‘literacy disengagement’

114

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CONTENTS

Cycle of literacy disengagement

116

Factors outside the learner

119

Understanding the role of assessment

120

Understanding engagement in a sociocultural context

121

Responsive approaches to intervention

125

Assessment

127

Technology and the digital divide

128

Chapter 7: Assisting Children with Learning Difficulties in Mathematics

vii

132

Shelley Dole Introduction

132

Changing deficit views of mathematics learning difficulties

133

Errors and constructivism

135

Diagnosis

136

Intervention

138

Diagnostic prescriptive teaching

139

Supporting early learners

141

The critical role of the teacher in early mathematics learning

141

Early number learning

144

Assessing mathematics learning

147

Streaming, withdrawal, differentiation

149

Whole-class teaching

150

Chapter 8: Behavioural Engagement in the Inclusive Classroom

156

Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter Introduction

156

What is challenging behaviour?

157

What causes challenging behaviour?

158

Characteristics of challenging behaviour

162

Relationship between engagement, academic success and social well-being

163

Policies

164

Early intervention

164

Promoting positive student engagement

165

Management of behaviour needs in individual classrooms and across school settings

167

Adaptation and accommodation for challenging behaviour

168

Behaviour issues relating to the diverse classroom

171

Contemporary technologies, social networking and student behaviour

175

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CONTENTS

Chapter 9: Meeting Complex Communication Needs in the Classroom

181

Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra Introduction

181

What are complex communication needs?

183

Augmentative and alternative communication systems

184

Unaided, aided and multimodal AAC systems

185

Assessment of learners with CCN

191

Teaching functional communication in the classroom

194

Functional communication and behaviours of concern

202

A systematic approach to teaching

204

Chapter 10: Supporting Students with Intellectual Disabilities

210

Kathleen Tait Introduction

210

The nature of intellectual disability

211

Adaptive functioning

212

What causes intellectual disability?

213

How many people have intellectual disability?

214

School attendance of students with intellectual disability

214

Considerations for teaching students with intellectual disability

215

Interventions for behavioural strategies

222

Interventions with cognitive strategies

227

Evidence-based educational practices for students requiring individualised instruction

229

Technology

230

Early learners

234

Assessment

236

Chapter 11: Understanding Vision Impairment

240

Carolyn Palmer Introduction

240

Educating students with vision impairments in Australia

242

What do we mean by vision impairment?

244

Vision impairment, learning needs and curriculum

251

Approaches to teaching students with vision impairment: what works?

255

Critical elements in teaching students with a vision impairment

259

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CONTENTS

Chapter 12: Understanding Hearing Impairment

ix

265

Mervyn Hyde Introduction

265

What do we mean by hearing impairment?

266

What are some of the causes of hearing loss?

270

The relationship between hearing and development

273

Educating students with hearing impairments in Australia

274

Teaching and classroom accommodations

276

Critical elements in teaching students with a hearing impairment

279

Assessment

281

Chapter 13: Supporting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

284

Lorelei Carpenter Introduction

284

Understanding the evolution of Autism Spectrum Disorder

286

Learning interventions for ASD

293

Engaging students in learning

296

Classroom receptive language strategies

297

Classroom expressive language strategies

297

Chapter 14: Supporting Diverse Gifted Students

308

Jane M. Jarvis Introduction

308

Understanding giftedness

311

Diverse profiles of giftedness

315

Twice exceptional students

318

An inclusive framework for gifted education

320

Chapter 15: Understanding Physical Impairment in Young Children

330

Kathleen Tait Introduction

330

Definition of physical impairment

331

Incidence and prevalence

331

Causes of physical impairment

332

Cerebral palsy

332

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CONTENTS

Spina bifida

336

Muscular dystrophy

338

Collaborating with other professionals

342

Considerations for teaching students with a physical disability

346

Assessment and issues for early learners

359

Chapter 16: Supporting Mental Health and Well-being: Promotion, Prevention and Intervention

365

Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis Introduction

365

Understanding mental health

366

Risk and protective factors in mental health development

369

A multi-tiered system of support for mental health in schools

374

Bullying prevention

379

A focus on technology

387

PART 4: CREATING DIVERSE AND INCLUSIVE SCHOOLS Chapter 17: Creating Inclusive Schools

393 395

Mervyn Hyde Introduction

395

Some concepts and principles

396

The NDIS and the National Disability Strategy

403

A checklist for building inclusive schools

404

The roles of the class teacher and of specialist teachers

406

The RTI model of intervention to special needs

406

Chapter 18: Accommodating Transitions across the Years

410

Robert Conway Introduction

410

General principles underlying transitions

411

The importance of early intervention as a basis for inclusion in schools

415

Transitions from early childhood intervention to school

418

Transitions from primary school to secondary school

421

Transition to a middle school model

424

Transitions within secondary school

425

Transitions from secondary school

426

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CONTENTS

Chapter 19: Inclusive Education: Ways to the Future

xi

431

Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole Introduction

431

Inclusive education and poverty

432

Education and future criminal and antisocial behaviour

433

Building resilience among children at risk

434

Sustainability

435

National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS)

436

National testing

437

Access to technology

439

Cultural sensitivity and human rights

440

Funding

441

Teachers and standards for teachers

441

End point

443

Glossary

445

Bibliography

455

Index

501

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1

Limi checks out the visual schedule of the preschool routine

59

Figure 3.2

Books supporting bilingualism

61

Figure 3.3

Limi’s mother reading him a bilingual book in Albanian

61

Figure 3.4

Van Van using the interactive whiteboard

62

Figure 3.5

Researching worms using both live worms and technology

65

Figure 6.1

Deficits within the learner

115

Figure 6.2

Cognitive functioning

116

Figure 6.3

Literacy cycle of behavioural disengagement

117

Figure 6.4

Variables inside and outside the learner

120

Figure 6.5

Three levels of literacy learner engagement

122

Figure 7.1

The triad model for teaching mathematics concepts

143

Figure 8.1

Low level disruptive behaviour

158

Figure 8.2

Disengaged behaviour

158

Figure 8.3

Aggressive behaviour

158

Figure 8.4

Bottom-up approach: a three-tier model for student behavioural support

168

Figure 9.1

iPad with Proloquo2Go (AssistiveWare, LLC)

182

Figure 9.2

Child selecting an activity using a SuperTalker speech generating device and PCS

186

The Accent 1400 running the 144 Unity sequence (Minspeak application program)

186

The Say-it! SAM Communicator Version 3, an example of a portable SGD with dynamic display and PCS

187

An example of a nine-location PODD used by a student, with the teacher highlighting the symbol for selection

188

Participation inventory

193

Figure 9.3 Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5 Figure 9.6

xii

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 10.1

Classic types of switches

231

Figure 10.2

Leah works with the ‘First’ and ‘Then’ visual board

235

Figure 10.3

Playing with a friend

236

Figure 11.1

A diagrammatic cross-section of the eye

246

Figure 11.2

The importance of contrast: high contrast increases visibility

259

Figure 12.1

Audiogram: impaired hearing

267

Figure 12.2

The structure of the auditory system

271

Figure 14.1

Three-tiered model of inclusive gifted education

321

Figure 15.1

Mobility aids

335

Figure 15.2

Utilising a walking frame

346

Figure 15.3

Scissors with extra grips

351

Figure 15.4

A foot switch

354

Figure 15.5

A head switch

354

Figure 16.1

Definition of school mental health

373

Figure 16.2

The ISF is an interconnected MTSS for promotion, prevention and intervention for academic, social, emotional and behavioural learning

375

Figure 17.1

The seven principles of inclusive education

403

Figure 17.2

The tiers of the RTI

407

Figure 18.1

Many bridges

411

Figure 18.2

Kohler taxonomy for transition programming

412

Figure 19.1

Building resilience

435

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1

Adjustment levels

27

Table 2.2

Identifying the category of disability for the student

30

Table 3.1

Top ten countries of birth, selected characteristics

44

Table 3.2

Top ten languages spoken at home, Australia

45

Table 3.3

Top fourteen languages other than English spoken at home, Australia, 2001–11

45

Table 3.4

Languages other than English spoken at home, capital cities

46

Table 4.1

Socio-demographic profile of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

73

Table 4.2

Socio-economic profile of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

74

Table 4.3

Comparative education of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians

75

Table 4.4

Urban, regional and remote educational comparisons

75

Table 8.1

Summary of challenging behaviours

157

Table 8.2

Factors leading to student disengagement

162

Table 9.1

Functional communication categories and definitions

199

Table 9.2

Environmental arrangement strategies

201

Table 9.3

Functions of behaviour

204

Table 9.4

Corresponding communication functions

204

Table 9.5

Summary of milieu teaching techniques

205

Table 10.1

Individual education program

221

Table 10.2

ABC analysis (example one)

224

Table 10.3

ABC analysis (example two)

224

Table 10.4

Example of a scatter plot

225

Table 10.5

Example of a hypothesis statement

226

Table 10.6

Example of explicit instruction of basic skills

228

Table 10.7

The Pittsburgh Rehabilitation Participation Scale

237

xiv

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 11.1

Major categories of vision impairment

250

Table 11.2

Provisions to ensure students with vision impairment can access learning

256

Adaptations to the learning environment for students with vision impairment

258

Table 12.1

Hearing levels for speech

268

Table 13.1

ASD diagnostic criteria adapted from DSM-5

288

Table 15.1

Incidence of some common physical impairments in children

331

Table 16.1

Risk factors associated with mental health difficulties in children and adolescents

370

Table 16.2

Examples of protective factors in children and adolescents

371

Table 16.3

Empirically supported universal SMH programs that have been delivered in schools and classrooms in the United States

377

Table 11.3

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PREFACE This book has been a successful one since its first edition in 2010. The third edition presents important updates reflecting changes in legislation, policy, regulation, curriculum, research and practice since the second edition in 2013. It also includes a new chapter, which examines the needs of students facing challenges to their mental health and well-being. In addition, there is greater focus within most chapters on some of the key issues, including early intervention, the use of technology, and assessment practices. There are also some new headings to help the instructors and students focus on classroom practice and facilitate individual and group learning. This edition responds to constant change in schools, the national curriculum implementation, national and international developments and heightened expectations of teachers by the public and employers. In the past few years, we have witnessed further change in Australian and international perspectives and imperatives towards inclusive education. We have seen much of the Australian Curriculum implemented, ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and a greater understanding of, and expectation of, inclusion in the policies and practices of school systems authorities nationally, and by general communities across Australia. In addition, new dimensions of disadvantage or limitation of the potential for children to fully participate in education are emerging. These include greater numbers of children from immigrant families, many of whom are refugees, the increasing impact of poverty in Australia, the greater influence of technology on education and an increasing divide between rich and poor. Even from our earliest discussions with Oxford University Press our objectives were clear, and have remained relevant over the time it has taken to write the third edition of this book. These objectives are to take a fresh look at what constitutes inclusion and to locate the principles of inclusion within our international and national obligations, in legislation, policy and curriculum, and, most importantly, in the attitudes and practices of educators and outcomes for students. Political views and the actions of politicians may change but the values underpinning effective inclusive education are more enduring and worthy of our understanding and advocacy as educators. We also decided that some groups who have been restricted in their school participation, such as students with Indigenous heritage and students with English as a second language, needed more extensive coverage than had been evident in other books of this type. We also set about reconceptualising the issues around children who present challenging behaviours for their schools, families and communities, whether these behaviours are a discrete concern caused by environmental or social factors, or associated with a primary disability such as Autism Spectrum Disorder. We have in this edition retained a focus on the process of student engagement. This process considers the outcomes of increased access and participation and reflects an increasing level of accountability evident within Australian public, economic and political institutions. More xvi

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PREFACE

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than ever before, schools and teachers are asked to respond to standards that should reflect positive outcomes for the students that they educate. The book is primarily designed for undergraduate students and presents a clear, socially oriented approach to understanding and developing inclusion in education. It is not a text that encourages a disability or a deficit focus, but attempts to convey positive dimensions to promoting the implementation of inclusive education policy in practice, while at the same time focusing on those areas that we know are currently providing challenges for many teachers in engaging students in inclusive learning environments.

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OUTLINE OF THE BOOK Chapter  1 introduces the principles behind inclusion, particularly those influencing educational contexts. It also examines the factors—international, national, humanitarian and social—that contribute to the formation and implementation of legislation, policy and practice towards educational inclusion. The chapter uses classroom experiences activities and reflections actively involve readers in their understanding of inclusion. Finally, the chapter provides a model of inclusion that may be used to critically reflect on school systems and schools’ policies, procedures and outcomes. Chapter 2 explores some of the key influences on the provision of inclusive education for students with special needs in Australian schools, particularly the influence of national and state/territory government decisions on issues such as the Australian Curriculum, national data collection, and funding for differing levels of adjustments students may need in order to fully participate in the inclusive classroom and school. The chapter also examines the emphasis on reporting comparison assessment outcomes for students locally and nationally. It also looks at how we prepare teachers for entering inclusive classrooms, and the role of differentiation of curriculum, learning and teaching for inclusion of all students in our schools. Chapter 3 assists teachers to develop classroom environments that value, utilise and extend the rich language and cultural resources that children from non-English-speaking communities bring to schools. This chapter develops understanding of the languages and cultures represented in Australian schools and presents five basic principles that underlie teaching English as an additional language across the curriculum. Chapter 4 explores the nature of culture and identity for Indigenous students and develops an understanding of the contexts of Indigenous education in Australia. It differentiates between the concepts of educational deficit and difference and suggests ways to develop inclusive educational settings and foster educational achievement through making changes to existing school and classroom structures. Chapter 5 examines educational approaches related to gender, inclusivity and engagement. The chapter examines different perspectives regarding gender while broadly exploring the psychology and sociology of gender. This understanding is placed in the context of unpacking varying pedagogical practices related to gender along with questioning assumptions teachers may hold about boys and girls. Chapter  6 challenges the traditional view of ‘learning difficulty’ and suggests that this constructed category is ever-changing and a fixed perspective about its use does not assist students or their teachers. Learning difficulties generally encompass a wide repertoire of difficulties that can include biological, cognitive or behavioural problems that inhibit learning. The chapter includes a range of strategies directed at greater engagement for all students in classroom learning experiences, with particular focus on literacy.

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OUTLINE OF THE BOOK

xix

Chapter  7 focuses on supporting students who experience difficulties with the study of mathematics. By contrasting learning difficulties with learned difficulties in mathematics, this chapter challenges the view that poor performance in mathematics is a case for reteaching in withdrawal mode and drill and practice approaches. Error patterns and mathematical misconceptions are presented as windows into students’ ways of thinking and conceptualisation of mathematics topics, and serve as a starting point for guiding teaching. The use of rich mathematics investigations and meaningful tasks is discussed as a means for curriculum differentiation and inclusive mathematics teaching and learning. Chapter  8 examines the relationship between learning and teaching and the behaviour of students. It discusses the important connections between behaviour, mental health and academic success and how to manage behaviour change in the classroom. A key focus of this chapter is considering ways to develop a safe learning environment that will reduce challenging behaviours while ensuring student engagement. To do this, the concept of positive behaviour support is introduced as a means of making adaptations and accommodations for challenging behaviours such as those that accompany conditions, including Autism Spectrum Disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and mental health concerns such as anxiety. Behaviour issues related to new digital environments are discussed and classroom management strategies are considered. Chapter  9 provides a framework for teachers to understand and support learners with complex communication needs (CCN) in their classroom. It defines the characteristics of CCN and how optimal levels of educational and social participation may be achieved. A basic understanding of communication systems is given, and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) approaches including the use of mobile technologies and speech generating devices are presented. A  range of specific strategies to promote initiation and teach functional communication in the classroom are discussed and the role of collaboration by support teams is highlighted. Chapter 10 outlines the characteristics of intellectual disabilities and how they may influence or challenge the objectives of inclusive education. It describes the process of developing an individualised education program and identifies a range of contemporary, evidencebased teaching and learning strategies that are appropriate for supporting students with an intellectual disability. Behavioural and instructional strategies that assist in optimal student engagement are outlined. Chapter 11 examines the functioning of the visual system, causes of vision loss in children, the impact of loss of vision on learning and the unique needs of vision impaired children. Inclusive policies and practices used in the education of students with vision impairment are described. It also outlines specific communication and learning needs, essential curriculum areas, environmental modifications and ways to foster educational achievement through diversifying teaching and providing appropriate accommodations and resources such as assistive technologies. Chapter  12 provides an introduction to hearing, and hearing loss, its nature, causes, and consequences for communication access, participation and engagement in regular schooling.

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OUTLINE OF THE BOOK

A range of strategies and resources, including assistive technologies such as cochlear implants, are presented for teachers and schools to inclusively support children who function as deaf or hard of hearing. Chapter 13 provides an overview of what is considered one of the most frequently diagnosed childhood disorders, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and discusses the implications for the classroom teacher of changes to the diagnosis of ASD in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5). The chapter discusses the educational implications of ASD and how the specific characteristics of ASD can impact on a student’s academic and social development throughout their school life. It provides strategies and approaches that can be used by teachers to engage student learning through the adaption of teaching and learning situations to meet the needs of students, specifically in the areas of communication, social skills and behaviour. Chapter  14 provides an introduction to the characteristics, learning needs and education of the diverse range of students who might be identified as being gifted. This includes ‘twice exceptional’ students, who experience a disability or learning difficulty in addition to unusual strengths. The chapter presents an inclusive framework for addressing the needs of diverse gifted students which is consistent with principles of educational equity and excellence promoted throughout the text. Chapter  15 focuses on the topic of physical impairment; in particular, there is a brief overview of cerebral palsy, spina bifida, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Included are related medical issues, potential treatment approaches and the importance of advocacy as it relates to a child with a physically disabling condition; hints for increasing participation in the regular classroom, educational implications and quality of life issues in childhood and adolescence are also addressed. Stories from the classroom are used to illustrate how students with physical impairments can be best supported and engaged in the classroom. Chapter 16 focuses on schools as important places for the promotion of students’ mental health and well-being and how school leaders and teachers can apply the skills and competencies associated with positive mental health. As described in the chapter, the most effective school-based mental health efforts are coordinated across multiple levels of support, from mental health promotion for all students and more targeted supports for students at risk or beginning to exhibit signs of difficulty, to more intensive and individualised interventions for students already experiencing mental health disorders or displaying specific mental health needs. Chapter  17 focuses on creating inclusive schools. It reflects on recent developments and approaches to the education of students with special needs and examines an effective Australian model for inclusive education and how the principles of inclusion identified in this book can be implemented within school programs and policies. It outlines some of the main factors and processes involved in creating inclusive schools identified in national and international studies, and provides these in a checklist.

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Chapter  18 identifies issues that relate to students with special needs as they make their transitions between educational settings, from early childhood to beyond secondary education. Planned and supported transitions that involve the students, their families, each of the settings and supporting agencies are essential for transitions to be successful and for students to move from one inclusive setting to another with minimal disruption to their social and academic development. Chapter 19 outlines future changes and challenges in our society and in schools that may influence the way in which inclusive education is conceived and implemented. It reinforces the view that inclusive education is not static, but needs to adapt to change and be sustainable. Future influences such as poverty, technology, national testing and immigration policy are considered. Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to acknowledge the highly informed and professional contributions made to the third edition of this book by highly respected chapter writers. It is the knowledge, expertise and commitment of each author to specific areas related to inclusive education that makes their contributions so valuable to this book. We also wish to acknowledge our colleagues, friends and families, who were so tolerant with us during the preparation of this edition. We greatly appreciate the constructive advice and feedback from the anonymous reviewers of the chapters. Their contribution assisted our progress through various drafts and revisions. We would particularly like to thank the incredibly helpful staff at Oxford University Press. Their belief in the importance of this book as well as their guidance and patience always made us feel supported. Finally, the authors wish to acknowledge all the students and their teachers who strive for an equitable system of education in Australia. It is the education system that can show students how to learn and live comfortably with their peers who make up the diverse range of Australia’s population—such a system recognises abilities and differences and provides access, participation and inclusive outcomes for all learners and their communities. The authors and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material. 123RF/Oksana Bratanova, 158 (bottom right)/Samantha Ireland, 367/Graham Oliver, 400/ Petkov, 399/Petro, 402/Danil Roudenko, 141/Cathy Yeulet, 94, 158 (left); 231 AbleNet, 231 (all); Licenced CC BYSA, 305; From Huser, C., Dockett, S., & Perry, B. (2016). ‘Transition to school: revisiting the bridge metaphor’ European Early Childhood Research Journal, 411; FairfaxPhotos/ Ken Irwin, 354 (bottom)/Jon Reid, 72; Getty Images/Brian Mitchell, 270; Imagefolk/Helene Rogers, 70; Photofusion/John Birdsall, 352; Shutterstock, 98, 101, 129, 150, 158 (top right), 287, 295, 303, 310, 378, 397; Stocksy/Catherine Macbride, cover. Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained in this book. The publisher will be pleased to hear from copyright holders to rectify any errors or omissions.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Clair Andersen is an Associate Professor and the Aboriginal Higher Education Advisor at the University of Tasmania. Clair has Yanuwa and Gunggalida clan connections in the Gulf country of northern Australia. She began her education at her birthplace, Tennant Creek, before moving to Tasmania to complete high school and attend university. Her research interests are in improving education pathways for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, and developing culturally inclusive curricula to enhance understanding and improve delivery of health and education services to Indigenous Australians. Clair has been actively involved in Aboriginal education and training for more than thirty years. Lorelei Carpenter is an Adjunct Senior Lecturer at Griffith University. She was a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education and Professional Studies at Griffith University, Gold Coast campus, where she taught in the area of inclusive education. Lorelei has worked in the area of special education and personal counselling for more than thirty years. During this time she has carried out research in the areas of ADHD, ASD and the effects of mothering children with these conditions. Lorelei has had journal manuscripts published in the International Journal of Inclusive Education, Qualitative Inquiry and Narrative Inquiry. She co-authored the book Stories from the margins: mothering a child with ADHD or ASD. Robert Conway is Emeritus Professor at Flinders University where he was the Dean of Education from 2007 to 2012. From 2012 to 2015 he led the Flinders-based national evaluation of the Australian government funded Positive Partnership program for parents/ carers and teachers/executive. His background is as a teacher in both regular and special education. His key research and teaching interests lie in the areas of students with emotional and behaviour problems in both mainstream and specialist settings, and the adaptation of learning and teaching to support the inclusion of students with special needs. He is a Fellow of the Australian College of Educators and holds a Distinguished Service Citation from the Australasian Society for the Study of Intellectual Disability. He was a member of the inaugural Schools and Disability Advisory Council to the Federal Minister of Education. Michèle de Courcy is an Adjunct Senior Research Fellow in the School of Education at the University of South Australia. Before her retirement from full-time academic work in 2015, Michèle had been active for over twenty years in teaching and research in the areas of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language (TESOL) and bilingual and immersion education. She has authored or co-authored two books and many book chapters and journal articles in these areas. Michèle has also been active in service to professional organisations in her research area, including being a past President of the Victorian Association of TESOL and Multicultural Education. Before becoming an academic, she worked mainly as a high school teacher of French, music and English as an additional language (EAL) in Australia, France and Scotland. She is an active practitioner of classical vocal and choral music, spending half of each year in Europe performing.

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Shelley Dole is a Professor and Head of the School of Education at the University of the Sunshine Coast and has taught in primary, secondary and tertiary teaching institutions in the Northern Territory, Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria. Her research interests include misconceptions associated with learning mathematics; error pattern analysis; mental computation; the development of proportional reasoning; and teacher professional development. She has been involved in several major research projects in a range of fields relevant to mathematics education, including mental computation; students’ invented algorithms; early years’ literacy and numeracy and distance education; and middle years’ literacy and numeracy for at-risk students. In her teacher education courses, her goal is to support pre-service teachers in developing pedagogy aimed at promoting students’ conceptual understanding of mathematics to encourage success and enjoyment of mathematics in school. Amy Farndale is a researcher and tutor at the University of South Australia and a preschool teacher for the Department for Education and Child Development in South Australia. She specialises in supporting bilingual preschoolers who are learning EAL. She is a Lillian de Lissa PhD scholarship recipient and her PhD research closely investigated the social interactions, emotional challenges and functional language of bilingual preschoolers who were learning EAL. In her fifteen years of teaching Amy has been an early childhood educator in England, Kenya, France and Australia. English is her native language and she is an emerging bilingual/ trilingual who is continuing to learn Indonesian and French languages. Mervyn Hyde is Emeritus Professor of Education at Griffith University and Professor of Education in the Faculty of Science, Education, Health and Engineering at the University of the Sunshine Coast. He was the Director of the Centre for Deafness Studies and Research at Griffith University and is recognised internationally for his research in this area. Mervyn has been a teacher, school principal, university lecturer and researcher, teacher educator and academic manager in universities for over thirty-five years. He has worked in many countries and has published widely in international journals and books from his research examining inclusion in education. In 1994 Mervyn was made a Member of the Order of Australia for his contribution to special education in Australia and Indonesia. He is on the Board of a large EU-funded project aimed at developing resilience in children in situations of conflict or trauma. Jane M. Jarvis is Senior Lecturer in Education at Flinders University in Adelaide, where she teaches and conducts research related to gifted education, special education and differentiation for diverse learners. Jane holds a PhD in Educational Psychology (Gifted Education) from the University of Virginia, where she was also involved in national research projects related to the education of gifted students from diverse backgrounds. She has worked as a school counsellor, teacher, learning specialist and behaviour intervention specialist in Australia and the United States. Jane works with schools throughout Australia and overseas on building teachers’ capacities to address the needs of diverse learners. Julie McMillan is Senior Lecturer in Special Education at Flinders University. She specialises in communication support and the education of students with complex needs including autism, physical disabilities and intellectual disabilities. Julie’s research interests include the impact of service provision and practice on student outcomes, specifically in the areas of AAC, instruction

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of students with complex needs and autism. Julie has conducted research in schools in the United States and Australia investigating professional development of school teams to support students with complex communication needs and teacher professional learning to support students with autism. Julie was a teacher of students with disabilities prior to becoming an academic and continues to work with schools and disability service agencies. Michael Nagel is Associate Professor in the School of Education at the University of the Sunshine Coast and has published widely in the areas of human development, with a particular interest in neurodevelopment. While being the author of eleven books related to child development, behaviour and learning Michael has also taught children of all ages on three continents and has worked as a behaviour specialist in a number of schools. His current research focuses on the impact of stress on the developing brain and the role of exercise and play in enhancing cognitive and affective function. His most important role to date is that of a father to two beautiful children, Madeline and Harrison. Carolyn Palmer is an Adjunct Associate Professor at Flinders University. She conducts research in vision impairment, special education educational leadership and human resource management. Carolyn’s areas of strategic research focus on students with vision impairment, social competence, inclusive education, family well-being, teaching standards, literacy and numeracy and school leadership. She has published widely and established a reputation both nationally and internationally in the field of vision impairment education. Carolyn has conducted research projects with the University of Queensland and University of Melbourne. She is active in community service as Deputy Chair of the Can:Do4Kids Board and a Director on the Board of Deaf Can:Do. Previously Dean of Special Education and Disability Studies, and Director of postgraduate programs in education, Carolyn continues as an active committee member of the Australian Association of Special Education (AASE, SA Chapter) and as an executive member of the Australian Council of Educational Leaders (SA Branch). As an Adjunct Associate Professor her major focus currently is on supervision of Doctoral students, writing and research. Parimala Raghavendra is Associate Professor in Disability and Community Inclusion at Flinders University. She has extensive clinical, research and teaching experience in the area of AAC with children and adults with developmental disability, through her studies and work in India, Singapore, the United States, Sweden and Australia. She continues to investigate the impact of learning to use social media by individuals with disabilities on their social networks and well-being and publishes in the area of using mobile technologies to enhance participation of people with disabilities. Laura Scholes is a Principal Research Fellow in the School of Early Childhood and Inclusive Education, Faculty of Education at Queensland University of Technology.  She is currently lead investigator on an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Research Project investigating  masculinities associated with boys’ failure at reading. Her research interests include gender and education;  literacy as social practice;  the development of children’s epistemic beliefs; and early childhood development and inclusive education.  Laura has published widely and recent books include Understanding development and learning: implications for teaching  (co-authored  with Michael Nagel, Oxford University Press, 2016)  and  Teaching

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for active citizenship  (co-authored with Jo Lunn-Brownlee, Eva Johansson and Sue Walker, Routledge, 2017). Kathleen Tait is Senior Lecturer and Program Director of Post Graduate Studies in Special Education and Disabilities Studies at Macquarie University. She has expertise in early intervention, special education and tertiary environments in Australia, the United Kingdom and South-East Asia. Kathleen has published widely in the areas of physical, intellectual and developmental disabilities and is Associate Editor for  HERD  journal. Her current research partners are non-government and charity organisations in Hong Kong SAR and mainland China. Kathleen is an active researcher with projects involving the engagement of children with severe to profound intellectual impairments, applied behaviour analysis, functional communication assessment, and identifying and ameliorating the impact on families of raising a child with a developmental disability in rural, remote and diverse settings. Roberta Thompson is a teacher education specialist and research fellow at Griffith University. Her research explores the ways in which digital culture influences student learning and wellbeing, classroom engagement and academic success, and teacher pedagogy and practice. Roberta’s research focuses on sociocultural diversity, student disengagement, challenging classroom behaviour and teacher effectiveness, with an emphasis on understanding practices and strategies needed for student learning in digital times. Maggie Walter is a member of the Briggs Johnson Aboriginal family, descended from the north-east Tasmanian Nation. She is Professor of Sociology and the inaugural Pro Vice Chancellor Aboriginal Research and Leadership at the University of Tasmania. She researches across the fields of race relations, Indigenous methodologies and Indigenous social policy. Gary Woolley is a Senior Lecturer at the University of the Sunshine Coast and has thirty years’ teaching experience in public and private school systems. During much of this time he had the opportunity to assist children with diverse learning needs. His PhD thesis focused on the design of training programs for volunteer tutors to assist students with reading comprehension difficulties. In recognition of a significant contribution in the field Gary was awarded the Tertiary Student Award for 2007 by Learning Difficulties Australia (LDA). He has published widely and taken part in several national research projects in literacy and inclusive education. Gary’s particular professional interests include reading comprehension difficulties, memory, cognition, learning engagement and EAL. In 2011 and 2012 he was awarded an Outstanding Early Career Researcher Award for his contribution to the research activities of Griffith University.

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PART

1

SETTING THE SCENE

Chapter 1: Understanding Diversity, Inclusion and Engagement Chapter 2: Australian Schools, Policy and Legislation in Perspective

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Understanding Diversity, Inclusion and Engagement

1

Mervyn Hyde

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To begin to develop an understanding of the principles behind inclusion, particularly in educational contexts • To begin to develop an understanding of the factors—international, national, humanitarian and social—that contribute to the formation and implementation of legislation, policy and practice towards educational inclusion and engagement • To be able to reflect these understandings in initial discussions and analysis of cases and situations where the inclusion of students from diverse backgrounds or with specific needs is considered

KEY TERMS engagement equity inclusion

integration mainstreaming

Introduction According to 2015 ABS data, 28.2 per cent of the Australian population was born overseas, with the highest percentage of immigrants born in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, followed by India and China. Australia is one of the most culturally diverse nations on earth and about 23 per cent of Australians speak another language other than English at home (ABS 2015). This extensive cultural and linguistic diversity within the Australian population is now reflected in our schools and their communities. Other characteristics of diversity reflected in our schools are the greater access and participation of students of Indigenous heritage, students from different faith systems, and students with impairments, disabilities or disadvantages that influence their development of communicative competence, social competence, cognitive ability, or literacy and numeracy. Australia has committed to a range of legislative instruments at state, national and international levels that promote inclusion of all citizens, while prohibiting forms of discrimination. All states and territories have enacted such legislation, which is reflected in overarching Commonwealth legislation. While the social 3

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and academic inclusion of individuals and groups in our schools is often taken for granted, this is a relatively recent process and one that is still in progress. We start here to analyse how inclusion takes place in schools and how to best promote its objectives and determine the nature of the engagement that students achieve.

Inclusion and the law

STORIES OF INCLUSION

In Australian states there have been several Supreme Court cases that considered the issue of school inclusion. At least two recent cases have concerned the rights of a deaf child to attend their local school and participate equitably in the school’s curriculum and out-of-class activities. The focus in these cases was not on the child’s degree of hearing loss or specifically on their education achievements, but on the language used in classroom instruction and the communication modes available in the school to best support the child’s inclusion, development and learning. Specifically, the plaintiffs claimed that Auslan, the sign language used by the Australian Deaf Community and part of Australia’s National Language Policy, was the child’s ‘natural’ language and should have been available to the child in the regular classroom to support their early communication access and subsequent achievements. The schools involved claimed that this was an unreasonable accommodation whereby the teachers and support staff would have had to acquire or provide a second language and develop a bilingual environment in their classrooms. On the surface this can seem to be an issue of specific accommodation for a deaf learner, but there are many sub-issues that the courts and analysts of these cases found difficult to reconcile: 1 Does the court need to determine whether the child does, in fact, have proficiency in Auslan?* 2 Does this language provide access to all areas of the curriculum and especially towards the achievement of literacy in English (an agreed national schools objective) and learning outcomes comparable with hearing students at the same year level? 3 What is the capacity of a state education authority to be able to provide a proficient model of Auslan in the classroom? 4 Would this accommodation mean that other non-English languages recognised under the National Language Policy should also be available for instruction in Australian classrooms? For example, very few schools in Australia use Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander languages, even though there are now a number of valuable resources and curricula available in these languages. There is significant evidence that use of ‘mother tongue’ in the early years of schooling provides a useful ‘bridge’ to literacy in English. The states’ Supreme Courts have typically ruled in a limited way under state anti-discrimination legislation and in the context of the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act 1992, but sufficiently enough to suggest that Auslan should be available to deaf students in regular schools in most Australian states and territories. Although courts cannot mandate the outcomes of such

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a provision, as a consequence of anti-discrimination legislation Australian states now provide many regular classes with Auslan interpreters, communication aides, note-takers and teachers who have some degree of proficiency with this language. *Also it can be noted that currently more than 85 per cent of severely and profoundly deaf students in Australia have a cochlear implant which, without guaranteeing effectively normal hearing or eliminating the need for access to signed communication, may significantly enhance the potential for spoken language acquisition in adequate listening conditions. Further, more than 96 per cent of parents of deaf children use a spoken language at home.

1 To what extent is this story and the possible use of Auslan for instruction an example of effective inclusion? 2 Which principles of inclusion are involved and which aspects of current legislation and international agreements are reflected?

Pause and reflect

Inclusion: what’s in a word? The word ‘inclusion’, when used in an educational context, continues to be somewhat paradoxical for many observers. Inclusion in its most general sense refers to the right to access and active participation and achieving equity through engagement in all aspects of daily life. The concept is founded in human rights principles and is evident in many of the international agreements that Australia is legally committed to. Our rights may be seen as falling into three broad areas. First, we have moral rights that are justified on the basis of the ethical or moral values that we hold, or that our cultural communities accept. Second, we have legal rights that are enforceable in domestic law and in domestic or international courts. Third, we have human rights that are recognised in international law and conventions on the basis of a consensus within the international community that they are inherent among humanity. There are, of course, overlaps among these categories as nations seek to encapsulate some of their ethical or moral beliefs in legal requirements, or as nations sign international agreements and by doing so are required to enact legislation to implement the principles of the signed agreement within their country. States that sign these international treaties have the obligation to respect them, protect those concerned and, importantly, fulfil their obligations under the treaties and conventions. For example, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN 1989) was signed and ratified by all but two nations (Somalia and the United States). This binding Convention stipulates a child’s right to participate in everyday events and opportunities, limits any attempts to restrict this right and is designed to protect children from forms of discrimination. There are several other international conventions and agreements that contain guidelines that provide us with structural contexts, and even imperatives, depending on how influenced we are by the proclamations of these conventions and agreements. The perspectives of the Convention on the Rights of the Child apply in Australia, but so do those of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO 1994), the World Education Forum (UNESCO 2000) and, most recently, the UN Convention on the Rights of Mervyn Hyde

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Equity: The achievement of outcomes that are equal.

Mainstreaming: A term that originated under legal challenges for the rights of minority groups in the United States. Subsequent government legislation and direction mandated that many students formerly placed in special schools should be placed in local, regular schools. As such, mainstreaming focuses on the ‘place’ of the child with a disability or difference. Integration: The inclusion of people with a disability in educational institutions at a level commensurate with their degree of ability.

PART 1: SETTING THE SCENE

Persons with Disabilities (UN General Assembly 2007), which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2006 and ratified in 2008. The Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), which implements and monitors the national Australian Curriculum from Foundation to Year 12, reflects these agreements and their implications for responding to diversity and provides a number of guidelines and resources for teachers. Most of these Conventions concern students with a disability. However, before considering this specific group we need to consider the broader principles of equity, for equity is central to inclusion through education. In terms of understanding equity in education, one should consider four basic questions: 1 Do all individuals or groups have the same chance of progressing to a particular level in the education system and beyond? 2 Do all individuals enjoy equivalent learning conditions? 3 Do all students develop the skills and knowledge that are designated as the goals of the educational system? 4 Once they have left the education system, do individuals or groups have the same chances of using their acquired skills and knowledge to realise their potential in society? These questions reveal the basis of equity—not only of equal opportunity or equal access, but also equity in terms of outcomes. This issue of outcomes is a most important one. An internet search of the literature about diversity and inclusion in the context of schooling reveals that a large proportion of material relates to inclusion of students with ‘special education needs’ or with a learning ‘disability’ or ‘difficulty’. These terms are themselves in some degree of conflict with the meaning of inclusion as they can construct strong images of categorisation or deviance, if not appropriately understood and interpreted. In this context, the meaning of inclusion is frequently confounded by earlier concepts of processes such as mainstreaming and integration. While authors may continue to disagree on the exact definition of these older terms and the distinctions among them, the following reflects a degree of consensus: 1 Mainstreaming was a term that originated under legal challenges for the rights of minority groups in the United States. It was originally regulated by the 1975 Public Law 94-142 and was then reauthorised by the US Congress in 1997 and 2004. Mainstreaming essentially focused on the ‘place’ of the child with a disability or difference. At the time students with African-American heritage were being further socially and culturally disadvantaged by frequently being placed in special education schools for students with intellectual impairments. The 1975 legislation was framed around the legal determination that their human rights required that they be placed in regular schools. These students were then ‘mainstreamed’ into US local schools. The term ‘mainstreaming’ was then adopted and proved to have influence beyond the United States and was also adopted with various interpretations by other countries, many of which did not have a Bill of Rights that underpinned the original motivation behind the US mainstreaming movement. 2 While integration implies that persons with a disability should be integrated into elements of mainstream society, in the educational context it is likely that students will have to evidence a measured degree of ability or capacity that is appropriate to their ‘fitting in’ to a regular school placement, rather than a school or school system being required to adapt to their needs. Definitions of ‘integration’ frequently involve professional judgments about the level of students’

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academic, social or personal achievements compared to agreed standards for their ‘placement’ in a local (regular) school (see, for example, Mirenda 1998). Processes of identification, assessment, ascertainment or appraisement of the potential for integration of children with a disability or difference are commonly found in associated education policy and practice. So, while integration is a process that provides a means of access for students with a disability or specific learning needs to find placement in regular schools, it is typically conditional upon those students meeting some set of agreed academic performance standards. It can be noted also that this process does not include consideration of the participation and outcomes of the placement, or indeed other aspects of the students’ needs socially or emotionally. 3 Inclusion, by contrast, assumes that a just state of affairs is one in which people with a disability or another form of human difference should be included in society from the outset, and in education in particular. The associated policy responses to this position are broad and comprehensive, and focus on the conditions necessary (or changes or adaptations to existing conditions) to include all individuals or groups and support the participation of children with a disability or difference in schools and in their communities (Foreman 2008).

Inclusion: A set of processes concerned with removing barriers to presence, participation and progress for all students.

As described, major national and international agreements, national legislation and curricula and policy further define and add imperatives for all state education systems to move towards this process of inclusion. Finally, effective inclusion has a number of components and the culmination of these is found in the outcomes experienced by the students themselves. This issue of outcomes can be judged by the nature and benefit of the academic and social engagement that these students are able to achieve in education.

A United Nations perspective The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is the most signed convention in UN history. It even exceeded the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in the rapidity of its ratification. It was developed because a UN review showed existing UN human rights instruments have not protected people with disabilities from human rights abuses. It was believed that a separate convention was needed to make disability issues more visible within human rights, to ensure the circumstances of disabled people were addressed and to clarify countries’ obligations and requirements. The Convention has been signed and legally ratified by almost all countries and came into effect in 2008. The instruments of the Convention are quite clear in relation to children with a disability, and to education in particular: 1 States that are signatories to the Convention shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels. 2 Persons with disabilities are not excluded from the general education system on the basis of disability. 3 Children with disabilities are not excluded from free and compulsory primary education, or from secondary education, on the basis of disability. 4 Persons with disabilities [will] receive the support required, within the general education system, to facilitate their effective education. 5 Effective individualised support measures are provided in environments that maximise academic and social development, consistent with the goal of full inclusion. Mervyn Hyde

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PART 1: SETTING THE SCENE

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is a binding Convention and requires signatories, including Australia, to adopt legislation, policy and practice to support the inclusion of persons with a disability in all aspects of life. In so far as education is concerned, it mandates that regular or local schools should be the expected experience for all children. The Convention adopts a model of disability that is not only about academic participation, but is socially constructed, with a focus on removing barriers at all levels.

Inclusion

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

The pre-service teacher notices the class has many more boys than girls. There are twenty-eight children in the class: nineteen boys and nine girls. The room is very small for so many children to move around in without touching or bumping into other students. The teacher asks all students to get a chair and bring it so they can sit in a circle in the centre of the classroom. One girl, Mary, stops another girl, Sarah, from putting her chair in the space next to her. Mary kicks the chair away so Sarah can’t sit there. Then a boy, Simon, sitting in the next chair, gets involved as well and starts pushing the chair back with his foot. The smaller girl, Sarah, becomes upset, takes her chair and moves across the circle to another space. The boy also takes his chair and moves to another space in the circle. The children appear to be carefully considering who they are comfortable sitting next to for this learning activity. The circle of students on the chairs settles down, although a few of the boys are talking in glowing terms about the excursion they had yesterday. All students are given a card with pictures, colours and a number on it. The students are then instructed to change places so that they are sitting in numeric order according to the numbers on the cards they held. The students all do this quietly and settle into the circle with all students randomly distributed around the circle. The teacher now asks them each to talk about the best aspects of the excursion they had the day before to a science discovery centre.

Read the ‘Stories from the classroom’ feature and consider the following questions relating to inclusion. 1 Was Mary acting inclusively in this scenario? 2 Why do you think the teacher made the students sit in a circle? 3 Why did she make the students sit in random places in the circle? Think about what inclusion means for all the students in such a learning situation. 1 Have you ever felt excluded from a social group? How did it make you feel to be excluded? 2 What did you do to try to be included, if anything? On reflection, is there something else you could have done to try to be included? 3 What else could the teacher have done before, during or after the activity? 4 What might the teacher do next time?

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Pause and reflect

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Some theory and a framework Inclusion is both a term and a process that is relative in its interpretations and applications in respect to the various historical, cultural and pedagogical traditions; social structures, medical services and resource availability; and political, legal and policy frameworks and economic priorities that a country embodies or that an education system or school operates within at any point in time (Hyde 2009; Hyde, Ohna & Hjulstad 2006). Inclusion is typically seen as both a process of access, with related considerations of the conditions for access towards the participation of all students, and as a process of change in terms of the legislation, policy and educational practices that are developed, and formation of positive attitudes among participants (Skritic 1995). Inclusion, then, is a concept that is essentially based in the philosophical and pedagogical traditions that we embrace and the international and national imperatives to which we are committed and which as a society we attempt to implement. In the educational systems that a country provides, inclusion may be perceived as a cycle between differentiation and uniformity (Vislie 2003; Wagner 1994). The most differentiated education systems provide a high degree of specialisation of services and associated funding adapted to the needs of individuals and groups. Responsibility for curriculum planning and delivery is often devolved to local schools or regions, and often there is a high degree of individualisation in planning and choice among school programs and support services. The focus is highly learner-centred and on the needs of all and excellence of outcomes. Reforms of highly differentiated service systems usually involve an increase in the degree of centralisation—through legislation, policy, national curriculum, funding or evaluation—to establish greater central control, or to ensure that available resources are distributed as equitably as possible and that desired outcomes are achieved, often within diminishing budgets. This aspect of budgets is an important one that can significantly influence how far governments go in attempting to meet the needs of individuals with a difference or disability. It is, in essence, a political issue that can limit the outcomes of effective policy directed towards optimal inclusion of students in education. The most uniform education systems are recognised by a high level of central control of legislation, policy, funding, teacher standards and other guidelines for practice, central curriculum policy (for example, national curriculum content and standards), national testing of students, teacher and school performance and the maintenance of established pedagogic traditions. There is often a high emphasis on ‘completing the curriculum’. Reforms to these uniform systems usually involve greater decentralisation of some elements to allow for a degree of local region or school variation in curriculum implementation, funding and pedagogy (Vislie 2003). Assumptions that all schools start at the same point may be questioned and greater discretion may be allocated to school systems, schools and teachers in implementing national policy and curriculum objectives and measuring school outcomes. In practice, there is a dynamic, cyclical process, with national and local systems of education moving between the two extremes of uniformity and differentiation depending on changing political, social, cultural or economic factors and influences. The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is a case in point, with its emphasis on uniformity in legislation and policy, but differentiation at national and local levels to the needs of individuals within the societies and communities of the signatories to the Convention. Mervyn Hyde

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Movement away from differentiation and towards the uniform end of the cycle may be currently observed in Australia, with high levels of relevance being given to the implementation of the Australian Curriculum, the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership; AITSL) and the use of National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) student and school data in political and system decisions about schools and their performance and funding. Therefore, there is no one fully effective definition or model of inclusion, because in each national or school system ‘inclusion’ may be viewed somewhat differently for good reasons. Differentiation allows the needs of each student to be considered or taken into account; for example, students with a specific learning need. Uniformity allows for the rights, participation and equity of all students. Both can therefore be at some level inclusive or exclusive: in their policy and practice, and in following legislative and policy controls and pedagogical traditions. There may be no utopian ‘school for all’ possible, as in each form of system there will always be some aspects of exclusion, for some groups or individuals, wherever there is inclusion. The individuals or groups included or excluded can change as the rules, structures, attitudes and budgets change within the cycle between uniformity and differentiation. We see this in Australia in current considerations of people with a mental health condition or in the rights of children of asylum seekers as major issues in society, as well as in education. Levels of inclusion and exclusion depend on our priorities and values at any point in time, and the balance we reach between uniformity and differentiation may change. Within this broad theoretical framework it is possible to describe or locate various countries and education authorities in respect to their current policies, positions and practices. By their histories, traditions, economic priorities, legal provisions, and social and cultural policies, we may see where they currently place themselves, and where their values and professional and social tensions may lie in the provision of education services and the directions of reform of those services. Mitchell (2005) suggests that there are three conclusions that can be reached about inclusive education: 1 that inclusive education is seen by most as creating a single system designed to serve the needs of all students 2 that inclusive education is still often based on both socio-political models and psycho-medical models 3 that while many countries appear highly committed to inclusive education, their practices often fall short of their rhetoric and policies. So even when inclusion is strongly supported by international, national or state policy—or even legislation, as it appears to be in Australia—there is concern that the observable practices or outcomes in schools can remain substantially unchanged or experience significant delays or difficulties in their implementation. As Sowell (1995) observes, policy issues can become ideological debates that present conflicting visions or the ‘visions of the anointed’ (p.  241). Such ‘anointed’ visions, especially those that espouse ‘full’ inclusion on only moral and rights principles, can prevail over other issues in determining policy. Each school and every classroom plays its part if the real outcomes of inclusive education policy are to be realised. There are now very few specialist teacher education programs available in Australia to prepare special education teachers and advisors, and this places the responsibility for responding to student diversity clearly in the domain of the regular school and classroom for all learners. This is

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reflected in the AITSL Standards for all graduate teachers (see www.aitsl.edu.au/australianprofessional-standards-for-teachers/standards/list). We also warn against thinking that inclusion is only a ‘group’ thing (for example, about ‘students with autism’) or an ‘academic’ thing (for example, about achievement within the curriculum). Inclusion is more an individual experience than a group experience, and is as much related to an individual’s social participation, access to quality education and an enduring sense of well-being and school belonging as it is to levels of academic achievement, specific competencies or school placement considerations. While considerations about the rights and needs of groups—for example, of children with an attention, linguistic, gender or behavioural difference—are important, the most relevant considerations often lie with the situation of the individual, as it is at that level where real outcomes and a ‘sense’ of inclusion are experienced. The components of an inclusive education are access, participation and equitable outcomes. Access ensures that students with a disability or difference can take part in the general education system. However, of itself this can be a recipe for failure unless those systems and schools adapt and change to enable the students to participate towards achieving equitable outcomes academically and socially. Is this the end of the story then? How do we know that they have achieved equitable outcomes? This last question is crucial. What forms of engagement with social and academic events and activities did students experience and how effectively did the adaptations and supports work? What else could be done? To achieve equity of outcomes we need to carefully plan and evaluate the types of learning engagements that these students have. It does not happen by the students just ‘being there’ or by teachers simply going through the procedural steps defined by policy. In this context, a new term of engagement has been introduced (Cooper, Jacobs & Busher 2011). Engagement is compatible with the broadest descriptions of inclusive education, but is concerned with the degree to which the student is ‘attached’ or ‘belongs’ emotionally, socially, cognitively and academically to the school. The focus is more evaluative about how the school and the teachers are able to accommodate to the student’s needs, the relationships developed and how effective the initiatives taken and supports provided are ultimately judged to be. Schools may support building a sense of belonging by encouraging strong relationships between staff, students and parents and providing opportunities for students to participate in school activities (Prince & Hadwin 2013). Other studies state that ethnic minority students’ school engagement is influenced by their feelings, daily experiences and interpersonal interactions that may enhance their participation, recognition and commonalities among their peers (Dusi & Steinbach 2015; Gummadam, Pitman & Ioffe 2016). In other words, it is all about the perceptions and experiences of the students, not about our judgments regarding the nature of our policies and support systems themselves. So, while ‘participation’ in education goes beyond ‘access’, ‘engagement’ goes beyond ‘participation’ and asks the leading question: participation in what and with which outcomes? The process can involve measures of the student’s engagement academically, communicatively, cognitively or socially, to promote more active engagement by the student with what is learnt and what is taught in schools. Inclusive education is, therefore, a process of responding to the uniqueness of individuals, increasing their sense of presence, access, participation and engagement in a learning society and, in the case of this discussion, in schools.

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Engagement: Can be generally seen as student participation in educationally effective practices, both inside and outside the classroom, which leads to a range of potentially measurable outcomes.

Mervyn Hyde

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SUMMARY This chapter has introduced the principles behind inclusion, particularly those influencing educational contexts. It also examined the factors—international, national, humanitarian and social—that contribute to the acceptance and implementation of legislation, policy and practice towards educational inclusion and the monitoring and evaluation of students’ engagement. Finally, the chapter has provided a model of inclusion that may be used to critically reflect on school systems and school policies and procedures.

For group discussion Where does your school or education system lie in relation to the inclusion of students with diverse backgrounds or needs? Based on your experience, discuss with your classmates an individual, or even a small group, of interest, of whom you are aware. Reflect on the access, participation and engagement they experience in a school and the equity of their outcomes in: 1 2 3 4

educational terms social terms personal terms overall engagement and a sense of school belonging.

Key references Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2015). 3412.0—Migration, Australia, 2014–15. Accessed at www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Latestproducts/3412.0Main%20 Features32014-15. Cooper, P., Jacobs, B. & Busher, H. (2011). From inclusion to engagement: helping students engage with schooling through policy and practice. London: John Wiley and Sons. Hyde, M. B. (2009). Inclusion in the international context. In D. Moores & M. Miller (eds), Deafness around the world: developmental, educational and cultural issues (pp. 352–67). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Mitchell, D. (2005). Contextualising inclusive education: evaluating old and new international perspectives. New York: Routledge. Prince, E. J. & Hadwin, J. (2013). The role of a sense of belonging in understanding the effectiveness of inclusion of children with special needs. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 17(3), 238–62. Sowell, T. (1995). The vision of the anointed: self-congratulation as a basis for social policy. New York: Basic Books. UN General Assembly (2007). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Resolution/adopted by the General Assembly, 24 January 2007, A/RES/61/ 106. Accessed at www.refworld.org/docid/45f973632.html.

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UNESCO (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. World Conference on Special Education Needs Education: Access and Quality. Salamanca, Spain, 7–10 June, 1994. Accessed at www.unesco.org/education/pdf/ SALAMA_E.PDF. UNESCO (2000). World Education Forum. Accessed at www.unesco.org/education/efa/ wef_2000. Vislie, L. (2003). From integration to inclusion: focusing global trends and changes in the western European societies. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 18(1), 17–35.

Websites AITSL Standards—www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers/ standards/list This resource provides a comprehensive and detailed listing of teacher competencies across a range of curricula and specialised teaching settings.

UN Convention on the Rights of the Child—www.unicef.org/crc This site and its many associated manuscripts describe the relevance of this Convention and the obligations that apply to all signatory nation states to act and respond.

UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities—www.un.org/disabilities/ convention/conventionfull.shtml Has similar resources to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child website.

Mervyn Hyde

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Australian Schools, Policy and Legislation in Perspective

2

Robert Conway

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand the implications of the 2008 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians on practices in inclusive and diverse schools • To understand the categories of disability under the nationally consistent collection of data processes • To understand the concept and structure of the Australian Curriculum; its impact on diverse and inclusive schools; and its relationship to state/territory curricula • To understand the concepts of national and international assessment and reporting and their effects on teaching practices in diverse and inclusive schools • To understand the effects of the five areas of focus of the Disability Standards for Education (2005) and in particular the requirement for reasonable adjustment of classroom practices in learning, teaching and assessment • To understand the four levels of adjustment for students with disabilities; why they may be needed; and specific examples of how they can be applied • To understand the implications of changes to teacher education accreditation requirements, particularly as a preparation for the diverse and inclusive classrooms of the twenty-first century • To understand that diverse schools continue to struggle with demands for higher academic performance while also meeting the diverse needs of students with a less than diverse teaching staff

KEY TERMS Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) key learning areas (KLAs)

National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)

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Introduction School education is a constantly changing feature of Australian society. The early twenty-first century remains a time of significant change, with progressive expansion of subjects in the Australian Curriculum; the establishment of the national Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA); a declaration on the goals of young people (rather than schooling); a controversial decision to publicly report school performance on national assessment outcomes; an incomplete proposal for national registration of teachers; and an incomplete national accreditation system for teacher education. Debate continues on the amount of pre-service teacher training and in-service professional learning that are needed to meet the educational challenges of the classroom, particularly around students with disabilities and other groups who are educationally at-risk. Specifically in relation to the diversity and engagement of students with disabilities and other targeted groups, there has been significant (although not consistent) progress on educational and other reforms, particularly in the past five to ten years. The implementation of trial sites nationally for the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) from 2013 represented a significant step forward in providing increased certainty of support for persons with disability and their families around funding for equipment and personal support. While there have been steps towards the full implementation of the NDIS, there remain considerable issues around the adequacy of funding and even the ability of people to access the service levels needed under the federal government’s funding model. As the model varies across the country, details of the specific format in each state and territory is explained on the main NDIS website (www.ndis. gov.au). The NDIS provides funding for personal needs while education provides funding for learning and teaching needs. Some educational jurisdictions employ allied health staff, others contract allied health staff, and yet others refer students and parents to independent services. Some teaching assistants/teacher aides spend considerable time supporting the health needs of students with high and complex special needs, and the future source of that funding is also in discussion as the Australian government continues to struggle with the provision of a consistent and equitable funding model following the currently planned cessation of the Gonski model, which had been originally designed to support students irrespective of political influence on educational reform. Hence, the intersection between the NDIS and education will bring changes to the ways in which personal care support, and other aspects of students’ lives, are addressed in education settings. Supporting the inclusion of students with disabilities was proposed to be based on two key education actions: the collection of nationally consistent data based on four categories of disability (cognitive, sensory, physical and social/emotional), and the funding of students based on their required level of adjustment (supplementary, substantial, extensive) or no adjustment at this time. In terms of intersection with the Australian Curriculum, there has been some minor, although confused, progress in relation to inclusion of students with special needs, the gifted and those from language backgrounds other than English. Progress in the case of students with disabilities has been patchy and clumsy at best. These key changes are discussed in detail later in the chapter. These changes are happening at a time of significant actions internationally in the direction of both more and less control by governments over curriculum content and assessment. This chapter explores these issues as a basis for understanding current and emerging practices in our diverse classrooms and schools, particularly as they affect students with special needs.

National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS): The current model of providing community linking and individualised support for people with permanent and significant disability, their families and carers.

Robert Conway

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Goals for young Australians

Key learning areas (KLAs): The basis for curriculum coverage nationally; they include English, mathematics, science, and the creative and performing arts.

Over the past three decades, Australian governments have released statements on the National Goals for Schooling. The Hobart Declaration on Schooling in 1989 was followed by the Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century in 1999 (MCEETYA 1999). These declarations were designed to provide a snapshot of what the national educational priorities were, including an outline of the key curriculum areas to be studied in schools, often termed key learning areas (KLAs). They represented a consensus view of what should be taught in schools as part of a comprehensive education. The existing KLAs are: English, mathematics, science, creative and performing arts, personal development/health/physical education, technical and applied studies, studies of society and its environments, and languages. The concept of an inclusive curriculum was based on the belief that all students would access the curriculum, and that teachers and schools would modify the curriculum to ensure that access for all students was possible. In some states and territories, there has been an attempt to provide an alternative pathway for those with more severe and complex disabilities to access the curriculum through models such as the Life Skills programs in New South Wales. The NSW approach allows students to access the same KLA framework, but in a modified format. Students can gain the Higher School Certificate (HSC) in the same way as other students, but in subjects that incorporate a Life Skills HSC title. In South Australia, the senior years of secondary schooling (Years 11 and 12) can be undertaken entirely in vocational education subjects, freeing students from the requirement to undertake only traditional, academically focused subjects. All jurisdictions now allow at least some vocational subjects in senior secondary school. While vocationally oriented subjects are an important alternative approach to senior secondary education and for transferring to postschool training, for students with special needs they do not provide an automatic panacea. Until the initial development of the Australian Curriculum, all state and territory governments were free to implement specific curricula within the broad framework and had discretion over the implementation and assessment of their own curriculum mix. Some states and territories, such as New South Wales, had strongly centralised approaches to both curriculum and assessment while others, such as South Australia, adopted a more flexible approach to the content taught, which allowed a much more school-focused approach to assessment. Some states continue to rely heavily on centralised assessment (for example, New South Wales), while others (such as Queensland and South Australia) have little centralised assessment and rely on moderation panels of teachers drawn from across schools teaching the same subject. Not all jurisdictions have a formal assessed qualification at the end of Year 12, allowing students to access a certificate of completion and be subject to a separate process for the calculation of an ATAR (Australian Tertiary Admission Rank) or equivalent. In 2008 there was a further declaration issued; this was the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, which provided a fundamental change (MCEETYA 2008). It was in contrast to the earlier declarations that focused on schooling. The Melbourne Declaration set two educational goals for the next ten years: 1 Australian schooling will promote equity and excellence 2 all young Australians will become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens.

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The Declaration did not identify students with special needs as a specific category,  but rather as one of the many groups that require access to Goal 1 (promoting equity and excellence) through high-quality schooling free from discrimination. It also talked of reducing the effects of sources of disadvantage such as disability. There was recognition of the need to provide youth transitions from senior school, although not specifically for students with special needs. The focus was very clearly on inclusion of students rather than separate provisions. Again, this does not acknowledge the reality of increasing placement of students into special education programs. Importantly, the 2008 Melbourne Declaration included the same curriculum areas as the earlier declarations, placing the Declaration in potential conflict with the Australian Curriculum. By 2018, however, the Australian Curriculum may be embedded so that any subsequent national declaration on education goals may incorporate the new curriculum structure in its statements. Whether there is any progress on the other issues, such as equitybased student and school funding, by the time of a next declaration, or whether there will even be one, remains a question.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority The establishment of the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) in 2009 brought together the three areas of curriculum, assessment and reporting for the first time in this country. The ACARA website states it is ‘an independent statutory authority that will improve the learning of all young Australians through a world-class curriculum assessment and reporting’ (www.acara.edu.au). ACARA is responsible for: • a national curriculum from Foundation to Year 10 in specified learning areas (with advice on some Year 11 and 12 subjects) • a national assessment program (NAP) aligned to the national curriculum and which measures students’ progress in specific literacy and numeracy skill areas • a national data collection and reporting program that supports:

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA): The national body responsible for the development of the Australian Curriculum, and all national and international testing, as well as reporting to parents and on the national My School website.

– analysis, evaluation, research and resource allocation – accountability and reporting on schools and broader national achievement. The Australian Curriculum is part of ACARA. The assessment and reporting part of ACARA’s work may well be more contentious in terms of the work of teachers in diverse schools. National and international testing of students has been a divisive issue, particularly for students from diverse cultural backgrounds and those with special needs.

Australian Curriculum There is, in fact, no overarching or integrated Australian Curriculum. The curriculum started as four discrete curriculum statements (see below) and has continued to expand in subject area coverage, in a somewhat haphazard approach given the original plan was to not move Robert Conway

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beyond the initial four key subject areas (which could be viewed as a political rather than an educational choice of subjects). Also, the curriculum is a statement on content only; that is, pedagogy is not addressed. The development of the Australian Curriculum has occurred in a changing educational and political environment. The control of the education agenda has moved from the education ministry level to become part of the national productivity agenda, although the daily management of school education remains with state and territory education authorities. The  Commonwealth Government Department of Education and Training oversees the education budget and education policy. State and federal cabinets, through the Council of Australian Governments (COAG), have therefore become directly involved in the new curriculum. The key national authorities are in fact ‘owned’ in a legislative sense by the federal and all state/territory governments. In the past each educational jurisdiction had its own curriculum terminology; for example, the Victorian Essential Learning Standards, the Queensland Essential Learnings, the Tasmanian Curriculum (replacing Essential Learnings Framework) and the Curriculum Framework (Queensland). As the Australian Curriculum expands the number of completed subjects for F (Foundation) to Year 10, the state/territory curriculum frameworks will be replaced more by sets of pedagogy beliefs and practices, with the Australian Curriculum continuing to address content and assessment and not pedagogy. Differing views between states and territories on specific pedagogical beliefs may still continue, however, as the Australian Curriculum has no jurisdiction over pedagogy:  ‘Teachers and schools organise rigorous, relevant and engaging learning to address the individual learning needs of their students’ (ACARA n.d.). In the case of the senior years, the original plan of an Australian Baccalaureate for Years 11 and 12 has been replaced by an amalgam of national advice on some subjects combined with state/territory approved content, although this has not been finalised. This will have implications for the education of students with disabilities in particular. In states such as New South Wales it may permit the continuation of the very successful Life Skills approach to senior school education. As noted, the government body responsible for the Australian Curriculum is ACARA. The curriculum development process was started by the Interim Australian Curriculum Board, which focused on curricula for the four key subjects of English, mathematics, science and history before moving on to the second planned set of subjects—Languages Other Than English (LOTE) and geography. In 2009, the Interim Board handed its work to ACARA, and the Australian Curriculum Board was formed. In early 2009, the creative arts subjects were added progressively to the second phase along with health and physical education (due to pressure from these curriculum areas). Languages, technologies and an expanded range of humanities and social sciences subjects have now also been included. The plan is now to cover all curriculum areas up to Year 10. The progress on subject development within the F to Year 10 of the Australian Curriculum can be monitored at the Australian Curriculum website, as can progress on advice for Year 11 and 12 studies. What does this mean for schools? In one sense it means that students moving from one state or territory to another will have the advantage that across the country there will be a common curriculum without the existing problems of gaps and repetitions in learning from one school to another. While this will be an advantage to students who move, it is hoped that the new approach

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will not have the rigidity of some countries, where all students in the same grade study the same topic across the country in every school at the same time. Of course, the active engagement of all school jurisdictions across all states and territories is also required. There is certainly a need for teacher and school individuality in responding to the diverse needs of each class and school to ensure that students and teachers shine through the new curriculum.

The Australian Curriculum and students with special needs What does the Australian Curriculum mean for students with special needs across Australia? There has been no substantial discussion about students with special needs and the actual curriculum content, other than that all students are expected to access the curriculum and be assessed against the outcomes. There are occasional discussion papers on the Australian Curriculum website; however, the direction of discussions around students with special needs has varied widely, from specific proposals such as using the pre-Foundation content from Victoria (see below), to specific examples of how to differentiate in the four initial subjects, to a suggestion in early 2013 to just look for ideas on jurisdiction websites. A statement released by ACARA in January 2013 provided some advice on adjustments, although the document on adjustment types and examples shown in Table 2.1 provides a better understanding of the differences as a result of differing adjustment categories. The current models of accommodation and differentiation of the curriculum are inconsistent across Australian educational systems and there is no indication that there will be an immediate change with the Australian Curriculum, as individual states and territories will continue to be responsible for its implementation and management. As well, different states and territories are engaging with the Australian Curriculum at different speeds. The Australian Curriculum has provided a challenge for students with special needs since its inception (Price 2015). The most effective examples for approaching the Australian Curriculum for students with high support needs is most likely the current Victorian Curriculum F-10 (see Websites at end of the chapter). In this model there are four levels prior to the Foundation level of the Australian Curriculum, and the model provides the only real concrete examples of what can be attempted. The concern is that students do not remain in the ‘towards foundation’ four levels for their education, particularly at secondary level. There remain the issues of whether and how students with special needs can engage with Australian Curriculum content and how substantial adjustments could occur through the processes discussed later in the chapter. Teachers are simply left to solve the issues themselves. The lack of any substantial advice within the Australian Curriculum website or elsewhere suggests teachers may abandon the Australian Curriculum in the case of students with high support needs, and use existing content provided by jurisdictions such as those from Victoria in the case of students accessing content below Foundation level, and New South Wales in the case of secondary life skills curricula. An indication of the difficulties can be found in the outcomes of the 2014 politically charged review of the Australian Curriculum (Department of Education 2014). There was strong pressure during the review from parents, teachers and organisations seeking a better Robert Conway

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addressing within the curriculum content of the needs of students with disabilities. While the final report (DET 2014) highlighted the need for special education experts to support ACARA, the review did not see the need to alter the curriculum, but rather to only provide further support materials (although from where these materials would come was not clear). Given the failure of previous attempts by ACARA to address this issue, there is little expectation that this will change. One way to examine the level of inclusivity of the Australian Curriculum is to use a series of descriptors (Berlach & Chambers 2011, pp. 55–6). Berlach and Chambers identified five key measures: 1 definition of inclusivity—a clear, jargon-free and concise definition of the concept is provided 2 breadth of application—inclusivity is seen as being broader than, but inclusive of, people with a disability (for example, culture, religion and race) 3 consideration of diversity—inclusivity caters to individuals who excel or are significantly different from the norm (for example, gifted, talented and learning style) 4 implementation guidelines—there is a clear inclusivity rationale with pointers indicating what needs to be done at school level 5 strategy and evaluation guidelines—this is a clear indication of how a school is to go about the business of ensuring inclusivity, including evaluation protocols. Berlach and Chambers’ (2011) assessment of the Australian Curriculum and state/territory curricula is that state and territory curricula are well placed in all criteria other than the strategy and evaluation guidelines. The Australian Curriculum has to this point not addressed these criteria adequately.

Assessment of students with special needs in the context of NAPLAN National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN): A program conducted nationally for students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. NAPLAN is the first program in which all students sit the same test papers. School data are published on the My School website.

ASSESSMENT

In 2008, for the first time all students across Australia sat for the same tests in literacy and numeracy through the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) so that a direct comparison could be made between the performance of all students. The NAP website also provides information on the two international assessment protocols in which Australia participates—the PISA international assessment of 15-year-olds, and the TIMSS, an international assessment of science and mathematics for Year 4 and Year 8 students. While these assessment procedures may seem irrelevant to the daily life of schools, they do play a major role in understanding the way in which teaching in schools has subtly changed due to the pressures of testing results. A critical issue that has emerged in some other countries is the focus on reporting of results from each school. In an earlier national study of the value of defining students with special needs in nationally reported data on test performance, Conway and Dempsey (2003) found that there was little value in identifying students with special needs in data when students were excluded from sitting for the tests, or when their academic performance level

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meant that the tests were meaningless. Arguments for the development of more appropriate assessment methodologies, including accommodations of test formats and administration procedures for special needs students, appear to have not been heeded, despite considerable evidence of the efficacy of such test accommodation strategies for enhancing the reliability and validity of the testing processes from other countries (Dempsey & Conway 2004, 2005). The assessment of students in high stakes (state and national level) testing in the United States remains a contentious issue. The US National Center on Education Outcomes (NCEO) publishes reports annually on the level and type of reporting of students with special needs in the annual assessment of all students. Assessment accommodations are changes in testing materials or procedures that enable students to participate in assessments in a way that assesses abilities rather than disabilities (see below). Without accommodations, the assessment may not accurately measure students’ knowledge and skills. In a recent statement on its website, NCEO listed the accommodations that are now allowed in the United States’ individual states and include assessment accommodations that are generally grouped into the following categories:  • presentation (for example, repeat directions, read aloud, large print, Braille, etc.) • equipment and material (for example, calculator, amplification equipment, manipulatives, etc.) • response (for example, mark answers in book, scribe records response, point, etc.) • setting (for example, study carrel, student’s home, separate room, etc.) • timing/scheduling (for example, extended time, frequent breaks, etc.). States must have accommodation guidelines for assessments and report the number of students using accommodations during state and district assessments. In contrast, the 2016 Annual NAPLAN (ACARA 2016b) reports for Australian states and territories outcomes—National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy:  Achievement in Reading, Writing, Language Conventions and Numeracy: National Report for 2016—make no mention of students with special needs at all, because there has been no nationally consistent definition of disabilities to be included in the data gathering. As discussed under ‘Funding and disability’ later in the chapter, there is now a set of agreed definitions of four disability categories and these should allow collection of data by disability in the future (provided students do actually undertake the tests). Information on the engagement, or not, of students with special needs in NAPLAN has been expanded extensively, although actual data on participation is very difficult to obtain (Dempsey & Davies 2013). Information is available in the FAQ section of the NAP website as well as extensive notes on disability adjustment examples for students with specific special needs (see www.naplan.edu.au). Some of the key points from the website include: Students with disability: Adjustments are provided to students with disability to support access to the tests and encourage maximum participation. Students with significant intellectual disability and/or those with significant co-existing conditions which severely limit their capacity to participate in the tests may be exempted from sitting the national tests. This is determined after consultation has occurred between the principal and the relevant parent/ carer, and if it is decided the student is not able to access the tests with adjustments.

Robert Conway

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The following items are important to remember when considering the application of adjustments in the NAPLAN tests:

• Adjustments should generally reflect the kind of support and assistance provided in the classroom for assessment activities in order for students to demonstrate what they know and can do. • Adjustments should allow students with various disabilities to access the tests. A student may have access to more than one adjustment in any one test, and adjustments may be different for different tests for a given student. • When providing adjustments, the integrity of the NAPLAN tests should be maintained. For example, reading the stimulus material and/or questions to a student during the Reading test is not appropriate or permitted, even if this is what the student has in their normal classroom. (National Assessment Program 2016)

This suggests that, with support, the student can achieve the national benchmark, which is not consistent with what we know about the performance of students with special needs who are included in mainstream settings. Students with special needs are often placed in mainstream settings within a social justice and rights framework, rather than a solely educational one. This means the key focus is being in a regular setting, not necessarily achieving mainstream assessment benchmarks. Along with the increased emphasis on collecting common data from all schools, data are published so that comparison of ‘like’ schools can be made. Such decisions can be seen as political rather than educational. The website shows the NAPLAN data for all schools in Australia. Clearly the data for each school can be compared with like schools locally and nationally. The temptation for schools to avoid including students with special needs is very strong in order to show higher performance than comparison schools. However, the provisions of the Disability Standards for Education 2005 (DET 2006, pp. 24–6) have clear requirements on the enrolment of a student with a disability. In an opinion-based review of the league table model, Cobbold (2009) argued that comparing ‘like schools’ is not an adequate model for encouraging schools to raise their performance standards, citing research from Figlio and Ladd (2008) and Lee (2008), among others. Cobbold points out that schools vary greatly within socio-economic status data in terms of their diversity—including their cultural mix, their special educational needs and their range of family structures—and hence cannot be compared directly. What does this mean for learning and teaching in today’s diverse schools? There is the potential that schools will focus more on teaching curriculum content that is directly relevant to the assessment measures (literacy and numeracy) and devote less time to other curriculum areas such as creative and performing arts. This has already occurred in some educational jurisdictions where there is a strong focus on achieving maximum school and system outcomes, either for reasons of prestige, or to increase, or avoid decreased, enrolments. Already in Australia some states have identified the need to place additional resources and curriculum focus on the skills being assessed to raise their position in the state rankings. For example, some states and territories have introduced set amounts of teaching time each week in reading and mathematics to ensure that all classes have a minimum amount of time to

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develop student performance or to increase practise time. The value of such strategies is open to contention, however, given the time trends in NAP data. The critical issue for students with special needs is that traditionally they have been (unofficially) excluded from these assessment regimes, but with the move to ensure all students are included in school assessment results there is the possibility that school results will be lowered. Students from non-English-speaking home backgrounds, students from Indigenous backgrounds and students with intellectual and behaviour difficulties are likely to underperform significantly. Currently only students with severe and complex special needs and recently arrived students from non-English-speaking backgrounds are able to seek exemption automatically. One of the side effects of the strong emphasis on student, school and system performance on testing protocols—such as NAPLAN, Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)— is a tendency for schools to seek to identify increasing numbers of students as having special needs in classes so that they can be excluded from testing. Graham (2009) argues there are two irreconcilable issues at stake here: the move to include more students with special needs in mainstream classes; and the political imperative of schools to attain higher standards in terms of student achievements, teacher accountability and school competition.

Apply your knowledge

23 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS): A program for students in Years 4 and 8 held every four years. More than sixty mainly developed countries are involved, including Australia. Program for International Student Assessment (PISA): A program that tests literacy in reading, mathematics and science in 15-yearold students. PISA is held every three years in more than sixty countries, including Australia, and the results are used to rank and compare countries in league tables.

Consider the information provided in the ‘Disability adjustments scenarios’ section of the NAPLAN website (www.nap.edu.au/naplan/school-support/adjustments-for-students-withdisability). 1 How do the adjustments vary across special needs? 2 Do you think the adjustments are adequate? 3 Will students with disabilities (and specific disabilities) benefit from participation in terms of academic, personal and social aspects of their inclusive education?

Legislation and special needs At an international level there have been attempts to raise the profile of students with special needs and disability in general through the work of organisations such as Unesco. The World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien in 1990, was one of the first major stages for international acknowledgment of the importance of inclusion and education for all. Perhaps best known is the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education in 1994 (UNESCO 1994), which is still held as a pivotal outline of what an inclusive approach to education needs to be. The four key points in the Salamanca Statement are a reminder of what were seen as key government practices. The interpretation and implementation of the principles in the Salamanca Statement have varied greatly in their form and speed of implementation. Some countries, such as Australia, the United States (varies across states), Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, to mention just a few, have been more proactive than others. In some countries (for example, Italy) special schools have been closed in response Robert Conway

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Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC): The body responsible for the management of rights for persons with disabilities as well as other vulnerable groups. It also hears prosecution cases where a person believes they have been discriminated against. Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA): Protects individuals across Australia from direct and indirect discrimination in many parts of public life, such as employment, education and access to premises. The Act is the basis for the Disability Standards for Education legislation, as well as the basis for the operation of HREOC.

STANDARDS

PART 1: SETTING THE SCENE

to the belief that only through total inclusion can the Statement’s principles be honoured. In many countries in Asia, the concept of inclusion has come into recent focus, particularly as countries such as Vietnam and Laos PDR embark on national inclusion policies (see Forlin & Ming-Gon 2008). A problem that often emerges when international legislation is developed is that it can conflict with existing national legislation. An example of this is in Malaysia, where the Persons with Disabilities Act 2008 was passed with the intention of affirming equal opportunities for persons with disabilities in all areas, including education, but the legislation did not overrule the existing Special Education 1997 Regulation, which allowed only ‘educable’ students to attend government schools (Toran 2009). Toran (2009) points out that this is in direct contradiction of the UN’s World Declaration on Education for All, of which Malaysia is a signatory. Toran states that this is not uncommon in many countries that are UN members. As discussed in Chapter 1, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN General Assembly 2007) was another major initiative of the United Nations. The Convention provides a number of key directions in its documentation (see www.un.org/disabilities/ convention/conventionfull.shtml). These include: inclusive education at all levels of education; quality and free primary education and secondary education on an equal basis with others; reasonable accommodations (adjustments) for students with special needs; effective individualised support measures (for example, Braille, adapted curriculum); and equal access to post-secondary education and lifelong learning. The United Kingdom is the only country to state it would continue to support choice between inclusion and special schools. As with all international declarations, the rhetoric has been louder than the practice. At the national level in Australia, there have been a series of legislative efforts to ensure that vulnerable groups are protected from attack by others. The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) is responsible for the management of legislation including for race, age and sex discrimination; disability and human rights; and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social justice. HREOC has a key role in conducting hearings under the legislation, including the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA). The HREOC website (www.hreoc.gov.au/disability_rights/about_disability.html) explains the role of the Act. There is now specific legislation that relates to the application of the Disability Discrimination Act in the education domain:  the Disability Standards for Education 2005 (the Standards; Attorney-General’s Department (2005)).

Disability Standards for Education 2005 The Standards (see www.ddaedustandards.info) were developed to ensure that educational practices complied with the discrimination provisions of the existing Disability Discrimination Act. The Standards apply to all education settings, from early childhood to tertiary and postsecondary, and to all forms of education including distance and online as well as formal and informal education. The Standards provide that students with disabilities must be treated ‘in the same way’ as students without disabilities. There are five specific areas addressed: • enrolment • participation • curriculum development, accreditation and delivery

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• student support services • harassment and victimisation. In this section the focus is on the provisions relating to participation and to curriculum development, accreditation and delivery. However, there are important points to highlight in relation to the other areas. The enrolment provisions require that educational settings do not discriminate against a student because of their disabilities at the time of enrolment. The student support services provisions specifically state that provision of a special class or specialist services do not exempt the education provider from the requirements of the Standards. Hence, placing a student with a special need in a special class is insufficient to demonstrate that the provisions of the Standards have been achieved. In the case of the harassment and victimisation provisions, the person acting as the advocate of the person with special needs is seen to have the same rights as the person with a special need. In terms of the participation requirements, the Standards require that educational settings provide: • • • • • •

flexibility in the ways in which students with disabilities participate in activities alternative activities to increase participation negotiated and agreed implementation of programs to increase participation additional support to assist achievement of learning outcomes reasonable substitute activities for those who can’t participate non-classroom and extracurricular activities that are designed to include the students.

This means the teacher must look at ways of including students with special needs in the learning and teaching activities of the class. The focus is on inclusion of students rather than parallel or separate activities. In terms of curriculum development, accreditation and delivery, the Standards require that educational settings provide reasonable adjustment to: • • • • • •

curricula teaching materials assessment and certification teaching and learning activities delivery modes, including non-classroom activities such as excursions assessment procedures and methodologies that are adapted to allow students to demonstrate knowledge, skills and competencies.

What is reasonable adjustment? It is minimum change needed in order for the student with special needs to be able to interact with the learning materials. The reasonable adjustment needs may change over time as the complexity of the curriculum tasks change, and the maturational and specific learning needs of the student change. The reasonable adjustment actions must occur in a ‘reasonable time’, such that the student is not left unsupported. Academic standards can be maintained, including the requirements and competencies that are inherent in, or essential for the award, and the adjustments do not need to exceed the building premises standards (that is, the building code for persons with a disability). The same outcomes are expected to be achieved; however, the assessment methods must be adjusted to allow the student with a disability to demonstrate competence in the assessment task. This would apply specifically to the NAPLAN assessment discussed earlier. Robert Conway

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STANDARDS

PART 1: SETTING THE SCENE

In 2012 the Standards were reviewed at the request of the Australian government. A key outcome of the review was recognition of the need for greater awareness and compliance with the Standards, particularly around adjustments to learning and teaching to accommodate students with special needs. There was also an acknowledgment of the need to tighten the legal enforcement of the Standards to ensure that all educators and administrators comply rather than ignore the importance of compliance. The Australian government has chosen to place greater emphasis on supporting and encouraging teachers and administrators to make reasonable adjustments and has embarked on a major professional development push through a series of online modules with the funding support of most educational jurisdictions. These modules readdress the framework of the Standards, as has been in-serviced to teachers and administrators since 2005, but in addition will have modules on practical strategies for making adjustment. There are as yet no data available on the cost-effectiveness and educational outcomes of this undertaking and whether it has produced enhanced levels of adjustments in classrooms. There will still be a place for enhanced legal processes for deliberate non-compliance with the Standards where some educational settings continue to avoid their responsibilities towards students with special needs. Of course, in providing ‘reasonable adjustment’ to learning and teaching for students with special needs, a much wider group of students in the classroom benefit from those adjustments.

Apply your knowledge Look at the Disability Standards for Education 2005 website (www.ddaedustandards.info). Based on your experiences in the classroom, what are some specific examples of the impact of the standards on meeting the learning needs of all students in an inclusive classroom, particularly in terms of: 1 2 3 4

increasing participation of students with special needs in the curriculum making reasonable adjustments to the curriculum, learning and teaching assessing students with special needs state and territory legislation on disability?

Adjustment levels in schools The key positive benefit from adjustments is that student engagement with learning and teaching increases and the possibilities of disengaged student behaviour decreases. The motto is that increased student engagement enhances the positive learning and teaching environment, and both teacher and students are able to engage in learning. The proposed funding model (discussed later in this chapter) and the Disability Standards for Education highlight the importance of adjustment of the curriculum, learning and teaching to ensure that students with disabilities can be actively engaged in the classroom. Four levels of adjustment have been identified: • no adjustment needed at this time • supplementary

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• substantial • extensive. The level of support is proposed to be allocated based on the level of adjustment that the student requires. Funding would be higher the greater the level of adjustment required. An overview of the four levels, when they may be needed and what strategies may be required are shown in Table 2.1. For students with disabilities, the level of adjustment will vary over their schooling and across curriculum areas. Table 2.1 Adjustment levels Level of adjustment

Who may require this?

No adjustment needed at this time

Some students with disability, at particular stages during their time at school, may not require any personalised adjustments beyond the resources and services readily available in the school for all students.

Supplementary adjustments

Supplementary adjustments are provided when there is an assessed need at specific times to complement the strategies and resources already available (for all students) within the school. These adjustments are designed to address the nature and impact of the student’s disability, and any associated barriers to their learning, physical, communication or participatory needs.

What might it look like?

Adjustments to teaching and learning might include: modified or tailored programs in some or many learning areas; modified instruction using a structured task-analysis approach; the provision of course materials in accessible forms; separate supervision or extra time to complete assessment tasks; and the provision of intermittent specialist teacher support. Adjustments might include: modifications to ensure full access to buildings and facilities; specialised technology; programs or interventions to address the student’s social/emotional needs; and support or close supervision to participate in out-of-school activities or the playground. These adjustments may also include the provision of a support service that is provided by the education authority, or that the school has sourced from an external agency. Robert Conway

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Level of adjustment

Who may require this?

What might it look like?

Substantial adjustments

Substantial adjustments are provided to address the specific nature and significant impact of the student’s disability. These adjustments are designed to address the more significant barriers to the student’s engagement, learning, participation and achievement.

These adjustments are generally considerable in extent and may include frequent (teacher directed) individual instruction and regular direct support or close supervision in highly structured situations, to enable the students to participate in school activities. They may also include adjustments to delivery modes, significantly modified study materials, access to bridging programs, or adapted assessment procedures (that is, special provisions) such as the use of assistive technology or a scribe. Other adjustments may be the provision on a regular basis of additional supervision, regular visiting teacher or external agency support, frequent assistance with mobility and personal hygiene, or access to a specialised support setting. Close playground supervision may be required at all times, or essential specialised support services for using technical aids, or alternative formats for assessment tasks, to enable these students to demonstrate the achievement of their intended learning outcomes.

Extensive

Extensive adjustments are provided when essential specific measures are required at all times to address the individual nature and acute impact of the student’s disability and the associated barriers to their learning and participation. These adjustments are highly individualised, comprehensive and ongoing.

These adjustments will generally include personalised modifications to all courses and programs, school activities and assessment procedures, and intensive individual instruction to ensure these students can demonstrate the development of skills and competencies and the achievement of learning outcomes. Other adjustments might be the provision of much more accessible and relevant curriculum options or learning activities specifically designed for the student. They may involve the use of highly specialised assistive technology, alternative communication modes, the provision of highly structured approaches or technical aids to meet their particular learning needs, and some students may receive their education in highly specialised facilities.

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Apply your knowledge Consider the levels of adjustment presented in Table 2.1. 1 Which students may need to access each of the categories? 2 What might a classroom adjustment look like for each of the four levels of adjustment? 3 Why might the level of adjustment vary across the student’s educational career? 4 Why might the level of adjustment vary across curriculum areas at the same point of their educational career?

Each state and territory government’s education department has information for students with special needs and their parents, as do Catholic and independent schools in each jurisdiction. Within the websites of each responsible educational jurisdiction, there is information on special settings and provisions; most also have information on inclusion. While each jurisdiction has differing provisions and support structures, they must all conform to the provisions of the Disability Standards for Education.

Key changes in the identification and funding of disability One of the key issues around the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms is the funding that may (or may not) come with the student. There have been considerable changes in the way in which students with disabilities are proposed to be funded. The key influences have been the: • Gonski review of education funding • nationally consistent data collection on students with disabilities and the four categories that have emerged • four levels of adjustment that students may require. The Gonski review of education funding found there was a need for specific funds over and above the base school funding for a number of factors, including remoteness of the school, the socio-economic status of the community, the number of students from Indigenous backgrounds and the number of students with disabilities. In his conclusions (Commonwealth of Australia 2011), Gonski argued that in the case of students with disabilities he could not provide a funding level as there were no clear data on the number of students, because there was no consistency of identification or data collection nationally. In addition, there were imbalances between the numbers of students with special needs in government schools and non-government schools, with higher enrolments in government schools, although this is not entirely certain because of differences in reporting criteria. Data from some non-government sectors would suggest that in some jurisdictions, such as the Association of Independent Schools in Western Australia (AISWA), enrolments of students Robert Conway

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with special needs are increasing, not the reverse. Research into NSW government schools by Graham (2009) showed a 153 per cent increase in students with disabilities from 1997, but with no decrease in the numbers of students with disabilities in special education settings. In fact, enrolments in special settings rose. Accurate data on the numbers of students with disabilities in schools and where they are located would allow funding to be directed to those schools and not to the jurisdiction, as occurs currently. As a result, the Australian government commissioned a project to establish a common set of disability categories that would be used nationally to identify and quantify the number of students, and hence allow a funding model to be developed. The result was the identification of four categories of disability: • • • •

cognitive sensory physical social-emotional.

The mapping of the current four categories against the earlier categories is shown in Table 2.2, as identified by DEEWR (2012). Table 2.2 Identifying the category of disability for the student Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA) Disability Standards for Education (2005) Disability in relation to a person means:

Australian Human Rights Commission Interpretation of the DDA (1992) definition

Total or partial loss of a part of the body

Neurological

The malfunction, malformation or disfigurement of a part of the person’s body

Physical

The presence in the body of organisms causing disease or illness

Physical disfigurement

Total or partial loss of the person’s bodily or mental function

The presence in the body of disease-causing organisms

Total or partial loss of the person’s bodily or mental function

Intellectual

A disorder or malfunction that results in the person learning differently from a person without the disorder or malfunction

Learning disabilities

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Primary disability categories used in the national data collection process

Physical

Cognitive

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Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA) Disability Standards for Education (2005) Disability in relation to a person means:

Australian Human Rights Commission Interpretation of the DDA (1992) definition

Total or partial loss of the person’s bodily or mental functions

Sensory

Primary disability categories used in the national data collection process

Sensory

The malfunction, malformation or disfigurement of a part of the person’s body A disorder, illness or disease that affects a person’s thought processes, perception of reality, emotions or judgment or that results in disturbed behaviour

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Psychiatric Social-emotional

In the case of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), there has been significant Australian government funding in recent times for teacher and parent training as a result of the dramatic increase in diagnosis of ASD. The initial funding was for three years (2009–11) and it was re-funded for two additional three-year periods (2012–14 and 2015–17) to provide workshops for parents and carers over a two-day period, and also four-day professional development workshops for teachers and school leaders. The professional development modules provide coverage of awareness of ASD, curriculum adjustments and behaviour management. The theme of the professional development is increasing the ASD-friendly environment of the school to support educational opportunities for these students. The materials are available on the Positive Partnerships website (www.positivepartnerships.com.au) by following the links to teachers and schools (you will need to log in to access the site, but access is free). A report on the conduct of parent/carer and teacher/executive workshops for the 2012–15 period (Conway, Read, McMillan & Carson 2015) found that both parents and teachers found the workshops useful, although the sustainability of those outcomes beyond the six-month follow-up survey period were not measured as part of the evaluation tender.

Teacher education and inclusive practices Teacher preparation for the inclusive classroom has been identified as a continuing challenge. In a survey of beginning teachers across Australia conducted by the Australian Education Union (2008), the data showed that a majority of beginning teachers felt ill-prepared to teach students with disabilities, students from non-English-speaking backgrounds and students from dysfunctional backgrounds. Even more felt ill-prepared to teach Indigenous students. The results were consistent across all states and territories. In a study of pre-service students in Australia, Hemmings and Woodcock (2011) measured students’ awareness of supporting inclusion in classrooms early in their training and again at the Robert Conway

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end of their third year. By the end of their third year of university study about 70 per cent of those surveyed indicated that they were either only partly prepared or not sufficiently prepared to support students with disabilities in their classroom. There was a heavy reliance on the role of teaching assistants/teacher aides to provide the support needed, although after a semester course on inclusion this dropped away as being the primary strategy. Interestingly, the semester course, with associated placement experience, increased pre-service teacher concerns, as they realised the importance and size of the task. A  key concern was the level of resources and support they believed were needed to achieve the educational outcomes for all students. Why do teachers feel unprepared or ill-prepared? Until now, not all universities provided subjects/topics/units on inclusive education (usually special needs/disability) and about half provided the same for teaching Indigenous students. A major problem has been that few universities have taught inclusive education as an overarching structure. Inclusive education is most effectively taught when it underlies all of the teacher preparation program, rather than being taught in isolation in segregated subjects on special needs, multicultural education or Indigenous education topics. Much of the focus within subjects on inclusion of students with special needs has been on adapting curricula and teaching, rather than focusing on supporting the inclusive classroom. This reflects the perceived importance of understanding the curriculum and its implementation, which comes at the cost of understanding how to differentiate the curriculum. Teachers need to have not only the theoretical and practical knowledge of the curriculum, but also the capacity to bring about optimal levels of learning for all students. This comes about through teacher preparation programs that include such skills as providing a variety of learning activities, providing opportunities to apply knowledge, providing feedback as a way of shaping future performance and individualising for particular student needs (Darling-Hammond 2006). Darling-Hammond is critical of teacher preparation for not incorporating topics on inclusive education. She argues that teacher education must promote teacher effectiveness and that topics/subjects on inclusion have been shown to enhance skills, knowledge and attitudes towards students with special needs (see also Sharma, Forlin, Loreman & Earle 2006). A study in Queensland by Mergler, Carrington, Kimber and Bland (2016) found that pre-service fourth year students, who had undertaken an inclusive education minor, placed greater emphasis on the importance of inclusion and felt more confident about supporting diversity in their future classrooms than those fourth years who had not (p. 20). A number of universities are providing this opportunity and also the opportunity to complete double majors in special education and their original level of teaching (Early Childhood Education, Primary, Middle, Secondary). Clearly, the greater the exposure to students in integrated settings, the greater the likelihood that pre-service teachers will cope better with inclusive teaching in their initial appointments. Given that many beginning teachers will experience casual or supply teaching for much of their early career, these skills are even more essential. A major change is occurring in teacher education programs in Australia. The Australian Institute for Teachers and School Leaders (AITSL) is moving to ensure that all teacher education programs are (eventually) nationally accredited and that there are certain set requirements in relation to content. A key proposed change is the requirement that all teacher education awards address students with special needs in their awards, with the content clearly defined. The same

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will apply to the topic of classroom management. The other three compulsory topics proposed are literacy, numeracy and Indigenous education. The desired outcome is that all graduates will have the skills to make reasonable adjustments based on an understanding of students with disabilities in schools. The other major change resulting from national registration of teacher education awards is that all graduates will need to meet the Graduate Teacher level of the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (provided by AITSL), which include specific references to teaching students with special needs, Indigenous students and students from non-English-speaking backgrounds, as also occurs in the three higher teacher professional standards.

Changing student skills and technology One of the critical changes in schools in the twenty-first century is the increased focus on technology and the way in which students access and use technology. The current generation of students is far more technically skilled than previous generations. Students now live in a ‘reset world’: if the iPod tune isn’t appealing, they can press reset. If the computer game isn’t appealing enough, is too challenging, too boring or too frustrating, they can press reset. A problem is that the learning and teaching in the classroom cannot be addressed by pressing reset and then starting again on a more interesting topic or presenting the existing one in a more interesting way! Students can ‘study’ with music downloads playing and Facebook or other social media services open, while checking emails, playing a computer game or two and taking time to eat as well. For students with special needs, the ability (or inability) to use these technologies may affect their capacity to be part of the inclusive classroom. Students from low socio-economic backgrounds or from migrant backgrounds may not have access to these resources. Students with specific special needs backgrounds may need quite sophisticated technology to ensure their access to the activities of the diverse classroom. This may include the use of visualisers, speech synthesisers, text recognition or simple technology such as FM loops. A review of the use of Apple technology for students with disabilities and the link to UDL principles is provided by O’Connell, Freed and Rothberg (2010). Spectronics (www.spectronics.com.au) also has a wide range of adaptive devices and advice on technology for all ages and education levels. The emergence of technology such as smartboards has changed the way in which many classrooms operate, with students able to interact with technology and data in ways that were unimaginable only a few years ago. In New South Wales the concept of virtual classrooms has been trialled, with students being able to access content at any time. For students without the ability to access lessons in the regular school day, there are opportunities for access at any time. While such a model may seem counter to the notion of inclusive schools, it allows students to study content and interact with teachers in ways that may not have been otherwise possible.

TECHNOLOGY

Diversity in schools Schools are becoming increasingly diverse in terms of their student bodies, and this has placed greater pressure on staff to meet students’ varying needs. An area often not addressed in the Australian literature is the cultural and racial composition of students with special needs. US Robert Conway

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data is consistently collected on racial composition in all aspects of education; however, this has not been the case in Australia. In one of very few Australian studies, Sweller, Graham and van Bergan (2012) examined the enrolment data for students enrolled in special education settings in NSW schools over a thirteen-year period from 1997 to 2009. They found that Indigenous students were increasingly more likely to be placed in special education settings at a rate much higher than Indigenous enrolments in mainstream schools, and that this trend was the opposite to enrolments of students from language backgrounds other than English who, over the thirteen years of data, were less likely to be placed in special education settings. The key message is that special education settings, both special classes and special schools, are becoming a default option for Indigenous students. The study also found that ‘non-indigenous, English speaking students in mainstream settings in NSW [are] the most likely group to move from government to non-government settings’ (Sweller, Graham & van Bergen 2012, p.  122). The study also found that ‘referral to more restrictive settings within government schools is increasing at the expense of more inclusive options’ (p. 122). In the case of secondary school special classes this applies also to non-Indigenous, English-speaking students—the only specialist setting where this occurs. This could be attributed to students with ASD, ED (emotional disturbance) and behaviour disorders moving into these settings (Graham & Sweller 2011). For those in the ED and behaviour categories, there is an increased risk that they will move to more restrictive settings such as special schools and juvenile justice.

Apply your knowledge Consider the outcomes of the Sweller, Graham and van Bergan study (2012). 1 Why might Indigenous students be increasingly placed in segregated special education settings rather than mainstream settings? How might this be changed? 2 Why might non-Indigenous, English-speaking students in New South Wales be moving from government schools to non-government settings? What implications does this have for inclusive education in both settings?

An example of a school attempting to address diversity is shown in the ‘Stories from the classroom’ box.

Addressing diversity

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

A small group of teachers were chatting after the NAPLAN testing week about their concern that some of their students would have had no real opportunity to engage with the testing (even if it applied to their year). The students were performing well below grade level and would have been very stressed about the testing and particularly the need to sit for a long time looking at work they could not do. Discussion came around to the Australian Curriculum content the grade was focusing on. Concern was expressed about the difficulty

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of trying to include all students in the activities and learning and the need for smaller class sizes. One teacher suggested that rather than each work alone, they share the resources they had developed for their classes as a way of reducing their individual workloads and also exposing all the students to a greater variety of resources. They also discussed how they could make reasonable adjustments to the assessment items for the topic, yet still satisfy the minimum standards for completing the topic.

Apply your knowledge Read the story above and identify the key strategies the teachers have used. 1 What is the direct value of NAPLAN results to teaching Australian Curriculum topics, particularly for those students with special needs, who have a non-English-speaking background or are Indigenous? 2 What are your views on the value of reasonable adjustments for Australian Curriculum subject topics? 3 Can you truly differentiate the curriculum for all students?

The staff had recognised that there was a need to explore ways in which to support students. These included the use of smaller class sizes, activities to assist students with basic reading, writing and spelling, and reasonable adjustments. They also recognised the need to build positive relationships with students and to demonstrate that they had high expectations of them. These all reflect differing strategies that are increasingly being seen in schools. Class size has been an ongoing debate in education circles over many years. There are arguments that smaller class sizes increase the ability to meet student needs, while there have also been studies showing that class size does not affect student performance. The impetus for schools trying to meet the diverse needs of their students comes from a number of sources. It comes from staff recognition of the need to better address diversity in all its forms. Sometimes it comes from educational policy decisions (for example, NAPLAN testing, the Australian Curriculum) or from political imperatives (for example, the Disabilities Standards for Education), and sometimes even from community pressures (for example, the recognition of the learning needs of students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the 1980s). Sometimes change is imposed, sometimes it comes from staff being persuaded that change is needed, and sometimes it comes from within, when staff realise that they do need to differentiate the curriculum to support the learning of all students. It is about overcoming the barriers to change and moving forward. We will return to this theme in the final chapters when we have considered the issues raised by specific aspects of diversity and special needs.

Robert Conway

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SUMMARY This chapter explored some of the key influences on the provision of inclusive education for students with special needs in Australian schools, and the influence of major changes in the identification, funding and supporting of students with disabilities and other at-risk groups. It acknowledged that political forces sometimes simply ignore the imperatives for sub-groups in schools, particularly those with special needs. It looked at the preparation of teachers who will enter inclusive classrooms, and the role of adjustments to the curriculum, learning and teaching to support inclusion.

For group discussion Consider the information provided in relation to the Australian Curriculum, the Disability Standards for Education, the AITSL requirements around the structure of pre-service teacher education, the four levels of adjustment and the four categories of disability, both within this chapter and on the relevant websites. As a group, debate: 1 the importance of providing information and experience in pre-service teacher education on changing our approach to supporting students from different diverse backgrounds, including students with special needs and those from culturally and linguistically different backgrounds 2 the potential effects on classroom teaching and learning in preparation for reportable assessment (for example, NAPLAN) for those students 3 the effects of adjustment levels on teaching, assessment and reporting in mainstream classes.

Key references Berlach, R. G. & Chambers, D. J. (2011). Inclusivity imperatives and the Australian curriculum. The Educational Forum, 75, 52–65. Conway, R., Read, P., McMillan, J. & Carson, K. (2015). Positive partnership: supporting school aged students on the autism spectrum: final evaluation report to Australian Government Department of Education and Training. Adelaide: Flinders University. Dempsey, I. & Davies, M. (2013). National test performance of young Australian children with additional educational needs. Australian Journal of Education, 57, 5–18. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) (2012). Identifying the category of disability for the student. Canberra: DEEWR. Department of Education and Training (DET) (2014). Review of the Australian Curriculum Final Report. Accessed at https://docs.education.gov.au/documents/ review-australian-curriculum-final-report.

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Graham, L. J. & Sweller, N. (2011). The inclusion lottery: who’s in and who’s out? Tracking inclusion and exclusion in New South Wales government schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15, 941–53. Lee, J. (2008). Is test-driven external accountability effective? Review of Educational Research, 78(3), 608–44. O’Connell, T., Freed, G. & Rothberg, M. (2010). Using Apple technology to support learning for students with sensory and learning disabilities. Carl and Ruth Shapiro Family National Center for Accessible Media WGBH Educational Foundation. Price, D. (2015). Pedagogies for inclusion of students with disabilities in a national curriculum: a central human capacity approach. Journal of Educational Inquiry, 14, 18–32. Sharma, U., Forlin, C., Loreman, T. & Earle, C. (2006). Preservice teachers’ attitudes, concerns and sentiments about inclusive education: an international comparison of the novice preservice teacher. International Journal of Special Education, 21, 80–93.

Websites Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA)—www.acara.edu.au Provides a listing of the various reports regarding the Australian Curriculum, school surveys and NAPLAN annual reports.

Disability Discrimination Act Education Standards—www.ddaedustandards.info Provides a description of the agreed national standards for responding to disability in Australia and the Standards expected to be enacted by federal and state governments and their agencies in health, education and other public sectors.

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC)—www.humanrights.gov.au Provides guidelines regarding the legislative and statutory implementation and monitoring of Australia’s signed agreements to international conventions regarding human rights.

National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN)—www.nap.edu.au Provides procedural details and annual reports relating to assessments for all students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 in reading, writing, spelling, grammar and punctuation, and numeracy.

Positive Partnerships website—www.positivepartnerships.com.au Positive Partnerships is a national project, funded by the Australian Government Department of Education and Training through the Helping Children with Autism package. It is delivered by Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect), with a goal to improve the educational outcomes of school-aged students on the autism spectrum.

Robert Conway

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Spectronics—technology resources for students with special needs—www.spectronics. com.au Spectronics is Australia’s largest supplier of special needs software and assistive technologies, described as being ‘inclusive learning technologies’. It works with a wide network of professionals and technology users, reflecting a commitment to providing quality support to both education and disability groups throughout Australia, New Zealand and South-East Asia.

Victorian Curriculum—http://victorian curriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au The Victorian Curriculum F–10 sets out what every student should learn during their first eleven years of schooling. The curriculum is the common set of knowledge and skills required by students for lifelong learning, social development and active and informed citizenship.

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Chapter 3: Linguistic and Cultural Diversity

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Chapter 4: Indigenous Perspectives and Cultural Identity

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Chapter 5: Gender, Inclusivity and Engagement

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Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To gain an overview of the linguistic and cultural diversity of students in Australian schools • To understand the current context of support for EAL/D students • To appreciate the sociocultural context of teaching EAL/D, including educational, cultural, historical and inter-group issues • To understand the different approaches to EAL/D learning and teaching • To hear the voices of students and teachers • To understand assessment and reporting in the context of bilingualism

KEY TERMS bilingualism CALD EAL/D learners

LOTE migrant refugee

Introduction Bilingualism is a widespread phenomenon, and is, in fact, the norm rather than the exception in the world. Most children in Australia start school using the language they have been using at home. Their peers in many other countries would consider them lucky! For example, in Italy, Indonesia or China, at home children grow up speaking one of the many languages or dialects indigenous to those countries. Then, when they go to school, they are educated in the standard or national language—Italian, Bahasa Indonesia or Modern Standard (Mandarin) Chinese. Sometimes the standard dialect is quite close to what children use at home, but more often than not there is a different vocabulary, written script and even syntax to be acquired. In some countries, the language of school is the language of a former (or current) colonial power, which is a completely different language system from the one that children have acquired at home. Examples include Nigerian children being taught in English and Kanak children in New Caledonia being taught in French. Most people think of Australia as being an English-speaking country; however, bilingualism is pervasive even in Australia, which has the outward appearance of being a monolingual

Bilingualism: Being able to use two languages.

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society. As Edwards notes, ‘the scale of linguistic diversity in the English-speaking world is greater today than at any point since the mass migrations of the nineteenth century’ (2004, p. 4). Clyne and Kipp (1996, 2002) write that Australia has long been a multilingual country, and now comprises people from over two hundred different ethnic backgrounds, who speak more than three hundred different languages (ABS 2012b). It has been said that, in Australia, ‘community diversity has become the norm rather than the exception’ (Queensland Government 2000, p. 9).

Which among the people in the list below would you consider to be bilingual? 1 A two-year-old living in Wales who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to the other 2 A four-year-old in London whose home language is Bengali and who has been attending an English playgroup for some time 3 A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family living in the United States who increasingly uses English both at home and outside, but whose older relatives address him in Italian only 4 A Canadian child from Vancouver who comes from an English-speaking background and attends an immersion program that consists of virtually all school subjects being taught through the medium of French 5 A young graduate in China who has studied English for eleven years 6 A 60-year-old scholar who has spent a considerable part of her life working with manuscripts and documents written in Latin 7 A technical translator 8 A personal interpreter for an important public figure 9 A Portuguese chemist living in Lisbon who can read specialist literature in his subject, written in English 10 A Japanese airline pilot who uses English to communicate with air traffic controllers 11 A Turkish ‘guest worker’ in Germany who speaks Turkish at home and with his friends and work colleagues, but who can communicate in German, in both written and oral forms, with his superiors and the authorities 12 The wife of the Turkish ‘guest worker’, who is able to get by in spoken German but cannot read or write it 13 A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has had no contact with Danish people for the last forty years 14 A Belgian government employee who lives in bilingual Brussels, whose friends and relatives are mainly Flemish (Dutch) speakers but who works in an entirely French-speaking environment and whose colleagues in the office (whether they are Flemish or not) use French as well

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15 A Catalan who at home and work uses Catalan only, but who is exposed to Castilian Spanish from the media and in the street and has no linguistic difficulty in the latter language In order to decide who is or is not bilingual, some of the criteria you might consider are: • age • location • competence • use/function • context • order of acquisition • literacy • other. Source: adapted from Hoffman (1991, pp. 16–17).

After completing the activity on bilingualism, it is likely that your discussions reached the same conclusion as did Hakuta’s literature review (1990, p. 1); that is, ‘no single definition of individual bilingualism is broad enough to cover all instances of individuals who are called “bilingual” ’. There is often a view among at least some members of a class that only individuals who are able to actively perform in two languages (that is, have a high command of productive skills) qualify as bilingual. But the reality is that bilingualism is a continuum, with very partial ability at one end and full competence at the other. Taken in its broadest sense, we can say that most individuals are partially bilingual, but the reality in many school LOTE situations is that students do not get beyond this point: ‘Most experts in the field prefer the [broader definition] as the beginning point from which a variety of bilingual skills can develop, including biliteracy’ (Hakuta 1990, p. 1). Gibbons defines a bilingual child as having the ‘ability to communicate in two or more languages’ or ‘operating in two language domains’ (1991, p. 1). Full competence in two languages is extremely rare, partly because most people don’t need it and partly because there is nearly always a functional divide in individual and societal use (needing both languages for the same purpose is rare); even a UN interpreter may have to do special training and swot up in specialist areas to be able to provide accurate simultaneous translations of what is being said.

LOTE: Languages Other Than English.

Where do Australians come from? Only 2.5 per cent of Australians are Indigenous (of which 90 per cent are Aboriginal, 6 per cent are Torres Strait Islander and 4 per cent are both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander; see AIHW 2015). You will learn more about working with Indigenous students in Chapter 4. The proportion of Australians born overseas (many of them in an English-speaking country) has dropped from

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roughly 25 per cent to 21 per cent. The most common birthplace for Australians (other than Australia) is the United Kingdom, followed closely by New Zealand. The United Kingdom and New Zealand also continue to be important sources of new arrivals to Australia, supplying 12 per cent and 9.1 per cent respectively of all people who arrived between 2007 and 2011. However, patterns of immigration are changing, with the largest group of recent arrivals (13 per cent) now coming from India, and with Malaysia replacing Greece in the top ten countries of birth (ABS 2012b). At the date of publication of this text, only a small set of the data from the 2016 census had been released. However, according to the 2011 Census (ABS 2012b), seven of the top ten countries from which recent immigrants have come are Asian. A number of new arrivals have also come under the Humanitarian Program, which allows entry to Australia by people who are at risk of persecution or discrimination in their country of origin. Since 2002 there have been large groups of people entering Australia under this program, from Sudan (13 000 people), Zimbabwe (8000), Afghanistan (6000) and Iraq (9000) (ABS 2006). Table 3.1 Top ten countries of birth, selected characteristics Country of birth

Number of people

UK New Zealand China(b) India Italy Vietnam Philippines South Africa Malaysia Germany Born elsewhere overseas

1 101 100 483 400 319 000 295 400 185 400 185 000 171 200 145 700 116 200 108 000 2 183 800

Proportion born overseas (%)

Median Sex ratio(a) age (years)

20.8 9.1 6.0 5.6 3.5 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.2 2.0 41.2

54 40 35 31 68 43 39 39 39 62 44

101.7 102.8 79.8 125.2 104.7 84.6 60.6 96.9 83.5 90.6 95.6

(a) Number of males per 100 females. (b) Excludes Special Administrative Regions (for example, Hong Kong) and Taiwan. Source: ABS (2012b).

Apply your knowledge Examine the figures presented in Table  3.1. What can you deduce from these figures about when these people came to Australia, and what the population of Australia might look like in ten years? How would you account for the differences in gender breakdowns of people from the different countries of origin? (e.g. Why are more men from India and more women from the Philippines?) When the 2016 data become available, visit the ABS website to see what the top ten countries of birth were in 2016, and compare those with the information presented in Table 3.1: www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/census?opendocument &navpos=10.

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What are the languages spoken by non-Indigenous Australians? According to the most recent census data (ABS 2012b), around 23 per cent of people report speaking a LOTE at home; however, only 2 per cent of these are unable to speak English at all. The question asked on the census form is: ‘Does this person speak a language other than English in the home?’ Table 3.2 shows the top ten languages provided in response to this question. The proportions of people who speak different languages have varied over time, as new waves of immigrants and refugees replace those who are longer established. In 2006, the top ten languages changed for the first time in fifteen years, with Tagalog replacing German in the list, and Mandarin replacing Italian as the second-most spoken language after English. These languages have maintained their position in the 2011 Census data, and it will be interesting to see how this may change with the 2016 Census data. Table 3.3 shows the numbers of speakers of the top fourteen languages other than English, according to the 2001, 2006 and 2011 censuses, and the percentage change in that time period. Table 3.2 Top ten languages spoken at home, Australia Language

Number of people

English only Mandarin Italian Arabic Cantonese Greek Vietnamese Tagalog Spanish Hindi

Proportion of total population (%) 17 517 926 336 178 299 829 287 171 263 538 252 211 233 388 136 846 117 493 111 349

76.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.5 Source: ABS (2012b).

Table 3.3 Top fourteen languages other than English spoken at home, Australia, 2001–11 Language Italian Greek Cantonese Arabic Mandarin Vietnamese Spanish German Hindi Macedonian

2001

2006 353 606 263 718 225 307 209 372 139 288 174 236 93 595 76 444 47 817 71 994

2011 316 900 252 200 244 600 243 700 220 600 194 900 98 000 75 600 70 000 67 800

Growth 2001–11 (%) 299 829 252 211 263 538 287 171 336 178 233 388 117 493 80 366 111 349 68 843

−1.5 −0.44 1.6 3.7 14.1 3.3 2.5 0.5 13.2 −0.4

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Language Croatian Korean Turkish Polish

2001

2006 69 850 39 528 50 692 59 056

2011 63 600 54 600 53 900 53 400

Growth 2001–11 (%) 61 545 79 784 59 625 50 696

−0.1 10.1 1.7 −1.4

Sources: .id community (n.d.); ABS (2012).

Apply your knowledge Examine the figures presented in Table 3.3. 1 Which languages showed the greatest increase in numbers of speakers over the ten years? How would you explain these changes? 2 Which languages showed the greatest decline in numbers of speakers over those ten years? How would you account for this decline? 3 Where do the speakers of the various languages live? CALD: Culturally and linguistically diverse.

The proportions of CALD learners also vary from state to state, and territory to territory, but speakers of LOTEs tend to be concentrated in urban areas. This is very different from nineteenthcentury Australia, when multilingual communities were found in rural and regional Australia. Clyne (2005, p. 3) cites ‘New Italy (northern New South Wales), the Estonian settlement of Thirlmere (New South Wales), and German settlements in the Barossa Valley, the Adelaide Hills, the Wimmera, the Victorian Western District, and the New South Wales Riverina’ as examples of such rural concentrations of LOTE speakers. Clyne (2005, pp. 3–4) says that today 72 per cent of Australians live in cities, but that 88 per cent of speakers of community languages live in urban areas, most in Sydney and Melbourne. An example of the diversity of an urban school is provided by French and de Courcy (2017), who describe a school whose 600 students, from approximately fifty different cultural groups, speak more than forty different languages. About 40 per cent of these students speak a language other than English at home, and many of them already spoke more than two languages before enrolling in the EAL (English as an additional language) program at the school. Table 3.4 shows the proportions of the population of the capital cities who report speaking a LOTE at home. Table 3.4 Languages other than English spoken at home, capital cities City Sydney Melbourne Adelaide Canberra Perth Darwin Brisbane Hobart

1996 (%)

2006 (%) 26.4 25.7 14.9 13.7 13.5 15.7 9.2 4.9

2011 (rounded %) 29.3 26.3 15.2 14.6 13.9 12.5 10.7 5.1

32 29 17 18 17 16 13 6 Source: ABS (2006, 2012).

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Except for the Northern Territory, where 41 per cent of the non-metropolitan population speak a LOTE, the picture is very different outside the urban areas. Clyne (2005, p. 4) states that ‘only 4.9 per cent of Victorians outside Melbourne and only 4.7 per cent of the population of New South Wales outside Sydney speak a language other than English’. Next we explore the likely linguistic make-up of the class in which you are studying, and provide you with a tool to explore the backgrounds of the students you (will) teach.

Apply your knowledge What is the approximate percentage of LOTE speakers for your local area? Google ‘local government area’ languages, and the appropriate website for your state or territory will be displayed. Now, read this article from The Age newspaper, originally published on 13 March 2008: www. theage.com.au/news/tv--radio/whitewashing-tvs-picture/2008/03/12/1205125988170.html (Fairfax Digital 2008). 1 Do you feel that the sentiments expressed in this article are still relevant today? 2 Do the Australian TV programs aired in your local area reflect the ethnic and linguistic backgrounds of the people who live there? Do they reflect the backgrounds of the children you teach? 3 Would the children in your class feel included or excluded from Australian society, based on your answer to question 1? 4 Think of some activities you could do with your class that could critique or disrupt what they see on television.

Student sociolinguistic profiles Teachers in mainstream schools are often faced with a class of students who are linguistically and culturally diverse. At the beginning of the year, or when a new student arrives, completing a sociolinguistic profile—in order to better meet students’ language and culture learning needs— can be an effective aid to planning.

Apply your knowledge Either alone, or by interviewing a classmate, complete this example of a sociolinguistic profile. 1 2 3 4 5 6

In what country were you born? If born overseas, when did you arrive in Australia? What was the first language you spoke? What language(s) did you speak before you started school? What schools have you been to, for how long, and what languages did you use at school? Before you started school, what language(s) did you use with the following people? Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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Listening

Speaking

Mother Father Siblings (brothers and sisters) Grandparents Other relatives Friends Carer/Kindergarten teachers

             

             

7 Has this changed? What language(s) do you now use with the following people?  

Listening

Speaking

Mother Father Siblings (brothers and sisters) Grandparents Other relatives Friends Teachers

             

             

8 Now think about your leisure activities. What language(s) do you now use for them? List some examples.

Your answers to the questions above may give you an insight into why the census figures quoted earlier in the chapter may not reflect the true state of Australians’ multilingualism. The question on the census asks, ‘Which language do you use in your home?’ (emphasis added)

Pause and reflect

1 If you had answered the census question, what would you have answered? 2 How might this fail to capture information on your language skills and use? 3 How might you use sociolinguistic profiles with your own class? In particular, could you use them to include bilingual children as language experts, even though they are still developing English proficiency?

CALD students in the mainstream—who are the students? According to French and de Courcy (2017), approximately 17 per cent of Australian children and adolescents speak a language other than English at home. Others may speak a different dialect of English from that used by their educators and in their school books.

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These learners are acquiring English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D). In some education settings, the number of EAL/D students can be as high as 90 per cent. How does this compare with the cultural and linguistic background of their teachers? Recent research (French & de Courcy 2017, p. 154) notes that, even in a diverse school, the teacher is most likely to be a monolingual English speaker, and ‘the unquestioned assumption of monolingualism as the norm … is a concept that applied to Australian education’. Research with (largely) monolingual teachers (de Courcy 2007; French & de Courcy 2017) found a prevailing ‘language as problem’ mindset. This section features quotes from teachers who are adding an EAL/D specialisation to their qualifications, as they reflect on what they learnt on their practicum. All names used are pseudonyms.

Is being bilingual an advantage or a disadvantage? Robinson and Jones-Díaz (2006, p. 114) point out that research in the 1950s and 1960s painted a picture of the bilingual child as ‘needy’ and having a ‘deficit’ or ‘additional needs’; they explain that it is important that children learning EAL/D are no longer viewed from a deficit-type perspective, as they bring with them their own unique funds of knowledge and first language skills (González, Moll & Amanti 2005). While learning a new language in preschool or school is undoubtedly challenging socially, emotionally or linguistically this does not mean bilingual children are poor at language learning. Children can develop two languages at once—if their first language development is supported—but the reality for many bilingual children is that English replaces the first language. Therefore, we need to support the continuing development of children’s first language. Research (de Courcy & Smilevska 2012) has shown the positive effects on children’s English language development if they are taught for part of the day in their first language (in this case, Macedonian). The emotional adjustment of bilingual children to educational settings is also receiving research attention. Peer interactions offer important contexts for social and emotional development as well as language development, and researchers such as Tabors (2008, p. 34) assert that ‘communicative competence and social competence are inextricably interrelated’. Experts advocate for additive bilingualism and balanced bilingualism; that is, eventually developing a similar level of proficiency in both languages (Wong et al. 2016), and for the literacy skills gained in the first language to facilitate learning in additional languages (Clarke 2009). The EAL/D learning progression, as outlined by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA 2011) includes broad descriptions of the characteristics of learner groups at each of four phases of English language learning. EAL/D students of any age may be in any of the language learning phases:

EARLY LEARNERS

• Beginning English—students with some print literacy in their first language. A subcategory, Limited Literacy Background, is included to describe the reading/ viewing and writing behaviours typical of students with little or no experience of literacy in any language. • Emerging English—students who have a growing degree of print literacy and oral language competency with English. Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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• Developing English—students who are further developing their knowledge of print literacy and oral language competency with English. • Consolidating English—students who have a sound knowledge of spoken and written English, including a growing competency with academic language (ACARA 2011, p. 8). EAL/D students are sometimes categorised into three main groups, called ‘first phase’, ‘second phase’ and ‘third phase’ learners of English (Catholic Education Office, Sydney 2006). These are the terms generally used in New South Wales. The terms from the Australian Curriculum are now coming into common use. Beginning English learners need ‘survival English’ to allow them to cope, and a high level of scaffolding to help them learn, especially visual and gestural support. As noted above, some Beginning English learners are also beginners in literacy. This adds an additional challenge for learners who are new to English in the middle to upper years of schooling. Emerging English learners also need explicit, focused language and content teaching from specialist EAL/D and mainstream teachers. They can understand and produce simple English, using chunks they have learnt and predictable language. Learners at these two levels will need to concentrate very hard and may tire easily or switch off when not enough contextual support is provided. Developing English learners are similar to second-phase learners in that they are competent in everyday spoken English but have difficulty with more specialised communication, especially the written form of English. When teachers begin to work with Developing English learners, the gaps in the students’ language ability can surprise them. Apparent fluency in spoken English does not necessarily indicate that the student has the level of language proficiency required for academic achievement. Social language develops before academic language, and it can take from five to seven years for an EAL/ D child to reach age-appropriate competence in English. Children ‘pick up’ the playground language quickly, but not the more academic, abstract, context-reduced language they need to succeed in school (Gibbons 1991). Functions like hypothesising, evaluating, inferring, generalising, predicting and classifying cannot just be ‘picked up’. Bilingual children need support to catch up with their peers (Gibbons 1991). Consolidating English learners have a sound grasp of English and are able to participate in most classroom routines and tasks. They still need explicit teaching, especially for topics that are culturally laden in literature or history. They can understand and produce a range of texts in different genres and have the ‘language skills in English to meet many of the achievement standards for their year level’ (ACARA 2011, p. 39).

Overestimation of language ability Brooke

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

It is clear that I did overestimate the language ability level of the Year 8s, which I think is partially because of my experience in teaching mainstream English to students of the same level. Since I  have no experience with non-native speakers as students, I  overestimated their ability to perform writing and language tasks.

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As I  had observed teachers speak to the students, I  judged the language used to be at least an intermediate level. I think the thing to remember is that often students can understand more than they can produce themselves, and also I probably overestimated the amount they can actually understand as well. I designed the test with two writing tasks (a formal and informal task) with what I  considered to be very clear instructions. Whether the task was that difficult for them, or they were unable to concentrate today, I’m not sure … Perhaps I  was subconsciously expecting something too much like the products of my native-speaking 8th grade students from last year? Cummins refers to the difference between receptive ability and productive ability noticed by Brooke as ‘BICS’ and ‘CALP’, and they are defined as follows: The acronyms BICS and CALP refer to a distinction introduced by Cummins (1979) between basic interpersonal communicative skills and cognitive academic language proficiency. The distinction was intended to draw attention to the very different time periods typically required by immigrant children to acquire conversational fluency in their second language, as compared to grade- appropriate academic proficiency in that language. Conversational fluency is often acquired to a functional level within about two years of initial exposure to the second language, whereas at least five years is usually required to catch up to native speakers in academic aspects of the second language (Collier 1987; Klesmer 1994; Cummins 1981a). Failure to take account of the BICS/CALP (conversational/ academic) distinction has resulted in discriminatory psychological assessment of bilingual students and premature exit from language support programs (e.g. bilingual education in the United States) into mainstream classes (Cummins 1984). Source: Cummins (n.d.).

EAL/D students are no more homogenous than native English-speaking students, and may include children with the following backgrounds: • children starting formal education at normal starting age with home-based literacy experiences in the first language, who have had minimal or no exposure to English • children starting formal education at or after normal starting age who have had no experience with literacy or formal schooling in any language • children starting formal education in Australia after normal commencement age • children starting formal education after normal commencement age who have had severely disrupted schooling • children who have had the major part of their schooling in Australia, but who need assistance to meet the demands made upon their English in mainstream classes— especially secondary, but also upper primary • children who arrive from overseas not speaking (much) English, but with about the equivalent schooling in their mother tongue as their peers have had in English. Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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Effective practice Second-language acquisition There are five important basic principles underlying learning/acquiring a second language (L2), which most experts in the field have agreed on for many years: 1 ‘Children learn language [whether L1 or L2] as a medium of communication’ and as a means of ‘getting things done’ in the world (Enright & McCloskey 1985, p. 434). 2 Children learn language (especially a second language) when they feel good about themselves and about their relationship with those around them (Rigg & Hudelson 1986). 3 Language develops when the L2 learner focuses on accomplishing tasks with others rather than on the language itself. This ‘purposeful interaction’ involves opportunities to practise language as communication in a wide variety of contexts (Krashen & Terrell 1983; Rigg & Hudelson 1986). 4 Making mistakes is a natural and necessary part of language learning. When children begin to produce their second language, whether in oral or written form, they do not produce an adult standard form of the language. As noted by Rigg and Hudelson (1986), L2 learners may intersperse parts of their native language with the second language, or try to construct English sentences using the rules of their first language. 5 Following on from the previous point, ‘children’s L2 development is facilitated by a comfortable classroom [environment]; that is, one which encourages and celebrates efforts at [communication], one which focuses on the meaning of utterances rather [than the] form, and one which treats errors as a normal part of the L2 acquisition process’ (Enright & McCloskey 1985, p. 435).

Classroom practice

EAL/D learners: Students learning English as an additional language or dialect.

Unfortunately, it is not possible to replicate in our classrooms the type of natural learning contexts in which children learn their first (and often a second) language so efficiently before entering school. The one-to-one interaction, which so encourages first language acquisition, cannot be exactly replicated in a classroom. However, there are some things we can do to create a learning environment that engages EAL/ D learners as much as possible. In today’s educational settings, expert linguists, researchers, educationalists and speech pathologists are more often encouraging educators to embrace and promote bilingualism and accommodate for bilingual speakers in assessment and programming (Robinson & Jones-Díaz 2006, p. 120). Current developments in language teaching are generally categorised as part of a ‘communicative language teaching’ approach, and are based on a sociocultural theory of language learning. Such an approach implies a focus on communication, with the following characteristics: • It is student-centred, aiming to engage students using topics which are relevant to their needs, lives and interests. • There is a high degree of peer-to-peer and/or peer-to-teacher interaction.

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• There is a focus on authentic and purposeful language. • It involves learning how to use the language (as opposed to learning ‘about’ a language). • There is an emphasis on meaning over form.

Effective practice What do students need to learn when they ‘learn English’? The aim of communicative language teaching is for students to acquire ‘communicative competence’, which involves the following: • linguistic competence—knowing the mechanics of language (phonemic and syntactic) • pragmatic competence—knowing how to use language in context • discourse competence—knowing how to put language together beyond the utterance • strategic competence—knowing how to avoid communication breakdown • fluency—knowing how to use what you have effectively. A whole-language, natural-learning environment offers EAL/D children support and immerses them in English. However, this is not enough. EAL/D children (and first language learners, too) also need explicit demonstrations of how English texts are constructed, the function(s) of these texts and their particular linguistic structures and features. In order to help English language learners to learn, we need to: • • • • • • • • • •

provide appropriate input use language in authentic ways provide context design activities with a purpose use task-based activities encourage collaboration use an integrated approach address grammar consciously adjust feedback/error correction to the situation include awareness of cultural aspects of language use. Source: NCLRC (2003–04).

New country, new challenges The student who wrote this piece, which formed part of his Year 12 writing folio, had spent most of his teenage years in refugee camps. He wrote at the beginning of his essay about how, although relieved to be in a safe place, he felt like he belonged nowhere except to his family who had come with him to Perth. Although he wanted to feel like an Australian, he kept being confronted by the differences from his home in Vietnam, and missed his friends and relatives that he had to

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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leave behind. He gave the example of his parents not being able to just drop in on a neighbour to have a chat—one needed more English than they had at first, and also needed to be invited. So, he said that most Vietnamese just stayed in, watching TV that they did not understand. He wrote about how upset he was that he could not get close to people and wondered what the ‘fence’ was between him and other Australians that was stopping him and them from getting close to one another. He wrote: The fence is built up by the different languages, cultures and even the difference in ‘colour’. The fence has to be broken by one of us if we want to get together. Who is going to break the fence? It has to be me. Does it mean that I have to be a completely new person?

The student wondered whether he would have to change what he looked like physically in order to fit in. He felt that for some demanding people, he would have to. However, he was not happy being isolated in society. Did he want to adapt to his new surroundings? Yes, I do. But it is not something that can be changed like changing your clothes. It takes time. I hope one day I can put what I have learned from the other culture into practice and without discarding my own treasury. Source: Ferguson (1999, p. 13).

Consider the story above and reflect on the following questions. 1 What is your reaction to the feelings the student wrote about so eloquently? 2 Do you believe that a person needs to discard their ‘own treasury’ in order to be accepted as an Australian? Migrant: A person who chooses to move to another country for economic or personal reasons.

If you have access to it, view the video ‘Not a matter of choice’ (2003; available at www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/diversity/eal/ Pages/ealprisecdisrupt.aspx), which provides information and raises a number of issues to do with refugees.

Refugee: A person who is forced to leave his/her homeland, usually because of war or persecution, and is moved to another country.

3 What are some of the differences between a migrant and a refugee, and how might these differences impact on their learning of their new language (English)? 4 If you have met, or know, anyone who came to Australia as a migrant or a refugee, reflect on their experiences of this journey, particularly their language learning experiences.

Pause and reflect

The following are important points to consider when teaching EAL/D students, most of whom will be taught in mainstream classrooms.

The need for oral practice When learning to read and write in English as a first language, the native English-speaking child already has a well-developed spoken English knowledge. For a second language learner, an

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environment that facilitates oral language development is vital. This may include whole-class activities, small group interaction and one-to-one interaction. Be aware that 70 to 90 per cent of talk in language classrooms can be by the teacher (Chaudron 1988). As a teacher, you need to think about ways to maximise student talk time.

Apply your knowledge 1 Brainstorm the following question within your group: What are some of the reasons for which we speak? You may come up with some of the following; add any extra ideas you come up with: a getting and giving directions b getting and giving information c expressing emotion, identity d personal bonding e achieving aims f getting what you need g giving instructions. 2 Brainstorm again. What do we need to know in order to speak and be understood? Here are some possible answers; add the extra ones your group discussed: a emphasis/stress b sound system c listener roles d rules of turn taking e how to get and keep the floor f how to talk without knowing the words g vocabulary/words h basic syntax i listening skills j forms of address k politeness l routines. 3 Is it realistic to think about teaching speaking skills in isolation from listening skills?

What makes speaking difficult? In order to speak in a second language, students need both time to process their thoughts and a sympathetic conversation partner. Therefore, conducting speaking activities in pairs and small groups takes the pressure off students from having to ‘perform’ in front of the whole class. Whole-class discussions can fail with EAL/D students, as they can be reluctant to express a personal opinion in front of a large group. However, when reporting after a group activity, it is the position of the group that is presented, rather than that of individuals within the group, which can be less threatening to the self-esteem of individuals. Be cautious, though, about how you group the students. Students benefit from opportunities to be paired with more knowledgeable Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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other peers at times, or with less knowledgeable other peers at other times (Farndale, Harris & de Courcy 2016). If a student is frequently matched with a more capable student, the result may be that the more capable student dominates discussions. According to Ur (1996), the characteristics of a successful speaking task are that learners talk a lot, participation is even, motivation is high and language is of an acceptable level. Descriptions of successful speaking tasks can be downloaded from the ‘Teaching strategies’ section of the EAL continuum (see www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/ teachingresources/diversity/eal/continuum/pages/teachstrat.aspx). Some of the most successful strategies for maximising student talk time are: • pair work (for example, barrier games) • role plays • problem-solving tasks/projects (for example, reaching a consensus: ‘10 things you need in order to …’) • information gap activities • debates/thinking activities • jigsaw activities • grammar games. One strategy, barrier games, is described below.

The value of silence in the classroom Colleen I am still talking too much during the lessons.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Taylah Teachers need to: • • • •

give students ‘thinking time’ wait longer for answers be comfortable with silence not think that they have to fill silence with their own voice.

Barrier games If activities are teacher centred, students often only have the chance to answer questions. By setting up communication activities such as barrier games, students have the opportunity to speak and listen in pairs, rather than risk making mistakes in front of the whole class. Games such as ‘describe and draw’ (which requires one student to draw a picture based on a description that is progressively built up by another student) are excellent for developing communicative language functions. At one level, this type of pencil and paper game will elicit the language needed for giving instructions or for describing spatial relations, but over and above this ‘activity specific’ language, these games also generate an unpredictably wide range of language functions as the players interact in an attempt to solve the problem. It is this potential that makes these activities communicative.

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Apply your knowledge Have one member of your group make a simple drawing, then describe it to a partner, while the others monitor and write down the language that is used. When the author’s class tried this activity, they found the language needed involved quite sophisticated mathematical language, including prepositions, shape and directional vocabulary, which would need to be already learnt or pre-taught in order for EAL/D students to be able to do the activity successfully.

What about listening? Earlier in this chapter, we asked whether one could think about speaking without discussing listening. There are many differences between spoken and written language, one of which is the difference between how English looks and how it sounds. One difference is the use of the schwa or neutral vowel sound. This is the sound at the end of the word ‘the’ in ‘the cup’. The phonetic symbol for this sound is an upside down e. We don’t see a schwa written using that symbol in English words, but we hear it all the time. When we speak, we also run sounds together—what we hear is a string of sounds; it is the role of our cognition to cut up the stream of sounds into words. Other differences between speech and writing are that speech has shorter idea units, the ideas are joined together with ‘and’ and ‘but’ (rather than embedding clauses), there are lots of disfluencies, it is more colloquial, speakers are more personally involved, and speakers are sometimes more ‘loose with the truth’. Speech is also generally fast, which means that language processing must be automatic. However, teachers need to be aware that the critical point at which speech is too fast to process is much slower for second language learners than it is for native speakers. As the teachers found on their practicum (see the ‘Stories from the classroom’ boxes below), teaching EAL/D is not just about good teaching, and they had to do this differently to meet the students’ needs.

Adapting from mainstream to EAL teaching Colleen No matter how hard I try—that is, observing [EAL] teachers in action, interrogating them about their teaching strategies, collecting resources, writing copious notes and lesson plans—at the end of each day, I still tend to operate like a mainstream teacher. I thought that these mainstream teaching strategies would be easily transferred in an [EAL] setting.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Speech also has dimensions not available with writing, such as gesture, facial expression, tone of voice and intonation. Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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The meaning of what we listen to, like that of what we read, is constructed by listeners from a number of knowledge sources: 1 Linguistic knowledge is only one of the knowledge sources we use to process spoken language, but is usually the one that second language learners lack most. 2 Knowledge of the co-text (what has been said already) helps learners to predict and understand what will come next. 3 Knowledge about the context of situation (Is it a shared book reading or a maths lesson?) helps learners to predict the sorts of things that might be said. 4 General world knowledge or background knowledge also helps to construct meaning. There is a mistaken assumption that listening is a bottom-up process; that is, from the sounds we get the meaning of the individual words, then we put them together with our grammatical knowledge and arrive at understanding the meaning. However, expectations influence what we hear, and we use our semantic knowledge to interpret what we hear; that is, continual top-down processing is used. Listeners do not passively understand what they are listening to, but actively construct their own text. To find out what you do, try introspecting (focusing on what you are actually doing) while listening to something. We cannot actually teach these processes, but there are several ways teachers can help their EAL/D students learn to be better listeners. Beginner students need pre-communicative listening practice and short, real communicative practice. Here are some suggestions for things that teachers can do to help their EAL/D students: • Always provide lots of practice. • Talk to the students about things that interest them. In the mainstream classroom, content will be taught in the second language, so it needs to be interesting, meaningful and motivating for the students. • Speak at normal speed, but with long pauses for catch-up processing. • Use visual aids—objects, charts, diagrams and gestures. • Do communicative listening practice using information gap activities, such as barrier games (described earlier). • Choose tasks that focus on meaning, rather than language form. • Try to include response formats where your EAL/D students can show their understanding of the content without having to produce large amounts of English—for example, have the students fill in boxes, label diagrams or maps, sort jumbled information or fill in listening cloze activities.

Using visual time boards Kate

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

To support children’s emotional resilience and adjustment to the daily routine, Kate recommended setting up a visual schedule of the preschool day to support children, such as Limi, an Albanian speaker, who experienced separation challenges (see Figure 3.1). ‘What I’d like to set up is a visual time board so they know the routine and that we break that down for them,’ Kate says.

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Figure 3.1 Limi checks out the visual schedule of the preschool routine

Colleen Today marks the seventh day of the teaching placement. Finally, I understand the correct usage of visual cues for ESL students.

Effective practice Strategies to assist understanding of spoken English During our observations and research over the years, we have observed many strategies that can be used to help EAL/D children understand spoken English. These are our ‘top tips’: • • • •

Use body language. Give clear, concise instructions. Check and model these instructions. Build in more thinking time and pair-work exploration.

Developing models of literacy English-speaking children come to school, preschool or kindergarten having been exposed to English print in various contexts. In order to catch up with them, EAL/D children need to be surrounded by a meaningful print environment, in both their home language and English. Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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Children should also display print that they have helped to create, such as notices, wall stories and the songs, rhymes and poems that they have learnt. These should be on charts so that they can ‘tune into’ them in the written form. The teaching strategies section of the EAL continuum recommends using aspects of both a ‘language experience’ approach and a ‘curriculum cycle’ or ‘genre-based’ approach in order to meet the needs of EAL/D children (Derewianka 1991; Rothery 1996). Using the curriculum cycle with EAL/ D students makes explicit aspects of the genres valued in school literacy, while language experience: … helps students to understand the connections between speaking and listening, writing and reading. It involves the students talking and writing about a shared experience which they later read about. The spoken text becomes a written text, demonstrating that what can be said can be written down. The written text is read, demonstrating that what is written can be read. Language experience draws on shared experiences to enrich language through the development of vocabulary, knowledge of the structures of English, using language for different purposes and the extension of the students’ world knowledge and understanding of concepts. (DEECD 2013)

The ‘Scaffolding writing using the curriculum cycle’ paper (see DEECD 2013)  explains some of the adaptations to this pedagogy that are necessary to allow EAL/D students to succeed. Some of these include pre-teaching vocabulary, recycling vocabulary and structures, and using sticky notes with the necessary words on them. The last helps students who are beginners in literacy to arrange words in sentences, rather than having to write them when they have not yet developed this skill.

Reading for meaning

EARLY LEARNERS

Young readers require not only knowledge of letters and words and the syntactic conventions that hold them together, but also background knowledge of the topic based on experience and shared cultural knowledge. ‘When children learn to read they use different “cues” to help them identify words and make meaning of texts’ (Fellowes & Oakley 2014, p. 187). De Courcy et al. (2012, p. 5) note that when reading, ‘at least three interrelated meaning-making systems come into play: graphophonic (knowledge of sound-letter relationships, i.e., decoding), semantic (knowledge of the word meaning), and syntactic (knowledge of the word class or how the word fits into language structure) [bold highlights in original]’.

Offering bilingual books

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Gumtree preschool offered a bilingual book selection in its borrowing library. Lan recommended:  Supporting children to use their first language:  provide bilingual books— Read stories in their 1st language. Bilingual books were purchased in Albanian, Vietnamese and Khmer languages, as well as other languages, to lend to families in order to encourage the retention of children’s first languages. Sourcing Burmese (Chin) books, however, was problematic. Limi’s Albanian-speaking mother sometimes came to the preschool and stayed

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with him a while to read a book. Social interactions with family members in first languages were encouraged.

Figure 3.2 A book supporting bilingualism

Figure 3.3 Limi’s mother reading him a bilingual book in Albanian

Bilingual books were ordered by the preschool director through Global Language Books (see www.globallanguage.com.au).

Students who have developed literacy in their home language will be able to transfer many of the skills they developed in that language over to English, even when that language uses a different script from English (de Courcy, Dooley et al. 2012; de Courcy & Yue 2009). They will need to learn some new conventions—such as how sounds are represented in print, and perhaps reading from left to right—but these are acquired relatively quickly, especially by older students who have had age-appropriate schooling in their home language. For students from Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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low literacy backgrounds, learning to read will be a challenge, and they will need extra time and support to help them acquire this essential skill. Instead of printed big books, which have traditionally been so useful for teaching early readers, educators are now able to make use of an interactive whiteboard, as seen in Figure 3.4, from Farndale, Harris and de Courcy (2016). Van Van is using the interactive white board to touch images on a page in a story as instructed by the teacher to make them animated. Harmer (2007, p. 187) notes that ‘the ability to move text and graphics around the board with pen or finger is extremely attractive, especially for younger learners’.

Figure 3.4 Van Van using the interactive whiteboard

Source: Farndale, Harris and de Courcy (2016).

For EAL/D children to be able to successfully use the syntactic cueing system, they need to have heard and used the language of the topic. They need to be able to ask themselves: ‘Does it sound like English?’ They need to be able to talk about a topic before reading about it (McDougall, Murray & Saker 2000). They also need to have acquired knowledge of the conventions of English through a great deal of exposure to an English print environment. Fellowes and Oakley (2014, p. 187) point out that reading for meaning (that is, semantic knowledge) depends on students’ ‘knowledge about the world and concepts’. A shared cultural knowledge between the author and the reader is essential for reading success. Too often we take this shared cultural knowledge for granted simply because an EAL/D child may appear to be ‘reading’ a piece of prose. In fact, they may be bewildered by the content (McDougall, Murray & Saker 2000). The current emphasis on modelling and using ‘shared reading’ and ‘guided reading’ activities is effective when used with EAL/D children. However, it must be noted that EAL/D children generally need more time, more teacher direction and more explicit teaching than L1 children. Detailed suggestions of how to adapt these strategies for EAL/D children can be

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found along the EAL continuum (see DEECD 2013), in de Courcy, Dooley et al. (2012) and in the work of Gibbons (2002). The extra time invested in EAL/D children comes back to the teacher in the form of personal rewards. The rapport they establish with their students is a very important part of being an EAL/D teacher, and one of the reasons EAL/D teachers love their job. Brown commented on this in her 2005 study, ‘ “I love teaching ESL”—Constructions of ESL teacher work and identity’ (Brown 2005), and teachers on their practicum (see the ‘Voices of teachers’ boxes) also commented on it.

The special satisfaction of EAL teaching Erl (an early childhood teacher—Tagalog and English speaker) I believe, let them feel like I am very close to them. That means that relationship with the child is my most priority. Yeah, because if you have good relationship with a child, they trust you and they talk to you and they’re open to you. I always talk to them and make fun with them and if they don’t talk I keep talking to them (26 June Audio).

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Victoria (an early childhood teacher aide—Mandarin, Vietnamese, French and English speaker) I feel that we have established a really positive rapport, which is certainly a motivating factor for me in ensuring I deliver lessons that are both enjoyable and purposeful for them. Tess Most teachers love to teach and the backbreaking thing is when the kids aren’t interested in learning. They [EAL/D students] want to learn so you want to teach them. You just build up this really strong relationship of wanting to help them. You end up putting in endless hours yourself in preparation and correction to do as much for them as you can. It comes rolling back. That’s what I think it’s all about. Source: Brown (2005, p. 15).

Assessment and reporting One issue often faced in the reporting of progress or achievement of EAL/D students in mainstream classrooms is which standards to use for this reporting. The tendency reported in the literature (de Courcy, Adoniou & Doan 2012; de Courcy et al. 2012; McKay 2000) is for EAL/D learners to be reported on using tools designed for English-speaking background students. In her 1999 study, Rohl found: [T]here were some mainstream teachers … who were very experienced in ESL teaching, but had little or no knowledge of ESL-specific frameworks. Whilst our case study teachers in Language Centres had undertaken specialist training for teaching ESL children and were familiar with ESL-specific frameworks, many mainstream teachers who had large numbers of ESL children in their classes had experienced Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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little or no training in teaching or assessing these children. As a result, in some cases, ESL children became ‘lost’ in the class and opportunities for addressing these children’s individual needs were not seized.

ASSESSMENT

Research with teachers (de Courcy, Adoniou & Doan 2012)  found that 40 per cent of survey respondents used a mainstream English document for the assessment of EAL/D children, 35 per cent used a document designed for EAL/D children and 5 per cent used an ‘other’ document. Around 15 per cent of teachers used both an EAL/D document and an English document, depending on the purpose of the assessment and reporting. Most of the teachers surveyed had heard of one or more of the relevant EAL/D documents, but 25 per cent of respondents had never actually used one of them, even though all had EAL/D children in their classes. This lack of awareness of EAL/D student needs might result from a drive for common literacy standards, but leads to a deficit view of language learning on the part of the EAL/D student. This tendency for a singular view of progress in English was evident in the draft Australian Curriculum for English (ACARA 2011), where the ‘stages of schooling’ related to stages expected of English-speaking-background students at different ages, not students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds. To overcome this problem, many of the Australian states, territories and other education authorities have developed ‘scales’, ‘standards’ or ‘continua’ for the assessment of EAL/D children (see, for example, McKay 1993). As noted in the user guide for the EAL continuum for the VELS (the scales used in Victoria) (DEECD 2013), ‘Using the [wrong] English Standards will not be an accurate reflection of [an EAL] student’s learning, and can indicate that there are problems in the student’s learning progress, when in fact the student is actually making adequate progress learning English as their second or subsequent language’. Also, using ‘scales’ is not an easy fix, as their use requires professional development, practice and moderation for the teachers using them, and they are a subjective measure and open to interpretation (McKay 2000). McKay reminds us ‘ESL standards are not tests; they are dependent for their validity on the uses and interpretations that we make of the “test response”, rather than on the rating which is elicited from the combined use of the standards and the assessment activity used to observe a student’s performance’ (McKay 2000, p. 193). An important new development is the inclusion of English as an additional language or dialect teacher resource in the Australian Curriculum (ACARA 2011). It has been developed to: • advise teachers about areas of the Australian Curriculum that EAL/D students may find challenging and why • assist classroom teachers to identify where their EAL/D students are broadly positioned on a progression of English language learning • help teachers understand students’ cultural and linguistic diversity, and the ways this understanding can be used in the classroom • provide examples of teaching strategies supportive of EAL/D students • direct teachers to additional relevant and useful support for teaching EAL/D students.

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Apply your knowledge 1 Go to the website of the EAL companion to the English VELS (www.education.vic. gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/diversity/eal/Pages/default.aspx) and examine the writing samples for the level of students you are currently involved with (lower primary, middle/upper primary or secondary). See how the indicators are used to find examples in the texts that are illustrative of the features, and which are used to indicate the level the child has reached. 2 Find the measures in place in your state or territory to monitor/assess the progress of EAL/D children. 3 If you are undertaking a teaching placement, ask your colleagues at the school or early childhood centre about which scales they are aware of, and which ones they use. 4 Using a sample of writing from an EAL/D child, either provided by your lecturer or obtained while undertaking your teaching practicum, determine where this child is best placed on your local continuum or scale. (Note that we would not normally make a final judgment as to where a child is placed based on one sample of writing—the purpose of the exercise is for you to start thinking about EAL/D progress rather than deficient English.)

Technology Hand-held devices, such as iPads or other tablets, as well as smartphones, are increasingly finding a place in EAL/D educators’ teaching tools. As noted earlier, interactive whiteboards are also a useful resource. Harmer (2007) notes the teaching possibilities offered by a WebQuest, where the teacher provides an introduction and then links to sites for the children to explore. In Farndale, Harris and de Courcy’s (2016) research, many examples of the integration of technologies into the teaching of bilingual children in preschool settings were observed. In this study, the children were looking at live worms in a box on a table. The teacher, Pam, also researched worms on the iPad with bilingual learner, Van Van (see Figure 3.5).

TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.5 Researching worms using both live worms and technology

Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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Van Van said ‘little wobbling tickling here’ to describe the worm in English. Van Van spoke Chin at home (a language spoken in Myanmar—his parents’ birth country). He was born in Malaysia before his parents moved to Australia, where he learned English as an additional language

Technology as an EAL tool Cathie

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

TECHNOLOGY

We use iPads at kindy and I have noticed that they can sometimes play a role as an emotional pacifier and communication device for distressed children during their transition from home to preschool. This is particularly the case when four-year-old children have not accumulated much English and are in the early stages of starting kindy. We used iPads in our numeracy curriculum at kindy and have some language apps as well. A newly arrived distressed Mandarin-speaking child was once calmed after offering her a Chinese Mandarin app to play on an iPad. The child, her mother and myself, her teacher, used the app to translate both English to Mandarin and Mandarin to English. The child started to smile and speak more comfortably and appeared excited to also teach me some new Mandarin words.

SUMMARY It is not possible in one chapter to cover all the recent trends in the theory and practice of EAL/D learning and teaching. What is important is for educators to develop a classroom environment that values, utilises and extends the rich language and cultural resources all children bring to school. Teaching strategies can be based on the five basic principles underlying teaching EAL/ D that are outlined in this chapter: 1 Teaching is student-centred, starting from where the students are, and building on their needs and skills. 2 There needs to be a high degree of peer-to-peer and/or peer-to-teacher interaction. EAL/ D teachers need to learn to be comfortable with longer silences, as well as building in more tasks where students need to talk in pairs or groups in order to solve problems or find information. 3 There needs to be a focus on authentic and purposeful language. 4 EAL/D students are learning language and learning through language. Their need to acquire the language quickly and well is also real and urgent. 5 Similarly, there needs to be an emphasis on meaning over form; that is, emphasising whether the message the student intends to communicate is understood and that purposeful dialogue is being exercised, rather than focusing too heavily on whether the grammar or phonology a student uses is absolutely correct by too often alerting students to their mistakes. It is important to emphasise that, as with all children developing their first language, EAL/D children use what they know about English at any point in time to solve their problems of

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expression. As their knowledge of English grows, their mistakes change in terms of the number and type. Mistakes indicate that the EAL/D children are trying to solve problems, and in this regard the teacher’s attitude is vital. The classroom environment should be such that the EAL/D learner feels ‘safe’ to make errors without being forced to ‘parrot back’ corrected forms.

For group discussion In the Melbourne Times (28 March 2001), George Lekakis, Chairman of the Ethnic Communities Council of Victoria, was quoted as saying: ‘Multiculturalism is not and never has been a threat to social cohesion in this country. Industrial relations, taxation and social welfare policies have done more to divide this nation than multiculturalism ever has or will.’ 1 What does he mean? 2 Do you agree? Why or why not?

Key references Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2006). A picture of the nation: the statistician’s report on the 2006 Census. Accessed at www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/mf/2070.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2012b). Reflecting a nation: stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–13. Accessed at www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Lookup/ 2071.0main+features902012-2013. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2011). English as an additional language or dialect teacher resource: overview and EAL/D Learning Progression. Sydney: ACARA. Clyne, M. G. (2005). Australia’s language potential. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. de Courcy, M., Dooley, K., Jackson, R., Miller, J. & Rushton, K. (2012). Teaching EAL/D learners in Australian classrooms. PETAA Paper 183. Marrickville NSW: Primary English Teachers Association of Australia. Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria (DEECD) (2013). English as an additional language. Accessed at www.education.vic.gov.au/school/ teachers/teachingresources/diversity/eal/Pages/default.aspx. Fellowes, J. & Oakley, G. (2014). Language, literacy and early childhood education. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching (4th edn). London: Longman. McDougall, T., Murray, N. & Saker, J. (2000). No English? Don’t panic: a handbook for teachers of English as a second language learners in their first few weeks at school in Australia. Melbourne: Department of Education and Training. Robinson, K. H. & Jones-Díaz, C. (2006). Diversity and difference in early childhood education: Issues for theory and practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Michèle de Courcy and Amy Farndale

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Websites Australian Bureau of Statistics Census Data—www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome. nsf/home/CO-60 Contains data about home languages and country of origin, and also community profiles, for exploring Australia’s linguistic and cultural diversity.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA)—www.acara.edu.au Advice, learning progression and annotated content descriptors relating to EAL/D children.

EAL continuum for the English VELS—www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/ teachingresources/diversity/eal/continuum/Pages/default.aspx A tool for teachers in Victoria to use for the assessment of EAL/D children in schools. It also contains teaching strategies and lots of samples of student work.

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Indigenous Perspectives and Cultural Identity Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

4

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To identify ways to develop inclusive educational settings and foster educational achievement • To understand the difference between difference and deficit • To consider the nature of culture and identity for Indigenous students • To reflect on alternative ways to address inequalities • To understand the context of Indigenous education in Australia • To identify the impediments to successful education • To consider the impact of poor teacher–student relationships on learning • To reflect on five examples of working differently

KEY TERMS absenteeism Indigenous Education Strategic Initiatives Programme (IESIP) mentoring National Aboriginal Education Committee (NAEC) National Aboriginal Education Policy (NAEP) National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey (NATSIS)

National Indigenous English Literacy and Numeracy Strategy (NIELNS) otitis media Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCADC) tutoring two-way education

Introduction Current estimates put the number of Indigenous people at 548 369 people, or 2.5 per cent of the total Australian population. Two distinct groups—Australian Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders—make up this total, with 90 per cent identifying as Aboriginal, 6 per cent identifying as Torres Strait Islander and 4 per cent as both (AIHW 2015).

69

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These populations are not homogeneous and have significant demographic, social and cultural differences. In contrast to the wider Australian population, the Indigenous population is a young and growing one. Almost 40 per cent of Indigenous people are aged below 15 years, compared with around 20 per cent of the non-Indigenous population, and Indigenous young people make up around 5 per cent of the school-age population (ABS 2013). The ABS predicts that by 2021 the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population will be closer to 3 per cent of the total Australian population, with a substantial proportion being school age (AIHW 2015). This means that, currently, about one in every 20 Australian school students is Indigenous and, if distributed evenly, every classroom in Australian would contain at least one Indigenous student. Indigenous students, however, are not distributed evenly across the Australian school population— geographically, socio-economically or by educational achievement. Geographically, about one-quarter of the population live in remote areas, a rate much higher than the proportion for non-Indigenous Australians. Contrary to the general perception, however, around three-quarters of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people live in cities and regional areas (AIHW 2015). In socio-economic terms, in both urban and remote settings, social and cultural marginalisation, poverty, poor health and difficult home circumstances, among other disadvantages, cumulate to restrict and frustrate the access and successful participation of Indigenous students in education. These structural elements are vitally important for understanding the educational position of Aboriginal children and to develop strategies for maximising their educational outcomes. A crucial element is the place of, and practices around, Indigenous culture and identity within the Australian educational system. For many Indigenous students and their families there is a clash between dominant educational culture and curriculum and their own culture and identity. Not only is English not always the first (or even second) language of many Indigenous students, but for those who predominantly speak English, the cultural use and meanings of language can be very different. Indigenous ways of learning and interacting and non-Indigenous ways of learning and interacting also do not necessarily coincide. The result of such cultural differences can be an exclusion of the Indigenous student from the effective work of the classroom, even if the student is still actually attending class. A lack of recognition of Indigenous culture and identity from the school culture and identity can result in the effective exclusion of the Indigenous student and their family from the school community. This chapter is centrally about the place of culture and identity for Indigenous students in Australia and the ways to develop, foster and encourage educational participation and success.

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The purpose is to provide educators with tools and strategies to develop Indigenous inclusive educational practices and settings. To achieve this task we begin by outlining the current socio-demographic and economic position of Indigenous Australians and also the evidence around Indigenous education participation and success. Within this we pay special attention to Indigenous child health and how this may impact on learning and participation. While these sections necessarily highlight the vast social and economic inequities currently experienced by Indigenous people, we do not want the focus to be on the negatives. Rather, in the major sections relating to Indigenous culture and identity within education we concentrate on tried and tested strategies for engaging students.

Apply your knowledge Read the following information about absenteeism, and then consider answers to the questions posed below. 1 Across all school sectors, Indigenous students are less likely than their non-Indigenous counterparts to be absent from school. Purdie and Buckley (2010) show that from Grade 1, Indigenous children have lower attendance rates. In government schools this varies from 5 percentage points in New South Wales (89–94 per cent) to 15 percentage points in Queensland (70–92 per cent). In Year 10 the gap has widened. In NSW government schools the difference is now seven percentage points (85–92 per cent) and 19 percentage points in Queensland. Aboriginal students are also overrepresented in school suspension orders. The reasons why are contested, but parents stress school-related factors while schools frequently cite parental attitudes. Despite the likely outcomes of higher school absenteeism for Indigenous children, as Purdie and Buckley (2010) argue there is as yet little evidence-based research on either defining the problem or rigorously investigating and evaluating strategies for improvement. 2 In Tasmania, 2005 data show that Aboriginal children are three times more likely to be suspended (Neales 2005). The Education Minister said Aboriginal children were suspended more often and for longer periods because they were more violent in the playground, or for swearing or rudeness to teachers. However, the Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre claimed the ‘shocking’ number of suspensions was due to entrenched prejudice and intolerance. The centre’s legal director Michael Mansell said, ‘These students cannot hope to get an education if they are continually being suspended from school.’ He also said, ‘The issue here is not the kids’ behaviour; it’s about whether the education system can adjust to people being different.’ The answer, he believes, lies in making school more attractive and relevant to Aboriginal children and that means teaching Aboriginal children more about their history, their culture and their families. Source: Neales (2005, pp. 1–2). Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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1 What is your reaction to the data on student absenteeism? 2 Do you think the system needs to change so that it is inclusive of all students? If so, in what ways?

Absenteeism: Being absent from school without approval.

The state of Indigenous education in Australia

RCADC: Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody.

NAEC: National Aboriginal Education Committee.

NAEP: National Aboriginal Education Policy.

Indigenous students have now had nearly two hundred years of inadequate access, participation and success in education. The plight of Indigenous education has been highlighted by reports such as the National Poverty Inquiry Report (1975) and the Australian Schools Commission Report (1997), which noted the poor socio-economic, health and educational position of Indigenous students. The National Report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCADC) (RCADC 1991) also detailed the relationship between educational nonattendance and failure and negative outcomes for Indigenous youth. These outcomes include unemployment, low self-esteem, criminal activity, drug taking and alcoholism. Each report also commented on the demonstrated need for the Australian education system to develop educational policies and practices that enable Indigenous students to participate equally and successfully. A direct policy response to such reports was the establishment of the first National Aboriginal Education Committee (NAEC) (NAEC 1985)  in 1983 to provide advice to the Commonwealth Minister for Education. Similar advisory arrangements were set up in states and territories. The direct role of Indigenous people within education was confirmed by the National Review of Education for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (DET 1994), which found that greater direct control over funding and strengthened decisionmaking for Indigenous people was required to achieve self-determination in education. The recommendations of the 1989 National Aboriginal Education Policy (NAEP)

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(DET  2015a) continue to underpin current programs, including the National Indigenous English Literacy and Numeracy Strategy (NIELNS) (DEST 2000) and the Indigenous Education Strategic Initiatives Programme (IESIP) (DEST 2001). Current education policy is also guided by the 1999 Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century (MCEETYA 1999). The relationship between poverty and lack of schooling success and social inequity is evident in rural, remote and urban settings in Australia, as highlighted by Gonski (2011), and this is true more so for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. As shown in Table 4.1 the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students are an important issue for all schools. More than one third of the Aboriginal population are aged 14 years or younger, and so make up an even larger proportion of the school age population than their overall population percentage. Also, nearly 60 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students reside in major cities or inner regional areas. Only just over 20 per cent of students live in remote areas.

73 NIELNS: National Indigenous English Literacy and Numeracy Strategy. IESIP: Indigenous Education Strategic Initiatives Program.

Table 4.1 Socio-demographic profile of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people Indigenous %

Non-Indigenous %

Demographics Proportion of population

3.0

97.0

Aged 0–14 years

36.0

18.0

Aged 65 years +

3.4

14.0

Major cities

34.8

71.3

Inner regional

22.0

18.3

Outer regional

21.8

8.7

7.7

1.2

13.7

0.5

New South Wales

2.9

97.1

Queensland

4.3

95.7

Western Australia

3.6

96.4

Northern Territory

29.6

70.4

Victoria

0.9

99.1

South Australia

2.4

97.6

Tasmania

5.0

95.0

Australian Capital Territory

1.7

98.3

Geographic location

Remote Very remote State and territory populations

Source: AIHW (2015).

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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Education and its relationship with  socio-demographic and economic inequality Improving Indigenous educational outcomes at the national level is a complex task that is heavily influenced by the highly inequitable position of Indigenous people within Australian society. As the economic data outlined in Table 4.2 shows, the socio-economic circumstances of Indigenous Australians is both manifestly different and unequal. While influenced to some extent by the much younger age structure and different geographical spread of the Indigenous population, the disparity is undeniable. While some absolute indicators of inequality have improved in recent years, there is very little relative change in comparison to the non-Indigenous Australian population. It should be noted that the young demographic profile of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population means that the direct comparison of Indigenous/nonIndigenous figures on income has an age-related dimension. It is likely that many of the nonIndigenous group on this level of income would be people in receipt of the Age Pension. Table 4.2 Socio-economic profile of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people Variable

Indigenous %

Non-Indigenous %

Income below $600 per week (2011)

68

51

Own home (mortgage or outright)

36

68

Unemployment rate all (2013)

21

5.0

Unemployment rate aged 25–34 (2013)

24

4

Percentage live in overcrowded housing (2011)

13

3

Percentage of those incarcerated (2014)

27

73

Source: Statistics drawn from AIHW (2015).

Educational position All of the socio-economic factors outlined in the section above impact on Indigenous children’s educational participation and chances of success. Table 4.3 outlines recent figures relating to Indigenous education in Australia. As can be seen, the news is not good. Indigenous students in primary grades continue to achieve low standards in literacy and numeracy. Such poor starts increase the likelihood of young Indigenous people reaching the age of 15 without adequate literacy and numeracy to gain quality employment or options for further education or training. The educational participation and outcomes of Indigenous students are affected by disadvantages beyond their control (Tsey 1997). These disadvantages spill over into the higher education realm. As Herbert and colleagues (1996) note, Indigenous students are less likely to have prior qualifications than other students, and are much more likely to get into university on the basis of special entry schemes or institutional assessment than on the basis of past higher education or school education. Isolation from educational facilities is also a factor given for the relatively high proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students living away from universities in regional and rural areas.

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Table 4.3 Comparative education of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians Indigenous (%)

Non-Indigenous (%) 96 94 94 96 96 96 70 57 83 26

81 71 74 83 76 80 43 34 55 6

Achieves reading benchmarks at Year 3 (2016) Achieves reading benchmarks at Year 5 (2016) Achieves reading benchmarks at Year 9 (2016) Achieves numeracy benchmarks at Year 3 (2016) Achieves numeracy benchmarks at Year 5 (2016) Achieves numeracy benchmarks at Year 9 (2016) Educated to Year 12 or equivalent (2012–13) Has a post school qualification (2012–13) School retention to Year 12 (2013) Hold a Bachelor’s degree or above (2014)

Source: AIHW (2015); ACARA (2016a).

The persistence of relative educational inequality across metro, urban and remote areas underscores its depth and complexity. This is shown in Table 4.4, which compares 2011 census data from Perth in Western Australia, Dubbo in New South Wales and Maningrida in the Northern Territory. Non-Indigenous comparative figures are included for Perth and Dubbo. The non-Indigenous population for Maningrida is both too small and too transient for meaningful comparison. As is demonstrated in the table, while the proportion of the Indigenous population who have achieved a Year 12 or equivalent education in Perth is higher than in Dubbo and Maningrida, the comparative disparity between the nonIndigenous and Indigenous rates of Year 12 education is actually higher in Perth. Further, rates of higher education in either Perth or Dubbo are only around one quarter of the non-Indigenous rate. Table 4.4 Urban, regional and remote educational comparisons Indicator

Year 12 or equivalent At TAFE, 15–24 At university, 15–24

Dubbo

Perth

Maningrida

Indigenous (%)

NonIndigenous (%)

Indigenous (%)

NonIndigenous (%)

Indigenous (%)

22 9 2

39 11 7

30 6 6

57 8 23

16 0 0

Source: Derived from ABS Census 2011, Community Profiles for Dubbo Indigenous Area, Perth Indigenous Area and Maningrida and Outstations Indigenous Area.

The National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey (NATSIS) (ABS 1994) demonstrated that lack of secondary and tertiary qualifications impacts negatively on an Indigenous person’s ability to obtain ongoing, gainful employment. Research by Hunter and Schwab (2003) found some absolute improvements in Indigenous education outcomes, such as Indigenous post-secondary education qualification rates between 1986 and 2001. However, the researchers cautioned that the relative rate of improvement in either the proportion of the population with a post-secondary qualification or the

NATSIS: National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey.

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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proportion of Indigenous young people staying on at school has seen little relative gain. The ABS (2011) Year 12 attainment report indicates Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians continue to have far lower rates of Year 12 attainment than non-Indigenous Australians. Also, the ABS indicates ‘The retention rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students to year 12 completion was 59% as of 2014’ (AIHW 2015). While this has risen by some 20 per cent in the last 10 years it remains significantly lower than the rate for on-Indigenous students, which was 84 per cent in the same year. Andrea Booth and Jason Thomas suggest that the Year 12 gap for Indigenous students is closing (see SBS News 2015) and the Closing the Gap Prime Minister’s Report (2015) states Australia is on track to meet the target to halve the gap for Indigenous Australians in Year 12 attainment rates. These gains are vital, as the failure of Indigenous Australians to ‘keep up’ with the rest of the Australian population in educational attainment increases the risk of continuing the cycle of severe poverty and disadvantage.

Consider the socio-economic circumstances of Indigenous Australians. 1 How do they impact on classroom participation? 2 What are the consequences for teachers and students? 3 How can inclusivity assist in these circumstances?

Pause and reflect

Who is an Indigenous student? The current Australian definition of indigeneity states that an Indigenous person is one who: • has Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent • identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander person • is accepted as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander by the community in which he or she lives. This definition is widely accepted within government departments, statutory bodies and institutions, but is sometimes contested by Aboriginal groups as imposed.

The impact of health on education Otitis media: Describes a range of conditions that affect the middle ear; they are usually infections and inflammations based on upper respiratory tract pathologies or allergies.

The Katu Kalpa report (Senate Employment, Workplace Relations, Small Business and Education Committee 2000) on the inquiry into the effectiveness of education and training programs for Indigenous Australians makes particular reference to the impact of health. There is a close relationship between health and education outcomes for Aboriginal children. Poor health hinders many Aboriginal children’s school attendance on a daily basis and restricts their ability to learn. Two health issues in particular—otitis media, which can lead to poor hearing and deafness, and an inability to learn and maintain concentration due to poor nutrition—have been identified as especially detrimental. Improvements in education outcomes appear to result

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in improved health outcomes, and the converse also applies. One major review of literature (Grossman & Kaestner 1997) concluded there is a causative relationship between education and health; that is, more schooling does cause better health. A significant finding is that the education levels of parents, and particularly mothers, appears to have a powerful effect on reducing infant and child mortality. The next section details the health circumstances that affect Indigenous students and their families.

Indigenous health statistics Recent data from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW 2015) confirm that Australian Indigenous people endure: • • • • • • • • • •

rates of infant mortality around two times the national average rates of low birth weight babies twice the national rate rates of child (0–14) mortality twice the national rate rates of diabetes mellitus three times the national rate very high rates of chronic kidney disease, including end-stage renal disease higher prevalence of most health-related conditions, including diseases of the respiratory system and circulatory problems and diseases higher rates of hospitalisation overall high rates of infection with preventable communicable diseases very high levels of psychological stress nearly three times the national rate life expectancy around 11 years less than the national average.

Sims (2011) shows that Indigenous children and young people are more likely to experience the following impediments to successful learning: • • • • • •

family violence mental ill health overcrowded housing juvenile detention morbidity disability.

Apply your knowledge 1 In what ways do you think poor Indigenous health might affect students’ learning on a day-to-day basis? 2 How might high rates of morbidity and mortality in students’ families be reflected in their participation? 3 As schools need to cater for all students, how could a school work to accommodate the reality of poor health and the likelihood of family illness for its Indigenous students? Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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Overcoming the barriers In summary, poverty, poor living conditions and health problems mean that many Indigenous children are severely disadvantaged when it comes to education and are at serious risk of educational failure. Such failure contributes to the likelihood of continuing socio-economic disadvantage and inequality. On the positive side, Hunter (1996) believes that Aboriginal children who regularly attend school and continue to Year 10 or Year 11 increase their chance of employment, reduce the likelihood of arrest and significantly reduce their future chances of living in poverty: ‘Education is the largest single factor associated with the current poor outcomes for Indigenous employment’ (p. 12). Holistically and culturally respectful educational programs can help break this cycle and the next sections move our discussion to illustrate this.

Dominant curriculum–culture clash There is undeniable evidence that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students are significantly disadvantaged within the Australian school system. National reports and all Australian governments regularly acknowledge that the education of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students is of serious concern. High drop-out rates, absenteeism, access to quality schooling and teachers, difficulties at school including curriculum content, and low self-esteem linked to identity have challenged educators for decades. Yet despite the various policies, schemes and strategies aimed at treating these inadequacies, it has become increasingly apparent that Indigenous students are still not achieving educational outcomes at similar levels to other Australian students. Although the participation rate of Aboriginal people in all levels of education has increased over the last two decades, there is still evidence to suggest that children begin their education quite well but gradually become uninterested in higher primary classes and, in particular, the secondary level of schooling (RCADC 1991). Non-attendance at school is clearly related to a number of social and environmental factors. The NATSIS (ABS 2002) found that lack of cross-cultural understanding of Indigenous cultures, relative absence of curricula related to Indigenous cultures, lack of Indigenous people employed as teachers and trainers, isolation of many Indigenous communities and high levels of poverty are all implicated.

Culture, identity, education and learning styles The importance of the recognition of Indigenous students’ culture and identity cannot be overemphasised. Curricula in Australian schools tend to reflect and transmit the values and styles of non-Indigenous society, with little regard to Indigenous culture and society. Many educators are now striving to incorporate Indigenous perspectives in their teaching plans, and although this will help to educate non-Indigenous Australians about Aboriginal ways, it will not completely address the academic failure of Indigenous students. As far back as 1987 the

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NAEC (National Aboriginal Council n.d.) identified the clash between the schooling system and the home environment as a key factor in the educational underachievement of Indigenous students. In response, the NAEC recommended the following policies for Indigenous education, which remain relevant today: 1 Education for Aboriginal people must be a process that builds on what Aboriginal people are by recognising and developing their natural potential and not by destroying their cultural heritage. Changes to the school system would enable a strong Aboriginal identity to be a positive education factor. 2 Aboriginal studies must become an integral part of the education of every Australian. It must be taught with a high degree of respect and understanding to develop an accurate knowledge of Australian history, Aboriginal cultures and lifestyles. 3 The educational services offered to both traditional and non-traditional Aboriginal people must aim for and be capable of developing and strengthening knowledge of and pride in their cultural heritage, as well as teaching academic and technological skills required of Australians today. To ensure effective learning, the latter must be acquired in harmony with the Aboriginal person’s own cultural values, identity and choice of lifestyle, whether they are residing in an urban, rural, traditional community or homeland centre. 4 In order to ensure the effectiveness of education services for Aboriginal people, they must play the major part in delivery of those services. This requires immediate and substantial change in policy, and implementation of new programs to train and employ Aboriginal people in the various fields of education so that they can take responsibility for implementing policies and delivering programs in Aboriginal education. An important national reform, the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST), endorsed in 2010 by the Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs (Education Services Australia 2011), addresses these policies and influences preservice teacher education and classroom practice across the country. A school’s engagement with Indigenous parents is also a vital part of improving the effectiveness of Indigenous education. Aboriginal parents are very aware of the importance of education for their children and want their children to succeed. But when parents do not share the same values embodied in schooling, they are less inclined to encourage educational success. Many Aboriginal parents also lack the experience, knowledge and resources to aid their child’s education, and may have had limited or negative experiences with their own education. For many Indigenous people, their past experiences of the education system mean that ‘schools were just another invention by which white Australian society sought to control their lives’ and a means ‘of dislocating Aboriginal children from Aboriginal culture’ (RCADC 1991). More importantly, schooling has so far failed to reflect and/or include Aboriginal values and learning styles. Indigenous parents continue to express the desire for their children to be able to function in both their own culture and the wider Australian community. That is, they want their children to be educated, but not at the expense of losing their identity and their culture.

STANDARDS

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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The importance of the teacher–student relationship A significant barrier for Aboriginal students is an unsupportive teacher. To teach effectively, teachers need an awareness of the issues affecting Indigenous education and their local Indigenous community(ies). Many teachers lack knowledge about the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and may have low and/or negative expectations due to stereotyping Indigenous students and ignoring actual values and culture. The experiences of Indigenous students bear out this reality. According to Day (1992), ‘for most Aboriginal students the relationship with teachers was largely a negative one: teachers lacked training in Aboriginal Studies and knew little about the ways in which Aboriginal students differed from other students’ (cited in Partington 1997). As a consequence of a negative relationship with their teacher, many Aboriginal students come to regard the classroom as an undesirable place to be, and communities can come to see the school as an alien/white institution with little relevance to their lives.

Apply your knowledge As teachers need to cater for all students, consider how much you know about your Indigenous community. 1 What is the name of the traditional Indigenous occupants of the area you live in? 2 What are (or were) their main customs and practices and what language(s) do (or did) they speak? 3 Do any local towns or features in your area have Indigenous names and do you know what they mean? 4 What proportion of the population in your state is Indigenous? 5 Where do the Indigenous people in your state mostly live? 6 Do you know the names of any local Indigenous organisations? 7 If so, what services do they provide and what are their main concerns? 8 For the Indigenous people in your area, what are the key events in their history after the arrival of the non-Indigenous population? 9 Can you name five prominent Indigenous Australians from the last ten years, other than sports people? Source: adapted from DEST (2006b, p. 12).

Understanding Indigenous learning: a clash in learning styles? EARLY LEARNERS

Mainstream education provision in Australia does not naturally support traditional Indigenous approaches to learning. Research since the mid 1980s has been influenced by the notion of learning styles. These studies theorise that cultural differences change the way in which we

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learn. At the base of these theories is the key idea that Indigenous students are culturally different and that these differences need to be catered for in the classroom if students are going to be successful. However, this is not to argue that there is any one clear ‘Aboriginal learning style’. Rather, as What works: the work program (DEST 2006a, p. 3) notes, ways of learning are derived from the way that the people in a child’s immediate context ‘teach’, and many of these learning practices are embedded by the time the child begins school. Therefore, while new ways of learning can also be taught, Indigenous children learn best when their home and community experiences are reflected in their educational settings.

Apply your knowledge A checklist: the current state of your practice If you can answer most of these questions positively, you’re doing well.

Doing well

Could improve

Not doing at present

Could be tried

General Have you specifically (and sensitively) investigated the backgrounds, aspirations and needs of your Indigenous students? Do you know their families and carers on a friendly basis? Are processes in place for liaising and maintaining regular contact with members of local communities? Do you have easy access to local data about achievement, retention and attendance of your Indigenous students? Do you have specific targets in place for Indigenous students’ success and have you implemented means for their achievement? Does each Indigenous student have a personalised learning plan (PLP)? Are teachers, students and parents (or carers) all involved in the PLP process? Acknowledgment, recognition and support of Indigenous cultures Are provisions in place for non-Indigenous staff to learn about Indigenous cultures in general and local Indigenous cultures in particular?

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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Doing well

Could improve

Not doing at present

Could be tried

Is there a recognisable Indigenous ‘presence’ in the school in terms of teaching and employed support staff, guests to the school and other support personnel? Does the school recognise and express its respect for the cultures of its Indigenous students? Are the ways it does so acceptable to and appreciated by local Indigenous community members? Developing skills Is intensive support available for students whose skills in reading and writing Standard Australian English (SAE) and numeracy are below conventional levels? Are procedures in place for testing hearing or vision impairment and responding to any problems? Is regular use made of the life experiences and knowledge of students to make connections with other curricular content? Are Indigenous cultures represented in an accurate and relevant way in the curriculum? Are there consistent opportunities available for students to work cooperatively? Are learning activities varied (for example, via the use of ICTs)? Are learning activities related to students’ learning strengths? Attendance and participation Where regular attendance and consistent participation are problems, do you have an individual ‘case management’ process in place? Are Indigenous peers, mentors or members of staff used to support individual students? Have you worked with key members of the local community to discuss possible strategies that might change the situation? Source: DEEWR (2010).

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Some theoretical solutions: two-way education Harris’s (1990) learning style theory is one attempt to change the way we look at Indigenous education. Harris suggests that a major reason Indigenous students have been unsuccessful in schools is because teachers have not adequately understood their needs for different, informal learning styles. In light of these problems, Harris introduced the idea of two-way education (1990), by which students acquire knowledge of their first culture and language as well as the culture and language of the dominant society. The two-way curriculum approach involves two separate domains of education:  one of Western tradition, the other of Aboriginal tradition. Within the Aboriginal curriculum, local tradition, storytelling, music and art are taught as a means of establishing norms and values essential to the formation of Indigenous identity. It is important that this learning occurs in appropriate environments; for example, taught in an informal fashion by respected elders and in the bush. Likewise, Harris suggests that teaching traditional Western education should remain formal:  in the classroom and by qualified teachers that have specific training in Indigenous culture and teaching methods. A  ‘two-way’ curriculum to Aboriginal education is therefore seen as successfully combining Indigenous and Western cultural values, while preserving Indigenous identity, and preparing all Indigenous students with necessary skills for establishment and success within contemporary Australian society. This theory, however, has its critics. Nicholls, Crowley and Watt (1996), for example, view Harris’s theory as essentially conservative. The problem, they argue, is that it disregards the major socio-political problems faced by Indigenous Australians by reducing them to mere cultural differences; for example, the cycle of poverty and racism theories that suggest that disadvantaged socio-economic indicators, such as health and living conditions, perpetuate in a cycle and impact on education. Another criticism of Harris’s theory is that it fails to account for the wide cultural diversity evident in Aboriginal culture, and is based on cultural ideology:  that is, the fallacy that all Australians are the same, they uphold the same values and beliefs, and basically they are a homogeneous group. Nicholls, Crowley and Watt (1996) suggest that school curricula must be re-evaluated in order to facilitate Aboriginal academic success. Regardless of the validity of two-way learning as an approach, if we agree that cultural differences do affect the way in which Indigenous students learn, such cultural differences must be accommodated within the educational curriculum and pedagogy. Moreover, the issue of cultural differences is essentially the purview of the teacher, the school and curriculum designers, rather than the Indigenous child and their family. With ‘the cognitive development of children being shaped by personal and cultural histories related to gender, class, race and family’ (Ferrari & Mahalingham 1998, p.  326) it becomes vitally important to provide opportunities for Indigenous children to develop their own sense of individuality and belonging within the constraints of the ‘Western/Anglo’ classroom. There are four principal components of the curriculum process that impact on student learning: the teacher, including the ways in which the teacher makes decisions, instructs and transmits knowledge; the students, who are active participants in the educational process; the social context within which interaction occurs; and, finally, the content of the curriculum. We need to focus on making changes within each component to improve schooling outcomes for Aboriginal students.

Two-way education: The inclusion of both Western and Aboriginal approaches in schooling to support Indigenous students.

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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Indigenous learning: what works Giroux (1992) states that educators need to approach learning not merely as the acquisition of knowledge but also as the production of cultural practices that offer students a sense of identity, place and hope. This approach—the integration of culture and cultural practices into teaching and learning—is central to successful education for Indigenous students. Crucial to teaching and learning within this milieu is the relationship between the school, teachers and students and their communities. Successful relationships are highlighted in the two ‘Stories from the classroom’ examples included in this chapter, in which the voices and experiences of teachers and students are mixed. This is a purposeful integration to emphasise that education that is good for Indigenous students relies on the quality and strength of these relationships.

Cherbourg State School—where students are young, black and deadly

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

When Chris Sarra arrived as the principal in 1998 he found students running on top of twostorey buildings, and in and out of the main office, staffroom and principal’s office. He said: ‘It was impossible to leave your lunch in the staffroom fridge because students would steal it well before lunchtime.’ The academic performance at the school was extremely poor. According to Sarra, when the Year 7s left for high school they had ‘no idea of how to conduct themselves in a regular classroom and nowhere near the personal skills or literacy and numeracy skills to survive’. By Year 8 most had dropped out, and an analysis of 4260 records of Indigenous students leaving Cherbourg to attend Murgon State High reveals they remained enrolled for an average of nine months. Sarra’s first challenge was to shift the mindset that accepted Aboriginal underperformance as normal to one that believed the children could achieve better outcomes: ‘Clearly if change were to occur, the school had to change its beliefs about what our children could achieve, and our children had to change their beliefs about what they could achieve.’ Those staff who did not believe the students could improve academically and socially to become ‘stronger and smarter’ were invited to move on to make way for those who did. New team members embraced the challenge and most importantly had high expectations of the students and made them work hard. Positive results in the classroom soon followed. An Aboriginal elder was employed to work with Sarra on community liaison to assist in growing a strong and smart school. A number of strategies were developed and introduced, including getting students to attend by rewarding classes with the lowest number of unexplained absences, and using key community people to moderate behaviour. It did not take long for the students to realise that if they were doing the wrong thing their parents would support the principal in taking action. A  strong sense of solidarity was also generated by developing a school song, introducing a school uniform and establishing school tidy zones. To achieve these changes, Sarra says it was important to ‘believe’ in the people of Cherbourg and to value what they had to say. They, like him, ‘harboured an intense passion and desire to see change in the school, and to see our children become “young and black and deadly” ’. This was enough to change the direction of the school. Source: adapted from Sarra (2003).

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When Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people learn, they want to do so in ways that are responsive to their unique requirements. Consultation, customisation and localisation are critical to the success of Indigenous learning experiences and the resources developed to support them. The following observations and experiences provide a useful framework for thinking about successful Indigenous learning experiences and how they might be applied. Flamsteed (1999, p.  7), for example, reports that Aboriginal people regard education to be most effective when it: • involves components of face-to-face delivery • is culturally appropriate and it is delivered by teachers who are either Indigenous or experienced with and sensitive to Indigenous learners • is truly flexible and considers that family and cultural commitments may affect a community member’s participation. Other educators who have worked closely with Aboriginal learners (for example, see Harris 1984, pp. 77–90) have identified ways in which Aboriginal people prefer to learn, particularly in remote contexts. These include: • learning through performance, rather than practice in contrived settings • learning context-specific skills rather than abstract principles • learning through observation and imitation rather than through oral or written verbal instruction • learning through trial and error rather than through verbally mediated demonstrations • employing an orientation towards people rather than tasks or information.

Effective practice Yolngu education in Milingimbi Since 1973, when bilingual education was launched in the Northern Territory, Yolngu teaching staff, elders and leaders of the Milingimbi community in north-east Arnhem Land ‘have been involved in and committed to the development of a culturally appropriate education according to the social and political principles, needs and aspirations of the community’ (Tamisari & Milmilany 2003). Yolngu educators and community members have long recognised the limitations of bilingual education models and have been striving for ‘recognition of a more systematic integration of Yolngu knowledge and ways of teaching and learning in mainstream curricula’ (Tamisari & Milmilany 2003). A Yolngu vision for education has been progressively developed within the broader political struggle for the maintenance of local authority structures and the assertion of control and decision-making in the school. The local school (Milingimbi Community Education Centre) has around 300 students and is one of three bilingual schools in the region. It has a school council comprising eleven parents, two teachers, the principal, the school secretary, a member of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly and a member nominated by the Milingimbi Community Council.

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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Education has been perceived as bilingual since the Methodist mission was established in 1923, as the Gupapuyngu language was chosen by the missionaries to teach the gospel in the region. In 1926 a group of twenty-five girls began attending. They were taught reading and writing by a missionary who was helped by two Yolngu assistants—a model still in use today in which Balanda (white people) and Yolngu team-teach. While Gupapuyngu remained the official school language and ‘had to be learnt first in order to facilitate children’s literacy in English’ (Tamisari & Milmilany 2003), the teaching and learning methods were unchanged and the role of Yolngu teachers remained as assistants. However, many began teacher training in the 1970s, graduated during the 1980s and today with thirty years’ teaching experience continue to work at the school. Some Yolngu staff were appointed to training positions of deputy principal, teacher linguist, adult educator liaison officer and literacy production supervisor, but they could only make recommendations and had no power to make decisions. It was not until 1988 that a program based on Yolngu knowledge and ways of teaching and learning was introduced, but only on Fridays. The content was structured thematically and involved the active participation of community members in design and implementation. It was 1990 before a bicultural curriculum based on 50 per cent Yolngu content was introduced in the existing curriculum. The program, named ‘Dhanarangala Murrurinydji Gaywanagala’ (Milingimbi CEC 1991), sets out the following aims for the school: • to learn to communicate in the Yolngu languages that each child and their family uses each day • through the Yolngu language, to learn about Yolngu ways of viewing the world, relating to and using things from the environment • to develop literacy in the Yolngu language as appropriate to local needs, which will also support the learning of literacy in English • to use ‘both-ways’ education—a 50/50 curriculum—to enable students to understand Yolngu and Balanda ways of thinking, communicating and living • through Yolngu management of the curriculum, to increase the amount of parental involvement in the daily operation of the school.

In traditional community settings where formal and informal traditional Aboriginal education practices have been preserved, Trudgen (2000, p. 123) reports successful learning has occurred when the teaching: • has used a traditional language • recognises Aboriginal communication styles • recognises Aboriginal educational methodologies and ways of constructing knowledge • uses ‘scaffolding’ methodologies. See Tamisari and Milmilany (2003) for a comparison of Yolngu and Balanda educational phases. The similarities and differences raise fundamental epistemological issues that highlight that Yolngu education is complex and demands recognition of Yolngu values and principles within the teaching and learning process.

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Improving current practice The many issues facing Indigenous students within the education system come not only from cultural differences but also from inappropriate teaching methods and curricula. In order to redress this inequity, we need to engage all approaches in the education of Aboriginal students by assuming a holistic view of the participants in both the process and the situation in which it is desirable for learning to take place. Teachers and schools should not try to change the culture, customs or values of Indigenous students, but must work towards creating a welcoming environment that respects, nurtures and enables all within the class to learn. Further discussion and information relating to these important aspects can be found in the text Two way teaching and learning—toward culturally reflective and relevant education (Purdie, Milgate & Bell 2011). The APST is an important national framework for redressing inequity. Standard 1.4 (Strategies for Teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students) and Standard 2.4 (Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians) are specifically influencing pre-service education with a view to improving teaching practice and enhancing schooling success for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students (AITSL 2011). The dominant culture needs to listen to Indigenous people. In the vocational education and training (VET) sector, this is beginning to happen and we are seeing marked improvements in success. Essentially, Indigenous education programs that are working well are small, holistic, tailormade and flexible (NCVER 2002). McRae (2000, 2002) tells us that a partnership between school, student and community is essential for success along with three key elements: cultural recognition and support, skill development and participation. These key elements are elaborated as follows: 1 Cultural recognition and support is developed through: a establishing good personal relationships and mutual trust between the student, teacher, school, family and community b flexibility c localisation d encouraging high levels of involvement by Indigenous people in management and delivery e building a community of peers and a ‘home’ in the institution f recognising and teaching Indigenous languages g promoting cultural reference and expression. 2 Skill development is assisted through: a increasing attention and time spent on literacy skills to build SAE competence b increasing the cultural relevance of curricula c improving teaching practice—increasing intensity, offering achievable steps, working cooperatively, expanding the range of media through which learning occurs and increasing practicality. 3 Participation can be encouraged through: a school entry—arranging visits for parents b attendance—maintaining regular contact with parents and rewarding regular attendance c engagement—linking learning to student interest and relevance. Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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Apply your knowledge Being mindful of the need to cater for all students: 1 How important is it for teachers to know about the local language? 2 What is your reaction to the suggestions listed in the ‘Improving current practice’ section? 3 Can you identify how you might implement them?

Effective practice Daring to lead The ‘Dare to Lead’ program aims to improve primary literacy levels and secondary school completions by 10 per cent in schools with Indigenous students. Schools without Indigenous students can also participate by committing to improving teaching about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures. The four peak principals’ associations are urging their colleagues to significantly improve outcomes for Indigenous students and also to drive the cause of reconciliation through the life and work of Australian schools. According to Tom Croker, Committee member of Principals Australia  (Professional Development  Organisation), this project is about leadership:  ‘We’re ready to take this on, and make this event a landmark in our social history—the time when a quarter of a million Australian educators in 10 000 schools stood up and said, “Something must be done, something can be done and something will be done”.’ Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students continue to record lower numeracy and literacy rates overall, and have lower rates of school completion than their non-Indigenous peers. Leadership is the key to change, and principals and other school leaders are critical, according to the former APAPDC chair, Don Zoellner. ‘The position of the principal has changed from being part of the problem of chronic underachievement of Indigenous students, to now being seen a major part of the solution,’ he said. For more on Dare to Lead initiatives, see: www.daretolead.edu.au. Source: Dare to Lead (2003).

Dealing with non-attendance There is no easy solution to addressing non-attendance and failure at school for the Indigenous population, but individual schools hold the key to effective social and political change that can lead to empowerment and success in education for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. Schools and teachers must operate flexibly to engage students in ways that are compatible with students’ characteristics, and the contexts within which learning takes place. When making educational decisions about Indigenous students, teachers must consider more than cultural elements—change must come from examining all elements to achieve a close

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cultural fit between course delivery, content, student aspirations and the realities of local employment opportunities, as suggested by Schwab (2001). This requires a departure from what has traditionally prevailed in schooling. Although teachers must be concerned with their pedagogy and the content of the curriculum, they also must take into account the setting in which learning takes place, as well as the students and their backgrounds: ‘Programs which encourage Indigenous participation in education while simultaneously being responsive to family, community and cultural commitments have been powerful tools for bringing Indigenous students into educational settings’ (Hunter & Schwab 2003, p. 18). Further, Dreise, Milgate, Perrett and Meston (2016) have argued that ‘targeted programs and co-ordinated efforts at local levels’ are effective for improving school attendance. The sense of security and affirmation that Indigenous students may have acquired in primary schools can easily be lost in the transition to secondary school. Another challenging time is between Year 10 and senior secondary college. Two important aids to assist with successful transition are mentoring and tutoring (Dare to Lead 2003). The importance of role models to inspire Indigenous students has been the focus of recent research, ‘Can’t be what you can’t see’ (Kinnane, Wilks, Wilson & Hughes 2014). This study affirms the need for Indigenous role models to improve the transition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students into higher education.

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Mentoring: Individual coaching by older students or other skilled adults. Tutoring: Additional teaching, often one to one, or in a small group.

Opportunities at Joey’s St Joseph’s College, an elite private boys’ school in Sydney that provides a fortunate life for 1000 students, has taken on the challenge of providing education to forty Aboriginal boys from bush towns, including Walgett. These boys had come from underprivileged homes and were placed at the college, where they are being swept along with the tide of high expectations. Father PJ, the local priest in Walgett, encourages boys to go to St Joseph’s where they get beds, books and tuition to the value of $20 000 (but no television and a 9.30 p.m. bedtime), so that they receive the same opportunities as other boys. He also supports the parents to let their children go away to school, as it is an invitation and not imposed. One of the boys said, ‘I wouldn’t have gone to school every day at the local state school.’ Another, Curtly Beal, is now a role model and leader, as well as captain of the Australian Schoolboys rugby team. The boys are supported at the college by an Aboriginal liaison teacher who provides mentoring and coaching, and also escorts them home for long weekends. He says, ‘The boys love coming home, but can’t wait to get back to Joey’s.’ These boys have grown up with very little and now are being given an opportunity: ‘I wish the same opportunity was available to hundreds of Aboriginal kids all over Australia.’ The Aboriginal boys gain hope and ambition through attending St Joseph’s and they also enrich the learning of the other students. As Noel Pearson explains, ‘Well-educated Indigenous people are not afraid to take their place in Australian society.’ These boys are certainly being prepared well to take their place in the world.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Source: Martin (2006).

Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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As around 4 per cent of students are Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and only 1 per cent of teachers are Indigenous, another strategy to address the need for credible role models has been the More Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Teachers Initiative (MATSITI). This project, funded by the Australian government, aims to increase the number of Indigenous teachers employed in schools across the nation. It is anticipated more Indigenous teachers will enrich learning for all Australian children and in particular for Indigenous children.

Apply your knowledge Consider the following advice and list strategies for each of the approaches mentioned: At times, it may be appropriate to focus on culturally appropriate instruction, at other times the elimination of racism and oppression may be an essential step in the process of education, and for some students, compensatory education to rectify deprived circumstances may be needed. We need to engage all approaches in the education of Aboriginal students by assuming a holistic view of the participants in the process, the situation in which learning occurs and the curriculum content which is desirable. (Partington 1997)

SUMMARY In this chapter, we have explored the nature of culture and identity for Indigenous students and ways to develop inclusive educational settings and foster educational achievement through making changes to existing structures. Specific learnings include: 1 That the following are interconnected: culture, well-being, education and employment. 2 That Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students are not finishing the compulsory years of schooling due to: truancy, suspension, expulsion and drop-out; high absenteeism; racism and harassment; exclusion from schooling leading to crime; parents not actively involved and having little control; poverty or lack of resources to support participation; and little or no access to the full range of education and training options. 3 Social determinants research connects the individual with community, and physical health with social, emotional, cultural and spiritual well-being. Studies connect education with health and also ill health with poverty, racism and lack of control over one’s life. 4 The following factors contribute positively to health: a social support including practical information and assistance while encouraging independence; and cultural inclusion by fostering a strong sense of cultural identity. 5 Recognition of this interconnectedness is influencing governments to support a multidisciplinary or intersectorial approach to education (DEST 2002). 6 Working together—the way forward for Aboriginal education is through: building relationships; sharing learning; supporting self-determination; and valuing the roles of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous staff.

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For group discussion 1 What have you learnt about the impact of the following on Indigenous students in Australian schools? culture and identity educational underachievement dominant curriculum–culture clash use of Indigenous languages in schools use of Indigenous staff use of bilingual education clash in learning styles, including local community protocols, rules regarding eye contact and the preference for watching or observing before doing h attendance and behaviour expectations i health. a b c d e f g

2 What changes would you make to your teaching practice?

Key references Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST) (2006b). What works: the work program. Accessed at www.whatworks.edu.au/3_1_3_3.htm. Dreise, T., Milgate, G., Perrett, B. & Meston, T. (2016). Indigenous school attendance: creating expectations that are ‘really high’ and ‘highly real’. Policy Insights 4. Camberwell: ACER Press. Accessed at http://reserach.acer.edu.au/policyinsights/4. Kinnane, S., Wilks, J., Wilson, K. & Hughes, T. (2014). ‘Can’t be what you can’t see’: the transition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students to higher education. Final Report, Office of Learning and Teaching, Department of Education, Sydney. McRae, D. (2002). What works. Improving outcomes for Indigenous students. Canberra: Department of Education, Science and Training. Purdie, N., Milgate, C. & Bell, H. R. (eds) (2011). Two way teaching and learning—toward culturally reflective and relevant education. Camberwell: ACER Press. Sarra, C. (2003). Young and black and deadly: strategies for improving outcomes for Indigenous students. Deakin West, ACT: Australian College of Educators.

Websites Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) Learning Ground—Indigenous Education Research Database—http://opac.acer.edu.au/ierd A rich resource of national and international books, articles, conference papers and reports focusing on Indigenous education. Clair Andersen and Maggie Walter

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Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL)—Australian Professional Standards for Teachers—www.aitsl.edu.au Provides online tools and resources for teachers and principals to improve performance and qualifications.

Australians Together—www.australianstogether.org.au/map Map of Indigenous nations, massacre sites, missions and government reserves.

Creative Spirits, Teacher and Student Resources—www.creativespirits.info/ aboriginalculture/edcaution/#axzz4AT3LGirZ Provides teaching resources for classroom activities, teaching ideas and studies at school and university.

Dance, Desk and Didgeridoo, an ABC Encounter program on Indigenous education— www.abc.net.au/rn/encounter/stories/2003/810935.htm Addresses challenges facing Indigenous education in Australia.

Dare to Lead—www.daretolead.edu.au Provides guidelines for teaching Aboriginal students and improving educational outcomes and includes lesson plans and general resources.

If you have a dream, you make it happen: approaches to maximising educational engagement among young Indigenous students [Research Fellowship Scheme report]— web.archive.org/web/20080801081543/http:/www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_ education/publications_resources/profiles/maximising_educational_engagement.htm A report identifying personal, school and community factors related to educational engagement among young Indigenous secondary level people.

MATSITI—matsiti.edu.au The MATSITI project (2011–16) aimed to increase the number and capacity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander teachers in Australian schools. Project activities focused on: Indigenous teacher workforce evidence and research; partnerships with school authorities and universities; and promoting teaching as a career of choice.

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Gender, Inclusivity and Engagement Michael Nagel and Laura Scholes

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand that the term ‘gender’ is multifarious and may be interpreted in a number of ways • To identify how various understandings of gender influence pedagogy and learning environments • To understand how gender issues intersect with disadvantage and ethnicity in relation to educational outcomes • To identify the interplay of nature and nurture in terms of our understanding of what it means to be a ‘boy’ or ‘girl’ in educational contexts • To understand some of the topical debates, challenges and issues surrounding gender in contemporary educational endeavour • To develop strategies that are not only inclusive but also enhance notions of engagement

KEY TERMS gender gender equity gender inclusion

neuroscience sociocultural theory

Introduction Issues related to gender, inclusivity and engagement have a long history in educational settings. For some scholars, many aspects of school life have been constructed around traditional male and female roles while for others there exists a biological imperative to meet the needs of boys and girls. Indeed, the multiplicity of perspectives related to gender, inclusivity and engagement span a number of disciplinary fields yielding many pragmatic and useful pedagogical tools, along with an equal number of contestable theories and ideas. This chapter aims to unpack notions of gender, inclusivity and engagement across the broad fields of psychology and sociocultural theory rather than focusing on one theoretical perspective. While this may appear as a bridge too far for purists in each discipline, we believe that such an approach offers the reader a broad landscape of ideas to draw upon

Sociocultural theory: A theory in both sociology and psychology that looks at how society impacts on individual development while focusing on the interactions between people and the culture in which they live.

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Gender equity: The goal of the equality of outcomes of the genders or the sexes stemming from a belief in the injustice of myriad forms of gender inequality.

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depending on their own context. We also feel that recent advances in the areas of mind and brain science have noted that who we are is the product of a complex interplay between biology, genetics and environment and as such the traditional nature/nurture debate has become a moot point, or as succinctly noted by one of the world’s leading neuroscientific researchers, ‘there can be no explanation that entirely rules out either environmental or genetic influences’ (Kimura 2000, p. 4). Most importantly, however, the catalyst that drives all of the following ideas is premised on our contention that understanding the issues, and at times challenges, associated with gender, inclusivity and engagement are important aspects of an educator’s repertoire of practices towards ensuring positive outcomes related to student safety, physical and emotional health, gender equity and overall student engagement and success (Meyer 2010).

Understanding the term ‘gender’

Gender: Social or cultural categories on the continuum from masculine or feminine.

‘Boys will be boys’ is a common catch-cry for many teachers when engaging with certain types of behaviours at schools and while many might think there is a degree of accuracy in such a chant, the reality is that not all boys are the same, nor are all girls. Moreover, such phrases are unhelpful at best and often lead to stereotyping and/or divisive practices in schools. In order to understand how such statements are problematic and overly simplistic it is helpful to articulate a few important terms, starting with that of gender. For a number of scholars gender is something that is constructed by social practice, as distinct from biological sex, which we are born with. In this context it is recognised that while we are born male or female, almost all societies vary in the types of values, behaviours, attributes and expectations they have with regards to each gender. However, the term ‘gender’ is also used in the biological and psychological sciences to refer to the sex of an individual and thus there is often a degree of confusion and ambiguity for the layperson. In order to alleviate this confusion, this chapter embraces a framework used by other scholars where ‘gender’ encompasses both biological and cultural influences and thus recognises the interdependence of biological and cultural sources of difference (Duchesne, McMaugh, Bochner & Krause 2013). We believe that such an approach allows us to develop an accurate account of all the influences impacting on boys and girls in schools without excluding any potential sources of influence related to gender, inclusivity and engagement. The first of these influences to be explored are those gender differences that appear in literature related to biology.

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Understanding the biology and psychology of gender The expression of gender differences in biology appears early in life, primarily through the determination of the sex of a child in utero and via physical differences at birth. Indeed, much of what we attribute to gender difference in students focuses on physical differences in appearance and the manifestation of differences related to strength and other physical attributes. Increasingly, however, notable differences related to other aspects of development are being provided to teachers at all levels of education. Studies have identified a number of gender differences related to language, emotional and social development along with aspects of cognition. It is important to remember that many of these differences are small and there are also differences among each gender as well as between each gender; men may be from Mars but not all Martians are the same! Nonetheless, while contemporary scientific research is still far from supporting any generalised assessment of each gender’s ‘innate’ abilities, particularly those attributes related to the brain, many scientists and educationalists agree that we cannot pretend that gender differences in aspects of cognition and emotion do not exist, nor that they do not impact on aspects of educational endeavour (Byrnes 2007; Cahill 2005; Eliot 2000; Kimura 2000; McEwen & Norton-Lasley 2005; Nagel 2012; Sax 2005). In the context of this work, a few differences related to cognition, emotion and behaviour are noted where appropriate. However, it is beyond the scope of this chapter to explore the myriad literature in this field and those who wish to explore this subject in greater detail may look into it elsewhere (see, for example, Baron-Cohen 2003; Brizendine 2006, 2010; Halpern 2000; Kimura 2000, 2004; Nagel 2006, 2008; Sax 2005). Delving into gender differences related to the brain is often contentious and contestable. One of the reasons for trepidation lies in the fact that neuroscience has, in the past, been used to disadvantage people based on ethnicity, gender and many other attributes. Moreover, much of the current research investigating gender differences in cognitive abilities, for example, often produces conflicting results, perhaps due to differences that wax and wane at different ages, or the wide variety of tests that can be used to measure the same cognitive abilities (Logan & Johnston 2010). To that end, it is significant to note some important considerations prior to any discussion of the topic at hand. First, and as briefly noted above, not all boys are the same, nor are all girls. The environments that children grow up in will shape much of who they are, not only including their neurological architecture but also their life chances. Ethnicity, class and culture, among other factors, will impact on the life chances and successes of all students and this is explored later in this chapter. At this point it is important to note that the environment and experiences students have both in and outside of the classroom are contextual in nature and heavily influenced by the realities of life. In this sense, any discussion related to gender must acknowledge that we are a product of a complex interplay between genetics, biology and the environment that is only beginning to be understood by scientists, particularly neuroscientists. The whole nature versus nurture argument is rather a moot point in that the brain influences how we experience the world and the world around us influences our neurology; however, differences do appear to exist in terms of cognition and emotion, and are noted later.

Neuroscience: The field of study encompassing a variety of disciplines dealing with the brain and nervous system.

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EARLY LEARNERS

Gender inclusion: The active, intentional and ongoing engagement with individuals regardless of gender.

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Second, given the role of the environment in terms of development and attributes related to gender, and the contentious nature surrounding biology, the brain and gender, one might ask why it is significant to look at neuroscience and aspects of brain development. After all, we can have some measure of influence on the environment but we can’t really change a brain, can we? To some degree this argument may seem similar to the age-old dilemma of whether the chicken came before the egg. However, when we look closely at various stages of brain development there is a great deal of research identifying that much of the brain is designed and in place long before it interacts with the world around it and this includes certain attributes related to gender. Some aspects of development related to hard wiring of the brain along gendered lines occurs in utero and as such a blueprint for behaviour and learning is in place very early in the lives of children, and indeed long before they enter school. For example, studies have identified that boys and girls will respond differently to the people and environments around them from as early as one to three days after birth (Connellan et al. 2000; Eliot 2000). By eighteen months of age, gender differences in child-initiated social behaviours such as group and individual play emerge and are most demonstrable at three years of age when boys and girls show differences in how they engage with other children and adults (Nagel 2012). Third, any discussion related to the brain must take into account the human brain’s amazing capacity to change over the course of a lifetime, and so the chicken and the egg argument resurfaces. Brain plasticity, or the brain’s capacity to change itself, has emerged as a very important characteristic of neurological development across an array of brain-related disciplines and medical practices. In terms of educational endeavour, we now know that the brain is not a static organ and actually changes physically as we learn. For example, empirical studies have mapped physical changes to the neural structures of the brain that occurred in response to educational interventions to increase reading and numeracy (Ansari 2011). This suggests that the learning environment created at the nexus of pedagogic and didactic endeavour is as important as the recognition of potential gender differences in behaviour and learning. In this sense, gender inclusion and engagement allows for plasticity and learning to flourish in a positive fashion. Perhaps this is encapsulated best in the following quote: The brain, as the source of human behaviour, is by design moulded by the environmental changes and pressures, physiologic modifications, and experiences. This is the mechanism for learning and for growth and development—changes in the input of any neural system, or in the targets or demands of its efferent connections, lead to system reorganisation that might be demonstrable at the level of behaviour… therefore, plasticity is not an occasional state of the nervous system; instead, it is the normal ongoing state of the nervous system throughout the lifespan. (Pascual-Leone, Amedi, Fregni & Merabet 2008, pp. 378–9)

Finally, and as alluded to above in terms of gender, inclusivity and engagement, the recognition of potential gender differences in the brain manifested through behaviour and aspects of learning are best mediated through pedagogical practices that recognise difference but do not stereotype based on those differences. While there may be some innate differences between boys and girls, the experiences provided to them in educational contexts should allow for opportunities to build on whatever capacities and attributes each child brings to the classroom while simultaneously intervening in practices that exclude children based on

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gender. For example, while children may receive similar literacy instruction in a classroom environment, gender differences related to attention, interest and preference for different types of activities may mean that boys and girls spend different amounts of time engaged in a diverse array of literacy activities (Logan & Johnston 2010).

The nature of boys in the classroom For many teachers and parents alike, boys appear to operate somewhat differently than girls in most classroom settings. Often they seem to be easily distracted or ‘off-task’ when their female counterparts appear engaged in the work at hand. Many teachers will often lament about the physicality of boys, their apparent predisposition for fidgeting or movement, their lack of neatness in the work that they do and a myriad other behaviours labelled as ‘boy’ behaviours. As noted earlier, there are a number of works dedicated to enhancing the educational outcomes of boys that go beyond the scope of this chapter. However, it is worth providing some examples of how the needs of boys may indeed be different to those of girls. One of the earliest examples of difference appears early in school when girls will outperform boys across a range of language- and literacy-related endeavours. This discrepancy is apparent across sociocultural parameters whereby disadvantaged girls outperform disadvantaged boys, rural girls outperform rural boys and so on (OECD 2010, 2014). Such differences in literacy performance across socio-demographics suggest that biology may indeed play a role in literacy. Some researchers have noted that language appears to be processed differently in boys and girls, and particularly important regions of the brain responsible for communication not only appear larger in girls but also appear to mature earlier in girls and maintain greater synaptic communication due to increased neural density and connectivity (Brizendine 2006; Kimura 2000; Shaywitz et  al. 1995). Aside from the processing differences noted above, two regions of the brain that play an important role in language and literacy, Wernicke’s and Broca’s regions, appear proportionally larger in females and have been identified as having greater neural density and connectivity than in males (Eliot 2000). Wernicke’s region sits in the left hemisphere of the brain and plays a critical role in comprehension and understanding speech vis-à-vis processing specific elements of language and converting thoughts into language (Nagel 2012). Broca’s area, on the other hand, is the brain’s syntax centre and synthesises language and provides us with the capacity to articulate our thoughts; we can speak and write because of Broca’s area (Nagel 2012). Aside from the differences noted above, a range of studies have noted important differences in terms of other aspects of cognition. A  brief look at such differences by Duchesne and colleagues (2013) notes that: • Tests of general intelligence do not show any differences between males and females in overall test scores but studies of general knowledge show that, across cultures, males tend to score higher than females (Lippa 2005). • Although there is some overlap between males and females and some variability within each gender, males also tend to be better at spatial–visual reasoning while females perform better at verbal thinking and language skills (Hunt 2011). • Gender differences in mathematics appear to have grown smaller over the last two or three decades but, to date, boys are still more likely than girls to excel in mathematics Michael Nagel and Laura Scholes

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and the difference among the top group of mathematics performers appears to have persisted over time (Ruble, Martin & Berenbaum 2006). • A wider range of variability in boys’ IQ scores reflects the phenomenon that boys are more likely to be at the highest and lowest ends of the scale while girls hover around the mean (Deary et al. 2003). While the reasons for the differences presented are complex, a growing body of evidence suggests that the human brain does possess gender differences and as such it stands to reason that such differences should be considered when planning to engage boys across a variety of activities. It also suggests that the needs of girls may differ as well.

The nature of girls in the classroom In 2002 the federal government published a report documenting the plight of boys in crisis in educational contexts which resulted in a $33 million injection of funds into helping boys (Committee on Education and Training 2002). One of the underlying themes in this report suggested that boys were not doing well because too much attention had been focused on the educational outcomes of girls over the previous two decades and that girls were outperforming boys across a wide range of scholastic endeavour. However, even prior to the report noted above there was, and continues to be, evidence that not all girls are doing well at school and that the needs of many girls are not being met in mainstream educational contexts (Collins, Kenway & McLeod 2000). Interestingly, while teachers often will note anecdotally that girls ‘do school’ well, they also note that issues that arise related to girls in educational contexts often focus on aspects of emotional development and social endeavour. Not too dissimilar to the arguments related to boys and school, for a number of scientists the answers for the types of challenges facing girls may lie in biological and psychological domains. One of the least controversial aspects of development related to gender and biology is that girls tend to mature sooner than boys across a range of developmental milestones. Girls typically show better language and social skills sooner, and across all cultures enter puberty earlier while their brains mature earlier as well (Eliot 2012). The implications of this maturational process are still highly contestable and debated but one thing that does appear to be well supported is that girls use emotion and relationships in very different ways from boys and often this leads to difficulties in school. For many girls ‘indirect aggression’ or ‘relational aggression’ through gossiping and exclusion are visible early in life, but very pronounced during the teenage years (Duchesne et al. 2013; Nagel 2008). Moreover, relational aggression has been observed in over one hundred different societies, suggesting something more than culture may be at work in terms of this type of behaviour (Osterman et al. 1998).

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Aside from the difficulties associated with indirect aggression which have, incidentally, taken on new dimensions through cyberspace, girls appear to engage in social relationships differently from boys. Cambridge University’s Simon Baron-Cohen (2003) has noted that girls seem to be better than boys at empathising and that this appears very early in life. Girls also appear more focused on interpersonal relationships, particularly one-to-one relationships, compared to boys, who navigate relationships differently (Baron-Cohen 2003; Duchesne et al. 2013; Gabriel & Gardner 2005). Worryingly, girls are also more likely than boys to experience relational anxiety, often resulting in mood or eating disorders, and use relationships as a mechanism for a vast array of bullying behaviours (Duchesne et al. 2013; Simmons 2002). These trends are mirrored in aspects of the sociology of gender discussed below, but taken in their entirety suggest that teachers would do well to recognise that differences between girls and boys do exist and that any measure of inclusion and engagement must continually take into account these differences.

Seeking to understand boys’ behaviour A number of boys in Mrs Hart’s Year 2 class often found themselves in trouble. They struggled to sit still and were often chastised for fidgeting and moving around the class without permission. When discussing this with one of her male colleagues, Mrs Hart was surprised by Mr Bell’s view that perhaps the problem was not necessarily the boys’ behaviour but perhaps a lack of understanding of that behaviour. Mrs Hart confessed that she was sometimes at a loss in understanding the physicality of boys given she grew up with three sisters and no brothers and both of her children were girls. She began to reflect on her approach with the boys in her class and found that her expectations were, at times, unrealistic or in need of adjustment. She noticed, for example, that when the children returned to class after their lunch breaks she insisted that they sit quietly at their desk and read; something the girls found quite easy to do while many boys could not sit still or keep their hands and feet to themselves. After doing some of her own research and reading she was surprised to find that for a vast majority of boys, movement was not a behavioural issue but a biological imperative. She also read that there were things she could do in class to help boys settle down after lunch and indeed throughout the day. One of those things was to gather all the children together after their breaks and engage them in ten minutes of physical activity that went from high to low intensity. In a sense she was mimicking the cool-down periods that she experienced every Wednesday after her Zumba class. One of the activities that seemed to work so well was shadow boxing and both the boys and girls loved the extra time to be active, but for the boys those extra ten minutes also acted as a calming mechanism. She also introduced stress balls in the class, which all children used at their leisure, and for the boys this proved especially calming. When describing this to her colleagues she was quick to point out that the subtle changes made a big difference to her boys and her understanding of the needs of her boys was not necessarily about changing their behaviour, but more importantly was about adjusting her perceptions

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

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If we want all students, regardless of gender, to develop emotionally, socially and academically, is there any reason to require that the exact same didactic model be used at all times for both boys and girls to achieve that goal? Are there times when splitting boys and girls may be appropriate? Some schools have trialled different approaches to working with boys and girls in a number of subject areas.

Pause and reflect

1 Based on your own understanding of gender, can you identify where the separation of boys and girls might be advantageous and not necessarily divisive? 2 Identify the potential pros and cons of such endeavours.

Good intentions don’t always mean good outcomes!

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Recently a group of teachers at school in the United Kingdom observed that during break times the boys tended to occupy about 75 per cent of the designated play area while the girls congregated in only 25 per cent of that area. Within those spaces, most of the boys tended to engage in various high-intensity physical activities such as ball games and running throughout the play area while the majority of girls congregated and tended to spend much of their time in low-intensity activities and conversation. Concerned with issues of equity and equality and a belief that the girls would likely be more active if the boys were confined to less space, the teachers, in consultation with the principal, decided the play area would be split in half, with one side designated as a boys’ zone and the other for girls only. It is interesting to note that the school actually had more girls than boys by a margin of approximately 55 per cent (210) to 45 per cent (171). Initially things seemed to change somewhat with the girls venturing out into their new-found space, but within days the novelty appeared to wear off and the girls went back to occupying the same 25 per cent they had enjoyed before the split. The boys, on the other hand, continued to engage in greater degrees of physicality than the girls, but did so in less space. One of the major outcomes of this endeavour, however, was a marked increase in school yard injuries and aggressive behaviour among the boys. Sometimes, the best intentions of teachers can deliver unintended outcomes!

Apply your knowledge Reflect on the primary and secondary school(s) that you attended as a student or as a pre-service teacher. 1 Were there any teachers who you believed met the needs of boys and girls that included all boys and all girls? If so, what were some of the things they did to achieve this? 2 How did teachers manage to engage boys and girls across various subjects? 3 How did teachers engage boys in literacy? 4 How did teachers engage girls in mathematics?

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Understanding the sociology of gender The sociology of gender is significant in children’s daily life from the first years at school when they enter at four or five years of age (Connolly 2004; Jordan 1995). Children’s positioning socially is not fixed at this age; as they perceive membership within a particular gender group they develop behaviours that they perceive as appropriate to the group. Peer groups and the desire for group belonging then become significant in the construction of being masculine or feminine (Connell 2009; Connolly 2004; Keddie 2006). Peer cultures regulate individuals and can amplify dominant masculine and feminine behaviours, educational choices and school engagement. Stereotypical conceptions of gender assume a difference based on physical biology with an understanding of masculinity as rational, strong and active; and femininity as emotional, weak and passive (Francis & Skelton 2005; Gilbert & Gilbert 1998). The influence of gender stereotypes in schools can impact on both boys’ and girls’ experiences by creating a narrowing of opportunities for engagement and marginalising some students (Nagel & Scholes 2016). Social constructions of masculine and feminine stereotypes are never just about gender, but are a reflection of the many different ways gender combines with socio- economic background, ethnicity, sexuality, religion and culture to produce differing and enduring forms of identity (Connell 2005, 2015; Connolly 2006; Haywood & Mac an Ghaill 2013). Sometimes, however, the development of ‘gender identity’ results in intermediate, blended or sharply contradictory patterns, for which there are terms such as effeminate, camp, queer and transgender as a result of blending masculine and feminine characteristics (Connell 2015). This gender ambiguity is for the minority, however, as most people willingly construct themselves as masculine or feminine, and often enjoy the gender polarity (Connell 2015). While articulating diversity and difference in gender is complex, due to the multiplicity of influences, there is a need to understand notions of gender that have been shaped by the societies and cultures in which we live and which, in turn, shape our understanding of boys and girls and equitable practices in the classroom. Teachers are in a unique position to create a classroom environment that is safe, supportive and affirming for all vulnerable students. Students can exhibit a complex relationship between their physical characteristics, their gender identity (sense of self) and gender expression (presentation and behaviour). Teachers can facilitate a culture of respect and acceptance in the classroom by creating a nurturing atmosphere that embraces difference, supporting choices that may be made by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and questioning (LGBTIQ) students. Fostering a culture of respect for differences and not tolerating bullying can support all students, regardless of their gender identification, ethnicity, culture, or social and economic status. Michael Nagel and Laura Scholes

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The nurture of boys in the classroom There are many types of masculinities that boys perform in the classroom, or ways of being a ‘boy’ (Connolly 2004; Haywood & Mac an Ghaill 2013; Mac an Ghaill 1994; Martino & Pallotta-Chiarolli 2005). Being a boy, while influenced by obvious biological characteristics, is also influenced by how students act, talk, their appearance and peer group. Within the school context a hierarchy or pecking order is created by observed differences among various groups of boys. Boys spend considerable time monitoring one another, deciding what is appropriate or inappropriate, and who should be included or excluded. Relationships are reinforced by powerful boys’ dominance in opposition to less influential boys’ subordination. Dominant forms of masculinities are often associated with strength and power while subordinate masculinities are associated with feminine characteristics. Acting cool at school often involves acting tough, impressing mates, using put-downs and making fun of boys’ feminine traits (Martino & Pallotta-Chiarolli 2005). For boys there is pressure to demonstrate these sanctioned notions of masculinity with many boys struggling and feeling constrained. Schools create spaces, such as the classroom, playground and sports field where specific behaviours are considered ‘normal’. There are considerable risks of marginalisation for boys who do not conform to the strict boundaries of what it means to be a boy in their particular school context (Martino & Pallotta-Chiarolli 2005). Boys who do not fit in can be subject to problematic levels of teasing, harassment and bullying (Martino & Pallotta-Chiarolli 2005). Differences in notions of boyhood are also intertwined with and mediated by socio-economic status. We now understand that boys attending schools in disadvantaged communities are more likely than boys from higher socio-economic communities to position themselves in opposition to schooling (Connolly 2004). This resistance includes constructions of masculinities that potentially constrain educational inclusion and engagement (Warrington, Younger & Bearne 2006). Indeed, boys who present characteristics associated with working hard at school can be at risk of marginalisation by their peers (Gilbert & Gilbert 1998; Martino & Pallotta-Chiarolli 2005). Boys attending schools in disadvantaged communities would thus benefit from being within a classroom context that disrupts limitations of boys’ choices, interactions and experiences. That is, while all boys would benefit from expanding their repertoire of experiences in schools it is boys from disadvantaged communities who may have more dominant influences policing their behaviours and educational choices. Classroom contexts that challenge stereotypical versions of gender and disrupt taken-for-granted ways of being a ‘boy’ can make visible alternatives that are more inclusive of difference (Keddie & Mills 2007; Martino & Pallotta-Chiarolli 2003). A significant consideration in deconstructing dominant forms of masculinities in the classroom is the need to expand being masculine to encompass inclusive visions of manhood and a sense of direction that young males can aspire to and value (Gilbert & Gilbert 1998).

The nurture of girls in the classroom In educational contexts, stereotypical images of girls portray female students as diligent, cooperative and compliant in the classroom both with teachers and with peers (Francis 2000). Within school contexts an ‘acceptable girl’ is associated with traits involving passivity,

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accommodation, a concern with social relations and projecting feminine ‘desirability’ (Skelton, Francis & Read 2010). The difficulties that some girls experience are often then invisible to teachers as girls are viewed as ideal students. While popular media positions girls as ‘winners’ within the educational system there are many school girls, irrespective of social class and ethnicity, who have problems coping with the expectations of academic success placed upon them by parents, teachers and, indeed, themselves (Skelton, Francis & Read 2010). For girls there can also be a preoccupation with stereotypical images linking popularity and niceness, and with goodness, creating impossible images of femininity for girls (Read, Francis & Skelton 2011). Being kind, friendly or helpful to your peers is a characteristic commonly cited by girls in relation to student popularity (Read, Francis & Skelton 2011). Shyness on the other hand has been socially stigmatised as a characteristic of ‘unpopular’ students, especially by those seen as ‘popular’ (Read, Francis & Skelton 2011). For girls who do not conform to accepted notions of being a girl there can be ramifications. Loud and assertive behaviour by girls can be interpreted by teachers as unfeminine (Francis 2010). Girls who do not invest in feminine aesthetics, sociality and the maintenance of the heterosexual matrix can be subject to marginalisation, contributing to underachievement and disengagement (Francis 2010). For some middle-class girls there can be additional pressures to achieve, with successes not always considered ‘good enough’ (Walkerdine, Lucey & Melody 2001). Of concern, there is evidence of links between middle-class girls’ anxiety and stress in striving for high academic achievement and an increase in levels of self-harm and eating disorders (Lundh, Karim & Quilisch 2007). That is not to say that girls attending schools in lower socio-economic communities will not self-harm; however, for these girls there can be differing social influences that narrow their inclusion and engagement at school. The underachievement of girls from low socio-economic backgrounds is often set up early in their lives as they navigate challenges associated within their context which include limited opportunity. For girls attending schools in disadvantaged communities there are obstacles associated with lack of resources, lower teacher expectations and career trajectories that perpetuate stereotypical images of girls within conventional roles. As boys attending school in lower socio-economic communities have been found to display more physicality and anti-school behaviours, so too, girls in disadvantaged contexts have been found to display behaviours not typically associated with stereotypical notions of being a girl (Scholes 2013). That is, for both boys and girls there is a tendency for students from lower socio-economic communities to describe more incidences of anti-school behaviours, physicality and the status of having a boyfriend or girlfriend, in addition to the popularity of non-academic pursuits (Connolly 2004; Scholes 2013). Within the Australian context a recent study highlights differences for some girls attending school in lower socio-economic communities with much behaviour not fitting the typical image of the compliant, hard-working feminine student (Scholes 2013). For a number of these girls potent peer groups, anti-school behaviours and not doing the right thing at school was valued over academic success (Scholes 2013). In their stories, girls talked of the risks of being marginalised, and academic disengagement coupled with investment in peer group sanctioned anti-school pursuits (Scholes 2013).

Michael Nagel and Laura Scholes

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How do girls experience being ‘liked’?

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Bella is in Year 6 at Lavender Street Primary School, located in a middle socio-economic coastal community. She believes school is important and ‘it’s good to work hard but the popular girls think it’s not cool’. She also believes being smart and achieving in mathematics and reading is outside the boundaries of experience for the popular girls at her particular school, as she articulates in the following comment:  … unpopular girls are smarter than popular girls and the popular girls aren’t as good at maths and reading and they’d rather hang out with boys and all that.

The popularity and status attribution of girlfriends and boyfriends in primary playgrounds has been well documented (see, for example, Adler, Kless & Adler 1992; Connolly 2004; Renold 2003), although the focus has been on the dependence of one’s sense of masculinity on the interest shown by girls (Connolly 2004). In this case, however, Bella talks about the ways that a girl’s popularity is measured by physical appearance and attractiveness to boys. For example, she talks about the popular girls in her Year 6 class. … they’re pretty and all the boys like them. The whole group’s pretty and it’s all about fashion to them. They think that other girls are pieces of dirt. They do quite a lot of flirting.

Given the above comments it would appear that in this school context one’s femininity and attractiveness is dependent upon being ‘liked’ by the boys. It is also evident that Bella did not perceive herself within the boundaries of the popular group and did not feel included as she commented:  … I’m not good enough for the popular girls. I don’t think I’m pretty enough for them. That I’m not mean enough. I’m not as tanned as them and pretty. I mean I don’t have the right clothing—that matches together. (Scholes 2011) 

Traditional values of masculinity and femininity are often sanctioned and perpetuated by cultural and institutional practices. Think of a school context you have been in and consider what masculine and feminine traits were highly valued. Were there consequences for students who did not fit typical physical images, or demonstrated stereotypical behaviours associated with notions of being a boy or girl? Think back to a school context you are familiar with. What notions of masculinity and femininity influenced students’ daily interactions? Some things to consider include: • subject choices • peer-group cultures

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• • • • • •

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the value and role of sport co-dependence between femininities and masculinities gender ratio of staff gender ratio of students staff roles—gender distinctions consequences for students who did not fit typical notions of being a boy or a girl (bullying, isolation, disengagement, self-harm).

Gender double standards Matilda was 12  years old when she first started to suspect that she did not relate to the feminine ideals about girlhood, or femininity, that she saw on the television, in advertisements and particularly in the popular music clips all her friends were watching online. She was interested in talking about her ideas, bantering with her male and female friends and wanted to be an airline pilot. When she was in Year 10 she spent most of her time with her boyfriend, playing her flute, competitively riding her horse in dressage events and looking after her pet python. She took as many maths and science subjects as possible and spent many afternoons with an academic tutor. One day at school a boy in her class, Joel, was harassing her, calling her names, and posturing his physicality, grabbing at her in a way that she felt was intimidating. She engaged in the physicality, pushed and punched him. After Joel recovered from the embarrassment of the event he reported Matilda to the school administration. Instantly, Matilda’s parents were contacted, she was suspended for a week, the academic scholarship that was supporting her private school fees was put in contention and there was a directive for guidance counsellor supervision on her return to school. Of course, Matilda was anxious and confused. She herself had witnessed boys engaging with other boys in the playground in a similar manner to her altercation with Joel, without such punitive consequences. On her return to school, the guidance officer responsible for her behaviour made it very clear about the grounds for concern and why strict measures about her behaviour and scholarship would be in put in place— she was a girl! Matilda went on to be the first female aviation pilot accepted into the international program of her choice and became a first officer with an Australian airline national carrier by age 21. She still rides her horse, plays the flute and has a boyfriend. True story!!

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Michael Nagel and Laura Scholes

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Apply your knowledge From an early age children are socialised into particular roles. The following reflection asks you to think back to your formative years at school and consider the influence of gender. 1 Draw a picture of a boy and a girl from your early childhood. Now write down descriptors that encapsulate differences associated with your notions about what it meant to be a boy or girl in a school context. After you have labelled your pictures with associated descriptions, write down a list of similarities or things that both genders have in common in terms of experiences at school. 2 Now think of your own high school experience, your subject choices and how you engaged in school on a daily basis. Were there some things that you took for granted that limited your choices and activities? Write down a memory from your personal experience when you made a choice at school influenced by your gender. 3 Given your responses to the points above, what strategies can you note to overcome stereotypes and create inclusivity in your capacity as an educator?

Technology

TECHNOLOGY

One of the most pervasive trends impacting on education is the use of technology in, and out, of the classroom. Today many students carry a computer in their hands in the shape of a smartphone, tablet or laptop. Schools adopt different approaches to the use of technology within the school and across year levels. Importantly, numerous studies have reported differences between boys’ and girls’ practice and attitudes towards technology (Johnson 2006). Equally significant for teachers is a growing body of evidence suggesting that in using technology, gaming environments tend to be a principle avenue of engagement for boys, while girls use of technology focuses predominantly on social media (Lenhart et al. 2015). Arguably, this presents various challenges for teachers in terms of how technology can be used as a mechanism for engagement and learning given that boys and girls appear to gravitate to different types of techno-environments.

Assessment Educational assessment has become central to national economic policies with the well-being of nations often being measured through comparative global benchmarks and indicators of performance (Lingard, Martino & Mills 2009). This culture of performativity and high-stakes testing has been used to generate new concerns about boys’ lack of achievement in school, particularly in literacy (Lingard, Martino & Mills 2009; Keddie & Mills 2007). Subsequently, boys’ underachievement in reading, compared to girls’, is considered a significant international problem due to an ongoing gender gap in benchmark testing (OECD 2014). For example, in 2006, on average girls outperformed boys in reading in all of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) (OECD 2007). More recently, in 2014 girls outperformed boys on reading

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in the PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) in all countries and economies by the equivalent of one year of school with this gap wider for Indigenous boys (OECD 2014). Boys’ underachievement in reading however is often generalised and so is not representative of particular groups of boys (Martino & Kehler 2007; Scholes 2010, 2013). This perpetrates a narrow construction of masculinity and a binary divide between boys and girls, positioning young males as a homogeneous group. This generalisation discounts the importance of considering ‘which boys’ and ‘which girls’ are actually struggling (Haywood & Mac an Ghaill 2013; Lingard et al. 2009; Morris 2012). It also does not take into account the potentially negative influence of high-stakes benchmark testing. Concerns about didactic teaching and a focus on teaching for high-stakes tests such as PISA and the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) are highlighted in Australia (Lingard 2011). A strong policy push to improve students’ results on NAPLAN has resulted in teachers reporting that they are either choosing, or being instructed, to teach to the test (Thompson & Cook 2014). For example, mandated standardised literacy assessment has presented many challenges for schools situated in low socio-economic communities and culturally diverse communities resulting in the exclusion of some students from the testing process, adaptations of literacy theory and work intensification (Comber 2012). Findings resonate with international research on the impact of high-stakes testing on teachers’ practices and the negative impact on pedagogy, student motivation and well-being (Polesel, Dulfer & Turnbull 2012). Teaching for the test, however, has not improved reading scores for underperforming boys, particularly disadvantaged and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young males (ACARA 2015b).

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Effective practice So, what can we do in the classroom in terms of inclusion and engagement? Given that an understanding of ‘gender’ is not a simple, taken-for-granted notion of being male or female, teachers must develop a nuanced approach to gender-related issues and challenges that takes into account the potential gender differences associated with a number of perspectives. As noted above, nature and nurture do not work in isolation but influence each other in all aspects of human endeavour. In educational contexts, genderinclusive classrooms must be premised on a context whereby the teacher and students recognise and acknowledge that students will bring different psychological, social and cultural experiences to the learning space and they will differ in their interests, approaches to learning, strengths and educational needs. Teachers must not be limited to a simplistic notion of gender premised around a strict dichotomy of being male or female, but must also take into account that students, regardless of gender, share many similarities, which ultimately requires the teacher to understand, support and engage each and every student according to who they are. This suggests that in order to create a classroom context that is inclusive of gender and engaging for both boys and girls, teachers need to reflect upon their own beliefs about what it means to be a boy or a girl and be aware of their own understandings, expectations and values associated with gender differences. Teachers also need to be cognisant of how classroom organisation can influence inclusion and engagement and provide opportunities for differentiation of learning. Michael Nagel and Laura Scholes

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Notwithstanding the importance of classroom context and organisation, discussions in educational contexts related to gender and schooling often invoke strategies that are debated in the popular media, including implementing single-sex schools/classes and increasing the number of male teachers. The complex nature of gender as noted throughout this chapter suggests that any single strategy presented as a panacea for engaging all boys and girls is likely to be too simplistic to be of value. For some boys, and for some girls, single-sex schools work well but this is not the case for all boys and/or girls. This holds true for many populist notions of meeting the needs of both boys and girls. For example, and as alluded to above, while single-sex schools often market themselves around notions of academic performance, better performance of students in single-sex schools can also be attributed to a combination of factors such as the ability of students, their socio-economic background, the type of school, school ethos and, significantly, effective pedagogies (Martino, Mills & Lingard 2005). This likely holds true across many strategies for boys and girls, and as such one of the strongest determinants of engagement and success for all students is the effectiveness of pedagogy or simply stated, good teaching practice (Hattie 2009). Because of the importance of pedagogical practice, some things teachers can consider within the classroom context for enhancing inclusion and engagement for boys and girls alike include: • modelling and ensuring respect for all students regardless of gender and background. Teachers are role models and how they engage with students sends important messages about respect and inclusivity. • challenging gender inequity. It is important to challenge any student interactions that do not support an inclusive classroom environment or that marginalise students on gender lines. • developing students’ cooperative working skills where appropriate. Creating an inclusive classroom culture where students work cooperatively requires implementing strategies to model, practise, reflect and refine group work skills and the recognition that boys and girls may differ in how they relate to others. • identifying which boys and girls are most at risk of exclusion, marginalisation and disengagement. Getting to know these students well and developing learning experiences in which they can excel and then be challenged is a proactive way to meet student needs. • identifying which boys and girls exert power over peer groups due to their physical presence, manner and/or behaviour. Remember both boys and girls are capable of ‘bullying’, but may engage in different behaviours to perpetuate bullying. Working with influential students to disrupt taken-for-granted behaviours related to bullying and fostering those students to be key leaders in terms of including marginalised students is not only effective for those at the risk of marginalisation but also for building leadership skills in others. • remembering the importance of context and the influence the teacher has in creating a learning environment that recognises individual student needs while keeping abreast of the research related to gender and schooling and trialling different strategies when possible. The websites listed at the end of this chapter provide some avenues for such endeavour.

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SUMMARY This chapter provided a broad look at notions of gender at the nexus of inclusivity and engagement. Perspectives drawn from the disciplines of psychology and sociology were offered in an effort to demonstrate that notions of gender are not confined to taken-for-granted ideas surrounding maleness or femaleness. Biology and psychology suggest there may indeed be some innate differences between boys and girls, while sociology reminds us of the importance of context and environment in terms of fair and equitable practice; nature and nurture cannot be separated. It would be easy to adopt one perspective over the other, as often seen in many texts covering this important topic, but such an approach would, in itself, be antithetical to any notion of inclusivity. In some respects exploring ideas around gender will always be debatable and contestable and this should always be welcomed in the context that: … we can’t be gender blind; parents and teachers must recognise and accept boys’ and girls’ different needs and interests. But the trick is to shed our gender blinders without turning everything into a Mars/Venus dichotomy. We need to be aware of gender but also of the imprecision of stereotypes. Above all, we need to assiduously avoid prejudging any boy or girl. (Eliot 2012, p. 313)

For group discussion 1 What have you learnt about: a the biology and psychology of gender b the sociology of gender? 2 What aspects of each perspective above resonate with you and may help shape your pedagogical practice? 3 After reading the chapter can you list some strategies that you may trial with boys, with girls, and with boys and girls? 4 After reading the chapter what are some of the issues you think a teacher may encounter when trialling split-gender approaches to some subject areas? Can you note some of the pros and cons of such practice?

Key references Ansari, D. (2011). Culture and education: new frontiers in brain plasticity. Trends in Cognitive Neurosciences, 16(2), 93–5. Byrnes, J. P. (2007). Some ways in which neuroscientific research can be relevant to education. In D. Coch, K. W. Fisher & G. Dawson (eds), Human behavior, learning and the developing brain: typical development (pp. 30–49). New York: Guilford Press. Connell, R. (2009). Gender: in world perspective (2nd edn). Cambridge, UK: Polity.

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Francis, B. & Skelton, C. (2005). Reassessing gender and achievement. London: Routledge Falmer. Halpern, D. F. (2000). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (3rd edn). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Kimura, D. (2004). Human sex differences in cognition: fact, not predicament. Sexualities, Evolution and Gender, 6, 45–53. McEwen, B. S. & Norton-Lasley, E. (2005). The end of sex as we know it. Cerebrum, 7(4), 1–15. Nagel, M. C. (2012). In the beginning: the brain, early development and learning. Camberwell, Vic.: ACER Press. Nagel, M. C. & Scholes, L. (2016). Understanding development and learning. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Scholes, L. (2013). Clandestine readers: boys and girls going ‘undercover’ in school spaces. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 5 (260), 1–8.

Websites Boys and Girls Together—www.responsiveclassroom.org/article/ boys-and-girls-together An article based on interviews done for a book on improving gender relationships in schools.

Boys and Reading—www.promoteprevent.org/blog/ story-behind-achievement-gap-boys-and-importance-reading Looks at achievement gaps related to boys and girls and reading.

New South Wales Department of Education and Training: Leading the way in school and classroom practice: boys’ and girls’ education strategy support document—www. rde.nsw.edu.au/blog/2014/08/01/boys-and-girls-education Provides links to the NSW government documents for enhancing education for boys and girls and provides an overview of the six objectives that underpin the NSW Boys’ and Girls’ Education Strategy.

Reading is for the boys (and girls)!—www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/676 Website from the University of North Carolina offering strategies, ideas and lesson plans for promoting reading in boys and girls.

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Chapter 6: Students with Literacy Difficulties

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Chapter  7: Assisting Children with Learning Difficulties in Mathematics 132 Chapter 8: Behavioural Engagement in the Inclusive Classroom

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Chapter  9: Meeting Complex Communication Needs in the Classroom 181 Chapter 10: Supporting Students with Intellectual Disabilities

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Chapter 11: Understanding Vision Impairment

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Chapter 12: Understanding Hearing Impairment

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Chapter 13: Supporting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

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Chapter 14: Supporting Diverse Gifted Students

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Chapter 15: Understanding Physical Impairment in Young Children

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Chapter 16: Supporting Mental Health and Well-being: Promotion, Prevention and Intervention

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Students with Literacy Difficulties Gary Woolley

6

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand that the term ‘learning difficulty’ is a multifaceted construct • To identify factors that contribute to learning difficulties and disengagement • To understand the meaning of literacy in a sociocultural context • To gain an understanding of direct teaching and self-regulating approaches to teaching students with learning difficulties • To identify the key factors to assist students to become ‘engaged learners’ • To understand how students’ participation in their own learning and in cooperation with others may be linked to the development of literacy by all students

KEY TERMS cooperative learning direct teaching disengagement dyslexia

home–school literacy partnerships learning difficulties literacy reading

Introduction Literacy refers to a broad set of sociocultural practices that enable people to derive and build meaning using a variety of multimodal print and digital multimedia texts. Reading is an essential component of literacy that enables learners to decode the signs and symbols of written text. Traditionally, intervention programs have often focused solely on the remediation of reading and word decoding skills without adequately considering other important aspects such as meaning, context and communicative purposes. Our understanding of what it means to have a learning difficulty is shaped by changing views within our society. It is no longer acceptable to view all learning difficulties as residing solely within the learner. Learning difficulties are now considered to be the product of a wider combination of individual and social factors that lead to the disengagement and disempowerment of individuals within a community of learners. This chapter will investigate what it means to have a literacy learning difficulty and how it impacts

Literacy: The ability to read, write, speak, illustrate and to think critically about the written word. Reading: The ability to decode the written word.

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on learning engagement. It will also investigate ways to engage and empower individuals so that they can develop self-regulating behaviours that lead to self-efficacy and academic achievement.

Understanding the terms ‘learning difficulties’ and ‘literacy disengagement’ Learning difficulties: A broad term that encompasses a wide range of biological, cognitive or behavioural factors that inhibit learning. Disengagement: A term that describes the condition whereby a student avoids active involvement in learning tasks.

Over the last few decades education authorities have recognised that an estimated 10 to 20 percent of students in Australian schools have a learning difficulty and continue to struggle with literacy throughout their school years (Rohl & Rivalland 2002). This cohort includes a smaller group of students who have a learning disability and are generally thought to have difficulties that are more permanent, neurological in nature and are resistant to intervention. However, the term learning difficulties is a much broader term that includes these students, but will also include students who are likely to have non-permanent cognitive or behavioural problems that can be remediated using good evidence-based teaching methods. Collectively, students with learning difficulties are frequently described as disengaged learners who usually have a limited array of effective literacy skills and this frequently leads to a widening academic gap between these learners and their peers who have more advanced literacy skills.

Consider the role of literacy in modern Western society. 1 Can a person function in our modern technological world without adequate literacy skills? 2 How is literacy changing in the digital world and how do good literacy skills lead to the empowerment of individuals? 3 How do poor literacy skills affect other academic and social domains? What are some examples of these?

Pause and reflect

Students with literacy difficulties are not a homogeneous group; for example, a significant number of these students have immense word-level decoding difficulties in reading but have good listening comprehension skills. Another group exhibit good phonological skills and decoding ability coupled with good fluency and expression. This group displays a noticeable weakness in listening comprehension accompanied by poor vocabulary knowledge. A third group has problems with both decoding and reading comprehension and their difficulties are believed to include, among other things, weaknesses in lexical, syntactic, conceptual, inferential and organisational cognitive functions. Reading difficulties are complex in nature and may be associated with a number of deficits or a combination of deficits within the

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learner, such as biological, cognitive or behavioural deficits (see Figure 6.1). These deficits quite often are interlinked and often do not stand by themselves.

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Figure 6.1 Deficits within the learner Biological deficits

Biological factors

Cognitive deficits

For many children, particularly for those with dyslexia, there may be a genetic disability, which may be a possible cause for their continuing literacy difficulties. For example, dyslexic problems Behavioural deficits are often evident in identical twins. In contrast, a fraternal twin may develop a reading problem whereas his/her sibling may not. However, not all reading difficulties can be attributed solely to a genetic origin. Neurological abnormalities may also result from biochemical and other environmental factors, such as diet, food quality, environmental toxins and bacterial or viral infections; these can also have a negative influence on literacy development. Maternal smoking and drug or alcohol dependency during pregnancy and birth-related problems in young children may contribute to some literacy difficulties. In the modern technological environment there are many chemicals present that may contribute to certain types of learning disorders. For example, children with high levels of lead in their bodies have been found to score lower than other children on several important variables including verbal performance, language processing and attention. Furthermore, many common substances such as food additives, refined sugars, eggs, corn and milk can also cause allergic reactions that may be associated with learning difficulties. If a student has sensory deficits related to vision or hearing they are more than likely to have major problems in literacy. It is imperative that students be properly assessed for these problems, usually initiated by their parents via the local general medical practitioner, and be referred to the relevant specialist so that remedial medical help can be given. For example, glue ear is a common problem that will stifle a student’s ability to hear and encode sounds and relate these to the relevant graphic symbols. Often this condition coincides with the first year of school when children are learning their foundational reading skills. What may have started out as a biological problem can quickly become a cognitive learning disability due to the fact that much of the basic phonological and graphic information will not have been encoded and stored correctly (Woolley 2011).

Dyslexia: A neurological language disorder that manifests as difficulty to process phonological structure with the corresponding graphic symbols during reading.

Cognitive factors Reading deficits, such as dyslexia, are thought to have a neurological origin but have often been difficult to measure directly. What is certain is that neurological deficits will, in most cases, directly affect the cognitive functioning of individuals. For example, individuals with dyslexia have a particular deficit in encoding and retrieving information related to the sound and graphic relationships of letters, combination of letters, and words. Dyslexia is essentially a languagebased problem and quite often individuals with this condition will have a double deficit in that they also have word-finding difficulties, which compound this reading disorder. Gary Woolley

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Figure 6.2 Cognitive functioning

Metacognitive functions

Decoding/ encoding functions

Syntactic/ semantic functions

Cognitive deficits are often related to the functioning of working memory and often, but not always, will have a biological origin. For example, a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may have an immature neurological condition, which affects their cognitive functioning. It translates into an executive cognitive deficit that exhibits as an inability to focus and maintain concentration. This is often reinforced by factors outside the learner such as poor teaching and poor parenting practices (see below for more on factors outside the learner). Because language is the substance of thinking and the foundation for reading, any language problem will translate into wider literacy difficulties. There are three types of cognitive functions that relate to literacy learning: 

1 decoding/encoding 2 syntactic/semantic 3 metacognitive functions (see Figure 6.2). The encoding and decoding of letters, sounds and words are essential processes that contribute to effective reading: without effective functioning in this area reading may be stifled. The syntactic and semantic processing functions affect meaning and the interpretation of phrases, sentences, paragraphs and longer discourse. Both functions are heavily dependent upon the efficiency and storage capacity of working memory. Metacognitive functioning is a third type of mental process that is directly related to the executive functioning of working memory and its purpose is to monitor meaning and to direct attention and information appropriately within working memory. It is also responsible for monitoring and adjusting the learning process itself so that the learner is more able to develop self-supporting learning behaviours. Significant reading problems arise when one or more of these functions are deficient.

Behavioural factors A percentage of disabled readers may be severely affected by basic cognitive deficits of biological origin that can become more complicated as time goes by and gather momentum by developing into cognitive and behavioural difficulties. What often happens is that students, experiencing persistent and long-term literacy difficulties, can find themselves caught up in a complex cycle of failure that leads to their disengagement from literacy learning.

Cycle of literacy disengagement EARLY LEARNERS

In many classrooms children are exposed to reading programs that are lock-step and hierarchical in nature. This means that skill mastery is largely determined by the ability of the children to gain the foundational skills and essential knowledge and to be able to keep pace with the teaching of the current skill sets. Thus, children who are slower in learning new skills tend to fall behind and without adequate classroom supports they are often placed in a position where

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Figure 6.3 Literacy cycle of behavioural disengagement Poor literacy self-worth

Learned helplessness and disengagement

Poor literacy skills— poor reading, spelling and writing skills

Fewer rewards and lack of adequate feedback

Reluctance to read and less practice in reading and writing

Poor motivation and self-efficacy Poor vocabulary deveploment

it is difficult for them to catch up (see Figure 6.3). Thus, as their peers move on to more difficult texts they develop a reluctance to read because they find it more effortful and frustrating. As these children progress though the primary grades the literacy gap between themselves and their more skilled peers becomes more obvious:  this has been labelled the ‘Matthew effect’ (Stanovich 1986). For the more skilled reader the increasing exposure to large quantities and variety of literature facilitates an enhanced ability to decode and derive meanings from unknown words. The increase in vocabulary knowledge also enhances their growth in reading comprehension. Thus, the greater exposure and engagement with literature creates an increasing advantage for the more successful readers. In contrast, children experiencing literacy problems over long periods of time will also develop other negative behaviours and attitudes associated with reading and writing. As the achievement gap widens they develop an associated combination of other higher order cognitive, motivational and affective difficulties. They, in turn, become less intrinsically motivated as they begin to attribute their lack of success with factors outside of themselves or that are perceived as being beyond their control. For example, they may attribute their failure to the perception that they are ‘dumb’ or that the work is ‘stupid’. As a result they are reluctant to try because they believe that by not trying they can preserve their esteem: ‘I did not succeed because I did not try’. Consequently, they perform poorly when they perceive that failure is a likely outcome for their efforts. This is often reinforced by a lack of rewards and attention from teachers. Added to this is the fact that children with literacy problems tend to ask more inappropriate questions and give poorer answers to their teachers’ questions. As a result, the amount of positive social interactions with teachers and peers may be significantly less than their more skilled peers. Thus, a major factor contributing to the development of students’ lack of reading motivation is their developing low academic self-perception (Woolley 2011). These academic self-perceptions Gary Woolley

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are often shaped by the kinds of feedback students get from their peers and significant others. Furthermore, as they get older they tend to make comparisons of their reading achievement with their classroom peers. Such comparative personal judgments affect their expectancies about future success and potential school performance and academic self-worth. Students tend to withhold effort on learning tasks that will expose their perceived lack of ability. As a result, the student will develop self-worth protection behaviours that blur the link between lack of ability and expending effort. Thus, by not attempting to try they seek to protect themselves against perceived feelings of inadequacy. A student high in self-worth protection behaviour very quickly learns that ‘no response’ will be effective in avoiding unpleasant feelings associated with literacy tasks. Learned helplessness is a term applied when a student believes it is better not to try, than to try and fail. Such disengaged students lack intrinsic motivation and often wait for teacher direction. They do not know how to interact effectively with the text, or how to use their existing background knowledge to assimilate text information during literacy tasks.

Apply your knowledge Consider how you could reverse the downward cycle of literacy disengagement described above. Develop a diagram showing an upward cycle of engagement (similar to the literacy cycle of behavioural disengagement shown in Figure 6.3). Discuss this in groups of three and give an example of a learning/teaching strategy that will support each element. 1 Which literacy skills would you use to approach this task? 2 What is the role of intrinsic motivation within this cycle? How would it be different from extrinsic motivation? 3 What experiences motivate you and help you develop a healthy self-concept? How do you and your friends seek to protect your own self-esteem? Share your response with the whole group and analyse the points of similarity and difference in your responses.

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Factors outside the learner So far, one could develop the notion that learning and reading difficulties are predominantly a result of deficiencies within the reader. However, this is considered too narrow a focus and disregards the range and complexity of social, education, cultural and environmental factors that also may contribute to literacy difficulties. Children who have literacy difficulties often develop other behavioural problems and begin to dislike reading and consequently read less in and out of school when compared to their more successful peers. Many children with literacy difficulties experience significant language and cultural differences between home and school. School literacy achievement is reliant upon a diverse range of factors that may include social class, ethnicity, cultural and educational background of the parents, family income and the number of books in the home. In-home respect for education, local community standards and the value placed on education also influence how well students master basic literacy skills.

Sociocultural context A number of student-related variables, such as language proficiency, background knowledge, sociocultural and affective factors, will affect text relevance for individual readers. Whether or not the text is relevant to the reader’s goals and how well it is written and organised will also impact upon the reader’s comprehension of the text. There are often differences in what families do during family-literacy activities at home, with some minority sociocultural groups being more effective than others in supporting their children’s literacy development. Thus educators should make an effort to incorporate familiar aspects of the child’s cultural diversity into the literacy curriculum (Woolley & Hay 2013).

Task factors For a literacy task to be motivating and involving, it is desirable that the text should be age appropriate, challenging but not too difficult, and related to the interests of the reader. Readability (ease of reading) levels of reading material is a major problem for most students experiencing reading difficulties. In many classrooms remedial reading materials do not adequately deal with this problem. They often employ shortened sentence structures with a very restricted vocabulary and mostly high frequency words. High frequency words generally carry less meaning because they are not as specific as a more elaborated vocabulary. Students with learning difficulties are not always aware of the prior knowledge they bring to the reading situation. Less able readers have more difficulty preventing unimportant information from entering working memory, thereby reducing its capacity; whereas more skilled readers are more able to inhibit or resist potential interference from irrelevant information. To reduce this overload educators will need to scaffold their learning by modelling appropriate selection of relevant information. Strategic and timely questions, for example, will direct attention to relevant text features so that an integrated understanding of the text can be constructed by the reader from the available text information and prior knowledge.

Gary Woolley

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Figure 6.4 Variables inside and outside the learner

Instructional factors

Learner factors

Task factors

The learner within the sociocultural context

ASSESSMENT

Instructional factors High- quality teaching is the most important element in children’s literacy learning. Success in teaching such students depends on the knowledge and ability of teachers to find methods and strategies that provide good teaching environments for those students identified as having difficulties in literacy. A  good teaching performance will depend on the ability of the teacher to properly assess the students and to provide the appropriate literacy interventions.

Understanding the role of assessment

Progress in literacy involves an interaction between the learner, the text and the learning activity. The implication for educators is to shift the focus of their assessment activities away from emphasis solely on deficits within the learner in favour of a much broader examination of the learner within his or her learning and social contexts. This broader focus should lead to the incorporation of instructional activities tailored to the child’s individual learning strengths and needs. What is important is the realisation that progress in literacy may be the result of a combination of a lack of reader proficiency, problems within the text and heavy task demands. Thus, assessment should consider all of these factors filtered within the broader sociocultural context (Figure 6.4). Even though the assessment of children with learning difficulties is a complex issue there is strong support for the effectiveness and utility of teacher ratings as a relatively efficient and costeffective method for early identification of children who are at high risk of developing reading failure. Teacher assessment should be based on a wide range of sampling that includes not only high-stakes testing and standardised tests but also a repertoire of informal formative and summative teacher-made tests. This should be supplemented by other observational assessments such as anecdotal notes, work samples, checklists and conferences and so on. Assessment should be based on authentic tasks that mirror real-world activities so that they are meaningful to students. Wherever possible, students should also have the opportunity to self-assess their own work.

Apply your knowledge Consider the role of self-assessment in the classroom. 1 How can teachers provide opportunities for self-assessment? 2 Why is self-assessment important for students with a learning difficulty? How does this relate to the problem of disengagement? 3 Why is it important to use a variety of assessment tasks? 4 List the types of assessment techniques in the different content areas and consider the pros and cons for each method.

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Understanding engagement in a sociocultural context Sociocultural context A number of reading and motivational theorists have suggested that students should be given opportunities to work with others in groups or in pairs (National Reading Panel 2000). The development of collaborative skills such as knowing how to listen, criticise ideas and negotiate conflicting social situations are important components of language learning in general. When engaged in cooperative reading activities students should be encouraged to comment on their classmates’ responses, add to their ideas, question others and enter into group discussions. An upward cycle of successful reading engagement and achievement can be promoted by providing poorly motivated readers with the opportunity to discuss their reading in an environment that promotes a positive sense of relatedness. Students’ responses during such activities will also give clear insights and valuable assessment data to complement other sources of information. The social learning environment is a significant factor influencing students’ motivation, academic achievement and engagement. In particular, feedback and social interchange between the teacher and the student influences the student’s aspirations and achievement by shaping their goals, curiosity, emotional satisfaction and academic self-efficacy. Personal expectations are often influenced by feedback from significant others. This, in turn, influences the student’s motivation to read by directly increasing engagement time during reading, and persistence with text comprehension. Gary Woolley

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Tutors are ideally suited to use dialogue and to give immediate feedback. Tutors can be sourced from teacher aides, parent helpers or volunteers from the wider community. Peer tutors can also be effective because they can often provide suitable role models and communicate at an appropriate level. What is certain is that tutors need to be well trained to interact effectively with the students for them develop effective literacy skills (Hay & Woolley 2011).

Levels of instructional engagement It has been suggested that an initial approach to instruction should involve a well-balanced and individualised intervention program that builds upon a child’s existing background knowledge and skills. This balance incorporates a number Surface level engagement of levels of cognition that consider a whole range of reader and text factors. Behavioural factors are usually situational; therefore, the instruction of students with literacy difficulties Cognitive level engagement needs to be viewed in context. This context may include a repertoire of school policies and practices, home, family Behavioural/Metacognitive and in-class instructional factors that interact in a complex level engagement manner to influence the academic outcomes for individual students. Instruction should always lead to changes at three levels of cognitive engagement: surface, cognitive, and behavioural or metacognitive levels (see Figure 6.5).

Figure 6.5 Three levels of literacy learner engagement

Surface level engagement Surface level engagement involves processing of information at the perceptual or factual level. In reading, this will involve teaching the required skills and knowledge for the student to decode letters, words and sentences. In writing it may mean that students have the necessary writing or keyboard skills to put their thoughts into words. It does not matter how much a student is motivated to do a particular task: if the student does not have the necessary skills, then they will fail. At the surface level of engagement the struggling literacy learner is often overwhelmed with the sheer complexity or enormity of the task. To make the learning task more considerate to the learner with a difficulty/disability certain adjustments and adaptations may need to be made so that the task gives enough challenge without frustrating the student.

Effective practice Selecting age-appropriate texts One way to select age-appropriate texts with the learner’s known reading level is to follow a readability formula that estimates the reading difficulty of text. 1 Count 100 words. 2 Have the reader start reading aloud and the observer count the reading errors. (If the reader self-corrects do not count it as an error.)

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3 After reading the 100 words have the reader stop and the observer count the errors. 4 If there are 0 to 4 errors the text is at an easy or independent reading level, and good for consolidation and reading for pleasure. 5 If there are between 6 to 10 errors, the text is at the instructional level and reading and comprehension support is required. 6 If there are more than 10 errors the text is too difficult and it is at a frustration level, comprehension and meaning will be lost. (Hay & Woolley 2011) There are many high interest and low readability books available through commercial suppliers. They are pitched at an age-appropriate interest level but the text is usually simplified. This method is appealing because it pitches the text at a level whereby the reader can easily achieve success, but the disadvantage is that it does not introduce new vocabulary and the language is often stilted.

Using authentic texts and repeated reading Another way to make texts more considerate is to use authentic texts or examples of good children’s literature in conjunction with the method of repeated reading. Repeated reading is a technique designed to familiarise the student with the set text before he or she is required to read the selection. It requires the following steps: 1 Examine the book title and pictures and discuss the content. 2 Predict what the story will be about. 3 Have someone read the story to the student or listen to an audio-recorded version and model expression and fluency. 4 Locate unfamiliar or unknown words and find or predict the meaning using the context. 5 Read the story again to the student, or • Read the story in unison, or • The student reads the story with expression and fluency. This method is particularly useful because it introduces new vocabulary, but the texts are often quite difficult. However, if the student is allowed to choose from a range of texts it has the added benefit of appealing to student interests.

The teacher may see the need to make adjustments to texts, tasks, instruction or environmental factors so that individual learners can operate as independently as possible within the classroom. For example, a student with speech/language problems could be placed at the front of the room so that they can hear the instructions clearly. The teacher may break up the instructions into shorter sentences and also write and number the instructions on the board. Where possible, the teacher may use diagrams and mnemonic devices to clarify the instructions. Most instructional adaptations, such as these, are quite simple and do not affect others in a negative way. In fact, most adaptations will benefit all students. For example, a student with ADHD may need to be placed in a classroom without too many distractions and with explicit routines that are listed on a poster board in the classroom. The quieter environment Gary Woolley

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and the explicit listing of the classroom routines can help all students to concentrate and provide them with a predictable working environment.

Cognitive level engagement Direct teaching: A general term for the explicit teaching of a skill set.

Cooperative learning: A method of instruction that involves students working together in groups to complete a specific task.

Most literacy skills require explicit instruction or direct teaching leading to task competency. Effective teaching strategies that pertain to direct, explicit teaching usually incorporate explanation, modelling and guided practice, followed by independent practice. Explicit instruction will be more likely to maximise learning when students are provided with information on the adequacy of the skill or strategy, as well as corrective feedback regarding their success in effecting the strategy. To be effective, direct instruction should aim at giving more responsibility to the reader by teaching specific skills and training the students on how to monitor their own use of skills. The more students understand and take ownership of a new skill, the more likely they are to keep hold of and automatically employ that strategy in the future. Literacy-based interventions often include explicit instruction of a range of basic thinking skills. The teaching of higher order thinking and problem-solving skills is essential because it enables learners to go beyond factual levels of engagement. To develop higher levels of engagement, instruction should be structured and systematic. Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of instructional objectives, for example, was developed to incorporate six levels from the simplest to the more complex thinking skills: (1) remembering, (2) understanding, (3)  applying, (4)  analysing, (5)  synthesising and (6)  evaluating. Having students extend their knowledge and elaborate their understandings through questioning and summarising during a lesson is a highly advocated means of developing these skills. To be more engaging, children could be taught to ask their own questions using sample questions or question stems. The National Reading Panel (2000) identified eight instructional strategies that were deemed most effective in helping students with reading comprehension. These included: (1)  comprehension monitoring, (2)  cooperative learning, (3)  use of graphic organisers, (4) focusing on story structure, (5) question answering, (6) question generating, (7) summarisation and (8) multiple strategy use. Other instructional strategies also include: inferring, predicting, modelling, imaging, guided, and independent practice of strategies. More recently, there has been a greater focus on multiple strategy instruction, cooperative learning and students’ comprehension development (Hay & Woolley 2011).

Metacognitive level engagement Learners are aided in their literacy education if there is a prior goal or reason for learning tasks. Setting goals for instruction helps students know where they are going. In setting goals, affective aspects of the reader need to be taken into consideration, such as motivation, self-concepts, attitude and interests. Furthermore, active student engagement requires adequate feedback and practice combined with frequent applications of self-monitoring and reflective strategies. The development of adequate self-regulation skills by a child with a learning difficulty is one of the most important factors contributing to the successful social integration of that child into

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a regular classroom. Very few teachers provide adequate instruction to their pupils on how to develop self-regulating skills. One way to overcome this problem is for teachers to explicitly demonstrate how students can use appropriate thinking processes by verbalising their own thoughts while they model a new strategy. Self-regulation is strengthened when teacher feedback focuses on students’ progress, not only in terms of learning content, but also on the process of learning itself. Progress feedback is more efficacious when the details of their accomplishments are specified and related to their learning goals because this helps students become more committed. When students are engaged with text, mediated by affirming feedback, the quantity and quality of the literacy activity increases. Progress feedback encourages students to move ahead, self-evaluate, and revise and set new goals. Feedback should always be sincere, very specific, sufficient and appropriately delivered in a manner preferred by the learner.

Apply your knowledge Cloze activities are often used in classrooms to promote reading comprehension by utilising contextual clues. They may be constructed from any relevant text by deleting every nth word. There should be enough visual and semantic information remaining within the sentence or paragraph to provide clues to work out the meaning of a deleted word. When used in conjunction with guided discussion, cloze activities may enhance students’ self-monitoring and self-regulation skills. However, in many classrooms cloze activities are often used merely as a time-filling exercise without adequate preparation, scaffolding and reflection. Use your mobile device to find out about how cloze activities can effectively be used to develop reading comprehension and other literacy skills for children experiencing literacy difficulties. 1 How can a cloze activity be used to develop surface level skills such as phonics, vocabulary, synonyms and so on? 2 How can a cloze activity be used to develop cognitive level skills such as using background knowledge, prediction, self-questioning and self-correction? 3 How can cloze activities be used to develop metacognitive skills such as goal setting, comprehension monitoring and reflection? 4 How can teachers make this a child-centred learning approach?

Responsive approaches to intervention In the United States, Ortiz and colleagues (2006) recommended a three-stage problem-solving model referred to as Response to Intervention (RTI) to identify at-risk learners and determine whether they are eligible for extra learning support. Students with literacy difficulties identified using RTI would then be provided with intervention and given time to acquire relevant skills before they could be referred for specialist help. RTI is a preventative approach whereby instructional decisions are made based on students’ learning rates and levels of performance. Gary Woolley

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A common approach in many Australian schools has been the use of three waves of literacy instruction for students with learning difficulties. The first wave commonly focuses on the inclusion of at-risk students in high-quality classroom literacy programs. The second wave concentrates on early intervention support programs conducted by specialist Reading Recovery teachers, teacher aides or trained volunteer helpers. The third wave usually involves a special education or support teacher using a variety of individualised approaches.

Multidisciplinary teams Schools can enhance assessment and intervention planning by incorporating wider sources of knowledge and experience through a systematic whole-school RTI approach to minimise classroom teachers’ overreliance on special educators. Such teams should draw from a wide spectrum of expertise such as general education teachers, EAL (English as an additional language) teachers and other stakeholders, including administrative staff, teacher aides and parents. This type of collaborative approach should incorporate a common instructional framework that fosters program coherence by aligning staff, schedules and materials to guide curricula, teaching, assessment and the development of a positive learning climate. For example, a classroom teacher may seek the assistance of the multidisciplinary team when he or she realises that classroom-based interventions are not working for a particular student. Teams could collaboratively develop solutions that go beyond student deficit definitions and student-only focused interventions. Generally, however, students’ learning outcomes are related to the quality of instruction they receive. In part, this will be influenced by the quality of the teacher’s preparation, ongoing professional development, and experience with working with a variety of students.

Early and late intervention programs EARLY LEARNERS

Over the past few decades a proportion of research and effort has focused on early remediation for young children with emerging reading difficulties. Language and literacy learning begins long before children start school and the quality of their early learning experiences will depend largely on engaging with familiar adults around meaningful literacy activities. For instance, important factors are the number of books in the home, having opportunities to experiment with writing (for example, using a blackboard or scrapbook), the use of digital technologies at home, visits to the library, excursions and other wider life experiences. However, a proportion of children entering their first year of school have poor language skills and do not adequately cope with the level of language used for instruction in the classroom. If the language difficulty is not addressed early it will most likely have a negative impact on these children’s future literacy development and affect their motivation, perseverance, self-concept and attribution beliefs. Consequently, most Australian schools provide extra assistance to students who do not have an inherent learning disability, but who are considered to be ‘at risk’. Generally, what such students require are early intervention programs that provide extra time with exposure to rich language experiences in order to develop the foundational language skills needed for further literacy development. The important thing is to have high, but realistic expectations for each individual.

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Assessment High-stakes testing, such as the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) tests, have an important place in providing valuable information to governments, education authorities, schools and parents in order to ascertain: academic performance of students, policy, and resources allocation and distribution. However, such tests are limited by the narrow sets of sampling items used and there are concerns about the type and quality of the academic feedback. Therefore, teachers should not rely solely on high-stakes testing as a single indicator of achievement. It should be noted that the teacher, and not the test, is the change agent and there is no such thing as a completely objective assessment (Klenowski & Wyatt-Smith 2012). Deeper learning combines the goals of standardised or high-stakes testing with soft skills that usually require an element of teacher judgment. Thus, assessment should be based on a wide range of formal and informal sampling that should include not only high-stakes testing and standardised tests, but also a repertoire of formative and summative teacher-made tests and observations. Often, this very formal testing situation may be very stressful for children with a learning difficulty or disability and some students have been excluded from taking the tests. However, in many cases, a simple accommodation can be made to help a child with a learning difficulty overcome learning barriers and test anxiety. For example, a child with language difficulty may be accommodated by being allowed to have extra time or by having a teacher aide highlight the key words in the test questions. Most children with language or other literacy difficulties can become familiar with the language of tests by being provided with practice examples of the tests from previous years.

ASSESSMENT

Diagnostic assessment Often it is very difficult to ascertain whether or not a child may have a learning difficulty in the early years of formal education. To address this situation many schools conduct a battery of readiness screening tests during the first weeks of school. These tests may include visual discrimination, auditory discrimination, fine motor, gross motor and other perceptual items. It should be emphasised that children develop physically and mentally at different rates and that low scores on some tests may indicate a different rate of development. In some cases this may lead to further investigation involving consultations with caregivers. One possible outcome of the caregiver/teacher interview may be the need for the caregiver to refer the child to other allied professionals such as paediatricians, educational psychologists, occupational therapists or audiologists depending upon the child’s particular profile. When collecting diagnostic evidence the teacher should focus on the three levels (mentioned earlier in this chapter): 1 biological/perceptual 2 cognitive 3 behavioural. A diagnostic appraisal of data should focus initially on the biological/perceptual level. For example, it stands to reason that if a child has a difficulty with their vision the particular problem will need to be addressed before adequate learning can take place. If a problem such as this is not addressed early, other cognitive and behavioural difficulties are likely to occur. Cognitive difficulties can develop because instructional information may be perceived Gary Woolley

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incorrectly and inhibit memory recording and retrieval processes. Behavioural issues may develop due to frustration, lack of motivation and lack of persistence with learning tasks (Woolley 2011). If, however, there are no apparent perceptual difficulties then the problems could possibly be attributed to cognitive or behavioural issues. The important thing is to get to know the child well and approach diagnostic assessment in a systematic and thorough way. Early diagnosis and intervention can be an effective strategy used to circumvent the development of other problems.

Late intervention Most Australian intervention programs tend to focus on the early years of schooling; however, many students with literacy problems continue to have difficulties beyond Year 3. In particular, it has become evident that there is also a population of children who begin to show signs of reading failure after Year 3. This identification of new students with reading problems has often been referred to as the ‘Year 4 slump’. Leach, Scarborough and Rescorla (2003) investigated this increase in the number of children with reading problems after Year 3. Their findings showed that poor performance on reading comprehension tests in Year 4 were often the first indication that such students were having a range of literacy difficulties. This increase could reflect the complexity of literacy demands in the middle primary grades as there is a greater separation of curricular knowledge domains in addition to an increase in language, text density and structure. Each subject in the middle years of schooling is more differentiated with different traditions and orientations of knowledge involving written, spoken and symbolic forms. For example, the reading and writing of science material is often in contrast with English story texts with more words across all subject areas becoming increasingly more phonologically and morphologically complex. Furthermore, readers are expected by their teachers to be more accurate in their reading and there is a need to decode written information much more rapidly with less assistance and support.

Technology and the digital divide TECHNOLOGY

Digital literacy has become one aspect of literacy development. Of major concern has been the ‘digital divide’. This term is related to inequitable access to digital technologies; in particular, access to such devices as computers, smartphones, tablets and the internet in the home and at school. However, over the last five years or so Australian schools have improved access to these technologies while public libraries and other agencies have also provided technology services for those who do not normally have access in the home (ABS 2014; OECD 2011). This ‘digital divide’ still has an impact on some children from low socio-economic backgrounds, but is now more related to the fact that there is a vast difference in skill sets for those using these technologies. It is important to keep in mind that digital literacy skills do not replace traditional writing and reading abilities, but build on them. For example, the ability to navigate hyperlinks on the internet to search for specific information requires sophisticated metacognitive skills such as goal setting, monitoring and reflection. There are many computer programs and applications that can be used to assist children with a learning difficulty. For example, a child with a reading difficulty may be assisted with

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auditory and visual cues when using a text-to-speech program to process information. On the other hand, a speech-to-text program may be appropriate for a child with a writing difficulty. What is certain is that educational technology can improve teaching and learning when it is user-friendly and enables high-quality and meaningful interactions (Johnson, Adams Becker, Estrada & Freeman 2015).

Home–school partnerships Schools that invest time and effort into developing home–school literacy partnerships will have a large impact on the learning outcomes of students considered to be at risk of literacy failure. To be effective, however, home-based family-literacy sessions should be brief and enjoyable and conducted in a comfortable place that is free from other distractions. They should foster an environment of mutual support and cooperation by gradually transferring the responsibility for the reading process to the child. Parents and caregivers should spend time elaborating on the story plot, interesting facts and language features of the text by explaining unfamiliar words, syntax and punctuation in a supportive dialogue context (Woolley & Hay 2013). Caregivers should be encouraging and emphasise meaning and story content rather than merely focusing on getting the words correct. The main concern should be to develop an enjoyment of literature and to engage in rich dialogue that makes meaningful connections to the child’s real-life experiences. Family-literacy sessions should also be supplemented by visits to the library and visits in the backyard or to the neighbourhood park to extend the learning experiences around topics or themes. This makes reading more meaningful and will contribute to comprehension development (Woolley & Hay 2013).

Home–school literacy partnerships: Outof-school literacy programs that involve families engaging in supportive literacy activities at home.

Gary Woolley

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SUMMARY Students with learning difficulties in literacy are affected by a range of factors within themselves and also by other factors outside themselves. These factors interact in a number of ways that will often lead to disengagement from literacy learning. This then becomes a cycle of failure that is often quite difficult to overcome. To reverse this trend students should be shown how to develop self-regulation strategies that will lead to independence and academic success. For this to be effective teachers need to develop broader assessment practices by looking beyond the notion of learning difficulties residing solely within the learner. Thus, teachers should also consider other factors outside the learner such as texts, tasks and instructional practices within the social context of the classroom and community. Assessment should acknowledge students’ strengths and consider their educational needs in response to instructional practices. A thorough and responsive assessment should lead to appropriate accommodations and adjustments to the curriculum that focus on three levels of engagement: surface, cognitive and behavioural. Most accommodations and adjustments not only help individuals but also benefit the wider community of learners. Literacy is a social activity and there are cooperative methods that can support students with learning difficulties within the classroom and beyond. Family-literacy programs, for example, extend learning beyond the classroom walls and give impetus to the literacy development of students who may be at risk of academic failure.

For group discussion 1 What have you learnt about the relationship between direct teaching and selfregulating instructional activities of children with learning difficulties? 2 What have you learnt about your own approach to developing the literacy competencies of students with learning difficulties? 3 What are some of the strengths and challenges of your own approach to developing the literacy competencies of students with learning difficulties?

Key references Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2014). Household use of information technology, Australia, 2012–13. Cat. no. 8146.0. Canberra: ABS. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook 1: the cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Hay, I. & Woolley, G. (2011). The challenge of reading comprehension. In T. Le, Q. Le & M. Short (eds), Language and literacy education in a challenging world (pp. 198–209). New York: Nova Science Publishers. Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V. & Freeman, A. (2015). NMC horizon report: 2015 K-12 Edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.

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Klenowski, V. & Wyatt-Smith, C. (2012). The impact of high stakes testing: the Australian story. Assessment in Education: Principles Policy and Practice, 19(1), 65–79. Leach, J. M., Scarborough, H. S. & Rescorla, L. (2003). Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 211–24. National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: report of the Comprehension Instruction Subgroup to the National Institute of Child Health and Development. Washington, DC: NICD. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2011). PISA 2009 results: students on line: digital technologies and performance (Volume VI). Accessed at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264112995-en. Ortiz, A. A., Wilkinson, C. Y., Robinson-Courtney, P. & Kushner, M. (2006). Considerations in implementing intervention assistance teams to support English language learners. Remedial and Special Education, 27(1), 53–63. Rohl, M. & Rivalland, J. (2002). Literacy learning difficulties in Australian primary schools: who are the children identified and how do their schools and teachers support them? Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 25, 19–40. Woolley, G. (2011). Reading comprehension: assisting children with learning difficulties. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer International. Woolley, G. E. & Hay, I. (2013). Partnerships. In D. Pendergast & S. Garvis (eds), Teaching early years: curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (pp. 216–30). Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

Websites Australian Federation of SPELD Associations—http://auspeld.org.au Australian federation of SPELD (Specific Learning Difficulties) supporting parents of children with learning difficulties.

Australian Literacy Educators’ Association—www.alea.edu.au A professional association of literacy educators that disseminates research and teaching practices. Author’s Blog—reading4meaning.blogspot.comDr Gary Woolley’s blog focusing on literacy research and related contemporary issues.

Dyslexia-SPELD Foundation—https://dsf.net.au Western Australian SPELD organisation that focuses on dyslexia.

Learning Difficulties Australia—www.ldaustralia.org An Australian association of allied professionals who support children with learning difficulties.

SPELD Queensland—www.speld.org.au The Queensland branch of SPELD.

SPELD South Australia—www.speld-sa.org.au The South Australian branch of SPELD. Gary Woolley

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Shelley Dole

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To consider mathematics learning in the early years • To develop strategies for determining the nature of students’ difficulties in mathematics • To understand the nature of errors in computational procedures • To value mathematics errors and misconceptions as springboards for change in teaching practices • To build awareness of the importance of differentiation for inclusive teaching of mathematics

KEY TERMS algorithm differentiation error analysis

learned difficulties misconceptions

Introduction

Differentiation: An overall approach to planning, teaching and managing the classroom that systematically takes into account individual students’ characteristics and needs.

This chapter considers those children for whom the study of mathematics is sometimes or always a challenge. It does not specifically address the learning of mathematics for students who do have a diagnosed learning difficulty, but the teaching approaches outlined here may be of assistance for those learners. This chapter begins with an overview of the research literature into diagnosing and supporting children with difficulties in mathematics. It highlights key research into error patterns in computation that served to challenge deficit views of children who experience difficulties with learning mathematics. This research is framed within constructivism as an explanatory theory of the active cognitive processes with which children engage during mathematics. This research has led to the development of teaching approaches that target mathematics errors and misconceptions as starting points for knowledge growth, and these are briefly summarised. A focus on the early learning of mathematics in school and the critical role of the teacher is addressed. This is followed with ideas and strategies for whole-class teaching through differentiation of instruction to be inclusive of all learners in the mathematics classroom.

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This chapter is not about numeracy or children who have been deemed to have difficulties with numeracy. In many cases, the term numeracy is used interchangeably with the term mathematics, and indeed Australian children undertake a national numeracy assessment program throughout their schooling. Numeracy encompasses more than mathematics. Those who are good at mathematics may not be overly numerate and those who demonstrate valuable numeracy capability may not be overly good at mathematics. Mathematics is required for numeracy, but it is not the only requirement. Numeracy is the capacity to apply the mathematics as required in authentic, real-world contexts. In this chapter, the focus is on supporting children in their study of school mathematics. Numeracy is a general capability and is something that is developed across the curriculum as children study all subject areas. While the national numeracy assessment component of NAPLAN (National Assessment Plan— Literacy and Numeracy) is labelled a test of numeracy, it is essentially a test of mathematics as it is not testing children’s capacity to apply their mathematics knowledge in actual, real situations. For these reasons, this chapter is titled ‘assisting children with learning difficulties in mathematics’ rather than assisting children with difficulties in numeracy.

Changing deficit views of mathematics learning difficulties Mathematics in school brings about many emotions in learners. Students who perform well on mathematics tasks are often regarded by others (and often themselves) as the smartest people in the class. Students who consistently find mathematics difficult will often display negative feelings about their own learning capacity. Parents are also ready to admit that they were never any ‘good’ at mathematics and so often expect that this will be the case for their children. In contrast to self-perceptions about literacy, people do not readily admit that they cannot read, but are keen to proclaim that they cannot ‘do’ mathematics. For some children, the learning of mathematics is sometimes easy and sometimes hard. Of those children who have a history of difficulty with the study of mathematics, there is often an associated perception that they have some sort of learning difficulty; that is, the fault lies with the child. This is a deficit view of mathematics learning that suggests that, while children have been provided with mathematics learning experiences throughout their schooling, they have developed little or no mathematics knowledge due to a possibly undiagnosed learning difficulty. Researching ways to assist children who experience difficulty with the study of mathematics has a long history. Traditionally, mathematics was regarded as a curriculum focused on learning rules and procedures for calculating answers to mathematics exercises. In the primary school, the focus was predominantly on learning the algorithms for the four operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Drill and practice was the typical teaching approach with very little focus on the meaning of the algorithms. Research focused on ways to assist children to correct the errors they were making in their calculation procedures. While the school mathematics curriculum taught in schools today has evolved into a comprehensive curriculum that is more encompassing than learning algorithms and practising calculation

Algorithm: A stepby-step approach procedure that, if applied in the right sequence, yields the correct answer.

Shelley Dole

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procedures, the research tradition of assisting children in overcoming calculation errors has served to impact deficit views of mathematics learners and to turn the spotlight onto teaching approaches to mathematics. The deficit view of mathematics non-learning was an enduring conceptualisation until the 1970s. It was around this time that some researchers began to undertake an in-depth analysis of the errors that students were making in their mathematical calculations. What began to be noticed was the surprising consistency in the calculation procedures that students were applying to particular exercises.

Apply your knowledge Below are examples of four different students’ approaches to calculating specific mathematics exercises, adapted from those provided by Ashlock (2010). Each set presents the individual student’s responses to those exercises. You will notice that there is consistency to each response. Once you have determined how each individual student performs the calculation, test yourself on the given ‘test’ questions (the students’ incorrect responses to the test questions are presented at the end of this chapter). Then analyse the conceptual basis for each error. What does the error tell you about each student’s mathematics knowledge? 62 + 58 1110

81 + 46 127

28 + 76 914

65 + 88 1413

25 + 83

54 + 79

214 + 362 576

1 25 + 93 19

3 264 + 776 9113

00 674 + 433 117

326 + 463

724 + 356

24 + 43 67

45 + 4 13

26 + 8 16

46 + 23 69

36 + 23

35 + 7

8 1 197 − 43 1414

6 1 473 − 45 428

6 1 254 − 47 227

4 1 352 − 42 3110

176 − 35

285 − 63

53 +8

Research into the consistency of computational errors by students gave rise to a reconceptualisation of learners who experienced difficulties with the study of mathematics. No longer could the learner who exhibited consistent errors in computation be regarded as having a mathematics learning disability. Consistency of errors in computation provided compelling evidence that learning had taken place, but what had been learnt was an incorrect method of computation that led to an incorrect result. The distinction between a mathematics learning difficulty and learned mathematics difficulty provided new frames for thinking about the

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learning of mathematics. As outlined by Ashlock (2010), the term ‘learning difficulty’ suggests that a student has a difficulty in acquiring knowledge. On the other hand, a learned difficulty is indicative of a student’s capacity to learn, but what has been learnt is merely an incorrect way of doing things. When students display errors in computation, they are demonstrating the unique way that they have learnt to do something. The examples presented above exemplify children’s learning of incorrect algorithms for mathematics computation.

Errors and constructivism Constructivism learning theory provides a valuable way of considering how the development of consistent errors occurs. Constructivism theories of learning state that knowledge is actively constructed by the individual (Thompson 2014). Errors are personal constructions in the mind of the individual and thus are meaningful, and make sense, to the individual (Rauff 1994). They are an individual’s interpretation of a mathematical situation at the time. In describing the development of errors, Confrey (1990) drew upon Piaget’s theory of knowledge as mental constructions, outlining how students will see mathematical or scientific ideas quite differently to adults, and even though such ideas might only make sense within a limited framework, ‘to the child, they are wonderfully viable and pleasing’ (p. 109). The errors in the activity above are quite ingenious approaches to calculation of some particular mathematics exercises, and in some cases, the approach yields the correct answer. It can be seen that aspects of each child’s approach bear some resemblance to standard computation approaches and hence show the active mental processing of the child at the time of learning. Resnick and colleagues (1989) have suggested that it is through children’s attempts to integrate new knowledge with established knowledge that errors often develop. In further explaining this process, they suggest that, within the mathematics classroom, teachers could provide various examples of mathematical procedures for students to learn and practice. In the classroom situation, teachers can only provide certain examples, and when students are faced with computation exercises that have not been explained by the teacher, or they were not paying particular attention at the time when the teacher was explaining, the students must decide for themselves how to proceed. ‘Errorful rules are a natural result of children’s efforts to interpret what they are told and go beyond the cases actually presented … errorful rules are active constructions’ (Resnick et al. 1989, p. 25). At the height of research into consistent errors in computation, Brown and Van Lehn’s (1982) ‘repair theory’, provided an interesting explanation of the development of patterns of error. Repair theory can also be seen to exemplify the active cognitive processing in which students engage while learning mathematics. Using the early language associated with computers, they termed students’ errors as ‘bugs’, and the process through which students develop bugs as repair theory. According to repair theory, when learners are confronted with tasks on which they are unsure of how to perform (on which they have become ‘stuck’), they use a simple ‘repair’ tactic that enables them to produce a solution and become ‘unstuck’. In this way, repairs occur as a result of learners choosing alternative solution paths in order to produce answers. If the repair is erroneous and left unchecked, the incorrect repair, through repetition, becomes a habit, produced in response to appropriate stimuli. The repair is now a consistent error; that is, a ‘buggy’ solution. Some students

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Learned difficulties: Usually taken to mean consistent errors and misconceptions that indicate learning has occurred, but what has been learnt is incorrect. Learned difficulties reflect the ability to learn, but what has been learnt is merely an incorrect way of doing things.

Shelley Dole

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take several alternative solution paths in response to the one stimulus, hence switching between bugs, and this is labelled ‘bug migration’. Bug theory is an explanatory theory for the development and consistency of erroneous algorithmic procedures (buggy solutions), and the existence of several incorrect procedures for the same stimulus (bug migrations). Unfortunately, bug migration does have implications for accurate diagnosis of consistency in errors. Some procedures yield correct solutions, thus confirming the legitimacy of the buggy procedure in the mind of the student, and hence making remediation of that error pattern all the more difficult (Ashlock 2010).

Can you remember being taught standard algorithms to mathematics exercises when you were at school? What approaches did the teacher use? For example, were you in small groups for instruction? Did you use concrete materials? Were the procedures taught to you so that they made sense? Show how you would compute the following:  (a) 467 + 836; (b) 254 − 167; (c) 64 × 73; (d) 563 ÷ 68.

Pause and reflect

1 Can you explain each step in the algorithms? 2 How do you think you would teach these algorithms to children meaningfully and so that all children are being catered for? 3 Is it important for students to be able to accurately compute the answers to these exercises? Explain why or why not.

Diagnosis

Error analysis: The process of analysing students’ responses to particular tasks. Errors suggest the student’s conceptualisation of the task at hand and hence provide guidance for instruction to overcome those errors.

Determining the nature of students’ difficulties with the study of mathematics is often termed diagnosis. This term has been likened to the work of doctors in diagnosing illnesses. While this view has limiting connotations of finding the right antidote to ‘fix’ the issue, it does emphasise the importance of considering all factors before making hasty judgments. Sources of information will consist of analysis of test scores and written responses to mathematics tasks, as well as observations of how the student works individually on mathematics tasks and problems, and how the student interacts with peers during mathematics and other lessons, as well as considering the home environment and support that is provided, and the student’s learning style. The process of diagnosis, then, is characterised by continual probing, providing students with a variety of mathematical tasks in relation to specific mathematics topics to determine the students’ mathematical strengths and weaknesses (Ashlock 2010). Error analysis is also a valuable means for gaining insight into the thinking processes of individuals. Consider the student who consistently makes the following error in fraction computation:  7/10 + 4/5  =  11/15. On the surface, it appears that the student has little knowledge of fraction addition and the value of each fraction. However, this computation

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method may be quite valid to the child who scored 7/10 on the first test and 4/5 on the second test to give a final mark of 11 out of 15 for the whole assessment, which is often a common way that teachers communicate test results to students. When viewing errors from this perspective, the meaningful base from which errors are drawn is apparent. Focusing on students’ difficulties with computation in mathematics tasks can overshadow recognition of students’ thinking and reasoning capabilities. If students’ mathematics understanding is determined through assessments and tests, particularly those that require extensive mathematical calculations and the application of learnt procedures, there is little chance that such assessments will be useful in determining conceptual understanding rather than capacity to memorise rules and procedures. Students need to be exposed to good questions (Sullivan & Lilburn 2002). Good mathematics questions are those that have a range of answers, or a range of solution pathways to achieve the answer; they promote problem solving; and provide the learner with the potential to think creatively and display conceptual understanding of mathematical processes. Good questions do not need to be complicated or require extensive problem solving. The two questions below provide an example of a routine question and a good question respectively: 1 What is the area of a rectangle with side length 24 cm and width 35 cm? 2 A small placemat has an area of 300 cm2. What might its dimensions be? The first example simply requires application of the formula for finding the area of a rectangle, that is L × W. The second example can have many correct responses and requires much greater cognitive effort to imagine what sort of numbers would give the final answer. This item also invokes the need to draw a diagram and to use trial and error to find possible solutions. By its nature, this problem engages students in a deeper fashion with the concept of area, thus strengthening conceptual knowledge of the topic as well as promoting problem solving capabilities.

Apply your knowledge Use the four computation exercises in the Pause and Reflect box on page 136. Brainstorm a good question that might provide you with greater insight into a student’s understanding of the process of each operation rather than just the procedure.

Effective practice Students’ personal understanding of fractions The following task sheet has been taken from Downton, Knight, Clarke and Lewis (2006, p.  81). It offers the teacher a wealth of information about students’ understanding of fractions. 1 Write down a list of all the fractions you know. 2 From this list, choose your favourite fraction. 3 Once you have chosen your fraction, complete the following tasks about ‘your’ fraction. Shelley Dole

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a b c d e f g h

Write down everything you know about your fraction. Write down the decimal equivalence of your fraction. Represent your fraction on a number line. Represent the decimal form of your fraction on a number line. Find three other fractions equivalent to your fraction. Represent your fraction as part of a metre. Cut a piece of wool or string that is this long. Record the length of wool in centimetres.

Good questions in mathematics can be used to gather information on students’ mathematics understanding of particular topics in non-threatening environments and without creating a test-like atmosphere. The questions allow students to be challenged at their own level, thus being inclusive of all learners. Students’ responses provide insight into their conceptualisation of the topic at hand.

Intervention Misconceptions: Incorrect or naive conceptions about particular tasks that may interfere with the development of appropriate knowledge and hence knowledge growth. A common misconception in mathematics is that multiplication always results in a bigger number. This conception interferes with students’ interpretation of the results of multiplication with fractions and decimals.

In the 1990s, a lot of research focused on students’ misconceptions and errors, and this gave rise to research using conceptual change approaches. A  study by Connell and Peck (1993) outlined the use of concrete materials to assist students to develop rich conceptual knowledge of particular mathematics topics. This approach aligned much of the science education literature at the time, which highlighted the difficulty of overcoming students’ naive and alternative conceptions of science topics. Connell and Peck’s approach was valuable for teaching new topics in the curriculum, but for topics previously learnt by students, the researchers found that students’ prior, erroneous knowledge continually interfered with their new knowledge. The persistence of students’ computational errors hampered their conceptual knowledge development, an issue that has been repeatedly reported in the literature (for example, Fischbein & Schnarch 1997; Resnick 1982). Even though a student can see the limitations of their own conceptualisation within a particular topic, they can develop and hold appropriate concepts without giving up their prior, inappropriate concept. A focus on errors as the beginning point for teaching interventions in mathematics has become a recognised strategy in helping children with difficulties in mathematics. Borassi (1994) developed an approach for helping students feel comfortable about sharing their erroneous knowledge about particular mathematics topics that served to overcome potential feelings of embarrassment. In this approach, a task or topic is presented to the students and they are invited to write a definition or approach for solving that task or topic, which is then subsequently shared with all students in the classroom. Each approach is discussed in terms of its mathematical appropriateness. The students are thus required to analyse their own definition or approach and compare and contrast it with other definitions or approaches, thus modifying, rejecting, arguing for and justifying their own approach. The teacher’s role is to assist the process, prompting students to clearly explain their statements, probing their knowledge, and using the error to continue the growth of the

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definition or approach along appropriate lines. Rather than trying to hide their erroneous knowledge about the topic, students have been found to feel more comfortable knowing that other students also have similar or alternative approaches and this feeling enabled productive forward learning of mathematics to occur. More recently, Hennessy, Higley and Chesnut (2012) have proposed the use of ‘persuasive pedagogy’, which also acknowledges the prior knowledge that learners bring to the mathematics learning situation. In this approach, students engage in learning communities where discussion and reflection upon mathematics concepts and processes occurs.

Diagnostic prescriptive teaching The term ‘diagnostic prescriptive teaching’ gained prominence in the 1980s in relation to teaching that is responsive to the needs of individual learners who were experiencing difficulty with the study of mathematics. A feature of diagnostic teaching is that specific mathematics difficulties inform the design of instruction and guide the selection of tasks, approaches and strategies. Student responses are observed to evaluate the approaches and guide the development of further lessons. Such approaches, while predominantly for individual instruction, provide valuable frameworks for whole-class instruction. However, some approaches derive from a hierarchical view of mathematics that may perpetuate linear approaches to teaching that can stifle student creativity and active learning. An early model of diagnostic teaching was presented by Wilson in 1976 as five phases, and this is still a valuable pedagogical framework for teaching for differentiation today. The five phases and key elements of each phase are:  1 initiating—the teacher provides activities for students to explore the new concept 2 abstracting—the teacher carefully structures tasks so that the key principles of the concept can be understood by students 3 schematising—the teacher provides activities for the purpose of linking students’ prior knowledge to new knowledge 4 consolidating—having laid the foundation for concept development through exploration and structured linking activities, the teacher then provides opportunities for students to practise and consolidate their new knowledge 5 transferring—the teacher provides activities that require application of the new knowledge to other, related situations. Diagnosis is integral to this model; at every phase, diagnosis informs the teacher’s decisions about further instruction. Observation, interviews and pen-and-paper tests are suggested means for gathering data on students’ understanding of the topic being taught. A  further specific model for diagnostic-prescriptive teaching was proposed by Underhill, Uprichard and Heddens in 1980, where the focus was on task analysis. Through task analysis, mathematical topics are broken into component parts, thus pinpointing important steps in the learning sequence so that sequential instruction can be built. This model presupposes a hierarchical structure of mathematical topics and hence using task analysis as the first point for designing instruction must be considered with caution. If teachers subscribe to a view of mathematics as a hierarchical subject, then they tend to believe that mathematics consists of sub-skills that Shelley Dole

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must be secure before proceeding to higher applications. This can serve to limit mathematics instruction to extensive practice of procedures and skills without rich contexts for applying those skills. However, task analysis continues to be an important means of identifying the underlying mathematics of particular topics to assist students to build deep conceptual mathematics knowledge (Lo 2010; Resnick, Wang & Kaplan 1973; Stein & Kaufman 2010). In the diagnostic-prescriptive teaching approach advocated by Underhill, Uprichard and Heddens the three main phases of the model are: task analysis, diagnosis of student knowledge, and provision of learning experiences based on both task analysis and student knowledge analysis. Individual interviews with students are suggested as the means for ascertaining a student’s level of knowledge in relation to that topic through use of concrete materials and representations. Although potentially difficult with whole classes, observing students and engaging them in informal interviews, combined with knowledge of the mathematical conceptual demands of the topic, is a valuable means for designing instruction. The two models of diagnostic-prescriptive instruction presented above, while located within the diagnostic-remediation mathematics literature, provide a valuable framework for good mathematics teaching and hence differentiation. In fact, much of the literature on helping children overcome learning difficulties in mathematics points to effective instruction. As stated by Fischer (1989): Although diagnostic-prescriptive teaching is used to find and remedy problems that children have with the content to be learned, ideally it should be used before children have the problems. The diagnostic-prescriptive approach should have been used in the first place. (p. 7)

A more recent pedagogical framework that is helpful for differentiation is the RAMR framework (Cooper & Carter 2016). This framework has elements connected to the work of Wilson (1976), as outlined above, and this is acknowledged by the authors of this model: • Reality (R)—start with the interests and knowledge of the child. • Abstraction (A)—provide concrete, physical, pictorial learning experiences that embody the mathematics of focus. • Mathematics (M)—connect new learning to prior learning; enrich children’s mental mathematical structures or schemas. • Reflection (R)—engage children in problem solving and applications; provide activities so that new knowledge can be transferred to new and related situations; build flexibility, generalising. A further pedagogical framework has been developed by Warren and her colleagues (described in Warren & Miller 2014) that emphasises the importance of focusing on mathematics language. Entitled the RoleM approach, this model outlines representations, oral language, engagement in mathematics. It has been found to be useful for students for whom English is not their first language, but has been suggested as a valuable approach for all learners. The pedagogical frameworks presented here are important for considering differentiation in mathematics. They emphasise mathematics teaching for all children together in the classroom, exploring new mathematics ideas, connecting the known to the new, talking, problem solving, engaging and exploring. These approaches have been trialled with whole classes of students.

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Supporting early learners Children come to school with extensive mathematical awareness (Clements & Samara 2007; Gervasoni & Perry 2015). They have intuitive understandings of the processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division through engaging in real-life activities. For example, children know they have more toy cars when they are given more cars for their birthday; they know that their collection is smaller when they have mislaid one of their cars; they have shared sweets with their siblings; they have put things into groups of equal sizes and know that three of these groups is more than one of these groups. They have awareness of spatial language through locating things beside, next to, on, over, above and under.

EARLY LEARNERS

Children will have noticed patterns in their environment. They have observed the shapes of containers and other common items. When children begin school, they are typically provided with direct and often explicit teaching of mathematical concepts, symbols and words in a formal environment. They sit at tables and complete worksheets; they sit on the mat as a whole group and repeat mathematics terms and definitions; they use structured materials (counters, blocks, flashcards) to assist mathematics learning. The formal classroom environment signals that mathematics is a serious business. Very quickly teachers realise there are increasing differences in children’s understanding of the mathematics that they are teaching. In some cases, teachers point to the impoverished background of the children as a factor impacting on progress.

The critical role of the teacher in early mathematics learning The teacher’s approach to teaching mathematics in the early years of schooling is of utmost importance. These years of schooling are not only vital for establishing key foundational concepts for continued and forward learning of mathematics, but also impact on children’s Shelley Dole

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conceptualisation of themselves as learners of mathematics. There is a considerable body of knowledge around mathematics anxiety and its detrimental effects on children. The research tells that us that the majority of students do not come to school with feelings of mathematics anxiety, yet some begin to exhibit anxiety, fear and aversion towards any tasks that require mathematics early in their schooling (Harari, Vukovic & Bailey 2013). While there is research indicating that parents influence children’s perceptions about mathematics (Mellon & Moutavelis 2011), students’ aversion to mathematics stems predominantly from negative experiences associated with the teaching and learning of mathematics (Maloney & Beilock 2012; Williams 1988). The classroom teacher’s feelings of anxiety towards mathematics also have been found to be a major factor affecting students’ views of mathematics (Gresham 2007).

Mathematics anxiety among teachers

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Cassandra is a pre-service teacher in the second year of her four-year primary teacher education program. In the first year of her program, Cassandra completed a course on numeracy. At the time, she was quite anxious about her own mathematics capacity and was not confident of doing well in this course as it was based on mathematics. As the course was about applying mathematics in the real world, Cassandra passed the course to a very satisfactory level. Now that she is in her second year, she is enrolled in her first mathematics curriculum course. She also has been assigned a Year 6 class on her next practicum. She is beginning to feel very anxious about being able to teach mathematics to the Year 6 class based on her own feelings of anxiety about mathematics. She expressed her feelings to her tutor. Her tutor told her that pre-service teachers with high mathematics anxiety are often the best teachers of mathematics because they work hard in their planning to ensure that their mathematics teaching makes sense to the students they are going to teach.

1 What are your thoughts about Cassandra? 2 Should Cassandra undertake a refresher mathematics course? Why/ why not? 3 Is Cassandra’s tutor correct in his response to her anxiety? Explain. 4 Where should Cassandra’s energy be placed as she prepares for teaching of mathematics to her Year 6 class in her upcoming practicum? 5 What strategies might Cassandra put into place to assist in building her confidence in her own mathematics capacity and reducing her feelings of mathematics anxiety? 6 Would a requirement to successfully pass a mathematics test be a requirement of a teacher education program so that teachers like Cassandra do not graduate from teacher education programs? Explain.

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Teachers must take a careful look at the mathematics learning environment they are providing to the children. It has been suggested that the mathematical misconceptions exhibited by children, and the difficulties they experience with the study of mathematics, is predominantly attributable to classroom instruction that they have encountered (for example, MacDonald 1972; Woodward & Howard 1994). Considering that the quality of instruction prior to a student exhibiting difficulty in mathematics may be uncomfortable for the teacher, analysis of the classroom learning environment and the teacher’s teaching style will contribute to a clearer picture of the nature of the student’s learning difficulty (Shapiro 1989). In the early years classroom, children are being presented with formal teaching of mathematics concepts of which they often have intuitive knowledge. Models for teaching to help children make connections between their informal conceptualisations to formal mathematics stress the importance of using the language and experiences of the child. One of the most enduring models for supporting the mathematics learning of any concept is that one proposed by Payne and Rathmell (1975). This model, often referred to as the triad model for teaching mathematics, emphasises connecting physical representations of mathematics with the language and symbols to assist conceptual development. Beginning with a ‘story’ or a real-world situation or context, the teacher actively assists children to make connections between the representation (pictorial, physical, virtual) of the situation to the mathematical symbol through the use of language. An example for an addition situation is outlined below. • Story: There were three little ducks on the pond and another two flew in and joined them. How many ducks on the pond altogether? • Representation: 3 blocks and 2 blocks placed on the table. • Language: Three plus two equals five. • Symbol: 3 + 2 = 5 The teaching model being used here is depicted in Figure  7.1. The two-way arrows indicate that the teaching sequence is not one-directional, but flows between the three modes of representation, language and symbol. This model is valuable not only for teaching

Figure 7.1 The triad model for teaching mathematics concepts Representation (physical, pictorial, virtual)

Language 'three plus two equals five'

Symbolic '3 + 2 = 5'

Source: adapted from Payne & Rathmell (1975). Shelley Dole

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concepts in the early years, but for teaching new concepts as children progress through the school mathematics curriculum. For example, when teaching percentages, the teacher would provide students with an image of a percentage (for example, 73%) by a 10  × 10 grid of which 73 squares in the grid have been shaded. The teacher would use the language of percent (seventy-three per cent) and link the symbolic recording (73%) to the pictorial representation that emphasise the part-whole conceptualisation that 73% is equivalent to 73 out of 100. The triad model continues to endure as a staple for teaching for rich conceptual understanding of mathematics and has been cited in many projects (for example, Cooper & Carter 2016; Ewing 2016; Irons 2014).

Early number learning EARLY LEARNERS

In the early years mathematics curriculum a lot of directed teaching is associated with learning about numbers and numeration. In the Foundation year, children explore numbers to 20; in Year 1 the focus is on numbers to 100, in and Year 2 the focus is on numbers to 1000 (ACARA 2015a). In these early years, children learn to associate number names to symbols, they engage in simple addition, subtraction, multiplication and division activities with materials, they explore number relationships and build connected ideas about how numbers work and how they relate to each other. As they meet numbers greater than 10 in the Foundation year, children are provided with opportunities to develop place value understanding as they explore partitioning of objects into groups of 10. Children’s capacity to work with numbers and perform simple addition, subtraction, multiplication and division calculations is often taken as a measure of a child’s mathematics development. It is an expectation that children will know combinations of simple facts (for example, 5 + 5; 3 + 8; 3 × 2; 5 × 4) and to be able to undertake simple calculations in their head (for example, 24 + 6) without counting on their fingers or laboriously counting by ones. In fact, it is an expectation that by the end of Year 3 children will be able to recall addition and multiplication facts for single digit numbers; and that by the end of Year 4 they will be able to recall multiplication facts to 10 × 10 and related division facts (ACARA 2015a). Children who are experiencing difficulties with mathematics in the early years of schooling usually have poor basic fact recall, as well as poor place value knowledge. An early mathematics program that is focused predominantly on the testing of recall of basic mathematics facts will have detrimental effects upon the affective domain of learners. However, it is also well-recognised that improving students’ basic computation skills and place value knowledge are important for supporting students who are at risk of failure in mathematics (Fuchs et al. 2008). Teaching basic facts is not about drill and practice, but rather a focus on number exploration, number relationships, pattern noticing and strategic thinking (Hilton, Hilton, Dole & Campbell 2014). A suggested teaching sequence for assisting children to develop addition facts to 20 through developing strategies is presented below. The teaching sequence is both hierarchical and strategic. It is designed on the basis that some addition facts are easier to learn than others, and that learning of those facts is through strategic thinking. Once particular groups of facts are mastered, these serve as springboards for learning new

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facts and applying new thinking strategies. The basic addition facts to 20 are categorised as the following: • • • • • •

count-on facts (counting on 1, 2, 3, 0) tens facts doubles facts bridging ten facts adding ten facts near doubles facts.

Effective practice The count-on facts—counting on 1, 2, 3, 0 (to count on more becomes messy and inaccurate) To avoid the misconception that count-on means to include the biggest number and then count on (for example, 5 + 2 is 5, 6—answer 6) ensure that the total of the first number is held constant and the counting-on commences with the next number (for example, 5 + 2 means ‘six, seven’—answer 7). Using marbles in a tin and creating a noise can assist: 5 + 2 (place five marbles in the tin, drop in two more, one at a time, emphasising the counting-on—‘6, 7’) Practice: circle the biggest number, then count on.

8+1

Tens facts

2+7

Use a ten frame and counters.

1+6 7+0

Doubles Identify ‘things’ that come in particular amounts. Then double the ‘thing’. 1 person, mouth, stop sign 1 + 1 = 2 2 drum sticks, legs, arms 2 + 2 = 4 3 tricycle, triangle 3 + 3 = 6 4 car wheels 4 + 4 = 8 5 fingers 5 + 5 = 10 6 insect legs 6 + 6 = 12 7 days of the week 7 + 7 = 14 8 octopus tentacles 8 + 8 = 16 9 baseball team 9 + 9 = 18

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Bridging 10 Use a double ten frame.

9+4 is 10 + 3

Adding 10 34

Use a calculator Repeatedly add 10 to a single digit number Note the pattern when adding 10

Near doubles Use two different-coloured counters. Display both numbers to see how the fact is doubles plus 1 (grid paper will keep the counters in order and show comparison easier).

5 + 6 is 5 + 5 plus 1 6 + 7 is 6 + 6 plus 1

There is little argument that automatic recall of basic facts assists children in problem solving and engaging in more advanced applications. Basic fact recall enables more space in working memory to be available for higher order mathematics tasks. Basic fact recall is fundamental to mental computation and is a valuable numeracy skill. In order to achieve a state of automaticity in basic fact recall, there are often calls for rote learning of facts to be reintroduced into the early years curriculum. The approach outlined above is not about rote learning, as rote learning suggests that each fact is an individual piece of knowledge that must

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be learnt without understanding, and practised until automaticity results. The value of the approach outlined above is that the teaching of strategies is a feature, and these strategies can be applied in other situations. For example, to mentally compute 49 and 7, application of the ‘bridging 10’ strategy may be employed. To mentally compute 78 and 35, the tens fact strategy (70 + 30) may be employed along with the bridging 10 strategy. In these examples, the basic facts have been applied automatically and the strategy has been applied in a new situation. Achieving automaticity of basic fact recall takes time. The teacher must ensure that time to practise is provided, but also to vary practice opportunities to avoid monotony. Varied practice using a range of strategies can consolidate basic fact combinations and promote understanding of how numbers connect to each other. A  study by Codding et  al. (2016) demonstrated the value of providing at-risk children across Years 2, 3 and 4 with structured practice of 12 minutes per day, four times per week, upon the development of fluency in basic facts (addition and multiplication). They implemented a 12-minute practice protocol as follows: • • • •

3 minutes—paired practice of a particular fact strategy 2 minutes—independent practice, using worksheets 3 minutes—self-correction of worksheet and discussion of strategy 4 minutes—teacher-guided instruction of new strategy to word problems.

This approach was for consolidation purposes, and not for direct teaching of particular strategies. It is not recommended as the starting point for building knowledge of number relationships. However, it was used to promote the development of strategy application and the development of fluency.

1 What is your memory of learning basic facts? Were you provided with a skill, drill and kill program, or was it strategy based where thinking and reasoning were encouraged and celebrated? 2 Analyse the suggested approach for teaching addition facts above. What are the positive and negative features of it? 3 How could this program assist the development of number understanding? 4 Could this approach support the learning of subtraction facts? Why or why not?

Pause and reflect

Assessing mathematics learning Assessment of young children’s mathematics capabilities when they commence formal schooling has indicated several years’ difference in learning outcomes (for example, Wright 1994). Assessment of students’ mathematics capabilities in the middle years (Years 5–8) has shown that in any one class there can be a seven-year difference in learning outcomes (Siemon, Virgona & Corneille 2001). With such diversity in students’ mathematics knowledge and understanding in every grade, new ways of supporting learners in whole-class teaching must be considered.

ASSESSMENT

Shelley Dole

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With children arriving at school with different starting knowledge in mathematics, teachers must ensure that the learning needs of all students are met. There has been considerable research into early mathematics learning difficulties in Australia and elsewhere, with the goal of early identification of students who may experience difficulties with mathematics. Some of the most notable programs for early intervention include First Steps (Treacy & Willis 2003), Mathematics Recovery (Wright, Martland & Stafford 2006) and the Early Numeracy Research Project (Clarke, Sullivan, Cheeseman & Clarke 2000). Work by Professors Joanne Mulligan and Michael Mitchelmore has resulted in the development of three assessment instruments to explore young children’s understanding of the pattern and structure associated with core concepts of the early number curriculum (Mulligan & Mitchelmore 2015). These programs share features of providing a framework of key milestones for early mathematics together with rich teaching approaches for supporting students’ development of mathematical knowledge. In particular, each program stresses the importance of assessing individual students’ mathematics knowledge via a one-on-one interview. This enables students’ thinking to be probed to ensure accuracy in assessment and hence lead to better targeted teaching. The benefits of these programs are well-documented, particularly their value for teachers through promotion of their knowledge of teaching approaches in mathematics for young children.

Assessing a mathematics learning difficulty

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Ellie is in Year 3.  She has difficulty writing her numbers and they are often back-to-front or upside-down. Early in the school year, Ellie’s mother informed you that she thought Ellie had a mathematics learning difficulty. Ellie’s mother also stated that she herself was not surprised if this was the case as she also experienced difficulties with mathematics at school. Ellie always uses her fingers when she is working on any mathematics calculation problems, whether the task is a word problem or just written as a number fact. Ellie makes a lot of errors in her calculations because of the approaches she takes to calculation.

Apply your knowledge 1 Does Ellie have a mathematics learning difficulty? 2 Is Ellie at risk of failure in school mathematics? Why/why not? 3 Would providing Ellie a buddy so they can practise recall of basic maths facts be a good teaching approach? Why/why not? 4 What sort of calculations should Ellie be able to perform by the end of Year 3? How will you assess her understanding of numbers at the end of Year 3?

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Streaming, withdrawal, differentiation Current mathematics classroom practice is all about differentiation, or ensuring that each child is supported and challenged to progress their mathematics learning. Differentiation is dependent upon knowing the learners in your classroom and knowing how to structure their learning program. To meet the learning needs of individual students, grouping for instruction is often a useful approach. In small groups, the teacher can target specific instruction to ensure that all students are on task and being challenged at their level. However, grouping can negatively impact on students’ beliefs about their mathematics capabilities and hence their application to mathematics tasks if they remain in one group for an extended period. In some upper primary and many secondary schools students are often separated into whole-class groups for instruction in mathematics; that is, they are streamed into achievement groups. In the majority of situations, students have little chance of changing the stream to which they have been assigned and this has major implications for their continued learning of mathematics. The high stream students do not wish to be moved to lower streams as they enjoy a structured learning environment where the majority of students are keen to learn and have well-developed metacognitive and self-regulatory skills. Students in the lower stream typically are those who are not self-motivated and have a history of poor achievement in mathematics. Students in the low stream are usually disruptive and disengaged, thus making the teaching of this group less than desirable for any teacher. Research has shown that students are very astute at discerning the group to which they have been assigned and this seriously affects their self-confidence and beliefs about their capacities to learn and achieve in mathematics (Zevenbergen 2001). An alternative approach to assisting students with learning difficulties in mathematics is withdrawal, with targeted teaching tailored for students in small-group or individual learning situations. These approaches also have mixed outcomes, with a tendency for programs to concentrate on low-level mathematics skills and reteaching approaches. The downside of such approaches is that, while students are withdrawn from their regular classes, they are missing out on learning experiences with new concepts, which could mean they fall further behind in their studies. A  notable exception of the withdrawal model is the QuickSmart program (see Graham & Pegg 2008), which is designed specifically for adolescents. Research on this program has reported its positive impact on students’ mathematics capabilities. This program focuses on building speed of basic facts and procedures to free memory space for problem solving. It would appear that this withdrawal program was intensive and enabled students to rapidly draw together the disparate threads of their prior mathematics learning experiences into a connected whole that supported the development of skill and knowledge to problem situations. Unfortunately, many withdrawal interventions lead to students becoming further behind in the development of important and new mathematics concepts. In a comprehensive literature review of mathematics interventions for teaching children with autism spectrum disorders, Hart Barnett and Clearly (2015) found the majority of reported programs were withdrawal and the teaching emphasis was on low-level skill development. They cautioned the value of such approaches when the mathematics focus was not consistent with a curriculum that emphasises problem solving, flexible thinking, reasoning and understanding.

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Whole-class teaching Finding tasks that engage all students in mathematics is not easy. However, with a little imagination and greater noticing of possible mathematical situations in the real world, potentially rich investigations can be designed that are inclusive of all learners. For example, have you noticed the ingredients panel on a packet of cornflakes? What does this panel say about the sugar, salt and fat content of that cereal? What are the measures based on? If the given measures are related to an average serving size, how big is that serving size? What does that serving size look like? What does that serving size weigh? How does the nutritional content of this cereal compare to other cereals, and what does that mean in relation to healthy choices? By simply reading the cereal packet while eating breakfast, a whole range of potentially rich mathematical investigations appear. The next step is to consider the mathematics that students might engage in while investigating the situation and then aligning that to the intended curriculum for students at that level. A research project that challenged teachers from a range of secondary schools to focus on differentiation of the curriculum in mathematics has been reported by Dole and Goos (2012). Each school involved in the project considered their own school situation and devised a unit of work that was inclusive of all learners. The teachers first participated in a professional development workshop where they were immersed in an investigative mathematics task to experience how such tasks can enable all learners to engage with mathematical ideas in non-threatening ways (see the Effective practice—Why

Apply your knowledge Read through all the advertisements in a newspaper. What sort of tasks might be developed from these that can become rich learning experiences for students? 1 Try to design a set of principles for designing rich tasks that are inclusive of all learners. 2 Share your list of principles with others in your group.

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do penguins huddle?). The use of enabling prompts and extending prompts was discussed as a means for assisting in differentiation. Suggested enabling prompts included: • reducing the required number of steps (for example, make the problem simpler or provide a drawing) • reducing the required number of variables (for example, make the problem simpler) • simplifying the modes of representing results (for example, provide a recording format) • reducing the written elements in recording (for example, provide an alternative medium for recording) • making the problem more concrete (for example, provide materials or drawings of representations) • reducing the size of the numbers involved • simplifying the language, or • reducing the physical demands of manipulatives. Suggested extending prompts included: • • • • •

finding another solution finding a general rule or approach that holds true for all cases reporting findings in a variety of modes creating a similar task for others to solve applying the solution to other real situations.

Teachers involved in this project reported on the positive outcomes that resulted in their new approach to teaching. They reported on the engagement of the students in the learning tasks and the way they readily accepted different levels of challenges. This was a surprising outcome because teachers expected students to comment on how it was unfair that some students were expected to do less than others. Teachers also described a changed atmosphere in the classroom, generated by the fact that all students could access the task from its outset. Teachers also reported that such tasks enabled them to spend more time with students who required further assistance within the lesson, rather than trying to find time after the lesson. They could give individualised instruction and focus directly on errors and misconceptions, something that was not possible during their usual lessons. The importance of designing suitable tasks with consideration of enabling and extending prompts was key to differentiation.

Effective practice Why do penguins huddle? 1 Take three wooden blocks and create a penguin in an upright position (one cube for the head, one cube for the upper body, one cube for the lower body). 2 Determine the volume of the penguin (count the cubes). Determine the surface area of the penguin (count the number of square faces that are on the outside of the penguin).

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3 Construct a data table, and enter this data in the table. Calculate the surface area to volume ratio. Number of penguins

Surface area

Volume

SA:V ratio

1

4 Construct more penguins and completely surround the first penguin with the new penguins. You should have a total of nine penguins in the huddle this time. 5 Calculate the surface area, volume and determine the ratio. 6 Create more penguins and determine the surface area, volume and ratio. 7 Examine the data and discuss what is happening as the number of penguins in the huddle increases. What can you say about the surface area and volume ratio as the huddle increases? Write a statement explaining why penguins huddle, making mention of the ratio between surface area and volume. Challenge: Is there a pattern? How many penguins before the ratio is 1:1?

SUMMARY In their schooling, many students experience difficulties with the study of mathematics. For some students, this might occur infrequently and may be a result of not paying attention to a particular topic that then causes difficulty at various times. Other students might feel there was never a time when learning mathematics was easy. Mathematics is overwhelmingly rated by the majority of students as their least favourite school subject and some students develop extreme fear and anxiety associated with anything that requires the application of anything mathematical. Because of its impact on the affective domain, teachers must be very mindful of how their teaching contributes to students’ feelings about mathematics. To ensure that all students feel secure, safe and successful in the mathematics classroom, teachers must look at their teaching practices in relation to inclusiveness of all learners. This chapter has emphasised that everyone is capable of learning mathematics. The difference between mathematics learning difficulties and learned difficulties was discussed, particularly in relation to students’ development of consistent patterns of error in computation. The development of learned difficulties was analysed in relation to constructivism learning theory. When learned difficulties are compared to learning difficulties, the creative and active nature of students’ mental processing during mathematics lessons is seen. This field of research has shed new light on teaching approaches for helping students overcome learned difficulties in mathematics, with strategies that use students’ errors for instruction described.

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In this chapter, the background to diagnostic-prescriptive approaches for teaching mathematics was outlined and this was presented as a framework for good teaching. In fact, good teaching approaches are seen to underpin most approaches for assisting students who experience difficulty with the study of mathematics. Every classroom has learners with varying mathematics backgrounds and different capabilities in relation to mathematics. This chapter outlined some potential negative aspects of the practice of streaming for instruction. Even though schools report that streaming has led to improvement in mathematics learning outcomes for many students, the risk is that students become labelled as those who can and those who can’t do mathematics. The message in this chapter is that extensive assessment of students’ mathematics capabilities should be undertaken before any grouping for instruction occurs to avoid ‘irrevocable decisions such as tracking, stereotyping and labelling’ (Watson 2000, p. 81) and the application of teaching strategies for supporting all students, not filtering them. This chapter concluded with a description of the power of using rich tasks in the mathematics classroom to differentiate the curriculum and to include all learners in the mathematics classroom.

For group discussion 1 What is the difference between a learning difficulty and a learned difficulty? How does your knowledge of these two terms affect your thoughts on your own future teaching of mathematics classes? 2 Were you in a streamed mathematics class at school? What was it like? How did it make you feel about your mathematics ability? Do you think your teacher taught your class differently to other classes in different streams? Why or why not? Was the teacher using inclusive practices for teaching mathematics? Share ideas in your group. 3 Go to the Australian Curriculum website (www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ studentdiversity/pdf/studentdiversity) and read more about differentiation of instruction. List a range of other strategies that would complement the list of enabling and extending prompts provided in this chapter. Discuss with your group how your teachers differentiated instruction in the mathematics classroom when you were at school. 4 Go to the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives (NLVM) website (http://nlvm. usu.edu) and explore. Browse some of the topics that you found difficult at school. Share these with your group. How could these materials be used in the mathematics classroom? 5 Look at some of the rich tasks located at the web address associated with the Shell Centre (www.educationaldesigner.org/ed/volume1/issue3/article9/pdf/burkhardt_ 09_fig3.pdf). In your group, select one of these tasks. Analyse the task in terms of the mathematics that is required for successful completion of the task. Discuss how this task might be both a rich learning experience and an assessment opportunity. How might students’ responses to such tasks be used by teachers for diagnostic purposes? Would grouping for instruction be useful to assist students to engage with your selected task? Shelley Dole

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Students’ incorrect solutions to arithmetic exercises

53 + 8 16

25 + 83 108

54 + 79 1213

0 326 + 484 7110

 0 724 + 356 1710

36 + 23 59

35 + 7 15

6 1 176 − 35 1311

7 1 285 − 63 2112

Key references Borassi, R. (1994). Capitalising on errors as ‘springboards for inquiry’: a teaching experiment. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 25(2), 166–208. Dole, S. & Goos, M. (2012). Differentiation in the lower secondary. Catalyst, Autumn edition. Accessed at www.aisq.qld.edu.au/files/files/Communications/Catalyst/Catalyst_ Autumn_2012.pdf. Downton, A., Knight, R., Clarke, D. & Lewis, G. (2006). Mathematics assessment for learning: rich tasks and work samples. Melbourne: ACU MTLC. Resnick, L. B. (1982). Syntax and semantics in learning to subtract. In T. P. Carpenter, J. M. Moser & T. A. Romberg (eds), Addition and subtraction: a cognitive perspective (pp. 136–55). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Sullivan, P. & Lilburn, P. (2002). Good questions for math teaching: why ask them and what to ask, K-6. Sausalito, CA: Math Solutions. Tirosh, D., Tsamir, P. & Hershkovitz, S. (2008). Insights into children’s intuitions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. In A. Cockburn & G. Littler (eds), Mathematical misconceptions: a guide for primary teachers. London: Sage. Watson, A. (2000). Mathematics teachers acting as informal assessors: practices, problems and recommendations. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 41, 69–91. Zevenbergen, R. (2001). Is streaming an equitable practice? Students’ experiences in streaming in the middle years of schooling. In M. Mitchelmore (ed.), Numeracy and beyond: proceedings of the 24th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia (pp. 563–70). Sydney: MERGA.

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Websites National Council for Teachers of Mathematics. Maths resources and professional learning—http://illuminations.nctm.org American website providing interactive games, brain teasers and other resources to enhance teaching and learning. It is organised according to grade level: Pre K–2, 3–5, 6–8, 9–12. It is also organised according to strands of the mathematics curriculum: number and operations; algebra; geometry; measurement; data analysis and probability.

National Library of Virtual Manipulatives. A digital library containing Java applets and activities for K–12 mathematics—http://nlvm.usu.edu Provides virtual resources to enhance the development of mathematical understanding of a range of topics.

Shell Centre Rich Tasks for Assessment—www.educationaldesigner.org/ed/volume1/ issue3/article9/pdf/burkhardt_09_fig3.pdf Provides a range of interesting and alternative mathematics tasks that can be used for assessment or teaching and learning. The tasks allow for differentiation by enabling a number of possible solution approaches. They focus on promoting mathematical thinking and reasoning.

SMART teaching strategies—https://education.nsw.gov.au/smart-teaching-strategies/ numeracy This website is hosted by the NSW Department of Education. It provides resources and teaching ideas for promoting numeracy. Resources are organised around the three content strands of the mathematics curriculum: number and algebra; measurement and geometry; and statistics and probability. This website provides links to apps that can be used in teaching.

Shelley Dole

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Behavioural Engagement in the Inclusive Classroom

8

Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To identify the different ways of understanding and constructing behaviour • To understand some of the core issues of challenging behaviour • To consider the dimensions of challenging behaviour • To understand why supporting behaviour change is crucial for student engagement, wellbeing and academic success, as well as teacher effectiveness • To reflect on the ways in which challenging behaviour can be managed in the classroom

KEY TERMS challenging behaviour digital disconnect disruptive behaviour

positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS) sociocultural diversity student disengagement

Introduction This chapter discusses core issues related to challenging behaviour in the classroom. It describes the different ways of understanding and constructing this behaviour and presents a series of effective strategies for supporting positive behavioural change. The chapter draws attention to the importance of supporting behavioural change through student engagement practices and strategies. It argues that using positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS) is a crucial approach for enhancing student engagement, increasing positive participation, and maintaining young people’s health and well-being in school settings. The aim of the chapter is to advance teacher effectiveness in dealing with problem behaviour as a means for improving student academic success and well-being in the inclusive classroom.

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What is challenging behaviour? In this chapter, challenging behaviour specifically refers to student conduct that is unproductive to learning and contrary to classroom and school-based expectations. It can include: low-level disruption (Figure 8.1), disengaged behaviours (Figure 8.2) and antisocial/ aggressive behaviours (Figure 8.3). At the least, these behaviours disrupt the learning and academic success of individual students. In the extreme, challenging behaviours have potential to endanger or harm students and their teacher. Examples of these behaviours are listed in Table 8.1. Sullivan, Johnson, Owens and Conway (2014) reported that teachers experience all three types of challenging behaviour in the classroom, but most frequently they encounter low-level disruption and disengaged behaviours. While most of these behaviours are described as relatively minor, teachers claim the frequency and unproductive nature of the behaviours is challenging and often leads to stress and burnout. The researchers noted that

Challenging behaviour: A wide range of inappropriate and unproductive social behaviours that interrupt the lesson flow and the learning of all students in the class.

Table 8.1 Summary of challenging behaviours Low-level disruptive behaviours

Disengaged behaviours

Antisocial/Aggressive behaviours

Talking out of turn or calling out

Withdrawn, passive or nonparticipation in ongoing activities

Rule violation (e.g. not following school/classroom rules and regulations)

Making distracting noises

Unfocused attention (e.g. day dreaming)

Non-compliance (e.g. refusal to cooperate)

Being out of seat or moving around the room unnecessarily

Working below usual standard

Name-calling, spreading gossip and rumours and/or excluding peers

Making insolent or disrespectful remarks

Ill-prepared for classroom lessons (e.g. didn’t bring equipment to class)

Inappropriate conversations, swearing, screaming and tantrums

Mucking around and being rowdy

Incomplete assignments

Overly affectionate and/or inappropriate touching

Meddling with others’ property

Frequently late for class

Verbal aggression (e.g. threatening others)

Using equipment and technology inappropriately

Frequent expressions of illness

Physical destruction of property or stealing

Frequent trips out of the classroom

Sexual harassment

High levels of absenteeism/ truancy

Violence (e.g. biting, hitting, punching, head banging, smashing equipment) or erratic/dangerous behaviours (e.g. self-harm)

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Figure 8.1 Low level disruptive behaviour

Figure 8.2 Disengaged behaviour

Figure 8.3 Aggressive behaviour

teachers use a wide range of disciplinary strategies to manage challenging behaviour but that most practices did not encourage productive behaviour or facilitate student engagement. Instead, teachers mainly relied on intervention methods such as a ‘step system’ to minimise off-task behaviour. Teachers reported that these methods minimised challenging behaviour in the short term but were generally ineffective in the long term. Sullivan et al. (2014) argued that most intervention approaches did not account for the influence of socio-ecological factors on student behaviour and academic engagement; that is, the ecosystem and interactions involved between individual student variables, the school context, interpersonal relationships between teachers, students and parents, the educational curriculum, and the teacher pedagogy. Refocusing behavioural policy and teacher practice to account for these factors can help to facilitate student engagement and minimise unproductive challenging classroom behaviour.

What causes challenging behaviour? As noted above, challenging behaviour is a multifaceted issue linked to a complex set of socioecological factors. Therefore, as educators, it is important that we consider the systematic precursors to problem behaviour and be prepared to take a deep and meaningful look at the contexts within which students live and we teach. External factors and preceding events

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often precipitate challenging behaviour. As Wearmouth, Glynn and Berryman (2005) point out, there is no simple cause and effect model that explains disruptive and challenging behaviour. Students exposed to unrelenting emotional concerns, sociocultural pressures and mental health issues can externalise frustration and despair as challenging behaviour. Alternatively, these same concerns, pressures and issues may be internalised and manifest as anxiety and worry. Students experiencing high levels of anxiety can present equally challenging but different sets of behaviours. The process for deciding how to teach students with diverse and challenging behaviour cannot be dogmatic, for no two behaviour problems will be identical or stem from the same issues. However, acknowledging the impact of disruptive behaviour (for example, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; ADHD), the effects of sociocultural diversity, teachers’ digital disconnect and student disengagement has significance for directing teachers’ work across the range of behavioural issues experienced in the classroom.

Disruptive behaviour Disruptive behaviour that obstructs effective classroom teaching and learning can result from students who have diagnosed behaviour problems such as oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD) or ADHD, as well as students with the difficult behaviours associated with developmental conditions such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD; refer also to Chapter 13). A growing number of classrooms contain students with these conditions, frequently accompanied by disengagement as well as mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. The increasing prevalence and challenging nature of these conditions continues to be a source of stress for classroom teachers. ODD most often begins in children below the age of 10. Children with ODD are usually argumentative, especially with parents, disobedient, stubborn, negative, annoying and aggravating. These behaviours cause difficulties at home, school and with peers. CD is a more severe behavioural disorder and is usually seen in children between 10 and 16  years old. CD is a persistent pattern of misbehaviour that includes bullying, cruelty to animals, physical aggression, lying, stealing and vandalism. The reported prevalence rate of ODD and CD varies greatly between 2 per cent and 16 per cent (Australian Government 2015). Students with ADHD have generally been experiencing difficulties since they were toddlers. It is estimated that at least one quarter of children with ODD or CD will also have ADHD. Students with ADHD frequently cause management issues in the classroom because of their impulsive behaviours and difficulties with concentration and attention. They also tend to have poor self-esteem, anxiety and learning difficulties.

159 Sociocultural diversity: Varying community and family expectations, abilities, aspirations, attitudes, beliefs and values that influence young people’s ability to fit in and cope with schooling protocols. Digital disconnect: The disconnect between what teachers and educators see as engaging pedagogy and what students see as engaging and valuable to their future. Student disengagement: Includes socially unacceptable behaviour, inconsistent classroom attendance, poor concentration, inflexibility, low ambition, inability to cope with failure, and difficulty maintaining positive relationships with peers.

Sociocultural diversity Schools exist in a rapidly changing multicultural society and therefore students begin their education with varying abilities, aspirations, attitudes, beliefs and values. More than ever, young people come to the school with mixed expectations for learning and a set of rituals, rules and

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routines that may be out of step with the classroom context. Community factors and family matters such as poverty, refugee status, relationship breakdowns, parental substance abuse, long-term parental unemployment and domestic violence can impact on children’s classroom interactions, behavioural boundaries, school attendance and degrees of truancy, exclusion and suspension (DET 2013). Personal issues including mental health problems, physical disabilities, learning difficulties, carer responsibilities, substance abuse and criminal activity can influence the overall tenor and appropriateness of their conduct. Sociocultural diversity can bring about stressful conditions of difference that imprint on young people’s ability to fit in and cope with schooling protocols. For these children, the relationship between classroom learning and future life expectations may be well and truly incompatible. Frustration and boredom can place them at risk for poor behaviour and academic disengagement. Studies have shown that students with diverse sociocultural backgrounds are more likely to: • • • • •

experience relationship problems with peers and teachers display poor anger management control have higher rates of absenteeism and truancy have difficulty responding to classroom rules and regulations frequently contribute to classroom disturbances (McIntosh, Ty & Miller 2014).

Learning to respect and appreciate the cultural and stylistic differences between classroom expectations and home conditions is complex. For some students, the complexity of these social relationships exerts a great deal of pressure on their behaviour. Teachers need to recognise the impact of sociocultural conditions on student behaviour. While they cannot change the home environment, teachers can certainly make adaptations in the classroom to accommodate for students’ maladaptive social practice.

Digital disconnect Parallel to the sociocultural conditions of contemporary schooling is the fast-paced shift towards a networked and digitally advanced society. Today, most young people have access to computers and internet-enabled communication devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. These devices provide greater flexibility and opportunity for them to interact, participate, create and engage with the world. There are many benefits to their online participation such as improved media literacy, extension of formal and informal educational outcomes, stronger social relationships, and an improved sense of self-efficacy and well-being (Collin, Rahilly, Richardson & Third 2011). However, one of the key factors associated with poor classroom behaviour is the ‘disconnect’ between what teachers and educators see as engaging pedagogy and what students see as engaging and valuable to their future (Sullivan et al. 2014). These differences can be traced to students’ out-of-school immersion in digital culture. First, online contexts have altered young people’s social landscape. Young people have greater access to peers and close friends in an adult-free zone. This freedom has been linked to an increasing number of online difficulties that include exposure to inappropriate content, risky contact with unknown people, and interpersonal problems with peers such as cyberbullying and sexting. These difficulties, particularly cyberbullying and sexting, can wash over into classroom settings and cause student distraction, anxiety, relationship problems

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and interpersonal aggression. The immediate problem for the teacher is the unproductive behaviour that interrupts the lesson flow and disrupts whole-class learning. However, longterm problems include persistent inattentiveness, ongoing poor conduct, social withdrawal, depression, somatic complaints and physical harm (Hinduja & Patchin 2012). All of these conditions have potential to increase challenging behaviour in the classroom. Second, digital culture has shifted the ways in which young people learn and engage with knowledge. Students have become active and independent participants in an adaptive and flexible digital world. The life skills they need for the future require a far more engaging and transformative style of learning than traditional pedagogies provide (Jenkins et  al. 2009). This shift requires teachers to be innovative with their classroom practice, able to attune to student capacities and differences, and comfortable with contemporary tools and resources such as internet-enabled devices and new media and technology services. More importantly, teachers need to provide students with the sort of learning that supports the real-life skills of the future workplace. Students who are actively engaged in their learning and see it as purposeful and meaningful are less likely to become bored, distracted and disruptive (AITSL 2013). Not unsurprisingly, teachers who are adaptive, innovative and creative consistently report that students are more involved in learning activities and less likely to display problem behaviours. Providing opportunities for active student engagement is a focus of these teachers and a recurrent trend in the twenty-first century learning literature (Beetham & Sharpe 2013).

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Student disengagement Although levels of student disengagement vary from school to school, disengaged behaviours (see Table 8.1) are ‘extremely prevalent and teachers consider them difficult to manage’ (Sullivan et al. 2014, p. 53). Key issues that place students at risk for disengagement include the three factors already discussed, but may also include school or classroom-based factors and/or cognitive and emotional problems (see Table 8.2). The Victoria Department of Education and Training (DET 2015b) has also suggested that transitions from primary to secondary school can be a critical phase in engaging students to learning, with poor transitions leading to poor student engagement, absenteeism and classroom disruption. The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL 2013) promotes the importance of identifying students at risk of disengagement as a means for improving classroom behaviour. However, it is important to note that engagement is not just about socially acceptable behaviour or consistent classroom attendance. Students need to be cognitively engaged; that is, concentrating and focusing on achieving goals, flexible in their work and able to cope with failure. They need to be able to engage emotionally with peers to collaborate and communicate effectively and to establish and maintain positive relationships. A learning environment that addresses student disengagement should encourage and support positive school participation at the community, school and classroom level (AITSL 2013; DET 2015b).

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Table 8.2 Factors leading to student disengagement School or classroom-based factors

Cognitive or emotional factors

Teacher-centred lessons

School work is too difficult or too easy

Being asked to sit too long

Not understanding what is expected

Working independently too often

Feeling undervalued

Room is too hot or too cold, too dark or too bright Negative relationships with peers or teacher Seating is uncomfortable

Unrelenting emotional concerns

Class is too noisy

Anxiety and worry

Not enough equipment or equipment is broken

Frustration and despair

Preconceived expectations Miss Owens

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Boys are high-spirited and disruptive, they engage in rough and tumble play but boys that live in bad neighbourhoods get up to mischief and defy school rules. I usually expect them to be more challenging than the other boys and girls.

1 What do you think may be the negative consequences of the teacher positioning boys in this way? 2 Apart from living in a ‘bad neighbourhood’, what other conditions might explain the boys’ behaviour? 3 How might Miss Owens account for these conditions in her teaching practice?

Pause and reflect

Characteristics of challenging behaviour It is important for teachers to be able to recognise signs of distress and agitation that pre-empt outbursts of challenging behaviour. Colvin and Scott (2014) describe a chain of escalating behaviour wherein each phase is characterised by particular ‘signals’. Recognising the preliminary indicators of challenging behaviour gives teachers the power to interrupt cycles of disruption. Signs of student agitation can include: • increase or decrease in body movement • increase in eye movement (for example, darting eyes) or staring into space (for example, unfocused) • decrease in conversational language (for example, hard to engage)

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• • • •

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increase in movement around the classroom or withdrawal from groups movement from group to group or peer to peer increase in off-task behaviour, and/or increase in attention-seeking behaviour (for example, asking more questions or arguing).

When students are displaying several signs of agitation, it does not take much for their behaviour to accelerate into more challenging behaviours. If teachers recognise the signs and take early action, student behaviour can be managed more effectively. When teachers fail to recognise signs of agitation, behaviours can quickly accelerate to involve another person (peer or teacher) and become more difficult to defuse. Accelerated behaviours include: questioning and arguing, defiance, provocation of others, deliberate rule violation, threats and intimidation, verbal abuse and destruction of property (Colvin & Scott 2014). Intervening early in the cycle of escalating behaviour is important for defusing challenging situations.

Fear of being different Aisif is anxious about going to school. He is worried that he is the only Muslim boy in his class. As well, he is concerned that he is overweight even though he is no bigger than many other boys his age. He says that he looks very different to his peers. You have noticed that he spends most of his free time chatting to people online. He is refusing to work with other students in his class and is becoming abusive. He appears to be very depressed.

1 2 3 4

Who could you go to for advice regarding how to support Aisif? How will you support Aisif in your class? What will you do if Aisif becomes abusive to other class members? How will you discuss this situation with Aisif’s parents?

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Pause and reflect

Relationship between engagement, academic success and social well-being Social and emotional well-being are important qualities of mental health. Children with a strong sense of social well-being are more likely to choose appropriate behaviour, develop and maintain positive relationships and engage in goal-oriented behaviour that contributes towards academic success. A report by the Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation, NSW (2015) points to results from a 2009 American study which clearly links academic success to student emotional and behavioural engagement. Engaged students participate in class, are attentive, motivated to learn and will do better academically. Social well-being depends on providing a supportive environment as well as developing a feeling of belonging and connectedness. Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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Positive relationships contribute towards a feeling of belonging as well as an involvement in the school community. Research indicates that social well-being can be linked to positive academic outcomes as well as mental health (Durlak & Weissberg 2011; Reyes et al. 2012; Wang & Eccles 2013). On the other hand, disengaged students are bored, anxious and reluctant to learn, and are more likely to experience mental health issues.

Policies The link between social and mental well-being and academic success can be found in the National Safe Schools Framework (www.safeschoolshub.edu.au/home). This important resource for developing well-being and safety for all students identifies one of the beliefs pivotal to the development of a safe school. That is the provision of a safe and supportive school environment, which is essential for student well-being and academic learning. As well, the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA 2008) clearly identifies the crucial role schools have in the development of social and emotional well-being in children. Documents such as these have influenced education departments throughout Australia. There is a consensus that schools, in partnership with families, the health system and the community, have an important role in ensuring all students develop and maintain social and emotional well-being. In recognition of the importance of social well-being, the federal government has introduced the KidsMatter framework, a mental health initiative for primary schools and early education centres. Many schools throughout Australia have introduced KidsMatter as a way for teachers, parents and carers to assist children to learn how to effectively manage the social and emotional challenges they encounter. The KidsMatter website (www.kidsmatter.edu.au) provides many useful resources. The online well-being of young people is a priority of the Australian Children’s eSafety Commissioner. The Office is committed to ensuring Australian youth have safe, positive online experiences. It provides a range of resources for encouraging responsible online behaviour (www.esafety.gov.au).

Early intervention Early intervention plays a key role in this area because there is recognition of the positive influence of early social and emotional well- being on later mental health. The federal government Department of Health has developed organisations such as Response Ability, whose role is to promote the social and emotional well-being, or mental health, of children and young people (www.responseability.org). Response Ability specifically identifies early intervention as central to ensuring children develop social and emotional well-being. One of the key strategies it suggests for early childhood educators is to provide safe and supportive learning environments where young children can learn and develop social skills that will assist them to manage their own behaviour. It also stresses the importance of early recognition of social and emotional difficulties that may prevent young children from engaging in the school

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community in a way that ensures social and academic success. Importantly, Response Ability identifies the significance of early intervention in providing an inclusive learning environment that teaches skills required for ongoing social and emotional well-being.

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Developing connections with students Jennifer When I was in my final prac I suddenly realised I had to develop connections with the students in my class. It helped me to understand their backgrounds. It also helped me with my management. I had to lay out clearly what my expectations of them were. I had to discuss it with them and model it. So when I said ‘Be quiet’, they knew what I meant.

Reflect on the primary and secondary schools that you attended. 1 Were there any teachers who you would now consider to be effective managers of classroom behaviour? 2 What did they do that made them effective? 3 What will you do to make sure you effectively manage all students’ behaviour in your inclusive classroom?

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Pause and reflect

Promoting positive student engagement In Australia, policy makers and researchers have long focused on finding ways to assist teachers with combating challenging student behaviour. Today, policy and practice support the view that using positive strategies that focus on student engagement rather than punishment is the best approach for managing student behaviour (AITSL 2013; Sullivan et al. 2014). Key steps for improving student engagement include: • • • • • •

creating a supportive student-centred learning environment establishing strong classroom management providing a safe environment developing and encouraging student–teacher, student–student relationships monitoring student behaviour and engagement providing students with fair feedback about their classroom performance.

The connection between positive student engagement, productive learning and good teaching is clear. One of the best approaches for promoting positive student engagement is the positive behaviour support framework. This framework offers a way of understanding how the classroom environment, student diversity and teacher pedagogy come together to influence student engagement and improve classroom behaviour. Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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Emphasis on positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS) Positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS): PBIS aims develop and provide a safe environment by assisting students who display challenging behaviour to build up a repertoire of socially appropriate behaviours.

Positive classrooms systematically recognise the needs of all students while effectively and efficiently addressing challenging behaviour. Positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS) is an effective method for working with challenging behaviour in the classroom (Childs, Kincaid, George & Gage 2016; Horner & Sugai 2015; Moreno & Bullock 2011). PBIS aims to develop and provide a safe environment that reduces challenging behaviour by assisting the individual to build up a repertoire of socially appropriate behaviours that help them to gain control and achieve goals in more effective and efficient ways while engaging in academic success (Nocera, Whitbread & Nocera 2014). The main conceptual framework of PBIS is influenced by principles of applied behavioural analysis, person-centred values and inclusive education philosophy (LaVigna & Willis 2012). PBIS is a systematic approach that identifies three levels of classroom behaviour: primary, secondary and tertiary. These categories help to plan and process learning outcomes, target challenging behaviour and create a positive community in a whole-class situation. This model offers teachers a hierarchical set of strategies to support and teach appropriate social behaviour to all students (Horner & Sugai 2015; Sayeski & Brown 2014). At the primary level, all students are taught expectations and appropriate pro-social school behaviours for successful classroom participation. Often whole group consequences are linked to expectations to increase student compliance. However, students whose behaviour originates from complex situations can have difficulty meeting primary level expectations because these rules and routines aggravate and upset their internal control mechanisms. Their resulting frustration and lack of control may lead to externalised displays of aggravation, irritability and belligerence. On the other hand, some students may internalise their feelings, which leads to withdrawal, tearfulness and anxiety (Colvin & Scott 2014; Hunter, Chenier & Gresham 2013). The outcome is a series of disruptive secondary behaviours. Secondary level behaviour is problematic because it disrupts the learning of the individual as well as those students within range of the unsettled child. Valuable teacher time is required to redirect the student, address the group and re-establish lesson flow (Rogers 2015). Although not extreme, secondary level behaviour is annoying, accumulative and frustrating for the teacher and classmates. Students with mild or low-end social problems, learning disabilities and physical impairments frequently display secondary behaviours. Scott, Anderson and Alter (2012) and Colvin and Scott (2014) suggest that a slight departure from regular classroom routine and minor adaptation to curriculum and instruction can help to realign these students to whole-class processes. Colvin and Scott refer to these changes as ‘accommodations’. Accommodations are useful shortterm strategies that re-establish and align the student to primary classroom expectations and appropriate behaviour. A  small percentage of behaviourally challenged students are unresponsive to these types of classroom accommodations and, consequently, tertiary level behaviour results. Tertiary level behaviour is extreme and persistent. Tobin and Sugai (2005) point out that although it involves a relatively small percentage of the class, the serious nature of the behaviour requires highly specialised strategies beyond the first two levels of support. In fact,

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Snowman and colleagues (2009) suggest that tertiary behaviour has a disproportionately high impact on the functioning of the class. Hence, tertiary behaviour requires effective and immediate teacher attention to minimise class-wide student distress (the individual and their peers) and loss of quality teaching time. Tertiary level behaviour can be triggered by school-related factors such as interpersonal conflict, changes to routine or ineffective problem-solving skills, teacher correction and academic failure (Albrecht, Mathur, Jones & Alazemi 2015; Colvin & Scott 2014). Students with a combination of problems related to behaviour regulation and other disabilities are even more likely to display tertiary level behaviour. For instance, a student diagnosed with ASD and ADHD as well as sensory sensitivity and anxiety disorder will be far more likely to act out in class. The combination of problems is often endless for a student with challenging behaviours; therefore, it becomes important for the teacher to undertake a series of student observations, such as functional behaviour assessments (these will be discussed in a later section) to ascertain specific classroom triggers. It is also important for teachers to seek assistance from trained colleagues and specialists such as a behaviour expert or a school counsellor in the field when dealing with students who display high levels of extreme tertiary behaviour.

Apply your knowledge Think about a class you have taught that has a student with disengaged or challenging behaviour, then consider the questions listed below as they relate to the whole class. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Is the student’s behaviour influenced by the curriculum or pedagogy of the class? Are there classroom factors influencing the behaviour? Have you used appropriate and interesting equipment, materials and resources? Does the student understand the learning concepts? Does the student have a primary disability? What are the behavioural variables that you can control? How does the student’s behaviour affect other class members? How will you ensure that all students continue to be included and engaged in the curriculum? Source: adapted from Daniels (1998).

Management of behaviour needs in individual classrooms and across school settings Understanding behavioural trends is foundational to quality classroom management. To improve lesson flow and the success of all students, teachers need to work with whole-class expectations, behavioural accommodations and individual behaviour plans. A ‘bottom-up’ approach works Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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well for encouraging positive classroom behaviour (see Figure 8.4). In a bottom-up approach, rules and routines are set for the whole class (primary strategies), slight departure from wholeclass routine is established for some students with mild behaviour problems (secondary strategies), and recognisable accommodations are set for individuals with more extreme behaviour (tertiary strategies). This model is also referred to as the three-tier or three-level approach to classroom management (Sayeski & Brown 2014). For students with challenging behaviours, teachers will need to familiarise themselves with secondary and tertiary behaviour strategies. Most importantly, teachers will need to focus on strategies that help individual students to fit into the classroom community. Figure 8.4 Bottom-up approach: a three-tier model for student behavioural support

Tertiary Secondary

Primary

BOTTOM-UP APPROACH Prevention and intervention strategies become more individualised and specific as student behaviour becomes more challenging.

Adaptation and accommodation for  challenging behaviour It is important to design and instruct learning activities that meet the needs of the entire class, including those students with challenging behaviour (Brady & Scully 2005). Teachers should accommodate variations in attention span and motivation levels, challenge students who are easily distracted and re-engage disengaged learners. Most importantly, teachers should create a positive classroom culture, fine-tune the curriculum to meet the needs of all students, develop fair and accurate accommodations, and teach school-appropriate social behaviour.

Classroom context Challenging behaviour will increase in classrooms that are poorly organised and have limited space for students to engage with lessons and resources. Brady and Scully (2005) recommend keeping high traffic areas free of congestion and avoiding having too many students in a single area at a time. Close proximity is particularly problematic for challenged students who cannot keep hands and feet to themselves or, alternatively, those students who do not like being confined. Proximity is a key trigger for disruptive behaviour in many children. The following classroom support strategies will assist in dealing with disruptive behaviour.

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Effective practice Support strategies in the classroom Readiness of learners: Barriers to ‘readiness’ include difficulty in accessing tools, conflict with peers and not understanding the task (Cole et  al. 2000). Ensure all students are seated and attentive before starting lessons. Keep traffic paths clear and consider student relationship when planning seating arrangements. Lesson flow and timing: Teachers should break lessons into smaller components with varied activity (Cole et  al. 2000). At best, a student is attentive for 15 minutes. Going beyond this threshold requires strategic planning and motivational lessons. The time of day that the lesson is planned for is also important (Colvin & Scott 2014). For example, morning lessons are generally better for teaching new or complex concepts. Expectations and routines: When expectations are clearly established and vigilantly monitored, all students demonstrate better behaviour (Charles 2008; Sprague & Golly 2012). For students with extreme behaviour, Rogers (2015) suggests teaching of classroom expectations during the establishment phase of the year with frequent reinforcement. Student-centred environment: Provide students with choice and voice and find ways to focus on what they value. Find out what they are passionate about and include their interests in lessons (Powell 2013). Clarity of instruction: It is important to support verbal instructions with a concise visual representation of requirements. A  step-by-step visual instruction plan is ideal (Jones, Jones & Jones 2007). Mode of presentation: Use multiple modes for presentation such as DVDs, computer programs, school excursions, guest speakers, peer-directed lessons, games and other interactive strategies. Include the use of digital devices for active student participation. Consider incorporating digital games into lessons as a way of developing team-building skills and positive classroom relationships. Students with challenging behaviour will require clear expectations for participation and frequent behavioural prompts throughout these activities.

Students with challenging behaviour require continuity and a rhythmic flow to lessons because they are easily distracted. Consequently, teachers must keep teaching materials and resources readily available and ensure students are prepared to work with tools and equipment on hand (Rogers 2015). In addition, collecting student work must be efficient and routine and the teacher must be in view at all times. Students who cannot see the teacher or the presentation become bored and distracted—two significant precursors for students with challenging behaviour. Related to classroom context is the student seating arrangement. The key for managing challenging behaviour is a flexible seating plan and a ‘chill-out’ zone. Because many behaviourally challenged students have poor social skills, they do not manage friendship interactions well and peers become a chronic source of aggravation. A  flexible seating arrangement allows the teacher to monitor and relocate problematic combinations of students without disrupting the entire class (Colvin & Scott 2014). A ‘chill-out’ zone is an important behavioural tool that Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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teachers can use to replace the more common ‘time-out’ area. However, the punitive nature of time-out can inflame rather than calm irritated students. Ideally, the student should choose when to use a space for regaining self-control, thus helping them to accept responsibility for their own behaviour. A  designated area for ‘chilling’ is an effective way of giving students space to collect their thoughts and emotions without losing face.

Classroom culture A positive classroom culture is created when teachers foster a sense of inclusion and use respectful communication. Pirola-Merlo (2003) suggests the key teacher attribute to developing an inclusive classroom is ‘fairness’. Edwards and Watts (2008) indicate teacher–student relationships improve when teachers do not make coercive demands and students feel the classroom belongs to them. In particular, students with challenging behaviour respond well to teachers who demonstrate an interest in them as individuals (for example, ‘How was your weekend?’, ‘You had your hair cut, it looks great!’, ‘I saw your team win soccer the other day, good effort!’).

Presentation of curriculum Students will engage in challenging behaviours when academic work does not coincide with ability level. The work may be too easy, too hard or, because of poor attendance, students may have gaps in their knowledge base. When students display challenging behaviour, teachers must review individual learning profiles to determine if there are specific areas of need. Academic accommodations for students with challenging behaviour should complement other individual management plans. For the most part, breaking academic work into ‘do-able’ fragments and supporting the student with teacher or peer assistance is very successful (Jones, Jones & Jones 2007). Suitable adaptations for delivering the curriculum include allowing for variations in length of an assignment, modifying the time required to complete the assignment, changing the processes involved in the assignment (for example, allowing the use of a calculator) and allowing self-choice in assessment options (Cole et al. 2000; Colvin & Scott 2014).

Assessment ASSESSMENT

Another option is to change assessment presentation; for example, instead of paper-based exams use interactive and/or creative assignments. Consider the use of digital options such as computer games or internet applications that allow students to create a product or model a process. Provide choice and offer different modes of response (for example, written, verbal, performance, artefacts, films and so forth). Consider modifying time allocation, scheduling of the activity and the physical location of assessment delivery. Provide extra assistance or remedial instruction (for example, peer tutors or teacher assistants) before and during the assessment period. Allow the use of organisational tools, calculators, digital devices and cognitive aids such as concept maps. And importantly, develop a systematic process for assessment delivery with clear expectations (Harrison, Bunford, Evans & Owens 2013).

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What is Hunter’s behaviour trying to tell us? Hunter is often argumentative because he believes he is always treated unfairly. He has a quick temper and will engage in screaming, throwing objects, and pushing and shoving for the slightest reason, such as another student looking at him. His fine motor skills are poor; he has poor concentration and has difficulty reading. His frustration over his reading problems causes further outbursts of violent behaviour. When Hunter is engaging in these outbursts of anger, his body goes rigid and he cannot be touched. At these times Hunter will not listen or act reasonably.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Apply your knowledge Read Hunter’s story above and consider the following questions. 1 2 3 4

What steps need to be taken to identify how to work with Hunter? How will you interact with Hunter when he is angry? How will your interaction with Hunter influence the classroom climate? When a student engages in challenging behaviour, what strategies and practices would you employ to ensure the safety and well-being of all students in the class?

Behaviour issues relating to the diverse classroom We now discuss issues of managing the challenging behaviours of some of those conditions that students are diagnosed with. Managing students who have challenging behaviours is a risky business. The risk occurs in developing and trying new strategies that may not be successful. Yet working with difficult students brings its rewards when they begin to cope effectively, if only for a short time. The following strategies may be of use to these students, keeping in mind that because students are individuals with specific strengths and weaknesses, not all strategies will be universally appropriate.

Individualising classroom management for  challenging behaviour In addition to traditional classroom accommodations, students with challenging behaviour will require individually planned behavioural practices. Planning involves the student, parents/ carers, classroom teacher, school counsellor or behaviour expert, and administration personnel. Teachers should not embark on individual student intervention plans without the assistance of experienced personnel. Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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Proactive management of challenging behaviour requires an evidence-based approach that documents classroom triggers that lead to inappropriate student behaviour. A behaviour frequency record (BFR) is a useful tool for collecting this data (Alberto & Troutman 2012). A  BFR is conducted over a period of time at varying intervals. The teacher observes the problem student in context to determine what types of behaviours are exhibited and when. Accumulating data on the frequency of the student’s inappropriate behaviour helps to isolate the most challenging concerns and gives the teacher a benchmark for adaptation. Teachers can create a simple BFR by using clear statements of observed behaviour and a tick and tally process for determining frequency. Data from the BFR identifies and addresses the most disruptive behaviours for learning and lesson flow. The following key questions can help to direct teacher focus: 1 What is the problem behaviour? Describe the behaviour in exact terms (for example, the student is always talking, joking around and disrupting others’ work during independent study time). 2 Why is this behaviour a problem (for example, this behaviour interrupts the learning of other students in the class and creates a hostile classroom atmosphere)? 3 How often does this behaviour occur (for example, once a week, once a day, several times a day)? 4 What alternative behaviour do I want (for example, the student stays in his or her seat and works productively and independently)? Another important evaluation tool is a functional behaviour assessment (FBA). The FBA used in school settings identifies classroom events that predict and maintain challenging behaviour (Crone, Hawken & Horner 2015; Gage, Lewis & Stichter 2012). An FBA helps to determine the ‘function’ of the behaviour. Because all behaviour serves a purpose, in particular challenging behaviour, it is important to understand why the student is behaving as they are. Understanding student behaviour and identifying the events that precipitate challenging behaviour can provide teachers with a pathway for change. A basic classroom FBA documents observations of behavioural precursors (setting events, antecedents or triggers) and behavioural consequences (rewards and punishment) of students. (For further information on FBA tools see Chapter 10.) Moreno and Bullock (2011) suggest teachers use information collected in an FBA to determine pivotal inappropriate behaviours. Once problematic behaviours are documented, the teacher can identify ‘desirable’ replacement behaviours (what the student should be doing) and then follow up with specific social skills teaching for the problem behaviour. In the process, the student must come to understand why the original behaviour is undesirable at school and why they need to develop more socially acceptable ways to behave. Associating challenging behaviour to events in ‘front’ and ‘behind’ the problem behaviour provides an avenue for change. For instance, if teacher reaction to student disruption is exclusion (for example, time out), the student escapes from classroom work and/or has gained teacher/peer attention. For many non-compliant students, this type of attention, negative or otherwise, increases inappropriate behaviour. In effect, negative consequences support or reinforce the inappropriate actions of challenged students because they have multiple points of intersectional diversity.

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Teaching social skills Students who display challenging behaviour are often deficient in the social skills needed for school. More and more frequently, students arrive at the school gate without the basic social skills for school success. Students have learnt to push, hit, name-call and bully as a means of conflict resolution, and students with a number of complex problems are more prone to these issues. These students need to be skilled in new ways to behave that have lifelong, life-wide application (Sprague & Golly 2012). Results from research by Durlak and Weissberg (2011) indicates that significant improvements in social and classroom behaviour as well as academic achievements will occur if students are taught to how to recognise and manage emotions, establish and maintain friendships, and make responsible decisions. These types of skills benefit all students from early childhood to upper secondary school. The following strategies can be used with all age groups: • Be consistent with responses to all types of behaviour. • Reward appropriate behaviour immediately so that the student understands which behaviour is being rewarded. • Use positive reinforcement. Rewards may take the form of calming music, attention, objects or activities of special interest to the student. • Teach skills in small steps and keep teaching time to a minimum so that the student does not become bored. • Use a system of ‘backward chaining’. The last step is taught first so that the student can successfully carry out the completed task. The second-last step is then taught, followed by the next step until finally the student is taught the beginning step of the task. • Use direct instruction, modelling and role play. • Use prompts and scaffolding to support the student as they attempt the new skill. Gradually phase these out until the student can perform the new skill alone. Some students will be unable to generalise or transfer learnt skills to new situations and events. Teach the behaviour in the place where you want it to occur (Gardner, Grant & Webb 2001; Konza 2005). To counter the more intensive behaviour patterns displayed by a growing number of students, teachers should link classroom accommodations with direct and specific teaching of the social skills required for school-appropriate behaviour (Sprague & Golly 2012). Schoolappropriate behaviour is taught in the same manner as academic work, but intensity and individualisation of social skills training increases as the problem behaviour becomes more chronic. For example, whole-class expected behaviour, routines and social skills are taught individually and reinforced through visual support, rule reminders and teacher monitoring. It is important that students with challenging behaviour are taught an acceptable behaviour that is an alternative and better option to the problem behaviour.

Effective practice Five-step process for teaching replacement social skills 1 Explain or specify the replacement behaviour. 2 Model the replacement behaviour (for example, use examples and non-examples). Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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3 Practise the replacement behaviour (for example, role play). 4 Monitor student progress (for example, use observational tools like a FBA). 5 Review or repeat the teaching process where necessary. Source: adapted from Colvin & Scott (2014).

The following points provide some suggested strategies to manage and support students labelled as having challenging behaviour. • Develop a positive parent–teacher relationship. • Develop a strong and friendly student–teacher relationship. • Acknowledge the need for personal support and become familiar with the individual needs of each student so their needs can best be met. • Adapt the classroom environment to the needs of the student while encouraging positive student-to-student interaction. • Teach students strategies to help them interact with peers, teachers and their family.

Adapting the learning environment for  students with ASD The strategies below provide some examples of how the learning environment can be modified to reduce some of the stress and anxiety that some students with ASD may experience, particularly those who are hypersensitive to noise, bright lights or other stimuli. • Provide ways of coping with these distressing situations. Provide support for students during breaks when noise levels increase and there is a higher demand for the use of social skills. It is during these times that many students with ASD will find themselves the victims of bullying. A buddy system will provide increased support for these students during vulnerable times. • Avoid pressuring the student to perform. • Ensure that the student understands what is being communicated. • Try to understand how the student communicates feelings, thoughts, wants and needs. Remember that the student’s inappropriate behaviour may be their only means of communicating. Students with ASD feel most secure when there are familiar daily routines to follow. They may find changes to daily routines extremely stressful. It is important that students feel secure by helping them to cope with routine changes. • Structure the daily routine and environment so that the student with ASD feels secure. A visual reminder of daily and weekly timetables and events for the classroom and school will help provide structure for the student with ASD. Those students who are younger or less cognitively able can be provided with simple timetables for a shorter period, such as the morning or afternoon session. Older and more capable students will be able to cope with a daily timetable; in some cases a weekly timetable may be used. Students could help construct the timetable for themselves by choosing the words or pictures to use. This will assist students to become more familiar with the resource.

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• Use simplified pictures to remind students of the school’s rules and how they should be carried out. • Introduce changes to routine slowly. • Ensure that the student is provided with warnings and scaffolding when there is a change to routine.

Disruptive behaviour Jackson is displaying most of the behaviours associated with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). His mother says he is just a lively boy like his other brothers and she will not do anything about it. Jackson is told each day at school that he is disruptive, and he is constantly in trouble. He has difficulties concentrating and has learning problems. He has few friends. You have spoken to his mother about your concerns.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Apply your knowledge Reflect on Jackson’s story and consider the following questions. 1 What will you do to manage Jackson’s behaviour so that he and the class can learn? 2 How do you think Jackson feels being at school each day? 3 What would you do to help Jackson have more positive experiences at school?

Contemporary technologies, social networking and student behaviour The proportion of young people accessing the internet and using social media services has increased rapidly over recent years, even more so since the advent of mobile broadband and the development of smart devices. These contemporary technologies offer a broad range of benefits for young people, including extended access to formal and informal educational resources, improved media literacy, expanded creativity and self-expression, and increased civic and political participation (Collin et al. 2011). Online networking has also been associated with stronger social relationships, improved self-efficacy and a healthy sense of well-being (Livingstone & Brake 2010). In addition, Pujazon-Zazik and Park (2010) found that social media services offered young people a venue to learn and refine self-control, develop tolerance and respect for others, express emotions in a healthy and normative manner, and engage in critical thinking and effective decision making. The benefits of online participation have been noted by young people themselves. They claim that social networking services facilitate relationships with friends—they help them to keep in touch with people they don’t see often, get to know other students at their school better, and connect with people who share a common interest (Common Sense Media 2012; Livingstone, Haddon, Gorzig & Olafsson 2010; Madden et al. Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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2013). Across studies, these online opportunities have helped them to strengthen friendship ties, mitigate uncertainty about their identity and improve their life satisfaction. Contemporary technologies interconnect groups of individuals and transform everyday life. In this way, they are powerful spaces for learning and socialising. At the same time, social networking contexts are risky for children and young people with challenging behaviour because, in general, they have poor social skills and limited competence in maintaining interpersonal relationships. Moreover, they are less able to imagine the people or the social boundaries within these spaces (for example, face-to-face social cues have been eliminated), which appears to limit their capacity to regulate or conceal their inner most thoughts. Norms for privacy in this context are more difficult for these students to negotiate. They are neither anonymous nor invisible but they struggle to understand the implications, consequences, complex posting decisions and new pressures to perform an online identity that is highly visible. For these reasons, they are more likely to post inappropriate content, risky images, and encounter unwelcome persuasion, information and contact (boyd & Marwick 2011; Kowalski & Fedina 2011; Morgan 2010). These acts are not necessarily nefarious. Students with challenging behaviour are often susceptible to social misinterpretation and, therefore, it takes the observant teacher to reconcile student reports of inappropriate behaviour. But, without adult support and guidance, online troubles can accelerate rapidly and wash over into the classroom.

Negotiating strategies for student online networking

TECHNOLOGY

The potential for online problems to interrupt the classroom environment makes it an important aspect of managing students with challenging behaviour. An understanding of social skills in the physical world is essential to understanding social skills in the online world. Rose and Monda-Amaya (2012) suggest that the first step in addressing student online problems is to create a culturally and socially sensitive classroom. They recommend that teachers develop a series of classroom strategies that strengthen student social competence and interactional ability. This process can be aided by creating opportunities for students to engage in social and extracurricular activities where they develop quality peer associations in cooperative learning groups. The specific steps for forming cooperative groups for social learning include: • assessment of student social strengths and weaknesses • consciously blending student pairs (for example, a positive role model and a student with developing social skills) • providing explicit group tasks (for example, task checklists) • directly reinforcing appropriate social behaviour (for example, ‘This group is working efficiently!’) • monitoring behaviour and collecting data on behavioural and social outcomes so that strategies can be modified if necessary (Colvin & Scott 2014; Rose & Monda-Amaya 2012). Increasing the social competence of children with challenging behaviour may be aided by capitalising on their social strengths and helping them to recognise strategies for overcoming difficulties. Social stories are effective tools for this process because they can help young people to develop appropriate behaviours, reactions and responses to difficult social encounters (see

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Chapter  13). Students who are independent and self-determining show capacity for more appropriate social interaction and appear to be less prone to victimisation. Self-determined individuals are autonomous, self-regulating, problem solving and goal-oriented. Teachers can encourage pro-social behaviour in challenging students by: • • • • •

providing opportunities for decision making teaching problem-solving skills teaching and modelling self-management skills fostering goal-setting modelling attainment skills (for example, visual instruction plan on how to resolve conflict) (Colvin & Scott 2014; Rose & Monda-Amaya 2012).

Because students with challenging behaviour often lack the social skills and interpretative abilities for competent online social interaction, concerns have been raised about their participation in social networking sites such as Facebook and Instagram. However, classroom teachers can sequence social networking skills within academic instruction situated in a digital environment. For example, Morgan (2010) recommends class-wide online social skills training that follows from a social skills unit for physical environments. He suggests students practise online social skills in a ‘real’ social network site. Students work in groups (see group formation above) to develop a social networking profile for classroom use. In the development phase, the teacher will have an opportunity to review the social skills taught in the initial unit and to discuss differences in online spaces. Morgan outlines a number of pivotal teaching moments in social network development. Five important moments are: • how to have a conversation with a person you have never met (for example, information sharing) • how to express feelings in online contexts (for example, how to let someone know you are angry or that you like them) • how to express appropriate comments about other people or other matters online (for example, avoiding saying the wrong thing) • how to respond to persuasive content (for example, not posting inappropriate materials when asked by someone) • how to make decisions about online invitations (for example, posting information about parties). Each step in the social network profile development will encourage students to draw from a wide range of important social skills. The teacher must analyse each task and make it clear to the students what skills they need at each point to successfully navigate social network profiling and what problems may be encountered. Students can brainstorm ideas and role-play various scenes to help highlight negative actions and to develop more appropriate reactions to each situation. On the completion of the profile development task, a visual display that highlights ten things to watch out for in social networking sites can be compiled by the class. This display can be used to continue to reinforce positive online behaviour for students with challenging behaviour. For further information about cybersafety education and social networking, visit these two websites: www.esafety.gov.au and www.bullyingnoway.com.au.

Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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Managing social expectations

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Ava, a Year 6 girl, is shy and withdrawn but has not been diagnosed with any behavioural disorder. She had no friends in the class, until halfway through the year, a Year 6 boy named Cooper became friendly with her. He asked Ava to be his girlfriend. Shortly after the friendship began, Cooper asked Ava to send him nude photos of herself. Ava knew that this wasn’t right but she didn’t want to lose her boyfriend so she sent Cooper the pictures. A few days later, Ava noticed two boys from her class looking at a mobile phone screen and laughing. They looked at her and then showed other students the phone screen. One boy ran over and yelled, ‘show us your t*ts Ava’. Ava ran from the classroom and was later found in the girls’ toilet sobbing hysterically.

Apply your knowledge Read Ava’s story and consider the following questions: 1 Following the episode described above, how will you reintegrate Ava into the classroom? 2 Should the boys be punished? Why or why not? 3 Suggest a best-practice strategy for minimising sexting in primary schools.

SUMMARY In this chapter we have discussed many aspects that relate to supporting behaviour change. We have identified different ways of understanding and constructing behaviour to provide you with a means of understanding and considering some of the core issues and dimensions of challenging behaviour. Such behaviour can range from persistent behaviours, such as inattention and talking in class, to physically and verbally threatening behaviour and behaviour that leads to self-harm. Thus, challenging behaviour is a potential threat to safe learning environments, which are a fundamental element of inclusive education. Part of the discussion has focused on the importance of behaviour change because of its importance to student mental health and academic success. It is clear that those students with challenging behaviour are at risk of low self-esteem, poor peer relationships, inadequate social adjustment, and online and academic problems. As well, there is a high probability that, if left unchecked, students with challenging behaviours are more likely to suffer from mental health problems and well-being issues, including depression and anxiety. Importantly, the focus of this chapter has been on the relationship between classroom environment and student behaviour. Emphasis has been placed on proactive, preventive approaches that will provide teachers with strategies to manage challenging behaviour and to

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support students in learning more appropriate ways of behaving. We have endorsed the need to individualise classroom management so that the specific needs of students are taken into account when planning for the behavioural adaptations and accommodations for challenging behaviour. These strategies are fundamental to a safe and supportive inclusive classroom environment.

For group discussion 1 Discuss the following statement: ‘When dealing with students it is useful to remember that a management strategy may work for a short time but it may not continue to be successful.’ 2 What type of management strategies are you most comfortable using in the classroom? 3 Why would you discard strategies once they prove ineffective? When would you recycle these strategies? 4 Comment on the following in relation to behaviour management: ‘All children are individuals.’ 5 Do you agree with the following argument by Austin and Carpenter (2008): When dealing with parents remember that it is often the case that they have spent many years being told by other people that they are bad parents. Most of them are doing the best they can to be good parents. 6 How will you ensure that you engage in the following? ‘Parents of all children who have difficulties need to be worked with in a respectful and considerate manner.’ 7 Many students tend to project an image of being tough, insensitive, belligerent, argumentative and unlikable. This facade often hides their sensitivity, need for friendship, desire to belong and their fear that the label of naughty or bad means they do not deserve acceptance. Have you experienced this? What was the result? 8 What will you do to manage the needs of an inclusive classroom?

Key references Rose, C. A. & Monda-Amaya, L. E. (2012). Bullying and victimization among students with disabilities: effective strategies for classroom teachers. Intervention in School and Clinic, 48(2), 99–107. Sayeski, K. L. & Brown, M. R. (2014). Developing a classroom management plan using a tiered approach. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47(2), 119–27.

Websites Autism Spectrum Australia—www.autismspectrum.org.au/podcasts. Positive behaviour support. April [Audio podcast] This series of podcasts provides a broad range of insights on ASD as experienced by parents and professionals as well as people who have ASD. Roberta Thompson and Lorelei Carpenter

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Bullying. No way!—www.bullyingnoway.com.au An Australian resource to assist students and teachers with responding to bullying and harassment in schools.

KidsMatter—www.kidsmatter.edu.au/families/information-sheets An Australian mental health and well-being initiative set in primary and early childhood education.

eSafety—www.esafety.gov.au An Australian government website committed to helping children and young people stay safe online.

Response Ability—www.responseability.org An Australian resource that aims to improve mental health outcomes for children and young people through prevention and early intervention.

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Meeting Complex Communication Needs in the Classroom

9

Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand the importance of communication and social participation • To define complex communication needs (CNN) and describe learner characteristics • To define augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), and provide a basic knowledge of communication systems • To outline the importance of collaboration in supporting the learner in the general classroom • To describe the Participation Model of AAC assessment • To describe fundamental aspects of communication; form, content and use • To provide specific strategies to promote initiation and teach functional communication in the classroom • To offer strategies to address communication and behaviours of concern

KEY TERMS augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) complex communication needs (CCN)

functional communication functional communication training (FCT) speech generating devices (SGDs)

Introduction Communication is the essence of human life. (ASHA 1991, p. 9) All human beings have the right to communicate. We communicate using speech, writing, gestures, facial expressions, pictures and, today, the new media of online social technologies. Communication is a two-way interaction between two or more individuals where there is a sender and a receiver of a message. Communication is fundamental to our existence; we communicate to share our joys and sadness, our needs and wants, to learn and to demonstrate our knowledge, and to feel a sense of belonging through sharing stories and information. Education in the twenty-first century involves teaching a diverse group of learners. This can involve learners with severe communication impairments resulting in limited or no speech for 181

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everyday communication. Imagine what this means for anyone, especially a student! A typical classroom requires learners to communicate in a variety of ways through their writing, drawing, reading, speaking, listening and understanding. Students need to be able to interact with their teachers and peers for educational and social participation. Education is about students acquiring literacy and numeracy skills, as well as knowledge and skills in many other areas to prepare them for lifelong learning and employment.

Supporting CCN in the classroom

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Jarod is an 11-year-old boy with cerebral palsy and has complex communication needs (CCN); that is, he is unable to use speech for everyday communication, as a result of his disabilities. He cannot walk unassisted so uses a wheelchair for mobility. He has intellectual and physical disabilities that require significant modifications to the curriculum, as well as adaptations including the use of assistive devices. He currently communicates using multiple forms including: 1 body language (for example, facial grimaces for discomfort) 2 gestures (for example, pointing)

Figure 9.1 iPad with Proloquo2Go (AssistiveWare, LLC)

Proloquo2Go is a product of AssistiveWare B.V. AssistiveWare is a registered trademark and trade name of AssistiveWare B.V. Proloquo2Go is a registered trademark of AssistiveWare B.V. Source:  AssistiveWare (www.assistiveware.com). Symbols in Figure  9.1 are used with permission from SYMBOLSTIX, LLC (2000–2013) (www.n2y.com).

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3 vocalisations (sounds that approximate speech) 4 speech (for example, ‘yeah’, ‘no’, ‘go’) 5 an iPad as a speech generating device (SGD) using the iOS application Proloquo2Go (AssistiveWare, LLC). Jarod uses these forms to express himself and communicate with his teachers and peers in the classroom. Proloquo2Go (AssistiveWare, LLC) uses dynamic levels of built-in symbols called SymbolStix (SymbolStix, LLC (2000–2013)) that allow him to communicate specific ideas to others in the classroom (see Figure 9.1). When Jarod presses a symbol on the device, the device ‘speaks’ the message indicated on the picture. As you read through this chapter, we will return to Jarod to provide examples of how a student with CCN can be supported in the classroom.

An important aspect of school life is the development and maintenance of friendships, building social networks and learning to collaborate with peers. A  majority of students undertake these tasks using speech:  the most efficient, effortless and fluid form of communication. However, what happens to students who are unable to communicate using speech and writing? These students, referred to as students with complex communication needs (CCN), are significantly disadvantaged in their social development and educational participation. This chapter focuses on the characteristics of such students and introduces strategies to teach and support them in their educational and social participation.

Complex communication needs (CCN): Needs associated with a range of disabilities that restrict a person’s ability to communicate and participate independently in society. Causes can be physical, sensory and environmental.

What are complex communication needs? CCN are ‘associated with a wide range of physical, sensory and environmental causes which restrict/limit [people’s] ability to participate independently in society. They and their communication partners may benefit from using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) methods either temporarily or permanently’ (Balandin 2002, p. 2). As inclusive educational practice is becoming the norm, learners with CCN often attend mainstream schools and are included in general education classrooms with their same-age peers, at least for part of the school day. They may have disabilities that result in CCN, including developmental disabilities such as autism, cerebral palsy, intellectual disabilities, Down syndrome or other syndromes, or acquired impairments such as traumatic spinal cord or brain injury. These impairments result in varying levels of physical, intellectual or sensory difficulties that can affect speech and language and result in CCN. The prevalence of CCN seems to vary depending on the country, age group and types of disabilities surveyed (Beukelman & Mirenda 2013). Blackstone (1990), using information from several studies, estimated that 0.2 per cent to 0.6 per cent of the total school-age population worldwide have CCN.

Characteristics of learners with CCN The main characteristic of these students is that they are unable to use speech for communication and may have difficulties in understanding speech. Primarily, their difficulty Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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with speech expression or comprehension will not be due to a sensory impairment in hearing. They may have difficulty participating in school through spoken and written language, and may not always comprehend material presented to them in the traditional modes of instruction using speech and text. Since speech is a rapid, effortless medium of communication that is essential for the classroom context, a learner with CCN will find it difficult to ask and answer questions, make comments and contribute to discussions, making engagement difficult without adaptations. They will find it difficult to develop friendships with peers due to their CCN, the need to communicate through school support staff, and peers’ lack of understanding of issues around disability. They may feel excluded and frustrated and disengage with schooling.

Apply your knowledge Imagine you are at a noisy restaurant with your friends. You have not seen them for a while and you have just returned from an exciting holiday in Africa. You have plenty of stories to share and you cannot wait to catch up with them. You cannot use speech or writing for communication, so you prepared a communication board with what you considered to be useful vocabulary, like places in Africa you visited, animals you saw and so on. You can use gestures such as pointing or shoulder shrugs, head nods, shaking your head or facial expressions to communicate. You have to order your food and drinks; you want to tell your stories, jokes, ask and answer questions, comment and have a lovely evening! What challenges do you face in this context? How do you think your friends will react? How long do you think they will be patient and wait for your responses? How will you feel when you are unable to keep up with the pace of conversation around you or when your friends are unable to understand what you are trying to say? 5 What will be the reaction of restaurant staff? 6 How long do you think you will go without using your speech? 7 At what point do you think you will begin to disengage from conversations? 1 2 3 4

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC): An area of educational practice that attempts to compensate for severe difficulties of speech and language expression and/or comprehension. It can include the use of gestures, sign language, pictures and electronic communication aids.

Augmentative and alternative communication systems Learners with CCN may benefit from short- or long-term use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). According to the Augmentative and Alternative Communication Special Interest Division of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), AAC refers to:

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… an area of research, clinical, and educational practice. AAC involves attempts to study and when necessary compensate for temporary or permanent impairments, activity

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limitations, and participation restrictions of individuals with severe disorders of speechlanguage production and/or comprehension, including spoken and written modes of communication. (ASHA 2005, p. 1)

In other words, AAC is about using various ways to enhance or replace speech using gestures, signs, facial expressions, body language, writing and technology to communicate. AAC is better seen as a system; for example, a student with cerebral palsy who has no speech may use gestures, vocalisations or sounds, a book with photographs or symbols, and a speech generating device to convey messages. Consider the example of Jarod earlier in this chapter and the multimodal nature of his communication system. The system could involve instruction of the learner who uses AAC, as well as their communication partners such as teachers, peers and family members. Without an AAC system, students with CCN will not be able to engage with the curriculum and will have difficulty developing and maintaining social relationships. Much of schooling is about communication, both comprehension and expression of information, ideas and concepts. For students with CCN, AAC is essential for participation and engagement in schooling.

Unaided, aided and multimodal AAC systems AAC systems can be unaided, aided or multimodal. Unaided systems are those that do not require any additional external support and the individual can use their body to produce; examples include gestures, speech, facial expressions and signs (such as Auslan and Key Word Sign). Aided systems are those that do require external support or an aid, and where one needs to select a picture or symbol that represents a word, phrase or sentence; examples include photographs, pictures, communication boards or books, and speech generating devices that include graphic symbols and/or text and letters. Multimodal systems combine both aided and unaided systems, as illustrated in Jarod’s example.

Components of AAC systems AAC systems can be classified as no tech (unaided and non-electronic systems like boards or books), light or low tech (simple electronic devices), or high tech (complex integrated systems). AAC consists of four components: symbols, aids, strategies and techniques (ASHA 2004, 2005).

Symbols A symbol is a representation of meaning or concept through a picture or photograph, or a written or spoken word. Many different types of symbols are available. Some common graphic symbols are the picture communication symbols (PCS) (Mayer-Johnson LLC, 1981– 2013; see Figures 9.2 and 9.4) and Minspeak (Semantic Compaction Systems, Inc., 1982; see Figure 9.3). Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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Figure 9.2 Child selecting an activity using a SuperTalker speech generating device and PCS

Picture Communication Symbols (PCS) in Figures 9.2 and 9.4 are used with permission of DynaVox Mayer-Johnson, Pittsburgh, PA, USA (www.dynavoxtech.com).

Figure 9.3 The Accent 1400 running the 144 Unity sequence (Minspeak application program)

Source: Liberator Pty Ltd, Australia.

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Figure 9.4 The Say-it! SAM Communicator Version 3, an example of a portable SGD with dynamic display and PCS

Source: Words+ Inc.

Aids An aid is a device, whether electronic or non-electronic, that is used to transmit or receive messages. A simple aid can be one where pictures of different types of food are displayed on a board, or where a single message is recorded on a device. A complex aid is a device that allows navigation from one page to another on an electronic system, and has the ability to write or combine numerous symbols to make many messages with spoken output. The displays of aids can be fixed or static, dynamic or combined, and are usually displayed in grid format. In a static display, the symbols or pictures are ‘fixed’ to a location. This is more common in low-tech communication aids. The number, size and location depends on the student’s visual, motoric and cognitive abilities. A  speech generating device (SGD) that uses fixed displays may use several levels of fixed displays, as in the case of Jarod’s macaw. A dynamic display is where one can move from one screen with symbols to another by activating a symbol (see Figure 9.5). For example, the first page on the device might contain symbols for food, feelings, school, home and family. When the learner touches the symbol for ‘family’, the screen changes to another screen with members of the family; the learner might then select the photo of his sister and use her name in a message. A  more recent form of display that is becoming popular is called a visual scene display (VSD). VSDs are personalised displays that show people, events and actions through a picture or digital photograph in virtual environments such as the park, beach, bedroom or classroom, and this is depicted on a computer screen (Blackstone 2005). The scene can have several hot spots with messages. For example, when the learner touches or selects a ball within the beach scene, the message may be: ‘I had so much fun throwing the ball.’

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Figure 9.5 An example of a nine-location PODD used by a student, with the teacher highlighting the symbol for selection

A pragmatic organised dynamic display (PODD) (Porter 2007) is a common way of using communication boards or books that have been organised based on social use of language. This display uses multiple pages where a learner and their communication partner can move from one page to another that is functionally linked (see Figure 9.5).

Strategies Strategies are ways and methods to effectively and efficiently produce a message. Strategies include procedures that are designed to increase the rate of message transmission or retrieval, such as letter and word prediction, and semantic compaction (Baker 1986). In letter or word prediction, when one types a letter or word, the system predicts the rest of the letters or words or gives choices of possible words, speeding up the rate of message formulation. In semantic compaction, a sequence of pictorial symbols is combined to store a word, phrase or sentence, and the message is spoken out in a dedicated SGD. For example, a picture of an apple can be used to denote red, fruit, sweet or round.

Techniques Techniques denote the various ways in which messages can be transmitted. Direct selection involves activating a key on a device using a finger, pointer or electronic pointing systems such as a light pointer; this is the most efficient way of selecting a message. Eye-pointing or

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eye-gazing systems are where the learner looks at a particular picture or word or uses a coding system by looking at the codes in the visual display. Strategies and techniques are often designed to speed up the retrieval and transmission of messages. This aids in maintaining engagement in the communication process for both the person who uses AAC and their communication partner.

Speech generating devices Electronic communication devices that can speak are called speech generating devices (SGDs) (see Figures 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4). Synthetic speech technology has revolutionised the AAC world in the last twenty years. SGDs allow a person to convey a message using speech output, making communication more typical and reducing communication breakdowns. The two common types of synthetic speech are digitised and text-to-speech. Digitised speech consists of recorded natural speech that is stored and reproduced and sounds more like natural speech. A person speaking any language can use digitised speech. For example, a 10-year-old female student with CCN can use a speaking 10-year-old girl to record the words and sentences to store on an SGD. The teacher, a peer or family member records their voice for the child to use to ‘speak’ her messages. A text-to-speech system is where text or words are inputted and, using mathematical algorithms of a particular language, written words are converted to speech. Jarod’s iOS application, Proloquo2Go (AssistiveWare, LLC) is an example of synthesised speech, now available in Australian voices. This system allows for any word to be generated or ‘spoken’ by the AAC user. Many SGDs also have integrated environmental control systems so that the learner can use it to turn on lights, open electronic doors and so on. The device may also have an inbuilt computer system to create documents or provide access to the internet and communications technologies.

Speech generating devices (SGDs): Electronic communication devices that translate graphic symbols and/or text and letters into speech.

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Mobile technologies The field of special education has embraced mainstream mobile technology with suitable AAC applications that are low cost and easily available, compared to custom-designed AAC options for students with disabilities (that is, SGDs) (McNaughton & Light 2013). Jarod’s iPad with an AAC application (app) for use as an SGD is an example. Given the ever-expanding applications available at low cost to schools and families, it is logical that education sectors would capitalise on this resource. For example, McNaughton and Light (2013) highlight the increased uptake and social acceptance of AAC technologies with the use of mobile technologies providing opportunities for communication, education and social networking. While recent reviews of the literature have reported the benefits of SGDs for students with developmental disabilities (Schlosser & Koul 2015), evidence is also emerging in support of mobile mainstream technologies as viable for students with disabilities (King, Thomeczek, Voreis & Scott 2014; van der Meer et al. 2015). Certainly, there are other advantages beyond portability, cost and clarity of digitised or synthesised speech such as multiple uses including educational, social, entertainment and production software in the convenience of one device. Emerging research continues to investigate the advantages of their use as communication and educational tools as well as the disadvantages and barriers associated with the use of Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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commercial technologies. A recent study of special education teachers found that students with CCN were using tablet devices in classrooms for multiple communicative functions, literacy and numeracy (Kopsaftis 2015). Examples of facilitators and barriers expressed by teachers using tablet technologies in classrooms (Kopsaftis 2015) and by parents of children with CCN (Eldridge 2012) are listed below.

Facilitators and barriers of tablet technologies Teachers’ thoughts

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… it (iPad) is a tool that is more universally understood by people they might meet in other environments. … we also use particular numeracy apps every week so for instance this term we’re using time and length and there’s some great apps like making a clock face, so what numbers do we need to use… Also lengths and sizes, measuring activities on the apps. I have four iPads in the classroom—three of them have only stories and the students choose what story they want as part of the self-selected reading part of the four blocks of literacy, they can access that independently. Parents’ thoughts I wouldn’t change it for the world… it’s got her music, videos on there for her, it’s got her games, it’s got her communication on there all in the one thing.

Apply your knowledge Remembering that AAC systems consist of four components (symbols, aids, strategies and techniques) watch the video ‘AAC around the globe’ at www.youtube.com/ watch?v=JGQ7wCsT3AY. Think about these components as you observe adolescents with CCN using their AAC systems.

Teaming and collaboration Since students with CCN may have varying underlying impairments resulting in physical, intellectual, sensory and linguistic difficulties, teachers and school staff need to work in collaboration with other professionals to conduct assessments and provide instruction. A team approach is essential to successful integration of the learner’s AAC system across school learning contexts. The team may consist of the learner with CCN, their parents/carers, teachers, paraprofessionals, speech pathologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists,

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psychologists and assistive technology or AAC specialists. Effective communication intervention for students with CCN in inclusive settings requires that teams work cooperatively to meet the learner’s individualised needs (Downing 2009). The team as a collective possesses skills that cannot be found in any one individual’s skills repertoire; all make important contributions to communication programming (Hunt et al. 2002; Schlosser et al. 2000). Although bringing a diverse group of professionals together can be challenging in terms of time and educational perspectives on communication intervention, Downing (2005) describes eleven important components of successful teaming for a learner with CCN, these being: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

supportive program administrators to facilitate an effective team active and equitable participation by team members an understanding of AAC knowledge of the communication needs of the individual learner knowledge of how to identify and develop learning opportunities for communication an understanding of individual team member roles in teaching communication skills knowledge of specific strategies for teaching communication skills sharing of information in a timely and effective manner an understanding and respect of familial and cultural needs a willingness to work using a unified approach shared ownership of the learner’s educational program and vested interest in enhancing communication outcomes.

Assessment of learners with CCN AAC intervention assists persons to meet their current communication needs and prepare them for their future communication needs (Beukelman & Mirenda 2013). In order to do this, a comprehensive AAC assessment is required. Given the diversity of persons who use AAC, a variety of assessments are required, with specific types of assessment, and tools, based on the individual needs of the learner. There is no standard battery of assessments used in AAC assessment (ASHA 2004). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to describe the various assessments that may be conducted; therefore, an overall framework that incorporates recommended principles applied to the heterogeneity of persons with CCN is described. Educators are encouraged to use assessment procedures that result in functional intervention; that is, the development of communication skills that can be applied to everyday life and everyday contexts (ASHA 2004). Given the complexity of assessment and associated intervention, the process involves a team of people who make decisions and implement support; an educator is an important member of that team and can have a number of functions or roles, depending on their skill and the extent to which they are responsible for designing education programs in the school environment. Lack of collaboration with any potential team members who facilitate AAC intervention in natural contexts can be detrimental to follow-through and implementation. For a comprehensive description of roles of individuals involved in AAC interventions, see Beukelman and Mirenda (2013, pp. 101–6). This text provides a description of the roles of various team members including general and specialist educators. Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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The Participation Model has long been endorsed as the framework for systematic AAC assessment and intervention (ASHA 2004). The most recent revision of the Participation Model describes the process for conducting AAC assessments and the design of associated interventions based on the participation of peers without disabilities (Beukelman & Mirenda 2013). The Participation Model is based on assessing current and future environments, through ecological inventory, which resonates with best practice in individualised curriculum design for students with complex supports needs; and as such is complementary to the process of individual education program (IEP) development (Downing 2009). For the educator, this process determines how to support students’ participation and learning in school environments and social and academic activities. The Participation Model focuses on four general areas that gather information on the communication interactions of the person with CCN and barriers that need to be addressed to inform strategic support and intervention. This includes: 1 2 3 4

assessing current communication participation patterns assessing barriers to communication participation assessing effectiveness of current communication identifying additional strategies and supports to enhance communication and participation.

Beukelman and Mirenda (2013) describe the steps in the Participation Model of assessment for persons with CCN: 1 The first step involves conducting a participation inventory that identifies the activities the person with CCN participates in in their natural environments such as school, home, work and community settings and the people with whom they communicate. The AAC team will need to decide which environments and key activities within those environments will be assessed. Educators are well placed to inform the team of key activities for participation at school. Figure 9.6 is an example of a participation inventory. 2 Once activities have been specified, the next step is to determine how peers participate. This includes recording the skills required to complete the activity for a same-aged peer without disabilities. Team members document the peer’s level of independence as the standard for comparison of expected skills of the person with CCN. This is an important step so that expectations for the student with CCN are referenced against typical peers and avoids targeting unrealistic expectations. 3 Next, the person with CCN is observed and their level of independence recorded and compared against the performance of the same-age peer to determine discrepancies in performance. 4 The next step is to identify participation barriers as these will inform what barriers need to be addressed via intervention and/or adaptations. Participation barriers include opportunity barriers and access barriers. a Opportunity barriers are those that are imposed by others and cannot be addressed via the AAC system or instruction for the person with CCN (that is, not related to the capacity of the person with CCN). These barriers limit opportunities for persons with CCN to participate in activities and communicate/interact. These include policy,

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etc.

7.

6.

5.

4.

3.

2.

1.

Critical steps to meeting the activity goal

Independent with setup

Requires verbal assistance

Requires physical assistance

Level of independence (P: peer; CCN: person with CCN) Independent

Setting and activity:

Person’s name:

Figure 9.6 Participation inventory

Policy

Date:

Practice

Skill

Physical/ motor

Cognitive

Literacy

Access barriers Visual/ auditory

Source: Beukelman & Mirenda (2013). Reprinted with permission.

Knowledge

Opportunity barriers

Goal of activity:

Completed by:

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practice, knowledge, skill and attitude barriers. For example, if the school policy does not allow students to take their AAC system outside into the playground, that limits opportunities for students to participate in and communicate with peers during yard play. If a teacher/staff do not know how to input vocabulary into a student’s SGD, this knowledge and skill barrier limits the student’s opportunities to participate in class discussions in key learning areas. b Access barriers are related to the capabilities of the person with CCN and/or their current communication system rather than support limitations. For example, a communication system that does not have system capability to allow switch access/scanning is a barrier to the student with CCN who needs alternative access to communicate. The participation inventory assists the team to gather initial observations of the types of barriers affecting participation. However, access barriers that are identified by the team require specific, further assessments to adequately inform intervention. These include assessment of current communication (including current AAC system), potential to use or increase speech and the use of environmental adaptations. AAC teams may use several instruments to assess access barriers; for further information on specific tools, see Beukelman and Mirenda (2013). All members of the support team of the learner with CCN contribute to assessment and educational programming. However, given the nature of the teacher’s role in schooling, the teacher will take on the major role of overseeing implementation of communication programs. Educators should therefore be familiar with the basic foundations of teaching functional communication to learners with CCN. The following section describes how educators can assist in the assessment of current communicative behaviours for students with developmental disabilities and teaching strategies that promote independent communication.

Teaching functional communication in  the classroom Communication demands and opportunities depend upon the nature and diversity of the daily environments in which learners function (Sigafoos & York 1991). To establish skills that allow learners to participate in their daily lives, a functional approach to communication is often adopted (Beukelman & Mirenda 2013; Downing 2009). There are four basic areas of knowledge related to communication assessment and intervention with which the teacher should be familiar, as they are likely to contribute to design and implementation of the communication program as part of the AAC team: Functional communication: Purposeful communication that is based upon use in the environments in which the learner participates in their daily lives.

1 2 3 4

the importance of educating communication partners the content of communication (that is, what is communicated) the form of communication (that is, how one communicates) the use or function of communication (that is, the purpose of communication).

These are fundamental understandings that will assist the teacher in implementation of functional communication programs designed for a diverse range of students with CCN.

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Communication partner competence The nature of communication requires a sender and receiver of the message; thus the communication partner is an essential participant in the interaction or exchange of messages (Downing 1999). Most importantly, the presence of competent communication partners is more likely to lead to increased opportunities for social interaction and communication for the learner with CCN (Downing 2005; Kent-Walsh & Binger 2009). The teacher has an important role in facilitating opportunities for social interaction with peers in the inclusive environment, as well as in creating multiple and varied opportunities for communication across a variety of contexts over the school day. In essence, the teacher becomes an essential communication partner and environmental engineer in promoting communicative competence of the learner and the competence of peers as partners. Communication partners can be dominant in their interactions with AAC users by: 1 2 3 4 5 6

asking yes/no questions taking most of the conversational turns providing few opportunities for AAC users to initiate or respond during conversations frequently interrupting the AAC user focusing on the technology instead of the learner’s message directing communications towards a carer who may be supporting the AAC user (KentWalsh & Binger 2009; Kent-Walsh & McNaughton 2005).

Teachers can further support learners with CCN and facilitate interactions with peers and school personnel by developing their skills as competent communication partners. The following interaction skills have been identified in the literature as important areas of instruction for communication partners: 1 initiating eye contact with the learner and pausing or waiting for a response (that is, an expectant delay) 2 using extended pause time when turn-taking during the conversation 3 responding to the learner’s communication attempts 4 using open-ended questions 5 modelling AAC system use (Kent-Walsh & McNaughton 2005; Kent-Walsh, Murza, Malani & Binger 2015). Teachers can model these skills to others as well as explicitly teach these skills to peers to promote the development of social relationships and provide opportunities for the learner to communicate.

The content of communication The content of communication relates to what messages the learner will communicate or what the learner will talk about—often referred to as vocabulary. The words or symbols (lexicon) are used to represent items, attributes, concepts or experiences (Reed 2005). The teacher will have a sound knowledge of what content is needed for the learner to communicate and participate throughout the school day, including academic content and topics of social conversation among peers. Likewise, family members will be able to contribute content necessary to communicate and participate out of school. The AAC system will reflect the content or vocabulary needed to communicate across multiple contexts and with multiple partners. Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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Effective practice Content and vocabulary When thinking about content or vocabulary, it is important to consider the following factors: • • • • •

the age of the learner the cognitive and language ability of the learner the environments in which the learner participates the vocabulary of peers informants such as siblings and carers.

For each of the stories provided below: 1 What might these learners need or want to say across different environments and contexts? 2 What content might you consider including on their AAC system? 3 How might the content or vocabulary differ for each of the learners?

Pause and reflect

Content and vocabulary considerations for two different students Hannah

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Hannah is a five-year-old learner in a composite Kindergarten/Year 1 class. She has cerebral palsy and, although she can walk, her movements are not well coordinated; she clearly has difficulty with gross motor coordination in both upper and lower limbs. However, she has sufficient fine motor coordination to directly press the picture communication symbols on her SGD. Her device has the capacity to store approximately 400 vocabulary items. Hannah has limited speech, which is difficult to understand. She uses gestures, speech approximations and her SGD to communicate. She is able to recognise and identify all the letters of the alphabet and numbers 1 through 12. She can easily recognise novel pictures to represent objects or referents on her SGD. At this stage, school staff are unclear as to her reading ability due to her age and her CCN, which make it impossible for her to read aloud and answer questions about stories and texts. She is a social child and often attempts to initiate interactions with her peers by approaching them and smiling and/or touching them and waving. Liam Liam is a 15-year-old learner with autism. He attends a general education high school and spends part of his day in a resource or support classroom for students with learning and behavioural difficulties. He also attends drama, art, physical education, home economics and computer science classes with his same-age peers. Liam has a moderate intellectual disability and has difficulty initiating and maintaining interactions with peers and staff. His education program consists of a combination of developing basic academic skills, social and communication skills,

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and community and vocational skills. His social network largely involves family and close family friends. He has a strong interest in graphic arts and gaming, and spends much of his free time either drawing detailed animations of game characters or playing interactive computer or PlayStation games. Liam uses some speech to communicate basic needs, but his speech is insufficient to meet his daily social and communication needs. He has limited use of gestures but will use a communication book with several categorised pages of picture communication symbols, particularly to get access to computers and games if he cannot articulate the names using speech. He is able to write, but his writing is limited to topics involving titles of video games and the names of game characters. Liam’s family is investigating the possibility of an SGD (iPad) and is advocating part-time supported employment in his final years of schooling.

The form of communication For the individual with CCN, communication will involve multiple forms. The learner may use a combination of speech, signs and universally understood gestures (Downing 2009) or aided systems incorporating the use of text and/or photographs or picture communication symbols (as described earlier in the chapter). It is important for teachers and paraprofessionals to understand that no one form will meet all needs or social and communicative contexts. Although one form (for example, picture communication symbols) may be the preferred or dominant method in the classroom, a combination of different forms will be necessary to meet daily communication needs, and different forms will be more suitable for different environments (Beukelman & Mirenda 2013). The multimodal nature of communication is well recognised and supported among professionals and individuals with CCN. Consider Jarod, who uses gestures to point to things he wants and sees in his immediate environment (for example, a puzzle he sees on a shelf). When things are out of sight, or he needs to clarify what he wants, he will use his SGD to ask for specific items (for example, the bubbles in the cabinet). He will often use his voice or speech approximations to comment on an event or activity (for example, ‘yay’ or ‘uh oh’).

The purpose of communication Communication function (use) consists of the intention or goals of the individual; communication is purposeful and takes place within a context that affects form and content (Owens 2010). Functional communication depends on the nature and diversity of our daily environments; it relates to the purpose of the communication, or the ways in which we use communication in our daily lives. A functional communication approach is based upon the unique characteristics of the learner and the demands and opportunities of the various environments in which the learner is expected to function (Sigafoos & York 1991). When there is a goal and desire to communicate, the individual will use whatever form is available to convey the message (Downing 1999). Creating opportunities or purpose for communication is fundamental to intervention for learners with CCN (McMillan & Renzaglia 2014a). The role of the teacher is to encourage and promote communication; however, there may be insufficient natural opportunities arising during typical school routines. Therefore, the teacher may need to create a purpose for communication across a variety of contexts, particularly if the learner exhibits limited communication functions (McMillan & Renzaglia 2014a). Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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There are two specific strategies aimed at both increasing opportunities for communication and creating varied contexts for communication with the aim of teaching learners a range of uses (functions) for communication in the classroom. The critical nature of providing opportunities for initiation for the AAC user is directly linked to the recommended methods of instruction. These aspects of communication intervention involve: 1 promoting communication initiation for learners with CCN 2 creating varied and multiple opportunities for communication (promoting functions of communication).

Promoting communication initiation For students with CCN, interventions promoting the development of spontaneous communication are critical (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005). Providing opportunities for individuals with disabilities to initiate and experience control over interactions and their environment (McMillan & Renzaglia 2014b), using readily available communicative means, is essential (Downing 2009). Ultimately, learners with CCN should develop the skills necessary to spontaneously communicate their intent or purpose to a range of communication partners across multiple contexts. Therefore, educators must have not only the skills necessary to operate AAC systems, but also the skills to create opportunities for AAC system use within the classroom learning environment (Downing 2009; Soto, Muller, Hunt & Goetz 2001).

Creating varied and multiple opportunities for communication Research has clearly demonstrated that multiple opportunities for communication are required when teaching learners with CCN. The use of learners’ AAC systems should be embedded within routine classroom activities—such as academic subject areas, meal times and self-care— and programmed to allow students to communicate a variety of functions (DiCarlo, Banajee & Stricklin 2000). Rowland (2008) suggests there are four major functions of communication: 1 2 3 4

to obtain what we want to refuse what we don’t want to engage in social interaction to get or to provide information.

Researchers have investigated and categorised communicative functions for a range of learners with disabilities including students with high support needs, autism, Down syndrome and physical and multiple disabilities, all of whom may be characterised as having complex communication needs. For the purposes of classroom instruction, categories, definitions and examples have been selected from Downing (2009), Owens (2010) and McMillan and Renzaglia (2104a). These are summarised in Table 9.1. Reichle (1997, p. 111) stated that ‘effective communication intervention must fully utilise naturally occurring interactive contexts’. Additionally, individuals with CCN should be provided with multiple opportunities for learning, practising and using skills that may not occur naturally across the school day, requiring planning of communicative opportunities (Downing 2009; McMillan 2008; McMillan & Renzaglia 2014a; Rush & Williams 2003).

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Table 9.1 Functional communication categories and definitions Functional communication categories (interactive only) Category

Definitions and examples

Requests: specific functions For attention

Behaviours used to get the attention of the partner (e.g. showing off).

Social interaction

Behaviours used to initiate a social exchange (e.g. tapping the partner’s arm).

Play interactions

Behaviours indicating the learner wants to engage in play with the partner (e.g. bringing toy cars).

For affection

Behaviours directing the partner to engage in physical closeness (e.g. a hug).

For permission to engage in an Behaviours that indicate the learner wants to engage in a activity particular action (e.g. pointing to the computer or sitting in front of it). For action by the receiver

Behaviours that direct the partner to act or cause an event (e.g. pointing to the TV to turn it on).

For assistance

Behaviours that direct the partner to provide help (e.g. looking at the partner while reaching for an item up on a shelf).

For information/clarification

Behaviours that direct the partner to provide information or clarification about objects, actions, events, etc. (e.g. holding out two books to clarify which book).

For objects or food

Behaviours that direct the partner to provide objects or specifically for food or drink (e.g. bringing a cup to get a drink, pointing to a toy out of reach).

Negations: specific functions Protest

Behaviours that express objection to or disapproval of an event, request, etc. (e.g. frowning and pouting when asked to put toys away).

Refusal

Behaviours that express rejection of a specific item or event initiated or suggested by the partner (e.g. pushing plate away when offered food).

Cessation

Behaviours that express a specific desire to terminate an event which has already begun (e.g. closing the book before partner finishes reading the story).

Denial

Behaviours that express denial of an event or action (e.g. shaking the head when asked if they threw lunch in the bin).

Declarations/comments About events/actions

Behaviours used to comment on an event—past, present or future (e.g. showing the teacher a medal awarded at swimming).

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About objects/persons

Behaviours used to comment about an object or a person (e.g. giving compliments).

About errors/mistakes

Behaviours that acknowledge that the partner or another person has made an error (e.g. indicating or pointing out that something was done incorrectly).

Affirmation

Behaviours that express agreement about or willingness to engage in an event or action (e.g. following when told ‘Let’s go’ or indicating ‘Okay’).

Greeting

Behaviours that occur subsequent to a partner’s entrance or appearance and express recognition of that partner (e.g. looking, waving and smiling at someone when they enter the room).

Humour

Behaviours that intend to entertain the partner and/or to evoke responses such as laughter (e.g. making a silly face, laughing and looking at the partner).

Response/answer

Behaviours that occur directly in response to a communication partner’s comment or question (e.g. saying ‘Thank you’ to a compliment or shaking head for ‘No’ when asked ‘Do you like pizza?’).

Communication instruction using naturally occurring communicative contexts in typical settings has been referred to in the literature as ‘naturalistic language teaching’ (DiCarlo, Banajee & Stricklin 2000; Rodi & Hughes 2000; Sigafoos, Roberts, Kerr & Couzens 1994). Although the definition of and approach to naturalistic teaching varies across research studies, environmental arrangement and milieu teaching techniques are often implemented as components of the naturalistic approach to language instruction (Hancock & Kaiser 2002). Because the use of naturally occurring communicative contexts may not provide sufficient opportunities for instruction for students with complex needs (Reichle 1997), environmental arrangement strategies are an essential component of naturalistic teaching. Environmental arrangement uses non-intrusive cues to promote communicative initiations and to increase learners’ opportunities for communication (McMillan & Renzaglia 2014a). The classroom or school environment is engineered such that there is an increase in opportunities for the student to initiate communication using their AAC system across activities that typically occur during the school day. Examples of environmental arrangement strategies from a variety of sources are summarised in Table 9.2 (see Downing 2009; Halle 1993; Johnston, McDowell, Nelson & Magnavito 2003; Kaiser, Ostrosky & Alpert 1993; Kaiser, Yoder & Keetz 1992; McMillan 2008; Owens 2010; Reichle 1991; Schepis, Reid, Behrmann & Sutton 1998; Sigafoos, Drasgow & Schlosser 2003; Sigafoos, Arthur-Kelly & Butterfield 2006). Teachers and support staff can use these strategies to create multiple opportunities for communication across a variety of contexts while promoting initiation from the learner. Each of the suggested strategies has potential communication functions that may be promoted through their use in the classroom. Several of these strategies were used to create opportunities for Jarod to communicate using his SGD. While he initiated the use of gestures and vocalisations for some of these functions, it was not always clear what he was trying to communicate. The PCS on his SGD were more

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specific and allowed him to communicate specific ideas and requests. For example, Jarod’s teacher would place the container of bubble mixture within view but out of his reach (blocked access) to create an opportunity for him to request that he wanted the bubbles. Other examples included only giving him a few puzzle pieces so that he needed to ask for more to complete the puzzle, and giving him parts of his snack to request more (inadequate portions). He was given things to do with which he needed help (for example, the bubble container or food packages to open; he was also asked to get equipment for the teacher which she knew he couldn’t reach). Jarod has successfully mastered requests; requesting preferred items, more and assistance. He is still working on learning to use the symbols on his SGD to protest through structured opportunities including interrupting games, breaking the rules and offering items or activities he does not like. A continuing goal for Jarod is to expand his communication functions and continue to create multiple opportunities to teach the comment function and to answer questions. Table 9.2 Environmental arrangement strategies Environmental arrangement strategies Strategies to Description promote an initiation

Function

Blocked access

Materials are placed within view of the child but out of reach, or access is blocked, such as holding materials until a request is made.

Request assistance Request object Request food

Assistance

Materials are provided with which the child Request assistance needs assistance.

Inadequate portions

Small portions are provided so the child must request additional materials.

Request food or drink Request objects

Sabotage

Not all the materials are provided, materials are hidden or moved from a familiar place, or wrong materials are provided, which the child needs in order to follow an instruction or complete an activity.

Request objects Request assistance Protest if child disputes an instruction

Protest

The child is asked to engage in an activity they do not like, or does not want to happen, such as temporarily removing materials from the child or interfering with a game.

Protest Refusal Cessation

Comment (initiation)

A silly or ridiculous situation is created that defies the child’s expectations of an activity or routine (e.g. wearing sunglasses while teaching, putting your coat on backwards or making an error in a familiar routine or game, such as drawing with a spoon).

Comment about events/ actions Comment about objects/ persons Comment about errors/ mistakes

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Functional communication and behaviours of concern Learners with concerning behaviours, developmental disability and limited or no speech often pose challenges for teachers, families and service providers. Their difficulties with communication make it a challenge for support staff and teachers to determine what learners want, need or are trying to express (Mancil, Conroy & Nakao 2006). Researchers have demonstrated that challenging behaviour in children with complex needs can often be interpreted as a form of communication (Casey & Merical 2006; Sigafoos, Arthur-Kelly & Butterfield 2006). For example, a student may engage in self-injury to gain attention. Consider the example of Jeremy. Alternatively, a student may engage in challenging behaviour to escape, avoid or terminate an activity or task. Consider the example of Mary.

Challenging behaviour as a form of communication Jeremy

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Jeremy is 14 years old. He has an intellectual disability and a visual impairment. He is able to imitate his name, ‘yes’ and ‘no’, but does not respond to questions reliably. Often when he is left alone he will slap his face several times, so hard that he leaves red marks on his face. The behaviour cannot be ignored because staff are concerned he will cause injury. The function of this behaviour may be to get the attention of staff. Someone always comes over to him when he starts to slap his face; he does not slap his face when he is interacting with a person. Mary Mary is 11 years old. She is able to say ‘yes’, ‘no’, ‘mum’, ‘dad’. Her yes/no responses are not reliable but she is beginning to imitate others’ speech. She has a simple 9-cell array speech generating device, but needs prompts to use it. She can discriminate between photos and picture communication symbols on her device; that is, she understands what these photos and pictures represent. Mary is compliant and will often begin engaging in tasks. At times, within a few minutes of beginning a task, she will begin yelling and pushing the materials being used in the task off the desk. She will continue to scream or yell and push materials away until she is released from the task or it ends. The function of this behaviour may be to escape/terminate the task or activity.

These stories illustrate how students may be communicating using their problematic behaviour. In the first example, Jeremy may be communicating a request for attention or social interaction. In the second example, Mary may be communicating that she does not like the

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activity and wants to stop (that is, cessation). Students also may engage in interfering behaviour to access preferred activities or avoid ending enjoyable activities. Some may even use problem behaviour if asked to transition before completing a task. These children have learnt effective ways to control their environment through behaviours of concern, thus understanding the purpose of the behaviours will lead to understanding the communicative function (Sigafoos, Arthur-Kelly & Butterfield 2006). Just as teachers can arrange the environment to create opportunities to teach a variety of communicative functions, teachers can support students who engage in behaviours of concern by teaching them an appropriate way to communicate as an alternative to problem behaviour. Functional communication training (FCT) is an intervention technique that involves procedures designed to reduce or eliminate the need for an individual to engage in problem behaviour by teaching communication skills that are functionally equivalent to the behaviours of concern (Dunlap et al. 2006; Sigafoos, Arthur-Kelly & Butterfield 2006). Positive behaviour support interventions such as FCT are increasingly being recommended for individuals with developmental disabilities and CCN (including autism) who engage in concerning behaviour and may use AAC (Bopp, Brown & Mirenda 2004). In FCT, the first step is to conduct a functional assessment (FA) or functional behaviour assessment (FBA). This can be one of the most systematic approaches to understanding the function or purpose of problematic behaviours, leading to the design of effective intervention strategies (Casey & Merical 2006; Mildon, Moore & Dixon 2004). This is an important process, as function differs between learners and across situations or contexts (Dunlap et. al 2006). For further detail on the FBA process, refer to Chapters 8 and 10. Following the FBA, the goal is then to teach the alternative or replacement communication skills that serve the same function as the challenging behaviour. In addition, the FBA will determine other variables that may be affecting behaviour (for example, lack of sleep, medication, noisy environment, transitions and particular peers). As the focus of this chapter is on learners with CCN, the basic functions of behaviour are outlined with considerations for teaching the request and negation communication functions (as shown earlier in Table 9.1) for students with developmental disability who may use limited or no speech and AAC. Teachers and support staff may consider viewing contexts that typically evoke concerning behaviour as natural opportunities to teach more appropriate ways to communicate, rather than as a disruption that is to be avoided at all costs. However, this must be done in consultation with the learner’s support team. The basic functions of behaviour and corresponding communication functions are outlined in Tables 9.3 and 9.4. Tables 9.3 and 9.4 demonstrate the relationship between functions of behaviour and two potential communicative functions: the request and protest functions. It should be noted that other communicative functions need to be addressed in the learner’s communication program, and that the program or plan should be developed in consultation with the speech pathologist and other members of the support team. Strategies to promote the acquisition of other communicative functions have been addressed earlier. Once natural opportunities have been identified and sufficient opportunities addressing a range of communicative functions have been planned, educators should consider instructional methods that promote the acquisition of new communication skills through systematic instruction.

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Functional communication training (FCT): Procedures designed to eliminate the need for an individual to engage in problem behaviour by teaching communication skills that serve the same purpose as the behaviours of concern.

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Table 9.3 Functions of behaviour Functions of behaviour

Internal

External

To obtain something positive/desired

Visual, tactile, auditory, vestibular or may be other internal stimuli (e.g. comfort or security from holding a favourite toy or object)

Attention Social interaction Activities Items or objects

To avoid or escape something undesirable

Visual, tactile, auditory, vestibular or other internal stimuli (e.g. anxiety)

Attention Social interaction Activities Items or objects Demands or tasks

Table 9.4 Corresponding communication functions Potential communication functions Internal

External

To obtain something positive/desired (the request function) ‘I want …’

To get internal stimulation (e.g. object twirling or rocking)

To get help To get attention To get an object To get an activity

To avoid or escape something undesirable (the reject/protest/ cessation function) ‘No/stop/I don’t like it/I don’t want …’

To avoid internal stimulation (e.g. too noisy, too busy, hunger, pain, discomfort)

Task or activity Terminating a desirable activity Attention or unwanted social interaction Items or objects Demands or tasks

A systematic approach to teaching Milieu teaching techniques have been described as a naturalistic strategy for teaching functional language skills (Kaiser, Yoder & Keetz 1992; McMillan & Renzaglia 2014a) with specific techniques described by Hart (1985) as mand model, time delay and incidental teaching. Milieu teaching incorporates several features: 1 2 3 4 5

following the child’s lead using multiple natural occurring contexts prompting language production using natural consequences that are associated with the teaching context using teaching that is embedded into ongoing interactions with the teacher and learner 6 following an antecedent-response-consequence paradigm (Kaiser, Yoder & Keetz 1992).

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Table 9.5 Summary of milieu teaching techniques Technique

Description

Mand model*

The teacher directs the child’s attention using interesting materials, mands a response when the child approaches the materials, provides a model if the child does not respond to the mand, then praises and gives the child the material for responding to the mand or model.

Time delay

Time delay requires the adult to be in close proximity to the child while providing an expectant look and displaying interesting materials. The adult then delays prompting for up to 15 seconds. If the child does not respond, the adult models the correct response. When the child responds to the model, the materials requested are provided to the child. The model can be repeated using the delay each time if the child does not respond to the first model. Alternatively, a higher-level prompt can follow if the child does not respond to the model (e.g. a physical prompt).

Incidental teaching

The incidental teaching process requires a child to initiate language or communication. The teacher then: • requests elaboration • prompts or models the elaboration if the child does not respond • repeats and confirms the correct elaboration • gives the child materials related to the initiation.

Combination

Any of the above techniques can be combined to suit the needs of the child and their system of communication. For example, a prompt hierarchy might be used where a time delay is the first step, followed by a model if no response and then by a physical prompt if no response to the model. Physical prompts obviously cannot be used with speech, but can be used with AAC systems.

*Using a mand means that the adult requests a response from the child. A direct verbal prompt to the child to ask for a drink is an example of a mand.

Table  9.5 provides a summary of specific milieu teaching techniques that have evolved within the fields of special education and communication intervention for learners with complex needs (Hamilton & Snell 1993; Kaiser, Ostrosky & Alpert 1993; Kaiser, Yoder & Keetz 1992; McMillan & Renzaglia 2014a; Reichle & Sigafoos 1991; Snell & Brown 2006; Snell, Chen & Hoover 2006). Use of each technique is based on the needs of the individual learner. The mandmodel procedure is typically used to teach new communicative responses, whereas time delay may be used to teach previously demonstrated behaviours that are rarely initiated but exhibited in response to an instructional prompt. However, time delay has been shown to be effective in teaching new behaviours if the teacher begins with a zero-second time delay for the first few opportunities (that is, uses a model immediately, without the delay for the first three to five opportunities). The incidental process is used to teach individuals language elaboration, requiring learners to initiate approximations (Reichle & Sigafoos 1991). Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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Effective practice Teaching functional communication Over several years of study and practice, researchers and educators in communication intervention have demonstrated that naturalistic approaches such as functional communication instruction, environmental arrangement and milieu teaching can be used effectively by teachers, parents and service providers to substantially increase the communication skills of children with disabilities who require the use of AAC. Educators and support personnel may consider teaching communication to learners with CCN using a functional four-step approach as summarised in this chapter: 1 Consider assessing and teaching a range of communication functions (Table 9.1). 2 Engineer the environment to plan and create multiple opportunities for communication and instruction throughout the day using environmental arrangement strategies (Table 9.2). 3 Make use of natural opportunities to teach communication skills including contexts that typically evoke challenging behaviour (Tables 9.3 and 9.4). 4 Once an opportunity is created or arises naturally, use a systematic approach or procedure to teach the learner that best suits their needs and their level of communicative competence (Table 9.5). This approach not only provides consistency for the learner with CCN, as well as for the communication partners and educators, but each step also is supported by a strong evidence base developed over a number of years in the field of special education.

SUMMARY This chapter provided a framework for the teacher to support and empower the learner with CCN in the classroom. All individuals have the right to communicate, including learners with CCN. Learners with CCN are a diverse group; they may include learners with intellectual, physical or multiple disabilities or autism, with significant speech and language difficulties as a result of their disabilities. AAC is often necessary for individuals with CCN who do not have sufficient speech to meet their daily communication needs. For many learners, the use of an aided or unaided communication system makes effective communication possible, has the potential to aid learning and literacy development, and increases social participation and access to other curricular areas in the classroom. However, opportunities for developing social relationships, learning and using skills must be provided, and teachers should be aware of methodologies necessary to integrate the AAC system into meaningful classroom contexts. The learner with CCN should have an educational support team that collaborates in the assessment, planning and implementation of the learner’s education program. Shared ownership of the program and a vested interest in enhancing communication outcomes for the learner with CCN has the potential to greatly increase the social and academic participation of these students in school. Teachers have an important team role as they often hold the responsibility of implementing communication intervention and supervising paraprofessionals.

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Understanding the foundations of communication and strategies used to teach functional communication skills in the classroom is essential in supporting the learner with CCN. The strategies in this chapter: 1 recommend addressing a range of communication functions 2 demonstrate the use of environmental arrangement to create multiple opportunities for communication across learning contexts 3 explain the relationship between behaviours of concern and communication 4 suggest specific methods for instruction. The teacher has the ability to facilitate the development of peer relationships and expand the learner’s social networks through the school environment, as well as have a direct impact on the communication outcomes and overall quality of life for the learner with CCN. Consider the following comment from a parent of an adolescent with CCN and autism whose teacher implemented the strategies presented in this chapter. ‘I believe that this is the most meaningful experience that both Tommy and teacher had integrating Tommy’s SGD with his classroom lessons … Tommy was truly empowered and able to participate in lessons. He was also able to affect the outcome of events and be understood!’

For group discussion 1 What is the impact on a learner of having limited or no speech? 2 How might you educate others in the school community about children with CCN? 3 What are the barriers to including a student with CCN who uses AAC in the general education classroom? Consider opportunity and access barriers. 4 How might you teach peers to become competent communication partners? Why is this important? 5 Describe how you might set up or create opportunities for communication in the classroom. Think about opportunities within both academic and social contexts. 6 How might you respond to others who believe learners with CCN do not belong in the general education setting with their peers? 7 How would you explain the reason for ‘behaviours of concern’ to parents of other children in the classroom and alleviate their concerns about safety?

Key references American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) (1991). Report: augmentative and alternative communication. ASHA, 33(suppl. 5), 9–12. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) (2004). Roles and responsibilities of speech-language-pathologists with respect to augmentative and alternative communication: technical report. Accessed at www.asha.org/docs/html/TR2004-00262.html. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) (2005). Roles and responsibilities of speech-language-pathologists with respect to augmentative and alternative communication: position statement. Accessed at www.asha.org/docs/html/PS2005-00113.html. Julie McMillan and Parimala Raghavendra

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Beukelman, D. & Mirenda, P. (2013). Augmentative and alternative communication: supporting children and adults with complex communication needs (4th edn). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Downing, J. E. (2009). Assessment of early communication skills. In G. Soto & C. Zangari (eds), Practically speaking: language, literacy & academic development for students with AAC needs (pp. 27–46). Boston, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Kent-Walsh, J. & Binger, C. (2009). Addressing the communication demands of the classroom for beginning communicators and early language users. In G. Soto & C. Zangari (eds), Practically speaking: language, literacy & academic development for students with AAC needs (pp. 143–72). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Kent-Walsh, J., Murza, K., Malani, M. & Binger, C. (2015). Effects of communication partner instruction on the communication of individuals using AAC: a meta-analysis. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 31, 271–84. McMillan, J. M. & Renzaglia, A. (2014a). Supporting speech generating device use in the classroom. Part 1: teacher professional development. Journal of Special Education Technology, 29(3), 31–47. McMillan, J. M. & Renzaglia, A. (2014b). Supporting speech generating device use in the classroom. Part two: student communication outcomes. Journal of Special Education Technology, 29(3), 49–61. McNaughton, D. & Light, J. (2013). The iPad and mobile technology revolution: benefits and challenges for individuals who require augmentative and alternative communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 29, 107–16. Schlosser, R. & Koul, R. (2015). Speech output technologies in interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorders: a scoping review. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 31, 285–309. Sigafoos, J., Arthur-Kelly, M. & Butterfield, N. (2006). Enhancing everyday communication for children with disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Company. Snell, M. E., Chen, L. & Hoover, K. (2006). Teaching augmentative and alternative communication to students with severe disabilities: a review of intervention research 1997–2003. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31, 203–14.

Websites 1Voice—www.1voice.info A not-for-profit volunteer organisation based in the United Kingdom that recognises the need for adult role models to inspire children who use AAC and their families and carers. 1Voice promotes families supporting each other to address the isolation that can be felt by young people who use AAC. Resources are available for carers and supporting professionals.

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AAC-RERC—https://rerc-aac.psu.edu The RERC on AAC is a collaborative research centre focused on advancing knowledge and producing engineering solutions in AAC. A multitude of resources are available for professionals focused on evidence-based practice.

AGOSCI—www.agosci.org.au An inclusive group interested in enhancing the participation of all people with complex communication needs based in Australia. Membership includes persons who use AAC, their families and carers and professionals. Is the Australian chapter of ISAAC.

Augmentative and Alternative Communication Devices—www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fWUVv-TrZck The ‘Power of communication’ has been produced by Communication Matters to provide an introductory presentation on AAC.

Communication Matters—www.communicationmatters.org.uk Communication Matters is the UK chapter of ISAAC. Communication Matters values people who use any form of communication and promotes the individual’s right to participate in all aspects of life by using their most appropriate means of communication. It promotes awareness, advocacy and research for persons who use AAC.

ISAAC—www.isaac-online.org International Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication is a membership organisation working to improve the lives of children and adults with complex communication needs. The aim is to create worldwide awareness about how AAC can help individuals without speech. ISAAC accomplishes this by sharing information and promoting innovative approaches to research, technology and literacy through AAC. Chapters are based worldwide, including Australia.

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Supporting Students with Intellectual Disabilities

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Kathleen Tait

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To describe some of the characteristics that may be present in people with intellectual disability • To understand how students with intellectual disability may be supported at school • To consider the process for designing an individualised educational program • To describe the process for carrying out a functional assessment • To identify teaching strategies that may be appropriate for students with intellectual disability

KEY TERMS adaptive behaviour adaptive functioning assistive technology behavioural strategies cognitive strategies explicit instruction

functional behaviour assessment (FBA) functional skills individual education program (IEP) multiple-component response single-component response

Introduction The suggestions outlined in this chapter are aimed at assisting educators to understand the characteristics of intellectual disabilities and the potential impact of having an intellectual disability on an individual’s learning and development. In addition, a central aim of the information included is to introduce readers to the importance of designing optimal learning environments and using effective evidence-based teaching practices that fit the learner’s strengths and challenges. To raise educators’ awareness of the importance of developing meaningful skills and behaviours in the lives of children and youths with intellectual disabilities in their classrooms, this chapter also aims to introduce both undergraduate and graduate student teachers to the design, delivery and evaluation of functional and academic programs for students with an intellectual disability across all learning environments. Finally, it is important to note that all the teaching strategies and approaches to learning outlined in this chapter have been built upon sound cognitive and behavioural learning theories. 210

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The nature of intellectual disability Intellectual disability is a major disability in the Australian population, especially among children and young adults. It is also the most common primary disability reported by users of services funded by the Commonwealth State Territory Disability Agreement (CSTDA). There has been much debate over how levels of intellectual disability should be defined. The introduction of measures of cognitive functioning in the early 1900s (for example, Binet & Simon 1905; Terman 1916; Wechsler 1939) led to the pervasive practice of defining intellectual disability, also known as intellectual impairment, solely in terms of intelligence test scores (IQ). Traditionally, intellectual disability has been defined in terms of its severity; that is, mild, moderate, severe or profound, according to measured IQ. If a person has average intelligence, they would be likely to score around 100 on an individually administered intelligence test (that is, they have an IQ of 100). If a person has an intellectual disability (or intellectual impairment), then they would score below average on an intelligence test. A  child with an intellectual disability has significantly below average intellectual functioning; that is, the child’s IQ score is likely to be around 70–75, or less. Students with mild intellectual disability (IQ scores of 55 to approximately 70) are usually not identified until the child enters school and begins to fail academically. Moderate intellectual disability (scores of 40 to 50–55) is associated with more obvious adaptive behaviour deficits and is usually recognised during early childhood. Most individuals with severe to profound intellectual disability (scores of 35–40 and below 20–25, respectively) will be identified in infancy owing to significant developmental delay. People with intellectual disability are a diverse group. They vary considerably in the nature and extent of their intellectual impairments and functional limitations, the origin of their disability, their personal background and social environment. In addition, it is important to note that intellectual disability may be associated with other developmental disabilities such as autism, Down syndrome or cerebral palsy. Students with intellectual disability may have difficulties learning and difficulties with social skills and communication. It should also be pointed out that these difficulties are not exclusive to students with intellectual disability and that not all students with intellectual disability will show all of these characteristics. Some people have genetic disorders that impact severely on their intellectual, social and other functional abilities. Others with mild intellectual impairment may develop adequate living skills and lead relatively independent adult lives, but are nevertheless disadvantaged in society. Over the past two decades, new approaches have broadened the concept of disability to place increased emphasis on functional and environmental considerations and less emphasis an individual deficiency. These new approaches avoid sole reliance on IQ scores to define intellectual disability and rate its severity. For example, in the 2016 Annual Report of the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD 2016)  the concept of ‘intensities of needed supports’ is endorsed. This approach to measuring severity is more functionally relevant and oriented to service provision and outcomes rather than relying on the formal classifications of severity using IQ scores. The need for support is now used to differentiate mild from severe intellectual disability, in addition to measures of IQ scores and functional ability. Thus, by viewing intellectual Kathleen Tait

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disability through a wider lens, the impact of environment and support in reducing the effects of intellectual impairment can be better measured and addressed. The key criteria for defining intellectual disability are:  significant impairment in intellectual functioning; difficulties in adaptive behaviour; and manifestation in the developmental period.

Adaptive behaviour

Adaptive behaviour: Used by individuals with disabilities to cope with the natural and social demands of the environment, including feeding, dressing, toileting and higher level social interaction skills.

Adaptive functioning: Typical performance, rather than one’s ability. An individual’s adaptive behaviour functioning is considered to be inadequate if the ability is not demonstrated when it is required.

As indicated above, for some time reliance on IQ as the sole means for classifying those with intellectual disability reigned supreme, despite increasing concern over the use of a single criterion and increasing criticism of intelligence tests. However, recent modifications to diagnostic criteria for intellectual disabilities have started to stress the use of both IQ scores and some level of adaptive behaviour deficit as dual criteria for the diagnosis of intellectual disability. The construct of adaptive behaviour has its roots in the history of defining intellectual disability. In 2005, Sparrow, Balla and Cicchetti defined adaptive behaviour as ‘the carrying out of daily activities required by an individual at a level that is considered to be both personally and socially competent’ (p. 6). Put more simply, adaptive behaviour is the ability of a person with a disability to cope with the natural and social demands of everyday living (that is, feeding, toileting, dressing and social skills). There are four important principles inherent in the construct of adaptive behaviour. First, it is important to note that adaptive behaviour increases and becomes more complex as an individual grows older. For young children, activities such as dressing, toileting and getting along with friends is important; while adults need to manage higher level social interaction skills such as maintaining some form of employment and independent living. Second, the adequacy of an individual’s adaptive behaviour is judged by those who live, work and interact with that person. Third, and in contrast to cognition, which is considered relatively stable for most individuals over time, adaptive behaviour can weaken or improve, depending on interventions, changes in environment, physical or emotional trauma, etc. Finally, adaptive behaviour is defined as typical performance, rather than one’s ability. That is, while ability is necessary for the performance of daily activities, an individual’s adaptive behaviour is considered to be inadequate if the ability is not demonstrated when it is required. For example, if a child has the ability to perform according to basic classroom rules for seeking attention when asked (that is, the child can verbalise that they must raise their hand to seek the teacher’s attention), but the child seldom follows that rule and is more likely to call out for assistance, then their adaptive behaviour is considered to be inadequate in that area.

Adaptive functioning Drawing on the classifications by the AAIDD, ‘intellectual disability is characterised by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills’. Assessment of adaptive functioning and behaviour in school-aged children must account for the child’s age and sociocultural background, and the environments in which the child is expected to function (for example, home, school and community).

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More recent perspectives on the level of intellectual disability consider the level of support needed by a person to participate in everyday life as a better measure of disability. This approach focuses on a student’s functioning within a particular environment and encourages us to think about changes that can be made in the environment to help a person be as independent as possible. In schools, supports may be provided by family, friends, peers, volunteers, teachers, teacher assistants and special educators, or other professionals such as speech pathologists. The purpose of these supports is to promote access, participation and inclusion in the life of the school, access to an appropriate curriculum, and promotion of the growth of independence and self-determination. Support can be divided into four levels: 1 Intermittent—occasional, short-term supports are required; for example, a student may require occasional individual support from a peer to participate in a small-group activity. 2 Limited—supports are required continually, but for a limited time; for example, a student may require on-the-job training by a co-worker for the first few weeks of a vocational placement before they can work independently. 3 Extensive—supports are required regularly and on a long-term basis; for example, a student may require help with personal hygiene throughout the day. 4 Pervasive—supports are required constantly across environments and may be lifesustaining and require specific expertise from the support person; for example, a student may require gastrostomy feeding (placing of food directly into the stomach through a tube that passes through the abdomen wall into the stomach). Ultimately, it is the class teacher’s responsibility to design, implement and monitor an educational program for every child in their class, and that includes children with an intellectual disability. There are usually supports available to assist teachers with this task. Many schools have a learning support team (LST), or a similar group, which is a group of school- or districtbased professionals (for example, class teacher, specialist teachers, therapists and school counsellor) who assist classroom teachers to address the special educational needs of students. It is important to note that the child’s parents or carers also have a vital role to play in the work of the LST by assisting with the planning of their child’s needs.

What causes intellectual disability? For about one-third of people, their intellectual disability is associated with genetic factors (such as Down syndrome, Rett syndrome or Fragile X syndrome). For another third it is associated with external trauma or toxins (such as foetal alcohol syndrome, brain injury or an infection), and for around one-third the biological cause is unknown. Intellectual disability can also be associated with child abuse and neglect, and lack of appropriate stimulation in infancy and early childhood. Knowing the biological cause or medical diagnosis of a child with an intellectual disability may not be very helpful for educational planning. Children with Down syndrome may have measured intelligence that ranges from low normal to severe intellectual disability. Girls with Fragile X syndrome may have average intelligence, while boys are more likely to have a mild to severe intellectual disability. It is also important to recognise that children with an intellectual disability may have other disabilities such as vision or hearing impairment, health problems or emotional/behavioural disorders. Kathleen Tait

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How many people have intellectual disability? The proportion of the population identified as having an intellectual disability varies with the definition used. However, according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW 2014), over half a million Australians have intellectual disability, which is about 3 per cent of the total population, and a majority (61 per cent) of those people have a severe or profound limitation in ‘core’ activities of daily living. People with an intellectual disability often have difficulty adjusting to changed circumstances and unfamiliar environments and therefore need high support during times of change (Western Australia Ministerial Advisory Council on Disability 2016). Two important life transition points are from home to school and from school to adult life; for example, work, post-school study and participation in meaningful activities.

School attendance of students with  intellectual disability According to the ABS 2009 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers, it is estimated that around 7 per cent (or 288 300) of Australian children aged 0–14 had some level of disability (ABS 2010). The most common disability types among children were intellectual and this was reported for an estimated 161 600 children (3.9 per cent). There were 185 200 children (6.8 per cent) aged 5–14 who had schooling restrictions (ABS 2010). The prevalence of disability in 2009 for 0–14 year olds (7 per cent) was lower than in 2003 (8.2 per cent or 319 900 children). The decrease in the prevalence of disability for children aged 0–14 is consistent with the prevalence of disability decreasing for all Australians since 2003. This has been attributed to a decrease in the proportion of Australians disabled because of physical health conditions. Almost one quarter (22 per cent) of people with an intellectual disability as their main disabling condition did not know the cause of their intellectual disability, of whom 71 per cent were aged under 15  years. While genetic disorders are the most common known causes of intellectual disability, only 54 per cent of people with a known cause identified their main condition as being present at birth. This pattern is consistent with findings from both overseas and other Australian studies (AIHW 2014). About 17 per cent of people considered disease, illness or hereditary disorder as the main cause. About 19 per cent reported that their intellectual disability ‘just came on’, of whom 55 per cent were aged under 15 years (AIHW 2014). According to the latest available figures, 82 400 (45 per cent) of school students with intellectual disability were attending an ordinary class, while 70 200 (38 per cent) were attending a special class in a regular school and 31 500 (17 per cent) were attending a special school (AIHW 2014). While students with intellectual disability are less likely to have trouble with physical access or participating in sport or physical education classes, they are likely to have learning and social difficulties. The Disability in Australia: intellectual disability report (AIHW 2014) indicated there were high proportions of school students with intellectual disability who had difficulties in learning (66 per cent), fitting in socially (41 per cent) and communicating (31 per cent). School students with an intellectual disability typically need additional support at school to learn and successfully participate in the school environment. The most common types of assistance received by students with intellectual disability were special tuition (54 per cent),

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a counsellor or disability support person (28 per cent) and a special assessment procedure (22 per cent). However, it should be noted that around 28 per cent of school students with intellectual disability in 2003 did not receive additional educational support for their disability (AIHW 2014). A majority of children with high-support needs—students with severe to profound intellectual disability—are enrolled in special schools or special classes within regular schools. With inclusion being a general policy of Australian education departments, many children with an intellectual disability start school in a regular class, but they may move to a special setting as they get older. Fewer than 10 per cent of people with an intellectual disability participate in post-school study. In 2009–10, over 57 600 children aged 0–14 used National Disability Agreement (NDA) services, making up almost one fifth (19 per cent) of total users (AIHW 2014). The majority of children with intellectual impairment receive assistance from this program in their own home, rather than in residential care.

Many people are labelled as having mild intellectual disability only after they are ‘identified’ at school. After school, they lead typical lives in the community and other people do not consider that they have an intellectual disability.

Pause and reflect

1 What is it about school that results in these people being labelled as having an intellectual disability? 2 What are some individual and social considerations that might inform a teacher’s understanding of all children?

Apply your knowledge Lillian is an eight-year-old student in Year 2 and is progressing very slowly in all key learning areas. She has poor retention of previously achieved outcomes. In literacy, Lillian has very poor recall of sound–letter correspondences and sight words. She is reading at early kindergarten level. Her writing is limited to very simple sentences with repetitive wording, and she has difficulty creating stories. Her journal writing often repeats the same known sentences and content. Lillian struggles with numeracy and does not always count with one-to-one correspondence. Lillian received individual learning support during Year  1 and has further learning support in Year 2. She is currently part of a social skills program targeting a group of ‘at risk’ students. Identify the educational and developmental issues of concern to a teacher in this situation.

Considerations for teaching students with  intellectual disability Each student with a disability has a unique mix of areas of strength and areas that will need additional consideration and support. Many of the teaching strategies that support students with intellectual disability will be helpful for other students as well. Elements of the unspoken Kathleen Tait

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curriculum (such as skills in self-determination and social skills) that are made explicit for students with intellectual disability will benefit others. There are areas where students with intellectual disability (and other students) in inclusive classrooms are likely to need additional support, and teachers should address these areas when they are planning instruction for the whole class, as well as when considering the individual needs of each student.

Supporting motivation to learn Learned helplessness is a condition where a person believes that no matter how hard he or she tries, failure will result. This may be a result of many experiences with failure, so teachers need to ensure that students experience success, and this requires careful assessment of students’ current abilities so they are prepared for learning. It is important to ensure that the student with intellectual disability has the requisite skills needed for a task before attributing failure to lack of motivation. If learning is planned to proceed in small steps where student success is acknowledged at each step, motivation to continue learning will be maintained. Materials and learning activities should be meaningful to the students, and students should be provided with some choice about learning. For some students with more severe disabilities, learned helplessness may result from unneeded support provided by others. You should not be too ready to provide assistance, but rather expect and teach independent performance. A focus on teaching skills for self-determination can help students with intellectual disability to overcome motivation difficulties (Heward 2013).

Supporting peer relationships A child’s social and emotional adjustment involves how that student copes, adapts, shares, relates, interacts, cooperates, collaborates, respects the property and the privacy of others, and demonstrates socially appropriate or inappropriate behaviour. Students with intellectual disability often need additional support for successful social interactions, to learn to be sensitive to others’ feelings and preferences, and to learn how to deal with frustration, anger, hardship and change. Teachers may need to teach social skills such as turn taking, sharing, communication skills, showing empathy and emotional self-awareness. Social skills can be addressed in contexts such as small-group activities, playground games and cooperative learning groups. Peers without disabilities are likely to need support in interacting with some students with intellectual disability. Peer relationships are unlikely to develop just because students with and without disabilities are included in the same class.

Supporting attention to task To learn, students need to pay attention to the important aspects of a learning activity. Children at any time are being inundated with information about their environment (for example, noises from outside the classroom, displays hanging from the ceiling and movements from other students around them) and it requires effort to attend to a specific instructional task. The learning problems of children with intellectual disability may be due to attention problems, as they often attend to the wrong things and have difficulty allocating their attention properly. It

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is important for teachers to ensure that students attend to the important elements in learning activities. Helpful strategies include presenting information visually (in writing, with pictures or with real objects) as well as verbally, frequently checking students’ understanding, providing models as well as explanations, and using systematic, explicit instruction. Further, it is helpful to provide study aids, to provide structured time for the organisation of materials and assistance in recording assignments.

Supporting memory If students fail to attend to the relevant elements of a learning task, these elements will not enter short-term memory and will not be retained. One of the most consistent research findings is that children with intellectual disability have difficulty remembering information, and the more severe the disability, the more severe the difficulties with memory. Helpful strategies include limiting the number of steps given in any direction to a student (no more than three); providing many opportunities for repetition, review and practice of skills; providing support or scaffolding with prompts while students are learning; teaching for generalisation and transfer; and linking new skills and information to mastered skills and information. Teachers may need to consider explicitly teaching strategies, such as rehearsing and the use of mnemonics to assist them to remember. Pacing is also important. Teachers need to consider offering students extended time for both oral and written responses.

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Explicit instruction: Characterised by teacher-directed presentation and modelling of skills to be learnt, along with high levels of student responses through opportunities for guided practice with feedback.

Supporting generalisation and maintenance Many students with intellectual disability may need support to transfer new skills or new knowledge from the context in which they were initially learnt to new contexts. Teachers need to ensure that they provide active programming to support transfer, and integrate this into the instructional program from the beginning. For students with more severe intellectual disability, it will be important to teach many functional skills (such as shopping or the use of public transport) in environments where they will be used and not just in school settings (Heward 2013). Useful strategies to promote generalisation include the use of a wide range of teaching examples, assessing for generalisation and reteaching in new contexts when it does not happen spontaneously, and prompting students to use new skills and knowledge in a range of different contexts. In addition, use positive and/or concrete reinforcers, check often for understanding and give students frequent reminders of classroom rules.

Self-regulation Self-regulation refers to a person’s ability to regulate their own behaviour. It includes the ability to attend to different aspects of one’s own behaviour, to make decisions about the best actions appropriate to a context and to evaluate those actions. Students with intellectual disability may need both support and explicit teaching to master these skills. Useful strategies are teaching students to independently use permanent prompts such as written instructions, picture sequences or oral instructions recorded on an MP3 player; and teaching students to selfinstruct (provide themselves with verbal instructions about the steps in a task), to self-monitor (to observe whether or not their behaviour meets the desired standard) and to self-reinforce

Functional skills: Skills and competencies necessary for everyday living that would be expected to occur in the learner’s natural setting(s), including the use of adaptive equipment, counting money/change, reading/recognising single words, balancing a budget and completing a job application.

Kathleen Tait

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(to deliver rewards to themselves) (Polloway, Patton & Serna 2013). Finally, it is important to allow students frequent breaks or for teachers to vary the activities on offer. This is particularly true in secondary school situations where there may be double lessons scheduled.

Curriculum In this chapter the term ‘curriculum’ refers to the content, skills, values and attitudes students are taught. ‘Instruction’ is the way in which the curriculum is presented to the learner. Typically, the curriculum taught in a school is based on formal curriculum documents provided by state education authorities. The official curriculum may be inclusive and be written to cater for diverse students. In New South Wales, Life Skills curricula are available to meet the requirements of high school students who are likely to have difficulty with the standard academic curricula (see the ‘Effective practice’ box).

Effective practice Life Skills in New South Wales The NSW Board of Studies has developed a series of Life Skills courses for Stage 6 (Years 7–10) in each broad area of learning. Although there are no external examinations for Life Skills courses, they can be used to meet the requirements for the award of the Higher School Certificate. The use of a Life Skills course for a student with intellectual disability is not an either/or option. A child’s secondary school program might have one Life Skills course, yet all of the other courses that the student undertakes can be selected from the regular NSW Board of Studies courses. Refer to the website of the NSW Board of Studies to learn more about Life Skills curricula. Source: NSW Education Standards Authority, www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/ lifeskills_index.html.

The regular academic curriculum may be appropriate for many students with low support needs. For other students, the regular curriculum will be appropriate if teachers make accommodations and adaptations. For students with higher support needs, teachers are likely to need to develop a more comprehensive individual curriculum to ensure students are prepared for adult life. Students may need to be formally taught at school the life skills that typically developing students acquire at home, and incidentally inside and outside school. In general, the focus of educational programs varies according to the nature of the student’s intellectual disability, or how much they require support services. For students with lower support needs, the teacher may emphasise academic skills; for those with high support needs, the emphasis may be on self-help, community living and vocational skills.

Appropriate curriculum for learners with moderate to severe intellectual disability One of the key considerations in working with students with moderate to severe intellectual disability is: ‘What should be taught?’ For children with intellectual disability, whose rate of learning and generalisation may be significantly slower than that of other learners, every

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instructional opportunity counts. The overall goal of education for learners with more severe intellectual disability is the development of functional skills that can be used in the immediate and future school, home and community environment.

Individual education programs Individualised planning and instruction means that curriculum and teaching are tailored to the student’s strengths, needs and individual characteristics. Individualised planning must not be confused with individual or one-to-one instruction. Individualised instruction is adapted to the student’s stage of learning for a given skill, and for their preferences, priorities and chronological age. Developing an individual education program (IEP) or individual learning plan (ILP) is an effective way of providing meaningful individualised education with positive outcomes for students with intellectual disability. There is no one right way to write an IEP. The IEP is a significant education document, developed with the child, the family and other relevant stakeholders, which outlines the total educational plan for a certain period of time (for example, per term, semester or year). The IEP generally contains a number of priority programs. This document is meant to be a clear and transparent collection of information that specifically outlines what and how to teach a specific skill to a specific child at a specific time in that child’s life. The details required in an IEP will be determined by their usefulness to whoever is implementing the program.

The IEP team meeting

Individual education program (IEP): A written statement outlining the educational program and goals of a learner with a disability that is developed and implemented according to the child’s individual needs. It is developed at an IEP meeting whose members should include all relevant stakeholders.

An IEP team meeting is a formal meeting between the teacher, the parent(s) or caregiver(s), and any other significant stakeholder involved in the education of the student. At IEP meetings, goals are established, reviewed and modified for a particular student. It is from these goals that priority programs are developed, implemented and evaluated. The outcome of an IEP meeting is the IEP or ILP that has been tailored to meet a particular student’s needs at a particular point in time.

Goal formation IEP goals for any student need to be ongoing, strategic and purposeful; reflect progress towards important learning and developmental goals; and be appropriate for the age and experience of the student in question. A functional curriculum includes skills that are useful and productive to the learner in the real environment in which the learner functions or will function in the future. For younger children, these skills might include personal hygiene and eating skills. For older students, skills in handling money and housekeeping may be considered. Activities used to teach skills should be age appropriate for the learner and similar to the activities of sameaged peers. Learners with severe intellectual disability should be encouraged and supported to make personal decisions and express personal preferences. Communication skills—verbal, gestural or through augmentative communication aids—are essential to learners with severe intellectual disability. In secondary school, employment-related, recreation and leisure skills that are important to the present and future dignity and self-concept of learners with intellectual disability should be considered. Kathleen Tait

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When designing programs for students with intellectual disability, ask the team to consider these questions about the skills, content and activities: • Is it functional? Ponder the notion that unless the student can learn to do a particular task independently, someone else will have to complete that task for that child. • Is it age appropriate? Programs should be similar to those undertaken by students of the same age. For example, instruction in recreational pursuits such as sports, hobbies and/ or computer- or music-related activities would be more age appropriate for a 13-year-old boy than teaching him to play with toy cars and building blocks. • How will the student participate? Providing that a task is functional and appropriate, opportunities should be considered to encourage the target student to participate fully, partially or with support. • Does it encourage decision making? Programs should help the learner to understand choices and to decrease passivity or learned helplessness. • Does it create opportunities for communication? If students are given opportunities to communicate, then their attempts to communicate are more likely to increase. • Will it be useful in future vocational environments? Consider if the learner will eventually need this skill in the world after compulsory schooling (for example, at a day service centre or in a supported work environment). • Will it be useful in leisure and recreational skills? Consider if the learner is ever likely to use this skill in the community.

Priority programs Even with the very best intentions, it is not possible to teach every skill required by an individual child at any one time. Consequently, based on the child’s immediate needs, and the support services and resources available to the class teacher, a decision needs to be made as to which skills and how many skills are to be taught to the target student within a particular time period (for example, per term or per semester). Priority programs are a means whereby the student acquires crucial longitudinal skills expected across the school, home or community environments. It is usual to consider designing between one and three priority programs for a student with intellectual disability in any one semester. Each priority program should have an identified assessment procedure, goals to be achieved, a comments section with information that is specific to the target child (for example, requires food to be chopped into bite-size pieces), and an identified person who will take the lead in teaching the identified skill. For example, at school it could be the PE teacher or the classroom teacher who teaches ball catching. At home it could be the child’s siblings. In the community it could be a teacher aide or the child’s parents.

Determining priority program goals Decisions cannot be made until relevant information about each student is collected, summarised and organised. Information can be gathered from a variety of sources including health records, school reports, parent interviews, teacher observations, results of existing educational and therapy programs, and student assessments. The reason for collecting preliminary information about the student is to assist the class teacher to identify what the student knows or can do

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at a particular point in time, and to identify student strengths and needs. This information is invaluable in providing relevant information that will assist in the decision making related to the development of a realistic and functional IEP. An example of a simple IEP for a young child appears in Table 10.1. Table 10.1 Individual education program Child’s name: Mavis Sadler

Date: Term one, 2014

Teacher’s name: Mrs Doreen Arthur Target area

Key learning area (KLA)

Details of program Goal

Context

Leader

Helpful comments

Communication*

English

Nod or shake head to indicate yes/ no to single orientation questions

School and home

Teacher or family member

Respond verbally to reinforce that child’s response is clear to you

Community access and participation*

Human society and its environment

Message carrying

School

Peer

Peer to assist with tuck shop lunch orders

Recreation, or leisure

Personal development Health and physical education

Ball games

School and home

Teacher, family or peer

Catch, throw or hit using a brightly coloured but soft fabric ball, about the size of a large cricket ball

*Designates a priority program.

IEP considerations for older children and adolescents For older children and adolescents with intellectual disability, goals involving daily living skills would involve functional skills, including independent life skills, job-related skills and communityliving skills. Basic tasks include personal hygiene skills (for example, basic grooming, including shaving and the use of deodorant), advanced dressing skills (for example, choosing appropriate clothing for weather, utility or professionalism), food shopping and preparation (for example, planning, storing, cooking and cleaning up), simple home maintenance (for example, changing a light bulb or unclogging a drain), transportation (for example, automotive care or determining bus routes), financial independence (for example, cheque writing and balancing, résumé writing and completing application forms) and community involvement (for example, attaining legal assistance and health care).

Kathleen Tait

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Apply your knowledge As you begin assessing two students in your class whom it is thought may have an intellectual impairment, you find the parent interviews to be insightful. During the interview with Diane’s parents, you learn that Diane, who is often in trouble in the playground at school, is always allowed to win when her siblings play board games with her. The interview with Gary’s father was also revealing. Each morning, Gary refuses to eat breakfast. He will only drink large quantities of milk before going to school. In fact, it has been quite a struggle for his parents to get him to eat any food at all, even for his evening meal. 1 How would this information help in the IEP assessment process? 2 Consider how the school staff can best support and complement any individual intervention program with a whole class or whole school approach to disruptive behaviours.

Evaluating IEPs and ongoing planning

Behavioural strategies: Within the discipline of psychology, where learning is defined as the acquisition of specific responses to specific stimuli. Examples of behavioural strategies are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Functional behaviour assessment (FBA): A systematic method of assessment for obtaining information about the purposes (functions) a problem behaviour serves for a person. Results are used to guide the design of an intervention for decreasing the problem behaviour and increasing appropriate behaviour.

At the end of the nominated time period of priority program implementation (for example, one term or one year), the IEP team should regroup and reassess the child’s progress in achieving their goals. At this point, the IEP team would re-examine the child’s needs and discuss what the priority programs should focus on for the subsequent time period. The student’s IEP should be perceived as a working file, which is forever being updated and expanded. It is vital that a child’s IEP file goes with them should they transfer to another school or district.

Interventions for behavioural strategies It has long been noted that students with severe intellectual disabilities have been particularly susceptible to discriminatory assessment practices. Most standardised tests are not appropriate for learners with intellectual disabilities because, for example, scoring does not allow for adaptive motor or language responses, and changes in behaviour may be too small to be measured on such instruments.

Functional behaviour assessments The literature on functional behaviour assessment (FBA) provides considerable support for the need to assess the strengths and needs of students with intellectual disability, including the functions of challenging behaviour. Specifically, this is an approach that views problem behaviour as serving an important communicative function for the child. For example, if the child cries, she may be soothed and read a story to calm her down. If the child runs out of the classroom, he avoids a demanding task. FBA is an information-gathering process that uses a combination of interviews, direct observation, questionnaires and other available information to identify a specific problem behaviour, the triggers (also known as the antecedent) that may cause the behaviour and consequences that might maintain the behaviour.

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A key feature of FBA is that it will assist in identifying the student’s underlying motivation in a given situation. There are usually two main reasons why a child appears to act out. Either a child wishes to avoid or escape from a task or situation, or the child wishes to obtain or ‘get’ something. Research and experience have demonstrated that behaviour intervention plans stemming from the knowledge of why a student misbehaves (that is, based on an FBA) are extremely useful in addressing a wide range of problems. Once the function of the behaviour has been determined, teachers need to find more appropriate ways to help children to connect appropriately. By incorporating an FBA into the IEP process, the IEP team can gain the information needed to develop a plan. The IEP team members can also develop a plan that teaches and supports replacement behaviours that serve the same function as the problem behaviour itself (for example, teaching the student to calmly tell the teacher when they feel frustrated, and to ask for assistance when they find a task too difficult to accomplish). At the same time, strategies may be developed to decrease or even eliminate opportunities for the student to engage in disruptive behaviour that hinders positive academic results (for example, making sure that the tasks are at the correct instructional level). As noted in Chapter  8, FBA is a useful technique because it looks beyond the actual behaviour and focuses instead upon identifying the factors that might initiate, maintain or end the behaviour in question. FBA is the process of determining why a student engages in challenging behaviour and how the student’s behaviour relates to the environment. Useful resources for assessing problem behaviour and designing interventions are available at the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice website (www.air.org/project/ center-effective-collaboration-and-practice-cecp).

Types of functional behaviour assessment It is important to note that the communicative or challenging behaviours for any given individual can be controlled by numerous trigger events (antecedents) and shaped and maintained by numerous consequences. There are many techniques available to conduct an FBA, including, but not limited to, indirect assessment, direct assessment and data analysis.

Indirect assessment Indirect assessment includes structured interviews and reviews of existing evaluation information such as school or therapy reports. Parent interview questions can include: • • • • • • •

In your opinion, what are your child’s strengths, abilities, special talents and interests? In what areas does your child have difficulties? Do you think your child is progressing satisfactorily in school? Is your child actively involved in extracurricular activities? Does your child have any particular fears or worries? Does your child have friends? Is there anything in your child’s developmental, educational or medical history that might affect skill acquisition or school performance and behaviour? • Has your child had previous testing through a school or private agency? If so, would you provide a copy of the results? Kathleen Tait

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• Has your child had any special school programming, such as special education, remedial reading, speech/language therapy or counselling? • Do you have any concerns about your child’s school progress? • Is there information you know that would be helpful in understanding how your child learns best? • What are your goals for your child this year? (Spinelli 2012).

Direct assessment Direct assessment includes standardised assessment or checklists to observe and record situational factors surrounding the situation or target behaviour. The teacher might observe a behaviour (for example, a child is sitting alone) in the setting that it is likely to occur (for example, at lunchtime in the playground) and record data using an Antecedent–Behaviour–Consequence (ABC) approach (see Table 10.2). The ABC approach can also assist the teaching of a skill (see Table 10.3). Table 10.2 ABC analysis (example one) Antecedent

Behaviour

Consequence

The teacher sits down next to Eleanor.

Eleanor looks towards the teacher.

The teacher pats Eleanor’s arm and says, ‘Yes, it’s time for lunch.’

The teacher opens child’s lunch box.

Eleanor looks at lunch box and moves left arm.

The teacher opens snack box of single grapes.

The teacher places a grape in Eleanor’s hand and helps her to take it to her mouth.

Eleanor smiles and slightly moves her hand.

The teacher smiles and selects another grape for Eleanor to eat.

Table 10.3 ABC analysis (example two) Antecedent

Behaviour

Consequence

The teacher says, ‘How much do you think these will cost?’

James uses provided notepad and pencil to calculate.

James says, ‘$5.20.’

At the checkout, the teacher says, ‘Ask how much it is.’

James says, ‘How much please?’

The salesperson says, ‘$5.20, thank you.’

James gives the salesperson money, receives change and starts to leave. The teacher prompts him with, ‘Did you get the right change?’

James checks using notepad/ calculator.

James says, ‘Yes.’

The teacher may choose to use a matrix or scatter plot (see Table  10.4) to chart the relationship between specific instructional variables and student responses. These techniques also will be useful in identifying possible environmental factors (for example, seating

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arrangements), activities (for example, independent work) or temporal factors (for example, mornings) that may influence the behaviour. These tools can be developed specifically to address the type of variable in question, and can be customised to analyse specific behaviours and situations (for example, increments of five minutes, one hour or even a few days). Regardless of the tool, observations that occur consistently across time and situations, and that reflect both quantitative and qualitative measures of the behaviour in question, are recommended. An in-depth analysis of scatter plot data should not occur until after at least five days of data collection. The purpose of this form of FBA is to highlight any patterns to the occurrence of the behaviour of concern. Analysis questions might include: • Is the behaviour occurring within the same lesson, activity, materials, teacher or group of peers? • Does the behaviour consistently occur following particular events? • Following instances of the behaviour in question, is there a consistent consequence used by the teacher, peers or other adults? • Does the student stop the behaviour following a particular consequence? Table 10.4 Example of a scatter plot Student name: Roberta Raye

Behaviour: Off task and out of seat

Scoring key

Blank = no occurrences

Slash = less than five occurrences

Solid = more than five occurrences

Daily schedule of lessons

Day and date: 15–20 minutes

Last 5 minutes

Activity and location

Comments

/

Small-group activity

Poked other children with ruler

/

Went to sharpen pencil

Started playing with peers Cleo and Hal

Independent activity

Talking to child next to her

1

Science

2

Maths

3

Japanese

First 5 minutes

5–10 minutes /

/

10–15 minutes

Morning tea break

Data analysis Once the team is satisfied that enough data have been collected, the next step is to compare and analyse the information. Drawing upon information that emerges from the analysis, school personnel (such as a learning support team) can establish a hypothesis regarding the Kathleen Tait

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function of the behaviours in question (see Table 10.5). An FBA should minimally include the following components: • identification of the problem area • definition of the behaviour in concrete terms • identification of the contextual factors that contribute to the behaviour (including distance factors, setting events, and affective and cognitive factors). Once contextual information has been collected, six basic questions may be asked: 1 When is the student most likely to engage in the problem behaviour? 2 What specific events or factors appear to be contributing to the student’s problem behaviour? 3 What function(s) does the problem behaviour serve the student? 4 What might the student be communicating through the problem behaviour? 5 When is the student most successful and therefore less likely to engage in the problem behaviour? 6 What other factors might be contributing to the student’s problem behaviour? It is important to note that the communicative or challenging behaviours for any given individual can be controlled by numerous trigger events (antecedents) and shaped and maintained by numerous consequences. That is, in many cases challenging behaviour can be multiply determined. At this point in the process, teachers can start to develop a hypothesis about the target behaviour in which statements are made that describe the relationship of the behaviour to the event and the circumstances surrounding it. Table 10.5 Example of a hypothesis statement Distant setting event

Antecedent or trigger event

Behaviour

Consequence

Phillip has often had only four hours’ sleep at night.

When Phillip arrives at school feeling tired, he will refuse to attempt demanding tasks.

Phillip does not find reading comprehension tasks easy to complete unaided. When demands are placed on Phillip to complete reading comprehension tasks unassisted, he will put his head on his desk.

Phillip’s reading comprehension tasks are not attempted, so he escapes the task.

The final stage of the FBA is to design the intervention plan. The importance of an accompanying intervention program—which considers not only the function and purpose of the FBA, but also issues such as quality of life, social validity and practicality—cannot be overstated.

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Apply your knowledge George is a 17-year-old with a severe intellectual disability who lives in a group home. George has been observed spending long hours sitting in the corner of his bedroom rocking back and forth, flipping his right thumb against his upper lip. When questioned about his behaviour, a number of group home staff members had various suggestions as to why George behaved in this manner. Staff member A suggested that George engaged in rocking and finger flipping to gain the physical sensations that these behaviours generated. Staff members B and C noted that the rocking and flipping were more likely to occur when George had no structured activities, and they also believed that George used rocking and flipping as a response to anxiety. Consequently, house staff members B and C began to sit with George and comfort him when they found him rocking. When they did this, it was noted that George would seem to stop the rocking and flipping behaviour. 1 What was the function of the current rocking behaviour? 2 Write an hypothesis statement.

Interventions with cognitive strategies Students with intellectual disability who are learning academic skills are likely to benefit from direct, explicit, teacher-centred instruction to teach both basic academic skills and the use of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. Many students with mild to moderate intellectual disability can learn to read and master essential skills in literacy and numeracy, as well as curriculum content in other areas. They are also likely to need explicit teaching for strategies to support learning (such as strategies to use memory effectively), for reading comprehension and for problem solving. Teacher-directed approaches presuppose a careful analysis of curriculum content to ensure skills are presented in small steps and in a logical sequence. In these approaches, students have many opportunities to respond and to receive relevant feedback. They are given clear demonstrations of the skill and sufficient time to practise to achieve mastery. Lessons are likely to have a regular and predictable pattern to support student attention (Polloway, Patton & Serna 2013).

Teaching basic skills Lessons employing direct instruction or explicit instruction of basic academic skills important to literacy and numeracy follow a standard structure (see Table 10.6). The teacher tells the student what they will be learning, why it is important and how it relates to their prior learning, and then reviews prerequisite skills and knowledge. The teacher presents the skill through explaining and modelling; leading students through the content using questions, answers and feedback; providing opportunity for students to practise the skill; and monitoring student knowledge of presented content. Direct instruction is an approach to classroom teaching characterised by clear presentation (for example, using signals to let students know when they need to actively respond), careful sequencing (that is, seamlessly and progressively presenting Kathleen Tait

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Table 10.6 Example of explicit instruction of basic skills Function

Example

Rationale

Review, revise and motivate

‘Today we are going to revise counting by fives, and telling the time. Then we will learn to tell minutes past the hour.’ Students count by fives chorally and individually. Students play a bingo game using clock faces to revise telling hour times.

Counting by fives is a skill needed for telling the time in minutes past. Students revise reading hour times.

Presentation (models and explains the new skill)

The teacher uses a clock face to explain that when the minute hand is between the 12 and the 6, it is showing minutes past. The teacher sets the clock to 5, 10, 15, 20 or 30 minutes past the hour, then explains and shows how counting by fives, starting at the numeral one, is used to work out how many minutes past the hour.

The teacher gives a clear explanation of new content, with demonstration and modelling. The ‘minutes past’ side of the clock could be coloured to ensure students attend to that part of the clock.

Guided practice

The teacher sets the clock and asks questions to guide students through the steps.

The teacher gradually removes the scaffolds and supports until students are telling the time independently.

Correctives and feedbacks

The teacher affirms correct answers, and tells why they are correct. The teacher corrects errors and provides further practice opportunities.

Students need to know whether or not they have mastered a skill. All students benefit from informative feedback.

Independent practice

Students work on relevant tasks that require them to read the time on a clock. The teacher monitors to ensure students are correct.

Students need time to practise a skill until it can be done smoothly, accurately and without hesitation.

Weekly and monthly reviews

The teacher programs regular reviews of time-telling to ensure students do not forget.

Once an important skill has been taught, it is important that students do not forget it.

components and sub-components of skills) and supported instruction (for example, adding and systematically phasing out scaffolds). High rates of opportunities to respond are provided by frequent questioning, choral and individual responding, and judicious review of content. Systematic feedback (that is, specific praise or planned error corrections) and initial and ongoing assessment of student progress and placement ensures students learn concepts and skills leading to mastery.

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Evidence-based educational practices for  students requiring individualised instruction The severity, and hence the impact on learning, of a significant impact disability is a joint function of the cause or aetiology of the condition, the degree of intellectual impairment, the extent of adaptive behaviour development, and the frequency (and severity) of problem behaviour, if any. The contribution of aetiology, intellectual impairment, adaptive functioning and problem behaviour to learning will vary from individual to individual. Because the teacher can do nothing about aetiology, their task becomes how best to improve adaptive behaviour functioning and reduce problem behaviours so as to lessen the severity of the individual’s disability on daily functioning. Teaching adaptive behaviours and reducing behaviours are the main instructional objectives of an IEP.

High-quality intensive individualised intervention One-to-one training (or one-to-one teaching) is a structured approach that involves creating an opportunity for the learner to make the response, ensuring that a correct response is obtained from the learner, and then providing reinforcement for correct responses. This structured approach to learning is also referred to as discrete trial training. This focus excludes information on teaching in groups, which is generally less effective when initially attempting to teach new adaptive behaviours to individuals with severe to profound developmental disabilities. The one-to-one teaching format implies the involvement of a learner (that is, the individual with the intellectual impairment) and a teacher. The level of adaptive behaviour that can be attained by the learner through training depends to a large extent on the teacher’s experience and skills. In the 1960s and early 1970s, psychologists began investigating the use of behavioural principles to teach adaptive behaviour skills to individuals with developmental disabilities. Skills such as following instructions, motor and verbal imitation, and attending to materials, as well as communication, motor, self-care, recreation and leisure, and social interaction skills became targets of training. Limitations in the conventional behavioural techniques of reinforcing correct responses and correcting or ignoring incorrect responses soon became apparent. The nature of the skill that the teacher is trying to teach will determine whether a single-component response or a multiple-component response training strategy should be used. Examples of single-component training include teaching a learner to respond to verbal instructions, produce manual signs or point to the picture that matches an object. Multiplecomponent responses consist of a series of single-component responses, also called response chains. Examples of multiple-component training include teaching a learner to cook an egg, change a flat tyre on a bicycle, pay for items in a grocery store, and use the toilet independently. Before initiating any individual training program, the teacher needs to determine which objects or activities can be used to reinforce the learner’s correct responses during training. Problem behaviour may occur during training. The teacher needs to manage these behaviours during training so that they do not continue to interfere with training. Once the new skill is taught, issues of maintenance and generalisation need to be considered to ensure that the skills continue to be used appropriately after the individualised program of training.

Single-component response: A single, discrete response. Examples of single-component responses include pressing a switch to operate a CD recorder, producing a manual sign ‘EAT’ to request a preferred snack food, naming an object by pointing to the matching photograph and pouring water into a cup. Multiple-component response: Involves more than one response. Examples of multiplecomponent responses include dressing, preparing a meal, brushing one’s teeth, going to the toilet, playing a video game, feeding a pet, shopping for groceries, posting a letter and clearing the dinner dishes from the table.

Kathleen Tait

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One-to-one instruction is often necessary to promote the learner’s acquisition of new responses. Training begins by teaching a single-component response and then introducing other and more complicated multiple-component responses, but only as the learner makes progress and the trainer gains great confidence in their teaching abilities. Many tasks or skills involve multiple responses. Multiple-response training involves teaching each separate response in the task by combining these separate responses into a behavioural chain. To accomplish this, the trainer/instructor must first perform a task analysis; that is, break the task into teachable steps. A  task analysis is, therefore, a list of separate responses, which in their proper sequence will lead to the completion of a specific task. For more information on task analysis, refer to Chapter 15. When beginning to teach a target skill to students requiring individualised instruction, it is important to focus first on teaching single responses, because doing so increases the likelihood that the learner will experience success. As the learner makes progress, then it becomes appropriate and indeed necessary to build up the learner’s repertoire by introducing additional and more complicated responses.

Technology

TECHNOLOGY

Teachers who are working with students with significant disabilities want to see their students grow and learn to interact with their environment more effectively and independently. Utilising technology has been shown to greatly increase the independence of students. Switches are devices that complete an electrical circuit in order to activate another powered device (for example, lights, electric toys, voice recorders). Mechanically speaking, switches themselves are very simple tools. When taught systematically and paired with items such as speech activated devices or computers, a switch—or a pair of switches—can be used by students who only have use of very slight body movements (for example, a head tilt) to communicate fluently, type on an on-screen keyboard and/or search the internet (Koester et al. 2011). When selecting assistive technologies, the following areas should be taken into consideration: cognitive abilities (for example, receptive vocabulary), sensory abilities (for example, visual acuity, auditory processing), physical abilities (for example, muscle strength, coordination) and history (for example, progression of impairments, personal experience with assistive technology).

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For students with significant multiple impairments, even learning to use one or two simple body movements purposefully can be a daunting task. Teaching a student with a significant intellectual disability how to use and independently initiate switch use can be a challenge. Selecting the appropriate switch for a child begins with an assessment of accessibility options (Hoppestad 2006). Given the complex and challenging nature of assessing which switch and movement are the most appropriate for each individual, it is best for such an assessment to be conducted by a team of professionals—not just a special education teacher alone. There are a variety of different switches designed to be activated with minimal movement that can be mounted or placed in different positions for additional ease of use. Figure 10.1 provides an overview of the classic types of switches. However, in addition to the classic BIGmack and Jelly Bean switches, there are switches designed to be activated with an ultralight touch, a puff of breath, a slight head tilt or a press of the toe (refer to Chapter 15).

Figure 10.1 Classic types of switches Switch

Picture

Description

BIGMack

This commonly used single switch can be programmed quickly and activated with a simple press. Comes in various colours and often with covers to lay icons on the face of the switch.

Jelly Bean Twist switch

This commonly used single switch is available as a standalone switch that can be connected to other devices (e.g. light and sound toys).

Jelly Bean choice switch

This version of the Jelly Bean switch offers two choices, each connected to something different. Activating each switch requires different movements, but these could likely be with the same body part.

Bluetooth-enabled switch

This Bluetooth-enabled switch provides another way for a student to choose between two switches. Activating each switch could be done with the same body parts or different body parts, depending on the student. Source of photos: Schafer & Andzik (2016). Kathleen Tait

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Technology assisting communication and development

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Louise is aged nine years and has been diagnosed with Angelman syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder that presents with delayed motor development, jerky, puppet-like movements and a stiff-legged walking style, and generally moderate intellectual impairment. From birth, Louise also experienced a seizure disorder, delays in her developmental milestones and she did not develop speech. Louise’s noticeable facial feature is a wide smiling mouth, and her behavioural characteristics are frequent laughter, a love of music and water, and a sleep disorder. From 18  months to five years of age, Louise attended an early childhood development program which prioritised her gross motor development. Louise now walks independently albeit still with jerky movements and a proprioception deficit. As a result, Louise sustains minor injuries from regular falls. At her current school, Louise continues to engage in daily gross motor activities (for example, swimming, bike riding, obstacle courses, and trampolining) to maintain the development of her spatial awareness, coordination and balance. Louise’s individual education program (IEP) goals focus on the development of her communication using a Pragmatic Organisation Dynamic Display (PODD) book. However, Louise would rarely use eye gaze to actively engage in modelling of language pathways in the PODD book. Her expressive language was also limited due to poor fine motor skills necessary for navigation and the selection of the 12 symbols displayed on each PODD book page. Last year, Louise was presented with the same PODD book but in the form of an app on her iPad called Compass. After six months of explicit modelling using the Compass app and engagement in writing with alternative pencils, Louise was able to connect print to speech and language. Louise understood that her words had meaning and her writing had power. Suddenly, she was motivated to engage in the Compass app’s strong visual and auditory stimuli. Louise would independently wedge her iPad between the inside of her right palm and upper arm and navigate through PODD pages on the iPad screen, alternating the use of her left thumb and cheek. She would inconsistently communicate between two to four symbols to express a need, a want or an opinion within context. Communication partners positively reinforced Louise’s messages through levelled questioning and modelling of associated vocabulary. Louise’s physical capabilities resulted in the iPad being dropped and lost throughout the day. To support Louise’s autonomous communication, Louise’s parents purchased two iPad minis and a Gab and Go Harness. Louise’s PODD book and one iPad mini stand on wooden slope boards and transition with her to work stations to maximise communication accessibility. Louise wears the second iPad mini in her Gab and Go Harness during transitions, playtime and out in the community. Louise now initiates conversation using her PODD book by reaching out with both arms and flicking the bottom of the pages with her fingertips. Louise is directed to the first page of her PODD book and asked ‘Do you have more to say?’ Louise is encouraged to put her chin on her chest to communicate ‘Yes’. Louise’s current response is to make vocalisations and lift the pages of the PODD book with her hands. Louise meaningfully uses her thumb or flicks her fingers forwards and backwards on top of symbols she wants to communicate.

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Louise is achieving operational independence with the Compass app. Louise is self-determined to use coordinated movements to directly access three to eight symbols of core and content vocabulary, and then the ‘chat on’ screen area to produce audio/voice output for her communication partners to hear. Louise receptively looks and listens to a partner’s message and responds using more symbols, vocalisations, body gestures and/ or facial expressions. Frequency data shows a steady increase in Louise’s expressive language after the programming of personalised vocabulary (for example, motivators) into the Compass apps. Anecdotal data indicates that Louise now delivers messages with varied vocabulary that show her personality, and have significantly higher levels of relatedness. A timeline of three years has seen Louise progress from having a voice modelled to her, to Louise autonomously communicating across environments. Moving forward, Louise is strengthening her fine and gross motor abilities and is beginning to use connectives in short sentences. Key stakeholders in Louise’s life could not be prouder of her achievements and are committed to supporting Louise’s lifelong learning and communication journey. Source: Sarah Richardson, class teacher, state special school in Brisbane, Queensland.

Assistive technology The proliferation of computers and software for teaching and assessing students promises to create new and exciting ways for alternative methods of instruction (see Chapter 9). When you are thinking about the ways that assistive technology might help a student with intellectual disability, it is helpful to consider the following questions. • • • • • •

What does the learner need to make academic progress? What is the learner willing to use? How can assistive technology be used to support the student? How will the teacher react to a student using assistive technology? Is the device/program easy to use? Is the device portable? Is the device durable?

Assistive technology: An item or a system used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capacities of individuals with disabilities. Examples of such devices are orthotics, wheelchairs, support walkers, adaptive seating, communication systems and switches.

Kathleen Tait

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Careful planning, flexible implementation and ongoing naturalistic assessment are the keys to the integration of assistive technology into the lives of students with special needs. The story about Louise exemplifies how technology can assist students with significant intellectual disabilities in the regular classroom.

Early learners EARLY LEARNERS

One of the most important aspects of a classroom environment for all children is the appeal that it can provide to young children. Children come to preschool classrooms from widely diverse backgrounds and home situations. Some children have homes that are plentiful, with stimulating toys, books and other items for them to manipulate. These children have opportunities to experience a great deal and learn from these materials in their homes. Other children may come from home environments that do not offer a great deal of stimulation in the form of items for them to manipulate. These children may have to find or make items to use for play. In some cases, young children with intellectual impairment may feel overwhelmed by the vast range of activities on offer at their early learning centre, and as a result they may find they are unable to make a choice. In such cases, their educational program is likely to require the setting up of opportunities for the student to select and then engage in learning activities via individualised, small group or class-wide peer instruction, in order to maximise the amount of time and effort spent in free play sessions. Specifically, if they are unable to self-select an activity, such children will need to be taught to use a method for choosing and planning their play activity schedule. Best practice is to limit the child to a choice of two activities that the child is known to like. Take note of the precise choice-making procedure used by Leah’s early childhood teacher in the following case study.

Visual boards can help develop language skills

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Leah is a four-year-old girl who developed cri du chat syndrome, a genetic condition where diagnosis is based on clinical features such as a high-pitched monochromatic cry, microcephaly, a broad nasal bridge, and severe psychomotor and intellectual impairment. Leah had also been diagnosed with a significant communication disorder, low muscle tone and poor posture. Leah attends a local community preschool. Her parents were very keen for Leah’s early intervention program to focus on the development of her communication skills. A  speech pathologist attends this preschool and works with Leah and her teacher for 45 minutes per week. It was noted that Leah had great difficulty expressing and imitating sounds. For example, Leah could say /kæ/ but would omit the /t/ sound when attempting to say the word ‘cat’. She would say /p/, when trying to say the word ‘paper’. While Leah exhibited limited expressive language, her receptive language skills appeared to be much better. For example, when asked a question, Leah would smile and use simple body movements such as head nodding to indicate ‘yes’ or she would shake her head to indicate ‘no’.

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When Leah first started preschool, in the free play sessions she was observed to walk around the classroom to see what the other children were playing. Then she would lie on the floor and wait for directions from her teacher. Leah needed a medium for selecting, communicating and engaging in her free play choices. In conjunction with the speech pathologist, Leah’s preschool teacher prepared a visual board which indicated ‘First’ and ‘Then ’(see Figure 10.2). Two stylised drawings of typical preschool play activities that Leah was known to like were presented to her. The teacher asked, ‘Leah, do you want to do a puzzle or play with a friend first?’ Leah pointed to the number puzzle icon. Her teacher said: ‘Okay—you want to play with the puzzle. Let’s put that down first. Now, after you finish the number puzzle, then—do you want to play with a friend?’ Leah smiled to indicate ‘yes’. Leah’s teacher then confirmed the play sequence with Leah by pointing to the images on the visual board. ‘You have told me that First—you want to play with the number puzzle and Then—you want to play with your friend. Is that right?’ Leah smiled to indicate ‘yes’. Leah pointed to the ‘First’ sign to express that she was ready to play with the number puzzle. After they finished working together at sequencing the number puzzle from 1 to 10, the teacher pointed to the ‘Then’ image on the visual board for the next activity. Her teacher said, ‘First you did the number puzzle, Then, you can play with a friend’. Leah responded by nodding her head to indicate her agreement. Then Leah stood up and ran over to another corner of the classroom to play with her friend who was working on a farm construction activity (Figure 10.3). Source: Yumei Cai, Early Childhood Teacher, Castle Hill Wesley Preschool, New South Wales.

Figure 10.2 Leah works with the ‘First’ and ‘Then’ visual board

Kathleen Tait

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Figure 10.3 Playing with a friend

Assessment The Pittsburgh Rehabilitation Participation Scale: A teacher-rated measure of participation in activity Motivation on the part of the student is a key determinant of a successful educational program. The increasing attention given to quality assurance and efficiency of evidence-based programs for students with special needs suggests that the measurement of motivation deserves consideration. However, there is an inherent difficulty in defining and measuring motivation on the part of the child with a significant intellectual impairment when they are engaged in either therapeutic or educational programs. Assessing such a child’s level of participation, as an observable behaviour, is likely to be a far more useful measurement of motivation than any subjective assessment. The Pittsburgh Rehabilitation Participation Scale (PRPS) was developed by Lenze and colleagues (2004) in order to measure observed individual participation in rehabilitation therapy sessions in a hospital setting. However, due to the minimal amount of training or time needed to complete, this scale would also be useful in the classroom setting where measurement needs to be done without significant addition to the already heavy workload of staff who are working in inclusive settings. The PRPS rates an individual’s participation in a lesson on a scale of 1 (none) to 6 (excellent). Given the level of impairment experienced by some children with a significant intellectual impairment, it is frequently impossible to seek selfreports by the children of their motivation for various lessons. Consequently, using the PRPS, teachers can quickly rate a child’s participation after each lesson. Should a child-related or social factor lead to poor participation, it would be important for the class teacher (or educational team) to promptly detect this and correct the underlying cause, or provide an intervention

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to improve participation if the underlying cause cannot be resolved. It is possible that such identification could be done more successfully and promptly using something like the PRPS, as compared to subjective notes such as ‘student unmotivated’ that are typically found in student case files. The PRPS asks the teacher (or therapist) to rate the student’s participation using the following scale (see Table 10.7). Table 10.7 The Pittsburgh Rehabilitation Participation Scale Rating

Description

1

None

Child refused entire session, or did not participate in any activities in the lesson.

2

Poor

Child refused or did not participate in at least half of the activities in the lesson.

3

Fair

Child participated in most or all of the activities, but did not show maximal effort or finish most activities, or required much encouragement to finish the activities.

4

Good

Child participated in all activities with good effort and finished most but not all activities and passively followed directions (rather than actively taking interest in the activities).

5

Very Good

Child participated in all activities with maximal effort and finished all activities but passively followed directions (rather than actively taking interest in the activities).

6

Excellent

Child participated in all activities with maximal effort and finished all activities and actively took an interest in the activities.

NB: In cases of doubt, choose the lower rating (e.g. ‘good’ rather than ‘very good’).

SUMMARY The impact on learning for a child or adolescent with intellectual disability varies from individual to individual. Students with intellectual disability are likely to need additional support to sustain attention to a task or an activity, to use short-term memory effectively, to transfer or generalise their learning to new contexts, and to use both cognitive and behavioural strategies. They may need support to make friends and sustain relationships with others, and to learn skills for selfdetermination and appropriate social and communicative behaviour. Many school students with intellectual disability will need additional support for academic and social learning, although there are some who will require only occasional support. Research supports the use of explicit teaching for students with intellectual disability. Teaching functional and adaptive skills and reducing problem behaviours (if there are any) should be the main instructional objectives of an individual education program for students with severe intellectual disability.

Kathleen Tait

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For group discussion 1 Describe two characteristics that may be present in people with an intellectual disability. 2 Traditionally, intellectual disability has been defined in terms of severity. Ponder possible types of support that would be required for each level of severity to support children with intellectual disability to be as independent as possible in the classroom. 3 Explain what is meant by the term ‘behavioural strategies’. 4 Who should be invited to attend an IEP meeting, and what are the anticipated outcome(s) of such a meeting? 5 When designing an IEP for a child with an intellectual disability, what questions should be considered in relation to skill, content and activities? 6 Describe the process for carrying out a functional behavioural assessment for a child who frequently calls out in class. Design an ABC chart to collect the data. 7 Explain what is meant by the term ‘explicit instruction’. How might a teacher use this teaching strategy in the classroom with a child with a moderate intellectual disability?

Key references Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2014). Disability in Australia: intellectual disability. Accessed at www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=6442468183. Heward, W. L. (2013). Exceptional children: an introduction to special education (10th edn). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill-Prentice Hall. Lenze, E., Munin, M., Quear, T., Dew, A., Rogers, J., Begley, M. & Reynolds, C. (2004). The Pittsburgh Rehabilitation Participation Scale: reliability and validity of a clinicianrated measure of participation in acute rehabilitation. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 85, 380–4. Polloway, E. A., Patton, J. R. & Serna, L. (2013). Strategies for teaching learners with special needs (10th edn). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill-Prentice Hall. Schafer, J. & Andzik, N. (2016). Switch on the learning: teaching students with significant disabilities to use switches. Teaching Exceptional Children, 48(4), 204–12. Spinelli, C. (2012). Classroom assessment for students in special and general education (3rd edn). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill-Prentice Hall. Western Australia Ministerial Advisory Council on Disability (2016). Annual work report (2015–2016). Accessed at www.macd.wa.gov.au.

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Websites Angelman Syndrome Association—www.angelmansyndrome.org Information about Angelman syndrome, plus links to AS Global Registry, a Facebook page, research, news and inter-state associations.

Cri Du Chat Support Group Australia—www.criduchat.asn.au Information on this rare genetic disorder, including its characteristics and genetic basis.

New South Wales Board of Studies. Stage 6 Life Skills Courses—www.boardofstudies. nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/lifeskills_index.html The Board of Studies, Teaching and Educational Standards (BOSTES) NSW has developed Life Skills courses for Stage 6 in each broad area of learning. Each course comprises a two-unit Preliminary course and a two-unit HSC course.

Raising children network—http://raisingchildren.net.au The complete Australian resource for parenting new-borns to teens with special needs. Resources include reading tips sheets, book suggestion sheets and podcasts links

Support services for children with special needs: school access—www.kidspot. com.au/schoolzone/Special-needs-Support-services-for-children-with-specialneeds+4773+421+article.htm An information site to assist with information on how to ensure that a child with special needs receives all the help they need at school. A list of advocacy groups in all Australian states can be found in this resource.

Kathleen Tait

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Understanding Vision Impairment Carolyn Palmer

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand the unique needs of children with a vision impairment • To reflect on the impact of loss of vision on learning • To identify ways to develop inclusive educational environments and facilitate access to learning • To recognise the interface between the regular school curriculum and the expanded core curriculum for students with a vision impairment • To consider ways of educating students with diverse abilities, diverse needs and vision loss • To reflect on ways to meet the issues and challenges in inclusive education

KEY TERMS Braille cortical vision impairment expanded core curriculum (ECC) field of vision low-vision devices Vision impairment: A generic term used to describe either blindness or low vision. Vision loss may involve general blurriness, monocular (one eye) vision or a severe field restriction in central or peripheral vision, binocular skill, fixation (focusing on an object) colour vision or a combination of these.

ocular motility refractive error vision impairment visual acuity

Introduction Children learn through a variety of experiences that involve all the senses. Much incidental learning is through vision, which as one of our two distance senses represents a major source of information about the world. Although vision loss does not necessarily impair a child’s ability to process verbal input, it does reduce the amount of information available from the environment, and without it children have difficulties understanding relationships and spatial contexts, and gaining stimulation from their environment. The child with a vision impairment, therefore, faces many specific challenges to learning. As a result of distorted and limited visual input, all areas of development are likely to be affected and this includes cognitive development, interpersonal development, orientation and mobility, and incidental learning.

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Importantly, we should remember that vision is not a separate sensory system. Infants are born with innate linkages between their vision and hearing systems that have been described by sensory researchers as operating ‘ecologically’, where they work together to form consolidated perceptions and experiences. For example, it has been observed that even congenitally blind infants will turn their heads, as if expecting to see the sound source.

Classroom support for vision-impaired students James is a 10-year-old boy who is fully included in a Year 5 class of thirty students at his local primary school. James has retinal dystrophy, which means that he has an inherited lack of the necessary systems for keeping his retina (the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye) working normally. James has some residual vision, but it is too poor to be of use for academic tasks. He presents with abnormal eye movements, an inability to fixate on objects readily and eccentric viewing (he does not look directly at things). His use of peripheral (side) vision indicates a possible central field loss, which is due to widespread atrophy (degeneration) of the retina. His eye condition is described as ‘progressive’. Braille is the medium James uses to read and write, so print material given to his peers needs to be transcribed into Braille. When Braille is unavailable, James is dependent on audio materials or having someone read the material to him. When using the class computer, which has no voice output facility, he needs assistance from the teacher, the teacher aide or one of his peers. Because James has no useful sight, he must access learning using alternative means. His major learning senses are hearing and touch. To ensure that he understands what is being taught, his teacher uses her voice a great deal and verbalises as she writes on the whiteboard or teaches using the interactive whiteboard. Time is spent working with James individually, either by the teacher or a teacher aide, who provides support to the teacher for a specified number of hours a week. James also has regular visits from the specialist vision teacher from the Vision Education Service of the state department of education. Group work is also used to facilitate his learning. James is dependent on a range of assistive technology to provide access to learning. He uses a BrailleNote (a stand-alone Braille ‘minicomputer’) that enables him to function relatively independently in the classroom. He also uses a laptop computer which he accesses using JAWS for Windows (screen reading software). JAWS provides access to the software applications he uses and to the internet. It speaks through his computer’s sound card and reads information from his screen. Although James has severe vision impairment, he works on the same curriculum as his peers. He is very much a part of his class and has no difficulty at present in keeping up with his peers academically. Although obvious adaptations to the classroom environment and teaching strategies have been made, there is clearly an expectation that he is just like the other students. He is expected to do the same as everybody else.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Carolyn Palmer

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Read the above story and consider the following questions related to how James can be better included in the classroom activities and curriculum.

Pause and reflect

1 If this were your class, what further information or support do you think you might need? 2 What are the most important accommodations that may be needed for this student to facilitate his learning? 3 For which activities would the school and teachers need to plan carefully ahead of time? Are there any strategies they would need to put into practice to ensure that learning outcomes occur?

Visual acuity: Refers to the sharpness or clarity of vision; in other words, the ability of the eye to distinguish objects and discriminate details at a specified distance.

As can be expected, children with a vision impairment are dependent on parents, caregivers and teachers to provide them with a wide range of experiences, a language-rich environment and the opportunity to explore their world and learn about the people and objects in it. It must also be noted that not all vision problems that impede learning are obvious. Teachers and parents can fail to identify children with subtle, but potentially serious, visual functioning deficits. These problems also often go undetected in traditional vision screenings, which may only test visual acuity at longer distances, thus missing problems of near vision. We must remember that most classroom activities require students to be able to operate with clear and comfortable near vision in classroom situations that are often visually complex.

Educating students with vision impairments in Australia

Braille: A tactile system for reading and writing used by people whose vision impairment limits their ability to read print.

The range of educational options for students with vision impairment in Australia varies enormously. Historically, each state has developed its own policies and in many instances operated schools for children who were either blind or vision impaired. Nowadays the great majority of students with vision impairment attend their local school and are included with same-age peers in regular classroom settings. All states and territories in Australia recognise that every student with a vision impairment can learn; they also acknowledge the need to focus on students’ strengths, ensure that accommodations address their individual needs, and recognise the importance of diversifying instruction to include these students in general education. Except for South Australia, there are no segregated government schools in Australia for students with vision impairment but no additional disability. The South Australian School for Vision Impaired (SASVI) is an R-12 school that students with severe vision impairment can attend in the short term (for assessment), in the medium term (one to three years, to undertake training in orientation and mobility, Braille, independent living skills and social skills), for the long term (for students who typically also have hearing impairment or physical impairment, but are able to access the Australian Curriculum at age-appropriate levels) or in shared enrolment with their local school, which can range from one to four days in the specialist setting.

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In addition to general education placements, students with vision impairment in South Australia may access an early intervention service which provides a developmental program for children 0–6 years, who are blind or vision impaired. The early intervention team works alongside families to assist them to support their child’s learning through setting foundations for growth and development and by providing a variety of opportunities to assist these young children to reach their developmental potential. These early intervention individual and group programs include a little learners group program (0–18 months), a learn and grow group program (2–4 years) and a childcare, preschool and school transition support program (2–6 years). This support is provided through home visiting, parent education and centre-based groups. Support at these sessions includes activities to promote development through playbased activities focusing on sensory play, imagination, fine and gross motor skills, and cause and effect experiences. Functional vision assessments are also conducted and strategies are suggested to encourage the child’s use of vision. Normally, students and their teachers receive support from state-wide specialist vision education services (visiting teachers, vision support teachers or education advisors: vision). The levels of support depend on the individual student and their assessed or appraised levels of need. While the right of these students to learn in general classrooms is not questioned, support is usually monitored and adjusted according to the students’ and school’s changing needs. Specialist visiting teachers (vision) observe students and assess their performances in their educational setting; provide classroom teachers with information on the child’s visual condition(s) and the implications for learning; assess the school environment; recommend specialised assistive devices and supports; provide texts and materials when required in alternative formats; and suggest strategies for optimal curriculum access. They implement the expanded core curriculum in areas such as reading and writing Braille, assistive technology, orientation and mobility, social skills, independent living skills and self-advocacy. In addition, they provide professional learning for staff, parents and relevant personnel, participate in the individual education program (IEP) review meetings, provide resources and give advice on curriculum accommodations. The ‘Effective practice’ box details the basic beliefs that underpin the philosophy of inclusion for students with vision impairment.

Effective practice Inclusive education for students with vision impairment Arguments for inclusive education … rest on notions of equality and human rights. Much more than a policy requirement, inclusion is founded upon a moral position which values and respects every individual and which welcomes diversity as a rich learning resource. (Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education 2015)

Inclusion in education for students with vision impairment involves: • ‘establishing inclusive values’ and putting them into action (Booth & Ainscow 2011) • ensuring that at a whole school level the cultures, policies, practices and school ethos reflect an inclusive philosophy that seeks to provide access to learning to all Carolyn Palmer

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• • • • • • •

students, to identify and eliminate barriers to learning, and to provide access and equitable learning opportunities differentiated curriculum a focus on students’ strengths and abilities rather than deficits valuing ‘a broad range of diversity beyond disability’ (Polat 2011, p. 52) recognition that all students with vision impairment can learn and they have the right to be educated in regular classrooms alongside same-aged peers acknowledging the preferred location for their education is full-time placement in their local school recognising the main responsibility for the education of students with vision impairment lies with the regular class teacher, rather than with specialist educators ensuring regular class teachers, vision support teachers and other relevant professionals collaborate closely in planning so that students with vision impairment can gain access to, participate in and succeed in all curriculum areas.

Apply your knowledge Consider the principles that underpin inclusive education. 1 Are there any specific challenges that you can identify for teachers and other school staff in providing for the needs of students with vision impairment in inclusive classrooms? 2 Are there any staff or material resources that you think might be necessary to ensure that positive learning outcomes occur? 3 What kinds of adaptations to pedagogy might be needed?

What do we mean by vision impairment? Vision impairment can range from no useful vision to a mild vision loss and, even with correction, can ‘adversely affect a child’s educational performance’ (Salvia, Ysseldyke & Witmer 2017, p. 306). Pagliano (2005) defines vision impairment as ‘a reduction in one or more of the following: accommodation, binocular skill, visual field, central vision (the ability to see fine detail) or colour vision’ (p. 327). Vision loss may present as general blurriness, monocular (one eye) vision, problems with binocular skill and fixation (focusing on an object), severe field restriction in central or peripheral vision, problems with colour vision, or a combination of these. Other aspects of vision impairment include tolerance to light, contrast sensitivity and visual fluctuations, all of which impact on how a child operates visually. Vision is a vital factor in assisting a child to obtain accurate and comprehensive information about the world. Without vision children have limited capacity to integrate information learnt

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through experiences, which can impact on their ability to use strategies of ‘association and classification’ and to develop their understanding of experiences through ‘reasoning and evaluation’ (Kirk, Gallagher & Coleman 2015, p.  393). Therefore, information, perceptions and the formation of concepts that are acquired without effort by sighted children may need to be specifically taught to those with vision impairment (Pagliano 2005). Therefore, teachers need to know how much residual vision a child has and how the child uses that remaining vision. Traditionally, little attention was paid to how residual vision was actually used and the major emphasis was on the measurement of visual acuity and the amount of vision not present (Bishop 1988). Prior to the twentieth century, children, whether they were blind or had low vision, were taught Braille reading and writing, and some teachers actually reduced the lighting in classrooms to discourage children from using their eyes to ‘read’ the Braille (Goodrich & Huebner 2010). To gain a picture of how a child operates visually and to understand the boundaries within which they function, visual acuity and functional vision need to be measured. Assessment of visual acuity is normally conducted by ophthalmologists and optometrists. Such clinical testing provides teachers with an understanding of the child’s visual ability as measured under specific conditions. Although clinical measures provide information that can be used by specialist vision teachers, they only partly describe how and what a child sees.

How do we see? Most of our knowledge of the outside world is obtained through our eyes. They are immensely complex organs that are made up of many parts. To try to understand the eyes and their function, capabilities and limitations, it is essential to know something of their construction, formation and development. Sight is the ability of the eye to react to the outside stimulus of light that has excited the nerve endings in the retina. Each part of the eye plays a part in transmitting information from light rays to the brain. As light enters the eye it passes through the cornea, the aqueous humour and the lens, and is refracted (bent). The lens focuses the rays of light on the retina (the nerve centre at the back of the eye, which is made up of millions of photoreceptor cells known as rods and cones), which converts it into neural energy by a photochemical process. The information is coded into chains of electrical impulses and fed to the brain via the optic nerve. These messages are then processed by the visual cortex, where what is perceived is related to past experiences and interpreted. It is important to understand the differences in meaning between the terms ‘sight’ and ‘vision’. Veen (2015, p.  10) states ‘sight is not vision, but only an image received by the retina. Vision is an interpretation of sight by the brain’. Put simply, sight is input and vision is output. Vision is more than mere acuity (clear seeing) and requires rapid coordination of eye, head and body movement. Vision plays a mediator role to organise and negotiate the environment and put objects, sounds, aromas, tactual impressions and people into perspective.

Carolyn Palmer

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The visual system This sense of sight, and the vision of the world we gain from it, involves a very intricate system that incorporates electromagnetic energy, ‘chemical changes in the rod and cone cells of the retina’ which result in ‘electrical impulses’ which travel along the optic pathways to the occipital lobe of the brain. This process requires the eye and the brain to work together in a highly sophisticated manner because it is in the brain that meaning is constructed (Ward 2010, p.130). A defect in any component of this visual system may result in vision impairment. Despite its intricate nature, the human eye is built very simply. It is connected to the brain via the optic nerve. Although the eye is a very adaptive organ, it needs the brain to organise visual experiences. The brain controls the direction in which the eyes are aimed by activating the external eye muscles. The eye sees as a rapid succession of images that the brain blends to give a sense of continuous vision. As much as the eye is thought of as the source of vision, it is often the brain that ‘tells’ the eye what to look for and what it is seeing. This task is, of course, assisted by the other senses, such as hearing. Each part of the eye has a major function in facilitating sight and vision. Figure 11.1 presents a simple diagrammatic cross-section of the eye.

Figure 11.1 A diagrammatic cross-section of the eye

Source: National Society to Prevent Blindness (Scholl 1986).

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Vision development in children Vision is a learnt process and therefore it is an individual achievement—and like all learning, it is dependent on the child and the environment in which the young person operates. Children are born with all the necessary visual equipment, but must then learn to use it. Visual development is connected to other areas of development: motor, cognitive and social development. As teachers, we should be aware of the close association between vision and learning and the importance of vision in the personal, educational and social development of children. For children to use vision efficiently, a number of prerequisites are necessary. These include: • • • • • •

clear vision at both near point and at distance a normal field of vision two eyes that coordinate and produce binocular vision (that is, clear, united vision) quick, accurate eye movements from one point to another eye–hand coordination visual closure (that is, the ability to fill in the gaps and interpret meaning when images or letters have missing elements) • visual sequencing (that is, the ability to recognise the position and sequences of letters and numbers, and their position in relation to each other).

Field of vision: The term used to refer to the entire area that can be seen when an individual is looking straight ahead and not shifting their gaze.

The impact of vision on development As vision plays a major part in all learning and information gathering, babies with a vision impairment and those with no useful vision have reduced stimulation and are at risk for delayed or aberrant development (Gargiuli & Kilgo 2013). They have no reason to reach and touch objects that they cannot see; nor are they motivated to explore their environment, which may appear as a blur or a mass of vague objects and movements. Children who are blind are at risk of becoming isolated. Unlike sighted babies who are constantly observing the world around them, watching the play of others, reaching for objects, noticing facial expressions and the way people move, children with severe vision impairment, and particularly those children who are blind, tend to be quiet, undemanding and passive. They may perceive their environment as unpredictable and chaotic. They may be surrounded by toys, but unless they accidentally touch one they will not know it is there. They will not learn play incidentally, or recognise facial expressions and body language. They will not learn to roll, crawl or walk upright without more direct intervention from sighted peers or caregivers. The needs of babies and young children with severe vision loss are far greater than those of the sighted child. Sighted babies hear sounds and expect to see something. Vision is continuous and it enables the child to make sense of the world. With vision children are motivated to reach out and touch objects, explore them and see how they work. Children who are blind cannot use vision to make sense of their environment. They are reliant on their other senses, which are not continuous and do not provide the same degree of information as vision. They do not spontaneously reach for objects in the environment and so have less opportunity to learn about objects and their function. Hands and fingers are not used to touch, explore and manipulate in the same way as those of a sighted baby, and so they may become low-toned, limp and floppy.

EARLY LEARNERS

Carolyn Palmer

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It is important to remember that impaired vision is not impaired ability. Children with vision impairment can excel in many of the same activities as their sighted peers. They are able to learn to do most of the things that other students do; but they may need to learn to do them in a different way. Vision impairment, however, is likely to affect many areas of development. A lack of vision may reduce the motivation to move and explore the environment, and students with vision impairment are likely to show delays in motor development. Because they have difficulty in monitoring movement and cannot copy others, they may develop unconventional mannerisms such as rocking or shaking their head. Orientation is difficult because the student is unable to create a mental map of their surroundings. This may lead to a further lack of confidence in moving from one place to another. Total or partial vision loss can impede a child’s understanding of the world (Kirk, Gallagher & Coleman 2015). Consider the following scenario (adapted from Best 1992): Imagine a baby girl, six months of age, at play. She is sitting on the floor surrounded by toys. Suddenly she notices a large red ball. She tries to grasp it, but it rolls away. She watches it, then her attention is attracted to a green plastic frog near her other hand. She looks back at the red ball, as if checking to see if it is within arm’s reach, and then looks back at the frog. She reaches for it, successfully picks it up and bangs it on the floor. It accidentally knocks over a tower made of wooden blocks that her mother had built earlier. It makes a different sound from her banging and she listens, and then continues to bang the blocks with the frog. Her mother turns on the television and the child glances around to see where the new sound is emanating from. She sees her mother who smiles at her and says, ‘Do you want to watch Play School ?’ She looks at her mother, smiles back and lifts up her arms. Her mother moves across the room, picks her up and gives her a cuddle.

We can see that even at this young age the child uses vision to direct reaching, and to monitor arm and finger movements. She can notice the link between cause and effect (she expects to be picked up when she holds up her arms). She is stimulated into activity by movement and sound. She can compare objects, see how their appearance changes when they are viewed from a different angle, and anticipate what is going to happen when certain actions occur. So, vision has a central role in enabling the infant to monitor, compare, anticipate, understand cause and effect, and gain stimulation from the environment. These skills are critical to the child’s development. Imagine the same scenario if the child is blind (adapted from Best 1992): She cannot see her environment. She can only learn the relationship between the walls, ceiling and furniture when it is explained to her, and she can explore them. She is unaware of which objects she can reach. Any initial contact is accidental, unless her movements are directed. She chooses her toys by touching them. If a toy rolls away, she does not know where it is, unless it makes a noise as it moves. She is not presented with an array of choices. She is not attracted by shape or colour. She is unable to use her vision to check strange sounds, and relies on hearing and touch to identify their cause. When her mother switches on the television, she is more likely to turn her head so that her ear is pointing towards the new sound. She will respond to her mother’s voice, but not her smile.

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Who are students with vision impairment? Students with vision impairment are those young people who have a significant loss of vision that even with correction impacts significantly on their educational performance. These students may present with low vision or partial sight, or no useful vision at all. Visual problems may affect a student’s ability to see (visual acuity), their field of vision and/or their ocular motility.

How is vision assessed?

249 Ocular motility: Refers to movement of the eyes which can cause vision. An example of an ocular motility disorder is nystagmus (rapid involuntary movement of the eyes).

Most vision problems in children are not detected by traditional vision tests. In some children, poor vision can be indicated by poor coordination, awkwardness and learning problems. Informed teachers can assist in the detection of vision problems. They are able to observe the child’s use of functional vision and identify those at risk. A functional vision assessment is designed to determine how well a student uses their vision in everyday tasks. A number of functional vision checklists have also been designed for teachers’ use. Children who exhibit signs of possible eye problems should have a full eye examination by an ophthalmologist.

Indicators of possible vision impairment Vision impairment or significant visual difficulties may be indicated if a student engages in any, or all, of the following behaviours: • holds reading material close to their eyes • has trouble distinguishing objects from a distance and/or when performing near-point tasks • reads laboriously and has immature handwriting • rests their head on the desk when writing or colouring in • has poorly organised notebooks • when reading, frequently skips lines, loses their place, tires easily, needs breaks, uses a finger as a guide and uses head movements • blinks, squints, rubs their eyes or tilts their head frequently • covers or closes one eye when reading or examining an object • frequently has swollen eyelids and inflamed or watery eyes • complains of seeing double or seeing halos around lights • frequently complains of headaches • has irregular eye movements • appears to be clumsy, trips over, bumps into things, walks with hesitation and has difficulty negotiating stairs and edges (Salend 2008, p. 100).

Causes of vision loss in children Schwartz (2010, p.  139) notes there are many ‘diseases and conditions’ that cause vision impairment in children. She states that low vision can be a result of a ‘congenital abnormality of the visual system, a disease of the eye or the brain, or an injury’ (p. 138). She claims that in America, eye diseases and conditions in order of prevalence are: Cortical visual impairment, Carolyn Palmer

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250 Refractive error: A structural defect of vision that can result in myopia (nearsightedness), which causes difficulty with distance viewing; hyperopia (long sightedness), which causes difficulties with near-point tasks such as reading; and astigmatism (distorted or blurred vision). Cortical vision impairment: The result of damage to the visual systems in the brain that deal with the processing and integration of visual information.

PART 3: SUPPORTING DIVERSE LEARNING NEEDS IN THE CLASSROOM

retinopathy of prematurity, optic nerve hypoplasia, albinism, optic atrophy and congenital infection. Vaughn, Bos and Schumm (2007) group the causes of vision impairment into three categories: structural impairments, refractive errors and cortical vision impairments (see Table 11.1). Vision loss in children is most commonly related to inherited factors or damage to the visual system in early childhood or in utero. Loss of vision in early childhood is particularly damaging, as it is at this stage of our life that we are forming our initial perceptions and conceptions of the world around us. So how can students with severe vision impairment operate efficiently in the regular classroom and gain access to learning? These students need to make efficient use of any remaining vision. By so doing they can enhance their ability to accomplish visual tasks with the use of compensatory visual strategies, visual adaptations, low-vision devices, technology and environmental modifications (Erin & Topor 2010). Teachers should ensure that the conditions needed for optimum visual functioning are provided for these students. These include: • • • • • • •

visual adaptations (colour, contrast, time and space) appropriate illumination suitable print size and spacing suitable seating position appropriate low-vision devices assistive technology materials available in an appropriate medium.

Table 11.1 Major categories of vision impairment Causes of visual impairment

Explanation

Structural

One or more parts of the visual system is damaged.

Refractive error

The ability to focus light rays onto the retina correctly is affected. Myopia (near-sightedness) causes difficulty with distance viewing, particularly blackboard work. Hyperopia (long sightedness) causes difficulties with nearpoint tasks such as reading. The child may either avoid such tasks or complain of headaches and display distractibility or restlessness when lessons demand periods of near work. Astigmatism (distorted or blurred vision) causes difficulty with near-point tasks such as reading; and with distance viewing, particularly blackboard or whiteboard work.

Cortical vision impairment

Vision loss results from damage to any part of the visual pathways in the brain. These students may exhibit reduced visual field or blindness in half of their visual field. They usually have some vision. Source: Vaughn, Bos and Schumm (2007).

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If the student has no useful vision, this should not preclude their participation in the classroom. The story about James at the beginning of the chapter illustrates how a student who is blind operates efficiently and accesses learning in a regular classroom.

Vision impairment, learning needs and curriculum The learning needs of students with vision impairment vary according to their degree of functional vision, academic ability, social and emotional needs, language and cultural background and preferred learning style (Kirk, Gallagher & Coleman 2015). For these students, learning needs may be organised into three categories (Hatlen & Curry 1987): 1 those that can be met by adapting the curriculum 2 those that require changes in pedagogy 3 those that are unique to students with vision impairment. In the current educational climate, students are educated together and differentiated teaching occurs. The needs of students with vision impairment are diverse, time-consuming and specific. Students with vision impairment require access to two areas of curriculum if they are to receive an appropriate education. One is the regular or core curriculum that is accessed by all students as directed by education system authorities. The other area is the expanded core curriculum that relates specifically to students’ vision loss, addresses their unique needs and is designed to provide access to the core curriculum. Access to the curriculum is achieved through the implementation of special education accommodations, equipment, resources and special measures such as extra time, realistic expectations and special formats. Modifications will generally be required in one or two of the following categories: • • • •

learning strategies (compensatory or adaptive skills) materials and devices (media and assistive technology) pedagogy environment (architectural and other physical barriers).

Creating an inclusive classroom Cassie is a nine-year-old girl who has a degenerative eye disease that has caused visual limitations. She has the support of an integration aide four days per week to assist with her learning. Cassie and her aide have a good working relationship. However, there are times when Cassie wants to be like everyone else and insists that ‘I can see perfectly fine’ when an enlarged sheet of work is offered to her. Sometimes she denies that she has a visual impairment. Cassie has support from the regional visiting teacher and a representative from Vision Australia. Once a term, a support group meeting is held with Cassie, her parents, deputy principal, teacher, integration aide and support staff to assess her learning needs and to write achievable goals for the following term.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Carolyn Palmer

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During a writing session where the integration aide was helping Cassie to write a recount of a recent excursion, Jane (who was sitting across from her) called Cassie ‘blind girl’. The reason behind this is unclear, except that Jane also likes to have assistance from the integration aide and might not have liked the idea that Cassie was exclusively working with the integration aide while Jane was left to learn on her own.

Expanded core curriculum (ECC): Comprises skills and knowledge that are unique to young people with vision impairment. It involves the development of compensatory academic skills including communication modes (for example, Braille), visual efficiency, orientation and mobility, social skills, skills for everyday living, recreation and leisure skills, career education and the use of assistive technology (Hatlen 2000). Low-vision devices (LVDs): Optical (nearpoint magnifiers and monocular telescopes), nonoptical (through improved lighting, large print, high contrast and a shorter working distance) or electronic (closedcircuit TVs) devices that assist people with low vision to see print, objects and aspects of the environment more easily.

Apply your knowledge Reflect on the principles that underpin inclusive education as a teacher. 1 How would you deal with Cassie’s insistence that she ‘can see perfectly fine’? 2 What would you do to solve the problem between Jane and Cassie and ensure that Jane’s needs were also met?

The expanded core curriculum The expanded core curriculum (ECC) comprises skills and knowledge that are unique to young people with vision impairment. It involves the development of compensatory academic skills including communication modes (for example, Braille), visual efficiency, orientation and mobility, social skills, skills for everyday living, recreation and leisure skills, career education and the use of assistive technology (Hatlen 2000). These curriculum areas are designed to provide vital competencies that are needed to ensure students can access learning, gain independence and work in media that suit their needs in inclusive settings.

Vision enhancement Many students with low vision benefit from the use of low-vision devices (LVDs) to access near-point vision and distance vision tasks. Prescription of these devices is based on low-vision assessment by professionals, such as optometrists, in clinical situations. While magnification is of benefit to some students, it must be noted that this does not apply to all young people with low vision. So what do we mean by magnification?

Magnification Magnification is a way of increasing the size of an image with the use of lenses. The strength of a magnifier is known as its ‘power’, which is represented by a number. A high-powered magnifier may have a power of 10 times or 15 times magnification. A low-powered device could have a power of 2 times or 3 times.

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Low-vision devices Several LVDs are used in schools: • Hand-held magnifiers—these are suitable for near-point work and may range in power from 2 times up to 15 times magnification. • Stand magnifiers—these are used for near-point work. The distance between the lens and the material to be viewed is fixed. This style of device is useful when both hands are needed to complete a task. • Closed circuit television (CCTV)—consisting of a television camera that focuses on the material and a monitor to view the images; this is another device that can be used for near tasks. Portability can be a problem if relied on for class work in secondary schools where students are required to move to different classrooms for each subject. In these situations the CCTV can be located in the library or in the student’s study area (if they have one allocated). • Monoculars—these are hand-held devices that are held to one eye and can be focused for different distances. They are particularly useful when there is vision in one eye only, or when one eye has much better acuity than the other. The variable focal length of some monoculars is useful for intermediate distance tasks such as reading a noticeboard or the descriptions underneath pictures in a gallery.

Braille Braille is a tactile system for reading and writing used by people whose vision impairment limits their ability to read print. Braille uses an array of six embossed dots arranged in two columns and three rows. It is a tactual system for coding and representing languages, devised by a French man, Louis Braille, during the nineteenth century. Braille is slower to read and more difficult to learn than print, and the materials are bulky to store. The teaching of Braille is highly specialised. The child with no useful vision will need to develop tactile skills and learn to read and write Braille, and it is considered a primary literacy and learning medium for these students. Children for whom Braille is the most appropriate primary literacy medium, however, may also be able to use enlarged print and auditory material for some tasks. In addition, the use of computer technologies and software (such as JAWS and voice-recognition programs) allow students to access information and to interact with text in flexible ways. However, Braille continues to play a major role in developing literacy skills and in facilitating independent learning for some students with poor vision.

TECHNOLOGY

Apply your knowledge Reflect on your views on Braille as a means to literacy acquisition and use for students with vision impairments. 1 How might you ensure that a Braille-dependent student is catered for and has access to learning in a regular classroom setting? 2 How might the use of Braille be linked with other media such as television, computers and phones to enhance the inclusion of all students in the classroom? Carolyn Palmer

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Orientation and mobility A major difficulty imposed by reduced vision is the restriction on the ability of students to move safely and comfortably around an environment, and to anticipate and navigate any hazards that may be encountered. Orientation and mobility refers to the various skills and techniques used by non-visual travellers to move safely, efficiently and independently within their environments (Griffin-Shirley, Trusty & Rickard 2000; LaGrow 2010). Orientation is the process of utilising remaining senses to establish one’s position in relation to other objects in the environment (Griffin-Shirley, Trusty & Rickard 2000; LaGrow 2010; Pagliano 2005). It involves receiving, processing and reacting to signals from the environment, and the way this affects behaviour and communication (Sleeuwenhoek, Boter & Vermeer 1995, p. 360). Mobility is defined as the capacity to move through space safely and efficiently (Jansson 2000, cited in LaGrow 2010) and to travel safely from one location to another. Guth and Rieser (1997, p. 10) define orientation and mobility as follows: Orientation means knowledge of one’s distance and direction relative to things observed or remembered in the surroundings and keeping track of these ‘self-to-object’ spatial relationships as they change during locomotion. Mobility means moving safely, gracefully and comfortably and depends to a large degree on perceiving the properties of the immediate surroundings.

Orientation and mobility are interdependent. It is clear that if a student is mobile but not oriented, their movement is purposeless and meaningless. If a student is oriented but not mobile, they are unable to move to a desired destination. Orientation and mobility training enables students who are blind or vision impaired to understand their immediate environment and their relationship to it. This training not only gives students independence, but it also enhances their self-esteem and facilitates social integration. Orientation and mobility training is an important area of the ECC for students with vision impairment. Orientation and mobility services for young children are designed to encourage the use of the senses in exploring the world, to improve body image and spatial directions and to foster sensory, motor and conceptual development. Early intervention programs can be developed to assist young children to:  • • • • •

identify body parts and positions with rhymes and songs develop gross motor movements through play on various types of equipment develop fine motor skills through exploration of construction and play activity materials identify and discriminate textures, objects and different surfaces learn to identify, interpret and localise sounds and smells through musical games and stories • develop spatial concepts • develop sighted guide techniques (Shon 1999).

EARLY INTERVENTION

Infants and preschoolers need sensory skills training to enable them to use their senses of hearing, touch, smell and kinaesthesia to their maximum potential. Concept development is also important. Young children need to learn about the size, shape, purpose, properties and function of objects. Positional, directional and environmental concepts also need to be taught. As motor development is usually delayed in young children who are blind, movement, playing

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on play gym equipment and physical exercise can assist the development of strength, balance and coordinated movement. There are five specific areas of instruction that researchers believe constitute an orientation and mobility curriculum—see Ferrell 1979; Hill 1986; Hill et al. 1984 (all cited in LaGrow 1998). These are sensory skill development, motor development, concept development, environmental or community awareness, and the acquisition of formal orientation and mobility skills. An orientation and mobility program, according to Fazzi and Naimy (2010, p.  659), usually emphasises:  ‘promoting meaningful use of visual skills, … training in the use of appropriate low vision devices … integrating the use of visual and other sensory information … incorporating the use of vision and other sensory experiences to develop a conceptual understanding of related orientation and travel concepts’. While some students may need training to make maximum use of their residual vision, others may need training to use the long cane and electronic mobility devices. Training should be conducted, in both familiar and unfamiliar environments, by a qualified orientation and mobility instructor. Independence through orientation and mobility instruction is essential to strengthen a student’s self-concept, and the class teacher needs to work closely with the specialist teacher in this aspect of the child’s development.

Reflect on your views on orientation and mobility as a means towards independent travel for students with vision impairments in inclusive classrooms.

Pause and reflect

1 What is the difference between orientation and mobility? 2 What are the major benefits of orientation and mobility training for the student with vision impairment in an inclusive school? 3 Do all students with vision impairment need to develop the same skills? 4 As a teacher, how would you cater for the orientation and mobility needs of a student with severe vision impairment in a regular school setting?

Approaches to teaching students with vision impairment: what works? A collaborative team approach is essential when students with vision impairment have contact with a range of educators (Topor, Holbrook & Koenig 2000). Specialised services, books and materials in appropriate media (including Braille), as well as specialised equipment and technology, are essential to enable students to compete with their peers in school and, ultimately, in society. Children with vision impairment need many varied concrete experiences. Self-esteem influences future success; according to Pagliano (1998) it has an impact on ambitions, achievements, personal happiness and relationships with others. Teachers need to focus on promoting high self-esteem and training in independence, orientation and mobility, and social competence. Carolyn Palmer

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The provision of effective education experiences may require some adaptations to teaching strategies, the types of materials used and the learning environment. Table 11.2 outlines some tips for teachers who have a student with vision impairment in their class. The successful inclusion of students with vision impairment is the result of high-quality preparation, coordinated and cooperative development of the child’s IEP, shared responsibility, collaboration and a teacher who is adaptable in their approach to teaching and learning. Table 11.2 Provisions to ensure students with vision impairment can access learning Whiteboard/interactive whiteboard/blackboard

Ensure the student is an appropriate distance from the whiteboard, interactive whiteboard or blackboard for maximum efficiency in viewing. Promote the use of appropriate telescopic aids. Ensure the whiteboard or blackboard is in good condition and is cleaned frequently. Write in a clear and uncluttered style using strongly contrasting pens (black or dark blue on the whiteboard). Alternate whiteboard, interactive whiteboard or blackboard work with desk work to avoid fatigue.

Desk

Children with vision impairment may need to get very close to their work. Teachers need to ensure they have: • a raised-top (sloped) desk • an adequate working space • a desk and chair at the correct height.

Writing

Teachers need to remember that with low vision writing can be very tiring. Children need to use black felt tipped pens, black pencils and dark lined paper.

Time modifications

Extra time is needed for tasks and hands-on experiences.

Worksheets and notes

Use a tactile/auditory approach. Provide a good, clear copy of all worksheets and notes. Enlarge print materials if appropriate.

Low-vision devices

Teachers need to understand what low-vision devices can and cannot do: • They are prescribed devices designed to assist near-point and distance vision. • They do not cure low vision. • They include stand and hand-held magnifiers for close work and monocular telescopes for blackboard/whiteboard/interactive whiteboard and distance viewing. • They require training and practice.

Materials and equipment

Print materials need to: • have simple typefaces • be uncluttered • include pictures that have good contrast, figure ground that is easy to discriminate and no text on pictures.

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Keyboard

Currently students use computers, iPads and keyboards from quite a young age. Regular keyboard instruction will enable students with vision impairment to produce well-organised products quickly and easily.

Assistive technology

Technology is part of everyday life. • Students who are blind need to learn assistive technologies such as computers with screen-reading software, Braille notetakers, digital voice recorders, electronic Braille machines and the Perkins Brailler.

Additional provisions

Teachers also need to: • provide opportunities for symbolic understanding using concrete materials • allow time for verbal understanding • give directions and prompts if a task is undertaken in language the child can understand • confine activities • use body reference when teaching new concepts (e.g. centre of hand, centre of the page).

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Source: adapted and updated from Cronin (1992).

Engaging a vision-impaired student in learning Thomas is eight years old and in Year 2 in the junior primary section of his school. Thomas has a severe vision impairment caused by Marfan syndrome, which is an inherited condition that may result in a vision impairment, and accelerated growth with resultant weakening of the tissues of the body. This condition is characterised by abnormally long and slender fingers, toes and other bones, congenital heart problems and general muscular underdevelopment. People with Marfan syndrome are often near-sighted (myopic). As a result of his vision impairment, Thomas’s distance vision is blurred. He needs to sit close to any visual source. His lack of depth perception affects his ability to judge distance and speed. This is particularly relevant for orientation and mobility, physical education lessons and when on class outings. Thomas needs to always wear his glasses and requires bold, clear print and illustrations. He needs verbal cues because he misses the subtlety of facial expressions. To keep up with the other students Thomas may require extra time on tasks, books with dark lines and a dark black pen or a soft black pencil for writing. Borders around the edge of white paper when he is working on a white surface enable him to distinguish the edges. To ensure that he can read from the whiteboard he must be directly in front and close to it. The teacher uses black or dark blue pens and makes sure the surface is clean before writing on it so that the best possible contrast is maintained.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Carolyn Palmer

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Apply your knowledge Read Thomas’s story and consider the following questions: 1 What strategies would you put in place to ensure that Thomas has access to learning in a regular classroom setting? 2 How would you cater for Thomas in physical education classes? 3 Taking note of Thomas’s particular eye condition, what precautions would you put in place before taking him out on class outings?

Environmental modifications The provision of effective educational experiences for students with vision impairment may require some adaptations to the learning environment. Table 11.3 summarises the major areas for consideration. Table 11.3 Adaptations to the learning environment for students with vision impairment Physical environment • • • •

• • •

Announce your presence and departure. Ensure doors are fully opened or closed. Close drawers and cupboard doors. Systematically describe the location of things after changes have been made. Provide extra space for storage. Provide access to power points for electrical equipment. Allow time for travel to other classes.

Learning environment • •

• • •

• • • • •

•

Familiarise students with the materials and equipment in the classroom. Provide print copies of materials presented on the blackboard/whiteboard, data projector or overhead projector. Reduce writing activities: allow students to dictate into a digital recorder or use a computer. Provide concrete examples students can touch (e.g. in science). Ensure that lessons have tactual and auditory components. Adapt assignments so that students can participate using alternative sensory channels. Consider lighting conditions. Students may require enhanced lighting, natural lighting or desk lamps. Avoid standing in front of a window when teaching. Use blinds or curtains to reduce glare. Ensure materials contrast with the background. Low contrast reduces visibility. Allow a peer to take notes, but check that the student continues to pay attention and participate. Provide opportunities for working in groups, particularly when vision is required to complete a task (e.g. science experiments). Source: adapted from Vaughn, Bos & Schumm (2007).

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Apply your knowledge Consider the provisions needed for students with vision impairment to access learning. 1 What strategies are needed to support learning for students with vision impairment? 2 What teaching approach works best to meet the educational needs of students with vision impairment? 3 What strategies seem to be effective, and why? 4 What provisions need to be made to ensure that these students can achieve positive learning outcomes?

Figure 11.2 The importance of contrast: high contrast increases visibility Low contrast

High contrast

Critical elements in teaching students with a vision impairment Student engagement Engagement in learning is a key factor in teaching students with vision impairment. If students are not engaged, they will not learn. Teachers have argued for some time that simply including these students in regular classes does not guarantee their academic success (Harrell & Curry 1987, cited in Bardin & Lewis 2008). Engaging students, meeting their learning needs and ensuring their participation in the regular curriculum is therefore critically important (Bardin & Lewis 2008; Lewis 2002). Bardin and Lewis (2008, p. 473) claim that: On checklists such as the Student Participation Questionnaire (SPQ), students who are perceived to be more engaged in academic situations are ranked high on the Effort, Motivation, Initiative, and Self-determination subscales and low on the Inattentive and Disruptive Behaviour scales. Carolyn Palmer

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Teachers can engage students in learning by utilising a variety of instructional methods, which they will need to vary according to the nature of the task and the student’s learning needs. Teachers need to maximise access to the curriculum, allow time for hands-on experience, expose students to real objects and, as McLinden, McCall, Hinton and Weston (2010) emphasise, provide them with authentic experiences which will engage them in learning. Students with vision impairment need opportunities to construct ideas, work collaboratively with peers and operate in a supportive environment, designed to guide their learning (Oliver & McLoughlin 2001, cited in Brown & Beamish 2012). Visual, tactile and auditory modifications to instruction and materials are critical as these enable students to become active independent learners and to participate with their peers. As students have different learning styles, and they take in and process information in a range of ways, they are better engaged when teachers use a variety of instructional approaches; in other words, when they diversify their teaching and tailor methods to meet the students’ learning needs. While some lessons may require direct teaching, particularly when new concepts are introduced, others may employ more interactive approaches.

Barriers to engagement for students with  vision impairments Vision impairment has the potential to affect a student’s participation and engagement in learning. These students frequently miss subtle nuances, and may lack an understanding of key concepts that form the basis of the subject area being taught. These gaps in concept understanding also influence how they comprehend, predict and create when involved in learning. The need for extra time to respond in learning situations and the difficulties in keeping up with the rate of instruction in regular classrooms can also create a barrier to engagement for these students (Bardin & Lewis 2008). In all learning situations, verbal instruction and hands-on experiences are essential, as is the need to access print materials in an appropriate format (for example, large print, Braille, audio). Other barriers to engagement for students with vision impairment may include: 1 the learning environment: the visual demands of most educational environments can present natural barriers to full access and participation. Classrooms that are designed for sighted students and teachers use print materials, demonstrations, charts, posters and videos, to name a few. 2 visual information and non-verbal communication. Teachers often use visual clues such as eye contact, facial expression or gesture to maintain discipline, indicate turns and encourage interaction. 3 difficulty with independence, self-advocacy and self-determination (Bardin & Lewis 2008).

Curriculum delivery In addition to regular class placement, students must have access to specialised services from teachers trained to understand the impact of a loss of vision on learning, plus materials in

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appropriate media and specialised equipment, technology and support staff to enable them to compete with peers. Early referral, access to early intervention programs and specialist services, and consistent delivery of services and expectations are critical. The challenge for professionals is to ensure that these issues are addressed and for parents to ensure their children have access to appropriate services by trained professionals.

The individual education program process The IEP process typically involves a transdisciplinary approach, through which teaching and other professionals contribute knowledge and expertise, and interact collaboratively with each other and with parents to meet the needs of the whole child. To ensure effective IEP planning, cohesiveness and collaboration between professionals is essential, as is the recognition of the needs of learners with vision impairment. The challenge is to ensure that meetings are collaborative, parents’ involvement and empowerment is a priority, that the focus is on the family and what is achievable, and that IEP goals are realistic and relate to teaching and learning outcomes.

The learning environment In inclusive schools, vibrant learning environments cater to the needs of young people with vision impairment; however, issues and challenges that can impede the development of appropriate learning environments exist and need to be avoided. Negative teacher attitudes impact on student morale and result in unmotivated practice; teacher aides who overprotect students impede interaction with classmates and generate learned helplessness. Cluttered environments, high noise levels, poor lighting, poor contrast and glare, disorganised classroom talk, lack of effective directions before tasks, messy blackboards or whiteboards, inappropriate student seating, and lack of suitable materials, equipment and specialist expertise are all challenges that professionals constantly need to address. Further, a lack of funding will exacerbate these problems and hinder inclusion. Finally, a major challenge is to ensure that classroom practices are inclusive of all students and that learning occurs in a safe, secure classroom environment that recognises the needs of young people who are vision impaired.

Professionals working together: teaming and building partnerships The most effective way to work with students with vision impairment is to use a team approach. Working together in an integrated way, combining valuable knowledge and skills as partners in the education of the students with vision impairment, must be emphasised as being of benefit to these young people’s development and learning outcomes. Transdisciplinary teams with a focus on the needs of the class teacher and the child/youth with vision impairment have proved to be an effective way to ensure that learning needs are met.

Carolyn Palmer

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SUMMARY This chapter has explored the nature, inclusive beliefs and practices in the education of students with vision; defined vision impairment; and discussed the visual system, causes of vision loss in children and the importance of these senses for learning. It has also explored the learning needs, essential curriculum areas, environmental modifications and ways to foster educational achievement through diversifying teaching, providing accommodations and resources.

For group discussion 1 In small groups, discuss and report the steps that you would take as a class teacher to include a new student with a vision impairment in your class. What information and resources would you seek (and from whom), what classroom modifications would you make and how would your teaching approaches vary? 2 In small groups discuss the visual and sound environments in classrooms and how they may be modified to ensure optimised visibility and reduced sound distraction for students with vision impairment. Suggest what some elements of a school ‘inclusion policy’ might be to ensure access to learning for these students. 3 Imagine that you are planning a lesson that involves visiting a local museum to look at a display on prehistoric animals. List the kinds of adjustments or special provisions that you would need to make to ensure that a child with a severe vision impairment in your class can participate in the experience.

Key references Bardin, J. A. & Lewis, J. (2008). A survey of the academic engagement of students with visual impairments in general education classes. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 102(8), 472–83. Brown, J. E. & Beamish, W. (2012). The changing role and practice of teachers of students with visual impairments: practitioners’ views from Australia. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 106(2), 81–92. Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education (2015). Supporting inclusion, challenging exclusion. Accessed at www.csie.org.uk/inclusion. Corn, A. L. & Erin, J.N. (2010). Foundations of low vision: clinical and functional perspectives (2nd edn) (pp. 111–36). New York: AFB Press.

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Kirk, S., Gallagher, J. & Coleman, M.R. (2015). Educating exceptional children (14th edn). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. Polat, F. (2011). Inclusion in education: a step towards social justice. International Journal of Educational Development, 31(1), 50–8. Vaughn, A., Bos, C. S. & Schumm, J. S. (2007). Teaching students who are exceptional, diverse, and at risk in the general education classroom. Boston, MA: Pearson. Veen, D. (2015). Sight and vision. The Optician. Accessed at opticianonline.net. Weiner, W. R., Welsh, R. L. & Blasch, B. B. (2010). Foundations of orientation and mobility (3rd edn). New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

Websites Albinism Fellowship of Australia (AFA)—www.albinismaustralia.org A national, non-profit organisation established in 2005 and run by volunteers. The AFA’s key purpose is to provide support, education and fellowship to those with albinism, parents of children with albinism as well as their families and friends.

American Foundation for the Blind—www.afb.org Founded in 1921, the American Foundation for Blind has spent nearly a century ensuring that individuals who are blind or visually impaired have access to the information, technology, education and legal resources they need to live independent and productive lives.

Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired— http://aerbvi.org The mission of AER is to support teachers and other professionals who provide education and rehabilitation services to people with visual impairments.

Blind Foundation New Zealand—https://blindfoundation.org.nz Provides a range of resources and supports for teachers.

New York Institute for Special Education: Blindness Resource Centre— www.nyise.org NYISE is a private, 501(c)(3) educational facility which provides quality programs for children who are blind or visually disabled, emotionally and learning disabled, and preschoolers who are developmentally delayed.

Royal National Institute for the Blind—www.rnib.org.uk Provides practical assistance and resources for blind and visually impaired people and teachers and professional groups.

Carolyn Palmer

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South Pacific Educators in Vision Impairment—www.spevi.net SPEVI was established to stimulate professional and public debate and action on vision impairment issues and change which affect, or have the potential to affect the daily lives of persons who are vision impaired, while emphasising concepts of inclusive, responsive educational communities and interdependence between learners and families within those communities.

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Understanding Hearing Impairment Mervyn Hyde

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand the often unique needs of children with a hearing impairment • To reflect on the impact of loss or reduction of hearing on communication, learning and development • To identify ways to develop inclusive educational environments and facilitate access to academic, social and personal learning • To recognise and support engagement within the regular school curriculum for students with a hearing impairment • To reflect on ways to meet the issues and challenges in inclusive education for students with a hearing loss

KEY TERMS accommodations of teaching, curriculum and assessment Australian Sign Language (Auslan) deaf

Deaf hard of hearing signed English technology and cochlear implants

Introduction From birth, children learn through a variety of experiences that typically involve all of their senses. Much incidental learning is through hearing, which as one of our two distance senses represents a major source of information about the world and our place in it. Hearing loss impairs a child’s ability to process verbal input, and reduces the amount of information available from the environment, and without it children may have difficulties developing socially, understanding relationships and gaining essential stimulation from their environment. Hearing loss in early childhood is far more significant than loss of hearing later in life. Early or congenital loss or reduction of normal hearing has the potential to severely disrupt communication and first language acquisition and development, social relationships and the essential links between language and thinking. The child with a hearing impairment, therefore, faces many specific

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challenges to learning in early childhood and particularly in literacy acquisition, academic achievement and social development during the school years. Importantly, we should consider hearing and vision as complementary senses, rather than as separate sensory systems. All infants are born with innate linkages between these two ‘distance’ sensory systems, where they work together to form consolidated perceptions and conceptual experiences. For example, it has been observed that even congenitally blind infants will turn their heads, as if expecting to ‘see’ the source of sound that they are hearing. Similarly, a person with reduced hearing will closely watch the face and lips of a speaker to attempt to regain any lost speech information.

What do we mean by hearing impairment? Hearing impairment refers to any reduction in what has been determined to be ‘normal’ hearing. Normal hearing standards were set many years ago by measuring the point at which young teenagers from rural areas in the United States just ‘detected’ the presence of certain sounds in a test situation (Hyde 1988). Sounds of varying loudness were presented to these young subjects across various frequencies and the lower limits of human hearing were thus mapped. These are, of course, averages and some young people with ‘normal’ hearing may hear slightly more or less than these average levels. Also, the hearing ‘maps’ that were produced with these test subjects to represent human hearing were the point at which the young subjects could ‘just’ detect the presence of each frequency. To hear comfortably and understand a signal requires a much louder level. Human hearing is amazingly sensitive and we are able to detect extremely soft sounds across a considerable range of frequencies and also distinguish between sounds that are minimally different. It is no coincidence that our hearing works best within the frequency range that is most relevant for human speech. The hearing of birds and dolphins, for example, is similarly adapted to their environments and communication within them. Human sensitivity to sound has been extensively measured and standards (Hyde 1988) have been developed based on these measurements. These standards refer to a number of sound levels, including: • those sound levels that are considered dangerous or damaging to the auditory system (over 90 decibels and up to 130+ decibels, or beyond) • those sound levels that are essential for hearing normal spoken conversation (55 decibels in relatively quiet background conditions) • our capacity for speech discrimination both in quiet and noisy environments. This normally varies with age and older people will have greater difficulty hearing in noisy areas. As described, these standards and criteria are conventionally recorded in decibels (or dB; ‘decibels’ are named after Alexander Graham Bell). It is important to note that the decibel scale (for human hearing, from 0dB to usually 120dB) is not a linear scale with equal increments like those found on a ruler. It is a logarithmic scale on which the increments are roughly multiples of 10.

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This means, for example, that a sound of 60dB can have twice the acoustic power of a sound of 54dB. This needs to be remembered when the implications of classroom noise and teachers’ voice levels are discussed later in this chapter. In the audiogram (hearing map) in Figure 12.1 a moderate to severe hearing loss in both left and right ears is shown. ‘Normal’ hearing would be recorded for all frequencies along the horizontal line at ‘0dB’. Figure 12.1 Audiogram: impaired hearing Impaired hearing Hz 250

500

1K

2K

4K

8K

0 10 20 30

dB HL

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Right ear

Left ear

When ‘mild’ means a lot! In this context, even a seemingly ‘mild’ (below) reduction in a child’s hearing sensitivity caused, for example, by recurrent ear infections, may mean a great deal in terms of how the child perceives speech and develops literacy. Table 12.1 indicates some of the possible implications of varying degrees of hearing loss for speech and language development in the early years. A hearing loss sustained in childhood has the capacity to fundamentally compromise the initial development of communication, spoken language and social skills and can result in a normally intelligent child failing to reach age-appropriate standards in these important areas. This can have further implications for the child’s early education, literacy and future academic progress.

Mervyn Hyde

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Table 12.1 Hearing levels for speech Average hearing threshold levels

Possible effects on speech and language

Mild (20–39dB)

May have some difficulty understanding speech, particularly in noisy surroundings. May experience some difficulty with language-based subjects (especially reading).

Moderate (40–59dB)

May understand conversational speech, face to face, within 2 metres, but may miss up to 50 per cent beyond this distance. Will have noticeable deficiencies in speech and language development and use. Will find group communication extremely difficult, particularly in noisy conditions.

Severe (60–90dB)

Conversation must be very loud to be heard at all. May be able to discriminate among some vowels, but will have difficulty with many consonants. Both speech and language will be delayed and deficient. Will usually have some degree of reliance on vision (usually lip-reading) to complement information received through residual hearing.

Profound (91dB+)

May hear only the loudest environmental sounds. Will usually rely heavily on vision for communication purposes (reading, lip-reading and/or manual communication). Speech and (English) language skills are often poorly developed.

Note: These guidelines are general and are based on better-ear, average, unaided measurements of hearing loss. With the appropriate use of hearing aids or cochlear implants, some degree of improvement in speech perception could be expected.

Making classroom accommodations for hearing impairment

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Michael is nine years old. He has a severe hearing loss in both ears and wears two hearing aids. Michael attends his local school and is included in a Year 4 class with same-age peers. He and his class teacher are supported on a regular basis by a teacher from the state advisory teacher service for students with hearing impairment. The school, class teacher and parents work collaboratively to ensure that Michael is an active participating student in the class, that accommodations are provided to ensure he has access to the curriculum, and that his learning needs are met. As his class teacher, you have been advised by the specialist advisory teacher that Michael’s speech quality is a reflection of his reduced hearing but that his actual language and cognitive skills are quite adequate for classroom and social learning. However, she advises that his literacy and numeracy skills are lagging behind those of his class peers.

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Apply your knowledge Read Michael’s story and consider the following questions, reflecting on how you might ensure students such as Michael are supported in the classroom. 1 How might Michael’s severe hearing loss impact on his classroom and playground communication and engagement? 2 What difficulties might he experience in specific classroom settings or lessons? 3 How could you, as his teacher, modify your teaching and learning approaches to teaching to meet his needs? 4 Why might his literacy skills be particularly problematic? 5 Why might his numeracy skills be restricted? 6 For which activities in class and out of class would the school and teachers need to plan carefully ahead of time? Are there any strategies they would need to put into practice to check that learning outcomes occur?

Some terms The terminology about hearing loss can be complex and is either socially/culturally or medically oriented. The term ‘hearing impaired’ has a medical origin that describes the condition, not the person. It describes the hearing loss or deficit. This term is typically not accepted by those people who prefer to describe themselves as being ‘Deaf’, regardless of the degree of their hearing loss (note the capitalisation that applies). In Australia, this is done because some people with a hearing loss are affiliated with a Deaf community and the regular use of Australian Sign Language (Auslan) in some aspect of their lives. Their parents may also be Deaf, but this is only in about 5 to 10 per cent of cases (Hyde & Power 1992). The three most common terms used internationally within both education and the community are (Hyde, Punch & Grimbeek 2011): • Hard of hearing—this functional description is used by most education authorities worldwide to describe a child who, with hearing aids or cochlear implants, functions as a person who is hard-of-hearing. This functional outcome may be applied despite the person having a moderate, severe or even profound hearing loss. The use of the hardof-hearing description typically reflects the benefit of an assistive listening device (such as hearing aids or a cochlear implant) that is worn and the capacity of the child to learn and use spoken language. That is, the child may be able to use and understand spoken communication in some, or even most, circumstances, but may struggle in situations that are noisy, or involve group work or unfamiliar people. • deaf (lower case ‘d’)—this is the other major term used internationally and does not necessarily relate to the measured degree of hearing impairment but to the functional context that these individuals cannot communicate easily with spoken language. They may have developed some proficiency with spoken language, but not enough to function independently in class, school or social situations. They will usually require communication support in the classroom from teachers (or a qualified sign language interpreter) and/or a note-taker to access learning and communication events.

269 Australian Sign Language (Auslan): The native sign language of the Australian Deaf community, as recognised in the National Language Policy. It has a different grammatical structure and other linguistic features from English. Hard of hearing: The term used by most education authorities worldwide to describe a child who, with hearing aids or a cochlear implant, functions as a hard-of-hearing person and who is able to use a spoken language effectively for communication purposes (compare deaf ). Cochlear implants: Surgically implantable devices that can greatly assist children with sensorineural hearing loss. Implants can provide more comprehensive auditory information than a hearing aid. However, they cannot fully restore lost hearing. When fitted early in life, implants may have major benefits for the deaf child and their development. deaf: A generic term used to describe a person with a hearing loss sufficient to impair the development of speech through listening. They may have developed some proficiency with a spoken language, but not enough to function independently in class or in social situations (compare hard of hearing).

Mervyn Hyde

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•

Deaf: A term used to describe a person who considers themself to be a member of the Australian Deaf community and would normally be able to use Auslan in communication.

Deaf (capital ‘D’)—this is a third term used by some deaf people themselves, by advocacy organisations, by the UN and in government policy concerning the human rights of people with a hearing loss. It is a term that displays a cultural and linguistic affiliation with the use of a sign language within a Deaf community. It has no relationship to the degree of hearing loss that the person has, as this may range from mild to profound. It can have implications in school education, particularly where the rights of the child are involved, if their most effective form of communication for learning is with a sign language.

What are some of the causes of hearing loss? There are several possible factors that may cause students’ hearing or listening problems in regular school classrooms. It is important for class teachers and parents to have an understanding of the possible implications of a child’s hearing loss, as contemporary education policies increasingly support the inclusion of children with hearing impairment in regular schools. Hearing impairment may result from a number of conditions that influence the development or operation of the auditory system. It is simplest to describe hearing impairment in terms of the site of damage to the auditory mechanism (the structure of the auditory system is shown in Figure 12.2). In this context, there are conditions that may affect the operation of the outer ear, the middle ear or the inner ear.

The outer ear Although less important for hearing than the middle ear and inner ear, the outer ear can have temporary conditions that result in educational difficulties. These include blockages from foreign matter or external otitis, or ‘swimmer’s ear’: an infection or inflammation of the skin of the external auditory canal.

The middle ear Abnormalities affecting middle ear development and functioning are reasonably common and can be very serious developmentally. Because they are usually medically correctable and the child seems to ‘eventually grow out of ’ the condition, they are frequently underrated by medical

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Figure 12.2 The structure of the auditory system

practitioners, parents and teachers. What may seem to be a mild or moderate, temporary hearing loss has been demonstrated in sustained research to have important consequences for subsequent development of the young child’s listening skills, neural and cognitive development, speech perception and the acquisition of literacy. By far the most common middle ear condition among children is otitis media, which refers generally to a range of conditions that cause inflammation or infection of the middle ear. This condition has been shown to be more prevalent among low socio-economic groups and within Indigenous communities. It often results in a conductive hearing loss, as there is a blockage to sound transmission through the middle ear. The symptoms of otitis media in children include: • • • • • • • •

complaints of sore ears visible secretions from or reddening of the ear canal and outer ear reports of buzzing noises abnormally high levels of physical activity behaviour problems inattentiveness and/or distractibility avoidance of vocal interaction, withdrawal unusually (high or low) level of vocal volume Mervyn Hyde

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• difficulty hearing in noisy conditions or locating the source of classroom speech or signals • reduced sensitivity to speech requests, difficulty in following directions or frequent requests for information to be repeated. School attendance may be affected by the condition itself or influenced by the communication difficulties and social restrictions that the child experiences at school. Most importantly, it should be recognised that this condition influences the acquisition of literacy and numeracy. This is due to a combination of reduced ability to hear essential phonological distinctions in English and reduced ability to transfer this experience to reading tasks, resulting in delayed speech and language acquisition, and attention difficulties, which results in significant deficits in the achievement of literacy and numeracy. Teachers should be aware of these signs, symptoms and outcomes because early (and if necessary regular) referral for medical treatment and hearing testing are important if longterm effects are to be avoided.

Apply your knowledge 1 What impact could otitis media have on student learning, participation and engagement? 2 You have observed that one of your students is exhibiting many symptoms of otitis media. What will you do to ensure this student’s needs are referred to parents and recognised and accommodated in the class’s learning?

The inner ear Abnormalities of, or damage to, the inner ear (the cochlea) and its nerve connections to the auditory cortex are far less common than conditions that affect the operation of the middle ear. However, their effects are likely to be more severe and are usually permanent. Some causes of sensorineural hearing loss are: • genetic factors • prenatal maternal conditions such as German measles (rubella), measles or other infections • postnatal conditions including meningitis, mumps, antibiotics (in high dosages), excessive noise or head trauma • premature birth. Australia was one of the leading nations in adopting universal newborn hearing screening, and most hearing loss in children can be detected within days or weeks of birth. If the hearing loss is of a severe or profound nature, the child is immediately considered for cochlear implantation or hearing aids. Modern hearing aids and implants are incredible devices and can greatly assist children with sensorineural hearing loss. They cannot, however, fully restore or correct lost hearing.

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The relationship between hearing and development Hearing is a sense that we mostly take for granted. We hear the sounds of languages around us, we acquire and use those languages and, within our intellectual capacities, we apply their use in speech, reading and writing, and school, social and vocational attainments. However, with significant (severe to profound) hearing loss in infancy or early childhood, a child may not acquire a first spoken language adequately, may not share close social and communicative ties with their major caregivers, may have limits to their social and cognitive understanding, and may enter school with fewer of the experiential, cognitive and linguistic assets of their hearing peers. Language is what defines us as humans and it is central to children’s thinking and development. Without proficient language use, the school years are likely to be a great challenge. If a child has effectively no hearing at all then little or no speech development may be expected. That does not mean that the young child would be uncommunicative; in fact, the opposite often applies. The child would typically continue to use gesture in systematic ways to express needs and feelings. If exposed to a natural sign language, such as Auslan, the child would quickly acquire and use that visual language. However, in a home where everyone used a spoken language, the child may develop only a few spoken words and a rudimentary grammar based on lip-reading and any remaining hearing; hence, the need for early detection of hearing loss and early fitting of hearing aids or cochlear implants. Hearing screening is routinely conducted for all newborns in Australia for this reason. In a very simple explanation— we say what we hear. Hearing loss can not only reduce the perceived volume of the sounds around us but also distort the quality of the sounds that we can still hear. If we don’t hear some sounds, we won’t produce them in our speech, and if we hear some sounds in poor quality and a distorted way, we will produce them that way. For this reason, it is sometimes said that when a child with a significant hearing loss speaks, she or he ‘gives’ you their hearing loss. In other words, the speech that she has developed is a reflection of what she has been hearing. This is why speech and language problems, when detected among young children, can often be associated with an undiagnosed hearing loss. As may be expected, children with hearing impairment are dependent on parents, caregivers and teachers to provide them with a wide range of experiences, a language-rich environment and the opportunity to explore their world and learn about the people and objects in it. It must also be noted that not all hearing problems that can impede learning are obvious—especially those of an apparently minor or temporary nature. Teachers and parents often fail to identify children with subtle, but potentially serious, auditory functioning deficits. These problems may go undetected in some hearing screenings or be misdiagnosed as other problems. We must remember that most classroom activities require students to be able to operate with clear and comfortable hearing in classroom situations that are often noisy and visually complex for all students. Mervyn Hyde

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Educating students with hearing impairments in Australia Accommodations of teaching: Adjustments that recognise the importance of diversifying instruction to include all students in general education. They ensure each student has access to the curriculum, so that their individual learning needs are met. EARLY LEARNERS

The range of educational options for students with hearing impairment in Australia varies to some extent across states. Historically, each state developed its own policies and in many instances operated schools for children who were deaf or hard of hearing. Nowadays the great majority of students with hearing impairment attend their local school and are included with same-age peers in regular classroom settings. All states and territories in Australia recognise that every student with a hearing impairment can learn; they also acknowledge the need to focus on students’ strengths, ensure that accommodations of teaching and curriculum address their individual needs, and recognise the importance of diversifying instruction to include these students in general education. In addition to general education placements, students with a hearing loss may attend an early intervention program for young deaf children, while in some states there are special programs focusing on bilingual education (English and Auslan), or special education units attached to regular schools. Normally, students and their teachers receive support from hearing impairment specialists (visiting teachers, hearing support teachers or education advisors:  hearing). The levels of support usually depend on the individual student and their assessed or appraised levels of need, as well as the needs of the class teacher. While the right of the students to learn in general classrooms is not questioned, support is usually monitored and adjusted according to the students’ and school’s changing needs and system resources. Hearing support or advisory teachers may observe students and assess their performances in their educational setting; provide classroom teachers with information on the child’s auditory condition(s) and the implications for learning; assess the school environment; recommend specialised assistive devices and supports; and support the development of strategies for optimal curriculum access and participation. In addition, they provide professional learning for staff, parents and relevant personnel, participate in the individual education program (IEP) review meetings, provide resources and give advice on curriculum accommodations. The ‘Effective practice’ box details the basic beliefs that underpin the philosophy of inclusion for students with hearing impairment.

Effective practice Basic principles underpinning inclusion for students with hearing impairment • All students with hearing impairment can learn and they have the right to be educated in regular classrooms. • The preferred location for their education is full-time placement in their local school. • The main responsibility for the education of students with hearing impairment will lie with the regular class teacher, and not with specialist educators.

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• Regular class teachers, hearing support teachers and other relevant professionals will need to collaborate closely in planning appropriate programs and support systems for students with hearing loss. • There will typically need to be some modifications of classroom communication, curriculum strategies and assessment provisions. • The student’s engagement in academic, communicative and social events in the class and school will need to be monitored and available accommodations modified and evaluated.

Apply your knowledge Consider the principles of inclusive education for a child with a hearing impairment. 1 Are there any specific challenges that you can identify for teachers and other school staff in providing for the needs of these students? 2 Are there any staff or material resources that you think might be necessary to ensure that positive learning outcomes occur for all students? 3 What kinds of adaptations to pedagogy and assessment might be needed and how might these be effective for all students?

Technology and cochlear implants So much can be said about this amazing technology. The first commercial implants were developed in the United States in the 1960s (Hyde & Punch 2010), but some of the most effective and advanced, multi-channel devices were developed in Australia. These surgically implantable devices use electrode arrays to directly stimulate the nerves to the inner ear, thus bypassing damaged receptor structures in the inner ear itself. Using a small computer to process incoming speech, information is fed to these internal electrodes and a sensation a lot like hearing can result. When fitted early, implants can have major benefits for the deaf child and their development. Despite media portrayals about the ‘bionic ear’, cochlear implants are not perfect and cannot fully restore hearing. But, with the best anatomical conditions for fitting, early detection of hearing loss and early support for parents and child, these devices can assist an otherwise profoundly deaf individual to function as if they were hard of hearing. That is, while the implant can provide better and more comprehensive auditory information than a hearing aid, the child is still not normally hearing and remains vulnerable to the impact of background noise and the demands of group communication situations that are so prevalent in school education. Large-scale Australian research by Punch and Hyde (2011) has shown that many school students with long-term use of cochlear implants remained behind their hearing peers in literacy, numeracy and social engagement at the end of primary schooling. So, while implants provide our best-ever opportunity for reduction of the impact of hearing loss in young children, measures of educational engagement by students with an implant show that challenges continue to be faced both within the curriculum and the students’ social development.

TECHNOLOGY

Mervyn Hyde

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Other assistive technologies are also available to assist hard-of-hearing and deaf students. In addition to those aspects of lighting, location and noise described below, there is speechto-text (voice recognition) software available for tablets and phones, electronic whiteboards, real-time captioning (C-Print), teachers’ voice amplification systems, and a range of computer applications for these students.

Teaching and classroom accommodations The great majority of students with a hearing loss will learn in regular classrooms. However, these students will still face significant challenges unless the environment is suitable, the communication appropriate and the pedagogy and assessment adapted to their needs.

Environmental accommodations Several factors contribute to the quality of the acoustic environment in a classroom. These include: • The level of ambient or background noise—this includes sources inside and outside the classroom. Internal noise sources include the students’ communication and movement, movement of furniture and teaching/learning materials, and the use of electronic equipment (for example, fans, projectors or air-conditioners). • External noise sources may include adjacent classrooms, buildings, playgrounds or traffic. High levels of noise can increase discomfort and stress levels for all students and their teachers. For this reason, each contributing source should be identified and considered for elimination or reduction.

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• The level of the teacher’s voice (the ‘signal’)—this is essential for adequate speech reception by students. The main variable is the signal-to-noise ratio; that is, the ratio of the intensity (the ‘loudness’) of the teacher’s voice in relation to the intensity of the background ‘noise’. Obviously, the ‘signal’ should be louder than the ‘noise’ for effective and comfortable listening. The more the teacher can reduce the background noise levels, the less they will have to use a sustained loud voice. • Research in Australian classrooms, however, has demonstrated that noise levels often exceeded the level of the teacher’s voice (Hyde 2000) and that the use of hearing aids or cochlear implants in these regular schools was severely compromised, even when the teacher was speaking loudly. This is unacceptable for the students in their reception of classroom communication and for the teachers in terms of the vocal stress that results from being required to maintain abnormally high-volume speech for prolonged periods of time. • The reverberation time of the room—this is a measure of the time taken for a test sound to ‘decay’ in an acoustic environment. In other words, what degree of ‘echo’ is produced in a room by sound reverberation? Too much reverberation causes overlap effects and makes speech seem muffled for students with hearing assistive devices. Reverberation times are longer and less suitable in rooms that have large areas of glass, laminates, polished or tiled floors, whiteboards and other hard, flat surfaces. • The contents of the room—this includes the number of pupils (and therefore the number of human sound sources), the quality of partitions, dividers, curtains, carpets and other furnishings, and the types of materials used. • Generally, the presence of partitions and dividers, curtains and soft-covered furnishings reduces the amount of reverberation in a room. Attention should also be given to carpets on floors, drapes or curtains on windows, plastic tips on the legs of chairs and desks (if carpet on the floor is not possible or desirable) and contact adhesive coverings on desktops. This last suggestion reduces the substantial level of noise from pencils, rulers and other writing materials being used on the desks. • The location of the room—being next to the music room, the tuck shop, the manual arts section or a major road may not be the best acoustic environment for a student with a hearing loss. Some attention to school timetabling or room allocation could be requested to assist in reducing the influences of these noise sources. • A school ‘noise policy’—as a class teacher, you might suggest this to the school administration. The development of appropriate acoustic conditions is relevant for all students and for staff under workplace health and safety guidelines.

Teaching and learning accommodations There is a range of accommodations to communication and associated teaching and learning that you should consider. • Getting close—a simple but effective classroom accommodation involves reducing the distance between the teacher and the student with a hearing loss. This simple energy principle can considerably enhance the level of the teacher’s voice for the listener, without the teacher having to shout. Location of the child with a hearing loss near the front of the class enhances lip-reading as well as listening. Mervyn Hyde

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Signed English: The use of a sign system to represent the grammar and morphology of English; that is, what is said is simultaneously signed—in English. It is not Auslan.

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• Get attention first—the teacher should ensure that class attention, and therefore relative ‘quiet’, is obtained before giving instructions or making requests. Directions or comments during an activity may not be heard clearly by students with hearing difficulties and will not be seen by those relying on lip-reading. The good rule is not ‘show and tell’, but ‘show then tell’. • Use visual aids as much as possible, as these are more easily accessed by deaf children. Role-play, drawing and drama are also good ways to practise and evaluate learning. • Be familiar with hearing aids or implants—it is important that class teachers become familiar with the hearing aids or cochlear implants fitted for students in relation to their limitations, general operation and maintenance. The school has an important role in this process, as students with a hearing loss are not always aware of the best conditions for the use of their hearing aid or implant. • Know how to communicate—the nature of the teacher’s communication with the student with a hearing loss is important. The teacher should speak clearly, without speaking too slowly, and at a vocal volume that is audible (without shouting) for the student. Teachers should rephrase, rather than repeat an utterance, if it is not understood by the child. • Regularly check for the child’s comprehension of classroom discussion and tasks, without attracting undue attention. It is also important for the classroom teacher to establish a supportive relationship with the child that encourages questions and requests for repetition or information by the child. • Managing group work—it may be necessary to repeat or paraphrase for the hard-ofhearing or deaf student child what another child has said. Students with hearing loss have great difficulty with group work, so it is important to have some routine within the group for turn taking and for indicating who is the present speaker. In some cases, another child can assist the student with a hearing loss to keep up with the conversation of the group by summarising at suitable times. • Use note-takers—in some school subjects it will be useful to have a note-taker available. This involves the use of fellow students who agree to provide copies of their lesson notes for the deaf or hard-of-hearing student. This means that the deaf student can concentrate on the content of the lesson without having to break their audio-visual attention. Remember, many students with hearing loss rely on information from lipreading and without a note-taker they may have great difficulty writing their own notes and watching the lesson at the same time. The students who agree to act as note-takers may be rewarded with possible exemptions from certain school or class duties. They need to be selected and trained to take effective notes. • Lighting—similar for students with vision impairment, students with a hearing loss will be affected by lighting conditions. They need to see clearly the environment around them and not be distracted by low lighting or glare. It is particularly important that teachers do not speak to the deaf or hard-of-hearing child when there is a bright light source behind them that puts the teacher’s face in back-lit shadow. Lip-reading does not work well beyond 2 metres or at an angle. • Signed English or Auslan—as a final point, there will be some severely and profoundly deaf students in regular classrooms who are unable to use their residual hearing and lip-reading to provide them with sufficient access to classroom communication,

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instruction and participation. As is their right, these students may also use signed English or Auslan to visually represent classroom communication. Signed English is not a sign language (Auslan is a separate community language with its own grammar and linguistic parameters), but a manually presented form of the grammar of English that is still used in a few schools. The grammars of signed English and of Auslan are as different from each other as are the grammars of spoken or written French and English. Increasingly, the sign language Auslan is being used in general classrooms across Australia (Hyde & Punch 2011). Consistent with Australia’s National Language Policy, antidiscrimination legislation and human rights legislation (Hyde & Power 1990), this language is provided for deaf students who request access to learning through it as their primary language of instruction. Auslan or signed English interpreting will usually be provided by a qualified co-teacher or teacher aide to enable such deaf children to access the language used in the classroom. Interpreters should be appropriately qualified in Auslan and have an educational level that allows them to reflect the concepts involved in the class lessons. Class teachers should not assume that the interpreter can tutor or assist the deaf student in other ways. The interpreter’s job is to faithfully interpret classroom communication into Auslan and vice versa. You should talk to the interpreter or to a teacher of the deaf about the use of interpreting in your classroom. • For further information about the classroom management of deaf or hard-of-hearing students, contact the Advisory Visiting Teacher Service (for students with a hearing impairment) in your region or district.

Apply your knowledge 1 How is Auslan different from signed English? 2 Discuss how background noise sources may interfere with student learning and participation. How can these be reduced environmentally and by an adapted teaching style? 3 Discuss some communication strategies that the teacher can use to maximise learning and engagement for the students with a hearing loss.

Critical elements in teaching students with a hearing impairment Curriculum delivery In addition to regular class placement, teachers and students should have access to specialised services from teachers trained to understand the impact of a loss or reduction of hearing on learning, plus materials in appropriate media and specialised equipment, technology and

EARLY LEARNERS

Mervyn Hyde

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support staff to enable them to compete and interact with peers. Early referral, access to early intervention programs and specialist services, and consistent delivery of services and expectations are critical. The challenge for teachers is to ensure that these issues are addressed and for parents to ensure their children have access to appropriate services by specialist support staff. Some deaf students enrolled in regular classes will have an individual education program (IEP) determined after a detailed analysis of their needs. The IEP process typically involves a transdisciplinary approach, through which teaching and other professionals contribute knowledge and expertise, and interact collaboratively with each other and the child’s parents to meet the needs of the whole child. To ensure effective IEP planning, cohesiveness and collaboration between professionals is essential, as is the recognition of the needs of learners with hearing impairment. Transdisciplinary teams with a focus on the needs of the class teacher and the child or youth with hearing impairment have proven to be an effective way to ensure that learning needs are met.

The learning environment In inclusive schools, vibrant learning environments cater to the needs of young people with hearing impairment; however, issues and challenges that can impede the development of appropriate learning environments exist and need to be avoided. Negative teacher attitudes impact on student morale and result in unmotivated practice; teacher aides who overprotect students impede interaction with classmates and generate learned helplessness. Cluttered environments, high noise levels, poor lighting and glare, disorganised classroom talk, lack of effective directions before tasks, messy blackboards or whiteboards, inappropriate student seating and lack of suitable materials, equipment and specialist expertise are all challenges that professionals constantly need to address. Further, a lack of funding will exacerbate these problems and hinder inclusion. Finally, a major challenge is to ensure that classroom practices are inclusive of all students and that learning occurs in a safe, secure, rewarding classroom environment that recognises the needs of young people who are deaf or hard of hearing.

Hearing loss impacting on social interactions

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Matthew, a young boy with a severe hearing loss, has mostly quite good language skills, but his speech reflects his degree of hearing loss and it takes some time for someone unfamiliar with him to fully understand him. He tells you, ‘I have no friends who want to play with me at lunch time!’

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Apply your knowledge What might you do to resolve this social isolation that Matthew feels in a way that promotes friendships and relationships and not just appoint a ‘carer’ from the class?

Assessment A related area of curriculum involves assessment, both in class assessments of learning and summative outcomes testing such as the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN). In these assessment contexts it is both appropriate and approved to make some accommodations of assessment for a child with a hearing loss to validly determine their learning and current status. Assessment accommodation involves changes to the manner that an assessment is presented, including as described in Chapter 18 the: 1 2 3 4

ASSESSMENT

timing setting or location scheduling method/s of student responding.

For students with a hearing loss such accommodations can include varied modes of presentation and response so that spoken or written proficiency are not the sole determinants of the task assessment. Other accommodations include additional time and some practice items to ensure that the assessment task is well explained and the response mode is as familiar as possible.

Apply your knowledge Devise an accommodated assessment task for a child with hearing loss following a teacher story reading activity; that is, design not a pencil-paper written task, but another form of assessment of the child’s recall and understanding of the story.

SUMMARY In this chapter, we have explored the nature, inclusive beliefs and practices in the education of students with hearing impairment; described hearing impairment; and discussed the auditory system, causes of hearing loss in children and the importance of this sense for learning and communication. We have also explored special learning needs, essential curriculum adaptations, environmental modifications and ways to foster educational achievement through diversifying teaching, and providing accommodations and resources.

Mervyn Hyde

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For group discussion 1 In small groups discuss and report the steps that you would take, as a class teacher, to include a new student with a hearing loss in your class. What information and resources would you seek (and from whom), what classroom modifications would you make and how might your teaching, communication and assessment approaches vary? 2 In small groups discuss the sources of noise in classrooms and how they may be reduced. Also, consider noise coming from outside classrooms. Suggest what some elements of a school ‘noise policy’ might be. 3 Imagine that you are planning a lesson that involves visiting a local museum to look at a display on prehistoric animals. List the kinds of adjustments or special provisions that you would need to make to ensure that a child with a severe hearing loss in your class can participate in the experience.

Key references Hyde, M. B. (1988). Acoustic conditions in classrooms for hearing and hearing-impaired students. Australian Teacher of the Deaf, 29, 37–44. Hyde, M. B. (2000). Noise levels in Queensland classrooms. A report on research commissioned by the State Shadow Minister for Education, Queensland Government. School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University. Hyde, M. B. & Power, D. J. (1990). Australian sign language. In D. Ingram, G. John & N. Garrick, The teaching of languages and cultures in Queensland: towards a language education policy for Queensland schools. Centre for Applied Linguistics and Languages, Nathan, Griffith University. Hyde, M. B. & Power, D. J. (1992). The use of Australian sign language by deaf people. Sign Language Studies, 75, 167–182(b). Hyde, M. B. & Punch, R. (2011). The modes of communication used by children with cochlear implants and role of sign in their lives. American Annals of the Deaf, 155(5), 535–49. Hyde, M. B. & Punch, R. (2010). Children with cochlear implants in Australia: educational settings, supports, and outcomes. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15(4), 405–21. Hyde, M., Punch, R. & Grimbeek, P. (2011). Factors predicting functional outcomes of cochlear implants in children. Cochlear Implants International, 12(2), 94–104. Punch, R. & Hyde, M. (2011). Communication, psychosocial and educational outcomes of children with cochlear implants and challenges remaining for professionals and parents. International Journal of Otolaryngology. Article ID 573280, 10 pages.

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Websites Assistive Technology for Students who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing—www.wati.org/ content/supports/free/pdf/Ch13-Hearing.pdf Website providing a comprehensive summary of the range of assistive technologies for the education of deaf students.

Board of Studies NSW—http://ab-ed.bostes.nsw.edu.au/files/otitis_media_aboriginal_ children.pdf Website providing a handbook with guidelines for managing otitis media in Indigenous students in schools.

Deaf Australia—www.deafau.org.au Organisation providing information and advocacy for parents, deaf people and services to support deaf people in their communication, Auslan use and daily lives.

Deaf Children Australia—www.deafchildrenaustralia.org.au Provides a range of services to families with deaf and hard-of-hearing children. These services are developed in consultation with families.

Teaching deaf students in the inclusive classroom. Part 1—www.youtube.com/ watch?v=QniyT6dEYPo Video that shows expert interviews and classroom settings to explore some of the conditions that lead to a deaf student’s success in an inclusive setting.

Mervyn Hyde

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Supporting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

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Lorelei Carpenter

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To gain an understanding of the continuum of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) • To understand the changes to the diagnosis of ASD • To gauge the impact of ASD on the lives of individuals • To understand the different approaches for working with behaviours associated with ASD • To understand how to adapt learning and teaching to meet specific ASD needs in the areas of social communication/interaction and behaviour • To understand the importance of managing transitions within the school, from school to school, and from school to employment for students with ASD • To reflect on the needs of parents and how to work with them

KEY TERMS Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) echolalia Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A neurodevelopmental disorder. People with ASD have persistent deficits in social communication and interaction as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. The symptoms of people with ASD will fall on a continuum, with some individuals showing mild symptoms and others having more severe symptoms.

social communication/interaction restricted, repetitive behaviour

Introduction Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder that most often becomes apparent in early childhood. While it is claimed to be one of the fastest-growing developmental disabilities of current times there is no clear indication that the number of children born with the condition is increasing. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC 2017) in the United States reported that ASD identifications had increased from 1 in 150 children in 2002 to 1 in 68 in 2014. The condition is four times more common in boys than girls. It is a lifelong condition that has no cure and affects the normal development of the social, cognitive and communicative aspects of a person’s life. The exact cause of ASD is not understood; however, it is believed that it is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors that impact on early brain development. The term ‘spectrum’ describes the range of symptoms and behaviours within the two main areas of ASD:  impairments in social communication/ interaction and repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. Impairments in social

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communication/interaction means problems with responding appropriately in conversations, inability to correctly read non-verbal language, and difficulty in making and maintaining friendships. Problems related to repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities means that there may be an overdependence on routines, difficulties making changes and/or a fixated interest on particular items or objects. It is important to remember that every person with ASD is a unique individual with varying strengths, interests and needs. Not all people with ASD will display the same symptoms. Some individuals with ASD may have severe intellectual impairments and display habitual behaviour patterns that they find difficult to stop doing. Others may display strengths and abilities and develop a keen interest in a few topics. Some may show extreme sensitivity to sensory stimuli, or may have poor imagination because of inflexible thinking. They may have a fear of change and require regular routines. In the school context, a significant number of students with ASD will experience social and academic challenges because of the characteristics of the condition. On the other hand, there will be some students with ASD who may experience few challenges and may shine academically. Table 13.1 provides a summary of the range or spectrum of behaviours that identify the condition of ASD. The label of ASD replaces the separate labels of autism, Asperger Syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). The name change to ASD occurred in May 2013 with the publication of a new edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association 2013). This manual is used by medical professionals in many countries, including Australia, to diagnose mental health disorders. The diagnostic changes to ASD that have taken place are highly controversial. Some people argue that the DSM-5 has simplified what is a very complex condition. In other words, the single label, ASD, is being used to diagnose a condition that has a wide range of possible symptoms and a wide range of severity of symptoms. Others argue that the new diagnostic criteria may mean a change to the diagnosis rates, with some high-functioning individuals, such as those who would have previously been diagnosed with Asperger Syndrome or PDD-NOS, being excluded from services and support. In response to this criticism the DSM-5 added a ‘grandfather clause’ that stated those people who were diagnosed with Asperger Syndrome or PDD-NOS before the DSM-5 would automatically receive a diagnosis of ASD. While it is too early to discuss the impact of the single label of ASD, the diagnostic changes will not alter the responsibility of schools and classroom teachers. Statements made in documents such as the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA 2008)  and the Disability Standards for Education 2005 (www.ddaedustandards. info/what-are-the-disability-standards-for-education) clearly indicate schools’ responsibility to ensure their students with disabilities have equal opportunities and access to education, as do students without a disability. Therefore, teachers are required to make the necessary adjustments and offer support for the specific learning needs of students with ASD to ensure their access to education, development of adaptive and independent living skills and employment. The following section provides a brief discussion of how the label of ASD evolved. It is useful to be familiar with the origins of the ASD label to help develop an understanding of the complexity of the disorder so that you will be able to be as effective as possible when in the classroom working with students with this label.

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM): A manual used by many mental health professionals around the world. It provides the official diagnosis of mental health disorders and informs the resulting treatment. The most recent revised edition, the DSM-5, was published in May 2013.

Lorelei Carpenter

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Teachers need to work with parents

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

As a parent, after talking to other parents of ASD kids, I can say that no two children are the same even though they have the same diagnosis of ASD. It’s really important that teachers understand that many of these children have a lot of potential and are just as capable as other kids to do fantastic things. They need a teacher who will try to understand how they learn, isn’t afraid to work with them and is prepared to put in some hard work. Teachers also need to understand that parents can be one of their best resources and it is really important that there is good communication between themselves and the parents.

Understanding the evolution of  Autism Spectrum Disorder The concept of ASD originated from separate work carried out in the 1940s by Dr Hans Asperger and Dr Leo Kanner. Asperger, a Viennese paediatrician, was working in the 1940s with a group of children with autistic-like tendencies. They displayed odd and eccentric behaviour, and had difficulty relating socially to others. They showed an intense interest in particular topics, had good language skills but monotone speech, were unable to engage in reciprocal conversation with others and had poor motor skills. Asperger labelled these children as having Asperger Syndrome (Gardner, Grant & Webb 2001; Wing 1996). Austrian-born Kanner, one of the first child psychiatrists in America, first identified autism in the early 1940s after studying a group of children with unusual behaviour. He used the term ‘autism’ to describe behaviour in those children who were unable to relate to others, had an obsession for sameness and repetition, preferred to be alone and had poor language development. Kanner initiated the myth of autism being caused by cold and unemotional parents, and it was several decades before this damaging theory was debunked. Whereas Asperger’s group of children had high intellectual abilities and good linguistic abilities, Kanner’s group of children had more severe characteristics of autism (Attwood 1998). Both concluded from their work that the most disabling aspect of autism was of lifelong social problems and hardships (Gardner, Grant & Webb 2001; Jordan 1999). It is useful to understand the concept of a spectrum and continuum when working with people with ASD as this provides an indication of the complexity of ASD. The notion of an ASD continuum was first introduced by Wing and Gould (Wing & Gould 1979). They initially proposed the idea that autism existed along a continuum from severe to mild. Autism was placed at the more severe end of the continuum with Asperger Syndrome towards the mild end. Wing was aware that the disorder could vary from person to person according to age and intellectual ability, and therefore there would be a range of different symptoms of the disorder along the continuum. She introduced the notion of a spectrum of disorders (Autism Spectrum Disorder) to indicate the intricate nature of the condition. Instead of ASD behaviours being on a straight continuum from the most to the least severe, all kinds of combinations of behaviours are possible.

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Although each person with ASD will display difficulties in the areas of social communication/interaction and behaviour, the severity of the difficulty will differ from person to person. The symptoms of people with ASD will fall on a continuum, with some individuals showing mild symptoms and others having much more severe symptoms. This wide range of behaviours is a very clear example of how the notion of a continuum highlights the different way ASD affects each person. It is also useful to remember that many people on the ASD continuum will be of average or above-average intelligence, while others will be below or well below average intelligence. The variety of differences that make up ASD emphasises the need for individual assessment, diagnosis and intervention planning. The DSM-5 introduced a continuum of severity levels:  (1)  requiring high level support, (2)  requiring substantial support, and (3)  requiring support. These indicate the level of challenges and needs of each person in their interaction with others and how they experience the world. The continuum identifies the extent of social communication difficulties or how fixed or restricted behaviours or interests are. The differences in severity levels signal that although students may receive a similar label of ASD, each student will require a different level of support to enable them to successfully engage both socially and academically. There are some students who will require a high level of support, individualised educational programs and specialist care throughout their life. This could be for a child diagnosed with ASD with a social communication severity level 3 and a restricted, repetitive behaviour severity level 2. Other students with an ASD diagnosis may have a social communication severity level 1 and a restricted, repetitive behaviour severity level 1. They may require few accommodations to become successful both socially and academically (Carrington & Graham 1999; Connor

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Social communication/ interaction: The verbal and nonverbal language and behaviours we use to communicate with each other so that meaningful and positive social relationships develop. It refers to our ability to send clear verbal and non-verbal messages to others and to understand verbal and nonverbal messages communicated to us. Restricted, repetitive behaviour: Behaviours that include repeated body movements such as rocking, spinning, head banging, hand flapping, repeating a word or phrase as well as routines that become rituals, compulsive behaviours and rigid preferences for things like food and clothes. People with ASD will experience great difficulty in making any changes to their repetitive behaviours.

Lorelei Carpenter

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Table 13.1 ASD diagnostic criteria adapted from DSM-5 Level

Criteria

1

Social communication/interaction: • Reciprocity problems in social or emotional interactions: e.g. initiating conversations and social interactions such as playing games; turn taking in conversation and social interactions; sharing emotions and interests with others. • Difficulties maintaining relations: e.g. having an interest in other people; able to engage in pretend play or other age-appropriate games or activities; adjusting to different social situations or expectations. • Problems with nonverbal communication: e.g. maintaining eye contact; use of facial expressions; tone of voice; gestures and body posture; ability to interpret these when used by others.

2

Restricted and repetitive behaviour: • Interests that are restricted and fixated: e.g. an unusually strong attachment to objects; an intense interest in something to the exclusion of other activities. • Stereotyped or repetitive speech, use of objects and motor movements: e.g. echolalia; repetitive motor movement or motor stereotypy; repetitive use of objects or idiosyncratic phrases. • Sensory over-responsivity or under-responsivity: e.g. a seeming unresponsiveness to heat/cold/pain; adverse or unusual response to noise, light, textures, smells; unusual interest in spinning objects or lights. • Extreme adherence to routines and rituals both verbal and nonverbal: e.g. repetitive questioning; reluctance and extreme concern over change of routine; ritualistic behaviour such as wringing of hands or pacing, sitting in the same seat; refusal to change eating habits or type of food. Source: Adapted from American Psychiatric Association (2013).

1999). Table 13.1 is an example of the complexity of ASD. It illustrates the broad range of behaviours that make up ASD. The existence of a spectrum of disorders is surrounded by a history of disbelief regarding its existence. For example, some argued that using the term Asperger Syndrome narrowed the concept of ‘normal’ because it often labelled those people who were merely socially awkward and displayed eccentric behaviour (Frances 2013). As well, there was debate, controversy and confusion regarding the cause, diagnosis and treatment of the condition. Some of the earlier debates resulted from the complexity of having a spectrum of disorders that included autism, Asperger Syndrome and PDD-NOS rather than a single disorder (Dempsey & Foreman 2001; Rhode 2004). The argument may be settled by the introduction of the broad term ASD to replace the subgroups of autism, Asperger Syndrome and PDD-NOS. However, this introduces a new concern that the umbrella term ASD replaces two—autism and Asperger Syndrome—that are considered by some to be entirely separate conditions. Furthermore, the label ‘Asperger Syndrome’ was part of people’s identities, which some people positively identified with and were proud of (Giles 2013). For example, some people with Asperger

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Syndrome referred to themselves as ‘Aspies’. This identity may now be lost. Interestingly, many people on the autism spectrum refer to those people who are ‘normal’ as ‘neurotypicals’.

How does Autism Spectrum Disorder occur? Despite the extensive research on ASD there have been no definitive studies that clearly identify why ASD occurs. We know that it is not caused by bad parenting or through early childhood vaccinations. In 1998 a link was made between autism and the triple vaccine for measles, mumps and rubella. There is very clear evidence that such a link does not exist (Eggertson 2010). We also know that ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a strong genetic-environmental link. It appears that ASD in not caused by one single factor but rather a combination of genetic and environmental factors that will differ for each individual (Volkmar, Paul, Rogers & Pelphrey 2014). The following is a brief description of some of the genetic, environmental and neurological factors that are currently used to explain the cause of ASD. It is important to understand that single factors do not produce ASD by themselves. Instead, ASD is influenced by a range of factors that impact in different ways on different individuals who will experience different outcomes. Leading researchers in ASD such as Volkmar et  al. (2014) have concluded that much more research is needed around the multiple factors of genetics, environment and brain development to understand the complexity of ASD.

Genetic influence ASD is a highly complex disorder with a strong genetic basis. There now appears to be good evidence that people with ASD have genetic abnormalities. Research is getting closer to identifying specific genes that may be linked to ASD (Abrahams & Geschwind 2008). Evidence has mostly developed as a result of studies of twins and families where ASD is present. Results from twin and family studies clearly indicate that if one child in a family is born with ASD, there is a higher than normal chance of other siblings having a similar condition or related disabilities (Sandin et al. 2014).

Environment influence The types of environmental influences that may contribute to ASD include parental age at the time of conception, maternal nutrition, maternal infections during pregnancy and birth complications (Hallmayer et al. 2011). As well, exposure to some chemicals and pesticides in air, food, water and household products may present a threat to the developing foetus (Lyall, Schmidt & Hertz-Picciotto 2014). There also exist arguments around nutritional deficiencies, their influence and the use of nutrition interventions (Geraghty, Bates-Wall, Ratliff-Schaub & Lane 2010). There is no strong research evidence of this.

Neurological aspects As discussed above some research indicates that abnormal brain development may occur if a foetus is exposed to certain toxins or viruses. Parents who are exposed to chemical toxins may Lorelei Carpenter

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suffer some genetic damage, which may, in turn, lead to abnormal foetal brain development. This may cause a neurobiological abnormality in the brain system leading to abnormal cognitive development (Ming et al. 2010). There is some evidence that the developing nervous system in the foetus is harmed by the effects of conditions such as maternal rubella, allergies or measles. Some research points to early abnormalities in brain growth that appear to affect the brain of the developing foetus no later than 30 weeks of gestation (Jordan 2004; Minshew, Sweeney, Bauman & Webb 2005).

Prevalence and incidence There has been much concern that the prevalence of ASD has risen sharply in the last forty years. For example, some researchers claim the prevalence of ASD has risen from 4–5/10 000 births in the 1960s to 260/10 000 births by 2011 (Isaksen, Diseth, Schjølberg & Skjeldal 2013). The American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that the prevalence of ASD has increased twentyfold to thirtyfold since the 1960s and 1970s. In 2012 the Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers (SDAC) in Australia identified 115 400 people in Australia with ASD (ABS 2012a). This number represented a 79 per cent increase from the estimated number in 2009 (ABS 2012a). The significant increase has led to the speculation around an ASD ‘epidemic’ (Leonard et al. 2010). However, there are some likely explanations for the apparent increase. There is a difference between prevalence of a condition and incidence of a condition. Prevalence refers to the percentage or number of a population who have a certain condition at a given time. The incidence of a condition refers to the number of new cases diagnosed with the condition in a given time. The question that needs to be asked is: are more children being born with ASD each year (incidence) or are we becoming more aware of the condition and getting better at diagnosing and reporting it? It appears that the increase in the prevalence rate over the last forty years could be attributed to factors such as the changes made to the name for ASD, increased awareness of the condition, earlier diagnosis, the link between diagnostic labels and improved educational support. While we can confidently argue that the prevalence of ASD is increasing it is difficult to confidently state there is an increase in numbers of children born with the condition.

Diagnosis The DSM-5 describes ASD in terms of social and communication impairment and restricted repetitive behaviours. In order to be diagnosed with ASD, the individual must exhibit symptoms from all the sub-criteria of 1 as well as symptoms from at least two of the four sub-headings of criteria 2 (see Table 13.1). This means they must exhibit at least five out of the seven subheadings of symptoms. The challenge surrounding diagnosing ASD is that the medical professional must decide whether the behaviours that a child is exhibiting are acceptable and within the boundaries of ‘normal’ behaviour or if they should be considered unacceptable and not ‘normal’. The problem is that there are no objective medical tests available, such as blood tests, to determine whether behaviour is normal. The decisions on whether or not to label a child with ASD are made from subjective information obtained through observation of behaviour as well as reports of behaviour.

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It is crucial to correctly diagnose if ASD is present as early in the child’s life as possible. This will ensure a child’s behaviour can be understood in terms of the condition as well as their specific skills, abilities and personality, and the context in which they are interacting. Early diagnosis may also provide the child with financial support if eligible as well as access to early intervention programs. These programs will be discussed in a later section. To be eligible for educational support from some Australian education authorities, such as Education Queensland, a diagnosis of ASD by a paediatrician, psychiatrist or neurologist will continue to be required. Ideally, a multidisciplinary team should be involved in the diagnosis of ASD using: • a developmental and clinical history carried out by a doctor or a psychologist • testing of cognitive functioning by a psychologist to determine the child’s cognitive abilities • an assessment by a speech pathologist of receptive and expressive language, pragmatic language skills, and verbal and non-verbal behaviour • observation of behaviours by any of the above professionals using instruments such as the Child Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and the Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS); CARS is a standardised fifteen-item behaviour rating scale that uses information about the child’s behaviour to identify if ASD is present. GARS is also a behaviour rating scale used to measure the probability and severity of autism in children. Although ASD is most often present from birth, it is often not recognised until later in childhood. The reason for this is that many difficulties—such as those in the areas of social development and communication skills—may become more apparent as the child fails to develop at a similar rate to other children of the same age. The more severe level of ASD can usually be identified because it has an earlier onset plus characteristics of noticeably delayed language and impaired cognitive functioning (Hodges 2004). Parents with children diagnosed with a severe level of ASD will be generally aware that there is a problem in their child’s development by 18 to 24 months. At this stage the lack of language, as well the inability to emotionally connect with caregivers, becomes apparent. As well, it is often the case that differences in the way a child reacts to people (as well as other unusual behaviours) become more noticeable between the ages of 12 and 36 months. In some instances, the possibility of ASD can be overlooked by parents, paediatricians, doctors and day-care providers, who may judge poor communication and social skills development in their toddler as a product of immaturity, which will be grown out of. In less severe levels of ASD some toddlers frequently acquire language and other developmental milestones at the normal time. They will have usually developed single words by two years of age and some phrases by three years. Parents are often more concerned about a lack of appropriate social development. This can become most apparent once a child enters the socially demanding setting of school. Disturbingly, many children with ASD suffer bullying and victimisation because of their difficulties with social interaction and inability to read social cues (Kowalski & Fedina 2011). This issue will be discussed in a later section.

Lorelei Carpenter

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ASD students are all different and all unique

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Jade and Ollie are two students in my class with ASD. They both have really different needs. I realised that I had to understand what the ASD diagnosis meant for each one of these students so that I could develop the best program for their particular needs. I had to understand what each student’s strengths and needs were. Jade Jade is a seven-year-old girl diagnosed with ASD. She spends half the school day in a regular classroom and half in a small specialist class of seven students. Jade will not initiate a conversation and has difficulty communicating with her peers. She has difficulty making eye contact with others and will not respond when she is spoken to. Jade frequently becomes angry during the school day. She screams loudly and runs around the room with her hands over her ears. She finds it very difficult to play with other children and does not understand about rules and routines. Jade is fascinated by the overhead fan in the classroom and will spend hours looking at it when it is on. She has developed cutting skills and can form the letters of the alphabet. Her writing remains slow and difficult to read. Because of her poor verbal skills, Jade is well behind academically. She is able to read her name as well as labels around the classroom. She struggles to complete tasks requiring number knowledge. Ollie Ollie has also been diagnosed with ASD. He has an extensive vocabulary, and is particularly knowledgeable about planes. At home he has a model plane collection that he has assembled. He also has a large collection of books and magazines about planes. His father frequently takes him to the nearby airport to watch the planes land. He is able to identify each type of plane that lands and knows where they originated from. He has a few friends at school, but many of his peers consider him weird because of his hobby. He is happiest when he is talking about his interest in planes, which accounts for the majority of his conversation. Academically Ollie is doing very well. His ambition is to be a pilot.

Both these stories describe children who have been diagnosed with ASD, yet each child displays markedly different characteristics and behaviour.

Pause and reflect

How is Jade’s condition different from Ollie’s? How are their conditions the same? What learning needs will Jade have? What could you do to support other class members in their interactions with Ollie? 5 Would the support be the same for Jade’s classmates? 1 2 3 4

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Learning interventions for ASD Although there is no cure for ASD, the range of interventions is vast. The rapid increase in available interventions and treatments has accompanied the increase in awareness and diagnosis of ASD. Interventions include medication, psychotherapy, detoxification diets, vitamin therapy, auditory integration training and treatment for allergies. Support networks, such as raisingchildren.net.au, as well as some researchers (Matson & Konst 2013; Prior et al. 2011), caution that many interventions are costly, time-wasting and unsubstantiated. It can be difficult to identify the most effective treatment or intervention for each individual with ASD. When choosing a treatment or intervention consider the following: • Is the intervention supported by informed/evidence-based practice (based on scientific research and shown to be effective for students with ASD)? • Does the intervention take into consideration the unique needs of the student? • Does it contribute to the identified learning objectives (individual education program (IEP) goals)? • How will the effects of the intervention be evaluated? • What expertise is required to implement the intervention?

Apply your knowledge Refer to the Raising Children Network website at http://raisingchildren.net.au/therapies_ services/asd_therapies_services.html. 1 What types of interventions are available to parents of children with ASD? 2 What are the issues around choosing an appropriate intervention? 3 How could these types of interventions be useful to parents of regular children?

Importantly, remember that ASD is a complex condition and each child with the condition may present differently. Children with ASD are the same as all other children in many respects. They are individuals with individual strengths, abilities, interests and needs. While one intervention may work with some children there is no guarantee that it will work for all children. Fortunately, there are educational interventions for ASD that appear to have a remediating role in the areas of behavioural, social and communication deficits, as well as improving the quality of life of the child. When setting up a supportive and success-oriented classroom for students with ASD keep in mind: • Good teaching requires creativity, problem solving, a willingness to take risks, readiness to fail, perseverance and the ability to be a reflective practitioner. Although a student with ASD will still have the condition by the end of their education, they may develop skills and diminish unwanted behaviours if you, as their teacher, are able to display these qualities. • Teaching should be based on a comprehensive understanding of the condition, as well as an understanding of the specific behaviours, strengths and needs of the individual. Before a student with ASD comes into the classroom it is important for the teacher to become Lorelei Carpenter

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• • •

•

familiar with the student’s individual profile or IEP. This will help you to understand the short- and long-term goals for the student. Depending on the severity of the condition, other students in the class may need to be prepared for the new student. Good communication with specialist teachers will provide knowledge and information about the student’s strengths and needs. Make early contact with the student’s parents because they will be an important resource for you. Parents are anxious about their child’s performance so develop a system of open, honest and effective communication with them. Set up a structured environment and clear routines for the student.

Many students, depending on the severity of their condition, will require IEPs that are tailored to suit their specific educational needs. The needs of students with ASD will be determined by the interaction between their abilities, developmental difficulties and the learning environment. Successful inclusion of students will most often occur when the strengths and weaknesses of individuals are understood, and when these varying abilities are used to develop IEPs. For example, a student with ASD who is verbally able and has strong academic interests will require different educational planning to the child with ASD who has marked language difficulties and other learning disabilities. Importantly, it is crucial to have empathy with students with ASD. Remember, they will experience difficulty interacting and communicating with others. Therefore, we need to develop an understanding of the vulnerability and fear experienced by these children so we can understand that what is frequently labelled as ‘naughty’, ‘weird’ or ‘bad’ behaviour is in fact often an attempt to communicate. The use of effective intervention strategies can outweigh the effects of such stigmatising labels. A very useful tip sheet to help you understand the student with ASD is ‘Ten things your student with autism wishes you knew’ (http://suelarkey.com.au).

Early intervention EARLY LEARNERS

Early intervention is one of the most important educational interventions. It refers to those educational and therapeutic services that are made available to children who have been labelled as having ASD, are less than six years old and have not yet started school. There is much compelling evidence to prove the success of early intervention for children as young as 12 months of age (Bradshaw, Steiner, Gengoux & Koegel 2015; Matson & Konst 2013: Rogers et al. 2012). Research clearly indicates that early identification and early intervention will reduce the severity of ASD by improving cognitive and adaptive behaviour. Successful early intervention programs share several features that include: • assisting parents to understand their child’s needs and behaviours • teaching new skills and improving behaviours by building on the child’s strengths and modifying areas of need • using scaffolds including augmentative communication and visual cues • providing parents with resources and support to help them work with their child • improving the child’s life. While the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) is still being rolled out across Australia, early intervention support for children with ASD is available through two Australian

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government programs: Helping Children with Autism (HCWA) and Better Start for Children with Disability (this program is available for children with a range of conditions). These programs provide families with information and support for children with ASD. Families with eligible children are able to access funds of up to $12 000 for approved services and resources. Families who access either of these programs will be able to shift to NDIS support when it becomes available. Many families have made use of speech/language therapy programs, applied behavioural analysis-based programs, occupational therapy, ASD-specific early intervention and preschool programs. Some of the following programs are available through HCWA: applied behavioural analysis (ABA), Early Start Denver Model (ESDM), treatment and education of autistic and related communication handicapped children (TEACCH), Learning Experiences—An Alternative Program for Preschoolers, Parents (LEAP), picture exchange communication system (PECS) and Social-Communication, Emotional Regulation and Transactional Support (SCERTS) and Triple P—Positive Parenting Program.

Apply your knowledge View the video clip ‘Finding and starting early intervention’ at http://raisingchildren.net. au/articles/autism_spectrum_disorder_choosing_services.html. 1 How did early intervention help the parents of children with ASD? 2 How are the needs of these parents the same as or different to parents of regular children? Lorelei Carpenter

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Engaging students in learning The following section discusses some possible ways of adapting the classroom learning environment to provide opportunities for learning engagement by students with ASD. Importantly, students should be assessed before and after engagement with intervention plans so that the effectiveness of the accommodations can be assessed.

Communication and language Children with ASD frequently have difficulties with communication and the use of language. Although many children with ASD may talk a lot, they are often unable to engage in reciprocal conversation where they are able to acknowledge and follow the conversational rules. They may have well-developed speech and vocabularies, yet as Tager-Flusberg (2003) has found, they are frequently unable to use language in a meaningful, interactive way. Most children with ASD who have received a diagnosis of level 2 or level 3 in the area of social communication will have difficulty encoding messages and using language to express meaning (expressive language). They may be unable to decode the messages that are sent, which means they may not be able to understand the meaning of what others have said (receptive language). They may attempt to communicate meaningfully through facial expression, body language or speech, but will most often be misunderstood because they are using unconventional means of communicating. We mostly consider this type of inability with language as a deficit in the person with ASD. For example, in the past echolalia (this will be discussed in a later section) was considered to illustrate social withdrawal, impaired cognition and limited communicative ability. However, as some researchers (Sterponi & Kirby 2016)  argue, what we perceive as a deficit may actually be an effort on the part of the person with ASD to interact and respond to situations. Rather than being a deficit, echolalia may be an attempt to communicate, interact and experience others. The challenge for teachers is to attempt to understand how a person with ASD experiences the world. It is often the case that children with ASD avoid communication because of their previous lack of success in communicating effectively and meaningfully. They may refuse to attempt to further communicate and engage in what would be considered inappropriate behaviour. Therefore, it is important to understand the link between communication and behaviour (Gardner, Grant & Webb 2001). Some children will require a communication program that: • enables them to communicate their needs to others • enables them to use a means of communication at their level of ability and understanding • provides opportunities to develop and meaningfully use methods of communication (Jordan 2004). TECHNOLOGY

There has been promising evidence that the use of speech generating devices such as a tablet, iPad or iPod Touch can be used successfully to improve children’s verbal skills. An important use of iPad is with those students who have little or no speech and rely on augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) to express their needs. One positive feature of these devices is that most children will readily adopt their use. Currently there are

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many iPad apps available that function as AAC devices. Some like Tobii Sono Flex Lite are free while others such as Proloquo2Go cost several hundred dollars. Receptive and expressive language strategies can both be used in the classroom to assist students who have ASD to achieve success in communicating effectively.

Classroom receptive language strategies It will be necessary to determine the student’s level of cognitive ability and stage of academic achievement before choosing appropriate strategies to assist communication. Some strategies that can be used include the following: • Ensure the student is listening by using their name before the instruction. • Keep verbal instructions short and simple—give one instruction at a time if possible. • Initially avoid using language with gestures because some students may be unable to read body language. • Allow the student time to process the instruction. • Check with the student to see if they understand what to do by asking ‘what/where/how’ questions instead of ‘yes/no’ questions. • Pair verbal instructions with visual clues, such as picture symbols or simple words, cue cards and reminder lists. • Ensure the student understands the meaning of the visual clues. • Teach new vocabulary by pairing the spoken word with pictorial symbols; for example, some students may not know that the spoken word ‘book’, the picture of a book and the written symbol for ‘book’ all represent the same object. • When asking questions, start with ‘What’, ‘Who’ and ‘Where’ rather than ‘Why’ and ‘How’. Teach the child initially how to answer questions by using a set of simple questions about familiar things. • New questions and objects can be introduced, such as: – – – –

What is it? What shape is it? What colour is it? Where did it come from? Where does it belong? (Gardner, Grant & Webb 2001)

Classroom expressive language strategies A common problem that many students with ASD will present with is their inability to understand how to enter a conversation, when to stop talking or what relevant things to say to maintain a conversation. The following strategies can be used: • • • •

Teach students appropriate ways of getting attention and starting a conversation. Teach appropriate opening comments to conversations. Teach students about listening to others. Teach students how to maintain a conversation by making relevant comments such as inquiring about health, weather and so on. Lorelei Carpenter

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• Teach students when to reply, interrupt and change topics. • Involve peers who are good communicators in role modelling and drama activities. Pair students with buddy communicators to practise skills of taking part in conversations. • Use prompting, scaffolding, support and encouragement by teachers and other students so that students with ASD will experience communication as a positive experience (Myles 2005).

Echolalia Echolalia: The repetition of words or phrases that have just been heard or heard in the past. It may be the exact words or slightly altered. In children with ASD, echolalia may serve as a way to interact socially, to communicate or as an attempt to learn language.

Students who exhibit echolalia repeat words, phrases or sentences that they have heard recently or in the past. The student may be repeating words at an inappropriate time or at times under stress. For example, they may use echolalic language during transition times when there is movement, noise and a lack of structure. Echolalic speech may be evident in new and unfamiliar situations, when a student does not understand what they are required to do or when they are being asked several questions at once. Alternatively, the student may be attempting to communicate something and is unable to do so effectively. Students who are echolalic will need to be closely observed to identify if the echolalic language is an attempt to communicate or if it is the result of stress. Two strategies are as follows: • Provide verbal prompts. For example, if the student is asked ‘Where is the book?’ and they reply ‘Where is the book?’ a verbal prompt can be used: ‘The book is in the …’ Encourage the student to supply the last word. • Ignore repetition of sentences, phrases and words, and model the correct response to the student (Gardner, Grant & Webb 2001).

Augmentative and alternative communication Some students with ASD may never develop oral communication or will need support for their oral communication. In these cases, they may need to be taught some form of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). AAC supports students who need their speech supplemented, as well as alternative communication for those students without speech. AAC makes use of objects or devices such as symbols, visual cue cards or a communication board, as well as gestures, facial expressions or signing that do not require concrete aids. Refer to Chapter 9 for a more detailed exploration of this area.

Technology TECHNOLOGY

Technology is constantly improving in relation to its ease of accessibility, the way it is used and what it is used for. The value of technology is that it can be readily modified to accommodate the individual learning needs of students with ASD, provide motivation for some students and enhance learning engagement. As discussed earlier, appropriate technology such as an iPad or tablet can have a positive effect on the development of communication. Smith, Spooner and Wood (2013) found an iPad was effective in assisting students with ASD to learn science terms

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and applications. iPads may also help students to develop and practise academic skills. The following provides a summary of some of the useful forms of technology currently available: • Neely et al. (2013) found that some students who used an iPad in the classroom decreased their inappropriate behaviour and increased their academic engagement. • The computer game Secret Agent Society (www.sst-institute.net) is a program that has been introduced and trialled in Australian schools since 2016 (see Autism CRC 2017). The program teaches middle school students who have ASD about emotions, bullying, conversation skills and friendship. • The website for iTaalk Autism Foundation (www.itaalk.org) has a list of iOS and Android apps for social/emotional, language and motor development. • A useful IOS and Android app for parents is the Children with ASD & Disability app (http://raisingchildren.net.au). This free app provides parents help with information about funding and services as well as connecting them to other parents. It is important that students with ASD are taught how to use technology. Websites such as http://suelarkey. com.au/tip-sheet provide some useful advice for helping children with ASD manage their iPad. • DiGennaro Reed, Hyman and Hirst (2011) found from their research that DVD and video technology was useful for providing feedback to students with ASD. These technologies also support the development of a range of appropriate social skills, including conversation skills and understanding emotions. The DVD program The Transporters (www.thetransporters.com) has been developed by the Autism Research Centre at Cambridge University. Animated vehicles with human faces help children to recognise and pair up emotions with the appropriate facial expressions. This new information can then be transferred to real-life situations. Research on this program indicated it was successful with most children in teaching recognition of emotions. The Watch Me Learn educational products (www.watchmelearn.com) use DVDs to teach language, social, motor and functional skills to students with ASD. Real-life situations are presented that model different types of skills. Students are encouraged to imitate the skill or behaviour and practise using similar skills in real-life situations. Most DVDs and videos can be can be downloaded on devices including smartphones, tablets, computers or TVs. • The Model Me Conversation Cues (www.modelmekids.com/aspergers.html) video teaches social and conversation skills to middle and high school-aged students. Each particular skill is demonstrated, explained and practised in a number of settings to allow all students to generalise it to their specific situation. Technology and software specifically for ASD is rapidly being improved. New technologies in this area are regularly being introduced into the education setting. However, it is important to remember that while there is a proliferation of technological resources not all of them will effectively meet the specific needs of individual students. While technology holds the promise of providing differentiated instruction to meet the learning needs of students with ASD it must be approached cautiously. For example, a student who has poor fine motor coordination may have difficulty using an iPod Touch. A tablet or iPad may require magnification of text and/or adjustment to back lighting and text colouring for students who have visual difficulties. Some students who have an intolerance to noise may be unwilling to use headphones. Lorelei Carpenter

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The most important principle of technology integration is that it focuses on the learning goals and expected outcome of the instruction and not on the technology itself. Before technology is introduced teachers should: • • • • •

understand the learning needs of the specific student identify the learning goals choose the type of the learning experience; for example, visual, auditory, sensory break down the learning experience into meaningful steps identify the type of formative and summative assessment to use to evaluate progress and the achievement of the learning goal • select the learning resources that appear to suit the learning needs of the student and help achieve the learning goal.

Apply your knowledge 1 What technological skills and resources do you need to develop to help students engage in learning? 2 How would you enable all students in your class to use iPads or tablets for their learning?

Play

EARLY LEARNERS

Many young children with ASD will not engage in spontaneous play because they have difficulty with imaginative activities. As such, they will not engage in pretend play or play with peers. Young children with ASD tend to lack developed imagination and will often be unable to engage in imaginative play, such as dressing up or using common objects (for example, a building block to represent a car). This can lead to difficulty in understanding that symbols such as words can represent objects or that numerals can represent quantities. It is difficult for children with ASD to empathise with others because they will be unable to imagine how somebody else feels or thinks. They will most often prefer to play alone with a single toy or object or play in a repetitive way. For example, they may repeatedly build a tower of blocks, knock it down and start again. They may sit for extended periods of time spinning the wheels of a toy car. Because of their repetitive behaviour, their poor social skills (for example, difficulties with turn taking) and their poor communication skills they will have difficulty playing reciprocally with others. It is important for children before they start school to develop the social, communication and behavioural skills that will in turn teach them how to play. Play skills will need to be taught directly through modelling and imitation. This will need to be done in stages. Begin with interests of the child; for example, if they are interested in building blocks, teach them how to use the building blocks to construct simple shapes. Then introduce playing with a peer. This may need to be done by having the peer playing close by, then gradually moving the peer closer to the child until they are playing with the same objects. When the child will play with others, skills of reciprocal play such as sharing toys, helping each other and taking turns can be introduced. Students with ASD frequently have difficulty playing with their same-age peers

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because they prefer their own company or the company of adults. As a consequence, they will most often be found playing alone in the school playground. The website http://suelarkey. com.au/tip-sheet has useful tips on how to create an ASD-friendly playground.

Humour and literal meanings Australian English makes use of numerous idioms such as ‘let the cat out of the bag’, ‘beat around the bush’, ‘don’t give up your day job’, ‘hit the nail on the head’, ‘piece of cake’ and ‘speak of the devil’. Expressions such as these are frequently difficult for students with ASD to understand. They tend to take things literally and will often experience difficulty in understanding idioms, puns, sarcasm or irony as well as words with double meanings. For example, if they are told ‘It’s raining cats and dogs’ they may expect to see cats and dogs falling out of the sky. The saying ‘I have a frog in my throat’ may be equally confusing. Understanding idiom, metaphors, abstract concepts and information about events outside classroom experience will be difficult; therefore, as Attwood (2000) and Frith (2003) suggest, many children with ASD may need to learn by experiencing things first-hand and will require concrete and visual clues. A way of overcoming this is to teach students how to understand these different modes of expression. Gradually introduce specific words and phrases to a child. Make use of illustrations to help explain the meaning of the words. Encourage the student to practise the new word or phrase. There is also computer software and apps such as English Idioms Illustrated that clearly explain the meaning of these confusing expressions. Because students with ASD have difficulties in imagination, have restricted interests and are unable to engage in spontaneous pretend play they frequently take things literally and will often have difficulty understanding why something is funny. However, they may appreciate jokes that are not too complex and cartoons that are visually simple, and may find some situations funny that other people would not usually regard as humorous. It is extremely important that students are taught how to understand and appreciate humour, which is an important form of social communication that will help them to develop relationships as well as provide personal satisfaction. Some children who are visual learners may benefit from using cartoons and comic books that are read aloud while they follow the pictures. The abstract nature of humour is made more concrete through illustrations and easier to understand. Older students may benefit from using role plays and watching videos that provide opportunities to discuss the use of jokes, metaphors and figures of speech. It may also be useful to teach students a repertoire of simple jokes such as ‘knock-knock’ jokes. They can then share these jokes with the class or with friends. The goal here is for students to create their own jokes.

Social stories Social stories are an important resource for teaching social skills. Social stories teach students about social situations, how to identify them and how to behave in these situations. They use pictures and/or words to describe common social situations that the students will be required to participate in. The stories aim to achieve behavioural change by presenting a social situation that discusses appropriate social responses and models for the student what is socially appropriate behaviour. The story is read and discussed with the student. The student can role-play the story Lorelei Carpenter

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with the involvement of classmates and others. It is important to use peers who can praise, prompt and provide scaffolding for the student (Crozier & Tincani 2005; Konza 2005). Social stories such as Stories2Learn are available as an app. While they can positively influence the development of appropriate skills in some children, some researchers (Vandermeer, Beamish, Milford & Lang 2015) caution that social stories are not universally successful with all children with ASD. This is a further example of the way in which ASD presents differently in different children.

Apply your knowledge Refer to the National Autistic Society website at www.autism.org.uk/About/Strategies/ Social-stories-comic-strips. 1 Develop a social story that would be suitable for a student with ASD who is in: a middle school b secondary school.

Assessment ASSESSMENT

Some students with ASD who have communication challenges or experience anxiety around assessment may require adaptations or alternative forms of assessment. Specific types of assessment can prove extremely challenging. • NAPLAN can be a time of distress and anxiety because it alters the familiar routine of the school day. • Timed tests may prove difficult for the student who has poor concentration and needs to periodically get up and move around. • Group assessments may be emotionally draining for students with poor social skills. They can also be difficult for other members of the group. • Oral reports may be difficult for the student who has expressive language difficulties. • Reading and understanding written questions and instructions may be difficult to comprehend for students with language difficulties.

A student voice

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

I do well at school but because of my autism there are some things that are hard for me. I don’t like doing group work because I like working alone. I don’t like standing in front of the class and giving reports because I don’t like speaking in public. I feel anxious when I have to do that because some of the other kids in my class laugh at me. I get really anxious if I think I have to get up and speak. I hate looking stupid because I’m not. I hate having something important to say, but no one listens because I don’t know how to get it out.

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Behaviour Many students with ASD have inappropriate behaviours around the areas of social skills and communication. Inappropriate behaviours may frequently be attempts at communicating feelings and needs, making requests or gaining attention. Such behaviours may also result from stress caused by fear of unfamiliar events, inability to understand directions, lack of knowledge of how to behave appropriately, and sensitivity to noise, lights and being touched (Myles & Simpson 2001). It is frequently the case that some students who are attempting to communicate are judged as being socially unacceptable and their behaviour can lead to exclusion from school or other forms of social isolation. These behaviours consist of temper tantrums and self-injurious behaviour that includes head banging, self-biting and scratching, as well as selfstimulation, aloofness, rudeness, and talking too loud or too softly. It is important, therefore, to observe what is happening prior to and following the inappropriate behaviour to discover the reason for the behaviour. The observations should not only be of the student with ASD, but should also include observing the behaviour of the teacher and peers prior to and following the target behaviour. Through observation it may be possible to identify both the antecedent for the behaviour and the purpose of the behaviour. Once a student’s reason for a particular behaviour is understood, it may be easier to teach a more appropriate behaviour and means of communication (Wing 1996). Chapter 10 discusses in detail how functional behavioural assessment (FBA) is used to gather information regarding specific problem behaviours for the purposes of developing a supportive behaviour learning plan for individual students. One information gathering strategy—behaviour frequency records (BFR)—is discussed in Chapter 8.

Lorelei Carpenter

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Transitions Students with ASD may experience anxiety, stress and frustration in trying to cope with minor transitions such as a change to daily routine or major transitions that include changing grades, leaving school or going to a new school. Major transitions require well-developed skills of socialisation, communication and behaviour to understand the hidden curriculum of different settings, as well as the different academic expectations between year levels and subjects. Some students may be extremely resistant to change and engage in inappropriate behaviour. Chapter 18 contains useful information for helping students cope with the transitions they will encounter over time.

Vulnerability and bullying An American Professor of Animal Science, author, international speaker and autism advocate, Temple Grandin, who was diagnosed with autism in the early 1950s, observes that as she got older she experienced betrayal and insincerity by people who took advantage of her inability to understand emotional and social cues and signals. The result was that she was made fun of by people to whom she had told personal information because she believed them to be her friends (Grandin 2006). The inability to understand social cues often means that students with ASD do not possess the social skills required to negotiate their way within the school culture. Hence, they become the victims of bullying. Bullying can start when children are toddlers and continue throughout their lives. The damage caused through bullying prevents students engaging in regular events that would assist them to develop social skills. For example, travelling to school by bus can be of enormous benefit to a student, yet some preparation is required to ensure this is not a time of vulnerability. It is crucial for successful inclusion of students with ASD that school staff understand the vulnerability of students and program effectively to avoid potential bullying situations occurring. Websites such as http://suelarkey.com.au/tip-sheet provide some useful common-sense tips on how safe environments can be developed at school. By the time students with ASD reach secondary school, some will be able to successfully communicate and join in the activities of their group, while others will lack the required skills to do this and may appear withdrawn, quiet and aloof. The lack of social skills may result in barriers to positive social interactions with peers. Having at least one friend in secondary school helps students feel a sense of belonging and self-worth and is an important part of growing up. Good conversation skills will influence a student’s ability to mix socially. Some students may be unable to greet others, acknowledge the appropriate social distance in conversation, join in a game, catch another person’s attention or converse in a reciprocal way with others. As well, they may not understand when to use skills appropriately and may overgeneralise their use; for example, they may greet everyone throughout the day with ‘good morning’. Because some students with ASD have poor social skills, unusual behaviour and poor conversational skills they may be more likely to be bullied and victimised. This can be a serious issue in both primary and secondary school. What they perceive as being bullying behaviour may actually be the friendly play and banter that occurs between students. Therefore, it is extremely important that both primary and secondary school students are taught how to understand and interpret social situations and how to use appropriate conversation skills. Role plays, social stories, comic strips and social skills training are some of the ways of doing this.

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Parenting Schopler (1965) notes that when Kanner first wrote of autism in the 1940s he described parents of children with autism as being highly intelligent and emotionally cold. Kanner argued that it was the way in which parents raised their children that caused autism. This belief was supported by the work of Bettelheim, an American academic and child development specialist. Bettelheim (1967) theorised that children with autism were the product of frigid and emotionless mothers who were unable and unwilling to form a bond with their children. These mothers became known as ‘refrigerator’ mothers. However, there has been a lack of valid research to support this claim (Baron-Cohen & Bolton 1993; Connor 1999). From the 1950s to the 1970s, many parents experienced guilt and doubted their own ability to help their child because they blamed themselves for their child’s condition (Chawarska & Volkmar 2005; Rhode 2004; Wing 1996). Mothers in particular were identified as the primary cause of their child’s condition. Although there is no support for the once-held view that parents cause their child’s ASD, this belief is still held by some professionals and lay people whose attitudes cause much concern to parents (Wing 1996). Parents require support to manage their child’s education while helping the child fit in with family life (Jordan 2004). Parents of children with ASD discover that ‘good parenting’ skills are not enough to successfully manage their child. Carpenter and emerald (2009) discuss how parents can become depressed and feel guilty because they have failed their child. Thus, parents require support from educators to help their attempts at management. Likewise, educators also require support. The most effective means of developing this is to work together in equal partnerships that acknowledge the strengths of both parties.

Lorelei Carpenter

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Parents are integral to their child’s education because over time they have developed valuable expertise and insight into their child’s condition that will assist teachers to develop and achieve short- and long-term learning goals. Parents should be involved in the assessment, planning and implementation of all interventions (Prior 2003). They can provide invaluable support to teachers because they have spent a longer time observing and supporting their child, as well as being involved in teaching their child, accessing services and providing treatment. Furthermore, parents are well aware of their child’s strengths, weaknesses, interests and preferences.

Apply your knowledge View the video clip ‘ASD and school’ at http://raisingchildren.net.au/articles/asd_school_ video.html/context/933. 1 What are the main challenges these parents face when their child goes to school? 2 In what ways do these challenges differ from those faced by parents of regular children?

SUMMARY ASD is the label given to that continuum of autism disorders that have in common social communication impairments and restrictive repetitive behaviours. ASD can have a lifelong effect on not only learning ability but also the ability to effectively communicate and interact socially. Although there is no cure for ASD, educational intervention programs can play a crucial role in teaching behavioural and social communication skills that will be used throughout life. The earlier these programs are introduced in the life of the child with ASD the more successful will be the program, hence early identification and diagnosis of the condition is important. For successful inclusion of students with ASD it is necessary for educationalists to understand the characteristics of ASD as well as the broad range of effects accompanying this condition that impinge not only on the student, but also on parents, siblings, peers, teachers and others. It is important that teachers try to understand the world of the student with ASD and appreciate that in most cases the world can be a source of stress, fear, anxiety and failure for those individuals with ASD. An essential feature of any effort made to successfully include students with ASD in a school is that provision is made for students to feel safe and supported both in and outside the classroom and be provided with an educational program that will ensure success. Importantly, one of the most useful resources that can be utilised in a school program when working with a student with ASD is the expertise and knowledge of their parents. Collaboration with parents can prove an invaluable source of support for student, teacher and parent and can provide important links between the school, home and community so that the student with ASD has an educational program that will give them lifelong skills and support.

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For group discussion 1 What have you learnt about: a b c d

the causes of ASD the changes introduced by DSM-5 strategies to help develop social communication skills the importance of teaching how to manage transitions?

2 Give an example of how will you use the information from this chapter to work with students with ASD in your class/school. 3 What are some of the challenges that parents of students with ASD need to overcome and how can teachers be involved?

Key references Grandin, T. (2006). Thinking in pictures: my life with autism. New York: Vintage. Volkmar, F. R., Paul, R., Rogers, S. J. & Pelphrey, K. A. (eds). (2014). Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, diagnosis, development, and brain mechanisms (vols 1 & 2). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Websites Amaze—www.amaze.org.au Amaze provides support to people on the autism spectrum and their families. It seeks to raise awareness of the condition, provide information and advocate for families and individuals with ASD.

Autism Awareness—www.autismawareness.com.au An Australian website that provides resources and information for families and carers of people with ASD.

Autism Spectrum Australia—www.autismspectrum.org.au Provides a range of services, including advice, diagnostic assessment, educational programs and support to parents, carers and people with ASD.

Positive Partnerships—www.positivepartnerships.com.au An Australian government initiative that provides support to school-age children on the autism spectrum through the provision of ASD-related workshops, webinars and online learning to families, schools and communities.

Raising Children Network—http://raisingchildren.net.au An Australian parenting website developed by a number of early childhood agencies. It provides information and advice to families about issues related to raising children who have ASD. Lorelei Carpenter

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Supporting Diverse Gifted Students Jane M. Jarvis

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand common characteristics and learning needs of gifted students • To understand that students with advanced abilities in one area can have significant difficulties or disabilities in other areas • To apply principles of inclusive education to conceptualise the education of gifted students • To identify a continuum of effective practices to engage, challenge and support diverse gifted students in inclusive school settings

KEY TERMS acceleration enrichment extension

Giftedness: Intellectual potential or academic performance significantly in advance of chronological age peers, and requiring educational opportunities beyond what would usually be provided. While the term giftedness might be applied to many domains of endeavour, in school settings the term is usually applied to intellectual or academic abilities.

giftedness twice exceptional

Introduction As discussed in previous chapters, the concept of inclusive education is based on the premise that every student should have the opportunity to access quality learning experiences, participate in education in meaningful ways, progress towards a level of achievement commensurate with their potential, and be supported to feel a sense of belonging to a classroom and school community (Ainscow 2013). While discussions of inclusion often concern students with disabilities or learning difficulties, these principles are relevant to all students, including those considered intellectually gifted due to their advanced cognitive abilities in comparison to age peers. It is important to recognise that some classroom and school practices have the potential to marginalise gifted students and create barriers to effective learning, participation and belonging. On the other hand, teachers and school leaders who understand the nature and needs of gifted students can employ a range of practices within and beyond the classroom to ensure these students thrive together with their peers. In this chapter, we consider common characteristics and learning needs of gifted students, while acknowledging that there is no single, agreed-upon definition of giftedness and no ‘typical’ gifted student. As a subgroup of

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gifted students, we also consider students regarded as ‘twice exceptional’, in that they have a disability or learning difficulty in addition to being identified as gifted. The chapter presents a framework for understanding and addressing the needs of diverse gifted students in the context of inclusive school and classroom settings. The 2008 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians espouses the dual aspirations of equity and excellence, and embraces the goal that ‘all young Australians become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens’ (MCEETYA 2008). The goal of excellence suggests that schooling should aim to foster the highest possible levels of achievement and contribution rather than only the attainment of minimum standards, while the goal of equity suggests that all students should have the opportunity to access quality learning experiences that help them realise their potential as learners and citizens. Equity and excellence are not opposing forces, but combine to underpin a coordinated approach to educating all young Australians. The preamble to the Australian Curriculum articulates the premise that learning experiences should ‘enable high expectations to be set for each student as teachers account for the current levels of learning of individual students and the different rates at which students develop’ (ACARA 2015c). More specifically, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) states that ‘Gifted and talented students are entitled to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning opportunities drawn from the Australian Curriculum and aligned with their individual learning needs, strengths, interests and goals’ (ACARA 2015d). Despite the clear emphasis on excellence and high expectations embodied in these statements, the needs of more academically advanced students have often received less attention from educators than have the needs of other student groups. Following from earlier federal and state reports, a 2001 Senate inquiry into the education of gifted children in Australia acknowledged that many gifted students experience boredom, frustration, distress and underachievement when they do not have access to appropriate learning experiences; it was noted that negative outcomes for gifted students are exacerbated by negative attitudes towards high ability and a focus on minimum achievement benchmarks (Collins 2001). Chapter  2 discussed the National Assessment Plan—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) in terms of its implications for students with disabilities, but this program also constitutes an important part of the context of education for gifted or advanced learners. Purported benefits of NAPLAN include its capacity to inform improvements in student outcomes and enhance accountability for the community. However, these tests are primarily designed to measure the extent to which students have reached minimum benchmarks, and may not capture the progress of students who can already perform beyond grade level. Decisions about policy, programming and resource allocation informed by these test data are unlikely to focus on improving outcomes for students exceeding grade level expectations (Jolly 2015). In fact, the experience of countries such as the United States suggests that standardised testing programs have the potential to detrimentally affect the education of gifted or advanced students (Moon, Brighton & Callahan 2003). It is also important to note that, while the right of students with disabilities to an appropriate education is protected under the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and guided by the Disability Standards for Education 2005, there is no comparable legislation and set of standards mandating special educational provisions for gifted students. Each state and sector determines its own policies, and the level of accountability in

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STANDARDS

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implementing these policies varies across systems and between individual schools and staff members. It is not the goal of this chapter to suggest that the educational needs of gifted students should take precedence over the needs of students with disabilities, students living in poverty or any other student group. However, while most educators would agree in principle that addressing the needs of the most advanced students is a worthy goal, it is important to understand some of the reasons why this is not always prioritised in practice. In one South Australian study, a teacher explained: I am interested in gifted education, but I  am overwhelmed with other tasks in the school and so it gets less time than I would like to put in. The bottom line is that the children at risk of not achieving the benchmark in literacy and numeracy will always take priority because we are a low budget school in a socially disadvantaged area. (Jarvis & Henderson 2012, p. 24)

In part, this tendency to see gifted or talented students as ‘less needy’ than others stems from the well-documented myth that gifted students will succeed without any special support or intervention (Rubenstein et al. 2012). Pitting different groups of students against each other to determine who is most deserving of an appropriate education is unlikely to be constructive. A  more worthwhile approach considers how we can create learning environments that are inclusive of all learners and enable all to receive the levels of support and challenge they require.

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1 Based on your own experience in schools, what priority do you believe is given to engaging, challenging and supporting gifted or advanced students to realise their potential? 2 What do the broad educational goals of excellence and equity mean to you? How might both be balanced within the same education system?

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Pause and reflect

Understanding giftedness It has long been recognised that some children learn quickly and easily, and can significantly outperform their age peers on different measures of ability. Some children acquire and develop language skills much earlier than expected, seem to easily remember information, see connections between concepts and ideas that other children do not, prefer to engage with complexity and abstraction, show an unusual early attention span, and display extraordinary creativity (Brighton & Jarvis, in press). Some children are drawn to topics of interest that may be advanced for their age, and may show a sense of humour earlier than their peers (Walsh, Hodge, Bowes & Kemp 2010). Depending on how the term is applied, individuals displaying some or all of these characteristics to an exceptional level might be described as ‘gifted’. At some point, every mainstream teacher in Australia is likely to teach a student whose potential or performance is well above that of the average expected for their chronological age in one or more areas; addressing student diversity in the classroom includes planning for and teaching students who may require access to advanced work and special educational provisions to ensure continued growth and positive learning outcomes. While the concept of gifted or exceptional children has existed across cultures for centuries, contemporary gifted education has its roots in psychometric intelligence testing in the early 1900s, and particularly in American psychologist Lewis Terman’s longitudinal study (1925–59) of 1528 children scoring at exceptionally high levels on tests of general intelligence (at least 140 IQ, or 2.5 standard deviations above the mean). Terman’s descriptions of the characteristics and experiences of these individuals established the concept of giftedness as superior general intellectual ability. Intelligence tests have continued to evolve since the original Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales used by Terman, but typically include combinations of verbal and non-verbal reasoning, general knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, processing speed, memory and attention. These are the kinds of abilities associated with success in traditional academic tasks, such as solving a mathematical problem, writing an essay or remembering large amounts of information for an examination. While there have since been significant challenges both to the methods employed in Terman’s research and to this view of giftedness, his work laid the foundation for much additional research and continues to influence the way high ability is understood and identified in many schools and educational programs (Feldhusen 2003). Jane M. Jarvis

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Within the conception of giftedness as high general intelligence, some researchers distinguish ‘levels of giftedness’ in relation to the distribution of IQ scores. Based on modern IQ tests with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, individuals scoring 115–129 may be identified as ‘mildly gifted’, 130–144 as ‘moderately gifted’, 145–159 as ‘highly gifted’, and 160 or above as ‘exceptionally gifted’ (Gross 2004); it is reasoned that the further an individual’s score from the mean, the greater the difference between that individual’s functioning and that of their peers, and the greater the need for special educational provisions. For example, an exceptionally gifted student is likely to acquire new knowledge at a much faster pace than their classmates, so that even a full year’s worth of curriculum content can be covered in a relatively short time. This difference (and the child’s awareness of being different) can also manifest as a difficulty fitting in socially with children of the same age (Coleman, Micko & Cross 2015). It is easy to imagine how a student with a highly sophisticated sense of humour and capacity to play with language might feel isolated when others don’t understand or appreciate her jokes, or how a kindergarten student with advanced knowledge and a passion for archaeology might struggle to feel connected when his peers don’t share his knowledge or interest. Perhaps not surprisingly, gifted students have often been observed to show a preference for interacting with older children or adults, may experience feelings of isolation and rejection, and may become frustrated and bored in class if they are expected to endure repetition of information they have already mastered and wait for other students to catch up (Coleman, Micko & Cross 2015). High IQ is not a direct ticket to success or difficulty; much depends on the dynamic interactions between the individual and their environments. While students who perform at very high levels on IQ tests or similar measures are likely to have special educational needs in the classroom, this is by no means the only way of defining giftedness. A key criticism of the high IQ or high academic achievement definition is that it paints a very narrow view of ability. Critics emphasise that the range of abilities valued by societies around the world and throughout history extends well beyond those associated with successful performance on IQ tests and traditional academic tasks, and this should be reflected in the way we define giftedness. In 1978, Joseph Renzulli’s ‘three-ring’ conception of giftedness represented a significant challenge to the dominance of the IQbased, ‘schoolhouse’ view of giftedness. Renzulli proposed that instead of trying to identify innately gifted individuals, educators should concern themselves with creating the conditions for the development of gifted behaviour and, in particular, the ‘creative productive’ giftedness involved in developing original, valued ideas and products in the ‘real world’. Based on studies of creatively eminent individuals, Renzulli recognised that gifted behaviour was most likely to occur through the interaction between three sets of capacities: (1) above average ability, (2) creativity and (3) task commitment. He argued that programs for fostering gifted behaviour should be more inclusive than traditional gifted education programs to allow for the fact that a student with creativity, passion and motivation, given the opportunity to work on a personally meaningful endeavour, is likely to develop the skills for advanced performance in a specific domain, even if they wouldn’t meet the strict IQ-based criteria for giftedness. Renzulli’s work paved the way for contemporary talent-development approaches to the education of gifted students, which focus on recognising signs of domain-specific talent and creating the conditions to nurture this potential, with a view to encouraging ‘real-world’ contributions (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius & Worrell 2011).

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Many other researchers have proposed expanded conceptions of intelligence, and of giftedness. In his influential theory of multiple intelligences, Gardner defines intelligence as ‘the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings’ (1983, p. 11), and posits that the kinds of abilities measured on an IQ test represent only a small subset of those that are valued in every culture and that could define giftedness when demonstrated at the highest levels. Sternberg’s (1984) triarchic theory of intelligence similarly rejects a narrow, IQ-based view and posits that success in the ‘real world’ can be achieved through specific strengths in analytical, creative or practical abilities, or through a combination of these. According to this theory, intelligent individuals are able to identify and build on their strengths, compensate for their weaknesses, and select, adapt to or shape environments to achieve their goals. For example, a student with high levels of practical intelligence (or ‘street smarts’) might recognise her weakness in the kind of analytical skills required for an important project, and strategically team up with a fellow student with strengths in this area. In a similar vein, there have been dozens of definitions and conceptual models for understanding intelligence and giftedness, which expand IQ-based definitions and highlight the multifaceted nature of giftedness (see, for example, Sternberg & Davidson 2005). It is now widely accepted that giftedness can be defined across a broad range of domains, and that an individual can be considered gifted in a single domain or more generally across multiple areas. Some of these ideas are encapsulated in the US federal definition of gifted children: Students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school to fully develop those capabilities. (National Association for Gifted Children n.d.)

There is no national definition of giftedness in Australia. However, several state policy documents refer to Gagné’s (2003) Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent, which distinguishes between ‘gifts’ (innate ability, or potential, in the top 10 per cent in at least one domain) and ‘talents’ (developed achievement in the top 10 per cent in one or more fields). This descriptive model emphasises that giftedness is no guarantee of high achievement or success, but must be systematically nurtured to develop.

Apply your knowledge Search online for your state’s gifted education policy. How is giftedness defined in the policy document? What assumptions does this definition reflect about: 1 the multifaceted nature of giftedness 2 the relationship between giftedness and academic achievement 3 the role of personal and environmental factors in developing giftedness?

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Recognising early signs of giftedness

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

EARLY LEARNERS

Even as an infant, Cathy was unusually alert and curious. She seemed to understand everything that was said to her, and she would often sit down and concentrate for long periods on a game or toy that interested her, even while other children were running from one toy to another. Cathy began to talk at nine months and was endlessly curious about the world around her, and how things worked. By the age of four, she was reading independently. This surprised her parents, who had not actively taught her to read and noticed that their friends’ children of the same age were still learning the alphabet and putting simple sounds together. Cathy was excited to start school, where she would have access to so many new books, and where she could have all her questions answered. Her parents looked forward to having someone else answer all of Cathy’s questions for a change! However, soon after the school year began, it was clear that Cathy’s transition wasn’t to be a smooth one. Her excitement about going to school seemed to quickly dwindle, and soon she refused to get out of the car when they arrived at school each day. Feeling worried, Cathy’s mother made a time to see the teacher and find out what could be wrong. The teacher suggested that Cathy was probably upset because she had been told not to monopolise the class discussion, and that she had to sit on her hands and let other students answer the questions. The teacher explained that this was for Cathy’s own good, so that she would learn the important skill of waiting her turn, and so that she wouldn’t become a target of teasing by the other students. Cathy’s mother explained that her daughter wasn’t being rude, but that she had always been very curious, and she had really been looking forward to starting school to learn new things from books and her teachers. She wondered whether there was a way for the teacher to give Cathy a chance to choose books from the library on topics of interest to her. The teacher rolled her eyes and said that children should be allowed to be children, and didn’t need the pressure of being pushed to read independently at such a young age. She explained that in the first year of school, they would start slowly and give the students time to develop their confidence with their letters and sounds, and then work their way up from there. In her experience, she said, this was what helped students to feel valued and become confident readers, and it would be best for Cathy not to be singled out by being assigned different reading materials to her classmates. She suggested that her focus had to be on the children who were struggling with pre-reading skills, and unfortunately she didn’t have the time or resources to create a different curriculum for Cathy, who was obviously doing well on her own.

Cathy’s story might sound somewhat far-fetched in an education system that purports to be based on principles of equity and excellence. However, this kind of experience is commonly reflected in research and in informal reports from parents of young gifted children. Signs of intellectual giftedness can be evident from a very early age, and although not every intellectually gifted child speaks or learns to read early, some young gifted children teach themselves to read through the cues in their environment. Beginning in the 1990s, Miraca Gross conducted a longitudinal study of 53 intellectually gifted Australian children with IQ scores of 160-plus (Gross 2004). Almost all of these children could read at a level typical of seven or

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eight year olds when they started school. Rather than encouraging their children’s continued reading progress, almost every parent in the study reported negative reactions from teachers about their child’s early reading. In many cases, teachers made comments (sometimes in front of the children themselves) suggesting that the parents had ‘hothoused’ their children by teaching them to read early, and that this was unwise. Many of these children were expected to engage in the same early reading experiences as their chronological age peers, and some experienced difficulty fitting in socially with peers who did not share their advanced language and conceptual understanding. Some preschool students even began to hide their academic skills from the teacher and their peers in order to fit in. It is important for early childhood and junior primary educators to be aware of the signs that a child might be intellectually gifted, whether or not a formal label is applied at a young age. A flexible, child-centred approach to planning, which does not make rigid assumptions about what a student should be capable of based on their chronological age, is essential to help all students feel connected to school and continue to develop from their own entry points.

Apply your knowledge 1 In the ‘Stories from the classroom’, the teacher seemed reluctant to ‘single out’ Cathy for any special treatment based on her intellectual ability. This is not an uncommon reaction, but as a society we seem less reluctant to single out and provide special opportunities for children who show advanced abilities in sport or even music. Why do you think this is? 2 How could the teacher have managed Cathy’s tendency to ask and answer a lot of questions in class discussions without crushing her intellectual curiosity?

Diverse profiles of giftedness While there is no universally agreed- upon definition of giftedness, many researchers acknowledge and have described both the common characteristics and the significant diversity inherent in any population of students considered capable of high achievement or performance (for example, Betts & Neihart 2010). It is important for educators to acknowledge that while some gifted students are well behaved, well organised, motivated and high achieving, others may present as disengaged and even belligerent. Some gifted students come from supportive, literacy-rich homes with access to many academic role models and intellectually enriching experiences. Others do not. Some present as confident and outgoing, while others are shy and may attempt to mask their abilities in order to be socially accepted by their peers. Some gifted students have an even profile of strengths across multiple areas, while others have extremely uneven patterns of strengths and weaknesses, and may be diagnosed with a specific disability or learning difficulty. In fact, uneven development across different domains (sometimes called ‘asynchronous development’) is often cited as a common characteristic of gifted students, whose advanced intellectual development might be ‘out of synch’ with their typical physical and social development. Some gifted students are English language learners and others are Jane M. Jarvis

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from cultural backgrounds where giftedness is defined and manifested differently from the dominant culture. The list of ways that gifted students differ could go on. The important point for teachers is to be aware that giftedness is not always synonymous with high achievement or good behaviour, and there may be diverse signs of high potential. Some groups of gifted students may be at risk of being under-identified, including those from cultural minority backgrounds, and those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius & Worrell 2011). A  long-standing criticism of the dominant IQ-based conception of giftedness relates to the reliance on IQ and achievement tests to identify students as gifted and select students for special educational opportunities. Many have argued that since giftedness occurs in every cultural, linguistic and socio-economic group in society, this diversity should be reflected in the representation of identified gifted students. In practice, however, the underrepresentation of students from low socio-economic, cultural and linguistic minority backgrounds is well documented, based in part on the kinds of measures used for identification. Research has also explored the ways that giftedness is understood and demonstrated across cultural groups, and there has been much work done to develop more culturally appropriate identification practices for students from different groups (Callahan, Renzulli, Delcourt & Hertberg-Davis 2013). In her work with Indigenous Australian families, for example, Kay Gibson (1998) found that the following traits, aptitudes and behaviours were accepted as generally indicative of giftedness in Aboriginal children: interpersonal and intrapersonal strengths, motivation, interest, communication skills, problem solving, reasoning, memory, insight, inquiry, imagination/creativity and humour. It is important for teachers to understand how cultural perspectives and experiences may shape behaviour in the classroom for all students, including those who may have high intellectual potential.

Effective practice Assessment of giftedness Traditionally, students were identified as intellectually gifted based on the results of individual assessment by a psychologist, including through individually administered tests of general intellectual reasoning (such as the Weschler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) or the Stanford-Binet IQ tests). Some students might still be referred to a psychologist for individual assessment, and will be identified that way. However, many families cannot afford psychology services outside the school, while other children will not be recognised as showing signs of potential giftedness and will therefore not be referred for further assessment. In addition, for some of the reasons outlined earlier in the chapter, reliance on this method alone for identifying gifted students is likely to result in some students being overlooked for educational opportunities from which they could benefit. In practical terms, the identification of students who require further educational opportunities to extend their learning is often tied to a particular setting or program. That is, rather than identifying students as ‘gifted’, educators at a school or system level more usually seek to select students for a particular educational opportunity expected to benefit students with high potential or advanced performance. This might include a particularly advanced class or gifted education program, a team for

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academic competitions or a summer enrichment program. Or, in New South Wales and Victoria, it might include enrolment at a selective government high school. Depending on the nature and goals of the educational opportunity and the local context, different assessment instruments will be fit for purpose. However, there is an extensive body of research and literature dealing with issues related to identification and selection in gifted education, with a focus on equity concerns. Based on this wealth of information, Callahan et al. (2013) are among those to synthesise what we know into a set of guiding principles for best practice. These are summarised below: 1 Every identification system is imperfect, and this should be taken into account in the decisions made. • Assessment tools should match the specific components of giftedness included in the school/program’s definition, and all components included in the definition should be assessed (for example, using a test of maths achievement may be inappropriate if the definition of giftedness emphasises creativity). • Identification processes should be flexible, with decisions being open to reconsideration, and with opportunities for students to be considered for selection at various points in their schooling. • Selection of identification/assessment measures and instruments should be based on reliability, validity and appropriate norms. 2 Identification processes should be context-specific. 3 Both objective and subjective measures are appropriate and important in the identification process. • Reliability and validity of instruments is more important than whether instruments are objectively scored. 4 Decision makers should be knowledgeable about the measures used and how to interpret assessment data from tests and other sources. • Orientation and training may be required for decision makers to understand each data source and how it relates to selection and programming. 5 The use of multiple criteria in identification processes is important, but care should be taken to consider how different assessment data will be weighted. • The use of multiple criteria (for example, test scores, grades and teacher nomination) is not genuine if only one of these (for example, grades) qualifies a student for further assessment (for example, taking a test). • ‘Matrix’ approaches, whereby different kinds of data are added together to result in an overall score, appear to draw on multiple criteria but usually give much greater weight to measures such as high test scores or academic grades. 6 The screening and identification process should not be used for labelling students, but should be used to make sound decisions about services, curriculum and teaching.

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Twice exceptional students The diverse group of students who can be considered gifted or academically advanced includes those who might also have other ‘exceptionalities’, including disabilities and learning difficulties. That is, some students present with extraordinary abilities in general reasoning, problem solving, creativity or specific academic (or other) domains at the same time as they qualify for an additional diagnosis, such as: • specific learning difficulty (for example, dyslexia/dysgraphia/non-verbal learning difficulty) • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), including Asperger Syndrome • attention deficit disorder (ADD)/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) • physical or sensory disability (for example, vision or hearing impairment). Twice exceptional: A term used to describe students who may be identified as gifted or advanced in one or more areas, while also having a disability or learning difficulty (for example, dyslexia or ASD).

In some cases, twice exceptional students go through school for a considerable amount of time before either their giftedness or difficulties is recognised. This can occur where each ‘masks’ the other (Vialle & Rogers 2009). For example, a student with extensive background knowledge about World War II and good reasoning skills might use these to compensate for her difficulty reading the assigned text; because she knows a lot about the topic and can reason well, the student can make some educated guesses about what she is reading. She is therefore able to answer some, but not all, of the questions correctly on the reading comprehension test. The teacher marks the test and judges the student’s performance as ‘average’. Effectively teaching students with markedly uneven patterns of strength and weakness can be particularly challenging for teachers and schools. This is likely to be exacerbated by a tendency to make decisions about grouping, selection of resources and design of learning tasks based on students’ overall level of achievement. Pitching instruction to the ‘average’ level of functioning or achievement for a twice exceptional student might result in some aspects being too difficult and others nowhere near challenging enough. The term ‘dual differentiation’ has been applied to emphasise that tasks may need to be adjusted to create higher levels of challenge, while adjustments must also be made to provide adequate supports to ensure accessibility (Baum, Cooper & Neu 2001). For example, the teacher mentioned above could adjust the reading comprehension task by highlighting important sections of the chapter or providing a set of notes to reduce the reading demands, while posing a more challenging set of questions for the student to answer, which would enable the student to stretch her knowledge and capacity to make abstract connections between ideas. Where basic academic skills such as reading decoding, writing mechanics or mathematical calculation are viewed as ‘gatekeeper’ skills to accessing high-level work, students with learning difficulties who are capable of advanced thinking and ready to engage with complex material are likely to become extremely frustrated. In some cases, a student might be denied the opportunity to engage in a high level opportunity in his greatest area of strength and passion because he has not overcome the hurdle of basic writing and organisational skills (Yssel, Adams, Clark & Jones 2014). It is not difficult to imagine a student like this becoming extremely frustrated, and eventually disengaged, if he consistently encounters this kind of learning experience. It is important for twice exceptional students—and all students—to have opportunities to develop their strengths and interests as well as to engage in remedial work as needed. A  key principle of inclusive practice is that teachers and schools design

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and adjust learning environments to fit the learning needs of students, rather than expecting students to change in order to fit rigid programs or practices. This principle is particularly important to ensure appropriate educational experiences for twice exceptional students. It is equally important to acknowledge the diversity within this group. A student who is capable of advanced work in mathematics and has Asperger Syndrome may present very differently in the classroom to a highly creative student with a specific reading difficulty. Each twice exceptional student is likely to require a highly individualised approach.

The lived experiences of gifted students A group of researchers in the United States reviewed twenty-five years of research into the lived experiences of gifted students in the context of school (Coleman, Micko & Cross 2015). They highlighted key themes about the experience of giftedness, from the perspectives of students themselves. These included: • Feeling different from peers. From a very young age, many gifted children become aware that other students their age don’t share their abilities, intense motivation for learning or interests in advanced topics. This can lead to feelings of isolation, and some gifted students use a range of strategies to ‘mask’ their abilities in order to be socially accepted. It can also leave gifted children vulnerable to bullying. • Experiencing challenges in identity development. For some gifted students, it can be difficult to embrace the label ‘gifted’, and they respond by doubting their abilities, behaving in ways that downplay their interests or abilities in front of others, or developing unrealistic expectations for what they should be able to do. There can be particular challenges for children from family, peer and cultural groups where intellectual pursuits and achievement are not highly valued, or where pursuing success at school is seen as not conforming to the dominant cultural norm, and is therefore undesirable. Gifted students may respond to this pressure in different ways, and some talk about the complexity of reconciling their advanced abilities and aspirations with other aspects of their identity. • Experiencing high expectations and stereotyped responses from others. Gifted students often report a sense of very high expectations from others, including parents and teachers. Being gifted does not mean that a student will be good at everything or will never make mistakes, but comments from adults can communicate exactly this expectation. Gifted students often internalise these high (and sometimes unrealistic) expectations for themselves, resulting in significant anxiety and embarrassment when they cannot live up to their own high standards. They are also aware of social stereotypes related to giftedness, and report being treated differently by peers and adults based on the label. • Feeling bored and frustrated with inappropriate learning opportunities. Through research, gifted students consistently describe the frustration of being expected to work too slowly and wait for other students to catch up, being consistently unchallenged by their assigned work, and not being allowed to move on to new material. For some students, this frustration leads to boredom, academic resistance or disengagement. Others develop

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

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creative ways to cope with the large amounts of waiting in the classroom, such as drawing, reading or thinking about other topics once they have finished the assigned work. • Feeling intellectually stimulated and socially accepted. For gifted students in some school contexts (particularly specialised settings and programs), school is a place where they feel connected and accepted, and where they feel intellectually engaged and challenged. This set of findings, in contrast to the points above, highlights the importance of considering the contextual nature of outcomes for gifted students. That is, giftedness is not a guarantee of successful or negative outcomes, but some of the potential difficulties that gifted students can experience at school are ameliorated or avoided with understanding and supportive teachers and peers, and appropriate learning opportunities. In particular, gifted students talk about teachers who are passionate and knowledgeable about their subjects, and who show concern for students, as being important in a positive school experience.

An inclusive framework for gifted education It follows logically from previous sections that since there is no single definition of giftedness and no ‘typical’ gifted student, there is also no one program or set of provisions likely to meet the needs of every gifted student at every point in time. Traditional approaches to gifted education have been analogous to those offered in special education, whereby students are identified for a particular program or grouping using a specific measure or tool, and then the program is administered outside the regular classroom. While the intention has often been to provide students with access to material not ordinarily covered in the regular curriculum, and the opportunity to engage with other gifted students, programs have varied greatly in quality, coherence and their relationship to the general curriculum, and many are rarely evaluated for effectiveness (Jarvis & Henderson 2014). In line with conceptual shifts in special education, the field of gifted education has also moved towards more inclusive, integrated approaches (Dai & Chen 2013). Some researchers in gifted education go as far as to advocate that the label ‘gifted’ is no longer necessary, in that we can develop flexible approaches to addressing the learning needs of all students without any formal identification process (Borland 2005). One way to conceptualise an inclusive, coordinated approach to educating diverse gifted students is represented in Figure  14.1. This is based on the three-tiered model that guides intervention in other fields, including behaviour, mental health and the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach in the area of learning disability, and which is gaining traction in gifted education (Dai & Chen 2013). Considered in this way, gifted education should be seen as a flexible continuum of provisions that might be implemented in different ways at different times for different individuals. For some students, this can be achieved through access to proactively, effectively differentiated learning experiences in the regular classroom without the need for out-of-class or additional support. For others, it might involve a combination of experiences within the general classroom and more intensive, focused opportunities outside the classroom. For a smaller number, individualised planning and intervention may be required, even assuming the availability of excellent universal (general classroom) and targeted opportunities. Educators systematically expose students to different learning opportunities,

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monitor individual progress and needs, and determine which students might benefit from more intensive, targeted opportunities for talent development, enrichment and extension. This flexible, increasingly targeted and extensive continuum of gifted education options at a classroom or a whole school level is conceptually aligned with several comprehensive gifted education models, including the Schoolwide Enrichment Model (Renzulli & Reis 1985) and the levels of service approach (Treffinger 1998). Both of these models aim to systematically introduce students to more intensive opportunities for talent development as students show more evidence of ability, interest and motivation. Figure 14.1 Three-tiered model of inclusive gifted education

Individual planning

Mentoring Counselling Acceleration Specialist supports

Targeted students Enrichment Access to mentors Curriculum compacting Cluster grouping

All Students Effectively differentiated classroom High quality, concept-based curriculum Opportunities for creative problem solving Opportunities for high-level thinking Ongoing assessment to inform differentiated planning and teaching Timely, informative feedback Progress monitoring Flexible grouping based on student need Opportunities for interest-based exploration Authentic assessment tasks

Tier I: effective differentiation in the regular classroom While giftedness is sometimes defined as extraordinary potential for future success or contribution, it is very difficult to predict from a young age which individuals will go on to make a contribution to society as adults, or even be academically successful later in their schooling (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius & Worrell 2011). There is a range of reasons why a student with extraordinary potential may not currently be demonstrating this through high levels of achievement. Thus, it is important that gifted education efforts are designed to both respond to current advanced performance and systematically seek to uncover hidden potential (Jarvis & Jane M. Jarvis

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Henderson 2014). Some students might not ‘look gifted’ because they have not had access to high-quality, challenging, engaging curricula. If a student has to first be identified as gifted in order to gain access to enriching, interesting learning opportunities, then they may continue to underachieve. Awaya (2001) suggests that ‘gifted abilities in a student can remain latent until a well-designed classroom environment can act as a catalyst for those abilities to emerge’ (p. 180). Thus, it is important that the general classroom at Tier I is approached with this goal in mind. Tomlinson (1997) emphasises that the foundation of appropriate curriculum and instruction for gifted students is high-quality curriculum and instruction for all students, which incorporates clear learning objectives for what students are expected to know, understand and be able to do; requires students to engage with essential questions; helps students understand the nature of the disciplines in which they are working; is affectively engaging so that students gain satisfaction from the learning process; has a product focus such that students are challenged to identify and solve problems and create products that are valued and meaningful within a discipline; develops students’ capacities for self-awareness and reflection; is personally and culturally relevant to students; and is responsive to individual student needs. Curriculum appropriate for gifted students builds on this good curriculum, and may be adjusted for: • pacing • level of challenge • advanced opportunities to develop strengths in an area of passion. Working at an appropriate level of challenge is critical to ensure that new learning takes place. When a student is challenged to work at a level just beyond their current level of competence, they not only progress academically, but also enhance their capacity to cope with challenge, and reinforce their sense that hard work leads to mastery and progress (Sousa & Tomlinson 2011). Consistent experiences of mastery through effort enables an individual to develop a sense of self-efficacy and a motivation to learn rather than simply to look smart through high performance. This is important to consider in the case of highly able students, some of whom are consistently assigned tasks that are not challenging given their existing knowledge and skills, and the capacity of many to learn at a fast pace. Over time, some students may be consistently rewarded for performing at a high level on tasks that are too easy. Rather than learning to cope with challenge, students might instead learn to ‘cruise through’ and select tasks and situations that seem easy, based on the belief that success comes ‘naturally’ to good students (Yeager & Dweck 2012); when they eventually encounter challenging work, some gifted students become anxious and resistant, while some find that they lack the learning strategies and coping skills required for success. It is important that highly able students are not expected to spend their time completing work they can already do, or being expected to engage with content they have already learnt, and then waiting for other students to catch up. Similarly, being expected to teach content to their classmates rather than extending their own knowledge may become frustrating for gifted learners and is unlikely to provide an appropriate challenge. An essential component of an effectively differentiated classroom is that teachers design opportunities for all students to work at appropriate levels of challenge, even within a common curriculum framework (Tomlinson & Jarvis 2009). When students are stretched just beyond their current levels of competence, and particularly when tasks also appeal to their interests, they are most likely to experience engagement in learning, maintain their motivation, and advance their knowledge and skills.

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Effective practice Increasing the level of challenge There are many ways that teachers can increase the level of challenge of a particular task for some students, while ensuring that the diverse range of students in a classroom engage with a common set of curriculum objectives. The choice of strategy for adjusting the level of challenge will depend on the nature of the task and the needs of individual students. Scholars such as Maker (1982), Kaplan (2009) and Tomlinson and Jarvis (2009) have suggested a series of strategies for increasing the level of depth, complexity and challenge in learning experiences for gifted students—this approach is known as differentiation. Examples include: • selecting more advanced resources on a topic for some students • providing a more advanced list of vocabulary terms for students to learn and apply during the unit • evaluating students’ work against professional criteria of a field or asking professionals to provide feedback on student work • choosing product options that are more authentic to the work of professionals in a field • posing more complex questions on a topic for small-group discussion or individual response, such as by challenging students to consider unfamiliar perspectives or less obvious connections • challenging students to work on open-ended tasks with multiple possible solutions • sourcing a ‘real-world’ audience for students’ work • facilitating access to professional mentors in a field of interest • incorporating short workshops or mini-lectures for extension or skill development • creating learning ‘menus’ or contracts to delineate differentiated tasks over a period of time. It is important to note that at different times and in different situations, these strategies may be suitable for a broader range of students than those formally considered gifted or advanced.

Using technology to support advanced learners New technologies offer multiple opportunities to support effective differentiation for advanced learners, as for all learners. For gifted or advanced students in particular, technology could be used to: • assign differentiated (and in some cases, individualised) work, and provide personalised feedback to students through platforms such as Moodle • provide access to professional-level and other more complex resources relevant to a particular topic. This could include challenging students to access professional association websites and develop a list of field-specific terms that are unfamiliar to them, which can then become a personalised vocabulary list for a unit of work. • enable students to research real-world applications of curriculum content at an advanced level Jane M. Jarvis

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• enable students to engage in relevant distance learning programs and self-paced learning opportunities, including through massive open online courses (MOOCs) and resources like Khan Academy (www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy) • enable students to connect with like-minded students locally, nationally and globally • support structured WebQuests (see www.webquest.org), which could be used as extension or enrichment activities • access virtual excursions (see www.virtualexcursionsaustralia.com.au), which can be used as ‘Tier I’ class activities to ignite students’ interest and expand their understanding of a particular topic • design advanced ‘anchor activities’ that students can work on if they complete assigned work. This could include watching and responding to TED talks (www.ted. com) and creating their own • provide opportunities for students to self-publish and share their work. For more ideas, see EmergingEdTech at www.emergingedtech.com/2012/07/4-waysto-use-online-resources-to-keep-advanced-students-engaged-and-learning.

Tier II: targeted opportunities Enrichment: The opportunity to study topics not usually addressed in the school curriculum, and to study topics in greater depth. Extension: Completing more advanced work in the regular classroom, related to the regular curriculum.

Tier II opportunities for more intensive, more targeted learning opportunities can occur within an effectively differentiated general classroom, and in some cases may also take place outside the classroom. This might include opportunities for enrichment, which is a term used to describe engagement with topics not ordinarily covered in the general curriculum, or extension, which refers to more advanced work within the general curriculum framework. At this level, the purpose is to provide opportunities for those students who have shown signs of advanced performance or potential in particular areas, in order to continue to develop those skills and interests. In an address to the Australian Association for the Education of the Gifted and Talented (AAEGT) national conference in 2016, former Premier of New South Wales and federal Minister for Foreign Affairs Bob Carr reflected on his own school experiences (Morgan 2016). When asked what would have helped him develop his emerging talent and passion for politics, he suggested that, as a student from a working-class background attending a government school with limited extracurricular opportunities, access to a knowledgeable mentor would have been extraordinarily helpful to him. He explained that although his interest in politics as a career developed early, he knew very little about how one could go about developing such a career, and it would have been helpful to sit down with someone in the field who could offer some information and advice. He also lamented that his school did not offer debating as an extracurricular activity, so being supported to access a local debating competition would have been desirable. Access to appropriate mentors and extracurricular activities are good examples of Tier II, targeted opportunities. Others include supporting individuals or groups of students to enter academic competitions, and classroom strategies such as curriculum compacting, which is described in the ‘Effective practice’ box below.

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Essential to effective differentiation at Tier I, and targeted opportunities at Tier II, is the use of ongoing classroom assessment to monitor the progress of individual students in relation to key learning objectives, and also to inform teachers’ decisions about grouping, selection of resources and planning for appropriate challenges. Ongoing assessment can also be used to find out about students’ interests and preferred ways of working to inform planning for interest-based tasks and extended projects. The assessment cycle begins with individual preassessment prior to a unit of work, which enables the teacher to understand the range of readiness levels (current knowledge and skill in relation to the learning objectives) among a group and to plan accordingly. Formative assessment throughout a unit of work enables a teacher to regularly check on students’ progress and make ongoing planning decisions, and can also provide opportunities for self-assessment.

Effective practice Curriculum compacting Curriculum compacting (Reis & Renzulli n.d.) is a strategy whereby regular curriculum content is replaced with enrichment or extension work for students who have already demonstrated mastery of that content. The student is still expected to complete those parts of the curriculum not yet mastered, but this material is ‘compacted’ for an individual student to avoid repetition of already learnt material. Thus, it is designed to allow more advanced students to work through material at an appropriate pace. The compacting process enables time for students to engage with interest-based, enrichment or extension tasks. Steps in the compacting process: 1 define the learning objectives for the unit of work 2 identify candidates for compacting (through a unit pre-assessment) 3 determine the parts of the unit to be compacted for each individual 4 provide extension and enrichment options during the ‘free’ time. More information about curriculum compacting and the research that supports the strategy can be found through the Renzulli Center for Creativity, Gifted Education, and Talent Development at www.gifted.uconn.edu.

Tier III: individualised planning and supports Even in the context of an effectively differentiated classroom, and access to small-group opportunities for enrichment and extension, there will remain gifted students for whom individualised planning is required. This might include planning for appropriate counselling, ongoing individual mentoring, professional assessment or other social-emotional supports. For example, while mentoring is likely to be an effective strategy for all students, a student who is very advanced in a specific subject or domain of interest might benefit from much more intensive and systematic mentoring from a professional working in that field who can stretch the student and introduce concepts and opportunities unlikely to be provided by the

Jane M. Jarvis

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Acceleration: A process of enabling students to progress through the curriculum more quickly. Examples include early entry to school or university, subject acceleration and grade skipping.

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school. Similarly, while all students will benefit from a safe, supportive learning environment that values diversity and social competence, gifted students who experience extreme feelings of difference, social isolation and difficulty managing the very high expectations of others are likely to require more individualised counselling from a qualified professional. For twice exceptional students, provisions at Tier III might include individualised planning to ensure both opportunities to develop strengths and to remediate or receive support for areas of specific difficulty. For students who are significantly academically advanced compared to age peers, Tier III intervention might include opportunities for acceleration. Acceleration refers to a student moving through the curriculum at a faster rate than usual. Types of acceleration include (but are not limited to) early entry to school, high school or university; subject acceleration, whereby a student is in a higher year level class for one subject; and grade skipping, whereby a student skips a whole year of schooling. It is important to note that any decision to accelerate a student in any of these ways must be considered carefully, taking into account the social, academic, emotional and even pragmatic implications for that individual. In general, however, acceleration is one of the strategies for the education of gifted students that has the most research-based support. While not appropriate for every student, research consistently suggests that, on average, accelerated students experience positive outcomes in terms of motivation, well-being and academic achievement (Vialle & Rogers 2009). Despite this, many schools are reluctant to pursue acceleration as an option for gifted students. In part, this reluctance is due to a belief that the accelerated child will suffer negative social outcomes and will be better off with age peers (Gallagher, Smith & Merrotsy 2011). However, this fear is not commonly borne out in the research.

Teacher experiences with gifted students

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

In a study of school programs and practices for high ability learners in South Australian schools (Henderson & Jarvis 2016), teachers with responsibility for overseeing gifted education shared their experiences. Many of these teachers commented on the satisfaction they derived from working with gifted learners in pull-out classes or special programs. They described the ‘passion of kids when they are switched on’, and ‘the buzz and energy I see in the students and their desire to come to school and learn’. Others mentioned ‘the absolute display of pleasure, excitement and satisfaction of students when they feel their needs are finally being met’, and one teacher explained that ‘[the students] stretch my mind as well’. Interestingly, this positive experience of teaching gifted students was contrasted with the frustration many experienced in trying to work with colleagues who did not understand or value the needs of gifted or advanced learners, describing a ‘general lack of sensitivity to gifted students’ and staff who did ‘not want to acknowledge this group does exist’. The responses from this study illustrate an important point about teachers of gifted students. The research suggests that when teachers have engaged in professional learning opportunities related to understanding and teaching gifted students, their attitudes towards these students

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tend to be positive, and they are more likely to provide differentiated learning opportunities designed to offer challenge and support. This is especially the case when teachers are working in the context of coordinated, whole-school efforts to provide for gifted learners (Lassig 2009). However, teachers who have not engaged in professional learning related to gifted students often hold negative and/or stereotyped views of gifted students, consider any efforts to respond to the needs of gifted students as ‘elitist’, and assume that gifted students will succeed without any special consideration or intervention (Geake & Gross 2008). Unfortunately, relatively few pre-service teacher education courses in Australia substantially address the nature and educational needs of gifted children (Fraser-Seeto 2013), and professional learning opportunities in schools are inconsistent at best.

SUMMARY Students with high potential or advanced performance are part of the inevitable diversity of Australian classrooms. However we define the term ‘gifted’, and whether or not we formally identify gifted students, it is incumbent on teachers to recognise and address the needs of students capable of advanced performance. This includes students from diverse socioeconomic, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, students with uneven patterns of strengths and needs, and those currently performing well above their age peers. Each student should have the opportunity to access appropriately challenging, engaging, personally relevant learning opportunities in order to develop their potential. This chapter presented an inclusive framework for gifted education that is grounded in the key educational goals of equity and excellence.

For group discussion 1 To what extent has this chapter challenged your existing beliefs and understandings about giftedness or gifted students? 2 What might be some of the potential advantages and disadvantages of being a gifted student in an Australian school? 3 What might be some of the arguments for and against formally identifying and labelling students as gifted? 4 Based on what you have learnt in this chapter, how do you plan to ensure that your classroom engages, challenges and supports gifted or advanced learners?

Key references Callahan, C. M., Renzulli, J. S., Delcourt, M. A. B. & Hertberg-Davis, H. L. (2013). Considerations for identification of gifted and talented students: an introduction to identification. In C. M. Callahan & H. L. Hertberg-Davis (eds), Fundamentals of gifted education: considering multiple perspectives. New York: Routledge. Jane M. Jarvis

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Coleman, L. J., Micko, K. J. & Cross, T. L. (2015). Twenty-five years of research on the lived experience of being gifted in school: capturing the students’ voices. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 38(4), 358–76. doi:10.1177/0162353215607322. Collins, J. (Chair). (2001). The education of gifted children. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Dai, D. Y. & Chen, F. (2013). Three paradigms of gifted education: in search of conceptual clarity in research and practice. Gifted Child Quarterly, 57, 151–68. doi: 10.1177/ 0016986213490020. Geake, J. G. & Gross, M. (2008). Teachers’ negative affect toward academically gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 52, 217–31. doi: 10.1177/0016986208319704. Jarvis, J. M. & Henderson, L. (2014). Defining a coordinated approach to gifted education. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 23(1), 5–14. Jolly, J. L. (2015). The cost of high-stakes testing for high-ability students. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 24(1), 30–6. Subotnik, R. F., Olszewski-Kubilius, P. & Worrell, F. C. (2011). Rethinking giftedness and gifted education: a proposed direction forward based on psychological science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(1), 3–54. doi: 10.1177/1529100611418056. Tomlinson, C. A. (1997). Quality curriculum and instruction for highly able learners. Theory Into Practice, 44(2), 160–6. Vialle, W. & Rogers, K. B. (2009). Educating the gifted learner. Terrigal, NSW: David Barlow Publishing.

Websites Australian Association for the Education of the Gifted and Talented (AAEGT)—www. aaegt.net.au Resources on this national association website include information about gifted children and various aspects of gifted education; advice for parents and educators; links to state gifted associations; information about upcoming events; and information about the national scholarly journal.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA)—www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/studentdiversity/gifted-and-talented-students ACARA provides general advice about addressing the learning needs of gifted and talented students in the context of the Australian Curriculum framework.

EmergingEdTech—www.emergingedtech.com Includes ideas for teachers about using technology to design engaging learning experiences for students, and this could include extension and enrichment tasks for advanced learners.

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National Association for Gifted Children (USA)—www.nagc.org The website of the US national association includes position statements and summaries of research on various aspects of giftedness and gifted education, and links to a range of relevant publications and resources related to teaching gifted students.

World Council for Gifted and Talented Children—https://world-gifted.org Includes news and upcoming events related to gifted education from around the world, and has links to various sources of information and support for educators, parents, researchers and gifted students.

Jane M. Jarvis

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Understanding Physical Impairment in Young Children

15

Kathleen Tait

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand the unique needs of children with a physical impairment • To reflect on the impact of the loss of physical ability on learning and development • To identify ways to develop inclusive educational environments and facilitate access to learning • To consider ways of educating students with diverse abilities, diverse needs and physical impairments

KEY TERMS

Physical impairment: Also known as physical disability, physical impairment is a broad category of disabilities that typically involve the motor system and place some limitation on the person’s ability to move about. Although physical impairments are distinguished from intellectual or emotional disability, a physical impairment may overlap or coexist with an intellectual impairment.

cerebral palsy chronic conditions fine motor gross motor hydrocephalus ICF-CY mobility

muscular dystrophy physical impairment quality of life spina bifida task analysis zone of proximal development

Introduction Among those children who have special needs, some children live with a physical impairment. This chapter focuses on the topic of physical impairment; also known as a physical disability, or a mobility limitation. The impact of living with a physical impairment in childhood and adolescence can differ depending on whether the child was born with a physical disability or whether the child acquired a physical impairment at a very young age. Clearly the ramifications of growing up with a physical impairment are quite different from those of acquiring them at an older age. This chapter will focus on early onset physical impairment. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a brief overview of three categories of early onset childhood and/ or developmental physical disabilities that teachers are most likely to need information on (that is, cerebral palsy, spina bifida and the neuromuscular disease Duchenne muscular dystrophy); and to raise the reader’s awareness of the most common concerns and issues in the

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lives of children growing up with a physical impairment. Included are related medical issues; potential treatment approaches; and the importance of engagement as it relates to a child with a physically disabling condition, for participation in the regular classroom, educational implications and quality of life issues in childhood and adolescence.

Definition of physical impairment While there is no single, universally accepted definition of what constitutes a physical impairment, the World Health Organization’s (WHO) International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health Children and Youth (ICF-CY) (2007) offers an important and relevant conceptual framework. The ICF-CY allows for a systematic way to document characteristics of health and functioning in children and youth and provides a shared terminology for tracking problems and progress which are relevant early in life, such as functions and structures of the body, activities, participation and environmental factors (WHO 2007). In the ICF-CY, mobility is defined as ‘moving by changing body positions or location or by transferring from one place to another, by carrying, moving, or manipulating objects, by walking, running, or climbing, and by using various forms of transportation’ (WHO 2007, p. 150).

Incidence and prevalence Most people would automatically think of diminished mobility as a characteristic of the elderly. However, an important distinction needs to be made between aging into a PI and aging with a physical disability. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS 2009), 7.1 per cent of children aged between five and 14 years of age experienced some form of physical disability. Of those children, 32 per cent required assistance with their mobility. This information provides a useful guide to how many children and youth in Australia truly live with a chronic physical limitation (although it is most likely an underestimation). Information on causes and duration of the physical impairment can generally not be determined. Reliable international estimates of how many children live with a physical disability are also difficult to obtain, and estimates of how many children live with mobility limitations specifically are even more complicated to calculate (Alriksson-Schmidt & Thibadequ 2012). Table 15.1 outlines the approximate worldwide incidence of some of the most common forms of physical impairments experienced by children. Table 15.1 Incidence of some common physical impairments in children Physical impairment

Worldwide incidence (live births)

Arthrogryposis

1 in 3000

Cerebral palsy

2 in 1000

Cystic fibrosis

1 in 2800

Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis

1 in 1000

Quality of life: An individual’s perception of their position in life, in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live, and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. It is a broad-ranging concept affected in a complex way by the person’s physical health, psychological state, level of independence, social relationships, personal beliefs and their relationship to salient features of their environment. ICF-CY: The World Health Organization’s (WHO) International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health Children and Youth (ICF-CY) (2007). It offers a conceptual framework to systematically document characteristics of health and functioning in children and youth and provides a shared terminology for tracking problems and progress which are relevant early in life, such as functions and structures of the body, activities, participation and environmental factors. Mobility: The ability to move with appropriate ease, flexibility and range.

Kathleen Tait

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Physical impairment

Worldwide incidence (live births)

Muscular dystrophy (Duchenne type)

1 in 3500 (male births)

Spina bifida

1 in 1000

Spinal cord injury

11 000 cases per year in Australia (approx.)

Causes of physical impairment Chronic conditions: Illnesses, disorders or diseases of long duration and generally slow progression. Some examples of chronic conditions are heart disease, stroke, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes.

Cerebral palsy: An umbrella term used to describe disordered movement and posture, delayed motor development and atypical motoric findings on neurological examination. The cause is located in the brain, rather than the spinal cord or peripheral nervous system. Although the brain injury is usually prenatal, cerebral palsy is rarely diagnosed in the first year of life. The full clinical picture only becomes clear in the second year of life.

While a plethora of research has been conducted for decades on the causes and risk factors of early onset physical impairments, regrettably there have been no cures for these chronic conditions. However, what is likely to be seen is a continued advancement in the prevention of some of the more serious physical disabilities. For example, internationally there has been a virtual disappearance of poliomyelitis, and as a result of immunising pregnant Rh negative mothers, there has been a reduction in the numbers of infants born with severe cerebral palsy. Since the implementation in 1996 of folic acid supplementation of enriched grain products (that is, breakfast cereals), the prevalence of neural tube defects (for example, spina bifida anencephaly) has declined by as much as 26 per cent (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention 2004). In addition, the use of antibiotics and antibacterial chemicals has made the serious consequences of infections rare, and tuberculosis of the musculo-skeletal system almost unheard of in Western countries. Finally, newborn screening, early diagnosis and genetic counselling for parents has resulted in a decrease in certain disabilities such as cystic fibrosis (Massie et al. 2009). The following section gives a brief overview of three categories of physical disabilities for children. The intention of this section is to provide teachers with a brief background to the three most common forms of physical disabilities affecting children in schools (that is, cerebral palsy, spina bifida, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy). Included in this section are definitions, information on incidence and causes of the impairments, plus some specific educational implications for teachers to consider for each disability. However, it is important to remember that every child is an individual and there is no single universal manner in which a child may experience any particular disability. Each child’s experience will be different. Consequently, any of the many practical suggestions listed in this chapter may be used for any child if it will help them to access and engage with their educational program a little more easily. Throughout this chapter, the normalisation of the developmental experience for the child with a physical impairment is encouraged.

Cerebral palsy Definition Cerebral palsy originates early in life and is characterised by variable motor impairments. It is the most common cause of severe physical impairment in childhood and it is a lifelong condition. Cerebral palsy is also an umbrella term describing multiple forms of the disorder. The current definition of cerebral palsy was published in 2007, and is based on the

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conclusions of an international workshop consisting of experts in the field of developmental disorders: Cerebral Palsy describes a group of disorders of the development of movement and posture, causing activity limitation, that are attributed to non-progressive disturbances that occurred in the developing fetal or infant brain. The motor disorders of cerebral palsy are often accompanied by disturbances of sensation, cognition, communication, perception, and/or behaviour, and/or by a seizure disorder. (Rosenbaum et  al. 2007, p. 109)

The non-progressive nature of cerebral palsy is an important criterion in the diagnosis. The diagnosis of cerebral palsy is typically made after the age of two years, but the identification of the patterns of aberrant motor ability, distribution of limb weakness, type of tone abnormality and limited physical function associated with cerebral palsy can sometimes be made as early as six months of age. Cerebral palsy should not be viewed as a singular diagnosis. It is best to consider the term cerebral palsy as a descriptive label based on a broad range of presentations that include type, severity and various limb involvement. Cerebral palsy is generally categorised as spastic, ataxic or dyskinetic and the distribution of limb involvement is generally categorised as quadriplegic, which affects all of the child’s limbs; diplegic, which means that the child is affected in either both upper limbs or both lower limbs (that is, bilaterally) or hemiplegic, which means a onesided (or unilateral limb) involvement. The effects of cerebral palsy are multiple. To begin with, over 28 per cent of Australian children with cerebral palsy cannot walk. Another 11 per cent require a walking frame or sticks to walk. In addition, the term spasticity describes the very tight muscles (that is, fine motor and gross motor muscles) that are a problem in 86 per cent of children with cerebral palsy. Teachers need to be aware that children with cerebral palsy are likely to have other impairments in addition to their motor limitations. Sixty per cent have a speech impairment, 31 per cent have epilepsy, 37 per cent have a vision impairment and 12 per cent have a hearing impairment (Australian Cerebral Palsy Register Report 2013).

Incidence The incidence of cerebral palsy has changed over time with advances in medical knowledge and their application, particularly in the area of obstetrical care. However, cerebral palsy is still the most common physical disability in childhood, affecting approximately one in 500 children. This equates to a child being born with cerebral palsy every 15 hours. For 94 per cent of people with cerebral palsy, the brain injury occurred before one month of age.

Cause

Fine motor: Related to the coordination of the small muscles of the body, especially those of the hand. Eye–hand coordination in infancy, problem solving with toys and puzzles in early childhood and graphomotor (drawing) and dressing skills in middle childhood are used to assess fine motor skills. Gross motor: Related to posture and locomotion. Early gross motor skills, such as rolling over, sitting, crawling, walking and running, seem to be heavily maturational. Later gross motor skills, such as swimming or bicycle riding have a learnt component. Gross motor abilities have little relationship to general intelligence.

While there are multiple reasons for the diagnosis of cerebral palsy, at present the cause of cerebral palsy in children before one month of age is still not well understood. For some time, cerebral palsy has been attributed to unspecified reasons, ranging from a variety of diseases to disturbances occurring during the pregnancy or at the time of birth. However, according to the Australian Cerebral Palsy Register Report (2013), stroke is the most common cause for children Kathleen Tait

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to acquire cerebral palsy after one month of age. When a disability is diagnosed from an early cause, it is termed congenital. The risk of cerebral palsy among full-term infants is much lower than in preterm infants. Unfortunately, prematurity, as a cause for cerebral palsy, seems to be increasing as a result of improved survival of the premature infant. For example, 42 per cent of children with cerebral palsy are born prematurely, compared to 8 per cent of the Australian population. Low birth weight or multiple births are also associated with higher rates of cerebral palsy. In addition, males are thought to be at greater risk of being diagnosed with cerebral palsy.

Specific educational implications

EARLY LEARNERS

Regular or mainstream schools are considered to be the least restrictive educational environment and, as a result of the Public Law 94-142 in the United States, the inclusion of children with physical disabilities into regular Australian schools was endorsed through the Disability Discrimination Act 1992. The first consideration that a teacher needs to make for a child with a physical impairment is that the classroom be arranged to minimise physical barriers. On some occasions, this may mean relocating the entire classroom to a ground-floor level. In addition, the child, particularly if they use a wheelchair for mobility, needs to have an accessible toilet in the school. Further, access to specialist classrooms such as science labs, libraries, performing arts centres, and planning well in advance for any off-campus excursions and school camps is necessary. In order that classroom teachers be able to assist with any modifications or adaptations to a child’s education program, an early definition of the child’s capabilities and neurological functioning is extremely important. The school educational psychologist, school counsellor or guidance officer should be able to supply teachers with assessments and reports on the child and explain what these reports mean. However, there is usually a long waiting list for free government assessment services. Consequently, if parents have the means, they may wish to approach a private psychologist for an earlier assessment and report service. It is important to understand that under the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth), teachers need parents’ written approval to obtain a copy of any report on a child in their class. In addition, compensatory devices for independent function, such as voice output machines, adapted keyboards, computer programs and mobility equipment, will allow many children to be more easily included into regular schools. The Education Department in your state will have a range of staff (often known as Advisory (visiting) Teachers or State Consultants for children with special needs) whose role it is to assist teachers and parents about how to access assistive technology (for example, sometimes it is possible to rent equipment for short periods in order to trial its usefulness), how to use it and how this equipment can enhance a child’s academic performance and adaptive functioning and engagement in the classroom. A child with a mild form of cerebral palsy is likely to have minor problems of mobility, but may experience considerable difficulties with fine motor movements. For example, it is important to realise that while such a child is doing their very best handwriting, they are likely to ‘appear’ to be the messiest writer in the class. Larger, thicker pencils or the use of pencil grips over regular pencils may assist with the child’s pencil grip. Adapted scissors, with a spring back mechanism, can assist with art, projects or any cutting activity. Teachers can seek assistance from an occupational therapist for the name of a supplier of such adapted instruments and other useful modifications for children with a physical disability.

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A child with moderate cerebral palsy may have to use mobility aids, such as calipers and walking sticks or a walker (see Figure 15.1), and will often have major difficulties with writing and cutting, ruling lines, using protractors in mathematics and so on. A non-slip mat placed under the child’s work book or worksheet can assist with keeping a page in place, as can sticking a small slice of non-slip mat under the child’s ruler. A  child with severe cerebral palsy is often immobile (requiring a wheelchair, posture chair) and typically has very little fine motor control. It may be that, from time to time, the services of a special teacher aide will be required in certain class activities which need one-to-one assistance; for example, a physical education swimming class. A personal perspective on cerebral palsy can be viewed at www. youtube.com/watch?v=d7rN12VzIak, where a parent explains the challenges his 15-year-old daughter faces, from riding a horse, bowling, playing with her companion dog to her regular standing program. For more information on causes, symptoms and treatment of cerebral palsy see www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5VNdy7_nIM. Figure 15.1 Mobility aids

Support networks Choice, Passion, Life (CPL; formerly the Cerebral Palsy League) provides services to children and adults with cerebral palsy and physical disabilities and their families who live in Queensland. It is a non-profit organisation that provides vital support to more than 5000 children and adults, including individualised services in homes, schools, communities and workplaces across Queensland. Kathleen Tait

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Apply your knowledge Search the internet for an organisation similar to the CPL in your state. 1 As an educator of children with physical impairments, what advantages do you see for liaising, utilising and collaborating with these organisations? 2 How could these organisations assist with physical disability awareness for the parent and student body at your school?

Spina bifida: A neural tube defect; a constellation of malformations of the central nervous system (CNS) that presents with a failure of fusion of the bones in the vertebral column (spine) and with an accompanying herniation (or pertuberance) of neural components possibly including a protuberance of both the lining and the spinal cord. Clinically, any associated neurological problems depend on the level of the lesion. Hydrocephalus: Also known as ‘water on the brain’, hydrocephalus is a condition in which there is an enlargement of the ventricular system in the brain, due to an increase in the amount of cerebro-spinal fluid (CFS) present in the ventricles (that is, the fluid-filled spaces in the brain). It may be caused by a decreased absorption or increased production of CFS and it can be a congenital or acquired condition.

Spina bifida Definition Spina bifida is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by incomplete development of the spinal cord in which vertebral arches have failed to fuse, leaving a gap or a split (sometimes also referred to as a lesion). The severity of this disability is usually readily evident at birth. This disability results in various degrees of muscle paralysis, bowel and bladder incontinence, loss of sensory awareness and frequently some anomalies in brain development particularly involving the midbrain, cerebellum and corpus callosum (Taylor et al. 2013). In most cases of spina bifida there is an additional complication known as hydrocephalus (aka ‘water on the brain’); attending to each of these complications demands considerable surgical, medical and nursing care for extensive periods of time throughout the child’s life. Hydrocephalus is an associated condition of spina bifida where the spinal fluid circulation in the brain is blocked. This causes the fluid to be trapped in the brain cavities or ventricles where it is formed. Unless a shunt is surgically inserted into the ventricles to drain the fluid, over time these cavities will swell, compressing brain cells and nerve fibres and resulting in intellectual impairment and, occasionally, paralysis of the lower limbs and seizures. Consequently, spina bifida is a developmental disability which presents with a heterogeneous array of associated physical, sensory, intellectual, emotional and medical problems, making them a unique group in terms of (1)  their needs for medical, educational and therapeutic support; and (2) demands placed upon other family members. The lesion occurs very often in the waist (lumbar-sacral) region of the spine, though it may be located anywhere along the spinal column. There are five types of spina bifida (Greenley 2010): 1 Spina bifida occulta is a very mild form of spina bifida, in which the back arches of the vertebra fail to form. There is no involvement of the meninges or the spinal cord. The bony anomaly is covered with skin and is sometimes associated with enuresis, but is generally known to have no medical or educational significance. Spina bifida occulta affects about 40 per cent of the total world population, usually with no symptoms. 2 Meningocele is a fluid-filled sac in the lower back and only the coverings of the spinal cord are included, not the cord itself. The spinal cord develops normally and this type of spina bifida affects 4 per cent of cases. Once the lesion has been repaired, children with meningocele are usually indistinguishable from other children, at worst having minor visual defects, and minor to moderate degrees of muscle paresis or bowel and bladder incontinence. Hydrocephalus may occur with meningocele.

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3 Myelomeningocele affects 96 per cent of spina bifida cases and so is the most familiar type of spina bifida. In this case, the spinal cord has failed to form a tube and there is protrusion into the sac of not only the covering membranes, but also the spinal cord itself. The result is usually severe neurological disability. Between 80 per cent and 90 per cent of children with myelomeningocele also have varying degrees of hydrocephalus. 4 Encephalocele, the most severe form of spina bifida, is when the lesion on the head and brain tissue is frequently found in the sac. Repairing the lesion will necessarily involve removing part of the brain, resulting in severe neurological disability. 5 Anencephaly is not a break in the spine, but a defect higher up on the top of the head. The brain does not develop properly and children born with this form of disability will die during or shortly after birth. In the two main types of spina bifida (that is, meningocele and myelomeningocele) a fluid filled sac develops in the lower back. Only the coverings of the spinal cord are included in the meningocele sac. However, in the myelomeningocele sac, there is a protrusion of not only the covering membranes but also the spinal cord tissue itself. The degree of disability depends on: (1) the site of the lesion, (2) the severity and (3) the extent of nerve involvement. If left untreated, the sac will eventually scar over and heal, leaving an unsightly, tender and vulnerable swelling. This physical anomaly may be identified prior to birth through an established medical technique known as amniocentesis or through measures of alpha feta protein levels in the mother’s blood. However, more often than not this medical condition is identified at birth and surgery is often required to close the gap.

Incidence The reasons for this condition are, as yet, unknown. There is a marked geographic variation in the incidence and prevalence of spina bifida around the world (Au, Ashley-Koch & Northrup (2010). In general, there is a lower rate of spina bifida in African-American populations than in Caucasians. The highest rates occur in the United Kingdom, where there are 3.05–6.79 cases per 1000 births, while the lowest rates have been reported in Japan. In Australia, spina bifida occurs in one out of every 1000 live births. There is a slight tendency for the condition to run in families, which suggests a genetic factor. Girls are more often affected than are boys (the reverse of most disabling conditions), with the ratio being 1:3:1 (Taylor et al. 2013).

Cause It has been suggested that environmental components such as a virus may be responsible for stopping the normal development of the neural plate, groove or tube. However, nothing specific has been identified as yet. Consequently, these factors point to a complex pattern of interacting causes, both genetic and environmental. Before the discovery of effective surgical methods to ameliorate this congenital condition, very few children born with spina bifida survived. It is only in the last thirty to forty years that sufficient children born with the most common forms of spina bifida (that is, occulta, meningocele and myelomeningocele) have lived long enough to create interest and concern about the educational and psychological aspects of the condition, and its impact on the family. Kathleen Tait

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Specific educational implications Because of the need for repeated neurosurgical, urological and orthopaedic consultations and medical procedures, allowances for any frequent absences from school must be made. Most children with spina bifida score within the low to average range on measures of general intellectual ability; therefore, they are at heightened vulnerability for mild learning difficulties. Teachers need to take this factor and children’s frequent absences from school for medical procedures into consideration when planning for their educational programs. If the child has spina bifida in the form of myelomeningocele, then classrooms will need to be wheelchair accessible and student tables will need to be able to accommodate a wheelchair. Teachers should be aware that children with hydrocephalus tend to be quite verbose, and while capable of extensive social conversation, this verbal ability may give rise to inflated expectations of intellectual ability. Therefore, it is important that teachers obtain a baseline psychometric evaluation of the child’s cognitive abilities. Until bladder and bowel problems are under control (and many children will need to use a bowel management device all their life), the teacher may need to tolerate some odours not usually present in other children. The child with spina bifida may become oblivious to these odours, but other children won’t, and the result can cause problems with peer relationships. It may be that young children will need the assistance of a special teacher aide or someone from a nursing organisation (such as Blue Care, in Queensland) to come to the school once a day to assist the child with their bowel management program. For a number of hygienic reasons, it is necessary that an easily accessed and large toilet cubical somewhere within the school be designated for private use by the child with spina bifida and their toileting aide. Useful YouTube videos to watch are www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouMi5z1vwbE (for a medical animation of spina bifida) and www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Fi-miRqjHs (to learn more about individuals living with spina bifida).

Support networks

Muscular dystrophy: A group of genetic disorders leading to progressive muscular atrophy (wasting) and weakness; the different types exhibit varying distribution and severity. When the muscles that carry out respiration are involved, the disorder can become fatal.

The Spina Bifida Association (SBA) is a not-for-profit organisation that was formed in 1965 by a group of parents of children born with spina bifida. Over the years this association has developed a wide range of services aimed at improving and preserving the quality of life of children and adults with spina bifida and their families. This site contains a lot of basic and general information about the condition of spina bifida and the often related condition of hydrocephalus. Information about spina bifida can be found at the online Disability Hub: www.disabilityonline. community/aboutdisabilities/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=256.

Muscular dystrophy Definition Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a progressive condition which causes muscle weakness. It is a very serious condition and it does shorten life. Duchenne muscular dystrophy starts in early childhood and may be noticed when a child has difficulty standing up, climbing or running. It is

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characterised by a degeneration of muscle cells and their replacement by fat and fibrous tissue. It is a genetic condition and can be inherited. It usually affects only boys, although girls may carry the Duchenne gene. Early childhood teachers or parents may notice that when a boy is about three years of age he seems awkward and clumsy, and that he runs ‘funny’. Tiptoeing is another early sign and is due to early weakness in the muscles that pull the foot up. Sometimes preschool aged children will appear to have poor posture or a sway back. This poor posture is due to the early weakness of the muscles of the abdomen wall. The weakness usually develops in the body’s muscles in a set order: the foot, front thigh muscles, outside hip muscles, hip extension muscles, abdominal muscles and the shoulder and elbow muscles. This means that fine movements, such as those using the hands and fingers, are less affected than movements like walking. Tests are needed before Duchenne muscular dystrophy can be diagnosed and the first step in making the diagnosis is a blood test. The next step in diagnosing Duchenne muscular dystrophy involves a muscle biopsy and/or genetic tests. Boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy should have regular check-ups and physiotherapy from childhood, and are likely to need increasing help and treatments from about the age of nine years.

Incidence Duchenne muscular dystrophy affects about one boy in every 3500. Problems with the (dystrophin) gene, causing Duchenne muscular dystrophy, can happen even without a family history of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. However, where there is a known family history, families are encouraged to have genetic testing to find out the risk of having a child with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Cause The cause of Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a genetic change that affects the muscles. Muscles contain a chemical (protein) called dystrophin, which is necessary for muscles to function properly. People with Duchenne muscular dystrophy have a shortage of dystrophin in their muscles. The lack of dystrophin leads to muscle fibre damage and a gradual weakening of the muscles. The shortage of dystrophin is caused by a faulty gene.

Specific educational implications Duchenne muscular dystrophy is another form of physical impairment where the class teacher’s observations may be important for early diagnosis. If early childhood teachers suspect a child of having Duchenne muscular dystrophy, then it is important to watch the child running and getting up from the floor—the muscle weakness is more noticeable during these activities. There is no cure for Duchenne muscular dystrophy at present and because the prognosis of this physical impairment is poor, professionals concerned with the care of a child with Duchenne muscular dystrophy may become disheartened. However, in order to sustain a positive attitude, one may, first, maintain hope that a cure will be found during the child’s lifetime, and second, hold to the principle that the shortened life span of the child can be a life

EARLY LEARNERS

Kathleen Tait

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filled with enjoyment and creativity, not merely a life of treatment. At some point, counselling and emotional support for the other children in the class and for the class teacher may be helpful. Similar to other children, boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy can have a broad range of IQ scores (including well above average), and most boys are in the ‘normal’ range of intellectual and learning ability. Children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy may have problems with motor planning, which is separate from issues related to their muscle weakness. In addition, they are at increased risk for developmental delays. The most common delays are in gross motor skills such as sitting, walking and running. Boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy usually have a vocabulary that is within the normal range, but they may have more trouble with other language skills. One area of weakness may be in understanding complex verbal information. Because of this, boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy may have difficulty understanding expectations or following directions, and may only get ‘part of the message’. Children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy have also been known to have difficulty with expressive language. This can interfere with their ability to describe their ideas and ask questions. Teachers should note that, because their basic vocabulary is usually within the normal range, children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy may give the impression that their level of understanding is higher than it actually is. In addition, phonological processing skills are an area of language that can be particularly problematic for children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Good phonological processing is a prerequisite for the development of reading skills, and problems in this area place a child at risk for the development of dyslexia. Boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy also have an increased chance for problems with attention, concentration and distractibility. Further, they may also be ‘inefficient’ in the amount of time it takes them to work through things (slow processing speed), and may have difficulty dividing their attention (multitasking). Teachers might like to consider the following adaptations to assist students with Duchenne muscular dystrophy who are experiencing fatigue and muscle weakness: • Reduce paper and pencil tasks and decrease repetitive writing assignments, but do not change the essential elements of the tasks. • For older students, accompany writing assignments with very specific steps and instructions, sequential outlines and so on. • Provide copies of PowerPoint slides, teacher notes, and lesson outlines so that the student is not missing important information while trying to take notes. • When the student is given copies of notes or lesson outlines, to encourage more student engagement with these materials, teachers could require some activity of the student. This will encourage the student to maintain their active participation in the learning process. An example of such an engagement task would be for the teacher to ask the student to highlight the key words in the notes with a neon highlighter pen. • Provide an opportunity for oral responses on tests or assignments, allow dictation or allow the student to type their answers or employ a scribe. • Do not provide a handwriting or neatness grade, but do allow the use of AlphaSmart or another keyboarding system. • Do not grade for spelling, grammatical or punctuation errors during one-sitting assignments.

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• Modify test formats to increase structure; for example, instead of a general essay question, provide testing in multiple-choice, true-false or fill-in-the-blank formats. Muscle weakness from Duchenne muscular dystrophy can result in some joints becoming tight—this is called a contracture. It is often the ankle joint and the Achilles tendon which become tight first. This can be treated either by using orthotic devices (splints or casts) or by surgical release of the tendon. Classroom teachers may need to learn how to help the child put on and take off certain orthotic devices. As the children age, fatigue becomes more common and a rest period during the day at school may be necessary. At some point, a wheelchair will be needed by the child for mobility. The age at which this happens varies from person to person. Often it is at around nine to 11  years. Many of the forms of assistive technology discussed later in this chapter can be utilised to maintain a child’s independence and inclusion in the regular classroom for as long as possible. Teachers need to keep in mind that even well-adjusted boys may experience frustration, sadness, anger or anxiety related to their Duchenne muscular dystrophy. These are normal reactions to a stressful situation, and are more likely to be triggered during important developmental periods or times of change. Teachers need to be available to talk with the student or the student’s peers about Duchenne muscular dystrophy. It is important to allow the child to be as independent as possible and involve them in decision making as much as possible in an age-appropriate manner (including the child’s education and healthcare/ medical treatments). After the child starts needing a wheelchair, this is also the time that complications tend to begin, so it is important for doctors to monitor the child’s health and treat any complications early. The student will require regular check-ups, resulting in the child being absent from class from time to time. These check-ups may involve many different specialists than for other forms of physical impairment; for example, heart and lung checks, orthopaedic care for bones and joints, physiotherapists and dieticians. In addition, practical support and equipment will be needed at this stage; for example, wheelchairs and adaptations to the child’s home and school. Occupational therapists can advise teachers about this. In addition, various charities can sometimes assist with equipment, holidays and other forms of care. Teachers need to adjust the classroom set-up and activities to maximise the inclusion and participation of the child with Duchenne muscular dystrophy for as long as possible. For more information on Duchenne muscular dystrophy, see www.youtube.com/ watch?v=_aIAErxBskc. For information on summer camp activities for students with muscular dystrophy and how the community can contribute to such activities, see www.youtube.com/ watch?v=sG02Ny3AYOQ.

Support networks Muscular Dystrophy Australia (MDA; www.mda.org.au) has played a pivotal role in establishing organisations to support the muscular dystrophy community domestically and overseas. MDA runs extensive information provision programs with worldwide links to research centres and muscular dystrophy associations around the globe. Kathleen Tait

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Apply your knowledge What activities could you design for the annual school athletics carnival to include the children who attend your school who have a physical impairment?

Collaborating with other professionals Classroom teachers cannot be expected to be expert in all aspects of teaching students with a physical impairment. As seen in Corey’s story on page 347, the home room teacher and the speech pathologist collaborated to assist Corey with his transportation needs in his new secondary school environment. Most school systems will provide teachers with some form of additional support to assist children with a physical impairment or disability, and it is important to make full use of these sources.

Multidisciplinary teams Regular class teachers are not always used to having other adults in the classroom when they teach. However, when catering for the educational programming of a child with a physical impairment, there may be frequent visitors to the classroom from other professions. For example, if an individual educational program (IEP; see Chapter 10) was deemed necessary for a child with a physical impairment, class teachers may find they have the opportunity to work collaboratively in a multidisciplinary team. Members of this team might include an occupational therapist to provide information on fine motor coordination tasks and assistive technology. A physiotherapist can provide information on stability in positioning and the normal movement patterns required for the child to transition from position to position. A speech pathologist and the classroom teacher can both facilitate the child’s interaction with toys, games, school work and people, while also focusing on communication, learning and development. As part of the multidisciplinary team, the child’s parents should also be invited to contribute their intimate knowledge of their child. With this approach, the child with a physical impairment is perhaps better enabled to bring all of their potential to the experience at hand, be it successful engagement with educational activities, interactions with people, or simply experiencing some control over their body in a more normalised situation. Moreover, the child’s potential to achieve their educational goals might be further enhanced through the use of the handling and interplay of different therapy disciplines within the safety and familiarity of their regular classroom environment. Making use of multidisciplinary team members will ensure that a child’s IEP is viewed as having both an ‘object focus’ and a ‘social focus’. The object focus is provided through educational experiences, and the social focus is provided through communication experiences with a familiar adult (for example, the child’s teacher) or same age peers. One of the main social foci of and IEP for a child with a physical impairment and an associated communication difficulty (for example, cerebral palsy or spina bifida) could be seen as implementing strategies

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to provide the child with skills that are effective for communicating and interacting with a range of partners in typical environments. For the classroom teacher, achieving this aim may involve, among other things, shaping up more conventional communication signals or behaviours (see Chapter 10).

Special educators Special educators are trained teachers who have additional qualifications in the education of students with special needs. They will be able to provide assistance with individualised educational planning, planning for access to the regular curriculum, developing behaviour support and interventions, and effective teaching strategies which truly allow a child with a physical impairment to engage with the myriad learning experiences on offer in a regular classroom.

Physiotherapists Physiotherapists can provide assessment and advice about general motor functioning, mobility and posture. They may help to design and implement interventions, and advise on adapting equipment (such as seating, slope desks, book holders and so on) or the acquisition and use of specialised equipment such as wheelchairs, standing frames and support walkers. Physiotherapists are often instrumental in the pre- and post-surgical period of rehabilitation for children with physical impairments.

Occupational therapists The services of occupational therapists complement those of physiotherapists and they can provide advice on supports for the activities of daily living, student and vocational skills, and leisure activities. Like physiotherapists, occupational therapists can advise on adapting equipment (such as cups, cutlery, pens and pencils) to increase student independence, and help to design and implement interventions. They can also advise on specialised technical aids to encourage more independent engagement with equipment by a child with a physical impairment, such as pressure switches and adapted equipment to facilitate the use of computers (for example, a key guard—a hard plastic cover with holes for each key, to prevent accidental striking of a key; or a moisture guard—to protect the keyboard from drooling, in the case of children with cerebral palsy.

Speech pathologists Speech pathologists are able to diagnose and help design interventions for disorders in speech, language and communication, and problems in eating, drinking, swallowing and saliva control. Speech pathologists can also assist with strategies for augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). For example, there are low-tech devices such as picture communication boards that can be folded up or made into wallet size for mobility convenience, and then there are high-tech systems such as voice output communication aids (VOCAs) or computer-operated systems such as an AlphaTalker. Kathleen Tait

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Teaching assistants When working with children with significant physical impairments, you may have access to the services of a teacher assistant (also called teacher aides, school learning support officers, school service officers, para-professionals and para-educators). Although there are professional development courses available for teacher assistants, many teaching assistants will have no formal training for their role and will rely on the school for their professional development. Teacher assistants can be a valuable part of the support team for students with disabilities; however, they must work under the supervision of, and in collaboration with, the class teacher. The teacher remains responsible for program design and implementation, and needs to train the teacher assistant in the skills required to work with students. Teacher assistants, particularly in secondary schools, may not have the foundation academic knowledge to provide instruction in literacy, numeracy and other content areas without additional support from the teacher. Under the supervision of a teacher, teacher assistants may implement teaching programs with individuals or small groups, make or adapt materials and equipment, facilitate interactions with peers, implement behaviour interventions and support, carry out assessments and provide personal care. It is important that teacher assistant involvement in these tasks for particular students does not decrease teacher engagement with those students. For students with higher support needs who may need ongoing assistance with mobility, eating and personal hygiene, it is important that these routines are used for educational purposes and not regarded as simply care-giving. Communication programs and programs to promote greater independence should be integrated into these activities so they are used as teaching contexts. It is very important that teachers are aware of some of the potential risks of inappropriate use of teacher assistants in the classroom. For example, the teacher assistant is meant to be a ‘shadow’ support for the child. That is, their primary role is to encourage and assist the child with a physical impairment to engage in the learning activity as independently as is possible. Teacher assistants must not complete the work for the child.

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Finally, the continual presence of an adult close by to a student can interfere with the development of typical peer relationships and can lead the student to rely on adult assistance rather than developing more independence or receiving more natural supports from peers. It may be more helpful to consider the teacher assistant as a general support for the whole class, rather than as specifically allocated to an individual student. Of course, it is important to encourage a child with any special need to be as independent as possible in all environments.

Getting about the classroom—Ben does it his way Ben is a seven-year-old male diagnosed with a severe physical impairment as a result of developing a rare chromosome disorder known as 1p36. In addition, Ben also has been diagnosed with a mild visual and hearing impairment, as well as a profound intellectual impairment. Due to an underdevelopment of his oral functioning, Ben is unable to maintain adequate nutrition via oral food intake. Instead, he receives food every two waking hours via a percutaneous endoscopic gastronomy feeding tube (PEG). The PEG involves the surgical placement of a tube through Ben’s abdominal wall and into his stomach through which nutritional liquids are infused. Although he is nil by mouth, Ben enjoys using his tongue to taste a wide variety of foods. He is also responsive to sound, movement and touch. Ben is starting to recognise the impact of his body language (for example, he must not stand too close to another child) and the effect of his facial expressions (for example, smiling shows that you feel happy) on those around him. Ben attends a local special school where a large part of his daily program is focused on developing his mobility skills. In spite of his physical impairment, Ben is keen to explore his world through movement. He often exhibits good fluid movement of his arms, legs and neck. He can twist and lift his core. In order to stand up, Ben requires the assistance of a lifting partner (that is, his teacher, parent or carer). When attempting to stand, Ben will use his core and arm stability, and he will grip on to the hands of his lifting partner. Ben is then assisted to walk utilising a walking frame (or support walker) and a spotter (see Figure 15.2). It is not always possible for an adult to be available when Ben wants to go from A  to B.  Nonetheless, by utilising some lifting movements of his lower limbs in conjunction with an extension and bending leg action, Ben has learnt to be independently mobile via a bumshuffling movement along the floor. He has also learned to use his arms to pull himself forward, to assist his movement across the floor space. To facilitate Ben’s freedom of movement and independence within the classroom, the indoor environment has been carefully designed with Ben’s mobility (that is, his bumshuffling capability) in mind. The open plan classroom design provides Ben with numerous opportunities to move about. For example, he has direct access from the lunch table to the play mat (a strong motivator), and from his classroom seat to the interactive whiteboard (another motivator). This thoughtful, fit-for-purpose classroom environment not only encourages Ben to consider his preference for the various educational activities on offer, it also affords him the opportunity to independently transition from one activity station to another within his classroom.

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Kathleen Tait

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One of Ben’s strongest motivators is a YouTube channel called ‘Mr Maker’. When this show is played on the interactive whiteboard, Ben will bum-shuffle from the mat to the board (1.5– 2 m travel distance), demonstrating his strong desire to watch the show. As Ben continues to develop with support from his teachers, specialised therapists, parents and carers, he will continue to gain confidence in his ability to move about and engage with his environment independently. Source: Debbie Kairuz, classroom teacher at a state special school, Brisbane, Queensland.

Figure 15.2 Utilising a walking frame

Considerations for teaching students with a physical disability Supporting a student’s mobility and gross motor skills A wide range of disabilities result in physical limitations and the impact on an individual’s mobility can range in severity from limitations of stamina to paralysis. Each type of physical impairment can result in different levels of physical difficulties, and individuals vary in the ways that the disability affects them. Gross motor skills refer to posture and locomotion skills. The Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) is a criterion-referenced motor scale that is used by physiotherapists to examine the motor abilities and prowess of children with physical impairments. Depending on the nature and degree of physical disability, a student may require technological assistance for mobility. This can range from splints, a walker or crutches to a manual or powered wheelchair. Decisions on equipment needs in the area of mobility generally are made outside the school environment, usually with the assistance of a physiotherapist

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and specialist groups such as Technical Aid to the Disabled—Qld Inc (http://nican.com.au/ service/technical-aid-disabled-qld-inc). However, it is likely that the classroom teacher will be asked for their input on the functionality of a device and it will remain the classroom teacher’s responsibility to consult with the child’s parents on any functional difficulties. While gross motor abilities have little relationship to general intelligence, teachers need to be aware that a child’s learning may be affected by difficulties in gross motor coordination. Children with physical impairments need to put more effort into concentrating on their movements and sequence of actions than other children, and so they may tire more easily. It is important that concentrated activities in the day are broken up and that the student has times to move and not stay in the same seated position for long periods of time. Consideration should also be given to planning activities requiring a lot of walking (for example, when going on excursions or to different areas of the school), as these may cause the student to fatigue and then be unable to concentrate on activities scheduled for later in the day. If the student uses a wheelchair for mobility, then teachers need to be aware that changes to the student’s wheelchair might be required to offer more postural support. Students with physical impairments will require well-supported seating and positioning in order to obtain optimal functioning. Improper seating and positioning may cause functional limitations. The optimal seated posture is one where the trunk is supported in an upright, centred position with the head in the midline, and with as much freedom of movement as possible, to encourage interaction with and visual regard for the environment. The hips should remain bent at 90 degrees and the thighs should be supported comfortably. The child’s feet should be flat on the floor, and not left dangling from their chair. This will allow the hands to be free for functional use. For students who cannot achieve this desired position independently, various aids are available, such as custom contoured seating systems for wheelchairs or school chairs, hip straps, and foot boxes to keep hips bent at a 90-degree angle. In addition, it is possible to purchase various easels, or slant boards to place on the lap tray or desk to accommodate books, writing materials, keyboards, pressure switches and so on.

Supporting transition from primary to secondary school Corey is a 13-year-old high school student living in suburban Sydney. He has cerebral palsy, a moderate intellectual disability and a profound bilateral hearing impairment. Due to his disabilities, Corey is non-verbal. He is a multi-modal communicator, using an AAC device (Proloquo2Go) on his iPad, some key words, idiosyncratic signs and some verbalisations. Although his most spontaneous communication is through signs and vocalisations, Corey relies on the use of the software on his iPad to ask and answer questions related to curriculum content and to talk about his feelings. Corey transports his device between home and school every day and uses it during class time and on the sports field. Before starting secondary school, Corey was observed at his primary school to assess his physical needs to ensure a smooth transition from Year 6 to Year 7.  He was already using Proloquo2Go on his iPad to communicate and to complete school work. He was accessing the iPad using his right little finger, with the iPad on an iPad ‘pillow’ on his lap or on his desk. The pillow ensured that the device was stable and at a reasonable angle for

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Kathleen Tait

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him to access the screen. However, Corey’s iPad ‘pillow’ was not a suitable solution for his new secondary school environment where students are expected to transition to different classrooms on multiple occasions throughout the day. Corey was now required to transition promptly within a three- to five-minute framework and to arrive on time for his lessons with his support devices. Staff reported that the ‘pillow’ was not working well for Corey for several reasons: • It was cumbersome and difficult for him to carry independently from place to place. • It was unhygienic due to his difficulty with saliva management. • Corey was having difficulty managing the constant transportation of his iPad and pillow and as a result was regularly late to lessons. • His late arrival to class was disruptive, impacted on his learning time and on the time management of the staff teaching him. As his home room teacher, I  approached our in-house speech pathologist to discuss different options for Corey to make his transitions smoother. The support device needed to be:  • • • • • • • •

light compact portable durable easy to clean and waterproof stable ‘tacky’ (that is, with a surface that the iPad in its cover can cling to) slanted (for screen visibility and to reduce glare from overhead lighting).

The speech pathologist suggested the use of a plastic Ikea stand. The stand looked as if it might meet all of Corey’s requirements and at only $1.99, it would be a very inexpensive solution. The stand was trialled in class with Corey. We made anecdotal observations and canvassed Corey and his other teachers for their feedback. The new stand was an instant hit with Corey. He could fit both the stand and his iPad into his ‘Transition Bag’ with minimal assistance and he could independently carry this to each of his classes. Corey was able to independently set up his stand and iPad at the start of a lesson and greet his teacher promptly. The 45-degree angle of the stand meant that Corey

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could access his iPad screen without too much glare from overhead lighting. The case of his iPad ‘gripped’ the plastic of the stand and there was very little movement of the iPad once it was on the stand. The stand itself was solid, stable and easy to clean. Corey experienced so much success with the stand that a class set was purchased for all of the students in my home room. There were two other students in Corey’s class with special needs (that is, Kabuki syndrome and Down syndrome), resulting in poor fine motor skills. They have benefited greatly from using the Ikea stand for their iPads too. This was a very pleasing result where professional teamwork and an affordable everyday item enabled the facilitation of students with physical disabilities to be independent in their daily school routine. Source: Monica Watts, Special Educator/Home Room Teacher, and Claire Formby, Speech Pathologist, St Edmund’s College, Wahroonga, NSW.

Apply your knowledge Design some pair and share partner ball skill activities for children with physical impairments so that they could be included in a physical education lesson.

Supporting participation in lessons Interaction between the child with a physical impairment and the child’s teacher plays an important and active role in motivating, guiding and enhancing the skill development of the child. The essence of development in this view is the child interacting with the teacher in an apprenticeship relationship. Vygotsky (1978) used the term zone of proximal development to describe the child operating on the edge of their skill level, guided and supported by the teacher onto a higher plane of development until the child is able to take over at that level. Bruner (1977) used the term ‘scaffolding’ to describe the teacher’s role when the child faces a new and unfamiliar task, again providing maximum support initially and then decreasing the support as the child is able to take over. Teachers should also be aware that students with physical impairments may also be at risk of decreased participation in classroom and lunchtime leisure activities. Participation, defined as taking part or being involved in everyday life activities and roles, is a new concept brought to the forefront by the World Health Organization’s International Classification, Disability and Health (2007). The benefits of participation in leisure activities are numerous. Active engagement in meaningful activities of one’s own choosing is essential for promoting health and personal autonomy, skill development and productivity. However, it is important that a child be fully engaged in all school activities. For example, it is not enough to give the role of timekeeper to a child with a physical disability for a physical education lesson. Similarly, it is important to actively include children with physical disabilities in art lessons and music lessons.

Zone of proximal development: A model of development that reflects the learning potential of a child at that moment in time. The model describes the difference between the actual developmental level of the child as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development of the child as determined through problem solving under guidance.

Kathleen Tait

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Supporting a student’s fine motor skills Activities that require the coordination of the small muscles of the body, especially those of the hand, are known as fine motor skills. Hand–eye coordination, problem solving with puzzles and computer games, drawing and dressing skills are used to assess fine motor skills. Difficulty with hand control may affect a student’s abilities with handwriting, cutting, pasting or cooking activities. When handwriting, the student may be unable to keep the paper steady, set out work or complete work within a specific time. It is important to evaluate what the student needs (for example, adapting equipment, assessing fine motor abilities). In addition, teachers can discuss with an occupational therapist adaptive equipment such as sloping desks, non-slip mats, pencil grips and spring-loaded self-opening scissors to assist students with weak hand grips. The simplest way to adapt musical instruments is to make the handles larger with tape, foam or some other method. Teachers can use large wooden knobs on cymbals, wood blocks, the steel striker for a triangle, or mallets for drums and xylophones. The knobs can be cheaply purchased from a hardware or discount store. In addition, knobs can be painted or colourcoded to help children identify pairs or sets of instruments. The best position for doing art activities for some children with physical impairments may be on the floor. A  large, inexpensive and portable circular ‘floor’ can be made from heavy cardboard. Make it large enough for several children to lie on their tummies or sit and draw

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with crayons, chalk or markers. The cardboard circle can be 2–3 metres in diameter. It is great for protecting carpeted floors. Three of the four scores are not cut all the way through the cardboard; however, the fourth score is cut all the way through, allowing the cardboard to be folded. When not in use, this floor mat can be folded and slid behind a cabinet or desk. A child in a wheelchair may use a wheelchair tray as a surface for artwork. The child should be well-balanced and able to freely move their shoulders and arms. If the child is prone to involuntary movements, provide enough space between this child and others so that all of the children can enjoy the experience. While mobility is of primary importance for participation in the classroom, limitations in hand function and manipulation skills may also be problematic for children with physical impairments. Many adaptive drawing and painting tools are available for children who cannot easily hold an art tool or who have a weak hand grip. But the creative classroom teacher can use a few easily and cheaply accessed items to help a child with a weak hand grasp. Below are a few ideas: • Wrap masking tape around the handle to widen the grip, or fit the handle with a piece of dense foam tubing. • Add extensions to paint rollers so that children can floor paint from their wheelchairs. • Cut a slit in a racquetball, insert the tool, and have the child hold the ball to manipulate the tool. • Fit the tool with a loop or strap device that can be attached to the child’s hand. • Dabber paints and roller bottle paints can also be used as ways to bring the painting experience to children. Finally, finger painting need not be limited to fingers. Some children find it easier to paint with their toes rather than their fingers. Remember, what works for one child may not work for another. Cutting using scissors is a more complex and sometimes frustrating task. Squeezing and picking up small objects with kitchen tongs will help children practise the motor skills necessary for using scissors. If teaching design and technology classes, be aware that some scissors will only cut paper, not clothing or hair. Loop scissors provide a different type of grip and come in a variety of sizes. Scissors that allow a helping hand to assist the child in cutting are available in two models: one with the extra grips in back for the teacher’s fingers to guide the child, and the other with the extra grips to the sides (see Figure 15.3). Figure 15.3 Scissors with extra grips

Kathleen Tait

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Figure 15.3 Scissors with extra grips cont.

Apply your knowledge There are numerous ways in which a teacher can assist students to listen and interact in class, rather than struggle to take down notes in lessons. Teachers can arrange for auditory digital recording of their lessons, offer note-taking assistance, or provide notes and study guides to students. Take a section from a factual text and consider alternative ways that you could present the same content. Suggest ways you could re-present the text to make it more accessible to a student with poor reading skills.

Supporting the use of assistive technology in the classroom TECHNOLOGY

Difficulty with fine motor skills, such as handwriting, is not as easily remedied as the use of an art brush. Assisting a child in alternative methods for handwriting is likely to require assessment by an occupational therapist. Requirements for adaptation to handwriting implements are likely to provide an opportunity for teachers to utilise assistive technology in their classroom. However, for children with physical impairments, manipulation difficulties may be further complicated by cognitive deficits that are characterised by short attention span, learning difficulties, intellectual delay, distractibility and overall delay in adaptive skill development. Consequently, simply providing access to an assistive technology will not ensure the development of functional and applied competence by individual students.

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Computer technology offers students with physical impairments expanded opportunities for educational success. Computers can also offer improved opportunities for communication, and for art, music and leisure activities. Many schools now have their own computer labs. However, the teacher may need to problem solve alternative ways for the student with a physical impairment to access the computer technology that is available to all of the other students. This can be done through specifically designed adaptations to, or features of, either hardware or software. As the field of technology expands, some of these adaptations are becoming standard and are being used equally by the non-disabled population. For example, touch screens provide mouse access for people with fine motor difficulties through a simple touch of the screen. These days, touch screens can be found in public places such as libraries and the information boards in major shopping centres. In addition, many commonly used word-processing programs have built-in accessibility features. Nonetheless, while it is quite a daunting task to keep up with all of the amazing adaptations possible, teachers should be aware that instead of typing on a keyboard there are plenty of alternative input methods that can be considered for a child with a physical impairment; for example, using a switch with on-screen keyboard scanning and electronic pointing devices. And while still very costly, voice recognition is an alternative input method by which a computer responds to spoken commands. Voice quality and pronunciation would need to be carefully evaluated before proceeding with this mode of computer access for a student. When adaptations are required, these may be applied to the input method, the processing features of the computer and/or to the output method. The primary purpose for incorporating them for the student with a physical impairment is to reduce the numbers of key strokes required. With reduced physical effort and fine motor demands, the aim of offering such adaptations to students is so they will be able to complete their writing tasks with increased speed and efficiency. There are many forms of switches for individuals with physical impairments that can be activated by different parts of the body. For example, a puff or sip switch can be utilised by individuals with a significant physical impairment. Often the puff will activate one switch and a sip will activate another. Further, it does not take a lot of pressure to activate a pinch switch. Using this form of switch can improve fine motor skills in addition to aiding in communication if the switch is used to activate a VOCA. Finally, one only needs to be able to push down to activate a foot switch (Figure 15.4, overleaf). Some foot switches are given a bumpy texture to provide extra stimulation to the user. Figure 15.5, overleaf, exhibits a head switch. Although it should be noted that while any body part (for example, an arm, a leg, etc.) can activate this form of switch, a head switch is commonly used by individuals who use a wheelchair. These switches could be mounted to be activated by a side-to-side motion of the head (as pictured), or they could be mounted to be activated by two different body parts altogether. For more information on different types of switches, refer to Chapter 10.

Kathleen Tait

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Figure 15.4 A foot switch

Figure 15.5 A head switch

Supporting a student’s communication skills Expressive language Children with physical disabilities resulting from a motor vehicle accident, with a sports injury resulting in damage to the cerebellum, or with cerebral palsy, will often experience various degrees of communication impairment. Communication impairment refers to those

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situations where the individual’s speech is temporarily or permanently inadequate to meet their communication needs and whose inability to speak is not due primarily to a hearing impairment. The nature of the physical impairment varies according to the time, location, degree of cerebral damage to the developing brain and the child’s restricted mobility, which may limit a child’s interaction with the environment and result in a sparser semantic loading of the language that the child understands and produces. Consequently, the language development of a young child with any physical impairment may further be restricted depending on their level of neuromuscular involvement. Considering the importance of movement as a tool for learning and interacting during the early years of life, young children with a physical impairment are especially vulnerable to delays in the area of early communication. Given the high-risk feature of this category of disability, the need for early identification of communicative intent is critical as this information may enable the design of effective communication interventions. Class teachers should contact a speech pathologist to seek specific guidance on how to design a communication intervention program in order to assist children’s communication and language development in the classroom. A communication intervention program is a focused, intensive stimulation designed to enhance performance in communication. Because of the early age at which groundwork is being laid for the development of communicative function, it would seem logical that intervention should begin early for children who are at risk for delayed speech/language development. As part of the early intervention process, parents and teachers may also be able to learn to interpret a child’s pre-linguistic communicative signals, and therefore be in a better position to respond to these signals consistently, which may in turn enhance the further development of the child’s communication skills. Although the motor area of development is generally given priority and addressed initially in young children with physical impairments, there would seem to be an equal need for early intervention to address communication. Delays here could have a serious impact in later childhood and adulthood. In children who have the motor potential for intelligible speech, speech is not likely to emerge if communicative intent has not been developed. For children whose motor limitations preclude fully intelligible speech, a range of AAC systems might be considered. Typically, class teachers have relied on talking and reading as the main means of providing information, and on speaking and writing as the main means of assessing student achievement. Students who have difficulty with these means of communication should not be excluded from opportunities to learn. Teachers should plan for multiple means of presenting curriculum content to meet the needs of all students and not rely solely on verbal means of communication (written or spoken). The internet is a rich source of video recordings, and interactive whiteboards can provide dynamic visual displays. Other options include the use of teacher or peer modelling, demonstrations and computer-aided instruction. It may be necessary to consult with a speech pathologist for support for students with language and/or speech difficulties. However, there are numerous AAC devices available that may use pictorial representations of words (see Chapter 9). AAC strategies may encourage non-verbal communication by children with physical impairments and may be used to provide an additional support for spoken or written communication. Other children in the class and other staff in the school may also need to learn how to be communication partners for students using AAC. Kathleen Tait

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Written language As well as the means of communication, teachers should consider the degree of difficulty of verbally presented information. Teachers may need to produce different versions of text adapted to the reading levels of the students. Text may be simplified by paraphrasing technical terminology, by using shorter sentences, by cutting irrelevant content, by highlighting important points, by simplifying the layout and by providing more pictures, diagrams or graphic organisers. All students may be pre-taught the vocabulary needed for a topic before the topic itself is addressed. Students who have difficulty reading text can be provided with oral versions through text reading programs, recordings or live readers. Computer technology may provide options for students to choose font sizes, and for teachers to provide hyperlinks within the text to link to pictures or videos. Students who have difficulty demonstrating their understanding in writing may use word-processing programs, speech-to-print programs or alternative means of expression such as pictures, drawing or role play to demonstrate their knowledge (Loreman, Deppeler & Harvey 2010).

Supporting daily living skills Generally speaking, low-end technology is used to assist individuals with physical impairments in the areas of daily living and personal care. For example, in the area of school toilet use, grab bars, alternative toilet seats, commodes and back supports are some of the common aids that can be supplied by the works and maintenance departments of state Education Departments. Alternative commercial or customised plumbing fixtures can also be provided for increased levels of independence in this area. In dressing (for swimming lessons, for example), individuals with strength and coordination difficulties may need assistive devices to increase success. These can range from a backpack to transport an iPad holder, to adapted fasteners or special devices for pulling up socks. Students with physical impairments can require assistive devices during mealtime because of fine motor as well as oral motor difficulties. These will assist the student towards independent, safe and

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socially acceptable eating and drinking. Plates with raised rims for easier scooping, utensils with built-up handles, and cups with weighted bottoms, handles or cut-out rims are some of the devices available. Medical supply stores and catalogues, as well as children’s rehabilitation centres in local hospital outpatient care services are good sources.

Effective practice Using task analysis as a teaching strategy If the child with a physical impairment also has an intellectual impairment, then many of the skills that need to be taught will be tasks for daily living such as hand washing, setting the table, preparing food, playing a game, purchasing an item or completing vocational tasks. Task analysis is a simple, easy-to-use method of breaking down a task or skill into small achievable steps. It specifies what is to be learnt, and when and how. It is a list of the separate steps of a task, in their proper sequence, that leads to the completion of the whole task. The task analysis of any skill can then be used as an assessment tool. You can ask the student to perform the task and note which steps they can do independently and which steps they can only do with assistance. You can use the task analysis to monitor learning by recording how much help a student needs each time you teach the task. Task analysis typically involves:

Task analysis: An approach to teaching in which complex behaviours are broken down into their components, and taught in an ordered and logical sequence.

deciding the aims and objectives for teaching and learning determining and specifying the desired learning outcome specifying in detail the tasks, and elements of tasks, the pupil will be carrying out prioritising and sequencing the tasks agreeing suitable ways of teaching and learning likely to lead to the desired learning outcomes • deciding on the support needed and the optimum learning environment • setting up ways of assessing the student’s progress and achievement and evaluating the whole process. • • • • •

This format can be used for any type of task-analysed skill, such as making a phone call, making a sandwich, replacing a broken light bulb or mailing a letter.

Example of a task analysis Unpacking Beccy’s backpack 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Place backpack on table near classroom doorway. Unzip backpack. Take out lunch box and drink bottle. Take out homework book. Take out pencil case. Zip up backpack. Hang backpack on hook next to Beccy’s name tag. Put lunch box and drink bottle in classroom lunch basket. Put homework book in green tray on teacher’s table. Put pencil case in Beccy’s tote tray, under her desk. Kathleen Tait

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Peer tutoring Various whole class approaches to peer tutoring, such as peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) and class-wide peer tutoring (CWPT), are effective for students with disabilities. In many peer-tutoring approaches, the tutoring is mutual, in that both students involved take the role of tutor and tutee. For students with a physical impairment, there may be benefits in pairing them with a more competent peer; however, there are also benefits if the student with the physical impairment can take the role of both tutor and tutee. This approach may require the teacher to provide self-correcting materials, such as flashcards with answers. It may help to allow the more competent peer to complete the activity first. For example, the more competent reader may read a passage aloud, and then the less competent reader would read aloud after hearing the passage read. In any peer-tutoring system: • The teacher introduces the system to students and explains how it will be helpful to them. • The teacher instructs the students in the routines for peer tutoring. Students need to know how to gather the materials and how to move into position for peer-tutoring activities. • The teacher explicitly teaches the necessary tutoring and practice skills to tutors and tutees. This includes teaching about how to provide good feedback and how to correct errors. Students with physical impairments are likely to need explicit instruction in these interaction skills. • The teacher prepares structured materials (such as flashcards, worksheets, study guides, manipulatives and monitoring sheets) and activities for the tutoring. These materials may be the same, or similar to, materials and activities used by the teacher in whole class or small group teaching. • The teacher monitors the performance of the tutor–tutee pairs and provides feedback on their performance. Teachers can reward both improved performance on academic skills and positive social interactions between peers.

Apply your knowledge Choose a teaching topic and design a set of flashcards that could be used by peer tutors to teach the meaning of new vocabulary items. Describe how you would teach students to use the flashcards, respond to correct answers, provide error corrections and provide encouraging feedback.

Peer support In addition to peer- tutoring programs, peers may provide needed social supports for students with a physical impairment. Enjoying successful and supportive peer relationships at school is a very important aspect of any child’s social development. However, due to the very nature of their disability, many children with a physical impairment will at some time or another have difficulty engaging in the playtime activities usually provided in regular school playgrounds (for example, jungle gyms, slippery slides, see saws, or just running

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about the playground with their peers). Rather than suggesting that playtime be spent in the library, which is disengaging and isolating for the child with a physical impairment, school principals, teaching staff and parents and citizens organisations should consider sourcing alternative play equipment and activities that will allow the student to engage and interact in a play- based and/or recreational medium with their peers for a more normalised school lunchtime. Peer support or buddy programs can range from informal arrangements to formal school programs. Peers may provide a wide range of supports, from introducing students with physical impairments to social activities during lunch breaks to assisting them to organise equipment and materials, and teaching classroom routines. There may be difficulties if peers try to do too much to help a student with a physical impairment, or if they are erratic in the support provided. Although such relationships may begin as ‘helping’ relationships rather than as friendships, friendship may develop later. If peer support programs are organised more formally, teachers can screen potential peers to ensure they have the skills and knowledge required and provide some formal induction and feedback on performance (Spinelli 2012).

Apply your knowledge Resources in a classroom usually refer to the fixed aspects of school buildings. However, classroom design can have an impact on children’s learning. Teachers need to consider the impact of classroom seating patterns, available space, lighting and acoustics on all children’s learning capacity. Some of these factors could be potential distractions to learning. Consider the problem for a class seated in group table formations when the teacher seeks to instruct the whole class. Some children are forced to turn 180 degrees to face the teacher. Consider the usual available furniture in a regular classroom. How could a teacher adapt the learning environment to encourage interactive group learning, but also offer independent work opportunities for students?

Assessment and issues for early learners

EARLY LEARNERS

Toilet training readiness For young children, toileting is an important issue because it is a time when they are expected to learn how to toilet appropriately. For children who have disabilities, toileting may be a skill that allows them to attain a feeling of competence and be more accepted by their peers. One of the most important factors for developing a successful toileting skill program involves the recognition that the child is ready to begin toileting skills. A child who has begun to take an interest in toileting is likely to be more motivated to begin a toileting program and it will be easier for the teacher to maintain that motivation once the program is implemented. Some of the most important readiness skills that teachers can look for may involve a child showing an Kathleen Tait

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interest in using the potty. Some children may explicitly indicate that they want to use the potty, while others may show some curiosity about the potty. Other children may express that they want to wear underwear instead of pull-ups. In addition, some children will tell an adult that they feel uncomfortable and need to have their diaper changed. These are some signs that a child may be more motivated to begin a toilet training program. Children who have not been toilet trained prior to staring school, perhaps due to the severity of their physical impairment, may want to acquire toileting skills in order to be more like their peers who have such skills, just to avoid wearing diapers, or to avoid having wet pants. For children who have disabilities, toileting may be a skill that allows them to attain a feeling of competence and be more accepted by their peers (Casey & Carter 2016). It is important to be aware that children with a physical impairment may experience a reduced ability to sense an impending elimination. Urinary or bowel incontinence is broadly defined as an inability to wait to expel urine or faeces at an appropriate time. This reduction in physical sensation may be a direct result of the child’s physical impairment or an associated medical condition. In some cases, a urine alarm (a monitoring device which detects wetness and then signals an alarm to alert the child to use the toilet) may be useful. These systems are commercially available and often the alarm consists of a vibration or an auditory signal. Before beginning a toileting program with a child who has been diagnosed with a physical impairment, it is advisable to have the child and their parents visit their paediatrician to discuss the initiation of a toileting program. The paediatrician can provide recommendations on any existing medical conditions and potential problems that could arise. In addition, if a classroom teacher feels uncomfortable implementing the toileting program in a school setting, it may be beneficial to seek out the assistance of either an occupational therapist or other professional (for example, school nurse) who has implemented toilet training programs before and who is highly familiar with the program and the child’s special needs. It may be helpful to have this person present while implementing the program so that they can coordinate, monitor the success of the program and offer direction to the teacher during its implementation.

Don’t dis—Winnie’s ability—to be my friend!

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Winnie is a six-year-old girl who developed trisomy 13, or Patau syndrome. This chromosomal condition is characterised by significant physical impairment. Winnie was born with a severe cleft palate, a twisted bowel and an additional toe on one of her feet. In addition, Winnie experienced seizures, a severe intellectual impairment and a moderate hearing loss. In order to assist with her motor development, Winnie used a standing frame and a wheelchair, which had been modified for her specific needs. As an infant, reconstructive surgery had been performed on her palate and bowel. Winnie had also had a PEG inserted which provided her with a means for daily nutritional intake. Winnie attended a local early learning centre (ELC) two days per week and was dependent on the mainstream teaching staff for most of her needs. She was able to roll across the floor for mobility indoors. Because Winnie was incontinent, she wore nappies. Exhibiting limited verbal skills, Winnie communicated using a variety of grunts, teeth grinding, reaching and grasping. There was no doubt that Winnie presented as being very

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different to her typical peers at the ELC. Winnie’s peers were aware of her special needs and they recognised that she needed extra assistance. However, Winnie’s teacher explained that when the children were asked to draw Winnie, those differences just fell by the wayside. In celebration of each child’s birthday, we assist the class to prepare a book as a present. When it was Winnie’s 6th birthday, we made her a book too. Each child was asked to draw a picture of themself with Winnie. A teacher then added text to the picture describing ‘What they were doing together’ or ‘What they liked doing’. A total of 23 pictures were contributed to Winnie’s book. In every picture, we observed each child hadn’t identified any of the physical differences between Winnie and themselves. The staff were just blown away with this amazing level of acceptance. In fact, so that we could identify Winnie in their artworks, we added a flying balloon and placed the string to her hand (see the accompanying children’s drawings).

Winnie left the ELC to attend full-time school. After four months, she returned to visit the ELC and the children were asked to comment on what differences they saw in Winnie. Two of the replies were ‘She has red hair’ and ‘She is wearing a uniform’. Winnie’s peers saw past her special needs, filling the staff with immense pride for their sense of acceptance and inclusivity. In her own way, Winnie had helped to teach both the staff and the children at this local ELC to look beyond physical difference and significant special need. Winnie was perceived by her peers as an accepted member of their class, highlighting the communal benefits of a wellmanaged inclusive early childhood education experience.

Source: Jane Carberry, Director, Uniting Early Learning North Bondi, NSW.

Kathleen Tait

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SUMMARY Teachers can generally accommodate students with physical limitations in the regular classroom by ensuring that a student with a physical impairment feels accepted. However, it is important to make allowances for a student’s high level of physical fatigue, and to ensure that the classroom environment is physically accessible and safe. Teachers can consider making use of peers in support roles by having another student take notes or write down the daily homework assignment for the student with a physical disability. Teachers need to be aware that students with physical impairments may be absent from class from time to time due to therapy appointments or hospital stays due to required surgical procedures. In addition, it may be that professionals from ancillary support services (for example, advisory visiting teachers, therapists, nurses and so on) may visit the classroom to assess how the student is coping and to assist with any future needs—particularly in times of transition (for example, from preschool to primary school to secondary school). Consequently, there may need to be some preliminary lessons on disability awareness and community support services to provide for peer group understanding and interaction. If a concept is not understood, extra practice may take more time for this student than is needed by most other students. Consequently, classroom teachers should plan to make some time for reteaching. Teachers also need to be open to providing appropriate adaptive equipment and technology in the classroom, and to modify their demands for the volume of work produced in class and required for homework. In addition, instruction may need to be paced differently for a student with a physical impairment; for example, providing instruction in the use of assistive technology. Teachers will also need to consider designing alternative methods of evaluation to compensate for the children’s physical limitations. In addition, school staff need to ensure there is adequate opportunity for the involvement of students with physical impairments in extracurricular activities, such as after-school or lunchtime clubs, activity and sporting groups. Finally, when going on a camp, excursion or field trip, teachers may need to pre-visit those venues to ensure that the environments and toilet facilities are fully accessible.

For group discussion All children benefit from growing up in safe, stable conditions with, at a minimum, their basic developmental needs fulfilled. This is also the case for the child with a physical impairment. Further, the importance of a child’s development that facilitates the achievement of independence, self-sufficiency and a satisfactory quality of living throughout life cannot be overemphasised. 1 As a school staff, discuss how you would go about planning for a child with a physical impairment to transition from a primary school setting to a secondary school setting. Issues to consider are: • transport arrangements to and from school • toilet access • classroom access

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• • • • • • • • • • •

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environmental barriers on campus access to home rooms and school lockers weekly schedule of classes teacher knowledge of assistive technology teacher knowledge of AAC disability awareness peer relationships parent–teacher relationships alternative assessment options access to therapists and advisory visiting teachers use of a special teacher’s aide.

2 Construct a task analysis for the following tasks: a b c d e f g h

making a phone call changing a light bulb making a phone call on a mobile phone washing your hands taking $100 out of an ATM making a vegemite sandwich putting on a button-up shirt making a cup of tea.

3 Ask another student to follow and role-play your task analysis instructions, to see if more details are required. 4 Explain how a teacher could use a task analysis to teach and assess a child’s learning progress.

Key references Australian Cerebral Palsy Register Report (2013). ACPR Group: Cerebral Palsy Institute. Accessed at www.cpregister.com/pubs/pdf/ACPR-Report.pdf. Schafer, J. & Andzik, N. (2016). Switch on the learning: teaching students with significant disabilities to use switches. Teaching Exceptional Children, 48(4), 204–12. World Health Organization (WHO) (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health Children and Youth (ICF-CY). Accessed at www.who.int/classifications/icf/en.

Websites 1p36 Deletion Support and Awareness—www.1p36dsa.org/ ?gclid=CJiDjYW69c8CFYoIvAodtNUCPA  National website offering awareness, factual information, a Facebook parent/carer support group, research opportunities and annual conference notification. Kathleen Tait

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Choice, Passion, Life (CPL)—www.cpl.org.au/about-us Formerly Cerebral Palsy League, this national website has information about cerebral palsy, the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS), therapy and support services.

Muscular Dystrophy Australia—www.mda.org.au/about/aboutmda.asp A national website disseminating information via fact sheets, support links, latest research and press releases.

Spina Bifida Association—Disability Online—Australia’s Disability Hub— www.disabilityonline.community/aboutdisabilities/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=256 A website offering Australia-wide links to information, services, news and resources, aides/ equipment and carer support networks.

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Supporting Mental Health and Well-being: Promotion, Prevention and Intervention

16

Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To define mental health and well-being, and outline common mental health difficulties experienced by children and youth • To identify characteristics of students who might be ‘at risk’ of developing mental health difficulties • To understand how schools can function as sites for mental health promotion and the prevention of difficulties • To identify a whole-school, multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) approach to mental health promotion, prevention and intervention that reflects a continuum of effective practices

KEY TERMS anxiety disorder major depressive disorder mental health multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) protective factors

psychosocial disability resilience risk factors well-being

Introduction While the term ‘mental health’ is often used in relation to individuals experiencing difficulties or diagnosed with an ‘illness’, it can be understood as a positive state relevant to every individual. More than simply the absence of difficulties, the World Health Organization (WHO 2013) defines mental health in terms of the capacity to be productive and make a positive contribution to society: Mental health is a state of well-being in which the individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can make a contribution to his or her community. (p. 3)

Mental health: A state of well-being where the individual realises their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can make a contribution to his or her community (WHO 2013).

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Well-being: A stable, positive outlook and sense of satisfaction and contentment with one’s ability to form good relationships, cope with setbacks and navigate everyday experiences.

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This definition of mental health is particularly relevant to schools, which can be instrumental in helping all students develop the knowledge, skills and psychosocial resources that will help them cope with life’s challenges, form and maintain positive relationships, and fulfil their potential as members of a community. There are many different ways of defining the concept of ‘well-being’, which is closely related to mental health. For a 2008 study by the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR), researchers developed a definition that expanded on and synthesised common elements from definitions of wellbeing used in various fields, but relevant to the school context. According to this definition, well-being is ‘a sustainable state of positive mood and attitude, resilience and satisfaction with self, relationships and experiences at school’ (Australian Catholic University and Erebus International 2008, p. 7). Since children and young people spend such a large percentage of their time at school, schools are uniquely placed to foster student well-being, and as sites for mental health promotion and prevention efforts, in addition to supporting students who show signs of mental health difficulties (Fazel, Hoagwood, Stephan & Ford 2014). This chapter provides an overview of mental health issues relevant to children and young people, discusses the current policy context for mental health support, and outlines approaches that schools can take to promote positive mental health and well-being, prevent mental health difficulties, and support students showing signs of mental health difficulties. We consider groups of students who might be at heightened risk for experiencing mental health difficulties, and examine the role of risk and protective factors in the development of mental health and well-being. While many, interacting factors influence an individual’s mental health across the lifespan, our primary focus is on the characteristics of school environments that can either exacerbate an individual’s risk of experiencing mental health difficulties, or operate protectively to support an individual’s well-being and mental health. The emphasis is on a coordinated, flexible continuum of services and supports, increasingly targeted and intensive for students at risk and those already experiencing difficulties. In this way, the approach advocated here is consistent with the multi-tiered intervention models presented in other chapters in this volume, including those related to positive behavioural support, students with literacy difficulties, and gifted education.

Understanding mental health Beyond the debilitating impact that can be experienced by individuals and families, mental health is recognised as a significant public health issue. Poor mental health is associated with other negative outcomes, including lower educational achievements, substance abuse, violence and poor physical health (Patel, Flisher, Hetrick & McGorry 2007). Globally, it is estimated that 10–20 per cent of children and youth experience mental health difficulties (Kieling et al. 2011), with approximately 10 per cent meeting criteria for a mental illness (Weare & Nind 2011). Suicide is the second leading cause of death among 15–29-year-olds (WHO 2016). Most mental health disorders first occur in children and youth aged 12 to 25 (Patel et al. 2007), although there is evidence to suggest that social and behavioural difficulties in younger children are likely to persist throughout schooling and are associated with later poor outcomes in learning and mental health, in the absence of targeted intervention (Darney et al. 2013).

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A large national survey (the Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing) showed that almost one in seven (13.9 per cent) children and young people aged four to 17 had experienced a mental health disorder (defined against criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV); American Psychiatric Association 1994) in the previous twelve months, which equates to approximately 560 000 individuals; almost one third of these participants had experienced two or more mental disorders (Lawrence et al. 2015). The most common disorders among this age group included: • attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (including predominantly inattentive type and predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type): a chronic condition characterised by a persistent pattern of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsive behaviour, which can affect a student’s capacity to sustain attention in class, persist with extended tasks, avoid making careless errors, and remain still and quiet when expected. • anxiety disorders (including social phobia, separation anxiety, generalised anxiety disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder): characterised by intense feelings of anxiety that significantly interfere with a person’s daily functioning. • major depressive disorder: characterised by sustained depressed mood, loss of interest in usually pleasurable activities, or irritability to an extent that causes significant distress and interferes with normal functioning. Symptoms such as weight loss/gain, loss of appetite, difficulty concentrating and making decisions, loss of energy and tiredness/ fatigue, disturbed sleep patterns, and feelings of hopelessness or worthlessness can also occur. In the survey research referenced above, major depressive disorder had the greatest reported impact on school attendance and functioning at school for young people. • conduct disorder : characterised by ‘anti-social behaviours’ (for example, aggression towards people or animals, destruction of property, theft, bullying, frequent physical fights, running away from home or staying out late at night, frequent truancy from school) which are repetitive and persistent, and involve the violation of the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate norms. These behaviours occur to the extent that they interfere with the individual’s capacity to function at school, home or in other settings.

367 Anxiety disorder: Characterised by excessive feelings of anxiety and worry, over a sustained period of time, that the individual finds difficult to control and that significantly interfere with daily functioning. Anxiety and related symptoms such as restlessness, sleeplessness and difficulty concentrating are not attributable to drug use or another medical condition. Major depressive disorder: Characterised by sustained depressed mood, loss of interest in usually pleasurable activities, and other symptoms that can include difficulty sleeping, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, irritability, fatigue, weight loss or gain, difficulty concentrating and recurrent thoughts about dying, where these are not attributable to drug use or another medical condition.

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Psychosocial disability: Relates to the ‘social consequences of disability’—the effects on someone’s ability to participate fully in life as result of mental ill-health (Mental Health Australia 2014).

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Previous Australian research, using an earlier version of the same survey, indicated that only between 20 to 31 per cent of adolescents (aged 13–17) with mental health difficulties accessed support, and school counselling was the most frequent support service attended (Sawyer, Miller-Lewis & Clark 2007). The more recent survey indicated an increase in the numbers of young people accessing mental health support; 56 per cent of those with mental health disorders had accessed support in the last 12  months, and 86.7 per cent of those with more severe disorders had sought help (Lawrence et  al. 2015). Of those children and adolescents with mental health disorders who had accessed services, most had done so through health practitioners, including general practitioners (GPs), psychologists, paediatricians or counsellors, while a smaller number attended a ‘headspace’ centre (where 12–25 year olds can access health workers, funded through the federal government’s National Youth Mental Health Foundation). Only 40.2 per cent of children with mental health disorders received some kind of service from their school (such as individual counselling or a group support program), but in many cases children and young people were initially referred for services by a school staff member, and many reported receiving informal support from someone at their school (Lawrence et al. 2015). It is essential that schools are prepared to address the mental health needs of students, including through the provision of services by suitably qualified personnel. While the DSM uses the term ‘mental disorder’, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN 2006) refers to ‘psychosocial disability’ in defining impairments and restrictions on an individual’s participation that are related to mental health conditions. Mental ill-health may prevent a person’s participation and engagement in daily activities such as education, and as a result, restrict opportunities for improved life outcomes. Examples of difficulty can include a loss of ability to function, think clearly and make decisions, maintain physical health, and manage the social and emotional aspects of life (Mental Health Australia 2014). However, not everyone with a mental health disorder will have a level of impairment that results in a psychosocial disability, as levels of mental ill-health are highly variable and not always permanent. Familiarity with the concept of psychosocial disability is important in the current Australian context, since this term is used by the National Disability Insurance Agency (NDIA), an independent statutory agency with responsibility for implementing the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS). The NDIS is designed to support Australians with a significant and permanent disability, their families and carers (www.australia.gov.au/directories/australia/ ndia), and has introduced a major shift in the way services are provided to persons with disability in Australia. It allows children with disabilities and their families to have more control over decisions about the types of supports and services they believe will improve outcomes and quality of life. The National Disability Insurance Scheme Act 2013 (NDIS Act) states that it ‘enable(s) people with a disability to exercise choice and control in the pursuit of their goals and the planning and delivery of their supports’ (NDIS Independent Advisory Council 2015, p. 10). However, children and young people with mental health disorders may not be eligible for support through the NDIS, unless they are able to demonstrate a psychosocial disability as a result of their disorder. This is largely due to the fluctuating nature and substantial variation in symptoms and functioning of persons with mental health disorders. It is important to consider early intervention in the form of Tier 2 level supports, as such supports will be necessary for

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those who are not eligible for Tier 3 individual funding. More importantly, effective Tier 2 interventions may prevent the need for Tier 3 level supports by preventing permanent and significant psychosocial disability. Tiered support will be described in further detail in the following sections of this chapter.

Risk and protective factors in mental health development The development of mental health difficulties in a child or young person is the result of a complex, highly individual set of interactions between genetic and environmental influences over time. One way to understand the likelihood of students developing mental health difficulties that is commonly used in the mental health field (and has its origins in public health) is by considering ‘risk factors’ and ‘protective factors’. Risk factors are characteristics of the individual, family circumstances, peer relationships, and school and community environments that are associated with an increased likelihood of a person experiencing mental health difficulties (O’Connell, Boat & Warner 2009). Protective factors, on the other hand, decrease the likelihood that an individual will experience mental health difficulties, or can ameliorate the effects of existing risk factors. Risk factors and protective factors do not operate in isolation from one another, but in combination; it is often the cumulative effect of multiple risk factors that can lead to poor mental health outcomes (Evans, Li & Whipple 2013). For instance, a child who has experienced sexual abuse, is living in an unstable foster care arrangement, who has a peer group that encourages drug use and who attends a school where they do not have good relationships with teachers or access to quality mental health support, is at heightened risk of developing mental health difficulties based on the combined impact of these individual, peer, family and school-based risk factors. The length of time an individual is exposed to some risk factors (for example, bullying, or drug use in the family) can also make a difference (Toumbourou, Olsson, Williams & Hallam 2013). For example, while many LGBTI young people are psychologically healthy, research suggests that about 60 per cent of non-heterosexual Australian young people have experienced verbal or physical abuse (Pitts, Smith, Mitchell & Patel 2006); a person’s sexuality might increase the risk of experiencing bullying or discrimination, which in turn increases the risk of mental health difficulties such as anxiety and depression. It is important for educators to understand that the presence of particular risk factors, or membership of an at-risk group, does not inevitably mean that an individual will experience mental health difficulties. Similarly, protective factors might operate differently for different individuals, and at different points across the lifespan (KidsMatter n.d.). However, an awareness of factors that contribute to heightened risk can prompt educators to look out for early signs of difficulty, and identify opportunities for students to build resilience and access targeted supports as needed. Table 16.1 summarises some common risk factors for mental health difficulties in children and young people that have been identified through research. These can be organised into factors that pertain to the individual child, such as temperament and social skills; factors related to the child’s family situation, such as family breakdown or substance abuse by family members; school-based factors, such as poor relationships with teachers; and broader community or

Risk factors: Characteristics of the individual, family circumstances, peer relationships, and school and community environments that are associated with an increased likelihood of a person experiencing mental health difficulties. Protective factors: Factors that decrease the likelihood that an individual will experience mental health difficulties, or can ameliorate the effects of existing risk factors.

Resilience: The capacity to cope and ‘bounce back’ in the face of adversity.

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societal factors, such as living in poverty or being exposed to neighbourhood violence. Specific life events can also act as risk factors in relation to mental health, and these might include physical or sexual abuse, or the death of a close family member. These are factors generally associated with risk for a range of mental health difficulties, such as depression and anxiety. Other risk factors may be specific to particular mental health difficulties; for example, excessive concern with dieting and body image is associated with heightened risk for developing eating disorders in adolescent girls and young women (Wilksch et al. 2016). Table 16.1 Risk factors associated with mental health difficulties in children and adolescents Individual • •

• •

•

• • • • • • •

Family

Birth complications Difficult temperament (excessive shyness or irritability/ aggression) Low intelligence/ IQ Receptive or expressive language difficulties Difficulty understanding consequences Learning difficulties Low self-worth Poor social skills Impulsivity Alcohol and drug use Chronic illness Physical or intellectual disability

• • • • • • •

• •

Lack of warmth/ affection Lack of supervision Neglect Inconsistent or harsh discipline Parent/s with a mental illness Parent substance abuse Domestic violence/family conflict Financial difficulties Sibling with a serious physical or mental illness

Peers/School • • • • •

•

• • • •

Academic failure Peer rejection/ bullying Poor school attendance School that is not inclusive Peer norms: excessive use of alcohol/ drugs, violence, antisocial behaviour Poor teacher– student relationships Low teacher expectations Poor transition processes Lack of home– school connection School violence

Community • • • • •

Social isolation Discrimination or racism Socio-economic disadvantage Neighbourhood violence/crime Inadequate access to services

Life events •

•

• • •

•

Events related to loss, trauma or abuse Changing schools, moving house or moving countries Forced migration Experiencing a natural disaster Being diagnosed with a medical illness or disability Death of a friend or relative

Sources include: KidsMatter: www.kidsmatter.edu.au/mental-health-matters/mental-health-basicspromoting-mental-health/risk-and-protective-factors; MindMatters: www.mindmatters.edu.au/docs/ default-source/learning-module-documents/j4633_mm_module1-3-protectiveriskfactors_v2.pdf.

While much attention has been paid in the research and literature to factors that increase an individual’s risk of developing mental health difficulties, it is also important to consider factors that can assist children and young people to cope with and overcome challenging

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situations. These are strengths that family members, educators, friends and mental health professionals can often help to bolster in children and young people who might be at risk of developing mental health difficulties. Table 16.2 summarises some common protective factors in children and young people. Table 16.2 Examples of protective factors in children and adolescents Individual • • • •

•

• • • • •

Physically healthy Easy temperament Optimistic outlook Good attachment to parents/carers— development of positive, ongoing relationships Strong social and emotional skills (e.g. ability to regulate emotions) Good coping and problem-solving skills Good communication skills Positive sense of cultural identity Positive attitude to seeking help Positive expectations and hope for the future

Family •

• • •

Peers/School

• Supportive and consistent parenting/setting appropriate • boundaries Stable family relationships Strong • family values Low exposure to stress and violence •

•

•

Community

Positive peer role models, with inclusive, prosocial norms Sense of belonging/ connectedness to school Positive relationships with teachers/ other adults Range of opportunities to participate and achieve Positive school climate—physically/ psychologically safe environment, inclusive, respect for diversity Clear school policies: behaviour and bullying

•

• •

•

Life events

• Strong community networks Economic security • Access to appropriate services Strong cultural identity and pride

Availability of support at critical times Involvement with supportive adults

Sources include: KidsMatter: www.kidsmatter.edu.au/mental-health-matters/mental-health-basics-promoting-mental-health/risk-and-protective-factors; MindMatters: www.mindmatters.edu.au/docs/defaultsource/learning-module-documents/j4633_mm_module1-3-protectiveriskfactors_v2.pdf.

As significant sites for mental health promotion and prevention, it is important for schools to recognise and reduce those factors that are associated with increased risk for mental health difficulties, and also to systematically develop and strengthen protective factors over which they exercise some agency. There is often a tendency to treat issues of curriculum and teaching as separate from issues of behaviour and mental health in schools, but the two are closely related; what happens in the classroom forms a critical part of students’ overall social and emotional experiences of school (Jarvis 2011). Setting high expectations for all students and providing appropriate support for students to meet those expectations, assisting students with learning difficulties or disabilities to access and achieve within the curriculum, Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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and establishing a positive classroom based on mutual respect and principles of inclusion can all help to foster the kind of school climate that encourages students to feel connected and supports positive mental health and well-being. Schools should be particularly attentive to their policies related to behaviour, bullying and student attendance, and their efforts to support vulnerable students through key transitions. Schools can also provide opportunities for social and emotional learning to strengthen individual students’ psychological resources, which is discussed in the section on Tier 1 universal strategies. In supporting mental health and well-being, schools should particularly be aware of those individuals and groups of students who might be at heightened risk of poor mental health outcomes. These include students from low-income families, and those whose parents have low levels of education and high levels of unemployment (Lawrence et  al. 2015), students living outside of major cities or regional centres (Lawrence et  al. 2015), students in single-parent households and step/blended families, and students who have experienced trauma, including some from refugee backgrounds (Fazel, Reed, Panter-Brick & Stein 2012). Children with disabilities are one group whose heightened risk for mental health difficulties is well-documented, but who may be overlooked in targeted prevention efforts due to a lack of awareness by educators about disability as a risk factor, and a tendency to explain all behavioural and emotional difficulties in terms of the disability instead of also considering the child’s mental health (McMillan & Jarvis 2013). An evaluation of the KidsMatter Primary program found that while all children had a one in eight chance of developing a mental health difficulty, the likelihood for children with a disability was one in three, and it rose to one in two for children with more than one disability (Dix, Shearer, Slee & Butcher 2010). An evaluation of KidsMatter Early Childhood found similar prevalence figures for younger children (Dix, Jarvis & Slee 2013). Clearly, every student with a disability will not develop mental health difficulties, but educators and school counsellors should be aware of the additional vulnerability and consider students with disabilities for targeted (Tier 2) interventions.

Understanding signs for early intervention

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Hayley is a 13-year-old, Year 8 student at a large secondary school. She has a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), level 1, meaning she experiences characteristics at the mild end of the autism spectrum. She attends all mainstream classes and functions relatively well academically when supports are maintained. Her difficulties are most apparent within the social/emotional/relational indicators of the autism spectrum, particularly emotional due to high levels of anxiety, perfectionism and difficulty coping when faced with problems. Due to her anxiety, difficulty with problem solving and negative thinking, Hayley regularly consults with a psychologist to develop positive thinking, challenge catastrophic thoughts and develop problem-solving abilities. She has an individual education program (IEP), which specifies adjustments that enable her to be academically successful. She does not require a modified curriculum, but rather environmental and instructional adjustments such as extended time for assignments and tests, quiet places for test-taking, and all assignment and homework instructions to be written. She requires explicit instruction for mathematics. Furthermore, the school has supported Hayley to lead a lunchtime anime interest club to further develop her

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social networks (and the social networks of others). Due to her social and emotional differences, she finds it difficult to initiate and maintain friendships and solve social or emotional problems. Hayley is frequently rejected by peers and experiences relational aggression and exclusion from peer groups. She has not been diagnosed with a co-occurring mental health condition; however, given her disability, anxiety and environmental factors, she is at risk and should be considered for early intervention to prevent development of a mental health condition.

Think about children you have observed at school who may not have a disability but have experienced similar circumstances to Hayley. They may have difficulty engaging academically and/or socially. They may be experiencing social isolation, bullying and relational aggression from peers.

Pause and reflect

1 How might these experiences affect their thinking, emotions, behaviour and learning? 2 What risk and protective factors can you identify in Hayley’s story? How might these help you to understand her potential mental health outcomes?

In the following sections we describe a framework for addressing the social, emotional, behavioural and academic needs of all students, including those at risk. The positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS) framework has been described in Chapter 8; therefore our focus will be on mental health promotion, prevention and intervention. Figure 16.1 illustrates a definition of the core components of school mental health (Butts, Casey & Ewen 2014) to be addressed in the following sections of the chapter within the context of a multi-tiered system of support. Figure 16.1 Definition of school mental health Involves partnerships between schools and community health/mental health organisations, as guided by families and youth

Builds on existing school programs, services and strategies

Focuses on all students, both general and special education

Includes a full array of programs, services, and strategies—mental health education and promotion through intensive intervention

Emphasises schools as locus of engagement for school-based, school-linked and community-based work

Source: Butts, Casey & Ewen (2014). Reprinted with permission. Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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A multi-tiered system of support for  mental health in schools

Multi-tiered system of support (MTSS): An approach that defines a coordinated continuum of increasingly targeted, intensive supports and services to meet the developing academic, social, emotional and behavioural needs of all students. This includes universal supports (focused on skill-building and prevention) for all students; targeted supports for students at risk or beginning to experience specific difficulties; and intensive, more individualised supports for students experiencing difficulties.

High rates of mental health difficulties, and emotional and behavioural disorders in young people have led to a growth in mental health research in schools, with public health systems recognising that schools may be ideal environments for promoting positive mental health and preventing mental illness (Askell-Williams, Lawson & Slee 2009; Bayer et al. 2009; Durlak et al. 2011; Green et al. 2005; Iachini et al. 2015; Jarvis & McMillan 2016; Neil & Christensen 2007; Weist, Lever, Bradshaw & Owens 2014). The influence of schooling on social and emotional development and the relationship between well-being and learning has been well documented in the literature (CASEL 2013; Durlak et al. 2011), highlighting the opportunity for mental health providers to partner with schools to adequately address mental health needs in children and youth (Weist et al. 2014). The multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) model can be applied to students in early childhood settings through to the senior years of schooling, and enables schools to establish a continuum of supports that are intensified to meet the developing needs of all students (US Office of Special Education Programs [OSEP] 2017a). MTSS is systematically driven by teams using a problem-solving approach that engages students, staff and families to address the academic, social, emotional and behavioural needs of students; supports range from differentiated instruction and promoting positive behaviour and well-being for all, through to highly individualised supports and programming for students with specific mental health needs. MTSS shares the core features of PBIS and is consistent with the prevention continuum that was originally developed within public health. Developed by the OSEP Technical Assistance Center on PBIS and the Center for School Mental Health (CSMH) in the United States, the Interconnected Systems Framework (ISF) has become widely accepted as a model that integrates PBIS, Social Emotional Learning (SEL) and mental health promotion, prevention and intervention in schools (Barrett, Eber & Weist 2013; Jarvis & McMillan 2016; Waddell et al. 2007; Weist et al. 2014). Subsequently, we will refer to the ISF as a MTSS, given that the majority of literature refers to the application of a tiered system of support across a number of disciplines (mental health, education, disability and allied health services). The three-tiered MTSS prevention framework is represented in Figure  16.2. Tier 1 (universal) approaches are aimed at preventing occurrences of problems and promoting positive mental health in addition to promoting prosocial skills and academic engagement for all students. Tier 2 (targeted) is aimed at students at risk (a)  targeted selective (for example, students with known risk factors such as disability or trauma experience), or (b)  targeted indicated for early onset problems (for example, students exhibiting social, emotional and behavioural difficulties) to prevent difficulties from progressing. Tier 3 (intensive) is aimed at students with high symptom levels who require individual support and intervention to reduce the intensity and duration of symptoms that may be associated with disorder (indicated). In this way, prevention is aligned conceptually and operationally to the promotion of health, mental health and well-being (McMillan & Jarvis 2013).

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Figure 16.2 The ISF is an interconnected MTSS for promotion, prevention and intervention for academic, social, emotional and behavioural learning Interconnected Systems Framework for School Mental Health Tier 3: Intensive interventions for few Individual student and family supports

• Systems planning team coordinates decision rules/referrals for this level of service and progress monitors • Individual team developed to support each student • Individual plans may have array of interventions/services • Plans can range from one to multiple life domains • System in place for each team to monitor student progress

Tier 2: Early intervention for some

Coordinated systems for early detection, identification, and response to mental health concerns • Systems planning team identified to coordinate referral process, decision rules and progress monitor impact of intervention • Array of services available • Communication system for staff, families and community • Early identification of students who may be at risk for mental health concerns due to specific risk factors • Skill-building at the individual and groups level as well as support groups • Staff and family training to support skill development across settings

Tier 1: Universal/prevention for all

Coordinated systems, data, practices for promoting healthy social and emotional development for all students • School improvement team gives priority to social and emotional health • Mental health skill development for students, staff, families and communities • Social emotional learning curricula for all students • Safe and caring learning environments • Partnerships between school, home and the community • Decision making framework used to guide and implement best practices that consider unique strengths and challenges of each school community

Note:  Reprinted with permission from the OSEP Technical Assistance Center for Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support (www.pbis.org/school/school_mental_health/default.aspx).

In developing the PBIS and MTSS model, researchers carefully studied school systems, operations, needs and priorities, and in this way gained a high level of acceptance from educational stakeholders; this has led to large-scale adoption and implementation, particularly in the United States and Canada (Walker 2014). In Australia, uptake in states and jurisdictions is variable, with the NSW Department of Education demonstrating large-scale adoption of Positive Behaviour for Learning (PBL). The NSW Department has implemented professional development related to PBIS, including on student well-being, in 940 public schools across the state (42 per cent) and provides systems level support, resources and coaching on implementation (www.pbl.schools. nsw.edu.au/home). The Australian National Safe Schools Framework incorporates MTSS and Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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PBIS into policy and practices for student well-being. The National Safe Schools Framework targets nine elements aligned to the Australian Curriculum ‘to create and maintain safe and supportive learning and teaching communities that build respectful relationships’ (Student Wellbeing Hub). Elements 5 (Positive Behaviour Management) and 8 (Early Intervention and Targeted Support) make specific reference to and are clearly aligned with PBIS and MTSS as an evidence-based approach to promoting whole school student well-being and engagement. The MTSS tiered approach enables schools and teachers to support students with a variety of needs and create classrooms and whole school environments that support the learning of all children (Fazel et al. 2014). The following sections of this chapter will focus on mental health in schools as it relates to each of the three tiers.

Tier 1: universal supports At Tier 1 of the MTSS, universal programs and supports aim to promote the mental health of all children and youth to effectively navigate challenges, through a focus on social-emotional learning and well-being, developing personal psychological resources such as resilience, and fostering safe and supportive school communities (Slee, Dix & Askell-Williams 2011). In doing so, schools can address barriers to learning and effectively engage students who may otherwise become disconnected from the educational community. A major advantage of universal school mental health (SMH) promotion programs is that they can be delivered by internal school staff across early childhood, primary and secondary schools, are minimally intrusive and may be easiest to incorporate into existing school structures (Fazel et al. 2014). However, Tier 1 programs address a broad array of constructs related to well-being and mental health, including social-emotional skills, problem solving, resilience, positive thinking, positive behaviour, character education and bully prevention (Fazel et al. 2014; McMillan & Jarvis 2013), and the comprehensive and diverse nature of programs may impact on schools’ ability to implement them with fidelity (that is, as developers intended), which influences program efficacy. Research has indicated that school-based, universal interventions have a small to moderate impact on the positive mental health of school students overall (Durlak et al. 2011; Hoagwood et al. 2007; Tennant et al. 2007; Weare & Nind 2011). School teams are critical to the successful implementation of multi-tiered systems of support addressing mental health (Markle, Splett, Maras & Weston 2014) and have become the norm for addressing the varying behavioural and academic needs of students. Teams required to support the mental health of students must be interdisciplinary with a range of stakeholders involved in policy, practice and problem solving. Team members may vary depending on the level or intensity of support required at different times. Markle et al. (2014) recommend the following practices to establish school mental health teams:  1 strong relationships among mental health providers, students and educators (for example, teachers, allied health and administrators) 2 involvement of students, families and teachers in the development, oversight, evaluation and continuous improvement of SMH programs 3 the existence of quality assessment and improvement activities that continually guide and provide feedback for SMH initiatives (p. 60) 4 interdependence and role flexibility among team members (Mellin, Anderson-Butcher & Bronstein 2011).

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The MTSS provides schools with the flexibility to select programs and practices that best meet their educational context and the resources available to them. There are a diverse range of universal SMH programs available with varying degrees of effectiveness and efficacy. Internationally, the majority of universal school mental health promotion programs have been conducted in the United States. An extensive review of Tier 1 evidence-based social and emotional learning programs can be found in the 2015 preschool/primary and secondary school guides published by the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) at www.casel.org/guide, or on the KidsMatter Australian Primary Schools Mental Health Initiative website at www.kidsmatter.edu.au/primary/resources-for-schools/otherresources/programs-guide. Australia is known internationally for its focus on mental health promotion and student well-being, with nationally funded initiatives targeting youth mental health promotion and prevention including the implementation and evaluation of universal programs such as KidsMatter (www.kidsmatter.edu.au) and MindMatters (www.mindmatters.edu.au), both of which are referred to as universal approaches within the National Safe Schools Framework. Examples of other universal programs with demonstrated effect in Australian schools include FRIENDS for Life and the Resourceful Adolescent Programme (Fazel et  al. 2014; Neil & Christensen 2007). Table 16.3 lists examples of SMH programs that have been delivered in classrooms by school mental health staff (for example, counsellors) and teachers; however, the research evidence is based on implementation in US schools. Further information on the programs listed in Table 16.3 can be found in Daly, Nicholls, Aggarwal and Sander (2014). Table 16.3 Empirically supported universal SMH programs that have been delivered in schools and classrooms in the United States Program

Age range

Focus areas

The Incredible Years: Parent Teacher and Child Training Series

2–12 years

Developing social-emotional competencies; preventing problem behaviour

Al’s Pals: Kids Making Healthy Choices

3–8 years

Developing social-emotional skills: decreasing aggressive behaviour

The Good Behavior Game

1st Grade

Developing school-expected behaviours; prevention and reduction of aggressive and disruptive behaviour

PATHS: Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (see KidsMatter online guide)

Preschool–6th Developing social-emotional competence; Grade decreasing aggression and behaviour problems

I Can Problem Solve (see KidsMatter online guide)

4–12 years

Promoting social-emotional skills and interpersonal problem solving; non-violent solutions to conflict

Second Step (see KidsMatter online guide)

4–14 years

Developing social competence; reducing aggression and impulsive behaviour Sourcse: adapted from Daly, Nicholls et al. (2014). Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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Experiences of school-based mental health interventions

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

While research has measured the impact of school-based mental health interventions on a range of outcomes, the question of how children and young people personally experience and value these interventions is rarely considered. In Sweden, researchers studied thirtyseven adolescent girls’ perspectives on a school-based psychotherapeutic education program designed to prevent depression (Lindholm & Nelson 2015). In particular, these researchers were interested in girls’ experiences of the self-disclosure element of the program, through which they were encouraged to talk about their thoughts, feelings and actions in front of peers. Interviews with girls who participated in the program suggested that they saw self-disclosure as both positive and problematic. Many reflected that the experience of ‘opening up’ and talking about ‘private stuff’ in front of peers had strengthened their friendships, introduced a level of trust among classmates and helped to form positive group relations, including among girls who might not usually interact. One participant explained, ‘we used to be classmates, but now we’re good friends’ (p. 145), and another suggested that ‘we haven’t “dissed” each other… we’ve given everyone a chance’ (p.  147), referring to the girls’ efforts to interact more positively after participating in the program. On the other hand, some described the experience of self-disclosure in terms of personal risk, and had felt uncomfortable sharing their thoughts and feelings in front of classmates. It appeared that this was especially the case if girls had been bullied by other group members in the past, or if some group members seemed unreceptive during the sharing sessions. These participants felt the self-disclosure aspect of the program might expose them to further bullying or rejection from peers. Some also regarded the focus on cognitive restructuring (recognising and changing negative thought patterns) to be problematic, because it seemed to imply that they as individuals had problems that needed to be solved, when they didn’t feel that way; some participants expressed a preference for focusing on issues of social inclusion and peer relationships, which felt more relevant to their daily lives. While this was a relatively small study examining a single aspect of a program aimed at mental health promotion, it highlights the need to consider school-based prevention and intervention programs not only in terms of the content they deliver and their measurable outcomes ‘on average’, but also in terms of students’ personal experiences of participating. Issues such as maintaining trust, fostering positive group

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dynamics, providing safe opportunities for students to interact and share in small groups of peers, and ensuring voluntary participation in activities where students share sensitive information, are all important considerations. Attention to the small-group, classroom and school contexts in which mental health interventions are implemented is important to making them relevant, meaningful and positive for students.

Apply your knowledge Returning to Hayley’s story and also the experiences above expressed by adolescent girls, consider how universal mental health promotion and social emotional learning programs might support all students while reducing the need for self-disclosure. Visit the KidsMatter online guide or the CASEL guide (both discussed earlier) to review a universal prevention program that may be suitable while considering: 1 The age and development of the cohort (for example, adolescents versus young children). 2 The evidence base to support whole school implementation (that is, whether there is research to support investment in this program). 3 What learning and skills for students and staff are addressed in the program. Does the program target what is desired of the school community? 4 Who will support implementation of the program as intended? Is there a team at the school to do this? 5 Does the program measure targeted student outcomes (for example, social skills, learning/positive behaviour, school engagement or satisfaction, reductions in incidents of aggression)?

Bullying prevention Students who are consistently targeted or involved in bullying are at risk for negative mental health and antisocial outcomes such as depression, anxiety, drug misuse and incarceration (Swearer et al. 2014). To prevent bullying behaviours, schools and families will need to work together to create a culture where bullying is neither accepted nor rewarded (Swearer et al. 2014). SEL-focused universal bullying programs typically provide students with knowledge about causes and consequences of bullying, promote empathy for students involved in bullying and teach alternative solutions to using aggression (Swearer et al. 2014). MTSS that focus on prevention, early identification of students with aggressive or bullying behaviours (physical, social and relational aggression), and promote social learning and prosocial behaviour should be implemented to create positive school climates and reduce aggressive behaviour (Bambara, Janney & Snell 2015). PBIS is an example of a MTSS designed to promote prosocial behaviour (Tier 1), prevent antisocial behaviour (Tier 2) and provide individual intensive intervention (Tier

Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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3) for students exhibiting chronic aggressive behaviour including bullying. The US-based Bully Prevention in Positive Behavior Support program was designed to be used with established school-wide Positive Behavior Support and follows the tiered approach to increasing intensity of support to students involved in bullying (that is, bullies, victims and bully-victims). Educator guides for the Bully Prevention—PBS program (primary and secondary) can be found at www. pbis.org/school/bully-prevention.

Apply your knowledge During playground supervision, you have noticed a young girl who seems to be receiving some unwanted attention from a group of other children, causing her apparent distress. What steps would you take after the event to examine the issue and to provide alternative ways to prevent or respond to this kind of situation in the future? Consider response and prevention from the perspective of the individual as well as for the group involved.

Tier 2: targeted supports Recent systematic research has documented evidence that the most effective SMH programs include consistent, long-term support for mental health promotion, targeted prevention and intensive intervention through MTSS (Reddy, Newman, Thomas & Chun 2009; Weare & Nind 2011). School programs combining long-term, whole-school mental health promotion with more targeted prevention have been consistently found to have greater effects on the social, behavioural and emotional health of children and youth, and as such researchers have actively promoted the redress of the balance between universal mental health promotion and targeted prevention (for example, Green et al. 2005; Weare & Nind 2011). Some students may not be responsive to universal programming (Bambara et  al. 2015; Daly, Nicholls et al. 2014). These students may have an elevated risk of developing behavioural and mental health difficulties, and require more intensive supports such as Tier 2 (that is, selective/indicated), targeted systems of support. Tier 2 prevention programs often take the form of small-group interventions, and may be used in conjunction with screening processes to identify students who require preventive supports. It is estimated that about 10–15 per cent of students will require group supports that can be provided within the school context (Daly, Nicholls et al. 2014). Within the context of the MTSS, Tier 2 targeted-level teams are often focused on small groups of students who may be at risk (for example, children with disabilities) or displaying symptoms of behavioural, social or emotional difficulty. Team members should include general and special education teachers, school counsellors and, to some degree, specialists with specific knowledge such as school psychologists, school-based mental health clinicians, social workers, and other allied health professional such as speech pathologists (Markle et al. 2014). The extent to which external professionals are involved in targeted prevention is dependent on the school and programs of support implemented. Teams must be interdisciplinary to include

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members with knowledge of the students, context, available resources and the principles of effective interventions (Bambara et al. 2015; Markle et al. 2014). The greater the intensity and complexity of support required, the greater the need for external community level support and mental health professionals to provide a comprehensive level of care for students and families (Daly, Sander et al. 2014). Tier 2 targeted prevention should be evidence-based, flexible in response to the needs of students identified by the school, and interconnected with social, emotional and behavioural competencies and academic learning addressed at the universal level. Evidence-based Tier 2 interventions commonly used in schools include effective small group explicit instruction and classroom management (Atkins, Hoagwood, Kutash & Seidman 2010). Specific examples include Check and Connect (Todd, Campbell, Meyer & Horner 2008), First Steps to Success (Loman, Rodriguez & Horner 2010)  and a myriad social skills development programs (Reddy et al. 2009). One of the most potent Tier 2 preventive approaches for behavioural difficulties involves consistent classroom management practices that are systematically planned and implemented by staff and directly linked to universal, Tier 1 efforts (Atkins et  al. 2010; Franklin et  al. 2012). While several effective Tier 2 targeted programs have been documented, we have presented examples that are evidence-based and have been successfully implemented in schools to address behavioural, social and emotional concerns. Check and Connect programs have been widely researched as Tier 2 level supports within the PBIS framework (Collins, Gresham & Dart 2016; Todd et al. 2008). These programs aim to improve student engagement by promoting positive interactions between students and school staff, and reinforce prosocial and academic engagement (Anderson, Christenson, Sinclair & Lehr 2004; Hawken 2009). Examples include the Behaviour Education Program and Check in-Check Out (CICO). Checking involves assessment of engagement, behaviour and academic progress with ongoing evaluation to ensure a prompt response to signs of difficulty. The Connect component involves developing a personal connection with a school staff member (monitor) who maintains persistent interactions with students and families, positive expectations, continuity and consistency over time (Anderson et al. 2004). Students check in and check out of school daily with the monitor to prepare for the day and to share daily reports of their progress. The monitor works with the support team that evaluates student progress, monitors the plan as needed, and decides when the student is ready to transition out of the intervention (Hawken 2009). Check and Connect programs have a demonstrated effect in improving student behaviour and academic engagement across multiple grade levels, among both primary and secondary age students (Todd et al. 2008). First Steps to Success (FSS) is a collaborative home and school program designed to improve the behavioural and academic outcomes for young children (K-3) who demonstrate behavioural concerns. Children are identified through early screening and the program includes both school-based and parent/home-based intervention (Loman et  al. 2010). Children are supported to (1) develop social skills, (2) improve interactions with teachers and peers, and (3) increase successful engagement in learning. Detailed descriptions for implementation of FSS can be found in Rodriguez, Loman and Horner (2009). The Fast Track Program is a similar multi-modal approach that addresses academic, behavioural and family support for students of all ages whereby intervention involves both teachers and parents. The program has been Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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found to be effective in improving both prosocial behaviour and academic achievement in children across age groups (Tennant et al. 2007). Social skills programs aimed at improving prosocial peer interactions for children at risk have been found to be effective at predominantly the Tier 3 intensive level with mixed evidence of effectiveness at the Tier 2 targeted level (that is, group programs) (Gresham 2015). Reddy et al. (2009) found that prevention studies aimed at improving social skills produced moderate effects, while intervention (intensive individual) studies produced large effects on social skills improvement. In a systematic review of social skills programs, Arbesman, Bazyk and Nochajski (2013) found strong evidence that social interaction and peer acceptance improved for children who participated in Tier 2 targeted prevention, and prevention was effective for a range of at-risk children and youth. Social skills programs can be classified under three main categories: social interaction, prosocial behaviour and social-cognitive skills (Gresham 2015). The type of targeted group program selected will be dependent on the age of students and the types of social skills most appropriate or relevant for the group. For example, the Social Skills Group Intervention (S.S.GRIN) is based on social learning and emphasises behavioural, cognitive and emotional components of problem solving for children in Years 3–5 (Daly, Nicholls et al. 2014; Macklem 2011). The aim is to improve children’s peer relationships through developing behavioural and cognitive social skills while building coping strategies for social problems. Often children who are selected for social skills programs are rejected by peers and experience bullying and victimisation (Daly, Nicholls et al. 2014), internalising problems (for example, anxiety and depression) and externalising behaviour problems (for example, aggression and conduct problems) (Collins, Gresham & Dart 2016). The development of prosocial, behavioural and social-cognitive skills is a necessity for prevention of indicated mental health difficulties requiring Tier 3 intensive intervention and has been found to act as an academic enabler, predicting academic performance in future grades (Collins, Gresham & Dart 2016). Social-emotional competencies contribute to successful youth outcomes, including academic achievement; however, children and youth who require prevention may not be eligible for community mental health services, highlighting the importance of evidence-based prevention programs in schools (Daly, Sander et al. 2014). Consider the case of Hayley and the types of preventive programs that might address her difficulties with anxiety, development of social relationships and coping strategies when experiencing social problems.

Apply your knowledge Check and Connect programs are efficient Tier 2 programs that can assist students to stay engaged in school, build relationships and maintain communication between home and school. 1 As a group, watch the four-minute video at http://checkandconnect.umn.edu/model/ default.html. 2 Plan a simple check and connect program that might assist Hayley to alleviate anxiety, follow up with instructional supports, goals for maths and support relationships with peers while keeping family involved and informed. 3 The video www.youtube.com/watch?v=GMo5aAm2rVw demonstrates an example of a Check-in Check-out program for younger students. View this video also.

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Supporting mental health for ASD students In a study conducted in South Australia that investigated teacher professional learning needs to support students on the autism spectrum (Bissaker et  al. 2013), teachers overwhelmingly reported they felt the least confident to support the learning of students who may be experiencing mental health issues. Fifty-seven per cent of educators reported feeling no confidence (1) to somewhat confident (2) on a 4-point scale (M=2.45). Teachers stated the areas that best reflected their most challenging situations were related to (1) social communication (42 per cent) and (2) social reciprocity and interaction/relationships (57 per cent). They reported concerns such as anxiety, depression, self-harm, aggression, violence and oppositional behaviours as the most challenging. Teachers described the following as the most challenging situations:

STORIES FROM THE CLASSROOM

… a student currently in year 11 has cut himself off from family and friends and says he has chosen study over friends. His mother reports that he hardly comes out of his room at home. She has been taking him to a local psychologist… He is flatly refusing to come to school chapel and year level meetings and this is causing conflict with his care group teachers. Student stresses over work that needs to be done even if he has many days/weeks to complete it and support is available. Student became agitated immediately and when approached refused to talk about it. When stressed any other child that looks at him is considered to be a bully with bad intentions and the student threatens them. Student tried to leave the school. It took a lot of work to get the student to take time to calm and eventually we had to call the parent to come collect the student. For reasons I don’t understand my child will trash the room, refuse to do what is asked, is constantly very loud, and generally disrupts other children’s learning. It is simply really hard and at times overwhelming to deal with in a mainstream classroom. … young student with very high sensory needs who had difficulty self-regulating, complex family situation with many transitions and changes… student also had high levels of anxiety.

Tier 3: indicated/intensive supports Tier 3 intensive level supports are aimed at students who have chronic difficulties with academic, social, emotional and behavioural learning. They require an intensive, individual level of ongoing support and are estimated to include 1–5 per cent of the school-age population. Students in need of intensive levels of support may have an indicated mental illness or be exhibiting chronic symptoms that may not be sufficient to warrant diagnosis (Macklem 2011). In the MTSS framework, all students have access to intensive level supports as needed. Such supports may be available in the school setting (for example, intensive level, one-to-one direct instruction, social skills development, individualised counselling) or may be provided through a referral process to external professionals (for example, psychological, social work or case management services) and community agencies (for example, Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services). With the passing of the NDIS Act, schools are increasingly working in partnership with families Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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and service providers on the provision of disability services (for example, speech therapy, occupational therapy, psychological services) on school sites. This increases the potential for intensive level psychological and clinical services to liaise and collaborate directly with school staff (for example, counsellors and learning support) and in some instances provide clinical services and consultation on-site. Case management or service coordination for intensive wraparound services may also be funded, including coordination of services that are delivered both during and out of school hours. Children and youth who are receiving support at the indicated or intensive level of support (Tier 3) will be supported by a team of educators and professionals. Educators should consult with members of the school support team and familiarise themselves with plans, interventions and supports recommended for implementation in classrooms and non-academic school settings. A coordinator of school services (for example, special needs coordinator, learning support coordinator or well-being coordinator) may be the point of contact for classroom teachers. This will be dependent on how team supports are implemented within each school and the extent to which schools have developed systems and processes and identified roles and responsibilities of teams across levels of a MTSS. Specialist teachers are well placed and essential in the coordination of a holistic team approach to supporting students who require intensive level supports. Tier 3 level supports can be represented in a variety of ways, including the IEP for students with disabilities, and can be applied across multiple dimensions (academic, behavioural, social and emotional); for some students, integrated supports across all dimensions are necessary (Macklem 2011). For students with chronic behavioural difficulties, a Tier 3 intensive level intervention requires a functional behaviour assessment (FBA) to identify the underlying functions of behavioural difficulties, which then informs the design of the behaviour support plan (BSP) (Macklem 2011; Tobin & Sugai 2005). FBAs have been extensively researched as the recommended practice to inform the BSP; formats vary depending on individual student needs and the school context (Tobin & Sugai 2005). There are extensive resources available to schools on the processes and tools for FBA and individualised behaviour support. A range of resources, tools and publications are freely available on www.pbis.org, including integration within a MTSS. Also refer to Chapter 8 for further information on supporting positive behaviour in schools. The FBA and BSP require team decision making and a team member who has the knowledge and skill to lead implementation efforts and consult with external professionals as needed. Qualified special educators are often trained in FBA and positive behaviour support as part of their specialist teacher education program and may be suited to coordinate support teams for Tier 3 level intensive interventions. For students with mental health difficulties (indicated or exhibiting chronic symptoms), mental health professionals are essential members of the team (that is, psychologists, counsellors or social workers) and are likely to implement intensive mental health intervention either at school or via external community support services. Schools are advised to seek external professional support to develop internal mechanisms for support and referral if they lack professional knowledge and skill in this area. Mental health professionals are responsible for implementing intensive individual interventions for specific mental disorders such as depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress, which are common indicated mental health disorders (Fazel et  al. 2014). Anxiety disorders are the most common mental health difficulties in children and youth, with over

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30 per cent affected before they reach adulthood (Fox et al. 2014). Anxiety disorders affect student friendships, relationships and academic achievement, and without intervention are likely to persist into adulthood (Fox et al. 2014; Macklem 2011). Unfortunately, many children who suffer from anxiety remain unidentified or are not referred for the treatment they need, when compared to children who exhibit externalising problems (Fox et al. 2014). Schools are an important context for intervening to support children’s mental health (Huggins et al. 2016), and may be functional and appropriate settings for intervention since triggers for worry often occur at school, and schools offer opportunities to practise strategies in the setting where they are needed (Fox et al. 2014; Macklem 2011). Dissemination studies of cognitive-behavioural treatment programs implemented in schools with mental health providers (social workers and psychologists) and other school staff (counsellors and teachers) have identified a limited number of effective school-based programs (for example, Cool Kids and Skills for Academic and Social Success). Similarly, depression is a significant mental health concern for youth (Macklem 2011; Patel, Stark, Metz & Banneyer 2014; Suldo, Gormley, DuPaul & AndersonButcher 2014), and increases the risk of suicide (Patel at al. 2014). The majority of programs implemented within schools for depression include cognitive behavioural components and have generally been an effective method. An example of an effective cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) program is ACTION (Patel et al. 2014). However, schools often do not have adequately trained mental health staff to deliver CBT. Schools may contract external mental health professionals or commit to training staff and providing ongoing supervision to ensure programs are implemented with fidelity. It is generally beyond the professional role of an educator to implement specific interventions for students with indicated mental disorders.

Effective practice Strategies and adjustments for anxiety and depression SchoolMentalHealth.org, a Baltimore School Mental Health Technical Assistance and Training Initiative, provides online resources and professional learning for teachers. The ‘Children’s Mental Health Disorder Fact Sheet for the Classroom’ lists helpful instructional strategies and adjustments that teachers can implement for students experiencing anxiety and depression:

Anxiety disorder • Flexible assignment deadlines • Checking with students that they have correctly written down assignment instructions or provide written instructions for students • Post the daily schedule so it is visible and students know what to expect • Reduce workload, especially homework • Maintain the regular schedule as much as possible • Encourage school attendance—adjust the schedule if necessary • Use technology to engage student interest and increase motivation • Ask parents what works at home

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Depression • • • • • • • • • •

Reduce classroom pressures, such as the strategies listed above Break tasks into smaller parts Reassure students they can catch up when they have missed classes Show them steps they need to take to complete work/assignments Be flexible and realistic about your expectations (failure and overly high expectations can exacerbate depression) Help students to use positive statements about their performance Help students recognise and acknowledge their performance and positive class contributions Keep a record of students’ accomplishments and show them their achievements Encourage gradual social interaction (for example, small groups) Ask parents what helps to reduce the pressure and motivate their child Source: http://schoolmentalhealth.org/Resources/Educ/MHClassroomFactSheet.pdf.

Effective practice Assessment A major component of comprehensive and effective SMH programming is systematic, universal screening (Dvorsky, Girio-Herrera & Owens 2014). The aim of universal screening is to identify problems before behaviours become a concern for parents and teachers and lead to referral for more intensive Tier 3 services. Universal screening, when paired with effective early intervention (prevention), can decrease the likelihood of further academic, behavioural and social-emotional difficulties, leading to a need for intensive supports (Bambara, Janney & Snell 2015; Dvorsky, Girio-Herrera & Owens 2014; Macklem 2011). Multiple factors need to be considered to identify students for selected or targeted prevention including disciplinary data, academic, social-emotional and behavioural profiles and student risk and protective factors (Bambara, Janney & Snell 2015). Following are a list of guidelines for screening and identification of students recommended by Bambara, Janney and Snell (2015). • Have a proactive process of screening to identify students (for example, specific screening tools or administrative processes). • Use multiple informants (teachers, parents, external observers) in multiple settings (classrooms, playgrounds, home) to gain a broad perspective on identification of atrisk students for targeted prevention. • Ensure screening occurs as early as possible in a student’s education. • Use teacher nominations and ratings to supplement screening by direct observation, parent ratings, school records and other appropriate sources. Within a MTSS schools may use disciplinary data or office discipline referrals (ODRs) to identify students who are exhibiting high levels of behavioural difficulty (Bambara, Janney & Snell 2015). Students may then be further assessed to determine factors influencing

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behaviours of concern. However, disciplinary data do not typically identify students with internalising behaviours of concern (for example, depression and social anxiety) (Macklem 2011), and therefore multiple sources of information, including specific screening tools, are recommended. This also aids in avoiding disproportional identification of particular racial and ethnic groups (Bambara, Janney & Snell 2015; Dvorsky, Girio-Herrera & Owens 2014). Examples of screening tools include the Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) (Gresham & Elliott 2008), the Student Risk Screening Scale (SSRS) (Drummond 1994), the Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD) (Walker & Severson 1992) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman 2001). School teams operating within a MTSS will identify universal screening tools that match their screening rationale and resources, developmental levels of students, and school contextual variables such as staff training and how data will be confidentially stored and used for decision making (Dvorsky, Girio-Herrera & Owens 2014; Macklem 2011).

A focus on technology It is acknowledged that young people experiencing mental health concerns may be reluctant to seek face-to-face support. At the same time, adolescents and young adults frequently seek information from online resources, and this has led to the development of web-based information and interventions for mental health support (Dooley & Fitzgerald 2012). It is likely that this set of approaches to mental health promotion and intervention will continue to expand in the coming years. A recent systematic review of research (twenty-eight studies) into online youth mental health interventions found that while research is still limited, there is emerging evidence that well-designed online interventions can have a significant impact on (1) the promotion of adolescents’ well-being and mental health literacy, and (2) the reduction of adolescents’ existing anxiety and depression symptoms (Clarke, Kuosmanen & Barry 2015). Some effective interventions include an element of face-to-face or web-based support, which appears to increase the likelihood that young people will complete the (often module-based) intervention. While the above review considered mental health interventions more generally, Perry, Werner-Seidler, Calear and Christensen (2016) conducted a systematic review of research on the efficacy of web-based and mobile interventions aimed specifically at suicide prevention in young people (aged 12–25). They found only one efficacy study that met the criteria for inclusion in the review, and two protocol papers of studies in progress. The small amount of evidence available showed positive outcomes in terms of decreased suicidal ideation, depression and feelings of hopelessness, but further research is needed in this area. Despite promising findings to date, online intervention is a relatively new approach and there is a need for more high-quality research into the efficacy of these mental health promotion and intervention programs and resources, and the key characteristics that make them effective. Examples of programs and resources with an online element that have shown promise so far, and can be accessed through the internet, include:

TECHNOLOGY

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• MoodGYM: https://moodgym.anu.edu.au. An online, self-directed, module-based program designed to prevent depression in youth. Developed through the Australian National University (ANU) (see Calear, Christensen, Mackinnon & Griffiths 2013). • eCouch: https://ecouch.anu.edu.au. Also developed through ANU, this free online program is designed to support young people experiencing depression, anxiety, grief or loss. • Mood Mechanic: https://mindspot.org.au/mood-mechanic. An online course (five lessons in eight weeks, with weekly support) aimed to prevent anxiety and depression in 18–25-year-olds. Developed through Macquarie University. • Kids Help Line: https://kidshelpline.com.au. Provides online (and phone) counselling, information and support for young people aged five to 18 years, and also offers support to schools. Affiliated with KidsMatter. • Reach Out!: http://au.reachout.com. A series of resources, forums and links to apps to assist young people under 25 with common questions related to mental health, relationships, drug use and other issues. Affiliated with the Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre, which is also trialling a range of web-based apps, interventions and resources: http://about.au.reachout.com/us/our-apps-and-tools. There are also information resources available online, designed to educate people (including children and young people) about topics related to mental health, and the supports and services available. Research suggests that up to half of classroom teachers lack content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and self-efficacy related to mental health promotion, prior to involvement with structured, school-wide mental health programs (Askell-Williams & Lawson 2013). Internet-based resources may therefore be a valuable source of information for teachers, who are responsible for implementing Tier 1 and supporting Tier 2 and 3 interventions, but who may lack the knowledge and skills to do so confidently. Examples of web-based Australian resources are included websites listed at the end of the chapter.

SUMMARY Mental health is a positive concept associated with individuals’ personal well-being and capacity to contribute to society. Schools are important sites for the promotion of well-being and the skills and competencies associated with positive mental health, and are also well placed to prevent and intervene in specific mental health difficulties. Ideally, school-based efforts to support mental health focus not only on managing problems once they arise, but also on identifying and supporting individual and environmental strengths that can foster coping and problem-solving skills, resilience, positive relationships, achievement and connectedness to community. Such an approach requires teachers to develop strong mental health literacy and establish positive, inclusive learning environments for all students. As discussed in this chapter, the most effective school-based mental health efforts are coordinated across multiple levels (tiers) of support, from mental health promotion for all students to more targeted supports for students at risk or beginning to exhibit signs of difficulty, to more intensive and

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individualised interventions for students already experiencing mental health disorders or displaying specific mental health needs. This approach can readily be coordinated with other school-wide efforts, including those related to behavioural and academic support. Like other school-wide initiatives, a coordinated approach to mental health promotion, prevention and intervention relies upon strong leadership, a shared vision for student outcomes, and qualified and supported personnel.

For group discussion 1 Consider students you know who may be exhibiting signs of mental health difficulties. What are some of the specific risk factors that could increase the likelihood they will develop further difficulties? Importantly, what are some protective factors that you can identify, which could be strengthened to help the student overcome their difficulties? Remember to consider both individual and environmental factors. 2 Teachers play a particularly important role in school-based mental health approaches that include a strong focus on well-being and prevention. What skills and competencies might teachers need to effectively support the development of students’ positive mental health? 3 In your own school setting, what are some opportunities you see to coordinate mental health promotion, prevention and intervention with other classroom or school-wide initiatives?

Key references Barrett, S., Eber, L. & Weist, M. (2013). Advancing education effectiveness: interconnecting school mental health and school-wide positive behavior support. Center for School Mental Health. Accessed at www.pbis.org/school/school-mental-health/interconnected-systems. Lawrence, D., Johnson, S., Hafekost J., Boterhoven De Haan, K., Sawyer, M., Ainley, J.  & Zubrick, S. R. (2015). The mental health of children and adolescents: report on the second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Canberra: Department of Health. Accessed at www.health.gov.au/internet/main/ publishing.nsf/Content/9DA8CA21306FE6EDCA257E2700016945/$File/child2.pdf. Weist, M. D., Lever, N. A., Bradshaw, C. P. & Owens, J. S. (eds) (2014). Handbook of school mental health: research, training, practice, and policy (2nd edn). New York: Springer Science & Business Media.

Websites beyondblue—www.beyondblue.org Information and resources related to depression and anxiety. YBlue is the section designed specifically for youth: www.youthbeyondblue.com. Julie McMillan and Jane M. Jarvis

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Black Dog Institute—www.blackdoginstitute.org.au Information and resources related to depression and bipolar disorder, with links to intervention, research reports and online tools for young people.

Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning—www.casel.org US site with many resources related to supporting students’ social and emotional learning in schools.

emerging minds—www.emergingminds.com.au Website includes informational resources and links to online professional learning courses for those supporting children and young people’s mental health. Also includes links to COPMI (Children of Parents with Mental Illness), which has resources specifically targeted to children and young people. Formerly the Australian Infant, Child, Adolescent & Family Mental Health Association.

Headspace—www.headspace.org.au Website of the National Youth Mental Health Foundation, with links to early intervention services, support for well-being, and informational resources related to mental health for 12–25-year-olds.

KidsMatter—www.kidsmatter.edu.au Government-funded, mental health support program for primary schools, and for early childhood centres (KidsMatter Early Childhood). Includes a blended professional learning course for educators, with an online component. The website also provides access to informational resources about mental health in children.

mindhealthconnect—www.mindhealthconnect.org.au Supported by the Australian government, this site provides a searchable database of information about specific mental health issues, links to service providers, and information specifically aimed at children and young people.

MindMatters—www.mindmatters.edu.au Government-funded, mental health support program for secondary schools. Includes a blended professional learning course for educators, with an online component. The website also provides access to informational resources about mental health in young people.

NSW Department of Education, Positive Behaviour for Learning—www.pbl.schools.nsw. edu.au/about-pbl Information and resources about the Positive Behaviour for Learning approach, and how this is being implemented in NSW schools.

Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports—www.pbis.org Information and resources related to the PBIS approach in US schools, including links to implementation guides and research studies.

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Student Wellbeing Hub—National Safe Schools Framework—https:// studentwellbeinghub.edu.au Contains many resources for educators about supporting student well-being in Australian schools, in the context of the National Safe Schools Framework.

University of Maryland’s Center for School Mental Health—www.schoolmentalhealth. org and http://csmh.umaryland.edu. Includes links for mental health professionals and educators to evidence-based advice, information and resources related to supporting students’ mental health in schools.

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Chapter 17: Creating Inclusive Schools

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Chapter 19: Inclusive Education: Ways to the Future

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Creating Inclusive Schools Mervyn Hyde

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To demonstrate an understanding of the concepts and principles that can shape inclusive education and evidence forms of engagement in classrooms and schools • To reflect on how these concepts and principles can be developed into policies and practices, and applied to accommodate the needs of all students • To reflect on recent developments and approaches to the education of students with special needs • To reflect on ways to meet the issues and challenges in inclusive education

KEY TERMS inclusive education Response to Intervention (RTI) uniformity

Introduction The process of creating inclusive schools begins within inclusive communities. Schools need to understand the communities that they serve and appreciate the make-up of those communities, their histories and complexities, challenges, traditions and aspirations. Schools are a reflection of the communities which they serve. However, schools are also communities in their own right with unique sets of students, staff, missions and traditions. They need to be able to reflect these features as they attempt to be inclusive in their policies, curricula and practices. School leadership is crucial to achieving inclusive outcomes, as without informed and committed leadership the best attempts of staff and local communities may be thwarted. Another vital component of building inclusive schools involves the attitudes of staff and students. Creating attitude and behaviour change through information, discussion, collaborative planning and the use of positive examples is an important part of the process. To achieve the objectives of inclusive education, the process of inclusion that has been described in earlier chapters (that is, promoting and supporting access and participation), needs to be planned, implemented and evaluated. This last aspect is often termed engagement.

Inclusive education: The promotion of the participation of all learners in the local schools of their choice; making learning meaningful and relevant for all (including those learners who are most vulnerable to exclusionary influences) and the rethinking and restructuring of policies, curricula, cultures and practices in schools and learning environments so that diverse learning needs can be met.

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It asks the important questions about the outcomes of enhanced access, support and participation. What kinds of attachment, sense of belonging, experiences and achievements do students demonstrate to evidence the outcomes of an inclusive education in their school? Increasingly, governments, education authorities and schools are asking these questions to gauge the effectiveness of curricula, pedagogy, staff, the use of available resources and school operations. Finally, inclusion needs to be seen to operate in each classroom and playground, as it is there that the real experience of participation, engagement and, therefore, inclusion is to be found for students. These and other aspects are examined in this chapter to provide guidance for building inclusive school communities.

Consult your school’s website and print materials available to the public and staff to obtain any statements about, or descriptions of, the local community. You should also consult school administration authorities and local government councils to obtain information that provides descriptions of the size, diversity, needs, employment, cultural and education backgrounds, geography, transport, local traditions and challenges facing the local community. Also obtain information on the size of the school, its mission and values, the number of teaching, administration and support staff, and the size and make-up of the student population.

Pause and reflect

1 In examining the online and print materials, what references are there to, or examples of, inclusion of all students in education and student and community engagement in school life? To what extent does your school encourage and support a sense of belonging for all students? To what extent does the school engage with community values and activities? 2 Use these materials to create a summary of the school and its overall community. What challenges remain?

Some concepts and principles

Uniformity: The creation of a system or set of experiences that are the same for all concerned.

There is a massive amount of literature on the topic of inclusion and inclusive education and each chapter in this book has contributed further to our understanding of the process. As indicated in Chapter 1, inclusion is a cyclical process in which the right balance is sought in each education system and school setting between two competing interests—the provision of high levels of differentiation of services and support to the needs of specific individuals, and the degree of uniformity that is maintained across a system and school community to ensure that funds are distributed appropriately and that the rights of all are preserved. This can be a difficult balance to achieve within some policy directives that exist in a school (or a system of

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schools) and the resources that are available. However, if the concepts of inclusion are clearly understood and appropriate principles are adopted in framing school policy and practice, much can be achieved, even in changing political, social and economic circumstances. Working with local councils and third party community organisations can significantly extend the resources and impact of schools’ programs and activities.

What are some of the concepts and principles that can guide this process? In their early and influential book, Stainback and Stainback (1990) described an inclusive school as a place where everyone belongs, is accepted, and supports and is supported by their peers and other members of the school community in the course of having their educational needs met. This sounded idealistic at the time, but it has proven to be a flexible and useful description when considered in the context of subsequent changes in international and national legislation and policies and recent trends towards greater accountability in our schools. A number of conditions were listed by the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2001) as being central to the development of inclusive classroom practices: • Inclusion depends on teachers’ attitudes towards students with special needs, their capacity to enhance social relationships, their attitudes towards differences in classrooms and their willingness to deal with those differences effectively. • Teachers need skills, expertise, knowledge, pedagogical expertise, teaching methods, materials and time if they are to address diversity effectively within their classrooms. • Teachers need support from inside and outside the school: leadership from the principal, from school districts, and from communities and governments is crucial. • National and state governments should also express a united view on inclusion and provide adequate legislative, policy and physical conditions and resources. There are many areas to consider here when reflecting on your school community and classroom. Foremost is the issue of attitudes. Without positive and informed attitudes, inclusive policies in a school or class will not be practised or, even worse, may appear to be in place, while in reality having minimal impact. However, positive attitudes are of little value unless they are backed up with good leadership, appropriate resources and appropriate teaching and monitoring strategies. In any

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school, there are staff who are more open to the challenges of inclusion, and staff who are less open. This is a consequence not only of human nature but also of the different skills and experience teachers have and the resources available. Attitudes can be changed, but such change needs to be backed up with tangible resourcing, partnerships with school communities and third party organisations, comprehensive information, professional development and collaborative planning—not just rhetoric and policy. Where teachers baulk at implementing inclusive education policies and where attitudes are least supportive, two issues are raised in the literature as objections: lack of resources and lack of professional development. A role of school leadership and school communities is to obtain the necessary resources and to provide access to appropriate forms of professional development for teachers and support staff. It is also important to share information and policy change processes with parents, school communities and community organisations. Their participation is essential if change is to be understood and supported, rather than resisted. For example: 1 The use of limited school financial resources to make certain school areas ‘barrier free’ and accessible for students with mobility, physical impairments or sensory impairments needs to be discussed with parents. 2 Similarly, if significant numbers of children from refugee families are to be included in a school community, this development needs to be broadly discussed, well informed and carefully planned, enacted in collaborative programs and evaluated. Attitudes are changed by successful outcomes and successful outcomes are achieved in the context of careful joint planning, appropriate resources, and informed professionals and communities.

Can inclusion be measured? Most state education systems in Australia, as described in Chapter 2, are bound by national legislation and policy aimed at maximising the participation of all students in mainstream classrooms. Governments are also bound by the international treaties and conventions they have signed and agreed to (see Chapter 1). It is typically observed that Australian states, in their policies regarding inclusion, will consider accommodations—sometimes termed as ‘adjustments’, or ‘adaptations’—of their school and class settings, as well as their curricula and assessment practices, to make them more suitable for use for students with special learning needs. There are different policy approaches and even funding formulae used in the Australian states and territories to provide for special needs students in mainstream settings. One could argue that such approaches—for example, ‘appraisement’ of students’ needs or the use of ‘levels’ of student support that are provided— are not inclusive in the strictest sense. That is, they may focus too much on the descriptive or categorical ‘labels’ (deaf, ADD, autistic) accorded to some students with special needs and not enough on the responses of the settings, the curriculum and all the participants in them.

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This distinction is true if one accepts the broadest possible definition and objectives of inclusion; that is, that all students shall be included in local schools. However, schools and school systems need to operate effectively and efficiently within their budgets and associated policy parameters. In addition to planning for inclusion, they need to have accountable measures to provide evidence of the outcomes of their policies, objectives and services. So, it is likely that there will always be some features of inclusive policies and programs that will be in a degree of conflict with the broader philosophical intentions of the inclusive education process. Another thing to look for in school policies and practices towards inclusion concerns the nature of any ‘target groups’ identified in policy or planning documents. For example, is the school’s view of diversity and inclusion a broad one, or is it devoted mainly to the needs of students with an impairment or disability that falls within the requirements of existing legislation, standards or policy directives? Does the school support a view of inclusion that also considers gender, Indigenous learners, gifted students, students coming from conflict situations or students from non-English-speaking backgrounds? So, inclusion cannot be universally measured per se, but there will necessarily be systems applied for measuring the allocation of resources, identifying the needs of learners and monitoring the outcomes for students and schools. This extension of inclusive policy and practice is often termed ‘engagement’.

Engagement School engagement, connectedness and a sense of belonging are three related psychological elements that strongly influence students’ educational experiences (Li & Lerner 2013). These three elements complement each other, while maintaining a degree of independence. School engagement represents the levels of student commitment, involvement and attachment to school which can assist with descriptions of students’ feelings, thoughts and behaviours about their school and their learning experiences (Dotterer & Lowe 2011; Li & Lerner 2013). Within school engagement, there are a further three dimensions: behavioural, emotional and cognitive dimensions (Dotterer & Lowe 2011; Hazel, Vazirabadi, Albanes & Gallagher 2014; Li & Lerner 2013). Behavioural dimensions of school engagement refer to students’ school involvement in school and classroom activities, ranging from school attendance through to the nature of individual contributions to their learning experiences (Dotterer & Lowe 2011; Hazel et al. 2014;

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Li & Learner 2013). Emotional dimensions of school engagement relate to students’ sense of school belonging such as identifying with their school, group membership and feelings of closeness to teachers and peers (Dotterer & Lowe 2011; Hazel et al. 2014; Li & Lerner 2013). Cognitive dimensions of school engagement pertain to students’ thoughts about school such as its relevance and value to education, which may influence student involvement in their learning experiences and educational outcomes (Dotterer & Lowe 2011; Hazel et al. 2014; Li & Lerner 2013). Student engagement may be described in these various ways, but can be generally seen as participation in educationally effective practices, both inside and outside the classroom, which leads to a range of potentially measurable outcomes (Fredericks et al. 2011). In the United States in particular, the focus on student engagement was driven by concerns about school dropout rates, student boredom or alienation, low or underachievement, and disadvantages for vulnerable students, those from low socio-economic backgrounds, and students with a disability or other special learning needs. High emphasis is placed on measuring engagement in US schools, using a range of purpose-designed instruments (see Fredericks et  al. 2011), including annual student, family and teacher surveys, classroom observations, student observations out of class, participation in homework and, overall, how the students are experiencing a sense of

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attachment or ‘belonging’ to the school. Data from these instruments consistently show that engagement scores correlate highly with student performance, as expected. The data also provide schools and school systems with information for future planning towards effective inclusive education. In the United Kingdom, their approach is less based on detailed, formal test instruments, but around school reporting on similar domains to those in the US approach. Typically, three main domains of engagement are described: 1 Behavioural engagement—students who are behaviourally engaged would typically comply with behavioural standards or expectations, such as attendance, display attention, interest and involvement across school academic and social activities, and demonstrate the absence of disruptive or negative behaviour. 2 Emotional engagement—students who engage emotionally would experience affective reactions such as interest, enjoyment or a sense of belonging, and positive relationships with other students and staff. They would display understanding and valuing of the school ethos and their participation in school activities. 3 Cognitive engagement—cognitively engaged students would be invested in their learning and the curriculum, often seek to go beyond the basic requirements, and enjoy challenge. They would display self-regulation, study management skills, a perceived relevance of schoolwork and a capacity for planning and cognitive strategy use. In Australia, we have not moved formally into the measurement of engagement in inclusive education directly in the compulsory years of schooling (as we have, however, in higher education), but there is a clear trend towards greater accountability and standards for teachers, schools, families and students and their participation in government and community funded education. All stakeholders are now concerned with outcomes. This is an area where greater scrutiny can be expected from government, professional and community organisations, especially when they move beyond monitoring the skills and knowledge involved in literacy, numeracy, phonics and mathematics.

STANDARDS

Apply your knowledge How might you determine the outcomes of your plans for the inclusion of a child from a different culture in your class and school? What kinds of observations, discussions, data or other procedures would you use to determine outcomes: 1 behaviourally 2 emotionally 3 cognitively?

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Groups or individuals? Finally, inclusion should not be viewed as only being about groups or categories of individuals who are considered to be disadvantaged in some way; for example, about students with a hearing loss or those from a non- English-speaking background. It is essentially about individuals and individuals are multilayered. We know that within groups that may share some characteristic that is potentially a disadvantage, there will be great variability in the manner in which this characteristic influences their identity and their inclusion. Some may not be influenced at all, while others may demonstrate a significant loss of access, opportunity or equity of outcome. It is, therefore, always important to consider inclusion from an individual perspective, as it is only the individual who truly feels accepted, belonging and engaging actively in social and academic events. We can all understand this from our own experience.

The Western Australian Government (DET WA 2004, updated 2016) provided a typical and effective model of inclusion that showed the various processes at work and identified seven principles of inclusive education (Figure 17.1).

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Figure 17.1 The seven principles of inclusive education

Collaborating for better outcomes

7. Services are provided and supported by collaborative models and partnerships.

Providing access and participation

1. All students have the right to enrol, access and participate in schooling which meets their individual needs.

Delivering responsive programs and services

6. The range of coordinated programs and services provided are flexible and delivered according to student needs.

Valuing diversity

Principles of inclusive education

Ensuring local decisions and adjustments

Matching pedagogy with student needs

5. The system supports the development of pedagogy to meet individual student needs.

2. All levels of the system value diversity and operate within an inclusive framework.

Implementing a new framework for resource allocation

3. A range of effective and appropriate adjustments is provided to ensure access, participation and achievement.

4. Adjustments are provided on a needs basis and are equitably resourced.

Source: Department of Education and Training (DET WA) (2004).

The NDIS and the National Disability Strategy It can also be noted that the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) and the related National Disability Strategy (2010–2020) includes support for schools in the implementation of the Australian Curriculum. As part of this process, the NDIS collected information on school students in its 2013–15 Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD). This data collection involved four general areas: 1 2 3 4

the assessed identified needs of the student reasonable adjustments provided to the student to address their individual needs monitoring and review of the adjustments provided to the student consultation and collaboration.

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The NCCD included a number of provisions that can directly link to the obligations of schools under the national Disability Standards for Education (Attorney-General’s Department 2005)  to conduct personalised planning for students with disability, and the NCCD can support personalised planning processes. The elements of personalised learning and support are: consultation and collaboration, including that with parents and carers as well as collaboration between teachers and other professionals; assessed individual need of the student; adjustments or support provided to the student; impact of the adjustment or support. However, although the NDIS will fund a range of specialised supports for school-aged children with a disability, the purpose of the scheme is not to duplicate or take over the responsibilities of the state Departments of Education. Schools will continue to provide ‘reasonable adjustment’ for students with disability to enable them to access the curriculum on an equal basis with their peers (for example, see www.det.wa.edu.au/studentsupport/ detcms/navigation/disability-services-and-support/national-disability-insurance-scheme-ndis--implementation/ndis-and-schools).

Apply your knowledge Examine another state education system, or an independent school, and see if they subscribe to the seven principles in Figure  17.1. Construct a summary based on the following: 1 Are their policies and plans more focused on ‘differentiation’ and the needs of individual students, or on more uniform whole-school or system-wide issues? 2 Do they only respond to the needs of students who fall under the Disability Standards for Education (Attorney-General’s Department 2005) for reasonable adjustment of classroom practices or are they concerned also with students who may have varied linguistic or cultural backgrounds, or students with challenging behaviours or wellbeing issues? 3 Are these students and others with a special learning need actively included in high stakes testing such as the National Assessment Plan—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN)? 4 To what extent is the Australian Curriculum adapted to the needs of special needs students? 5 To what extent is there a process for evaluating special needs students’ outcomes through examination of the engagement of the students in school/s and community activities?

A checklist for building inclusive schools Another way to reflect on how a school may adopt an inclusive stance in relation to its local community and students is to use one of the checklists developed for this purpose. For example, in an inclusive school you could typically see: • a school philosophy or mission statement that supports inclusive education and outcomes

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• staff development opportunities that reflect an inclusive philosophy and inclusive practices • school leadership that promotes inclusion through written materials, presentations, staffing decisions and building design • the identification and removal of barriers to access and participation • teachers using language that reflects the philosophy of inclusive education (for example, ‘our students’ versus ‘your students’ or ‘my students’) • students with disabilities or differences attending their local schools • students being educated in classrooms with their same-age peers • students with a wide range of needs and abilities being educated throughout the school (not concentrated in one or two classrooms) • all students meaningfully participating in the curriculum and instruction • a range of curricular adaptations and modifications being offered to all learners • students moving with peers to subsequent grades in school despite academic delays • students with disabilities or differences having the same school day (length of day, and time of arrival and departure) as those without disabilities or differences • students using the same transportation as students without disabilities or differences • students using the same school facilities (for example, lockers, cafeteria and sporting facilities) and schedules as students without disabilities or differences • all students having opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities • curricular and extracurricular activities encouraging interactions between peers with and without disabilities or differences • student diversity and differences used as resources in teaching and learning • all teachers collaborating to address students’ individual education programs and other curricular objectives • accommodation of in-class assessment to allow the participation of students with a special communication or learning need • all teachers collaborating to ensure effective instructional strategies (for example, active learning and small-group instruction) are implemented to support diverse learners • the use of multilevel instruction for learners with diverse abilities • teachers promoting self-determination (for example, student-led meetings) • related and supplemental services (for example, mobility and speech) being provided through transdisciplinary team approaches • special educators, general educators, paraprofessionals and related services professionals co-planning and co-teaching • a pervasive respect for diversity and difference, and affordances for these at all levels of the school’s operation. Other features that you could expect to see in an inclusive school include: • • • •

partnerships with parents and their communities, as well as with community organisations a clear establishment of the roles and responsibilities of participants and students alike continuing and effective professional development sufficient and appropriate resources—financial, physical and personnel—to meet the needs of students and staff • procedures for accountability, monitoring and evaluation to ensure that engagement goals are achieved for both the school and individuals concerned. Mervyn Hyde

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While remembering that no single list will fully suit the unique context of every school, these features of inclusive schools provide a useful guide to the kinds of activities, attitudes and outcomes that you should see in your school if you seek to embody inclusive principles and practices.

Apply your knowledge Use the summary of the school from the earlier ‘Apply your knowledge’ and the above checklist for inclusive schools to evaluate a school with which you are familiar. Make three practical recommendations that could be considered by the school’s leaders.

The roles of the class teacher and of specialist teachers

Response to Intervention (RTI): A multi-tiered approach to the early identification and support of students with learning and behaviour needs. The RTI process begins with highquality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general education classroom.

Beyond a broad school approach to creating an inclusive learning community and environment, the role of the class teacher is paramount. Ultimately, it is the class teacher who has the responsibility for translating the school and system policies, the mission statements, the curriculum objectives and the available resources into relevant, participatory and engaging learning experiences for the students in their class. There will be challenges, even major ones, but with understanding, determination, flexibility, support and belief these largely can be overcome. The roles of special education teachers have changed dramatically in recent years and many of these teachers are now responsible for providing collaborative support to regular class teachers in their planning, teaching and evaluation. In the past, these advisory special education teachers’ focus was often on withdrawing the individual student with a disability or difference and providing specialist tuition. Today, class teachers should identify and use opportunities for collaboration with these support teachers, and should question or resist efforts to withdraw the child with special needs for periods of ‘specialist’ teaching. Research and practical experience have shown over many years that withdrawal of the child from the regular class exacerbates the sense of difference within the child and among the other students in the class, rather than reducing it. It also removes the child from participation in classroom activities and de-skills the class teacher.

The RTI model of intervention to special needs A recent development in this respect involves the use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) strategy in many school systems in the United States. Clark and Tilly (2010) outlined ways in which regular class teachers and special needs educators could work together in classrooms. Simonsen et al. (2010) presented ways in which the needs of all students with challenges to their learning could be better supported in regular schools by teachers with specialist expertise, through collaboration with class teachers in decision making, planning, assessment and teaching.

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The RTI serves two main purposes: (1) it provides a method of assessing learner needs with validity and (2) it provides students who are struggling with early and effective instruction (Fuchs & Fuchs 2006). The critical elements of RTI are (1)  data-based decision making, (2)  universal screening, (3)  progress monitoring, and (4)  a multi-level system of evidencebased intervention. It provides three ‘tiers’ of response, with Tier 1 being the lowest level of response, as shown in Figure 17.2. Figure 17.2 The tiers of the RTI

Tier 3 Tier 2

Tier 1

Individualised interventions

Targeted short-term group interventions

Universal evidence-based quality instruction

Tier 1 emphasises effective instruction in the regular classroom and focuses on assessment and support for all students in the school. A school-wide curriculum approach is adopted to enhance the engagement of more children achieving proficiently in core curricular areas. This tier of intervention provides feedback to school staff about the effectiveness of the standard curriculum and identifies students who require further support. If a student has ongoing challenges in Tier 1, this may be evidence of their failure ‘to respond’ and the need for Tier 2 intervention. Tier 2 involves more intensive instruction and support, with intervention in small group instruction and associated intervention strategies. It has been estimated that up to 20 per cent of a class population may benefit from this form of small group response. Within this tier, additional instruction and support has a nature and time frame so that the child can either move back to Tier 1 or receive the more individual support possible at Tier 3. Tier 3 represents an individualised intervention level designed to support a particular student (typically 5 per cent of the school population might require such support) and examine in more detail why they are not progressing. This level of response is the closest to what we might describe as ‘special education’ and usually involves curriculum adaptation. The RTI approach has a number of advantages. It involves all educators collaboratively planning and working, detailed assessment of the child’s learning needs in a manner that does not involve labelling or categorisation, incremental levels of intervention and support to maintain the child’s place in the regular classroom wherever possible and a strong element of evidence-based monitoring of the effect of instruction. In conclusion, specialist teachers should not be seen as ‘experts’ who may take over responsibility for student learning from the class teacher. Collaborative or co-teaching models within classrooms should be the approaches of choice, which means we may need to let down Mervyn Hyde

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our natural resistance to having another teacher in our classroom, who assumes some level of input in the planning and learning environments. Be prepared to welcome the support or advisory teacher into your class to share in your planning, teaching and assessments. This is an opportunity that they should be keen to respond to whenever they are in the school as it makes them part of your class. Next, you should take the opportunity to identify your own teaching strengths, and also your weaknesses. Your strengths could provide support for other teachers in your school and act as a model for others facing the challenges of inclusion. Your identified weaknesses should lead you to discuss your needs for ongoing professional development with support teachers and school leaders. A school is a community and we all have a role to play in ensuring that the range of staff expertise is effectively utilised. Remember, we all can learn! Finally, remember that an inclusive approach to education benefits the diverse needs of all students who fall along a continuum of learner diversity and difference. Flexible delivery accommodates these learner differences. In most cases, it takes just a little creativity, flexibility, patience and common sense to make it possible for everyone to learn and contribute.

SUMMARY This chapter has identified some of the main factors and processes involved in creating inclusive schools. It has identified an effective Australian model and how the principles of inclusion are able to be implemented within school programs and policies and how effective student engagement can be evidenced.

For group discussion 1 Make two lists. The first is a list of the things that you can do in your classroom to make it a more inclusive learning experience for the students in the class. The second list involves the things that you would like to do if you had the resources and expertise. 2 Discuss and compare the lists in your group and decide how you could progress some of the items on your second list.

Key references Attorney-General’s Department (2005). Disability Standards for Education. Canberra: Australian Government. Clark, J. P. & Tilly, D. (2010). The evolution of response to intervention. In J. P. Clark & M. E. Alvarez (eds), Response to intervention: a guide for school social workers (pp. 3–18). New York: Oxford University Press. Department of Education and Training (DET WA) (2004). Building inclusive schools: pathways to the future. Updated 2016. Perth: Department of Education and Training.

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Dotterer, A. M. & Lowe, K. (2011). Classroom context, school engagement and academic achievement in early adolescence. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 40, 1649–60. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9647-5. European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2001). Inclusive education and effective classroom practices. C. J. W. Meijer (ed.). Odense C: Østre Stationsvej 33 DK-5000. Fredericks, J., McKloskey, W., Meli, J., Mordica, J., Montrosse, B. & Mooney, K. (2011). Measuring student engagement in elementary through upper high school: a description of 21 instruments. National Centre for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance: University of North Carolina. Fuchs, D. & Fuchs, L. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: what, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41, 93–9. Hazel, C. E., Vazirabadi, G. E., Albanes, J. & Gallagher, J. (2014). Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity of the Student School Engagement Measure. Psychological Assessment, 26i(3), 806–14. Li, Y. & Lerner, R. M. (2013). Interrelations of behavioural, emotional and cognitive school engagement in high school students. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 42, 20–32. doi: 10.1007/s10964-012-9857-5. Simonsen, B., Shaw, S. F., Faggella-Luby, M., Sugai, G., Coyne, M. D., Rhein, B. … & Alfano, M. (2010). A schoolwide model for service delivery: redefining special educators as interventionists. Remedial and Special Education, 31, 17–23. Stainback, S. & Stainback, W. (1990). Inclusive schooling. In W. Stainback & S. Stainback (eds), Support networks for inclusive schooling (pp. 3–24). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Website Six Secrets of a Happy Classroom—www.independent.co.uk/news/education/schools/ the-six-secrets-of-a-happy-classroom-2086855.html Provides a report of the nature of educator Professor Dylan Wiliam’s work with teachers in UK schools.

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Accommodating Transitions across the Years

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Robert Conway

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To understand the critical importance of transitions in supporting the education of all students, particularly those with special needs • To appreciate the importance of planned and supported transitions for students with special needs throughout their education to ensure engagement at all stages of learning • To recognise the need for transition to involve the child/student, families, education providers and other professionals such as medical, disability and family services • To understand that transition as a process begins well before the actual move from one educational setting to another to ensure that engagement is maintained across the transition period • To recognise the importance of ensuring that each transition, and particularly transition to school, has an end point where the responsibility moves from one service to the other • To acknowledge the differences and similarities of transition needs at each phase of the student’s education and for specific special needs

KEY TERMS individual transition plans (ITPs) transitions

Introduction

Transitions: These occur when the student moves from one educational setting to another, or from education to employment or other post-school settings.

In the previous chapter there was a focus on creating inclusive schools. For students with special needs, there is a need to consider the many different ‘inclusive settings’ they may encounter across the span of their education. This chapter focuses on the preparation, support and planning that goes into the many transitions students with special needs face. This can include preparing to enter an early intervention service during early childhood, moving into the more formal years of primary school from mainstream early childhood services—perhaps at the same time as transitioning from an early intervention service—moving from primary into secondary education, and finally transitioning from secondary to post-school employment or into further and higher education settings. For some students, this is a sequence of a minimum number of individual schools, while for others there are transitions between junior and senior secondary

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sites. There is also the possibility of having to adjust to multiple settings if the student’s needs are not addressed in some placements and there is a need to move to a more restrictive, or different school environment. Each transition requires consideration of a number of variables, including the individual student, their family, the school community and the broader community. Throughout this chapter, we look at a number of guiding principles for enhancing transition from one setting to another, as well as the specific needs for transitions at particular stages of the student’s schooling. Transition will not be the same for all students and will vary according to the specific special needs of each student. This can be seen clearly in the analogy of transition as a bridge, or in reality, many bridges. Huser, Dockett and Perry (2016) show a cartoon of multiple types of bridges: some that many pass across easily as in a traditional bridge; some that are tightropes; some that are ropes that the person swings across; and, others are grappling ropes. The cartoon in Figure 18.1 reminds us that, for some, transition is an easy worn path, for some it is perilous, some travel alone and some do so in groups. Huser, Dockett and Perry also remind us that the bridge crosses a divide that reflects differences in the prior education sector and the next one. The cartoon, although drawn for transition to school is equally applicable to transitions at all stages.

Figure 18.1 Many bridges

Source: Huser, Dockett & Perry (2016, p. 444).

General principles underlying transitions Several frameworks have been suggested for transitions at specific points in a student’s education. From a life course theory perspective, they have been seen as a change in status, stage or setting. These can be physical change (school buildings and site) and social/ Robert Conway

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psychological change (new sets of norms and values; new sets of expectations and challenges) (Crosnoe & Benner 2015). Other theories, such as the school transition model (see Crosnoe & Ansari 2016), focus on personal factors (personality characteristics, cognitive traits), experimental factors (settings) and social psychological factors (interpersonal factors such as parenting and peer group). Regardless of the theoretical perspective, most cover the following five categories: 1 2 3 4 5

student-focused planning student development interagency and interdisciplinary collaboration family involvement program structure and attributes (Kohler & Field 2003).

Each of the five categories is brought together in the Kohler taxonomy (Kohler 1996). The taxonomy is presented in Figure 18.2. Each of these categories is important, as is their interrelationship, to ensure the success of transitions whether these be at the early childhood, school or post-school component of the student’s education. The taxonomy holds for all students, not only for those with disabilities. Each category is discussed below. Figure 18.2 Kohler taxonomy for transition programming The taxonomy for transition programming Student-focused planning • IEP development • Student participation • Planning strategies

• • • • • •

Family involvement • Family training • Family involvement • Family empowerment

Student development Academic skill development Life skills instruction Career and vocational curricula Structured work experience Assessment Support services

• • • • • •

Program structure Program philosophy Program policy Strategic planning Program evalution Resource allocation Human resource development

Interagency collaboration • Collaborative framework • Collaborative service

Source: Kohler (1996).

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Student-focused planning This involves incorporating the student into the transition process wherever possible based on the student’s vision, goals and interests. While this may be very limited at the transition to school point, it will be much stronger in the transition to secondary and certainly at the transition to post-school services or tertiary/higher education. The student also needs to work with a wide variety of staff in developing plans and this may include teachers across curriculum areas, school counsellors and psychologists, and special education staff. Particularly as the student reaches transition from school to post-school settings, this will include self-advocacy skills where possible so the student prepares for adult life.

Student development This includes increasing student knowledge, developing skills and providing opportunities to apply the skills both within and beyond the school. For older students, the role of work experience or work-integrated learning becomes a critical aspect of applying the skills developed in schools to the broader world. For many students, this will also include the use of self-determination programs that focus on knowing what one wants and how to achieve it, particularly in the preparation for transition from secondary education (Wehman 2016). Selfdetermination programs focus on self-regulated problem-solving capacity, increased autonomy in decision making and improved communication.

Interagency and interdisciplinary collaboration The nature of this collaboration changes over the educational span. In early childhood intervention, the common use of multidisciplinary or transdisciplinary teams to provide support represents best practice. Many early childhood intervention programs employ educators, medical professionals (such as speech pathologists, occupational therapists and psychologists) and family workers (see the Firstchance program in the following section on transition to school). Many early childhood intervention services are co-located with health services so that parents can receive an integrated service, or at least do not have to travel to different services. Within the school setting, collaborative services have often been more restricted, although some educational systems do access medical, psychological and social work services in schools, particularly in the early years of school. At the secondary level, services may be through work-experience settings, work-based employment settings, employment agencies and access to community facilities such as PCYC (Police Citizens Youth Club) gyms. Again, planned and extended, rather than brief, encounters will strengthen the transition process.

Family involvement Involvement of the family in transition at all levels is critical. In the United States, the role of the parent as the key decision maker is strongly endorsed in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Fenlon 2005). Many educators forget that a child with a special need (and particularly a

Robert Conway

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child with high support needs) will require family support across their lifespan. The role of the family in early childhood intervention is very well recognised, as will be seen later in the chapter. Once the child reaches school, there can be a tendency to ignore parent involvement, or to downplay the need for parent involvement in the inclusion process. Families play a vital role in providing a conduit as their child moves through educational services. Kohler and Field (2003) cite evidence of the benefits of family involvement in achieving the best outcomes for the child, including: increased school attendance, higher student performance, student autonomy, improved and supportive family–school interactions and reduced friction. Again, the movement of the family member from education to post-school life needs a positive, cooperative, family and education setting relationship. Under the Australian Government’s Disability Standards for Education (AttorneyGeneral’s Department 2005), the child’s advocate (usually the parent) has the same legal rights as the person with a disability. Hence, the role of the advocate/parent is protected under law. For a plain English, Auslan or video version of the standards, see the National Disability Coordination Officer Program (NDCO) website (www.ddaedustandards.info). While families have a strong involvement with the transition of students with special needs to school at school entry level, this level of engagement often diminishes across primary, re-emerges in the transition to secondary, often almost disappears during secondary and then may re-emerge in the transition from secondary, after which the responsibility moves back to families as schools remove themselves from their key role in the person’s and families’ lives.

Transition program structure and attributes

Individual transition plans (ITPs): Specialised versions of individual education programs which specifically plan for the transition of a student from one setting to another.

The structure and attributes of the transition program should be designed to ensure that the transition process is efficient and effective, whether it is to school, from school to post-school or within school education. The most effective individual education programs (IEPs) and individual transition plans (ITPs) are those that: • • • • • •

incorporate systems-wide, student- and family-centred strategies foster effective and substantive interagency collaboration facilitate systematic professional development have visionary, supportive and inclusive leadership coordinate an integrated set of reform efforts provide connections between local and national transition initiatives (adapted from Hasazi, Furney & DeStefano 1999, p. 558, cited in Kohler & Field 2003).

In a study conducted in Queensland, Beamish, Meadows and Davies (2012) asked teachers about the relationship between the principles of the taxonomy and their actual transition practices. The study found that the taxonomy was able to be applied to Australian schools. Beamish, Meadows and Davies found that more teachers reported agreeing with practices (77–94 per cent) than reported implementing them (51–90 per cent). Other results included: family–school relationships emerged as an area of practice strength; and high agreement-implementation discrepancies patterns were found in interagency collaboration and program structure.

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Look back at the Kohler taxonomy in Figure 18.2 and consider the framework from the perspective of a student with special needs you know or have taught. Consider how the five components come together to provide a framework for that student and their family at different stages of their education. In particular, reflect on how the role of families changes across the education span and how you can ensure that parents are a supportive component rather than a ‘nuisance’ to educators.

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Pause and reflect

Let us turn to look at transitions across the education span for students with special needs, starting with the critically important area of early childhood intervention—the base for all other transition experiences for the child and their family.

The importance of early intervention as a basis for inclusion in schools Early childhood intervention is a critical phase in the life of a child with special needs and their family. The experiences families and their child have during this time will set the framework for the series of transitions that will occur across the educational life of the child. Early childhood intervention is strongly based on family-centred principles (Kaczmarek et al. 2004). These principles have their roots in the family support movement and are based on the premise that the family is the constant in the child’s life. In early childhood, parents make the decisions based on the advice and support of professionals. Hence, early childhood intervention is often termed ‘family-centred’. The other two key concepts are that early childhood intervention must be based on transdisciplinary practices, and that the learning must be play-based. ‘Transdisciplinary’ means that service should be based on the philosophies and practices of a range of professions. Hence, an early childhood intervention service should employ staff from areas such as education, health and social work. The Firstchance service (see the ‘Effective practice’ box) uses a wide range of professionals working alongside each other to provide parents with their combined expertise. Play-based learning theory says that learning for the parent and the child needs to be in an environment that is both fun and promotes natural communication pathways. Entry to an early childhood intervention program is the first transitional challenge for parents as they begin the process of working with professionals and other families. In a paper on the role of social workers in transitions for young children and their families, Rosenkoetter, Hains and Dogaru (2007) remind us of four key points in transition at this age (and effectively for all subsequent transitions):

EARLY LEARNERS

1 Transition is a process extending over a period of time, not a single point in time. 2 Transition requires planning before and follow-up afterwards to evaluate its effectiveness. Robert Conway

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3 Successful transition planning requires contributions from all partners. 4 Special education is not a place, but rather a planned personalised program of formal and informal supports that can be delivered in a variety of locations and by different people (adapted from p. 27).

Effective practice Early childhood intervention and the transition to school— Firstchance Early Childhood Intervention Service The Firstchance Early Childhood Intervention Service operates across a number of sites in the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie local government areas in New South Wales. It has a thirty-five year history as a provider of support to families of young children with special needs, from birth to school entry (see www.firstchance.org.au) and was the first early intervention service to transition to the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) in New South Wales. The service supports families across special needs in a non-categorical model of support. It offers parents support through a wide range of programs targeted at different child ages, such as baby/toddler programs, preschool and transition to school. Firstchance is based on the three key principles of early childhood intervention:  it is family-centred, transdisciplinary and play-based. These principles are encapsulated in its philosophy: At Firstchance we believe that each family is the expert on their child and that every child, young person and family come with their own strengths, capabilities and diversity. We recognise the value of working together with families and other services in supporting families to achieve their goals and aspirations. We value the importance of building, supporting and fostering relationships and for families to connect with each other and their communities. Our programs are therefore based on current research and innovative approaches that support children and young people to learn through play, experiences, interactions and their environment. (www. firstchance.org.au)

The Transdisciplinary Early Intervention Program teams at Firstchance consist of professional therapists, including occupational therapists, physiotherapists, psychologist, speech pathologists and educators (see the website for details of the roles of each therapist in the team). One of the key features of the Firstchance service is the supported transition to school for families and their child with special needs. At initial enrolment of the family in the program, the philosophies and practices of the service are explained: that is, the child’s inclusion in an early childhood program should occur concurrently with the Firstchance service, and both should support the child to move to an appropriate school setting on reaching school entry age. The transition to school process starts at the beginning of the year before school and continues until the end of the first term of school. Parents and staff discuss

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possible school settings for the child. This may include a special school, unit or class, or a mainstream setting. Where possible a mainstream placement is identified. An information evening is held for parents at which representatives of the state education system, the Catholic education system, the government department responsible for disability services, and parents of children who have graduated speak about options and the experiences of transitioning to school. Following discussions about options, staff and parents visit the identified mainstream school to discuss with the principal and staff the potential enrolment. In some cases, schools are not prepared for the visit—they may not have read the information sent to them by the service, or they may have a preconceived belief that the child should not be placed at the school. Where the preferred option is not suitable, alternative schools are looked at. Often parents visit more than one school to make a decision on the most appropriate placement. Staff of the service then visit the school with the child on the pre-enrolment visit and work with the teachers in preparation for the placement. The support from the service continues through the first school term, but has a definite ending point when parents are invited back to the Firstchance centre for a farewell party, at which photos of the child in uniform are shown and stories told of the big adventure into school. This provides both a celebration of the transition to school, and a closure of the work of the early childhood intervention phase of the child’s life. In some cases parents seek placements that are unsuitable for their child for a variety of reasons (for example, location or facilities) or they deliberately do not disclose that their child has a special need. The special need often becomes obvious within the initial year of schooling, and the delayed recognition can result in negative consequences for the child, the school and the family. Such outcomes break the important trust that needs to be developed between the family and the school in developing and maintaining an inclusive environment. Despite the few occasions on which this occurs, Firstchance has transitioned hundreds of young children and their families into inclusive schools.

1 In terms of the Kohler framework (see Figure 18.2), what key aspects have emerged in this stage of the education transition sequence? What are the roles of teachers, parents and the student? 2 How does this process differ from the transition process from early childhood to school education where the child does not have a special need? Would the process differ for children from homes where English is not the primary language?

Pause and reflect

We will come back to each of these issues for the different levels of transition discussed in this chapter.

Robert Conway

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Transitions from early childhood intervention to school

EARLY LEARNERS

One of the key transitions for parents and their child is from an early childhood service, whether that is a mainstream service, an early intervention service, or a combination of these. Transition to school is highlighted within a number of key documents in the Australian context. One is the Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) (DEEWR 2009) and the other is the Transition to school: position statement by the Educational Transition and Change Research Group at Charles Sturt University (Educational Transition and Change Research Group 2011). The EYLF addresses learning from birth to five years, including transition, and has five key principles: secure, respectful and reciprocal relationships; partnerships; high expectations and equity; respect for diversity; and ongoing learning and reflective practice (see www.education. gov.au/early-years-learning-framework). The Transition to school: position statement recognises that transition is a dynamic process of continuity and change. It occurs over time from well before the child actually physically moves, and extends until the child, their teachers and families see that the child belongs in the new space (Dockett & Perry 2016). Dockett and Perry argue that transition is characterised by four pillars: opportunity, aspiration, expectations and entitlement (2016, p. 312). Meeting the high expectations of all parties requires respectful relationships. The Firstchance example described in the ‘Effective practice’ box shows how this can be achieved in practice. Dockett and Perry (2014) have also developed a valuable resource on transition to school, Continuity of learning: a resource to support effective transition to school and school age care. The resource can be downloaded as a pdf at their research centre website (http://arts-ed.csu.edu.au/ education/transitions/publications). As early childhood intervention becomes more widely available to families of children with special needs, so the practice of transition from a service to school becomes more familiar. There are still families seeking school placement that have not had the opportunity to engage in early childhood intervention programs. A  large-scale study of children who had engaged in the Head Start program (a large national program in the United States to support at-risk young children prior to school) was undertaken by Redden and colleagues (2001). It showed that those children with special needs who received a sustained transition program had a reduced need for special education support in mainstream schools, compared with those who did not receive the transition support. The transition support program was conducted over three years and included curriculum modifications, parent involvement activities, health screening or referrals, and family social services, which were all similar to those provided in the Head Start program. While the results were mixed in terms of the specific special needs, the key outcome was that a transition program supports students better than placement alone. In a study of parents’ and teachers’ views of transition to school in Queensland, Walker and colleagues (2012) sought views on the benefits and challenges of the process. In Queensland young children with disabilities attend both an early intervention and a mainstream program, with days in the mainstream program gradually increasing to full-time. While both parents and teachers saw benefits in this process, parents were more likely to see it as successful, and teachers were more likely to see it as a success if the child was placed appropriately.

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Challenges identified by parents included lack of preparation by schools in classrooms set up for the specific developmental needs of their child, while teachers were concerned about how they could meet the needs of each student within the physical resources of their classroom. The Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD n.d.) in Victoria has developed a resource kit for all students transitioning to school. In Part 2 of the kit there are specific resources and support for the transition of the broad diversity of students, including students with special needs as well as those from diverse religious, cultural, racial and educational backgrounds. In terms of students with special needs, the Centre for Equity and Innovation in Early Childhood (2009) notes the following key points: • the importance of early childhood experience for positive transition experiences for children • the importance of long-term, cross-sector collaborative planning and continuity of programs around transitions • transition to school can be a highly complex and anxious time for families • there are negative long-term implications if transition problems are not addressed. The model of DEECD is to develop a Transition Learning and Development Statement for all students, with support materials provided in Part 2 of the resource. The type of information that may be sought is outlined in the ‘Effective practice’ box below.

Effective practice Developing a Transition Learning and Development Statement in Victoria What the families may want to tell the school Families are experts about their child. They are invaluable in supporting the child’s smooth transition. Gaining trust is a vital process (as it is with all families). Families often share sensitive information when trust has been established. Therefore, it is important that relationships can form as early as possible with future school staff. Parents/guardians must consent to written and verbal information about their child and family being shared—early childhood educators can support families in recognising the importance of the information for schools and encouraging families to build trusting relationships early on. Transition to school is successful when families feel that teachers and schools have the best interests of their child at heart and that their knowledge of the child is valued. Families of children with disabilities and developmental delays may wish to tell the school about: • • • •

their child’s strengths as well as challenges goals for their child what to do in an emergency (for example, if the child is having an epileptic seizure) practical skills and tips for their child’s day-to-day self-care (for example, how to help their child get changed for physical education). This information can be shared with school aides. Robert Conway

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• approaches that help settle their child (for example, soothing movements and sounds, and ‘time out’) • how to assist their child to be as independent as possible (for example, at lunchtime) • types of instructions to which the child responds well (or not) • cues and prompts that help to engage their child (for example, picture exchange cards) • behaviour management ideas that work at home (for example, types of praise and rewards) • previous assessment reports • their child’s medical background and early intervention history.

What other services may want to tell the school Children with special needs may have had extra support within the kindergarten setting from a preschool field officer (PSFO), Kindergarten Inclusion Support Service (KISS), or from community-based therapists and special education teachers in Early Childhood Intervention Services (ECIS). Each professional involved has a different role to play in supporting the child and family and preparing for transition to school. Some services are required to finish when a child starts school. Therefore, it is important that (with families’ consent) information specific to each child is shared with the school in time to assist with planning and organisation. This information may be about many things. For example: how to maintain the child’s safety and well-being at school a child’s level of development preferred approaches to learning new things specific skills the child has achieved and other skills they are working on how independent they are what equipment or aids are helpful with their vision, hearing, mobility, play, recording their school work or self-care • types of support (for example, assistance to hold objects or supervision in the playground) • potential modifications required within the school environment. • • • • • •

As previously noted, incorporating this information will require early childhood educators to work with other professionals in contact with the child when completing the Transition Learning and Development Statement (see www.education.vic.gov.au/ earlylearning/transitionschool/transitionstatement.htm).

What the school may want to know Some children may require support and special learning programs at school so that they can participate fully in the range of activities. Schools may want additional information that helps them understand the impact of a child’s disability or developmental delay on their learning, and how the disability or developmental delay may affect their participation in life at school and the school environment. They will also want to know if there are any key strategies they should be aware of to help children settle into the school environment and support their learning and development.

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Recognising that schools need time to plan for any outsourced assessment, and adaptations or supports the child may need, it is important to ensure a timely referral to the school (Term 2 or 3 of the child’s kindergarten year). In some circumstances, children with a disability or developmental delays may benefit from a second year of kindergarten prior to school entry. This needs to be a planned process and, if the child will turn six years of age during the kindergarten year, an application for school exemption needs to be made. Source: adapted from DEECD (n.d., pp. 12–13).

Apply your knowledge 1 What are the advantages of parents being open and honest with education providers during the transition process? Are there disadvantages in this course of action? Are there additional pieces of information you would want to have from the parents? 2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the previous service ending their contact with the family and child on enrolment in school? Is there a time at which the contact should end? 3 What circumstances would you see as key to recommending a child has an additional preschool year?

The transition from regular early childhood settings and/or early childhood intervention programs often provides the first major challenge for the child and the family. New classroom and school structures, new rules for engaging in learning, new social skill expectations and a new, more formal curriculum structure make learning in schools a major change from learning in early childhood settings.

Transitions from primary school to secondary school In the same way transition from early childhood to primary school presents significant new challenges, so, too, does the transition from the class-based model of primary school to the curriculum-based model of secondary school. There are also issues around the onset of puberty and significant changes in students’ attitudes to learning (Codsi 2011; Thomas & Graham 2002). The structure of secondary schools provides far fewer opportunities for the close-up monitoring and support that often occurs in smaller primary schools. There has been far less research on transition to secondary school for students with special needs than transition to primary school. In a review of the literature, Hughes, Banks and Terras (2013) found studies had identified both lack of social support and victimisation as Robert Conway

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key issues for students with special needs. Transition is a stressful experience for all students, although many students adjust quickly and may even cope better after the transition. The role of peers in providing friendship and support was also noted as important for the majority of mainstream student transitions. For students with special needs, a lack of resilience, poorer social skills and a lack of peer support were often grounds for victimisation or bullying. While the difficulties experienced by students with special needs in transition were commonly around social functioning, social support and loneliness, the outcomes were not specific to all or any particular special need. Similarly, Chambers and Coffey (2013) found the difference in culture of the two levels of schooling was a key issue, including: adapting to a different range of teachers and different teaching styles; new subjects requiring different language, literacy and numeracy skills; having to organise their classroom materials from lockers rather than inside their classroom; and, different social groups in different classes. Although many secondary schools have tried to reduce movement, teacher numbers, and having a home room for first-year secondary students, concerns can remain. Again the role of the parent is critical to ensuring the success of the transition—as it is at each level. Parents are often the chief advocates for their child. Involving parents ensures that their perceptions, values, and social, cultural and religious experiences are included in the planning. In their study of parents of students with an intellectual disability transitioning from primary to secondary schools, Thomas and Graham (2002) found that parents had ‘unfulfilled expectations about their child’s transition, and that this unease was compounded by their fragmented knowledge and understanding of the secondary setting’ (p. 32). There is a need, they argued, to ensure that there is sensitive collaboration, planning and decision making in the transition. Different special needs provide significant challenges in the transition process, particularly for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and students with significant behaviour issues. The ‘Effective practice’ box below highlights a planned transition that occurred for Ben, who had significant behaviour issues at primary school. The transition success can be attributed to a coordinated, planned transition in which both the sending school and the receiving school, along with Ben’s mother, worked and planned together. They ensured that Ben had a clear understanding of the behaviour expectations of the secondary school, while emphasising that he would be supported in following these expectations. His mother was provided with feedback on Ben’s progress, both positive and problematic, in his new school. For students with ASD, the challenges can be considerable (Jindal-Snape et al. 2006). In their study of the transition of students with ASD or Asperger Syndrome from primary to secondary schools, Jindal-Snape et al. identified a large number of problems. A critical, and reoccurring, issue was the delay in transition arrangements. Often the delays lasted until the end of the holidays before the start of secondary school, at which point transition planning has little meaning. Among the other problems identified were: • • • •

exclusion from school during the transition process no explanation of the full range of services available lack of communication between professionals lack of consistency between health and other support services and educational services (Jindal-Snape et al. 2006).

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A positive result from the study was the identification of a clear way forward (which, again, could apply to all transitions) through: • • • •

elimination of delays in placement decisions elimination of exclusions from school timely, planned, long-term strategic decision making better, faster, less formal and more realistic reciprocal communication between all stakeholders • a full range of provisions, with available vacancies, understood by all stakeholders, to promote combinations of needs rather than singular needs • professional resources and time available to support the transition effectively, without key worker change at transition (Jindal-Snape et al. 2006).

Effective practice Transitioning from primary school to secondary school Ben had significant behaviour issues in his primary school. He had received a number of long suspensions due to his violent and disruptive behaviour, and had been working with a specialist behaviour support teacher to assist his retention in his class and school. He undertook an anger management program and his behaviour was monitored in the school by the class teacher, with support from the principal and deputy principal. Ben had reached his final year of primary school and was due to begin secondary school the following year. There was considerable concern that Ben would not be able to cope with the demands of secondary school, particularly the number of subject classes he would be in and the movement around the school needed to attend specialist classes. There was also concern that the secondary school would not be able to monitor Ben’s behaviour as closely as had been possible in primary school. The primary class teacher and specialist behaviour teacher identified the need to plan Ben’s transition. The process commenced early in the final year at primary school. The class teacher and specialist behaviour teacher met with Ben’s mother to discuss the secondary schooling possibilities when reviewing his current Individual Positive Behaviour Plan. A school was identified by Ben and his mother, and permission was obtained to approach the secondary school with information about Ben’s behaviour and academic needs. The specialist behaviour teacher and the school counsellor approached the secondary school and discussions took place with the year advisor, the secondary school counsellor and the principal. As a result, the school was willing to explore the possibility of enrolment. Ben and his mother, supported by the specialist behaviour teacher, visited the secondary school and met with the year advisor, the principal and the school counsellor. They discussed the issues around Ben’s behaviour and the expectations of the secondary school. In addition to the regular transition visits by students from Ben’s primary school, Ben had a series of visits to the school to see the specialist areas of the school and the appropriate outdoor areas for Year 7 students. In addition, the school provided Ben and his mother with information about the behaviour support systems available at the school. At the beginning of the new school year, Ben and his mother met with the year advisor to go over the rules and to develop a new Individual Positive Behaviour Plan, Robert Conway

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which included the classes he would attend and the expectations of the school as part of their Positive Behaviour Support model. The primary specialist behaviour teacher also attended weekly at first to provide support and encouragement for Ben and the school. While the secondary behaviour support teacher was not involved, she did monitor the meetings in case she needed to become involved. Reports of positive and inappropriate behaviours were communicated to Ben’s mum via Ben each week using a communication book. Wherever possible, the focus was on reinforcing positive behaviours. The school made a special effort to encourage Ben both in his home tutor group and through the year advisor checking with each of Ben’s teachers. While Ben’s progress has had some challenges, his retention in the secondary school has been largely attributed by school and family to the planned transition from primary to secondary. Note: For those in Early Childhood Education programs there is a comparison study of success and failure of two Indigenous students transitioning to school and the critical importance of home and family in the process—see Bell-Booth, Staton and Thorpe (2014).

Using technology to enhance the  transition for students with special needs TECHNOLOGY

In a Western Australian study, Chambers and Coffey (2013) recognised in the literature a need to address organisation and social interaction as keys to transition to secondary. They identified that technology could be used to make the transition more effective and to help minimise difficulties. Working with students, parents and staff, Chambers and Coffey identified six key areas to include in their mobile-optimised website and these are described in detail in their paper: • • • • • •

getting ready (preparing for new settings) friendships (social skills) planning and organisation cybersafety frequently asked questions (that the student may have about the new setting) my info (info about classes and teachers including key contacts).

This website is still being developed, but it does offer the opportunity to personalise transition to secondary employing technology that is both accessible and familiar.

Transition to a middle school model An alternative to direct entry to secondary school is the middle school model, commonly for Years 5–8. This is more common in independent schools where a school may cater for the entire Kindergarten/Preparation/Foundation to Year 12 education of the student. The model has been used less commonly in Catholic and government schools. In a description of the middle schooling model used at his boys’ school, Codsi (2011) highlights the opportunities middle schooling provides to extend some of the supportive

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classroom environments of primary school, while addressing the social development transition of adolescents from family to peers. Codsi’s school uses a home room model with Year 7 and 8 boys taught three subjects by home room teachers in each year. The goals of the home room teacher are to: reduce the difficulty students have in accessing school supports and make these supports more accessible; increase the students’ sense of accountability and belonging and reduce the isolation of the traditional move from primary to secondary; and increase the familiarity of teachers with student needs. This is particularly important given that secondary schools have a 100 per cent new Year 7 enrolment each year, and even in the case of the independent school where Codsi is the Head of Middle School there is 50 per cent new student entry across Years 5 and 7.

1 In terms of the Kohler framework (see Figure 18.2), what key aspects have emerged in this stage of the education transition sequence? 2 What are the roles of teachers, parents and the student? 3 How have the roles for each changed in the movement from primary school to each of middle school and secondary school?

Pause and reflect

Transitions within secondary school While there has been a stronger focus on transitions to secondary and from secondary to postschool life, transition preparation occurs throughout the years of secondary school. Crockett and Hardman (2010a) identified six key areas to be included in student-focused planning, including: • • • • • •

promoting self-determination developing systematic transitioning planning supporting the inclusion of students in school and community settings anchoring curriculum and instruction to the demands of future adulthood providing career awareness and employment preparation programs developing social competence.

Incorporating these six transitions in the teaching of academic content within secondary schools provides students not only with a link between academic and social development during adolescence, but also with a link to the post-school world.

Apply your knowledge In terms of the Kohler framework (Figure 18.2), what key aspects have emerged in this stage of the education transition sequence, where there is transition within rather than from one setting to another? Consider also the following questions: Robert Conway

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1 What are the roles of teachers, parents and the student? 2 How can you ensure that the individual needs of students are met while acknowledging that adolescence is a time of increasing independence and a desire not to be seen as different or treated as different? 3 How do you engage with parents at a time when students increasingly move away from families to peers as support persons? Is this different for students with special needs?

Transitions from secondary school A student’s transition from school to adulthood is one of the most critical times (Wehman 2016). There is no legislative requirement for transition programs in Australian schools, although all education jurisdictions do provide programs, often in the final years of schooling (Winn & Hay 2009). These programs commonly focus on three key aspects: • employment skills • training and vocational education courses • support for job placements.

STANDARDS

Transition from secondary school for students in inclusive settings can be to a number of other educational placements. For increasing numbers of students, the transition is to colleges of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) or to higher education (universities). For others it is to employment. There is increasing emphasis on students being able to undertake post-secondary studies within their final years of secondary schooling. Educational systems such as in New South Wales (through the Higher School Certificate) and South Australia (through the Certificate of Education) include technical subjects in the curriculum. These can provide students with an articulated pathway to certificate awards at TAFE colleges. For other students, the path to university is based on academic performance despite their special needs. Post-secondary education in Australia is subject to the same Disability Standards for Education 2005 as schools. In fact, TAFE colleges and universities often have a higher awareness of disability than schools, thanks to the network of National Disability Coordination Officers (NDCOs), who are located across the country. The NDCP national website (see Websites at the end of the chapter) provides links to each of the NCDOs and their individual websites. The NDCO program objectives are to: • improve linkages between schools, tertiary education providers, employment service providers and providers of disability programs and assistance at all government levels; • improve transitions for people with disability between school/community and tertiary education, and then to subsequent employment; and • improve participation by people with disability in tertiary education and subsequent employment. (NDCO 2016)

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Also useful is the Australian Disability Clearinghouse on Education and Training website (www.adcet.edu.au). This website is about improving access for people with disabilities to post-secondary education and training, and has valuable resources on disabilities, strategies and support services. In addition, universities and TAFE colleges provide access to disability liaison officers, disability liaison librarians, counselling and health services, and faculty academic disability liaison officers to support students with special needs. Services can also include note-takers, scribes and interpreters for hearing-impaired people, as well as parking and examination support. For those students transitioning to post-school, support is often through their IEP or a more specific ITP (see ‘Transition program structure and attributes’ earlier in the chapter). As discussed, one of the key components of student transition is student self-determination, which is taught explicitly and used in developing the transition plan with the student (Wehmeyer et al. 2007). Wehmeyer and colleagues found that ‘global self-determination was a significant predictor of overall transition planning and skills, as well as of transition planning factors related to knowledge and skills about the individualised education program team process, goals and decision making’ (p. 31). What needs to go into a transition plan for moving from secondary school to the wider community? Katsiyannis and Zhang (2001) suggest that the plan needs to address the following: 1 2 3 4 5

It needs to be designed according to the student’s interests, needs and wants. It should identify strengths and weaknesses and then target strengths. It should identify transition outcomes to be achieved after leaving school. It should identify and put in place supports that are needed. It should regard parent and student input as ‘expert’ and not ‘unrealistic’.

The final point again highlights the importance of active student and family involvement. Interagency involvement is important to provide the supports that may be needed after the transition period has ended. Particularly in the case of students with emotional and behavioural problems, students need to be actively involved in the planning process and endorse it, as they are more likely to not access the case management or other support services that can help guide them through the process (Wagner & Davis 2006). If this occurs, the transition process fails and the time and commitment of those planning it has been wasted. In terms of curriculum content that needs to be matched to the student’s IEP or ITP, Crockett and Hardman (2010b) suggest the following areas need to be covered: • support for employment (in Australia this should preferably be competitive rather than supported employment if possible) • independent living • further education and training • domestic and home living • social and interpersonal • leisure and recreation. A recent model in the United Kingdom has sought to support all students in the transition from secondary school to employment training and work (Cullen, Lindsay & Dockrell 2009). The model is based on students having a personal advisor (somewhat like the model of careers advisors in this country) to support students in the transition. While the service operates for young people aged 13 to 19  years, this can extend to 25  years for students with learning Robert Conway

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difficulties or disabilities. Results to date have been mixed, but the model may provide structured support for students with special needs as they transition beyond school. Importantly, Cullen, Lindsay and Dockrell note that ‘supporting transition is not only a question of planning the first step post-school. Rather it is important to consider this as part of a longer developmental process that supports each young person on the next stage of their lives’ (p. 110). One of the key difficulties with transition from secondary school to the community is that, unlike transitions to other educational settings, the influences in the community are beyond the control that educational systems can provide. Student, family, economic and community services change and there is no educational system control of these. Teaching and ensuring self-determination and self-commitment to the personal transition plan by the former student is the key.

Apply your knowledge Consider again the Kohler framework shown in Figure 18.2. 1 What key aspects have emerged in this stage of the education transition sequence? 2 What are the roles of teachers, parents and the student? How do these roles play out in the transition from school? 3 How can you resolve differences between parents’ expectations of post-school life from the student’s expectations? How can you resolve these in terms of the student’s academic and social skills? 4 What responsibility do educators have for the post-school life of students with special needs?

SUMMARY This chapter has examined the issues that relate to students with special needs as they transition between educational settings during their school education. The importance of planned and supported transitions that involve the student, their families, each of the settings and the supporting agencies is essential for transitions to be successful and for students to move from one inclusive setting to another with minimum disruption to their social and academic development. Kohler and Field (2003, p. 181) sum up the issues this way: The transition practices literature recognises that educators, service providers and families must help students develop their skills and abilities [and] provide services and supports that enhance and facilitate these abilities. ‘One size fits all’ and ‘check the boxes’ transition planning strategies do not effectively prepare students with disabilities—who all have unique needs.

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The economic cost of unsuccessful transition programs is considerable and comprehensive. Hence quality time in preparing and implementing transitions at all stages of schooling is time well spent.

For group discussion 1 Consider one of the transitions—to early childhood intervention, to school, to middle school/secondary, to further and higher education, to supported or competitive employment, or to the home and community. What are the key challenges that have been identified and how could you ensure the challenges are minimised? 2 Look at the websites of a number of state government educational authorities (for example, www.education.vic.gov.au, www.det.nsw.edu.au, http://det.qld.gov.au, www.education.wa.edu.au, www.decd.sa.gov.au and www.education.tas.gov.au). What is the availability of information to support transition from one educational setting to another? 3 Develop a transition plan for a student with a specific special need (for example, Autism Spectrum Disorder) at one of the transition points and identify the key steps that need to be undertaken within both the sending and receiving settings.

Key references Centre for Equity and Innovation in Early Childhood (2009). Transition: a positive start to school literature review. The University of Melbourne. Accessed at www.education.vic.gov. au/earlylearning/transitionschool/profresources/research.htm. Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (Victoria) (DEECD) (n.d.). Transition: a positive start to school resources kit. Melbourne: DEECD. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) (2009). Belonging, being, and becoming: the Early Years Learning Framework for Australia. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Educational Transition and Change Research Group (2011). Transition to school: position statement. Accessed at www.csu.edu.au/faculty/educat/edu/transitions/publications/ Position-Statement. Hughes, L. A., Banks, P. & Terras, M. M. (2013). Secondary school transition for children with special educational needs: a literature review. Support for Learning, 28, 24–34. Kohler, P. D. (1996). Preparing youth with disabilities for future challenges: a taxonomy for transition programming. In P. D. Kohler (ed.), Taxonomy for transition programming: linking research to practice (pp. 1–62). Champaign, IL: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Training Research Institute. Kohler, P. D. & Field, S. (2003). Transition-focused education: foundations for the future. Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 174–83. Robert Conway

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Wehman, P. D. (2016). Transition from school to work: where are we and where do we need to go? Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 36, 56–66. Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Soukup, J. H., Garner, N. W. & Lawrence, M. (2007). Self-determination and student transition planning knowledge and skills: predicting involvement. Exceptionality, 15(1), 31–44. Winn, S. & Hay, I. (2009). Transition from school for youths with disability: issues and challenges. Disability and Society, 24, 103–15.

Websites National Disability Coordination Program—www.education.gov.au/ national-disability-coordination-officer-programme This is the entry portal for the program that supports school to post-school transition of students with special needs. The entry point links to program providers in all states and territories as well as how the program can assist.

NSW Department of Education and Communities—www.schoolatoz.nsw.edu.au/ wellbeing/development/a-happy-start-to-school-for-kids-with-special-needs Specific advice for parents of children with special needs in transitioning from early childhood to school; www.schoolatoz.nsw.edu.au/wellbeing/development/starting-year-7 provides general information for transition from primary to secondary

Positive Partnerships—www.autismtraining.com.au Funded by the Australian government to support the education of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder through professional learning for teachers and administrators and also parents and carers. The website provides a wide range of resources and teaching support. You will need to login to the website each time you access it. After the initial login there are both parent and teacher free resources available online. Teachers can log in to access the resources by entering the teacher and school section.

Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood Development—www. education.vic.gov.au/childhood/professionals/learning/Pages/transition.aspx Information on transition to school and how to complete the Transition Learning and Development Statement.

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Inclusive Education: Ways to the Future Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To identify future influences on diversity in education and challenges for inclusive education and engagement • To understand the relationship between inclusive education and national standards testing, national professional standards for teachers, national curriculum implementation and population changes • To appreciate the roles of teachers and schools in responding to future challenges towards more inclusive education systems and experiences for our students

KEY TERMS sustainability test accommodation

Introduction For many schools and teachers, being inclusive seems to have become almost routine. Policies and processes directed towards inclusion have now filtered down to operational and instructional levels and schools have seemingly become more accepting, participatory and inclusive places. However, for most schools and communities there are still major challenges to be faced, new attitudes to be developed and more resources to be allocated. This is particularly the case with tight budget settings, new policies, standards and curriculum requirements, and the identification of other groups in the community who have been disadvantaged in their participation in education. Inclusive education remains a dynamic challenge, especially if the outcomes as forms of engagement are to be considered, as well as policy and procedural initiatives. As a nation, Australia maintains and extends its commitments to major international conventions, and in ratifying these goes a step further in setting up necessary legislation and procedures to ensure they are honoured (for example, Australia’s ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and Convention on the Rights of the Child). The Australian government agrees that everyone has a right to education and that inclusive education is central to achieving human, social and economic development in our 431

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modern society. But how will this occur and what will the changed circumstances be in coming years? Questions such as these highlight the challenges that we all must face regarding our own understanding, attitudes and practices around inclusivity.

Think of a school that you would describe as inclusive in 2017. 1 2 3 4

What inclusive practices are occurring at the school? What new challenges are being faced at the school? What inclusive practices do you use in your classroom? How do you know they are inclusive?

Pause and reflect

Inclusive education and poverty Perhaps the most notable feature in coming years will involve a further broadening of the concept of inclusive education so that it considers a range of individuals and groups as needing school system changes in order to participate more effectively. The most significant of these groups is those living in poverty. Poverty is not a concept that is generally associated with life and living in Australia. Yet, disturbingly, a recent Australian Council of Social Service report estimated that 17.4 per cent of all Australians aged under 15 or 731 000 children are living below the poverty line (ACOSS 2016). This report indicates an increase in child poverty among lone parent families. The gradual growth in child poverty occurred at a time when Australia was reporting several decades of uninterrupted economic growth. Notwithstanding this growth, a significant number of children and young people are growing up in families that have experienced generations of unemployment. The 2008–09 global financial crisis and its aftermath have made life even more difficult for those living in poor circumstances and within the cycle of poverty. These people are vulnerable to forms of exclusion and reduced participation in schools, often without this being deliberate or even recognised. We have known for many years that the biggest single correlating factor with poor literacy and numeracy skills is poverty (Australian Literacy Educators’ Association 2012). This does not mean that poverty causes poor literacy or numeracy but that it prevents equal access and participation for many children in education. Similar conclusions have been reached for the influence of poor health and limited nutrition on educational outcomes (AIHW 2011). Those in the poorest sections of our communities are more likely to be socially disadvantaged, malnourished, below literacy expectations, unable to access a range of social and moral role models, and lacking in emotional support. A cycle of disadvantage can emerge among those with: • poor health • low nutrition • delayed cognitive development

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delayed personal and social development low levels of literacy and numeracy low levels of participation in education and schooling lowered vocational and further education potential.

So, schools and their communities need to consider ways to support the greater participation of children in this situation of disadvantage. In many cases, that will mean new ways of engaging student learning will be required which will challenge the contemporary notion of education and learning. Education systems and schools will need to be able to see social inequity based on poverty as a priority within the implementation of inclusive education policies and strategies. Equitable outcomes will not be achieved easily or without significant additional funding and staffing. Schools cannot redress all these disadvantages, but they can understand them and provide an enriched and extended range of learning experiences and resources for children from such communities. A broader concept of inclusive education will need to be adopted with a range of additional features. These features include a focus on sustainability, greater accountability within national testing programs, teacher standards, enhanced access to technology, renewed consideration of human rights, and greater cultural sensitivity, community development and changes to teacher education.

You are teaching your students about eating nutritional and healthy food. Some children in your class eat vegetables every night and know about healthy eating. Other children in your class eat takeaway food most nights and do not know the names of very many different vegetables.

Pause and reflect

1 How will you overcome this range of understanding without making some children in your class feel excluded, and ensure all students are included and engaged? 2 Reflect on your own diet. How does it influence your attitude to what your students eat?

Education and future criminal and antisocial behaviour It has been known for many years that class teachers can often predict a small number of students in their class who have a high likelihood of falling into severe antisocial behaviour and even a life of crime and engagement with corrective services and prisons. The question is what teachers can do in these situations to change circumstances and offer alternatives and support other pathways for these children. The massive financial costs associated with the destructive outcomes for these students and their communities should encourage us to take affirmative action in schools. A major Australian study by Homel, Freiberg, Teague et al. (2015) has identified these trends towards criminal behaviour in children, isolated their causes, and Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole

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developed several successful strategies for schools to adopt to change the course of life for these students. The study by Homel, Freiberg, Teague et al. (2015) reported on the Pathways to Prevention Project, which identified suspension or exclusion from school as a key indicator of social and educational disengagement and for significantly increasing the risk of offending behaviour. State education systems espouse policies of inclusive education, as several chapters in this book describe, yet  also have polices related to suspension and exclusion of students—the antithesis of inclusion. These policies and their processes vary considerably between Australian states, and in annual reporting we can see that some states are suspending or excluding more than three to four times the proportion of students excluded in other states. This trend is even more alarming when the data for suspensions and exclusions from Prep and Year 1 are considered. Suspensions from these grades have increased significantly in recent years, reflecting a coalescence of many factors, including perhaps too early commencement of school for some, formal curriculum ‘push down’ from Year 1 to Prep, increasingly rigorous school suspension/ exclusion policies in State and independent education systems, the problems for parents with limited resources, children’s lack of play-based learning of social behaviour, and models of violence and trauma in the home and media. All of these factors can put the well-being of children at risk (Homel, Freiberg, Branch & Huong Le 2015). The Pathways to Prevention Project was shown to be a successful intervention, with its structured partnerships between schools, parents, communities and ‘third party’ community agencies set up to support children in challenging circumstances. The incidence of these children going on to engage with future criminal and antisocial behaviour was dramatically reduced in the studies involving thousands of students and many schools. (See Homel, Freiberg, Teague et al. (2015) in the Key references for further information on the project and its methods.)

Building resilience among children at risk Schools have the capacity to promote the resilience of children and young people. Resilience is the ability to cope and even thrive in the face of negative events, challenges or adversity. Key attributes of resilience in children include social competence, a sense of agency or responsibility, optimism, a sense of hope and purpose for the future, attachment to the family, school and learning, problem-solving skills, prosocial values, efficacy and positive self-regard. Schools can enhance resilience through programs that build positive social norms and develop connectedness among teachers, students, peers and the academic goals of the school. It is interesting to note that the European Commission has funded a large project directed at building the resilience of children who are living in, or coming from, places of violence and trauma in war-torn regions of the world (see the website of Cultures of Disaster Resilience among children and young people (CUIDAR) at www.lancaster.ac.uk/ cuidar/en).

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In Australia, Cahill et al. (2014) conducted a review of effective approaches to resilience building and their applicability for the Department of Education in the state of Victoria. The approach identified in the Cahill et al. (2014) study in Australia has a number of similar features to the Pathways to Prevention Project and adopts the following model (see also Figure 19.1): Figure 19.1 Building resilience • partner with the school community, including families and community services • lead activity across the schools in a comprehensive manner • teach social and emotional skills to all Lead Teach students in all year levels • support those children and young people identified as needing additional assistance Building Resilience • refer those in need of extra support to Support Partner appropriate services. As more students encounter a range of stressors and anxieties, including school Refer and family relationships, complex identity formation challenges, friendships, school transitions, emotional well-being, bullying, Source: Cahill et al. (2014, p. 6). violence and trauma, refugee status and poverty, there is a need for schools to engage with these issues in collaboration with community service agencies and families in a positive, inclusive manner. Schools are a vital part of our social and cultural networks and need to understand and respond to the risks and challenges facing many children, as well as meeting their curricular goals.

Apply your knowledge 1 Access the Association for Children with a Disability website at http://acd.org.au/ teachers-families-working-together. Choose some ideas from this site to help you develop a working partnership with parents. 2 Identify a community service organisation (for example, Mission Australia) and develop some ideas for working with such an agency in your area.

Sustainability The term sustainability is used in many contexts, particularly in environmental planning, but social, educational and health contexts also need to be considered. To be sustainable, inclusive education must look towards the futures that children may have and prepare them

Sustainability: Sustainable, inclusive education requires looking towards the futures that children may have and preparing them for situations and challenges that go beyond attending school and developing proficiency in current curricular objectives.

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for situations and challenges that go beyond attending school and developing proficiency in current curricular objectives. The knowledge and skills acquired need to be able to be applied or transformed into capacities that respond to future needs across the individual’s lifetime. This does not mean a reduced emphasis on subject area curriculum concepts, but rather an extension of these into broader, authentic situations where learning may be applied or transformed. Some students may require continued support for learning beyond the compulsory school years as their disadvantages and delays are addressed. We already see this happening in the increased focus on students being able to make effective transitions to post-secondary learning and in the continually evolving Australian Curriculum, with its focus on greater depth of understanding and application of learning. It is also seen in the move across all state education authorities to offer more extended early childhood learning opportunities. Developing a sustainable future for inclusive education will also rely on successful collaboration with parents and the wider community. Partnerships enable a sense of ‘belonging’ to be established and it is this belonging that is critical to successful school engagement for many students. Such belonging engages all stakeholders in planning the development of educational opportunities that are most meaningful for students. The inclusion of parents and community in the school can broaden the scope of what education means while acknowledging the important contribution these members make to the education community.

Apply your knowledge Mabuba has just arrived in your class. Her mother is unable to speak English. Her father speaks some English but works long hours each day. How could you include Mabuba’s mother in the parent community of your classroom and school?

National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) There is a range of new government initiatives, professional body procedures and budget priorities that will impact on inclusive education. The National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS), which is being progressively introduced around Australia, will include targeting support and early intervention services for students with a disability and their families. It will make additional support services available towards the learning and social outcomes for students with a disability. The additional funding will go to families, and in partnerships with schools new supports can be negotiated and funded. The NDIS is considered to be one of the most important social reforms in recent Australian history. It promises to provide lifetime, individualised support to people with permanent and significant disabilities by enabling flexibility, choice and control over the services and supports they receive. The support will be of significance to families and carers. The NDIS acknowledges that people have different needs and goals and is based

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on the principle of providing people with a disability the necessary supports that each one requires to enable them to live a fulfilling and productive life. In particular, the NDIS aims to support people early in life so that their long-term outcomes will be most favourable to their quality of life. One of the most significant changes that the NDIS makes is that the individual will be given funding to purchase the services they choose in assisting them to meet their personal goals. The services that the NDIS offer will be in addition to those that schools already provide for children with a disability. The implementation of the NDIS is the responsibility of the National Disability Insurance Agency (NDIA). The NDIA assesses eligibility of participants in the scheme as well as works with individuals and their families in developing appropriate support plans. Schools will discover that their mode of service delivery will be significantly influenced by the NDIS. Currently, all Australian Education Departments are expected to comply with the Commonwealth Disability Standards for Education 2005 by providing all students with disabilities the resources and support they require to access the same educational opportunities and choices as students without a disability. Because families will be able to access NDIS support from the time of diagnosis of their child’s disability, they will enter the school system with a good knowledge and understanding of their child’s condition as well as many of their specific needs. The school, as service provider, will be expected to respond in an agile manner to the specific needs of not only the child but also of the family. Parents as consumers will come to the school as informed customers expecting services that will continue to improve the quality of their child’s life. Thus, school personnel will be required to have a very good working understanding and knowledge of how the curriculum, and the learning and physical environments can best be adapted for the personal learning goals of individual children. There will also be greater emphasis on consultation, and collaboration with parents as partners. Thus, teachers will be required to develop and use these appropriate communication skills. Good leadership of a school by a principal who has a very clear understanding of the rights of children with a disability and their families to quality education will be vital if this interagency development is to function effectively.

National testing NAPLAN (National Assessment Program— Literacy and Numeracy) strives to provide information on how students in all schools are progressing in the core areas of literacy and numeracy, and to identify students in need of additional support for improvements in their learning. Such a focus is appropriate, but we must take care not to adopt a ‘deficit’ interpretation of learning and the nature of the education that we provide. NAPLAN can be seen as a ‘safety net’ approach after our best efforts have been made to include all students and provide an accepting and equitable school system. We need, therefore, to focus on a ‘strengths-based’ approach that accepts the diversity among learners and provides opportunities for them all to develop accordingly. Further, it is important to remember that NAPLAN only measures the outcomes for students in defined areas of learning. Their social and personal development, communication skills and cognitive abilities remain a focus for schools and school communities. Schools need to adopt missions that are broadly focused and able to evidence the range of achievements of their pupils.

ASSESSMENT

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Test accommodation: A change to the way in which a test is administered for a student with an impairment, disability or difference to ensure that the test remains a valid, reliable and inclusive experience for that individual or group.

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However, it needs to be understood that inclusive education and the increasing pressure for standardisation of outcomes (such as in testing programs) can coexist. Although both need to exist to ensure quality education for all, schools will be increasingly faced with the conundrum of how to respond to the individual needs of their students, while addressing the accountability requirements of standardisation. This is a practical example of the model proposed in Chapter 1 (see ‘Some theory and a framework’ in that chapter), with a tension between differentiation for individual student needs by schools and demands for uniformity by educational authorities. Through constant review and evaluation of educational practice, educators will need to be able to differentiate the curriculum to ensure optimal outcomes for each student, while simultaneously producing outcomes in key learning areas such as literacy and numeracy that are at or above agreed standards. These optimal outcomes can only result from teaching pedagogies that adapt the curricular content, process and product to ensure that learning engages all students. Adopting a narrow ‘back to basics’ perspective through curriculum mandates, or through testing and standards regimes, is a formula for stagnation. Further, if national testing programs are not accommodated to ensure that they are accessible for students who have, for example, vision impairments, hearing impairments, languages other than English, attention difficulties and so on, their participation may be limited and their results invalidated. Developments in test accommodation will be crucial for future testing programs if they are to engage all Australian students. Hyde (2013) outlines a number of aspects of test accommodation for students who have difficulty participating in ‘high stakes’ national testing programs such as NAPLAN. These are summarised below. 1 Presentation accommodations can allow a student to access learning and assessment in ways other than standard visual and auditory modes. Alternative modes of presentation can include enlarged font size, use of colours for greater contrast in presented documents, audio-recording, qualified sign language interpreting, the use of picture symbols, teacher-read directions, or the use of a support person or communication aide. 2 Response accommodations can include producing text either orally to a scribe, or using speech-to-text software, using an assistive communication device or a communication aide or interpreter. 3 Setting and environmental accommodations are typically changes to the location in which an assessment is given or in the environmental conditions the student needs to complete the task. Some examples may include using the location where a student routinely works, rather than a special area for the assessment, reduction in background noise or visual distractions, and use of an easily accessible and comfortable setting. 4 Timing and scheduling accommodations are changes in the allowable amount of time or the time of day assessments are given. These types of accommodations may include allowing for extended time, individual testing, frequent breaks, verbal or non-verbal teacher prompts to stay on-task, or providing key instructions for the assessment during the time of day the student is normally most responsive. A general principle that is applied in accommodations of assessment procedures is that the no advantage rule should apply. That is, a student without the disability, disadvantage or other

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learning impairment should be able to take the accommodated assessment without receiving any scoring advantage. Accommodation is about inclusion, accessibility and unprejudiced assessment, not about exclusion.

Apply your knowledge Jay and Kelly have a form of autism and both will require accommodations for their NAPLAN tests, but your school is reluctant to include them. The parents of both children are angry because they say their children should be able to do the same test as the other children. 1 What will you say to your school administration and these parents? 2 Do the parents have the right to demand that their children do the same tests? Explain your answers.

Access to technology Access to latest technology is an area that is receiving considerable focus in national planning and resource allocation for schools. With the increasing advances in technology, a growing array of computer-mediated resources is being made available to support the inclusion of all students in the learning process. These resources range from interactive whiteboards, smartphones, personal computers and tablets designed for whole class use, to assistive technology devices that enable individual students to overcome specific challenges and participate in all school activities. Some examples of these devices include communication systems that use computers and specialised software; switches that can be activated by a blink of an eye, the head or hand to enable operation of a computer; touch screens that allow computer access; mouse replacements such as joysticks, trackers and eye-gaze technology; alternative keyboards; cochlear implants; a range of hearing aids, amplifiers and magnifiers; screen readers; talking word processors and voice recognition systems. The rollout of the National Broadband Network should increase access to faster internet services and all that will entail. The growing range of technologies not only provides increased access to learning for students but also allows teachers to utilise various electronic formats to collect, document, store, retrieve and display student data and information. Thus, data can be presented in a number of formats that are more accessible and authentic to the range of learning styles and diverse learning abilities of students. New technologies can also act as valuable time-management tools for teachers. For example, an early years teacher no longer has to spend time cutting out large letters and numerals to be used for a student with a vision impairment. Instead, these resources can be quickly generated electronically on a computer screen or electronic whiteboard. The challenge for education systems is to provide training in the use of new technologies. The challenge for teachers is to accept and effectively use new technologies to complement or replace some of their existing teaching strategies. Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole

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Inclusive schools will also benefit from the use of assistive technology and the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) approach (National Centre on Universal Design for Learning 2014). UDL applies new technologies to teaching, learning, curriculum development and assessment, which enable teachers to respond effectively to individual learner differences. UDL includes accessible web pages; electronic textbooks and other curricular materials; speaking spellcheckers; talking dialogue boxes; and voice recognition. Through the use of UDL, all students can have the opportunity to access the full array of learning experiences. Access to, and the capacity to use, a range of communication and computing technologies is also related to the resources that families and schools have available to them. Potential disadvantage exists for some groups and regions, especially more remote and impoverished regions, in this respect. As technology resources become a part of everyday schooling, the disadvantage experienced by students whose families have limited access to technology is widening the digital divide. For education to be more inclusive, greater equity in this domain needs to be achieved. As can be seen in the development of the internet, new technology does not merely add something—it can change everything.

Cultural sensitivity and human rights Projections of population increase in Australia may vary, but two trends are evident: first, significant increases will occur in coming decades; and second, the students in our schools will be more diverse in terms of their linguistic and cultural heritages than ever before. As noted in Chapter 1, 28 per cent of Australians were born in another country and students from families from Africa, Asia, Europe, Pacific islands and refugees from strife-torn nations such as Sri Lanka, Afghanistan and Iraq are more prevalent in our schools, particularly in urban and outer-urban regions (ABS 2015). Communities, schools, teachers and students will need to be provided with the knowledge and skills to become more culturally aware and inclusive of these groups and individuals. This expanded dimension of inclusion will be a challenge for all schools to face. In this context, the use of education for human rights (as against previous strategies of education about human rights) will become an important feature of curricula and school experience. Understanding of human rights is not innate, and teachers and students need to learn about the principles of human rights (particularly the rights of children), how they are enshrined in laws and policies, and how they may be developed through education. All forms of discrimination should be anticipated and addressed, and children’s rights protected. We should see linguistic and cultural diversity in the classroom as a valuable resource and, in some cases, even promote the use of the child’s first language as a bridge to literacy in the early years of instruction. The diverse nature of education will also be impacted on by wider social changes brought about by such developments as reproductive technologies, surrogacy and the adoption of children from overseas countries. As we are now well aware of gender equity and identity issues that students may be grappling with, we should be better able to predict and cater for their consequences. An example of this is the increased attention being given to the participation and education of boys in schools, while ensuring that both boys and girls benefit from the same levels of engagement and outcomes in education.

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Apply your knowledge You have decided to donate money to sponsor a disadvantaged student in the last two years of their senior schooling. The sponsoring organisation has given you a choice of students to sponsor. • Crystal, a 16-year-old, has learning difficulties and is barely literate or numerate. She is doing some TAFE subjects in the last two years of high school. She hopes to be able to get an apprenticeship. • Mohammad, a Year 11 student, comes from a non-English-speaking family. Despite this, he excels in all his subjects. He hopes to go to university to study engineering. Which student will you choose to sponsor, and why?

Finally, we are becoming more aware of the complex issues surrounding how schools in a secular society can accommodate the needs of students who come from families where their faith system or religion plays a significant role in their lives and education. We can expect to see more faith systems seek to establish their own schools with support from public funding.

Funding As with all change, educational change must be supported with appropriate funding. Additional funding will be needed to support schools and communities as they face the additional challenges to inclusion in the twenty-first century. Such funding will need to have discretionary features so that individual schools can accommodate the specific needs of their distinctive school populations. Funding will also need to be directed to revised models of teacher preparation and support for the communities from which students come. Support for communities could incorporate adult literacy programs and the strengthening of links between schools and communities to enable families to more fully participate in and contribute to the educational process. Increasingly, we will see students and families receiving direct funding and the task remains for them to negotiate with schools in relation to the support and engagement that they seek.

Teachers and standards for teachers We need to reinforce the role of teachers by working to improve their status and their working conditions, and develop ways of recruiting the best candidates and retaining qualified teachers who are sensitive to students’ diverse learning requirements. Where possible, teachers should reflect the diversity of the communities they serve. In 2015, the Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group released its report, Action now: classroom ready teachers (TEMAG 2015), which was a review of teacher preparation and teaching in Australia. The recommendations from the review will ensure that graduates and current teachers in all Australian schools are equipped with a deeper understanding of diversity and difference as well as the necessary skills and

STANDARDS

Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole

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resources to teach diverse student populations to meet the needs of learners. In other words, teachers need to not only know how to work with difference, but also believe in the need to do so. As noted in Chapter 1, the responsibility for supporting and educating all students with diversity, including children with a disability now lies, in a majority of cases, with regular schools and class teachers. It is notable that teacher education has changed dramatically, and there are now very few specialist teacher education programs in Australia—either undergraduate or postgraduate—that prepare or contribute to the professional development of teachers to work in the various fields of student diversity. This means there are very few special education graduates, teachers or advisors being prepared or available across the country. This increases the imperative for regular class teachers and their schools to develop strategies and resources to support students with special needs in their learning and development. Books such as this, and the courses in which they are adopted, become the essential preparation and resources for teachers. Importantly, one of the recommendations from the TEMAG report and a feature of the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (the AITSL Standards) was that partnerships between schools and pre-service teacher education institutions be maintained and strengthened, particularly to emphasise that understanding the theories, principles and practices that underpin the concept of inclusive education are fundamental to the subsequent development of inclusive education environments. This will mean that schools engaged in best practice of inclusive education will become key partners with pre-service teacher education institutions. Equally important is the need for teachers to be involved in ongoing professional development. Professional development is critical if education is to keep abreast with, and respond to, the rapid changes in society. In this case, professional development may mean that teachers are encouraged to challenge traditional ways of engaging students and replacing these with evidence-based practices that can ensure student learning outcomes. As we have discussed earlier, these rapid changes embrace our culture, attitudes, values and expectations. Society must value and respect the rights of all individuals, and demonstrate this by seeking ways to provide each person with the opportunity to participate meaningfully in everyday life. Consequently, the challenge for educators is to develop ways to ensure that all students are provided with educational opportunities that acknowledge diversity, while striving to achieve optimal outcomes for each student. Teacher educators, teachers and schools receive significant guidance from the AITSL Standards (AITSL 2015; see also www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-forteachers/standards/list). The Standards being implemented across all states and territories are organised into four career stages to guide the preparation, support and ongoing professional development of teachers. The stages reflect the continuum of a teacher’s developing professional expertise from undergraduate preparation (Graduate Teacher) through to being an exemplary classroom practitioner (Proficient or Highly Accomplished) or a leader in the profession (Lead Teacher). At each stage in the Standards there is an increasing expectation of knowledge, proficiency and performance of the teacher in a number of domains including teaching Indigenous students, students with disabilities, students with other special learning needs and supporting the participation and engagement of these students in all aspects of school life.

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In this way, teachers can become leaders of the inclusive movement—to model diversity and inclusive attitudes and behaviours, and show the way forward for inclusive education. As renowned education futurist Dator (2002) suggests: ‘Every day of every class should start … with the question, How is what I am about to teach relevant to the futures of those who are about to learn it? And how can I be sure?’

End point In coming years, schools will become even more diverse than they are at present. This will create new demands and new challenges. More students will commence formal schooling from different backgrounds or from an educational position well behind their peers. The original concept behind Australian public education—that of ‘equal education’—will become even less relevant than it is now, as such an approach would only serve to maintain the delays and relative levels of disadvantage for many students. The challenges for schools and policy makers will be to achieve more equal outcomes through public schooling and for communities to understand the concept of ‘unequal treatment of unequals’. That is, some communities, schools and individuals will need a greater allocation of resources invested in their education if they are to become fully engaged and contributing members of our society. This will inevitably create tensions and must be balanced with the need to also recognise and stimulate students with higher capacities and abilities in our schools.

SUMMARY This chapter has presented a range of future changes in our society and schools that may influence the way in which inclusive education is conceived and implemented and how student engagement may be determined. It reinforces the view that inclusive education is not static, but needs to adapt to change and be flexible and sustainable.

For group discussion Consider how your school might look and function in the year 2025. 1 What will classes be like, what technologies will be used, how will teachers work differently and how will subjects change? 2 Will this make your school accepting of students who are disadvantaged, different or with a disability? 3 What challenges will still need to be faced?

Key references Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2015). 3412.0—Migration, Australia, 2014–15. Accessed at www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Latestproducts/3412.0Main%20Features32014-15. Mervyn Hyde, Lorelei Carpenter and Shelley Dole

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Australian Council of Social Service (ACOSS) (2016). Poverty in Australia 2016. Accessed at www.acoss.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Poverty-in-Australia-2016.pdf. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2011). Young Australians: their health and wellbeing. Accessed at www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=10737419261 2017. Australian Literacy Educators’ Association (2012). Literacy heaven. Accessed at www.alea. edu.au/events/event/literacy-heaven-literacy-poverty. Cahill, H., Beadle, S., Farrelly, A., Forster, R. & Smith, K. (2014). Building resilience in children and young people: a literature review for the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD). Youth Research Centre, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne. Dator, J. (2002). Visions, values, technologies and schools. On the Horizon, 10(4), 19–24. Homel, R., Freiberg, K., Branch, S. & Huong Le (2015). Preventing the onset of youth offending: the impact of the Pathways to Prevention Project on child behaviour and wellbeing. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Homel, R., Freiberg, K., Teague, R., Branch, S., Haskard, K., Thompson, P. & Mobbs, S. (2015). Can family support moderate the relationship between disciplinary suspensions and child outcomes? A report to the Research Services Branch, Strategic Policy and Intergovernmental Relations, Department of Education and Training, Queensland Government. August 2015. Hyde, M. (2013). Accommodations of assessment for students with special needs. In W. Allen & K. Readman (eds), Practical planning and assessment. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. National Centre on Universal Design for Learning (2014). Accessed at www.udlcenter.org/ aboutudl/whatisudl. Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG) (2015). Action now: classroom ready teachers. Accessed at https://docs.education.gov.au/node/36783.

Websites Australian Professional Standards for Teachers—www.aitsl.edu.au/initial-teachereducation/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-education AITSL site providing a number of resources regarding professional standards for teachers of Indigenous students.

Australian Professional Standards for Teachers—www.aitsl.edu.au/australianprofessional-standards-for-teachers/standards/list AITSL site providing the national list of professional standards for teaching students with a disability.

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GLOSSARY absenteeism Being absent from school without approval.

acceleration A process of enabling students to progress through the curriculum more quickly. Examples include early entry to school or university, subject acceleration and grade skipping.

accommodations of teaching Adjustments that recognise the importance of diversifying instruction to include all students in general education. They ensure each student has access to the curriculum, so that their individual learning needs are met.

adaptive behaviour Used by individuals with disabilities to cope with the natural and social demands of the environment, including feeding, dressing, toileting and higher level social interaction skills.

adaptive functioning Typical performance, rather than one’s ability. An individual’s adaptive behaviour functioning is considered to be inadequate if the ability is not demonstrated when it is required.

algorithm A step-by-step approach procedure that, if applied in the right sequence, yields the correct answer.

anxiety disorder Characterised by excessive feelings of anxiety and worry, over a sustained period of time, that the individual finds difficult

to control and that significantly interfere with daily functioning. Anxiety and related symptoms such as restlessness, sleeplessness and difficulty concentrating are not attributable to drug use or another medical condition.

assistive technology An item or a system used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capacities of individuals with disabilities. Examples of such devices are orthotics, wheelchairs, support walkers, adaptive seating, communication systems and switches.

augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) An area of educational practice that attempts to compensate for severe difficulties of speech and language expression and/or comprehension. It can include the use of gestures, sign language, pictures and electronic communication aids.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) The national body responsible for the development of the Australian Curriculum, and all national and international testing, as well as reporting to parents and on the national My School website.

Australian Sign Language (Auslan) The native sign language of the Australian Deaf community, as recognised in the National Language Policy. It has a different grammatical structure and other linguistic features from English.

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GLOSSARY

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

challenging behaviour

A neurodevelopmental disorder. People with ASD have persistent deficits in social communication and interaction as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. The symptoms of people with ASD will fall on a continuum, with some individuals showing mild symptoms and others having more severe symptoms.

A wide range of inappropriate and unproductive social behaviours that interrupt the lesson flow and the learning of all students in the class.

behavioural strategies Within the discipline of psychology, where learning is defined as the acquisition of specific responses to specific stimuli. Examples of behavioural strategies are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

chronic conditions Illnesses, disorders or diseases of long duration and generally slow progression. Some examples of chronic conditions are heart disease, stroke, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes.

cochlear implants

Braille

Surgically implantable devices that can greatly assist children with sensorineural hearing loss. Implants can provide more comprehensive auditory information than a hearing aid. However, they cannot fully restore lost hearing. When fitted early in life, implants may have major benefits for the deaf child and their development.

A tactile system for reading and writing used by people whose vision impairment limits their ability to read print.

complex communication needs (CCN)

bilingualism Being able to use two languages.

CALD Culturally and linguistically diverse.

cerebral palsy An umbrella term used to describe disordered movement and posture, delayed motor development and atypical motoric findings on neurological examination. The cause is located in the brain, rather than the spinal cord or peripheral nervous system. Although the brain injury is usually prenatal, cerebral palsy is rarely diagnosed in the first year of life. The full clinical picture only becomes clear in the second year of life.

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Needs associated with a range of disabilities that restrict a person’s ability to communicate and participate independently in society. Causes can be physical, sensory and environmental.

cooperative learning A method of instruction that involves students working together in groups to complete a specific task.

cortical vision impairment The result of damage to the visual systems in the brain that deal with the processing and integration of visual information.

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GLOSSARY

deaf A generic term used to describe a person with a hearing loss sufficient to impair the development of speech through listening. They may have developed some proficiency with a spoken language, but not enough to function independently in class or in social situations (compare hard of hearing).

Deaf

Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA) Protects individuals across Australia from direct and indirect discrimination in many parts of public life, such as employment, education and access to premises. The Act is the basis for the Disability Standards for Education legislation, as well as the basis for the operation of HREOC.

A term used to describe a person who considers themself to be a member of the Australian Deaf community and would normally be able to use Auslan in communication.

disengagement

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)

A neurological language disorder that manifests as difficulty to process phonological structure with the corresponding graphic symbols during reading.

A manual used by many mental health professionals around the world. It provides the official diagnosis of mental health disorders and informs the resulting treatment. The most recent revised edition, the DSM-5, was published in May 2013.

A term that describes the condition whereby a student avoids active involvement in learning tasks.

dyslexia

EAL/D learners Students learning English as an additional language or dialect.

differentiation

echolalia

An overall approach to planning, teaching and managing the classroom that systematically takes into account individual students’ characteristics and needs.

The repetition of words or phrases that have just been heard or heard in the past. It may be the exact words or slightly altered. In children with ASD, echolalia may serve as a way to interact socially, to communicate or as an attempt to learn language.

digital disconnect The disconnect between what teachers and educators see as engaging pedagogy and what students see as engaging and valuable to their future.

direct teaching A general term for the explicit teaching of a skill set.

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engagement Can be generally seen as student participation in educationally effective practices, both inside and outside the classroom, which leads to a range of potentially measurable outcomes.

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GLOSSARY

enrichment The opportunity to study topics not usually addressed in the school curriculum, and to study topics in greater depth.

equity The achievement of outcomes that are equal.

error analysis The process of analysing students’ responses to particular tasks. Errors suggest the student’s conceptualisation of the task at hand and hence provide guidance for instruction to overcome those errors.

expanded core curriculum (ECC) Comprises skills and knowledge that are unique to young people with vision impairment. It involves the development of compensatory academic skills including communication modes (for example, Braille), visual efficiency, orientation and mobility, social skills, skills for everyday living, recreation and leisure skills, career education and the use of assistive technology (Hatlen 2000).

explicit instruction Characterised by teacher-directed presentation and modelling of skills to be learnt, along with high levels of student responses through opportunities for guided practice with feedback.

extension Completing more advanced work in the regular classroom, related to the regular curriculum.

field of vision The term used to refer to the entire area that can be seen when an individual is

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looking straight ahead and not shifting their gaze.

fine motor Related to the coordination of the small muscles of the body, especially those of the hand. Eye–hand coordination in infancy, problem solving with toys and puzzles in early childhood and graphomotor (drawing) and dressing skills in middle childhood are used to assess fine motor skills.

functional behaviour assessment (FBA) A systematic method of assessment for obtaining information about the purposes (functions) a problem behaviour serves for a person. Results are used to guide the design of an intervention for decreasing the problem behaviour and increasing appropriate behaviour.

functional communication Purposeful communication that is based upon use in the environments in which the learner participates in their daily lives.

functional communication training (FCT) Procedures designed to eliminate the need for an individual to engage in problem behaviour by teaching communication skills that serve the same purpose as the behaviours of concern.

functional skills Skills and competencies necessary for everyday living that would be expected to occur in the learner’s natural setting(s), including the use of adaptive equipment, counting money/change, reading/ recognising single words, balancing a budget and completing a job application.

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GLOSSARY

gender

home–school literacy partnerships

Social or cultural categories on the continuum from masculine or feminine.

Out-of-school literacy programs that involve families engaging in supportive literacy activities at home.

gender equity The goal of the equality of outcomes of the genders or the sexes stemming from a belief in the injustice of myriad forms of gender inequality.

gender inclusion The active, intentional and ongoing engagement with individuals regardless of gender.

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) The body responsible for the management of rights for persons with disabilities as well as other vulnerable groups. It also hears prosecution cases where a person believes they have been discriminated against.

hydrocephalus

Intellectual potential or academic performance significantly in advance of chronological age peers, and requiring educational opportunities beyond what would usually be provided. While the term giftedness might be applied to many domains of endeavour, in school settings the term is usually applied to intellectual or academic abilities.

Also known as ‘water on the brain’, hydrocephalus is a condition in which there is an enlargement of the ventricular system in the brain, due to an increase in the amount of cerebro-spinal fluid (CFS) present in the ventricles (that is, the fluid-filled spaces in the brain). It may be caused by a decreased absorption or increased production of CFS and it can be a congenital or acquired condition.

gross motor

ICF-CY

Related to posture and locomotion. Early gross motor skills, such as rolling over, sitting, crawling, walking and running, seem to be heavily maturational. Later gross motor skills, such as swimming or bicycle riding have a learnt component. Gross motor abilities have little relationship to general intelligence.

The World Health Organization’s (WHO) International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health Children and Youth (ICF-CY) (2007). It offers a conceptual framework to systematically document characteristics of health and functioning in children and youth and provides a shared terminology for tracking problems and progress which are relevant early in life, such as functions and structures of the body, activities, participation and environmental factors.

giftedness

hard of hearing The term used by most education authorities worldwide to describe a child who, with hearing aids or a cochlear implant, functions as a hard-of-hearing person and who is able to use a spoken language effectively for communication purposes (compare deaf).

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IESIP Indigenous Education Strategic Initiatives Program.

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inclusion A set of processes and practices concerned with recognising and removing barriers to presence, participation and progress for all students.

inclusive education The promotion of the participation of all learners in the local schools of their choice; making learning meaningful and relevant for all (including those learners who are most vulnerable to exclusionary influences) and the rethinking and restructuring of policies, curricula, cultures and practices in schools and learning environments so that diverse learning needs can be met.

individual education program (IEP)

incorrect. Learned difficulties reflect the ability to learn, but what has been learnt is merely an incorrect way of doing things.

learning difficulties A broad term that encompasses a wide range of biological, cognitive or behavioural factors that inhibit learning.

literacy The ability to read, write, speak, illustrate and to think critically about the written word.

LOTE Languages Other Than English.

low-vision devices (LVDs)

A written statement outlining the educational program and goals of a learner with a disability that is developed and implemented according to the child’s individual needs. It is developed at an IEP meeting whose members should include all relevant stakeholders.

Optical (near-point magnifiers and monocular telescopes), non-optical (through improved lighting, large print, high contrast and a shorter working distance) or electronic (closed-circuit TVs) devices that assist people with low vision to see print, objects and aspects of the environment more easily.

individual transition plans (ITPs)

mainstreaming

Specialised versions of individual education programs which specifically plan for the transition of a student from one setting to another.

A term that originated under legal challenges for the rights of minority groups in the USA. Subsequent government legislation and direction mandated that many students formerly placed in special schools should be placed in local, regular schools. As such, mainstreaming focuses on the ‘place’ of the child with a disability or difference.

integration The inclusion of people with a disability in educational institutions at a level commensurate with their degree of ability.

key learning areas (KLAs) The basis for curriculum coverage nationally; they include English, mathematics, science, and the creative and performing arts.

learned difficulties Usually taken to mean consistent errors and misconceptions that indicate learning has occurred, but what has been learnt is

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major depressive disorder Characterised by sustained depressed mood, loss of interest in usually pleasurable activities, and other symptoms that can include difficulty sleeping, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, irritability, fatigue, weight loss or gain, difficulty concentrating and recurrent thoughts about dying, where these are not attributable to drug use or another medical condition.

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GLOSSARY

mental health A state of well-being where the individual realises their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can make a contribution to his or her community (WHO 2013).

includes universal supports (focused on skillbuilding and prevention) for all students; targeted supports for students at risk or beginning to experience specific difficulties; and intensive, more individualised supports for students experiencing difficulties.

mentoring

muscular dystrophy

Individual coaching by older students or other skilled adults.

A person who chooses to move to another country for economic or personal reasons.

A group of genetic disorders leading to progressive muscular atrophy (wasting) and weakness; the different types exhibit varying distribution and severity. When the muscles that carry out respiration are involved, the disorder can become fatal.

misconceptions

NAEC

Incorrect or naive conceptions about particular tasks that may interfere with the development of appropriate knowledge and hence knowledge growth. A common misconception in mathematics is that multiplication always results in a bigger number. This conception interferes with students’ interpretation of the results of multiplication with fractions and decimals.

National Aboriginal Education Committee.

migrant

mobility The ability to move with appropriate ease, flexibility and range.

multiple-component response Involves more than one response. Examples of multiple-component responses include dressing, preparing a meal, brushing one’s teeth, going to the toilet, playing a video game, feeding a pet, shopping for groceries, posting a letter and clearing the dinner dishes from the table.

multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) An approach that defines a coordinated continuum of increasingly targeted, intensive supports and services to meet the developing academic, social, emotional and behavioural needs of all students. This

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NAEP National Aboriginal Education Policy.

National Assessment Program— Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) A program conducted nationally for students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. NAPLAN is the first program in which all students sit the same test papers. School data are published on the My School website.

National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) The current model of providing community linking and individualised support for people with permanent and significant disability, their families and carers.

NATSIS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey.

neuroscience The field of study encompassing a variety of disciplines dealing with the brain and nervous system.

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NIELNS

protective factors

National Indigenous English Literacy and Numeracy Strategy.

Factors that decrease the likelihood that an individual will experience mental health difficulties, or can ameliorate the effects of existing risk factors.

ocular motility Refers to movement of the eyes which can cause vision. An example of an ocular motility disorder is nystagmus (rapid involuntary movement of the eyes).

otitis media Describes a range of conditions that affect the middle ear; they are usually infections and inflammations based on upper respiratory tract pathologies or allergies.

physical impairment Also known as physical disability, physical impairment is a broad category of disabilities that typically involve the motor system and place some limitation on the person’s ability to move about. Although physical impairments are distinguished from intellectual or emotional disability, a physical impairment may overlap or coexist with an intellectual impairment.

positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS) PBIS aims to develop and provide a safe environment by assisting students who display challenging behaviour to build up a repertoire of socially appropriate behaviours.

Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) A program that tests literacy in reading, mathematics and science in 15-year-old students. PISA is held every three years in more than sixty countries, including Australia, and the results are used to rank and compare countries in league tables.

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psychosocial disability Relates to the ‘social consequences of disability’—the effects on someone’s ability to participate fully in life as result of mental ill-health (Mental Health Australia 2014).

quality of life An individual’s perception of their position in life, in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live, and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. It is a broad-ranging concept affected in a complex way by the person’s physical health, psychological state, level of independence, social relationships, personal beliefs and their relationship to salient features of their environment.

RCADC Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody.

reading The ability to decode the written word.

refractive error A structural defect of vision that can result in myopia (near-sightedness), which causes difficulty with distance viewing; hyperopia (long sightedness), which causes difficulties with near-point tasks such as reading; and astigmatism (distorted or blurred vision).

refugee A person who is forced to leave his/ her homeland, usually because of war or persecution, and is moved to another country.

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GLOSSARY

resilience The capacity to cope and ‘bounce back’ in the face of adversity.

Response to Intervention (RTI) A multi-tiered approach to the early identification and support of students with learning and behaviour needs. The RTI process begins with high-quality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general education classroom.

restricted, repetitive behaviour Behaviours that include repeated body movements such as rocking, spinning, head banging, hand flapping, repeating a word or phrase as well as routines that become rituals, compulsive behaviours and rigid preferences for things like food and clothes. People with ASD will experience great difficulty in making any changes to their repetitive behaviours.

risk factors Characteristics of the individual, family circumstances, peer relationships, and school and community environments that are associated with an increased likelihood of a person experiencing mental health difficulties.

Signed English The use of a sign system to represent the grammar and morphology of English; that is, what is said is simultaneously signed—in English. It is not Auslan.

single-component response A single, discrete response. Examples of single-component responses include pressing a switch to operate a CD recorder, producing a manual sign ‘EAT’ to request a preferred snack food, naming an object by

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pointing to the matching photograph and pouring water into a cup.

social communication/interaction The verbal and non-verbal language and behaviours we use to communicate with each other so that meaningful and positive social relationships develop. It refers to our ability to send clear verbal and non-verbal messages to others and to understand verbal and non-verbal messages communicated to us.

sociocultural diversity Varying community and family expectations, abilities, aspirations, attitudes, beliefs and values that influence young people’s ability to fit in and cope with schooling protocols.

sociocultural theory A theory in both sociology and psychology that looks at how society impacts on individual development while focusing on the interactions between people and the culture in which they live.

speech generating devices (SGDs) Electronic communication devices that translate graphic symbols and/or text and letters into speech.

spina bifida A neural tube defect; a constellation of malformations of the central nervous system (CNS) that presents with a failure of fusion of the bones in the vertebral column (spine) and with an accompanying herniation (or pertuberance) of neural components possibly including a protuberance of both the lining and the spinal cord. Clinically, any associated neurological problems depend on the level of the lesion.

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student disengagement

twice exceptional

Includes socially unacceptable behaviour, inconsistent classroom attendance, poor concentration, inflexibility, low ambition, inability to cope with failure, and difficulty maintaining positive relationships with peers.

A term used to describe students who may be identified as gifted or advanced in one or more areas, while also having a disability or learning difficulty (for example, dyslexia or ASD).

sustainability

The inclusion of both Western and Aboriginal approaches in schooling to support Indigenous students.

Sustainable, inclusive education requires looking towards the futures that children may have and preparing them for situations and challenges that go beyond attending school and developing proficiency in current curricular objectives.

two-way education

uniformity The creation of a system or set of experiences that are the same for all concerned.

task analysis

vision impairment

An approach to teaching in which complex behaviours are broken down into their components, and taught in an ordered and logical sequence.

A generic term used to describe either blindness or low vision. Vision loss may involve general blurriness, monocular (one eye) vision or a severe field restriction in central or peripheral vision, binocular skill, fixation (focusing on an object) colour vision or a combination of these.

test accommodation A change to the way in which a test is administered for a student with an impairment, disability or difference to ensure that the test remains a valid, reliable and inclusive experience for that individual or group.

transitions These occur when the student moves from one educational setting to another, or from education to employment or other postschool settings.

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) A program for students in Years 4 and 8 held every four years. More than sixty mainly developed countries are involved, including Australia.

tutoring Additional teaching, often one to one, or in a small group.

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visual acuity Refers to the sharpness or clarity of vision; in other words, the ability of the eye to distinguish objects and discriminate details at a specified distance.

well-being A stable, positive outlook and sense of satisfaction and contentment with one’s ability to form good relationships, cope with setbacks and navigate everyday experiences.

zone of proximal development A model of development that reflects the learning potential of a child at that moment in time. The model describes the difference between the actual developmental level of the child as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development of the child as determined through problem solving under guidance.

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INDEX AAC systems See augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems ABC approach 224 absenteeism dealing with 88–90, 161 Indigenous students 71 academic self-perceptions 117–18 accelerated behaviours 163 acceleration process 326 access to education 11 accommodation for behavioural interventions 166–7 for hearing impairment 274 for vision impairment 251–2 of teaching 274 in testing 438–9 See also assessments for intervention; curriculum adjustments accommodation (learning environment) 168–70 for students with ASD 174–5, 302 for students with cerebral palsy 334–5 for students with hearing impairment 268– 9, 276–9, 280 for students with physical impairments 345–6 for students with spina bifida 338 for students with vision impairment 250, 251, 258, 261 adaptations for tests 438 Action now: classroom ready teachers (TEMAG, 2015) 441, 442 ACTION program 385 adaptive behaviour 212, 229 adaptive functioning 212–13 additive bilingualism 49 Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century (1999) 16, 73 Advisory Visiting Teacher Service 279, 334

aided AAC systems 185, 206 aids 187–8 mobility 335 visual 278 See also speech generating decides (SGDs); visual display scenes (VSDs) AITSL 10, 32, 161, 442 AITSL standards 442 algorithms 133 incorrect 134, 135–6 allergies and impact on learning 115 AlphaSmart note taker 340 AlphaTalker 343 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, Augmentative and Alternative Communication Special Interest Division 184–5 amniocentesis 337 Angelman syndrome 232 Annual Report of the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (2016) 211 Antecedent-Behaviour-Consequence (ABC) approach 224 antecedents 222, 223, 224, 226, 303 anti-school behaviours 103 antisocial/aggressive behaviours 157, 158 anxiety mathematics 142, 152 relational 99 anxiety disorders 367 strategies and adjustments for 385–6 apps 66, 190, 232–3, 297, 299, 301 art learning for students with physical impairment 351–2 Asperger, Dr Hans 286 Asperger Syndrome 285 as part of personal identity 288–9 spectrum and continuum 286 501

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 501

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502

INDEX

assessments alternative models for learning difficulties 120 developing scales for EAL/D learners 63–5 diagnostic 127–8 direct 224–5 formative 120, 127, 300, 325 gender gap in benchmark testing 106–7 group 302 for identifying giftedness 316–17 indirect 223–4 issues for early learners with physical impairments 359–61 mathematics 133, 147–8 ongoing 325 standardised 224 summative 120, 127, 300 timed 302 vision 249 See also observational assessments assessments for intervention AAC for students with CCN 191–4 for behaviourally challenged students 170 measuring 398–9 for students with hearing impairment 281 for students with physical impairment 340–1 for students with special needs for NAPLAN 20–3 See also functional behaviour assessments (FBAs) assessments (diagnostic) 127–8 assistive technology 230–6 benefits of 440 for hearing impairment 269, 275–6 modelling 232–3 for physical impairment 352–4 for vision impairment 241, 257 in test accommodation 438 Association of Independent Schools in Western Australia (AISWA) 29

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 502

asynchronous development 315–16 ataxic cerebral palsy 333 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 116, 159, 367 behavioural triggers 167 surface level engagement 123–4 twice exceptional students 318 audiograms 267 augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems 184–91 aids 187–8 for ASD 296–7, 298 for CCN 182–3 developing content and vocabulary for 195–7 mobile technology 189–90 for physical impairment 343 speech generating devices 189 strategies for producing messages 188 symbols 185–7 techniques for transmitting messages 188–9, 198 types of 185–9 ways to create opportunities for communication 200–1 Auslan See Australian Sign Language (Auslan) Australian Association for the Education of the Gifted and Talented (AAEGT) 324 Australian Baccalaureate for Years 11 and 12 18 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2011 Census 44 2015 population data 3 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers (2009) 214 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers (2012) 290 Year 12 attainment report (2011) 76 Australian Cerebral Palsy Register Report (2013) 333–4 Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing 367

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INDEX

Australian Council of Social Service 432–3 Australian Curriculum 10 2014 review of 19–20 expansion of subjects 18 making reasonable adjustments to 34–5 measures of inclusivity in 20 potential conflict with Melbourne Declaration 17 preamble 309 Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 6, 15 development of 17–19 EAL/D learning progression 49–50, 60 EAL/D teacher resources 64 on giftedness 309 responsibilities 17 Australian Curriculum Board 18 Australian Deaf Community 4 Australian Disability Clearinghouse on Education and Training 427 Australian Education Union 31 Australian Human Rights Commission Interpretation of the DDA (1992), categories of disability 30–1 Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) 10, 32, 161, 442 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 77 Disability in Australia: intellectual disability report (2014) 214 Australian National Safe Schools Framework 375–6 Australian Professional Standards for Teachers 10, 442 Graduate Teacher level 33 Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) 79, 87 Australian Schools Commission Report (1997) 72 Australian Sign Language (Auslan) 185, 269, 273, 278–9 court case for provision in classroom 4–5 Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) 16 authentic texts 123 Autism Research Centre 299

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 503

503

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 159, 286–92 ascertaining behavioural triggers 167 continuum of social communication severity levels 287–8 changes to diagnostic criteria 285, 288–9 diagnostic criteria 290–1 early intervention programs 294–5 genetic, environmental and neurological causes 289–92 government funding for teacher training 31 impact on learning and development 284–5 learning interventions 293–5, 306 myths about faulty parenting 305 prevalence rates 284, 290 spectrum and continuum 286 support networks 293 twice exceptional students 318 See also Asperger Syndrome; pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS); students with ASD backward chaining 173 balanced bilingualism 49 Baltimore School Mental Health Technical Assistance and Training Initiative 385 Bardin, J.A. & Lewis, J. 259 Baron-Cohen, Simon 99 barrier games 56 basic fact recalls 146–7 basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) 51 Beginning English learners 49, 50 Behaviour Education Program 381 behaviour frequency records (BFRs) 172, 303 behaviour rating scales 291 See also Child Autism Rating Scale (CARS); Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS) behaviour support plans (BSPs) 384 behavioural engagement 399–400, 401 behavioural strategies 167 behavioural triggers 167 Bell, H.R., Purdie, N. & Milgate, C. 89 Berlach, R.G. & Chambers, D.J. 20

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504

INDEX

Bettelheim, B. 305 Better Start for Children with Disability 295 BFRs 172, 303 BICS 51 BIGmack switches 231 bilingual education hearing impairment 274 Indigenous model 85–6 bilingualism 41–3 availability of bilingual books in preschool 60–1 deficit perspectives 49 Bloom’s taxonomy 124 Blue Care 338 ‘bottom up’ approaches See also three-tier approach to classroom management, behavioural management 167–8 bowel management devices 338 boys adjusting perceptions towards expectations and behaviour 99–100 nature in classroom 97–8 nurture in classroom 102 Braille 241, 242, 245, 253 BrailleNote 241 brain plasticity 96 brain structure, hemispheres of brain and learning 97–8 Broca’s area 97 Brown, J.S. & Van Lehn, K. 135 Bruner, J.S. 349 buddy systems 174, 359 bug theory 135–6 bullying identifying and disrupting behaviours 108 LGBTIQ students 369 prevention programs 379–80 of students with ASD 291, 304 burnout contributing factors 157 CALD See culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) learners CALP 51 Carr, Bob 324

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 504

CASEL 377, 379 CCN See complex communication needs (CCN) Census 2011 44 Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice 223 Center for School Mental Health (CSMH) 374 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 284, 290 Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (NSW) 163 Centre for Equity and Innovation in Early Childhood 419 cerebral palsy 332–6 adapting educational materials for students 334–5 categories, incidence and prevalence rates 333 causes of 333–4 support networks 335 See also students with cerebral palsy Cerebral Palsy League See Choice, Passion, Life (CPL) challenging behaviours 157–8 accommodation in assessment 170 accommodation in classroom 168–70 functional assessments 167, 172 benefits and risks of online networking 175–6 ‘bottom up’ approaches 167–8 causes of 158–62 characteristics of 162–3 classroom culture considerations 170 digital disconnect factors 160–1 disruptive behaviour factors 159 as form of functional communication 202–4 inadvertent reinforcement of 172 individualising classroom management 171–2 issues related to diverse classrooms 171–5 primary level 166 recognising accelerated behaviours 163 secondary level 166 sociocultural diversity factors 159–60

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INDEX

step system intervention method 158 strategies for social learning via online networking 176–8 student disengagement factors 161–2 teaching social skills 173–4 tertiary level 166–7 triggers for 167, 222 using PBIS 165–7 Chambers, D.J. & Berlach, R.G. 20 Check and Connect program 381, 382 Check in-Check Out (CICO) 381 checklists for direct assessments 224 Cherbourg State School 84 Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services 383 Child Autism Rating Scale (CARS) 291 Children with ASD & Disability app 299 chill-out zones for students 169–70 Choice, Passion, Life (CPL) 335 chronic conditions 332 class size 35 classroom contexts adapting learning environment for students with ASD 174–5 behavioural issues related to diverse 171–5 creating positive 170 individualising classroom management 171–2 strategies for accommodating behavioural challenges 168–70 teaching social skills 173–4 classroom design and impact on learning 359 classroom expectations, establishing 169 class-wide peer tutoring (CWPT) 358 closed-circuit television (CCTV) 253 Closing the Gap Prime Minister’s report (2015) 76 cloze activities 125 cochlear implants 269, 275–6, 439 compromised situations for 277 cognition and differences in gender 97 cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) 51

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 505

505

cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) 385, 401 See also ACTION program cognitive deficits, impact on learning 115–16 cognitive disability 30 cognitive engagement 122, 124, 400 collaborative approaches in special needs settings 407–8 for students with CCN 190–1, 206 for students with literacy difficulties 126 for students with vision impairment 251–2, 255–9 for transition from primary to secondary school 423–4 See also multidisciplinary teams; transdisciplinary approaches Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) 377, 379 Commonwealth State Territory Disability Agreement (CSTDA) 211 communication as everyday necessity 181–2 See also functional communication communication boards 188, 298 communication books 188 communicative language teaching approaches 52–9, 66 listening practice 57–8 strategies for successful speaking tasks 59 valuing silence in classroom 56 Compass app 232–3 complex communication needs (CCN) AAC devices for 182–3 characteristics of learners 183–4 See also students with CCN comprehensive gifted education models See Schoolwide Enrichment Model conceptual change approaches 138 conduct disorder (CD) 367 prevalence rates 159 congenital disabilities 334 Consolidating English learners 50 constructivism learning theory 132 reviewing mathematical errors 135–6, 152

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506

INDEX

Cool Kids 385 cooperative learning 124 cortical visual impairment 249–50 Council of Australian Governments (COAG) 18 counselling genetic 332 students accessing 368 for students with muscular dystrophy 340 court cases, Auslan provision in classroom 4–5 C-Print 276 cri du chat syndrome 234–6 Croker, Tom 88 CSTDA 211 cultural and linguistic diversity in Australian population 3 student sociolinguistic profiles 47–8 cultural recognition and support for Indigenous students 87 culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) learners 46, 85–6 in mainstream schools 48–52 as valuable resource 440 See also bilingual education Cultures of Disaster Resilience 434 Cummins, J. 51 curriculum alternative 16 balancing differentiation and 438–9 bicultural 85–6 clash with Indigenous culture 78–80 considerations for gifted students 322 expanded core curriculum (ECC) 252 frameworks used in different states 18 functional 219 IEPs 219–22 matching to IEPs 427 priority programs 220–1, 222 unspoken 215–16 curriculum adjustments adjusting levels in schools 26–9 areas for considerations 25

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 506

for behaviourally challenged students 170 extensive 28 reasonable adjustments for inclusion 34–5 for students with hearing impairment 279–80 for students with vision impairment 251–2, 260–1 substantial 28 supplementary 27 curriculum compacting 325 curriculum cycle 60 See also genre-based approach Curriculum Framework (Qld) 18 cyberbullying 160–1 cybersafety education 177, 178 cystic fibrosis 332 Dare to Lead program 88 data diagnostic assessments 127–8 for diagnostic prescriptive teaching 139 for effective IEPs 220–1 for IEP priority planning 222 Indigenous students in special education settings 34 information about students with disabilities 29 NCCD 2013-15 403–4 using BFRs 172 using disciplinary data in screening and identifying behavioural concerns 386–7 data analysis in FBAs 225–6 Deaf 270 deaf 269 Deaf community 269, 270 decibel scales 266–7 decoding functioning 116 deficit perspectives avoiding practice of 437 on bilingualism 49 on EAL/D 64 mathematics learning difficulties 133–4

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

INDEX

Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD) (Vic) Transition Learning and Development Statement 419–21 EAL/D learning progression 60 resilience programs 435 transition resource kit 419 Department of Education and Training (federal) 18 Department of Education and Training (Vic) 161 Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR), well-being study (2008) 366 depression, strategies and adjustments for 385 Developing English learners 50 ‘Dhanarangala Murrurinydji Gaywanagala’ program 85–6 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) 367, 368 ASD diagnostic criteria 285, 287–8, 290 diagnostic assessments for learning difficulty 127–8 diagnostic prescriptive teaching 139–40 differentiated education systems 9 Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (2003) 313 differentiation of instruction diagnostic prescriptive models 139–40 dual 318 for gifted students 321–4 in mathematics learning 132, 149, 150–2 RAMR framework 140 digital culture 161 digital disconnect 159, 160–1 digital divide 128–9, 440 digital literacy 128–9 digitised speech 189 direct assessments 224–5 direct teaching 124, 173–4, 227 early number learning 144 students with vision-impairment 260 disability, categories of identification 30–1 Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth) 4, 24, 309, 334 categories of disability 30–1

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 507

507

disability funding ASD professional development training 31 key changes in identifying 29–31 Disability Hub 338 Disability in Australia: Intellectual disability (AIHW, 2014) 214 Disability Standards for Education 2005 22, 24–6, 285, 309, 404, 437 2012 reviews 26 categories of disability 30–1 in post-secondary settings 426 disadvantaged communities 103 discrete trial training 229 disengaged behaviours 157, 158 disengaged learners 114 disruptive behaviours 175 triggers for 168 diversity in schools 33–5 Down syndrome 213, 349 Duchenne muscular dystrophy 330, 338–42 adapting assessments for 340–1 causes of, incidence and prevalence rates 339 educational options for 339–41 support networks 341 dyskinetic cerebral palsy 333 dyslexia 115–16 EAL/D learners See English as an additional language/dialect (EAL/D) learners ear 270–2 structure of auditory system 271 early childhood, family-centred transitions frameworks 415–17 Early Childhood Intervention Services (ECIS) 420 early learning centres, peer acceptance and support 360–1 Early Numeracy Research Project 148 Early Start Denver Model (EDSM) 295 Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) 418 echolalia 296, 298 ECIS 420 eCouch 388

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508

INDEX

EDSM 295 Education Queensland 291 education systems See differentiated education systems; uniform education systems educational materials, modifications for students with cerebral palsy 334 Educational Transition and Change Research Group 418 Emerging English learners 49, 50 EmergingEdTech 324 emotional engagement 400, 401 emotional well-being academic success, engagement and 163–4 early intervention programs 164–5 encoding functioning 116 engagement 11, 395–6 academic success, social well-being and 163–4 active 349 dimensions of 399–401 promoting positive student 165–7 students with vision-impairment 259–60, 257 support frameworks 374–87 See also instructional engagement English as an additional language or dialect teacher resource (ACARA, 2011) 64 English as an additional language/dialect (EAL/D) learners adapting from mainstream teaching strategies 57 assessment and reporting 63–4 basic principles of acquisition 52 bilingual books 60–1 communicative language teaching approaches 53, 66 developing models of literacy 59–60 engagement practices 11 knowledge needed for reading 60–3 learning progression 49–50 oral practice 54–5 overestimating language ability 50–1 profiles and backgrounds 51

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 508

reading models used 62 RoleM approach 140 strategies for successful speaking tasks 55–6 teachers’ satisfaction on teaching 63 using technology in 65–6 using visual time boards 58–9 enrichment opportunities 324 environmental arrangement strategies 200–1, 205 equity in education 6, 11 error analysis 136–7 errors consistency in calculations 133–5 interventions using errors for further learning 138–9 using constructivism to understand 135–8 Essential Learnings Framework See Tasmanian Curriculum ethnic minority students, engagement practices 11 European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education 397 evidence-based approaches behavioural triggers 172 individualised instruction 229–30 mental health 374–87 expanded core curriculum (ECC) 252 explicit instruction 124, 237 small group 381, 407 for students with intellectual disability 217, 227–8 for students with physical impairment 358 See also direct teaching expressive language 296–7 for students with ASD 297–306 for students with muscular dystrophy 340 for students with physical impairments 354–6 extension work 324 extensive adjustments 28 extensive support 213 external otitis 270

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INDEX

eye, diagrammatic cross-section 246 eye-gazing systems 188–9, 439 eye-pointing systems 188–9 family/caregivers See parents/guardians family-centred transitions frameworks 415–17 Fast Track Program 381–2 FBA 167, 172 federal government mental health initiatives for primary schools and early education centres 164 See also KidsMatter framework; Response Ability feedback progress 125 RTI 407 systematic 228 use with students with literacy difficulties 121 field of vision 247, 249 fine motor skills 333, 350–2 First Steps to Success (FSS) program 148, 381 Firstchance Early Childhood Intervention service 415, 416–17 Fischer, F.E. 140 FM loops 33 foot switches 353, 354 formative assessments 120, 127, 325 Fragile X syndrome 213 FRIENDS for Life 377 functional assessment (FA) 203 functional behaviour assessments (FBAs) hypothesis statements 226 key features 223 for students with ASD 303 for students with CCN 203 for students with challenging behaviours 167, 172, 384 for students with intellectual disability 222–7 types of 223–5 functional communication 194–201 categories and definitions 199–200 challenging behaviours as form of 202–4

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 509

509

considerations for purpose of 197–201 developing content and vocabulary for AAC systems 195–7 facilitating opportunities for students with CCN 195–7 milieu teaching techniques 204–6 multimodal forms 197 naturalistic language teaching 200 relationship between behaviour and corresponding functions 204 functional communication training (FCT) 203–4 functional curriculum 219 functional skills for students with intellectual disability 217 functional vision assessments 249 funding consequences of inadequate 398 disability 29–31 ensuring fairness and balance 396–7, 441, 443 extent of range 404 Gagné, F. 313 Gardner, H. 313 See also theory of multiple intelligences gender biological and psychological aspects of 95–100 differences in attitudes towards technology 106 fostering equality in play space experiment 100 sociological aspects 101–6 teacher adjusting perceptions towards boys behaviour 99–100 understanding term 94 gender ambiguity 101 gender double standards 105 gender equity 94 gender gap in benchmark testing 106–7 gender inclusion 96 effective practice for 107–8

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

510

INDEX

gender stereotypes 94, 101, 162 avoiding 109 generalisation and maintenance skills 217 genetic counselling 332 genre-based approach 60 Gibson, Kay 316 gifted education curriculum compacting 325 inclusive frameworks 320–7 gifted students barriers to learning goals 310 under-identified groups 316 increasing levels of challenge 323–4 lived experiences of 319–20 technology and programs for 323–4 underplaying academic skills 314–15 See also twice exceptional students giftedness 308 assessments for identifying 316–17 criticisms of IQ-based 312, 316 diversity of profiles 315–17 latency in 322 moving beyond IQ-based concepts 312–13 prevalence rates 314–15 recognising early signs of 314 understanding concepts of 311–15 Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS) 291 girls indirect aggression 98–9 nature in classroom 98–9 nurture in classroom 102–5 peer group pressure 103 pressure of popularity and fitting in 104 glue ear 115 Gonski review 15, 29, 73 Gould, J. & Wing, L. 286 Grandin, Temple 304 graphophonic knowledge 60 Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) 346 gross motor skills 333 support considerations 346–9

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 510

group assessments 302 grouping for instruction 149 guided reading activities 62 Gupapuyngu language 86 Guth, D.A. & Rieser, J.J. 254 hand-held magnifiers 253 hard of hearing 269 Harris, S. 83 See also learning style theory; two-way education Hart, B. 204 Head Start program 418 head switches 353–4 health impact on Indigenous education 76–8 hearing, impact on learning 115 hearing aids 269, 272 compromised situations for 277 hearing and development 273 hearing impairment common terms used 269–70 defining 266–70 impact on development 265–6, 267 levels for speech 268 See also students with hearing impairment hearing loss causes of 270–2 impact on social interactions 280 hearing map 267 Heddens, J.W., Uprichard, A.E. & Underhill, R. 139–40 Helping Children with Autism (HCWA) 295 Higher School Certificate (HSC), Life Skills programs 218 high-stakes testing alternative assessment models 120 consequences of 22–3, 107 See also National Assessment Program— Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) Hobart Declaration on Schooling (1989) 16 home-school partnerships for students with literacy difficulties 129 human rights 5

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

INDEX

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) 24 Humanitarian Program 44 hydrocephalus 336, 337, 338 hypothesis statements 226, 227 IESIP 73 imitation in play skills 300 incidental teaching 204, 205 inclusion classroom scenario 8 considerations about Indigenous culture 70–1 defining 7 interpretations in education systems 9–11 legal frameworks 5–7 inclusive education 10 achieving equitable outcomes for 443 achieving objectives 395 Auslan provision in classroom court case 4–5 checklist for building 404–6 commitment to rights of 431–2 components 11 conditions crucial to 397 for gifted students 320–7 measuring accommodations 398–9 poverty cycle and impact on 432–3 seven principles for effective 402–3 sustainability of 435–6 inclusive practices, teacher education training 31–3 Indigenous culture, considerations about inclusion 70–1 Indigenous education 72–9 bilingual model 85–6 checklist for sensitive practice 81–2 components for successful practice 87 components in curriculum impacting 83 curriculum-culture clash impacts 78–80

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 511

511

dealing with absenteeism 88–90 engaging parents in 79 impact of health on 76–8 improving current practice 87–90 relationship with socio-demographic and economic inequality 74 successful approaches 84–6 Indigenous Education Strategic Initiatives Programme (IESIP) 73 Indigenous population 43 comparative education of 74–6 educational comparisons in urban, regional and remote areas 75 health statistics 77–8 overcoming barriers 78 socio-demographic profile 73 socio-economic profile 74 Indigenous students absenteeism rates 71 barriers to successful learning 77, 80 factors for underachievement 79 giftedness traits 316 mentoring and tutoring 89 placements in special education settings 34 retention rates for Year 12 76 indirect aggression 98–9 See also relational aggression indirect assessments 223–4 individual education program (IEP) team meetings 219 individual education programs (IEPs) 221 compared with individualised instruction 219 evaluation and ongoing planning 222 goals 219–20 incorporating FBAs 223 main objectives of 229, 237 matching curriculum content to 427 for older children and adolescents 221–2 for students with ASD 294 for students with hearing impairment 280 for students with intellectual disability 232

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512

INDEX

individual education programs (IEPs) (cont.) for students with physical impairment 342 students with vision-impairment 243, 261 for transition process 414 individual transition plans (ITPs) 414–15 matching curriculum content to 427 individualised instruction 407 compared with IEPs 219 evidence-based approaches 229–30 for gifted students 325–7 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2005) 413 instructional engagement 122–5 cognitive 122, 124 metacognitive 124–5 surface 122–4 integration framework 6–7 intellectual disability adaptive behaviour 212 adaptive functioning 212–13 causes of 213 criteria for defining 212 levels of support for 213 nature of 211–12 prevalence rates 214 See also students with intellectual disability intelligence, moving beyond IQ-based 312–13 interactive whiteboards 62, 65, 241, 256, 355 interagency and interdisciplinary collaboration, transition from secondary school 427 Interconnected Systems Framework (ISF) 374, 375 See also multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) interdisciplinary teams as support for mental health 380–1 Interim Australian Curriculum Board 18 intermittent support 213 international assessment protocols See Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA); TIMSS International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health Children and Youth (ICF-CY) (2007) 331

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 512

international legislation, contradictions with existing national laws 24 interpreters for hearing impaired 279 interventions challenging behaviours 158 collaborative home and school programs 381–2 communication programs 355 CCN 192–4 mathematics 138–9 support for mental health in schools 374–9 See also functional communication training (FCT); Response to Intervention (RTI) iPads 296 AAC applications on 189, 347–9 Compass app 232–3 for students with ASD 298–9 IQ tests as test for giftedness 312–13 as way of rating intellectual disability 211 iTaalk Autism Foundation 299 JAWS for Windows 241, 253 Jelly Bean switches 231 Kabuki syndrome 349 Kanner, Dr Leo 286, 305 Katu Kalpa report (2000) 76–7 key learning areas (KLAs) 16 Key Word Sign 185 Khan Academy 324 Kids Help Line 388 KidsMatter framework 164, 372, 377, 379 Kindergarten Inclusion Support Service (KISS) 420 KLAs 16 Kohler taxonomy 412–15 language See expressive language; receptive language language experience approaches 60

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INDEX

language teaching classroom practice 52–9 teaching humour and literal meanings 301 Languages Other Than English (LOTE) 43 in capital cities 46–7 top languages spoken at home 45–6 LEAP 295 learned difficulties 135 learned helplessness 118, 280 students with intellectual disability 216 learned mathematics difficulty, compared with mathematical learning difficulty 134–5, 152 learning difficulties adaptations for students with muscular dystrophy 339–41 behavioural factors 116 biological factors 115 cognitive factors 115–16 complexities within 114–15 contributing factors 113 defining 135 learning in groups and pairs 121–2 multidisciplinary teams 126 responsive approaches to intervention 125–6 See also students with literacy difficulty learning environment barriers for engagement for vision impaired 260 considering acoustic quality 276–7 considering impact of classroom design 359 considering lighting 174, 278 creating safe 304 Learning Experiences—An Alternative Program for Preschoolers, Parents (LEAP) 295 learning style theory 83 learning support teams (LST) 213, 225–6 for students with vision impairment 251–2 legal rights 5 legislation, contradictions with international legislation 24

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 513

513

lesson flow and timing 169 levels of service approach 321 Lewis, J. & Bardin, J.A. 259 LGBTIQ students 101 risk of mental health difficulties 369 life course theory 411–12 Life Skills programs 16, 18, 218 lighting considerations in classrooms 174, 278 limited support 213 lip-reading 278 listening practice 57–8 literacy 113 boys underachievement in 97, 106–7 poverty and poor 432 See also reading literacy disengagement 116–18 cycle of behavioural 117 literacy gap 117 literacy learning scaffolding approaches 119 types of cognitive functions in 116 literacy models for EAL/D learners 59–60 loop scissors 351–2 low socio-economic students low-achieving girls 103 prevalence of otitis media 271–2 low-level disruption 157, 158 low-vision devices (LVDs) 252, 253, 256 magnifiers 253 mainstreaming 6 major depressive disorders 367 Malaysian equal opportunity legislation 24 mand models 204, 205 Mansell, Michael 71 Marfan syndrome 257 masculinities, creating various forms 102 mathematics 133 anxiety 152 assessing learning 147–8 basic fact recalls 146–7 consolidation approaches 147

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

514

INDEX

mathematics (cont.) count-on facts 145–6 creating inclusivity by using good questions 137–8 differentiation of instruction 150–2 early number learning 144–7 reviewing errors through constructivism theories 135–6 role of teacher in early learning 141–4 supporting early learners 141 teaching models for addition facts 144–7 triad model 143–4 mathematics learning difficulties assessing 148 compared with learned mathematical difficulty 134–5, 152 diagnosing 136–8 diagnostic prescriptive teaching models 139–40 early interventions for 148 interventions 138–9 overcoming deficit views of 133–4 targeted teaching approaches 149 Mathematics Recovery program 148 matrix 225 MATSITI 90 ‘Matthew effect’ 117 MCEEYTA 73 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (2008) 16–17, 164, 285, 309 potential conflict with Australian Curriculum 17 mental health defining 365–6 prevalence in teenagers 366 risk and protective factors 369–73 risk factors associated with children and adolescents 370 See also psychosocial disability mental health in schools bullying prevention programs 379–80 cognitive behavioural treatment programs 385

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 514

core components of 373 establishing teams for 376 experiences of girls’ self-disclosure research 378–9 identifying students at risk of developing difficulties 372–3 likelihood of students with disabilities to develop difficulties 372 online youth interventions 387–8 referrals to external professionals 383 screening tools 386–7 See also multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) mentoring 89, 324 metacognitive functioning 116 metacognitive engagement 124–5 migrants 54 Milgate, C., Purdie, N. & Bell, H.R. 89 milieu teaching techniques 204–6 Milingimbi Community Education Centre 85–6 Miller, J. & Warren, E. 140 MindMatters framework 377 Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs 79 Minspeak program 185, 186 misconceptions in mathematics learning 138 Mitchell, D. 10 Mitchelmore, D. & Mulligan, J. 148 mnemonics 217 mobile technology 189–90 See also iPads; tablet devices mobility 331 support considerations 346–9 mobility limitation 330 mobility training for students with vision impairment 254–5 Model Me Conversation Cues 299 modelling 227 assistive technology 232–3 peer 355 play skills 300 social skills 173

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

INDEX

monoculars 253 Mood Mechanic 388 MoodGYM 388 moral rights 5 More Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Teachers Initiative (MATSITI) 90 MTSS See multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) Mulligan, J. & Mitchelmore, M. 148 multidisciplinary teams in diagnosis of ASD 291 during early childhood transition process 413 for students with CCN 190–1 for students with literacy difficulties 126 for students with physical impairment 342–6 multimodal AAC systems 185, 347–9 multiple-component response training 229, 230 multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) 374–89 efficacy of 388–9 levels of approaches 375 tier 1: universal supports 376–80 tier 2: targeted supports 380–3 tier 3: indicated/intensive support 383–7 muscular dystrophy See Duchenne muscular dystrophy Muscular Dystrophy Australia (MDA) 341 music learning for students with physical impairment 351 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey (NATSIS) 75, 78 National Aboriginal Education Committee (NAEC) 72, 79 National Aboriginal Education Policy (NAEP) 72–3 National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) 10, 127, 437–9 Achievement in Reading, Writing, Language Conventions and Numeracy: National Report for 2016 21 assessment of students with hearing impairment 281

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 515

515

assessment of students with special needs 20–3 balancing differentiation and curriculum mandates 438–9 concerns about teaching to test 107 limitations for gifted students 309 limitations of comparing ‘like’ schools 22 students exempt from sitting 23 test accommodation 438–9 testing mathematics 133 National Broadband Network 439 National Center on Education Outcomes (NCEO) 21 National Disability Agreement (NDA) services 215 National Disability Coordination Officers (NDCOs) 414, 426 National Disability Insurance Agency (NDIA) 368 Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group 437 National Disability Insurance Scheme Act 2013 (NDIS Act) 383, 368–9 National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) 416, 436–7 ASD programs 294–5 challenges in funding provisions 15 Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2013-15) 403–4 psychosocial disability intervention levels 368–9 National Disability Strategy (2010-2010) 403 National Goals for Schooling 16 National Indigenous English Literacy and Numeracy Strategy (NIELNS) 73 National Language Policy 4, 279 National Poverty Inquiry Report (1975) 72 National Reading Panel 124 National Review of Education for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (DET, 1994) 72 National Safe Schools Framework 164, 377

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

516

INDEX

National Youth Mental Health Foundation 368 Nationally Consistent Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2013-15) 403–4 National Disability Coordination Officer Program (NDCO) 414, 426 naturalistic language teaching 200 See also milieu teaching techniques NCCD 2013–15 403–4 NCEO 21 NDA services 215 NDCO 414, 426 NDIA 368, 437 NDIS See National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) neurodevelopmental disorders 232, 284–5, 289 See also Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD); attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) neurological influences on learning 115 neuromuscular diseases 330 See also Duchenne muscular dystrophy neuroscience 95 New South Wales attendance rates of Indigenous students 71 EAL/D learning progression 50 Firstchance Early Childhood Intervention service 416–17 increase in students with disabilities 30 Indigenous students in special education settings 34 Life Skills programs 16, 18, 218 Positive Behaviour for Learning (PBL) 375 trial of virtual classrooms 33 vocational education subjects 426 newborn hearing screening 272, 273 NIELNS 73 noise in classrooms 276–7 non-attendance See absenteeism Northern Territory bilingual education 85–6 LOTE population 47 note-takers 278, 352 electronic 340

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 516

number learning (early) 144–7 count-on facts 145–6 numeracy 133 poverty and links to poor 432 observational assessments 120, 127, 225 level of participation 236–7 occupational therapists 334, 341, 342, 343 assisting with handwriting methods 352 assisting with toileting programs 360 role in early childhood transitions 413 sourcing adaptive equipment 350 ocular motility 249 office discipline referrals (ODRs) 386–7 1p36 chromosomal disorder 345–6 one-to-one teaching 229, 230 one-to-one training 229, 230 online networking cybersafety education 177, 178 teaching prosocial behaviour via 175–8 online well-being 164 oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) 175 prevalence rates 159 oral reports 302 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 106 orientation training for students with vision impairment 254–5 OSEP Technical Assistance Center on PBIS 374 See also multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) otitis media 76, 271–2 pacing 217, 322 parent interview questions 223–4 parents/guardians developing trust with educators 417, 419–20 inclusion in contribution to education 436 involvement in literacy sessions 129, 130 involvement in transition process 413–14 providing support for parents of students with ASD 305–6 role in success of transitions 422, 423–4

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INDEX

participation in education 11 for Indigenous students 87 measuring 236–7, 400 for students with physical impairments 349 participation inventory 192–4 Participation Model 192 Patau syndrome 360 Pathways to Prevention Project 434 Payne, R. & Rathmell, E.C. 143–4 PBL 375 PBIS 156, 165–7, 373, 379–81 PBS program 380 PCS 185, 343, 355 PDD-NOS 285 Pearson, Noel 89 PECS 295 pedagogy creating effective inclusive 18, 60, 108, 403 diagnostic prescriptive frameworks 139–40 persuasive 139 peer cultures 101 peer group pressure 103 peer support 358–9 peer tutors 122, 170, 358, 362 peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) 358 Perkins Brailler 257 Persons with Disabilities Act 2008 (Msia) 24 persuasive pedagogy 139 pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) 285 pervasive support 213 physical disability 30 physical impairment 330 causes of 332 defining 33 incidence and prevalence rates 331–2 toilet accessibility considerations 338 physiotherapists 342, 343 assisting with mobility 346–7 Piaget, Jean 135 picture communication symbols (PCS) 185, 343, 355

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 517

517

picture exchange communication system (PECS) 295 PISA 20, 23, 106, 107 Pittsburgh Rehabilitation Participation Scale (PRPS) 236–7 play-based learning theory 415, 416 PODD 188, 232 population cultural and linguistic diversity 3 Indigenous 43, 69–70 with intellectual disability 214 place of birth of people born overseas 44 projected increase in 440 students with CCN 183 Positive Behaviour for Learning (PBL) 375 positive behaviour interventions and supports (PBIS) 156, 165–7, 373, 379–81 Positive Behaviour Support (PBS) program 380 Positive Partnerships 31 poverty impact on learning and development 432–3 relationship between education and 73 pragmatic organised dynamic display (PODD) 188, 232 preschool field officers (PFSO) 420 presentation modes 169 of curriculum 170 test accommodation 438 primary level behaviours 166 Principals Australia 88 priority programs 222 Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) 334 professional development consequences of lack  of 398 funding for ASD training 31 mathematics 150–1 ongoing 442

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518

INDEX

professional learning curriculum accommodation for hearing-impaired 274 curriculum accommodation for vision-impaired 243 supporting mental health 383 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 20, 23, 106, 107 Proloquo2Go 189, 297, 347–9 SymbolStix 183 use by students with CCN 182–3 protective factors in mental health 369, 370–1 psychologists assisting students with ASD 291 assisting students with CCN 191 assisting in early childhood transitions 413, 416 identifying giftedness 316 mental health intervention 380, 384, 385 psychosocial disability 368 Public Law 94-142 (1975) 6 Purdie, N., Milgate, C. & Bell, H.R. 89 quality of life 331 Queensland attendance rates of Indigenous students eligibility for educational support for ASD 291 transition from early childhood to school 418–19 Queensland Essential Learnings 18 QuickSmart program 149 Raising Children Network 293 RAMR framework 140 Rathmell, E.C. & Payne, R. 143–4 Reach Out! 388 readiness of learners 169 reading 113 choosing age-appropriate material 119, 122–3 cloze activities 125 for EAL/D learners 60–3

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 518

71

instructional strategies for comprehension 124 repeated 123 using technology in 128–9 reading difficulties 114–15 Reading Recovery teachers 126 real-time captioning (C-Print) 276 receptive language 296–7 referrals to external professionals for mental health support 383, 384 refractive errors 250 refrigerator mothers 305 refugee students building resilience among 434 experience of learning English and adjusting to environment 53–4 refugees 54 regional and remote communities educational comparisons between Indigenous and non-Indigenous 75 successful educational strategies 85–6 rehearsing strategies 217 relational aggression 98–9 relational anxiety 99 Renzulli, Joseph 312 See also three-ring concept of giftedness Renzulli Center for Creativity, Gifted Education, and Talent Development 325 repair theory 135 residual vision 245 resilience 369 building children at risk’s 434–5 Resourceful Adolescent Programme 377 Response Ability 164–5 Response to Intervention (RTI) 125–6, 320, 406–8 tiers in 407 restricted, repetitive behaviours 287–8, 290 retinal dystrophy 241 Rett syndrome 213 See also Fragile X syndrome Rieser, J.J. & Guth, D.A. 254 risk factors in mental health 369–73

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

INDEX

Rohl, M. 63–4 role models for gender inclusivity 108 importance for Indigenous students 89–90 role playing, social skills 173, 301–2, 304 RoleM approach 140 rote learning 146–7 Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCADC) 72 safe schools policies 164 Sarra, Chris 84 Say-it! SAM Communicator 187 scaffolding learning 349 expressive language 298 literacy learning 119 social skills 173 ‘Scaffolding writing using the curriculum cycle’ (DEECD, 2013) 60 scatter plots 225 SCERTS 295 school enrolments, increase in students with disabilities 29–30 school leadership, impact on affecting change 88, 395, 397–8, 437 school literacy achievements, contributing factors 119 school mental health programs (SMH) programs 376–87 used in US 377 See also multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) school reports 223 school transition model 412 SchoolMentalHealth.org 385 Schoolwide Enrichment Model 321 screen reading software 241, 257, 439 secondary level behaviours 166 Secret Agent Society 299 SEL See Social Emotional Learning (SEL) self-advocacy skills 413 self-assessments gifted students 325 students with literacy difficulties 120

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 519

519

self-determination programs 413 self-esteem in students with vision impairment 255 self-instructing 217 self-monitoring 217 self-regulated learning for students with literacy difficulties 124–5, 130 for students with intellectual disability 217–18 during transition process 413 self-reinforcement 217–18 semantic knowledge 60, 62 semantic processing functioning 116 senior school education 16, 18 sensory disability 31 sensory skills training 254–5 sexting 160–1, 178 SGDs 186, 187, 189, 296 shared reading activities 62 sight, difference from vision 245 signal-to-noise ratio 277 Signed English 278–9 single-component response 230 single-component response training 229 single-sex schools 108 skill development for Indigenous students 87 Skills for Academic and Social Success 385 smartboards 33 Social Communication, Emotional Regulation and Transactional Support (SCERTS) 295 social communication/interaction, ASD severity levels 287–8, 290 Social Emotional Learning (SEL) 374 bullying prevention programs 379–80 social learning environments 121 social media 106, 175 social reforms See National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) social skills class-wide online training 177 strategies for teaching 173–4, 304 in students with intellectual disabilities 216

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520

INDEX

Social Skills Group Intervention (S.S.GRIN) 382 Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) 387 social skills programs 382 social stories 304 social well-being academic success, engagement and 163–4 early intervention programs 164–5 social workers, role in transitions in early childhood 415 social-emotional disability 31 sociocultural contexts, learning difficulties 119, 121–5 sociocultural diversity 159 impact on challenging behaviours 159–60 sociocultural theory 93 language learning 52–3 socioeconomic stereotypes 162 sociolinguistic student profiles 47–8 South Australia flexibility in KLAs 16 gifted student programs 326–7 vocational education subjects 426 South Australia School for Vision Impaired (SASV) 242 spastic cerebral palsy 333 special education 215 Special Education 1997 Regulation (Msia) 24 special educators 343 specialist teacher education programs 10, 442 specialist teachers collaborating with class teachers 406 hearing support 274 literacy 126 mental health 384 physical impairment 334, 343 role in success of transitions 423–4 roles in inclusive settings 406 vision 241, 243 Spectronics 33 speech difference from written language 57–8 hearing levels for 268 strategies for successful speaking tasks 59

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 520

speech generating devices (SGDs) 186, 187, 189, 296 speech pathologists 343 assisting in communication intervention programs 355 consultation in functional communication 203 in early childhood settings 234 role in early childhood transitions 413 sourcing assistive devices 348–9 speech-to-text recognition software 276, 356 spina bifida 336–8 adapting learning environments for 338 associated developmental disabilities 336 causes of 337 incidence and prevalence rates 337 support networks 338 types of 335–6 spina bifida anencephaly 332, 337 Spina Bifida Association (SBA) 338 spina bifida encephalocele 337 spina bifida meningocele 336 spina bifida myelomeningocele 337, 338 spina bifida occulta 336 S.S.GRIN 382 SSIS 387 St Joseph’s College 89 stand magnifiers 253 standardised assessments 224 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales 311, 316 State Consultants 334 Sternberg, R.J. 313 See also triarchic theory of intelligence Stories2Learn 302 Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire 387 strengths-based approaches 437–9 structural impairments (vision) 250 structured interviews 223 student disengagement 159, 161–2, 434 Student Participation Questionnaire (SPQ) 259 Student Risk Screening Scale (SSRS) 387 student seating arrangements 169 student-centred environments 169

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

INDEX

students with ASD adapting assessments for 302 adapting learning environment for 174–5 behavioural differences between individuals 292 bullying and victimisation 291, 304 causes of inappropriate behaviours 303 developing content and vocabulary for AAC systems 196 early interventions for mental health difficulties 372–3 eligibility for educational support 291 expressive language strategies 297–306 mathematics interventions 149 outcome of functional communication 207 receptive language strategies 297 supporting mental health 383 teaching humour and literal meanings 301 teaching play skills 300–1 teaching social stories 301–2 transition difficulty 304 transition from primary to secondary schools 422, 423–4 using technology to facilitate learning 298–300 ways to engage in communication and language 296–7 students with CCN AAC assessment and intervention 191–4 access barriers 194 collaborative team work with 190–1 content and vocabulary considerations 196 diversity within 206 facilitating opportunities for communication 198 milieu teaching techniques 204–6 opportunity barriers 192 participation inventory 192–1994 successful strategies for teaching 191 teaching functional communication in classroom 194–201 using challenging behaviours as form of functional communication 202–4 using tablet devices 189–90

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 521

521

students with cerebral palsy developing content and vocabulary for AAC systems 196 functional communication 200–1 supporting CCN in classroom 182, 185 supporting transition from primary to secondary schools 347–9 students with disabilities increase in school enrolments 29–30 likelihood of developing mental health difficulties 372 students with hearing impairment adapting learning environments for 268–9 assistive technology 276 curriculum delivery 279–80 educational options for 274–6 environmental accommodations 276–7 inclusive education principles 274–5 individual education programs (IEPs) 280 learning development with cochlear implants 275–6 learning environment’s impacts on 280 teaching and learning accommodations 277–9 twice exceptional students 318 students with intellectual disability adapting curriculum to suit moderate to severe 218–19 common types of assistance 214–15 considerations for teaching 215–22 considerations when selecting assistive technology 230–6 diversity within 211 FBAs 222–7 hypothesis statement for severe disability 227 identifying developmental difficulties in 215 IEP goals 219–20 IEPs 219 individualised instruction 229–30 intervention planning for 226–7 measuring level of participation 236–7 open plan classroom adaptations 345–6 priority programs 220–1

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

522

INDEX

students with intellectual disability (cont.) school attendance 214–15 self-regulated learning 217–18 supporting attention to task 216–17 supporting generalisation and maintenance 217 supporting memory 217 supporting motivation to learn 216 supporting peer relationships 216 types of cognitive strategies to suit varying levels of disability 227–9 using technology in early childhood settings 234–6 students with literacy difficulty accommodation in high-stakes testing 127 adapting learning environments for 258 assessment considerations for 120 diagnostic assessments 127–8 early and late intervention programs 126 factors outside learners 119–20 home-school partnerships 129 IEPs 294 instructional factors 120 late intervention 128 levels of instructional engagement 122–5 from sociocultural context 121–5 sociocultural factors 119 supporting expressive language learning 354–6 supporting transition from primary to secondary schools 347–9 task factors 119 twice exceptional students 318 students with physical impairments adapting equipment for fine motor development 350–2 assistive technology 352–4 IEPs 342 multidisciplinary teams 342–6 open plan classroom adaptations 345–6 peer support 358–9

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 522

peer support and acceptance in early childhood setting 360–1 peer tutoring 358, 362 supporting daily living skills 356–9 supporting mobility and gross motor skills 346–9 supporting participation in lessons and activities 349, 359, 362 supporting written language learning 356 toilet training readiness 359–60 wheelchair postural support 347 students with special needs adjustments in curriculum for 19–20 assessment adjustments in NAPLAN 20–3 students with vision-impairment adapting learning environments for 258, 261 barriers to engagement 260 classroom support 241 curriculum delivery 260–1 educational options for 242–4 effective provisions for 256–7 engaging in learning 257 IEPs 261 inclusive education principles 243–4 orientation and mobility 254–5 student engagement 259–60 teaching approaches 255–9 transdisciplinary team support 261 twice exceptional students 318 substantial adjustments 28 summative teacher-made tests 120, 127 SuperTalker speech generating device 186 supplementary adjustments 27 Supporting children to use their first language: Provide bilingual books—Read stories in their 1st language 60 surface level engagement 122–4 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers (2009) 214 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers (2012) 290

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

INDEX

suspension and exclusion policies 434 sustainability of inclusive education 435–6 swimmer’s ear 270 switches 439 for students with intellectual disability 230–1 for students with physical impairment 353 symbols 298 syntactic knowledge 60, 62 syntactic processing functioning 116 systematic approaches to teaching 204–6 See also milieu teaching techniques systematic feedback 228 Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD) 387 tablet devices use by students with CCN 189–90 use by students with intellectual disability 232–3 See also iPads task analysis 230 mathematics learning difficulties 139–40 students with physical impairments 357 Tasmania, attendance rates of Indigenous students 71 Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre 71 Tasmanian Curriculum 18 TEACCH 295 teacher aides 344–5 overprotection of students 280 as support for beginning teachers 32 See also teaching assistants teacher education 31–3 improving standards 441–3 inadequate training for inclusivity 32 strengthening relationship between schools and pre-service 442 Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG), Action now: classroom ready teachers (2015) 441, 442 teacher-centred instruction 227 teacher–parent relationships, students with ASD 286, 306

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 523

523

teachers challenges of technology training 439–40 checklist for sensitive Indigenous practice 81–2 collaborating with specialist teachers 406 dealing with disruptive behaviour 171 effectively managing classroom behaviour 165 experiences with gifted students 326–7 facilitating communication for students with CCN 195, 206 facilitating culture of respect and acceptance 101 familiarising with hearing aids and implants 278 improving standards and teacher education 441–3 mathematics anxieties among 142 mental health resources 385–6 monolingual 49 preconceived gender and socioeconomic stereotypes 162 predicting future criminal and antisocial behaviour 433–4 recognising and intervening in challenging behaviours 163 roles in inclusive settings 406 on satisfaction of teaching EAL/D students 63 self-reflecting on strengths and weaknesses 408 underprioritising giftedness 314 on using technology as passifying tool 66 teacher-student relationships in Indigenous education 80 strategies for improving 170 teaching assistants 170 considerations when using 344–5 as support for beginning teachers 32 Technical Aid to the Disabled—Qld Inc 347 Technical and Further Education (TAFE) 426

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

524

INDEX

technology challenges with access to 439–40 considerations before introducing 300 disadvantages of 440 exceptions to usability 299 online youth mental health interventions 387–8 students’ access to 33 students with ASD 298–9 students with intellectual disability 230–6 students with vision impairment 257 as support for gifted students 323–4 use in transition of students with special needs 424 use with EAL/D learners 65–6 use with students with literacy difficulties 128–9 See also mobile technology Terman, Lewis 311 tertiary level behaviours 166–7 test accommodation 438–9 text-to-speech systems 189 theory of multiple intelligences 313 therapy reports 223 three-ring concept of giftedness 312 three-stage problem-solving model 125–6 See also Response to Intervention (RTI) three-tier approach to classroom management 168 three-tiered approach to gifted education 320–6 tier I—effective differentiation in classroom 321–4 tier II—targeted opportunities 324–5 tier III—individualised planning and support 325–7 time delay models 204, 205 timed assessments 302 TIMSS 20, 23 Tobii Sono Flex Lite 297 toilet accessibility and care 334, 338, 356 training readiness 359–60

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 524

Torres Strait Islanders 43, 69 socio-demographic profile 73 socio-economic profile 74 touch screen technology 353 transdisciplinary approaches early childhood interventions 415–17 for students with hearing impairment 280 for students with vision-impairment 261 transition from early childhood to school 418–21 information schools need 420–1 information shared by parents/ families 419–20 information shared by special needs professionals 420 transition from primary to secondary school factor in challenging behaviours 161 key issues to address 421–2 role of parents in successful 422 strategies for successful 423 students with physical impairments 347–9 using technology with students with special needs 424 transition from secondary school 426–9 post-secondary support services 426–7 British model 427–8 transition process 410–11 categories in Kohler taxonomy 412–15 early childhood intervention programs 415–17 ensuring successful 428–9 family involvement 413–14 interagency and interdisciplinary collaboration 413 program structure and attributes 414–15 student development 413 student-focused planning 413 students with ASD 304 transition to middle school 424–5 Transition to school: position statement (2011) 418 transition within secondary school, studentfocused planning 425–6

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

INDEX

The Transporters 299 treatment and education of autistic and related communication handicapped children (TEACCH) 295 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 20, 23 triad model of teaching mathematics 143–4 triarchic theory of intelligence 313 trigger events 222, 223, 226, 303 See also antecedents Triple P—Positive Parenting Program 295 tutoring 89 tutors 122 See also peer tutors 12-minute practice protocol (mathematics) 147 twice exceptional students 309, 318–20 accommodation in learning environments 318–19 individual planning 326 Two way teaching and learning—toward culturally reflective and relevant education (Purdie, Milgate & Bell, 2011) 87 two-way education 83–6 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2009) 5–6, 7–8, 9, 24, 368, 431 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) 5, 7, 431 unaided AAC systems 185, 206 Underhill, R., Uprichard, A.E. & Heddens, J.W. 139–40 UNESCO Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (1994) 5, 23 uniform education systems 9–10 uniformity of system 396–7 United Kingdom fostering equality in play space experiment 100 measuring level of engagement 401 transition support from secondary school 427–8 United Nations 23, 24 United States bullying prevention programs 380 defining giftedness 313

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 525

525

Head Start program 418 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2005) 413 lived experiences of gifted students 319–20 measuring level of engagement 400–1 mental health universal programs 374, 377 National Center on Education Outcomes (NCEO) 21 prevalence rates for ASD 290 Public Law 94-142 (1975) 6, 334 Response to Intervention (RTI) 406 Universal Design for Learning (UDL) approach 440 unspoken curriculum 215–16 Uprichard, A.E., Underhill, R. & Heddens, J.W. 139–40 urban areas, educational comparisons between Indigenous and non-Indigenous population 75 urine alarms 360 Van Lehn, K. & Brown, J.S. 135 VET 87 Victoria resilience programs 435 Transition Learning and Development Statement 419–21 transition resource kit 419 using VELS (scale) in EAL/D 64 Victorian Curriculum F–10 19 Victorian Essential Learning Standards 18 virtual classrooms 33 vision assessing 249 development in children 247 difference from sight 245 impact of development 247–8 maximising visual functioning in classrooms 250 vision and hearing systems, linkages between 241, 266 Vision Australia 251 Vision Education Service 241

25/07/2017 11:49 AM

526

INDEX

vision impairment challenges to learning 240 curriculum accommodations 251–2 defining 244–51 expanded core curriculum (ECC) 252 indicators of 249 low-vision devices (LVDs) 252, 253, 256 magnification 252 major categories 250 vision loss, causes of 249–51 visual acuity 242, 245, 249 visual aids 278 visual boards 58–9, 234–6 visual closure 247 visual instruction plans 169, 174, 177 visual languages 273, 278–9 See also Australian Sign Language (Auslan) visual scene displays (VSDs) 187 visual sequencing 247 visual time boards 58–9 vocabulary developing and setting for AAC systems 195–7 receptive language for students with ASD 297 students with muscular dystrophy 340 VOCAs 343 vocational education and training (VET) sector 87 vocational education subjects in senior secondary schools 16, 426 voice output communication aids (VOCAs) 343 voice recognition software 253, 276, 353, 439 Vygotsky, L. 349 walking frames 346 Warren, E & Miller, J. 140 Watch Me Learn (educational product)

21_HYD_DIE_3e_08452_TXT_SI.indd 526

299

WebQuest 65, 324 well-being 366 support frameworks 374–87 Wernicke’s region 97 Weschler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) 316 Western Australia’s seven principles of inclusive education 402–3 What works: The work program (DEST, 2006) 81 wheelchairs adapting for art activities 335, 351 considerations for postural support 347 toilet-accessibility considerations 334 whiteboards See interactive whiteboards whole-class teaching, differentiation of mathematics 150–2 Wilson, J.W. 139, 140 Wing, L. & Gould, J. 286 withdrawal models 149 See also QuickSmart program World Conference on Education for All (1990) 23, 24 World Education Forum (2000) 5 World Health Organization (WHO) International Classification, Disability and Health (2007) 349 International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health Children and Youth (ICF-CY) (2007) 331 mental health definitions 365–6 written language, difference from speech 57–8 Year 4 slump 128 Yolngu bicultural education 85–6 Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre 388 zone of proximal development

349

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This book presents a clear, socially oriented approach to understanding and enhancing inclusion in education, and helps pre-service teachers develop strategies to engage students of all backgrounds, needs and abilities. It shows the advantages of promoting inclusive education policy implementation, while at the same time addressing the challenges many teachers face in today’s diverse learning environments.

MERVYN HYDE is Emeritus Professor of Education at Griffith University and Professor of Education in the Faculty of Science, Education, Health and Engineering at the University of the Sunshine Coast.

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ER • L T N ORE LEI CARPE

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EDITED BY

SHELLEY DOLE is Professor and Head of School in the School of Education at the University of the Sunshine Coast.

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THIRD EDITION

HYDE CARPENTER DOLE

LORELEI CARPENTER is Adjunct Senior Lecturer in the School of Education and Professional Studies at Griffith University.

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• Guidelines for working under new national standards that make all teachers—not just those specially trained or working in ‘special schools’—responsible for supporting diverse learners.

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• A broader range of case studies, including voices of students, teachers, parents, teaching aides, and a wider age range of children, which illustrate how theory works in real life.

THIRD EDITION

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• New Chapter 16, which examines the needs of students facing challenges to their mental health and wellbeing.

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• Increased focus on early intervention with young children, as well as attention to changing assessment practices and to the use of technology in the classroom to support diverse learner needs.

EDITED

This third edition responds to constant change in schools, implementation of the national curriculum, new policies, other national and international developments, and heightened public and employer expectations of teachers. It includes:

DIVERSITY, INCLUSION AND ENGAGEMENT

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With extensive learning features that blend theoretical issues and context with practical skills, Diversity, Inclusion and Engagement provides pre-service teachers with the knowledge and understanding to be able to respond to classroom challenges and develop inclusive learning environments.

D I VE R S I T Y, I NC LUS I ON A ND E N G A G E M E N T

Prepare for diverse classrooms by understanding inclusion

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spine: TBC

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format: 248 mm x 204 mm

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HYD_DIE3E_08452

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title:

ISBN 978-0-19-030845-2

9 780190 308452 visit us at: oup.com.au or contact customer service: [email protected]

HYD_DIE_3e_08452_CVR_SI.indd All Pages

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