Disaster Management: Future Challenges and Opportunities 9789389583540

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Section 1: Natural Disaster Management
Chapter 1: Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management–A Case Study of Australia
Chapter 2: Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida
Chapter 3: Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India
Chapter 4: Landslide Disasters and its Management
Chapter 5: Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India
Chapter 6: Earthquake Hazard Management
Section 2: Man Made Disasters
Chapter 7: Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi
Chapter 8: Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster
Chapter 9: Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India
Chapter 10: AIDS: Health Disaster, Challenges and its Management in Delhi
Chapter 11: A Threat of Bio-terrorism in Mega Cities
Chapter 12: Antibacterial Activity of Some Botano-Extracts Against Plant Pathogenic Bacteria Pseudomonas syringae
Chapter 13: Technological Hazards: Man-Made Disasters
Chapter 14: Climate Change and Vulnerability of Coastal Mega Cities
Chapter 15: Fire Hazard Management in Urban Areas
Section 3: Role of Technology in Disaster Management
Chapter 16: Future Applications and Challenges of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS in Disaster Management in India
Chapter 17: Fire Disaster and its Possible Management through GIS Technology in Delhi
Chapter 18: Avalanches Problem in India and the Role of GIS, Remote Sensing and Information Technology in its Mitigation
Section 4: Community Preparedness
Chapter 19: Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation: Key to Disaster Management
Chapter 20: Partnership Development with VBOs in Disaster Management in Delhi
Chapter 21: The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality in Tamilnadu, South East Coast of India
Chapter 22: Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies
Chapter 23: Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones
Chapter 24: Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Citation preview

Disaster Management

Disaster Management The speed and enormity of sudden disasters has forced man to react in a speedy way to come to the rescue of the people involved. Following factors are necessary to accomplish this: The exact location of the disaster site and the type of disaster, as these determine the sort of aid required. This book will provide a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasised as with highly trained people understanding and using these equipment, several thousands of lives will be saved in the future. Jagbir Singh is Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India. For the last 12 years, he has been engaged with issues concerning the environment, disasters, hazards and the application of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS at local, regional, national and international levels. He has authored Tourism Geography; Tsunami Disaster & Its Management; Environment and Development: Challenges & Opportunities, and Society, Sustainability and Environment (ed). Presently, he is engaged in research on Ecology and Environmental Threats to the Great Barrier Reef—Australia.

Disaster Management

Future Challenges and Opportunities

Future Challenges and Opportunities

978-93-89583-54-0

` 525/-

Distributed by: 9 789389 583540

TM

TM

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Disaster Management

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Editor

Jagbir Singh

Dept. of Geography Swami Shraddhanand College University of Delhi Delhi

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi

Disaster Management

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Editor

Jagbir Singh

Dept. of Geography Swami Shraddhanand College University of Delhi Delhi

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Editor

Editor

Jagbir Singh

Jagbir Singh

Dept. of Geography Swami Shraddhanand College University of Delhi Delhi

Dept. of Geography Swami Shraddhanand College University of Delhi Delhi

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi

New Delhi

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Future Challenges & Opportunities

Editor

Editor

Jagbir Singh

Jagbir Singh

Dept. of Geography Swami Shraddhanand College University of Delhi Delhi

Dept. of Geography Swami Shraddhanand College University of Delhi Delhi

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi

New Delhi

©Copyright 2019 I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110002. This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for the purposes of review. The information contained herein is for the personal use of the reader and may not be incorporated in any commercial programs, other books, databases, or any kind of software without written consent of the publisher. Making copies of this book or any portion for any purpose other than your own is a violation of copyright laws. Limits of Liability/disclaimer of Warranty: The author and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing this book. The author make no representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness of any particular purpose. There are no warranties which extend beyond the descriptions contained in this paragraph. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The accuracy and completeness of the information provided herein and the opinions stated herein are not guaranteed or warranted to produce any particulars results, and the advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every individual. Neither Dreamtech Press nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Trademarks: All brand names and product names used in this book are trademarks, registered trademarks, or trade names of their respective holders. Dreamtech Press is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. ISBN: 978-93-89583-54-0 EISBN: 978-93-90078-34-9

Proceedings of the National Conference on Future Challenges of Disaster Management in India held on 7th July, 2007 at School of Environmental studies, University of Delhi (North Campus), organised by All India Foundation for Peace & Disaster Management, New Delhi 110007 and supported by the following agencies: – Intellectual India – Human Resource Advancement Welfare Society – avni Foundation for Peace & Help for Old Age People – ational Association for Visually Handicapped, USA

National Institute of Disaster Management

Proceedings of the National Conference on Future Challenges of Affairs) Disaster (Ministry of Home Management in India held on 7th July, 2007 at School of Environmental 5B, I.P. Estate, M.G. Marg, New Delhi - 110 002 Towards a disaster free India studies, University of Delhi (North Campus), organised by All India P.G. DHAR CHAKRABARTI, Foundation for Peace IAS & Disaster Management, New Delhi 110007 and Executive Director by the following agencies: supported – Intellectual India – Human Resource Advancement Welfare Society – Navni Foundation for Peace & Help for Old Age People – National Association for Visually Handicapped, USA

National Institute of Disaster Management (Ministry of Home Affairs)

P.G. DHAR CHAKRABARTI, IAS Executive Director

Message

Due to its unique geo-physical location and diverse hydro-climatic conditions India is prone to almost every type of natural hazards. Various man-made Published by hazards, caused by unplanned and unsafe developments and practices, have I.K. International Publishing House compounded the situation. During the Pvt. last Ltd. decade and half, India faced a number S-25, disasters Green Park–Extension of mega Latur earthquake of 1993, Orissa super cyclone of 1999, Uphaar Cinema Market Gujarat earthquake of 2001 and Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 – each causing New Delhi (India) enormous loss- 110 of 016 life, property, infrastructure and livelihood of people, E-mail : [email protected] particularly poor and vulnerable people. Earlier the Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984 Website: www.ikbooks.com had left its scar on the health and psyche from which people are yet to recover fully. Branch Offices Each of these disasters exposed the weakness of disaster management A-6,ofRoyal Estate, system the Industrial country and at Naigaum the sameCross timeRoad provided huge opportunities to Wadala, Mumbai 400 031 (India) learn and improve. There is now a complete paradigm shift in our approach – : [email protected] fromE-mail post-disaster relief and rehabilitation to holistic management of disasters covering all its phases. Lot of emphasis is now being placed on various structural G-4 “Embassy Centre”, 11 Crescent Road, Kumara Park East and non-structural measures which can mitigate, if not prevent, disasters, but Bangalore - 560 001 (India) it would not always be possible to invest resources for example, every structure E-mail : [email protected] in high seismic zones cannot be retrofitted, not merely because we may not haveISBN the resources to do it, but also due to the enormous complexity of such 978-81-89866-46-4 tasks, which would be difficult to be achieved. Therefore have to live with certain of hazards and risks and be © 2007 I.K.we International Publishing Housedegree Pvt. Ltd. prepared to face disasters, but in a manner that losses of life and property can be reduced its minimum. These would require pre-disaster planning, involving Reprintto2018 all stakeholders – government, corporate, community and individual, creation of awareness at all levels, development of standards and procedures, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored training in a retrieval and system, capacityorbuilding and mock drills andmeans: practices, so that we are always in transmitted in any form or any electronic, mechanical, photocopying, a continuous of preparedness. recording, state or otherwise, without the prior written permission from the publisher. Published by Krishan Makhijani for I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., S-25, Green Park Extension, Uphaar Cinema Market, New Delhi - 110 016 and Printed by +Rekha Printers Pvt. Okhla Industrial Area, Phase II, New Delhi Website - 110 020. Ph: 91-11-23702445, Fax: Ltd., 011-23702446, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] :

Message Due to its unique geo-physical location and diverse hydro-climatic conditions India is prone to almost every type of natural hazards. Various man-made hazards, caused by unplanned and unsafe developments and practices, have compounded the situation. During the last decade and half, India faced a number of mega disasters – Latur earthquake of 1993, Orissa super cyclone of 1999, Gujarat earthquake of 2001 and Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 – each causing enormous loss of life, property, infrastructure and livelihood of people, particularly poor and vulnerable people. Earlier the Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984 had left its scar on the health and psyche from which people are yet to recover fully. Each of these disasters exposed the weakness of disaster management system of the country and at the same time provided huge opportunities to learn and improve. There is now a complete paradigm shift in our approach – from post-disaster relief and rehabilitation to holistic management of disasters covering all its phases. Lot of emphasis is now being placed on various structural and non-structural measures which can mitigate, if not prevent, disasters, but it would not always be possible to invest resources for example, every structure in high seismic zones cannot be retrofitted, not merely because we may not have the resources to do it, but also due to the enormous complexity of such tasks, which would be difficult to be achieved. Therefore we have to live with certain degree of hazards and risks and be prepared to face disasters, but in a manner that losses of life and property can be reduced to its minimum. These would require pre-disaster planning, involving all stakeholders – government, corporate, community and individual, creation of awareness at all levels, development of standards and procedures, training and capacity building and mock drills and practices, so that we are always in a continuous state of preparedness.

Ph: + 91-11-23702445,

www.nidm.net

National Institute of Disaster Management

Proceedings of the National Conference on Future Challenges of Affairs) Disaster (Ministry of Home Management in India held on 7th July, 2007 at School of Environmental 5B, I.P. Estate, M.G. Marg, New Delhi - 110 002 Towards a disaster free India studies, University of Delhi (North Campus), organised by All India P.G. DHAR CHAKRABARTI, Foundation for Peace IAS & Disaster Management, New Delhi 110007 and Executive Director supported by the following agencies: – Intellectual India – Human Resource Advancement Welfare Society – Navni Foundation for Peace & Help for Old Age People – National Association for Visually Handicapped, USA

Published by Krishan Makhijani for I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., S-25, Green Park Extension, Uphaar Cinema Market, New Delhi - 110 016 and Printed by +Rekha Printers Pvt. Okhla Industrial Area, Phase II, New Delhi Website - 110 020. Ph: 91-11-23702445, Fax: Ltd., 011-23702446, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] : www.nidm.net

Fax: 011-23702446, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] www.nidm.net

Website :

National Institute of Disaster Management (Ministry of Home Affairs)

5B, I.P. Estate, M.G. Marg, New Delhi - 110 002

Towards a disaster free India

P.G. DHAR CHAKRABARTI, IAS Executive Director

Message

Due to its unique geo-physical location and diverse hydro-climatic conditions India is prone to almost every type of natural hazards. Various man-made Published by hazards, caused by unplanned and unsafe developments and practices, have I.K. International Publishing House compounded the situation. During the Pvt. last Ltd. decade and half, India faced a number S-25, Green Park Extension of mega disasters – Latur earthquake of 1993, Orissa super cyclone of 1999, Uphaar Cinema Market Gujarat earthquake of 2001 and Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 – each causing New Delhi 110 016 (India) enormous loss of life, property, infrastructure and livelihood of people, E-mail : [email protected] particularly poor and vulnerable people. Earlier the Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984 Website: www.ikbooks.com had left its scar on the health and psyche from which people are yet to recover fully. Branch Offices Each of these disasters exposed the weakness of disaster management A-6,ofRoyal Estate, system the Industrial country and at Naigaum the sameCross timeRoad provided huge opportunities to Wadala, Mumbai 400 031 (India) learn and improve. There is now a complete paradigm shift in our approach – : [email protected] fromE-mail post-disaster relief and rehabilitation to holistic management of disasters covering all its phases. Lot of emphasis is now being placed on various structural G-4 “Embassy Centre”, 11 Crescent Road, Kumara Park East and non-structural measures which can mitigate, if not prevent, disasters, but Bangalore - 560 001 (India) it would not always be possible to invest resources for example, every structure E-mail : [email protected] in high seismic zones cannot be retrofitted, not merely because we may not haveISBN the resources to do it, but also due to the enormous complexity of such 978-81-89866-46-4 tasks, which would be difficult to be achieved. Therefore have to live with certain of hazards and risks and be © 2007 I.K.we International Publishing Housedegree Pvt. Ltd. prepared to face disasters, but in a manner that losses of life and property can be reduced its minimum. These would require pre-disaster planning, involving Reprintto2018 all stakeholders – government, corporate, community and individual, creation of awareness at all levels, development of standards and procedures, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored training in a retrieval and system, capacityorbuilding and mock drills and practices, so that we are in transmitted in any form or any means: electronic, mechanical,always photocopying, a continuous of preparedness. recording, state or otherwise, without the prior written permission from the publisher.

5B, I.P. Estate, M.G. Marg, New Delhi - 110 002

Towards a disaster free India

Message Due to its unique geo-physical location and diverse hydro-climatic conditions India is prone to almost every type of natural hazards. Various man-made hazards, caused by unplanned and unsafe developments and practices, have compounded the situation. During the last decade and half, India faced a number of mega disasters – Latur earthquake of 1993, Orissa super cyclone of 1999, Gujarat earthquake of 2001 and Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 – each causing enormous loss of life, property, infrastructure and livelihood of people, particularly poor and vulnerable people. Earlier the Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984 had left its scar on the health and psyche from which people are yet to recover fully. Each of these disasters exposed the weakness of disaster management system of the country and at the same time provided huge opportunities to learn and improve. There is now a complete paradigm shift in our approach – from post-disaster relief and rehabilitation to holistic management of disasters covering all its phases. Lot of emphasis is now being placed on various structural and non-structural measures which can mitigate, if not prevent, disasters, but it would not always be possible to invest resources for example, every structure in high seismic zones cannot be retrofitted, not merely because we may not have the resources to do it, but also due to the enormous complexity of such tasks, which would be difficult to be achieved. Therefore we have to live with certain degree of hazards and risks and be prepared to face disasters, but in a manner that losses of life and property can be reduced to its minimum. These would require pre-disaster planning, involving all stakeholders – government, corporate, community and individual, creation of awareness at all levels, development of standards and procedures, training and capacity building and mock drills and practices, so that we are always in a continuous state of preparedness.

Ph: + 91-11-23702445,

Fax: 011-23702446, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] www.nidm.net

Website :

vi Message

vi Message

A number of initiatives have been taken in this regard, ranging from advanced early warning system of hazards, to community based disaster preparedness programme, disaster management in education, disaster communication network, disaster response force etc. While some progress has been made, there are still lot of grounds to be covered and a lot of gaps to be attended on an emergency basis. Disaster Management Act of 2005 has provided a legal and institutional framework at the national, provincial and local level to attend to these tasks in a comprehensive and systematic manner. Concerted attempts are now being made for better preparedness at every level. It is expected that all these initiatives would help us to better face the disasters in the waiting. I understand that all these and related issues are going to be discussed in National Conference on Future Challenges of Disaster Management in India being organized by the All India Foundation for Peace and Disaster Management at New Delhi on 7th July, 2007 I Wish the Conference all success.

P.G. Dhar Chakrabarti

A number of initiatives have been taken in this regard, ranging from advanced early warning system of hazards, to community based disaster preparedness programme, disaster management in education, disaster communication network, disaster response force etc. While some progress has been made, there are still lot of grounds to be covered and a lot of gaps to be attended on an emergency basis. Disaster Management Act of 2005 has provided a legal and institutional framework at the national, provincial and local level to attend to these tasks in a comprehensive and systematic manner. Concerted attempts are now being made for better preparedness at every level. It is expected that all these initiatives would help us to better face the disasters in the waiting. I understand that all these and related issues are going to be discussed in Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, attackinbyIndia National Conference on Future Challenges of Disaster Management terrorists, fire and land degradation and the effects of their pollution are being organized by the All India Foundation for Peace and Disaster affecting Management the world a scale mankind at NewonDelhi on which 7th July, 2007 has never witnessed before. Because of the unique geo-climatic conditions topographical landscape of India, it is a I Wish the Conference alland success. country which is prone to more natural disasters than any other country in the world. The knowledge which we have gained from the experience of these disasters in most recent times has enabled us to realise that in all future challenges and disasters, it is the very subject of Disaster Management which must now be in the forefront of our minds. India needs to be divided, educationally speaking, into zones where the different types of disasters are most likely to occur. The north is prone to earthquakes—the southern and eastern P.G. coasts to Tsunamis. Dhar Chakrabarti Cyclones batter the east coast. Floods occur mainly in Bihar and the West Bengal, droughts occur in Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab. Landslides occur in mountainous areas and fire can occur anywhere. A new awareness of Disaster Management must now enter the psyche of the Indian people as self-help and preparedness will help people face future disasters in a safer way. With more education at school and university level, together with the communities everywhere at a local, national and international level, important knowledge of Disaster Management could bring India to the forefront of this subject in the world thereby helping other countries as well. The local communities in a specified danger area throughout India can play an important role in managing any disaster at any time. This book provides a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of the Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and the GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasized as with highly trained people understanding and using this equipment, thousands of lives will be saved in the future.

Preface

JAGBIR SINGH

vi Message

vi Message

A number of initiatives have been taken in this regard, ranging from advanced early warning system of hazards, to community based disaster preparedness programme, disaster management in education, disaster communication network, disaster response force etc. While some progress has been made, there are still lot of grounds to be covered and a lot of gaps to be attended on an emergency basis. Disaster Management Act of 2005 has provided a legal and institutional framework at the national, provincial and local level to attend to these tasks in a comprehensive and systematic manner. Concerted attempts are now being made for better preparedness at every level. It is expected that all these initiatives would help us to better face the disasters in the waiting. I understand that all these and related issues are going to be discussed in National Conference on Future Challenges of Disaster Management in India being organized by the All India Foundation for Peace and Disaster Management at New Delhi on 7th July, 2007 I Wish the Conference all success.

P.G. Dhar Chakrabarti

A number of initiatives have been taken in this regard, ranging from advanced early warning system of hazards, to community based disaster preparedness programme, disaster management in education, disaster communication network, disaster response force etc. While some progress has been made, there are still lot of grounds to be covered and a lot of gaps to be attended on an emergency basis. Disaster Management Act of 2005 has provided a legal and institutional framework at the national, provincial and local level to attend to these tasks in a comprehensive and systematic manner. Concerted attempts are now being made for better preparedness at every level. It is expected that all these initiatives would help us to better face the disasters in the waiting. I understand that all these and related issues are going to be discussed in Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, attackinbyIndia National Conference on Future Challenges of Disaster Management terrorists, fire and land degradation and the effects of their pollution are being organized by the All India Foundation for Peace and Disaster affecting Management the world a scale mankind at NewonDelhi on which 7th July, 2007 has never witnessed before. Because of the unique geo-climatic conditions topographical landscape of India, it is a I Wish the Conference alland success. country which is prone to more natural disasters than any other country in the world. The knowledge which we have gained from the experience of these disasters in most recent times has enabled us to realise that in all future challenges and disasters, it is the very subject of Disaster Management which must now be in the forefront of our minds. India needs to be divided, educationally speaking, into zones where the different types of disasters are most likely to occur. The north is prone to earthquakes—the southern and eastern P.G. coasts to Tsunamis. Dhar Chakrabarti Cyclones batter the east coast. Floods occur mainly in Bihar and the West Bengal, droughts occur in Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab. Landslides occur in mountainous areas and fire can occur anywhere. A new awareness of Disaster Management must now enter the psyche of the Indian people as self-help and preparedness will help people face future disasters in a safer way. With more education at school and university level, together with the communities everywhere at a local, national and international level, important knowledge of Disaster Management could bring India to the forefront of this subject in the world thereby helping other countries as well. The local communities in a specified danger area throughout India can play an important role in managing any disaster at any time. This book provides a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of the Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and the GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasized as with highly trained people understanding and using this equipment, thousands of lives will be saved in the future.

Preface

JAGBIR SINGH

vi Message A number of initiatives have been taken in this regard, ranging from advanced early warning system of hazards, to community based disaster preparedness programme, disaster management in education, disaster communication network, disaster response force etc. While some progress has been made, there are still lot of grounds to be covered and a lot of gaps to be attended on an emergency basis. Disaster Management Act of 2005 has provided a legal and institutional framework at the national, provincial and local level to attend to these tasks in a comprehensive and systematic manner. Concerted attempts are now being made for better preparedness at every level. It is expected that all these initiatives would help us to better face the disasters in the waiting. I understand that all these and related issues are going to be discussed in Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, attackinbyIndia National Conference on Future Challenges of Disaster Management terrorists, fire and land degradation and the effects of their pollution are being organized by the All India Foundation for Peace and Disaster affecting Management the world a scale mankind at NewonDelhi on which 7th July, 2007 has never witnessed before. Because of the unique geo-climatic conditions topographical landscape of India, it is a I Wish the Conference alland success. country which is prone to more natural disasters than any other country in the world. The knowledge which we have gained from the experience of these disasters in most recent times has enabled us to realise that in all future challenges and disasters, it is the very subject of Disaster Management which must now be in the forefront of our minds. India needs to be divided, educationally speaking, into zones where the different types of disasters are most likely to occur. The north is prone to earthquakes—the southern and eastern P.G. coasts to Tsunamis. Dhar Chakrabarti Cyclones batter the east coast. Floods occur mainly in Bihar and the West Bengal, droughts occur in Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab. Landslides occur in mountainous areas and fire can occur anywhere. A new awareness of Disaster Management must now enter the psyche of the Indian people as self-help and preparedness will help people face future disasters in a safer way. With more education at school and university level, together with the communities everywhere at a local, national and international level, important knowledge of Disaster Management could bring India to the forefront of this subject in the world thereby helping other countries as well. The local communities in a specified danger area throughout India can play an important role in managing any disaster at any time. This book provides a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of the Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and the GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasized as with highly trained people understanding and using this equipment, thousands of lives will be saved in the future.

Preface

Preface Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, attack by terrorists, fire and land degradation and the effects of their pollution are affecting the world on a scale which mankind has never witnessed before. Because of the unique geo-climatic conditions and topographical landscape of India, it is a country which is prone to more natural disasters than any other country in the world. The knowledge which we have gained from the experience of these disasters in most recent times has enabled us to realise that in all future challenges and disasters, it is the very subject of Disaster Management which must now be in the forefront of our minds. India needs to be divided, educationally speaking, into zones where the different types of disasters are most likely to occur. The north is prone to earthquakes—the southern and eastern coasts to Tsunamis. Cyclones batter the east coast. Floods occur mainly in Bihar and the West Bengal, droughts occur in Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab. Landslides occur in mountainous areas and fire can occur anywhere. A new awareness of Disaster Management must now enter the psyche of the Indian people as self-help and preparedness will help people face future disasters in a safer way. With more education at school and university level, together with the communities everywhere at a local, national and international level, important knowledge of Disaster Management could bring India to the forefront of this subject in the world thereby helping other countries as well. The local communities in a specified danger area throughout India can play an important role in managing any disaster at any time. This book provides a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of the Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and the GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasized as with highly trained people understanding and using this equipment, thousands of lives will be saved in the future.

JAGBIR SINGH

JAGBIR SINGH

vi Message A number of initiatives have been taken in this regard, ranging from advanced early warning system of hazards, to community based disaster preparedness programme, disaster management in education, disaster communication network, disaster response force etc. While some progress has been made, there are still lot of grounds to be covered and a lot of gaps to be attended on an emergency basis. Disaster Management Act of 2005 has provided a legal and institutional framework at the national, provincial and local level to attend to these tasks in a comprehensive and systematic manner. Concerted attempts are now being made for better preparedness at every level. It is expected that all these initiatives would help us to better face the disasters in the waiting. I understand that all these and related issues are going to be discussed in Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, attackinbyIndia National Conference on Future Challenges of Disaster Management terrorists, fire and land degradation and the effects of their pollution are being organized by the All India Foundation for Peace and Disaster affecting Management the world a scale mankind at NewonDelhi on which 7th July, 2007 has never witnessed before. Because of the unique geo-climatic conditions topographical landscape of India, it is a I Wish the Conference alland success. country which is prone to more natural disasters than any other country in the world. The knowledge which we have gained from the experience of these disasters in most recent times has enabled us to realise that in all future challenges and disasters, it is the very subject of Disaster Management which must now be in the forefront of our minds. India needs to be divided, educationally speaking, into zones where the different types of disasters are most likely to occur. The north is prone to earthquakes—the southern and eastern P.G. coasts to Tsunamis. Dhar Chakrabarti Cyclones batter the east coast. Floods occur mainly in Bihar and the West Bengal, droughts occur in Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab. Landslides occur in mountainous areas and fire can occur anywhere. A new awareness of Disaster Management must now enter the psyche of the Indian people as self-help and preparedness will help people face future disasters in a safer way. With more education at school and university level, together with the communities everywhere at a local, national and international level, important knowledge of Disaster Management could bring India to the forefront of this subject in the world thereby helping other countries as well. The local communities in a specified danger area throughout India can play an important role in managing any disaster at any time. This book provides a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of the Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and the GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasized as with highly trained people understanding and using this equipment, thousands of lives will be saved in the future.

Preface

JAGBIR SINGH

Preface Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, attack by terrorists, fire and land degradation and the effects of their pollution are affecting the world on a scale which mankind has never witnessed before. Because of the unique geo-climatic conditions and topographical landscape of India, it is a country which is prone to more natural disasters than any other country in the world. The knowledge which we have gained from the experience of these disasters in most recent times has enabled us to realise that in all future challenges and disasters, it is the very subject of Disaster Management which must now be in the forefront of our minds. India needs to be divided, educationally speaking, into zones where the different types of disasters are most likely to occur. The north is prone to earthquakes—the southern and eastern coasts to Tsunamis. Cyclones batter the east coast. Floods occur mainly in Bihar and the West Bengal, droughts occur in Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab. Landslides occur in mountainous areas and fire can occur anywhere. A new awareness of Disaster Management must now enter the psyche of the Indian people as self-help and preparedness will help people face future disasters in a safer way. With more education at school and university level, together with the communities everywhere at a local, national and international level, important knowledge of Disaster Management could bring India to the forefront of this subject in the world thereby helping other countries as well. The local communities in a specified danger area throughout India can play an important role in managing any disaster at any time. This book provides a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of the Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and the GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasized as with highly trained people understanding and using this equipment, thousands of lives will be saved in the future. JAGBIR SINGH

Acknowledgements The disasters which have stretched our planet in the last ten years have been on such a monumental scale that the suffering from the aftermath has forced our minds to be mentally, physically, and emotionally prepared should another disaster occur. This book gives a message to the world community that the time to act has come now. The two words “Disaster Management” are now in the forefront of our minds and have outstripped “Environment” and “Ecology”, which have focused on the earth as it is. We are now dealing with new forces which are creating havoc on our planet due to different types of disasters in different forms. I am sure that this book will provide methods, approaches, and the latest application of Information Technology to reduce the challenges of disasters with the latest data. Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my late parents who gave me the opportunity to study. I would also like to thank Prof. Deepak Pental, Vice Chancellor, Delhi University, who always encouraged me to aim high. I am also grateful to Prof. Lal Wadhwa, James Cook University, Australia (my co-supervisor) for his valuable discussions regarding different environmental issues which affect both India and Australia. My sincere thanks also goes to Prof. M.S.S. Rawat, Dr. A.L. Ramanatahan, Dr. P.V. Khatri, Mr. Dhramvir Dahiya, and Mr. Sheel Kumar (who always encourages and stands by me). Last but not the least, I personally thank Prof. Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour who helped me in arranging all the literature on Disaster Management for this conference. JAGBIR SINGH Convenor NCFCDM-2007 & Senior Lecturer in Geography Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi

Acknowledgements The disasters which have stretched our planet in the last ten years have been on such a monumental scale that the suffering from the aftermath has forced our minds to be mentally, physically, and emotionally prepared should another disaster occur. This book gives a message to the world community that the time to act has come now. The two words “Disaster Management” are now in the forefront of our minds and have outstripped “Environment” and “Ecology”, which have focused on the earth as it is. We are now dealing with new forces which are creating havoc on our planet due to different types of disasters in different forms. I am sure that this book will provide methods, approaches, and the latest application of Information Technology to reduce the challenges of disasters with the latest data. Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my late parents who gave me the opportunity to study. I would also like to thank Prof. Deepak Pental, Vice Chancellor, Delhi University, who always encouraged me to aim high. I am also grateful to Prof. Lal Wadhwa, James Cook University, Australia (my co-supervisor) for his valuable discussions regarding different environmental issues which affect both India and Australia. My sincere thanks also goes to Prof. M.S.S. Rawat, Dr. A.L. Ramanatahan, Dr. P.V. Khatri, Mr. Dhramvir Dahiya, and Mr. Sheel Kumar (who always encourages and stands by me). Last but not the least, I personally thank Prof. Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour who helped me in arranging all the literature on Disaster Management for this conference. JAGBIR SINGH Convenor NCFCDM-2007 & Senior Lecturer in Geography Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

The disasters which have stretched our planet in the last ten years have been on such a monumental scale that the suffering from the aftermath has forced our minds to be mentally, physically, and emotionally prepared should another disaster occur. This book gives a message to the world community that the time to act has come now. The two words “Disaster Management” are now in the forefront of our minds and have outstripped “Environment” and “Ecology”, which have focused on the earth as it is. We are now dealing with new forces which are creating havoc on our planet due to different types of disasters in different forms. I am sure that this book will provide methods, approaches, and the latest application of Information Technology to reduce the challenges of disasters with the latest data. Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my late parents who gave me the opportunity to study. I would also like to thank Prof. Deepak Pental, Vice Chancellor, Delhi University, who always encouraged me to aim high. I am also grateful to Prof. Lal Wadhwa, James Cook University, Australia (my co-supervisor) for his valuable discussions regarding different environmental issues which affect both India and Australia. My sincere thanks also goes to Prof. M.S.S. Rawat, Dr. A.L. Ramanatahan, Dr. P.V. Khatri, Mr. Dhramvir Dahiya, and Mr. Sheel Kumar (who always encourages and stands by me). Last but not the least, I personally thank Prof. Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour who helped me in arranging all the literature on Disaster Management for this conference.

The disasters which have stretched our planet in the last ten years have been on such a monumental scale that the suffering from the aftermath has forced our minds to be mentally, physically, and emotionally prepared should another disaster occur. This book gives a message to the world community that the time to act has come now. The two words “Disaster Management” are now in the forefront of our minds and have outstripped “Environment” and “Ecology”, which have focused on the earth as it is. We are now dealing with new forces which are creating havoc on our planet due to different types of disasters in different forms. I am sure that this book will provide methods, approaches, and the latest application of Information Technology to reduce the challenges of disasters with the latest data. Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my late parents who gave me the opportunity to study. I would also like to thank Prof. Deepak Pental, Vice Chancellor, Delhi University, who always encouraged me to aim high. I am also grateful to Prof. Lal Wadhwa, James Cook University, Australia (my co-supervisor) for his valuable discussions regarding different environmental issues which affect both India and Australia. My sincere thanks also goes to Prof. M.S.S. Rawat, Dr. A.L. Ramanatahan, Dr. P.V. Khatri, Mr. Dhramvir Dahiya, and Mr. Sheel Kumar (who always encourages and stands by me). Last but not the least, I personally thank Prof. Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour who helped me in arranging all the literature on Disaster Management for this conference.

JAGBIR SINGH Convenor NCFCDM-2007 & Senior Lecturer in Geography Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi

JAGBIR SINGH Convenor NCFCDM-2007 & Senior Lecturer in Geography Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

The disasters which have stretched our planet in the last ten years have been on such a monumental scale that the suffering from the aftermath has forced our minds to be mentally, physically, and emotionally prepared should another disaster occur. This book gives a message to the world community that the time to act has come now. The two words “Disaster Management” are now in the forefront of our minds and have outstripped “Environment” and “Ecology”, which have focused on the earth as it is. We are now dealing with new forces which are creating havoc on our planet due to different types of disasters in different forms. I am sure that this book will provide methods, approaches, and the latest application of Information Technology to reduce the challenges of disasters with the latest data. Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my late parents who gave me the opportunity to study. I would also like to thank Prof. Deepak Pental, Vice Chancellor, Delhi University, who always encouraged me to aim high. I am also grateful to Prof. Lal Wadhwa, James Cook University, Australia (my co-supervisor) for his valuable discussions regarding different environmental issues which affect both India and Australia. My sincere thanks also goes to Prof. M.S.S. Rawat, Dr. A.L. Ramanatahan, Dr. P.V. Khatri, Mr. Dhramvir Dahiya, and Mr. Sheel Kumar (who always encourages and stands by me). Last but not the least, I personally thank Prof. Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour who helped me in arranging all the literature on Disaster Management for this conference.

The disasters which have stretched our planet in the last ten years have been on such a monumental scale that the suffering from the aftermath has forced our minds to be mentally, physically, and emotionally prepared should another disaster occur. This book gives a message to the world community that the time to act has come now. The two words “Disaster Management” are now in the forefront of our minds and have outstripped “Environment” and “Ecology”, which have focused on the earth as it is. We are now dealing with new forces which are creating havoc on our planet due to different types of disasters in different forms. I am sure that this book will provide methods, approaches, and the latest application of Information Technology to reduce the challenges of disasters with the latest data. Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my late parents who gave me the opportunity to study. I would also like to thank Prof. Deepak Pental, Vice Chancellor, Delhi University, who always encouraged me to aim high. I am also grateful to Prof. Lal Wadhwa, James Cook University, Australia (my co-supervisor) for his valuable discussions regarding different environmental issues which affect both India and Australia. My sincere thanks also goes to Prof. M.S.S. Rawat, Dr. A.L. Ramanatahan, Dr. P.V. Khatri, Mr. Dhramvir Dahiya, and Mr. Sheel Kumar (who always encourages and stands by me). Last but not the least, I personally thank Prof. Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour who helped me in arranging all the literature on Disaster Management for this conference.

JAGBIR SINGH Convenor NCFCDM-2007 & Senior Lecturer in Geography Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi

JAGBIR SINGH Convenor NCFCDM-2007 & Senior Lecturer in Geography Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi

Contents Section 1: Natural Disaster Management 1. Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management– A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour

3

2. Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh

15

3. Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan

31

4. Landslide Disasters and its Management Alpana Parmar and Sheel Kumar

41

5. Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay

57

6. Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar

67

Section 2: Man Made Disasters 7. Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh 8. Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster Bharat Jhamnani and S.K. Singh 9. Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan and M. Bala Krishna Prasad 10. AIDS: Health Disaster, Challenges and its Management in Delhi Neetu Malik

95 113

119

131

Contents Section 1: Natural Disaster Management 1. Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management– A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour

3

2. Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh

15

3. Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan

31

4. Landslide Disasters and its Management Alpana Parmar and Sheel Kumar

41

5. Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay

57

6. Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar

67

Section 2: Man Made Disasters 7. Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh 8. Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster Bharat Jhamnani and S.K. Singh 9. Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan and M. Bala Krishna Prasad 10. AIDS: Health Disaster, Challenges and its Management in Delhi Neetu Malik

95 113

119

131

Contents

Contents

Section 1: Natural Disaster Management 1. Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management– A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour

Section 1: Natural Disaster Management 3

1. Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management– A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour

3

2. Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh

15

2. Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh

15

3. Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan

31

3. Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan

31

4. Landslide Disasters and its Management Alpana Parmar and Sheel Kumar

41

4. Landslide Disasters and its Management Alpana Parmar and Sheel Kumar

41

5. Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay

57

5. Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay

57

6. Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar

67

6. Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar

67

Section 2: Man Made Disasters 7. Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh 8. Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster Bharat Jhamnani and S.K. Singh 9. Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan and M. Bala Krishna Prasad 10. AIDS: Health Disaster, Challenges and its Management in Delhi Neetu Malik

95 113

119

131

Contents

8. Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster Bharat Jhamnani and S.K. Singh 9. Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan and M. Bala Krishna Prasad 10. AIDS: Health Disaster, Challenges and its Management in Delhi Neetu Malik

95 113

119

131

Contents

Section 1: Natural Disaster Management 1. Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management– A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour

Section 2: Man Made Disasters 7. Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh

Section 1: Natural Disaster Management 3

1. Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management– A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour

3

2. Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh

15

2. Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh

15

3. Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan

31

3. Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan

31

4. Landslide Disasters and its Management Alpana Parmar and Sheel Kumar

41

4. Landslide Disasters and its Management Alpana Parmar and Sheel Kumar

41

5. Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay

57

5. Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay

57

6. Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar

67

6. Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar

67

Section 2: Man Made Disasters 7. Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh 8. Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster Bharat Jhamnani and S.K. Singh 9. Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan and M. Bala Krishna Prasad 10. AIDS: Health Disaster, Challenges and its Management in Delhi Neetu Malik

95 113

119

131

Section 2: Man Made Disasters 7. Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh 8. Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster Bharat Jhamnani and S.K. Singh 9. Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan and M. Bala Krishna Prasad 10. AIDS: Health Disaster, Challenges and its Management in Delhi Neetu Malik

95 113

119

131

xii Contents 11. A Threat of Bio-terrorism in Mega Cities Anand Shukla 12. Antibacterial Activity of Some Botano-Extracts Against Plant Pathogenic Bacteria Pseudomonas syringae S.K. Bhardwaj

xii Contents 157

173

11. A Threat of Bio-terrorism in Mega Cities Anand Shukla 12. Antibacterial Activity of Some Botano-Extracts Against Plant Pathogenic Bacteria Pseudomonas syringae S.K. Bhardwaj

157

173

13. Technological Hazards: Man-Made Disasters Surender Singh

183

13. Technological Hazards: Man-Made Disasters Surender Singh

183

14. Climate Change and Vulnerability of Coastal Mega Cities Shyamoli Sen and Sushmita Goswami

193

14. Climate Change and Vulnerability of Coastal Mega Cities Shyamoli Sen and Sushmita Goswami

193

15. Fire Hazard Management in Urban Areas Ms. Vidhi Saluja & Sheel Kumar

209

15. Fire Hazard Management in Urban Areas Ms. Vidhi Saluja & Sheel Kumar

209

Section 3: Role of Technology in Disaster Management 16. Future Applications and Challenges of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS in Disaster Management in India Jagbir Singh

223

17. Fire Disaster and its Possible Management through GIS Technology in Delhi Anupma Verma

255

18. Avalanches Problem in India and the Role of GIS, Remote Sensing and Information Technology in its Mitigation Abhinav Walia

267

Section 4: Community Preparedness 19. Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation: Key to Disaster Management R.B. Singh 20. Partnership Development with VBOs in Disaster Management in Delhi Biranchi Rout and Vijay Ummidi 21. The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality in Tamilnadu, South East Coast of India Ramanathan AL, Chidambaram and Senthil Kumar G

283 299

305

Section 3: Role of Technology in Disaster Management 16. Future Applications and Challenges of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS in Disaster Management in India Jagbir Singh 17. Fire Disaster and its Possible Management through GIS Technology in Delhi SECTION I Anupma Verma

NATURAL DISASTER 18. Avalanches Problem in India and theMANAGEMENT Role of GIS, Remote Sensing and Information Technology in its Mitigation Abhinav Walia

Section 4: Community Preparedness 19. Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation: Key to Disaster Management R.B. Singh 20. Partnership Development with VBOs in Disaster Management in Delhi Biranchi Rout and Vijay Ummidi 21. The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality in Tamilnadu, South East Coast of India Ramanathan AL, Chidambaram and Senthil Kumar G

223

255

267

283 299

305

22. Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri

317

22. Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri

317

23. Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G and S. Chidambaram

329

23. Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G and S. Chidambaram

329

24. Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur

341

24. Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur

341

xii Contents 11. A Threat of Bio-terrorism in Mega Cities Anand Shukla 12. Antibacterial Activity of Some Botano-Extracts Against Plant Pathogenic Bacteria Pseudomonas syringae S.K. Bhardwaj

xii Contents 157

173

11. A Threat of Bio-terrorism in Mega Cities Anand Shukla 12. Antibacterial Activity of Some Botano-Extracts Against Plant Pathogenic Bacteria Pseudomonas syringae S.K. Bhardwaj

157

173

13. Technological Hazards: Man-Made Disasters Surender Singh

183

13. Technological Hazards: Man-Made Disasters Surender Singh

183

14. Climate Change and Vulnerability of Coastal Mega Cities Shyamoli Sen and Sushmita Goswami

193

14. Climate Change and Vulnerability of Coastal Mega Cities Shyamoli Sen and Sushmita Goswami

193

15. Fire Hazard Management in Urban Areas Ms. Vidhi Saluja & Sheel Kumar

209

15. Fire Hazard Management in Urban Areas Ms. Vidhi Saluja & Sheel Kumar

209

Section 3: Role of Technology in Disaster Management 16. Future Applications and Challenges of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS in Disaster Management in India Jagbir Singh

223

17. Fire Disaster and its Possible Management through GIS Technology in Delhi Anupma Verma

255

18. Avalanches Problem in India and the Role of GIS, Remote Sensing and Information Technology in its Mitigation Abhinav Walia

267

Section 4: Community Preparedness 19. Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation: Key to Disaster Management R.B. Singh 20. Partnership Development with VBOs in Disaster Management in Delhi Biranchi Rout and Vijay Ummidi 21. The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality in Tamilnadu, South East Coast of India Ramanathan AL, Chidambaram and Senthil Kumar G

283 299

305

Section 3: Role of Technology in Disaster Management 16. Future Applications and Challenges of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS in Disaster Management in India Jagbir Singh 17. Fire Disaster and its Possible Management through GIS Technology in Delhi SECTION I Anupma Verma

NATURAL DISASTER 18. Avalanches Problem in India and theMANAGEMENT Role of GIS, Remote Sensing and Information Technology in its Mitigation Abhinav Walia

Section 4: Community Preparedness 19. Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation: Key to Disaster Management R.B. Singh 20. Partnership Development with VBOs in Disaster Management in Delhi Biranchi Rout and Vijay Ummidi 21. The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality in Tamilnadu, South East Coast of India Ramanathan AL, Chidambaram and Senthil Kumar G

223

255

267

283 299

305

22. Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri

317

22. Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri

317

23. Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G and S. Chidambaram

329

23. Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G and S. Chidambaram

329

24. Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur

341

24. Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur

341

xii Contents 11. A Threat of Bio-terrorism in Mega Cities Anand Shukla 12. Antibacterial Activity of Some Botano-Extracts Against Plant Pathogenic Bacteria Pseudomonas syringae S.K. Bhardwaj

157

173

13. Technological Hazards: Man-Made Disasters Surender Singh

183

14. Climate Change and Vulnerability of Coastal Mega Cities Shyamoli Sen and Sushmita Goswami

193

15. Fire Hazard Management in Urban Areas Ms. Vidhi Saluja & Sheel Kumar

209

Section 3: Role of Technology in Disaster Management 16. Future Applications and Challenges of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS in Disaster Management in India Jagbir Singh 17. Fire Disaster and its Possible Management through GIS Technology in Delhi SECTION I Anupma Verma

NATURAL DISASTER 18. Avalanches Problem in India and theMANAGEMENT Role of GIS, Remote Sensing and Information Technology in its Mitigation Abhinav Walia

Section 4: Community Preparedness 19. Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation: Key to Disaster Management R.B. Singh 20. Partnership Development with VBOs in Disaster Management in Delhi Biranchi Rout and Vijay Ummidi 21. The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality in Tamilnadu, South East Coast of India Ramanathan AL, Chidambaram and Senthil Kumar G

223

255

SECTION I

NATURAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT 267

283 299

305

22. Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri

317

23. Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G and S. Chidambaram

329

24. Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur

341

xii Contents 11. A Threat of Bio-terrorism in Mega Cities Anand Shukla 12. Antibacterial Activity of Some Botano-Extracts Against Plant Pathogenic Bacteria Pseudomonas syringae S.K. Bhardwaj

157

173

13. Technological Hazards: Man-Made Disasters Surender Singh

183

14. Climate Change and Vulnerability of Coastal Mega Cities Shyamoli Sen and Sushmita Goswami

193

15. Fire Hazard Management in Urban Areas Ms. Vidhi Saluja & Sheel Kumar

209

Section 3: Role of Technology in Disaster Management 16. Future Applications and Challenges of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS in Disaster Management in India Jagbir Singh 17. Fire Disaster and its Possible Management through GIS Technology in Delhi SECTION I Anupma Verma

NATURAL DISASTER 18. Avalanches Problem in India and theMANAGEMENT Role of GIS, Remote Sensing and Information Technology in its Mitigation Abhinav Walia

Section 4: Community Preparedness 19. Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation: Key to Disaster Management R.B. Singh 20. Partnership Development with VBOs in Disaster Management in Delhi Biranchi Rout and Vijay Ummidi 21. The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality in Tamilnadu, South East Coast of India Ramanathan AL, Chidambaram and Senthil Kumar G

223

255

SECTION I

NATURAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT 267

283 299

305

22. Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri

317

23. Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G and S. Chidambaram

329

24. Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur

341

1

Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour (Social Worker at International level) 23 Harwood Avenue, Mt. Kuring-Gai, NSW-2080, Sydney, Australia

INTRODUCTION Although fire has been, and continues to be, one of the most important factors influencing the structure and distribution of plant and animal communities in Australia, With about 20,000 species of vascular plants, a similar number of species of non-vascular plants, 5800 species of vertebrate animals, over 200,000 species of invertebrates and 250,000 species of fungi, the biodiversity of Australia (Nielsen & West 1994) is immense. Considering that fires may affect most of the land surface of Australia, there are many opportunities for fires to promote or adversely affect biodiversity. A number of principles relating fires to biodiversity are known but how fires affect all Australian species is far from well known. Even among vascular plants we have recorded only the crudest type of response to fires for a little overten per cent of the flora. Of the four elements known to man – air, earth, fire and water, it is fire itself that imbues him with the most fear. It is an element that has been with man since time immemorial and it is the same now as it was then – either an element of fuel for cooking and giving warmth or one of disaster and destruction. It is very important to observe and understand how the use and abuse of fire on this planet has helped shape man’s destiny in respect of where he lives, how he lives, how he builds his house and places of work and what steps he has had to take in order to control this fierce element of nature which in modern times often presents itself in a totally different environment from past times. We may ask ourselves, who were the first people to tame this element of fire for their own benefit and how did they create it? We need to give thought to these questions as in the answers lies the evolution of civilization on this planet.

1

Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management A Case Study of Australia Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour (Social Worker at International level) 23 Harwood Avenue, Mt. Kuring-Gai, NSW-2080, Sydney, Australia

INTRODUCTION Although fire has been, and continues to be, one of the most important factors influencing the structure and distribution of plant and animal communities in Australia, With about 20,000 species of vascular plants, a similar number of species of non-vascular plants, 5800 species of vertebrate animals, over 200,000 species of invertebrates and 250,000 species of fungi, the biodiversity of Australia (Nielsen & West 1994) is immense. Considering that fires may affect most of the land surface of Australia, there are many opportunities for fires to promote or adversely affect biodiversity. A number of principles relating fires to biodiversity are known but how fires affect all Australian species is far from well known. Even among vascular plants we have recorded only the crudest type of response to fires for a little overten per cent of the flora. Of the four elements known to man – air, earth, fire and water, it is fire itself that imbues him with the most fear. It is an element that has been with man since time immemorial and it is the same now as it was then – either an element of fuel for cooking and giving warmth or one of disaster and destruction. It is very important to observe and understand how the use and abuse of fire on this planet has helped shape man’s destiny in respect of where he lives, how he lives, how he builds his house and places of work and what steps he has had to take in order to control this fierce element of nature which in modern times often presents itself in a totally different environment from past times. We may ask ourselves, who were the first people to tame this element of fire for their own benefit and how did they create it? We need to give thought to these questions as in the answers lies the evolution of civilization on this planet.

1

1

Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management

Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management

A Case Study of Australia

A Case Study of Australia

Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour (Social Worker at International level) 23 Harwood Avenue, Mt. Kuring-Gai, NSW-2080, Sydney, Australia

Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour (Social Worker at International level) 23 Harwood Avenue, Mt. Kuring-Gai, NSW-2080, Sydney, Australia

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Although fire has been, and continues to be, one of the most important factors influencing the structure and distribution of plant and animal communities in Australia, With about 20,000 species of vascular plants, a similar number of species of non-vascular plants, 5800 species of vertebrate animals, over 200,000 species of invertebrates and 250,000 species of fungi, the biodiversity of Australia (Nielsen & West 1994) is immense. Considering that fires may affect most of the land surface of Australia, there are many opportunities for fires to promote or adversely affect biodiversity. A number of principles relating fires to biodiversity are known but how fires affect all Australian species is far from well known. Even among vascular plants we have recorded only the crudest type of response to fires for a little overten per cent of the flora. Of the four elements known to man – air, earth, fire and water, it is fire itself that imbues him with the most fear. It is an element that has been with man since time immemorial and it is the same now as it was then – either an element of fuel for cooking and giving warmth or one of disaster and destruction. It is very important to observe and understand how the use and abuse of fire on this planet has helped shape man’s destiny in respect of where he lives, how he lives, how he builds his house and places of work and what steps he has had to take in order to control this fierce element of nature which in modern times often presents itself in a totally different environment from past times. We may ask ourselves, who were the first people to tame this element of fire for their own benefit and how did they create it? We need to give thought to these questions as in the answers lies the evolution of civilization on this planet.

Although fire has been, and continues to be, one of the most important factors influencing the structure and distribution of plant and animal communities in Australia, With about 20,000 species of vascular plants, a similar number of species of non-vascular plants, 5800 species of vertebrate animals, over 200,000 species of invertebrates and 250,000 species of fungi, the biodiversity of Australia (Nielsen & West 1994) is immense. Considering that fires may affect most of the land surface of Australia, there are many opportunities for fires to promote or adversely affect biodiversity. A number of principles relating fires to biodiversity are known but how fires affect all Australian species is far from well known. Even among vascular plants we have recorded only the crudest type of response to fires for a little overten per cent of the flora. Of the four elements known to man – air, earth, fire and water, it is fire itself that imbues him with the most fear. It is an element that has been with man since time immemorial and it is the same now as it was then – either an element of fuel for cooking and giving warmth or one of disaster and destruction. It is very important to observe and understand how the use and abuse of fire on this planet has helped shape man’s destiny in respect of where he lives, how he lives, how he builds his house and places of work and what steps he has had to take in order to control this fierce element of nature which in modern times often presents itself in a totally different environment from past times. We may ask ourselves, who were the first people to tame this element of fire for their own benefit and how did they create it? We need to give thought to these questions as in the answers lies the evolution of civilization on this planet.

1

1

Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management

Fire Disaster: Challenges, Opportunities and its Management

A Case Study of Australia

A Case Study of Australia

Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour (Social Worker at International level) 23 Harwood Avenue, Mt. Kuring-Gai, NSW-2080, Sydney, Australia

Joan Schreijaeg-Gilmour (Social Worker at International level) 23 Harwood Avenue, Mt. Kuring-Gai, NSW-2080, Sydney, Australia

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Although fire has been, and continues to be, one of the most important factors influencing the structure and distribution of plant and animal communities in Australia, With about 20,000 species of vascular plants, a similar number of species of non-vascular plants, 5800 species of vertebrate animals, over 200,000 species of invertebrates and 250,000 species of fungi, the biodiversity of Australia (Nielsen & West 1994) is immense. Considering that fires may affect most of the land surface of Australia, there are many opportunities for fires to promote or adversely affect biodiversity. A number of principles relating fires to biodiversity are known but how fires affect all Australian species is far from well known. Even among vascular plants we have recorded only the crudest type of response to fires for a little overten per cent of the flora. Of the four elements known to man – air, earth, fire and water, it is fire itself that imbues him with the most fear. It is an element that has been with man since time immemorial and it is the same now as it was then – either an element of fuel for cooking and giving warmth or one of disaster and destruction. It is very important to observe and understand how the use and abuse of fire on this planet has helped shape man’s destiny in respect of where he lives, how he lives, how he builds his house and places of work and what steps he has had to take in order to control this fierce element of nature which in modern times often presents itself in a totally different environment from past times. We may ask ourselves, who were the first people to tame this element of fire for their own benefit and how did they create it? We need to give thought to these questions as in the answers lies the evolution of civilization on this planet.

Although fire has been, and continues to be, one of the most important factors influencing the structure and distribution of plant and animal communities in Australia, With about 20,000 species of vascular plants, a similar number of species of non-vascular plants, 5800 species of vertebrate animals, over 200,000 species of invertebrates and 250,000 species of fungi, the biodiversity of Australia (Nielsen & West 1994) is immense. Considering that fires may affect most of the land surface of Australia, there are many opportunities for fires to promote or adversely affect biodiversity. A number of principles relating fires to biodiversity are known but how fires affect all Australian species is far from well known. Even among vascular plants we have recorded only the crudest type of response to fires for a little overten per cent of the flora. Of the four elements known to man – air, earth, fire and water, it is fire itself that imbues him with the most fear. It is an element that has been with man since time immemorial and it is the same now as it was then – either an element of fuel for cooking and giving warmth or one of disaster and destruction. It is very important to observe and understand how the use and abuse of fire on this planet has helped shape man’s destiny in respect of where he lives, how he lives, how he builds his house and places of work and what steps he has had to take in order to control this fierce element of nature which in modern times often presents itself in a totally different environment from past times. We may ask ourselves, who were the first people to tame this element of fire for their own benefit and how did they create it? We need to give thought to these questions as in the answers lies the evolution of civilization on this planet.

4

Disaster Management

History of Fire In pre-historic times there were not many people inhabiting this planet. Man was tribal and had to hunt for his food and the element of fire gave him two basic necessities of life – a fuel for cooking and a means of keeping him warm. It is food for thought to ask ourselves, “Where was the first fire on this planet? Was it caused by an overflow of lava from a volcanic eruption, igniting trees in its wake or was it caused by a bolt of lightning striking a tree, thus beginning the first forest fire? As the world’s population grew, man migrated very slowly to other countries and this migratory process is very closely linked to the cultural web that has been woven by the knowledge and use of fire in all countries throughout the world ever since. The findings of pottery from the ancient world, fired in the kilns of earlier times and their discovery (always a delight to the archaeologist), are further proof of how the fire element presents itself as a major contributor to art. Through being able to heat and preserve clay in the shape of water and oil urns, much history from ancient Greece, Italy, Egypt and many other Mediterranean countries, is preserved nowadays in all museums throughout the world for all to see. Even in painted art, fire has played a featured role. Primitive man lived in caves and fires were placed near the entrance but as man began to build houses, he was forced to have a fire inside his house and it is this very fact that developed another feature in an architecturally developing world – the chimney. No one knows who invented the chimney or in which country it was first built but we do know that the first chimneys were made of wood and covered with clay or mortar. Evidence of their existence has been found in Venice. These are reported to have collapsed in an earthquake in 1347. In England in the 18th century many fires would break out in houses because the clay or mortar lining the wooden chimneys, was not strong enough to withstand the heat, so a new law was brought into being on 7th April, 1719 that all chimneys were to be made of brick. Here again, we can see how the history of fire is interwoven with the evolution of architecture. Another very interesting aspect of fire in the fireplaces was the invention of a metal fire – cover called a “curfew”. This curfew had a wooden handle attached to a rounded metal plate which had holes in it and by placing it over the fire, the embers could be contained until the morning , thus making it easier to continue burning a fire the next day. In order to regulate this activity within the community, drums were beaten in some towns and villages and bells were rung in others and all people had to use their curfews at that time to cover their fires. It actually became law in 1068 in England during the reign of William the Conqueror that when the bells rang at 7 pm., all curfews were to be placed over the fires. People were also required at this time to put out their oil lamps used for lighting. This stopped people from wandering the streets at night. The word “curfew” comes from the French word “cuevrefeu” – covered fire, le feu

4

Disaster Management

History of Fire In pre-historic times there were not many people inhabiting this planet. Man was tribal and had to hunt for his food and the element of fire gave him two basic necessities of life – a fuel for cooking and a means of keeping him warm. It is food for thought to ask ourselves, “Where was the first fire on this planet? Was it caused by an overflow of lava from a volcanic eruption, igniting trees in its wake or was it caused by a bolt of lightning striking a tree, thus beginning the first forest fire? As the world’s population grew, man migrated very slowly to other countries and this migratory process is very closely linked to the cultural web that has been woven by the knowledge and use of fire in all countries throughout the world ever since. The findings of pottery from the ancient world, fired in the kilns of earlier times and their discovery (always a delight to the archaeologist), are further proof of how the fire element presents itself as a major contributor to art. Through being able to heat and preserve clay in the shape of water and oil urns, much history from ancient Greece, Italy, Egypt and many other Mediterranean countries, is preserved nowadays in all museums throughout the world for all to see. Even in painted art, fire has played a featured role. Primitive man lived in caves and fires were placed near the entrance but as man began to build houses, he was forced to have a fire inside his house and it is this very fact that developed another feature in an architecturally developing world – the chimney. No one knows who invented the chimney or in which country it was first built but we do know that the first chimneys were made of wood and covered with clay or mortar. Evidence of their existence has been found in Venice. These are reported to have collapsed in an earthquake in 1347. In England in the 18th century many fires would break out in houses because the clay or mortar lining the wooden chimneys, was not strong enough to withstand the heat, so a new law was brought into being on 7th April, 1719 that all chimneys were to be made of brick. Here again, we can see how the history of fire is interwoven with the evolution of architecture. Another very interesting aspect of fire in the fireplaces was the invention of a metal fire – cover called a “curfew”. This curfew had a wooden handle attached to a rounded metal plate which had holes in it and by placing it over the fire, the embers could be contained until the morning , thus making it easier to continue burning a fire the next day. In order to regulate this activity within the community, drums were beaten in some towns and villages and bells were rung in others and all people had to use their curfews at that time to cover their fires. It actually became law in 1068 in England during the reign of William the Conqueror that when the bells rang at 7 pm., all curfews were to be placed over the fires. People were also required at this time to put out their oil lamps used for lighting. This stopped people from wandering the streets at night. The word “curfew” comes from the French word “cuevrefeu” – covered fire, le feu

4

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

5

History of and Fireit has worked its way into the English language meaning “a meaning “fire” regulation requiring people to remain indoors between specified hours at night.” In pre-historic times there were not many people inhabiting this planet. Man Here we have the history of fire touching our language. was tribal and had to hunt for his food and the element of fire gave him two Fire has stamped its mark on history when we remember that Rome burned basic necessities of life – a fuel for cooking and a means of keeping him to the ground and was destroyed in 64 BC in the time of Nero and the Great warm. It is food for thought to ask ourselves, “Where was the first fire on this Fire of London on the 2nd September, 1666 raised it to the ground, thereby planet? Was it caused by an overflow of lava from a volcanic eruption, igniting ridding the city of vermin and disease. A folk song developed from this fire trees in its wake or was it caused by a bolt of lightning striking a tree, thus called “London’s Burning”, so in music too we have some history of fire. beginning the first forest fire? As the world’s population grew, man migrated very slowly to other countries Types Firemigratory process is very closely linked to the cultural web that has andofthis been woven by the knowledge and use of fire in all countries throughout the 1. Bushfires or forest fires. world ever since. The findings of pottery from the ancient world, fired in the 2. Chemical fires. kilns of earlier times and their discovery (always a delight to the archaeologist), 3. Electrical fires. are further proof of how the fire element presents itself as a major contributor to art. Through being able to heat and preserve clay in the shape of water and In mediaeval times the old alchemists thought fire to be the primary agent oil urns, much history from ancient Greece, Italy, Egypt and many other of change and in Physics, fire corresponds to energy. Mediterranean countries, is preserved nowadays in all museums throughout the In our present civilization we have three forms of fire: world for all to see. Even in painted art, fire has played a featured role. Primitive 1. In Australia many bushfires have been caused by a natural phenomenon such man lived in caves and fires were placed near the entrance but as man began to as a blitz of lightning or the rays from the sun shining through a piece of glass build houses, he was forced to have a fire inside his house and it is this very in the bush. fact that developed another feature in an architecturally developing world – the Man made bushfires have been caused by the careless throwing of cigarette chimney. butts from car windows or people have camped and failed to put out their fire. No one knows who invented the chimney or in which country it was first The fires in buildings or in the bush which have been deliberately lit by the built but we do know that the first chimneys were made of wood and covered arsonists are another cause of bushfires. Arsonists in Australia can sometimes with clay or mortar. Evidence of their existence has been found in Venice. face up to 20 years in gaol if caught lighting fires deliberately. These are reported to have collapsed in an earthquake in 1347. 2. Chemical fires are mainly fires thwhich ignite in manufacturing plants, factories In England in the 18 century many fires would break out in houses and places where chemicals are used or by road accidents where the heavy because the clay or mortar lining the wooden chimneys, was not strong enough transport vehicles themselves are involved in a collision. to withstand the heat, so a new law was brought into being on 7th April, 1719 3. A third type of fire is caused by electrical faults from faulty wiring in homes, that all chimneys were to be made of brick. Here again, we can see how the combined with overheated appliances. This type of fire goes too for restaurants, history of fire is interwoven with the evolution of architecture. Another very theatres, places of entertainment, shops, offices, factories, schools and hospitals. interesting aspect of fire in the fireplaces was the invention of a metal fire – Australia is often described as the land of flood and fire. The Australian cover called a “curfew”. This curfew had a wooden handle attached to a rounded aborigines who have lived in the country for thousands of years before the metal plate which had holes in it and by placing it over the fire, the embers white man came, were masters of fire. They were a nomadic race of people could be contained until the morning , thus making it easier to continue burning who knew when and where to burn the bush and when to move on to set up a fire the next day. In order to regulate this activity within the community, their camp somewhere else. They also knew which wood to choose in order to drums were beaten in some towns and villages and bells were rung in others rub two sticks together for making a fire for cooking or a fire for keeping and all people had to use their curfews at that time to cover their fires. It themselves warm. actually became law in 1068 in England during the reign of William the Conqueror that when the bells rang at 7 pm., all curfews were to be placed The burning of the bush in Australia is essential to its regeneration and it over the fires. People were also required at this time to put out their oil lamps does regenerate very quickly after a major fire, but whereas the aborigines used for lighting. This stopped people from wandering the streets at night. The knew the climate and seasons so well because they lived close to nature, the word “curfew” comes from the French word “cuevrefeu” – covered fire, le feu bushfires in earlier days did not present the hazard that they do today.

4

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

5

History of and Fireit has worked its way into the English language meaning “a meaning “fire” regulation requiring people to remain indoors between specified hours at night.” In pre-historic times there were not many people inhabiting this planet. Man Here we have the history of fire touching our language. was tribal and had to hunt for his food and the element of fire gave him two Fire has stamped its mark on history when we remember that Rome burned basic necessities of life – a fuel for cooking and a means of keeping him to the ground and was destroyed in 64 BC in the time of Nero and the Great warm. It is food for thought to ask ourselves, “Where was the first fire on this Fire of London on the 2nd September, 1666 raised it to the ground, thereby planet? Was it caused by an overflow of lava from a volcanic eruption, igniting ridding the city of vermin and disease. A folk song developed from this fire trees in its wake or was it caused by a bolt of lightning striking a tree, thus called “London’s Burning”, so in music too we have some history of fire. beginning the first forest fire? As the world’s population grew, man migrated very slowly to other countries Types of Firemigratory process is very closely linked to the cultural web that has and this been woven by the knowledge and use of fire in all countries throughout the 1. Bushfires or forest fires. world ever since. The findings of pottery from the ancient world, fired in the 2. Chemical fires. kilns of earlier times and their discovery (always a delight to the archaeologist), 3. Electrical fires. are further proof of how the fire element presents itself as a major contributor to art. Through being able to heat and preserve clay in the shape of water and In mediaeval times the old alchemists thought fire to be the primary agent oil urns, much history from ancient Greece, Italy, Egypt and many other of change and in Physics, fire corresponds to energy. Mediterranean countries, is preserved nowadays in all museums throughout the In our present civilization we have three forms of fire: world for all to see. Even in painted art, fire has played a featured role. Primitive 1. In Australia many bushfires have been caused by a natural phenomenon such man lived in caves and fires were placed near the entrance but as man began to as a blitz of lightning or the rays from the sun shining through a piece of glass build houses, he was forced to have a fire inside his house and it is this very in the bush. fact that developed another feature in an architecturally developing world – the Man made bushfires have been caused by the careless throwing of cigarette chimney. butts from car windows or people have camped and failed to put out their fire. No one knows who invented the chimney or in which country it was first The fires in buildings or in the bush which have been deliberately lit by the built but we do know that the first chimneys were made of wood and covered arsonists are another cause of bushfires. Arsonists in Australia can sometimes with clay or mortar. Evidence of their existence has been found in Venice. face up to 20 years in gaol if caught lighting fires deliberately. These are reported to have collapsed in an earthquake in 1347. 2. Chemical fires are mainly fires thwhich ignite in manufacturing plants, factories In England in the 18 century many fires would break out in houses and places where chemicals are used or by road accidents where the heavy because the clay or mortar lining the wooden chimneys, was not strong enough transport vehicles themselves are involved in a collision. to withstand the heat, so a new law was brought into being on 7th April, 1719 3. A third type of fire is caused by electrical faults from faulty wiring in homes, that all chimneys were to be made of brick. Here again, we can see how the combined with overheated appliances. This type of fire goes too for restaurants, history of fire is interwoven with the evolution of architecture. Another very theatres, places of entertainment, shops, offices, factories, schools and hospitals. interesting aspect of fire in the fireplaces was the invention of a metal fire – Australia is often described as the land of flood and fire. The Australian cover called a “curfew”. This curfew had a wooden handle attached to a rounded aborigines who have lived in the country for thousands of years before the metal plate which had holes in it and by placing it over the fire, the embers white man came, were masters of fire. They were a nomadic race of people could be contained until the morning , thus making it easier to continue burning who knew when and where to burn the bush and when to move on to set up a fire the next day. In order to regulate this activity within the community, their camp somewhere else. They also knew which wood to choose in order to drums were beaten in some towns and villages and bells were rung in others rub two sticks together for making a fire for cooking or a fire for keeping and all people had to use their curfews at that time to cover their fires. It themselves warm. actually became law in 1068 in England during the reign of William the Conqueror that when the bells rang at 7 pm., all curfews were to be placed The burning of the bush in Australia is essential to its regeneration and it over the fires. People were also required at this time to put out their oil lamps does regenerate very quickly after a major fire, but whereas the aborigines used for lighting. This stopped people from wandering the streets at night. The knew the climate and seasons so well because they lived close to nature, the word “curfew” comes from the French word “cuevrefeu” – covered fire, le feu bushfires in earlier days did not present the hazard that they do today.

4

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

5

meaning “fire” History of and Fireit has worked its way into the English language meaning “a regulation requiring people to remain indoors between specified hours at night.” In pre-historic times there were not many people inhabiting this planet. Man Here we have the history of fire touching our language. was tribal and had to hunt for his food and the element of fire gave him two Fire has stamped its mark on history when we remember that Rome burned basic necessities of life – a fuel for cooking and a means of keeping him to the ground and was destroyed in 64 BC in the time of Nero and the Great warm. It is food for thought to ask ourselves, “Where was the first fire on this Fire of London on the 2nd September, 1666 raised it to the ground, thereby planet? Was it caused by an overflow of lava from a volcanic eruption, igniting ridding the city of vermin and disease. A folk song developed from this fire trees in its wake or was it caused by a bolt of lightning striking a tree, thus called “London’s Burning”, so in music too we have some history of fire. beginning the first forest fire? As the world’s population grew, man migrated very slowly to other countries Types Firemigratory process is very closely linked to the cultural web that has andofthis been woven by the knowledge and use of fire in all countries throughout the 1. Bushfires or forest fires. world ever since. The findings of pottery from the ancient world, fired in the 2. Chemical fires. kilns of earlier times and their discovery (always a delight to the archaeologist), 3. Electrical fires. are further proof of how the fire element presents itself as a major contributor to art. Through being able to heat and preserve clay in the shape of water and In mediaeval times the old alchemists thought fire to be the primary agent oil urns, much history from ancient Greece, Italy, Egypt and many other of change and in Physics, fire corresponds to energy. Mediterranean countries, is preserved nowadays in all museums throughout the In our present civilization we have three forms of fire: world for all to see. Even in painted art, fire has played a featured role. Primitive 1. In Australia many bushfires have been caused by a natural phenomenon such man lived in caves and fires were placed near the entrance but as man began to as a blitz of lightning or the rays from the sun shining through a piece of glass build houses, he was forced to have a fire inside his house and it is this very in the bush. fact that developed another feature in an architecturally developing world – the Man made bushfires have been caused by the careless throwing of cigarette chimney. butts from car windows or people have camped and failed to put out their fire. No one knows who invented the chimney or in which country it was first The fires in buildings or in the bush which have been deliberately lit by the built but we do know that the first chimneys were made of wood and covered arsonists are another cause of bushfires. Arsonists in Australia can sometimes with clay or mortar. Evidence of their existence has been found in Venice. face up to 20 years in gaol if caught lighting fires deliberately. These are reported to have collapsed in an earthquake in 1347. 2. Chemical fires are mainly fires thwhich ignite in manufacturing plants, factories In England in the 18 century many fires would break out in houses and places where chemicals are used or by road accidents where the heavy because the clay or mortar lining the wooden chimneys, was not strong enough transport vehicles themselves are involved in a collision. to withstand the heat, so a new law was brought into being on 7th April, 1719 3. A third type of fire is caused by electrical faults from faulty wiring in homes, that all chimneys were to be made of brick. Here again, we can see how the combined with overheated appliances. This type of fire goes too for restaurants, history of fire is interwoven with the evolution of architecture. Another very theatres, places of entertainment, shops, offices, factories, schools and hospitals. interesting aspect of fire in the fireplaces was the invention of a metal fire – Australia is often described as the land of flood and fire. The Australian cover called a “curfew”. This curfew had a wooden handle attached to a rounded aborigines who have lived in the country for thousands of years before the metal plate which had holes in it and by placing it over the fire, the embers white man came, were masters of fire. They were a nomadic race of people could be contained until the morning , thus making it easier to continue burning who knew when and where to burn the bush and when to move on to set up a fire the next day. In order to regulate this activity within the community, their camp somewhere else. They also knew which wood to choose in order to drums were beaten in some towns and villages and bells were rung in others rub two sticks together for making a fire for cooking or a fire for keeping and all people had to use their curfews at that time to cover their fires. It themselves warm. actually became law in 1068 in England during the reign of William the Conqueror that when the bells rang at 7 pm., all curfews were to be placed The burning of the bush in Australia is essential to its regeneration and it over the fires. People were also required at this time to put out their oil lamps does regenerate very quickly after a major fire, but whereas the aborigines used for lighting. This stopped people from wandering the streets at night. The knew the climate and seasons so well because they lived close to nature, the word “curfew” comes from the French word “cuevrefeu” – covered fire, le feu bushfires in earlier days did not present the hazard that they do today.

4

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

Fire Disaster

meaning “fire” and it has worked its way into the English language meaning “a regulation requiring people to remain indoors between specified hours at night.” Here we have the history of fire touching our language. Fire has stamped its mark on history when we remember that Rome burned to the ground and was destroyed in 64 BC in the time of Nero and the Great Fire of London on the 2nd September, 1666 raised it to the ground, thereby ridding the city of vermin and disease. A folk song developed from this fire called “London’s Burning”, so in music too we have some history of fire. Types of Fire 1. Bushfires or forest fires. 2. Chemical fires. 3. Electrical fires. In mediaeval times the old alchemists thought fire to be the primary agent of change and in Physics, fire corresponds to energy. In our present civilization we have three forms of fire: 1. In Australia many bushfires have been caused by a natural phenomenon such as a blitz of lightning or the rays from the sun shining through a piece of glass in the bush. Man made bushfires have been caused by the careless throwing of cigarette butts from car windows or people have camped and failed to put out their fire. The fires in buildings or in the bush which have been deliberately lit by the arsonists are another cause of bushfires. Arsonists in Australia can sometimes face up to 20 years in gaol if caught lighting fires deliberately. 2. Chemical fires are mainly fires which ignite in manufacturing plants, factories and places where chemicals are used or by road accidents where the heavy transport vehicles themselves are involved in a collision. 3. A third type of fire is caused by electrical faults from faulty wiring in homes, combined with overheated appliances. This type of fire goes too for restaurants, theatres, places of entertainment, shops, offices, factories, schools and hospitals. Australia is often described as the land of flood and fire. The Australian aborigines who have lived in the country for thousands of years before the white man came, were masters of fire. They were a nomadic race of people who knew when and where to burn the bush and when to move on to set up their camp somewhere else. They also knew which wood to choose in order to rub two sticks together for making a fire for cooking or a fire for keeping themselves warm. The burning of the bush in Australia is essential to its regeneration and it does regenerate very quickly after a major fire, but whereas the aborigines knew the climate and seasons so well because they lived close to nature, the bushfires in earlier days did not present the hazard that they do today.

5

meaning “fire” History of and Fireit has worked its way into the English language meaning “a regulation requiring people to remain indoors between specified hours at night.” In pre-historic times there were not many people inhabiting this planet. Man Here we have the history of fire touching our language. was tribal and had to hunt for his food and the element of fire gave him two Fire has stamped its mark on history when we remember that Rome burned basic necessities of life – a fuel for cooking and a means of keeping him to the ground and was destroyed in 64 BC in the time of Nero and the Great warm. It is food for thought to ask ourselves, “Where was the first fire on this Fire of London on the 2nd September, 1666 raised it to the ground, thereby planet? Was it caused by an overflow of lava from a volcanic eruption, igniting ridding the city of vermin and disease. A folk song developed from this fire trees in its wake or was it caused by a bolt of lightning striking a tree, thus called “London’s Burning”, so in music too we have some history of fire. beginning the first forest fire? As the world’s population grew, man migrated very slowly to other countries Types of Firemigratory process is very closely linked to the cultural web that has and this been woven by the knowledge and use of fire in all countries throughout the 1. Bushfires or forest fires. world ever since. The findings of pottery from the ancient world, fired in the 2. Chemical fires. kilns of earlier times and their discovery (always a delight to the archaeologist), 3. Electrical fires. are further proof of how the fire element presents itself as a major contributor to art. Through being able to heat and preserve clay in the shape of water and In mediaeval times the old alchemists thought fire to be the primary agent oil urns, much history from ancient Greece, Italy, Egypt and many other of change and in Physics, fire corresponds to energy. Mediterranean countries, is preserved nowadays in all museums throughout the In our present civilization we have three forms of fire: world for all to see. Even in painted art, fire has played a featured role. Primitive 1. In Australia many bushfires have been caused by a natural phenomenon such man lived in caves and fires were placed near the entrance but as man began to as a blitz of lightning or the rays from the sun shining through a piece of glass build houses, he was forced to have a fire inside his house and it is this very in the bush. fact that developed another feature in an architecturally developing world – the Man made bushfires have been caused by the careless throwing of cigarette chimney. butts from car windows or people have camped and failed to put out their fire. No one knows who invented the chimney or in which country it was first The fires in buildings or in the bush which have been deliberately lit by the built but we do know that the first chimneys were made of wood and covered arsonists are another cause of bushfires. Arsonists in Australia can sometimes with clay or mortar. Evidence of their existence has been found in Venice. face up to 20 years in gaol if caught lighting fires deliberately. These are reported to have collapsed in an earthquake in 1347. 2. Chemical fires are mainly fires thwhich ignite in manufacturing plants, factories In England in the 18 century many fires would break out in houses and places where chemicals are used or by road accidents where the heavy because the clay or mortar lining the wooden chimneys, was not strong enough transport vehicles themselves are involved in a collision. to withstand the heat, so a new law was brought into being on 7th April, 1719 3. A third type of fire is caused by electrical faults from faulty wiring in homes, that all chimneys were to be made of brick. Here again, we can see how the combined with overheated appliances. This type of fire goes too for restaurants, history of fire is interwoven with the evolution of architecture. Another very theatres, places of entertainment, shops, offices, factories, schools and hospitals. interesting aspect of fire in the fireplaces was the invention of a metal fire – Australia is often described as the land of flood and fire. The Australian cover called a “curfew”. This curfew had a wooden handle attached to a rounded aborigines who have lived in the country for thousands of years before the metal plate which had holes in it and by placing it over the fire, the embers white man came, were masters of fire. They were a nomadic race of people could be contained until the morning , thus making it easier to continue burning who knew when and where to burn the bush and when to move on to set up a fire the next day. In order to regulate this activity within the community, their camp somewhere else. They also knew which wood to choose in order to drums were beaten in some towns and villages and bells were rung in others rub two sticks together for making a fire for cooking or a fire for keeping and all people had to use their curfews at that time to cover their fires. It themselves warm. actually became law in 1068 in England during the reign of William the Conqueror that when the bells rang at 7 pm., all curfews were to be placed The burning of the bush in Australia is essential to its regeneration and it over the fires. People were also required at this time to put out their oil lamps does regenerate very quickly after a major fire, but whereas the aborigines used for lighting. This stopped people from wandering the streets at night. The knew the climate and seasons so well because they lived close to nature, the word “curfew” comes from the French word “cuevrefeu” – covered fire, le feu bushfires in earlier days did not present the hazard that they do today.

5

Fire Disaster

5

meaning “fire” and it has worked its way into the English language meaning “a regulation requiring people to remain indoors between specified hours at night.” Here we have the history of fire touching our language. Fire has stamped its mark on history when we remember that Rome burned to the ground and was destroyed in 64 BC in the time of Nero and the Great Fire of London on the 2nd September, 1666 raised it to the ground, thereby ridding the city of vermin and disease. A folk song developed from this fire called “London’s Burning”, so in music too we have some history of fire. Types of Fire 1. Bushfires or forest fires. 2. Chemical fires. 3. Electrical fires. In mediaeval times the old alchemists thought fire to be the primary agent of change and in Physics, fire corresponds to energy. In our present civilization we have three forms of fire: 1. In Australia many bushfires have been caused by a natural phenomenon such as a blitz of lightning or the rays from the sun shining through a piece of glass in the bush. Man made bushfires have been caused by the careless throwing of cigarette butts from car windows or people have camped and failed to put out their fire. The fires in buildings or in the bush which have been deliberately lit by the arsonists are another cause of bushfires. Arsonists in Australia can sometimes face up to 20 years in gaol if caught lighting fires deliberately. 2. Chemical fires are mainly fires which ignite in manufacturing plants, factories and places where chemicals are used or by road accidents where the heavy transport vehicles themselves are involved in a collision. 3. A third type of fire is caused by electrical faults from faulty wiring in homes, combined with overheated appliances. This type of fire goes too for restaurants, theatres, places of entertainment, shops, offices, factories, schools and hospitals. Australia is often described as the land of flood and fire. The Australian aborigines who have lived in the country for thousands of years before the white man came, were masters of fire. They were a nomadic race of people who knew when and where to burn the bush and when to move on to set up their camp somewhere else. They also knew which wood to choose in order to rub two sticks together for making a fire for cooking or a fire for keeping themselves warm. The burning of the bush in Australia is essential to its regeneration and it does regenerate very quickly after a major fire, but whereas the aborigines knew the climate and seasons so well because they lived close to nature, the bushfires in earlier days did not present the hazard that they do today.

6

Disaster Management

This has forced the Australian government to find greater solutions to fire fighting and investing in the most modern equipment. Many so-called civilized white people today have a lifestyle which is far removed from nature. Some can go for months without having a handful of soil in their hands, and many have wended their way into Politics to form the Green Party and this is where many fire problems, which we face today in Australia, start. Years ago, before we had our present rules and regulations for the “Conservation for the Environment,” we had what are called “fire breaks”in the bush and these were sections of bush 10 to 15 metres wide, where the bush was cleared in order to prevent a fire hopping from one section to another. Many of these fire breaks no longer exist with the result that we have “fire storms” now and we need special helicopters to water bomb the bush in inaccessible places. The bushfires that we now have pose an enormous threat at times to people’s lives, homes and of course, the wildlife. Many animals like the Australian Koala Bear and Wombat are slow to move but once they smell the fire coming, they can have time to escape. Some, unfortunately, do get burnt to death. It is very important in Australia that “back burning” is done at the proper time. This is a term used to describe the burning of all the loose twigs and leaves on the ground at the end of winter in August leading into spring in September. That is the time of year scheduled for my area at Mt. Kuring-Gai which is the highest part of Sydney and approximately 40 kms from the city. A fire from the bush in Australia can begin very quickly and sometimes it takes just the heat generated through a broken piece of glass to start a major fire. The forces of wind change can soon have a fire completely out of control. Within 15 minutes in Feb, 2007, a fire broke out north of Sydney. The fire was raging in the bush nearby and very soon the big helicopters were water bombing the bush and this saved all of the nearby homes. All main highway roads were closed and train services suspended for many hours. The below diagram shows the fire behaviour. Role of the Australian Government in Managing Fire The fire challenges for the Government of Australia have been enormous over the last twenty five years. Each state – New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queensland have each suffered enormous damage and deprivation because of the loss of human life, property, crops, sheep, cattle and other animals. In Australia a great fire spread out of control in Victoria in February 1983 right across to Adelaide, the Capital of South Australia. It was a real killer as 68 people died. The devastating effect and the enormity of the damage done by a fire storm in Australia cannot be put into words as its aftermath remains in the hearts of the people emotionally, financially and socially for years to come.

6

Disaster Management

This has forced the Australian government to find greater solutions to fire fighting and investing in the most modern equipment. Many so-called civilized white people today have a lifestyle which is far removed from nature. Some can go for months without having a handful of soil in their hands, and many have wended their way into Politics to form the Green Party and this is where many fire problems, which we face today in Australia, start. Years ago, before we had our present rules and regulations for the “Conservation for the Environment,” we had what are called “fire breaks”in the bush and these were sections of bush 10 to 15 metres wide, where the bush was cleared in order to prevent a fire hopping from one section to another. Many of these fire breaks no longer exist with the result that we have “fire storms” now and we need special helicopters to water bomb the bush in inaccessible places. The bushfires that we now have pose an enormous threat at times to people’s lives, homes and of course, the wildlife. Many animals like the Australian Koala Bear and Wombat are slow to move but once they smell the fire coming, they can have time to escape. Some, unfortunately, do get burnt to death. It is very important in Australia that “back burning” is done at the proper time. This is a term used to describe the burning of all the loose twigs and leaves on the ground at the end of winter in August leading into spring in September. That is the time of year scheduled for my area at Mt. Kuring-Gai which is the highest part of Sydney and approximately 40 kms from the city. A fire from the bush in Australia can begin very quickly and sometimes it takes just the heat generated through a broken piece of glass to start a major fire. The forces of wind change can soon have a fire completely out of control. Within 15 minutes in Feb, 2007, a fire broke out north of Sydney. The fire was raging in the bush nearby and very soon the big helicopters were water bombing the bush and this saved all of the nearby homes. All main highway roads were closed and train services suspended for many hours. The below diagram shows the fire behaviour. Role of the Australian Government in Managing Fire The fire challenges for the Government of Australia have been enormous over the last twenty five years. Each state – New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queensland have each suffered enormous damage and deprivation because of the loss of human life, property, crops, sheep, cattle and other animals. In Australia a great fire spread out of control in Victoria in February 1983 right across to Adelaide, the Capital of South Australia. It was a real killer as 68 people died. The devastating effect and the enormity of the damage done by a fire storm in Australia cannot be put into words as its aftermath remains in the hearts of the people emotionally, financially and socially for years to come.

6

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

7

This has forced the Australian government to find greater solutions to fire fighting and investing in the most modern equipment. Many so-called civilized white people today have a lifestyle which is far removed from nature. Some can go for months without having a handful of soil in their hands, and many have wended their way into Politics to form the Green Party and this is where many fire problems, which we face today in Australia, start. Years ago, before we had our present rules and regulations for the “Conservation for the Environment,” we had what are called “fire breaks”in the bush and these were sections of bush 10 to 15 metres wide, where the bush was cleared in order to prevent a fire hopping from one section to another. Many of these fire breaks no longer exist with the result that we have “fire storms” now and we need special helicopters to water bomb the bush in inaccessible places. The bushfires that we now have pose an enormous threat at times to people’s lives, homes and of course, the wildlife. Many animals like the Australian Koala Bear and Wombat are slow to move but once they smell the fire coming, they can have time to escape. Some, unfortunately, do get burnt to death. It is very important in Australia that “back burning” is done at the proper time. This is a term used to describe the burning of all the loose twigs and leaves on the ground at the end of winter in August leading into spring in September. That is the time of year scheduled for my area at Mt. Kuring-Gai which is the highest part of Sydney and approximately 40 kms from the city. A fire from the bush in Australia can begin very quickly and sometimes it takes just the heat generated through a broken piece of glass to start a major fire. The forces of wind change can soon have a fire completely out of control. Within 15 minutes in Feb, 2007, a fire broke out north of Sydney. The fire was raging in the bush nearby and very soon the big helicopters were water bombing the bush and this saved all of the nearby homes. All main highway roads were closed and train services suspended for many hours. The below diagram shows What peculiar to the Australian Bush is the fact that almost 100% of the the fireis behaviour. trees are many species of Eucalypts, which of course, contain Eucalyptus oil. This oil is extracted and used in many different ways medicinally and that is Role of side the of Australian Managing Fire the positive it. On the Government negative side, in it acts as an accelerant in a bushfire. The The worstfire hazard facing any large bushfire is wind change and another hazardover challenges for the Government of Australia have been enormous facing our landscape is the actual outbreak of a fire in a remote area the the last twenty five years. Each state – New South Wales, Victoria, of Tasmania, bush.South Watch towers are placedAustralia, at strategic places throughout theQueensland bush and ofhave Australia, Western Northern Territory and course this dayenormous and age,damage Remoteand Sensing and GIS would alsoloss be of used. eachinsuffered deprivation because of the human Because a lot ofcrops, “non sheep, clearing” andand backother burning in the bush, our bushfires life, of property, cattle animals. now get In very quickly aout of control and they intoinfire storms.inAsFebruary the Australia great fire spread out develop of control Victoria flames ascend trees,tothe oil in thetheeucalyptus trees flares up and the fire ais real 1983 right the across Adelaide, Capital of South Australia. It was transmitted quicklydied. fromThe treedevastating to tree. Because killer asvery 68 people effect of andthetheenormity enormityand of severity the damage of these the storm Australian Government forced to acquire done storms, by a fire in Australia cannothasbebeen put into words as its many aftermath largeremains and specially fitted out Helicopters from America which are for for in the hearts of the people emotionally, financially andused socially water bombing. They cost millions of Dollars. This has been money well spent years to come.

6

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

7

This has forced the Australian government to find greater solutions to fire fighting and investing in the most modern equipment. Many so-called civilized white people today have a lifestyle which is far removed from nature. Some can go for months without having a handful of soil in their hands, and many have wended their way into Politics to form the Green Party and this is where many fire problems, which we face today in Australia, start. Years ago, before we had our present rules and regulations for the “Conservation for the Environment,” we had what are called “fire breaks”in the bush and these were sections of bush 10 to 15 metres wide, where the bush was cleared in order to prevent a fire hopping from one section to another. Many of these fire breaks no longer exist with the result that we have “fire storms” now and we need special helicopters to water bomb the bush in inaccessible places. The bushfires that we now have pose an enormous threat at times to people’s lives, homes and of course, the wildlife. Many animals like the Australian Koala Bear and Wombat are slow to move but once they smell the fire coming, they can have time to escape. Some, unfortunately, do get burnt to death. It is very important in Australia that “back burning” is done at the proper time. This is a term used to describe the burning of all the loose twigs and leaves on the ground at the end of winter in August leading into spring in September. That is the time of year scheduled for my area at Mt. Kuring-Gai which is the highest part of Sydney and approximately 40 kms from the city. A fire from the bush in Australia can begin very quickly and sometimes it takes just the heat generated through a broken piece of glass to start a major fire. The forces of wind change can soon have a fire completely out of control. Within 15 minutes in Feb, 2007, a fire broke out north of Sydney. The fire was raging in the bush nearby and very soon the big helicopters were water bombing the bush and this saved all of the nearby homes. All main highway roads were closed and train services suspended for many hours. The below diagram shows What peculiar to the Australian Bush is the fact that almost 100% of the the fireis behaviour. trees are many species of Eucalypts, which of course, contain Eucalyptus oil. This oil is extracted and used in many different ways medicinally and that is Role of side the of Australian Managing Fire the positive it. On the Government negative side, in it acts as an accelerant in a bushfire. The The worstfire hazard facingfor anythe large bushfire isofwind change andbeen another hazardover challenges Government Australia have enormous facing our landscape is the actual outbreak of a fire in a remote area the the last twenty five years. Each state – New South Wales, Victoria, of Tasmania, bush.South Watch towers are placed at strategic places throughout the bush and Australia, Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queenslandofhave course this dayenormous and age,damage Remoteand Sensing and GIS would alsoloss be of used. eachinsuffered deprivation because of the human Because a lot ofcrops, “non sheep, clearing” andand backother burning in the bush, our bushfires life, of property, cattle animals. now get In very quickly aout of control and they intoinfire storms.inAsFebruary the Australia great fire spread out develop of control Victoria flames ascend trees,tothe oil in thetheeucalyptus trees flares up and the fire ais real 1983 right the across Adelaide, Capital of South Australia. It was transmitted quicklydied. fromThe treedevastating to tree. Because killer asvery 68 people effect of andthetheenormity enormityand of severity the damage of these storms, the Australian Government has been forced to acquire done by a fire storm in Australia cannot be put into words as its many aftermath largeremains and specially fitted out Helicopters from America which are for for in the hearts of the people emotionally, financially andused socially water bombing. They cost millions of Dollars. This has been money well spent years to come.

6

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

7

This has forced the Australian government to find greater solutions to fire fighting and investing in the most modern equipment. Many so-called civilized white people today have a lifestyle which is far removed from nature. Some can go for months without having a handful of soil in their hands, and many have wended their way into Politics to form the Green Party and this is where many fire problems, which we face today in Australia, start. Years ago, before we had our present rules and regulations for the “Conservation for the Environment,” we had what are called “fire breaks”in the bush and these were sections of bush 10 to 15 metres wide, where the bush was cleared in order to prevent a fire hopping from one section to another. Many of these fire breaks no longer exist with the result that we have “fire storms” now and we need special helicopters to water bomb the bush in inaccessible places. The bushfires that we now have pose an enormous threat at times to people’s lives, homes and of course, the wildlife. Many animals like the Australian Koala Bear and Wombat are slow to move but once they smell the fire coming, they can have time to escape. Some, unfortunately, do get burnt to death. It is very important in Australia that “back burning” is done at the proper time. This is a term used to describe the burning of all the loose twigs and leaves on the ground at the end of winter in August leading into spring in September. That is the time of year scheduled for my area at Mt. Kuring-Gai which is the highest part of Sydney and approximately 40 kms from the city. A fire from the bush in Australia can begin very quickly and sometimes it takes just the heat generated through a broken piece of glass to start a major fire. The forces of wind change can soon have a fire completely out of control. Within 15 minutes in Feb, 2007, a fire broke out north of Sydney. The fire was raging in the bush nearby and very soon the big helicopters were water bombing the bush and this saved all of the nearby homes. All main highway roads were closed and train services suspended for many hours. The below diagram shows What peculiar to the Australian Bush is the fact that almost 100% of the the fireis behaviour. trees are many species of Eucalypts, which of course, contain Eucalyptus oil. This oil is extracted and used in many different ways medicinally and that is Role of side the of Australian Managing Fire the positive it. On the Government negative side, in it acts as an accelerant in a bushfire. The The worstfire hazard facing any large bushfire is wind change and another hazardover challenges for the Government of Australia have been enormous facing our landscape is the actual outbreak of a fire in a remote area the the last twenty five years. Each state – New South Wales, Victoria, of Tasmania, bush.South Watch towers are placedAustralia, at strategic places throughout theQueensland bush and ofhave Australia, Western Northern Territory and course this dayenormous and age,damage Remoteand Sensing and GIS would alsoloss be of used. eachinsuffered deprivation because of the human Because a lot ofcrops, “non sheep, clearing” andand backother burning in the bush, our bushfires life, of property, cattle animals. now get In very quickly aout of control and they intoinfire storms.inAsFebruary the Australia great fire spread out develop of control Victoria flames ascend trees,tothe oil in thetheeucalyptus trees flares up and the fire ais real 1983 right the across Adelaide, Capital of South Australia. It was transmitted quicklydied. fromThe treedevastating to tree. Because killer asvery 68 people effect of andthetheenormity enormityand of severity the damage of these the storm Australian Government forced to acquire done storms, by a fire in Australia cannothasbebeen put into words as its many aftermath largeremains and specially fitted out Helicopters from America which are for for in the hearts of the people emotionally, financially andused socially water bombing. They cost millions of Dollars. This has been money well spent years to come.

6

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

7

This has forced the Australian government to find greater solutions to fire fighting and investing in the most modern equipment. Many so-called civilized white people today have a lifestyle which is far removed from nature. Some can go for months without having a handful of soil in their hands, and many have wended their way into Politics to form the Green Party and this is where many fire problems, which we face today in Australia, start. Years ago, before we had our present rules and regulations for the “Conservation for the Environment,” we had what are called “fire breaks”in the bush and these were sections of bush 10 to 15 metres wide, where the bush was cleared in order to prevent a fire hopping from one section to another. Many of these fire breaks no longer exist with the result that we have “fire storms” now and we need special helicopters to water bomb the bush in inaccessible places. The bushfires that we now have pose an enormous threat at times to people’s lives, homes and of course, the wildlife. Many animals like the Australian Koala Bear and Wombat are slow to move but once they smell the fire coming, they can have time to escape. Some, unfortunately, do get burnt to death. It is very important in Australia that “back burning” is done at the proper time. This is a term used to describe the burning of all the loose twigs and leaves on the ground at the end of winter in August leading into spring in September. That is the time of year scheduled for my area at Mt. Kuring-Gai which is the highest part of Sydney and approximately 40 kms from the city. A fire from the bush in Australia can begin very quickly and sometimes it takes just the heat generated through a broken piece of glass to start a major fire. The forces of wind change can soon have a fire completely out of control. Within 15 minutes in Feb, 2007, a fire broke out north of Sydney. The fire was raging in the bush nearby and very soon the big helicopters were water bombing the bush and this saved all of the nearby homes. All main highway roads were closed and train services suspended for many hours. The below diagram shows What peculiar to the Australian Bush is the fact that almost 100% of the the fireis behaviour. trees are many species of Eucalypts, which of course, contain Eucalyptus oil. This oil is extracted and used in many different ways medicinally and that is Role of side the of Australian Managing Fire the positive it. On the Government negative side, in it acts as an accelerant in a bushfire. The The worstfire hazard facingfor anythe large bushfire isofwind change andbeen another hazardover challenges Government Australia have enormous facing our landscape is the actual outbreak of a fire in a remote area the the last twenty five years. Each state – New South Wales, Victoria, of Tasmania, bush.South Watch towers are placed at strategic places throughout the bush and Australia, Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queenslandofhave course this dayenormous and age,damage Remoteand Sensing and GIS would alsoloss be of used. eachinsuffered deprivation because of the human Because a lot ofcrops, “non sheep, clearing” andand backother burning in the bush, our bushfires life, of property, cattle animals. now get In very quickly aout of control and they intoinfire storms.inAsFebruary the Australia great fire spread out develop of control Victoria flames ascend trees,tothe oil in thetheeucalyptus trees flares up and the fire ais real 1983 right the across Adelaide, Capital of South Australia. It was transmitted quicklydied. fromThe treedevastating to tree. Because killer asvery 68 people effect of andthetheenormity enormityand of severity the damage of these storms, the Australian Government has been forced to acquire done by a fire storm in Australia cannot be put into words as its many aftermath largeremains and specially fitted out Helicopters from America which are for for in the hearts of the people emotionally, financially andused socially water bombing. They cost millions of Dollars. This has been money well spent years to come.

Fire Disaster

7

What is peculiar to the Australian Bush is the fact that almost 100% of the trees are many species of Eucalypts, which of course, contain Eucalyptus oil. This oil is extracted and used in many different ways medicinally and that is the positive side of it. On the negative side, it acts as an accelerant in a bushfire. The worst hazard facing any large bushfire is wind change and another hazard facing our landscape is the actual outbreak of a fire in a remote area of the bush. Watch towers are placed at strategic places throughout the bush and of course in this day and age, Remote Sensing and GIS would also be used. Because of a lot of “non clearing” and back burning in the bush, our bushfires now get very quickly out of control and they develop into fire storms. As the flames ascend the trees, the oil in the eucalyptus trees flares up and the fire is transmitted very quickly from tree to tree. Because of the enormity and severity of these storms, the Australian Government has been forced to acquire many large and specially fitted out Helicopters from America which are used for water bombing. They cost millions of Dollars. This has been money well spent

Fire Disaster

7

What is peculiar to the Australian Bush is the fact that almost 100% of the trees are many species of Eucalypts, which of course, contain Eucalyptus oil. This oil is extracted and used in many different ways medicinally and that is the positive side of it. On the negative side, it acts as an accelerant in a bushfire. The worst hazard facing any large bushfire is wind change and another hazard facing our landscape is the actual outbreak of a fire in a remote area of the bush. Watch towers are placed at strategic places throughout the bush and of course in this day and age, Remote Sensing and GIS would also be used. Because of a lot of “non clearing” and back burning in the bush, our bushfires now get very quickly out of control and they develop into fire storms. As the flames ascend the trees, the oil in the eucalyptus trees flares up and the fire is transmitted very quickly from tree to tree. Because of the enormity and severity of these storms, the Australian Government has been forced to acquire many large and specially fitted out Helicopters from America which are used for water bombing. They cost millions of Dollars. This has been money well spent

8

Disaster Management

as it has given more peace of mind to many citizens. When fires break out in the Sydney. Metropolitan Area in summer, these Helicopters sometimes almost drain people’s swimming pools, as getting water quickly is the number one priority. Golf courses with their water hazards are another source of obtaining water quickly – much to the annoyance of golfers. The problems which fire has caused in Australia has forced the Government to re-think its policies on fire prevention, fire control and educating the general public in all aspects of safety relating to fire. In the workplace it is compulsory for all workers on building sites to wear safety helmets and steel capped shoes. When welding in addition to these two items, the workers must wear eye goggles, and gloves up to their elbows. This comes under the OHS Law which stands for Occupation, Health and Safety. Any employer found allowing a worker to operate not using proper safety equipment can have his licence to run a business immediately cancelled and a heavy fine imposed. Every truck on the road has to be equipped with a fire extinguisher to put out a possible engine fire and sometimes the truck drivers can come to the assistance of another motorist who may have a fire in his or her engine. How Australia Can Help India Considering how huge a country India is, with varied geographical features ranging from miles of coastline to the highest mountains in the world, natural disasters are understandably frequent at some part or another. India has had more than a fair share of earthquakes, cyclones, drought, landslides and floods. Some of the major disasters in the past few years are the December 2004 tsunami that hit the Indian Ocean, leaving more than a 300,000 people dead, the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, and the 1999 Orissa cyclone. Each of these disasters, and the many others that have struck the country, leave thousands of deaths in its wake, and due to their unexpected nature, put great pressure on government and civil society relief efforts. The main areas that require intervention in disaster mitigation are earthquakes,Fires, floods, cyclones and landslides. For earthquakes, building laws and by-laws, retrofitting and training in earthquake engineering and architecture have already been envisaged. Coastal plantation belts, shelters and preemptive warning systems can minimize the damage from cyclones to a great extent. Numerous flood control measures are already in operation to prevent the kind of floods that wreak havoc in states like West Bengal, Assam and Bihar. Geological surveys, hazard zonation and monitoring go a long way towards reducing the risk from landslides. Above all, what is required is awareness among all citizens of the possible dangers from various disasters, be they natural or human-made. With each disaster, along with the death and misery, there is also something to learn that equips us to deal better with the next one. Greater research needs to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their outcomes,

8

Disaster Management

as it has given more peace of mind to many citizens. When fires break out in the Sydney. Metropolitan Area in summer, these Helicopters sometimes almost drain people’s swimming pools, as getting water quickly is the number one priority. Golf courses with their water hazards are another source of obtaining water quickly – much to the annoyance of golfers. The problems which fire has caused in Australia has forced the Government to re-think its policies on fire prevention, fire control and educating the general public in all aspects of safety relating to fire. In the workplace it is compulsory for all workers on building sites to wear safety helmets and steel capped shoes. When welding in addition to these two items, the workers must wear eye goggles, and gloves up to their elbows. This comes under the OHS Law which stands for Occupation, Health and Safety. Any employer found allowing a worker to operate not using proper safety equipment can have his licence to run a business immediately cancelled and a heavy fine imposed. Every truck on the road has to be equipped with a fire extinguisher to put out a possible engine fire and sometimes the truck drivers can come to the assistance of another motorist who may have a fire in his or her engine. How Australia Can Help India Considering how huge a country India is, with varied geographical features ranging from miles of coastline to the highest mountains in the world, natural disasters are understandably frequent at some part or another. India has had more than a fair share of earthquakes, cyclones, drought, landslides and floods. Some of the major disasters in the past few years are the December 2004 tsunami that hit the Indian Ocean, leaving more than a 300,000 people dead, the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, and the 1999 Orissa cyclone. Each of these disasters, and the many others that have struck the country, leave thousands of deaths in its wake, and due to their unexpected nature, put great pressure on government and civil society relief efforts. The main areas that require intervention in disaster mitigation are earthquakes,Fires, floods, cyclones and landslides. For earthquakes, building laws and by-laws, retrofitting and training in earthquake engineering and architecture have already been envisaged. Coastal plantation belts, shelters and preemptive warning systems can minimize the damage from cyclones to a great extent. Numerous flood control measures are already in operation to prevent the kind of floods that wreak havoc in states like West Bengal, Assam and Bihar. Geological surveys, hazard zonation and monitoring go a long way towards reducing the risk from landslides. Above all, what is required is awareness among all citizens of the possible dangers from various disasters, be they natural or human-made. With each disaster, along with the death and misery, there is also something to learn that equips us to deal better with the next one. Greater research needs to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their outcomes,

8

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

9

has given more victimization peace of mind to many When firesFor break out in and as alsoit possible further during reliefcitizens. and rehabilitation. many the Sydney. Metropolitan Area chain in summer, these almost survivors, a disaster is only a long of events theHelicopters outcome ofsometimes which is not drain people’s swimming pools,through as getting quickly with is thethe number immediately apparent. It is only the water involvement local one priority. those Golf courses withbeen theirhitwater hazards aredisaster, another that source of obtaining community, who have hardest by the appropriate water can quickly – much the annoyance golfers. measures be taken andto networks set upoffor the survivors’ housing and The problems which fire has caused in Australia has forced the Government livelihood needs. to re-think policies fire prevention, firecan control andhavoc educating the general Finally, it isitsnot only on natural disasters that wreak on people’s in all aspects of safety In have the workplace it is compulsory lives.public Human-made disasters, suchrelating as war to andfire. riots the same effects. One for first all workers building to wear safety helmets andissteel cappedthe shoes. of the steps inonrelief and sites recovery following a disaster to restore When welding in addition to these two aid items, the form workers must wear eye goggles, livelihoods of the affected people. While in the of food, clothing and and isgloves to their elbows. This comes thefor OHS Law which stands shelter oftenupmade readily available, little under is done disaster victims, for Occupation, Health and Safety. Any employer found a worker especially those of the economically marginalized groups, whoallowing look ahead to a to usingof proper equipment can have hiscompletely licence to destroyed. run a business bleakoperate future not because their safety sole means of earning being immediately cancelled a heavy of finewomen imposed. In such situations, it is theandcondition that is especially the most Every truck on the road has toorbefathers, equipped a firethe extinguisher to put precarious, especially if their husbands whowith are often sole earning out aofpossible engine sometimes the trucksurvivors drivers can to the members the family, havefire beenand victims. In desperation, oftencome migrate assistance of another have labour a fire inpopulation. his or herSurvivors engine. to cities and other regions,motorist adding who to themay migrant also run a great health risk in the form of epidemics after coming in contact with contaminated food, water and air in the wake of a large-scale disaster that How Australia Can Help India has claimed a lot of lives. Considering a country India is,handles with varied geographical features The way thathow the huge Australian Government fire disasters can be a from miles coastline to the mountains in to thebeworld, role ranging model for India. Forofevery problem thehighest challenge is always found natural in disasters are understandably frequent at some part combust or another. has had finding a solution. No doubt in India, forests fires can fromIndia the heat than a Also, fair share earthquakes, cyclones, drought, landslides andcan floods. frommore the stones. whenofvillagers go into the forest to smoke, they too Some of the major disasters in the past few years are the December be careless and accidentally start a fire. So in a way our problems are similar.2004 tsunami hit the Indian Ocean, leaving more thanisa the 300,000 peopleofdead, Australia hasthat a population of 20 million people which population theand 2001 andinthe Orissa Each ofwethese Delhi, the Gujarat majorityearthquake, of people live the1999 coastal areas.cyclone. In my country, and education the many up others thatage have country, leave havedisasters, compulsory to the of struck sixteentheand because we thousands have far of deaths in and its wake, and due to their unexpected put we great fewer people less manpower than India has to donature, the work, arepressure forced on government civila job society relief to use machineryand to get done. Thisefforts. fact has forced our fire services to be The main areasand thatbetter require intervention disaster mitigation highly mechanized.More education creates ainbetter understanding of are earthquakes,Fires, floods, cyclones and landslides. For earthquakes, building the word “awareness”. laws and by-laws, and training in fires earthquake engineering There are fire hazardsretrofitting in both countries. In India, can break out in the and architecture already beenaenvisaged. plantation belts, shelters wheat harvestinghave season just from spark fromCoastal the silencer in a tractor. This is and preemptive warning systems can minimize cyclones to a great where the organization of fire control shouldthe be damage on handfrom before harvesting extent. Numerous flood controlthemeasures are already in operation prevent commences. Also in the villages, people need to be educated and tomade theofkind of floods in states aware fire dangers in that their wreak homes havoc and kitchens andlike howWest theirBengal, animals Assam can be and Bihar. Geological surveys, hazard and hazards monitoring go apresent long way better housed and protected against fire.zonation Major fire in India towards reducing the risk from landslides. Above all, what is required tremendous challenge to the local Municipality and the people who live in the is awareness all citizens of the possible dangers from various vicinity of the among fire. Take for example, the major fire hazards in the disasters, Manali be they natural human-made. Himalayan forestorarea of Himachal Pradesh where the people store fodder for Withover eachthe disaster, with the death misery, is also something the animals winteralong months together withand fuel. It is there well recorded that to which learn that to deal better with the next north one. Greater research needs Kothi is a equips Touristus Destination a few kilometers of Manali has had to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their destructive fires in 1974, 1984 and 1995 when the whole village has outcomes, been

8

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

9

has given more victimization peace of mind to many When firesFor break out in and as alsoit possible further during reliefcitizens. and rehabilitation. many the Sydney. Metropolitan Area chain in summer, these almost survivors, a disaster is only a long of events theHelicopters outcome ofsometimes which is not drain people’s swimming pools,through as getting quickly with is thethe number immediately apparent. It is only the water involvement local one priority. those Golf courses withbeen theirhitwater hazards aredisaster, another that source of obtaining community, who have hardest by the appropriate water can quickly – much the annoyance golfers. measures be taken andto networks set upoffor the survivors’ housing and The problems which fire has caused in Australia has forced the Government livelihood needs. to re-think policies fire prevention, firecan control andhavoc educating the general Finally, it isitsnot only on natural disasters that wreak on people’s in all aspects of safety In have the workplace it is compulsory lives.public Human-made disasters, suchrelating as war to andfire. riots the same effects. One for first all workers building to wear safety helmets andissteel cappedthe shoes. of the steps inonrelief and sites recovery following a disaster to restore When welding in addition to these two aid items, the form workers must wear eye goggles, livelihoods of the affected people. While in the of food, clothing and and isgloves to their elbows. This comes thefor OHS Law which stands shelter oftenupmade readily available, little under is done disaster victims, for Occupation, Health and Safety. Any employer found a worker especially those of the economically marginalized groups, whoallowing look ahead to a to usingof proper equipment can have hiscompletely licence to destroyed. run a business bleakoperate future not because their safety sole means of earning being immediately cancelled a heavy of finewomen imposed. In such situations, it is theandcondition that is especially the most Every truck on the road has toorbefathers, equipped a firethe extinguisher to put precarious, especially if their husbands whowith are often sole earning out aofpossible engine sometimes the trucksurvivors drivers can to the members the family, havefire beenand victims. In desperation, oftencome migrate assistance of another have labour a fire inpopulation. his or herSurvivors engine. to cities and other regions,motorist adding who to themay migrant also run a great health risk in the form of epidemics after coming in contact with contaminated food, water and air in the wake of a large-scale disaster that How Australia Can Help India has claimed a lot of lives. Considering a country India is,handles with varied geographical features The way thathow the huge Australian Government fire disasters can be a from miles coastline to the mountains in to thebeworld, role ranging model for India. Forofevery problem thehighest challenge is always found natural in disasters are understandably frequent at some part combust or another. has had finding a solution. No doubt in India, forests fires can fromIndia the heat than a Also, fair share earthquakes, cyclones, drought, landslides andcan floods. frommore the stones. whenofvillagers go into the forest to smoke, they too Some ofandtheaccidentally major disasters theSopast are the December be careless start ainfire. in afew wayyears our problems are similar.2004 tsunami hit the Indian Ocean, leaving more thanisa the 300,000 peopleofdead, Australia hasthat a population of 20 million people which population the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, and the 1999 Orissa cyclone. Each Delhi, and the majority of people live in the coastal areas. In my country,ofwethese and education the many up others thatage have country, leave havedisasters, compulsory to the of struck sixteentheand because we thousands have far of deaths in and its wake, and due to their unexpected put we great fewer people less manpower than India has to donature, the work, arepressure forced on government civila job society relief to use machineryand to get done. Thisefforts. fact has forced our fire services to be The main areasand thatbetter require intervention disaster mitigation highly mechanized.More education creates ainbetter understanding of are earthquakes,Fires, the word “awareness”. floods, cyclones and landslides. For earthquakes, building laws and by-laws, and training in fires earthquake engineering There are fire hazardsretrofitting in both countries. In India, can break out in the and architecture have already been envisaged. Coastal plantation belts, wheat harvesting season just from a spark from the silencer in a tractor.shelters This is and preemptive warning systems can minimize cyclones to a great where the organization of fire control shouldthe be damage on handfrom before harvesting extent. Numerous flood controlthemeasures are already in operation prevent commences. Also in the villages, people need to be educated and tomade theofkind of floods in states aware fire dangers in that their wreak homes havoc and kitchens andlike howWest theirBengal, animals Assam can be and Bihar. Geological surveys, hazard and hazards monitoring go apresent long way better housed and protected against fire.zonation Major fire in India towards challenge reducing tothetherisk landslides. all, what is required tremendous localfrom Municipality andAbove the people who live in the is awareness all citizens of the possible dangers from various vicinity of the among fire. Take for example, the major fire hazards in the disasters, Manali be they natural or human-made. Himalayan forest area of Himachal Pradesh where the people store fodder for Withover eachthe disaster, with the death misery, is also something the animals winteralong months together withand fuel. It is there well recorded that to which learn that to deal better with the next north one. Greater research needs Kothi is a equips Touristus Destination a few kilometers of Manali has had to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their destructive fires in 1974, 1984 and 1995 when the whole village has outcomes, been

8

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

9

and as alsoit possible further during reliefcitizens. and rehabilitation. many has given more victimization peace of mind to many When firesFor break out in survivors, a disaster is only a long of events theHelicopters outcome ofsometimes which is not the Sydney. Metropolitan Area chain in summer, these almost immediately apparent. It is only the water involvement local one drain people’s swimming pools,through as getting quickly with is thethe number community, who have hardest by the appropriate priority. those Golf courses withbeen theirhitwater hazards aredisaster, another that source of obtaining measures be taken andto networks set upoffor the survivors’ housing and water can quickly – much the annoyance golfers. livelihood needs. The problems which fire has caused in Australia has forced the Government Finally, it isitsnot only on natural disasters that wreak on people’s to re-think policies fire prevention, firecan control andhavoc educating the general lives.public Human-made disasters, suchrelating as war to andfire. riots the same effects. One in all aspects of safety In have the workplace it is compulsory of the steps inonrelief and sites recovery following a disaster to restore for first all workers building to wear safety helmets andissteel cappedthe shoes. livelihoods of the affected people. While in the of food, clothing and When welding in addition to these two aid items, the form workers must wear eye goggles, shelter oftenupmade readily available, little under is done disaster victims, and isgloves to their elbows. This comes thefor OHS Law which stands especially those of the economically marginalized groups, whoallowing look ahead to a to for Occupation, Health and Safety. Any employer found a worker bleakoperate future not because their safety sole means of earning being usingof proper equipment can have hiscompletely licence to destroyed. run a business In such situations, it is theandcondition that is especially the most immediately cancelled a heavy of finewomen imposed. precarious, especially if their husbands whowith are often sole earning Every truck on the road has toorbefathers, equipped a firethe extinguisher to put members the family, havefire beenand victims. In desperation, oftencome migrate out aofpossible engine sometimes the trucksurvivors drivers can to the to cities and other regions,motorist adding who to themay migrant assistance of another have labour a fire inpopulation. his or herSurvivors engine. also run a great health risk in the form of epidemics after coming in contact with contaminated food, water and air in the wake of a large-scale disaster that How Australia Can Help India has claimed a lot of lives. Considering a country India is,handles with varied geographical features The way thathow the huge Australian Government fire disasters can be a from miles coastline to the mountains in to thebeworld, role ranging model for India. Forofevery problem thehighest challenge is always found natural in disasters are understandably frequent at some part combust or another. has had finding a solution. No doubt in India, forests fires can fromIndia the heat than a Also, fair share earthquakes, cyclones, drought, landslides andcan floods. frommore the stones. whenofvillagers go into the forest to smoke, they too Some of the major disasters in the past few years are the December be careless and accidentally start a fire. So in a way our problems are similar.2004 tsunami hit the Indian Ocean, leaving more thanisa the 300,000 peopleofdead, Australia hasthat a population of 20 million people which population theand 2001 andinthe Orissa Each ofwethese Delhi, the Gujarat majorityearthquake, of people live the1999 coastal areas.cyclone. In my country, and education the many up others thatage have country, leave havedisasters, compulsory to the of struck sixteentheand because we thousands have far of deaths in and its wake, and due to their unexpected put we great fewer people less manpower than India has to donature, the work, arepressure forced on government civila job society relief to use machineryand to get done. Thisefforts. fact has forced our fire services to be The main areasand thatbetter require intervention disaster mitigation highly mechanized.More education creates ainbetter understanding of are earthquakes,Fires, floods, cyclones and landslides. For earthquakes, building the word “awareness”. laws and by-laws, and training in fires earthquake engineering There are fire hazardsretrofitting in both countries. In India, can break out in the and architecture already beenaenvisaged. plantation belts, shelters wheat harvestinghave season just from spark fromCoastal the silencer in a tractor. This is and preemptive warning systems can minimize cyclones to a great where the organization of fire control shouldthe be damage on handfrom before harvesting extent. Numerous flood controlthemeasures are already in operation prevent commences. Also in the villages, people need to be educated and tomade theofkind of floods in states aware fire dangers in that their wreak homes havoc and kitchens andlike howWest theirBengal, animals Assam can be and Bihar. Geological surveys, hazard and hazards monitoring go apresent long way better housed and protected against fire.zonation Major fire in India towards reducing the risk from landslides. Above all, what is required tremendous challenge to the local Municipality and the people who live in the is awareness all citizens of the possible dangers from various vicinity of the among fire. Take for example, the major fire hazards in the disasters, Manali be they natural human-made. Himalayan forestorarea of Himachal Pradesh where the people store fodder for Withover eachthe disaster, with the death misery, is also something the animals winteralong months together withand fuel. It is there well recorded that to which learn that to deal better with the next north one. Greater research needs Kothi is a equips Touristus Destination a few kilometers of Manali has had to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their destructive fires in 1974, 1984 and 1995 when the whole village has outcomes, been

8

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

9

and as alsoit possible further during reliefcitizens. and rehabilitation. many has given more victimization peace of mind to many When firesFor break out in survivors, a disaster is only a long of events theHelicopters outcome ofsometimes which is not the Sydney. Metropolitan Area chain in summer, these almost immediately apparent. It is only the water involvement local one drain people’s swimming pools,through as getting quickly with is thethe number community, who have hardest by the appropriate priority. those Golf courses withbeen theirhitwater hazards aredisaster, another that source of obtaining measures be taken andto networks set upoffor the survivors’ housing and water can quickly – much the annoyance golfers. livelihood needs. The problems which fire has caused in Australia has forced the Government Finally, it isitsnot only on natural disasters that wreak on people’s to re-think policies fire prevention, firecan control andhavoc educating the general lives.public Human-made disasters, suchrelating as war to andfire. riots the same effects. One in all aspects of safety In have the workplace it is compulsory of the steps inonrelief and sites recovery following a disaster to restore for first all workers building to wear safety helmets andissteel cappedthe shoes. livelihoods of the affected people. While in the of food, clothing and When welding in addition to these two aid items, the form workers must wear eye goggles, shelter oftenupmade readily available, little under is done disaster victims, and isgloves to their elbows. This comes thefor OHS Law which stands especially those of the economically marginalized groups, whoallowing look ahead to a to for Occupation, Health and Safety. Any employer found a worker bleakoperate future not because their safety sole means of earning being usingof proper equipment can have hiscompletely licence to destroyed. run a business In such situations, it is theandcondition that is especially the most immediately cancelled a heavy of finewomen imposed. precarious, especially if their husbands whowith are often sole earning Every truck on the road has toorbefathers, equipped a firethe extinguisher to put members the family, havefire beenand victims. In desperation, oftencome migrate out aofpossible engine sometimes the trucksurvivors drivers can to the to cities and other regions,motorist adding who to themay migrant assistance of another have labour a fire inpopulation. his or herSurvivors engine. also run a great health risk in the form of epidemics after coming in contact with contaminated food, water and air in the wake of a large-scale disaster that How Australia Can Help India has claimed a lot of lives. Considering a country India is,handles with varied geographical features The way thathow the huge Australian Government fire disasters can be a from miles coastline to the mountains in to thebeworld, role ranging model for India. Forofevery problem thehighest challenge is always found natural in disasters are understandably frequent at some part combust or another. has had finding a solution. No doubt in India, forests fires can fromIndia the heat than a Also, fair share earthquakes, cyclones, drought, landslides andcan floods. frommore the stones. whenofvillagers go into the forest to smoke, they too Some ofandtheaccidentally major disasters theSopast are the December be careless start ainfire. in afew wayyears our problems are similar.2004 tsunami hit the Indian Ocean, leaving more thanisa the 300,000 peopleofdead, Australia hasthat a population of 20 million people which population the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, and the 1999 Orissa cyclone. Each Delhi, and the majority of people live in the coastal areas. In my country,ofwethese and education the many up others thatage have country, leave havedisasters, compulsory to the of struck sixteentheand because we thousands have far of deaths in and its wake, and due to their unexpected put we great fewer people less manpower than India has to donature, the work, arepressure forced on government civila job society relief to use machineryand to get done. Thisefforts. fact has forced our fire services to be The main areasand thatbetter require intervention disaster mitigation highly mechanized.More education creates ainbetter understanding of are earthquakes,Fires, the word “awareness”. floods, cyclones and landslides. For earthquakes, building laws and by-laws, and training in fires earthquake engineering There are fire hazardsretrofitting in both countries. In India, can break out in the and architecture have already been envisaged. Coastal plantation belts, wheat harvesting season just from a spark from the silencer in a tractor.shelters This is and preemptive warning systems can minimize cyclones to a great where the organization of fire control shouldthe be damage on handfrom before harvesting extent. Numerous flood controlthemeasures are already in operation prevent commences. Also in the villages, people need to be educated and tomade theofkind of floods in states aware fire dangers in that their wreak homes havoc and kitchens andlike howWest theirBengal, animals Assam can be and Bihar. Geological surveys, hazard and hazards monitoring go apresent long way better housed and protected against fire.zonation Major fire in India towards challenge reducing tothetherisk landslides. all, what is required tremendous localfrom Municipality andAbove the people who live in the is awareness all citizens of the possible dangers from various vicinity of the among fire. Take for example, the major fire hazards in the disasters, Manali be they natural or human-made. Himalayan forest area of Himachal Pradesh where the people store fodder for Withover eachthe disaster, with the death misery, is also something the animals winteralong months together withand fuel. It is there well recorded that to which learn that to deal better with the next north one. Greater research needs Kothi is a equips Touristus Destination a few kilometers of Manali has had to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their destructive fires in 1974, 1984 and 1995 when the whole village has outcomes, been

Fire Disaster

9

and also possible further victimization during relief and rehabilitation. For many survivors, a disaster is only a long chain of events the outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement with the local community, those who have been hit hardest by the disaster, that appropriate measures can be taken and networks set up for the survivors’ housing and livelihood needs. Finally, it is not only natural disasters that can wreak havoc on people’s lives. Human-made disasters, such as war and riots have the same effects. One of the first steps in relief and recovery following a disaster is to restore the livelihoods of the affected people. While aid in the form of food, clothing and shelter is often made readily available, little is done for disaster victims, especially those of the economically marginalized groups, who look ahead to a bleak future because of their sole means of earning being completely destroyed. In such situations, it is the condition of women that is especially the most precarious, especially if their husbands or fathers, who are often the sole earning members of the family, have been victims. In desperation, survivors often migrate to cities and other regions, adding to the migrant labour population. Survivors also run a great health risk in the form of epidemics after coming in contact with contaminated food, water and air in the wake of a large-scale disaster that has claimed a lot of lives. The way that the Australian Government handles fire disasters can be a role model for India. For every problem the challenge is always to be found in finding a solution. No doubt in India, forests fires can combust from the heat from the stones. Also, when villagers go into the forest to smoke, they too can be careless and accidentally start a fire. So in a way our problems are similar. Australia has a population of 20 million people which is the population of Delhi, and the majority of people live in the coastal areas. In my country, we have compulsory education up to the age of sixteen and because we have far fewer people and less manpower than India has to do the work, we are forced to use machinery to get a job done. This fact has forced our fire services to be highly mechanized.More and better education creates a better understanding of the word “awareness”. There are fire hazards in both countries. In India, fires can break out in the wheat harvesting season just from a spark from the silencer in a tractor. This is where the organization of fire control should be on hand before harvesting commences. Also in the villages, the people need to be educated and made aware of fire dangers in their homes and kitchens and how their animals can be better housed and protected against fire. Major fire hazards in India present tremendous challenge to the local Municipality and the people who live in the vicinity of the fire. Take for example, the major fire hazards in the Manali Himalayan forest area of Himachal Pradesh where the people store fodder for the animals over the winter months together with fuel. It is well recorded that Kothi which is a Tourist Destination a few kilometers north of Manali has had destructive fires in 1974, 1984 and 1995 when the whole village has been

Fire Disaster

9

and also possible further victimization during relief and rehabilitation. For many survivors, a disaster is only a long chain of events the outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement with the local community, those who have been hit hardest by the disaster, that appropriate measures can be taken and networks set up for the survivors’ housing and livelihood needs. Finally, it is not only natural disasters that can wreak havoc on people’s lives. Human-made disasters, such as war and riots have the same effects. One of the first steps in relief and recovery following a disaster is to restore the livelihoods of the affected people. While aid in the form of food, clothing and shelter is often made readily available, little is done for disaster victims, especially those of the economically marginalized groups, who look ahead to a bleak future because of their sole means of earning being completely destroyed. In such situations, it is the condition of women that is especially the most precarious, especially if their husbands or fathers, who are often the sole earning members of the family, have been victims. In desperation, survivors often migrate to cities and other regions, adding to the migrant labour population. Survivors also run a great health risk in the form of epidemics after coming in contact with contaminated food, water and air in the wake of a large-scale disaster that has claimed a lot of lives. The way that the Australian Government handles fire disasters can be a role model for India. For every problem the challenge is always to be found in finding a solution. No doubt in India, forests fires can combust from the heat from the stones. Also, when villagers go into the forest to smoke, they too can be careless and accidentally start a fire. So in a way our problems are similar. Australia has a population of 20 million people which is the population of Delhi, and the majority of people live in the coastal areas. In my country, we have compulsory education up to the age of sixteen and because we have far fewer people and less manpower than India has to do the work, we are forced to use machinery to get a job done. This fact has forced our fire services to be highly mechanized.More and better education creates a better understanding of the word “awareness”. There are fire hazards in both countries. In India, fires can break out in the wheat harvesting season just from a spark from the silencer in a tractor. This is where the organization of fire control should be on hand before harvesting commences. Also in the villages, the people need to be educated and made aware of fire dangers in their homes and kitchens and how their animals can be better housed and protected against fire. Major fire hazards in India present tremendous challenge to the local Municipality and the people who live in the vicinity of the fire. Take for example, the major fire hazards in the Manali Himalayan forest area of Himachal Pradesh where the people store fodder for the animals over the winter months together with fuel. It is well recorded that Kothi which is a Tourist Destination a few kilometers north of Manali has had destructive fires in 1974, 1984 and 1995 when the whole village has been

10

Disaster Management

burnt out each time. This is a true example of how the forces of nature create a fire disaster and man himself is faced with the challenge of putting it out. Everything boils down to education preparation, organization and infrastructure. With the enormous progress that India has made since the 1990s, I feel sure that some Indian Government officials would benefit greatly from a visit to Australia to experience first hand how we organize our entire fire service throughout the country. Because of the IT industry in India and other big business concerns, the workers both in India and Australia now find themselves in very tall, glass, air conditioned high rise buildings well beyond the reach of any fireman’s ladder. Again constant practice of escaping in case of a fire in these buildings needs to be carried out regularly because in such buildings, one is never to use the lifts. Is this being done in India? The best quality and best equipped fire engines in the world are made by Daimler Benz in Germany and it would be good for India to acquire one for each major city. Surely, with the coming of the Commonwealth Games in India in 2010, it will be a great opportunity to make this country the showcase of the world. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS The Australian Government has spent a tremendous amount of money on the infrastructure of fighting fires in Australia. Our fire services are one of the best services in the world. All our men are very highly skilled and trained in all aspects of the hazards connected with fire. The most modern equipment is used and the firemen respond within seconds when their services are required.We also have the Voluntary Fire Brigade made up from men who have done a day’s work in the office,come home,and then start fighting fires, often until midnight. Through government Laws and regulations all people working in hospitals, retirement villages, schools and shops are regularly trained in what to do in case of a fire. In this training for a hospital fire for example, a trainee was once told that in the event of a hospital fire one must first place one’s hand on a ward door. If it be too hot to touch for two seconds, one goes to the next ward. The horrified trainee had thoughts about the six patients in the ward, but the fireman training him raised the question “Do you want to be another victim?” The firemen themselves train the employees and teach them about the danger of faulty wiring in their own homes and what items should be left unplugged. There are also plenty of brochures issued to the general public from the local councils on how to prevent fires in your own home. One of the most dangerous places for fire danger in the home is found in the kitchen when people are taught the importance of switching off an electrical hot plate after cooking or turning off a gas jet when cooking is complete. This goes for restaurants too where another danger can loom, when fat gets overheated and ignites a combustible material nearby. Fire can spread very quickly in a restaurant kitchen

10

Disaster Management

burnt out each time. This is a true example of how the forces of nature create a fire disaster and man himself is faced with the challenge of putting it out. Everything boils down to education preparation, organization and infrastructure. With the enormous progress that India has made since the 1990s, I feel sure that some Indian Government officials would benefit greatly from a visit to Australia to experience first hand how we organize our entire fire service throughout the country. Because of the IT industry in India and other big business concerns, the workers both in India and Australia now find themselves in very tall, glass, air conditioned high rise buildings well beyond the reach of any fireman’s ladder. Again constant practice of escaping in case of a fire in these buildings needs to be carried out regularly because in such buildings, one is never to use the lifts. Is this being done in India? The best quality and best equipped fire engines in the world are made by Daimler Benz in Germany and it would be good for India to acquire one for each major city. Surely, with the coming of the Commonwealth Games in India in 2010, it will be a great opportunity to make this country the showcase of the world. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS The Australian Government has spent a tremendous amount of money on the infrastructure of fighting fires in Australia. Our fire services are one of the best services in the world. All our men are very highly skilled and trained in all aspects of the hazards connected with fire. The most modern equipment is used and the firemen respond within seconds when their services are required.We also have the Voluntary Fire Brigade made up from men who have done a day’s work in the office,come home,and then start fighting fires, often until midnight. Through government Laws and regulations all people working in hospitals, retirement villages, schools and shops are regularly trained in what to do in case of a fire. In this training for a hospital fire for example, a trainee was once told that in the event of a hospital fire one must first place one’s hand on a ward door. If it be too hot to touch for two seconds, one goes to the next ward. The horrified trainee had thoughts about the six patients in the ward, but the fireman training him raised the question “Do you want to be another victim?” The firemen themselves train the employees and teach them about the danger of faulty wiring in their own homes and what items should be left unplugged. There are also plenty of brochures issued to the general public from the local councils on how to prevent fires in your own home. One of the most dangerous places for fire danger in the home is found in the kitchen when people are taught the importance of switching off an electrical hot plate after cooking or turning off a gas jet when cooking is complete. This goes for restaurants too where another danger can loom, when fat gets overheated and ignites a combustible material nearby. Fire can spread very quickly in a restaurant kitchen

10

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

11

burnt out eachbuilding time. This is aand truetheexample the forces nature create particularly if the be old stairwellofishow nearby. It is of compulsory a fire and of man himself faced out withwith the emergency challenge offireputting it out. by law fordisaster all places work to beis fitted fighting Everything boils down to education organization and all infrastructure. cylinders for electrical or chemical firespreparation, and since September 2006, private enormous India with has made the These 1990s,are I feel homes inWith NewtheSouth Wales progress have to that be fitted smokesince alarms. sureoperated that some Indianplaced Government officials benefit fromfirst a visit battery devices strategically in would the homes to greatly detect the to experience firsthave handbeen how saved we organize our entire fire service hint toofAustralia smoke and many lives since their installation. throughout the people country.have Because the IT India and other big of business Conversely, many been of burnt to industry death in in their homes because a workers India from and Australia now findbefore themselves in very lack concerns, of smokethe alarms. Theyboth die in though smoke inhalation they are glass, air conditioned rise buildings well beyond the reach of any burnttall, to death. Does the Indian high Government also enforce such laws? fireman’s ladder. Againvery constant escaping caseinofconjunction a fire in these In Australia we have highlypractice skilledofmen, who in work buildings needs to be carried out regularly because in such buildings, with the firemen, police and insurance companies to established the cause ofone a is neverto to use if theany lifts. Is this being done has in India? fire and prove accelerant like petrol been used to start it. Naturally The like bestevery quality and country best equipped fire engines in thebeen world are made by in Australia other in the world, fires have deliberately Daimler Benz purposes, in Germany it would with be good for developed India to acquire one for lit for insurance butand nowadays highly technical each major Surely, the of coming of theForce, Commonwealth Games in India equipment used city. by the arsonwith squad our Police most of these crimes in 2010, it will be a great to make this country theever showcase of the are very quickly solved. With opportunity all of the Fire Disasters that have been in world. Australia, we have met the challenges which mother nature has presented to us with the full force of our manpower, intelligence, knowledge, bravery and above CONCLUSION AND ofSUGGESTIONS all from our management fire because we know in advance that fire will always be with us and our organization is such that we areamount always of prepared The Australian Government has spent a tremendous money for on the everyinfrastructure emergency, every type of fireinatAustralia. any placeOur andfire at any time.are Doone come and best of fighting fires services of the visitservices us. Within each disaster, withare thevery death and skilled misery, and theretrained is also the world. Allalong our men highly in all something to learn that equips us to deal better with the next one. Greater aspects of the hazards connected with fire. The most modern equipment is used research needs to be respond conducted intoseconds the patterns disaster occurrence and and the firemen within when oftheir services are required.We theiralso outcomes, and also possible further victimization during relief and have the Voluntary Fire Brigade made up from men who have done a rehabilitation. survivors, a home,and disaster isthen only start a long chain of events theuntil day’s workForin many the office,come fighting fires, often outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement midnight. with the Through local community, those whoand have been hit all hardest by working the disaster, that government Laws regulations people in hospitals, appropriate measures can be taken and networks set up for the survivors’ housing retirement villages, schools and shops are regularly trained in what to do in and case livelihood needs. of a fire. In this training for a hospital fire for example, a trainee was once told that in the event of a hospital fire one must first place one’s hand on a ward door. If it be too hot to touch for two seconds, one goes to the next REFERENCES ward. traineeViscaceae’, had thoughts aboutofthe six patients theedward, Barlow, B. The 1984,horrified ‘Loranthaceae, in Flora Australia Volumein22, A.S. but the fireman training him raised the question “Do you want to be another victim?” George, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The firemen themselves train‘Fire the inemployees and teach them about danger Bradstock, R.A. & Gill, A.M. 1993, semi-arid mallee shrublands: size of the flames of faulty wiring their what items should be left Journal unplugged. from discrete fuel in arrays andown theirhomes role inand the spread of fire’, International of Wildland Fire,plenty vol. 3, of pp.brochures 3-12. There are also issued to the general public from the local Burbidge, N.T.on & how Gray,toM.prevent 1970, Flora of your the Australian Capital Australian councils fires in own home. One Territory, of the most dangerous National University Press,inCanberra. places for fire danger the home is found in the kitchen when people are Calais, S.S. & J.B.of 1983, ‘Tree species in temperate taught theKirkpatrick, importance switching off anregeneration electrical after hot logging plate after cooking or rainforest, Tasmania’, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, too turning off a gas jet when cooking is complete. This goes for restaurants vol. 117, pp. 77-83. where another danger can loom, when fat gets overheated and ignites a Coleman, E. 1949, ‘Menace of the mistletoe’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 66, pp. combustible material nearby. Fire can spread very quickly in a restaurant kitchen 24-33.

10

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

11

burnt out eachbuilding time. This is aand truetheexample the forces nature create particularly if the be old stairwellofishow nearby. It is of compulsory a fire and of man himself faced out withwith the emergency challenge offireputting it out. by law fordisaster all places work to beis fitted fighting Everything boils down to education organization and all infrastructure. cylinders for electrical or chemical firespreparation, and since September 2006, private enormous India with has made the These 1990s,are I feel homes inWith NewtheSouth Wales progress have to that be fitted smokesince alarms. sureoperated that some Indianplaced Government officials benefit fromfirst a visit battery devices strategically in would the homes to greatly detect the to experience firsthave handbeen how saved we organize our entire fire service hint toofAustralia smoke and many lives since their installation. throughout the people country.have Because the IT India and other big of business Conversely, many been of burnt to industry death in in their homes because a workers India from and Australia now findbefore themselves in very lack concerns, of smokethe alarms. Theyboth die in though smoke inhalation they are glass, air conditioned rise buildings well beyond the reach of any burnttall, to death. Does the Indian high Government also enforce such laws? fireman’s ladder. Againvery constant escaping caseinofconjunction a fire in these In Australia we have highlypractice skilledofmen, who in work needs to be out regularly in suchthe buildings, withbuildings the firemen, police andcarried insurance companiesbecause to established cause ofone a is never to use the lifts. Is this being done in India? fire and to prove if any accelerant like petrol has been used to start it. Naturally The like bestevery quality and country best equipped fire engines in thebeen world are made by in Australia other in the world, fires have deliberately Daimler Benz purposes, in Germany it would with be good for developed India to acquire one for lit for insurance butand nowadays highly technical each major Surely, the of coming of theForce, Commonwealth Games in India equipment used city. by the arsonwith squad our Police most of these crimes in 2010, it will be a great to make this country theever showcase of the are very quickly solved. With opportunity all of the Fire Disasters that have been in world. Australia, we have met the challenges which mother nature has presented to us with the full force of our manpower, intelligence, knowledge, bravery and above CONCLUSION AND ofSUGGESTIONS all from our management fire because we know in advance that fire will always be with us and our organization is such that we areamount always of prepared The Australian Government has spent a tremendous money for on the everyinfrastructure emergency, every type of fire at any place and at any time. Do come and best of fighting fires in Australia. Our fire services are one of the visitservices us. Within each disaster, withare thevery death and skilled misery, and theretrained is also the world. Allalong our men highly in all something that equips us towith dealfire. better next equipment one. Greater aspects toof learn the hazards connected The with most the modern is used research needs to be respond conducted intoseconds the patterns disaster occurrence and and the firemen within when oftheir services are required.We theiralso outcomes, and also possible further victimization during relief and have the Voluntary Fire Brigade made up from men who have done a rehabilitation. survivors, a home,and disaster isthen only start a long chain of events theuntil day’s workForin many the office,come fighting fires, often outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement midnight. with the Through local community, those whoand have been hit all hardest by working the disaster, that government Laws regulations people in hospitals, appropriate measures canschools be takenand andshops networks up for the survivors’ housing retirement villages, are set regularly trained in what to do in and case livelihood needs. of a fire. In this training for a hospital fire for example, a trainee was once told that in the event of a hospital fire one must first place one’s hand on a ward door. If it be too hot to touch for two seconds, one goes to the next REFERENCES ward. traineeViscaceae’, had thoughts aboutofthe six patients theedward, Barlow, B. The 1984,horrified ‘Loranthaceae, in Flora Australia Volumein22, A.S. but the fireman training him raised the question “Do you want to be another victim?” George, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The firemen themselves train‘Fire the inemployees and teach them about danger Bradstock, R.A. & Gill, A.M. 1993, semi-arid mallee shrublands: size of the flames of faulty wiring in their own homes and what items should be left unplugged. from discrete fuel arrays and their role in the spread of fire’, International Journal of Wildland Fire,plenty vol. 3, of pp.brochures 3-12. There are also issued to the general public from the local Burbidge, N.T. & Gray, M. 1970, of your the Australian Capital Australian councils on how to prevent Flora fires in own home. One Territory, of the most dangerous National University Press, Canberra. places for fire danger in the home is found in the kitchen when people are Calais, S.S. & J.B.of 1983, ‘Tree species in temperate taught theKirkpatrick, importance switching off anregeneration electrical after hot logging plate after cooking or rainforest, Tasmania’, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, too turning off a gas jet when cooking is complete. This goes for restaurants vol. 117, pp. 77-83. where another danger can loom, when fat gets overheated and ignites a Coleman, E. 1949, ‘Menace of the mistletoe’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 66, pp. combustible material nearby. Fire can spread very quickly in a restaurant kitchen 24-33.

10

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

11

particularly if the be old stairwellofishow nearby. It is of compulsory burnt out eachbuilding time. This is aand truetheexample the forces nature create by law fordisaster all places work to beis fitted fighting a fire and of man himself faced out withwith the emergency challenge offireputting it out. cylinders for electrical or chemical firespreparation, and since September 2006, private Everything boils down to education organization and all infrastructure. homes inWith NewtheSouth Wales progress have to that be fitted smokesince alarms. enormous India with has made the These 1990s,are I feel battery devices strategically in would the homes to greatly detect the sureoperated that some Indianplaced Government officials benefit fromfirst a visit hint toofAustralia smoke and many lives since their installation. to experience firsthave handbeen how saved we organize our entire fire service Conversely, many been of burnt to industry death in in their homes because a throughout the people country.have Because the IT India and other big of business lack concerns, of smokethe alarms. Theyboth die in though smoke inhalation they are workers India from and Australia now findbefore themselves in very burnttall, to death. Does the Indian high Government also enforce such laws? glass, air conditioned rise buildings well beyond the reach of any fireman’s ladder. Againvery constant escaping caseinofconjunction a fire in these In Australia we have highlypractice skilledofmen, who in work buildings needs to be carried out regularly because in such buildings, with the firemen, police and insurance companies to established the cause ofone a is neverto to use if theany lifts. Is this being done has in India? fire and prove accelerant like petrol been used to start it. Naturally The like bestevery quality and country best equipped fire engines in thebeen world are made by in Australia other in the world, fires have deliberately Daimler Benz purposes, in Germany it would with be good for developed India to acquire one for lit for insurance butand nowadays highly technical each major Surely, the of coming of theForce, Commonwealth Games in India equipment used city. by the arsonwith squad our Police most of these crimes in 2010, it will be a great to make this country theever showcase of the are very quickly solved. With opportunity all of the Fire Disasters that have been in world. Australia, we have met the challenges which mother nature has presented to us with the full force of our manpower, intelligence, knowledge, bravery and above CONCLUSION AND ofSUGGESTIONS all from our management fire because we know in advance that fire will always be with us and our organization is such that we areamount always of prepared The Australian Government has spent a tremendous money for on the everyinfrastructure emergency, every type of fireinatAustralia. any placeOur andfire at any time.are Doone come and best of fighting fires services of the visitservices us. Within each disaster, withare thevery death and skilled misery, and theretrained is also the world. Allalong our men highly in all something to learn that equips us to deal better with the next one. Greater aspects of the hazards connected with fire. The most modern equipment is used research needs to be respond conducted intoseconds the patterns disaster occurrence and and the firemen within when oftheir services are required.We theiralso outcomes, and also possible further victimization during relief and have the Voluntary Fire Brigade made up from men who have done a rehabilitation. survivors, a home,and disaster isthen only start a long chain of events theuntil day’s workForin many the office,come fighting fires, often outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement midnight. with the Through local community, those whoand have been hit all hardest by working the disaster, that government Laws regulations people in hospitals, appropriate measures can be taken and networks set up for the survivors’ housing retirement villages, schools and shops are regularly trained in what to do in and case livelihood needs. of a fire. In this training for a hospital fire for example, a trainee was once told that in the event of a hospital fire one must first place one’s hand on a ward door. If it be too hot to touch for two seconds, one goes to the next REFERENCES ward. traineeViscaceae’, had thoughts aboutofthe six patients theedward, Barlow, B. The 1984,horrified ‘Loranthaceae, in Flora Australia Volumein22, A.S. but the fireman training him raised the question “Do you want to be another victim?” George, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The firemen themselves train‘Fire the inemployees and teach them about danger Bradstock, R.A. & Gill, A.M. 1993, semi-arid mallee shrublands: size of the flames of faulty wiring their what items should be left Journal unplugged. from discrete fuel in arrays andown theirhomes role inand the spread of fire’, International of Wildland Fire,plenty vol. 3, of pp.brochures 3-12. There are also issued to the general public from the local Burbidge, N.T.on & how Gray,toM.prevent 1970, Flora of your the Australian Capital Australian councils fires in own home. One Territory, of the most dangerous National University Press,inCanberra. places for fire danger the home is found in the kitchen when people are Calais, S.S. & J.B.of 1983, ‘Tree species in temperate taught theKirkpatrick, importance switching off anregeneration electrical after hot logging plate after cooking or rainforest, Tasmania’, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, too turning off a gas jet when cooking is complete. This goes for restaurants vol. 117, pp. 77-83. where another danger can loom, when fat gets overheated and ignites a Coleman, E. 1949, ‘Menace of the mistletoe’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 66, pp. combustible material nearby. Fire can spread very quickly in a restaurant kitchen 24-33.

10

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

11

particularly if the building be old and the stairwell is nearby. It is compulsory by law for all places of work to be fitted out with emergency fire fighting cylinders for electrical or chemical fires and since September 2006, all private homes in New South Wales have to be fitted with smoke alarms. These are battery operated devices placed strategically in the homes to detect the first hint of smoke and many lives have been saved since their installation. Conversely, many people have been burnt to death in their homes because of a lack of smoke alarms. They die though from smoke inhalation before they are burnt to death. Does the Indian Government also enforce such laws? In Australia we have very highly skilled men, who work in conjunction with the firemen, police and insurance companies to established the cause of a fire and to prove if any accelerant like petrol has been used to start it. Naturally in Australia like every other country in the world, fires have been deliberately lit for insurance purposes, but nowadays with highly developed technical equipment used by the arson squad of our Police Force, most of these crimes are very quickly solved. With all of the Fire Disasters that have ever been in Australia, we have met the challenges which mother nature has presented to us with the full force of our manpower, intelligence, knowledge, bravery and above all from our management of fire because we know in advance that fire will always be with us and our organization is such that we are always prepared for every emergency, every type of fire at any place and at any time. Do come and visit us. With each disaster, along with the death and misery, there is also something to learn that equips us to deal better with the next one. Greater research needs to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their outcomes, and also possible further victimization during relief and rehabilitation. For many survivors, a disaster is only a long chain of events the outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement with the local community, those who have been hit hardest by the disaster, that appropriate measures can be taken and networks set up for the survivors’ housing and livelihood needs. REFERENCES Barlow, B. 1984, ‘Loranthaceae, Viscaceae’, in Flora of Australia Volume 22, ed A.S. George, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Bradstock, R.A. & Gill, A.M. 1993, ‘Fire in semi-arid mallee shrublands: size of flames from discrete fuel arrays and their role in the spread of fire’, International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 3, pp. 3-12. Burbidge, N.T. & Gray, M. 1970, Flora of the Australian Capital Territory, Australian National University Press, Canberra. Calais, S.S. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1983, ‘Tree species regeneration after logging in temperate rainforest, Tasmania’, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, vol. 117, pp. 77-83. Coleman, E. 1949, ‘Menace of the mistletoe’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 66, pp. 24-33.

11

particularly if the be old stairwellofishow nearby. It is of compulsory burnt out eachbuilding time. This is aand truetheexample the forces nature create by law fordisaster all places work to beis fitted fighting a fire and of man himself faced out withwith the emergency challenge offireputting it out. cylinders for electrical or chemical firespreparation, and since September 2006, private Everything boils down to education organization and all infrastructure. homes inWith NewtheSouth Wales progress have to that be fitted smokesince alarms. enormous India with has made the These 1990s,are I feel battery devices strategically in would the homes to greatly detect the sureoperated that some Indianplaced Government officials benefit fromfirst a visit hint toofAustralia smoke and many lives since their installation. to experience firsthave handbeen how saved we organize our entire fire service Conversely, many been of burnt to industry death in in their homes because a throughout the people country.have Because the IT India and other big of business lack concerns, of smokethe alarms. Theyboth die in though smoke inhalation they are workers India from and Australia now findbefore themselves in very burnttall, to death. Does the Indian high Government also enforce such laws? glass, air conditioned rise buildings well beyond the reach of any fireman’s ladder. Againvery constant escaping caseinofconjunction a fire in these In Australia we have highlypractice skilledofmen, who in work needs to be out regularly in suchthe buildings, withbuildings the firemen, police andcarried insurance companiesbecause to established cause ofone a is never to use the lifts. Is this being done in India? fire and to prove if any accelerant like petrol has been used to start it. Naturally The like bestevery quality and country best equipped fire engines in thebeen world are made by in Australia other in the world, fires have deliberately Daimler Benz purposes, in Germany it would with be good for developed India to acquire one for lit for insurance butand nowadays highly technical each major Surely, the of coming of theForce, Commonwealth Games in India equipment used city. by the arsonwith squad our Police most of these crimes in 2010, it will be a great to make this country theever showcase of the are very quickly solved. With opportunity all of the Fire Disasters that have been in world. Australia, we have met the challenges which mother nature has presented to us with the full force of our manpower, intelligence, knowledge, bravery and above CONCLUSION AND ofSUGGESTIONS all from our management fire because we know in advance that fire will always be with us and our organization is such that we areamount always of prepared The Australian Government has spent a tremendous money for on the everyinfrastructure emergency, every type of fire at any place and at any time. Do come and best of fighting fires in Australia. Our fire services are one of the visitservices us. Within each disaster, withare thevery death and skilled misery, and theretrained is also the world. Allalong our men highly in all something that equips us towith dealfire. better next equipment one. Greater aspects toof learn the hazards connected The with most the modern is used research needs to be respond conducted intoseconds the patterns disaster occurrence and and the firemen within when oftheir services are required.We theiralso outcomes, and also possible further victimization during relief and have the Voluntary Fire Brigade made up from men who have done a rehabilitation. survivors, a home,and disaster isthen only start a long chain of events theuntil day’s workForin many the office,come fighting fires, often outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement midnight. with the Through local community, those whoand have been hit all hardest by working the disaster, that government Laws regulations people in hospitals, appropriate measures canschools be takenand andshops networks up for the survivors’ housing retirement villages, are set regularly trained in what to do in and case livelihood needs. of a fire. In this training for a hospital fire for example, a trainee was once told that in the event of a hospital fire one must first place one’s hand on a ward door. If it be too hot to touch for two seconds, one goes to the next REFERENCES ward. traineeViscaceae’, had thoughts aboutofthe six patients theedward, Barlow, B. The 1984,horrified ‘Loranthaceae, in Flora Australia Volumein22, A.S. but the fireman training him raised the question “Do you want to be another victim?” George, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The firemen themselves train‘Fire the inemployees and teach them about danger Bradstock, R.A. & Gill, A.M. 1993, semi-arid mallee shrublands: size of the flames of faulty wiring in their own homes and what items should be left unplugged. from discrete fuel arrays and their role in the spread of fire’, International Journal of Wildland Fire,plenty vol. 3, of pp.brochures 3-12. There are also issued to the general public from the local Burbidge, N.T. & Gray, M. 1970, of your the Australian Capital Australian councils on how to prevent Flora fires in own home. One Territory, of the most dangerous National University Press, Canberra. places for fire danger in the home is found in the kitchen when people are Calais, S.S. & J.B.of 1983, ‘Tree species in temperate taught theKirkpatrick, importance switching off anregeneration electrical after hot logging plate after cooking or rainforest, Tasmania’, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, too turning off a gas jet when cooking is complete. This goes for restaurants vol. 117, pp. 77-83. where another danger can loom, when fat gets overheated and ignites a Coleman, E. 1949, ‘Menace of the mistletoe’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 66, pp. combustible material nearby. Fire can spread very quickly in a restaurant kitchen 24-33.

Fire Disaster

Fire Disaster

11

particularly if the building be old and the stairwell is nearby. It is compulsory by law for all places of work to be fitted out with emergency fire fighting cylinders for electrical or chemical fires and since September 2006, all private homes in New South Wales have to be fitted with smoke alarms. These are battery operated devices placed strategically in the homes to detect the first hint of smoke and many lives have been saved since their installation. Conversely, many people have been burnt to death in their homes because of a lack of smoke alarms. They die though from smoke inhalation before they are burnt to death. Does the Indian Government also enforce such laws? In Australia we have very highly skilled men, who work in conjunction with the firemen, police and insurance companies to established the cause of a fire and to prove if any accelerant like petrol has been used to start it. Naturally in Australia like every other country in the world, fires have been deliberately lit for insurance purposes, but nowadays with highly developed technical equipment used by the arson squad of our Police Force, most of these crimes are very quickly solved. With all of the Fire Disasters that have ever been in Australia, we have met the challenges which mother nature has presented to us with the full force of our manpower, intelligence, knowledge, bravery and above all from our management of fire because we know in advance that fire will always be with us and our organization is such that we are always prepared for every emergency, every type of fire at any place and at any time. Do come and visit us. With each disaster, along with the death and misery, there is also something to learn that equips us to deal better with the next one. Greater research needs to be conducted into the patterns of disaster occurrence and their outcomes, and also possible further victimization during relief and rehabilitation. For many survivors, a disaster is only a long chain of events the outcome of which is not immediately apparent. It is only through the involvement with the local community, those who have been hit hardest by the disaster, that appropriate measures can be taken and networks set up for the survivors’ housing and livelihood needs. REFERENCES Barlow, B. 1984, ‘Loranthaceae, Viscaceae’, in Flora of Australia Volume 22, ed A.S. George, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Bradstock, R.A. & Gill, A.M. 1993, ‘Fire in semi-arid mallee shrublands: size of flames from discrete fuel arrays and their role in the spread of fire’, International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 3, pp. 3-12. Burbidge, N.T. & Gray, M. 1970, Flora of the Australian Capital Territory, Australian National University Press, Canberra. Calais, S.S. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1983, ‘Tree species regeneration after logging in temperate rainforest, Tasmania’, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, vol. 117, pp. 77-83. Coleman, E. 1949, ‘Menace of the mistletoe’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 66, pp. 24-33.

12

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Cullen, P.J. 1987, ‘Regeneration patterns in populations of Athrotaxis selaginoides D.Don. from Tasmania’, Journal of Biogeography, vol. 14, pp. 39-51. Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988a, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). I. Stand structure and regeneration of A. cupressoides’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 36, pp. 547-560. Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988b, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). II. The distribution and ecological differentiation of A.cupressoides and A.selaginoides’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 36, pp. 561-573. Delhi at Risk - A Preliminary Assessment of Delhi’s Vulnerability to Natural Disasters. SEEDS SHELTER - A HUDCO-HSMI Publication. Special Issue World Disaster Reduction Day. Delhi 1999 - A Fact Sheet national Capital Region planning Board Disaster Prone JJ Clusters Along River Basin in Delhi - Meteorological and social aspects, M.G. Gupta. Economic Survey of Delhi 1999-2000. Planning Department Government of NCT of Delhi. Frith, H.J. 1979, (ed.) The Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds, Readers Digest Services, Sydney. Future Cities-Special Issue, BMPTC. Gill, A.M. 1975, ‘Fire and the Australian flora: a review’, Australian Forestry, vol. 38, pp. 4-25. Gill, A.M. 1981a, ‘Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fires’, in Fire and the Australian Biota, eds, A.M. Gill, R.H. Groves, & I.R. Noble, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra. Gill, A.M. 1981b, ‘Coping with fire’, in The Biology of Australian Plants, eds J.S. Pate & A.J. McComb, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. 1992, ‘A national register for the fire responses of plant species’, Cunninghamia, vol. 2, pp. 653-660. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. 1995, ‘Extinctions of biota by fires’, in Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and Solutions, eds R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R. Kingsford, D. Lunney & D. Sivertsen. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney, pp. 309-322. Gill, A.M. & Moore, P.H.R. 1993, Effects of flames on mistletoes. Unpublished report to the ACT Parks and Conservation Service. Hartigan, D. 1960, ‘The Australian mistletoe’, Journal of Forestry, vol. 58, pp. 211 218. INSA Proc. Page 429-447, RKS Chauhan. Kantvilas, G. 1990, ‘The genus Roccellinastrum in Tasmania’, Lichenologist, vol. 22, pp. 79-86. Keith, D.A. & Bradstock, R.A. 1994, ‘Fire and competition in Australian heath: a conceptual model and field investigations’, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol. 3, pp. 347-354. Kirkpatrick, J.B. & Dickinson, K.J.M. 1984, ‘The impact of fire on Tasmanian alpine vegetation and soils’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 32, pp. 613-629. Liddy, J. 1983, ‘Dispersal of Australian mistletoes: the Cowiebank study’, in The Biology of Mistletoes, eds D.M. Caldwell & P. Bernhardt, Academic Press, Sydney. Luke, H. & McArthur, A.G. 1978, Bushfires in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. McFarland, D. 1992, ‘Fire and the management of ground parrot habitat’, in Fire Research in Rural Queensland, ed. B.R.Roberts, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 483-495.

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Disaster Management

Cullen, P.J. 1987, ‘Regeneration patterns in populations of Athrotaxis selaginoides D.Don. from Tasmania’, Journal of Biogeography, vol. 14, pp. 39-51. Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988a, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). I. Stand structure and regeneration of A. cupressoides’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 36, pp. 547-560. Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988b, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). II. The distribution and ecological differentiation of A.cupressoides and A.selaginoides’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 36, pp. 561-573. Delhi at Risk - A Preliminary Assessment of Delhi’s Vulnerability to Natural Disasters. SEEDS SHELTER - A HUDCO-HSMI Publication. Special Issue World Disaster Reduction Day. Delhi 1999 - A Fact Sheet national Capital Region planning Board Disaster Prone JJ Clusters Along River Basin in Delhi - Meteorological and social aspects, M.G. Gupta. Economic Survey of Delhi 1999-2000. Planning Department Government of NCT of Delhi. Frith, H.J. 1979, (ed.) The Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds, Readers Digest Services, Sydney. Future Cities-Special Issue, BMPTC. Gill, A.M. 1975, ‘Fire and the Australian flora: a review’, Australian Forestry, vol. 38, pp. 4-25. Gill, A.M. 1981a, ‘Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fires’, in Fire and the Australian Biota, eds, A.M. Gill, R.H. Groves, & I.R. Noble, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra. Gill, A.M. 1981b, ‘Coping with fire’, in The Biology of Australian Plants, eds J.S. Pate & A.J. McComb, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. 1992, ‘A national register for the fire responses of plant species’, Cunninghamia, vol. 2, pp. 653-660. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. 1995, ‘Extinctions of biota by fires’, in Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and Solutions, eds R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R. Kingsford, D. Lunney & D. Sivertsen. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney, pp. 309-322. Gill, A.M. & Moore, P.H.R. 1993, Effects of flames on mistletoes. Unpublished report to the ACT Parks and Conservation Service. Hartigan, D. 1960, ‘The Australian mistletoe’, Journal of Forestry, vol. 58, pp. 211 218. INSA Proc. Page 429-447, RKS Chauhan. Kantvilas, G. 1990, ‘The genus Roccellinastrum in Tasmania’, Lichenologist, vol. 22, pp. 79-86. Keith, D.A. & Bradstock, R.A. 1994, ‘Fire and competition in Australian heath: a conceptual model and field investigations’, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol. 3, pp. 347-354. Kirkpatrick, J.B. & Dickinson, K.J.M. 1984, ‘The impact of fire on Tasmanian alpine vegetation and soils’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 32, pp. 613-629. Liddy, J. 1983, ‘Dispersal of Australian mistletoes: the Cowiebank study’, in The Biology of Mistletoes, eds D.M. Caldwell & P. Bernhardt, Academic Press, Sydney. Luke, H. & McArthur, A.G. 1978, Bushfires in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. McFarland, D. 1992, ‘Fire and the management of ground parrot habitat’, in Fire Research in Rural Queensland, ed. B.R.Roberts, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 483-495.

12

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

13

Meredith, Cullen,C.W., P.J. 1987, Gilmore, ‘Regeneration A.M. & patterns Isles, A.C. in populations 1984, ‘Theofground Athrotaxis parrot selaginoides (Pezoporus D.Don. fromKerr) Tasmania’, Journal of Biogeography, vol. 14, pp. 39-51. wallicus in south-eastern Australia: a fire-adapted species?’, Australian Journal Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988a, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). of Ecology, vol. 9, pp. 367-380. regeneration of A. cupressoides’, Australian Botany, Mitchell, I.A.Stand 1962,structure Report and of Soil Conservation Problems on the CentralJournal Plateauofand 36,River pp. 547-560. Southvol. Esk Catchment in Tasmania, Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988b, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). Tasmania. II.D.I. The1955, distribution ecological differentiation of on A.cupressoides Nicholson, ‘The effectand of 2:4-D injections and of mistletoe the growth of and A.selaginoides’, Australian Journal ofofBotany, vol.Forestry 36, pp. and 561-573. Eucalyptus polyanthemos’, Commonwealth Australia Timber Bureau Delhi at no. Risk69,- App.Preliminary Assessment of Delhi’s Vulnerability to Natural Disasters. Leaflet, 119. SEEDS SHELTER - A‘Biodiversity HUDCO-HSMI Publication. Special Issue World Disaster Nielsen, E.S. & West, J.G. 1994, research and biological collections: transfer Reduction Day. Delhi 1999 and - A Fact Sheet national Capitaleds Region planning Board of information’, in Systematics Conservation Evaluation, P.L. Forey, C.J. Disaster Prone JJ Clusters Along River Basin Press, in Delhi - Meteorological and social aspects, Humphries & R.I. Vane-Wright, Clarendon Oxford. pp. 101-121. M.G. Gupta. Noble, J.C. 1982, ‘The significance of fire in the biology and evolutionary ecology of Economic Survey ofpopulations’, Delhi 1999-2000. Planningof Department Government NCT of mallee Eucalyptus in Evolution the Flora and Fauna ofof Arid Delhi. Australia, eds W.R. Barker & P.J.M. Greenslade, Peacock Publications, Adelaide. Frith, H.J. 1979, (ed.) The Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds, Readers pp. 153-159. Digest Services, Sydney.in mallee (Eucalyptus spp.) communities of Western Noble, J.C. 1989, ‘Fire studies FutureSouth Cities-Special Issue, BMPTC. New Wales: the effects of fires applied in different seasons on herbage Gill, A.M. 1975, ‘Fireimplications and the Australian flora: a review’, Australian vol. 38, productivity and their for management’, Australian JournalForestry, of Ecology, vol. pp. 14, 4-25. pp. 169-187. Gill,J.A.M. 1981a, ‘Adaptive responses Australian vascular species D.Don to fires’, in Ogden, 1978, ‘Investigations of the of dendrochronology of plant Athrotaxis Fire and the Australian Biota, eds, A.M. Gill, R.H. Groves, & I.R. Noble, Australian (Taxodiaceae) in Tasmania’, Tree Ring Bulletin, vol. 38, pp. 1-13. Academy Canberra. Proceedings of the of 4thScience, Congress International Association Volume VIII page 77 - 86, Gill, A.M. 1981b, ‘Coping withRao. fire’, in The Biology of Australian Plants, eds J.S. Pate 1982, VK Srivastava and AK & A.J.Burning McComb, University of Western Australia, Henry Nedlands, Australia. Pyne, S. 1991, Bush. A Fire History of Australia, Holt,Western New York. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. ‘A national for thereference fire responses of plant Shepherd, R.R. 1973, ‘Land use on 1992, the Central Plateauregister with special to grazing species’, Cunninghamia, vol. 2, pp. 653-660. industry’, in The Lake Country of Tasmania, ed. M.R. Banks, Royal Society of Gill, A.M.Hobart. & Bradstock, R.A. 1995, ‘Extinctions of biota by fires’, in Conserving Tasmania, Biodiversity: eds R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R. Saving the Delhi RidgeThreats - One and yearSolutions, of conservation Action srishi Report, WWF - India D. Lunney Sivertsen. Surrey ‘The Beattyconservation & Sons, Sydney, 309-322. Shepherd,Kingsford, R.R., Winkler, C.B.&&D.Jones, R. 1975, area pp. in land Gill, A.M. &-Moore, 1993, Effectsaspects of flames on management mistletoes. Unpublished report management physicalP.H.R. and administrative of the of the Central to the Parks Proceedings and Conservation Plateau of ACT Tasmania’, of theService. Ecological Society of Australia, vol. 9, Hartigan, D. 1960, ‘The Australian mistletoe’, Journal of Forestry, vol. 58, pp. 211 pp. 267-284. 218. Slow Murder - The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution in India Center for Science and INSA Proc. Page 429-447, Chauhan. Environment, Study DirectedRKS by Anil Agarwal. Written by Anju Sharma and Anumita Kantvilas, G. 1990, ‘The genus Roccellinastrum in Tasmania’, Lichenologist, vol. 22, Roychowdhury. Thomas, pp. I. &79-86. Hope, G. 1994, ‘An example of Holocene vegetation stability from Keith, D.A.Lagoon, & Bradstock, R.A. 1994, and competition in Australian heath: a Cameron’s a near treeline site on‘Fire the Central Plateau, Tasmania’, Australian conceptual model and field investigations’, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol. 3, Journal of Ecology, vol. 19, pp. 150-158. pp. 347-354. Zimmer, W.J. 1940, ‘Plant invasions in the mallee’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 56, Kirkpatrick, pp. 143-147.J.B. & Dickinson, K.J.M. 1984, ‘The impact of fire on Tasmanian alpine vegetation and soils’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 32, pp. 613-629. Liddy, J. 1983, ‘Dispersal of Australian mistletoes: the Cowiebank study’, in The Biology of Mistletoes, eds D.M. Caldwell & P. Bernhardt, Academic Press, Sydney. Luke, H. & McArthur, A.G. 1978, Bushfires in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. McFarland, D. 1992, ‘Fire and the management of ground parrot habitat’, in Fire Research in Rural Queensland, ed. B.R.Roberts, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 483-495.

12

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

13

Meredith, Cullen,C.W., P.J. 1987, Gilmore, ‘Regeneration A.M. & patterns Isles, A.C. in populations 1984, ‘Theofground Athrotaxis parrot selaginoides (Pezoporus D.Don. fromKerr) Tasmania’, Journal of Biogeography, vol. 14, pp. 39-51. wallicus in south-eastern Australia: a fire-adapted species?’, Australian Journal Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988a, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). of Ecology, vol. 9, pp. 367-380. regeneration of A. cupressoides’, Australian Botany, Mitchell, I.A.Stand 1962,structure Report and of Soil Conservation Problems on the CentralJournal Plateauofand 36,River pp. 547-560. Southvol. Esk Catchment in Tasmania, Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988b, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). Tasmania. II.D.I. The1955, distribution ecological differentiation of on A.cupressoides Nicholson, ‘The effectand of 2:4-D injections and of mistletoe the growth of and A.selaginoides’, Australian Journal ofofBotany, vol.Forestry 36, pp. and 561-573. Eucalyptus polyanthemos’, Commonwealth Australia Timber Bureau Delhi at no. Risk69,- App.Preliminary Assessment of Delhi’s Vulnerability to Natural Disasters. Leaflet, 119. SEEDS SHELTER - A‘Biodiversity HUDCO-HSMI Publication. Special Issue World Disaster Nielsen, E.S. & West, J.G. 1994, research and biological collections: transfer Reduction Day. Delhi 1999 and - A Fact Sheet national Capitaleds Region planning Board of information’, in Systematics Conservation Evaluation, P.L. Forey, C.J. Disaster Prone JJ Clusters Along River Basin Press, in Delhi - Meteorological and social aspects, Humphries & R.I. Vane-Wright, Clarendon Oxford. pp. 101-121. M.G. Gupta. Noble, J.C. 1982, ‘The significance of fire in the biology and evolutionary ecology of Economic Survey ofpopulations’, Delhi 1999-2000. Planningof Department Government NCT of mallee Eucalyptus in Evolution the Flora and Fauna ofof Arid Delhi. eds W.R. Barker & P.J.M. Greenslade, Peacock Publications, Adelaide. Australia, Frith, H.J. 1979, (ed.) The Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds, Readers pp. 153-159. Digest Services, Sydney.in mallee (Eucalyptus spp.) communities of Western Noble, J.C. 1989, ‘Fire studies FutureSouth Cities-Special Issue, BMPTC. New Wales: the effects of fires applied in different seasons on herbage Gill, A.M. 1975, ‘Fireimplications and the Australian flora: a review’, Australian vol. 38, productivity and their for management’, Australian JournalForestry, of Ecology, pp. 4-25. vol. 14, pp. 169-187. Gill,J.A.M. 1981a, ‘Adaptive responses Australian vascular species D.Don to fires’, in Ogden, 1978, ‘Investigations of the of dendrochronology of plant Athrotaxis Fire and the Australian Biota, eds, A.M. Gill,vol. R.H.38, Groves, & I.R. Noble, Australian (Taxodiaceae) in Tasmania’, Tree Ring Bulletin, pp. 1-13. Academy Canberra. Proceedings of the of 4thScience, Congress International Association Volume VIII page 77 - 86, Gill, A.M. 1981b, ‘Coping withRao. fire’, in The Biology of Australian Plants, eds J.S. Pate 1982, VK Srivastava and AK & A.J.Burning McComb, University of Western Australia, Henry Nedlands, Australia. Pyne, S. 1991, Bush. A Fire History of Australia, Holt,Western New York. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. 1992, ‘A national register for the fire responses of plant Shepherd, R.R. 1973, ‘Land use on the Central Plateau with special reference to grazing species’, Cunninghamia, vol. 2, pp. 653-660. industry’, in The Lake Country of Tasmania, ed. M.R. Banks, Royal Society of Gill, A.M.Hobart. & Bradstock, R.A. 1995, ‘Extinctions of biota by fires’, in Conserving Tasmania, Biodiversity: eds R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R. Saving the Delhi RidgeThreats - One and yearSolutions, of conservation Action srishi Report, WWF - India D. Lunney Sivertsen. Surrey ‘The Beattyconservation & Sons, Sydney, 309-322. Shepherd,Kingsford, R.R., Winkler, C.B.&&D.Jones, R. 1975, area pp. in land Gill, A.M. &-Moore, 1993, Effectsaspects of flames on management mistletoes. Unpublished report management physicalP.H.R. and administrative of the of the Central to the ACT Parks and Conservation Service. Plateau of Tasmania’, Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia, vol. 9, Hartigan, D. 1960, ‘The Australian mistletoe’, Journal of Forestry, vol. 58, pp. 211 pp. 267-284. 218. Slow Murder - The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution in India Center for Science and INSA Proc. Page 429-447, Chauhan. Environment, Study DirectedRKS by Anil Agarwal. Written by Anju Sharma and Anumita Kantvilas, G. 1990, ‘The genus Roccellinastrum in Tasmania’, Lichenologist, vol. 22, Roychowdhury. Thomas, pp. I. &79-86. Hope, G. 1994, ‘An example of Holocene vegetation stability from Keith, D.A.Lagoon, & Bradstock, R.A. 1994, and competition in Australian heath: a Cameron’s a near treeline site on‘Fire the Central Plateau, Tasmania’, Australian conceptual model and field investigations’, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol. 3, Journal of Ecology, vol. 19, pp. 150-158. pp. 347-354. Zimmer, W.J. 1940, ‘Plant invasions in the mallee’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 56, Kirkpatrick, pp. 143-147.J.B. & Dickinson, K.J.M. 1984, ‘The impact of fire on Tasmanian alpine vegetation and soils’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 32, pp. 613-629. Liddy, J. 1983, ‘Dispersal of Australian mistletoes: the Cowiebank study’, in The Biology of Mistletoes, eds D.M. Caldwell & P. Bernhardt, Academic Press, Sydney. Luke, H. & McArthur, A.G. 1978, Bushfires in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. McFarland, D. 1992, ‘Fire and the management of ground parrot habitat’, in Fire Research in Rural Queensland, ed. B.R.Roberts, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 483-495.

12

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

13

Meredith, Cullen,C.W., P.J. 1987, Gilmore, ‘Regeneration A.M. & patterns Isles, A.C. in populations 1984, ‘Theofground Athrotaxis parrot selaginoides (Pezoporus D.Don. fromKerr) Tasmania’, Journal of Biogeography, vol. 14, pp. 39-51. wallicus in south-eastern Australia: a fire-adapted species?’, Australian Journal Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988a, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). of Ecology, vol. 9, pp. 367-380. regeneration of A. cupressoides’, Australian Botany, Mitchell, I.A.Stand 1962,structure Report and of Soil Conservation Problems on the CentralJournal Plateauofand 36,River pp. 547-560. Southvol. Esk Catchment in Tasmania, Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988b, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). Tasmania. II.D.I. The1955, distribution ecological differentiation of on A.cupressoides Nicholson, ‘The effectand of 2:4-D injections and of mistletoe the growth of and A.selaginoides’, Australian Journal ofofBotany, vol.Forestry 36, pp. and 561-573. Eucalyptus polyanthemos’, Commonwealth Australia Timber Bureau Delhi at no. Risk69,- App.Preliminary Assessment of Delhi’s Vulnerability to Natural Disasters. Leaflet, 119. SEEDS SHELTER - A‘Biodiversity HUDCO-HSMI Publication. Special Issue World Disaster Nielsen, E.S. & West, J.G. 1994, research and biological collections: transfer Reduction Day. Delhi 1999 and - A Fact Sheet national Capitaleds Region planning Board of information’, in Systematics Conservation Evaluation, P.L. Forey, C.J. Disaster Prone JJ Clusters Along River Basin Press, in Delhi - Meteorological and social aspects, Humphries & R.I. Vane-Wright, Clarendon Oxford. pp. 101-121. M.G. Gupta. Noble, J.C. 1982, ‘The significance of fire in the biology and evolutionary ecology of Economic Survey ofpopulations’, Delhi 1999-2000. Planningof Department Government NCT of mallee Eucalyptus in Evolution the Flora and Fauna ofof Arid Delhi. Australia, eds W.R. Barker & P.J.M. Greenslade, Peacock Publications, Adelaide. Frith, H.J. 1979, (ed.) The Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds, Readers pp. 153-159. Digest Services, Sydney.in mallee (Eucalyptus spp.) communities of Western Noble, J.C. 1989, ‘Fire studies FutureSouth Cities-Special Issue, BMPTC. New Wales: the effects of fires applied in different seasons on herbage Gill, A.M. 1975, ‘Fireimplications and the Australian flora: a review’, Australian vol. 38, productivity and their for management’, Australian JournalForestry, of Ecology, vol. pp. 14, 4-25. pp. 169-187. Gill,J.A.M. 1981a, ‘Adaptive responses Australian vascular species D.Don to fires’, in Ogden, 1978, ‘Investigations of the of dendrochronology of plant Athrotaxis Fire and the Australian Biota, eds, A.M. Gill, R.H. Groves, & I.R. Noble, Australian (Taxodiaceae) in Tasmania’, Tree Ring Bulletin, vol. 38, pp. 1-13. Academy Canberra. Proceedings of the of 4thScience, Congress International Association Volume VIII page 77 - 86, Gill, A.M. 1981b, ‘Coping withRao. fire’, in The Biology of Australian Plants, eds J.S. Pate 1982, VK Srivastava and AK & A.J.Burning McComb, University of Western Australia, Henry Nedlands, Australia. Pyne, S. 1991, Bush. A Fire History of Australia, Holt,Western New York. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. ‘A national for thereference fire responses of plant Shepherd, R.R. 1973, ‘Land use on 1992, the Central Plateauregister with special to grazing species’, Cunninghamia, vol. 2, pp. 653-660. industry’, in The Lake Country of Tasmania, ed. M.R. Banks, Royal Society of Gill, A.M.Hobart. & Bradstock, R.A. 1995, ‘Extinctions of biota by fires’, in Conserving Tasmania, Biodiversity: eds R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R. Saving the Delhi RidgeThreats - One and yearSolutions, of conservation Action srishi Report, WWF - India D. Lunney Sivertsen. Surrey ‘The Beattyconservation & Sons, Sydney, 309-322. Shepherd,Kingsford, R.R., Winkler, C.B.&&D.Jones, R. 1975, area pp. in land Gill, A.M. &-Moore, 1993, Effectsaspects of flames on management mistletoes. Unpublished report management physicalP.H.R. and administrative of the of the Central to the Parks Proceedings and Conservation Plateau of ACT Tasmania’, of theService. Ecological Society of Australia, vol. 9, Hartigan, D. 1960, ‘The Australian mistletoe’, Journal of Forestry, vol. 58, pp. 211 pp. 267-284. 218. Slow Murder - The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution in India Center for Science and INSA Proc. Page 429-447, Chauhan. Environment, Study DirectedRKS by Anil Agarwal. Written by Anju Sharma and Anumita Kantvilas, G. 1990, ‘The genus Roccellinastrum in Tasmania’, Lichenologist, vol. 22, Roychowdhury. Thomas, pp. I. &79-86. Hope, G. 1994, ‘An example of Holocene vegetation stability from Keith, D.A.Lagoon, & Bradstock, R.A. 1994, and competition in Australian heath: a Cameron’s a near treeline site on‘Fire the Central Plateau, Tasmania’, Australian conceptual model and field investigations’, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol. 3, Journal of Ecology, vol. 19, pp. 150-158. pp. 347-354. Zimmer, W.J. 1940, ‘Plant invasions in the mallee’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 56, Kirkpatrick, pp. 143-147.J.B. & Dickinson, K.J.M. 1984, ‘The impact of fire on Tasmanian alpine vegetation and soils’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 32, pp. 613-629. Liddy, J. 1983, ‘Dispersal of Australian mistletoes: the Cowiebank study’, in The Biology of Mistletoes, eds D.M. Caldwell & P. Bernhardt, Academic Press, Sydney. Luke, H. & McArthur, A.G. 1978, Bushfires in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. McFarland, D. 1992, ‘Fire and the management of ground parrot habitat’, in Fire Research in Rural Queensland, ed. B.R.Roberts, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 483-495.

12

Disaster Management

Fire Disaster

13

Meredith, Cullen,C.W., P.J. 1987, Gilmore, ‘Regeneration A.M. & patterns Isles, A.C. in populations 1984, ‘Theofground Athrotaxis parrot selaginoides (Pezoporus D.Don. fromKerr) Tasmania’, Journal of Biogeography, vol. 14, pp. 39-51. wallicus in south-eastern Australia: a fire-adapted species?’, Australian Journal Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988a, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). of Ecology, vol. 9, pp. 367-380. regeneration of A. cupressoides’, Australian Botany, Mitchell, I.A.Stand 1962,structure Report and of Soil Conservation Problems on the CentralJournal Plateauofand 36,River pp. 547-560. Southvol. Esk Catchment in Tasmania, Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Cullen, P.J. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1988b, ‘The ecology of Athrotaxis D.Don. (Taxodiaceae). Tasmania. II.D.I. The1955, distribution ecological differentiation of on A.cupressoides Nicholson, ‘The effectand of 2:4-D injections and of mistletoe the growth of and A.selaginoides’, Australian Journal ofofBotany, vol.Forestry 36, pp. and 561-573. Eucalyptus polyanthemos’, Commonwealth Australia Timber Bureau Delhi at no. Risk69,- App.Preliminary Assessment of Delhi’s Vulnerability to Natural Disasters. Leaflet, 119. SEEDS SHELTER - A‘Biodiversity HUDCO-HSMI Publication. Special Issue World Disaster Nielsen, E.S. & West, J.G. 1994, research and biological collections: transfer Reduction Day. Delhi 1999 and - A Fact Sheet national Capitaleds Region planning Board of information’, in Systematics Conservation Evaluation, P.L. Forey, C.J. Disaster Prone JJ Clusters Along River Basin Press, in Delhi - Meteorological and social aspects, Humphries & R.I. Vane-Wright, Clarendon Oxford. pp. 101-121. M.G. Gupta. Noble, J.C. 1982, ‘The significance of fire in the biology and evolutionary ecology of Economic Survey ofpopulations’, Delhi 1999-2000. Planningof Department Government NCT of mallee Eucalyptus in Evolution the Flora and Fauna ofof Arid Delhi. eds W.R. Barker & P.J.M. Greenslade, Peacock Publications, Adelaide. Australia, Frith, H.J. 1979, (ed.) The Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds, Readers pp. 153-159. Digest Services, Sydney.in mallee (Eucalyptus spp.) communities of Western Noble, J.C. 1989, ‘Fire studies FutureSouth Cities-Special Issue, BMPTC. New Wales: the effects of fires applied in different seasons on herbage Gill, A.M. 1975, ‘Fireimplications and the Australian flora: a review’, Australian vol. 38, productivity and their for management’, Australian JournalForestry, of Ecology, pp. 4-25. vol. 14, pp. 169-187. Gill,J.A.M. 1981a, ‘Adaptive responses Australian vascular species D.Don to fires’, in Ogden, 1978, ‘Investigations of the of dendrochronology of plant Athrotaxis Fire and the Australian Biota, eds, A.M. Gill,vol. R.H.38, Groves, & I.R. Noble, Australian (Taxodiaceae) in Tasmania’, Tree Ring Bulletin, pp. 1-13. Academy Canberra. Proceedings of the of 4thScience, Congress International Association Volume VIII page 77 - 86, Gill, A.M. 1981b, ‘Coping withRao. fire’, in The Biology of Australian Plants, eds J.S. Pate 1982, VK Srivastava and AK & A.J.Burning McComb, University of Western Australia, Henry Nedlands, Australia. Pyne, S. 1991, Bush. A Fire History of Australia, Holt,Western New York. Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. 1992, ‘A national register for the fire responses of plant Shepherd, R.R. 1973, ‘Land use on the Central Plateau with special reference to grazing species’, Cunninghamia, vol. 2, pp. 653-660. industry’, in The Lake Country of Tasmania, ed. M.R. Banks, Royal Society of Gill, A.M.Hobart. & Bradstock, R.A. 1995, ‘Extinctions of biota by fires’, in Conserving Tasmania, Biodiversity: eds R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R. Saving the Delhi RidgeThreats - One and yearSolutions, of conservation Action srishi Report, WWF - India D. Lunney Sivertsen. Surrey ‘The Beattyconservation & Sons, Sydney, 309-322. Shepherd,Kingsford, R.R., Winkler, C.B.&&D.Jones, R. 1975, area pp. in land Gill, A.M. &-Moore, 1993, Effectsaspects of flames on management mistletoes. Unpublished report management physicalP.H.R. and administrative of the of the Central to the ACT Parks and Conservation Service. Plateau of Tasmania’, Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia, vol. 9, Hartigan, D. 1960, ‘The Australian mistletoe’, Journal of Forestry, vol. 58, pp. 211 pp. 267-284. 218. Slow Murder - The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution in India Center for Science and INSA Proc. Page 429-447, Chauhan. Environment, Study DirectedRKS by Anil Agarwal. Written by Anju Sharma and Anumita Kantvilas, G. 1990, ‘The genus Roccellinastrum in Tasmania’, Lichenologist, vol. 22, Roychowdhury. Thomas, pp. I. &79-86. Hope, G. 1994, ‘An example of Holocene vegetation stability from Keith, D.A.Lagoon, & Bradstock, R.A. 1994, and competition in Australian heath: a Cameron’s a near treeline site on‘Fire the Central Plateau, Tasmania’, Australian conceptual model and field investigations’, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol. 3, Journal of Ecology, vol. 19, pp. 150-158. pp. 347-354. Zimmer, W.J. 1940, ‘Plant invasions in the mallee’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 56, Kirkpatrick, pp. 143-147.J.B. & Dickinson, K.J.M. 1984, ‘The impact of fire on Tasmanian alpine vegetation and soils’, Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 32, pp. 613-629. Liddy, J. 1983, ‘Dispersal of Australian mistletoes: the Cowiebank study’, in The Biology of Mistletoes, eds D.M. Caldwell & P. Bernhardt, Academic Press, Sydney. Luke, H. & McArthur, A.G. 1978, Bushfires in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. McFarland, D. 1992, ‘Fire and the management of ground parrot habitat’, in Fire Research in Rural Queensland, ed. B.R.Roberts, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 483-495.

Fire Disaster

13

Meredith, C.W., Gilmore, A.M. & Isles, A.C. 1984, ‘The ground parrot (Pezoporus wallicus Kerr) in south-eastern Australia: a fire-adapted species?’, Australian Journal of Ecology, vol. 9, pp. 367-380. Mitchell, A. 1962, Report of Soil Conservation Problems on the Central Plateau and South Esk River Catchment in Tasmania, Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Tasmania. Nicholson, D.I. 1955, ‘The effect of 2:4-D injections and of mistletoe on the growth of Eucalyptus polyanthemos’, Commonwealth of Australia Forestry and Timber Bureau Leaflet, no. 69, pp. 119. Nielsen, E.S. & West, J.G. 1994, ‘Biodiversity research and biological collections: transfer of information’, in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, eds P.L. Forey, C.J. Humphries & R.I. Vane-Wright, Clarendon Press, Oxford. pp. 101-121. Noble, J.C. 1982, ‘The significance of fire in the biology and evolutionary ecology of mallee Eucalyptus populations’, in Evolution of the Flora and Fauna of Arid Australia, eds W.R. Barker & P.J.M. Greenslade, Peacock Publications, Adelaide. pp. 153-159. Noble, J.C. 1989, ‘Fire studies in mallee (Eucalyptus spp.) communities of Western New South Wales: the effects of fires applied in different seasons on herbage productivity and their implications for management’, Australian Journal of Ecology, vol. 14, pp. 169-187. Ogden, J. 1978, ‘Investigations of the dendrochronology of Athrotaxis D.Don (Taxodiaceae) in Tasmania’, Tree Ring Bulletin, vol. 38, pp. 1-13. Proceedings of the 4th Congress International Association Volume VIII page 77 - 86, 1982, VK Srivastava and AK Rao. Pyne, S. 1991, Burning Bush. A Fire History of Australia, Henry Holt, New York. Shepherd, R.R. 1973, ‘Land use on the Central Plateau with special reference to grazing industry’, in The Lake Country of Tasmania, ed. M.R. Banks, Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Saving the Delhi Ridge - One year of conservation Action srishi Report, WWF - India Shepherd, R.R., Winkler, C.B. & Jones, R. 1975, ‘The conservation area in land management - physical and administrative aspects of the management of the Central Plateau of Tasmania’, Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia, vol. 9, pp. 267-284. Slow Murder - The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution in India Center for Science and Environment, Study Directed by Anil Agarwal. Written by Anju Sharma and Anumita Roychowdhury. Thomas, I. & Hope, G. 1994, ‘An example of Holocene vegetation stability from Cameron’s Lagoon, a near treeline site on the Central Plateau, Tasmania’, Australian Journal of Ecology, vol. 19, pp. 150-158. Zimmer, W.J. 1940, ‘Plant invasions in the mallee’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 56, pp. 143-147.

Fire Disaster

13

Meredith, C.W., Gilmore, A.M. & Isles, A.C. 1984, ‘The ground parrot (Pezoporus wallicus Kerr) in south-eastern Australia: a fire-adapted species?’, Australian Journal of Ecology, vol. 9, pp. 367-380. Mitchell, A. 1962, Report of Soil Conservation Problems on the Central Plateau and South Esk River Catchment in Tasmania, Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Tasmania. Nicholson, D.I. 1955, ‘The effect of 2:4-D injections and of mistletoe on the growth of Eucalyptus polyanthemos’, Commonwealth of Australia Forestry and Timber Bureau Leaflet, no. 69, pp. 119. Nielsen, E.S. & West, J.G. 1994, ‘Biodiversity research and biological collections: transfer of information’, in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, eds P.L. Forey, C.J. Humphries & R.I. Vane-Wright, Clarendon Press, Oxford. pp. 101-121. Noble, J.C. 1982, ‘The significance of fire in the biology and evolutionary ecology of mallee Eucalyptus populations’, in Evolution of the Flora and Fauna of Arid Australia, eds W.R. Barker & P.J.M. Greenslade, Peacock Publications, Adelaide. pp. 153-159. Noble, J.C. 1989, ‘Fire studies in mallee (Eucalyptus spp.) communities of Western New South Wales: the effects of fires applied in different seasons on herbage productivity and their implications for management’, Australian Journal of Ecology, vol. 14, pp. 169-187. Ogden, J. 1978, ‘Investigations of the dendrochronology of Athrotaxis D.Don (Taxodiaceae) in Tasmania’, Tree Ring Bulletin, vol. 38, pp. 1-13. Proceedings of the 4th Congress International Association Volume VIII page 77 - 86, 1982, VK Srivastava and AK Rao. Pyne, S. 1991, Burning Bush. A Fire History of Australia, Henry Holt, New York. Shepherd, R.R. 1973, ‘Land use on the Central Plateau with special reference to grazing industry’, in The Lake Country of Tasmania, ed. M.R. Banks, Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Saving the Delhi Ridge - One year of conservation Action srishi Report, WWF - India Shepherd, R.R., Winkler, C.B. & Jones, R. 1975, ‘The conservation area in land management - physical and administrative aspects of the management of the Central Plateau of Tasmania’, Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia, vol. 9, pp. 267-284. Slow Murder - The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution in India Center for Science and Environment, Study Directed by Anil Agarwal. Written by Anju Sharma and Anumita Roychowdhury. Thomas, I. & Hope, G. 1994, ‘An example of Holocene vegetation stability from Cameron’s Lagoon, a near treeline site on the Central Plateau, Tasmania’, Australian Journal of Ecology, vol. 19, pp. 150-158. Zimmer, W.J. 1940, ‘Plant invasions in the mallee’, The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 56, pp. 143-147.

2

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION The history of the development of the present New Okhla Industrial Development Authority area can be traced as far back as 1972 when the U.P. Govt., taking note of the mounting pressure of speculative land dealings in this area, closely situated to Delhi having backward characteristics declared 50 villages of the erstwhile district of Bulandshahar as the “Yamuna-Hindon-Delhi Border Regulated Area”, under U.P. Regulations of Building Operations Act, 1958. The need for establishing an urban centre in close proximity to Delhi was felt, due to the following reasons: i) Decentralization of economic activities from the National Capital and thereby preventing the in-migration to Delhi and help in decongesting the Metropolis. ii) To stop speculative land dealings in the areas under influence of the Metropolis giving rise to an unplanned and haphazard growth in the region. iii) Provide an alternative site for the small and medium size industries functioning in the non-conforming areas in and around Delhi at a much lower price and at the same time at the doorstep of Delhi. iv) Provide a reasonably decent site for residential development within a manageable distance from Delhi due to the non-availability of land in Delhi at a reasonable price. On March 7, 1972, the Controlling Authority considered various aspects of the development of a Regulated Area, which then consisted of an area of about 120 sq. km. and a population of approximately-42000 persons. On April 17, 1976, the U.P. Govt. constituted an Industrial Development Authority for 37 villages of this area under Sec. 3 (1) of the U.P. Industrial Area Development Act, 1976 (U.P. Act NO.6 of 1976).

2

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION The history of the development of the present New Okhla Industrial Development Authority area can be traced as far back as 1972 when the U.P. Govt., taking note of the mounting pressure of speculative land dealings in this area, closely situated to Delhi having backward characteristics declared 50 villages of the erstwhile district of Bulandshahar as the “Yamuna-Hindon-Delhi Border Regulated Area”, under U.P. Regulations of Building Operations Act, 1958. The need for establishing an urban centre in close proximity to Delhi was felt, due to the following reasons: i) Decentralization of economic activities from the National Capital and thereby preventing the in-migration to Delhi and help in decongesting the Metropolis. ii) To stop speculative land dealings in the areas under influence of the Metropolis giving rise to an unplanned and haphazard growth in the region. iii) Provide an alternative site for the small and medium size industries functioning in the non-conforming areas in and around Delhi at a much lower price and at the same time at the doorstep of Delhi. iv) Provide a reasonably decent site for residential development within a manageable distance from Delhi due to the non-availability of land in Delhi at a reasonable price. On March 7, 1972, the Controlling Authority considered various aspects of the development of a Regulated Area, which then consisted of an area of about 120 sq. km. and a population of approximately-42000 persons. On April 17, 1976, the U.P. Govt. constituted an Industrial Development Authority for 37 villages of this area under Sec. 3 (1) of the U.P. Industrial Area Development Act, 1976 (U.P. Act NO.6 of 1976).

2

2

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The history of the development of the present New Okhla Industrial Development Authority area can be traced as far back as 1972 when the U.P. Govt., taking note of the mounting pressure of speculative land dealings in this area, closely situated to Delhi having backward characteristics declared 50 villages of the erstwhile district of Bulandshahar as the “Yamuna-Hindon-Delhi Border Regulated Area”, under U.P. Regulations of Building Operations Act, 1958. The need for establishing an urban centre in close proximity to Delhi was felt, due to the following reasons: i) Decentralization of economic activities from the National Capital and thereby preventing the in-migration to Delhi and help in decongesting the Metropolis. ii) To stop speculative land dealings in the areas under influence of the Metropolis giving rise to an unplanned and haphazard growth in the region. iii) Provide an alternative site for the small and medium size industries functioning in the non-conforming areas in and around Delhi at a much lower price and at the same time at the doorstep of Delhi. iv) Provide a reasonably decent site for residential development within a manageable distance from Delhi due to the non-availability of land in Delhi at a reasonable price.

The history of the development of the present New Okhla Industrial Development Authority area can be traced as far back as 1972 when the U.P. Govt., taking note of the mounting pressure of speculative land dealings in this area, closely situated to Delhi having backward characteristics declared 50 villages of the erstwhile district of Bulandshahar as the “Yamuna-Hindon-Delhi Border Regulated Area”, under U.P. Regulations of Building Operations Act, 1958. The need for establishing an urban centre in close proximity to Delhi was felt, due to the following reasons: i) Decentralization of economic activities from the National Capital and thereby preventing the in-migration to Delhi and help in decongesting the Metropolis. ii) To stop speculative land dealings in the areas under influence of the Metropolis giving rise to an unplanned and haphazard growth in the region. iii) Provide an alternative site for the small and medium size industries functioning in the non-conforming areas in and around Delhi at a much lower price and at the same time at the doorstep of Delhi. iv) Provide a reasonably decent site for residential development within a manageable distance from Delhi due to the non-availability of land in Delhi at a reasonable price.

On March 7, 1972, the Controlling Authority considered various aspects of the development of a Regulated Area, which then consisted of an area of about 120 sq. km. and a population of approximately-42000 persons. On April 17, 1976, the U.P. Govt. constituted an Industrial Development Authority for 37 villages of this area under Sec. 3 (1) of the U.P. Industrial Area Development Act, 1976 (U.P. Act NO.6 of 1976).

On March 7, 1972, the Controlling Authority considered various aspects of the development of a Regulated Area, which then consisted of an area of about 120 sq. km. and a population of approximately-42000 persons. On April 17, 1976, the U.P. Govt. constituted an Industrial Development Authority for 37 villages of this area under Sec. 3 (1) of the U.P. Industrial Area Development Act, 1976 (U.P. Act NO.6 of 1976).

2

2

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management: A Case Study Noida

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The history of the development of the present New Okhla Industrial Development Authority area can be traced as far back as 1972 when the U.P. Govt., taking note of the mounting pressure of speculative land dealings in this area, closely situated to Delhi having backward characteristics declared 50 villages of the erstwhile district of Bulandshahar as the “Yamuna-Hindon-Delhi Border Regulated Area”, under U.P. Regulations of Building Operations Act, 1958. The need for establishing an urban centre in close proximity to Delhi was felt, due to the following reasons: i) Decentralization of economic activities from the National Capital and thereby preventing the in-migration to Delhi and help in decongesting the Metropolis. ii) To stop speculative land dealings in the areas under influence of the Metropolis giving rise to an unplanned and haphazard growth in the region. iii) Provide an alternative site for the small and medium size industries functioning in the non-conforming areas in and around Delhi at a much lower price and at the same time at the doorstep of Delhi. iv) Provide a reasonably decent site for residential development within a manageable distance from Delhi due to the non-availability of land in Delhi at a reasonable price.

The history of the development of the present New Okhla Industrial Development Authority area can be traced as far back as 1972 when the U.P. Govt., taking note of the mounting pressure of speculative land dealings in this area, closely situated to Delhi having backward characteristics declared 50 villages of the erstwhile district of Bulandshahar as the “Yamuna-Hindon-Delhi Border Regulated Area”, under U.P. Regulations of Building Operations Act, 1958. The need for establishing an urban centre in close proximity to Delhi was felt, due to the following reasons: i) Decentralization of economic activities from the National Capital and thereby preventing the in-migration to Delhi and help in decongesting the Metropolis. ii) To stop speculative land dealings in the areas under influence of the Metropolis giving rise to an unplanned and haphazard growth in the region. iii) Provide an alternative site for the small and medium size industries functioning in the non-conforming areas in and around Delhi at a much lower price and at the same time at the doorstep of Delhi. iv) Provide a reasonably decent site for residential development within a manageable distance from Delhi due to the non-availability of land in Delhi at a reasonable price.

On March 7, 1972, the Controlling Authority considered various aspects of the development of a Regulated Area, which then consisted of an area of about 120 sq. km. and a population of approximately-42000 persons. On April 17, 1976, the U.P. Govt. constituted an Industrial Development Authority for 37 villages of this area under Sec. 3 (1) of the U.P. Industrial Area Development Act, 1976 (U.P. Act NO.6 of 1976).

On March 7, 1972, the Controlling Authority considered various aspects of the development of a Regulated Area, which then consisted of an area of about 120 sq. km. and a population of approximately-42000 persons. On April 17, 1976, the U.P. Govt. constituted an Industrial Development Authority for 37 villages of this area under Sec. 3 (1) of the U.P. Industrial Area Development Act, 1976 (U.P. Act NO.6 of 1976).

16

Disaster Management

However, in order to arrive at a concrete developmental strategy in connection with the aims and objectives of the Authority, the New Okhla Industrial Development Authority, in its meeting held on 9th June 1977 set up an Expert Committee. The committee was advisory in nature and it gave guidelines for the future development of the NOIDA Township that included the size, shape and overall character of the Township as shown in Fig. 1.

16

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

17

in thus orderprepared to arrive concrete strategy The However, Master Plan, on at the abasis of thedevelopmental Expert Committee’s in connectionwas with the aims and Authority objectives of 23rd the Authority, theonNew recommendations, approved by the in its meeting held Okhla Industrial Authority, 1983, theinland its meeting use planheld wason approved 9th Juneby1977 22/2/1979. Finally onDevelopment 22nd February set up anin Expert The committee was advisory in objections nature and it the authority its 40th Committee. meeting for publication and for inviting public guidelines for the future development of the NOIDA Township that and gave suggestions. included the size, shape and overall character of the Township as shown in Fig. 1. Regional Setting and Physical Constraints The New Okhla Industrial Area, an authority established under this Act, is not only responsible for the preparation and execution of a developmental plan for the Industrial Development Area but also for maintaining and providing amenities such as roads, water supply, street lighting, power supply, collection and disposal of sewage etc. The Authority has also been empowered to levy taxes with the previous approval of the State Govt. for this purpose. The Authority can also receive funds from different sources in various forms, such as loans, grants, debentures etc. for the execution of its development plans. The Authority has been further empowered to regulate the erection of buildings, the development of sites and to issue regulations/directions regarding buildings and developmental activities in order to ensure planned development. Thus, the Authority has the responsibility of the entire development taking place in the notified area. The development of the industrial sectors in the area adjoining the DelhiU.P. Border started in the year 1976 according to the Master Plan prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department, Govt. of U. P. By the end of the first financial year i.e. March, 1977, the physical infrastructure for the entire industrial area had already been laid. About 1,000 industrial sheds were constructed and a big number of the industrial plots sold to the prospective entrepreneurs. It is bounded by the Yamuna river and the city of Delhi in the west and the south west, National Highway 24 and the city of Ghaziabad in the north, river Hindon and Greater Noida Area in the east, and the confluence of the Yamuna and Hindon in the south. Connaught Place, the heart of Delhi, lies merely 15 km from the centre of the NOIDA city. It is located on the left bank of the river and is equidistant from Ghaziabad and Delhi. It was developed near Delhi, across the Yamuna river, in the 1970’s as a modern industrial city. There has been an extensive growth of population in Noida during the last two decades and the population is estimated to be about half a million. There is now a Greater Noida township being developed on the outskirts of Noida, to cater to the phenomenal influx of population into this region. The township lies at an average elevation of 200m above Mean Sea Level and has a flat topography. Need for Flood Disaster Management Programme

Fig. 1. Location of NOIDA and Greater NOIDA Source: NCR Planning Board, 2001

16

Disaster Management

However, in order to arrive at a concrete developmental strategy in connection with the aims and objectives of the Authority, the New Okhla Industrial Development Authority, in its meeting held on 9th June 1977 set up an Expert Committee. The committee was advisory in nature and it gave guidelines for the future development of the NOIDA Township that included the size, shape and overall character of the Township as shown in Fig. 1.

The city of Noida comes the premise of and Gautam Budh Nagar which is a Fig. under 1. Location of NOIDA Greater NOIDA District of Uttar Pradesh. High population density, proximity and heterogeneity Source: NCR Planning Board, 2001

16

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

17

in thus orderprepared to arrive concrete strategy The However, Master Plan, on at the abasis of thedevelopmental Expert Committee’s in connectionwas with the aims and Authority objectives of 23rd the Authority, theonNew recommendations, approved by the in its meeting held Okhla Industrial Authority, 1983, theinland its meeting use planheld wason approved 9th Juneby1977 22/2/1979. Finally onDevelopment 22nd February set up anin Expert The committee was advisory in objections nature and it the authority its 40th Committee. meeting for publication and for inviting public guidelines for the future development of the NOIDA Township that and gave suggestions. included the size, shape and overall character of the Township as shown in Fig. 1. Regional Setting and Physical Constraints The New Okhla Industrial Area, an authority established under this Act, is not only responsible for the preparation and execution of a developmental plan for the Industrial Development Area but also for maintaining and providing amenities such as roads, water supply, street lighting, power supply, collection and disposal of sewage etc. The Authority has also been empowered to levy taxes with the previous approval of the State Govt. for this purpose. The Authority can also receive funds from different sources in various forms, such as loans, grants, debentures etc. for the execution of its development plans. The Authority has been further empowered to regulate the erection of buildings, the development of sites and to issue regulations/directions regarding buildings and developmental activities in order to ensure planned development. Thus, the Authority has the responsibility of the entire development taking place in the notified area. The development of the industrial sectors in the area adjoining the DelhiU.P. Border started in the year 1976 according to the Master Plan prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department, Govt. of U. P. By the end of the first financial year i.e. March, 1977, the physical infrastructure for the entire industrial area had already been laid. About 1,000 industrial sheds were constructed and a big number of the industrial plots sold to the prospective entrepreneurs. It is bounded by the Yamuna river and the city of Delhi in the west and the south west, National Highway 24 and the city of Ghaziabad in the north, river Hindon and Greater Noida Area in the east, and the confluence of the Yamuna and Hindon in the south. Connaught Place, the heart of Delhi, lies merely 15 km from the centre of the NOIDA city. It is located on the left bank of the river and is equidistant from Ghaziabad and Delhi. It was developed near Delhi, across the Yamuna river, in the 1970’s as a modern industrial city. There has been an extensive growth of population in Noida during the last two decades and the population is estimated to be about half a million. There is now a Greater Noida township being developed on the outskirts of Noida, to cater to the phenomenal influx of population into this region. The township lies at an average elevation of 200m above Mean Sea Level and has a flat topography. Need for Flood Disaster Management Programme

Fig. 1. Location of NOIDA and Greater NOIDA Source: NCR Planning Board, 2001

The city of Noida comes the premise of and Gautam Budh Nagar which is a Fig. under 1. Location of NOIDA Greater NOIDA District of Uttar Pradesh. High population density, proximity and heterogeneity Source: NCR Planning Board, 2001

16

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

17

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

17

The However, Master Plan, on at the abasis of thedevelopmental Expert Committee’s in thus orderprepared to arrive concrete strategy recommendations, approved by the in its meeting held in connectionwas with the aims and Authority objectives of 23rd the Authority, theonNew 22/2/1979. Finally onDevelopment 22nd February 1983, theinland use planheld wason approved Okhla Industrial Authority, its meeting 9th Juneby1977 the authority its 40th Committee. meeting for publication and for inviting public set up anin Expert The committee was advisory in objections nature and it and gave suggestions. guidelines for the future development of the NOIDA Township that included the size, shape and overall character of the Township as shown in Fig. 1. Regional Setting and Physical Constraints

The Master Plan, thus prepared on the basis of the Expert Committee’s recommendations, was approved by the Authority in its 23rd meeting held on 22/2/1979. Finally on 22nd February 1983, the land use plan was approved by the authority in its 40th meeting for publication and for inviting public objections and suggestions.

The New Okhla Industrial Area, an authority established under this Act, is not only responsible for the preparation and execution of a developmental plan for the Industrial Development Area but also for maintaining and providing amenities such as roads, water supply, street lighting, power supply, collection and disposal of sewage etc. The Authority has also been empowered to levy taxes with the previous approval of the State Govt. for this purpose. The Authority can also receive funds from different sources in various forms, such as loans, grants, debentures etc. for the execution of its development plans. The Authority has been further empowered to regulate the erection of buildings, the development of sites and to issue regulations/directions regarding buildings and developmental activities in order to ensure planned development. Thus, the Authority has the responsibility of the entire development taking place in the notified area. The development of the industrial sectors in the area adjoining the DelhiU.P. Border started in the year 1976 according to the Master Plan prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department, Govt. of U. P. By the end of the first financial year i.e. March, 1977, the physical infrastructure for the entire industrial area had already been laid. About 1,000 industrial sheds were constructed and a big number of the industrial plots sold to the prospective entrepreneurs. It is bounded by the Yamuna river and the city of Delhi in the west and the south west, National Highway 24 and the city of Ghaziabad in the north, river Hindon and Greater Noida Area in the east, and the confluence of the Yamuna and Hindon in the south. Connaught Place, the heart of Delhi, lies merely 15 km from the centre of the NOIDA city. It is located on the left bank of the river and is equidistant from Ghaziabad and Delhi. It was developed near Delhi, across the Yamuna river, in the 1970’s as a modern industrial city. There has been an extensive growth of population in Noida during the last two decades and the population is estimated to be about half a million. There is now a Greater Noida township being developed on the outskirts of Noida, to cater to the phenomenal influx of population into this region. The township lies at an average elevation of 200m above Mean Sea Level and has a flat topography.

The New Okhla Industrial Area, an authority established under this Act, is not only responsible for the preparation and execution of a developmental plan for the Industrial Development Area but also for maintaining and providing amenities such as roads, water supply, street lighting, power supply, collection and disposal of sewage etc. The Authority has also been empowered to levy taxes with the previous approval of the State Govt. for this purpose. The Authority can also receive funds from different sources in various forms, such as loans, grants, debentures etc. for the execution of its development plans. The Authority has been further empowered to regulate the erection of buildings, the development of sites and to issue regulations/directions regarding buildings and developmental activities in order to ensure planned development. Thus, the Authority has the responsibility of the entire development taking place in the notified area. The development of the industrial sectors in the area adjoining the DelhiU.P. Border started in the year 1976 according to the Master Plan prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department, Govt. of U. P. By the end of the first financial year i.e. March, 1977, the physical infrastructure for the entire industrial area had already been laid. About 1,000 industrial sheds were constructed and a big number of the industrial plots sold to the prospective entrepreneurs. It is bounded by the Yamuna river and the city of Delhi in the west and the south west, National Highway 24 and the city of Ghaziabad in the north, river Hindon and Greater Noida Area in the east, and the confluence of the Yamuna and Hindon in the south. Connaught Place, the heart of Delhi, lies merely 15 km from the centre of the NOIDA city. It is located on the left bank of the river and is equidistant from Ghaziabad and Delhi. It was developed near Delhi, across the Yamuna river, in the 1970’s as a modern industrial city. There has been an extensive growth of population in Noida during the last two decades and the population is estimated to be about half a million. There is now a Greater Noida township being developed on the outskirts of Noida, to cater to the phenomenal influx of population into this region. The township lies at an average elevation of 200m above Mean Sea Level and has a flat topography.

Need for Flood Disaster Management Programme

Need for Flood Disaster Management Programme

The city of Noida comes the premise of and Gautam Budh Nagar which is a Fig. under 1. Location of NOIDA Greater NOIDA District of Uttar Pradesh. High population density, proximity and heterogeneity

The city of Noida comes under the premise of Gautam Budh Nagar which is a District of Uttar Pradesh. High population density, proximity and heterogeneity

Source: NCR Planning Board, 2001

16

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

17

Regional Setting and Physical Constraints

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

17

The However, Master Plan, on at the abasis of thedevelopmental Expert Committee’s in thus orderprepared to arrive concrete strategy recommendations, approved by the in its meeting held in connectionwas with the aims and Authority objectives of 23rd the Authority, theonNew 22/2/1979. Finally onDevelopment 22nd February 1983, theinland use planheld wason approved Okhla Industrial Authority, its meeting 9th Juneby1977 the authority its 40th Committee. meeting for publication and for inviting public set up anin Expert The committee was advisory in objections nature and it and gave suggestions. guidelines for the future development of the NOIDA Township that included the size, shape and overall character of the Township as shown in Fig. 1. Regional Setting and Physical Constraints

The Master Plan, thus prepared on the basis of the Expert Committee’s recommendations, was approved by the Authority in its 23rd meeting held on 22/2/1979. Finally on 22nd February 1983, the land use plan was approved by the authority in its 40th meeting for publication and for inviting public objections and suggestions.

The New Okhla Industrial Area, an authority established under this Act, is not only responsible for the preparation and execution of a developmental plan for the Industrial Development Area but also for maintaining and providing amenities such as roads, water supply, street lighting, power supply, collection and disposal of sewage etc. The Authority has also been empowered to levy taxes with the previous approval of the State Govt. for this purpose. The Authority can also receive funds from different sources in various forms, such as loans, grants, debentures etc. for the execution of its development plans. The Authority has been further empowered to regulate the erection of buildings, the development of sites and to issue regulations/directions regarding buildings and developmental activities in order to ensure planned development. Thus, the Authority has the responsibility of the entire development taking place in the notified area. The development of the industrial sectors in the area adjoining the DelhiU.P. Border started in the year 1976 according to the Master Plan prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department, Govt. of U. P. By the end of the first financial year i.e. March, 1977, the physical infrastructure for the entire industrial area had already been laid. About 1,000 industrial sheds were constructed and a big number of the industrial plots sold to the prospective entrepreneurs. It is bounded by the Yamuna river and the city of Delhi in the west and the south west, National Highway 24 and the city of Ghaziabad in the north, river Hindon and Greater Noida Area in the east, and the confluence of the Yamuna and Hindon in the south. Connaught Place, the heart of Delhi, lies merely 15 km from the centre of the NOIDA city. It is located on the left bank of the river and is equidistant from Ghaziabad and Delhi. It was developed near Delhi, across the Yamuna river, in the 1970’s as a modern industrial city. There has been an extensive growth of population in Noida during the last two decades and the population is estimated to be about half a million. There is now a Greater Noida township being developed on the outskirts of Noida, to cater to the phenomenal influx of population into this region. The township lies at an average elevation of 200m above Mean Sea Level and has a flat topography.

The New Okhla Industrial Area, an authority established under this Act, is not only responsible for the preparation and execution of a developmental plan for the Industrial Development Area but also for maintaining and providing amenities such as roads, water supply, street lighting, power supply, collection and disposal of sewage etc. The Authority has also been empowered to levy taxes with the previous approval of the State Govt. for this purpose. The Authority can also receive funds from different sources in various forms, such as loans, grants, debentures etc. for the execution of its development plans. The Authority has been further empowered to regulate the erection of buildings, the development of sites and to issue regulations/directions regarding buildings and developmental activities in order to ensure planned development. Thus, the Authority has the responsibility of the entire development taking place in the notified area. The development of the industrial sectors in the area adjoining the DelhiU.P. Border started in the year 1976 according to the Master Plan prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department, Govt. of U. P. By the end of the first financial year i.e. March, 1977, the physical infrastructure for the entire industrial area had already been laid. About 1,000 industrial sheds were constructed and a big number of the industrial plots sold to the prospective entrepreneurs. It is bounded by the Yamuna river and the city of Delhi in the west and the south west, National Highway 24 and the city of Ghaziabad in the north, river Hindon and Greater Noida Area in the east, and the confluence of the Yamuna and Hindon in the south. Connaught Place, the heart of Delhi, lies merely 15 km from the centre of the NOIDA city. It is located on the left bank of the river and is equidistant from Ghaziabad and Delhi. It was developed near Delhi, across the Yamuna river, in the 1970’s as a modern industrial city. There has been an extensive growth of population in Noida during the last two decades and the population is estimated to be about half a million. There is now a Greater Noida township being developed on the outskirts of Noida, to cater to the phenomenal influx of population into this region. The township lies at an average elevation of 200m above Mean Sea Level and has a flat topography.

Need for Flood Disaster Management Programme

Need for Flood Disaster Management Programme

The city of Noida comes the premise of and Gautam Budh Nagar which is a Fig. under 1. Location of NOIDA Greater NOIDA District of Uttar Pradesh. High population density, proximity and heterogeneity

The city of Noida comes under the premise of Gautam Budh Nagar which is a District of Uttar Pradesh. High population density, proximity and heterogeneity

Source: NCR Planning Board, 2001

Regional Setting and Physical Constraints

18

Disaster Management

are some of the characteristics of this Noida city which pose serious challenges related to meeting the demands for collective urban services, keeping a sound natural environment, and reducing physical, social and institutional vulnerabilities. This work will provide a base to analyse risk management and understand vulnerabilities of various types including natural, infrastructural etc. So, this is an attempt to outline a disaster management plan of the Noida city because it does not include each and every aspect of the environment, but it has taken into account only flood and seismic vulnerability and these two are the basic problems of Noida being a zone IV region on the Mercelli scale. The people who cannot meet even their daily necessities cannot be expected to take sufficient safeguards against natural disasters and combat various epidemics that usually follow such occurrences. The people’s proneness to disasters increases because, by the process of elimination, they are forced to live in low lying areas subjected to frequent flooding vulnerability as in Noida. This type of growth requires sophisticated mechanisms to carry out disaster preparedness and emergency operations. On the contrary, this city has limited access to the wherewithal for quickly evicting people from the site of disaster or shifting to alternative shelters and in the process, the affected people also get exposed to various climatic and environmental vagaries and thus suffer additionally due to the various reasons. The institutional framework for educating the poor and preventing them from inhabiting vulnerable areas is either absent or weak. Even if such an arrangement exists there is a general lack of will to act and as a result, substantially large proportions of the poor and deprived population live in disaster prone areas and suffer immensely every time the disaster strikes. Disaster Management and Land Use Policy Noida has been planned on the grid iron concept and employs state-of-the-art technology in Engineering, Urban Planning and Architecture. Significantly, it conceptualizes the needs of a fast developing city of the future. The Action Plan and approach compares well with international standards and is aimed at providing rapid momentum to the growth of the industrial sector both in the State of Uttar Pradesh and the Country Planning. NOIDA, after acquiring 385 acres of land, has acquired and developed over 5,888 hectares of land until now. During the current year, 3 residential sectors and 2 industrial sectors have been developed. In the decade ahead, 3,400 hectares of land will be acquired and developed, out of which 430 hectares have been earmarked for residential, 620 hectares for commercial, 650 hectares for industrial and 200 hectares for institutional purposes. Another 300 hectares of land have been earmarked for development of recreational purposes which will include Entertainment Park and a centre for musical and cultural activities. 125 hectares of land will be utilized for creation of road transport facilities including a bus terminal.

18

Disaster Management

are some of the characteristics of this Noida city which pose serious challenges related to meeting the demands for collective urban services, keeping a sound natural environment, and reducing physical, social and institutional vulnerabilities. This work will provide a base to analyse risk management and understand vulnerabilities of various types including natural, infrastructural etc. So, this is an attempt to outline a disaster management plan of the Noida city because it does not include each and every aspect of the environment, but it has taken into account only flood and seismic vulnerability and these two are the basic problems of Noida being a zone IV region on the Mercelli scale. The people who cannot meet even their daily necessities cannot be expected to take sufficient safeguards against natural disasters and combat various epidemics that usually follow such occurrences. The people’s proneness to disasters increases because, by the process of elimination, they are forced to live in low lying areas subjected to frequent flooding vulnerability as in Noida. This type of growth requires sophisticated mechanisms to carry out disaster preparedness and emergency operations. On the contrary, this city has limited access to the wherewithal for quickly evicting people from the site of disaster or shifting to alternative shelters and in the process, the affected people also get exposed to various climatic and environmental vagaries and thus suffer additionally due to the various reasons. The institutional framework for educating the poor and preventing them from inhabiting vulnerable areas is either absent or weak. Even if such an arrangement exists there is a general lack of will to act and as a result, substantially large proportions of the poor and deprived population live in disaster prone areas and suffer immensely every time the disaster strikes. Disaster Management and Land Use Policy Noida has been planned on the grid iron concept and employs state-of-the-art technology in Engineering, Urban Planning and Architecture. Significantly, it conceptualizes the needs of a fast developing city of the future. The Action Plan and approach compares well with international standards and is aimed at providing rapid momentum to the growth of the industrial sector both in the State of Uttar Pradesh and the Country Planning. NOIDA, after acquiring 385 acres of land, has acquired and developed over 5,888 hectares of land until now. During the current year, 3 residential sectors and 2 industrial sectors have been developed. In the decade ahead, 3,400 hectares of land will be acquired and developed, out of which 430 hectares have been earmarked for residential, 620 hectares for commercial, 650 hectares for industrial and 200 hectares for institutional purposes. Another 300 hectares of land have been earmarked for development of recreational purposes which will include Entertainment Park and a centre for musical and cultural activities. 125 hectares of land will be utilized for creation of road transport facilities including a bus terminal.

18

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

19

are some management of the characteristics of recent this Noida city which poseenvironmental, serious challenges Disaster is a more concept of linking relatedand to meeting thevalues. demands collective urban services, keeping a sound economic social use Thefor concept of land-use change management natural environment, reducing physical, social and Land-use institutional screens the balance of theseand three values for land-use planning. vulnerabilities. This work will are provide a base to analyse risk management and policy decisions almost always based on themanagement analysis of and understand vulnerabilities of variousissue. typesWhen including natural, the infrastructural the factors pertaining to each particular considering sustainable etc. So, this isof an attempt to outline disaster management plan of the Noida city development land, land-use change amanagement is an important phenomenon. it does not change includemanagement each and every aspect of theinenvironment, but it The because content of land-use can be described terms of three taken into account onlyand flood and seismic these into two are valuehassets (ecological, social market values) vulnerability that must beand brought the basic problems of Noida being a zone IV region on the Mercelli scale. balance by land planning. The people cannotarea meetaccommodated even their daily cannot be expected It indicates that who the whole 11,necessities 91263 people (0.72% of to take sufficientin safeguards against natural disasters and combat various the state population) the year 2001 as compared with 1991, when the total that follow such occurrences. The people’s proneness no ofepidemics population wasusually 8,77853(0.67% of the state population). Even ranking on to disasters increases because, by the of elimination, are forced the basis of the population density, the process district has gone up in they standard as it to th on rank areas with the population densityflooding of 692 and now it is as 15in in low subjected to frequent vulnerability Noida. was live on the 21st lying the rank densitysophisticated 939. As a result of the close proximity to This with type aofpopulation growth requires mechanisms to carry out disaster Delhi and a good and surrounding environment, for land increasing. preparedness emergency operations. the Ondemand the contrary, thisiscity has limited In the recent the land values in the evicting area have increased alarming access to past, the wherewithal for quickly people from at theansite of disaster rate.orThis is partly due to present unplanned development andaffected misusespeople of the also shifting to alternative shelters and in the process, the land.getAsexposed a consequence, valuable lands havevagaries been converted to various climaticagricultural and environmental and thus to suffer urban uses without planning. additionally due proper to the various reasons. The institutional framework for educating the poor and preventing them from inhabiting vulnerable areas is either absent or weak. Even if such an arrangement exists there is a general lack of will to Zonation Regulation and Disaster Management act and as a result, substantially large proportions of the poor and deprived The population Zonation regulations are keyprone to urban management in Noida live in disaster areasflood and disaster suffer immensely every time the (Gautam Budh Nagar). These regulations comprise a map depicting the various disaster strikes. zones, plus related metadata. Most importantly, a zonation regulation indicates where certain uses of land, buildings and other structures (e. g. agricultural, Disaster Management and Land Use Policy residential, industrial, commercial, public) are permitted. Other important measures be incorporated intogrid a zonation plan (these are not compulsory) Noidathat hascan been planned on the iron concept and employs state-of-the-art include the following: technology in Engineering, Urban Planning and Architecture. Significantly, it • Target densitiesthe canneeds be setoffora residential areas. city This of is important recent conceptualizes fast developing the future.asThe Action experiences highlightcompares the increased in high-density areas,and especially Plan and approach well fatalities with international standards is aimed at when thererapid are nomomentum open spaces for evacuation purposes. providing toavailable the growth of the industrial sector both in the • Maximum “plotPradesh coverages” set to guarantee openafter spaceacquiring within a 385 State of Uttar and can the be Country Planning. some NOIDA, 2, for 5,888 example, wouldof translate plot. coverage of 60% inand a plot of 400 mover acresAofplot land, has acquired developed hectares land until roof3area, leavingsectors 120 m2 and as open space. This is anhave into aDuring maximum240 m2 ofyear, now. the current residential 2 industrial sectors important disasterInmitigation toolahead, as it can be hectares used to force people been developed. the decade 3,400 of land will to beallow acquired room for a garden they can in the event an earthquake. In the case and developed, outwhere of which 430go hectares have of been earmarked for residential, of minimum plot sizesforcan be set in and terms200 of plot area for 620single-family hectares fordwellings, commercial, 650 hectares industrial hectares as well as minimum width and width/length relationships. For example, current for institutional purposes. Another 300 hectares of land have been earmarked regulations a minimumpurposes width of which 6 m and maximum width/lengthPark developmentallow of recreational willa include Entertainment relationship onemusical to seven. This tool could be used to avoid extremely and a centreoffor and cultural activities. 125 hectares of landlong will be passages thatcreation could make evacuation the roads difficult. In the case of utilized for of road transport to facilities including a bus terminal. Maximum building height, it is also an important aspect in earthquake mitigation.

18

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

19

are some management of the characteristics of recent this Noida city which poseenvironmental, serious challenges Disaster is a more concept of linking relatedand to meeting thevalues. demands collective urban services, keeping a sound economic social use Thefor concept of land-use change management natural environment, reducing physical, social and Land-use institutional screens the balance of theseand three values for land-use planning. vulnerabilities. This work will are provide a base to analyse risk management and policy decisions almost always based on themanagement analysis of and understand vulnerabilities of variousissue. typesWhen including natural, the infrastructural the factors pertaining to each particular considering sustainable etc. So, this isof an attempt to outline disaster management plan of the Noida city development land, land-use change amanagement is an important phenomenon. it does not change includemanagement each and every aspect of theinenvironment, but it The because content of land-use can be described terms of three taken into account onlyand flood and seismic these into two are valuehassets (ecological, social market values) vulnerability that must beand brought the basic problems of Noida being a zone IV region on the Mercelli scale. balance by land planning. The people cannotarea meetaccommodated even their daily cannot be expected It indicates that who the whole 11,necessities 91263 people (0.72% of to take sufficientin safeguards against natural disasters and combat various the state population) the year 2001 as compared with 1991, when the total that follow such occurrences. The people’s proneness no ofepidemics population wasusually 8,77853(0.67% of the state population). Even ranking on to disasters increases because, by the of elimination, are forced the basis of the population density, the process district has gone up in they standard as it to th on rank areas with the population densityflooding of 692 and now it is as 15in in low subjected to frequent vulnerability Noida. was live on the 21st lying the rank densitysophisticated 939. As a result of the close proximity to This with type aofpopulation growth requires mechanisms to carry out disaster Delhi and a good and surrounding environment, for land increasing. preparedness emergency operations. the Ondemand the contrary, thisiscity has limited In the recent the land values in the evicting area have increased alarming access to past, the wherewithal for quickly people from at theansite of disaster rate.orThis is partly due to present unplanned development andaffected misusespeople of the also shifting to alternative shelters and in the process, the land.getAsexposed a consequence, valuable lands havevagaries been converted to various climaticagricultural and environmental and thus to suffer urban uses without planning. additionally due proper to the various reasons. The institutional framework for educating the poor and preventing them from inhabiting vulnerable areas is either absent or weak. Even if such an arrangement exists there is a general lack of will to Zonation Regulation and Disaster Management act and as a result, substantially large proportions of the poor and deprived The population Zonation regulations are keyprone to urban management in Noida live in disaster areasflood and disaster suffer immensely every time the (Gautam Budh Nagar). These regulations comprise a map depicting the various disaster strikes. zones, plus related metadata. Most importantly, a zonation regulation indicates where certain uses of land, buildings and other structures (e. g. agricultural, Disaster Management and Land Use Policy residential, industrial, commercial, public) are permitted. Other important measures be incorporated intogrid a zonation plan (these are not compulsory) Noidathat hascan been planned on the iron concept and employs state-of-the-art include the following: technology in Engineering, Urban Planning and Architecture. Significantly, it • Target densitiesthe canneeds be setoffora residential areas. city This of is important recent conceptualizes fast developing the future.asThe Action experiences highlightcompares the increased in high-density areas,and especially Plan and approach well fatalities with international standards is aimed at when thererapid are nomomentum open spaces for evacuation purposes. providing toavailable the growth of the industrial sector both in the • Maximum “plotPradesh coverages” set to guarantee openafter spaceacquiring within a 385 State of Uttar and can the be Country Planning. some NOIDA, 2 , for 5,888 example, wouldof translate plot. coverage of 60% inand a plot of 400 mover acresAofplot land, has acquired developed hectares land until roof3area, leavingsectors 120 m2 and as open space. This is anhave into aDuring maximum240 m2 ofyear, now. the current residential 2 industrial sectors important disasterInmitigation toolahead, as it can be hectares used to force people been developed. the decade 3,400 of land will to beallow acquired room for a garden they can in the event an earthquake. In the case and developed, outwhere of which 430go hectares have of been earmarked for residential, of minimum plot sizesforcan be set in and terms200 of plot area for 620single-family hectares fordwellings, commercial, 650 hectares industrial hectares as well as minimum width and width/length relationships. For example, current for institutional purposes. Another 300 hectares of land have been earmarked regulations a minimumpurposes width of which 6 m and maximum width/lengthPark developmentallow of recreational willa include Entertainment relationship onemusical to seven. This tool could be used to avoid extremely and a centreoffor and cultural activities. 125 hectares of landlong will be passages thatcreation could make evacuation the roads difficult. In the case of utilized for of road transport to facilities including a bus terminal. Maximum building height, it is also an important aspect in earthquake mitigation.

18

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

19

Disaster is a more concept of linking are some management of the characteristics of recent this Noida city which poseenvironmental, serious challenges economic social use Thefor concept of land-use change management relatedand to meeting thevalues. demands collective urban services, keeping a sound screens the balance of theseand three values for land-use planning. natural environment, reducing physical, social and Land-use institutional management and policy decisions almost always based on themanagement analysis of and vulnerabilities. This work will are provide a base to analyse risk the factors pertaining to each particular considering sustainable etc. understand vulnerabilities of variousissue. typesWhen including natural, the infrastructural development land, land-use change amanagement is an important phenomenon. So, this isof an attempt to outline disaster management plan of the Noida city The because content of land-use can be described terms of three it does not change includemanagement each and every aspect of theinenvironment, but it valuehassets (ecological, social market values) vulnerability that must beand brought taken into account onlyand flood and seismic these into two are balance by land planning. the basic problems of Noida being a zone IV region on the Mercelli scale. It indicates that who the whole 11,necessities 91263 people (0.72% of The people cannotarea meetaccommodated even their daily cannot be expected the state population) the year 2001 as compared with 1991, when the total to take sufficientin safeguards against natural disasters and combat various no ofepidemics population wasusually 8,77853(0.67% of the state population). Even ranking on to that follow such occurrences. The people’s proneness the basis of the population density, the process district has gone up in they standard as it to disasters increases because, by the of elimination, are forced th on rank areas with the population densityflooding of 692 and now it is as 15in was live on the 21st lying in low subjected to frequent vulnerability Noida. the rank densitysophisticated 939. As a result of the close proximity to This with type aofpopulation growth requires mechanisms to carry out disaster Delhi and a good and surrounding environment, for land increasing. preparedness emergency operations. the Ondemand the contrary, thisiscity has limited In the recent the land values in the evicting area have increased alarming access to past, the wherewithal for quickly people from at theansite of disaster rate.orThis is partly due to present unplanned development andaffected misusespeople of the also shifting to alternative shelters and in the process, the land.getAsexposed a consequence, valuable lands havevagaries been converted to various climaticagricultural and environmental and thus to suffer urban uses without planning. additionally due proper to the various reasons. The institutional framework for educating the poor and preventing them from inhabiting vulnerable areas is either absent or weak. Even if such an arrangement exists there is a general lack of will to Zonation Regulation and Disaster Management act and as a result, substantially large proportions of the poor and deprived The population Zonation regulations are keyprone to urban management in Noida live in disaster areasflood and disaster suffer immensely every time the (Gautam Budh Nagar). These regulations comprise a map depicting the various disaster strikes. zones, plus related metadata. Most importantly, a zonation regulation indicates where certain uses of land, buildings and other structures (e. g. agricultural, Disaster Management and Land Use Policy residential, industrial, commercial, public) are permitted. Other important measures be incorporated intogrid a zonation plan (these are not compulsory) Noidathat hascan been planned on the iron concept and employs state-of-the-art include the following: technology in Engineering, Urban Planning and Architecture. Significantly, it • Target densitiesthe canneeds be setoffora residential areas. city This of is important recent conceptualizes fast developing the future.asThe Action experiences highlightcompares the increased in high-density areas,and especially Plan and approach well fatalities with international standards is aimed at when thererapid are nomomentum open spaces for evacuation purposes. providing toavailable the growth of the industrial sector both in the • Maximum “plotPradesh coverages” set to guarantee openafter spaceacquiring within a 385 State of Uttar and can the be Country Planning. some NOIDA, 2, for 5,888 example, wouldof translate plot. coverage of 60% inand a plot of 400 mover acresAofplot land, has acquired developed hectares land until roof3area, leavingsectors 120 m2 and as open space. This is anhave into aDuring maximum240 m2 ofyear, now. the current residential 2 industrial sectors important disasterInmitigation toolahead, as it can be hectares used to force people been developed. the decade 3,400 of land will to beallow acquired room for a garden they can in the event an earthquake. In the case and developed, outwhere of which 430go hectares have of been earmarked for residential, of minimum plot sizesforcan be set in and terms200 of plot area for 620single-family hectares fordwellings, commercial, 650 hectares industrial hectares as well as minimum width and width/length relationships. For example, current for institutional purposes. Another 300 hectares of land have been earmarked regulations a minimumpurposes width of which 6 m and maximum width/lengthPark developmentallow of recreational willa include Entertainment relationship onemusical to seven. This tool could be used to avoid extremely and a centreoffor and cultural activities. 125 hectares of landlong will be passages thatcreation could make evacuation the roads difficult. In the case of utilized for of road transport to facilities including a bus terminal. Maximum building height, it is also an important aspect in earthquake mitigation.

18

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

19

Disaster is a more concept of linking are some management of the characteristics of recent this Noida city which poseenvironmental, serious challenges economic social use Thefor concept of land-use change management relatedand to meeting thevalues. demands collective urban services, keeping a sound screens the balance of theseand three values for land-use planning. natural environment, reducing physical, social and Land-use institutional management and policy decisions almost always based on themanagement analysis of and vulnerabilities. This work will are provide a base to analyse risk the factors pertaining to each particular considering sustainable etc. understand vulnerabilities of variousissue. typesWhen including natural, the infrastructural development land, land-use change amanagement is an important phenomenon. So, this isof an attempt to outline disaster management plan of the Noida city The because content of land-use can be described terms of three it does not change includemanagement each and every aspect of theinenvironment, but it valuehassets (ecological, social market values) vulnerability that must beand brought taken into account onlyand flood and seismic these into two are balance by land planning. the basic problems of Noida being a zone IV region on the Mercelli scale. It indicates that who the whole 11,necessities 91263 people (0.72% of The people cannotarea meetaccommodated even their daily cannot be expected the state population) the year 2001 as compared with 1991, when the total to take sufficientin safeguards against natural disasters and combat various no ofepidemics population wasusually 8,77853(0.67% of the state population). Even ranking on to that follow such occurrences. The people’s proneness the basis of the population density, the process district has gone up in they standard as it to disasters increases because, by the of elimination, are forced th on rank areas with the population densityflooding of 692 and now it is as 15in was live on the 21st lying in low subjected to frequent vulnerability Noida. the rank densitysophisticated 939. As a result of the close proximity to This with type aofpopulation growth requires mechanisms to carry out disaster Delhi and a good and surrounding environment, for land increasing. preparedness emergency operations. the Ondemand the contrary, thisiscity has limited In the recent the land values in the evicting area have increased alarming access to past, the wherewithal for quickly people from at theansite of disaster rate.orThis is partly due to present unplanned development andaffected misusespeople of the also shifting to alternative shelters and in the process, the land.getAsexposed a consequence, valuable lands havevagaries been converted to various climaticagricultural and environmental and thus to suffer urban uses without planning. additionally due proper to the various reasons. The institutional framework for educating the poor and preventing them from inhabiting vulnerable areas is either absent or weak. Even if such an arrangement exists there is a general lack of will to Zonation Regulation and Disaster Management act and as a result, substantially large proportions of the poor and deprived The population Zonation regulations are keyprone to urban management in Noida live in disaster areasflood and disaster suffer immensely every time the (Gautam Budh Nagar). These regulations comprise a map depicting the various disaster strikes. zones, plus related metadata. Most importantly, a zonation regulation indicates where certain uses of land, buildings and other structures (e. g. agricultural, Disaster Management and Land Use Policy residential, industrial, commercial, public) are permitted. Other important measures be incorporated intogrid a zonation plan (these are not compulsory) Noidathat hascan been planned on the iron concept and employs state-of-the-art include the following: technology in Engineering, Urban Planning and Architecture. Significantly, it • Target densitiesthe canneeds be setoffora residential areas. city This of is important recent conceptualizes fast developing the future.asThe Action experiences highlightcompares the increased in high-density areas,and especially Plan and approach well fatalities with international standards is aimed at when thererapid are nomomentum open spaces for evacuation purposes. providing toavailable the growth of the industrial sector both in the • Maximum “plotPradesh coverages” set to guarantee openafter spaceacquiring within a 385 State of Uttar and can the be Country Planning. some NOIDA, 2 , for 5,888 example, wouldof translate plot. coverage of 60% inand a plot of 400 mover acresAofplot land, has acquired developed hectares land until roof3area, leavingsectors 120 m2 and as open space. This is anhave into aDuring maximum240 m2 ofyear, now. the current residential 2 industrial sectors important disasterInmitigation toolahead, as it can be hectares used to force people been developed. the decade 3,400 of land will to beallow acquired room for a garden they can in the event an earthquake. In the case and developed, outwhere of which 430go hectares have of been earmarked for residential, of minimum plot sizesforcan be set in and terms200 of plot area for 620single-family hectares fordwellings, commercial, 650 hectares industrial hectares as well as minimum width and width/length relationships. For example, current for institutional purposes. Another 300 hectares of land have been earmarked regulations a minimumpurposes width of which 6 m and maximum width/lengthPark developmentallow of recreational willa include Entertainment relationship onemusical to seven. This tool could be used to avoid extremely and a centreoffor and cultural activities. 125 hectares of landlong will be passages thatcreation could make evacuation the roads difficult. In the case of utilized for of road transport to facilities including a bus terminal. Maximum building height, it is also an important aspect in earthquake mitigation.

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

19

Disaster management is a more recent concept of linking environmental, economic and social use values. The concept of land-use change management screens the balance of these three values for land-use planning. Land-use management and policy decisions are almost always based on the analysis of the factors pertaining to each particular issue. When considering the sustainable development of land, land-use change management is an important phenomenon. The content of land-use change management can be described in terms of three value sets (ecological, social and market values) that must be brought into balance by land planning. It indicates that the whole area accommodated 11, 91263 people (0.72% of the state population) in the year 2001 as compared with 1991, when the total no of population was 8,77853(0.67% of the state population). Even ranking on the basis of the population density, the district has gone up in standard as it was on the 21st rank with the population density of 692 and now it is 15th on the rank with a population density 939. As a result of the close proximity to Delhi and a good surrounding environment, the demand for land is increasing. In the recent past, the land values in the area have increased at an alarming rate. This is partly due to present unplanned development and misuses of the land. As a consequence, valuable agricultural lands have been converted to urban uses without proper planning. Zonation Regulation and Disaster Management The Zonation regulations are key to urban flood disaster management in Noida (Gautam Budh Nagar). These regulations comprise a map depicting the various zones, plus related metadata. Most importantly, a zonation regulation indicates where certain uses of land, buildings and other structures (e. g. agricultural, residential, industrial, commercial, public) are permitted. Other important measures that can be incorporated into a zonation plan (these are not compulsory) include the following: • Target densities can be set for residential areas. This is important as recent experiences highlight the increased fatalities in high-density areas, especially when there are no open spaces available for evacuation purposes. • Maximum “plot coverages” can be set to guarantee some open space within a plot. A plot coverage of 60% in a plot of 400 m2, for example, would translate into a maximum240 m2 of roof area, leaving 120 m2 as open space. This is an important disaster mitigation tool as it can be used to force people to allow room for a garden where they can go in the event of an earthquake. In the case of single-family dwellings, minimum plot sizes can be set in terms of plot area as well as minimum width and width/length relationships. For example, current regulations allow a minimum width of 6 m and a maximum width/length relationship of one to seven. This tool could be used to avoid extremely long passages that could make evacuation to the roads difficult. In the case of Maximum building height, it is also an important aspect in earthquake mitigation.

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

19

Disaster management is a more recent concept of linking environmental, economic and social use values. The concept of land-use change management screens the balance of these three values for land-use planning. Land-use management and policy decisions are almost always based on the analysis of the factors pertaining to each particular issue. When considering the sustainable development of land, land-use change management is an important phenomenon. The content of land-use change management can be described in terms of three value sets (ecological, social and market values) that must be brought into balance by land planning. It indicates that the whole area accommodated 11, 91263 people (0.72% of the state population) in the year 2001 as compared with 1991, when the total no of population was 8,77853(0.67% of the state population). Even ranking on the basis of the population density, the district has gone up in standard as it was on the 21st rank with the population density of 692 and now it is 15th on the rank with a population density 939. As a result of the close proximity to Delhi and a good surrounding environment, the demand for land is increasing. In the recent past, the land values in the area have increased at an alarming rate. This is partly due to present unplanned development and misuses of the land. As a consequence, valuable agricultural lands have been converted to urban uses without proper planning. Zonation Regulation and Disaster Management The Zonation regulations are key to urban flood disaster management in Noida (Gautam Budh Nagar). These regulations comprise a map depicting the various zones, plus related metadata. Most importantly, a zonation regulation indicates where certain uses of land, buildings and other structures (e. g. agricultural, residential, industrial, commercial, public) are permitted. Other important measures that can be incorporated into a zonation plan (these are not compulsory) include the following: • Target densities can be set for residential areas. This is important as recent experiences highlight the increased fatalities in high-density areas, especially when there are no open spaces available for evacuation purposes. • Maximum “plot coverages” can be set to guarantee some open space within a plot. A plot coverage of 60% in a plot of 400 m2, for example, would translate into a maximum240 m2 of roof area, leaving 120 m2 as open space. This is an important disaster mitigation tool as it can be used to force people to allow room for a garden where they can go in the event of an earthquake. In the case of single-family dwellings, minimum plot sizes can be set in terms of plot area as well as minimum width and width/length relationships. For example, current regulations allow a minimum width of 6 m and a maximum width/length relationship of one to seven. This tool could be used to avoid extremely long passages that could make evacuation to the roads difficult. In the case of Maximum building height, it is also an important aspect in earthquake mitigation.

20

Disaster Management

20

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

•

One important aspect of a zonation regulation relates to what the law describes as “special zones”. These are zones where development should be contained or avoided. Amongst the cases mentioned are airports, building of an historical heritage, natural resource conservation and flood-prone and “dangerous” areas. Interestingly, there is no elaboration on what is meant by “dangerous” areas. Even though one could argue that natural hazards can be included under the heading “dangerous areas”, the Urban Planning Law is somewhat vague in terms of natural disaster mitigation. It would seem that this law has not been updated to reflect current views and priorities which were agreed upon internationally and supported by leading organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank.

•

One important aspect of a zonation regulation relates to what the law describes as “special zones”. These are zones where development should be contained or avoided. Amongst the cases mentioned are airports, building of an historical heritage, natural resource conservation and flood-prone and “dangerous” areas. Interestingly, there is no elaboration on what is meant by “dangerous” areas. Even though one could argue that natural hazards can be included under the heading “dangerous areas”, the Urban Planning Law is somewhat vague in terms of natural disaster mitigation. It would seem that this law has not been updated to reflect current views and priorities which were agreed upon internationally and supported by leading organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank.

21

Physical Characteristics of the Planning Area

Physical Characteristics of the Planning Area

a) Physiography: The Terrain of the area is generally plain with a gradual slope varying between 0.2-0.1 percent from northeastern to southwest. The maximum altitude is 204 meters above MSL near the Parthala Khanjarpur village in the northeast and the minimum elevation is 196 meters above MSL near the Gathi village in the southwestern part of the area. According to the Topographic sheet published by a Survey of India, the whole of Noida is surrounded by 200 m. It should be noted that the general level of the site is lower than the high flood level of the Yamuna river. It is only due to the construction of the embankment along the rivers Yamuna and Hindon that the flooding of the area is prevented.

a) Physiography: The Terrain of the area is generally plain with a gradual slope varying between 0.2-0.1 percent from northeastern to southwest. The maximum altitude is 204 meters above MSL near the Parthala Khanjarpur village in the northeast and the minimum elevation is 196 meters above MSL near the Gathi village in the southwestern part of the area. According to the Topographic sheet published by a Survey of India, the whole of Noida is surrounded by 200 m. It should be noted that the general level of the site is lower than the high flood level of the Yamuna river. It is only due to the construction of the embankment along the rivers Yamuna and Hindon that the flooding of the area is prevented.

However, the general low level of the site is a constraint for effective storm water and sewage disposal. For this reason, the general sanitary and hygienic conditions of the area are relatively poor.

However, the general low level of the site is a constraint for effective storm water and sewage disposal. For this reason, the general sanitary and hygienic conditions of the area are relatively poor.

b) Soil: Generally alluvial types of soils are found in the area. Therefore, contiguous agricultural fields interspersed with the open scrub and sparsely dotted trees are characteristically seen near the rural settlements in the area. There are three types of textures of soil particles found in this study area, which are Loam to Clay Loam, Sandy Loam to Loam and Sandy Loam Figure 2. c) Climate: Climatologically, this area resembles the central part of India and, therefore, experiences two extreme types of climate. The summer season stretches from March to June with the maximum temperature shooting up to 43.7 degree Celsius. During the winter period, this extends from October to February, the minimum temperature fall to less than 4 degree Celsius. The Monsoon season starts in the region from the last week of June and continues till the end of September with a normal annual rainfall of 132 cm. d) Drainage: The planning area is bounded by the Hindon in the east and the Yamuna in the west. Apart from these two main rivers, the area has a number of drains, which are perennial as well as non-perennial in nature. Hence, it is

Fig.types 2. Soil map are of NOIDA b) Soil: Generally alluvial of soils found in the area. Therefore, contiguous Source: Soil Survey Division, (1996) agricultural fields interspersed with thePusa openInstitute scrub and sparsely dotted trees are characteristically seen near the rural settlements in the area. There are three natural that all the drainage channels follow the northeast to southwest slopes. types of textures of soil particles found in this study area, which are Both the Hindon and the Yamuna rivers are in a mature stage. One leftLoam out to Clayof Loam, Sandy Loam to Loam and Loam channel the Hindon, non-perennial in Sandy character, is Figure found 2. roughly in the c) Climate: area resembles central of India central part of Climatologically, the area, near thethis Sharafabad village.the There are 5part storm waterand, therefore, experiences two extreme types of climate. The summer season drains covering the whole of Noida. Drain no.1 and Drain no. 4 meet Drain stretches from March to June with the maximum temperature shooting no. 2, which finally meet the Irrigation Drain. Drain no. 3 passes through 8,up to 43.712, degree Celsius. this extends from October to 10, 11, 21, 21A, 23, During 24, 25, the 32 winter and 33period, and finally meets the Irrigation February, the minimum temperature fall to less than 4 degree Celsius. drain. Drain no.5 passes through NEPZ and meets the Irrigation drain. The The Monsoon starts in region from the last week of June and continues Irrigation drainseason has a slope of the 0.02%. till Bodies: the end of September with a normal rainfallthe of 132 cm. Area e) Water Apart from the Hindon andannual the Yamuna, Planning d) Drainage: The planning is bounded by the Hindon in the east and the possesses the following water area bodies: i. Yamuna Drains in the west. Apart from these two main rivers, the area has a number drains, which are perennial as well as non-perennial in nature. Hence, it is ii. of Ponds

20

Disaster Management

20

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

•

One important aspect of a zonation regulation relates to what the law describes as “special zones”. These are zones where development should be contained or avoided. Amongst the cases mentioned are airports, building of an historical heritage, natural resource conservation and flood-prone and “dangerous” areas. Interestingly, there is no elaboration on what is meant by “dangerous” areas. Even though one could argue that natural hazards can be included under the heading “dangerous areas”, the Urban Planning Law is somewhat vague in terms of natural disaster mitigation. It would seem that this law has not been updated to reflect current views and priorities which were agreed upon internationally and supported by leading organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank.

•

One important aspect of a zonation regulation relates to what the law describes as “special zones”. These are zones where development should be contained or avoided. Amongst the cases mentioned are airports, building of an historical heritage, natural resource conservation and flood-prone and “dangerous” areas. Interestingly, there is no elaboration on what is meant by “dangerous” areas. Even though one could argue that natural hazards can be included under the heading “dangerous areas”, the Urban Planning Law is somewhat vague in terms of natural disaster mitigation. It would seem that this law has not been updated to reflect current views and priorities which were agreed upon internationally and supported by leading organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank.

21

Physical Characteristics of the Planning Area

Physical Characteristics of the Planning Area

a) Physiography: The Terrain of the area is generally plain with a gradual slope varying between 0.2-0.1 percent from northeastern to southwest. The maximum altitude is 204 meters above MSL near the Parthala Khanjarpur village in the northeast and the minimum elevation is 196 meters above MSL near the Gathi village in the southwestern part of the area. According to the Topographic sheet published by a Survey of India, the whole of Noida is surrounded by 200 m. It should be noted that the general level of the site is lower than the high flood level of the Yamuna river. It is only due to the construction of the embankment along the rivers Yamuna and Hindon that the flooding of the area is prevented.

a) Physiography: The Terrain of the area is generally plain with a gradual slope varying between 0.2-0.1 percent from northeastern to southwest. The maximum altitude is 204 meters above MSL near the Parthala Khanjarpur village in the northeast and the minimum elevation is 196 meters above MSL near the Gathi village in the southwestern part of the area. According to the Topographic sheet published by a Survey of India, the whole of Noida is surrounded by 200 m. It should be noted that the general level of the site is lower than the high flood level of the Yamuna river. It is only due to the construction of the embankment along the rivers Yamuna and Hindon that the flooding of the area is prevented.

However, the general low level of the site is a constraint for effective storm water and sewage disposal. For this reason, the general sanitary and hygienic conditions of the area are relatively poor.

However, the general low level of the site is a constraint for effective storm water and sewage disposal. For this reason, the general sanitary and hygienic conditions of the area are relatively poor.

b) Soil: Generally alluvial types of soils are found in the area. Therefore, contiguous agricultural fields interspersed with the open scrub and sparsely dotted trees are characteristically seen near the rural settlements in the area. There are three types of textures of soil particles found in this study area, which are Loam to Clay Loam, Sandy Loam to Loam and Sandy Loam Figure 2. c) Climate: Climatologically, this area resembles the central part of India and, therefore, experiences two extreme types of climate. The summer season stretches from March to June with the maximum temperature shooting up to 43.7 degree Celsius. During the winter period, this extends from October to February, the minimum temperature fall to less than 4 degree Celsius. The Monsoon season starts in the region from the last week of June and continues till the end of September with a normal annual rainfall of 132 cm. d) Drainage: The planning area is bounded by the Hindon in the east and the Yamuna in the west. Apart from these two main rivers, the area has a number of drains, which are perennial as well as non-perennial in nature. Hence, it is

Fig.types 2. Soil map are of NOIDA b) Soil: Generally alluvial of soils found in the area. Therefore, contiguous Source: Soil Survey Division, (1996) agricultural fields interspersed with thePusa openInstitute scrub and sparsely dotted trees are characteristically seen near the rural settlements in the area. There are three natural that all the drainage channels follow the northeast to southwest slopes. types of textures of soil particles found in this study area, which are Both the Hindon and the Yamuna rivers are in a mature stage. One leftLoam out to Clay Loam, Sandy Loam to Loam and Sandy Loam Figure 2. channel of the Hindon, non-perennial in character, is found roughly in the c) Climate: area resembles central of India central part of Climatologically, the area, near thethis Sharafabad village.the There are 5part storm waterand, therefore, extreme The4 summer season drains coveringexperiences the whole oftwo Noida. Draintypes no.1 of andclimate. Drain no. meet Drain stretches from March to June with the maximum temperature shooting no. 2, which finally meet the Irrigation Drain. Drain no. 3 passes through 8,up to 43.712, degree Celsius. this extends from October to 10, 11, 21, 21A, 23, During 24, 25, the 32 winter and 33period, and finally meets the Irrigation February, the minimum temperature fall to less than 4 degree Celsius. drain. Drain no.5 passes through NEPZ and meets the Irrigation drain. The The Monsoon starts in region from the last week of June and continues Irrigation drainseason has a slope of the 0.02%. till the end of September with a normal rainfallthe of 132 cm. Area e) Water Bodies: Apart from the Hindon andannual the Yamuna, Planning d) Drainage: The planning is bounded by the Hindon in the east and the possesses the following water area bodies: Yamuna in the west. Apart from these two main rivers, the area has a number i. Drains drains, which are perennial as well as non-perennial in nature. Hence, it is ii. of Ponds

20

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

•

One important aspect of a zonation regulation relates to what the law describes as “special zones”. These are zones where development should be contained or avoided. Amongst the cases mentioned are airports, building of an historical heritage, natural resource conservation and flood-prone and “dangerous” areas. Interestingly, there is no elaboration on what is meant by “dangerous” areas. Even though one could argue that natural hazards can be included under the heading “dangerous areas”, the Urban Planning Law is somewhat vague in terms of natural disaster mitigation. It would seem that this law has not been updated to reflect current views and priorities which were agreed upon internationally and supported by leading organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank.

21

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

21

Physical Characteristics of the Planning Area a) Physiography: The Terrain of the area is generally plain with a gradual slope varying between 0.2-0.1 percent from northeastern to southwest. The maximum altitude is 204 meters above MSL near the Parthala Khanjarpur village in the northeast and the minimum elevation is 196 meters above MSL near the Gathi village in the southwestern part of the area. According to the Topographic sheet published by a Survey of India, the whole of Noida is surrounded by 200 m. It should be noted that the general level of the site is lower than the high flood level of the Yamuna river. It is only due to the construction of the embankment along the rivers Yamuna and Hindon that the flooding of the area is prevented. However, the general low level of the site is a constraint for effective storm water and sewage disposal. For this reason, the general sanitary and hygienic conditions of the area are relatively poor. Fig.types 2. Soil map are of NOIDA b) Soil: Generally alluvial of soils found in the area. Therefore, contiguous Source: Soil Survey Division, (1996) agricultural fields interspersed with thePusa openInstitute scrub and sparsely dotted trees are characteristically seen near the rural settlements in the area. There are three natural that all the drainage channels follow the northeast to southwest slopes. types of textures of soil particles found in this study area, which are Both the Hindon and the Yamuna rivers are in a mature stage. One leftLoam out to Clayof Loam, Sandy Loam to Loam and Loam channel the Hindon, non-perennial in Sandy character, is Figure found 2. roughly in the c) Climate: area resembles central of India central part of Climatologically, the area, near thethis Sharafabad village.the There are 5part storm waterand, therefore, experiences two extreme types of climate. The summer season drains covering the whole of Noida. Drain no.1 and Drain no. 4 meet Drain stretches from March to June with the maximum temperature shooting no. 2, which finally meet the Irrigation Drain. Drain no. 3 passes through 8,up to 43.712, degree Celsius. this extends from October to 10, 11, 21, 21A, 23, During 24, 25, the 32 winter and 33period, and finally meets the Irrigation February, the minimum temperature fall to less than 4 degree Celsius. drain. Drain no.5 passes through NEPZ and meets the Irrigation drain. The The Monsoon starts in region from the last week of June and continues Irrigation drainseason has a slope of the 0.02%. till Bodies: the end of September with a normal rainfallthe of 132 cm. Area e) Water Apart from the Hindon andannual the Yamuna, Planning d) Drainage: The planning is bounded by the Hindon in the east and the possesses the following water area bodies: i. Yamuna Drains in the west. Apart from these two main rivers, the area has a number of drains, which are perennial as well as non-perennial in nature. Hence, it is ii. Ponds

20

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

•

One important aspect of a zonation regulation relates to what the law describes as “special zones”. These are zones where development should be contained or avoided. Amongst the cases mentioned are airports, building of an historical heritage, natural resource conservation and flood-prone and “dangerous” areas. Interestingly, there is no elaboration on what is meant by “dangerous” areas. Even though one could argue that natural hazards can be included under the heading “dangerous areas”, the Urban Planning Law is somewhat vague in terms of natural disaster mitigation. It would seem that this law has not been updated to reflect current views and priorities which were agreed upon internationally and supported by leading organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank.

21

Fig. 2. Soil map of NOIDA Source: Soil Survey Division, Pusa Institute (1996)

natural that all the drainage channels follow the northeast to southwest slopes. Both the Hindon and the Yamuna rivers are in a mature stage. One left out channel of the Hindon, non-perennial in character, is found roughly in the central part of the area, near the Sharafabad village. There are 5 storm water drains covering the whole of Noida. Drain no.1 and Drain no. 4 meet Drain no. 2, which finally meet the Irrigation Drain. Drain no. 3 passes through 8, 10, 11, 12, 21, 21A, 23, 24, 25, 32 and 33 and finally meets the Irrigation drain. Drain no.5 passes through NEPZ and meets the Irrigation drain. The Irrigation drain has a slope of 0.02%. e) Water Bodies: Apart from the Hindon and the Yamuna, the Planning Area possesses the following water bodies: i. Drains ii. Ponds

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

21

Physical Characteristics of the Planning Area a) Physiography: The Terrain of the area is generally plain with a gradual slope varying between 0.2-0.1 percent from northeastern to southwest. The maximum altitude is 204 meters above MSL near the Parthala Khanjarpur village in the northeast and the minimum elevation is 196 meters above MSL near the Gathi village in the southwestern part of the area. According to the Topographic sheet published by a Survey of India, the whole of Noida is surrounded by 200 m. It should be noted that the general level of the site is lower than the high flood level of the Yamuna river. It is only due to the construction of the embankment along the rivers Yamuna and Hindon that the flooding of the area is prevented. However, the general low level of the site is a constraint for effective storm water and sewage disposal. For this reason, the general sanitary and hygienic conditions of the area are relatively poor. Fig.types 2. Soil map are of NOIDA b) Soil: Generally alluvial of soils found in the area. Therefore, contiguous Source: Soil Survey Division, (1996) agricultural fields interspersed with thePusa openInstitute scrub and sparsely dotted trees are characteristically seen near the rural settlements in the area. There are three natural that all the drainage channels follow the northeast to southwest slopes. types of textures of soil particles found in this study area, which are Both the Hindon and the Yamuna rivers are in a mature stage. One leftLoam out to Clay Loam, Sandy Loam to Loam and Sandy Loam Figure 2. channel of the Hindon, non-perennial in character, is found roughly in the c) Climate: area resembles central of India central part of Climatologically, the area, near thethis Sharafabad village.the There are 5part storm waterand, therefore, extreme The4 summer season drains coveringexperiences the whole oftwo Noida. Draintypes no.1 of andclimate. Drain no. meet Drain stretches from March to June with the maximum temperature shooting no. 2, which finally meet the Irrigation Drain. Drain no. 3 passes through 8,up to 43.712, degree Celsius. this extends from October to 10, 11, 21, 21A, 23, During 24, 25, the 32 winter and 33period, and finally meets the Irrigation February, the minimum temperature fall to less than 4 degree Celsius. drain. Drain no.5 passes through NEPZ and meets the Irrigation drain. The The Monsoon starts in region from the last week of June and continues Irrigation drainseason has a slope of the 0.02%. till the end of September with a normal rainfallthe of 132 cm. Area e) Water Bodies: Apart from the Hindon andannual the Yamuna, Planning d) Drainage: The planning is bounded by the Hindon in the east and the possesses the following water area bodies: i. Yamuna Drains in the west. Apart from these two main rivers, the area has a number drains, which are perennial as well as non-perennial in nature. Hence, it is ii. of Ponds

Fig. 2. Soil map of NOIDA Source: Soil Survey Division, Pusa Institute (1996)

natural that all the drainage channels follow the northeast to southwest slopes. Both the Hindon and the Yamuna rivers are in a mature stage. One left out channel of the Hindon, non-perennial in character, is found roughly in the central part of the area, near the Sharafabad village. There are 5 storm water drains covering the whole of Noida. Drain no.1 and Drain no. 4 meet Drain no. 2, which finally meet the Irrigation Drain. Drain no. 3 passes through 8, 10, 11, 12, 21, 21A, 23, 24, 25, 32 and 33 and finally meets the Irrigation drain. Drain no.5 passes through NEPZ and meets the Irrigation drain. The Irrigation drain has a slope of 0.02%. e) Water Bodies: Apart from the Hindon and the Yamuna, the Planning Area possesses the following water bodies: i. Drains ii. Ponds

22

Disaster Management

Table 1: Maximum Rainfall Data Noted Over a Period of Time of New Delhi (Safderjung) Year

Month

Intensity(cm/hr)

1875 1891 1904 1936 1954 1958 1961 1982 1984 1988 1995

9 8 9 6 10 7 8 7 8 8 8

2.060 1.540 2.145 1.960 2.160 2.218 1.530 2.260 1.670 1.470 7.830

Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Pune

The given Fig. 3 is showing how the intensity of rainfall is increasing over a period of time. This increasing trend will be very harmful if the runoff is increasing due to hyper urbanisation.

22

In theV north-western a r i a ti o n i n p e a k portion In te n s i ty of o f Rthe a i n faexisting l l w i th T i mcity e of Noida, a major constructed drain, namely, the Hindon cut, is flowing, and is used by irrigation authorities to divert excess flood waters of Rohini into the Yamuna. This cut merges with 1 0 the Yamuna river near the western municipal boundary of the township. Two other major drains exist in the area. One flows through the 8 Sectors 14, 15 and 16 and falls into the river Yamuna south- west of Sector 16. 6 The other drain, namely the Noida Drain, flows in the southern part of the area and finally4 falls into the Yamuna river upstream of the Yamuna-Hindon confluence 2point. This drain 0 is presently being used as an outfall channel for drains servicing most parts of the 1 8 6 0Noida 1 8 8 0 city. 1 9 0 0In 1 this 9 2 0 part 1 9 4 0 of1 9the 6 0 area, 1 9 8 0 besides 2 0 0 0 2 0the 2 0 Noida drain, several ox-bow shaped water bodies and a dried left out channel of the Hindon are also found to exist. Year The query that comes to mind is that such a city, which is in a low lying area, basically a river catchment area has been developed by constructing Fig. 3. Variation in peak Rainfall time the river Hindon embankments from all three sides,intensity i.e. fromof the river with Yamuna, Source: side Indian Department, and in the northern byMeteorological the Hindon cut. What willPune happen to such a flood prone city, when a flash flood comes will it up be the abledemand to sustain rainfall of Rapid urbanization is proceeding and or pushing for avarious high intensity? Are there any scenarios of local flood situations? Has the land uses mainly residential, commercial, industrial etc. Indeed land is Landuse the Plan of Noida taken careprocess of local essential ingredient in this as floods? in all urban growth. This growth has After studying the time-series data of overhuman a period of time (Table been associated with increasing pressure onrainfall land for settlements and 1) generated by the Indian Meteorological Department, Pune, India, on that related urban services. The problem in Noida, like most developing areas, basis is I tried to generate scenarios (Table 1) of what will happen when a rainfall of maximum not a shortage of developable land, but the ineffective and unplanned mechanisms intensity, and lower than the maximum intensity, falls. What is the critical intensity they use to ensure supply of suitable land for urban expansion. The trend of a of rainfall that the city can sustain? The scenarios are generated for the latest development of this nature bears a heavy impact on the urban land development Landuse map of Noida, which was updated through satellite images. Subsequently, as is evident from the horizontal expansion of urban centres. As in the case of same rainfall data will be used to generate scenarios for the year 2021. Delhi, the increased developmental pressure on peripheral agricultural lands in 1: Maximum Rainfall Data a Periodthe of problem Time of of immediate Table surroundings of urban centres hasNoted furtherOver aggravated New Delhi (Safderjung) conservation and management of the natural environment. The present Intensity(cm/hr) urbanization Year has paid insufficient Month attention to the environment in developing countries. As a result of that the ecologically valuable agricultural lands are 1875 9 2.060 converting to1891 urban development like8 sector 27 of Noida without1.540 consideration for the environment. The Landuse breakup of the Noida city for 2.145 the year 1998 1904 9 1936 6 1.960 is as shown in Table 2. 1954 10 2.160 1958 7 2.218 Generation of Local Flood Scenarios for the Year 2021 on the Basis of 1961 8 1.530 the Year 1998 1982 7 2.260 1984 8 1.670 Base Work 1988 8 1.470 1995 8 7.830

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Calculation of Discharge of the Storm Water Drains. Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Typical Sectors were made for different Landuse categories.Pune Calculation of Coeff. those sectors. The given Fig. 3 of is Runoff showingforhow themodel intensity of rainfall is increasing over Catergorising the remaining sectors in different categories and sectors. a period of time. This increasing trend will be very harmful if the runoff is Calculation of Surface for different intensities of rainfall. increasing due to hyperRunoff urbanisation.

22

Disaster Management

In the north-western portion of the existing city of Noida, a major constructed drain, namely, the Hindon cut, is flowing, and is used by irrigation authorities to divert excess flood waters of Rohini into the Yamuna. This cut merges with the Yamuna river near the western municipal boundary of the township. Two other major drains exist in the area. One flows through the Sectors 14, 15 and 16 and falls into the river Yamuna south- west of Sector 16. The other drain, namely the Noida Drain, flows in the southern part of the area and finally falls into the Yamuna river upstream of the Yamuna-Hindon confluence point. This drain is presently being used as an outfall channel for drains servicing most parts of the Noida city. In this part of the area, besides the Noida drain, several ox-bow shaped water bodies and a dried left out channel of the Hindon are also found to exist. The query that comes to mind is that such a city, which is in a low lying area, basically a river catchment area has been developed by constructing embankments from all three sides, i.e. from the river Yamuna, the river Hindon and in the northern side by the Hindon cut. What will happen to such a flood prone city, when a flash flood comes or will it be able to sustain a rainfall of high intensity? Are there any scenarios of local flood situations? Has the Landuse Plan of Noida taken care of local floods? After studying the time-series data of rainfall over a period of time (Table 1) generated by the Indian Meteorological Department, Pune, India, on that basis I tried to generate scenarios (Table 1) of what will happen when a rainfall of maximum intensity, and lower than the maximum intensity, falls. What is the critical intensity of rainfall that the city can sustain? The scenarios are generated for the latest Landuse map of Noida, which was updated through satellite images. Subsequently, same rainfall data will be used to generate scenarios for the year 2021. Table 1: Maximum Rainfall Data Noted Over a Period of Time of New Delhi (Safderjung) Year

Month

Intensity(cm/hr)

1875 1891 1904 1936 1954 1958 1961 1982 1984 1988 1995

9 8 9 6 10 7 8 7 8 8 8

2.060 1.540 2.145 1.960 2.160 2.218 1.530 2.260 1.670 1.470 7.830

Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Pune

The given Fig. 3 is showing how the intensity of rainfall is increasing over a period of time. This increasing trend will be very harmful if the runoff is increasing due to hyper urbanisation.

23

I n te n s i ty ( c m / h r )

In the north-western portion of the existing city of Noida, a major constructed drain, namely, the Hindon cut, is flowing, and is used by irrigation authorities to divert excess flood waters of Rohini into the Yamuna. This cut merges with the Yamuna river near the western municipal boundary of the township. Two other major drains exist in the area. One flows through the Sectors 14, 15 and 16 and falls into the river Yamuna south- west of Sector 16. The other drain, namely the Noida Drain, flows in the southern part of the area and finally falls into the Yamuna river upstream of the Yamuna-Hindon confluence point. This drain is presently being used as an outfall channel for drains servicing most parts of the Noida city. In this part of the area, besides the Noida drain, several ox-bow shaped water bodies and a dried left out channel of the Hindon are also found to exist. The query that comes to mind is that such a city, which is in a low lying area, basically a river catchment area has been developed by constructing embankments from all three sides, i.e. from the river Yamuna, the river Hindon and in the northern side by the Hindon cut. What will happen to such a flood prone city, when a flash flood comes or will it be able to sustain a rainfall of high intensity? Are there any scenarios of local flood situations? Has the Landuse Plan of Noida taken care of local floods? After studying the time-series data of rainfall over a period of time (Table 1) generated by the Indian Meteorological Department, Pune, India, on that basis I tried to generate scenarios (Table 1) of what will happen when a rainfall of maximum intensity, and lower than the maximum intensity, falls. What is the critical intensity of rainfall that the city can sustain? The scenarios are generated for the latest Landuse map of Noida, which was updated through satellite images. Subsequently, same rainfall data will be used to generate scenarios for the year 2021.

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

23

In theV north-western a r i a ti o n i n p e a k portion In te n s i ty of o f Rthe a i n faexisting l l w i th T i mcity e of Noida, a major constructed drain, namely, the Hindon cut, is flowing, and is used by irrigation authorities to divert excess flood waters of Rohini into the Yamuna. This cut merges with 1 0 the Yamuna river near the western municipal boundary of the township. Two other major drains exist in the area. One flows through the 8 Sectors 14, 15 and 16 and falls into the river Yamuna south- west of Sector 16. 6 The other drain, namely the Noida Drain, flows in the southern part of the area and finally4 falls into the Yamuna river upstream of the Yamuna-Hindon confluence 2point. This drain 0 is presently being used as an outfall channel for drains servicing most parts of the 1 8 6 0Noida 1 8 8 0 city. 1 9 0 0In 1 this 9 2 0 part 1 9 4 0 of1 9the 6 0 area, 1 9 8 0 besides 2 0 0 0 2 0the 2 0 Noida drain, several ox-bow shaped water bodies and a dried left out channel of the Hindon are also found to exist. Year The query that comes to mind is that such a city, which is in a low lying area, basically a river catchment area has been developed by constructing Fig. 3. Variation in peak Rainfall time the river Hindon embankments from all three sides,intensity i.e. fromof the river with Yamuna, Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Pune and in the northern side by the Hindon cut. What will happen to such a flood prone city, when a flash flood comes will it up be the abledemand to sustain rainfall of Rapid urbanization is proceeding and or pushing for avarious there anycommercial, scenarios of industrial local floodetc. situations? landhigh usesintensity? mainly Are residential, Indeed Has landthe is Landuse the Plan of Noida taken care of local floods? essential ingredient in this process as in all urban growth. This growth has After studying the time-series data of overhuman a period of time (Table been associated with increasing pressure onrainfall land for settlements and 1) generated by the Indian Meteorological Department, Pune, India, on that related urban services. The problem in Noida, like most developing areas, basis is I tried to generate scenarios (Table 1) of what will happen when a rainfall of maximum not a shortage of developable land, but the ineffective and unplanned mechanisms intensity, and lower than the maximum intensity, falls. What is the critical intensity they use to ensure supply of suitable land for urban expansion. The trend of a of rainfall that the city can sustain? The scenarios are generated for the latest development of this nature bears a heavy impact on the urban land development Landuse map of Noida, which was updated through satellite images. Subsequently, as is evident from the horizontal expansion of urban centres. As in the case of same rainfall data will be used to generate scenarios for the year 2021. Delhi, the increased developmental pressure on peripheral agricultural lands in 1: Maximum Rainfall Data a Periodthe of problem Time of of immediate Table surroundings of urban centres hasNoted furtherOver aggravated New Delhi (Safderjung) conservation and management of the natural environment. The present Intensity(cm/hr) urbanization Year has paid insufficient Month attention to the environment in developing countries. As a result of that the ecologically valuable agricultural lands are 1875 9 2.060 converting to1891 urban development like8 sector 27 of Noida without1.540 consideration for the environment. The Landuse breakup of the Noida city for 2.145 the year 1998 1904 9 1936 6 1.960 is as shown in Table 2. I n te n s i ty ( c m / h r )

22

1954 10 2.160 1958 7 2.218 Generation of Local Flood Scenarios for the Year 2021 on the Basis of 1961 8 1.530 the Year 1998 1982 7 2.260 1984 8 1.670 Base Work 1988 8 1.470 1995 8 7.830

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Calculation of Discharge of the Storm Water Drains. Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Typical Sectors were made for different Landuse categories.Pune Calculation of Coeff. those sectors. The given Fig. 3 of is Runoff showingforhow themodel intensity of rainfall is increasing over Catergorising the remaining sectors in different categories and sectors. a period of time. This increasing trend will be very harmful if the runoff is Calculation of Surface Runoff for different intensities of rainfall. increasing due to hyper urbanisation.

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

23

1954 10 2.160 1958 7 2.218 Generation of Local Flood Scenarios for the Year 2021 on the Basis of 1961 8 1.530 the Year 1998 1982 7 2.260 1984 8 1.670 Base Work 1988 8 1.470 1995 8 7.830

10 8

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

Fig. 3. Variation in peak intensity of Rainfall with time Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Pune

Rapid urbanization is proceeding and pushing up the demand for various land uses mainly residential, commercial, industrial etc. Indeed land is the essential ingredient in this process as in all urban growth. This growth has been associated with increasing pressure on land for human settlements and related urban services. The problem in Noida, like most developing areas, is not a shortage of developable land, but the ineffective and unplanned mechanisms they use to ensure supply of suitable land for urban expansion. The trend of a development of this nature bears a heavy impact on the urban land development as is evident from the horizontal expansion of urban centres. As in the case of Delhi, the increased developmental pressure on peripheral agricultural lands in immediate surroundings of urban centres has further aggravated the problem of conservation and management of the natural environment. The present urbanization has paid insufficient attention to the environment in developing countries. As a result of that the ecologically valuable agricultural lands are converting to urban development like sector 27 of Noida without consideration for the environment. The Landuse breakup of the Noida city for the year 1998 is as shown in Table 2.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Calculation of Discharge of the Storm Water Drains. Typical Sectors were made for different Landuse categories. Calculation of Coeff. of Runoff for those model sectors. Catergorising the remaining sectors in different categories and sectors. Calculation of Surface Runoff for different intensities of rainfall.

23

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

Calculation of Discharge of the Storm Water Drains. Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Typical Sectors were made for different Landuse categories.Pune Calculation of Coeff. those sectors. The given Fig. 3 of is Runoff showingforhow themodel intensity of rainfall is increasing over Catergorising the remaining sectors in different categories and sectors. a period of time. This increasing trend will be very harmful if the runoff is Calculation of Surface Runoff for different intensities of rainfall. increasing due to hyper urbanisation.

23

V a r i a ti o n i n p e a k In te n s i ty o f R a i n fa l l w i th T i m e 10 8

I n te n s i ty ( c m / h r )

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

0

Base Work

In theV north-western a r i a ti o n i n p e a k portion In te n s i ty of o f Rthe a i n faexisting l l w i th T i mcity e of Noida, a major constructed drain, namely, the Hindon cut, is flowing, and is used by irrigation authorities to divert excess flood waters of Rohini into the Yamuna. This cut merges with 1 0 the Yamuna river near the western municipal boundary of the township. Two other major drains exist in the area. One flows through the 8 Sectors 14, 15 and 16 and falls into the river Yamuna south- west of Sector 16. 6 The other drain, namely the Noida Drain, flows in the southern part of the area and finally4 falls into the Yamuna river upstream of the Yamuna-Hindon confluence 2point. This drain 0 is presently being used as an outfall channel for drains servicing most parts of the 1 8 6 0Noida 1 8 8 0 city. 1 9 0 0In 1 this 9 2 0 part 1 9 4 0 of1 9the 6 0 area, 1 9 8 0 besides 2 0 0 0 2 0the 2 0 Noida drain, several ox-bow shaped water bodies and a dried left out channel of the Hindon are also found to exist. Year The query that comes to mind is that such a city, which is in a low lying area, basically a river catchment area has been developed by constructing Fig. 3. Variation in peak Rainfall time the river Hindon embankments from all three sides,intensity i.e. fromof the river with Yamuna, Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Pune and in the northern side by the Hindon cut. What will happen to such a flood prone city, when a flash flood comes will it up be the abledemand to sustain rainfall of Rapid urbanization is proceeding and or pushing for avarious there anycommercial, scenarios of industrial local floodetc. situations? landhigh usesintensity? mainly Are residential, Indeed Has landthe is Landuse the Plan of Noida taken care of local floods? essential ingredient in this process as in all urban growth. This growth has After studying the time-series data of overhuman a period of time (Table been associated with increasing pressure onrainfall land for settlements and 1) generated by the Indian Meteorological Department, Pune, India, on that related urban services. The problem in Noida, like most developing areas, basis is I tried to generate scenarios (Table 1) of what will happen when a rainfall of maximum not a shortage of developable land, but the ineffective and unplanned mechanisms intensity, and lower than the maximum intensity, falls. What is the critical intensity they use to ensure supply of suitable land for urban expansion. The trend of a of rainfall that the city can sustain? The scenarios are generated for the latest development of this nature bears a heavy impact on the urban land development Landuse map of Noida, which was updated through satellite images. Subsequently, as is evident from the horizontal expansion of urban centres. As in the case of same rainfall data will be used to generate scenarios for the year 2021. Delhi, the increased developmental pressure on peripheral agricultural lands in 1: Maximum Rainfall Data a Periodthe of problem Time of of immediate Table surroundings of urban centres hasNoted furtherOver aggravated New Delhi (Safderjung) conservation and management of the natural environment. The present Intensity(cm/hr) urbanization Year has paid insufficient Month attention to the environment in developing countries. As a result of that the ecologically valuable agricultural lands are 1875 9 2.060 converting to1891 urban development like8 sector 27 of Noida without1.540 consideration for the environment. The Landuse breakup of the Noida city for 2.145 the year 1998 1904 9 1936 6 1.960 is as shown in Table 2. 1954 10 2.160 1958 7 2.218 Generation of Local Flood Scenarios for the Year 2021 on the Basis of 1961 8 1.530 the Year 1998 1982 7 2.260 1984 8 1.670 Base Work 1988 8 1.470 1995 8 7.830

2

Generation of Local Flood Scenarios for the Year 2021 on the Basis of the Year 1998

Calculation of Discharge of the Storm Water Drains. Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Typical Sectors were made for different Landuse categories.Pune Calculation of Coeff. those sectors. The given Fig. 3 of is Runoff showingforhow themodel intensity of rainfall is increasing over Catergorising the remaining sectors in different categories and sectors. a period of time. This increasing trend will be very harmful if the runoff is Calculation of Surface for different intensities of rainfall. increasing due to hyperRunoff urbanisation.

22

6 4

Year

I n te n s i ty ( c m / h r )

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

23

V a r i a ti o n i n p e a k In te n s i ty o f R a i n fa l l w i th T i m e

I n te n s i ty ( c m / h r )

In theV north-western a r i a ti o n i n p e a k portion In te n s i ty of o f Rthe a i n faexisting l l w i th T i mcity e of Noida, a major constructed drain, namely, the Hindon cut, is flowing, and is used by irrigation authorities to divert excess flood waters of Rohini into the Yamuna. This cut merges with 1 0 the Yamuna river near the western municipal boundary of the township. Two other major drains exist in the area. One flows through the 8 Sectors 14, 15 and 16 and falls into the river Yamuna south- west of Sector 16. 6 The other drain, namely the Noida Drain, flows in the southern part of the area and finally4 falls into the Yamuna river upstream of the Yamuna-Hindon confluence 2point. This drain 0 is presently being used as an outfall channel for drains servicing most parts of the 1 8 6 0Noida 1 8 8 0 city. 1 9 0 0In 1 this 9 2 0 part 1 9 4 0 of1 9the 6 0 area, 1 9 8 0 besides 2 0 0 0 2 0the 2 0 Noida drain, several ox-bow shaped water bodies and a dried left out channel of the Hindon are also found to exist. Year The query that comes to mind is that such a city, which is in a low lying area, basically a river catchment area has been developed by constructing Fig. 3. Variation in peak Rainfall time the river Hindon embankments from all three sides,intensity i.e. fromof the river with Yamuna, Source: side Indian Department, and in the northern byMeteorological the Hindon cut. What willPune happen to such a flood prone city, when a flash flood comes will it up be the abledemand to sustain rainfall of Rapid urbanization is proceeding and or pushing for avarious high intensity? Are there any scenarios of local flood situations? Has the land uses mainly residential, commercial, industrial etc. Indeed land is Landuse the Plan of Noida taken careprocess of local essential ingredient in this as floods? in all urban growth. This growth has After studying the time-series data of overhuman a period of time (Table been associated with increasing pressure onrainfall land for settlements and 1) generated by the Indian Meteorological Department, Pune, India, on that related urban services. The problem in Noida, like most developing areas, basis is I tried to generate scenarios (Table 1) of what will happen when a rainfall of maximum not a shortage of developable land, but the ineffective and unplanned mechanisms intensity, and lower than the maximum intensity, falls. What is the critical intensity they use to ensure supply of suitable land for urban expansion. The trend of a of rainfall that the city can sustain? The scenarios are generated for the latest development of this nature bears a heavy impact on the urban land development Landuse map of Noida, which was updated through satellite images. Subsequently, as is evident from the horizontal expansion of urban centres. As in the case of same rainfall data will be used to generate scenarios for the year 2021. Delhi, the increased developmental pressure on peripheral agricultural lands in 1: Maximum Rainfall Data a Periodthe of problem Time of of immediate Table surroundings of urban centres hasNoted furtherOver aggravated New Delhi (Safderjung) conservation and management of the natural environment. The present Intensity(cm/hr) urbanization Year has paid insufficient Month attention to the environment in developing countries. As a result of that the ecologically valuable agricultural lands are 1875 9 2.060 converting to1891 urban development like8 sector 27 of Noida without1.540 consideration for the environment. The Landuse breakup of the Noida city for 2.145 the year 1998 1904 9 1936 6 1.960 is as shown in Table 2.

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

I n te n s i ty ( c m / h r )

22

6 4 2 0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year Fig. 3. Variation in peak intensity of Rainfall with time Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Pune

Rapid urbanization is proceeding and pushing up the demand for various land uses mainly residential, commercial, industrial etc. Indeed land is the essential ingredient in this process as in all urban growth. This growth has been associated with increasing pressure on land for human settlements and related urban services. The problem in Noida, like most developing areas, is not a shortage of developable land, but the ineffective and unplanned mechanisms they use to ensure supply of suitable land for urban expansion. The trend of a development of this nature bears a heavy impact on the urban land development as is evident from the horizontal expansion of urban centres. As in the case of Delhi, the increased developmental pressure on peripheral agricultural lands in immediate surroundings of urban centres has further aggravated the problem of conservation and management of the natural environment. The present urbanization has paid insufficient attention to the environment in developing countries. As a result of that the ecologically valuable agricultural lands are converting to urban development like sector 27 of Noida without consideration for the environment. The Landuse breakup of the Noida city for the year 1998 is as shown in Table 2. Generation of Local Flood Scenarios for the Year 2021 on the Basis of the Year 1998 Base Work 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Calculation of Discharge of the Storm Water Drains. Typical Sectors were made for different Landuse categories. Calculation of Coeff. of Runoff for those model sectors. Catergorising the remaining sectors in different categories and sectors. Calculation of Surface Runoff for different intensities of rainfall.

24

24

Disaster Management Table 2: Existing Landuse Distribution for the Year 1998

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

Table 4: Calculation runoff Landuse under various land uses in Model Sectors Table 2: of Existing Distribution for the Year 1998

LAND USE

AREA (HA)

AREA (%)

Land Use LAND USE

Residential

623.34

16.57

Commercial

17.69

0.47

Industrial Residential High Residential Commercial Medium Residential Commercial Industrial

Industrial

418.06

11.11

Institutional

57.71

1.53

Recreational

103.99

2.77

Roads

394.82

10.5

Facilities

79.25

2.11

Vacant

1723.32

45.81

Mixed Use

72.86

1.94

Urban Village

128.24

3.41

Other

136.96

3.64

Green Belt

5.31

0.14

Total

3761.55

100

25

AREA (HA) 623.34

Runoff AREA (%) factor 16.57 0.90 0.47 0.70 0.60 11.11 0.80 1.53 0.35 2.77 0.95 0.70 10.5 0.30 2.11 0.60 45.81 0.30 0.25 1.94

17.69 418.06

RecreationalInstitutional Roads Recreational Facilities Roads Vacant Mixed Use Facilities Other Vacant Green Belt Mixed Use

57.71 103.99 394.82 79.25 1723.32 72.86

Village 128.24 Fig. 4. This canUrban be better expressed by following Other

3.41

136.96

3.64

Contribution of Sectors in the Total 0.14 Green Belt of different types5.31 Runoff-2001 Scenario Total 3761.55 100

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida Institutional Industrial 27%

20%

Table 3: Chosen Model Sectors

Table 3: Chosen Model Sectors Commercial

Industrial

Sector 2 and Sector 8

High Residential

Sector 12

Medium Residential

Sector 26

Commercial

Sector 18

Institutional

Sector 1

12% Industrial Medium Density Residential High Residential 18%

Sector 2 Density and Sector 8 High SectorResidential 12 23%

Medium Residential

Sector 26

Commercial Sector 18 Fig. 4. Contribution of different types of sectors in the total runoff-2001 Scenario Institutional Sector 1 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

6. Calculation of Evaporation of the water. 7. Calculation of the volume of water left on the surface of Noida. Calculation of Discharae of the Storm Water Drain Slope 1: 4138 i.e. 0.02% (low contour height 200) Width of Drain = 50m (assuming a uniform width) Height = 2.3m Area of Cross-section = 115m2 Calculation Of Coeff. of Runoff for Typical Type of Sectors, Sectors chosen as typical type of model sectors are: The coffecient of runoff which was used to calculate the Runoff factor for the typical type of Model sectors are:

The formula used to calculate of thethe coeff. of runoff for each typical sector 6. Calculation of Evaporation water. was 7. by adding the result the multiplication of each landuse type, Calculation of theofvolume of water left of on an thearea surface of Noida. with its receptive coeff. of runoff and finally dividing the whole by the total area of the respective sector below Table 5 Calculation of model Discharae of as thelisted Storm Waterin Drain Table 5: The Calculated Results Of Coeff. Of Runoff For Each Typical Type Slope 1: 4138 Of Model i.e. Sector. 0.02% (low contour height 200)

Width of Drain = 50mMODEL(assumingCODE a uniform width) COEFF. Height = 2.3m SECTOR OF RUNOFF IndustrialArea of Cross-section 8= 115m2 IND 0.87 TYPE

High Density Residential 12 HR 0.71 Calculation Of Coeff. of Runoff for Typical Type of Sectors, Sectors chosen Medium Density Residential 26 MR 0.70 as typical type of model sectors are: Commercial 18 C 0.37 The coffecient of runoff Runoff factor for Institutional 1 which was used INSto calculate the 0.82 Green GR 0.25 the typical type of Model 54 sectors are: Transport 69 TP 0.75 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida (2001)

24

24

Disaster Management Table 2: Existing Landuse Distribution for the Year 1998

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

Table 4: Calculation runoff Landuse under various land uses in Model Sectors Table 2: of Existing Distribution for the Year 1998

LAND USE

AREA (HA)

AREA (%)

Land Use LAND USE

AREA (HA)

Residential

623.34

16.57

Industrial Residential High Residential Commercial Medium Residential Commercial Industrial RecreationalInstitutional Roads Recreational Facilities Roads Vacant Mixed Use Facilities Other Vacant Green Belt Mixed Use

623.34

Commercial

17.69

0.47

Industrial

418.06

11.11

Institutional

57.71

1.53

Recreational

103.99

2.77

Roads

394.82

10.5

Facilities

79.25

2.11

Vacant

1723.32

45.81

Mixed Use

72.86

1.94

Urban Village

128.24

3.41

Other

136.96

3.64

Green Belt

5.31

0.14

Total

3761.55

100

High Residential

Sector 12

Medium Residential

Sector 26

Commercial

Sector 18

Institutional

Sector 1

6. Calculation of Evaporation of the water. 7. Calculation of the volume of water left on the surface of Noida. Calculation of Discharae of the Storm Water Drain Slope 1: 4138 i.e. 0.02% (low contour height 200) Width of Drain = 50m (assuming a uniform width) Height = 2.3m Area of Cross-section = 115m2 Calculation Of Coeff. of Runoff for Typical Type of Sectors, Sectors chosen as typical type of model sectors are: The coffecient of runoff which was used to calculate the Runoff factor for the typical type of Model sectors are:

16.57 0.90 0.47 0.70 0.60 11.11 0.80 1.53 0.35 2.77 0.95 0.70 10.5 0.30 2.11 0.60 45.81 0.30 0.25 1.94

17.69 418.06 57.71 103.99 394.82 79.25 1723.32 72.86

3.41 3.64

Contribution of Sectors in the Total 0.14 Green Belt of different types5.31 Runoff-2001 Scenario Total 3761.55 100 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida Institutional 20%

Table 3: Chosen Model Sectors Sector 2 and Sector 8

Runoff AREA (%) factor

Village 128.24 Fig. 4. This canUrban be better expressed by following Other 136.96

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

Industrial

25

Industrial 27%

Table 3: Chosen Model Sectors

Commercial 12% Industrial Medium Density Residential High Residential 18%

Medium Residential

Sector 2 Density and Sector 8 High SectorResidential 12 23%

Sector 26

Commercial Sector 18 Fig. 4. Contribution of different types of sectors in the total runoff-2001 Scenario Institutional Sector 1 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

The formula used to calculate of thethe coeff. of runoff for each typical sector 6. Calculation of Evaporation water. was 7. by adding the result of the multiplication of each landuse type, Calculation of the volume of water left of on an thearea surface of Noida. with its receptive coeff. of runoff and finally dividing the whole by the total area of the respective sector below Table 5 Calculation of model Discharae of as thelisted Storm Waterin Drain Table 5: The Calculated Results Of Coeff. Of Runoff For Each Typical Type Slope 1: 4138 Of Model i.e. Sector. 0.02% (low contour height 200)

Width of Drain = 50mMODEL(assumingCODE a uniform width) COEFF. Height = 2.3m SECTOR OF RUNOFF IndustrialArea of Cross-section 8= 115m2 IND 0.87 TYPE

High Density Residential 12 HR 0.71 Calculation Of Coeff. of Runoff for Typical Type of Sectors, Sectors chosen Medium Density Residential 26 MR 0.70 as typical type of model sectors are: Commercial 18 C 0.37 The coffecient of runoff Runoff factor for Institutional 1 which was used INSto calculate the 0.82 Green GR 0.25 the typical type of Model 54 sectors are: Transport 69 TP 0.75 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida (2001)

24

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

25

Table 4: Calculation runoff Landuse under various land uses in Model Sectors Table 2: of Existing Distribution for the Year 1998 Land Use LAND USE

AREA (HA)

Industrial Residential High Residential Commercial Medium Residential Commercial Industrial

623.34

Runoff AREA (%) factor 16.57 0.90 0.47 0.70 0.60 11.11 0.80 1.53 0.35 2.77 0.95 0.70 10.5 0.30 2.11 0.60 45.81 0.30 0.25 1.94

17.69 418.06

RecreationalInstitutional Roads Recreational Facilities Roads Vacant Mixed Use Facilities Other Vacant Green Belt Mixed Use

57.71 103.99 394.82 79.25 1723.32 72.86

Village 128.24 Fig. 4. This canUrban be better expressed by following Other

Runoff factor

Contribution of different types of Sectors in the Total Runoff-2001 Scenario

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida Institutional

Institutional 20%

Industrial 27%

Table 3: Chosen Model Sectors Commercial

12% Industrial Medium Density Residential High Residential 18%

Commercial 12% Medium Density Residential 18%

Sector 2 Density and Sector 8 High SectorResidential 12 23%

Medium Residential

0.90 0.70 0.60 0.80 0.35 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.60 0.30 0.25

This can be better expressed by following Fig. 4.

3.64

Contribution of Sectors in the Total 0.14 Green Belt of different types5.31 Runoff-2001 Scenario Total 3761.55 100 20%

25

Table 4: Calculation of runoff under various land uses in Model Sectors Land Use Industrial High Residential Medium Residential Commercial Recreational Roads Facilities Vacant Mixed Use Other Green Belt

3.41

136.96

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

Sector 26

Commercial Sector 18 Fig. 4. Contribution of different types of sectors in the total runoff-2001 Scenario Institutional Sector 1 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

Industrial 27% High Density Residential 23%

Fig. 4. Contribution of different types of sectors in the total runoff-2001 Scenario Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

The formula used to calculate of thethe coeff. of runoff for each typical sector 6. Calculation of Evaporation water. was 7. by adding the result the multiplication of each landuse type, Calculation of theofvolume of water left of on an thearea surface of Noida. with its receptive coeff. of runoff and finally dividing the whole by the total area of the respective sector below Table 5 Calculation of model Discharae of as thelisted Storm Waterin Drain

The formula used to calculate the coeff. of runoff for each typical sector was by adding the result of the multiplication of an area of each landuse type, with its receptive coeff. of runoff and finally dividing the whole by the total area of the respective model sector as listed below in Table 5

Table 5: The Calculated Results Of Coeff. Of Runoff For Each Typical Type Slope 1: 4138 Of Model i.e. Sector. 0.02% (low contour height 200)

Table 5: The Calculated Results Of Coeff. Of Runoff For Each Typical Type Of Model Sector.

Width of Drain = 50mMODEL(assumingCODE a uniform width) COEFF. Height = 2.3m SECTOR OF RUNOFF IndustrialArea of Cross-section 8= 115m2 IND 0.87 TYPE

TYPE

High Density Residential 12 HR 0.71 Calculation Of Coeff. of Runoff for Typical Type of Sectors, Sectors chosen Medium Density Residential 26 MR 0.70 as typical type of model sectors are: Commercial 18 C 0.37 The coffecient of runoff Runoff factor for Institutional 1 which was used INSto calculate the 0.82 Green GR 0.25 the typical type of Model 54 sectors are: Transport 69 TP 0.75

CODE

Industrial

MODEL SECTOR 8

IND

COEFF. OF RUNOFF 0.87

High Density Residential Medium Density Residential Commercial Institutional Green Transport

12 26 18 1 54 69

HR MR C INS GR TP

0.71 0.70 0.37 0.82 0.25 0.75

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida (2001)

24

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida (2001)

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

25

Table 4: Calculation runoff Landuse under various land uses in Model Sectors Table 2: of Existing Distribution for the Year 1998 Land Use LAND USE

AREA (HA)

Industrial Residential High Residential Commercial Medium Residential Commercial Industrial RecreationalInstitutional Roads Recreational Facilities Roads Vacant Mixed Use Facilities Other Vacant Green Belt Mixed Use

623.34

Runoff AREA (%) factor 16.57 0.90 0.47 0.70 0.60 11.11 0.80 1.53 0.35 2.77 0.95 0.70 10.5 0.30 2.11 0.60 45.81 0.30 0.25 1.94

17.69 418.06 57.71 103.99 394.82 79.25 1723.32 72.86

Village 128.24 Fig. 4. This canUrban be better expressed by following Other 136.96

3.41

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

Table 4: Calculation of runoff under various land uses in Model Sectors Land Use

Contribution of different types of Sectors in the Total Runoff-2001 Scenario Institutional 20%

Industrial 27%

Table 3: Chosen Model Sectors

Medium Residential

Commercial 12% Medium Density Residential 18%

Sector 2 Density and Sector 8 High SectorResidential 12 23%

Sector 26

Commercial Sector 18 Fig. 4. Contribution of different types of sectors in the total runoff-2001 Scenario Institutional Sector 1 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

0.90 0.70 0.60 0.80 0.35 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.60 0.30 0.25

This can be better expressed by following Fig. 4.

3.64

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida Institutional Commercial 12% Industrial Medium Density Residential High Residential 18%

Runoff factor

Industrial High Residential Medium Residential Commercial Recreational Roads Facilities Vacant Mixed Use Other Green Belt

Contribution of Sectors in the Total 0.14 Green Belt of different types5.31 Runoff-2001 Scenario Total 3761.55 100 20%

25

Industrial 27% High Density Residential 23%

Fig. 4. Contribution of different types of sectors in the total runoff-2001 Scenario Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida

The formula used to calculate of thethe coeff. of runoff for each typical sector 6. Calculation of Evaporation water. was 7. by adding the result of the multiplication of each landuse type, Calculation of the volume of water left of on an thearea surface of Noida. with its receptive coeff. of runoff and finally dividing the whole by the total area of the respective sector below Table 5 Calculation of model Discharae of as thelisted Storm Waterin Drain

The formula used to calculate the coeff. of runoff for each typical sector was by adding the result of the multiplication of an area of each landuse type, with its receptive coeff. of runoff and finally dividing the whole by the total area of the respective model sector as listed below in Table 5

Table 5: The Calculated Results Of Coeff. Of Runoff For Each Typical Type Slope 1: 4138 Of Model i.e. Sector. 0.02% (low contour height 200)

Table 5: The Calculated Results Of Coeff. Of Runoff For Each Typical Type Of Model Sector.

Width of Drain = 50mMODEL(assumingCODE a uniform width) COEFF. Height = 2.3m SECTOR OF RUNOFF IndustrialArea of Cross-section 8= 115m2 IND 0.87 TYPE

High Density Residential 12 HR 0.71 Calculation Of Coeff. of Runoff for Typical Type of Sectors, Sectors chosen Medium Density Residential 26 MR 0.70 as typical type of model sectors are: Commercial 18 C 0.37 The coffecient of runoff Runoff factor for Institutional 1 which was used INSto calculate the 0.82 Green GR 0.25 the typical type of Model 54 sectors are: Transport 69 TP 0.75 Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida (2001)

TYPE

CODE

Industrial

MODEL SECTOR 8

IND

COEFF. OF RUNOFF 0.87

High Density Residential Medium Density Residential Commercial Institutional Green Transport

12 26 18 1 54 69

HR MR C INS GR TP

0.71 0.70 0.37 0.82 0.25 0.75

Source: Noida Development Authority, Noida (2001)

26

26

Disaster Management Calculation has been done by using Rational Formula

Q = 1/36 X CIA

Discharge Q is calculated for the years, 1958, 1982 and 1995. For example a calculation for 1958 = 793.86 m3/sec where the Intensity of Rainfall is 2.218 cm/hr Since Q> Qw, means that storm water drains cannot drain the whole rainwater. Total volume of water, which will runoff from the surface in 24 hours is V1 = 793.86 X 3600 X 24 = 68589504 m3 Total volume of water, which will drain through storm water drain in 24 hours is V2 = 674.87 X 3600 X 24 = 58308871 m3 Total volume of water accumulated in 24 hours in Noida is V3 = V1 - V2 = 10280632 m3 Using Meyer’s Formula, E = 0.06475 cm/day

E = Km (es - ea)[1 + Vg/16]

Total volume of water evaporated in 1 day = 20316 X 10 X 0.06475 VE = 131546.1 m3 Finally, Volume of water that will generate the local flood in Noida in 24 hrs is VF = 10280632 -131546 = 10149086 m3 If we divide this volume VF by the catchment area of Noida i.e. by 20316 m2, we get approximately 5 cm height of local flooding. Similarly, the other scenarios have been generated for 1982 and 1995 (see appendix I and II). The analysis is simulated in Microsoft Excel to give results for different intensities of rainfall. Calculation of Critical Intensity of Rainfall (Ic) For a no local flood scenario, Q = Ow After calculation, Ic = 1.885 cm/hr The scenarios for Noida 2021 have been generated and the results have been put in the computer. NOTE: - The worst case was in 1995, the year in which Delhi suffered a devastating flood. It rained with an intensity of 7.83 cm/hr for 1 hr and 45min. The calculation shows that it will create the same local flood scenario in Noida

26

Calculation has been done by using Rational Formula

Q = 1/36 X CIA

Discharge Q is calculated for the years, 1958, 1982 and 1995. For example a calculation for 1958 = 793.86 m3/sec where the Intensity of Rainfall is 2.218 cm/hr Since Q> Qw, means that storm water drains cannot drain the whole rainwater. Total volume of water, which will runoff from the surface in 24 hours is V1 = 793.86 X 3600 X 24 = 68589504 m3 Total volume of water, which will drain through storm water drain in 24 hours is V2 = 674.87 X 3600 X 24 = 58308871 m3 Total volume of water accumulated in 24 hours in Noida is V3 = V1 - V2 = 10280632 m3 Using Meyer’s Formula, E = 0.06475 cm/day

E = Km (es - ea)[1 + Vg/16]

Total volume of water evaporated in 1 day = 20316 X 10 X 0.06475 VE = 131546.1 m3 Finally, Volume of water that will generate the local flood in Noida in 24 hrs is VF = 10280632 -131546 = 10149086 m3 If we divide this volume VF by the catchment area of Noida i.e. by 20316 m2, we get approximately 5 cm height of local flooding. Similarly, the other scenarios have been generated for 1982 and 1995 (see appendix I and II). The analysis is simulated in Microsoft Excel to give results for different intensities of rainfall. Calculation of Critical Intensity of Rainfall (Ic) For a no local flood scenario, Q = Ow After calculation, Ic = 1.885 cm/hr The scenarios for Noida 2021 have been generated and the results have been put in the computer. NOTE: - The worst case was in 1995, the year in which Delhi suffered a devastating flood. It rained with an intensity of 7.83 cm/hr for 1 hr and 45min. The calculation shows that it will create the same local flood scenario in Noida

27

Calculation has been using Rational Q = 1/36 X CIA of 6.6 cm in 1 hr 45min. The done reasonbyfor taking Delhi’sFormula case is merely because of the fact that NOIDA lies at a distance of 10 kilometers from Delhi and Discharge is calculated years, 1958, 1982 and 1995. hence the climaticalQ conditions arefor thethe same. For example a calculation for 1958 = 793.86 m3/sec where the Intensity of Rainfall is 2.218 cm/hr Computation of the Critical Coeff. of Runoff for Future Development . = 0.6342 Taking 1998 Coeff. runoffwater for entire NOIDA, SinceScenario, Q> Qw,Avg. means thatofstorm drains cannotCavg drain the whole rainwater. CALCULATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF RAINFALL FOR will THE runoff YEAR from 2021 the surface in 24 hours is Total volume of water, which

V1 = 793.86 X 3600 X 24 = 68589504 m3

Sector

AREA(H)

C

i1(cml/ hr)

Q1

i2(cm/hr)

Q2

i3(cml/ hr)

Q3

Total 26.98 volume of water,2.218 which will through storm 7.83 water drain INS1 0.82 1.36 drain 2.26 1.39 4.81 in 24 3 = 674.87 = 58308871 IND2hours is V2 36.81 0.87X 3600 2.218X 241.97 2.26 m2.01 7.83 6.97 IND3 26.01 0.87 2.218 1.39 2.26 1.42 7.83 4.92 Total volume of water accumulated in 24 hours in Noida is IND4 25.27 0.87 2.218 1.35 2.26 1.38 7.83 4.78 IND5 53.2 0.87 2.218 2.85 2.26 2.91 7.83 10.07 3 V3 = V1 - V2 = 10280632 m IND6 26.78 0.87 2.218 1.44 2.26 1.46 7.83 5.07 Using24.58 Meyer’s0.87 Formula, = Km (e1.34 + Vg/16] IND7 2.218 1.32 E 2.26 4.65 s - ea)[17.83 E = 0.06475 IND8 60.48 cm/day 0.87 2.218 3.24 2.26 3.31 7.83 11.44 IND9 30.76 0.87 2.218 1.65 2.26 1.68 7.83 5.82 of water2.218 evaporated day = 20316 10 X 0.06475 IND10 Total volume 28.6 0.87 1.53in 1 2.26 1.56 X 7.83 5.41 3 MR11 V = 54.59 0.7 2.218 2.35 2.26 2.40 7.83 8.31 131546.1 m E IND11 56.31 0.87 2.218 3.02 2.26 3.08 7.83 10.66 Finally, Volume0.71 of water that will generate the 2.24 local flood in Noida in 24 HR12 50.24 2.218 2.20 2.26 7.83 7.76 hrs is MR14 13.97 0.7 2.218 0.60 2.26 0.61 7.83 2.13 3 MR14A VF = 10280632 7.6 0.7 2.218 0.33 0.33 7.83 1.16 -131546 = 10149086 m2.26 MR15 28.28 0.7 2.218 1.22 2.26 1.24 7.83 4.31 If we divide this volume VF by the catchment area of Noida i.e. by 20316 R15A 2 35.73 0.7 2.218 1.54 2.26 1.57 7.83 5.44 m , we get approximately 5 cm height of local flooding. IND16 6.21 0.87 2.218 0.33 2.26 0.34 7.83 1.18 HR17 20.32 0.71 2.218 0.89 2.26 0.91 7.83 3.14 Similarly, the other scenarios have been generated for 1982 and 1995 (see C18 36 0.37 2.218 0.82 2.26 0.84 7.83 2.90 appendix I and II). The analysis is simulated in Microsoft Excel to give results HR19 46.16 0.71 2.218 2.02 2.26 2.06 7.83 7.13 for different intensities of rainfall. HR20 33.73 0.71 2.218 1.48 2.26 1.50 7.83 5.21 MR21 24.02 0.7 2.218 1.04 2.26 1.06 7.83 3.66 ) Calculation of Critical Intensity of Rainfall (I GR21 A 27.69 0.25 2.218 0.43 2.26 c 0.43 7.83 1.51 HR22 61.07 0.71 2.218 2.67 2.26 2.72 7.83 9.43 For a no local flood scenario, Q = Ow MR23 24.33 0.7 2.218 1.05 2.26 1.07 7.83 3.70 I After calculation, Ic = 1.885 cm/hr I NS24 The scenarios 32.34 0.82 2.218 1.63 2.26 1.67 7.83 5.77 for Noida 2021 have been generated and the resultsI have MR25 27.96 0.7 2.218 1.21 2.26 1.23 7.83 4.26 I been put in the computer. C25A NOTE: 30.91 0.37 case 2.218 7.83 - The worst was in0.70 1995, 2.26 the year0.72 in which Delhi 2.49 suffered a MR26 7.83 5.8945min. devastating38.69 flood. It0.7 rained2.218 with an 1.67 intensity2.26 of 7.83 1.70 cm/hr for 1 hr and MR27 49.49 shows 0.7 that 2.218 2.13 the 2.26 2.18flood7.83 The calculation it will create same local scenario7.53 in Noida

26

Disaster Management

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

27

Calculation has been using Rational Q = 1/36 X CIA of 6.6 cm in 1 hr 45min. The done reasonbyfor taking Delhi’sFormula case is merely because of the fact that NOIDA lies at a distance of 10 kilometers from Delhi and Discharge is calculated years, 1958, 1982 and 1995. hence the climaticalQ conditions arefor thethe same. For example a calculation for 1958 = 793.86 m3/sec where the Intensity of Rainfall is 2.218 cm/hr Computation of the Critical Coeff. of Runoff for Future Development . = 0.6342 Taking 1998 Coeff. runoffwater for entire NOIDA, SinceScenario, Q> Qw,Avg. means thatofstorm drains cannotCavg drain the whole rainwater. CALCULATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF RAINFALL FOR will THE runoff YEAR from 2021 the surface in 24 hours is Total volume of water, which

V1 = 793.86 X 3600 X 24 = 68589504 m3

Sector

AREA(H)

C

i1(cml/ hr)

Q1

i2(cm/hr)

Q2

i3(cml/ hr)

Q3

Total 26.98 volume of water,2.218 which will through storm 7.83 water drain INS1 0.82 1.36 drain 2.26 1.39 4.81 in 24 3 = 674.87 = 58308871 IND2hours is V2 36.81 0.87X 3600 2.218X 241.97 2.26 m2.01 7.83 6.97 IND3 26.01 0.87 2.218 1.39 2.26 1.42 7.83 4.92 Total 25.27 volume of water2.218 accumulated in Noida is IND4 0.87 1.35 in 24 2.26hours1.38 7.83 4.78 IND5 53.2- V20.87 2.218 m32.85 2.26 2.91 7.83 10.07 V3 = V1 = 10280632 IND6 26.78 0.87 2.218 1.44 2.26 1.46 7.83 5.07 Using24.58 Meyer’s0.87 Formula, = Km (e1.34 + Vg/16] IND7 2.218 1.32 E 2.26 4.65 s - ea)[17.83 E = 0.06475 IND8 60.48 cm/day 0.87 2.218 3.24 2.26 3.31 7.83 11.44 IND9 30.76 0.87 2.218 1.65 2.26 1.68 7.83 5.82 Total volume of water evaporated in 1 day = 20316 X 10 X 0.06475 IND10 28.6 0.87 2.218 1.53 2.26 1.56 7.83 5.41 3 MR11 V = 54.59 0.7 2.218 2.35 2.26 2.40 7.83 8.31 131546.1 m E IND11 56.31 0.87 2.218 3.02 2.26 3.08 7.83 10.66 Finally, Volume0.71 of water that will generate the 2.24 local flood in Noida in 24 HR12 50.24 2.218 2.20 2.26 7.83 7.76 hrs is MR14 13.97 0.7 2.218 0.60 2.26 0.61 7.83 2.13 3 MR14A VF = 10280632 7.6 0.7 2.218 0.33 0.33 7.83 1.16 -131546 = 10149086 m2.26 MR15 28.28 0.7 2.218 1.22 2.26 1.24 7.83 4.31 If we divide this volume VF by the catchment area of Noida i.e. by 20316 R15A 2 35.73 0.7 2.218 1.54 2.26 1.57 7.83 5.44 m , we get approximately 5 cm height of local flooding. IND16 6.21 0.87 2.218 0.33 2.26 0.34 7.83 1.18 HR17 20.32 0.71 2.218 0.89 2.26 0.91 7.83 3.14 Similarly, the other scenarios have been generated for 1982 and 1995 (see C18 36 0.37 2.218 0.82 2.26 0.84 7.83 2.90 appendix I and II). The analysis is simulated in Microsoft Excel to give results HR19 46.16 0.71 2.218 2.02 2.26 2.06 7.83 7.13 for different intensities of rainfall. HR20 33.73 0.71 2.218 1.48 2.26 1.50 7.83 5.21 MR21 24.02 0.7 2.218 1.04 2.26 1.06 7.83 3.66 Calculation of Critical of Rainfall GR21 A 27.69 0.25 Intensity 2.218 0.43 2.26(Ic) 0.43 7.83 1.51 HR22 61.07 flood 0.71 2.218Q = 2.67 2.26 2.72 7.83 9.43 For a no local scenario, Ow MR23 24.33 0.7 2.218 1.05 2.26 1.07 7.83 3.70 I After calculation, Ic = 1.885 cm/hr I NS24 The scenarios 32.34 0.82 2.218 1.63 2.26 1.67 7.83 5.77 for Noida 2021 have been generated and the resultsI have MR25 27.96 0.7 2.218 1.21 2.26 1.23 7.83 4.26 I been put in the computer. C25A NOTE: 30.91 0.37 2.218 0.70 2.26 0.72 7.83 - The worst case was in 1995, the year in which Delhi 2.49 suffered a MR26 7.83 5.8945min. devastating38.69 flood. It0.7 rained2.218 with an 1.67 intensity2.26 of 7.83 1.70 cm/hr for 1 hr and MR27 49.49 shows 0.7 that 2.218 2.13 the 2.26 2.18flood7.83 The calculation it will create same local scenario7.53 in Noida

26

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

27

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

27

of 6.6 cm in 1 hr 45min. The done reasonbyfor taking Delhi’sFormula case is merely because Calculation has been using Rational Q = 1/36 X CIA of the fact that NOIDA lies at a distance of 10 kilometers from Delhi and hence the climaticalQ conditions arefor thethe same. Discharge is calculated years, 1958, 1982 and 1995. For example a calculation for 1958 = 793.86 m3/sec where the Intensity of Rainfall is 2.218 cm/hr Computation of the Critical Coeff. of Runoff for Future Development

of 6.6 cm in 1 hr 45min. The reason for taking Delhi’s case is merely because of the fact that NOIDA lies at a distance of 10 kilometers from Delhi and hence the climatical conditions are the same.

. = 0.6342 Taking 1998 Coeff. runoffwater for entire NOIDA, SinceScenario, Q> Qw,Avg. means thatofstorm drains cannotCavg drain the whole rainwater.

Taking 1998 Scenario, Avg. Coeff. of runoff for entire NOIDA, Cavg. = 0.6342

CALCULATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF RAINFALL FOR will THE runoff YEAR from 2021 the surface in 24 hours is Total volume of water, which

V1 = 793.86 X 3600 X 24 = 68589504 m3

Sector

AREA(H)

C

i1(cml/ hr)

Q1

i2(cm/hr)

Q2

i3(cml/ hr)

Q3

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

CALCULATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF RAINFALL FOR THE YEAR 2021 Sector

Total 26.98 volume of water,2.218 which will through storm 7.83 water drain INS1 0.82 1.36 drain 2.26 1.39 4.81 in 24 3 = 674.87 = 58308871 IND2hours is V2 36.81 0.87X 3600 2.218X 241.97 2.26 m2.01 7.83 6.97 IND3 26.01 0.87 2.218 1.39 2.26 1.42 7.83 4.92 Total volume of water accumulated in 24 hours in Noida is IND4 25.27 0.87 2.218 1.35 2.26 1.38 7.83 4.78 IND5 53.2 0.87 2.218 2.85 2.26 2.91 7.83 10.07 3 V3 = V1 - V2 = 10280632 m IND6 26.78 0.87 2.218 1.44 2.26 1.46 7.83 5.07 Using24.58 Meyer’s0.87 Formula, = Km (e1.34 + Vg/16] IND7 2.218 1.32 E 2.26 4.65 s - ea)[17.83 E = 0.06475 IND8 60.48 cm/day 0.87 2.218 3.24 2.26 3.31 7.83 11.44 IND9 30.76 0.87 2.218 1.65 2.26 1.68 7.83 5.82 of water2.218 evaporated day = 20316 10 X 0.06475 IND10 Total volume 28.6 0.87 1.53in 1 2.26 1.56 X 7.83 5.41 3 MR11 V = 54.59 0.7 2.218 2.35 2.26 2.40 7.83 8.31 131546.1 m E IND11 56.31 0.87 2.218 3.02 2.26 3.08 7.83 10.66 Finally, Volume0.71 of water that will generate the 2.24 local flood in Noida in 24 HR12 50.24 2.218 2.20 2.26 7.83 7.76 hrs is MR14 13.97 0.7 2.218 0.60 2.26 0.61 7.83 2.13 3 MR14A VF = 10280632 7.6 0.7 2.218 0.33 0.33 7.83 1.16 -131546 = 10149086 m2.26 MR15 28.28 0.7 2.218 1.22 2.26 1.24 7.83 4.31 If we divide this volume VF by the catchment area of Noida i.e. by 20316 R15A 2 35.73 0.7 2.218 1.54 2.26 1.57 7.83 5.44 m , we get approximately 5 cm height of local flooding. IND16 6.21 0.87 2.218 0.33 2.26 0.34 7.83 1.18 HR17 20.32 0.71 2.218 0.89 2.26 0.91 7.83 3.14 Similarly, the other scenarios have been generated for 1982 and 1995 (see C18 36 0.37 2.218 0.82 2.26 0.84 7.83 2.90 appendix I and II). The analysis is simulated in Microsoft Excel to give results HR19 46.16 0.71 2.218 2.02 2.26 2.06 7.83 7.13 for different intensities of rainfall. HR20 33.73 0.71 2.218 1.48 2.26 1.50 7.83 5.21 MR21 24.02 0.7 2.218 1.04 2.26 1.06 7.83 3.66 ) Calculation of Critical Intensity of Rainfall (I GR21 A 27.69 0.25 2.218 0.43 2.26 c 0.43 7.83 1.51 HR22 61.07 0.71 2.218 2.67 2.26 2.72 7.83 9.43 For a no local flood scenario, Q = Ow MR23 24.33 0.7 2.218 1.05 2.26 1.07 7.83 3.70 I After calculation, Ic = 1.885 cm/hr I NS24 The scenarios 32.34 0.82 2.218 1.63 2.26 1.67 7.83 5.77 for Noida 2021 have been generated and the resultsI have MR25 27.96 0.7 2.218 1.21 2.26 1.23 7.83 4.26 I been put in the computer. C25A NOTE: 30.91 0.37 case 2.218 7.83 - The worst was in0.70 1995, 2.26 the year0.72 in which Delhi 2.49 suffered a MR26 7.83 5.8945min. devastating38.69 flood. It0.7 rained2.218 with an 1.67 intensity2.26 of 7.83 1.70 cm/hr for 1 hr and MR27 49.49 shows 0.7 that 2.218 2.13 the 2.26 2.18flood7.83 The calculation it will create same local scenario7.53 in Noida

26

Computation of the Critical Coeff. of Runoff for Future Development

INS1 IND2 IND3 IND4 IND5 IND6 IND7 IND8 IND9 IND10 MR11 IND11 HR12 MR14 MR14A MR15 R15A IND16 HR17 C18 HR19 HR20 MR21 GR21 A HR22 MR23 I NS24 MR25 C25A MR26 MR27

AREA(H)

C

i1(cml/ hr)

Q1

i2(cm/hr)

Q2

i3(cml/ hr)

Q3

26.98 36.81 26.01 25.27 53.2 26.78 24.58 60.48 30.76 28.6 54.59 56.31 50.24 13.97 7.6 28.28 35.73 6.21 20.32 36 46.16 33.73 24.02 27.69 61.07 24.33 32.34 27.96 30.91 38.69 49.49

0.82 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.7 0.87 0.71 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.87 0.71 0.37 0.71 0.71 0.7 0.25 0.71 0.7 0.82 0.7 0.37 0.7 0.7

2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218

1.36 1.97 1.39 1.35 2.85 1.44 1.32 3.24 1.65 1.53 2.35 3.02 2.20 0.60 0.33 1.22 1.54 0.33 0.89 0.82 2.02 1.48 1.04 0.43 2.67 1.05 1.63 1.21 0.70 1.67 2.13

2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26

1.39 2.01 1.42 1.38 2.91 1.46 1.34 3.31 1.68 1.56 2.40 3.08 2.24 0.61 0.33 1.24 1.57 0.34 0.91 0.84 2.06 1.50 1.06 0.43 2.72 1.07 1.67 1.23 0.72 1.70 2.18

7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83

4.81 6.97 4.92 4.78 10.07 5.07 4.65 11.44 5.82 5.41 8.31 10.66 7.76 2.13 1.16 4.31 5.44 1.18 3.14 2.90 7.13 5.21 3.66 1.51 9.43 3.70 I 5.77 I 4.26 I 2.49 5.89 7.53

27

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

27

of 6.6 cm in 1 hr 45min. The done reasonbyfor taking Delhi’sFormula case is merely because Calculation has been using Rational Q = 1/36 X CIA of the fact that NOIDA lies at a distance of 10 kilometers from Delhi and hence the climaticalQ conditions arefor thethe same. Discharge is calculated years, 1958, 1982 and 1995. For example a calculation for 1958 = 793.86 m3/sec where the Intensity of Rainfall is 2.218 cm/hr Computation of the Critical Coeff. of Runoff for Future Development

of 6.6 cm in 1 hr 45min. The reason for taking Delhi’s case is merely because of the fact that NOIDA lies at a distance of 10 kilometers from Delhi and hence the climatical conditions are the same.

. = 0.6342 Taking 1998 Coeff. runoffwater for entire NOIDA, SinceScenario, Q> Qw,Avg. means thatofstorm drains cannotCavg drain the whole rainwater.

Taking 1998 Scenario, Avg. Coeff. of runoff for entire NOIDA, Cavg. = 0.6342

CALCULATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF RAINFALL FOR will THE runoff YEAR from 2021 the surface in 24 hours is Total volume of water, which

V1 = 793.86 X 3600 X 24 = 68589504 m3

Sector

AREA(H)

C

i1(cml/ hr)

Q1

i2(cm/hr)

Q2

i3(cml/ hr)

Q3

Total 26.98 volume of water,2.218 which will through storm 7.83 water drain INS1 0.82 1.36 drain 2.26 1.39 4.81 in 24 3 = 674.87 = 58308871 IND2hours is V2 36.81 0.87X 3600 2.218X 241.97 2.26 m2.01 7.83 6.97 IND3 26.01 0.87 2.218 1.39 2.26 1.42 7.83 4.92 Total 25.27 volume of water2.218 accumulated in Noida is IND4 0.87 1.35 in 24 2.26hours1.38 7.83 4.78 IND5 53.2- V20.87 2.218 m32.85 2.26 2.91 7.83 10.07 V3 = V1 = 10280632 IND6 26.78 0.87 2.218 1.44 2.26 1.46 7.83 5.07 Using24.58 Meyer’s0.87 Formula, = Km (e1.34 + Vg/16] IND7 2.218 1.32 E 2.26 4.65 s - ea)[17.83 E = 0.06475 IND8 60.48 cm/day 0.87 2.218 3.24 2.26 3.31 7.83 11.44 IND9 30.76 0.87 2.218 1.65 2.26 1.68 7.83 5.82 Total volume of water evaporated in 1 day = 20316 X 10 X 0.06475 IND10 28.6 0.87 2.218 1.53 2.26 1.56 7.83 5.41 3 MR11 V = 54.59 0.7 2.218 2.35 2.26 2.40 7.83 8.31 131546.1 m E IND11 56.31 0.87 2.218 3.02 2.26 3.08 7.83 10.66 Finally, Volume0.71 of water that will generate the 2.24 local flood in Noida in 24 HR12 50.24 2.218 2.20 2.26 7.83 7.76 hrs is MR14 13.97 0.7 2.218 0.60 2.26 0.61 7.83 2.13 3 MR14A VF = 10280632 7.6 0.7 2.218 0.33 0.33 7.83 1.16 -131546 = 10149086 m2.26 MR15 28.28 0.7 2.218 1.22 2.26 1.24 7.83 4.31 If we divide this volume VF by the catchment area of Noida i.e. by 20316 R15A 2 35.73 0.7 2.218 1.54 2.26 1.57 7.83 5.44 m , we get approximately 5 cm height of local flooding. IND16 6.21 0.87 2.218 0.33 2.26 0.34 7.83 1.18 HR17 20.32 0.71 2.218 0.89 2.26 0.91 7.83 3.14 Similarly, the other scenarios have been generated for 1982 and 1995 (see C18 36 0.37 2.218 0.82 2.26 0.84 7.83 2.90 appendix I and II). The analysis is simulated in Microsoft Excel to give results HR19 46.16 0.71 2.218 2.02 2.26 2.06 7.83 7.13 for different intensities of rainfall. HR20 33.73 0.71 2.218 1.48 2.26 1.50 7.83 5.21 MR21 24.02 0.7 2.218 1.04 2.26 1.06 7.83 3.66 Calculation of Critical of Rainfall GR21 A 27.69 0.25 Intensity 2.218 0.43 2.26(Ic) 0.43 7.83 1.51 HR22 61.07 flood 0.71 2.218Q = 2.67 2.26 2.72 7.83 9.43 For a no local scenario, Ow MR23 24.33 0.7 2.218 1.05 2.26 1.07 7.83 3.70 I After calculation, Ic = 1.885 cm/hr I NS24 The scenarios 32.34 0.82 2.218 1.63 2.26 1.67 7.83 5.77 for Noida 2021 have been generated and the resultsI have MR25 27.96 0.7 2.218 1.21 2.26 1.23 7.83 4.26 I been put in the computer. C25A NOTE: 30.91 0.37 2.218 0.70 2.26 0.72 7.83 - The worst case was in 1995, the year in which Delhi 2.49 suffered a MR26 7.83 5.8945min. devastating38.69 flood. It0.7 rained2.218 with an 1.67 intensity2.26 of 7.83 1.70 cm/hr for 1 hr and MR27 49.49 shows 0.7 that 2.218 2.13 the 2.26 2.18flood7.83 The calculation it will create same local scenario7.53 in Noida

Computation of the Critical Coeff. of Runoff for Future Development

CALCULATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF RAINFALL FOR THE YEAR 2021 Sector INS1 IND2 IND3 IND4 IND5 IND6 IND7 IND8 IND9 IND10 MR11 IND11 HR12 MR14 MR14A MR15 R15A IND16 HR17 C18 HR19 HR20 MR21 GR21 A HR22 MR23 I NS24 MR25 C25A MR26 MR27

AREA(H)

C

i1(cml/ hr)

Q1

i2(cm/hr)

Q2

i3(cml/ hr)

Q3

26.98 36.81 26.01 25.27 53.2 26.78 24.58 60.48 30.76 28.6 54.59 56.31 50.24 13.97 7.6 28.28 35.73 6.21 20.32 36 46.16 33.73 24.02 27.69 61.07 24.33 32.34 27.96 30.91 38.69 49.49

0.82 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.7 0.87 0.71 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.87 0.71 0.37 0.71 0.71 0.7 0.25 0.71 0.7 0.82 0.7 0.37 0.7 0.7

2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218

1.36 1.97 1.39 1.35 2.85 1.44 1.32 3.24 1.65 1.53 2.35 3.02 2.20 0.60 0.33 1.22 1.54 0.33 0.89 0.82 2.02 1.48 1.04 0.43 2.67 1.05 1.63 1.21 0.70 1.67 2.13

2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26

1.39 2.01 1.42 1.38 2.91 1.46 1.34 3.31 1.68 1.56 2.40 3.08 2.24 0.61 0.33 1.24 1.57 0.34 0.91 0.84 2.06 1.50 1.06 0.43 2.72 1.07 1.67 1.23 0.72 1.70 2.18

7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83

4.81 6.97 4.92 4.78 10.07 5.07 4.65 11.44 5.82 5.41 8.31 10.66 7.76 2.13 1.16 4.31 5.44 1.18 3.14 2.90 7.13 5.21 3.66 1.51 9.43 3.70 I 5.77 I 4.26 I 2.49 5.89 7.53

28

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Disaster Management

MR28 MR29 MR30 MR31 C32 MR33 MR34 MR35 MR36 MR37 GR38 GR38A MR39 MR40 MR41 MR42 MR43 MR44 MR45 MR46 MR47 MR48 MR49 MR50

41.59 20.88 38.44 61.17 61.24 24.63 47.16 51.88 26.68 42.31 50.4 148.8 64.71 43.79 62.13 51.84 60.84 98.26 128.01 54.11 69.25 43.31 143.03 94.62

0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.37 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.25 0.25 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218

1.79 0.90 1.66 2.64 1.40 1.06 2.03 2.24 1.15 1.82 0.78 2.29 2.79 1.89 2.68 2.24 2.62 4.24 5.52 2.33 2.99 1.87 6.17 4.08

2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26

1.83 0.92 1.69 2.69 1.42 1.08 2.07 2.28 1.17 1.86 0.79 2.34 2.85 1.93 2.73 2.28 2.68 4.32 5.63 2.38 3.04 1.90 6.29 4.16

7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83

6.33 3.18 5.85 I 9.31 4.93 3.75 7.18 7.90 4.06 6.44 2.74 8.09 9.85 6.67 9.46 7.89 9.26 14.96 19.49 8.24 10.54 6.59 21.78 14.41

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

29

MR28 0.7their2.218 1.79 2.26 1.83 7.83to take 6.33 people who cannot41.59 meet even daily necessities cannot be expected MR29 safeguards 20.88 2.218 0.90and 2.26 3.18 sufficient against0.7natural disasters combat 0.92 various 7.83 epidemics 0.7 2.218 1.66 who 2.26are poor 1.69 migrants 7.83 have 5.85 I that MR30 usually follow38.44 such occurrences. The people 61.17 by 0.7disasters 2.218because, 2.64 by the 2.26process 2.69of elimination, 7.83 9.31 theirMR31 proneness increased C32 61.24 0.37 2.218 1.40 2.26 1.42 7.83 4.93 they are forced to live in low lying areas subjected to frequent flooding and MR33 24.63 0.7of poor 2.218 1.06 2.26 7.83 Noida 3.75 seismic vulnerability (because and dilapidated housing1.08 conditions). MR34 47.16 of 0.7 2.218 2.03 than2.26 2.07 of 7.83 7.18 cannot sustain a rainfall equal to or greater an Intensity I = 1.885 cm/hr. From the scenarios of0.71998 2.218 and 2021, it is clearly with the MR35 51.88 2.24 2.26 evident 2.28 that 7.83 7.90 increase runoff, a result2.26 of the1.17 intensity of local MR36in Urbanization, 26.68 surface 0.7 2.218 as1.15 7.83 4.06 flooding future 2.218 development, order to1.86 avoid local MR37is increasing. 42.31 For 0.7 1.82 in 2.26 7.83 flood 6.44 scenarios the surface runoff coefficient should not exceed 0.5298. The land use GR38 50.4 0.25 2.218 0.78 2.26 0.79 7.83 2.74 distribution be modified giving more to2.34 green areas. GR38A should148.8 0.25 by 2.218 2.29 percentage 2.26 7.83 This 8.09 will MR39 help in water 64.71 percolation slow down surface water. 0.7 and 2.218 2.79the speed 2.26 of 2.85 7.83 9.85 MR40 43.79 0.7 2.218 1.89 2.26 1.93 7.83 6.67 MR41 62.13 0.7 2.218 2.68 2.26 2.73 7.83 9.46 REFERENCES MR42 51.84 0.7 Indian 2.218Meteorological 2.24 2.26 2.28 Pune.7.83 7.89 Climatological Tables, 1931 -1999, department, MR43 Institute 60.84 0.7 2.218 2.62Earth2.26 2.68Integrated 7.83 Land 9.26 International for Aerospace Survey and Sciences, Resources Survey for Urban Rohini, Report (Jan. MR44 98.26 0.7Environment, 2.218 4.24 New 2.26Delhi,4.32 7.83 1989), 14.96 lTC, Netherlands. MR45Enschede,128.01 0.7 2.218 5.52 2.26 5.63 7.83 19.49 Khanna, P.N. (1999)54.11 Indian Practical Civil Engineers’ Engineers’ Publishers, MR46 0.7 2.218 2.33 Handbook, 2.26 2.38 7.83 8.24 New Delhi. MR47 69.25 0.7 2.218 2.99 2.26 3.04 7.83 10.54 Survey of Five Main Drains of NOIDA (Feb, 1997) Transport Planners Associates, New MR48 43.31 0.7 2.218 1.87 2.26 1.90 7.83 6.59 Delhi. MR49 143.03 0.7 2.218 6.17 2.26 6.29 7.83 21.78 Survey of Land Use Pattern of NOIDA (April, 2004) Transport Planners Associates, MR50 94.62 0.7 2.218 4.08 2.26 4.16 7.83 14.41 New Delhi.

The Ecological imbalance which has been created due to the abuse and overuse of environmental services in the city, has left a very thin line between natural and man made disasters. The city is subjected to congestion with a high density of population living in poor sanitary conditions. The degradation of these two worsened when the city started developing across its natural two boundaries. The rivers Yamuna and Hindon have been turned more or less into a drain and do not carry clear fresh water any more. Why have we destroyed our natural heritage, the ridge and the river, and what are we leaving behind for future generations? Nature cannot take more abuse, hence the degradation caused to the environment of the city has to respond in terms of its wrath and it is invariably the irresponsibility of the authorities and the people who are totally insensitive to human life who are blinded by the haves and have-nots of economics.

The Ecological imbalance which has been created due to the abuse and overuse of environmental services in the city, has left a very thin line between natural and man made disasters. The city is subjected to congestion with a high density of population living in poor sanitary conditions. The degradation of these two worsened when the city started developing across its natural two boundaries. The rivers Yamuna and Hindon have been turned more or less into a drain and do not carry clear fresh water any more. Why have we destroyed our natural heritage, the ridge and the river, and what are we leaving behind for future generations? Nature cannot take more abuse, hence the degradation caused to the environment of the city has to respond in terms of its wrath and it is invariably the irresponsibility of the authorities and the people who are totally insensitive to human life who are blinded by the haves and have-nots of economics.

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

Noida and Greater Noida face the same challenges as other fast developing areas of the developing world. How do we balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal development and governmental economic need? The

Noida and Greater Noida face the same challenges as other fast developing areas of the developing world. How do we balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal development and governmental economic need? The

28

28

Disaster Management

MR28 MR29 MR30 MR31 C32 MR33 MR34 MR35 MR36 MR37 GR38 GR38A MR39 MR40 MR41 MR42 MR43 MR44 MR45 MR46 MR47 MR48 MR49 MR50

41.59 20.88 38.44 61.17 61.24 24.63 47.16 51.88 26.68 42.31 50.4 148.8 64.71 43.79 62.13 51.84 60.84 98.26 128.01 54.11 69.25 43.31 143.03 94.62

0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.37 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.25 0.25 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218 2.218

1.79 0.90 1.66 2.64 1.40 1.06 2.03 2.24 1.15 1.82 0.78 2.29 2.79 1.89 2.68 2.24 2.62 4.24 5.52 2.33 2.99 1.87 6.17 4.08

2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26

1.83 0.92 1.69 2.69 1.42 1.08 2.07 2.28 1.17 1.86 0.79 2.34 2.85 1.93 2.73 2.28 2.68 4.32 5.63 2.38 3.04 1.90 6.29 4.16

7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83

6.33 3.18 5.85 I 9.31 4.93 3.75 7.18 7.90 4.06 6.44 2.74 8.09 9.85 6.67 9.46 7.89 9.26 14.96 19.49 8.24 10.54 6.59 21.78 14.41

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

29

MR28 0.7their2.218 1.79 2.26 1.83 7.83to take 6.33 people who cannot41.59 meet even daily necessities cannot be expected MR29 safeguards 20.88 2.218 0.90and 2.26 3.18 sufficient against0.7natural disasters combat 0.92 various 7.83 epidemics 0.7 2.218 1.66 who 2.26are poor 1.69 migrants 7.83 have 5.85 I that MR30 usually follow38.44 such occurrences. The people 61.17 by 0.7disasters 2.218because, 2.64 by the 2.26process 2.69of elimination, 7.83 9.31 theirMR31 proneness increased 2.218 1.42 flooding 7.83 and 4.93 theyC32 are forced to61.24 live in 0.37 low lying areas 1.40 subjected2.26 to frequent MR33 24.63 0.7 2.218 1.06 2.26 1.08 7.83 3.75 seismic vulnerability (because of poor and dilapidated housing conditions). Noida MR34 47.16 of 0.7 2.218 2.03 than2.26 2.07 of 7.83 7.18 cannot sustain a rainfall equal to or greater an Intensity I = 1.885 cm/hr. From the scenarios of0.71998 2.218 and 2021, it is clearly with the MR35 51.88 2.24 2.26 evident 2.28 that 7.83 7.90 increase runoff, a result2.26 of the1.17 intensity of local MR36in Urbanization, 26.68 surface 0.7 2.218 as1.15 7.83 4.06 flooding future 2.218 development, order to1.86 avoid local MR37is increasing. 42.31 For 0.7 1.82 in 2.26 7.83 flood 6.44 scenarios runoff0.25 coefficient not exceed land use GR38 the surface 50.4 2.218should 0.78 2.26 0.5298. 0.79 The 7.83 2.74 distribution should be modified by giving more percentage to green areas. This GR38A 148.8 0.25 2.218 2.29 2.26 2.34 7.83 8.09 will MR39 help in water 64.71 percolation slow down surface water. 0.7 and 2.218 2.79the speed 2.26 of 2.85 7.83 9.85 MR40

43.79

0.7 2.218 1.89 2.26 1.93 7.83 6.67 0.7 2.218 2.68 2.26 2.73 7.83 9.46 MR42 51.84 0.7 2.218 2.24 2.26 2.28 7.83 7.89 Climatological Tables, 1931 -1999, Indian Meteorological department, Pune. MR43 Institute 60.84 0.7 2.218 2.62Earth2.26 2.68Integrated 7.83 Land 9.26 International for Aerospace Survey and Sciences, Resources Survey for Urban Rohini, Report (Jan. MR44 98.26 0.7Environment, 2.218 4.24 New 2.26Delhi,4.32 7.83 1989), 14.96 lTC, Netherlands. MR45Enschede,128.01 0.7 2.218 5.52 2.26 5.63 7.83 19.49 Khanna, P.N. (1999)54.11 Indian Practical Civil Engineers’ Engineers’ Publishers, MR46 0.7 2.218 2.33 Handbook, 2.26 2.38 7.83 8.24 New MR47Delhi. 69.25 0.7 2.218 2.99 2.26 3.04 7.83 10.54 Survey of Five Main Drains of NOIDA (Feb, 1997) Transport Planners Associates, New MR48 43.31 0.7 2.218 1.87 2.26 1.90 7.83 6.59 Delhi. MR49 143.03 0.7 2.218 6.17 2.26 6.29 7.83 21.78 Survey of Land Use Pattern of NOIDA (April, 2004) Transport Planners Associates, MR50 94.62 0.7 2.218 4.08 2.26 4.16 7.83 14.41 New Delhi. MR41 62.13 REFERENCES

The Ecological imbalance which has been created due to the abuse and overuse of environmental services in the city, has left a very thin line between natural and man made disasters. The city is subjected to congestion with a high density of population living in poor sanitary conditions. The degradation of these two worsened when the city started developing across its natural two boundaries. The rivers Yamuna and Hindon have been turned more or less into a drain and do not carry clear fresh water any more. Why have we destroyed our natural heritage, the ridge and the river, and what are we leaving behind for future generations? Nature cannot take more abuse, hence the degradation caused to the environment of the city has to respond in terms of its wrath and it is invariably the irresponsibility of the authorities and the people who are totally insensitive to human life who are blinded by the haves and have-nots of economics.

The Ecological imbalance which has been created due to the abuse and overuse of environmental services in the city, has left a very thin line between natural and man made disasters. The city is subjected to congestion with a high density of population living in poor sanitary conditions. The degradation of these two worsened when the city started developing across its natural two boundaries. The rivers Yamuna and Hindon have been turned more or less into a drain and do not carry clear fresh water any more. Why have we destroyed our natural heritage, the ridge and the river, and what are we leaving behind for future generations? Nature cannot take more abuse, hence the degradation caused to the environment of the city has to respond in terms of its wrath and it is invariably the irresponsibility of the authorities and the people who are totally insensitive to human life who are blinded by the haves and have-nots of economics.

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

Noida and Greater Noida face the same challenges as other fast developing areas of the developing world. How do we balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal development and governmental economic need? The

Noida and Greater Noida face the same challenges as other fast developing areas of the developing world. How do we balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal development and governmental economic need? The

28

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

29

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

29

MR28 0.7their2.218 1.79 2.26 1.83 7.83to take 6.33 people who cannot41.59 meet even daily necessities cannot be expected MR29 safeguards 20.88 2.218 0.90and 2.26 3.18 sufficient against0.7natural disasters combat 0.92 various 7.83 epidemics 0.7 2.218 1.66 who 2.26are poor 1.69 migrants 7.83 have 5.85 I that MR30 usually follow38.44 such occurrences. The people 61.17 by 0.7disasters 2.218because, 2.64 by the 2.26process 2.69of elimination, 7.83 9.31 theirMR31 proneness increased C32 61.24 0.37 2.218 1.40 2.26 1.42 7.83 4.93 they are forced to live in low lying areas subjected to frequent flooding and MR33 24.63 0.7of poor 2.218 1.06 2.26 7.83 Noida 3.75 seismic vulnerability (because and dilapidated housing1.08 conditions). cannot sustain a rainfall equal to or greater an Intensity I = 1.885 MR34 47.16 of 0.7 2.218 2.03 than2.26 2.07 of 7.83 7.18 cm/hr. From the scenarios of0.71998 2.218 and 2021, it is clearly with the MR35 51.88 2.24 2.26 evident 2.28 that 7.83 7.90 increase runoff, a result2.26 of the1.17 intensity of local MR36in Urbanization, 26.68 surface 0.7 2.218 as1.15 7.83 4.06 flooding future 2.218 development, order to1.86 avoid local MR37is increasing. 42.31 For 0.7 1.82 in 2.26 7.83 flood 6.44 scenarios the surface runoff coefficient should not exceed 0.5298. The land use GR38 50.4 0.25 2.218 0.78 2.26 0.79 7.83 2.74 distribution be modified giving more to2.34 green areas. GR38A should148.8 0.25 by 2.218 2.29 percentage 2.26 7.83 This 8.09 will MR39 help in water 64.71 percolation slow down surface water. 0.7 and 2.218 2.79the speed 2.26 of 2.85 7.83 9.85

people who cannot meet even their daily necessities cannot be expected to take sufficient safeguards against natural disasters and combat various epidemics that usually follow such occurrences. The people who are poor migrants have their proneness increased by disasters because, by the process of elimination, they are forced to live in low lying areas subjected to frequent flooding and seismic vulnerability (because of poor and dilapidated housing conditions). Noida cannot sustain a rainfall of equal to or greater than an Intensity of I = 1.885 cm/hr. From the scenarios of 1998 and 2021, it is clearly evident that with the increase in Urbanization, surface runoff, as a result of the intensity of local flooding is increasing. For future development, in order to avoid local flood scenarios the surface runoff coefficient should not exceed 0.5298. The land use distribution should be modified by giving more percentage to green areas. This will help in water percolation and slow down the speed of surface water.

MR40 43.79 0.7 2.218 1.89 2.26 1.93 7.83 6.67 MR41 62.13 0.7 2.218 2.68 2.26 2.73 7.83 9.46 REFERENCES MR42 51.84 0.7 Indian 2.218Meteorological 2.24 2.26 2.28 Pune.7.83 7.89 Climatological Tables, 1931 -1999, department, MR43 Institute 60.84 0.7 2.218 2.62Earth2.26 2.68Integrated 7.83 Land 9.26 International for Aerospace Survey and Sciences, Resources Survey for Urban Rohini, Report (Jan. MR44 98.26 0.7Environment, 2.218 4.24 New 2.26Delhi,4.32 7.83 1989), 14.96 lTC, Netherlands. MR45Enschede,128.01 0.7 2.218 5.52 2.26 5.63 7.83 19.49 Khanna, P.N. (1999)54.11 Indian Practical Civil Engineers’ Engineers’ Publishers, MR46 0.7 2.218 2.33 Handbook, 2.26 2.38 7.83 8.24 New Delhi. MR47 69.25 0.7 2.218 2.99 2.26 3.04 7.83 10.54 Survey of Five Main Drains of NOIDA (Feb, 1997) Transport Planners Associates, New MR48 43.31 0.7 2.218 1.87 2.26 1.90 7.83 6.59 Delhi. MR49 143.03 0.7 2.218 6.17 2.26 6.29 7.83 21.78 Survey of Land Use Pattern of NOIDA (April, 2004) Transport Planners Associates, MR50Delhi. 94.62 0.7 2.218 4.08 2.26 4.16 7.83 14.41 New

Climatological Tables, 1931 -1999, Indian Meteorological department, Pune. International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, Integrated Land Resources Survey for Urban Environment, Rohini, New Delhi, Report (Jan. 1989), lTC, Enschede, Netherlands. Khanna, P.N. (1999) Indian Practical Civil Engineers’ Handbook, Engineers’ Publishers, New Delhi. Survey of Five Main Drains of NOIDA (Feb, 1997) Transport Planners Associates, New Delhi. Survey of Land Use Pattern of NOIDA (April, 2004) Transport Planners Associates, New Delhi.

REFERENCES

The Ecological imbalance which has been created due to the abuse and overuse of environmental services in the city, has left a very thin line between natural and man made disasters. The city is subjected to congestion with a high density of population living in poor sanitary conditions. The degradation of these two worsened when the city started developing across its natural two boundaries. The rivers Yamuna and Hindon have been turned more or less into a drain and do not carry clear fresh water any more. Why have we destroyed our natural heritage, the ridge and the river, and what are we leaving behind for future generations? Nature cannot take more abuse, hence the degradation caused to the environment of the city has to respond in terms of its wrath and it is invariably the irresponsibility of the authorities and the people who are totally insensitive to human life who are blinded by the haves and have-nots of economics. CONCLUSION Noida and Greater Noida face the same challenges as other fast developing areas of the developing world. How do we balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal development and governmental economic need? The

28

Disaster Management Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

29

MR28 0.7their2.218 1.79 2.26 1.83 7.83to take 6.33 people who cannot41.59 meet even daily necessities cannot be expected MR29 safeguards 20.88 2.218 0.90and 2.26 3.18 sufficient against0.7natural disasters combat 0.92 various 7.83 epidemics 0.7 2.218 1.66 who 2.26are poor 1.69 migrants 7.83 have 5.85 I that MR30 usually follow38.44 such occurrences. The people 61.17 by 0.7disasters 2.218because, 2.64 by the 2.26process 2.69of elimination, 7.83 9.31 theirMR31 proneness increased 2.218 1.42 flooding 7.83 and 4.93 theyC32 are forced to61.24 live in 0.37 low lying areas 1.40 subjected2.26 to frequent MR33 24.63 0.7 2.218 1.06 2.26 1.08 7.83 3.75 seismic vulnerability (because of poor and dilapidated housing conditions). Noida cannot sustain a rainfall equal to or greater an Intensity I = 1.885 MR34 47.16 of 0.7 2.218 2.03 than2.26 2.07 of 7.83 7.18 cm/hr. From the scenarios of0.71998 2.218 and 2021, it is clearly with the MR35 51.88 2.24 2.26 evident 2.28 that 7.83 7.90 increase runoff, a result2.26 of the1.17 intensity of local MR36in Urbanization, 26.68 surface 0.7 2.218 as1.15 7.83 4.06 flooding future 2.218 development, order to1.86 avoid local MR37is increasing. 42.31 For 0.7 1.82 in 2.26 7.83 flood 6.44 scenarios runoff0.25 coefficient not exceed land use GR38 the surface 50.4 2.218should 0.78 2.26 0.5298. 0.79 The 7.83 2.74 distribution should be modified by giving more percentage to green areas. This GR38A 148.8 0.25 2.218 2.29 2.26 2.34 7.83 8.09 will MR39 help in water 64.71 percolation slow down surface water. 0.7 and 2.218 2.79the speed 2.26 of 2.85 7.83 9.85 MR40

43.79

0.7 2.218 1.89 2.26 1.93 7.83 6.67 0.7 2.218 2.68 2.26 2.73 7.83 9.46 MR42 51.84 0.7 2.218 2.24 2.26 2.28 7.83 7.89 Climatological Tables, 1931 -1999, Indian Meteorological department, Pune. MR43 Institute 60.84 0.7 2.218 2.62Earth2.26 2.68Integrated 7.83 Land 9.26 International for Aerospace Survey and Sciences, Resources Survey for Urban Rohini, Report (Jan. MR44 98.26 0.7Environment, 2.218 4.24 New 2.26Delhi,4.32 7.83 1989), 14.96 lTC, Netherlands. MR45Enschede,128.01 0.7 2.218 5.52 2.26 5.63 7.83 19.49 Khanna, P.N. (1999)54.11 Indian Practical Civil Engineers’ Engineers’ Publishers, MR46 0.7 2.218 2.33 Handbook, 2.26 2.38 7.83 8.24 New MR47Delhi. 69.25 0.7 2.218 2.99 2.26 3.04 7.83 10.54 Survey of Five Main Drains of NOIDA (Feb, 1997) Transport Planners Associates, New MR48 43.31 0.7 2.218 1.87 2.26 1.90 7.83 6.59 Delhi. MR49 143.03 0.7 2.218 6.17 2.26 6.29 7.83 21.78 Survey of Land Use Pattern of NOIDA (April, 2004) Transport Planners Associates, MR50Delhi. 94.62 0.7 2.218 4.08 2.26 4.16 7.83 14.41 New MR41 62.13 REFERENCES

The Ecological imbalance which has been created due to the abuse and overuse of environmental services in the city, has left a very thin line between natural and man made disasters. The city is subjected to congestion with a high density of population living in poor sanitary conditions. The degradation of these two worsened when the city started developing across its natural two boundaries. The rivers Yamuna and Hindon have been turned more or less into a drain and do not carry clear fresh water any more. Why have we destroyed our natural heritage, the ridge and the river, and what are we leaving behind for future generations? Nature cannot take more abuse, hence the degradation caused to the environment of the city has to respond in terms of its wrath and it is invariably the irresponsibility of the authorities and the people who are totally insensitive to human life who are blinded by the haves and have-nots of economics. CONCLUSION Noida and Greater Noida face the same challenges as other fast developing areas of the developing world. How do we balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal development and governmental economic need? The

Challenges of Flood Disaster Management

29

people who cannot meet even their daily necessities cannot be expected to take sufficient safeguards against natural disasters and combat various epidemics that usually follow such occurrences. The people who are poor migrants have their proneness increased by disasters because, by the process of elimination, they are forced to live in low lying areas subjected to frequent flooding and seismic vulnerability (because of poor and dilapidated housing conditions). Noida cannot sustain a rainfall of equal to or greater than an Intensity of I = 1.885 cm/hr. From the scenarios of 1998 and 2021, it is clearly evident that with the increase in Urbanization, surface runoff, as a result of the intensity of local flooding is increasing. For future development, in order to avoid local flood scenarios the surface runoff coefficient should not exceed 0.5298. The land use distribution should be modified by giving more percentage to green areas. This will help in water percolation and slow down the speed of surface water. REFERENCES Climatological Tables, 1931 -1999, Indian Meteorological department, Pune. International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, Integrated Land Resources Survey for Urban Environment, Rohini, New Delhi, Report (Jan. 1989), lTC, Enschede, Netherlands. Khanna, P.N. (1999) Indian Practical Civil Engineers’ Handbook, Engineers’ Publishers, New Delhi. Survey of Five Main Drains of NOIDA (Feb, 1997) Transport Planners Associates, New Delhi. Survey of Land Use Pattern of NOIDA (April, 2004) Transport Planners Associates, New Delhi.

3

Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan Senior Lecturer of Geography, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION World Development Report (1986) defined food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” World food problems involve complex interactions among food production, population growth, poverty, environmental effects, and economic and political systems. Producing food at a faster rate than population growth will not solve hunger problems unless the poor have enough land to grow their own food or enough income to buy the food they need. Chronic hunger and catastrophic famine are due to the lack of access to food, but not a lack of food. Global food production has increased substantially over the past two decades, but producing food and other agricultural products by conventional means uses more soil, water, plant, animal, and energy resources, and causes more pollution and environmental damage, than any other human activity. To feed the 8.5 billion people projected by 2025, we must produce and equitably distribute as much food during the next 20 years as was produced since agriculture began about 10,000 years ago. The Indian planners, right from the beginning realized the need to attain self-sufficiency in foodgrains as one of the important goals of planning. The Government realized that food surplus countries used their food-surplus as a weapon to force food deficit countries to submit to their dictates. When India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966, the American President Lyndon Johnson, in order to teach a lesson to India, restricted food aid to a monthly basis under the P.L. 480 programme. This was done to force India not to condemn American aggression in Vietnam.

3

Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India Mohinder Singh Kadayan Senior Lecturer of Geography, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION World Development Report (1986) defined food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” World food problems involve complex interactions among food production, population growth, poverty, environmental effects, and economic and political systems. Producing food at a faster rate than population growth will not solve hunger problems unless the poor have enough land to grow their own food or enough income to buy the food they need. Chronic hunger and catastrophic famine are due to the lack of access to food, but not a lack of food. Global food production has increased substantially over the past two decades, but producing food and other agricultural products by conventional means uses more soil, water, plant, animal, and energy resources, and causes more pollution and environmental damage, than any other human activity. To feed the 8.5 billion people projected by 2025, we must produce and equitably distribute as much food during the next 20 years as was produced since agriculture began about 10,000 years ago. The Indian planners, right from the beginning realized the need to attain self-sufficiency in foodgrains as one of the important goals of planning. The Government realized that food surplus countries used their food-surplus as a weapon to force food deficit countries to submit to their dictates. When India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966, the American President Lyndon Johnson, in order to teach a lesson to India, restricted food aid to a monthly basis under the P.L. 480 programme. This was done to force India not to condemn American aggression in Vietnam.

3

3

Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India

Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India

Mohinder Singh Kadayan Senior Lecturer of Geography, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

Mohinder Singh Kadayan Senior Lecturer of Geography, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

World Development Report (1986) defined food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” World food problems involve complex interactions among food production, population growth, poverty, environmental effects, and economic and political systems. Producing food at a faster rate than population growth will not solve hunger problems unless the poor have enough land to grow their own food or enough income to buy the food they need. Chronic hunger and catastrophic famine are due to the lack of access to food, but not a lack of food. Global food production has increased substantially over the past two decades, but producing food and other agricultural products by conventional means uses more soil, water, plant, animal, and energy resources, and causes more pollution and environmental damage, than any other human activity. To feed the 8.5 billion people projected by 2025, we must produce and equitably distribute as much food during the next 20 years as was produced since agriculture began about 10,000 years ago. The Indian planners, right from the beginning realized the need to attain self-sufficiency in foodgrains as one of the important goals of planning. The Government realized that food surplus countries used their food-surplus as a weapon to force food deficit countries to submit to their dictates. When India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966, the American President Lyndon Johnson, in order to teach a lesson to India, restricted food aid to a monthly basis under the P.L. 480 programme. This was done to force India not to condemn American aggression in Vietnam.

World Development Report (1986) defined food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” World food problems involve complex interactions among food production, population growth, poverty, environmental effects, and economic and political systems. Producing food at a faster rate than population growth will not solve hunger problems unless the poor have enough land to grow their own food or enough income to buy the food they need. Chronic hunger and catastrophic famine are due to the lack of access to food, but not a lack of food. Global food production has increased substantially over the past two decades, but producing food and other agricultural products by conventional means uses more soil, water, plant, animal, and energy resources, and causes more pollution and environmental damage, than any other human activity. To feed the 8.5 billion people projected by 2025, we must produce and equitably distribute as much food during the next 20 years as was produced since agriculture began about 10,000 years ago. The Indian planners, right from the beginning realized the need to attain self-sufficiency in foodgrains as one of the important goals of planning. The Government realized that food surplus countries used their food-surplus as a weapon to force food deficit countries to submit to their dictates. When India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966, the American President Lyndon Johnson, in order to teach a lesson to India, restricted food aid to a monthly basis under the P.L. 480 programme. This was done to force India not to condemn American aggression in Vietnam.

3

3

Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India

Global Warming: Challenges for Food Security in India

Mohinder Singh Kadayan Senior Lecturer of Geography, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

Mohinder Singh Kadayan Senior Lecturer of Geography, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

World Development Report (1986) defined food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” World food problems involve complex interactions among food production, population growth, poverty, environmental effects, and economic and political systems. Producing food at a faster rate than population growth will not solve hunger problems unless the poor have enough land to grow their own food or enough income to buy the food they need. Chronic hunger and catastrophic famine are due to the lack of access to food, but not a lack of food. Global food production has increased substantially over the past two decades, but producing food and other agricultural products by conventional means uses more soil, water, plant, animal, and energy resources, and causes more pollution and environmental damage, than any other human activity. To feed the 8.5 billion people projected by 2025, we must produce and equitably distribute as much food during the next 20 years as was produced since agriculture began about 10,000 years ago. The Indian planners, right from the beginning realized the need to attain self-sufficiency in foodgrains as one of the important goals of planning. The Government realized that food surplus countries used their food-surplus as a weapon to force food deficit countries to submit to their dictates. When India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966, the American President Lyndon Johnson, in order to teach a lesson to India, restricted food aid to a monthly basis under the P.L. 480 programme. This was done to force India not to condemn American aggression in Vietnam.

World Development Report (1986) defined food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” World food problems involve complex interactions among food production, population growth, poverty, environmental effects, and economic and political systems. Producing food at a faster rate than population growth will not solve hunger problems unless the poor have enough land to grow their own food or enough income to buy the food they need. Chronic hunger and catastrophic famine are due to the lack of access to food, but not a lack of food. Global food production has increased substantially over the past two decades, but producing food and other agricultural products by conventional means uses more soil, water, plant, animal, and energy resources, and causes more pollution and environmental damage, than any other human activity. To feed the 8.5 billion people projected by 2025, we must produce and equitably distribute as much food during the next 20 years as was produced since agriculture began about 10,000 years ago. The Indian planners, right from the beginning realized the need to attain self-sufficiency in foodgrains as one of the important goals of planning. The Government realized that food surplus countries used their food-surplus as a weapon to force food deficit countries to submit to their dictates. When India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966, the American President Lyndon Johnson, in order to teach a lesson to India, restricted food aid to a monthly basis under the P.L. 480 programme. This was done to force India not to condemn American aggression in Vietnam.

32

Disaster Management

Main Focus of the Study The main focus of the study is to deal with the following issues : i) Global Warming and Crop Production ii) Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production iii) Population Growth and Food Supply iv) Strategies for Food Security Global Warming and Crop Production Global warming has emerged as one of the most important environmental issues ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday activities may be leading to changes in the earth’s atmosphere that have the potential to significantly alter the planet’s heat and radiation balance. It could lead to a warmer climatic in the next century and thereafter adverse effects are possible in agriculture and other fields. The presence of carbondioxide in the atmosphere is also known as a ‘green house gas and helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby increasing the earth’s surface temperature. Of course, carbondioxide is only one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others include methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour. However, carbondioxide is the most important greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. Carbondioxide is generated by a multitude of processes ranging from animal and plant respiration to the burning of any kind of fuel containing carbon, including coal, oil, wood and cow dung. For a long time, human activities that generated carbon dioxide caused only a small perturbation in the natural cycle of the gas. However, since the Industrial Revolution, when our usage of fossil fuels increased dramatically, the contribution of carbondioxide generated from human activities has grown large enough to constitute a significant perturbation of the natural carbon cycle. The concentration of carbondioxide in the earth’s atmosphere was about 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution began. By 1994 it was 358 ppmv and rising by about 1.5 ppmv per year. If emissions continue at the 1994 rate, the concentration will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the twenty-first century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paris, in February 2007 stated that under the existing scenarios of economic growth and development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100, and the global mean sea level by about 15 to 95cm. It is likely that changes of this magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and managed ecosystems, as well as important economic sectors such as agriculture and water resources. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten a complete loss of land and the extinction of habitation.

32

Disaster Management

Main Focus of the Study The main focus of the study is to deal with the following issues : i) Global Warming and Crop Production ii) Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production iii) Population Growth and Food Supply iv) Strategies for Food Security Global Warming and Crop Production Global warming has emerged as one of the most important environmental issues ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday activities may be leading to changes in the earth’s atmosphere that have the potential to significantly alter the planet’s heat and radiation balance. It could lead to a warmer climatic in the next century and thereafter adverse effects are possible in agriculture and other fields. The presence of carbondioxide in the atmosphere is also known as a ‘green house gas and helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby increasing the earth’s surface temperature. Of course, carbondioxide is only one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others include methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour. However, carbondioxide is the most important greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. Carbondioxide is generated by a multitude of processes ranging from animal and plant respiration to the burning of any kind of fuel containing carbon, including coal, oil, wood and cow dung. For a long time, human activities that generated carbon dioxide caused only a small perturbation in the natural cycle of the gas. However, since the Industrial Revolution, when our usage of fossil fuels increased dramatically, the contribution of carbondioxide generated from human activities has grown large enough to constitute a significant perturbation of the natural carbon cycle. The concentration of carbondioxide in the earth’s atmosphere was about 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution began. By 1994 it was 358 ppmv and rising by about 1.5 ppmv per year. If emissions continue at the 1994 rate, the concentration will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the twenty-first century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paris, in February 2007 stated that under the existing scenarios of economic growth and development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100, and the global mean sea level by about 15 to 95cm. It is likely that changes of this magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and managed ecosystems, as well as important economic sectors such as agriculture and water resources. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten a complete loss of land and the extinction of habitation.

32

Disaster Management

Global Warming

33

Mainmanner Focus is of which the Study The progressive global warming may affect the Earth’s ecosystems in the future is difficult to predict. However, recent studies have The main focus of the study is to deal with the following issues : shown how higher CO2 levels and slightly warmer global temperatures have i) Global Warming and Crop Production affected the biosphere. Some of the studies have demonstrated that, since the ii) Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production 1960s, warmer average temperatures have brought an earlier spring and later iii) Population Growth and Food Supply winter over the higher latitude areas of the northern hemisphere, advancing the iv) Strategies for Food Security growing season by about 7 days in the spring and extending it about 2 to 4 days in the autumn. This extended growing season, along with elevated levels Global Warming and Crop Production of CO 2, has spurred greater plant growth over a wide swathe of territory, including Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Europe and northern sections Global warming has emerged as one northern of the most important environmental issues of Russia and China. ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday About 10may per be centleading reduction of snowin cover is associated withthat warmer activities to changes the earth’s atmosphere have the temperatures in higher latitudes, which probably translates to quicker warming potential to significantly alter the planet’s heat and radiation balance. It could of the a faster start in to the spring CO2 available leadsoil to aand warmer climatic nextgrowth. century The and increased thereafter adverse effects are probably also adds to the photosynthesis rates over the growing season. The possible in agriculture and other fields. increase The in plant growth may be great in asthe 10 atmosphere per cent inisthe presence of carbondioxide alsoaffected known regions as a ‘green and house provides some of the best direct evidence so far of a large-scale eco-system gas and helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby response to climate change. This temperature. response is not likely tocarbondioxide be as universal, increasing the earth’s surface Of course, is only however. Higher temperatures and less rainfall in some areas may soil one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others decrease include methane, moisture levels suppressHowever, growth and agriculturalisyields. nitrous oxideand andactually water vapour. carbondioxide the most important Moreover, scientist have long predicted that as global temperatures get is greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. Carbondioxide warmer, the geographic ranges of plants and animal species will shift towards generated by a multitude of processes ranging from animal and plant respiration the to poles or to higher to containing maintain carbon, their preferred the burning of anyelevations kind of fuel includingtemperature coal, oil, wood conditions. and cow dung. For a long time, human activities that generated carbon dioxide Without suitable temperature conditions, the germination and growthsince caused only a small perturbation in the natural cycle of of theseeds gas. However, of plants is retarded. Temperature regulates all the chemical and physical the Industrial Revolution, when our usage of fossil fuels increased dramatically, processes of plant metabolism. The metabolic process begin at a certain minimum the contribution of carbondioxide generated from human activities has grown temperature and increase with the rise in temperature untilofthey a maximum large enough to constitute a significant perturbation the reach natural carbon cycle. at a temperature called the optimum. The ideal temperature conditions forwas crop The concentration of carbondioxide in the earth’s atmosphere about 0C. Due to global warming the optimum production are between 18.3 and 23.9 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution temperature required any358 crop willand riserising whichbywill effect the metabolic began. By 1994 itfor was ppmv about 1.5 ppmv per year. If activity of the continue crop which will1994 create foodconcentration problem in future. emissions at the rate,a the will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the twenty-first century. Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paris, in February VagariesThe of Intergovernmental Monsoon and Food Production 2007 stated that under the existing scenarios of economic growth and India is one of the wettest countries in the world, with an average annual rainfall development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, of 11 inches. There is, however, no accurate information about India’s water temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100, and the resources. B.S. Nag and G.N. Kathpalia made an estimate of the water resources global mean sea level by about 15 to 95cm. It is likely that changes of this of India for the National Commission of Agriculture. Their estimate is magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and summarized in Table 1. managed ecosystems, as well as important economic sectors such as agriculture and water resources. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten a complete loss of land and the extinction of habitation.

32

Disaster Management

Global Warming

33

Mainmanner Focus is of which the Study The progressive global warming may affect the Earth’s ecosystems in the future is difficult to predict. However, recent studies have The main focus of the study is to deal with the following issues : shown how higher CO2 levels and slightly warmer global temperatures have i) Global Warming and Crop Production affected the biosphere. Some of the studies have demonstrated that, since the ii) Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production 1960s, warmer average temperatures have brought an earlier spring and later iii) Population Growth and Food Supply winter over the higher latitude areas of the northern hemisphere, advancing the iv) Strategies for Food Security growing season by about 7 days in the spring and extending it about 2 to 4 days in the autumn. This extended growing season, along with elevated levels Global Warming and Crop Production of CO 2, has spurred greater plant growth over a wide swathe of territory, including Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Europe and northern sections Global warming has emerged as one northern of the most important environmental issues of Russia and China. ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday About 10may per be centleading reduction of snowin cover is associated withthat warmer activities to changes the earth’s atmosphere have the temperatures latitudes, probably translates to quicker warming potential in to higher significantly alterwhich the planet’s heat and radiation balance. It could of the a faster start in to the spring CO2 available leadsoil to aand warmer climatic nextgrowth. century The and increased thereafter adverse effects are probably alsoinadds to the photosynthesis possible agriculture and other fields.rates over the growing season. The increase The in plant growth may be great in asthe 10 atmosphere per cent inisthe presence of carbondioxide alsoaffected known regions as a ‘green and house provides some of the best direct evidence so far of a large-scale eco-system gas and helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby response to climate change. This temperature. response is not likely tocarbondioxide be as universal, increasing the earth’s surface Of course, is only however. Higher temperatures and less rainfall in some areas may decrease soil one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others include methane, moisture levels suppressHowever, growth and agriculturalisyields. nitrous oxideand andactually water vapour. carbondioxide the most important Moreover, scientist have long predicted that as global temperatures get is greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. Carbondioxide warmer, the geographic ranges of plants and animal species will shift towards generated by a multitude of processes ranging from animal and plant respiration the to poles or to higher to containing maintain carbon, their preferred the burning of anyelevations kind of fuel includingtemperature coal, oil, wood conditions. and cow dung. For a long time, human activities that generated carbon dioxide Without suitable temperature conditions, the germination and growthsince caused only a small perturbation in the natural cycle of of theseeds gas. However, of plants is retarded. Temperature regulates the fuels chemical and dramatically, physical the Industrial Revolution, when our usage ofallfossil increased processes of plant metabolism. The metabolic process begin at a certain minimum the contribution of carbondioxide generated from human activities has grown temperature and increase with the rise in temperature untilofthey a maximum large enough to constitute a significant perturbation the reach natural carbon cycle. at a temperature called the optimum. The ideal temperature conditions forwas crop The concentration of carbondioxide in the earth’s atmosphere about 0C. Due to global warming the optimum production are between 18.3 and 23.9 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution temperature required any358 crop willand riserising whichbywill effect the metabolic began. By 1994 itfor was ppmv about 1.5 ppmv per year. If activity of the crop which will create a food problem in future. emissions continue at the 1994 rate, the concentration will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the twenty-first century. Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paris, in February VagariesThe of Intergovernmental Monsoon and Food Production 2007 stated that under the existing scenarios of economic growth and India is one of the wettest countries in the world, with an average annual rainfall development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, of 11 inches. There is, however, no accurate information about India’s water temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100, and the resources. B.S. Nag and G.N. Kathpalia made an estimate of the water resources global mean sea level by about 15 to 95cm. It is likely that changes of this of India for the National Commission of Agriculture. Their estimate is magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and summarized in Table 1. managed ecosystems, as well as important economic sectors such as agriculture and water resources. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten a complete loss of land and the extinction of habitation.

32

Disaster Management

Global Warming

33

The manner progressive global warming may affect the Earth’s Main Focus is of which the Study ecosystems in the future is difficult to predict. However, recent studies have The main focus of the study is to deal with the following issues : shown how higher CO2 levels and slightly warmer global temperatures have i) Global Warming and Crop Production affected the biosphere. Some of the studies have demonstrated that, since the ii) Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production 1960s, warmer average temperatures have brought an earlier spring and later iii) Population Growth and Food Supply winter over the higher latitude areas of the northern hemisphere, advancing the iv) Strategies for Food Security growing season by about 7 days in the spring and extending it about 2 to 4 days in the autumn. This extended growing season, along with elevated levels Global Warming and Crop Production of CO 2, has spurred greater plant growth over a wide swathe of territory, including Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Europe and northern sections Global warming has emerged as one northern of the most important environmental issues of Russia and China. ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday About 10may per be centleading reduction of snowin cover is associated withthat warmer activities to changes the earth’s atmosphere have the temperatures in higher latitudes, which probably translates to quicker warming potential to significantly alter the planet’s heat and radiation balance. It could of the a faster start in to the spring CO2 available leadsoil to aand warmer climatic nextgrowth. century The and increased thereafter adverse effects are probably also adds to the photosynthesis rates over the growing season. The possible in agriculture and other fields. increase The in plant growth may be great in asthe 10 atmosphere per cent inisthe presence of carbondioxide alsoaffected known regions as a ‘green and house provides some of the best direct evidence so far of a large-scale eco-system gas and helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby response to climate change. This temperature. response is not likely tocarbondioxide be as universal, increasing the earth’s surface Of course, is only however. Higher temperatures and less rainfall in some areas may soil one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others decrease include methane, moisture levels suppressHowever, growth and agriculturalisyields. nitrous oxideand andactually water vapour. carbondioxide the most important Moreover, scientist have long predicted that as global temperatures get is greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. Carbondioxide warmer, the geographic ranges of plants and animal species will shift towards generated by a multitude of processes ranging from animal and plant respiration the to poles or to higher to containing maintain carbon, their preferred the burning of anyelevations kind of fuel includingtemperature coal, oil, wood conditions. and cow dung. For a long time, human activities that generated carbon dioxide Without suitable temperature conditions, the germination and growthsince caused only a small perturbation in the natural cycle of of theseeds gas. However, of plants is retarded. Temperature regulates all the chemical and physical the Industrial Revolution, when our usage of fossil fuels increased dramatically, processes of plant metabolism. The metabolic process begin at a certain minimum the contribution of carbondioxide generated from human activities has grown temperature and increase with the rise in temperature untilofthey a maximum large enough to constitute a significant perturbation the reach natural carbon cycle. at a temperature called the optimum. The ideal temperature conditions forwas crop The concentration of carbondioxide in the earth’s atmosphere about 0C. Due to global warming the optimum production are between 18.3 and 23.9 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution temperature required any358 crop willand riserising whichbywill effect the metabolic began. By 1994 itfor was ppmv about 1.5 ppmv per year. If activity of the continue crop which will1994 create foodconcentration problem in future. emissions at the rate,a the will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the twenty-first century. Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paris, in February VagariesThe of Intergovernmental Monsoon and Food Production 2007 stated that under the existing scenarios of economic growth and India is one of the wettest countries in the world, with an average annual rainfall development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, of 11 inches. There is, however, no accurate information about India’s water temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100, and the resources. B.S. Nag and G.N. Kathpalia made an estimate of the water resources global mean sea level by about 15 to 95cm. It is likely that changes of this of India for the National Commission of Agriculture. Their estimate is magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and summarized in Table 1. managed ecosystems, as well as important economic sectors such as agriculture and water resources. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten a complete loss of land and the extinction of habitation.

32

Disaster Management

Global Warming

Global Warming

The manner is which progressive global warming may affect the Earth’s ecosystems in the future is difficult to predict. However, recent studies have shown how higher CO2 levels and slightly warmer global temperatures have affected the biosphere. Some of the studies have demonstrated that, since the 1960s, warmer average temperatures have brought an earlier spring and later winter over the higher latitude areas of the northern hemisphere, advancing the growing season by about 7 days in the spring and extending it about 2 to 4 days in the autumn. This extended growing season, along with elevated levels of CO2, has spurred greater plant growth over a wide swathe of territory, including Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, northern Europe and northern sections of Russia and China. About 10 per cent reduction of snow cover is associated with warmer temperatures in higher latitudes, which probably translates to quicker warming of the soil and a faster start to spring growth. The increased CO2 available probably also adds to the photosynthesis rates over the growing season. The increase in plant growth may be great as 10 per cent in the affected regions and provides some of the best direct evidence so far of a large-scale eco-system response to climate change. This response is not likely to be as universal, however. Higher temperatures and less rainfall in some areas may decrease soil moisture levels and actually suppress growth and agricultural yields. Moreover, scientist have long predicted that as global temperatures get warmer, the geographic ranges of plants and animal species will shift towards the poles or to higher elevations to maintain their preferred temperature conditions. Without suitable temperature conditions, the germination of seeds and growth of plants is retarded. Temperature regulates all the chemical and physical processes of plant metabolism. The metabolic process begin at a certain minimum temperature and increase with the rise in temperature until they reach a maximum at a temperature called the optimum. The ideal temperature conditions for crop production are between 18.3 and 23.90C. Due to global warming the optimum temperature required for any crop will rise which will effect the metabolic activity of the crop which will create a food problem in future. Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production India is one of the wettest countries in the world, with an average annual rainfall of 11 inches. There is, however, no accurate information about India’s water resources. B.S. Nag and G.N. Kathpalia made an estimate of the water resources of India for the National Commission of Agriculture. Their estimate is summarized in Table 1.

33

The manner progressive global warming may affect the Earth’s Main Focus is of which the Study ecosystems in the future is difficult to predict. However, recent studies have The main focus of the study is to deal with the following issues : shown how higher CO2 levels and slightly warmer global temperatures have i) Global Warming and Crop Production affected the biosphere. Some of the studies have demonstrated that, since the ii) Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production 1960s, warmer average temperatures have brought an earlier spring and later iii) Population Growth and Food Supply winter over the higher latitude areas of the northern hemisphere, advancing the iv) Strategies for Food Security growing season by about 7 days in the spring and extending it about 2 to 4 days in the autumn. This extended growing season, along with elevated levels Global Warming and Crop Production of CO 2, has spurred greater plant growth over a wide swathe of territory, including Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Europe and northern sections Global warming has emerged as one northern of the most important environmental issues of Russia and China. ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday About 10may per be centleading reduction of snowin cover is associated withthat warmer activities to changes the earth’s atmosphere have the temperatures latitudes, probably translates to quicker warming potential in to higher significantly alterwhich the planet’s heat and radiation balance. It could of the a faster start in to the spring CO2 available leadsoil to aand warmer climatic nextgrowth. century The and increased thereafter adverse effects are probably alsoinadds to the photosynthesis possible agriculture and other fields.rates over the growing season. The increase The in plant growth may be great in asthe 10 atmosphere per cent inisthe presence of carbondioxide alsoaffected known regions as a ‘green and house provides some of the best direct evidence so far of a large-scale eco-system gas and helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby response to climate change. This temperature. response is not likely tocarbondioxide be as universal, increasing the earth’s surface Of course, is only however. Higher temperatures and less rainfall in some areas may decrease soil one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others include methane, moisture levels suppressHowever, growth and agriculturalisyields. nitrous oxideand andactually water vapour. carbondioxide the most important Moreover, scientist have long predicted that as global temperatures get is greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. Carbondioxide warmer, the geographic ranges of plants and animal species will shift towards generated by a multitude of processes ranging from animal and plant respiration the to poles or to higher to containing maintain carbon, their preferred the burning of anyelevations kind of fuel includingtemperature coal, oil, wood conditions. and cow dung. For a long time, human activities that generated carbon dioxide Without suitable temperature conditions, the germination and growthsince caused only a small perturbation in the natural cycle of of theseeds gas. However, of plants is retarded. Temperature regulates the fuels chemical and dramatically, physical the Industrial Revolution, when our usage ofallfossil increased processes of plant metabolism. The metabolic process begin at a certain minimum the contribution of carbondioxide generated from human activities has grown temperature and increase with the rise in temperature untilofthey a maximum large enough to constitute a significant perturbation the reach natural carbon cycle. at a temperature called the optimum. The ideal temperature conditions forwas crop The concentration of carbondioxide in the earth’s atmosphere about 0C. Due to global warming the optimum production are between 18.3 and 23.9 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution temperature required any358 crop willand riserising whichbywill effect the metabolic began. By 1994 itfor was ppmv about 1.5 ppmv per year. If activity of the crop which will create a food problem in future. emissions continue at the 1994 rate, the concentration will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the twenty-first century. Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paris, in February VagariesThe of Intergovernmental Monsoon and Food Production 2007 stated that under the existing scenarios of economic growth and India is one of the wettest countries in the world, with an average annual rainfall development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, of 11 inches. There is, however, no accurate information about India’s water temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100, and the resources. B.S. Nag and G.N. Kathpalia made an estimate of the water resources global mean sea level by about 15 to 95cm. It is likely that changes of this of India for the National Commission of Agriculture. Their estimate is magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and summarized in Table 1. managed ecosystems, as well as important economic sectors such as agriculture and water resources. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten a complete loss of land and the extinction of habitation.

33

Global Warming

33

The manner is which progressive global warming may affect the Earth’s ecosystems in the future is difficult to predict. However, recent studies have shown how higher CO2 levels and slightly warmer global temperatures have affected the biosphere. Some of the studies have demonstrated that, since the 1960s, warmer average temperatures have brought an earlier spring and later winter over the higher latitude areas of the northern hemisphere, advancing the growing season by about 7 days in the spring and extending it about 2 to 4 days in the autumn. This extended growing season, along with elevated levels of CO2, has spurred greater plant growth over a wide swathe of territory, including Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, northern Europe and northern sections of Russia and China. About 10 per cent reduction of snow cover is associated with warmer temperatures in higher latitudes, which probably translates to quicker warming of the soil and a faster start to spring growth. The increased CO2 available probably also adds to the photosynthesis rates over the growing season. The increase in plant growth may be great as 10 per cent in the affected regions and provides some of the best direct evidence so far of a large-scale eco-system response to climate change. This response is not likely to be as universal, however. Higher temperatures and less rainfall in some areas may decrease soil moisture levels and actually suppress growth and agricultural yields. Moreover, scientist have long predicted that as global temperatures get warmer, the geographic ranges of plants and animal species will shift towards the poles or to higher elevations to maintain their preferred temperature conditions. Without suitable temperature conditions, the germination of seeds and growth of plants is retarded. Temperature regulates all the chemical and physical processes of plant metabolism. The metabolic process begin at a certain minimum temperature and increase with the rise in temperature until they reach a maximum at a temperature called the optimum. The ideal temperature conditions for crop production are between 18.3 and 23.90C. Due to global warming the optimum temperature required for any crop will rise which will effect the metabolic activity of the crop which will create a food problem in future. Vagaries of Monsoon and Food Production India is one of the wettest countries in the world, with an average annual rainfall of 11 inches. There is, however, no accurate information about India’s water resources. B.S. Nag and G.N. Kathpalia made an estimate of the water resources of India for the National Commission of Agriculture. Their estimate is summarized in Table 1.

34

34

Disaster Management Table 1 : Annual Water Resources of India, 1974 and 2025

400 70 115 215 38 13 25

400 70 115 215 105 35 70

Source: The State of India’s Environment, (1984-85), The Second Citizen’s Report, Centre for Science and Environment.

Table 1 depicts that the annual rainfall over the entire country represents around 400 million hectare metres of water. Of this, about 70 million hectare metres are lost immediately due to evaporation and 215 million hectare metre percolate into the soil. Thus, 115 million hectare metres are left which flows into the river systems. The entire surface water cannot be utilized because of the topography, the water flow characteristics, the soil conditions and climate. In 1974 the surface water utilization was roughly 25 million hectare metres. It is estimated to increase to 70 million hectare metres by in 2025. It has been observed that the rainfall has gradually declined during the past few decades. The average rainfall during the period 1930-60 was 21.11 inches which fell to 12.72 inches by the period 1970-85. The monsoon has been adversely affected by the physical and economical development in the area during the past few decades leading to environmental pollution and also because of deforestation. When the new agricultural strategy was introduced in the early 1960’s, it was hoped that the trend of the rising output of foodgrains would continue. The record achievement of 108 million tonnes of foodgrains in 1970-71 was hailed that the green revolution had materialized and imports were immediately stopped. The euphoria was cut short in 1972-73 when production of foodgrains slumped to 95 million tonnes. Sharp fluctuations in foodgrains output were observed in the later years. From a low level of 100 million tonnes in 1974-75, foodgrain output rose gradually to 132 million tonnes in 1978-79. There was a steep decline in production in the next year due to adverse weather conditions; the foodgrain output in that year was 109 million tonnes which was almost the same as 1970-71 output. After many fluctuations, the output of foodgrains rose to 176 million tonnes in 1990-91 and touched 212 million tonnes in 2001-02 (Table 2). On account of extensive drought conditions, the output of foodgrains declined steeply to 174 million tonnes during 2002-03 (decline of 38 million tonnes) as compared with the previous year. Thus, the output of cereals in still subject to weather conditions as in the past.

34

Table 1 : Annual Water Resources of India, 1974 and 2025 (million hectare meters) 1974 2025 Total Precipitation (a) Immediate Evaporation (b) Run-off to surface water bodies (c) Percolation into the soil Water utilization of which, ground water contributes Surface flows

1970-71 108 Total Precipitation 400 1972-73 95 (a) Immediate Evaporation 70 1974-75 100 (b) Run-off to surface water bodies 115 1978-79 132 (c) Percolation into the soil 215 1979-80 109 Water utilization 38 1990-91 176 of which, ground water contributes 13 2001-02 213 Surface flows 25 2002-03 174 Source: The State of India’s Environment, (1984-85), The Second 2003-04 212 Report, Centre for Science and Environment. 2004-05 206

400 70 115 215 38 13 25

400 70 115 215 105 35 70

Source: The State of India’s Environment, (1984-85), The Second Citizen’s Report, Centre for Science and Environment.

Table 1 depicts that the annual rainfall over the entire country represents around 400 million hectare metres of water. Of this, about 70 million hectare metres are lost immediately due to evaporation and 215 million hectare metre percolate into the soil. Thus, 115 million hectare metres are left which flows into the river systems. The entire surface water cannot be utilized because of the topography, the water flow characteristics, the soil conditions and climate. In 1974 the surface water utilization was roughly 25 million hectare metres. It is estimated to increase to 70 million hectare metres by in 2025. It has been observed that the rainfall has gradually declined during the past few decades. The average rainfall during the period 1930-60 was 21.11 inches which fell to 12.72 inches by the period 1970-85. The monsoon has been adversely affected by the physical and economical development in the area during the past few decades leading to environmental pollution and also because of deforestation. When the new agricultural strategy was introduced in the early 1960’s, it was hoped that the trend of the rising output of foodgrains would continue. The record achievement of 108 million tonnes of foodgrains in 1970-71 was hailed that the green revolution had materialized and imports were immediately stopped. The euphoria was cut short in 1972-73 when production of foodgrains slumped to 95 million tonnes. Sharp fluctuations in foodgrains output were observed in the later years. From a low level of 100 million tonnes in 1974-75, foodgrain output rose gradually to 132 million tonnes in 1978-79. There was a steep decline in production in the next year due to adverse weather conditions; the foodgrain output in that year was 109 million tonnes which was almost the same as 1970-71 output. After many fluctuations, the output of foodgrains rose to 176 million tonnes in 1990-91 and touched 212 million tonnes in 2001-02 (Table 2). On account of extensive drought conditions, the output of foodgrains declined steeply to 174 million tonnes during 2002-03 (decline of 38 million tonnes) as compared with the previous year. Thus, the output of cereals in still subject to weather conditions as in the past.

35

400 70 115 215 105 35 70 Citizen’s

Source: Survey (various Table 1 depicts thatEconomic the annual rainfall overissues). the entire country represents around 400 million hectare metres of water. Of this, about 70 million hectare Table 3 : Foodgrains Production in India metres are lost immediately due to evaporation and 215 million hectare metre (million tonnes) percolate into the soil. Thus, 115 million hectare metres are left which flows Crop 1990-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 into the river systems. The entire surface water cannot be utilized because of the soil conditions and Ricethe topography, 89.7 the water 85.0flow characteristics, 93.3 72.7 87.0 87.8climate. In 1974 the 76.4 surface water metres. It Wheat 69.7utilization 72.8was roughly 65.1 25 million 72.1 hectare 73.0 Coarse Cereals 30.3 33.4 hectare25.3 is estimated to increase31.1 to 70 million metres by37.8 in 2025. 31.9 Pulses It has been 13.4observed 11.1 13.4 15.2 13.7the past that the rainfall has 11.1 gradually declined during Foodgrains few decades. The average rainfall during the period 1930-60 was 21.11 inches Kharif 105.5 102.1 112.1 87.8 112.0 102.9 to 12.72 inches period 1970-85. The monsoon has been Rabiwhich fell 104.3 94.7 by the 100.8 86.4 100.0 103.5 adversely affected by the physical and economical development in the area Total 209.8 196.8 212.9 174.2 212.0 206.4 during the past few decades leading to environmental pollution and also because Source: Ministry of Agriculture. of deforestation. When the new agricultural strategy was introduced in the early 1960’s, it The rainfall caused a substantial fall in the kharif was erratic hoped monsoon that the trend of inthe2004 rising output of foodgrains would continue. foodgrains production (Table 3). The table shows that the kharif foodgrains The record achievement of 108 million tonnes of foodgrains in 1970-71 was production in 2004-05 102.9 million tonnes, which is short were of lastimmediately year’s hailed that the greenwas revolution had materialized and imports production by 9 million tonnes. Good post-monsoon rains, especially during stopped. The euphoria was cut short in 1972-73 when production of foodgrains October 2004,towhich helped tonnes. a build Sharp up of soil moisture,inand the prevalence slumped 95 million fluctuations foodgrains outputofwere coolobserved weather in conditions the arabi the tonnes production of the later through years. From lowseason, level ofimproved 100 million in 1974-75, rabi foodgrain crops to 103.5 million tonnes, up 3.5 million tonnes from the last season. output rose gradually to 132 million tonnes in 1978-79. There was a The steep overall foodgrain production was 206.4 millionweather tonnes, conditions; which decline in production in in the2004-05 next year due to adverse is nearly 6 million tonnes less than the last year. Unfavourable weather conditions the foodgrain output in that year was 109 million tonnes which was almost the in the years affected thefluctuations, agricultural production. The foodgrainrose same as2002-03 1970-71adversely output. After many the output of foodgrains production in 2002-03 was 174.2 million tonnes, which is short of last to 176 million tonnes in 1990-91 and touched 212 million tonnes inyear’s 2001-02 production by On nearly 39 million tonnes.drought The table further shows that there is a (Table 2). account of extensive conditions, the output of foodgrains shortfall in thesteeply production of both coarse cereals and 2002-03 pulses, which are essentially declined to 174 million tonnes during (decline of 38 million rain tonnes) fed crops. The decline of nearly 6 million tonnes in the production of still as compared with the previous year. Thus, the output of cereals in coarse cereals is largely responsible for the decline in the overall foodgrains subject to weather conditions as in the past. production in the years 2004-05 due to an erratic and delayed monsoon with an uneven distribution of rainfall over time and regions.

34

Disaster Management

Global Warming

Table Table 2 : 1Trend : Annual in the Water Production Resources of Foodgrains of India, 1974 in India and 2025 (million hectare meters) (million hectare meters) Year 1974Production 2025

(million hectare meters) 1974 2025 Total Precipitation (a) Immediate Evaporation (b) Run-off to surface water bodies (c) Percolation into the soil Water utilization of which, ground water contributes Surface flows

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Global Warming

35

Table Table 2 : 1Trend : Annual in the Water Production Resources of Foodgrains of India, 1974 in India and 2025 (million hectare meters) (million hectare meters) Year 1974Production 2025 1970-71 108 Total Precipitation 400 1972-73 95 (a) Immediate Evaporation 70 1974-75 100 (b) Run-off to surface water bodies 115 1978-79 132 (c) Percolation into the soil 215 1979-80 109 Water utilization 38 1990-91 176 of which, ground water contributes 13 2001-02 213 Surface flows 25 2002-03 174 Source: The State of India’s Environment, (1984-85), The Second 2003-04 212 Report, Centre for Science and Environment. 2004-05 206

400 70 115 215 105 35 70 Citizen’s

Source: Survey (various Table 1 depicts thatEconomic the annual rainfall overissues). the entire country represents around 400 million hectare metres of water. Of this, about 70 million hectare Table 3 : Foodgrains Production in India metres are lost immediately due to evaporation and 215 million hectare metre (million tonnes) percolate into the soil. Thus, 115 million hectare metres are left which flows Crop 1990-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 into the river systems. The entire surface water cannot be utilized because of the soil conditions and Ricethe topography, 89.7 the water 85.0flow characteristics, 93.3 72.7 87.0 87.8climate. In 1974 the 76.4 surface water metres. It Wheat 69.7utilization 72.8was roughly 65.1 25 million 72.1 hectare 73.0 Coarse Cereals 30.3 33.4 hectare25.3 is estimated to increase31.1 to 70 million metres by37.8 in 2025. 31.9 Pulses It has been 13.4observed 11.1 13.4 15.2 13.7the past that the rainfall has 11.1 gradually declined during Foodgrains few decades. The average rainfall during the period 1930-60 was 21.11 inches Kharif 105.5 102.1 112.1 87.8 112.0 102.9 to 12.72 inches period 1970-85. The monsoon has been Rabiwhich fell 104.3 94.7 by the 100.8 86.4 100.0 103.5 the physical and economical development in the area Totaladversely affected 209.8 by 196.8 212.9 174.2 212.0 206.4 during the past few decades leading to environmental pollution and also because Source: Ministry of Agriculture. of deforestation. When the new agricultural strategy was introduced in the early 1960’s, it The rainfall caused a substantial fall in the kharif was erratic hoped monsoon that the trend of inthe2004 rising output of foodgrains would continue. foodgrains production (Table 3). The table shows that the kharif foodgrains The record achievement of 108 million tonnes of foodgrains in 1970-71 was production in 2004-05 102.9 million tonnes, which is short were of lastimmediately year’s hailed that the greenwas revolution had materialized and imports production by 9 million tonnes. Good post-monsoon rains, especially during stopped. The euphoria was cut short in 1972-73 when production of foodgrains October 2004,towhich helped tonnes. a build Sharp up of soil moisture,inand the prevalence slumped 95 million fluctuations foodgrains outputofwere coolobserved weather in conditions through the rabi season, improved the production of the later years. From a low level of 100 million tonnes in 1974-75, rabi foodgrain crops to 103.5 tonnes, up 3.5 million the lastThere season. outputmillion rose gradually to 132 million tonnes tonnes from in 1978-79. was a The steep overall foodgrain production in 2004-05 was 206.4 million tonnes, which decline in production in the next year due to adverse weather conditions; is nearly 6 million tonnes thanyear the was last year. Unfavourable conditions the foodgrain output less in that 109 million tonnesweather which was almost the in the years 2002-03 adversely affected the agricultural production. The foodgrainrose same as 1970-71 output. After many fluctuations, the output of foodgrains production 2002-03 wasin174.2 million is shorttonnes of lastinyear’s to 176 in million tonnes 1990-91 and tonnes, touchedwhich 212 million 2001-02 production by nearly 39 million tonnes. The table further shows that is a (Table 2). On account of extensive drought conditions, the output there of foodgrains shortfall in the production of both coarse cereals and pulses, which are essentially declined steeply to 174 million tonnes during 2002-03 (decline of 38 million rain tonnes) fed crops. The decline 6 million tonnes the production of still as compared withofthenearly previous year. Thus, theinoutput of cereals in coarse cereals is largely responsible for the decline in the overall foodgrains subject to weather conditions as in the past. production in the years 2004-05 due to an erratic and delayed monsoon with an uneven distribution of rainfall over time and regions.

34

Disaster Management

Global Warming

35

Global Warming

Table Table 2 : 1Trend : Annual in the Water Production Resources of Foodgrains of India, 1974 in India and 2025 (million hectare meters) (million hectare meters) 1974Production 2025 Year Total Precipitation 400 1970-71 108 (a) Immediate Evaporation 70 1972-73 95 (b) Run-off to surface water bodies 115 1974-75 100 (c) Percolation into the soil 215 1978-79 132 Water utilization 38 1979-80 109 of which, ground water contributes 13 1990-91 176 Surface flows 25 2001-02 213 2002-03 174 Source: The State of India’s Environment, (1984-85), The Second 2003-04 212 Report, Centre for Science and Environment. 2004-05 206

Table 2 : Trend in the Production of Foodgrains in India (million hectare meters) Year

400 70 115 215 105 35 70

Disaster Management

Global Warming

108 95 100 132 109 176 213 174 212 206

Source: Economic Survey (various issues). Table 3 : Foodgrains Production in India (million tonnes) Crop

1990-2000

Rice 89.7 Wheat 76.4 Coarse Cereals 30.3 Pulses 13.4 Foodgrains Kharif 105.5 Rabi 104.3 Total 209.8

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

85.0 69.7 31.1 11.1

93.3 72.8 33.4 13.4

72.7 65.1 25.3 11.1

87.0 72.1 37.8 15.2

87.8 73.0 31.9 13.7

102.1 94.7 196.8

112.1 100.8 212.9

87.8 86.4 174.2

112.0 100.0 212.0

102.9 103.5 206.4

Source: Ministry of Agriculture.

The erratic monsoon rainfall in 2004 caused a substantial fall in the kharif foodgrains production (Table 3). The table shows that the kharif foodgrains production in 2004-05 was 102.9 million tonnes, which is short of last year’s production by 9 million tonnes. Good post-monsoon rains, especially during October 2004, which helped a build up of soil moisture, and the prevalence of cool weather conditions through the rabi season, improved the production of rabi crops to 103.5 million tonnes, up 3.5 million tonnes from the last season. The overall foodgrain production in 2004-05 was 206.4 million tonnes, which is nearly 6 million tonnes less than the last year. Unfavourable weather conditions in the years 2002-03 adversely affected the agricultural production. The foodgrain production in 2002-03 was 174.2 million tonnes, which is short of last year’s production by nearly 39 million tonnes. The table further shows that there is a shortfall in the production of both coarse cereals and pulses, which are essentially rain fed crops. The decline of nearly 6 million tonnes in the production of coarse cereals is largely responsible for the decline in the overall foodgrains production in the years 2004-05 due to an erratic and delayed monsoon with an uneven distribution of rainfall over time and regions.

35

Global Warming

Table Table 2 : 1Trend : Annual in the Water Production Resources of Foodgrains of India, 1974 in India and 2025 (million hectare meters) (million hectare meters) 1974Production 2025 Year Total Precipitation 400 1970-71 108 (a) Immediate Evaporation 70 1972-73 95 (b) Run-off to surface water bodies 115 1974-75 100 (c) Percolation into the soil 215 1978-79 132 Water utilization 38 1979-80 109 of which, ground water contributes 13 1990-91 176 Surface flows 25 2001-02 213 2002-03 174 Source: The State of India’s Environment, (1984-85), The Second 2003-04 212 Report, Centre for Science and Environment. 2004-05 206

Production

1970-71 1972-73 1974-75 1978-79 1979-80 1990-91 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05

Citizen’s

Source: Survey (various Table 1 depicts thatEconomic the annual rainfall overissues). the entire country represents around 400 million hectare metres of water. Of this, about 70 million hectare Table 3 : Foodgrains Production in India metres are lost immediately due to evaporation and 215 million hectare metre (million tonnes) percolate into the soil. Thus, 115 million hectare metres are left which flows Crop 1990-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 into the river systems. The entire surface water cannot be utilized because of the soil conditions and Ricethe topography, 89.7 the water 85.0flow characteristics, 93.3 72.7 87.0 87.8climate. In 1974 the 76.4 surface water metres. It Wheat 69.7utilization 72.8was roughly 65.1 25 million 72.1 hectare 73.0 Coarse Cereals 30.3 33.4 hectare25.3 is estimated to increase31.1 to 70 million metres by37.8 in 2025. 31.9 Pulses It has been 13.4observed 11.1 13.4 15.2 13.7the past that the rainfall has 11.1 gradually declined during Foodgrains few decades. The average rainfall during the period 1930-60 was 21.11 inches Kharif 105.5 102.1 112.1 87.8 112.0 102.9 to 12.72 inches period 1970-85. The monsoon has been Rabiwhich fell 104.3 94.7 by the 100.8 86.4 100.0 103.5 adversely affected by the physical and economical development in the area Total 209.8 196.8 212.9 174.2 212.0 206.4 during the past few decades leading to environmental pollution and also because Source: Ministry of Agriculture. of deforestation. When the new agricultural strategy was introduced in the early 1960’s, it The rainfall caused a substantial fall in the kharif was erratic hoped monsoon that the trend of inthe2004 rising output of foodgrains would continue. foodgrains production (Table 3). The table shows that the kharif foodgrains The record achievement of 108 million tonnes of foodgrains in 1970-71 was production in 2004-05 102.9 million tonnes, which is short were of lastimmediately year’s hailed that the greenwas revolution had materialized and imports production by 9 million tonnes. Good post-monsoon rains, especially during stopped. The euphoria was cut short in 1972-73 when production of foodgrains October 2004,towhich helped tonnes. a build Sharp up of soil moisture,inand the prevalence slumped 95 million fluctuations foodgrains outputofwere coolobserved weather in conditions the arabi the tonnes production of the later through years. From lowseason, level ofimproved 100 million in 1974-75, rabi foodgrain crops to 103.5 million tonnes, up 3.5 million tonnes from the last season. output rose gradually to 132 million tonnes in 1978-79. There was a The steep overall foodgrain production was 206.4 millionweather tonnes, conditions; which decline in production in in the2004-05 next year due to adverse is nearly 6 million tonnes less than the last year. Unfavourable weather conditions the foodgrain output in that year was 109 million tonnes which was almost the in the years affected thefluctuations, agricultural production. The foodgrainrose same as2002-03 1970-71adversely output. After many the output of foodgrains production in 2002-03 was 174.2 million tonnes, which is short of last to 176 million tonnes in 1990-91 and touched 212 million tonnes inyear’s 2001-02 production by On nearly 39 million tonnes.drought The table further shows that there is a (Table 2). account of extensive conditions, the output of foodgrains shortfall in thesteeply production of both coarse cereals and 2002-03 pulses, which are essentially declined to 174 million tonnes during (decline of 38 million rain tonnes) fed crops. The decline of nearly 6 million tonnes in the production of still as compared with the previous year. Thus, the output of cereals in coarse cereals is largely responsible for the decline in the overall foodgrains subject to weather conditions as in the past. production in the years 2004-05 due to an erratic and delayed monsoon with an uneven distribution of rainfall over time and regions.

34

35

Table 2 : Trend in the Production of Foodgrains in India (million hectare meters) Year

400 70 115 215 105 35 70

Production

1970-71 1972-73 1974-75 1978-79 1979-80 1990-91 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05

Citizen’s

Source: Survey (various Table 1 depicts thatEconomic the annual rainfall overissues). the entire country represents around 400 million hectare metres of water. Of this, about 70 million hectare Table 3 : Foodgrains Production in India metres are lost immediately due to evaporation and 215 million hectare metre (million tonnes) percolate into the soil. Thus, 115 million hectare metres are left which flows Crop 1990-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 into the river systems. The entire surface water cannot be utilized because of the soil conditions and Ricethe topography, 89.7 the water 85.0flow characteristics, 93.3 72.7 87.0 87.8climate. In 1974 the 76.4 surface water metres. It Wheat 69.7utilization 72.8was roughly 65.1 25 million 72.1 hectare 73.0 Coarse Cereals 30.3 33.4 hectare25.3 is estimated to increase31.1 to 70 million metres by37.8 in 2025. 31.9 Pulses It has been 13.4observed 11.1 13.4 15.2 13.7the past that the rainfall has 11.1 gradually declined during Foodgrains few decades. The average rainfall during the period 1930-60 was 21.11 inches Kharif 105.5 102.1 112.1 87.8 112.0 102.9 to 12.72 inches period 1970-85. The monsoon has been Rabiwhich fell 104.3 94.7 by the 100.8 86.4 100.0 103.5 the physical and economical development in the area Totaladversely affected 209.8 by 196.8 212.9 174.2 212.0 206.4 during the past few decades leading to environmental pollution and also because Source: Ministry of Agriculture. of deforestation. When the new agricultural strategy was introduced in the early 1960’s, it The rainfall caused a substantial fall in the kharif was erratic hoped monsoon that the trend of inthe2004 rising output of foodgrains would continue. foodgrains production (Table 3). The table shows that the kharif foodgrains The record achievement of 108 million tonnes of foodgrains in 1970-71 was production in 2004-05 102.9 million tonnes, which is short were of lastimmediately year’s hailed that the greenwas revolution had materialized and imports production by 9 million tonnes. Good post-monsoon rains, especially during stopped. The euphoria was cut short in 1972-73 when production of foodgrains October 2004,towhich helped tonnes. a build Sharp up of soil moisture,inand the prevalence slumped 95 million fluctuations foodgrains outputofwere coolobserved weather in conditions through the rabi season, improved the production of the later years. From a low level of 100 million tonnes in 1974-75, rabi foodgrain crops to 103.5 tonnes, up 3.5 million the lastThere season. outputmillion rose gradually to 132 million tonnes tonnes from in 1978-79. was a The steep overall foodgrain production in 2004-05 was 206.4 million tonnes, which decline in production in the next year due to adverse weather conditions; is nearly 6 million tonnes thanyear the was last year. Unfavourable conditions the foodgrain output less in that 109 million tonnesweather which was almost the in the years 2002-03 adversely affected the agricultural production. The foodgrainrose same as 1970-71 output. After many fluctuations, the output of foodgrains production 2002-03 wasin174.2 million is shorttonnes of lastinyear’s to 176 in million tonnes 1990-91 and tonnes, touchedwhich 212 million 2001-02 production by nearly 39 million tonnes. The table further shows that is a (Table 2). On account of extensive drought conditions, the output there of foodgrains shortfall in the production of both coarse cereals and pulses, which are essentially declined steeply to 174 million tonnes during 2002-03 (decline of 38 million rain tonnes) fed crops. The decline 6 million tonnes the production of still as compared withofthenearly previous year. Thus, theinoutput of cereals in coarse cereals is largely responsible for the decline in the overall foodgrains subject to weather conditions as in the past. production in the years 2004-05 due to an erratic and delayed monsoon with an uneven distribution of rainfall over time and regions.

35

108 95 100 132 109 176 213 174 212 206

Source: Economic Survey (various issues). Table 3 : Foodgrains Production in India (million tonnes) Crop

1990-2000

Rice 89.7 Wheat 76.4 Coarse Cereals 30.3 Pulses 13.4 Foodgrains Kharif 105.5 Rabi 104.3 Total 209.8

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

85.0 69.7 31.1 11.1

93.3 72.8 33.4 13.4

72.7 65.1 25.3 11.1

87.0 72.1 37.8 15.2

87.8 73.0 31.9 13.7

102.1 94.7 196.8

112.1 100.8 212.9

87.8 86.4 174.2

112.0 100.0 212.0

102.9 103.5 206.4

Source: Ministry of Agriculture.

The erratic monsoon rainfall in 2004 caused a substantial fall in the kharif foodgrains production (Table 3). The table shows that the kharif foodgrains production in 2004-05 was 102.9 million tonnes, which is short of last year’s production by 9 million tonnes. Good post-monsoon rains, especially during October 2004, which helped a build up of soil moisture, and the prevalence of cool weather conditions through the rabi season, improved the production of rabi crops to 103.5 million tonnes, up 3.5 million tonnes from the last season. The overall foodgrain production in 2004-05 was 206.4 million tonnes, which is nearly 6 million tonnes less than the last year. Unfavourable weather conditions in the years 2002-03 adversely affected the agricultural production. The foodgrain production in 2002-03 was 174.2 million tonnes, which is short of last year’s production by nearly 39 million tonnes. The table further shows that there is a shortfall in the production of both coarse cereals and pulses, which are essentially rain fed crops. The decline of nearly 6 million tonnes in the production of coarse cereals is largely responsible for the decline in the overall foodgrains production in the years 2004-05 due to an erratic and delayed monsoon with an uneven distribution of rainfall over time and regions.

36

36

Disaster Management

Rice as a major foodgrain is life for thousands of millions of people. In Asia alone, more than 2,000 million people obtain 60 to 70 percent of their calories from rice and its products. It is of significant importance for food security in an increasing number of low-income food-deficient countries. However, rice production is facing serious constraints including a declining rate of growth in yields, depletion of natural resources, labour shortages, genderbased conflicts, institutional limitations and environmental pollution. Overcoming hunger, poverty and malnutrition, while protecting the environment – requires collective action. The diversity of the regions, people, and resources connected within the world’s rice-based systems requires a diverse approach for global rice-based development that includes participation from the local to the international level. The United Nations General Assembly had, after having recognized the importance of this crop, declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice.” Population Growth and Food Supply The Green Revolution started in the mid-sixties with the introduction of high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides in our country to boost up agricultural production. In the meantime, the foodgrain production significantly increased from 50.82 million tonnes in 1951 to 195.9 million tonnes in 2001, but per capita food availability (PCFA) did not increase much more and it slightly changed from 395 grams to 459 grams, which is far behind than the requirement. There was some good sign which came in the decade of 1991 when the foodgrain production increased by more than the population and ultimately the PCFA crossed 500 grams (Table 4). Table 4 : Population and Production of Foodgrains in India Year

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Population Total Foodgrains (in millions) (in million tonnes) 361.1 439.2 548.2 683.3 846.3 1027.0

50.82 82.02 108.42 129.59 176.39 195.90

Per Capita Net Availability of Foodgrains (in gram/day) 394.9 468.7 466.8 454.8 510.1 458.6

Sources: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, 2001 & Economic Survey, 2002-03, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

According to the Technology Information Assessment Council (TIFAC) report, about 40% of the population of our country live below the poverty

36

Rice as a major foodgrain is life for thousands of millions of people. In Asia alone, more than 2,000 million people obtain 60 to 70 percent of their calories from rice and its products. It is of significant importance for food security in an increasing number of low-income food-deficient countries. However, rice production is facing serious constraints including a declining rate of growth in yields, depletion of natural resources, labour shortages, genderbased conflicts, institutional limitations and environmental pollution. Overcoming hunger, poverty and malnutrition, while protecting the environment – requires collective action. The diversity of the regions, people, and resources connected within the world’s rice-based systems requires a diverse approach for global rice-based development that includes participation from the local to the international level. The United Nations General Assembly had, after having recognized the importance of this crop, declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice.” Population Growth and Food Supply The Green Revolution started in the mid-sixties with the introduction of high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides in our country to boost up agricultural production. In the meantime, the foodgrain production significantly increased from 50.82 million tonnes in 1951 to 195.9 million tonnes in 2001, but per capita food availability (PCFA) did not increase much more and it slightly changed from 395 grams to 459 grams, which is far behind than the requirement. There was some good sign which came in the decade of 1991 when the foodgrain production increased by more than the population and ultimately the PCFA crossed 500 grams (Table 4). Table 4 : Population and Production of Foodgrains in India Year

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Population Total Foodgrains (in millions) (in million tonnes) 361.1 439.2 548.2 683.3 846.3 1027.0

50.82 82.02 108.42 129.59 176.39 195.90

Per Capita Net Availability of Foodgrains (in gram/day) 394.9 468.7 466.8 454.8 510.1 458.6

Sources: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, 2001 & Economic Survey, 2002-03, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

According to the Technology Information Assessment Council (TIFAC) report, about 40% of the population of our country live below the poverty

Global Warming

37

as a major foodgrain life for continue thousands of by millions of people. line. Its Rice also predicted if the presentissituation then 2010 there will In Asia alone, thanmillion 2,000 tonnes million ofpeople obtain 60 towill 70not percent be an extra need more of 266.4 foodgrain which fulfillofbytheir rice and of significant importance for itfood our calories country’sfrom production anditsweproducts. will needIt tois import 14 million tonnes and in an number food-deficient will security grow at the rateincreasing of 2% in each year.ofIn low-income 2020, the demand will reachcountries. 343 However, production is facing constraints including a declining million tonnes rice to fulfill the mouthes of serious 1.3 billion of population. (Food and rate of growth in yields, depletion natural labour shortages, genderAgriculture, Technology Vision, 2020,ofGovt. of resources, India, New Delhi). based conflicts, institutional limitations and by environmental pollution. Overcoming The green revolution is affected largely the environment, particularly hunger, andthe malnutrition, while requires on the soil’s poverty health and ground water. Theprotecting intensive the use environment of fertilizers –affect collective of the regions, people, connected the fertility of action. the soilThe and diversity pollutes the ground water. That and leadsresources to a formation within theand world’s rice-basedThis systems a diverse approach for of global of wasteland desertification. has arequires direct effect on the livelihood development includes participation to the the rice-based rural poor and sustainablethat human security, thus, therefrom is a the needlocal for an international level.agriculture. The United Nations General Assembly had, after having ecological sustainable recognized the importance of this crop, declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice.” Strategies for Food Security We must orient our agricultural policies in the interests of agricultural growth Population Growth and Food Supply with emphasis on sustainability and equity on the following grounds : The Green the mid-sixties the introduction of high (i) Output andRevolution area understarted coarse in cereals has shown with negligible improvement: of production seeds, chemical fertilizers and showed pesticides our country to –yielding Neithervarieties area nor of coarse cereals anyin significant boost up agricultural In not the paid meantime, foodgrain improvement. Sufficientproduction. attention was so far tothe develop betterproduction HYV significantly increased in 1951 towards to 195.9 wheat millionand tonnes strains of these crops. from Since50.82 majormillion inputs tonnes were directed in 2001, butcereals per capita foodneglected availability didtheir not production increase much rice, coarse remained and (PCFA) to improve shouldmore anda itmajor slightly changed from 395 grams to 459 grams, which is far behind than be thrust area now. the requirement. wasofsome good came in the decade of 1991 (ii) Stagnation in theThere output pulses: In sign most which years the production of pulses when thestagnant foodgrain production by more than the consumption population and has been at around 13 to 14increased million tonnes. The per capita ultimately the PCFA crossed 4). down to 36 to 37 gm per of pulses, which was 69 gm per500 day grams in 1971(Table has come day now. This sharp decrease in the consumption of pulses is a cause of serious Tableso4 for : Population Production Foodgrains in of India concern, more the poor forand whom pulses areofthe major source protein. Pulses under unirrigated conditions on poor and with Year are mostly grown Population Total Foodgrains Per soils Capita Net (in millions) (in million Availability low inputs. Out of about 23 million hectares of area under pulses, only 2ofto 3 Foodgrains million hectares are irrigated. Pulses dotonnes) not require large dozes of fertilizers (in gram/day) and pesticides. The development of short duration varieties and improved dry farming technology has361.1 raised new hopes of raising the production of pulses. 1951 50.82 394.9 (iii) New management: The total 1961 Strategies of irrigation 439.2 and water 82.02 468.7foograin production from a gross area of 163 to 165 million hectares was around 212 1971 548.2 108.42 466.8 million tonnes in 2001-02 (as against the Ninth Plan target of 234 million 1981 683.3 129.59 454.8 tonnes for that year). Our average foodgrains production is about 1.3 tonnes 1991 846.3 176.39 510.1 (or 13 quintals) per hectare. If India is to meet the needs of its growing 2001 1027.0 195.90 458.6 population of over 1,000 million people it must produce 240 to 250 million Sources: Agricultural Statistics a Glance, 2001 & Economic Survey, tonnes of foodgrains per year. atThis will necessitate the adoption of 2002-03, new Govt. of India, New Delhi. strategies of irrigation. The total available water reserve is of the order of 100 million hectare According to thetheTechnology Council (TIFAC) metres (mhm) during next 12 to 15Information years. SinceAssessment water is a scarce resource, report, about 40% of the population of our country live below the it is vitally necessary that emphasis be shifted on its more efficient use. poverty As

36

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Global Warming

37

as a major foodgrain life for continue thousands of by millions of people. line. Its Rice also predicted if the presentissituation then 2010 there will In Asia alone, thanmillion 2,000 tonnes million ofpeople obtain 60 towill 70not percent be an extra need more of 266.4 foodgrain which fulfillofbytheir rice and of significant importance for itfood our calories country’sfrom production anditsweproducts. will needIt tois import 14 million tonnes and in an number food-deficient will security grow at the rateincreasing of 2% in each year.ofIn low-income 2020, the demand will reachcountries. 343 However, production is facing constraints including a declining million tonnes rice to fulfill the mouthes of serious 1.3 billion of population. (Food and rate of growth in yields, depletion natural labour shortages, genderAgriculture, Technology Vision, 2020,ofGovt. of resources, India, New Delhi). based conflicts, institutional limitations and by environmental pollution. Overcoming The green revolution is affected largely the environment, particularly hunger, andthe malnutrition, while requires on the soil’s poverty health and ground water. Theprotecting intensive the use environment of fertilizers –affect collective of the regions, people, connected the fertility of action. the soilThe and diversity pollutes the ground water. That and leadsresources to a formation within theand world’s rice-basedThis systems a diverse approach for of global of wasteland desertification. has arequires direct effect on the livelihood development includes participation to the the rice-based rural poor and sustainablethat human security, thus, therefrom is a the needlocal for an international level.agriculture. The United Nations General Assembly had, after having ecological sustainable recognized the importance of this crop, declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice.” Strategies for Food Security We must orient our agricultural policies in the interests of agricultural growth Population Growth and Food Supply with emphasis on sustainability and equity on the following grounds : The Green the mid-sixties the introduction of high (i) Output andRevolution area understarted coarse in cereals has shown with negligible improvement: of production seeds, chemical fertilizers and showed pesticides our country to –yielding Neithervarieties area nor of coarse cereals anyin significant boost up agricultural In not the paid meantime, foodgrain improvement. Sufficientproduction. attention was so far tothe develop betterproduction HYV significantly increased in 1951 towards to 195.9 wheat millionand tonnes strains of these crops. from Since50.82 majormillion inputs tonnes were directed in 2001, butcereals per capita foodneglected availability didtheir not production increase much rice, coarse remained and (PCFA) to improve shouldmore anda itmajor slightly changed from 395 grams to 459 grams, which is far behind than be thrust area now. the requirement. wasofsome good came in the decade of 1991 (ii) Stagnation in theThere output pulses: In sign most which years the production of pulses when thestagnant foodgrain production by more than the consumption population and has been at around 13 to 14increased million tonnes. The per capita ultimately the PCFA crossed 4). down to 36 to 37 gm per of pulses, which was 69 gm per500 day grams in 1971(Table has come day now. This sharp decrease in the consumption of pulses is a cause of serious Tableso4 for : Population Production Foodgrains in of India concern, more the poor forand whom pulses areofthe major source protein. Pulses under unirrigated conditions on poor and with Year are mostly grown Population Total Foodgrains Per soils Capita Net (in millions) (in million Availability low inputs. Out of about 23 million hectares of area under pulses, only 2ofto 3 Foodgrains million hectares are irrigated. Pulses dotonnes) not require large dozes of fertilizers (in and pesticides. The development of short duration varieties andgram/day) improved dry farming technology has361.1 raised new hopes of raising the production of pulses. 1951 50.82 394.9 (iii) New Strategies of irrigation and water management: The total 1961 439.2 82.02 468.7foograin production from a gross548.2 area of 163 to 108.42 165 million hectares was466.8 around 212 1971 million tonnes in 2001-02 (as against the Ninth Plan target of 234 million 1981 683.3 129.59 454.8 tonnes for that year). Our average foodgrains production is about 1.3 tonnes 1991 846.3 176.39 510.1 (or 13 quintals) per hectare. If India is to meet the needs of its growing 2001 1027.0 195.90 458.6 population of over 1,000 million people it must produce 240 to 250 million Sources: Agricultural Statistics a Glance, 2001 & Economic Survey, tonnes of foodgrains per year. atThis will necessitate the adoption of 2002-03, new Govt. of India, New Delhi. strategies of irrigation. The total available water reserve is of the order of 100 million hectare According to thetheTechnology Council (TIFAC) metres (mhm) during next 12 to 15Information years. SinceAssessment water is a scarce resource, report, about 40% of the population of our country live below the it is vitally necessary that emphasis be shifted on its more efficient use. poverty As

36

Disaster Management

Global Warming

37

Global Warming

37

line. Its Rice also predicted if the presentissituation then 2010 there will In as a major foodgrain life for continue thousands of by millions of people. be an extra need more of 266.4 foodgrain which fulfillofbytheir Asia alone, thanmillion 2,000 tonnes million ofpeople obtain 60 towill 70not percent our calories country’sfrom production anditsweproducts. will needIt tois import 14 million tonnes and rice and of significant importance for itfood will security grow at the rateincreasing of 2% in each year.ofIn low-income 2020, the demand will reachcountries. 343 in an number food-deficient million tonnes rice to fulfill the mouthes of serious 1.3 billion of population. (Food and However, production is facing constraints including a declining Agriculture, Technology Vision, 2020,ofGovt. of resources, India, New Delhi). rate of growth in yields, depletion natural labour shortages, genderThe green revolution is affected largely the environment, particularly based conflicts, institutional limitations and by environmental pollution. Overcoming on the soil’s poverty health and ground water. Theprotecting intensive the use environment of fertilizers –affect hunger, andthe malnutrition, while requires the fertility of action. the soilThe and diversity pollutes the ground water. That and leadsresources to a formation collective of the regions, people, connected of wasteland desertification. has arequires direct effect on the livelihood within theand world’s rice-basedThis systems a diverse approach for of global the rice-based rural poor and sustainablethat human security, thus, therefrom is a the needlocal for an development includes participation to the ecological sustainable international level.agriculture. The United Nations General Assembly had, after having recognized the importance of this crop, declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice.” Strategies for Food Security

line. Its also predicted if the present situation continue then by 2010 there will be an extra need of 266.4 million tonnes of foodgrain which will not fulfill by our country’s production and we will need to import 14 million tonnes and it will grow at the rate of 2% in each year. In 2020, the demand will reach 343 million tonnes to fulfill the mouthes of 1.3 billion of population. (Food and Agriculture, Technology Vision, 2020, Govt. of India, New Delhi). The green revolution is affected largely by the environment, particularly on the soil’s health and the ground water. The intensive use of fertilizers affect the fertility of the soil and pollutes the ground water. That leads to a formation of wasteland and desertification. This has a direct effect on the livelihood of the rural poor and sustainable human security, thus, there is a need for an ecological sustainable agriculture.

We must orient our agricultural policies in the interests of agricultural growth Population Growth and Food Supply with emphasis on sustainability and equity on the following grounds : (i) The Output andRevolution area understarted coarse in cereals has shown with negligible improvement: Green the mid-sixties the introduction of high – Neithervarieties area nor of coarse cereals anyin significant yielding of production seeds, chemical fertilizers and showed pesticides our country to improvement. Sufficientproduction. attention was so far tothe develop betterproduction HYV boost up agricultural In not the paid meantime, foodgrain strains of these crops. from Since50.82 majormillion inputs tonnes were directed significantly increased in 1951 towards to 195.9 wheat millionand tonnes rice, coarse remained and (PCFA) to improve shouldmore in 2001, butcereals per capita foodneglected availability didtheir not production increase much be a itmajor thrust area now. and slightly changed from 395 grams to 459 grams, which is far behind than (ii) the Stagnation in theThere output pulses: In sign most which years the production of pulses requirement. wasofsome good came in the decade of 1991 has been at around 13 to 14increased million tonnes. The per capita when thestagnant foodgrain production by more than the consumption population and of pulses, which was 69 gm per500 day grams in 1971(Table has come ultimately the PCFA crossed 4). down to 36 to 37 gm per day now. This sharp decrease in the consumption of pulses is a cause of serious Tableso4 for : Population Production Foodgrains in of India concern, more the poor forand whom pulses areofthe major source protein. Pulses are mostly grown under unirrigated conditions on poor and with Year Population Total Foodgrains Per soils Capita Net (in millions) (in million Availability low inputs. Out of about 23 million hectares of area under pulses, only 2ofto 3 Foodgrains million hectares are irrigated. Pulses dotonnes) not require large dozes of fertilizers (in gram/day) and pesticides. The development of short duration varieties and improved dry farming technology has361.1 raised new hopes of raising the production of pulses. 1951 50.82 394.9 (iii) 1961 New Strategies of irrigation management: The total 439.2 and water 82.02 468.7foograin production from a gross area of 163 to 165 million hectares was around 212 1971 548.2 108.42 466.8 million tonnes in 2001-02 (as against the Ninth Plan target of 234 million 1981 683.3 129.59 454.8 tonnes for that year). Our average foodgrains production is about 1.3 tonnes 1991 846.3 176.39 510.1 (or 13 quintals) per hectare. If India is to meet the needs of its growing 2001 1027.0 195.90 458.6 population of over 1,000 million people it must produce 240 to 250 million Sources: Agricultural Statistics a Glance, 2001 & Economic Survey, tonnes of foodgrains per year. atThis will necessitate the adoption of 2002-03, new Govt. of India, New Delhi. strategies of irrigation. The total available water reserve is of the order of 100 million hectare According to thetheTechnology Council (TIFAC) metres (mhm) during next 12 to 15Information years. SinceAssessment water is a scarce resource, report, about 40% of the population of our country live below the it is vitally necessary that emphasis be shifted on its more efficient use. poverty As

We must orient our agricultural policies in the interests of agricultural growth with emphasis on sustainability and equity on the following grounds : (i) Output and area under coarse cereals has shown negligible improvement: – Neither area nor production of coarse cereals showed any significant improvement. Sufficient attention was not paid so far to develop better HYV strains of these crops. Since major inputs were directed towards wheat and rice, coarse cereals remained neglected and to improve their production should be a major thrust area now. (ii) Stagnation in the output of pulses: In most years the production of pulses has been stagnant at around 13 to 14 million tonnes. The per capita consumption of pulses, which was 69 gm per day in 1971 has come down to 36 to 37 gm per day now. This sharp decrease in the consumption of pulses is a cause of serious concern, more so for the poor for whom pulses are the major source of protein. Pulses are mostly grown under unirrigated conditions on poor soils and with low inputs. Out of about 23 million hectares of area under pulses, only 2 to 3 million hectares are irrigated. Pulses do not require large dozes of fertilizers and pesticides. The development of short duration varieties and improved dry farming technology has raised new hopes of raising the production of pulses. (iii) New Strategies of irrigation and water management: The total foograin production from a gross area of 163 to 165 million hectares was around 212 million tonnes in 2001-02 (as against the Ninth Plan target of 234 million tonnes for that year). Our average foodgrains production is about 1.3 tonnes (or 13 quintals) per hectare. If India is to meet the needs of its growing population of over 1,000 million people it must produce 240 to 250 million tonnes of foodgrains per year. This will necessitate the adoption of new strategies of irrigation. The total available water reserve is of the order of 100 million hectare metres (mhm) during the next 12 to 15 years. Since water is a scarce resource, it is vitally necessary that emphasis be shifted on its more efficient use. As

36

Disaster Management

Global Warming

Strategies for Food Security

37

Global Warming

37

line. Its Rice also predicted if the presentissituation then 2010 there will In as a major foodgrain life for continue thousands of by millions of people. be an extra need more of 266.4 foodgrain which fulfillofbytheir Asia alone, thanmillion 2,000 tonnes million ofpeople obtain 60 towill 70not percent our calories country’sfrom production anditsweproducts. will needIt tois import 14 million tonnes and rice and of significant importance for itfood will security grow at the rateincreasing of 2% in each year.ofIn low-income 2020, the demand will reachcountries. 343 in an number food-deficient million tonnes rice to fulfill the mouthes of serious 1.3 billion of population. (Food and However, production is facing constraints including a declining Agriculture, Technology Vision, 2020,ofGovt. of resources, India, New Delhi). rate of growth in yields, depletion natural labour shortages, genderThe green revolution is affected largely the environment, particularly based conflicts, institutional limitations and by environmental pollution. Overcoming on the soil’s poverty health and ground water. Theprotecting intensive the use environment of fertilizers –affect hunger, andthe malnutrition, while requires the fertility of action. the soilThe and diversity pollutes the ground water. That and leadsresources to a formation collective of the regions, people, connected of wasteland desertification. has arequires direct effect on the livelihood within theand world’s rice-basedThis systems a diverse approach for of global the rice-based rural poor and sustainablethat human security, thus, therefrom is a the needlocal for an development includes participation to the ecological sustainable international level.agriculture. The United Nations General Assembly had, after having recognized the importance of this crop, declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice.” Strategies for Food Security

line. Its also predicted if the present situation continue then by 2010 there will be an extra need of 266.4 million tonnes of foodgrain which will not fulfill by our country’s production and we will need to import 14 million tonnes and it will grow at the rate of 2% in each year. In 2020, the demand will reach 343 million tonnes to fulfill the mouthes of 1.3 billion of population. (Food and Agriculture, Technology Vision, 2020, Govt. of India, New Delhi). The green revolution is affected largely by the environment, particularly on the soil’s health and the ground water. The intensive use of fertilizers affect the fertility of the soil and pollutes the ground water. That leads to a formation of wasteland and desertification. This has a direct effect on the livelihood of the rural poor and sustainable human security, thus, there is a need for an ecological sustainable agriculture.

We must orient our agricultural policies in the interests of agricultural growth Population Growth and Food Supply with emphasis on sustainability and equity on the following grounds : (i) The Output andRevolution area understarted coarse in cereals has shown with negligible improvement: Green the mid-sixties the introduction of high – Neithervarieties area nor of coarse cereals anyin significant yielding of production seeds, chemical fertilizers and showed pesticides our country to improvement. Sufficientproduction. attention was so far tothe develop betterproduction HYV boost up agricultural In not the paid meantime, foodgrain strains of these crops. from Since50.82 majormillion inputs tonnes were directed significantly increased in 1951 towards to 195.9 wheat millionand tonnes rice, coarse remained and (PCFA) to improve shouldmore in 2001, butcereals per capita foodneglected availability didtheir not production increase much be a itmajor thrust area now. and slightly changed from 395 grams to 459 grams, which is far behind than (ii) the Stagnation in theThere output pulses: In sign most which years the production of pulses requirement. wasofsome good came in the decade of 1991 has been at around 13 to 14increased million tonnes. The per capita when thestagnant foodgrain production by more than the consumption population and of pulses, which was 69 gm per500 day grams in 1971(Table has come ultimately the PCFA crossed 4). down to 36 to 37 gm per day now. This sharp decrease in the consumption of pulses is a cause of serious Tableso4 for : Population Production Foodgrains in of India concern, more the poor forand whom pulses areofthe major source protein. Pulses are mostly grown under unirrigated conditions on poor and with Year Population Total Foodgrains Per soils Capita Net (in millions) (in million Availability low inputs. Out of about 23 million hectares of area under pulses, only 2ofto 3 Foodgrains million hectares are irrigated. Pulses dotonnes) not require large dozes of fertilizers (in and pesticides. The development of short duration varieties andgram/day) improved dry farming technology has361.1 raised new hopes of raising the production of pulses. 1951 50.82 394.9 (iii) 1961 New Strategies of irrigation and water management: The total 439.2 82.02 468.7foograin production from a gross548.2 area of 163 to 108.42 165 million hectares was466.8 around 212 1971 million tonnes in 2001-02 (as against the Ninth Plan target of 234 million 1981 683.3 129.59 454.8 tonnes for that year). Our average foodgrains production is about 1.3 tonnes 1991 846.3 176.39 510.1 (or 13 quintals) per hectare. If India is to meet the needs of its growing 2001 1027.0 195.90 458.6 population of over 1,000 million people it must produce 240 to 250 million Sources: Agricultural Statistics a Glance, 2001 & Economic Survey, tonnes of foodgrains per year. atThis will necessitate the adoption of 2002-03, new Govt. of India, New Delhi. strategies of irrigation. The total available water reserve is of the order of 100 million hectare According to thetheTechnology Council (TIFAC) metres (mhm) during next 12 to 15Information years. SinceAssessment water is a scarce resource, report, about 40% of the population of our country live below the it is vitally necessary that emphasis be shifted on its more efficient use. poverty As

We must orient our agricultural policies in the interests of agricultural growth with emphasis on sustainability and equity on the following grounds : (i) Output and area under coarse cereals has shown negligible improvement: – Neither area nor production of coarse cereals showed any significant improvement. Sufficient attention was not paid so far to develop better HYV strains of these crops. Since major inputs were directed towards wheat and rice, coarse cereals remained neglected and to improve their production should be a major thrust area now. (ii) Stagnation in the output of pulses: In most years the production of pulses has been stagnant at around 13 to 14 million tonnes. The per capita consumption of pulses, which was 69 gm per day in 1971 has come down to 36 to 37 gm per day now. This sharp decrease in the consumption of pulses is a cause of serious concern, more so for the poor for whom pulses are the major source of protein. Pulses are mostly grown under unirrigated conditions on poor soils and with low inputs. Out of about 23 million hectares of area under pulses, only 2 to 3 million hectares are irrigated. Pulses do not require large dozes of fertilizers and pesticides. The development of short duration varieties and improved dry farming technology has raised new hopes of raising the production of pulses. (iii) New Strategies of irrigation and water management: The total foograin production from a gross area of 163 to 165 million hectares was around 212 million tonnes in 2001-02 (as against the Ninth Plan target of 234 million tonnes for that year). Our average foodgrains production is about 1.3 tonnes (or 13 quintals) per hectare. If India is to meet the needs of its growing population of over 1,000 million people it must produce 240 to 250 million tonnes of foodgrains per year. This will necessitate the adoption of new strategies of irrigation. The total available water reserve is of the order of 100 million hectare metres (mhm) during the next 12 to 15 years. Since water is a scarce resource, it is vitally necessary that emphasis be shifted on its more efficient use. As

Strategies for Food Security

38

Disaster Management

things stand today, 90 per cent of water available is allocated to irrigation. The target should be to reduce water use for irrigation to 77 percent of the total available water in the next 10 to 12 years, so as to meet the rising demand for water for industrial and municipal needs. In major irrigation projects, there is frequently over-irrigation, with its adverse effects on production. For instance, farmers use 1,500-3,000 mm of water for paddy, as against the requirement of only 800mm. Moreover, the absence of proper channels to take water to various fields leads to water logging and makes the land saline or alkaline. Use of sprinkler irrigation can bring about 30-35 per cent of saving in water use. This should be used in all closely spaced crops like millets, groundnuts, pulses and wheat. Drip irrigation is suitable for all row crops and can result in a water saving of 50-70 per cent, simultaneously raising yield by 60-70 per cent in various crops. It helps in the economical use of water and is specially suitable for irrigation by wells. (iv) The use of bio-fertilizers has to be expanded: Recent researches in biotechnology and genetic engineering have demonstrated that certain microorganisms such as bacteria and blue green algae can act as nitrogen fixers and provide nutrient to crop-plants. The most commonly used bio-fertilizer is Rhizobium which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form root nodules. These nodules act as factors of ammonia production. The Rhizobiums legume association can fix 100-300 kg of nitrogen per hectare in one crop season and even leave substantial quantities of nitrogen for the next crop. The great breakthrough in nitrogen generation by micro-organisms, for which the bill is paid by nature, is a great advance in agricultural research that promises a second green revolution. (v) Emphasis should shift to dry farming: Out of a total cultivated area of 163 million hectares in India, dry farming is carried on in 100 million hectares i.e. in 60 per cent of the total arable land. But the contribution of dry land farming to agricultural production is less than 30 per cent. About two-thirds of dryland farmers own less than two hectares and even this is available in scattered and fragmented holdings. Since the country has to carry on with dryland farming for many years to come, it is vitally necessary that dry-farming technology be developed, so that the possibilities of raising the potential output of vast dry-land areas can be exploited. For this purpose, problems of different dryland areas have to be studied and region-specific technology has to be developed. The moderate use of fertilizers, improved seeds and better conservation of rain water and its judicious use, can contribute to a 40 to 50 per cent increase in yields in rain-fed areas. (vi) Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is presently being conducted by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various Agricultural Universities and other institutions for evolving high-yielding varieties of seed for different crops. Considerable success has been achieved in the case of

38

Disaster Management

things stand today, 90 per cent of water available is allocated to irrigation. The target should be to reduce water use for irrigation to 77 percent of the total available water in the next 10 to 12 years, so as to meet the rising demand for water for industrial and municipal needs. In major irrigation projects, there is frequently over-irrigation, with its adverse effects on production. For instance, farmers use 1,500-3,000 mm of water for paddy, as against the requirement of only 800mm. Moreover, the absence of proper channels to take water to various fields leads to water logging and makes the land saline or alkaline. Use of sprinkler irrigation can bring about 30-35 per cent of saving in water use. This should be used in all closely spaced crops like millets, groundnuts, pulses and wheat. Drip irrigation is suitable for all row crops and can result in a water saving of 50-70 per cent, simultaneously raising yield by 60-70 per cent in various crops. It helps in the economical use of water and is specially suitable for irrigation by wells. (iv) The use of bio-fertilizers has to be expanded: Recent researches in biotechnology and genetic engineering have demonstrated that certain microorganisms such as bacteria and blue green algae can act as nitrogen fixers and provide nutrient to crop-plants. The most commonly used bio-fertilizer is Rhizobium which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form root nodules. These nodules act as factors of ammonia production. The Rhizobiums legume association can fix 100-300 kg of nitrogen per hectare in one crop season and even leave substantial quantities of nitrogen for the next crop. The great breakthrough in nitrogen generation by micro-organisms, for which the bill is paid by nature, is a great advance in agricultural research that promises a second green revolution. (v) Emphasis should shift to dry farming: Out of a total cultivated area of 163 million hectares in India, dry farming is carried on in 100 million hectares i.e. in 60 per cent of the total arable land. But the contribution of dry land farming to agricultural production is less than 30 per cent. About two-thirds of dryland farmers own less than two hectares and even this is available in scattered and fragmented holdings. Since the country has to carry on with dryland farming for many years to come, it is vitally necessary that dry-farming technology be developed, so that the possibilities of raising the potential output of vast dry-land areas can be exploited. For this purpose, problems of different dryland areas have to be studied and region-specific technology has to be developed. The moderate use of fertilizers, improved seeds and better conservation of rain water and its judicious use, can contribute to a 40 to 50 per cent increase in yields in rain-fed areas. (vi) Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is presently being conducted by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various Agricultural Universities and other institutions for evolving high-yielding varieties of seed for different crops. Considerable success has been achieved in the case of

38

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Global Warming

39

things stand today, 90 per cent of available is allocated to irrigation. wheat. However, intensive efforts arewater required for achieving similar success The targetcrops. should be to reduce for irrigation 77 percent scale of theattotal in other Research shouldwater also use be conducted on to a substantial available watercentres in the for nexttesting 10 to 12 soof as soil, to meet the rising demand for different regional theyears, quality suggesting measures water for industrial municipal needs. the diseases affecting different for soil conservation and and reclamation, examining In major the irrigation there is frequently avoiding over-irrigation, crops, improving qualityprojects, of agricultural implements, wastagewith in its adverseespecially effects ondamage production. For resulting instance, from farmers useinsects, 1,500-3,000 mm of agriculture to crops pests, rodents, etc. water for paddy, as against the requirement of only 800mm. Moreover, the absence of proper channels to take water to various fields leads to water logging and makes the land saline or alkaline. CONCLUSION Use of sprinkler irrigation can bring about 30-35 per cent of saving in The study, especially on global warming and the monsoon’s erratic trends, water use. This should be used in all closely spaced crops like millets, suggests that India’s water resources will go down and impact an agricultural groundnuts, pulses and wheat. production. India needs investment in agricultural research for seeds that can Drip irrigation is suitable for all row crops and can result in a water saving grow in warmer conditions and are more drought resistant. India will have to of 50-70 per cent, simultaneously raising yield by 60-70 per cent in various develop irrigation systems to thwart the climate change impact. Stress must crops. It helps in the economical use of water and is specially suitable for also be given on the selective adaptation of technology, based upon ecological irrigation by wells. consideration to ensure maximum benefits in the long run. (iv) The use of bio-fertilizers has to be expanded: Recent researches in biotechnology and genetic engineering have demonstrated that certain microREFERENCES organisms such as bacteria and blue green algae can act as nitrogen fixers and Anjaneyulu, Y., 2005 : Introduction to Environmental Science, B.S. provide nutrient to crop-plants. The most commonly usedPublications, bio-fertilizer is Hyderabad. Rhizobium which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form root nodules. Economic Survey, 2004-05, and various other issues, Government of India, Ministry of These nodules act as factors of ammonia production. The Rhizobiums legume Finance, Economic Division, New Delhi. association can fix 100-300 kg of nitrogen per hectare in one crop season and Hindustan Times, 2007, January 23, New Delhi. leave: substantial quantities of nitrogen for theNew nextDelhi. crop. The great breakHussain, even M., 2001 Human Geography, Rawat Publications, in nitrogen the bill is paid Kadayan,through M.S., 1989 : Impact generation of Irrigationbyonmicro-organisms, Agricultural Land for Usewhich in Haryana State by nature, is a great advance in agricultural research that promises a second (1971-72 to 1980-81), Unpublished M.A. Dissertation, Department of Geography, greenDayanand revolution. Maharshi University, Rohtak, Harayana. Kadayan, M.S., 1993 should : Energyshift Use in in Block Sonipat, M.Phil. (v) Emphasis to Agriculture dry farming: Out of a totalUnpublished cultivated area of 163 Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. million hectares in India, dry farming is carried on in 100 million hectares i.e. Kadayan,inM.S., 2003 : Impact of Energy onBut Paddy 60 per cent of the total arableUse land. the Productivity contributioninofAgasteewaram dry land farming Block District Kanniyakumari, Tamil Survey to of agricultural production is less thanNadu, 30 per cent. Report, Department of Geography, B.R. Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi. About two-thirds of dryland farmers own less than two hectares and even Kadayan, M.S., 2006 : Impact of Energy Use on Agricultural Productivity in Rohtak this is available in scattered fragmented holdings. Since the country has to District, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,and Department of Geography, University of Delhi, carry on with dryland farming for many years to come, it is vitally necessary Delhi. thatM. dry-farming be developed, so thatPearson the possibilities raising Rangarajan, (ed.) 2007 technology : Environmental Issues in India, Education,ofNew the potential output of vast dry-land areas can be exploited. For this purpose, Delhi. Singh, J.problems and Dhillon, S.S., 2003 : Agricultural Tataand McGraw Hill of different dryland areas haveGeography, to be studied region-specific Publications, New Delhi. technology has to be developed. The moderate use of fertilizers, improved The Stateseeds of India’s 1985, The Second Citizen’s Centre and Environment, better conservation of rain water and itsReport, judicious use,for canScience contribute and Environment. to a 40 to 50 per cent increase in yields in rain-fed areas. The Times of India, 2007, February 10, New Delhi. (vi) Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is presently being conducted The Times of India, 2007, January 27, New Delhi. by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various Agricultural Universities and other institutions for evolving high-yielding varieties of seed for different crops. Considerable success has been achieved in the case of

38

Disaster Management

Global Warming

39

things stand today, 90 per cent of available is allocated to irrigation. wheat. However, intensive efforts arewater required for achieving similar success The targetcrops. should be to reduce for irrigation 77 percent scale of theattotal in other Research shouldwater also use be conducted on to a substantial available watercentres in the for nexttesting 10 to 12 soof as soil, to meet the rising demand for different regional theyears, quality suggesting measures water for industrial municipal needs. the diseases affecting different for soil conservation and and reclamation, examining In major the irrigation there is frequently avoiding over-irrigation, crops, improving qualityprojects, of agricultural implements, wastagewith in its adverseespecially effects ondamage production. For resulting instance, from farmers useinsects, 1,500-3,000 mm of agriculture to crops pests, rodents, etc. water for paddy, as against the requirement of only 800mm. Moreover, the absence of proper channels to take water to various fields leads to water logging and makes the land saline or alkaline. CONCLUSION Use of sprinkler irrigation can bring about 30-35 per cent of saving in The study, especially on global warming and the monsoon’s erratic trends, water use. This should be used in all closely spaced crops like millets, suggests that India’s water resources will go down and impact an agricultural groundnuts, pulses and wheat. production. India needs investment in agricultural research for seeds that can Drip irrigation is suitable for all row crops and can result in a water saving grow in warmer conditions and are more drought resistant. India will have to of 50-70 per cent, simultaneously raising yield by 60-70 per cent in various develop irrigation systems to thwart the climate change impact. Stress must crops. It helps in the economical use of water and is specially suitable for also be given on the selective adaptation of technology, based upon ecological irrigation by wells. consideration to ensure maximum benefits in the long run. (iv) The use of bio-fertilizers has to be expanded: Recent researches in biotechnology and genetic engineering have demonstrated that certain microREFERENCES organisms such as bacteria and blue green algae can act as nitrogen fixers and Anjaneyulu, Y., 2005 : Introduction to Environmental Science, B.S. provide nutrient to crop-plants. The most commonly usedPublications, bio-fertilizer is Hyderabad. Rhizobium which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form root nodules. Economic Survey, 2004-05, and various other issues, Government of India, Ministry of These nodules act as factors of ammonia production. The Rhizobiums legume Finance, Economic Division, New Delhi. association can fix 100-300 kg of nitrogen per hectare in one crop season and Hindustan Times, 2007, January 23, New Delhi. leave: substantial quantities of nitrogen for theNew nextDelhi. crop. The great breakHussain, even M., 2001 Human Geography, Rawat Publications, through in nitrogen generation by micro-organisms, for the bill is paid Kadayan, M.S., 1989 : Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Land Usewhich in Haryana State by nature, is a great advance in agricultural research that promises a second (1971-72 to 1980-81), Unpublished M.A. Dissertation, Department of Geography, greenDayanand revolution. Maharshi University, Rohtak, Harayana. Kadayan, M.S., 1993 should : Energyshift Use in in Block Sonipat, M.Phil. (v) Emphasis to Agriculture dry farming: Out of a totalUnpublished cultivated area of 163 Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. million hectares in India, dry farming is carried on in 100 million hectares i.e. Kadayan,inM.S., 2003 : Impact of Energy onBut Paddy 60 per cent of the total arableUse land. the Productivity contributioninofAgasteewaram dry land farming Block of District Kanniyakumari, Tamil Nadu, Survey to agricultural production is less than 30 per cent. Report, Department of Geography, B.R. Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi. About two-thirds of dryland farmers own less than two hectares and even Kadayan, M.S., 2006 : Impact of Energy Use on Agricultural Productivity in Rohtak this Unpublished is available in scattered fragmented holdings. Since the country has to District, Ph.D. Thesis,and Department of Geography, University of Delhi, carry on with dryland farming for many years to come, it is vitally necessary Delhi. thatM. dry-farming be developed, so thatPearson the possibilities raising Rangarajan, (ed.) 2007 technology : Environmental Issues in India, Education,ofNew the potential output of vast dry-land areas can be exploited. For this purpose, Delhi. Singh, J.problems and Dhillon, S.S., 2003 : Agricultural Tataand McGraw Hill of different dryland areas haveGeography, to be studied region-specific Publications, Newhas Delhi. technology to be developed. The moderate use of fertilizers, improved The Stateseeds of India’s 1985, The Second Citizen’s Centre and Environment, better conservation of rain water and itsReport, judicious use,for canScience contribute and Environment. to a 40 to 50 per cent increase in yields in rain-fed areas. The Times of India, 2007, February 10, New Delhi. (vi) Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is presently being conducted The Times of India, 2007, January 27, New Delhi. by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various Agricultural Universities and other institutions for evolving high-yielding varieties of seed for different crops. Considerable success has been achieved in the case of

38

Disaster Management

Global Warming

39

wheat. However, intensive efforts arewater required for achieving similar success The things stand today, 90 per cent of available is allocated to irrigation. in other Research shouldwater also use be conducted on to a substantial targetcrops. should be to reduce for irrigation 77 percent scale of theattotal different regional theyears, quality suggesting measures available watercentres in the for nexttesting 10 to 12 soof as soil, to meet the rising demand for for soil conservation and and reclamation, examining water for industrial municipal needs. the diseases affecting different crops, improving qualityprojects, of agricultural implements, wastagewith in its In major the irrigation there is frequently avoiding over-irrigation, agriculture to crops pests, rodents, adverseespecially effects ondamage production. For resulting instance, from farmers useinsects, 1,500-3,000 mm of etc. water for paddy, as against the requirement of only 800mm. Moreover, the absence of proper channels to take water to various fields leads to water logging and makes the land saline or alkaline. CONCLUSION Use of sprinkler irrigation can bring about 30-35 per cent of saving in The study, especially on global warming and the monsoon’s erratic trends, water use. This should be used in all closely spaced crops like millets, suggests that India’s water resources will go down and impact an agricultural groundnuts, pulses and wheat. production. India needs investment in agricultural research for seeds that can Drip irrigation is suitable for all row crops and can result in a water saving grow in warmer conditions and are more drought resistant. India will have to of 50-70 per cent, simultaneously raising yield by 60-70 per cent in various develop irrigation systems to thwart the climate change impact. Stress must crops. It helps in the economical use of water and is specially suitable for also be given on the selective adaptation of technology, based upon ecological irrigation by wells. consideration to ensure maximum benefits in the long run. (iv) The use of bio-fertilizers has to be expanded: Recent researches in biotechnology and genetic engineering have demonstrated that certain microREFERENCES organisms such as bacteria and blue green algae can act as nitrogen fixers and Anjaneyulu, Y., 2005 : Introduction to Environmental Science, B.S. provide nutrient to crop-plants. The most commonly usedPublications, bio-fertilizer is Hyderabad. Rhizobium which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form root nodules. Economic Survey, 2004-05, and various other issues, Government of India, Ministry of These nodules act as factors of ammonia production. The Rhizobiums legume Finance, Economic Division, New Delhi. association can fix 100-300 kg of nitrogen per hectare in one crop season and Hindustan Times, 2007, January 23, New Delhi. leave: substantial quantities of nitrogen for theNew nextDelhi. crop. The great breakHussain, even M., 2001 Human Geography, Rawat Publications, in nitrogen the bill is paid Kadayan,through M.S., 1989 : Impact generation of Irrigationbyonmicro-organisms, Agricultural Land for Usewhich in Haryana State by nature, is a great advance in agricultural research that promises a second (1971-72 to 1980-81), Unpublished M.A. Dissertation, Department of Geography, greenDayanand revolution. Maharshi University, Rohtak, Harayana. Kadayan, M.S., 1993 should : Energyshift Use in in Block Sonipat, M.Phil. (v) Emphasis to Agriculture dry farming: Out of a totalUnpublished cultivated area of 163 Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. million hectares in India, dry farming is carried on in 100 million hectares i.e. Kadayan,inM.S., 2003 : Impact of Energy onBut Paddy 60 per cent of the total arableUse land. the Productivity contributioninofAgasteewaram dry land farming Block District Kanniyakumari, Tamil Survey to of agricultural production is less thanNadu, 30 per cent. Report, Department of Geography, B.R. Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi. About two-thirds of dryland farmers own less than two hectares and even Kadayan, M.S., 2006 : Impact of Energy Use on Agricultural Productivity in Rohtak this is available in scattered fragmented holdings. Since the country has to District, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,and Department of Geography, University of Delhi, carry on with dryland farming for many years to come, it is vitally necessary Delhi. thatM. dry-farming be developed, so thatPearson the possibilities raising Rangarajan, (ed.) 2007 technology : Environmental Issues in India, Education,ofNew the potential output of vast dry-land areas can be exploited. For this purpose, Delhi. Singh, J.problems and Dhillon, S.S., 2003 : Agricultural Tataand McGraw Hill of different dryland areas haveGeography, to be studied region-specific Publications, New Delhi. technology has to be developed. The moderate use of fertilizers, improved The Stateseeds of India’s 1985, The Second Citizen’s Centre and Environment, better conservation of rain water and itsReport, judicious use,for canScience contribute and Environment. to a 40 to 50 per cent increase in yields in rain-fed areas. The Times of India, 2007, February 10, New Delhi. (vi) Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is presently being conducted The Times of India, 2007, January 27, New Delhi. by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various Agricultural Universities and other institutions for evolving high-yielding varieties of seed for different crops. Considerable success has been achieved in the case of

38

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Global Warming

Global Warming

wheat. However, intensive efforts are required for achieving similar success in other crops. Research should also be conducted on a substantial scale at different regional centres for testing the quality of soil, suggesting measures for soil conservation and reclamation, examining the diseases affecting different crops, improving the quality of agricultural implements, avoiding wastage in agriculture especially damage to crops resulting from pests, insects, rodents, etc. CONCLUSION The study, especially on global warming and the monsoon’s erratic trends, suggests that India’s water resources will go down and impact an agricultural production. India needs investment in agricultural research for seeds that can grow in warmer conditions and are more drought resistant. India will have to develop irrigation systems to thwart the climate change impact. Stress must also be given on the selective adaptation of technology, based upon ecological consideration to ensure maximum benefits in the long run. REFERENCES Anjaneyulu, Y., 2005 : Introduction to Environmental Science, B.S. Publications, Hyderabad. Economic Survey, 2004-05, and various other issues, Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Economic Division, New Delhi. Hindustan Times, 2007, January 23, New Delhi. Hussain, M., 2001 : Human Geography, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. Kadayan, M.S., 1989 : Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Land Use in Haryana State (1971-72 to 1980-81), Unpublished M.A. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Harayana. Kadayan, M.S., 1993 : Energy Use in Agriculture in Block Sonipat, Unpublished M.Phil. Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. Kadayan, M.S., 2003 : Impact of Energy Use on Paddy Productivity in Agasteewaram Block of District Kanniyakumari, Tamil Nadu, Survey Report, Department of Geography, B.R. Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi. Kadayan, M.S., 2006 : Impact of Energy Use on Agricultural Productivity in Rohtak District, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. Rangarajan, M. (ed.) 2007 : Environmental Issues in India, Pearson Education, New Delhi. Singh, J. and Dhillon, S.S., 2003 : Agricultural Geography, Tata McGraw Hill Publications, New Delhi. The State of India’s Environment, 1985, The Second Citizen’s Report, Centre for Science and Environment. The Times of India, 2007, February 10, New Delhi. The Times of India, 2007, January 27, New Delhi.

39

wheat. However, intensive efforts arewater required for achieving similar success The things stand today, 90 per cent of available is allocated to irrigation. in other Research shouldwater also use be conducted on to a substantial targetcrops. should be to reduce for irrigation 77 percent scale of theattotal different regional theyears, quality suggesting measures available watercentres in the for nexttesting 10 to 12 soof as soil, to meet the rising demand for for soil conservation and and reclamation, examining water for industrial municipal needs. the diseases affecting different crops, improving qualityprojects, of agricultural implements, wastagewith in its In major the irrigation there is frequently avoiding over-irrigation, agriculture to crops pests, rodents, adverseespecially effects ondamage production. For resulting instance, from farmers useinsects, 1,500-3,000 mm of etc. water for paddy, as against the requirement of only 800mm. Moreover, the absence of proper channels to take water to various fields leads to water logging and makes the land saline or alkaline. CONCLUSION Use of sprinkler irrigation can bring about 30-35 per cent of saving in The study, especially on global warming and the monsoon’s erratic trends, water use. This should be used in all closely spaced crops like millets, suggests that India’s water resources will go down and impact an agricultural groundnuts, pulses and wheat. production. India needs investment in agricultural research for seeds that can Drip irrigation is suitable for all row crops and can result in a water saving grow in warmer conditions and are more drought resistant. India will have to of 50-70 per cent, simultaneously raising yield by 60-70 per cent in various develop irrigation systems to thwart the climate change impact. Stress must crops. It helps in the economical use of water and is specially suitable for also be given on the selective adaptation of technology, based upon ecological irrigation by wells. consideration to ensure maximum benefits in the long run. (iv) The use of bio-fertilizers has to be expanded: Recent researches in biotechnology and genetic engineering have demonstrated that certain microREFERENCES organisms such as bacteria and blue green algae can act as nitrogen fixers and Anjaneyulu, Y., 2005 : Introduction to Environmental Science, B.S. provide nutrient to crop-plants. The most commonly usedPublications, bio-fertilizer is Hyderabad. Rhizobium which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form root nodules. Economic Survey, 2004-05, and various other issues, Government of India, Ministry of These nodules act as factors of ammonia production. The Rhizobiums legume Finance, Economic Division, New Delhi. association can fix 100-300 kg of nitrogen per hectare in one crop season and Hindustan Times, 2007, January 23, New Delhi. leave: substantial quantities of nitrogen for theNew nextDelhi. crop. The great breakHussain, even M., 2001 Human Geography, Rawat Publications, through in nitrogen generation by micro-organisms, for the bill is paid Kadayan, M.S., 1989 : Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Land Usewhich in Haryana State by nature, is a great advance in agricultural research that promises a second (1971-72 to 1980-81), Unpublished M.A. Dissertation, Department of Geography, greenDayanand revolution. Maharshi University, Rohtak, Harayana. Kadayan, M.S., 1993 should : Energyshift Use in in Block Sonipat, M.Phil. (v) Emphasis to Agriculture dry farming: Out of a totalUnpublished cultivated area of 163 Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. million hectares in India, dry farming is carried on in 100 million hectares i.e. Kadayan,inM.S., 2003 : Impact of Energy onBut Paddy 60 per cent of the total arableUse land. the Productivity contributioninofAgasteewaram dry land farming Block of District Kanniyakumari, Tamil Nadu, Survey to agricultural production is less than 30 per cent. Report, Department of Geography, B.R. Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi. About two-thirds of dryland farmers own less than two hectares and even Kadayan, M.S., 2006 : Impact of Energy Use on Agricultural Productivity in Rohtak this Unpublished is available in scattered fragmented holdings. Since the country has to District, Ph.D. Thesis,and Department of Geography, University of Delhi, carry on with dryland farming for many years to come, it is vitally necessary Delhi. thatM. dry-farming be developed, so thatPearson the possibilities raising Rangarajan, (ed.) 2007 technology : Environmental Issues in India, Education,ofNew the potential output of vast dry-land areas can be exploited. For this purpose, Delhi. Singh, J.problems and Dhillon, S.S., 2003 : Agricultural Tataand McGraw Hill of different dryland areas haveGeography, to be studied region-specific Publications, Newhas Delhi. technology to be developed. The moderate use of fertilizers, improved The Stateseeds of India’s 1985, The Second Citizen’s Centre and Environment, better conservation of rain water and itsReport, judicious use,for canScience contribute and Environment. to a 40 to 50 per cent increase in yields in rain-fed areas. The Times of India, 2007, February 10, New Delhi. (vi) Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is presently being conducted The Times of India, 2007, January 27, New Delhi. by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various Agricultural Universities and other institutions for evolving high-yielding varieties of seed for different crops. Considerable success has been achieved in the case of

39

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39

wheat. However, intensive efforts are required for achieving similar success in other crops. Research should also be conducted on a substantial scale at different regional centres for testing the quality of soil, suggesting measures for soil conservation and reclamation, examining the diseases affecting different crops, improving the quality of agricultural implements, avoiding wastage in agriculture especially damage to crops resulting from pests, insects, rodents, etc. CONCLUSION The study, especially on global warming and the monsoon’s erratic trends, suggests that India’s water resources will go down and impact an agricultural production. India needs investment in agricultural research for seeds that can grow in warmer conditions and are more drought resistant. India will have to develop irrigation systems to thwart the climate change impact. Stress must also be given on the selective adaptation of technology, based upon ecological consideration to ensure maximum benefits in the long run. REFERENCES Anjaneyulu, Y., 2005 : Introduction to Environmental Science, B.S. Publications, Hyderabad. Economic Survey, 2004-05, and various other issues, Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Economic Division, New Delhi. Hindustan Times, 2007, January 23, New Delhi. Hussain, M., 2001 : Human Geography, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. Kadayan, M.S., 1989 : Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Land Use in Haryana State (1971-72 to 1980-81), Unpublished M.A. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Harayana. Kadayan, M.S., 1993 : Energy Use in Agriculture in Block Sonipat, Unpublished M.Phil. Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. Kadayan, M.S., 2003 : Impact of Energy Use on Paddy Productivity in Agasteewaram Block of District Kanniyakumari, Tamil Nadu, Survey Report, Department of Geography, B.R. Ambedkar College, University of Delhi, Delhi. Kadayan, M.S., 2006 : Impact of Energy Use on Agricultural Productivity in Rohtak District, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Delhi, Delhi. Rangarajan, M. (ed.) 2007 : Environmental Issues in India, Pearson Education, New Delhi. Singh, J. and Dhillon, S.S., 2003 : Agricultural Geography, Tata McGraw Hill Publications, New Delhi. The State of India’s Environment, 1985, The Second Citizen’s Report, Centre for Science and Environment. The Times of India, 2007, February 10, New Delhi. The Times of India, 2007, January 27, New Delhi.

4

Landslide Disasters and its Management 2

1 Alpana Parmar and 2Sheel Kumar visiting Lecturer, S.S.N. College, University of Delhi, Delhi-36 (India) 1 Centre for Jain Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur ((India)

INTRODUCTION It is well known that landslides and debris flows are very harmful to mankind, in terms of life loss and economic loss. Therefore there is a vital need to save human life as well as animal lives, but there is a question which arises of “how can we control them and what kind of suggestive measure should we take to reduce the vulnerability from landslides”. Thus this is an attempt to conclude all the suggestive measures and methods which are applied throughout the world. This paper suggests how to overcome landslide hazards and how to reduce the economic loss and the loss of human lives. The possibility of suffering from the hazard can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or environmental damage. Today both life support systems and the productivity of land water systems are increasingly threatened by natural hazards by human pressure in Uttaranchal. Certain regions are over shooting in their carrying capacity in producing quite dangerous conditions especially tropical and temperate region in the state. The down slope movement of large volumes of surface materials under gravitational influences is an important environmental hazard, especially in mountainous terrain Rapid movements cause most loss of life and damage: slow movements, including human induced land subsidence, have less potential to kill but can be costly. Depending on the dominant material, these movements tend to be grouped into Landslides (rock and soil) or Avalanches (snow and ice). Mass movements may be triggered by either seismic activity or atmospheric events. (To that extent this hazard lies at the interface between endogenous and exogenous earth processes.) The Himalayas are situated in a very sensitive location. They extend from the Shivalik Hills [unstable structure] in the south to the great Himalayan ranges

4

Landslide Disasters and its Management 2

1 Alpana Parmar and 2Sheel Kumar visiting Lecturer, S.S.N. College, University of Delhi, Delhi-36 (India) 1 Centre for Jain Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur ((India)

INTRODUCTION It is well known that landslides and debris flows are very harmful to mankind, in terms of life loss and economic loss. Therefore there is a vital need to save human life as well as animal lives, but there is a question which arises of “how can we control them and what kind of suggestive measure should we take to reduce the vulnerability from landslides”. Thus this is an attempt to conclude all the suggestive measures and methods which are applied throughout the world. This paper suggests how to overcome landslide hazards and how to reduce the economic loss and the loss of human lives. The possibility of suffering from the hazard can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or environmental damage. Today both life support systems and the productivity of land water systems are increasingly threatened by natural hazards by human pressure in Uttaranchal. Certain regions are over shooting in their carrying capacity in producing quite dangerous conditions especially tropical and temperate region in the state. The down slope movement of large volumes of surface materials under gravitational influences is an important environmental hazard, especially in mountainous terrain Rapid movements cause most loss of life and damage: slow movements, including human induced land subsidence, have less potential to kill but can be costly. Depending on the dominant material, these movements tend to be grouped into Landslides (rock and soil) or Avalanches (snow and ice). Mass movements may be triggered by either seismic activity or atmospheric events. (To that extent this hazard lies at the interface between endogenous and exogenous earth processes.) The Himalayas are situated in a very sensitive location. They extend from the Shivalik Hills [unstable structure] in the south to the great Himalayan ranges

4

4

Landslide Disasters and its Management 2

1 Alpana Parmar and 2Sheel Kumar visiting Lecturer, S.S.N. College, University of Delhi, Delhi-36 (India) 1 Centre for Jain Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur ((India)

Landslide Disasters and its Management 2

1 Alpana Parmar and 2Sheel Kumar visiting Lecturer, S.S.N. College, University of Delhi, Delhi-36 (India) 1 Centre for Jain Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur ((India)

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that landslides and debris flows are very harmful to mankind, in terms of life loss and economic loss. Therefore there is a vital need to save human life as well as animal lives, but there is a question which arises of “how can we control them and what kind of suggestive measure should we take to reduce the vulnerability from landslides”. Thus this is an attempt to conclude all the suggestive measures and methods which are applied throughout the world. This paper suggests how to overcome landslide hazards and how to reduce the economic loss and the loss of human lives. The possibility of suffering from the hazard can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or environmental damage. Today both life support systems and the productivity of land water systems are increasingly threatened by natural hazards by human pressure in Uttaranchal. Certain regions are over shooting in their carrying capacity in producing quite dangerous conditions especially tropical and temperate region in the state. The down slope movement of large volumes of surface materials under gravitational influences is an important environmental hazard, especially in mountainous terrain Rapid movements cause most loss of life and damage: slow movements, including human induced land subsidence, have less potential to kill but can be costly. Depending on the dominant material, these movements tend to be grouped into Landslides (rock and soil) or Avalanches (snow and ice). Mass movements may be triggered by either seismic activity or atmospheric events. (To that extent this hazard lies at the interface between endogenous and exogenous earth processes.) The Himalayas are situated in a very sensitive location. They extend from the Shivalik Hills [unstable structure] in the south to the great Himalayan ranges

It is well known that landslides and debris flows are very harmful to mankind, in terms of life loss and economic loss. Therefore there is a vital need to save human life as well as animal lives, but there is a question which arises of “how can we control them and what kind of suggestive measure should we take to reduce the vulnerability from landslides”. Thus this is an attempt to conclude all the suggestive measures and methods which are applied throughout the world. This paper suggests how to overcome landslide hazards and how to reduce the economic loss and the loss of human lives. The possibility of suffering from the hazard can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or environmental damage. Today both life support systems and the productivity of land water systems are increasingly threatened by natural hazards by human pressure in Uttaranchal. Certain regions are over shooting in their carrying capacity in producing quite dangerous conditions especially tropical and temperate region in the state. The down slope movement of large volumes of surface materials under gravitational influences is an important environmental hazard, especially in mountainous terrain Rapid movements cause most loss of life and damage: slow movements, including human induced land subsidence, have less potential to kill but can be costly. Depending on the dominant material, these movements tend to be grouped into Landslides (rock and soil) or Avalanches (snow and ice). Mass movements may be triggered by either seismic activity or atmospheric events. (To that extent this hazard lies at the interface between endogenous and exogenous earth processes.) The Himalayas are situated in a very sensitive location. They extend from the Shivalik Hills [unstable structure] in the south to the great Himalayan ranges

4

4

Landslide Disasters and its Management 2

1 Alpana Parmar and 2Sheel Kumar visiting Lecturer, S.S.N. College, University of Delhi, Delhi-36 (India) 1 Centre for Jain Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur ((India)

Landslide Disasters and its Management 2

1 Alpana Parmar and 2Sheel Kumar visiting Lecturer, S.S.N. College, University of Delhi, Delhi-36 (India) 1 Centre for Jain Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur ((India)

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that landslides and debris flows are very harmful to mankind, in terms of life loss and economic loss. Therefore there is a vital need to save human life as well as animal lives, but there is a question which arises of “how can we control them and what kind of suggestive measure should we take to reduce the vulnerability from landslides”. Thus this is an attempt to conclude all the suggestive measures and methods which are applied throughout the world. This paper suggests how to overcome landslide hazards and how to reduce the economic loss and the loss of human lives. The possibility of suffering from the hazard can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or environmental damage. Today both life support systems and the productivity of land water systems are increasingly threatened by natural hazards by human pressure in Uttaranchal. Certain regions are over shooting in their carrying capacity in producing quite dangerous conditions especially tropical and temperate region in the state. The down slope movement of large volumes of surface materials under gravitational influences is an important environmental hazard, especially in mountainous terrain Rapid movements cause most loss of life and damage: slow movements, including human induced land subsidence, have less potential to kill but can be costly. Depending on the dominant material, these movements tend to be grouped into Landslides (rock and soil) or Avalanches (snow and ice). Mass movements may be triggered by either seismic activity or atmospheric events. (To that extent this hazard lies at the interface between endogenous and exogenous earth processes.) The Himalayas are situated in a very sensitive location. They extend from the Shivalik Hills [unstable structure] in the south to the great Himalayan ranges

It is well known that landslides and debris flows are very harmful to mankind, in terms of life loss and economic loss. Therefore there is a vital need to save human life as well as animal lives, but there is a question which arises of “how can we control them and what kind of suggestive measure should we take to reduce the vulnerability from landslides”. Thus this is an attempt to conclude all the suggestive measures and methods which are applied throughout the world. This paper suggests how to overcome landslide hazards and how to reduce the economic loss and the loss of human lives. The possibility of suffering from the hazard can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or environmental damage. Today both life support systems and the productivity of land water systems are increasingly threatened by natural hazards by human pressure in Uttaranchal. Certain regions are over shooting in their carrying capacity in producing quite dangerous conditions especially tropical and temperate region in the state. The down slope movement of large volumes of surface materials under gravitational influences is an important environmental hazard, especially in mountainous terrain Rapid movements cause most loss of life and damage: slow movements, including human induced land subsidence, have less potential to kill but can be costly. Depending on the dominant material, these movements tend to be grouped into Landslides (rock and soil) or Avalanches (snow and ice). Mass movements may be triggered by either seismic activity or atmospheric events. (To that extent this hazard lies at the interface between endogenous and exogenous earth processes.) The Himalayas are situated in a very sensitive location. They extend from the Shivalik Hills [unstable structure] in the south to the great Himalayan ranges

42

Disaster Management

[snow covered with steep slopes] in the north. The geological studies indicate that the Himalayas are susceptible to geo-hazards viz. earthquakes, landslides, floods etc. due to the continuing vertical uplift of 1 cm/year in the Shivalik and 2 cm/year in the lower ranges of the main Himalayan region. The uplift movements have not yet ceased for this region and it is still unstable and susceptible to earthquakes. Tehri Garhwal 1905 and subsequent shocks in the 1980s and 1990s have rocked the Karn Prayag and Raudra Prayag. The Shivalik Hills are composed of highly unconsolidated deposits, which easily lend themselves to erosion. These hill masses are closely packed often forming minor watersheds. The Topography of this region gives the look of a cup shaped depression with deeply incised gullies backed by the denuded harder strata upstanding here and there. The heavy load of sediments washed down by the beat of the rain chokes the streams and numerous rills down the slopes. Therefore, landslides have become a very common feature due to heavy rainfall, indiscriminate deforestation in the catchments and the upper reaches of the Ganga river basins. The combination of very high mountains and flat valleys below are the breeding ground of many cloudbursts in many parts of the Himalayan region. Apart from this, the resource base on which mountain people depend has deteriorated at an accelerating rate. Forest has been cutoff, vegetation cover removed and steep slopes have become severely eroded. Together with exploitation, the impacts of population pressure and inappropriate technologies have severely degraded the mountain environment. These are the result of an un-mistakable system of engineering, un-sustainability of the current patterns of resource use and production practices. The overall situation is both a cause and concern for reappraisal of conventional development approaches to maintain areas in general and environment in particular. The Indian government has taken hazard occurrence as the first priority, but the little efforts being made fall short of the requirement of money and material. There is a need for an integrated multi-disciplinary approach to the planning based on sound environmental and ecological aspects for the rehabilitation of effected people and even the command area is prone to natural hazards. Their management includes administrative, political and economic actions to decide whether and how to reduce a particular risk to a certain level. Nature of Problem There can be few countries where mass movement processes do not exist, and the landslide risk is increasing worldwide as land hunger forces the new development on to unstable slopes. According to Jones (1992), it is an under recognized threat because the impacts tend to be frequent and small-scale, whilst the process itself is often attributed to other hazards, such as earthquakes and rainstorms. During the early 1970s, an average of nearly 600 people per year were killed by slope failures worldwide but, twenty years later, the figure was several thousand (Brabb, 1991). Perhaps as many as 90 per cent of these deaths

42

Disaster Management

[snow covered with steep slopes] in the north. The geological studies indicate that the Himalayas are susceptible to geo-hazards viz. earthquakes, landslides, floods etc. due to the continuing vertical uplift of 1 cm/year in the Shivalik and 2 cm/year in the lower ranges of the main Himalayan region. The uplift movements have not yet ceased for this region and it is still unstable and susceptible to earthquakes. Tehri Garhwal 1905 and subsequent shocks in the 1980s and 1990s have rocked the Karn Prayag and Raudra Prayag. The Shivalik Hills are composed of highly unconsolidated deposits, which easily lend themselves to erosion. These hill masses are closely packed often forming minor watersheds. The Topography of this region gives the look of a cup shaped depression with deeply incised gullies backed by the denuded harder strata upstanding here and there. The heavy load of sediments washed down by the beat of the rain chokes the streams and numerous rills down the slopes. Therefore, landslides have become a very common feature due to heavy rainfall, indiscriminate deforestation in the catchments and the upper reaches of the Ganga river basins. The combination of very high mountains and flat valleys below are the breeding ground of many cloudbursts in many parts of the Himalayan region. Apart from this, the resource base on which mountain people depend has deteriorated at an accelerating rate. Forest has been cutoff, vegetation cover removed and steep slopes have become severely eroded. Together with exploitation, the impacts of population pressure and inappropriate technologies have severely degraded the mountain environment. These are the result of an un-mistakable system of engineering, un-sustainability of the current patterns of resource use and production practices. The overall situation is both a cause and concern for reappraisal of conventional development approaches to maintain areas in general and environment in particular. The Indian government has taken hazard occurrence as the first priority, but the little efforts being made fall short of the requirement of money and material. There is a need for an integrated multi-disciplinary approach to the planning based on sound environmental and ecological aspects for the rehabilitation of effected people and even the command area is prone to natural hazards. Their management includes administrative, political and economic actions to decide whether and how to reduce a particular risk to a certain level. Nature of Problem There can be few countries where mass movement processes do not exist, and the landslide risk is increasing worldwide as land hunger forces the new development on to unstable slopes. According to Jones (1992), it is an under recognized threat because the impacts tend to be frequent and small-scale, whilst the process itself is often attributed to other hazards, such as earthquakes and rainstorms. During the early 1970s, an average of nearly 600 people per year were killed by slope failures worldwide but, twenty years later, the figure was several thousand (Brabb, 1991). Perhaps as many as 90 per cent of these deaths

42

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

43

[snow covered with steepregion, slopes]which in theisnorth. The geological studies indicate occur on the Pacific Ocean particularly susceptible to mass that the because Himalayas to geo-hazards viz. earthquakes, landslides, movements of are the susceptible varying combinations of rock type, steep terrain, floods etc. due to the continuing of 1 population cm/year in density. the Shivalik heavy typhoon rainfall, rapid land usevertical changeuplift and high The and cm/year in the lower main Himalayan region. The uplift main2 cause of increased deaths ranges has beenofthetheexpansion of unregulated settlements have not yet ceased for thiscities. region it is still ontomovements unstable slopes in many third world Forand example, in unstable Caracas, and susceptible to earthquakes. Garhwal 1905 and subsequent in the Venezuela, the number of urbanTehri landslides increased from less thanshocks one per 1990s have Prayag and Raudra The Shivalik year1980s up toand about 1950 to rocked reach the 35 Karn – 40% per year in the Prayag. 1980s (Jiminez, Hills composed highly unconsolidated deposits, which easily 1992). Theare death toll fromofmass movements is still comparatively low in mostlend themselves to erosion. TheseInhill areannual closelymortality packed often minor Medium Developing countries. themasses USA the runs forming at 25 - 50 watersheds. of this region gives thesome look 22 of per a cup people and it hasThe beenTopography estimated that, for landslides alone, cent shaped of depression are with deeplytoincised gulliesconditions backed by theanother denuded the population exposed high hazard while 20 harder per centstrata upstanding here and there. heavy load of sediments down by the are exposed to moderate hazardThe conditions (Petak, 1989). As washed with many other beat of thehazards, rain chokes the areas, streams and are numerous rills down the slopes. environmental it is urban which most vulnerable because of landslidesat have a very1989). commonEconomic feature duelosses to heavy the Therefore, large populations risk become (Alexander, duerainfall, to indiscriminate deforestation the catchments of the landslides total more than One inbillion US $ per and year the in upper severalreaches counties, GangaJapan. river basins. The combination of very high mountains and include flat valleys including Other countries with large but un-quantified losses below China are theand breeding ground of Union. many cloudbursts in many parts of the Indonesia, the former Soviet In Italy it has been estimated Apart from this, the resource base on whichInmountain that Himalayan over 1,000 region. urban centers are threatened by landslide activity. addition people to depend hasmass deteriorated at anhazards accelerating Forestof hasindirect been cutoff, direct damage movement causerate. a variety lossesvegetation such coverblockages, removed and steep slopes become severely as road flooding due to have landslide dams acrosseroded. rivers,Together reducedwith exploitation, the impacts of population pressure and inappropriate technologies agricultural and industrial production, and lower property values. have severely degraded the mountain These are are the common result of an Snow avalanches are special types of environment. mass movement. They un-mistakable system of engineering, un-sustainability the current patterns features of mountainous terrain throughout arctic and temperateofregions whenever useonand production situation both a 7cause snowofisresource deposited slopes steeper practices. than aboutThe 20°.overall The USA aloneissuffers andpotentially concern for reappraisal of conventional approaches to maintain 10,000 damaging avalanches per year,development although only about 10 percent in general and environment particular. were suffered by travellers harmareas humans or property. In the past,in casualties The Indian governmentashas hazard the first priority, passing through the mountains welltaken as the minersoccurrence located inaspermanent, but butsited, the mining little efforts being The madeAndean fall short of thearerequirement money and badly settlements. countries notable for of avalanche material. is a The needworst for anavalanche integrateddisaster multi-disciplinary to the related miningThere disasters. in the USA approach occurred in based on sound environmental and ecological for the 1910planning in the Cascade Range, Washington, when three snowboundaspects trains were rehabilitation of effected people even lives. the command area the is prone to natural swept into a canyon with the loss and of 118 Historically, avalanche hazards. Their management includes administrative, political andbecause economic problem has always been more severe in Europe then North America actions to decide andinhow reduce particular risk toSwitzerland a certain level. the population densitywhether in higher the toAlps thana in the Rockies. has a relatively large number of avalanche deaths amounting to some 20-30 fatalities per year. Nature of Problem Snow avalanche problems have risen as winter recedes. This is mainly due There can use be few countries where mass movement processes do not of exist, to the greater of winter recreation and the associated development ski and the landslide risk is increasing worldwide as land hunger forces the centres and other holiday resorts. For example, the town of Vial, Colorado,new development on toofunstable slopes. According Jones community (1992), it is an in under located at an elevation 2,500 m, was founded, as to a resort only recognized threat because the impacts tend to be frequent and small-scale, whilst 1962. The construction of alpine facilities often requires the removal of timber itself is oftenIfattributed other hazards, earthquakes fromthe theprocess surrounding slopes. left intacttothe trees would such help as to stabilize the and averageand of nearly snowrainstorms. cover andDuring protectthe theearly new1970s, roads, an railways power 600 linespeople which per areyear were these killed areas. by slopeAvalanche failures worldwide but,the twenty later, the figure invading problems in rockyyears mountains beset the was severalPacific thousand (Brabb,and 1991). as many asHighway 90 per cent of these deaths Canadian Railway thePerhaps Trans-Canadian together with

42

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

43

[snow covered with steepregion, slopes]which in theisnorth. The geological studies indicate occur on the Pacific Ocean particularly susceptible to mass that the because Himalayas to geo-hazards viz. earthquakes, landslides, movements of are the susceptible varying combinations of rock type, steep terrain, floods etc. due to the continuing of 1 population cm/year in density. the Shivalik heavy typhoon rainfall, rapid land usevertical changeuplift and high The and cm/year in the lower main Himalayan region. The uplift main2 cause of increased deaths ranges has beenofthetheexpansion of unregulated settlements have not yet ceased for thiscities. region it is still ontomovements unstable slopes in many third world Forand example, in unstable Caracas, and susceptible to earthquakes. Garhwal 1905 and subsequent in the Venezuela, the number of urbanTehri landslides increased from less thanshocks one per 1990s have Prayag and Raudra The Shivalik year1980s up toand about 1950 to rocked reach the 35 Karn – 40% per year in the Prayag. 1980s (Jiminez, Hills composed highly unconsolidated deposits, which easily 1992). Theare death toll fromofmass movements is still comparatively low in mostlend themselves to erosion. TheseInhill areannual closelymortality packed often minor Medium Developing countries. themasses USA the runs forming at 25 - 50 watersheds. of this region gives thesome look 22 of per a cup people and it hasThe beenTopography estimated that, for landslides alone, cent shaped of depression are with deeplytoincised gulliesconditions backed by theanother denuded the population exposed high hazard while 20 harder per centstrata upstanding here and there. heavy load of sediments down by the are exposed to moderate hazardThe conditions (Petak, 1989). As washed with many other beat of thehazards, rain chokes the areas, streams and are numerous rills down the slopes. environmental it is urban which most vulnerable because of landslidesat have a very1989). commonEconomic feature duelosses to heavy the Therefore, large populations risk become (Alexander, duerainfall, to indiscriminate deforestation the catchments of the landslides total more than One inbillion US $ per and year the in upper severalreaches counties, GangaJapan. river basins. The combination of very high mountains and include flat valleys including Other countries with large but un-quantified losses below China are theand breeding ground of Union. many cloudbursts in many parts of the Indonesia, the former Soviet In Italy it has been estimated Apart from this, the resource base on whichInmountain that Himalayan over 1,000 region. urban centers are threatened by landslide activity. addition people to depend hasmass deteriorated at anhazards accelerating Forestof hasindirect been cutoff, direct damage movement causerate. a variety lossesvegetation such coverblockages, removed and steep slopes become severely as road flooding due to have landslide dams acrosseroded. rivers,Together reducedwith exploitation, the impacts of population pressure and inappropriate technologies agricultural and industrial production, and lower property values. have severely degraded the mountain These are are the common result of an Snow avalanches are special types of environment. mass movement. They un-mistakable system of engineering, un-sustainability the current patterns features of mountainous terrain throughout arctic and temperateofregions whenever useonand production situation both a 7cause snowofisresource deposited slopes steeper practices. than aboutThe 20°.overall The USA aloneissuffers andpotentially concern for reappraisal of conventional approaches to maintain 10,000 damaging avalanches per year,development although only about 10 percent in general and environment particular. were suffered by travellers harmareas humans or property. In the past,in casualties The Indian governmentashas hazard the first priority, passing through the mountains welltaken as the minersoccurrence located inaspermanent, but butsited, the mining little efforts being The madeAndean fall short of thearerequirement money and badly settlements. countries notable for of avalanche material. is a The needworst for anavalanche integrateddisaster multi-disciplinary to the related miningThere disasters. in the USA approach occurred in based on sound environmental and ecological for the 1910planning in the Cascade Range, Washington, when three snowboundaspects trains were rehabilitation of effected people even lives. the command area the is prone to natural swept into a canyon with the loss and of 118 Historically, avalanche hazards. Their management includes administrative, political andbecause economic problem has always been more severe in Europe then North America actions to decide andinhow reduce particular risk toSwitzerland a certain level. the population densitywhether in higher the toAlps thana in the Rockies. has a relatively large number of avalanche deaths amounting to some 20-30 fatalities per year. Nature of Problem Snow avalanche problems have risen as winter recedes. This is mainly due There can use be few countries where mass movement processes do not of exist, to the greater of winter recreation and the associated development ski and the and landslide is increasing as land the new centres other risk holiday resorts. Forworldwide example, the townhunger of Vial,forces Colorado, development on toofunstable slopes. According Jones community (1992), it is an in under located at an elevation 2,500 m, was founded, as to a resort only recognized threat because the impacts tend to be frequent and small-scale, whilst 1962. The construction of alpine facilities often requires the removal of timber itself is oftenIfattributed other hazards, earthquakes fromthe theprocess surrounding slopes. left intacttothe trees would such help as to stabilize the and averageand of nearly snowrainstorms. cover andDuring protectthe theearly new1970s, roads, an railways power 600 linespeople which per areyear were these killed areas. by slopeAvalanche failures worldwide but,the twenty later, the figure invading problems in rockyyears mountains beset the was severalPacific thousand (Brabb,and 1991). as many asHighway 90 per cent of these deaths Canadian Railway thePerhaps Trans-Canadian together with

42

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

43

occur on the Pacific Ocean particularly susceptible to mass [snow covered with steepregion, slopes]which in theisnorth. The geological studies indicate movements of are the susceptible varying combinations of rock type, steep terrain, that the because Himalayas to geo-hazards viz. earthquakes, landslides, heavy typhoon rainfall, rapid land usevertical changeuplift and high The and floods etc. due to the continuing of 1 population cm/year in density. the Shivalik main2 cause of increased deaths ranges has beenofthetheexpansion of unregulated settlements cm/year in the lower main Himalayan region. The uplift ontomovements unstable slopes in many third world Forand example, in unstable Caracas, and have not yet ceased for thiscities. region it is still Venezuela, the number of urbanTehri landslides increased from less thanshocks one per susceptible to earthquakes. Garhwal 1905 and subsequent in the year1980s up toand about 1950 to rocked reach the 35 Karn – 40% per year in the Prayag. 1980s (Jiminez, 1990s have Prayag and Raudra The Shivalik 1992). Theare death toll fromofmass movements is still comparatively low in mostlend Hills composed highly unconsolidated deposits, which easily Medium Developing countries. themasses USA the runs forming at 25 - 50 themselves to erosion. TheseInhill areannual closelymortality packed often minor people and it hasThe beenTopography estimated that, for landslides alone, cent shaped of watersheds. of this region gives thesome look 22 of per a cup the population exposed high hazard while 20 harder per centstrata depression are with deeplytoincised gulliesconditions backed by theanother denuded are exposed to moderate hazardThe conditions (Petak, 1989). As washed with many other upstanding here and there. heavy load of sediments down by the environmental it is urban which most vulnerable because of beat of thehazards, rain chokes the areas, streams and are numerous rills down the slopes. the Therefore, large populations risk become (Alexander, duerainfall, to landslidesat have a very1989). commonEconomic feature duelosses to heavy landslides total more than One inbillion US $ per and year the in upper severalreaches counties, indiscriminate deforestation the catchments of the including Other countries with large but un-quantified losses GangaJapan. river basins. The combination of very high mountains and include flat valleys Indonesia, the former Soviet In Italy it has been estimated below China are theand breeding ground of Union. many cloudbursts in many parts of the that Himalayan over 1,000 region. urban centers are threatened by landslide activity. addition people to Apart from this, the resource base on whichInmountain direct damage movement causerate. a variety lossesvegetation such depend hasmass deteriorated at anhazards accelerating Forestof hasindirect been cutoff, as road flooding due to have landslide dams acrosseroded. rivers,Together reducedwith coverblockages, removed and steep slopes become severely agricultural and industrial production, and lower property values. exploitation, the impacts of population pressure and inappropriate technologies Snow avalanches are special types of environment. mass movement. They have severely degraded the mountain These are are the common result of an features of mountainous terrain throughout arctic and temperateofregions whenever un-mistakable system of engineering, un-sustainability the current patterns snowofisresource deposited slopes steeper practices. than aboutThe 20°.overall The USA aloneissuffers useonand production situation both a 7cause 10,000 damaging avalanches per year,development although only about 10 percent andpotentially concern for reappraisal of conventional approaches to maintain harmareas humans or property. In the past,in casualties in general and environment particular. were suffered by travellers passing through the mountains welltaken as the minersoccurrence located inaspermanent, but The Indian governmentashas hazard the first priority, badly settlements. countries notable for of avalanche butsited, the mining little efforts being The madeAndean fall short of thearerequirement money and related miningThere disasters. in the USA approach occurred in material. is a The needworst for anavalanche integrateddisaster multi-disciplinary to the 1910planning in the Cascade Range, Washington, when three snowboundaspects trains were based on sound environmental and ecological for the swept into a canyon with the loss and of 118 Historically, avalanche rehabilitation of effected people even lives. the command area the is prone to natural problem has always been more severe in Europe then North America hazards. Their management includes administrative, political andbecause economic the population densitywhether in higher the toAlps thana in the Rockies. actions to decide andinhow reduce particular risk toSwitzerland a certain level. has a relatively large number of avalanche deaths amounting to some 20-30 fatalities per year. Nature of Problem Snow avalanche problems have risen as winter recedes. This is mainly due There can use be few countries where mass movement processes do not of exist, to the greater of winter recreation and the associated development ski and the landslide risk is increasing worldwide as land hunger forces the centres and other holiday resorts. For example, the town of Vial, Colorado,new development on toofunstable slopes. According Jones community (1992), it is an in under located at an elevation 2,500 m, was founded, as to a resort only recognized threat because the impacts tend to be frequent and small-scale, whilst 1962. The construction of alpine facilities often requires the removal of timber itself is oftenIfattributed other hazards, earthquakes fromthe theprocess surrounding slopes. left intacttothe trees would such help as to stabilize the and averageand of nearly snowrainstorms. cover andDuring protectthe theearly new1970s, roads, an railways power 600 linespeople which per areyear were these killed areas. by slopeAvalanche failures worldwide but,the twenty later, the figure invading problems in rockyyears mountains beset the was severalPacific thousand (Brabb,and 1991). as many asHighway 90 per cent of these deaths Canadian Railway thePerhaps Trans-Canadian together with

42

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

43

occur on the Pacific Ocean particularly susceptible to mass [snow covered with steepregion, slopes]which in theisnorth. The geological studies indicate movements of are the susceptible varying combinations of rock type, steep terrain, that the because Himalayas to geo-hazards viz. earthquakes, landslides, heavy typhoon rainfall, rapid land usevertical changeuplift and high The and floods etc. due to the continuing of 1 population cm/year in density. the Shivalik main2 cause of increased deaths ranges has beenofthetheexpansion of unregulated settlements cm/year in the lower main Himalayan region. The uplift ontomovements unstable slopes in many third world Forand example, in unstable Caracas, and have not yet ceased for thiscities. region it is still Venezuela, the number of urbanTehri landslides increased from less thanshocks one per susceptible to earthquakes. Garhwal 1905 and subsequent in the year1980s up toand about 1950 to rocked reach the 35 Karn – 40% per year in the Prayag. 1980s (Jiminez, 1990s have Prayag and Raudra The Shivalik 1992). Theare death toll fromofmass movements is still comparatively low in mostlend Hills composed highly unconsolidated deposits, which easily Medium Developing countries. themasses USA the runs forming at 25 - 50 themselves to erosion. TheseInhill areannual closelymortality packed often minor people and it hasThe beenTopography estimated that, for landslides alone, cent shaped of watersheds. of this region gives thesome look 22 of per a cup the population exposed high hazard while 20 harder per centstrata depression are with deeplytoincised gulliesconditions backed by theanother denuded are exposed to moderate hazardThe conditions (Petak, 1989). As washed with many other upstanding here and there. heavy load of sediments down by the environmental it is urban which most vulnerable because of beat of thehazards, rain chokes the areas, streams and are numerous rills down the slopes. the Therefore, large populations risk become (Alexander, duerainfall, to landslidesat have a very1989). commonEconomic feature duelosses to heavy landslides total more than One inbillion US $ per and year the in upper severalreaches counties, indiscriminate deforestation the catchments of the including Other countries with large but un-quantified losses GangaJapan. river basins. The combination of very high mountains and include flat valleys Indonesia, the former Soviet In Italy it has been estimated below China are theand breeding ground of Union. many cloudbursts in many parts of the that Himalayan over 1,000 region. urban centers are threatened by landslide activity. addition people to Apart from this, the resource base on whichInmountain direct damage movement causerate. a variety lossesvegetation such depend hasmass deteriorated at anhazards accelerating Forestof hasindirect been cutoff, as road flooding due to have landslide dams acrosseroded. rivers,Together reducedwith coverblockages, removed and steep slopes become severely agricultural and industrial production, and lower property values. exploitation, the impacts of population pressure and inappropriate technologies Snow avalanches are special types of environment. mass movement. They have severely degraded the mountain These are are the common result of an features of mountainous terrain throughout arctic and temperateofregions whenever un-mistakable system of engineering, un-sustainability the current patterns snowofisresource deposited slopes steeper practices. than aboutThe 20°.overall The USA aloneissuffers useonand production situation both a 7cause 10,000 damaging avalanches per year,development although only about 10 percent andpotentially concern for reappraisal of conventional approaches to maintain harmareas humans or property. In the past,in casualties in general and environment particular. were suffered by travellers passing through the mountains welltaken as the minersoccurrence located inaspermanent, but The Indian governmentashas hazard the first priority, badly settlements. countries notable for of avalanche butsited, the mining little efforts being The madeAndean fall short of thearerequirement money and related miningThere disasters. in the USA approach occurred in material. is a The needworst for anavalanche integrateddisaster multi-disciplinary to the 1910planning in the Cascade Range, Washington, when three snowboundaspects trains were based on sound environmental and ecological for the swept into a canyon with the loss and of 118 Historically, avalanche rehabilitation of effected people even lives. the command area the is prone to natural problem has always been more severe in Europe then North America hazards. Their management includes administrative, political andbecause economic the population densitywhether in higher the toAlps thana in the Rockies. actions to decide andinhow reduce particular risk toSwitzerland a certain level. has a relatively large number of avalanche deaths amounting to some 20-30 fatalities per year. Nature of Problem Snow avalanche problems have risen as winter recedes. This is mainly due There can use be few countries where mass movement processes do not of exist, to the greater of winter recreation and the associated development ski and the and landslide is increasing as land the new centres other risk holiday resorts. Forworldwide example, the townhunger of Vial,forces Colorado, development on toofunstable slopes. According Jones community (1992), it is an in under located at an elevation 2,500 m, was founded, as to a resort only recognized threat because the impacts tend to be frequent and small-scale, whilst 1962. The construction of alpine facilities often requires the removal of timber itself is oftenIfattributed other hazards, earthquakes fromthe theprocess surrounding slopes. left intacttothe trees would such help as to stabilize the and averageand of nearly snowrainstorms. cover andDuring protectthe theearly new1970s, roads, an railways power 600 linespeople which per areyear were these killed areas. by slopeAvalanche failures worldwide but,the twenty later, the figure invading problems in rockyyears mountains beset the was severalPacific thousand (Brabb,and 1991). as many asHighway 90 per cent of these deaths Canadian Railway thePerhaps Trans-Canadian together with

Landslide Disasters and its Management

43

occur on the Pacific Ocean region, which is particularly susceptible to mass movements because of the varying combinations of rock type, steep terrain, heavy typhoon rainfall, rapid land use change and high population density. The main cause of increased deaths has been the expansion of unregulated settlements onto unstable slopes in many third world cities. For example, in Caracas, Venezuela, the number of urban landslides increased from less than one per year up to about 1950 to reach 35 – 40% per year in the 1980s (Jiminez, 1992). The death toll from mass movements is still comparatively low in most Medium Developing countries. In the USA the annual mortality runs at 25 - 50 people and it has been estimated that, for landslides alone, some 22 per cent of the population are exposed to high hazard conditions while another 20 per cent are exposed to moderate hazard conditions (Petak, 1989). As with many other environmental hazards, it is urban areas, which are most vulnerable because of the large populations at risk (Alexander, 1989). Economic losses due to landslides total more than One billion US $ per year in several counties, including Japan. Other countries with large but un-quantified losses include Indonesia, China and the former Soviet Union. In Italy it has been estimated that over 1,000 urban centers are threatened by landslide activity. In addition to direct damage mass movement hazards cause a variety of indirect losses such as road blockages, flooding due to landslide dams across rivers, reduced agricultural and industrial production, and lower property values. Snow avalanches are special types of mass movement. They are common features of mountainous terrain throughout arctic and temperate regions whenever snow is deposited on slopes steeper than about 20°. The USA alone suffers 710,000 potentially damaging avalanches per year, although only about 10 percent harm humans or property. In the past, casualties were suffered by travellers passing through the mountains as well as the miners located in permanent, but badly sited, mining settlements. The Andean countries are notable for avalanche related mining disasters. The worst avalanche disaster in the USA occurred in 1910 in the Cascade Range, Washington, when three snowbound trains were swept into a canyon with the loss of 118 lives. Historically, the avalanche problem has always been more severe in Europe then North America because the population density in higher in the Alps than in the Rockies. Switzerland has a relatively large number of avalanche deaths amounting to some 20-30 fatalities per year. Snow avalanche problems have risen as winter recedes. This is mainly due to the greater use of winter recreation and the associated development of ski centres and other holiday resorts. For example, the town of Vial, Colorado, located at an elevation of 2,500 m, was founded, as a resort community only in 1962. The construction of alpine facilities often requires the removal of timber from the surrounding slopes. If left intact the trees would help to stabilize the snow cover and protect the new roads, railways and power lines which are invading these areas. Avalanche problems in the rocky mountains beset the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Trans-Canadian Highway together with

Landslide Disasters and its Management

43

occur on the Pacific Ocean region, which is particularly susceptible to mass movements because of the varying combinations of rock type, steep terrain, heavy typhoon rainfall, rapid land use change and high population density. The main cause of increased deaths has been the expansion of unregulated settlements onto unstable slopes in many third world cities. For example, in Caracas, Venezuela, the number of urban landslides increased from less than one per year up to about 1950 to reach 35 – 40% per year in the 1980s (Jiminez, 1992). The death toll from mass movements is still comparatively low in most Medium Developing countries. In the USA the annual mortality runs at 25 - 50 people and it has been estimated that, for landslides alone, some 22 per cent of the population are exposed to high hazard conditions while another 20 per cent are exposed to moderate hazard conditions (Petak, 1989). As with many other environmental hazards, it is urban areas, which are most vulnerable because of the large populations at risk (Alexander, 1989). Economic losses due to landslides total more than One billion US $ per year in several counties, including Japan. Other countries with large but un-quantified losses include Indonesia, China and the former Soviet Union. In Italy it has been estimated that over 1,000 urban centers are threatened by landslide activity. In addition to direct damage mass movement hazards cause a variety of indirect losses such as road blockages, flooding due to landslide dams across rivers, reduced agricultural and industrial production, and lower property values. Snow avalanches are special types of mass movement. They are common features of mountainous terrain throughout arctic and temperate regions whenever snow is deposited on slopes steeper than about 20°. The USA alone suffers 710,000 potentially damaging avalanches per year, although only about 10 percent harm humans or property. In the past, casualties were suffered by travellers passing through the mountains as well as the miners located in permanent, but badly sited, mining settlements. The Andean countries are notable for avalanche related mining disasters. The worst avalanche disaster in the USA occurred in 1910 in the Cascade Range, Washington, when three snowbound trains were swept into a canyon with the loss of 118 lives. Historically, the avalanche problem has always been more severe in Europe then North America because the population density in higher in the Alps than in the Rockies. Switzerland has a relatively large number of avalanche deaths amounting to some 20-30 fatalities per year. Snow avalanche problems have risen as winter recedes. This is mainly due to the greater use of winter recreation and the associated development of ski centres and other holiday resorts. For example, the town of Vial, Colorado, located at an elevation of 2,500 m, was founded, as a resort community only in 1962. The construction of alpine facilities often requires the removal of timber from the surrounding slopes. If left intact the trees would help to stabilize the snow cover and protect the new roads, railways and power lines which are invading these areas. Avalanche problems in the rocky mountains beset the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Trans-Canadian Highway together with

44

Disaster Management

sections of US Highways. The Trans-Canadian Highway alone crosses nearly 100 avalanche tracks in 145 km. It has been estimated that at least one motor vehicle is under a major avalanche path at any given time. NATURE OF LANDSLIDES Landslides are down slope movements of rock and soil along slip surfaces. They are associated with a disturbance of the equilibrium, which normally exists between stress and strength in material resting on slopes. The relationship between stress and strength is determined by factors such as the height and steepness of the slope and the destiny, strength cohesion and friction of the materials on the slope. Hill slope instability occurs when the strength of the material comprising the slope is exceeded by a down slope stress. The internal cohesion is produced by the interlocking, or sticking together, of granular particles, particularly in clayey soils and rocks, that enables the material to rest at an angle. Some materials, such as dry sand, are cohesionless. Cohesion is independent of the weight of material above the surface. The internal friction is the resistance of particles of granular soil to sliding across each other. The friction component of shear strength depends on the weight of material above the surface. In turn, these factors will depend on the weight, or loading, on the slope and the moisture condition. The term landslide covers most down slope movements of rock and soil debris that have become separated from the underlying part of the slope by a shear zone or slip surface. The type of movement, which may include falling, sliding and flowing, depends largely on the nature of the geological environment, including material strength, slope configuration and pore water pressure. Jones (1995) asserted that slope failure will become an increasingly important hazard, especially in the LDCs country and identified several types of landslide terrain 1. Areas subjected to seismic shaking earthquakes can promote widespread land sliding, which often occur as thousands of individual slides, as in 1950 Assam, India, as earthquake when over 50 billion m3 of material was displaced over an area of 15,000 km2. Major landslides also occurred after the 1991 in Uttarkashi and Chamoli of Uttaranchal earthquake and very recently in June 2004, there was a major landslide in Kumaun region of Uttaranchal, which claimed more than five people in the area, and 26 were injured. 2. Mountainous environments with high relative relief, high or steep slope terrain, such as in the northern portion of the Himalayas and north-western portion of the Himalayas, produces perhaps one catastrophic rock fall per decade in the Himalayan ranges. These spectacular slope failures comprise huge masses of material (up to 100,00,00,00,000 m3), which, at least in the initial stages, travel near vertically at high velocities over long run-out distances. 3. Areas of moderate relief suffering severe land degradation. Readily erodible soils on slopes subject to land degradation caused by deforestation or

44

Disaster Management

sections of US Highways. The Trans-Canadian Highway alone crosses nearly 100 avalanche tracks in 145 km. It has been estimated that at least one motor vehicle is under a major avalanche path at any given time. NATURE OF LANDSLIDES Landslides are down slope movements of rock and soil along slip surfaces. They are associated with a disturbance of the equilibrium, which normally exists between stress and strength in material resting on slopes. The relationship between stress and strength is determined by factors such as the height and steepness of the slope and the destiny, strength cohesion and friction of the materials on the slope. Hill slope instability occurs when the strength of the material comprising the slope is exceeded by a down slope stress. The internal cohesion is produced by the interlocking, or sticking together, of granular particles, particularly in clayey soils and rocks, that enables the material to rest at an angle. Some materials, such as dry sand, are cohesionless. Cohesion is independent of the weight of material above the surface. The internal friction is the resistance of particles of granular soil to sliding across each other. The friction component of shear strength depends on the weight of material above the surface. In turn, these factors will depend on the weight, or loading, on the slope and the moisture condition. The term landslide covers most down slope movements of rock and soil debris that have become separated from the underlying part of the slope by a shear zone or slip surface. The type of movement, which may include falling, sliding and flowing, depends largely on the nature of the geological environment, including material strength, slope configuration and pore water pressure. Jones (1995) asserted that slope failure will become an increasingly important hazard, especially in the LDCs country and identified several types of landslide terrain 1. Areas subjected to seismic shaking earthquakes can promote widespread land sliding, which often occur as thousands of individual slides, as in 1950 Assam, India, as earthquake when over 50 billion m3 of material was displaced over an area of 15,000 km2. Major landslides also occurred after the 1991 in Uttarkashi and Chamoli of Uttaranchal earthquake and very recently in June 2004, there was a major landslide in Kumaun region of Uttaranchal, which claimed more than five people in the area, and 26 were injured. 2. Mountainous environments with high relative relief, high or steep slope terrain, such as in the northern portion of the Himalayas and north-western portion of the Himalayas, produces perhaps one catastrophic rock fall per decade in the Himalayan ranges. These spectacular slope failures comprise huge masses of material (up to 100,00,00,00,000 m3), which, at least in the initial stages, travel near vertically at high velocities over long run-out distances. 3. Areas of moderate relief suffering severe land degradation. Readily erodible soils on slopes subject to land degradation caused by deforestation or

44

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

45

sections of US Thefor Trans-Canadian Highway crosses nearly overgrazing haveHighways. the potential gully expansion and landalone slipping in the 100 avalanche tracks in 145 has beenabout estimated that at in least one motor middle of the Himalayas. Overkm. the Itcenturies, 160 villages Himachal vehicle isand under major 240 avalanche at any givenHimalayas time. Pradesh neara about villagespath in Uttaranchal have been abandoned because of this process. 4. Areas covered thick sheets of loss. Any mantling of an existing ground NATURE OF with LANDSLIDES surface with finely grained deposits, such as wind- blown losses or tephra, is Landslides are down slope movements of rock and soil along slip surfaces. likely to lead to a sheer zone at the junction of the two materials and the They are associated with a disturbance of the equilibrium, which normally exists formation of flow slides in the loose deposits. The loess plateau of central between stress and strength in material resting on slopes. The relationship China and the Shillong plateau of northeastern Himalayas are the classical between stress and strength is determined by factors such as the height and location. steepness of the slope and the destiny, strength cohesion and friction of the 5. Areas with high rainfall inputs. The areas that regularly experience rainfall materials on the slope. Hill slope instability occurs when the strength of the from monsoons or tropical cyclones are rock weathering and can penetrate material comprising the slope is exceeded by a down slope stress. tens of metres below the ground surface. For example, in parts of the lower The internal cohesion is produced by the interlocking, or sticking together, Himalayas and north-east Himalayas of Meghalaya weathered material has of granular particles, particularly in clayey soils and rocks, that enables the moved down slope to cover the bedrock to a depth of more than 10 meters. material to rest at an angle. Some materials, such as dry sand, are cohesionless. Throughout the humid tropics, these deep and porous mantles are prone to Cohesion is independent of the weight of material above the surface. The internal landslides. friction is the resistance of particles of granular soil to sliding across each other. The friction component of shear strength depends on the weight of material ROCK FALLS IN HIMALAYAN above the surface. In turn, these REGION factors will depend on the weight, or loading, slope and of the debris moisture condition. Thisonis the a movement flow or rock falls through the wind and soil landslide covers down slope of rockwhere and soil erosion. The The term simplest type of rock most movements occurmovements on steep slopes, debrisare thatweak, havesuch become separated the underlying part ofsurfaces the slope bedrocks as joints, and from the bedding of exfoliation areby a shearRock zonefalls or slip of movement, include present. aresurface. presumedThe to type fall directly off cliffwhich faces,may rather than falling, to flowing, dependsplane, largelyalthough on the nature the geological environment, slip sliding along aandjoint or bedding both of types of movement may including material strength, slopeand configuration and pore water pressure. Jones occur. The presence of water in clefts fissures is highly influential, especially (1995) asserted that slope failure will become an increasingly hazard, in the mid-latitudes where regular freeze-thaw cycles progressivelyimportant weaken the the LDCssuch country and identified several Pithoragarh, types of landslide terrain rockespecially mass by in increasing openings as in Chamoli, and the 1. Areas subjected seismic shaking earthquakes can promote widespread land Uttarkashi district of thetoUttaranchal Himalayas. sliding, which often occur of individual in 1950 Assam, Earthquakes induce many of as thethousands largest rock falls butslides, moreasspontaneous India, as also earthquake over 50 of material was displaced slope instability occurs,when especially in billion closelym3 jointed or weakly cementedover of 15,000 Major40°. landslides also occurred theexists 1991 in materialsanonarea slopes steeper km2. than about The greatest rock fall after hazard Uttarkashi and Chamoli and very in June when joints and bedding planes of areUttaranchal inclined at earthquake a steep angles, as inrecently the highly 2004,common there was a major landslide in Kumaun of Uttaranchal, which folded rocks in major mountain chains as in theregion Himalayas and Rockies. more thantook fiveplace peopleacross in thebedding area, andplanes 26 were In these claimed areas the slides in injured. a steep anticline 2. in Mountainous environments withofhigh relativeHimalayas, relief, high or steepwas slopealso terrain, formed the well-jointed limestone Garhwal which such as in the northern portion of the Himalayas and joints north-western portion subject to mining activity. Groundwater seeping into the dissolved the of Himalayas, perhaps one catastrophic perfroze decade in the limestonetheand enlargedproduces the fractures. During the winter rock this fall water and ranges. Theseweakening spectacularthe slope failures The comprise huge debris masses of wedged Himalayan the rock apart, further structure. resulting (up to 100,00,00,00,000 which, at least the initial stages, travel destroyedmaterial the southern end of the smallm3), towns on the hill in slopes. near vertically at high velocities over long run-out distances. 3. Areas moderate relief suffering severe land degradation. Readily erodible CAUSES OF of LANDSLIDES soils on slopes subject to land degradation caused by deforestation or Landslides result from a variety of events that combine either to increase the driving force or to reduce the shear resistance on a slope. Factors that increase

44

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

45

sections of US Thefor Trans-Canadian Highway crosses nearly overgrazing haveHighways. the potential gully expansion and landalone slipping in the 100 avalanche tracks in 145 has beenabout estimated that at in least one motor middle of the Himalayas. Overkm. the Itcenturies, 160 villages Himachal vehicle isand under major 240 avalanche at any givenHimalayas time. Pradesh neara about villagespath in Uttaranchal have been abandoned because of this process. 4. Areas covered thick sheets of loss. Any mantling of an existing ground NATURE OF with LANDSLIDES surface with finely grained deposits, such as wind- blown losses or tephra, is Landslides are down slope movements of rock and soil along slip surfaces. likely to lead to a sheer zone at the junction of the two materials and the They are associated with a disturbance of the equilibrium, which normally exists formation of flow slides in the loose deposits. The loess plateau of central between stress and strength in material resting on slopes. The relationship China and the Shillong plateau of northeastern Himalayas are the classical between stress and strength is determined by factors such as the height and location. steepness of the slope and the destiny, strength cohesion and friction of the 5. Areas with high rainfall inputs. The areas that regularly experience rainfall materials on the slope. Hill slope instability occurs when the strength of the from monsoons or tropical cyclones are rock weathering and can penetrate material comprising the slope is exceeded by a down slope stress. tens of metres below the ground surface. For example, in parts of the lower The internal cohesion is produced by the interlocking, or sticking together, Himalayas and north-east Himalayas of Meghalaya weathered material has of granular particles, particularly in clayey soils and rocks, that enables the moved down slope to cover the bedrock to a depth of more than 10 meters. material to rest at an angle. Some materials, such as dry sand, are cohesionless. Throughout the humid tropics, these deep and porous mantles are prone to Cohesion is independent of the weight of material above the surface. The internal landslides. friction is the resistance of particles of granular soil to sliding across each other. The friction component of shear strength depends on the weight of material ROCK FALLS IN HIMALAYAN above the surface. In turn, these REGION factors will depend on the weight, or loading, slope and of the debris moisture condition. Thisonis the a movement flow or rock falls through the wind and soil landslide covers down slope of rockwhere and soil erosion. The The term simplest type of rock most movements occurmovements on steep slopes, debrisare thatweak, havesuch become separated the underlying part ofsurfaces the slope bedrocks as joints, and from the bedding of exfoliation areby a shearRock zonefalls or slip of movement, include present. aresurface. presumedThe to type fall directly off cliffwhich faces,may rather than falling, to flowing, dependsplane, largelyalthough on the nature the geological environment, slip sliding along aandjoint or bedding both of types of movement may including material strength, slopeand configuration and pore water pressure. Jones occur. The presence of water in clefts fissures is highly influential, especially (1995) asserted that slope failure will become an increasingly hazard, in the mid-latitudes where regular freeze-thaw cycles progressivelyimportant weaken the the LDCssuch country and identified several Pithoragarh, types of landslide terrain rockespecially mass by in increasing openings as in Chamoli, and the 1. Areas subjected seismic shaking earthquakes can promote widespread land Uttarkashi district of thetoUttaranchal Himalayas. sliding, which often occur of individual in 1950 Assam, Earthquakes induce many of as thethousands largest rock falls butslides, moreasspontaneous India, as also earthquake over 50 of material was displaced slope instability occurs,when especially in billion closelym3 jointed or weakly cementedover of 15,000 Major40°. landslides also occurred theexists 1991 in materialsanonarea slopes steeper km2. than about The greatest rock fall after hazard Uttarkashi and Chamoli and very in June when joints and bedding planes of areUttaranchal inclined at earthquake a steep angles, as inrecently the highly 2004,common there was a major landslide in Kumaun of Uttaranchal, which folded rocks in major mountain chains as in theregion Himalayas and Rockies. more thantook fiveplace peopleacross in thebedding area, andplanes 26 were In these claimed areas the slides in injured. a steep anticline 2. in Mountainous environments withofhigh relativeHimalayas, relief, high or steepwas slopealso terrain, formed the well-jointed limestone Garhwal which such as in the northern portion of the Himalayas and joints north-western portion subject to mining activity. Groundwater seeping into the dissolved the of Himalayas, perhaps one catastrophic perfroze decade in the limestonetheand enlargedproduces the fractures. During the winter rock this fall water and ranges. Theseweakening spectacularthe slope failures The comprise huge debris masses of wedged Himalayan the rock apart, further structure. resulting (up to 100,00,00,00,000 which, at least the initial stages, travel destroyedmaterial the southern end of the smallm3), towns on the hill in slopes. near vertically at high velocities over long run-out distances. 3. Areas moderate relief suffering severe land degradation. Readily erodible CAUSES OF of LANDSLIDES soils on slopes subject to land degradation caused by deforestation or Landslides result from a variety of events that combine either to increase the driving force or to reduce the shear resistance on a slope. Factors that increase

44

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

45

overgrazing haveHighways. the potential gully expansion and landalone slipping in the sections of US Thefor Trans-Canadian Highway crosses nearly middle of the Himalayas. Overkm. the Itcenturies, 160 villages Himachal 100 avalanche tracks in 145 has beenabout estimated that at in least one motor Pradesh neara about villagespath in Uttaranchal have been vehicle isand under major 240 avalanche at any givenHimalayas time. abandoned because of this process. 4. Areas covered thick sheets of loss. Any mantling of an existing ground NATURE OF with LANDSLIDES surface with finely grained deposits, such as wind- blown losses or tephra, is Landslides are down slope movements of rock and soil along slip surfaces. likely to lead to a sheer zone at the junction of the two materials and the They are associated with a disturbance of the equilibrium, which normally exists formation of flow slides in the loose deposits. The loess plateau of central between stress and strength in material resting on slopes. The relationship China and the Shillong plateau of northeastern Himalayas are the classical between stress and strength is determined by factors such as the height and location. steepness of the slope and the destiny, strength cohesion and friction of the 5. Areas with high rainfall inputs. The areas that regularly experience rainfall materials on the slope. Hill slope instability occurs when the strength of the from monsoons or tropical cyclones are rock weathering and can penetrate material comprising the slope is exceeded by a down slope stress. tens of metres below the ground surface. For example, in parts of the lower The internal cohesion is produced by the interlocking, or sticking together, Himalayas and north-east Himalayas of Meghalaya weathered material has of granular particles, particularly in clayey soils and rocks, that enables the moved down slope to cover the bedrock to a depth of more than 10 meters. material to rest at an angle. Some materials, such as dry sand, are cohesionless. Throughout the humid tropics, these deep and porous mantles are prone to Cohesion is independent of the weight of material above the surface. The internal landslides. friction is the resistance of particles of granular soil to sliding across each other. The friction component of shear strength depends on the weight of material ROCK FALLS IN HIMALAYAN above the surface. In turn, these REGION factors will depend on the weight, or loading, Thisonis the a movement flow or rock falls through the wind and soil slope and of the debris moisture condition. erosion. The The term simplest type of rock most movements occurmovements on steep slopes, landslide covers down slope of rockwhere and soil bedrocks as joints, and from the bedding of exfoliation areby a debrisare thatweak, havesuch become separated the underlying part ofsurfaces the slope present. aresurface. presumedThe to type fall directly off cliffwhich faces,may rather than falling, to shearRock zonefalls or slip of movement, include slip sliding along aandjoint or bedding both of types of movement may flowing, dependsplane, largelyalthough on the nature the geological environment, occur. The presence of water in clefts fissures is highly influential, especially including material strength, slopeand configuration and pore water pressure. Jones in the mid-latitudes where regular freeze-thaw cycles progressivelyimportant weaken the (1995) asserted that slope failure will become an increasingly hazard, rockespecially mass by in increasing openings as in Chamoli, and the the LDCssuch country and identified several Pithoragarh, types of landslide terrain Uttarkashi district of thetoUttaranchal Himalayas. 1. Areas subjected seismic shaking earthquakes can promote widespread land Earthquakes induce many of as thethousands largest rock falls butslides, moreasspontaneous sliding, which often occur of individual in 1950 Assam, slope instability occurs,when especially in billion closelym3 jointed or weakly cementedover India, as also earthquake over 50 of material was displaced materialsanonarea slopes steeper km2. than about The greatest rock fall after hazard of 15,000 Major40°. landslides also occurred theexists 1991 in when joints and bedding planes of areUttaranchal inclined at earthquake a steep angles, as inrecently the highly Uttarkashi and Chamoli and very in June folded rocks in major mountain chains as in theregion Himalayas and Rockies. 2004,common there was a major landslide in Kumaun of Uttaranchal, which In these claimed areas the slides in injured. a steep anticline more thantook fiveplace peopleacross in thebedding area, andplanes 26 were formed the well-jointed limestone Garhwal which 2. in Mountainous environments withofhigh relativeHimalayas, relief, high or steepwas slopealso terrain, subject to mining activity. Groundwater seeping into the dissolved the of such as in the northern portion of the Himalayas and joints north-western portion limestonetheand enlargedproduces the fractures. During the winter rock this fall water and Himalayas, perhaps one catastrophic perfroze decade in the wedged Himalayan the rock apart, further structure. resulting ranges. Theseweakening spectacularthe slope failures The comprise huge debris masses of destroyedmaterial the southern end of the smallm3), towns on the hill in slopes. (up to 100,00,00,00,000 which, at least the initial stages, travel near vertically at high velocities over long run-out distances. 3. Areas moderate relief suffering severe land degradation. Readily erodible CAUSES OF of LANDSLIDES soils on slopes subject to land degradation caused by deforestation or Landslides result from a variety of events that combine either to increase the driving force or to reduce the shear resistance on a slope. Factors that increase

44

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

overgrazing have the potential for gully expansion and land slipping in the middle of the Himalayas. Over the centuries, about 160 villages in Himachal Pradesh and near about 240 villages in Uttaranchal Himalayas have been abandoned because of this process. 4. Areas covered with thick sheets of loss. Any mantling of an existing ground surface with finely grained deposits, such as wind- blown losses or tephra, is likely to lead to a sheer zone at the junction of the two materials and the formation of flow slides in the loose deposits. The loess plateau of central China and the Shillong plateau of northeastern Himalayas are the classical location. 5. Areas with high rainfall inputs. The areas that regularly experience rainfall from monsoons or tropical cyclones are rock weathering and can penetrate tens of metres below the ground surface. For example, in parts of the lower Himalayas and north-east Himalayas of Meghalaya weathered material has moved down slope to cover the bedrock to a depth of more than 10 meters. Throughout the humid tropics, these deep and porous mantles are prone to landslides. ROCK FALLS IN HIMALAYAN REGION This is a movement of debris flow or rock falls through the wind and soil erosion. The simplest type of rock movements occur on steep slopes, where bedrocks are weak, such as joints, and the bedding of exfoliation surfaces are present. Rock falls are presumed to fall directly off cliff faces, rather than to slip along a joint or bedding plane, although both types of movement may occur. The presence of water in clefts and fissures is highly influential, especially in the mid-latitudes where regular freeze-thaw cycles progressively weaken the rock mass by increasing such openings as in Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and the Uttarkashi district of the Uttaranchal Himalayas. Earthquakes induce many of the largest rock falls but more spontaneous slope instability also occurs, especially in closely jointed or weakly cemented materials on slopes steeper than about 40°. The greatest rock fall hazard exists when joints and bedding planes are inclined at a steep angles, as in the highly folded rocks common in major mountain chains as in the Himalayas and Rockies. In these areas the slides took place across bedding planes in a steep anticline formed in the well-jointed limestone of Garhwal Himalayas, which was also subject to mining activity. Groundwater seeping into the joints dissolved the limestone and enlarged the fractures. During the winter this water froze and wedged the rock apart, further weakening the structure. The resulting debris destroyed the southern end of the small towns on the hill slopes. CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES Landslides result from a variety of events that combine either to increase the driving force or to reduce the shear resistance on a slope. Factors that increase

45

overgrazing haveHighways. the potential gully expansion and landalone slipping in the sections of US Thefor Trans-Canadian Highway crosses nearly middle of the Himalayas. Overkm. the Itcenturies, 160 villages Himachal 100 avalanche tracks in 145 has beenabout estimated that at in least one motor Pradesh neara about villagespath in Uttaranchal have been vehicle isand under major 240 avalanche at any givenHimalayas time. abandoned because of this process. 4. Areas covered thick sheets of loss. Any mantling of an existing ground NATURE OF with LANDSLIDES surface with finely grained deposits, such as wind- blown losses or tephra, is Landslides are down slope movements of rock and soil along slip surfaces. likely to lead to a sheer zone at the junction of the two materials and the They are associated with a disturbance of the equilibrium, which normally exists formation of flow slides in the loose deposits. The loess plateau of central between stress and strength in material resting on slopes. The relationship China and the Shillong plateau of northeastern Himalayas are the classical between stress and strength is determined by factors such as the height and location. steepness of the slope and the destiny, strength cohesion and friction of the 5. Areas with high rainfall inputs. The areas that regularly experience rainfall materials on the slope. Hill slope instability occurs when the strength of the from monsoons or tropical cyclones are rock weathering and can penetrate material comprising the slope is exceeded by a down slope stress. tens of metres below the ground surface. For example, in parts of the lower The internal cohesion is produced by the interlocking, or sticking together, Himalayas and north-east Himalayas of Meghalaya weathered material has of granular particles, particularly in clayey soils and rocks, that enables the moved down slope to cover the bedrock to a depth of more than 10 meters. material to rest at an angle. Some materials, such as dry sand, are cohesionless. Throughout the humid tropics, these deep and porous mantles are prone to Cohesion is independent of the weight of material above the surface. The internal landslides. friction is the resistance of particles of granular soil to sliding across each other. The friction component of shear strength depends on the weight of material ROCK FALLS IN HIMALAYAN above the surface. In turn, these REGION factors will depend on the weight, or loading, Thisonis the a movement flow or rock falls through the wind and soil slope and of the debris moisture condition. erosion. The The term simplest type of rock most movements occurmovements on steep slopes, landslide covers down slope of rockwhere and soil bedrocks as joints, and from the bedding of exfoliation areby a debrisare thatweak, havesuch become separated the underlying part ofsurfaces the slope present. aresurface. presumedThe to type fall directly off cliffwhich faces,may rather than falling, to shearRock zonefalls or slip of movement, include slip sliding along aandjoint or bedding both of types of movement may flowing, dependsplane, largelyalthough on the nature the geological environment, occur. The presence of water in clefts fissures is highly influential, especially including material strength, slopeand configuration and pore water pressure. Jones in the mid-latitudes where regular freeze-thaw cycles progressivelyimportant weaken the (1995) asserted that slope failure will become an increasingly hazard, rockespecially mass by in increasing openings as in Chamoli, and the the LDCssuch country and identified several Pithoragarh, types of landslide terrain Uttarkashi district of thetoUttaranchal Himalayas. 1. Areas subjected seismic shaking earthquakes can promote widespread land Earthquakes induce many of as thethousands largest rock falls butslides, moreasspontaneous sliding, which often occur of individual in 1950 Assam, slope instability occurs,when especially in billion closelym3 jointed or weakly cementedover India, as also earthquake over 50 of material was displaced materialsanonarea slopes steeper km2. than about The greatest rock fall after hazard of 15,000 Major40°. landslides also occurred theexists 1991 in when joints and bedding planes of areUttaranchal inclined at earthquake a steep angles, as inrecently the highly Uttarkashi and Chamoli and very in June folded rocks in major mountain chains as in theregion Himalayas and Rockies. 2004,common there was a major landslide in Kumaun of Uttaranchal, which In these claimed areas the slides in injured. a steep anticline more thantook fiveplace peopleacross in thebedding area, andplanes 26 were formed the well-jointed limestone Garhwal which 2. in Mountainous environments withofhigh relativeHimalayas, relief, high or steepwas slopealso terrain, subject to mining activity. Groundwater seeping into the dissolved the of such as in the northern portion of the Himalayas and joints north-western portion limestonetheand enlargedproduces the fractures. During the winter rock this fall water and Himalayas, perhaps one catastrophic perfroze decade in the wedged Himalayan the rock apart, further structure. resulting ranges. Theseweakening spectacularthe slope failures The comprise huge debris masses of destroyedmaterial the southern end of the smallm3), towns on the hill in slopes. (up to 100,00,00,00,000 which, at least the initial stages, travel near vertically at high velocities over long run-out distances. 3. Areas moderate relief suffering severe land degradation. Readily erodible CAUSES OF of LANDSLIDES soils on slopes subject to land degradation caused by deforestation or Landslides result from a variety of events that combine either to increase the driving force or to reduce the shear resistance on a slope. Factors that increase

45

Landslide Disasters and its Management

45

overgrazing have the potential for gully expansion and land slipping in the middle of the Himalayas. Over the centuries, about 160 villages in Himachal Pradesh and near about 240 villages in Uttaranchal Himalayas have been abandoned because of this process. 4. Areas covered with thick sheets of loss. Any mantling of an existing ground surface with finely grained deposits, such as wind- blown losses or tephra, is likely to lead to a sheer zone at the junction of the two materials and the formation of flow slides in the loose deposits. The loess plateau of central China and the Shillong plateau of northeastern Himalayas are the classical location. 5. Areas with high rainfall inputs. The areas that regularly experience rainfall from monsoons or tropical cyclones are rock weathering and can penetrate tens of metres below the ground surface. For example, in parts of the lower Himalayas and north-east Himalayas of Meghalaya weathered material has moved down slope to cover the bedrock to a depth of more than 10 meters. Throughout the humid tropics, these deep and porous mantles are prone to landslides. ROCK FALLS IN HIMALAYAN REGION This is a movement of debris flow or rock falls through the wind and soil erosion. The simplest type of rock movements occur on steep slopes, where bedrocks are weak, such as joints, and the bedding of exfoliation surfaces are present. Rock falls are presumed to fall directly off cliff faces, rather than to slip along a joint or bedding plane, although both types of movement may occur. The presence of water in clefts and fissures is highly influential, especially in the mid-latitudes where regular freeze-thaw cycles progressively weaken the rock mass by increasing such openings as in Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and the Uttarkashi district of the Uttaranchal Himalayas. Earthquakes induce many of the largest rock falls but more spontaneous slope instability also occurs, especially in closely jointed or weakly cemented materials on slopes steeper than about 40°. The greatest rock fall hazard exists when joints and bedding planes are inclined at a steep angles, as in the highly folded rocks common in major mountain chains as in the Himalayas and Rockies. In these areas the slides took place across bedding planes in a steep anticline formed in the well-jointed limestone of Garhwal Himalayas, which was also subject to mining activity. Groundwater seeping into the joints dissolved the limestone and enlarged the fractures. During the winter this water froze and wedged the rock apart, further weakening the structure. The resulting debris destroyed the southern end of the small towns on the hill slopes. CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES Landslides result from a variety of events that combine either to increase the driving force or to reduce the shear resistance on a slope. Factors that increase

46

46

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

47

the driving forces on a slope may be either physical or human induced. • An increase in slope angle, which may occur if stream erode the bottom of a slope or if the slope is steepened by the building work. Jones et al. (1989) has described how the cutting of a road into the base of the slope during 1984, which left exposed faces 25 m high and colluvium standing at an angle of 55° unsupported by anything other than a 3 m masonry wall, led to the Catak landslide disaster in Turkey in which 66 people died in 1988. • Removal of lateral support at the foot of the slope again caused either by natural mass wasting processes or by building activity. • Additional weight placed on the slope by the dumping of the waste or house construction. Residential development not only adds weight to the slope through the buildings themselves but also through excess water supplied from landscape irrigation and seepage from swimming pools and sewage effluent systems. • Removal of vegetation either by wildfires or through human activities, such as, logging, overgrazing or construction and hyper urbanization. Surface materials become looser because of the loss of soil binding by roots and the slope is also more exposed to the erosive action of surface water through the loss of plant cover. • Local shocks and vibration, which can occur naturally from seismic activity or from the operation of heavy construction (road construction works in Himalayas) machinery.

•

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A REDUCTION IN THE SHEAR RESISTANCE ON A SLOPE

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A REDUCTION IN THE SHEAR RESISTANCE ON A SLOPE Insurance • insurance An increase in pore pressure and in the slope materials, especially along with a Private against landslides other mass movement hazards is not sloppy surface. This is the most important single factor and explains the generally available in the USA, largely because of the risk of high losses. Theclose relationship which can exists between development shallow- seated landslides,areas debrisbut, flows, unavailability of insurance discourage in hazardous and rainstorms. Unfortunately, the detailed interaction of rainwater and because information about landslide hazards is not widely disseminated, many soil behavior is rot fully remains difficult to predict landslides people remain unaware that understood they are at and risk.it Some limited insurance cover in basis. Inthe unsaturated that is not totally dry, the internal the USAonisa site-specific provided through nationalmaterial flood Insurance program, which pores to will‘mudslide’ be filled with gas (air and water some to liquid requires voids areas or subject hazards associated withvapor) river and flooding water. If cover the slope then being experiences additional loading, perhaps as a result of have insurance before eligible for federal financial assistance. building construction, the mineral grains‘mudslide’ will be able to slide intohave a more Unfortunately, technical difficulties in mapping hazard areas compact arrangement. Such compression increases the soil density led to comparatively little use of this provision. In some countries, legal liability and additional strength will result. However, if there is resistance to a denser forms a growing basis for financial recompense after landslide losses. American configuration duecivil to water in the space, and injury rapid surface loading occurs jurisprudence recognizes liability forvoid death, bodily and a wide range relative to the permeability of the soil, then the additional load isdefence transferred of economic losses, which may be associated with landslides. The classic intoGod’ the pore water causingcredibility, an increaseand in the porewater pressure.have In turn, of ‘Act of carries decreasing recent court judgments reduces friction component of strength downslope movement tended tothis identify thethedeveloper, or the consultants, as and mainly responsible for damage may due to landAn failure. In some areas, suchwhich as Los Angeles local occur. increase in slope angle, often occursCounty, when developed government agencies shared by thecutting liability it ahas been which arguedincreases that slopes are overhave steepened intobecause the base, process the issuetheofdriving a permit for residential development implies a warranty of safe forces. habitation on the other hand, and it is difficult to envisage litigants as an adequate substitute for proper hazard–reduction strategies.

•

An increase in pore pressure in the slope materials, especially along with a sloppy surface. This is the most important single factor and explains the close relationship which exists between shallow- seated landslides, debris flows, and rainstorms. Unfortunately, the detailed interaction of rain- water and soil behavior is rot fully understood and it remains difficult to predict landslides on a site-specific basis. In unsaturated material that is not totally dry, the internal voids or pores will be filled with gas (air and water vapor) and some liquid water. If the slope then experiences additional loading, perhaps as a result of building construction, the mineral grains will be able to slide into a more compact arrangement. Such compression increases the soil density and additional strength will result. However, if there is resistance to a denser configuration due to water in the void space, and rapid surface loading occurs relative to the permeability of the soil, then the additional load is transferred into the pore water causing an increase in the pore- water pressure. In turn, this reduces the friction component of strength and down- slope movement may occur. An increase in slope angle, which often occurs when developed slopes are over steepened by cutting into the base, a process which increases the driving forces.

46

Disaster Management

Weathering physical and or chemical the driving processes, forces on awhich slopepromote may be the either physical human breakdown induced. of materials.inCertain clay minerals, suchoccur as montmorillonite when of a • slope An increase slope angle, which may if stream erodeexpand the bottom water is present andslope the behavior of these expansive beenetimplicated slope or if the is steepened by the buildingclays work.has Jones al. (1989) has in the failure ofhow many (Griggs and Gilchrist). In addition, described theHimalayan cutting ofhillsides a road into the base of the slope during 1984, otherwhich natural processes may be involved. The burrowing action of soil animals left exposed faces 25 m high and colluvium standing at an angle of 55° or soil piping developments on slopes will lead to weakness and the possibility unsupported by anything other than a 3 m masonry wall, led to the Catak of land sliding.disaster in Turkey in which 66 people died in 1988. landslide • In most of theof urban areas, landslides a combination of by • Removal lateral support at themay footbe ofattributed the slope toagain caused either the above The progressive invasion activity. of landslide hazard zones naturalfactors. mass wasting processeshuman or by building is confined to the developed Theby need improved transportation • notAdditional weight placed onworld. the slope thefor dumping of the waste or house is leading to new Residential road construction in terrain a high probability of slope construction. development not with only adds weight to the slope through movement throughout the LDCs. In these areas limited resources may lead to the buildings themselves but also through excess water supplied from landscape inadequate hazard protection. For example, the 52 km long Dhahran – Dhankuta irrigation and seepage from swimming pools and sewage effluent systems. road, completed 1981, provides keywildfires north- south link within Nepal betweensuch • Removal of in vegetation eitheraby or through human activities, the Ganges lowlands to the south and the hill villages to the north. The as, logging, overgrazing or construction and hyper urbanization. road Surface crosses the unstable foothills of East is surrounded by the materials becomeHimalayan looser because of the loss Nepal of soiland binding by roots and long,slope steepis valley-side slopes angled at 30-45° Engineering is difficult and also more exposed to the erosive action of surface water through the expensive in such terrain and the road was built to a relatively low-cost loss of plant cover. specification. The road has since proved difficult to maintain because of cut• Local shocks and vibration, which can occur naturally from seismic activity or slope failures and the blocking of culverts by debris. from the operation of heavy construction (road construction works in Himalayas) machinery. STEPS TOWARDS HAZARD REDUCTION

46

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

47

the driving forces on a slope may be either physical or human induced. • An increase in slope angle, which may occur if stream erode the bottom of a slope or if the slope is steepened by the building work. Jones et al. (1989) has described how the cutting of a road into the base of the slope during 1984, which left exposed faces 25 m high and colluvium standing at an angle of 55° unsupported by anything other than a 3 m masonry wall, led to the Catak landslide disaster in Turkey in which 66 people died in 1988. • Removal of lateral support at the foot of the slope again caused either by natural mass wasting processes or by building activity. • Additional weight placed on the slope by the dumping of the waste or house construction. Residential development not only adds weight to the slope through the buildings themselves but also through excess water supplied from landscape irrigation and seepage from swimming pools and sewage effluent systems. • Removal of vegetation either by wildfires or through human activities, such as, logging, overgrazing or construction and hyper urbanization. Surface materials become looser because of the loss of soil binding by roots and the slope is also more exposed to the erosive action of surface water through the loss of plant cover. • Local shocks and vibration, which can occur naturally from seismic activity or from the operation of heavy construction (road construction works in Himalayas) machinery.

•

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A REDUCTION IN THE SHEAR RESISTANCE ON A SLOPE

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A REDUCTION IN THE SHEAR RESISTANCE ON A SLOPE Insurance • insurance An increase in pore pressure and in the slope materials, especially along with a Private against landslides other mass movement hazards is not sloppy surface. This is the most important single factor and explains the generally available in the USA, largely because of the risk of high losses. Theclose relationship which can exists between development shallow- seated landslides,areas debrisbut, flows, unavailability of insurance discourage in hazardous and rainstorms. Unfortunately, the detailed interaction of rainwater and because information about landslide hazards is not widely disseminated, many soil behavior is rot fully remains difficult to predict landslides people remain unaware that understood they are at and risk.it Some limited insurance cover in on a site-specific basis. In unsaturated material that is not totally dry, the internal the USA is provided through the national flood Insurance program, which pores to will‘mudslide’ be filled with gas (air and water some to liquid requires voids areas or subject hazards associated withvapor) river and flooding water. If cover the slope then being experiences additional loading, perhaps as a result of have insurance before eligible for federal financial assistance. building construction, the mineral grains‘mudslide’ will be able to slide intohave a more Unfortunately, technical difficulties in mapping hazard areas compact arrangement. compression increases the legal soil density led to comparatively little use of Such this provision. In some countries, liability and additional strength will result. However, if there is resistance to a denser forms a growing basis for financial recompense after landslide losses. American configuration due to water in the void space, and rapid surface loading occurs jurisprudence recognizes civil liability for death, bodily injury and a wide range relative to the permeability of the soil, then the additional load isdefence transferred of economic losses, which may be associated with landslides. The classic intoGod’ the pore water causingcredibility, an increaseand in the porewater pressure.have In turn, of ‘Act of carries decreasing recent court judgments reduces friction component of strength downslope movement tended tothis identify thethedeveloper, or the consultants, as and mainly responsible for damage may due to landAn failure. In some areas, suchwhich as Los Angeles local occur. increase in slope angle, often occursCounty, when developed government agencies shared by thecutting liability it ahas been which arguedincreases that slopes are overhave steepened intobecause the base, process the issuetheofdriving a permit for residential development implies a warranty of safe forces. habitation on the other hand, and it is difficult to envisage litigants as an adequate substitute for proper hazard–reduction strategies.

•

An increase in pore pressure in the slope materials, especially along with a sloppy surface. This is the most important single factor and explains the close relationship which exists between shallow- seated landslides, debris flows, and rainstorms. Unfortunately, the detailed interaction of rain- water and soil behavior is rot fully understood and it remains difficult to predict landslides on a site-specific basis. In unsaturated material that is not totally dry, the internal voids or pores will be filled with gas (air and water vapor) and some liquid water. If the slope then experiences additional loading, perhaps as a result of building construction, the mineral grains will be able to slide into a more compact arrangement. Such compression increases the soil density and additional strength will result. However, if there is resistance to a denser configuration due to water in the void space, and rapid surface loading occurs relative to the permeability of the soil, then the additional load is transferred into the pore water causing an increase in the pore- water pressure. In turn, this reduces the friction component of strength and down- slope movement may occur. An increase in slope angle, which often occurs when developed slopes are over steepened by cutting into the base, a process which increases the driving forces.

Weathering physical and or chemical the driving processes, forces on awhich slopepromote may be the either physical human breakdown induced. of materials.inCertain clay minerals, suchoccur as montmorillonite when of a • slope An increase slope angle, which may if stream erodeexpand the bottom water is present andslope the behavior of these expansive beenetimplicated slope or if the is steepened by the buildingclays work.has Jones al. (1989) has in the failure ofhow many (Griggs and Gilchrist). In addition, described theHimalayan cutting ofhillsides a road into the base of the slope during 1984, otherwhich natural Thecolluvium burrowingstanding action ofatsoil animals leftprocesses exposed may facesbe25involved. m high and an angle of 55° or soil piping developments on slopes will lead to weakness and the possibility unsupported by anything other than a 3 m masonry wall, led to the Catak of land sliding.disaster in Turkey in which 66 people died in 1988. landslide • In most of theof urban areas, landslides a combination of by • Removal lateral support at themay footbe ofattributed the slope toagain caused either the above factors. The progressive human invasion of landslide hazard zones natural mass wasting processes or by building activity. is confined to the developed Theby need improved transportation • notAdditional weight placed onworld. the slope thefor dumping of the waste or house is leading to new road construction in terrain with a high probability of slope construction. Residential development not only adds weight to the slope through movement throughout the LDCs. In these areas limited resources to the buildings themselves but also through excess water suppliedmay fromlead landscape inadequate hazard protection. For example, the 52 km long Dhahran – Dhankuta irrigation and seepage from swimming pools and sewage effluent systems. road, completed 1981, provides keywildfires north- south link within Nepal betweensuch • Removal of in vegetation eitheraby or through human activities, the Ganges lowlands to the south and the hill villages to the north. The as, logging, overgrazing or construction and hyper urbanization. road Surface crosses the unstable foothills of East is surrounded by the materials becomeHimalayan looser because of the loss Nepal of soiland binding by roots and long,slope steepis valley-side slopes angled at 30-45° Engineering is difficult and also more exposed to the erosive action of surface water through the expensive in such terrain and the road was built to a relatively low-cost loss of plant cover. specification. The road has since proved difficult to maintain because of cut• Local shocks and vibration, which can occur naturally from seismic activity or slope failures and the blocking of culverts by debris. from the operation of heavy construction (road construction works in Himalayas) machinery. STEPS TOWARDS HAZARD REDUCTION

46

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

47

•

Weathering physical and or chemical the driving processes, forces on awhich slopepromote may be the either physical human breakdown induced. of materials.inCertain clay minerals, suchoccur as montmorillonite when of a • slope An increase slope angle, which may if stream erodeexpand the bottom water is present andslope the behavior of these expansive beenetimplicated slope or if the is steepened by the buildingclays work.has Jones al. (1989) has in the failure ofhow many (Griggs and Gilchrist). In addition, described theHimalayan cutting ofhillsides a road into the base of the slope during 1984, otherwhich natural processes may be involved. The burrowing action of soil animals left exposed faces 25 m high and colluvium standing at an angle of 55° or soil piping developments on slopes will lead to weakness and the possibility unsupported by anything other than a 3 m masonry wall, led to the Catak of land sliding.disaster in Turkey in which 66 people died in 1988. landslide • In most of theof urban areas, landslides a combination of by • Removal lateral support at themay footbe ofattributed the slope toagain caused either the above The progressive invasion activity. of landslide hazard zones naturalfactors. mass wasting processeshuman or by building is confined to the developed Theby need improved transportation • notAdditional weight placed onworld. the slope thefor dumping of the waste or house is leading to new Residential road construction in terrain a high probability of slope construction. development not with only adds weight to the slope through movement throughout the LDCs. In these areas limited resources may lead to the buildings themselves but also through excess water supplied from landscape inadequate hazard protection. For example, the 52 km long Dhahran – Dhankuta irrigation and seepage from swimming pools and sewage effluent systems. road, completed 1981, provides keywildfires north- south link within Nepal betweensuch • Removal of in vegetation eitheraby or through human activities, the Ganges lowlands to the south and the hill villages to the north. The as, logging, overgrazing or construction and hyper urbanization. road Surface crosses the unstable foothills of East is surrounded by the materials becomeHimalayan looser because of the loss Nepal of soiland binding by roots and long,slope steepis valley-side slopes angled at 30-45° Engineering is difficult and also more exposed to the erosive action of surface water through the expensive in such terrain and the road was built to a relatively low-cost loss of plant cover. specification. The road has since proved difficult to maintain because of cut• Local shocks and vibration, which can occur naturally from seismic activity or slope failures and the blocking of culverts by debris. from the operation of heavy construction (road construction works in Himalayas) machinery. STEPS TOWARDS HAZARD REDUCTION FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A REDUCTION IN THE SHEAR RESISTANCE ON A SLOPE Insurance • insurance An increase in pore pressure and in the slope materials, especially along with a Private against landslides other mass movement hazards is not sloppy surface. This is the most important single factor and explains the generally available in the USA, largely because of the risk of high losses. Theclose relationship which can exists between development shallow- seated landslides,areas debrisbut, flows, unavailability of insurance discourage in hazardous and rainstorms. Unfortunately, the detailed interaction of rainwater and because information about landslide hazards is not widely disseminated, many soil behavior is rot fully remains difficult to predict landslides people remain unaware that understood they are at and risk.it Some limited insurance cover in basis. Inthe unsaturated that is not totally dry, the internal the USAonisa site-specific provided through nationalmaterial flood Insurance program, which pores to will‘mudslide’ be filled with gas (air and water some to liquid requires voids areas or subject hazards associated withvapor) river and flooding water. If cover the slope then being experiences additional loading, perhaps as a result of have insurance before eligible for federal financial assistance. building construction, the mineral grains‘mudslide’ will be able to slide intohave a more Unfortunately, technical difficulties in mapping hazard areas compact arrangement. Such compression increases the soil density led to comparatively little use of this provision. In some countries, legal liability and additional strength will result. However, if there is resistance to a denser forms a growing basis for financial recompense after landslide losses. American configuration duecivil to water in the space, and injury rapid surface loading occurs jurisprudence recognizes liability forvoid death, bodily and a wide range relative to the permeability of the soil, then the additional load isdefence transferred of economic losses, which may be associated with landslides. The classic intoGod’ the pore water causingcredibility, an increaseand in the porewater pressure.have In turn, of ‘Act of carries decreasing recent court judgments reduces friction component of strength downslope movement tended tothis identify thethedeveloper, or the consultants, as and mainly responsible for damage may due to landAn failure. In some areas, suchwhich as Los Angeles local occur. increase in slope angle, often occursCounty, when developed government agencies shared by thecutting liability it ahas been which arguedincreases that slopes are overhave steepened intobecause the base, process the issuetheofdriving a permit for residential development implies a warranty of safe forces. habitation on the other hand, and it is difficult to envisage litigants as an adequate substitute for proper hazard–reduction strategies.

46

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management •

•

Weathering processes, which promote the physical and chemical breakdown of slope materials. Certain clay minerals, such as montmorillonite expand when water is present and the behavior of these expansive clays has been implicated in the failure of many Himalayan hillsides (Griggs and Gilchrist). In addition, other natural processes may be involved. The burrowing action of soil animals or soil piping developments on slopes will lead to weakness and the possibility of land sliding. In most of the urban areas, landslides may be attributed to a combination of the above factors. The progressive human invasion of landslide hazard zones is not confined to the developed world. The need for improved transportation is leading to new road construction in terrain with a high probability of slope movement throughout the LDCs. In these areas limited resources may lead to inadequate hazard protection. For example, the 52 km long Dhahran – Dhankuta road, completed in 1981, provides a key north- south link within Nepal between the Ganges lowlands to the south and the hill villages to the north. The road crosses the unstable Himalayan foothills of East Nepal and is surrounded by long, steep valley-side slopes angled at 30-45° Engineering is difficult and expensive in such terrain and the road was built to a relatively low-cost specification. The road has since proved difficult to maintain because of cutslope failures and the blocking of culverts by debris.

STEPS TOWARDS HAZARD REDUCTION Insurance Private insurance against landslides and other mass movement hazards is not generally available in the USA, largely because of the risk of high losses. The unavailability of insurance can discourage development in hazardous areas but, because information about landslide hazards is not widely disseminated, many people remain unaware that they are at risk. Some limited insurance cover in the USA is provided through the national flood Insurance program, which requires areas subject to ‘mudslide’ hazards associated with river flooding to have insurance cover before being eligible for federal financial assistance. Unfortunately, technical difficulties in mapping ‘mudslide’ hazard areas have led to comparatively little use of this provision. In some countries, legal liability forms a growing basis for financial recompense after landslide losses. American jurisprudence recognizes civil liability for death, bodily injury and a wide range of economic losses, which may be associated with landslides. The classic defence of ‘Act of God’ carries decreasing credibility, and recent court judgments have tended to identify the developer, or the consultants, as mainly responsible for damage due to land failure. In some areas, such as Los Angeles County, local government agencies have shared the liability because it has been argued that the issue of a permit for residential development implies a warranty of safe habitation on the other hand, and it is difficult to envisage litigants as an adequate substitute for proper hazard–reduction strategies.

47

•

Weathering physical and or chemical the driving processes, forces on awhich slopepromote may be the either physical human breakdown induced. of materials.inCertain clay minerals, suchoccur as montmorillonite when of a • slope An increase slope angle, which may if stream erodeexpand the bottom water is present andslope the behavior of these expansive beenetimplicated slope or if the is steepened by the buildingclays work.has Jones al. (1989) has in the failure ofhow many (Griggs and Gilchrist). In addition, described theHimalayan cutting ofhillsides a road into the base of the slope during 1984, otherwhich natural Thecolluvium burrowingstanding action ofatsoil animals leftprocesses exposed may facesbe25involved. m high and an angle of 55° or soil piping developments on slopes will lead to weakness and the possibility unsupported by anything other than a 3 m masonry wall, led to the Catak of land sliding.disaster in Turkey in which 66 people died in 1988. landslide • In most of theof urban areas, landslides a combination of by • Removal lateral support at themay footbe ofattributed the slope toagain caused either the above factors. The progressive human invasion of landslide hazard zones natural mass wasting processes or by building activity. is confined to the developed Theby need improved transportation • notAdditional weight placed onworld. the slope thefor dumping of the waste or house is leading to new road construction in terrain with a high probability of slope construction. Residential development not only adds weight to the slope through movement throughout the LDCs. In these areas limited resources to the buildings themselves but also through excess water suppliedmay fromlead landscape inadequate hazard protection. For example, the 52 km long Dhahran – Dhankuta irrigation and seepage from swimming pools and sewage effluent systems. road, completed 1981, provides keywildfires north- south link within Nepal betweensuch • Removal of in vegetation eitheraby or through human activities, the Ganges lowlands to the south and the hill villages to the north. The as, logging, overgrazing or construction and hyper urbanization. road Surface crosses the unstable foothills of East is surrounded by the materials becomeHimalayan looser because of the loss Nepal of soiland binding by roots and long,slope steepis valley-side slopes angled at 30-45° Engineering is difficult and also more exposed to the erosive action of surface water through the expensive in such terrain and the road was built to a relatively low-cost loss of plant cover. specification. The road has since proved difficult to maintain because of cut• Local shocks and vibration, which can occur naturally from seismic activity or slope failures and the blocking of culverts by debris. from the operation of heavy construction (road construction works in Himalayas) machinery. STEPS TOWARDS HAZARD REDUCTION FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A REDUCTION IN THE SHEAR RESISTANCE ON A SLOPE Insurance • insurance An increase in pore pressure and in the slope materials, especially along with a Private against landslides other mass movement hazards is not sloppy surface. This is the most important single factor and explains the generally available in the USA, largely because of the risk of high losses. Theclose relationship which can exists between development shallow- seated landslides,areas debrisbut, flows, unavailability of insurance discourage in hazardous and rainstorms. Unfortunately, the detailed interaction of rainwater and because information about landslide hazards is not widely disseminated, many soil behavior is rot fully remains difficult to predict landslides people remain unaware that understood they are at and risk.it Some limited insurance cover in on a site-specific basis. In unsaturated material that is not totally dry, the internal the USA is provided through the national flood Insurance program, which pores to will‘mudslide’ be filled with gas (air and water some to liquid requires voids areas or subject hazards associated withvapor) river and flooding water. If cover the slope then being experiences additional loading, perhaps as a result of have insurance before eligible for federal financial assistance. building construction, the mineral grains‘mudslide’ will be able to slide intohave a more Unfortunately, technical difficulties in mapping hazard areas compact arrangement. compression increases the legal soil density led to comparatively little use of Such this provision. In some countries, liability and additional strength will result. However, if there is resistance to a denser forms a growing basis for financial recompense after landslide losses. American configuration due to water in the void space, and rapid surface loading occurs jurisprudence recognizes civil liability for death, bodily injury and a wide range relative to the permeability of the soil, then the additional load isdefence transferred of economic losses, which may be associated with landslides. The classic intoGod’ the pore water causingcredibility, an increaseand in the porewater pressure.have In turn, of ‘Act of carries decreasing recent court judgments reduces friction component of strength downslope movement tended tothis identify thethedeveloper, or the consultants, as and mainly responsible for damage may due to landAn failure. In some areas, suchwhich as Los Angeles local occur. increase in slope angle, often occursCounty, when developed government agencies shared by thecutting liability it ahas been which arguedincreases that slopes are overhave steepened intobecause the base, process the issuetheofdriving a permit for residential development implies a warranty of safe forces. habitation on the other hand, and it is difficult to envisage litigants as an adequate substitute for proper hazard–reduction strategies.

47

Landslide Disasters and its Management •

•

47

Weathering processes, which promote the physical and chemical breakdown of slope materials. Certain clay minerals, such as montmorillonite expand when water is present and the behavior of these expansive clays has been implicated in the failure of many Himalayan hillsides (Griggs and Gilchrist). In addition, other natural processes may be involved. The burrowing action of soil animals or soil piping developments on slopes will lead to weakness and the possibility of land sliding. In most of the urban areas, landslides may be attributed to a combination of the above factors. The progressive human invasion of landslide hazard zones is not confined to the developed world. The need for improved transportation is leading to new road construction in terrain with a high probability of slope movement throughout the LDCs. In these areas limited resources may lead to inadequate hazard protection. For example, the 52 km long Dhahran – Dhankuta road, completed in 1981, provides a key north- south link within Nepal between the Ganges lowlands to the south and the hill villages to the north. The road crosses the unstable Himalayan foothills of East Nepal and is surrounded by long, steep valley-side slopes angled at 30-45° Engineering is difficult and expensive in such terrain and the road was built to a relatively low-cost specification. The road has since proved difficult to maintain because of cutslope failures and the blocking of culverts by debris.

STEPS TOWARDS HAZARD REDUCTION Insurance Private insurance against landslides and other mass movement hazards is not generally available in the USA, largely because of the risk of high losses. The unavailability of insurance can discourage development in hazardous areas but, because information about landslide hazards is not widely disseminated, many people remain unaware that they are at risk. Some limited insurance cover in the USA is provided through the national flood Insurance program, which requires areas subject to ‘mudslide’ hazards associated with river flooding to have insurance cover before being eligible for federal financial assistance. Unfortunately, technical difficulties in mapping ‘mudslide’ hazard areas have led to comparatively little use of this provision. In some countries, legal liability forms a growing basis for financial recompense after landslide losses. American jurisprudence recognizes civil liability for death, bodily injury and a wide range of economic losses, which may be associated with landslides. The classic defence of ‘Act of God’ carries decreasing credibility, and recent court judgments have tended to identify the developer, or the consultants, as mainly responsible for damage due to land failure. In some areas, such as Los Angeles County, local government agencies have shared the liability because it has been argued that the issue of a permit for residential development implies a warranty of safe habitation on the other hand, and it is difficult to envisage litigants as an adequate substitute for proper hazard–reduction strategies.

48

Disaster Management

LANDSLIDE MODIFICATION ADJUSTMENTS The ability to assess the probability of landslide risk at specific places is of considerable assistance in implementing mitigation strategies. General indicators include the structure and lithology of slopes, including the presence of weak rock types, clay – rich soils and slopes generally in excess of 25°. It is a challenge to translate these factors directly into terms suitable for risk assessment because of the high spatial variability in soil shear strength, which may be greatly affected by plant root systems stabilizing part of a slope, and the usual absence of any piezometric information, which would warn of increasing pore water pressures. Bernknopf et al. (1988) divided the Cincinnati metropolitan area into 100 m2 cells and devised a probability model from a combination of variables that represent the existing physical state of a hillside, the dominant landside mechanism in the area and the types of construction activities that can trigger landsides. The results showed that an uncritical application of the uniform building code to the whole area would not be cost–effective. Property damage from landslides usually leads to demands for engineering works to stabilize the slope. However, the human response to slope failure is often complicated by the statutory and funding distinctions, which are made between emergency and permanent works. Emergency response designed to protect public safety and prevent further immediate damage are usually undertaken satisfactorily but government funds are made available only very reluctantly for permanent slope stabilization. This may be because the specialized geo-technical information required is not available or because of the high potential cost to the public purse. Alexander (1987b) drew attention to inadequate geological advice and political muddle as contributory factors to the Ancona landslide disaster in Italy. It is a recurrent feature of all hazard mitigation that few publicly funded authorities are willing to pay for expensive defence work for private undertakings when large profits are to be made from property and land speculation. If these problems can be overcome, the stability of the slope may be improved by a variety of engineering techniques. Excavation and filling methods can be used to produce a more stable average slope. This type of reshaping is usually successful but becomes more difficult and expensive as the slide area increases. Specific techniques include unloading the head of a slide and loading the toe, with the replacement of failed material with lighter roads. Drainage, especially sub-surface drainage, can be equally effective where changes in pore water pressure have been caused by a rise in the water table. Drainage methods range from the removal of surface water and the drainage tension cracks to the insertion of trenches filled with gravel or horizontal drains. Properly designed and constructed drainage systems work well but others soon become clogged by fine particles.

48

Disaster Management

LANDSLIDE MODIFICATION ADJUSTMENTS The ability to assess the probability of landslide risk at specific places is of considerable assistance in implementing mitigation strategies. General indicators include the structure and lithology of slopes, including the presence of weak rock types, clay – rich soils and slopes generally in excess of 25°. It is a challenge to translate these factors directly into terms suitable for risk assessment because of the high spatial variability in soil shear strength, which may be greatly affected by plant root systems stabilizing part of a slope, and the usual absence of any piezometric information, which would warn of increasing pore water pressures. Bernknopf et al. (1988) divided the Cincinnati metropolitan area into 100 m2 cells and devised a probability model from a combination of variables that represent the existing physical state of a hillside, the dominant landside mechanism in the area and the types of construction activities that can trigger landsides. The results showed that an uncritical application of the uniform building code to the whole area would not be cost–effective. Property damage from landslides usually leads to demands for engineering works to stabilize the slope. However, the human response to slope failure is often complicated by the statutory and funding distinctions, which are made between emergency and permanent works. Emergency response designed to protect public safety and prevent further immediate damage are usually undertaken satisfactorily but government funds are made available only very reluctantly for permanent slope stabilization. This may be because the specialized geo-technical information required is not available or because of the high potential cost to the public purse. Alexander (1987b) drew attention to inadequate geological advice and political muddle as contributory factors to the Ancona landslide disaster in Italy. It is a recurrent feature of all hazard mitigation that few publicly funded authorities are willing to pay for expensive defence work for private undertakings when large profits are to be made from property and land speculation. If these problems can be overcome, the stability of the slope may be improved by a variety of engineering techniques. Excavation and filling methods can be used to produce a more stable average slope. This type of reshaping is usually successful but becomes more difficult and expensive as the slide area increases. Specific techniques include unloading the head of a slide and loading the toe, with the replacement of failed material with lighter roads. Drainage, especially sub-surface drainage, can be equally effective where changes in pore water pressure have been caused by a rise in the water table. Drainage methods range from the removal of surface water and the drainage tension cracks to the insertion of trenches filled with gravel or horizontal drains. Properly designed and constructed drainage systems work well but others soon become clogged by fine particles.

48

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

49

Re-vegetation slopes performs several functions. Plant roots help to bind LANDSLIDE ofMODIFICATION ADJUSTMENTS soil The particles together; the vegetation canopy protects the rainis of ability to assess the probability of landslide risksoil at surface specificfrom places splash impact and transpiration processes aid in drying out the slope. Whilst considerable assistance in implementing mitigation strategies. General indicators evergreen are generally better at providing an all-year canopy, deciduous trees include the structure and lithology of slopes, including the presence of weak are generally better conifers at removing excess soil moisture because they rock types, clay – rich soils and slopes generally in excess of 25°. It is a have higher rates of transpiration during the summer. However, it may be unwise challenge to translate directly into terms for risk assessment to rely on vegetation forthese slopefactors stability because of thesuitable possibility of fire or because of the high spatial variability in soil shear strength, which may be disease of the lifetime of a project. greatly affected by plant rootassystems stabilizingand partretaining of a slope, andcan thebeusual Restraining structures such piles, buttresses walls absence of anycovering piezometric information, would warn of helpful for slides limited areas, but which they are generally tooincreasing expensivepore water unstable pressures. Bernknopf al. (1988) divided the boundaries Cincinnati may metropolitan for large, slopes and theetlocation of the property also area into 100 m2 cells and devised a probability model from a combination restrict this approach. Guiding structures near the base of the slope, such as of variables thatcan represent the existing state of a hillside, the dominant diversion walls, deflect small debris physical flows effectively. landside mechanism in the and the types of construction activities Other methods include the area chemical stabilization of slopes and the usethat of can grouting to landsides. reduce soilThe permeability and increase its strength. In someofhigh-risk trigger results showed that an uncritical application the uniform urban areas, code like Hong may be with materials suchdamage as building to the Kong, whole slopes area would notcovered be cost–effective. Property chunam or gunite to reduce the infiltration and keep pore water pressure low. from landslides usually leads to demands for engineering works to stabilize the On slope. some However, construction freezing mass moving soilcomplicated has been by the sites humantheresponse to of slope failure is often successfully accomplished, and the freezing plant has been left in operation and the statutory and funding distinctions, which are made between emergency untilpermanent the soil retaining structures were completed. works. Emergency response designed to protect public safety and Slope along with hazard-resistant constructionsatisfactorily techniques, but preventstabilization, further immediate damage are usually undertaken appears to be the most effective preventative strategy for controlling new government funds are made available only very reluctantly for permanent slope development. In this context grading ordinances, such as the uniform building stabilization. This may be because the specialized geo-technical information code adopted in India, are important tools. Along with soil compactation and required is not available or because of the high potential cost to the public surface drainage requirements, this act generally specifies a maximum slope Alexander drew The attention geological advice anglepurse. of 2:1 for safe (1987b) development. basis toforinadequate such a specification, which and political contributory factors Ancona in Italy. means a 27° muddle slope, isasthat the natural angletoofthe repose for landslide dry sand disaster is 34°, and It is a recurrent feature of all hazard mitigation that few publicly funded therefore a 2:1 slopes allows for an element of safety over this. Building codes authorities are willing to pay for expensive defence work for private undertakings normally require developers to obtain permits before they embark on earthmoving whenonlarge profits are slopes. to be made from property and land speculation. If these projects hazard-prone Ideally they also require reports from geoproblems can be thegeologist stability on of proposed the slope building may be sites improved technical engineers andovercome, engineering beforeby a variety of engineering a local authority approves techniques. plans. To work properly, this sort of system needs Excavation and filling to methods used to produce a more stable average technically trained inspectors enforcecan theberegulations and levy development fees slope. to become financially self-supporting. This type of reshaping is usually successful but becomes more difficult Olshasky ad Rogers (1987) cited the success of the city of include Los Angeles, and expensive as the slide area increases. Specific techniques unloading which introduced a grading ordinance as early as 1952. Before this date the head of a slide and loading the toe, with the replacement of failedmore material thanwith 10%lighter of allroads. building lots were damaged by slope failure. Initially, the ordinance required especially only soil testing but itdrainage, has subsequently been strengthened. Drainage, sub-surface can be equally effective where In 1965 the requirements for geological reports were added and in 1973 furthertable. changes in pore water pressure have been caused by a rise in the water inspections were made obligatory, along with final certification of completed Drainage methods range from the removal of surface water and the drainage earthwork by the city engineer. The benefits have been impressive. tension cracks to the insertion of trenches filled with gravel or horizontal drains. Landslide control is most successful when combined with urban risk Properly designed and constructed drainage systems work well but others soon assessment and land use planning. In an early programme, begun in 1958, the become clogged by fine particles. Japanese government started to enact strong legislation to prevent landslides

48

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

49

Re-vegetation slopes performs several functions. Plant roots help to bind LANDSLIDE ofMODIFICATION ADJUSTMENTS soil The particles together; the vegetation canopy protects the rainis of ability to assess the probability of landslide risksoil at surface specificfrom places splash impact and transpiration processes aid in drying out the slope. Whilst considerable assistance in implementing mitigation strategies. General indicators evergreen are generally better at providing an all-year canopy, deciduous trees include the structure and lithology of slopes, including the presence of weak are generally better conifers at removing excess soil moisture because they rock types, clay – rich soils and slopes generally in excess of 25°. It is a have higher rates of transpiration during the summer. However, it may be unwise challenge to translate directly into terms for risk assessment to rely on vegetation forthese slopefactors stability because of thesuitable possibility of fire or because the high variability in soil shear strength, which may be disease of theoflifetime of spatial a project. greatly affected by plant rootassystems stabilizingand partretaining of a slope, andcan thebeusual Restraining structures such piles, buttresses walls absence of any piezometric information, which would warn of increasing helpful for slides covering limited areas, but they are generally too expensivepore water unstable pressures. Bernknopf al. (1988) divided the boundaries Cincinnati may metropolitan for large, slopes and theetlocation of the property also areathis intoapproach. 100 m2 cells and devised a probability model fromslope, a combination restrict Guiding structures near the base of the such as of variables thatcan represent the existing state of a hillside, the dominant diversion walls, deflect small debris physical flows effectively. landside mechanism in the and the types of construction activities Other methods include the area chemical stabilization of slopes and the usethat of can grouting to landsides. reduce soilThe permeability and increase its strength. In someofhigh-risk trigger results showed that an uncritical application the uniform urban areas, code like Hong may be with materials suchdamage as building to the Kong, whole slopes area would notcovered be cost–effective. Property chunam or gunite to reduce the infiltration and keep pore water pressure low. from landslides usually leads to demands for engineering works to stabilize the On slope. some However, construction freezing mass moving soilcomplicated has been by the sites humantheresponse to of slope failure is often successfully accomplished, and the freezing plant has been left in operation and the statutory and funding distinctions, which are made between emergency untilpermanent the soil retaining structures were completed. works. Emergency response designed to protect public safety and Slope stabilization, along with hazard-resistant constructionsatisfactorily techniques, but prevent further immediate damage are usually undertaken appears to be the most effective preventative strategy for controlling new government funds are made available only very reluctantly for permanent slope development. In this context grading ordinances, such as the uniform building stabilization. This may be because the specialized geo-technical information code adopted in India, are important tools. Along with soil compactation and required is not available or because of the high potential cost to the public surface drainage requirements, this act generally specifies a maximum slope Alexander drew The attention geological advice anglepurse. of 2:1 for safe (1987b) development. basis toforinadequate such a specification, which and political contributory factors Ancona in Italy. means a 27° muddle slope, isasthat the natural angletoofthe repose for landslide dry sand disaster is 34°, and It is a recurrent feature of all hazard mitigation that few publicly funded therefore a 2:1 slopes allows for an element of safety over this. Building codes authorities are willing to pay for expensive defence work for private undertakings normally require developers to obtain permits before they embark on earthmoving whenonlarge profits are slopes. to be made from property and land speculation. If these projects hazard-prone Ideally they also require reports from geoproblems can be thegeologist stability on of proposed the slope building may be sites improved technical engineers andovercome, engineering beforeby a variety of engineering a local authority approves techniques. plans. To work properly, this sort of system needs Excavation and filling to methods used to produce a more stable average technically trained inspectors enforcecan theberegulations and levy development fees slope. to become financially self-supporting. This type of reshaping is usually successful but becomes more difficult Olshasky ad Rogers (1987) cited the success of the city of include Los Angeles, and expensive as the slide area increases. Specific techniques unloading which introduced a grading ordinance as early as 1952. Before this date the head of a slide and loading the toe, with the replacement of failedmore material thanwith 10%lighter of allroads. building lots were damaged by slope failure. Initially, the ordinance required especially only soil testing but itdrainage, has subsequently been strengthened. Drainage, sub-surface can be equally effective where In 1965 the requirements for geological reports were added and furthertable. changes in pore water pressure have been caused by a rise inin1973 the water inspections made range obligatory, along with final certification Drainagewere methods from the removal of surface water of andcompleted the drainage earthwork by the city engineer. The benefits have been impressive. tension cracks to the insertion of trenches filled with gravel or horizontal drains. Landslide control is most successful when combined with urban risk Properly designed and constructed drainage systems work well but others soon assessment and land use planning. In an early programme, begun in 1958, the become clogged by fine particles. Japanese government started to enact strong legislation to prevent landslides

48

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

49

Re-vegetation slopes performs several functions. Plant roots help to bind LANDSLIDE ofMODIFICATION ADJUSTMENTS soil The particles together; the vegetation canopy protects the rainis of ability to assess the probability of landslide risksoil at surface specificfrom places splash impact and transpiration processes aid in drying out the slope. Whilst considerable assistance in implementing mitigation strategies. General indicators evergreen are generally better at providing an all-year canopy, deciduous trees include the structure and lithology of slopes, including the presence of weak are generally better conifers at removing excess soil moisture because they rock types, clay – rich soils and slopes generally in excess of 25°. It is a have higher rates of transpiration during the summer. However, it may be unwise challenge to translate directly into terms for risk assessment to rely on vegetation forthese slopefactors stability because of thesuitable possibility of fire or because of the high spatial variability in soil shear strength, which may be disease of the lifetime of a project. greatly affected by plant rootassystems stabilizingand partretaining of a slope, andcan thebeusual Restraining structures such piles, buttresses walls absence of anycovering piezometric information, would warn of helpful for slides limited areas, but which they are generally tooincreasing expensivepore water unstable pressures. Bernknopf al. (1988) divided the boundaries Cincinnati may metropolitan for large, slopes and theetlocation of the property also area into 100 m2 cells and devised a probability model from a combination restrict this approach. Guiding structures near the base of the slope, such as of variables thatcan represent the existing state of a hillside, the dominant diversion walls, deflect small debris physical flows effectively. landside mechanism in the and the types of construction activities Other methods include the area chemical stabilization of slopes and the usethat of can grouting to landsides. reduce soilThe permeability and increase its strength. In someofhigh-risk trigger results showed that an uncritical application the uniform urban areas, code like Hong may be with materials suchdamage as building to the Kong, whole slopes area would notcovered be cost–effective. Property chunam or gunite to reduce the infiltration and keep pore water pressure low. from landslides usually leads to demands for engineering works to stabilize the On slope. some However, construction freezing mass moving soilcomplicated has been by the sites humantheresponse to of slope failure is often successfully accomplished, and the freezing plant has been left in operation and the statutory and funding distinctions, which are made between emergency untilpermanent the soil retaining structures were completed. works. Emergency response designed to protect public safety and Slope along with hazard-resistant constructionsatisfactorily techniques, but preventstabilization, further immediate damage are usually undertaken appears to be the most effective preventative strategy for controlling new government funds are made available only very reluctantly for permanent slope development. In this context grading ordinances, such as the uniform building stabilization. This may be because the specialized geo-technical information code adopted in India, are important tools. Along with soil compactation and required is not available or because of the high potential cost to the public surface drainage requirements, this act generally specifies a maximum slope Alexander drew The attention geological advice anglepurse. of 2:1 for safe (1987b) development. basis toforinadequate such a specification, which and political contributory factors Ancona in Italy. means a 27° muddle slope, isasthat the natural angletoofthe repose for landslide dry sand disaster is 34°, and It is a recurrent feature of all hazard mitigation that few publicly funded therefore a 2:1 slopes allows for an element of safety over this. Building codes authorities are willing to pay for expensive defence work for private undertakings normally require developers to obtain permits before they embark on earthmoving whenonlarge profits are slopes. to be made from property and land speculation. If these projects hazard-prone Ideally they also require reports from geoproblems can be thegeologist stability on of proposed the slope building may be sites improved technical engineers andovercome, engineering beforeby a variety of engineering a local authority approves techniques. plans. To work properly, this sort of system needs Excavation and filling to methods used to produce a more stable average technically trained inspectors enforcecan theberegulations and levy development fees slope. to become financially self-supporting. This type of reshaping is usually successful but becomes more difficult Olshasky ad Rogers (1987) cited the success of the city of include Los Angeles, and expensive as the slide area increases. Specific techniques unloading which introduced a grading ordinance as early as 1952. Before this date the head of a slide and loading the toe, with the replacement of failedmore material thanwith 10%lighter of allroads. building lots were damaged by slope failure. Initially, the ordinance required especially only soil testing but itdrainage, has subsequently been strengthened. Drainage, sub-surface can be equally effective where In 1965 the requirements for geological reports were added and in 1973 furthertable. changes in pore water pressure have been caused by a rise in the water inspections were made obligatory, along with final certification of completed Drainage methods range from the removal of surface water and the drainage earthwork by the city engineer. The benefits have been impressive. tension cracks to the insertion of trenches filled with gravel or horizontal drains. Landslide control is most successful when combined with urban risk Properly designed and constructed drainage systems work well but others soon assessment and land use planning. In an early programme, begun in 1958, the become clogged by fine particles. Japanese government started to enact strong legislation to prevent landslides

48

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

49

Re-vegetation slopes performs several functions. Plant roots help to bind LANDSLIDE ofMODIFICATION ADJUSTMENTS soil The particles together; the vegetation canopy protects the rainis of ability to assess the probability of landslide risksoil at surface specificfrom places splash impact and transpiration processes aid in drying out the slope. Whilst considerable assistance in implementing mitigation strategies. General indicators evergreen are generally better at providing an all-year canopy, deciduous trees include the structure and lithology of slopes, including the presence of weak are generally better conifers at removing excess soil moisture because they rock types, clay – rich soils and slopes generally in excess of 25°. It is a have higher rates of transpiration during the summer. However, it may be unwise challenge to translate directly into terms for risk assessment to rely on vegetation forthese slopefactors stability because of thesuitable possibility of fire or because the high variability in soil shear strength, which may be disease of theoflifetime of spatial a project. greatly affected by plant rootassystems stabilizingand partretaining of a slope, andcan thebeusual Restraining structures such piles, buttresses walls absence of any piezometric information, which would warn of increasing helpful for slides covering limited areas, but they are generally too expensivepore water unstable pressures. Bernknopf al. (1988) divided the boundaries Cincinnati may metropolitan for large, slopes and theetlocation of the property also areathis intoapproach. 100 m2 cells and devised a probability model fromslope, a combination restrict Guiding structures near the base of the such as of variables thatcan represent the existing state of a hillside, the dominant diversion walls, deflect small debris physical flows effectively. landside mechanism in the and the types of construction activities Other methods include the area chemical stabilization of slopes and the usethat of can grouting to landsides. reduce soilThe permeability and increase its strength. In someofhigh-risk trigger results showed that an uncritical application the uniform urban areas, code like Hong may be with materials suchdamage as building to the Kong, whole slopes area would notcovered be cost–effective. Property chunam or gunite to reduce the infiltration and keep pore water pressure low. from landslides usually leads to demands for engineering works to stabilize the On slope. some However, construction freezing mass moving soilcomplicated has been by the sites humantheresponse to of slope failure is often successfully accomplished, and the freezing plant has been left in operation and the statutory and funding distinctions, which are made between emergency untilpermanent the soil retaining structures were completed. works. Emergency response designed to protect public safety and Slope stabilization, along with hazard-resistant constructionsatisfactorily techniques, but prevent further immediate damage are usually undertaken appears to be the most effective preventative strategy for controlling new government funds are made available only very reluctantly for permanent slope development. In this context grading ordinances, such as the uniform building stabilization. This may be because the specialized geo-technical information code adopted in India, are important tools. Along with soil compactation and required is not available or because of the high potential cost to the public surface drainage requirements, this act generally specifies a maximum slope Alexander drew The attention geological advice anglepurse. of 2:1 for safe (1987b) development. basis toforinadequate such a specification, which and political contributory factors Ancona in Italy. means a 27° muddle slope, isasthat the natural angletoofthe repose for landslide dry sand disaster is 34°, and It is a recurrent feature of all hazard mitigation that few publicly funded therefore a 2:1 slopes allows for an element of safety over this. Building codes authorities are willing to pay for expensive defence work for private undertakings normally require developers to obtain permits before they embark on earthmoving whenonlarge profits are slopes. to be made from property and land speculation. If these projects hazard-prone Ideally they also require reports from geoproblems can be thegeologist stability on of proposed the slope building may be sites improved technical engineers andovercome, engineering beforeby a variety of engineering a local authority approves techniques. plans. To work properly, this sort of system needs Excavation and filling to methods used to produce a more stable average technically trained inspectors enforcecan theberegulations and levy development fees slope. to become financially self-supporting. This type of reshaping is usually successful but becomes more difficult Olshasky ad Rogers (1987) cited the success of the city of include Los Angeles, and expensive as the slide area increases. Specific techniques unloading which introduced a grading ordinance as early as 1952. Before this date the head of a slide and loading the toe, with the replacement of failedmore material thanwith 10%lighter of allroads. building lots were damaged by slope failure. Initially, the ordinance required especially only soil testing but itdrainage, has subsequently been strengthened. Drainage, sub-surface can be equally effective where In 1965 the requirements for geological reports were added and furthertable. changes in pore water pressure have been caused by a rise inin1973 the water inspections made range obligatory, along with final certification Drainagewere methods from the removal of surface water of andcompleted the drainage earthwork by the city engineer. The benefits have been impressive. tension cracks to the insertion of trenches filled with gravel or horizontal drains. Landslide control is most successful when combined with urban risk Properly designed and constructed drainage systems work well but others soon assessment and land use planning. In an early programme, begun in 1958, the become clogged by fine particles. Japanese government started to enact strong legislation to prevent landslides

Landslide Disasters and its Management

49

Re-vegetation of slopes performs several functions. Plant roots help to bind soil particles together; the vegetation canopy protects the soil surface from rain splash impact and transpiration processes aid in drying out the slope. Whilst evergreen are generally better at providing an all-year canopy, deciduous trees are generally better conifers at removing excess soil moisture because they have higher rates of transpiration during the summer. However, it may be unwise to rely on vegetation for slope stability because of the possibility of fire or disease of the lifetime of a project. Restraining structures such as piles, buttresses and retaining walls can be helpful for slides covering limited areas, but they are generally too expensive for large, unstable slopes and the location of the property boundaries may also restrict this approach. Guiding structures near the base of the slope, such as diversion walls, can deflect small debris flows effectively. Other methods include the chemical stabilization of slopes and the use of grouting to reduce soil permeability and increase its strength. In some high-risk urban areas, like Hong Kong, slopes may be covered with materials such as chunam or gunite to reduce the infiltration and keep pore water pressure low. On some construction sites the freezing of mass moving soil has been successfully accomplished, and the freezing plant has been left in operation until the soil retaining structures were completed. Slope stabilization, along with hazard-resistant construction techniques, appears to be the most effective preventative strategy for controlling new development. In this context grading ordinances, such as the uniform building code adopted in India, are important tools. Along with soil compactation and surface drainage requirements, this act generally specifies a maximum slope angle of 2:1 for safe development. The basis for such a specification, which means a 27° slope, is that the natural angle of repose for dry sand is 34°, and therefore a 2:1 slopes allows for an element of safety over this. Building codes normally require developers to obtain permits before they embark on earthmoving projects on hazard-prone slopes. Ideally they also require reports from geotechnical engineers and engineering geologist on proposed building sites before a local authority approves plans. To work properly, this sort of system needs technically trained inspectors to enforce the regulations and levy development fees to become financially self-supporting. Olshasky ad Rogers (1987) cited the success of the city of Los Angeles, which introduced a grading ordinance as early as 1952. Before this date more than 10% of all building lots were damaged by slope failure. Initially, the ordinance required only soil testing but it has subsequently been strengthened. In 1965 the requirements for geological reports were added and in 1973 further inspections were made obligatory, along with final certification of completed earthwork by the city engineer. The benefits have been impressive. Landslide control is most successful when combined with urban risk assessment and land use planning. In an early programme, begun in 1958, the Japanese government started to enact strong legislation to prevent landslides

Landslide Disasters and its Management

49

Re-vegetation of slopes performs several functions. Plant roots help to bind soil particles together; the vegetation canopy protects the soil surface from rain splash impact and transpiration processes aid in drying out the slope. Whilst evergreen are generally better at providing an all-year canopy, deciduous trees are generally better conifers at removing excess soil moisture because they have higher rates of transpiration during the summer. However, it may be unwise to rely on vegetation for slope stability because of the possibility of fire or disease of the lifetime of a project. Restraining structures such as piles, buttresses and retaining walls can be helpful for slides covering limited areas, but they are generally too expensive for large, unstable slopes and the location of the property boundaries may also restrict this approach. Guiding structures near the base of the slope, such as diversion walls, can deflect small debris flows effectively. Other methods include the chemical stabilization of slopes and the use of grouting to reduce soil permeability and increase its strength. In some high-risk urban areas, like Hong Kong, slopes may be covered with materials such as chunam or gunite to reduce the infiltration and keep pore water pressure low. On some construction sites the freezing of mass moving soil has been successfully accomplished, and the freezing plant has been left in operation until the soil retaining structures were completed. Slope stabilization, along with hazard-resistant construction techniques, appears to be the most effective preventative strategy for controlling new development. In this context grading ordinances, such as the uniform building code adopted in India, are important tools. Along with soil compactation and surface drainage requirements, this act generally specifies a maximum slope angle of 2:1 for safe development. The basis for such a specification, which means a 27° slope, is that the natural angle of repose for dry sand is 34°, and therefore a 2:1 slopes allows for an element of safety over this. Building codes normally require developers to obtain permits before they embark on earthmoving projects on hazard-prone slopes. Ideally they also require reports from geotechnical engineers and engineering geologist on proposed building sites before a local authority approves plans. To work properly, this sort of system needs technically trained inspectors to enforce the regulations and levy development fees to become financially self-supporting. Olshasky ad Rogers (1987) cited the success of the city of Los Angeles, which introduced a grading ordinance as early as 1952. Before this date more than 10% of all building lots were damaged by slope failure. Initially, the ordinance required only soil testing but it has subsequently been strengthened. In 1965 the requirements for geological reports were added and in 1973 further inspections were made obligatory, along with final certification of completed earthwork by the city engineer. The benefits have been impressive. Landslide control is most successful when combined with urban risk assessment and land use planning. In an early programme, begun in 1958, the Japanese government started to enact strong legislation to prevent landslides

50

Disaster Management

and debris flows triggered by typhoon rainfall. Mitigation has been pursued through the construction of check dams, drainage systems and other physical controls in combination with development restrictions. In the landslide track and debris flow zone, various deflectors and retarding devices may be located. Large walls built on the earth, rock or concrete can be used to diverting the debris flow from its chosen path. The slope for diversion is limited, up to 15-20° from the original slide path have proved the most successful. In addition wedges pointing upslope can be used to avoid the slides and then divert the sections around vulnerable facilities, for example, electrical transmission towers or isolated buildings. Towards the slide zone other retaining structures, represented by earth mounds or small dams, can be useful as the slope angle declines and the debris flows lose the energy. Mounds are generally ineffective on slopes steeper than 20°. Direct protection structures, such as debris sheds and galleries, designed to pass the flow over key facilities such as transport lines, obtain the most complete defence against all kinds of slides. Slide sheds typically act as protective roofs and walls along with the roads and railways, but these structures are expensive and need careful design to insure that they are properly located and can bear the maximum debris resisted walls and mounds. In the longer term, there is some incentive to control the landslide hazard by re-afforesting the slopes at risks. VULNERABILITY ADJUSTMENTS Community Preparedness The most formal arrangements for mass movement hazards exist in slide prone areas where a variety of organization which often exists to reduce the risk. There is a vital need to prepare the community regarding the landslides. There is a need for a locally based, rapid response search and rescue team and this is crucial because the debris flow victims die quickly if buried beneath the debris. Thus the chances of survival decline rapidly after 1-3 hours, even when the victim is trapped closed to the surface. The overall survival rate after complete burial is less than 2 in 5. Therefore, local communities should be aware and they should have the rescue trainings and the right tools, which should be provided by the local government absolutely free or on the subsidy, to rescue the life of the victims. FORECASTING AND WARNING Various types of forecasting and warning systems exist for mass movement hazards. Remote Sensing applied to mass movement hazards is limited to the production of preliminary large scale maps of previous debris tracks, for example, for avalanches and slides from aerial photographs whilst band 5 imagery shows

50

Disaster Management

and debris flows triggered by typhoon rainfall. Mitigation has been pursued through the construction of check dams, drainage systems and other physical controls in combination with development restrictions. In the landslide track and debris flow zone, various deflectors and retarding devices may be located. Large walls built on the earth, rock or concrete can be used to diverting the debris flow from its chosen path. The slope for diversion is limited, up to 15-20° from the original slide path have proved the most successful. In addition wedges pointing upslope can be used to avoid the slides and then divert the sections around vulnerable facilities, for example, electrical transmission towers or isolated buildings. Towards the slide zone other retaining structures, represented by earth mounds or small dams, can be useful as the slope angle declines and the debris flows lose the energy. Mounds are generally ineffective on slopes steeper than 20°. Direct protection structures, such as debris sheds and galleries, designed to pass the flow over key facilities such as transport lines, obtain the most complete defence against all kinds of slides. Slide sheds typically act as protective roofs and walls along with the roads and railways, but these structures are expensive and need careful design to insure that they are properly located and can bear the maximum debris resisted walls and mounds. In the longer term, there is some incentive to control the landslide hazard by re-afforesting the slopes at risks. VULNERABILITY ADJUSTMENTS Community Preparedness The most formal arrangements for mass movement hazards exist in slide prone areas where a variety of organization which often exists to reduce the risk. There is a vital need to prepare the community regarding the landslides. There is a need for a locally based, rapid response search and rescue team and this is crucial because the debris flow victims die quickly if buried beneath the debris. Thus the chances of survival decline rapidly after 1-3 hours, even when the victim is trapped closed to the surface. The overall survival rate after complete burial is less than 2 in 5. Therefore, local communities should be aware and they should have the rescue trainings and the right tools, which should be provided by the local government absolutely free or on the subsidy, to rescue the life of the victims. FORECASTING AND WARNING Various types of forecasting and warning systems exist for mass movement hazards. Remote Sensing applied to mass movement hazards is limited to the production of preliminary large scale maps of previous debris tracks, for example, for avalanches and slides from aerial photographs whilst band 5 imagery shows

50

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

51

and debris flowssometimes triggered associated by typhoonwith rainfall. Mitigation has been pursued vegetational changes landslides. This reconnaissance through can the construction of check dams, drainage systems and other physical information be followed up with low-level air photography (Penn, 1984). controls in combinationatwith Vertical aerial-photographs scalesdevelopment of 1: 20,000restrictions. to 1: 30,000 are often suitable, In ifthetaken landslide trackofand flow zone, variousand deflectors and retarding especially at times the debris year when tree foliage other vegetation devices be located. Large walls built on theis earth, or concrete can be cover is at amay minimum. Site-specific information more rock difficult to obtain. used to diverting the debrisbyflow from of itssoil chosen path. The slope for slope diversion Many landslides are preceded a period or surface creep before is limited, to 15-20° from tothesurface originalcracking. slide path have provedcanthebemost failure occurs, up often giving rise This process successful. pointing upslope canmost be used to avoid the of slides monitored with Ina addition view to wedges providing a warning. The common forms and theninclude divert the the use sections around vulnerable facilities,tofor example, electrical monitoring of inclinometers and telemeters record evidences transmission or isolated Towards istherarely slide zone other retaining of increased hill towers slope activity butbuildings. this information formalized into structures, official warningrepresented messages. by earth mounds or small dams, can be useful as the slopeFor angle declinesit and the debris the energy. Mounds are generally landslides is possible to flows issue lose generalized regional warnings of ineffective on slopes steeper than and 20°. heavy rainfall based on some locally debris and mudflows following storms protection structures, debris sheds and galleries, relevant Direct threshold criteria, such as such stormas rainfall intensity per hour designed or the to pass thetotal flow of over keyover facilities such as transport lines, aobtain complete cumulative rain a few days. For example real the timemost regional defence againstsystem all kinds slides. Slide typically act asregion protective landslide warning wasofdeveloped forsheds the San Francisco usingroofs and relations walls along with the roads and and railways, these structures are expensive known between rainfall landslide but generation and tele-metered and data needincareful designwith to insure they are properly located andIt can rainfall association weatherthat forecasts (Keefer et. al., 1987). wasbear debris resisted wallslandslide and mounds. In the longerin term, there is usedthe to maximum issue the first regional, public warnings in USA February some to control the landslide hazard remains by re-afforesting the slopes at 1986, but incentive the site-specific prediction of landslide elusive. Therefore risks. also plays the vital role in the management of the landslide because prediction after the prediction of rainfall or landslide people prepare themselves for the hazard and reduce the vulnerability of the disaster. VULNERABILITY ADJUSTMENTS LAND USE PLANNING Community Preparedness The recurrence of many landslides and avalanches at the same topographic site Thethat most formal arrangements mass movement exist in slide prone means land use zoning offers afor practical method ofhazards hazard mitigation. The areas where a variety of organization often exists to reduce the risk. qualitative recognition of sites susceptible towhich multiple mass movements is often ThereFor is aexample, vital need to prepare the tracks community regarding landslides. There possible. many avalanche also function as the landslide gullies is a need for a locally based, rapid response search and rescue team and this during the summer and spring. Stream channels are the most common paths for is crucial because debris victims die quickly if buried beneath debris. debris flows, which the occur afterflow periods of heavy rain. Although differentthe from Thusdebris the chances of aggravate survival decline rapidly after hours, the even when the floods, flows can flood conditions by 1-3 blocking channel trapped to the surface. and victim causingiswater to closed overspill banks. The overall survival rate after complete burial is less than 2 in 5. or Therefore, local engineers communities aware and For landslides, geologists geo-technical can should make abestability they should have thesites. rescue trainings the right tools, which should be assessment for individual Keaton (1994)and described a probabilistic approach provided by the local government absolutely free or on the subsidy, rescue to site selection. This depends on geological investigations to determineto the the life of the victims. magnitude frequency of relationships in potentially hazardous processes combined with estimates of the probability that damaging events would occur during a specified exposure such as the anticipated life of a structure. FORECASTING AND period, WARNING The Various development of information technology with the issue a GIS types of forecasting and warning systems existof for massdatabase movement and hazards. spreadsheet calculations makes such approaches increasingly feasible. Gupta Remote Sensing applied to mass movement hazards is limited to the and production Joshi (1990) outlined a method employed in the lower Himalayas where of preliminary large scale maps of previous debris tracks, for example, landslide activity isand related rockaerial litho photographs logy, land use, distance major for avalanches slidestofrom whilst band 5from imagery shows

50

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

51

and debris flowssometimes triggered associated by typhoonwith rainfall. Mitigation has been pursued vegetational changes landslides. This reconnaissance through can the construction of check dams, drainage systems and other physical information be followed up with low-level air photography (Penn, 1984). controls in combinationatwith Vertical aerial-photographs scalesdevelopment of 1: 20,000restrictions. to 1: 30,000 are often suitable, In ifthetaken landslide trackofand flow zone, variousand deflectors and retarding especially at times the debris year when tree foliage other vegetation devices be located. Large walls built on theis earth, or concrete can be cover is at amay minimum. Site-specific information more rock difficult to obtain. used to diverting the debrisbyflow from of itssoil chosen path. The slope for slope diversion Many landslides are preceded a period or surface creep before is limited, to 15-20° from tothesurface originalcracking. slide path have provedcanthebemost failure occurs, up often giving rise This process successful. pointing upslope canmost be used to avoid the of slides monitored with Ina addition view to wedges providing a warning. The common forms and theninclude divert the the use sections around vulnerable facilities,tofor example, electrical monitoring of inclinometers and telemeters record evidences transmission or isolated Towards istherarely slide zone other retaining of increased hill towers slope activity butbuildings. this information formalized into structures, official warningrepresented messages. by earth mounds or small dams, can be useful as the slopeFor angle declinesit and the debris the energy. Mounds are generally landslides is possible to flows issue lose generalized regional warnings of ineffective on slopes steeper than and 20°. heavy rainfall based on some locally debris and mudflows following storms protection structures, debris sheds and galleries, relevant Direct threshold criteria, such as such stormas rainfall intensity per hour designed or the to pass thetotal flow of over keyover facilities such as transport lines, aobtain complete cumulative rain a few days. For example real the timemost regional defence againstsystem all kinds slides. Slide typically act asregion protective landslide warning wasofdeveloped forsheds the San Francisco usingroofs and relations walls along with the roads and and railways, these structures are expensive known between rainfall landslide but generation and tele-metered and data needincareful designwith to insure they are properly located andIt can rainfall association weatherthat forecasts (Keefer et. al., 1987). wasbear debris resisted wallslandslide and mounds. In the longerin term, there is usedthe to maximum issue the first regional, public warnings in USA February some to control the landslide hazard remains by re-afforesting the slopes at 1986, but incentive the site-specific prediction of landslide elusive. Therefore risks. also plays the vital role in the management of the landslide because prediction after the prediction of rainfall or landslide people prepare themselves for the hazard and reduce the vulnerability of the disaster. VULNERABILITY ADJUSTMENTS LAND USE PLANNING Community Preparedness The recurrence of many landslides and avalanches at the same topographic site Thethat most formal arrangements mass movement exist in slide prone means land use zoning offers afor practical method ofhazards hazard mitigation. The areas where a variety of organization often exists to reduce the risk. qualitative recognition of sites susceptible towhich multiple mass movements is often ThereFor is aexample, vital need to prepare the tracks community regarding landslides. There possible. many avalanche also function as the landslide gullies is athe need for a and locally based, rapidchannels responseare search and rescue team andfor this is during summer spring. Stream the most common paths crucial because debris victims die quickly if buried beneath debris. debris flows, which the occur afterflow periods of heavy rain. Although differentthe from Thus the chances of survival decline rapidly after 1-3 hours, even when floods, debris flows can aggravate flood conditions by blocking the channel the trapped to the surface. and victim causingiswater to closed overspill banks. The overall survival rate after complete burial is less than 2 in 5. or Therefore, local engineers communities aware and For landslides, geologists geo-technical can should make abestability they should have thesites. rescue trainings the right tools, which should be assessment for individual Keaton (1994)and described a probabilistic approach provided by the local government absolutely free or on the subsidy, to the rescue to site selection. This depends on geological investigations to determine the life of the victims. magnitude frequency of relationships in potentially hazardous processes combined with estimates of the probability that damaging events would occur during a specified exposure such as the anticipated life of a structure. FORECASTING AND period, WARNING The Various development of information technology with the issue a GIS types of forecasting and warning systems existof for massdatabase movement and hazards. spreadsheet calculations makes such approaches increasingly feasible. Gupta Remote Sensing applied to mass movement hazards is limited to the and production Joshi (1990) outlined a method employed in the lower Himalayas where of preliminary large scale maps of previous debris tracks, for example, landslide activity isand related rockaerial litho photographs logy, land use, distance major for avalanches slidestofrom whilst band 5from imagery shows

50

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

51

Landslide Disasters and its Management

51

vegetational changes landslides. This reconnaissance and debris flowssometimes triggered associated by typhoonwith rainfall. Mitigation has been pursued information be followed up with low-level air photography (Penn, 1984). through can the construction of check dams, drainage systems and other physical Vertical aerial-photographs scalesdevelopment of 1: 20,000restrictions. to 1: 30,000 are often suitable, controls in combinationatwith especially at times the debris year when tree foliage other vegetation In ifthetaken landslide trackofand flow zone, variousand deflectors and retarding cover is at amay minimum. Site-specific information more rock difficult to obtain. devices be located. Large walls built on theis earth, or concrete can be Many landslides are preceded a period or surface creep before used to diverting the debrisbyflow from of itssoil chosen path. The slope for slope diversion failure occurs, up often giving rise This process is limited, to 15-20° from tothesurface originalcracking. slide path have provedcanthebemost monitored with Ina addition view to wedges providing a warning. The common forms successful. pointing upslope canmost be used to avoid the of slides monitoring of inclinometers and telemeters record evidences and theninclude divert the the use sections around vulnerable facilities,tofor example, electrical of increased hill towers slope activity butbuildings. this information formalized into transmission or isolated Towards istherarely slide zone other retaining official warningrepresented messages. by earth mounds or small dams, can be useful as the structures, landslides is possible to flows issue lose generalized regional warnings of slopeFor angle declinesit and the debris the energy. Mounds are generally debris and mudflows following storms ineffective on slopes steeper than and 20°. heavy rainfall based on some locally relevant Direct threshold criteria, such as such stormas rainfall intensity per hour designed or the to protection structures, debris sheds and galleries, cumulative rain a few days. For example real the timemost regional pass thetotal flow of over keyover facilities such as transport lines, aobtain complete landslide warning wasofdeveloped forsheds the San Francisco usingroofs defence againstsystem all kinds slides. Slide typically act asregion protective known between rainfall landslide but generation and tele-metered and relations walls along with the roads and and railways, these structures are expensive rainfall association weatherthat forecasts (Keefer et. al., 1987). wasbear and data needincareful designwith to insure they are properly located andIt can usedthe to maximum issue the first regional, public warnings in USA February debris resisted wallslandslide and mounds. In the longerin term, there is 1986, but incentive the site-specific prediction of landslide elusive. Therefore some to control the landslide hazard remains by re-afforesting the slopes at prediction risks. also plays the vital role in the management of the landslide because after the prediction of rainfall or landslide people prepare themselves for the hazard and reduce the vulnerability of the disaster. VULNERABILITY ADJUSTMENTS

vegetational changes sometimes associated with landslides. This reconnaissance information can be followed up with low-level air photography (Penn, 1984). Vertical aerial-photographs at scales of 1: 20,000 to 1: 30,000 are often suitable, especially if taken at times of the year when tree foliage and other vegetation cover is at a minimum. Site-specific information is more difficult to obtain. Many landslides are preceded by a period of soil or surface creep before slope failure occurs, often giving rise to surface cracking. This process can be monitored with a view to providing a warning. The most common forms of monitoring include the use of inclinometers and telemeters to record evidences of increased hill slope activity but this information is rarely formalized into official warning messages. For landslides it is possible to issue generalized regional warnings of debris and mudflows following storms and heavy rainfall based on some locally relevant threshold criteria, such as storm rainfall intensity per hour or the cumulative total of rain over a few days. For example a real time regional landslide warning system was developed for the San Francisco region using known relations between rainfall and landslide generation and tele-metered rainfall data in association with weather forecasts (Keefer et. al., 1987). It was used to issue the first regional, public landslide warnings in USA in February 1986, but the site-specific prediction of landslide remains elusive. Therefore prediction also plays the vital role in the management of the landslide because after the prediction of rainfall or landslide people prepare themselves for the hazard and reduce the vulnerability of the disaster.

LAND USE PLANNING Community Preparedness The recurrence of many landslides and avalanches at the same topographic site Thethat most formal arrangements mass movement exist in slide prone means land use zoning offers afor practical method ofhazards hazard mitigation. The areas where a variety of organization often exists to reduce the risk. qualitative recognition of sites susceptible towhich multiple mass movements is often ThereFor is aexample, vital need to prepare the tracks community regarding landslides. There possible. many avalanche also function as the landslide gullies is a need for a locally based, rapid response search and rescue team and this during the summer and spring. Stream channels are the most common paths for is crucial because debris victims die quickly if buried beneath debris. debris flows, which the occur afterflow periods of heavy rain. Although differentthe from Thusdebris the chances of aggravate survival decline rapidly after hours, the even when the floods, flows can flood conditions by 1-3 blocking channel trapped to the surface. and victim causingiswater to closed overspill banks. The overall survival rate after complete burial is less than 2 in 5. or Therefore, local engineers communities aware and For landslides, geologists geo-technical can should make abestability they should have thesites. rescue trainings the right tools, which should be assessment for individual Keaton (1994)and described a probabilistic approach provided by the local government absolutely free or on the subsidy, rescue to site selection. This depends on geological investigations to determineto the the life of the victims. magnitude frequency of relationships in potentially hazardous processes combined with estimates of the probability that damaging events would occur during a specified exposure such as the anticipated life of a structure. FORECASTING AND period, WARNING The Various development of information technology with the issue a GIS types of forecasting and warning systems existof for massdatabase movement and hazards. spreadsheet calculations makes such approaches increasingly feasible. Gupta Remote Sensing applied to mass movement hazards is limited to the and production Joshi (1990) outlined a method employed in the lower Himalayas where of preliminary large scale maps of previous debris tracks, for example, landslide activity isand related rockaerial litho photographs logy, land use, distance major for avalanches slidestofrom whilst band 5from imagery shows

LAND USE PLANNING

50

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

The recurrence of many landslides and avalanches at the same topographic site means that land use zoning offers a practical method of hazard mitigation. The qualitative recognition of sites susceptible to multiple mass movements is often possible. For example, many avalanche tracks also function as landslide gullies during the summer and spring. Stream channels are the most common paths for debris flows, which occur after periods of heavy rain. Although different from floods, debris flows can aggravate flood conditions by blocking the channel and causing water to overspill the banks. For landslides, geologists or geo-technical engineers can make a stability assessment for individual sites. Keaton (1994) described a probabilistic approach to site selection. This depends on geological investigations to determine the magnitude frequency of relationships in potentially hazardous processes combined with estimates of the probability that damaging events would occur during a specified exposure period, such as the anticipated life of a structure. The development of information technology with the issue of a GIS database and spreadsheet calculations makes such approaches increasingly feasible. Gupta and Joshi (1990) outlined a method employed in the lower Himalayas where landslide activity is related to rock litho logy, land use, distance from major

51

Landslide Disasters and its Management

51

vegetational changes landslides. This reconnaissance and debris flowssometimes triggered associated by typhoonwith rainfall. Mitigation has been pursued information be followed up with low-level air photography (Penn, 1984). through can the construction of check dams, drainage systems and other physical Vertical aerial-photographs scalesdevelopment of 1: 20,000restrictions. to 1: 30,000 are often suitable, controls in combinationatwith especially at times the debris year when tree foliage other vegetation In ifthetaken landslide trackofand flow zone, variousand deflectors and retarding cover is at amay minimum. Site-specific information more rock difficult to obtain. devices be located. Large walls built on theis earth, or concrete can be Many landslides are preceded a period or surface creep before used to diverting the debrisbyflow from of itssoil chosen path. The slope for slope diversion failure occurs, up often giving rise This process is limited, to 15-20° from tothesurface originalcracking. slide path have provedcanthebemost monitored with Ina addition view to wedges providing a warning. The common forms successful. pointing upslope canmost be used to avoid the of slides monitoring of inclinometers and telemeters record evidences and theninclude divert the the use sections around vulnerable facilities,tofor example, electrical of increased hill towers slope activity butbuildings. this information formalized into transmission or isolated Towards istherarely slide zone other retaining official warningrepresented messages. by earth mounds or small dams, can be useful as the structures, landslides is possible to flows issue lose generalized regional warnings of slopeFor angle declinesit and the debris the energy. Mounds are generally debris and mudflows following storms ineffective on slopes steeper than and 20°. heavy rainfall based on some locally relevant Direct threshold criteria, such as such stormas rainfall intensity per hour designed or the to protection structures, debris sheds and galleries, cumulative rain a few days. For example real the timemost regional pass thetotal flow of over keyover facilities such as transport lines, aobtain complete landslide warning wasofdeveloped forsheds the San Francisco usingroofs defence againstsystem all kinds slides. Slide typically act asregion protective known between rainfall landslide but generation and tele-metered and relations walls along with the roads and and railways, these structures are expensive rainfall association weatherthat forecasts (Keefer et. al., 1987). wasbear and data needincareful designwith to insure they are properly located andIt can usedthe to maximum issue the first regional, public warnings in USA February debris resisted wallslandslide and mounds. In the longerin term, there is 1986, but incentive the site-specific prediction of landslide elusive. Therefore some to control the landslide hazard remains by re-afforesting the slopes at prediction risks. also plays the vital role in the management of the landslide because after the prediction of rainfall or landslide people prepare themselves for the hazard and reduce the vulnerability of the disaster. VULNERABILITY ADJUSTMENTS

vegetational changes sometimes associated with landslides. This reconnaissance information can be followed up with low-level air photography (Penn, 1984). Vertical aerial-photographs at scales of 1: 20,000 to 1: 30,000 are often suitable, especially if taken at times of the year when tree foliage and other vegetation cover is at a minimum. Site-specific information is more difficult to obtain. Many landslides are preceded by a period of soil or surface creep before slope failure occurs, often giving rise to surface cracking. This process can be monitored with a view to providing a warning. The most common forms of monitoring include the use of inclinometers and telemeters to record evidences of increased hill slope activity but this information is rarely formalized into official warning messages. For landslides it is possible to issue generalized regional warnings of debris and mudflows following storms and heavy rainfall based on some locally relevant threshold criteria, such as storm rainfall intensity per hour or the cumulative total of rain over a few days. For example a real time regional landslide warning system was developed for the San Francisco region using known relations between rainfall and landslide generation and tele-metered rainfall data in association with weather forecasts (Keefer et. al., 1987). It was used to issue the first regional, public landslide warnings in USA in February 1986, but the site-specific prediction of landslide remains elusive. Therefore prediction also plays the vital role in the management of the landslide because after the prediction of rainfall or landslide people prepare themselves for the hazard and reduce the vulnerability of the disaster.

LAND USE PLANNING Community Preparedness The recurrence of many landslides and avalanches at the same topographic site Thethat most formal arrangements mass movement exist in slide prone means land use zoning offers afor practical method ofhazards hazard mitigation. The areas where a variety of organization often exists to reduce the risk. qualitative recognition of sites susceptible towhich multiple mass movements is often ThereFor is aexample, vital need to prepare the tracks community regarding landslides. There possible. many avalanche also function as the landslide gullies is athe need for a and locally based, rapidchannels responseare search and rescue team andfor this is during summer spring. Stream the most common paths crucial because debris victims die quickly if buried beneath debris. debris flows, which the occur afterflow periods of heavy rain. Although differentthe from Thus the chances of survival decline rapidly after 1-3 hours, even when floods, debris flows can aggravate flood conditions by blocking the channel the trapped to the surface. and victim causingiswater to closed overspill banks. The overall survival rate after complete burial is less than 2 in 5. or Therefore, local engineers communities aware and For landslides, geologists geo-technical can should make abestability they should have thesites. rescue trainings the right tools, which should be assessment for individual Keaton (1994)and described a probabilistic approach provided by the local government absolutely free or on the subsidy, to the rescue to site selection. This depends on geological investigations to determine the life of the victims. magnitude frequency of relationships in potentially hazardous processes combined with estimates of the probability that damaging events would occur during a specified exposure such as the anticipated life of a structure. FORECASTING AND period, WARNING The Various development of information technology with the issue a GIS types of forecasting and warning systems existof for massdatabase movement and hazards. spreadsheet calculations makes such approaches increasingly feasible. Gupta Remote Sensing applied to mass movement hazards is limited to the and production Joshi (1990) outlined a method employed in the lower Himalayas where of preliminary large scale maps of previous debris tracks, for example, landslide activity isand related rockaerial litho photographs logy, land use, distance major for avalanches slidestofrom whilst band 5from imagery shows

LAND USE PLANNING The recurrence of many landslides and avalanches at the same topographic site means that land use zoning offers a practical method of hazard mitigation. The qualitative recognition of sites susceptible to multiple mass movements is often possible. For example, many avalanche tracks also function as landslide gullies during the summer and spring. Stream channels are the most common paths for debris flows, which occur after periods of heavy rain. Although different from floods, debris flows can aggravate flood conditions by blocking the channel and causing water to overspill the banks. For landslides, geologists or geo-technical engineers can make a stability assessment for individual sites. Keaton (1994) described a probabilistic approach to site selection. This depends on geological investigations to determine the magnitude frequency of relationships in potentially hazardous processes combined with estimates of the probability that damaging events would occur during a specified exposure period, such as the anticipated life of a structure. The development of information technology with the issue of a GIS database and spreadsheet calculations makes such approaches increasingly feasible. Gupta and Joshi (1990) outlined a method employed in the lower Himalayas where landslide activity is related to rock litho logy, land use, distance from major

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Disaster Management

tectonic shear zones and slope aspect. Geological hazard zoning maps at a scale around 1:20,000 are still the most common form of hazard identification. Seeley and West (1990) provided an example for a forest park in the western USA where slope instability, including seismically included rock falls and avalanches, is the most important hazard. Once the hazard has been identified, planning law should explicitly encourage local communities to consider mass movement processes when undertaking the landuse changes. Avalanche zoning employs historical data of avalanche occurrence for the identification of hazardous locations and supplements this information with terrain models and models of avalanche dynamics to determine more detailed degrees of risk. Where sites are near established settlements, avalanche frequency will be a matter of local knowledge. At more remote locations, with insufficient records and maps, other methods are necessary. Gruber and Haefner (1995) have reported the developing use of satellite imagery and digital elevator models to map large areas of avalanche risk. Sometimes the long term pattern of avalanche activity can be compiled from trees which remain standing in the track or run out zone but which have been physically damaged by previous events. Sometimes the resulting scarring of tree rings can provide an accurate means of dating avalanches of landslides and producing reliable frequency estimates over the past 200 years or so (Hupp et. al., 1987). Where trees have been destroyed by large events, close inspection of the residual damaged vegetation, including height and species can be a useful guide. Once potential sites have been identified and frequency estimates made, initial mapping is usually undertaken at a scale of about 1: 50,000 with the aid of air photographs. In India, a snow avalanche atlas is published primarily as an operational guide for highway maintenance personnel (Ministry of Transportation and Highways, 1991). The maps are accompanied by a detailed description of terrain and vegetation for each avalanche site, together with an assessment of the hazard impact. The same kind of hazard and risk zone mapping work has been successfully done by the National Agency of Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) India. In this atlas they specifically divided all kind of hazards into several categories and zones, particularly the seismic map which helps to know about the seismic zone category. It indicates the importance of a map because it is more useful for each and every planner in constructing or planning any kind of structural change in landuse. Where an avalanche threatens settlements, it is necessary to zone the area on a larger map scale which may be of 1:50,000 and adopted related planning regulations. The length of the debris flows zone is a critical factor here since it determines whether or not a particular site will be reached by the movement of rocks and debris. The zoning methodology is well established in many countries.

52

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

53

tectonic shear zones and slope aspect. Geological hazard zoning maps at a CONCLUSION scaleit around common form of for hazard Overall can be1:20,000 said thatareif still we the are most to prepare ourselves the identification. landslide Seeley and West (1990) provided an example for a forest park in the western hazard, it may reduce the lives lost as well as the economic loss. Community USA where slope seismically included falls and participation should be instability, an essentialincluding part of each and every level ofrock planning. avalanches, the most important hazard. Forecasting and iswarning systems should be very quick and active. Landuse Once the hazard has been identified, law should planning should be done on the behalf of a local planning land utilization pattern.explicitly The encourage local communities to consider mass movement processes when community should also be involved in the afforestation programmes and the undertaking the landuse changes. Avalanche zoning employs historical data effective personalities i.e. teachers, doctors, engineers, technicians, electrician, of avalanche occurrence for the gram identification of hazardous locations postman, landuse planner, pradhan, sewak, Block Development Officer., and supplements this information with terrain models and models of avalanche other important peoples of any village and all villagers should be involved in dynamics to determine more detailed degrees of risk. Where sites are near the land use planning. In the meantime the rescue of the local people without established settlements, avalanche frequency will be a matter of local knowledge. At more remote locations, with insufficient records and maps, other methods are necessary. Gruber and Haefner (1995) have reported the developing use of satellite imagery and digital elevator models to map large areas of avalanche risk. Sometimes the long term pattern of avalanche activity can be compiled from trees which remain standing in the track or run out zone but which have been physically damaged by previous events. Sometimes the resulting scarring of tree rings can provide an accurate means of dating avalanches of landslides and producing reliable frequency estimates over the past 200 years or so (Hupp et. al., 1987). Where trees have been destroyed by large events, close inspection of the residual damaged vegetation, including height and species can be a useful guide. Once potential sites have been identified and frequency estimates made, initial mapping is usually undertaken at a scale of about 1: 50,000 with the aid of air photographs. In India, a snow avalanche atlas is published primarily as an operational guide for highway maintenance personnel (Ministry of Transportation and Highways, 1991). The maps are accompanied by a detailed description of terrain and vegetation for each avalanche site, together with an assessment of the hazard impact. The same kind of hazard and risk zone mapping work has been successfully done by the National Agency of Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) India. In this atlas they specifically divided all kind of hazards into several categories and zones, particularly the seismic map which helps to know about the seismic zone category. It indicates the importance of a map because it is more useful for each and every planner in constructing or planning any kind of structural change in landuse. Where an avalanche threatens settlements, it is necessary to zone the area on a larger map scale which may be of 1:50,000 and adopted related planning regulations. The length of the debris flows zone is a critical factor here since it determines whether or not a particular site will be reached by the movement of rocks and debris. The zoning methodology is well established in many countries. Fig. Landslides

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Disaster Management

tectonic shear zones and slope aspect. Geological hazard zoning maps at a scale around 1:20,000 are still the most common form of hazard identification. Seeley and West (1990) provided an example for a forest park in the western USA where slope instability, including seismically included rock falls and avalanches, is the most important hazard. Once the hazard has been identified, planning law should explicitly encourage local communities to consider mass movement processes when undertaking the landuse changes. Avalanche zoning employs historical data of avalanche occurrence for the identification of hazardous locations and supplements this information with terrain models and models of avalanche dynamics to determine more detailed degrees of risk. Where sites are near established settlements, avalanche frequency will be a matter of local knowledge. At more remote locations, with insufficient records and maps, other methods are necessary. Gruber and Haefner (1995) have reported the developing use of satellite imagery and digital elevator models to map large areas of avalanche risk. Sometimes the long term pattern of avalanche activity can be compiled from trees which remain standing in the track or run out zone but which have been physically damaged by previous events. Sometimes the resulting scarring of tree rings can provide an accurate means of dating avalanches of landslides and producing reliable frequency estimates over the past 200 years or so (Hupp et. al., 1987). Where trees have been destroyed by large events, close inspection of the residual damaged vegetation, including height and species can be a useful guide. Once potential sites have been identified and frequency estimates made, initial mapping is usually undertaken at a scale of about 1: 50,000 with the aid of air photographs. In India, a snow avalanche atlas is published primarily as an operational guide for highway maintenance personnel (Ministry of Transportation and Highways, 1991). The maps are accompanied by a detailed description of terrain and vegetation for each avalanche site, together with an assessment of the hazard impact. The same kind of hazard and risk zone mapping work has been successfully done by the National Agency of Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) India. In this atlas they specifically divided all kind of hazards into several categories and zones, particularly the seismic map which helps to know about the seismic zone category. It indicates the importance of a map because it is more useful for each and every planner in constructing or planning any kind of structural change in landuse. Where an avalanche threatens settlements, it is necessary to zone the area on a larger map scale which may be of 1:50,000 and adopted related planning regulations. The length of the debris flows zone is a critical factor here since it determines whether or not a particular site will be reached by the movement of rocks and debris. The zoning methodology is well established in many countries.

52

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

53

tectonic shear zones and slope aspect. Geological hazard zoning maps at a CONCLUSION scaleit around common form of for hazard Overall can be1:20,000 said thatareif still we the are most to prepare ourselves the identification. landslide Seeley and West (1990) provided an example for a forest park in the western hazard, it may reduce the lives lost as well as the economic loss. Community USA where slope seismically included falls and participation should be instability, an essentialincluding part of each and every level ofrock planning. avalanches, is the most important hazard. Forecasting and warning systems should be very quick and active. Landuse law should planningOnce shouldthebe hazard done onhas thebeen behalfidentified, of a local planning land utilization pattern.explicitly The encourage local communities to consider mass movement processes when community should also be involved in the afforestation programmes and the undertaking the landuse changes. Avalanche zoning employs historical data effective personalities i.e. teachers, doctors, engineers, technicians, electrician, of avalanche occurrence for the gram identification of hazardous locations postman, landuse planner, pradhan, sewak, Block Development Officer., and supplements this information with terrain models and models of avalanche other important peoples of any village and all villagers should be involved in dynamics to determine more detailed degrees of risk. Where sites are near the land use planning. In the meantime the rescue of the local people without established settlements, avalanche frequency will be a matter of local knowledge. At more remote locations, with insufficient records and maps, other methods are necessary. Gruber and Haefner (1995) have reported the developing use of satellite imagery and digital elevator models to map large areas of avalanche risk. Sometimes the long term pattern of avalanche activity can be compiled from trees which remain standing in the track or run out zone but which have been physically damaged by previous events. Sometimes the resulting scarring of tree rings can provide an accurate means of dating avalanches of landslides and producing reliable frequency estimates over the past 200 years or so (Hupp et. al., 1987). Where trees have been destroyed by large events, close inspection of the residual damaged vegetation, including height and species can be a useful guide. Once potential sites have been identified and frequency estimates made, initial mapping is usually undertaken at a scale of about 1: 50,000 with the aid of air photographs. In India, a snow avalanche atlas is published primarily as an operational guide for highway maintenance personnel (Ministry of Transportation and Highways, 1991). The maps are accompanied by a detailed description of terrain and vegetation for each avalanche site, together with an assessment of the hazard impact. The same kind of hazard and risk zone mapping work has been successfully done by the National Agency of Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) India. In this atlas they specifically divided all kind of hazards into several categories and zones, particularly the seismic map which helps to know about the seismic zone category. It indicates the importance of a map because it is more useful for each and every planner in constructing or planning any kind of structural change in landuse. Where an avalanche threatens settlements, it is necessary to zone the area on a larger map scale which may be of 1:50,000 and adopted related planning regulations. The length of the debris flows zone is a critical factor here since it determines whether or not a particular site will be reached by the movement of rocks and debris. The zoning methodology is well established in many countries. Fig. Landslides

52

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

53

CONCLUSION tectonic shear zones and slope aspect. Geological hazard zoning maps at a scaleit around common form of for hazard Overall can be1:20,000 said thatareif still we the are most to prepare ourselves the identification. landslide Seeley and West (1990) provided an example for a forest park in the western hazard, it may reduce the lives lost as well as the economic loss. Community USA where slope seismically included falls and participation should be instability, an essentialincluding part of each and every level ofrock planning. avalanches, the most important hazard. Forecasting and iswarning systems should be very quick and active. Landuse Once the hazard has been identified, law should planning should be done on the behalf of a local planning land utilization pattern.explicitly The encourage local communities to consider mass movement processes when community should also be involved in the afforestation programmes and the undertaking the landuse changes. Avalanche zoning employs historical data effective personalities i.e. teachers, doctors, engineers, technicians, electrician, of avalanche occurrence for the gram identification of hazardous locations postman, landuse planner, pradhan, sewak, Block Development Officer., and supplements this information with terrain models and models of avalanche other important peoples of any village and all villagers should be involved in dynamics to determine more detailed degrees of risk. Where sites are near the land use planning. In the meantime the rescue of the local people without established settlements, avalanche frequency will be a matter of local knowledge. At more remote locations, with insufficient records and maps, other methods are necessary. Gruber and Haefner (1995) have reported the developing use of satellite imagery and digital elevator models to map large areas of avalanche risk. Sometimes the long term pattern of avalanche activity can be compiled from trees which remain standing in the track or run out zone but which have been physically damaged by previous events. Sometimes the resulting scarring of tree rings can provide an accurate means of dating avalanches of landslides and producing reliable frequency estimates over the past 200 years or so (Hupp et. al., 1987). Where trees have been destroyed by large events, close inspection of the residual damaged vegetation, including height and species can be a useful guide. Once potential sites have been identified and frequency estimates made, initial mapping is usually undertaken at a scale of about 1: 50,000 with the aid of air photographs. In India, a snow avalanche atlas is published primarily as an operational guide for highway maintenance personnel (Ministry of Transportation and Highways, 1991). The maps are accompanied by a detailed description of terrain and vegetation for each avalanche site, together with an assessment of the hazard impact. The same kind of hazard and risk zone mapping work has been successfully done by the National Agency of Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) India. In this atlas they specifically divided all kind of hazards into several categories and zones, particularly the seismic map which helps to know about the seismic zone category. It indicates the importance of a map because it is more useful for each and every planner in constructing or planning any kind of structural change in landuse. Where an avalanche threatens settlements, it is necessary to zone the area on a larger map scale which may be of 1:50,000 and adopted related planning regulations. The length of the debris flows zone is a critical factor here since it determines whether or not a particular site will be reached by the movement of rocks and debris. The zoning methodology is well established in many countries.

Landslide Disasters and its Management CONCLUSION

Overall it can be said that if we are to prepare ourselves for the landslide hazard, it may reduce the lives lost as well as the economic loss. Community participation should be an essential part of each and every level of planning. Forecasting and warning systems should be very quick and active. Landuse planning should be done on the behalf of a local land utilization pattern. The community should also be involved in the afforestation programmes and the effective personalities i.e. teachers, doctors, engineers, technicians, electrician, postman, landuse planner, pradhan, gram sewak, Block Development Officer., other important peoples of any village and all villagers should be involved in the land use planning. In the meantime the rescue of the local people without

Fig. Landslides

52

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

Fig. Landslides

53

CONCLUSION tectonic shear zones and slope aspect. Geological hazard zoning maps at a scaleit around common form of for hazard Overall can be1:20,000 said thatareif still we the are most to prepare ourselves the identification. landslide Seeley and West (1990) provided an example for a forest park in the western hazard, it may reduce the lives lost as well as the economic loss. Community USA where slope seismically included falls and participation should be instability, an essentialincluding part of each and every level ofrock planning. avalanches, is the most important hazard. Forecasting and warning systems should be very quick and active. Landuse law should planningOnce shouldthebe hazard done onhas thebeen behalfidentified, of a local planning land utilization pattern.explicitly The encourage local communities to consider mass movement processes when community should also be involved in the afforestation programmes and the undertaking the landuse changes. Avalanche zoning employs historical data effective personalities i.e. teachers, doctors, engineers, technicians, electrician, of avalanche occurrence for the gram identification of hazardous locations postman, landuse planner, pradhan, sewak, Block Development Officer., and supplements this information with terrain models and models of avalanche other important peoples of any village and all villagers should be involved in dynamics to determine more detailed degrees of risk. Where sites are near the land use planning. In the meantime the rescue of the local people without established settlements, avalanche frequency will be a matter of local knowledge. At more remote locations, with insufficient records and maps, other methods are necessary. Gruber and Haefner (1995) have reported the developing use of satellite imagery and digital elevator models to map large areas of avalanche risk. Sometimes the long term pattern of avalanche activity can be compiled from trees which remain standing in the track or run out zone but which have been physically damaged by previous events. Sometimes the resulting scarring of tree rings can provide an accurate means of dating avalanches of landslides and producing reliable frequency estimates over the past 200 years or so (Hupp et. al., 1987). Where trees have been destroyed by large events, close inspection of the residual damaged vegetation, including height and species can be a useful guide. Once potential sites have been identified and frequency estimates made, initial mapping is usually undertaken at a scale of about 1: 50,000 with the aid of air photographs. In India, a snow avalanche atlas is published primarily as an operational guide for highway maintenance personnel (Ministry of Transportation and Highways, 1991). The maps are accompanied by a detailed description of terrain and vegetation for each avalanche site, together with an assessment of the hazard impact. The same kind of hazard and risk zone mapping work has been successfully done by the National Agency of Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) India. In this atlas they specifically divided all kind of hazards into several categories and zones, particularly the seismic map which helps to know about the seismic zone category. It indicates the importance of a map because it is more useful for each and every planner in constructing or planning any kind of structural change in landuse. Where an avalanche threatens settlements, it is necessary to zone the area on a larger map scale which may be of 1:50,000 and adopted related planning regulations. The length of the debris flows zone is a critical factor here since it determines whether or not a particular site will be reached by the movement of rocks and debris. The zoning methodology is well established in many countries. Fig. Landslides

53

Landslide Disasters and its Management

53

CONCLUSION Overall it can be said that if we are to prepare ourselves for the landslide hazard, it may reduce the lives lost as well as the economic loss. Community participation should be an essential part of each and every level of planning. Forecasting and warning systems should be very quick and active. Landuse planning should be done on the behalf of a local land utilization pattern. The community should also be involved in the afforestation programmes and the effective personalities i.e. teachers, doctors, engineers, technicians, electrician, postman, landuse planner, pradhan, gram sewak, Block Development Officer., other important peoples of any village and all villagers should be involved in the land use planning. In the meantime the rescue of the local people without

Fig. Landslides

54

Disaster Management

waiting for government support, should handle work. The government should provide the rescue kit absolutely free of cost, which contains all the equipment, that is required at the time of landslides and debris flows. The government should provide this kit along with the training programmes, which should be organized at all levels like school, college, university level. And all the government and private employees should get this training free of cost and the rescue kit also. This program should be launched on the basis of hazard zonation maps and the degree of vulnerability of the locality. Overall “prevention is better than cure”. REFERENCES Alexander, D. (1987b), The 1982 Urban Landslide Disaster at Ancona, Italy. Working paper 57, Boulder CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. Alexander, D. (1989), Urban Landslides, Progress In Physical Geography, 157-191. Armstrong, B.R. (1984), Avalanche accident victims in the USA. Ekistics 51, 543-546. Au, S.W.C. (1998), Rain – induced slope instability in Hong Kong, Engineering Geology, 1-36. Brabb, E.E.(1991), The world landslide problem. Episodes 14, 52-61. Cooke, R.U. (1984), Geomorphological Hazards in Los Angeles. London: Allen and Unwin. De Scally, F.A. and Gardener, J.S. (1994), Characteristics and mitigation of snow avalanche hazard in Kaghan valley, Pakistan Himalayas. Natural Hazards 197-213. Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1977), The Earth and Landuse Planning. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. Gruber, U. and Haefner, H. (1995), Avalanche hazard mapping with satellite data a digital elevation model. Applied Geography, 99-114. Gupta, R.P. and Joshi, B.C.( 1990), Landslide hazard zoning using the GIS approach: a case study from the Ramganga catchment, Himalayas. Engineering Geology, 119132. Hamilton, L.S. (1987), What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the GangesBhrahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions and facts. Mountain Research and Development, 256-263. Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. (1992), Mountain Hazards. Geo-journal 47-60. Hupp, C.R., Osterkamp, W.R. and Thornton, J.L. (1987), Dendro-Geomorphic Evidence and Dating of Recent Debris Flows on Mount Shasta, Northern California. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1396-b, Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. Ives, J.D., Mears, A.I., Carrara, P.E. and Bowies, M.J. (1976), Natural hazards in mountain, Colorado. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 129-144. Jiminez, D.V. (1992), Landslides and the squatter settlements of Caracas. Environment and Urbanization 80-89. Jones, D.K.C. (1992), Landslide hazard assessment in the context of development. In McCall, G.J.H., Laming, D.J.C. and Scott, S.C. (eds.), Geo-hazards, London: Chapman and Hall, 117-141.

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waiting for government support, should handle work. The government should provide the rescue kit absolutely free of cost, which contains all the equipment, that is required at the time of landslides and debris flows. The government should provide this kit along with the training programmes, which should be organized at all levels like school, college, university level. And all the government and private employees should get this training free of cost and the rescue kit also. This program should be launched on the basis of hazard zonation maps and the degree of vulnerability of the locality. Overall “prevention is better than cure”. REFERENCES Alexander, D. (1987b), The 1982 Urban Landslide Disaster at Ancona, Italy. Working paper 57, Boulder CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. Alexander, D. (1989), Urban Landslides, Progress In Physical Geography, 157-191. Armstrong, B.R. (1984), Avalanche accident victims in the USA. Ekistics 51, 543-546. Au, S.W.C. (1998), Rain – induced slope instability in Hong Kong, Engineering Geology, 1-36. Brabb, E.E.(1991), The world landslide problem. Episodes 14, 52-61. Cooke, R.U. (1984), Geomorphological Hazards in Los Angeles. London: Allen and Unwin. De Scally, F.A. and Gardener, J.S. (1994), Characteristics and mitigation of snow avalanche hazard in Kaghan valley, Pakistan Himalayas. Natural Hazards 197-213. Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1977), The Earth and Landuse Planning. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. Gruber, U. and Haefner, H. (1995), Avalanche hazard mapping with satellite data a digital elevation model. Applied Geography, 99-114. Gupta, R.P. and Joshi, B.C.( 1990), Landslide hazard zoning using the GIS approach: a case study from the Ramganga catchment, Himalayas. Engineering Geology, 119132. Hamilton, L.S. (1987), What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the GangesBhrahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions and facts. Mountain Research and Development, 256-263. Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. (1992), Mountain Hazards. Geo-journal 47-60. Hupp, C.R., Osterkamp, W.R. and Thornton, J.L. (1987), Dendro-Geomorphic Evidence and Dating of Recent Debris Flows on Mount Shasta, Northern California. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1396-b, Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. Ives, J.D., Mears, A.I., Carrara, P.E. and Bowies, M.J. (1976), Natural hazards in mountain, Colorado. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 129-144. Jiminez, D.V. (1992), Landslides and the squatter settlements of Caracas. Environment and Urbanization 80-89. Jones, D.K.C. (1992), Landslide hazard assessment in the context of development. In McCall, G.J.H., Laming, D.J.C. and Scott, S.C. (eds.), Geo-hazards, London: Chapman and Hall, 117-141.

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Landslide Disasters and its Management

55

Jones, D.K.C.for (1995), The Relevance Of Landslide Hazardwork. To TheThe International Decade waiting government support, should handle government should For Natural Reduction. In Landslides Hazard Particular provide the Disaster rescue kit absolutely free of cost, whichMitigation contains with all the equipment, Reference to Developing Proceedings of debris a Conference. Royal that is required at the Countries. time of landslides and flows. London: The government Academy of Engineering, 19-33. should provide this kit along with the training programmes, which should be Keaton, J.R. (1994), Risk-based probabilistic approach to site selection. Bulletin of the organized at all levels like school, college, university level. And all the Association of Engineering Geologist, 217-219. government and private employees should this(1987), training freetime of cost and the Keefer, D.K., Wilson, R.C., Mark, R.K. and Alger,get C.S. Real landslide rescue kit also. This program should be launched on the basis of hazard zonation warning during heavy rainfall. Science 921-925. maps and the degree vulnerability of the Journal locality.ofOverall “prevention Lumb, P. (1975), Slope failureof in Hong Kong. Quarterly Engineering Geology, is better 31-65. than cure”. Oaks, S.D. and Dexter, L. (1987), avalanche hazard zoining in Vail, Colorado: the use of scientific information in the implementation of hazard reduction strategies. REFERENCES Mountain Research and Development, 277-284. D. (1987b), The infrared 1982 Urban Landslide Disaster at Ancona, Penn,Alexander, S. (1984), Colour – enhanced photography of landslips. Quarterly JournalItaly. Working paper 57, Boulder CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of of Engineering Geology, 3-5. Colorado. Thomas, M. F. (1994), Geomorphology in the Tropics. Chi Chester and New York: John Alexander, D. (1989), Urban Landslides, Progress In Physical Geography, 157-191. Wiley. Armstrong, B.R. (1984), Avalanche accident victims in the USA. Ekistics 51, 543-546. Au, S.W.C. (1998), Rain – induced slope instability in Hong Kong, Engineering Geology, 1-36. Brabb, E.E.(1991), The world landslide problem. Episodes 14, 52-61. Cooke, R.U. (1984), Geomorphological Hazards in Los Angeles. London: Allen and Unwin. De Scally, F.A. and Gardener, J.S. (1994), Characteristics and mitigation of snow avalanche hazard in Kaghan valley, Pakistan Himalayas. Natural Hazards 197-213. Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1977), The Earth and Landuse Planning. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. Gruber, U. and Haefner, H. (1995), Avalanche hazard mapping with satellite data a digital elevation model. Applied Geography, 99-114. Gupta, R.P. and Joshi, B.C.( 1990), Landslide hazard zoning using the GIS approach: a case study from the Ramganga catchment, Himalayas. Engineering Geology, 119132. Hamilton, L.S. (1987), What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the GangesBhrahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions and facts. Mountain Research and Development, 256-263. Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. (1992), Mountain Hazards. Geo-journal 47-60. Hupp, C.R., Osterkamp, W.R. and Thornton, J.L. (1987), Dendro-Geomorphic Evidence and Dating of Recent Debris Flows on Mount Shasta, Northern California. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1396-b, Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. Ives, J.D., Mears, A.I., Carrara, P.E. and Bowies, M.J. (1976), Natural hazards in mountain, Colorado. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 129-144. Jiminez, D.V. (1992), Landslides and the squatter settlements of Caracas. Environment and Urbanization 80-89. Jones, D.K.C. (1992), Landslide hazard assessment in the context of development. In McCall, G.J.H., Laming, D.J.C. and Scott, S.C. (eds.), Geo-hazards, London: Chapman and Hall, 117-141.

54

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Landslide Disasters and its Management

55

Jones, D.K.C.for (1995), The Relevance Of Landslide Hazardwork. To TheThe International Decade waiting government support, should handle government should For Natural Reduction. In Landslides Hazard Particular provide the Disaster rescue kit absolutely free of cost, whichMitigation contains with all the equipment, Reference to Developing Proceedings of debris a Conference. Royal that is required at the Countries. time of landslides and flows. London: The government Academy of Engineering, 19-33. should provide this kit along with the training programmes, which should be Keaton, J.R. (1994), Risk-based probabilistic approach to site selection. Bulletin of the organized at all levels like school, college, university level. And all the Association of Engineering Geologist, 217-219. government and private employees should this(1987), training freetime of cost and the Keefer, D.K., Wilson, R.C., Mark, R.K. and Alger,get C.S. Real landslide rescue kit also. This program should be launched on the basis of hazard zonation warning during heavy rainfall. Science 921-925. maps and the degree vulnerability of the Journal locality.ofOverall “prevention Lumb, P. (1975), Slope failureof in Hong Kong. Quarterly Engineering Geology, is better 31-65. than cure”. Oaks, S.D. and Dexter, L. (1987), avalanche hazard zoining in Vail, Colorado: the use of scientific information in the implementation of hazard reduction strategies. REFERENCES Mountain Research and Development, 277-284. D. (1987b), The infrared 1982 Urban Landslide Disaster at Ancona, Penn,Alexander, S. (1984), Colour – enhanced photography of landslips. Quarterly JournalItaly. Working paper 57, Boulder CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of of Engineering Geology, 3-5. Colorado. Thomas, M. F. (1994), Geomorphology in the Tropics. Chi Chester and New York: John Alexander, D. (1989), Urban Landslides, Progress In Physical Geography, 157-191. Wiley. Armstrong, B.R. (1984), Avalanche accident victims in the USA. Ekistics 51, 543-546. Au, S.W.C. (1998), Rain – induced slope instability in Hong Kong, Engineering Geology, 1-36. Brabb, E.E.(1991), The world landslide problem. Episodes 14, 52-61. Cooke, R.U. (1984), Geomorphological Hazards in Los Angeles. London: Allen and Unwin. De Scally, F.A. and Gardener, J.S. (1994), Characteristics and mitigation of snow avalanche hazard in Kaghan valley, Pakistan Himalayas. Natural Hazards 197-213. Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1977), The Earth and Landuse Planning. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. Gruber, U. and Haefner, H. (1995), Avalanche hazard mapping with satellite data a digital elevation model. Applied Geography, 99-114. Gupta, R.P. and Joshi, B.C.( 1990), Landslide hazard zoning using the GIS approach: a case study from the Ramganga catchment, Himalayas. Engineering Geology, 119132. Hamilton, L.S. (1987), What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the GangesBhrahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions and facts. Mountain Research and Development, 256-263. Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. (1992), Mountain Hazards. Geo-journal 47-60. Hupp, C.R., Osterkamp, W.R. and Thornton, J.L. (1987), Dendro-Geomorphic Evidence and Dating of Recent Debris Flows on Mount Shasta, Northern California. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1396-b, Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. Ives, J.D., Mears, A.I., Carrara, P.E. and Bowies, M.J. (1976), Natural hazards in mountain, Colorado. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 129-144. Jiminez, D.V. (1992), Landslides and the squatter settlements of Caracas. Environment and Urbanization 80-89. Jones, D.K.C. (1992), Landslide hazard assessment in the context of development. In McCall, G.J.H., Laming, D.J.C. and Scott, S.C. (eds.), Geo-hazards, London: Chapman and Hall, 117-141.

54

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

55

Jones, D.K.C.for (1995), The Relevance Of Landslide Hazardwork. To TheThe International Decade waiting government support, should handle government should For Natural Reduction. In Landslides Hazard Particular provide the Disaster rescue kit absolutely free of cost, whichMitigation contains with all the equipment, Reference to Developing Proceedings of debris a Conference. Royal that is required at the Countries. time of landslides and flows. London: The government Academy of Engineering, 19-33. should provide this kit along with the training programmes, which should be Keaton, J.R. (1994), Risk-based probabilistic approach to site selection. Bulletin of the organized at all levels like school, college, university level. And all the Association of Engineering Geologist, 217-219. government and private employees should this(1987), training freetime of cost and the Keefer, D.K., Wilson, R.C., Mark, R.K. and Alger,get C.S. Real landslide rescue kit also. This program should be launched on the basis of hazard zonation warning during heavy rainfall. Science 921-925. maps and the degree vulnerability of the Journal locality.ofOverall “prevention Lumb, P. (1975), Slope failureof in Hong Kong. Quarterly Engineering Geology, is better 31-65. than cure”. Oaks, S.D. and Dexter, L. (1987), avalanche hazard zoining in Vail, Colorado: the use of scientific information in the implementation of hazard reduction strategies. REFERENCES Mountain Research and Development, 277-284. D. (1987b), The infrared 1982 Urban Landslide Disaster at Ancona, Penn,Alexander, S. (1984), Colour – enhanced photography of landslips. Quarterly JournalItaly. Working paper 57, Boulder CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of of Engineering Geology, 3-5. Colorado. Thomas, M. F. (1994), Geomorphology in the Tropics. Chi Chester and New York: John Alexander, D. (1989), Urban Landslides, Progress In Physical Geography, 157-191. Wiley. Armstrong, B.R. (1984), Avalanche accident victims in the USA. Ekistics 51, 543-546. Au, S.W.C. (1998), Rain – induced slope instability in Hong Kong, Engineering Geology, 1-36. Brabb, E.E.(1991), The world landslide problem. Episodes 14, 52-61. Cooke, R.U. (1984), Geomorphological Hazards in Los Angeles. London: Allen and Unwin. De Scally, F.A. and Gardener, J.S. (1994), Characteristics and mitigation of snow avalanche hazard in Kaghan valley, Pakistan Himalayas. Natural Hazards 197-213. Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1977), The Earth and Landuse Planning. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. Gruber, U. and Haefner, H. (1995), Avalanche hazard mapping with satellite data a digital elevation model. Applied Geography, 99-114. Gupta, R.P. and Joshi, B.C.( 1990), Landslide hazard zoning using the GIS approach: a case study from the Ramganga catchment, Himalayas. Engineering Geology, 119132. Hamilton, L.S. (1987), What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the GangesBhrahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions and facts. Mountain Research and Development, 256-263. Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. (1992), Mountain Hazards. Geo-journal 47-60. Hupp, C.R., Osterkamp, W.R. and Thornton, J.L. (1987), Dendro-Geomorphic Evidence and Dating of Recent Debris Flows on Mount Shasta, Northern California. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1396-b, Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. Ives, J.D., Mears, A.I., Carrara, P.E. and Bowies, M.J. (1976), Natural hazards in mountain, Colorado. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 129-144. Jiminez, D.V. (1992), Landslides and the squatter settlements of Caracas. Environment and Urbanization 80-89. Jones, D.K.C. (1992), Landslide hazard assessment in the context of development. In McCall, G.J.H., Laming, D.J.C. and Scott, S.C. (eds.), Geo-hazards, London: Chapman and Hall, 117-141.

54

Disaster Management

Landslide Disasters and its Management

55

Jones, D.K.C.for (1995), The Relevance Of Landslide Hazardwork. To TheThe International Decade waiting government support, should handle government should For Natural Reduction. In Landslides Hazard Particular provide the Disaster rescue kit absolutely free of cost, whichMitigation contains with all the equipment, Reference to Developing Proceedings of debris a Conference. Royal that is required at the Countries. time of landslides and flows. London: The government Academy of Engineering, 19-33. should provide this kit along with the training programmes, which should be Keaton, J.R. (1994), Risk-based probabilistic approach to site selection. Bulletin of the organized at all levels like school, college, university level. And all the Association of Engineering Geologist, 217-219. government and private employees should this(1987), training freetime of cost and the Keefer, D.K., Wilson, R.C., Mark, R.K. and Alger,get C.S. Real landslide rescue kit also. This program should be launched on the basis of hazard zonation warning during heavy rainfall. Science 921-925. maps and the degree vulnerability of the Journal locality.ofOverall “prevention Lumb, P. (1975), Slope failureof in Hong Kong. Quarterly Engineering Geology, is better 31-65. than cure”. Oaks, S.D. and Dexter, L. (1987), avalanche hazard zoining in Vail, Colorado: the use of scientific information in the implementation of hazard reduction strategies. REFERENCES Mountain Research and Development, 277-284. D. (1987b), The infrared 1982 Urban Landslide Disaster at Ancona, Penn,Alexander, S. (1984), Colour – enhanced photography of landslips. Quarterly JournalItaly. Working paper 57, Boulder CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of of Engineering Geology, 3-5. Colorado. Thomas, M. F. (1994), Geomorphology in the Tropics. Chi Chester and New York: John Alexander, D. (1989), Urban Landslides, Progress In Physical Geography, 157-191. Wiley. Armstrong, B.R. (1984), Avalanche accident victims in the USA. Ekistics 51, 543-546. Au, S.W.C. (1998), Rain – induced slope instability in Hong Kong, Engineering Geology, 1-36. Brabb, E.E.(1991), The world landslide problem. Episodes 14, 52-61. Cooke, R.U. (1984), Geomorphological Hazards in Los Angeles. London: Allen and Unwin. De Scally, F.A. and Gardener, J.S. (1994), Characteristics and mitigation of snow avalanche hazard in Kaghan valley, Pakistan Himalayas. Natural Hazards 197-213. Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1977), The Earth and Landuse Planning. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. Gruber, U. and Haefner, H. (1995), Avalanche hazard mapping with satellite data a digital elevation model. Applied Geography, 99-114. Gupta, R.P. and Joshi, B.C.( 1990), Landslide hazard zoning using the GIS approach: a case study from the Ramganga catchment, Himalayas. Engineering Geology, 119132. Hamilton, L.S. (1987), What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the GangesBhrahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions and facts. Mountain Research and Development, 256-263. Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. (1992), Mountain Hazards. Geo-journal 47-60. Hupp, C.R., Osterkamp, W.R. and Thornton, J.L. (1987), Dendro-Geomorphic Evidence and Dating of Recent Debris Flows on Mount Shasta, Northern California. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1396-b, Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. Ives, J.D., Mears, A.I., Carrara, P.E. and Bowies, M.J. (1976), Natural hazards in mountain, Colorado. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 129-144. Jiminez, D.V. (1992), Landslides and the squatter settlements of Caracas. Environment and Urbanization 80-89. Jones, D.K.C. (1992), Landslide hazard assessment in the context of development. In McCall, G.J.H., Laming, D.J.C. and Scott, S.C. (eds.), Geo-hazards, London: Chapman and Hall, 117-141.

Landslide Disasters and its Management

55

Jones, D.K.C. (1995), The Relevance Of Landslide Hazard To The International Decade For Natural Disaster Reduction. In Landslides Hazard Mitigation with Particular Reference to Developing Countries. Proceedings of a Conference. London: Royal Academy of Engineering, 19-33. Keaton, J.R. (1994), Risk-based probabilistic approach to site selection. Bulletin of the Association of Engineering Geologist, 217-219. Keefer, D.K., Wilson, R.C., Mark, R.K. and Alger, C.S. (1987), Real time landslide warning during heavy rainfall. Science 921-925. Lumb, P. (1975), Slope failure in Hong Kong. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 31-65. Oaks, S.D. and Dexter, L. (1987), avalanche hazard zoining in Vail, Colorado: the use of scientific information in the implementation of hazard reduction strategies. Mountain Research and Development, 277-284. Penn, S. (1984), Colour – enhanced infrared photography of landslips. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 3-5. Thomas, M. F. (1994), Geomorphology in the Tropics. Chi Chester and New York: John Wiley.

Landslide Disasters and its Management

55

Jones, D.K.C. (1995), The Relevance Of Landslide Hazard To The International Decade For Natural Disaster Reduction. In Landslides Hazard Mitigation with Particular Reference to Developing Countries. Proceedings of a Conference. London: Royal Academy of Engineering, 19-33. Keaton, J.R. (1994), Risk-based probabilistic approach to site selection. Bulletin of the Association of Engineering Geologist, 217-219. Keefer, D.K., Wilson, R.C., Mark, R.K. and Alger, C.S. (1987), Real time landslide warning during heavy rainfall. Science 921-925. Lumb, P. (1975), Slope failure in Hong Kong. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 31-65. Oaks, S.D. and Dexter, L. (1987), avalanche hazard zoining in Vail, Colorado: the use of scientific information in the implementation of hazard reduction strategies. Mountain Research and Development, 277-284. Penn, S. (1984), Colour – enhanced infrared photography of landslips. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 3-5. Thomas, M. F. (1994), Geomorphology in the Tropics. Chi Chester and New York: John Wiley.

5

Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION Flood is the most destructive natural disaster which extensively damages the life and property in India. It is very difficult to predict flood, because of its nature. It may be rightly stated that such types of natural calamities leave behind a story of death, hunger, epidemic and mass destruction. Flood is a natural phenomenon, whose roots are in monsoonal rainfall. It means that it is the result of over rainfall. Of the total annual rainfall in the country, 75 per cent is concentrated over a short monsoon season of three to four months. As a result, there is a large amount of discharge from the rivers during the monsoon period causing floods. Flood hazards are precisely called natural since they are the result from a set of natural phenomena, connected directly with the atmosphere and surviving topographical structure. It has been seen in India that most parts of north-eastern India are more frequently hit by the severe floods. This entire region is ecologically fragile with respect to flood because of the large river system of the country with its hundreds of tributaries. Floods are increasing in India with respect to intensity, magnitude and frequency. If we plot the data of floods on a hydrograph, it will be quite clear to us that the intensity of floods is increasing every year and they are caused by a large number of managerial problems in the country. Floods in India India is the most flood affected nation in the world after Bangladesh. It accounts

5

Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India Rajesh Kumar Abhay Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION Flood is the most destructive natural disaster which extensively damages the life and property in India. It is very difficult to predict flood, because of its nature. It may be rightly stated that such types of natural calamities leave behind a story of death, hunger, epidemic and mass destruction. Flood is a natural phenomenon, whose roots are in monsoonal rainfall. It means that it is the result of over rainfall. Of the total annual rainfall in the country, 75 per cent is concentrated over a short monsoon season of three to four months. As a result, there is a large amount of discharge from the rivers during the monsoon period causing floods. Flood hazards are precisely called natural since they are the result from a set of natural phenomena, connected directly with the atmosphere and surviving topographical structure. It has been seen in India that most parts of north-eastern India are more frequently hit by the severe floods. This entire region is ecologically fragile with respect to flood because of the large river system of the country with its hundreds of tributaries. Floods are increasing in India with respect to intensity, magnitude and frequency. If we plot the data of floods on a hydrograph, it will be quite clear to us that the intensity of floods is increasing every year and they are caused by a large number of managerial problems in the country. Floods in India India is the most flood affected nation in the world after Bangladesh. It accounts

5

5

Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India

Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India

Rajesh Kumar Abhay Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

Rajesh Kumar Abhay Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Flood is the most destructive natural disaster which extensively damages the life and property in India. It is very difficult to predict flood, because of its nature. It may be rightly stated that such types of natural calamities leave behind a story of death, hunger, epidemic and mass destruction. Flood is a natural phenomenon, whose roots are in monsoonal rainfall. It means that it is the result of over rainfall. Of the total annual rainfall in the country, 75 per cent is concentrated over a short monsoon season of three to four months. As a result, there is a large amount of discharge from the rivers during the monsoon period causing floods. Flood hazards are precisely called natural since they are the result from a set of natural phenomena, connected directly with the atmosphere and surviving topographical structure. It has been seen in India that most parts of north-eastern India are more frequently hit by the severe floods. This entire region is ecologically fragile with respect to flood because of the large river system of the country with its hundreds of tributaries. Floods are increasing in India with respect to intensity, magnitude and frequency. If we plot the data of floods on a hydrograph, it will be quite clear to us that the intensity of floods is increasing every year and they are caused by a large number of managerial problems in the country.

Flood is the most destructive natural disaster which extensively damages the life and property in India. It is very difficult to predict flood, because of its nature. It may be rightly stated that such types of natural calamities leave behind a story of death, hunger, epidemic and mass destruction. Flood is a natural phenomenon, whose roots are in monsoonal rainfall. It means that it is the result of over rainfall. Of the total annual rainfall in the country, 75 per cent is concentrated over a short monsoon season of three to four months. As a result, there is a large amount of discharge from the rivers during the monsoon period causing floods. Flood hazards are precisely called natural since they are the result from a set of natural phenomena, connected directly with the atmosphere and surviving topographical structure. It has been seen in India that most parts of north-eastern India are more frequently hit by the severe floods. This entire region is ecologically fragile with respect to flood because of the large river system of the country with its hundreds of tributaries. Floods are increasing in India with respect to intensity, magnitude and frequency. If we plot the data of floods on a hydrograph, it will be quite clear to us that the intensity of floods is increasing every year and they are caused by a large number of managerial problems in the country.

Floods in India

Floods in India

India is the most flood affected nation in the world after Bangladesh. It accounts

India is the most flood affected nation in the world after Bangladesh. It accounts

5

5

Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India

Flood Disaster: Its Impact, Challenges and Management in India

Rajesh Kumar Abhay Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

Rajesh Kumar Abhay Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Flood is the most destructive natural disaster which extensively damages the life and property in India. It is very difficult to predict flood, because of its nature. It may be rightly stated that such types of natural calamities leave behind a story of death, hunger, epidemic and mass destruction. Flood is a natural phenomenon, whose roots are in monsoonal rainfall. It means that it is the result of over rainfall. Of the total annual rainfall in the country, 75 per cent is concentrated over a short monsoon season of three to four months. As a result, there is a large amount of discharge from the rivers during the monsoon period causing floods. Flood hazards are precisely called natural since they are the result from a set of natural phenomena, connected directly with the atmosphere and surviving topographical structure. It has been seen in India that most parts of north-eastern India are more frequently hit by the severe floods. This entire region is ecologically fragile with respect to flood because of the large river system of the country with its hundreds of tributaries. Floods are increasing in India with respect to intensity, magnitude and frequency. If we plot the data of floods on a hydrograph, it will be quite clear to us that the intensity of floods is increasing every year and they are caused by a large number of managerial problems in the country.

Flood is the most destructive natural disaster which extensively damages the life and property in India. It is very difficult to predict flood, because of its nature. It may be rightly stated that such types of natural calamities leave behind a story of death, hunger, epidemic and mass destruction. Flood is a natural phenomenon, whose roots are in monsoonal rainfall. It means that it is the result of over rainfall. Of the total annual rainfall in the country, 75 per cent is concentrated over a short monsoon season of three to four months. As a result, there is a large amount of discharge from the rivers during the monsoon period causing floods. Flood hazards are precisely called natural since they are the result from a set of natural phenomena, connected directly with the atmosphere and surviving topographical structure. It has been seen in India that most parts of north-eastern India are more frequently hit by the severe floods. This entire region is ecologically fragile with respect to flood because of the large river system of the country with its hundreds of tributaries. Floods are increasing in India with respect to intensity, magnitude and frequency. If we plot the data of floods on a hydrograph, it will be quite clear to us that the intensity of floods is increasing every year and they are caused by a large number of managerial problems in the country.

Floods in India

Floods in India

India is the most flood affected nation in the world after Bangladesh. It accounts

India is the most flood affected nation in the world after Bangladesh. It accounts

58

Disaster Management

for one-fifth (1/5) of global deaths due to floods and on an average thirty million people are evacuated every year. So floods in India are not a new phenomenon. “Unprecedented floods” take place every year in one state or another of the country. India has been traditionally affected by flood. The vulnerability of the states of India due to floods was not observed severely in the past due to low developmental activities and lack of population interest. However, in the present time, modern population and the high rate of developmental activities has forced of houses the occupation on flood plains and this makes the society highly vulnerable to flood losses. India is one of the richest countries in the world with regard to its water resources and it is continuously affected by this natural resource in the form of floods. India receives 75 per cent of its total annual rainfall in just 100 hours of four months of the rainy season (monsoon). In monsoon seasons, all rivers flow with large amounts of water. These rivers bring floods to the plain areas because of the low slopes and the fast flow of the water. In the last few decades in India the magnitude and the intensity of flood occurrence has increased tremendously. According to the CSE (Centre for Science and Environment), in the present time floods are not only a research issue but have now become a critical topic to think about for the environmentalist, Hydrologist, Geographers and for other disciplines also. Now the need for proper management of water has been felt due to the floods. In India, 22 states and one Union territory (Andaman & Nicobar) are vulnerable to Floods. However, the most vulnerable states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. In a district wise in 1991, there were 137 districts which were vulnerable to floods (Fig. 1).

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Flood Disaster

59

for one-fifth (1/5) of global due toflooding floods from and rainwater on an average Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones etc.. deaths Catastrophic is oftenthirty million by people are evacuated are floods, not a new aggravated wind-induced storm every surgesyear. alongSothefloods coast.inAsIndia in river phenomenon. floods” take every year in one state or intense rain falling “Unprecedented over a large geographical area place will produce extreme flooding anotherriver of basins the country. India has been traditionally affected by flood. The in coastal of the According states of India due to floods was(1980) not observed Areavulnerability Prone to Floods: to Rashtriya Bar Agog the areaseverely prone in the past duecountry to low was developmental and lack of population interest. to floods in the of the orderactivities of 40 million hectares, out of which However, in the time,as modern population 32 million ha. has beenpresent considered a protectable area. and the high rate of developmental activities has forced of houses the occupation on flood plains and this makes the society highly vulnerable to flood losses. Flood Damage India is one of the richest countries in the world with regard to its water An analysis datait inis different statesaffected for the by period 1953-97 reveals the of resourcesofand continuously this of natural resource in that the form average annual damage to crops, houses and public utilities in the country was floods. India receives 75 per cent of its total annual rainfall in just 100 hours around Rs. 9380 million. an season average, an area ofInabout 8 million hectares of four months of the On rainy (monsoon). monsoon seasons, all rivers (19.6flow million was flooded, of which, average crop areatoaffected wasareas withacres) large amounts of water. Theseanrivers bring floods the plain of the order of of the 3.7low million hectares million acres). The on because slopes and the(9.14 fast flow of the water. In floods the lastclaim few decades an average livesand andthe 10,000 headsofofflood dead occurrence cattle every has year.increased in India1532 the human magnitude intensity tremendously. According to the CSE (Centre for Science and Environment), in the present time floods are not only a research issue but have now become a critical topic to think about for the environmentalist, Hydrologist, Geographers and for other disciplines also. Now the need for proper management of water has been felt due to the floods. In India, 22 states and one Union territory (Andaman & Nicobar) are vulnerable to Floods. However, the most vulnerable states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. In a district wise in 1991, there were 137 districts which were vulnerable to floods (Fig. 1).

Types of Floods

Types of Floods

Flash Floods: Such floods occur within six hours during heavy rainfall and usually are associated with towering cumulus clouds, severe thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during the passage of cold weather fronts. This type of flooding requires rapid localized warnings and immediate response by affected communities. Other causes of flash floods include Dam failure or other river obstructions. River Floods: Such floods are caused by precipitation over large catchment areas or by the melting of snow or sometimes both. They take place in river systems with tributaries that may cover or drain large geographical areas and encompass many independent river basins. These floods normally build up slowly or seasonally and may continue for days or weeks as compared with flash floods. Factors like ground conditions like moisture, vegetation cover, depth of snow etc. and the size of the catchment basin govern the amount of flooding. e.g. Main rivers of India like Ganga, Brahmaputra and Yamuna etc. Coastal Floods: Some floods are associated with the cyclonic activities like

Flash Floods: Such floods occur within six hours during heavy rainfall and usually are associated with towering cumulus clouds, severe thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during the passage of cold weather fronts. This type of flooding requires rapid localized warnings and immediate response by affected communities. Other causes of flash floods include Dam failure or other river obstructions. River Floods: Such floods are caused by precipitation over large catchment areas or by the melting of snow or sometimes both. They take place in river systems with tributaries that may cover or drain large geographical areas and encompass many independent river basins. These floods normally build up slowly or seasonally and may continue for days or weeks as compared with flash floods. Factors like ground conditions like moisture, vegetation cover, depth of snow etc. and the size of the catchment basin govern the amount of flooding. e.g. Main rivers of India like Ganga, Brahmaputra and Yamuna etc. Coastal Floods: Some associated with the cyclonic activities like Fig. 1floods : Floodare Zone Map of India

58

58

Disaster Management

for one-fifth (1/5) of global deaths due to floods and on an average thirty million people are evacuated every year. So floods in India are not a new phenomenon. “Unprecedented floods” take place every year in one state or another of the country. India has been traditionally affected by flood. The vulnerability of the states of India due to floods was not observed severely in the past due to low developmental activities and lack of population interest. However, in the present time, modern population and the high rate of developmental activities has forced of houses the occupation on flood plains and this makes the society highly vulnerable to flood losses. India is one of the richest countries in the world with regard to its water resources and it is continuously affected by this natural resource in the form of floods. India receives 75 per cent of its total annual rainfall in just 100 hours of four months of the rainy season (monsoon). In monsoon seasons, all rivers flow with large amounts of water. These rivers bring floods to the plain areas because of the low slopes and the fast flow of the water. In the last few decades in India the magnitude and the intensity of flood occurrence has increased tremendously. According to the CSE (Centre for Science and Environment), in the present time floods are not only a research issue but have now become a critical topic to think about for the environmentalist, Hydrologist, Geographers and for other disciplines also. Now the need for proper management of water has been felt due to the floods. In India, 22 states and one Union territory (Andaman & Nicobar) are vulnerable to Floods. However, the most vulnerable states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. In a district wise in 1991, there were 137 districts which were vulnerable to floods (Fig. 1).

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

59

for one-fifth (1/5) of global due toflooding floods from and rainwater on an average Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones etc.. deaths Catastrophic is oftenthirty million by people are evacuated are floods, not a new aggravated wind-induced storm every surgesyear. alongSothefloods coast.inAsIndia in river phenomenon. floods” take every year in one state or intense rain falling “Unprecedented over a large geographical area place will produce extreme flooding anotherriver of basins the country. India has been traditionally affected by flood. The in coastal of the According states of India due to floods was(1980) not observed Areavulnerability Prone to Floods: to Rashtriya Bar Agog the areaseverely prone in the past duecountry to low was developmental and lack of population interest. to floods in the of the orderactivities of 40 million hectares, out of which However, in the time,as modern population 32 million ha. has beenpresent considered a protectable area. and the high rate of developmental activities has forced of houses the occupation on flood plains and this makes the society highly vulnerable to flood losses. Flood Damage India is one of the richest countries in the world with regard to its water An analysis datait inis different statesaffected for the by period 1953-97 reveals the of resourcesofand continuously this of natural resource in that the form average annual to 75 crops, publicannual utilities in theincountry was floods. Indiadamage receives per houses cent ofand its total rainfall just 100 hours around Rs. 9380 million. On an average, an area of about 8 million hectares of four months of the rainy season (monsoon). In monsoon seasons, all rivers (19.6flow million was flooded, of which, average crop areatoaffected wasareas withacres) large amounts of water. Theseanrivers bring floods the plain of the order of of the 3.7low million hectares million acres). The on because slopes and the(9.14 fast flow of the water. In floods the lastclaim few decades an average livesand andthe 10,000 headsofofflood dead occurrence cattle every has year.increased in India1532 the human magnitude intensity tremendously. According to the CSE (Centre for Science and Environment), in the present time floods are not only a research issue but have now become a critical topic to think about for the environmentalist, Hydrologist, Geographers and for other disciplines also. Now the need for proper management of water has been felt due to the floods. In India, 22 states and one Union territory (Andaman & Nicobar) are vulnerable to Floods. However, the most vulnerable states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. In a district wise in 1991, there were 137 districts which were vulnerable to floods (Fig. 1).

Types of Floods

Types of Floods

Flash Floods: Such floods occur within six hours during heavy rainfall and usually are associated with towering cumulus clouds, severe thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during the passage of cold weather fronts. This type of flooding requires rapid localized warnings and immediate response by affected communities. Other causes of flash floods include Dam failure or other river obstructions. River Floods: Such floods are caused by precipitation over large catchment areas or by the melting of snow or sometimes both. They take place in river systems with tributaries that may cover or drain large geographical areas and encompass many independent river basins. These floods normally build up slowly or seasonally and may continue for days or weeks as compared with flash floods. Factors like ground conditions like moisture, vegetation cover, depth of snow etc. and the size of the catchment basin govern the amount of flooding. e.g. Main rivers of India like Ganga, Brahmaputra and Yamuna etc. Coastal Floods: Some floods are associated with the cyclonic activities like

Flash Floods: Such floods occur within six hours during heavy rainfall and usually are associated with towering cumulus clouds, severe thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during the passage of cold weather fronts. This type of flooding requires rapid localized warnings and immediate response by affected communities. Other causes of flash floods include Dam failure or other river obstructions. River Floods: Such floods are caused by precipitation over large catchment areas or by the melting of snow or sometimes both. They take place in river systems with tributaries that may cover or drain large geographical areas and encompass many independent river basins. These floods normally build up slowly or seasonally and may continue for days or weeks as compared with flash floods. Factors like ground conditions like moisture, vegetation cover, depth of snow etc. and the size of the catchment basin govern the amount of flooding. e.g. Main rivers of India like Ganga, Brahmaputra and Yamuna etc. Coastal Floods: Some associated with the cyclonic activities like Fig. 1floods : Floodare Zone Map of India

58

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

59

Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones etc.. deaths Catastrophic is oftenthirty for one-fifth (1/5) of global due toflooding floods from and rainwater on an average aggravated wind-induced storm every surgesyear. alongSothefloods coast.inAsIndia in river million by people are evacuated are floods, not a new intense rain falling “Unprecedented over a large geographical area place will produce extreme flooding phenomenon. floods” take every year in one state or in coastal anotherriver of basins the country. India has been traditionally affected by flood. The Areavulnerability Prone to Floods: to Rashtriya Bar Agog the areaseverely prone in of the According states of India due to floods was(1980) not observed to floods in the of the orderactivities of 40 million hectares, out of which the past duecountry to low was developmental and lack of population interest. 32 million ha. has beenpresent considered a protectable area. and the high rate of However, in the time,as modern population developmental activities has forced of houses the occupation on flood plains and this makes the society highly vulnerable to flood losses. Flood Damage India is one of the richest countries in the world with regard to its water An analysis datait inis different statesaffected for the by period 1953-97 reveals the of resourcesofand continuously this of natural resource in that the form average annual damage to crops, houses and public utilities in the country was floods. India receives 75 per cent of its total annual rainfall in just 100 hours around Rs. 9380 million. an season average, an area ofInabout 8 million hectares of four months of the On rainy (monsoon). monsoon seasons, all rivers (19.6flow million was flooded, of which, average crop areatoaffected wasareas withacres) large amounts of water. Theseanrivers bring floods the plain of the order of of the 3.7low million hectares million acres). The on because slopes and the(9.14 fast flow of the water. In floods the lastclaim few decades an average livesand andthe 10,000 headsofofflood dead occurrence cattle every has year.increased in India1532 the human magnitude intensity tremendously. According to the CSE (Centre for Science and Environment), in the present time floods are not only a research issue but have now become a critical topic to think about for the environmentalist, Hydrologist, Geographers and for other disciplines also. Now the need for proper management of water has been felt due to the floods. In India, 22 states and one Union territory (Andaman & Nicobar) are vulnerable to Floods. However, the most vulnerable states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. In a district wise in 1991, there were 137 districts which were vulnerable to floods (Fig. 1).

Flood Disaster

59

Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones etc.. Catastrophic flooding from rainwater is often aggravated by wind-induced storm surges along the coast. As in river floods, intense rain falling over a large geographical area will produce extreme flooding in coastal river basins Area Prone to Floods: According to Rashtriya Bar Agog (1980) the area prone to floods in the country was of the order of 40 million hectares, out of which 32 million ha. has been considered as a protectable area. Flood Damage An analysis of data in different states for the period of 1953-97 reveals that the average annual damage to crops, houses and public utilities in the country was around Rs. 9380 million. On an average, an area of about 8 million hectares (19.6 million acres) was flooded, of which, an average crop area affected was of the order of 3.7 million hectares (9.14 million acres). The floods claim on an average 1532 human lives and 10,000 heads of dead cattle every year.

Types of Floods Flash Floods: Such floods occur within six hours during heavy rainfall and usually are associated with towering cumulus clouds, severe thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during the passage of cold weather fronts. This type of flooding requires rapid localized warnings and immediate response by affected communities. Other causes of flash floods include Dam failure or other river obstructions. River Floods: Such floods are caused by precipitation over large catchment areas or by the melting of snow or sometimes both. They take place in river systems with tributaries that may cover or drain large geographical areas and encompass many independent river basins. These floods normally build up slowly or seasonally and may continue for days or weeks as compared with flash floods. Factors like ground conditions like moisture, vegetation cover, depth of snow etc. and the size of the catchment basin govern the amount of flooding. e.g. Main rivers of India like Ganga, Brahmaputra and Yamuna etc. Coastal Floods: Some associated with the cyclonic activities like Fig. 1floods : Floodare Zone Map of India

58

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

Fig. 1 : Flood Zone Map of India

59

Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones etc.. deaths Catastrophic is oftenthirty for one-fifth (1/5) of global due toflooding floods from and rainwater on an average aggravated wind-induced storm every surgesyear. alongSothefloods coast.inAsIndia in river million by people are evacuated are floods, not a new intense rain falling “Unprecedented over a large geographical area place will produce extreme flooding phenomenon. floods” take every year in one state or in coastal anotherriver of basins the country. India has been traditionally affected by flood. The Areavulnerability Prone to Floods: to Rashtriya Bar Agog the areaseverely prone in of the According states of India due to floods was(1980) not observed to floods in the of the orderactivities of 40 million hectares, out of which the past duecountry to low was developmental and lack of population interest. 32 million ha. has beenpresent considered a protectable area. and the high rate of However, in the time,as modern population developmental activities has forced of houses the occupation on flood plains and this makes the society highly vulnerable to flood losses. Flood Damage India is one of the richest countries in the world with regard to its water An analysis datait inis different statesaffected for the by period 1953-97 reveals the of resourcesofand continuously this of natural resource in that the form average annual to 75 crops, publicannual utilities in theincountry was floods. Indiadamage receives per houses cent ofand its total rainfall just 100 hours around Rs. 9380 million. On an average, an area of about 8 million hectares of four months of the rainy season (monsoon). In monsoon seasons, all rivers (19.6flow million was flooded, of which, average crop areatoaffected wasareas withacres) large amounts of water. Theseanrivers bring floods the plain of the order of of the 3.7low million hectares million acres). The on because slopes and the(9.14 fast flow of the water. In floods the lastclaim few decades an average livesand andthe 10,000 headsofofflood dead occurrence cattle every has year.increased in India1532 the human magnitude intensity tremendously. According to the CSE (Centre for Science and Environment), in the present time floods are not only a research issue but have now become a critical topic to think about for the environmentalist, Hydrologist, Geographers and for other disciplines also. Now the need for proper management of water has been felt due to the floods. In India, 22 states and one Union territory (Andaman & Nicobar) are vulnerable to Floods. However, the most vulnerable states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. In a district wise in 1991, there were 137 districts which were vulnerable to floods (Fig. 1).

Flood Disaster

Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones etc.. Catastrophic flooding from rainwater is often aggravated by wind-induced storm surges along the coast. As in river floods, intense rain falling over a large geographical area will produce extreme flooding in coastal river basins Area Prone to Floods: According to Rashtriya Bar Agog (1980) the area prone to floods in the country was of the order of 40 million hectares, out of which 32 million ha. has been considered as a protectable area. Flood Damage An analysis of data in different states for the period of 1953-97 reveals that the average annual damage to crops, houses and public utilities in the country was around Rs. 9380 million. On an average, an area of about 8 million hectares (19.6 million acres) was flooded, of which, an average crop area affected was of the order of 3.7 million hectares (9.14 million acres). The floods claim on an average 1532 human lives and 10,000 heads of dead cattle every year.

Types of Floods Flash Floods: Such floods occur within six hours during heavy rainfall and usually are associated with towering cumulus clouds, severe thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during the passage of cold weather fronts. This type of flooding requires rapid localized warnings and immediate response by affected communities. Other causes of flash floods include Dam failure or other river obstructions. River Floods: Such floods are caused by precipitation over large catchment areas or by the melting of snow or sometimes both. They take place in river systems with tributaries that may cover or drain large geographical areas and encompass many independent river basins. These floods normally build up slowly or seasonally and may continue for days or weeks as compared with flash floods. Factors like ground conditions like moisture, vegetation cover, depth of snow etc. and the size of the catchment basin govern the amount of flooding. e.g. Main rivers of India like Ganga, Brahmaputra and Yamuna etc. Coastal Floods: Some associated with the cyclonic activities like Fig. 1floods : Floodare Zone Map of India

59

Fig. 1 : Flood Zone Map of India

60

Effects of Floods Precisely, the flood hazards have the following impacts on the various anthropogenic activities including two major sectors i.e. agriculture and socioeconomic conditions of society: 1. Every year millions of people become homeless, rendered for shelter for many days and force to stay under the open sky. 2. Millions of houses and settlements have been damaged and large number of them collapsed. 3. Hundreds of people fled away in the flood water and equally numbers have been died either due to lack of food availability or epidemics. 4. Millions hectares of agricultural land come under the deep flood water and not in the condition for further cultivation. 5. Millions of tonnes of fertile top soil have been eroded by several major rivers and their tributaries in the country and ultimately they have been deposited in the sea. 6. Thousands of hectares of land have been converted into waste land/barren land resulting in problems where a lot of salinity and alkalinity including water logging, originate. 7. Production of certain agricultural crops including cash crops are either drastically gone down or have lost their quality and quantity. 8. Due to the standing of large quantities of flood water at certain places for long time, various types of water borne diseases and groundwater table, suddenly rise up. 9. Thousands of livestock have either fled away in flood water or have died in the wake of a fodder shortage. 10. Landslides followed by incessant rains during floods are a very common phenomena. Flood-producing rains can trigger catastrophic debris slides. 11. National and state highways including other associated link roads have been submerged in flood water. Consequently the failure of traffic for several weeks or so results in a heavy disruption of economic and commercial activities. 12. Due to the submergence of railway tracks in flood water in several rail route sections, rail services are either cancelled or badly disrupted and the result is that villages remain cut-off from the main land until the flood subsides. 13. The power supply has been totally damaged both with water and electricity because almost all electric poles are at times uprooted, especially in coastal areas by the speedy winds accompanied by heavy rains. 14. The telecommunication networks system has also been hit on a large scale. 15. The rural economy has been severely affected and the land destabilized. Flood Disaster Management The various measures adopted for flood Disaster Management may be categorized into two groups:

60

60

Disaster Management

Precisely, the flood hazards have the following impacts on the various anthropogenic activities including two major sectors i.e. agriculture and socioeconomic conditions of society: 1. Every year millions of people become homeless, rendered for shelter for many days and force to stay under the open sky. 2. Millions of houses and settlements have been damaged and large number of them collapsed. 3. Hundreds of people fled away in the flood water and equally numbers have been died either due to lack of food availability or epidemics. 4. Millions hectares of agricultural land come under the deep flood water and not in the condition for further cultivation. 5. Millions of tonnes of fertile top soil have been eroded by several major rivers and their tributaries in the country and ultimately they have been deposited in the sea. 6. Thousands of hectares of land have been converted into waste land/barren land resulting in problems where a lot of salinity and alkalinity including water logging, originate. 7. Production of certain agricultural crops including cash crops are either drastically gone down or have lost their quality and quantity. 8. Due to the standing of large quantities of flood water at certain places for long time, various types of water borne diseases and groundwater table, suddenly rise up. 9. Thousands of livestock have either fled away in flood water or have died in the wake of a fodder shortage. 10. Landslides followed by incessant rains during floods are a very common phenomena. Flood-producing rains can trigger catastrophic debris slides. 11. National and state highways including other associated link roads have been submerged in flood water. Consequently the failure of traffic for several weeks or so results in a heavy disruption of economic and commercial activities. 12. Due to the submergence of railway tracks in flood water in several rail route sections, rail services are either cancelled or badly disrupted and the result is that villages remain cut-off from the main land until the flood subsides. 13. The power supply has been totally damaged both with water and electricity because almost all electric poles are at times uprooted, especially in coastal areas by the speedy winds accompanied by heavy rains. 14. The telecommunication networks system has also been hit on a large scale. 15. The rural economy has been severely affected and the land destabilized. Flood Disaster Management The various measures adopted for flood Disaster Management may be categorized into two groups:

Flood Disaster

61

Effects of Floods Structural Non- structural Precisely, the flood hazards have the following impacts on the various anthropogenic activities including two major sectors i.e. agriculture and socioThe general approach was aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching economic conditions of society: the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of 1. Every year millions of people become homeless, rendered for shelter for many embankments came up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of days and force to stay under the open sky. the flood protection programme undertaken in the country so far is in the form 2. Millions of houses and settlements have been damaged and large number of of structural measures which may be grouped into the following: them collapsed. • Dams and Reservoirs 3. Hundreds of people fled away in the flood water and equally numbers have • Embankments, Flood Walls, Sea Wall been died either due to lack of food availability or epidemics. • Channel Improvement 4. Millions hectares of agricultural land come under the deep flood water and • Drainage Improvement not in the condition for further cultivation. • Diversion of floodwaters. 5. Millions of tonnes of fertile top soil have been eroded by several major rivers and their tributaries in the country and ultimately they have been deposited in For the effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is the sea. necessary that pre- and post-monsoon checks must be made and special repairs 6. Thousands of hectares of land have been converted into waste land/barren must be carried out prior to the flood period. land resulting in problems where a lot of salinity and alkalinity including water logging, originate. Table 1: Details of Devastating Floods occurred during 1980-1996. 7. Production of certain agricultural crops including cash crops are either S. No. Duration Area lost Affected drastically gone down or have their quality and Synoptic quantity. Systems Due to the1980 standing of large quantities of flood waterLow at certain places 1 8. 17-23 July East Uttar Pradesh pressure areafor long various1980 types of water borne& diseases and groundwater table, suddenly 2 7 time, –27 August Central Southwest Uttar Pradesh Land depression rise up. 3 9. 4-10 September 1980 Southeast Uttaraway Pradesh Landwater depression Thousands of livestock have either fled in flood or have died in 4 18-24 September 1980 South Orissa Deep Depression the wake of a fodder shortage. 5 18-24 September 1980 Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 10. Landslides followed by incessant rains during floods are a very common 6 18-24 September 1980 Central Uttar Pradesh Deep Depression phenomena. rains can trigger catastrophic debrisarea slides. 7 9-15 July 1981Flood-producing Gujarat Low pressure 11. National and state highways including other associated link roads have been 8 16-22 July 1981 Rajasthan Low pressure area 9 9-29 July 1981 Pradesh the failure of Low pressure area weeks submerged in flood water. Uttar Consequently traffic for several 10 6-12 1981 East UttarofPradesh storm or soAugust results in a heavy disruption economic andCyclonic commercial activities. 11 12.3-9 September 1981 East Uttar tracks Pradesh Land depression Due to the submergence of railway in flood water in several rail route 12 19-25 August 1982 East Madhya Pradesh Well marked low sections, rail services are either cancelled or badly disrupted and the result is pressure area that villages remain cut-off fromOrissa the main land untilDepression the flood subsides. 13 28-31 August 1982 North 13. The power supply has been totally damaged both with and electricity 14 30 Aug.- 3Sept. 1982 Uttar Pradesh Landwater Depression 15 20-23 Junealmost 1983 all electricGujarat Land especially depressionin coastal because poles are at times uprooted, 16 11-17 1983 windsWest Maharashtra Trough off areasAugust by the speedy accompanied by heavy rains. Maharashtra coastscale. 14. The telecommunication networks system has also been hit on a large 17 18-31 August 1983 Northeast Uttar Pradesh Low pressure area 15. The rural economy has been severely affected and the land destabilized. • •

18

Marathwada and west Maharashtra Low pressure area 19 Flood 8-14Disaster September 1983 Southeast Uttar Pradesh Management 20 21-27 June 1984 West Bengal Well marked low area The various measures adopted for flood Disasterpressure Management may be 21 categorized 28 June-11July 1984 Land depression into two groups: Uttar Pradesh 22 23 Aug. 5 Sept. 1985 Bihar Low pressure area

15-19 September 1983

60

Disaster Management

Effects of Floods

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

61

Effects of Floods Structural Non- structural Precisely, the flood hazards have the following impacts on the various anthropogenic activities including two major sectors i.e. agriculture and socioThe general approach was aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching economic conditions of society: the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of 1. Every year millions of people become homeless, rendered for shelter for many embankments came up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of days and force to stay under the open sky. the flood protection programme undertaken in the country so far is in the form 2. Millions of houses and settlements have been damaged and large number of of structural measures which may be grouped into the following: them collapsed. • Dams and Reservoirs 3. Hundreds of people fled away in the flood water and equally numbers have • Embankments, Flood Walls, Sea Wall been died either due to lack of food availability or epidemics. • Channel Improvement 4. Millions hectares of agricultural land come under the deep flood water and • Drainage Improvement not in the condition for further cultivation. • Diversion of floodwaters. 5. Millions of tonnes of fertile top soil have been eroded by several major rivers and their tributaries in the country and ultimately they have been deposited in For the effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is the sea. necessary that pre- and post-monsoon checks must be made and special repairs 6. Thousands of hectares of land have been converted into waste land/barren must be carried out prior to the flood period. land resulting in problems where a lot of salinity and alkalinity including water logging, originate. Table 1: Details of Devastating Floods occurred during 1980-1996. 7. Production of certain agricultural crops including cash crops are either S. No. Duration Area lost Affected drastically gone down or have their quality and Synoptic quantity. Systems Due to the1980 standing of large quantities of flood waterLow at certain places 1 8. 17-23 July East Uttar Pradesh pressure areafor long time, various types of water borne diseases and groundwater table, suddenly 2 7 –27 August 1980 Central & Southwest Uttar Pradesh Land depression rise up. 3 9. 4-10 September 1980 Southeast Uttaraway Pradesh Landwater depression Thousands of livestock have either fled in flood or have died in 4 18-24 September 1980 South Orissa Deep Depression the wake of a fodder shortage. 5 18-24 September 1980 Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 10. Landslides followed by incessant rains during floods are a very common 6 18-24 September 1980 Central Uttar Pradesh Deep Depression phenomena. rains can trigger catastrophic debrisarea slides. 7 9-15 July 1981Flood-producing Gujarat Low pressure 11. National and state highways including other associated link roads have been 8 16-22 July 1981 Rajasthan Low pressure area 9 9-29 July 1981 Pradesh the failure of Low pressure area weeks submerged in flood water. Uttar Consequently traffic for several 10 6-12 1981 East UttarofPradesh storm or soAugust results in a heavy disruption economic andCyclonic commercial activities. 11 12.3-9 September 1981 East Uttar Pradesh Land depression Due to the submergence of railway tracks in flood water in several rail route 12 19-25 August 1982 East Madhya Pradesh Well marked low sections, rail services are either cancelled or badly disrupted and the result is pressure area that villages remain cut-off fromOrissa the main land untilDepression the flood subsides. 13 28-31 August 1982 North 13. The power supply has been totally damaged both with and electricity 14 30 Aug.- 3Sept. 1982 Uttar Pradesh Landwater Depression 15 20-23 Junealmost 1983 all electricGujarat Land especially depressionin coastal because poles are at times uprooted, 16 11-17 1983 windsWest Maharashtra Trough off areasAugust by the speedy accompanied by heavy rains. Maharashtra coastscale. 14. The telecommunication networks system has also been hit on a large 17 18-31 August 1983 Northeast Uttar Pradesh Low pressure area 15. The rural economy has been severely affected and the land destabilized. • •

18

15-19 September 1983

Marathwada and west Maharashtra Low pressure area 19 Flood 8-14Disaster September 1983 Southeast Uttar Pradesh Management 20 21-27 June 1984 West Bengal Well marked low area The various measures adopted for flood Disasterpressure Management may be 21 categorized 28 June-11July 1984 Land depression into two groups: Uttar Pradesh 22 23 Aug. 5 Sept. 1985 Bihar Low pressure area

60

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

61

Structural Effects of Floods Non- structural Precisely, the flood hazards have the following impacts on the various anthropogenic activities including two major sectors i.e. agriculture and socioThe general approach was aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching economic conditions of society: the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of 1. Every year millions of people become homeless, rendered for shelter for many embankments came up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of days and force to stay under the open sky. the flood protection programme undertaken in the country so far is in the form 2. Millions of houses and settlements have been damaged and large number of of structural measures which may be grouped into the following: them collapsed. • Dams and Reservoirs 3. Hundreds of people fled away in the flood water and equally numbers have • Embankments, Flood Walls, Sea Wall been died either due to lack of food availability or epidemics. • Channel Improvement 4. Millions hectares of agricultural land come under the deep flood water and • Drainage Improvement not in the condition for further cultivation. • Diversion of floodwaters. 5. Millions of tonnes of fertile top soil have been eroded by several major rivers and their tributaries in the country and ultimately they have been deposited in For the effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is the sea. necessary that pre- and post-monsoon checks must be made and special repairs 6. Thousands of hectares of land have been converted into waste land/barren must be carried out prior to the flood period. land resulting in problems where a lot of salinity and alkalinity including water logging, originate. Table 1: Details of Devastating Floods occurred during 1980-1996. 7. Production of certain agricultural crops including cash crops are either S. No. Duration Area lost Affected drastically gone down or have their quality and Synoptic quantity. Systems Due to the1980 standing of large quantities of flood waterLow at certain places 1 8. 17-23 July East Uttar Pradesh pressure areafor long various1980 types of water borne& diseases and groundwater table, suddenly 2 7 time, –27 August Central Southwest Uttar Pradesh Land depression rise up. 3 9. 4-10 September 1980 Southeast Uttaraway Pradesh Landwater depression Thousands of livestock have either fled in flood or have died in 4 18-24 September 1980 South Orissa Deep Depression the wake of a fodder shortage. 5 18-24 September 1980 Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 10. Landslides followed by incessant rains during floods are a very common 6 18-24 September 1980 Central Uttar Pradesh Deep Depression phenomena. rains can trigger catastrophic debrisarea slides. 7 9-15 July 1981Flood-producing Gujarat Low pressure 11. National and state highways including other associated link roads have been 8 16-22 July 1981 Rajasthan Low pressure area 9 9-29 July 1981 Pradesh the failure of Low pressure area weeks submerged in flood water. Uttar Consequently traffic for several 10 6-12 1981 East UttarofPradesh storm or soAugust results in a heavy disruption economic andCyclonic commercial activities. 11 12.3-9 September 1981 East Uttar tracks Pradesh Land depression Due to the submergence of railway in flood water in several rail route 12 19-25 August 1982 East Madhya Pradesh Well marked low sections, rail services are either cancelled or badly disrupted and the result is pressure area that villages remain cut-off fromOrissa the main land untilDepression the flood subsides. 13 28-31 August 1982 North 13. The power supply has been totally damaged both with and electricity 14 30 Aug.- 3Sept. 1982 Uttar Pradesh Landwater Depression 15 20-23 Junealmost 1983 all electricGujarat Land especially depressionin coastal because poles are at times uprooted, 16 11-17 1983 windsWest Maharashtra Trough off areasAugust by the speedy accompanied by heavy rains. Maharashtra coastscale. 14. The telecommunication networks system has also been hit on a large 17 18-31 August 1983 Northeast Uttar Pradesh Low pressure area 15. The rural economy has been severely affected and the land destabilized. • •

18

15-19 September 1983

Marathwada and west Maharashtra Low pressure area 19 Flood 8-14Disaster September 1983 Southeast Uttar Pradesh Management 20 21-27 June 1984 West Bengal Well marked low area The various measures adopted for flood Disasterpressure Management may be 21 categorized 28 June-11July 1984 Land depression into two groups: Uttar Pradesh 22 23 Aug. 5 Sept. 1985 Bihar Low pressure area

60

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

Structural Effects of Floods Non- structural Precisely, the flood hazards have the following impacts on the various anthropogenic activities including two major sectors i.e. agriculture and socioThe general approach was aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching economic conditions of society: the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of 1. Every year millions of people become homeless, rendered for shelter for many embankments came up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of days and force to stay under the open sky. the flood protection programme undertaken in the country so far is in the form 2. Millions of houses and settlements have been damaged and large number of of structural measures which may be grouped into the following: them collapsed. • Dams and Reservoirs 3. Hundreds of people fled away in the flood water and equally numbers have • Embankments, Flood Walls, Sea Wall been died either due to lack of food availability or epidemics. • Channel Improvement 4. Millions hectares of agricultural land come under the deep flood water and • Drainage Improvement not in the condition for further cultivation. • Diversion of floodwaters. 5. Millions of tonnes of fertile top soil have been eroded by several major rivers and their tributaries in the country and ultimately they have been deposited in For the effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is the sea. necessary that pre- and post-monsoon checks must be made and special repairs 6. Thousands of hectares of land have been converted into waste land/barren must be carried out prior to the flood period. land resulting in problems where a lot of salinity and alkalinity including water logging, originate. Table 1: Details of Devastating Floods occurred during 1980-1996. 7. Production of certain agricultural crops including cash crops are either S. No. Duration Area lost Affected drastically gone down or have their quality and Synoptic quantity. Systems Due to the1980 standing of large quantities of flood waterLow at certain places 1 8. 17-23 July East Uttar Pradesh pressure areafor long time, various types of water borne diseases and groundwater table, suddenly 2 7 –27 August 1980 Central & Southwest Uttar Pradesh Land depression rise up. 3 9. 4-10 September 1980 Southeast Uttaraway Pradesh Landwater depression Thousands of livestock have either fled in flood or have died in 4 18-24 September 1980 South Orissa Deep Depression the wake of a fodder shortage. 5 18-24 September 1980 Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 10. Landslides followed by incessant rains during floods are a very common 6 18-24 September 1980 Central Uttar Pradesh Deep Depression phenomena. rains can trigger catastrophic debrisarea slides. 7 9-15 July 1981Flood-producing Gujarat Low pressure 11. National and state highways including other associated link roads have been 8 16-22 July 1981 Rajasthan Low pressure area 9 9-29 July 1981 Pradesh the failure of Low pressure area weeks submerged in flood water. Uttar Consequently traffic for several 10 6-12 1981 East UttarofPradesh storm or soAugust results in a heavy disruption economic andCyclonic commercial activities. 11 12.3-9 September 1981 East Uttar Pradesh Land depression Due to the submergence of railway tracks in flood water in several rail route 12 19-25 August 1982 East Madhya Pradesh Well marked low sections, rail services are either cancelled or badly disrupted and the result is pressure area that villages remain cut-off fromOrissa the main land untilDepression the flood subsides. 13 28-31 August 1982 North 13. The power supply has been totally damaged both with and electricity 14 30 Aug.- 3Sept. 1982 Uttar Pradesh Landwater Depression 15 20-23 Junealmost 1983 all electricGujarat Land especially depressionin coastal because poles are at times uprooted, 16 11-17 1983 windsWest Maharashtra Trough off areasAugust by the speedy accompanied by heavy rains. Maharashtra coastscale. 14. The telecommunication networks system has also been hit on a large 17 18-31 August 1983 Northeast Uttar Pradesh Low pressure area 15. The rural economy has been severely affected and the land destabilized. 15-19 September 1983

• •

Marathwada and west Maharashtra Low pressure area 19 Flood 8-14Disaster September 1983 Southeast Uttar Pradesh Management 20 21-27 June 1984 West Bengal Well marked low area The various measures adopted for flood Disasterpressure Management may be 21 categorized 28 June-11July 1984 Land depression into two groups: Uttar Pradesh 22 23 Aug. 5 Sept. 1985 Bihar Low pressure area

61

Structural Non- structural

The general approach was aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of embankments came up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in the country so far is in the form of structural measures which may be grouped into the following: • Dams and Reservoirs • Embankments, Flood Walls, Sea Wall • Channel Improvement • Drainage Improvement • Diversion of floodwaters. For the effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is necessary that pre- and post-monsoon checks must be made and special repairs must be carried out prior to the flood period. Table 1: Details of Devastating Floods occurred during 1980-1996. S. No. Duration

Area Affected

Synoptic Systems

1 2

17-23 July 1980 7 –27 August 1980

Low pressure area

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

4-10 September 1980 18-24 September 1980 18-24 September 1980 18-24 September 1980 9-15 July 1981 16-22 July 1981 9-29 July 1981 6-12 August 1981 3-9 September 1981 19-25 August 1982

East Uttar Pradesh Central & Southwest Uttar Pradesh Southeast Uttar Pradesh South Orissa Andhra Pradesh Central Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh East Uttar Pradesh East Uttar Pradesh East Madhya Pradesh

13 14 15 16

28-31 August 1982 30 Aug.- 3Sept. 1982 20-23 June 1983 11-17 August 1983

17 18

18-31 August 1983 15-19 September 1983

19 20

8-14 September 1983 21-27 June 1984

21 22

28 June-11July 1984 23 Aug. 5 Sept. 1985

Land depression Land depression Deep Depression Deep Depression Deep Depression Low pressure area Low pressure area Low pressure area Cyclonic storm Land depression Well marked low pressure area North Orissa Depression Uttar Pradesh Land Depression Gujarat Land depression West Maharashtra Trough off Maharashtra coast Northeast Uttar Pradesh Low pressure area Marathwada and west Maharashtra Low pressure area Southeast Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Well marked low pressure area Uttar Pradesh Land depression Bihar Low pressure area

61

• •

18

Flood Disaster

Flood Disaster • •

61

Structural Non- structural

The general approach was aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of embankments came up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in the country so far is in the form of structural measures which may be grouped into the following: • Dams and Reservoirs • Embankments, Flood Walls, Sea Wall • Channel Improvement • Drainage Improvement • Diversion of floodwaters. For the effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is necessary that pre- and post-monsoon checks must be made and special repairs must be carried out prior to the flood period. Table 1: Details of Devastating Floods occurred during 1980-1996. S. No. Duration

Area Affected

Synoptic Systems

1 2

17-23 July 1980 7 –27 August 1980

Low pressure area

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

4-10 September 1980 18-24 September 1980 18-24 September 1980 18-24 September 1980 9-15 July 1981 16-22 July 1981 9-29 July 1981 6-12 August 1981 3-9 September 1981 19-25 August 1982

East Uttar Pradesh Central & Southwest Uttar Pradesh Southeast Uttar Pradesh South Orissa Andhra Pradesh Central Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh East Uttar Pradesh East Uttar Pradesh East Madhya Pradesh

13 14 15 16

28-31 August 1982 30 Aug.- 3Sept. 1982 20-23 June 1983 11-17 August 1983

17 18

18-31 August 1983 15-19 September 1983

19 20

8-14 September 1983 21-27 June 1984

21 22

28 June-11July 1984 23 Aug. 5 Sept. 1985

Land depression Land depression Deep Depression Deep Depression Deep Depression Low pressure area Low pressure area Low pressure area Cyclonic storm Land depression Well marked low pressure area North Orissa Depression Uttar Pradesh Land Depression Gujarat Land depression West Maharashtra Trough off Maharashtra coast Northeast Uttar Pradesh Low pressure area Marathwada and west Maharashtra Low pressure area Southeast Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Well marked low pressure area Uttar Pradesh Land depression Bihar Low pressure area

62

62

Disaster Management

23 24

12-25 September 1985 11-18 September 1985

25 26 27 28 29

17-23 July 1986 7-20 August 1986 23-29 July 1987 30 July –20 Aug. 1987 3-16 September 1987

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

15-19 July 1988 25 Aug. –7 Sept. 1988 21-28 September 1988 19-26 July 1989 13-26 July 1989 1-6 July 1990 16-29 August 1990 23-29 August 1990 25-31 July 1991 5-13 September 1991 16-22 July 1992 10-16 September 1992 10-16 September 1992

43 44 45

1-14 July 1993 8-14 July 1993 15-20 July 1993

46

15-21 July 1993

47

9-15 September 1993

48 49 50

14-27 July 1994 1-7 September 1994 1-7 September 1994

51 52 53

17-23 August 1995 20-26 June 1996 25 July –7 Aug. 1996

East Uttar Pradesh Bihar

Land depression Well marked low pressure area Bihar Land Depression North Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression Bihar Low Pressure area North Bengal Cyclonic circulation Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area North Gujarat Cyclonic storm North Gujarat Cyclonic storm Punjab Low pressure area Coastal Andhra Pradesh Depression Western Maharashtra Depression Northwest Rajasthan Low pressure area Vidarbha Depression Gujarat Depression Vidarbha Deep depression North Bengal Cyclonic circulation Gujarat Cyclonic circulation Jammu & Kashmir Cyclonic circulation East Uttar Pradesh Well marked low pressure area Gujarat Cyclonic circulation Punjab Cyclonic circulation Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area North Bengal Well marked low pressure area Uttar Pradesh Well marked low pressure area Gujarat Low pressure area Orissa Low pressure area Vidarbha Well marked low pressure area Bihar Low pressure area Rajasthan Low pressure area Bihar Low pressure area

The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the susceptibility to flood damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non-structural measures being implemented in the country are: 1. Modifying the susceptibility to flood damages through • • •

Flood plain management Flood proofing including disaster preparedness, and response planning and Flood forecasting and Warning

62

Disaster Management

23 24

12-25 September 1985 11-18 September 1985

25 26 27 28 29

17-23 July 1986 7-20 August 1986 23-29 July 1987 30 July –20 Aug. 1987 3-16 September 1987

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

15-19 July 1988 25 Aug. –7 Sept. 1988 21-28 September 1988 19-26 July 1989 13-26 July 1989 1-6 July 1990 16-29 August 1990 23-29 August 1990 25-31 July 1991 5-13 September 1991 16-22 July 1992 10-16 September 1992 10-16 September 1992

43 44 45

1-14 July 1993 8-14 July 1993 15-20 July 1993

46

15-21 July 1993

47

9-15 September 1993

48 49 50

14-27 July 1994 1-7 September 1994 1-7 September 1994

51 52 53

17-23 August 1995 20-26 June 1996 25 July –7 Aug. 1996

Land depression Well marked low pressure area Bihar Land Depression North Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression Bihar Low Pressure area North Bengal Cyclonic circulation Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area North Gujarat Cyclonic storm North Gujarat Cyclonic storm Punjab Low pressure area Coastal Andhra Pradesh Depression Western Maharashtra Depression Northwest Rajasthan Low pressure area Vidarbha Depression Gujarat Depression Vidarbha Deep depression North Bengal Cyclonic circulation Gujarat Cyclonic circulation Jammu & Kashmir Cyclonic circulation East Uttar Pradesh Well marked low pressure area Gujarat Cyclonic circulation Punjab Cyclonic circulation Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area North Bengal Well marked low pressure area Uttar Pradesh Well marked low pressure area Gujarat Low pressure area Orissa Low pressure area Vidarbha Well marked low pressure area Bihar Low pressure area Rajasthan Low pressure area Bihar Low pressure area

The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the susceptibility to flood damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non-structural measures being implemented in the country are: 1. Modifying the susceptibility to flood damages through • • •

Flood plain management Flood proofing including disaster preparedness, and response planning and Flood forecasting and Warning

Flood Disaster

63

23 12-25 East Uttar Pradesh 2. Modifying the September flood loss 1985 burden through

Land depression Well marked low • Disaster Relief pressure area • Flood fighting including 25 17-23 July 1986 Public Health Bihar Measures Land Depression 26 7-20 August 1986 North Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 27 23-29 July 1987 Bihar area The setting up of flood forecasting and warning services isLow one Pressure of the most 28 30 July –20 Aug. 1987 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation cost-effective non- structural measures available. 29 3-16 September 1987 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area 30 15-19 July 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm Flood Plain Management and Zoning 31 25 Aug. –7 Sept. 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm 21-28 September 1988the land Punjab Low pressure The 32 basic concept is to regulate use in flood plain zoning in order area to 33 19-26 July 1989 Coastal Andhra Pradesh Depression restrict the damage potential due to floods. The Rashtriya Barh Ayog (1980) & 34 Water 13-26 July 1989 (CWC) recommended Western Maharashtra Depression Central Commission that flood plain management 35 1-6 July 1990 Northwest Rajasthan Low pressure area measures should be undertaken and suitable management legislation enacted. 36 16-29 August 1990 Vidarbha Depression This37 zoning23-29 is done by determining the locations and the extentDepression of areas which August 1990 Gujarat are affected by floods of different magnitudes or frequencies and then to develop 38 25-31 July 1991 Vidarbha Deep depression 1991 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation such39areas 5-13 whereSeptember the damage is minimum in case floods do occur. Therefore, 40 Plain 16-22 July 1992 Gujarat circulation Flood Zoning aims to regulate the indiscriminate Cyclonic and unplanned 41 10-16 September 1992 Jammu & Kashmir Cyclonic development in flood plains. It is relevant both for unprotected as circulation well as 42 10-16 September 1992 East Uttar Pradesh Well marked low protected areas. It recognizes the basic fact that the flood plains are essentially pressure area the domain of the river, and as such all developmental activitiesCyclonic in floodcirculation plains 43 1-14 July 1993 Gujarat must44be compatible involved. 8-14 July with 1993 the flood risk Punjab Cyclonic circulation 45 15-20 July 1993 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area Flood 46 Proofing 15-21 July 1993 North Bengal Well marked low area Such measures help greatly in the management of disasters forpressure the population 47 9-15 September 1993 Uttar Pradesh Well marked low in flood prone areas. It is essentially a combination of structural change and pressure area emergency action July without A programme for flood proofing provides 48 14-27 1994evacuation. Gujarat Low pressure area the raised platforms for flood for men and cattle and raising the public 49 1-7 September 1994sheltersOrissa Low pressure area 50 installations 1-7 September marked low utility above 1994 flood levels.Vidarbha Under this programme,Well several villages were raised in Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal and Assam, pressure land fillsarea were 51 17-23 August 1995 Bihar Low pressure area attempted in villages to keep houses above flood level in some areas. In the 52 20-26 June 1996 Rajasthan Low pressure area Eighth Plan25(1992-97), the flood proofing programme was proposed for the 53 July –7 Aug. 1996 Bihar Low pressure area 24

11-18 September 1985

Bihar

Ganga basin states, particularly for the North Bihar areas.

The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the Flood Forecasting susceptibility to and floodWarning damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non-structural measures being implemented This programme was first commenced in India in in the 1958country for theare: river Yamuna. It now covers most of the flood prone inter-state river basins in the country. The 1. flood forecasting the Central Water Commission (CWC). Modifying the organization susceptibilitysettoupflood damages through CWC had established 145 flood monitoring and forecasting stations in different Flood plain management river• / rain systems covering major parts of the country before 1990. During • Flood including disaster and response planning and last decade 14proofing more such stations havepreparedness, been established. The forecasting • Flood forecasting and Warning accuracy is increasing as shown in Table 2.

62 East Uttar Pradesh Bihar

Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

63

23 12-25 East Uttar Pradesh 2. Modifying the September flood loss 1985 burden through

Land depression Well marked low • Disaster Relief pressure area • Flood fighting including 25 17-23 July 1986 Public Health Bihar Measures Land Depression 26 7-20 August 1986 North Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 27 23-29 July 1987 Bihar area The setting up of flood forecasting and warning services isLow one Pressure of the most 28 30 July –20 Aug. 1987 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation cost-effective non- structural measures available. 29 3-16 September 1987 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area 30 15-19 July 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm Flood Plain Management and Zoning 31 25 Aug. –7 Sept. 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm 21-28 September 1988the land Punjab Low pressure The 32 basic concept is to regulate use in flood plain zoning in order area to 33 the 19-26 July 1989 due to floods. CoastalThe Andhra Pradesh restrict damage potential Rashtriya BarhDepression Ayog (1980) & 34 Water 13-26 July 1989 (CWC) recommended Western Maharashtra Depression Central Commission that flood plain management 35 1-6 July 1990 Northwest Rajasthan Low pressure area measures should be undertaken and suitable management legislation enacted. 36 16-29 August 1990 Vidarbha Depression This37 zoning23-29 is done by determining the locations and the extentDepression of areas which August 1990 Gujarat are affected by floods different magnitudes then depression to develop 38 25-31 July of 1991 Vidarbhaor frequencies andDeep 1991 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation such39areas 5-13 whereSeptember the damage is minimum in case floods do occur. Therefore, 40 Plain 16-22 July 1992 Gujarat circulation Flood Zoning aims to regulate the indiscriminate Cyclonic and unplanned 41 10-16 September 1992 Jammu &both Kashmir Cyclonic development in flood plains. It is relevant for unprotected as circulation well as 42 10-16 September 1992 East Uttar Pradesh Well marked low protected areas. It recognizes the basic fact that the flood plains are essentially pressure area the domain of the river, and as such all developmental activitiesCyclonic in floodcirculation plains 43 1-14 July 1993 Gujarat must44be compatible involved. 8-14 July with 1993 the flood risk Punjab Cyclonic circulation 45 15-20 July 1993 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area Flood 46 Proofing 15-21 July 1993 North Bengal Well marked low area Such measures help greatly in the management of disasters forpressure the population 47 9-15 September 1993 Uttar Pradesh Well marked low in flood prone areas. It is essentially a combination of structural change and pressure area emergency action without evacuation. A programme for flood proofing provides 48 14-27 July 1994 Gujarat Low pressure area the raised platforms for flood for men and cattle and raising the public 49 1-7 September 1994sheltersOrissa Low pressure area 50 installations 1-7 September marked low utility above 1994 flood levels.Vidarbha Under this programme,Well several villages were raised in Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal and Assam, pressure land fillsarea were 51 17-23 August 1995 Bihar Low pressure area attempted in villages to keep houses above flood level in some areas. In the 52 20-26 June 1996 Rajasthan Low pressure area Eighth Plan25(1992-97), the flood proofing programme was proposed for the 53 July –7 Aug. 1996 Bihar Low pressure area 24

11-18 September 1985

Bihar

Ganga basin states, particularly for the North Bihar areas.

The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the Flood Forecasting susceptibility to and floodWarning damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non-structural measures being implemented This programme was first commenced in India in in the 1958country for theare: river Yamuna. It now covers most of the flood prone inter-state river basins in the country. The 1. flood forecasting the Central Water Commission (CWC). Modifying the organization susceptibilitysettoupflood damages through CWC had established 145 flood monitoring and forecasting stations in different Flood plain management river• / rain systems covering major parts of the country before 1990. During • Flood including disaster and response planning and last decade 14proofing more such stations havepreparedness, been established. The forecasting • Flood forecasting and Warning accuracy is increasing as shown in Table 2.

62

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

63

23 12-25 East Uttar Pradesh 2. Modifying the September flood loss 1985 burden through

Land depression Well marked low • Disaster Relief pressure area • Flood fighting including 25 17-23 July 1986 Public Health Bihar Measures Land Depression 26 7-20 August 1986 North Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 27 23-29 July 1987 Bihar area The setting up of flood forecasting and warning services isLow one Pressure of the most 28 30 July –20 Aug. 1987 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation cost-effective non- structural measures available. 29 3-16 September 1987 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area 30 15-19 July 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm Flood Plain Management and Zoning 31 25 Aug. –7 Sept. 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm 21-28 September 1988the land Punjab Low pressure The 32 basic concept is to regulate use in flood plain zoning in order area to 33 19-26 July 1989 Coastal Andhra Pradesh Depression restrict the damage potential due to floods. The Rashtriya Barh Ayog (1980) & 34 Water 13-26 July 1989 (CWC) recommended Western Maharashtra Depression Central Commission that flood plain management 35 1-6 July 1990 Northwest Rajasthan Low pressure area measures should be undertaken and suitable management legislation enacted. 36 16-29 August 1990 Vidarbha Depression This37 zoning23-29 is done by determining the locations and the extentDepression of areas which August 1990 Gujarat are affected by floods of different magnitudes or frequencies and then to develop 38 25-31 July 1991 Vidarbha Deep depression 1991 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation such39areas 5-13 whereSeptember the damage is minimum in case floods do occur. Therefore, 40 Plain 16-22 July 1992 Gujarat circulation Flood Zoning aims to regulate the indiscriminate Cyclonic and unplanned 41 10-16 September 1992 Jammu & Kashmir Cyclonic development in flood plains. It is relevant both for unprotected as circulation well as 42 10-16 September 1992 East Uttar Pradesh Well marked low protected areas. It recognizes the basic fact that the flood plains are essentially pressure area the domain of the river, and as such all developmental activitiesCyclonic in floodcirculation plains 43 1-14 July 1993 Gujarat must44be compatible involved. 8-14 July with 1993 the flood risk Punjab Cyclonic circulation 45 15-20 July 1993 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area Flood 46 Proofing 15-21 July 1993 North Bengal Well marked low area Such measures help greatly in the management of disasters forpressure the population 47 9-15 September 1993 Uttar Pradesh Well marked low in flood prone areas. It is essentially a combination of structural change and pressure area emergency action July without A programme for flood proofing provides 48 14-27 1994evacuation. Gujarat Low pressure area the raised platforms for flood for men and cattle and raising the public 49 1-7 September 1994sheltersOrissa Low pressure area 50 installations 1-7 September marked low utility above 1994 flood levels.Vidarbha Under this programme,Well several villages were raised in Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal and Assam, pressure land fillsarea were 51 17-23 August 1995 Bihar Low pressure area attempted in villages to keep houses above flood level in some areas. In the 52 20-26 June 1996 Rajasthan Low pressure area Eighth Plan25(1992-97), the flood proofing programme was proposed for the 53 July –7 Aug. 1996 Bihar Low pressure area 24

11-18 September 1985

Bihar

Ganga basin states, particularly for the North Bihar areas.

The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the Flood Forecasting susceptibility to and floodWarning damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non-structural measures being implemented This programme was first commenced in India in in the 1958country for theare: river Yamuna. It now covers most of the flood prone inter-state river basins in the country. The 1. flood forecasting the Central Water Commission (CWC). Modifying the organization susceptibilitysettoupflood damages through CWC had established 145 flood monitoring and forecasting stations in different Flood plain management river• / rain systems covering major parts of the country before 1990. During • Flood including disaster and response planning and last decade 14proofing more such stations havepreparedness, been established. The forecasting • Flood forecasting and Warning accuracy is increasing as shown in Table 2.

62

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

Land depression Well marked low • Disaster Relief pressure area • Flood fighting including 25 17-23 July 1986 Public Health Bihar Measures Land Depression 26 7-20 August 1986 North Andhra Pradesh Deep Depression 27 23-29 July 1987 Bihar area The setting up of flood forecasting and warning services isLow one Pressure of the most 28 30 July –20 Aug. 1987 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation cost-effective non- structural measures available. 29 3-16 September 1987 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area 30 15-19 July 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm Flood Plain Management and Zoning 31 25 Aug. –7 Sept. 1988 North Gujarat Cyclonic storm 21-28 September 1988the land Punjab Low pressure The 32 basic concept is to regulate use in flood plain zoning in order area to 33 the 19-26 July 1989 due to floods. CoastalThe Andhra Pradesh restrict damage potential Rashtriya BarhDepression Ayog (1980) & 34 Water 13-26 July 1989 (CWC) recommended Western Maharashtra Depression Central Commission that flood plain management 35 1-6 July 1990 Northwest Rajasthan Low pressure area measures should be undertaken and suitable management legislation enacted. 36 16-29 August 1990 Vidarbha Depression This37 zoning23-29 is done by determining the locations and the extentDepression of areas which August 1990 Gujarat are affected by floods different magnitudes then depression to develop 38 25-31 July of 1991 Vidarbhaor frequencies andDeep 1991 North Bengal Cyclonic circulation such39areas 5-13 whereSeptember the damage is minimum in case floods do occur. Therefore, 40 Plain 16-22 July 1992 Gujarat circulation Flood Zoning aims to regulate the indiscriminate Cyclonic and unplanned 41 10-16 September 1992 Jammu &both Kashmir Cyclonic development in flood plains. It is relevant for unprotected as circulation well as 42 10-16 September 1992 East Uttar Pradesh Well marked low protected areas. It recognizes the basic fact that the flood plains are essentially pressure area the domain of the river, and as such all developmental activitiesCyclonic in floodcirculation plains 43 1-14 July 1993 Gujarat must44be compatible involved. 8-14 July with 1993 the flood risk Punjab Cyclonic circulation 45 15-20 July 1993 Bihar plateau Well marked low pressure area Flood 46 Proofing 15-21 July 1993 North Bengal Well marked low area Such measures help greatly in the management of disasters forpressure the population 47 9-15 September 1993 Uttar Pradesh Well marked low in flood prone areas. It is essentially a combination of structural change and pressure area emergency action without evacuation. A programme for flood proofing provides 48 14-27 July 1994 Gujarat Low pressure area the raised platforms for flood for men and cattle and raising the public 49 1-7 September 1994sheltersOrissa Low pressure area 50 installations 1-7 September marked low utility above 1994 flood levels.Vidarbha Under this programme,Well several villages were raised in Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal and Assam, pressure land fillsarea were 51 17-23 August 1995 Bihar Low pressure area attempted in villages to keep houses above flood level in some areas. In the 52 20-26 June 1996 Rajasthan Low pressure area Eighth Plan25(1992-97), the flood proofing programme was proposed for the 53 July –7 Aug. 1996 Bihar Low pressure area 11-18 September 1985

Bihar

Ganga basin states, particularly for the North Bihar areas.

The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the Flood Forecasting susceptibility to and floodWarning damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non-structural measures being implemented This programme was first commenced in India in in the 1958country for theare: river Yamuna. It now covers most of the flood prone inter-state river basins in the country. The 1. flood forecasting the Central Water Commission (CWC). Modifying the organization susceptibilitysettoupflood damages through CWC had established 145 flood monitoring and forecasting stations in different Flood plain management river• / rain systems covering major parts of the country before 1990. During • Flood including disaster and response planning and last decade 14proofing more such stations havepreparedness, been established. The forecasting • Flood forecasting and Warning accuracy is increasing as shown in Table 2.

63

2. Modifying the flood loss burden through • •

Disaster Relief Flood fighting including Public Health Measures

The setting up of flood forecasting and warning services is one of the most cost-effective non- structural measures available. Flood Plain Management and Zoning The basic concept is to regulate the land use in flood plain zoning in order to restrict the damage potential due to floods. The Rashtriya Barh Ayog (1980) & Central Water Commission (CWC) recommended that flood plain management measures should be undertaken and suitable management legislation enacted. This zoning is done by determining the locations and the extent of areas which are affected by floods of different magnitudes or frequencies and then to develop such areas where the damage is minimum in case floods do occur. Therefore, Flood Plain Zoning aims to regulate the indiscriminate and unplanned development in flood plains. It is relevant both for unprotected as well as protected areas. It recognizes the basic fact that the flood plains are essentially the domain of the river, and as such all developmental activities in flood plains must be compatible with the flood risk involved. Flood Proofing Such measures help greatly in the management of disasters for the population in flood prone areas. It is essentially a combination of structural change and emergency action without evacuation. A programme for flood proofing provides the raised platforms for flood shelters for men and cattle and raising the public utility installations above flood levels. Under this programme, several villages were raised in Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal and Assam, land fills were attempted in villages to keep houses above flood level in some areas. In the Eighth Plan (1992-97), the flood proofing programme was proposed for the Ganga basin states, particularly for the North Bihar areas. Flood Forecasting and Warning This programme was first commenced in India in 1958 for the river Yamuna. It now covers most of the flood prone inter-state river basins in the country. The flood forecasting organization set up the Central Water Commission (CWC). CWC had established 145 flood monitoring and forecasting stations in different river / rain systems covering major parts of the country before 1990. During last decade 14 more such stations have been established. The forecasting accuracy is increasing as shown in Table 2.

63

23 12-25 East Uttar Pradesh 2. Modifying the September flood loss 1985 burden through 24

Flood Disaster

Flood Disaster

63

2. Modifying the flood loss burden through • •

Disaster Relief Flood fighting including Public Health Measures

The setting up of flood forecasting and warning services is one of the most cost-effective non- structural measures available. Flood Plain Management and Zoning The basic concept is to regulate the land use in flood plain zoning in order to restrict the damage potential due to floods. The Rashtriya Barh Ayog (1980) & Central Water Commission (CWC) recommended that flood plain management measures should be undertaken and suitable management legislation enacted. This zoning is done by determining the locations and the extent of areas which are affected by floods of different magnitudes or frequencies and then to develop such areas where the damage is minimum in case floods do occur. Therefore, Flood Plain Zoning aims to regulate the indiscriminate and unplanned development in flood plains. It is relevant both for unprotected as well as protected areas. It recognizes the basic fact that the flood plains are essentially the domain of the river, and as such all developmental activities in flood plains must be compatible with the flood risk involved. Flood Proofing Such measures help greatly in the management of disasters for the population in flood prone areas. It is essentially a combination of structural change and emergency action without evacuation. A programme for flood proofing provides the raised platforms for flood shelters for men and cattle and raising the public utility installations above flood levels. Under this programme, several villages were raised in Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal and Assam, land fills were attempted in villages to keep houses above flood level in some areas. In the Eighth Plan (1992-97), the flood proofing programme was proposed for the Ganga basin states, particularly for the North Bihar areas. Flood Forecasting and Warning This programme was first commenced in India in 1958 for the river Yamuna. It now covers most of the flood prone inter-state river basins in the country. The flood forecasting organization set up the Central Water Commission (CWC). CWC had established 145 flood monitoring and forecasting stations in different river / rain systems covering major parts of the country before 1990. During last decade 14 more such stations have been established. The forecasting accuracy is increasing as shown in Table 2.

64

64

Disaster Management Table 2: Forecasting Accuracy (1991-1996) of India

S. No.

Year

1 2 3 4 5 6

No. of Forecasts issued

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Accuracy of Forecasts No of forecasts within + 15 cm

% of Accurate Forecasts

4890 3418 5066 5159 5203 4826

93.4 95.3 96.9 94.3 96.5 96.8

5234 3588 5226 5472 5394 4983

Source: IDNDR: Indian Experiences and Initiatives (Ministry of Agriculture) July 1999.

Out of 157 forecasting stations, 132 are for a water stage forecast and 25 are for an inflow forecast used for the optimum operation of certain major reservoirs. These 159 stations are located in the flood prone states maximum in Bihar (36) and minimum in Haryana (1) and 4 in Union Territories (Table 3): Table 3: Flood Forecasting Stations of India S. No.

States/ Union Territory

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2

No of Stations

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Union Territory Delhi Dadra & Nagar Haveli

13 23 36 10 1 4 3 7 11 33 14

Total Stations

159

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

65

Tableand 2: Forecasting Accuracy of India with flood protection management are on(1991-1996) the telephone, Fax or give information by special messengers depending upon local factors like the S. No. Year No. of Accuracy of Forecasts issued Forecasts vulnerability of the area and the availability of the communication facilities etc. Fig. 2 shows the component of a flood warning system. No of forecasts % of Accurate within + 15 cm

Forecasts

1 1991 5234 4890 93.4 2 1992 3588 3418 MONITORING → FORECASTING → DECISION95.3 3 1993 5226 5066 96.9 4 1994 5472 5159 94.3 Fig. 1995 2: Components of Flood 5 5394 Warning System 5203 96.5 6 1996 4983 4826 96.8

Flood Fighting and Disaster ReliefIndian Experiences and Initiatives Source: IDNDR: of forecasting Agriculture) stations July 1999. On receipt of flood forecasts,(Ministry the flood (agencies) disseminate flood warnings to the officials concerned and people of the affected area and Out of 157 forecasting stations, 132 are for a water stage forecast and 25 take are necessary measures like the strengthening of the flood protection for an inflow forecast used for the optimum operation of certainand major mitigation works and 159 the evacuation peoplein tothesafer before they in reservoirs. These stations are of located floodplaces proneetc. states maximum are Bihar overwhelmed the floods. As a pre-monsoon the (Table relief 3): (36) andby minimum in Haryana (1) and 4 in arrangement, Union Territories materials must be stocked in advance at appropriate places and distribution measures are initiated Table to mitigate the miseries. 3: Flood Forecasting Stations of India S. No.

Flood Insurance 1

States/ Union Territory

No of Stations

Andhra Pradesh

13

Total Stations

159

It has several advantages as aAssam means for modifying the loss burden,23although it 2 is being provided to cover the ‘Flood Risk’ yet on a limited and selective scale. 3 Bihar 36 This is mainly because of the intricacy in the matter of fixing a premium and 4 Gujarat 10 5 of a payment of Haryana 1 the possibility claims is frequent in acutely flood prone areas. 6 Karnataka 4 insurance The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a pilot scheme for crop 7 Madhya Pradesh 3 in flood affected areas. 8 Maharashtra 7 Of all the non-structural measurers for flood management, the one which is 9 Orissa 11 gaining the 10 attention of the planners and acceptance by the public is the flood Uttar Pradesh 33 forecasting 11 and warning system. Other measurers, especially the flood plain West Bengal 14 Union Territory zoning, have to be tackled with more energetically so that a long term solution 1 Delhi to flood problems can be achieved in conjunction with structural2 measures 2 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 2 wherever necessary.

2 2

CONCLUSION Hydrological and hydrometeorological data from nearly 100 hydrological and 600 hydrometeorological stations in these river systems are being collected, analysed and then forecasts are issued for the benefit of State Governments and the general public. The final forecasts are then communicated to the concerned administrative body and engineering authorities of the States and other agencies connected

64

64

Disaster Management Table 2: Forecasting Accuracy (1991-1996) of India

S. No.

Year

1 2 3 4 5 6

No. of Forecasts issued

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Accuracy of Forecasts No of forecasts within + 15 cm

% of Accurate Forecasts

4890 3418 5066 5159 5203 4826

93.4 95.3 96.9 94.3 96.5 96.8

5234 3588 5226 5472 5394 4983

Source: IDNDR: Indian Experiences and Initiatives (Ministry of Agriculture) July 1999.

Out of 157 forecasting stations, 132 are for a water stage forecast and 25 are for an inflow forecast used for the optimum operation of certain major reservoirs. These 159 stations are located in the flood prone states maximum in Bihar (36) and minimum in Haryana (1) and 4 in Union Territories (Table 3): Table 3: Flood Forecasting Stations of India S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2

Hydrological and so hydrometeorological nearly 100 hydrological Flood disasters are natural we cannot control data floodsfrom completely, but with the and 600 hydrometeorological stations in these river systems are being collected, help of management techniques, preparedness and spreading awareness among analysedwe andcan thenreduce forecasts issued the disaster. benefit ofSoState the people, the are impact of for flood we Governments can say that and general public. floodthe management is more effective than flood control. Thus for its management, The final forecasts arekey thentool communicated the concerned administrative the integrated approach is the for effectivetoplanning and action in all and engineering authorities the States should and other agencies connected partsbody of Disaster Management. Localofknowledge be integrated with

States/ Union Territory

No of Stations

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Union Territory Delhi Dadra & Nagar Haveli

13 23 36 10 1 4 3 7 11 33 14

Total Stations

159

2 2

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

65

Tableand 2: Forecasting Accuracy of India with flood protection management are on(1991-1996) the telephone, Fax or give information special messengers upon local factors oflike the S. No. by Year No. depending of Accuracy Forecasts issued Forecasts vulnerability of the area and the availability of the communication facilities etc. Fig. 2 shows the component of a flood warning system. No of forecasts % of Accurate within + 15 cm

Forecasts

1 1991 5234 4890 93.4 2 1992 3588 3418 MONITORING → FORECASTING → DECISION95.3 3 1993 5226 5066 96.9 4 1994 5472 5159 94.3 Fig. 1995 2: Components of Flood 5 5394 Warning System 5203 96.5 6 1996 4983 4826 96.8

Flood Fighting and Disaster ReliefIndian Experiences and Initiatives Source: IDNDR: of forecasting Agriculture) stations July 1999. On receipt of flood forecasts,(Ministry the flood (agencies) disseminate flood warnings to the officials concerned and people of the affected area and Out of 157 forecasting stations, 132 are for a water stage forecast and 25 take are necessary measures like the strengthening of the flood protection for an inflow forecast used for the optimum operation of certainand major mitigation works and 159 the evacuation peoplein tothesafer before they in reservoirs. These stations are of located floodplaces proneetc. states maximum are Bihar overwhelmed the floods. As a pre-monsoon the (Table relief 3): (36) andby minimum in Haryana (1) and 4 in arrangement, Union Territories materials must be stocked in advance at appropriate places and distribution measures are initiated Table to mitigate the miseries. 3: Flood Forecasting Stations of India S. No.

Flood Insurance 1

States/ Union Territory

No of Stations

Andhra Pradesh

13

Total Stations

159

It has several advantages as aAssam means for modifying the loss burden,23although it 2 is being provided to cover the ‘Flood Risk’ yet on a limited and selective scale. 3 Bihar 36 This is mainly intricacy in the matter of fixing a premium and 4 because of theGujarat 10 5 of a payment of Haryana 1 the possibility claims is frequent in acutely flood prone areas. 6 Karnataka 4 insurance The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a pilot scheme for crop 7 Madhya Pradesh 3 in flood affected areas. 8 Maharashtra 7 Of all the non-structural measurers for flood management, the one which is 9 Orissa 11 gaining the 10 attention of the planners and acceptance by the public is the flood Uttar Pradesh 33 forecasting 11 and warning system. flood plain West Other Bengalmeasurers, especially the 14 Union Territory zoning, have to be tackled with more energetically so that a long term solution 1 Delhi to flood problems can be achieved in conjunction with structural2 measures 2 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 2 wherever necessary. CONCLUSION

Hydrological and hydrometeorological data from nearly 100 hydrological and 600 hydrometeorological stations in these river systems are being collected, analysed and then forecasts are issued for the benefit of State Governments and the general public. The final forecasts are then communicated to the concerned administrative body and engineering authorities of the States and other agencies connected

Hydrological and so hydrometeorological nearly 100 hydrological Flood disasters are natural we cannot control data floodsfrom completely, but with the 600 hydrometeorological stations in these systems are beingamong collected, helpand of management techniques, preparedness andriver spreading awareness analysedwe andcan thenreduce forecasts issued the disaster. benefit ofSoState the people, the are impact of for flood we Governments can say that and general public. floodthe management is more effective than flood control. Thus for its management, The final forecasts arekey thentool communicated the concerned administrative the integrated approach is the for effectivetoplanning and action in all and engineering authorities the States should and other agencies connected partsbody of Disaster Management. Localofknowledge be integrated with

64

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

65

Tableand 2: Forecasting Accuracy of India with flood protection management are on(1991-1996) the telephone, Fax or give information by special messengers depending upon local factors like the S. No. Year No. of Accuracy of vulnerability of the area and the availability of the communication facilities etc. Forecasts issued Forecasts Fig. 2 shows the component of a flood warning system. No of forecasts % of Accurate within + 15 cm

Flood Fighting and Disaster ReliefIndian Experiences and Initiatives Source: IDNDR: of forecasting Agriculture) stations July 1999. On receipt of flood forecasts,(Ministry the flood (agencies) disseminate flood warnings to the officials concerned and people of the affected area and Out of 157 forecasting stations, 132 are for a water stage forecast and 25 take are necessary measures like the strengthening of the flood protection for an inflow forecast used for the optimum operation of certainand major mitigation works and 159 the evacuation peoplein tothesafer before they in reservoirs. These stations are of located floodplaces proneetc. states maximum are Bihar overwhelmed the floods. As a pre-monsoon the (Table relief 3): (36) andby minimum in Haryana (1) and 4 in arrangement, Union Territories materials must be stocked in advance at appropriate places and distribution measures are initiated Table to mitigate the miseries. 3: Flood Forecasting Stations of India S. No. 1

States/ Union Territory

65

with flood protection and management are on the telephone, Fax or give information by special messengers depending upon local factors like the vulnerability of the area and the availability of the communication facilities etc. Fig. 2 shows the component of a flood warning system.

Forecasts

1 1991 5234 4890 93.4 2 1992 3588 3418 MONITORING → FORECASTING → DECISION95.3 3 1993 5226 5066 96.9 4 1994 5472 5159 94.3 Fig. 1995 2: Components of Flood 5 5394 Warning System 5203 96.5 6 1996 4983 4826 96.8

Flood Insurance

Flood Disaster

No of Stations

Andhra Pradesh

13

Total Stations

159

MONITORING

→ FORECASTING →

DECISION

Fig. 2: Components of Flood Warning System

Flood Fighting and Disaster Relief On receipt of flood forecasts, the flood forecasting stations (agencies) disseminate flood warnings to the officials concerned and people of the affected area and take necessary measures like the strengthening of the flood protection and mitigation works and the evacuation of people to safer places etc. before they are overwhelmed by the floods. As a pre-monsoon arrangement, the relief materials must be stocked in advance at appropriate places and distribution measures are initiated to mitigate the miseries. Flood Insurance

It has several advantages as aAssam means for modifying the loss burden,23although it 2 is being provided to cover the ‘Flood Risk’ yet on a limited and selective scale. 3 Bihar 36 This is mainly because of the intricacy in the matter of fixing a premium and 4 Gujarat 10 5 of a payment of Haryana 1 the possibility claims is frequent in acutely flood prone areas. 6 Karnataka 4 insurance The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a pilot scheme for crop 7 Madhya Pradesh 3 in flood affected areas. 8 Maharashtra 7 Of all the non-structural measurers for flood management, the one which is 9 Orissa 11 gaining the 10 attention of the planners and acceptance by the public is the flood Uttar Pradesh 33 forecasting 11 and warning system. Other measurers, especially the flood plain West Bengal 14 Union Territory zoning, have to be tackled with more energetically so that a long term solution 1 Delhi to flood problems can be achieved in conjunction with structural2 measures 2 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 2 wherever necessary.

It has several advantages as a means for modifying the loss burden, although it is being provided to cover the ‘Flood Risk’ yet on a limited and selective scale. This is mainly because of the intricacy in the matter of fixing a premium and the possibility of a payment of claims is frequent in acutely flood prone areas. The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a pilot scheme for crop insurance in flood affected areas. Of all the non-structural measurers for flood management, the one which is gaining the attention of the planners and acceptance by the public is the flood forecasting and warning system. Other measurers, especially the flood plain zoning, have to be tackled with more energetically so that a long term solution to flood problems can be achieved in conjunction with structural measures wherever necessary.

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

Hydrological and so hydrometeorological nearly 100 hydrological Flood disasters are natural we cannot control data floodsfrom completely, but with the and 600 hydrometeorological stations in these river systems are being collected, help of management techniques, preparedness and spreading awareness among analysedwe andcan thenreduce forecasts issued the disaster. benefit ofSoState the people, the are impact of for flood we Governments can say that and general public. floodthe management is more effective than flood control. Thus for its management, The final forecasts arekey thentool communicated the concerned administrative the integrated approach is the for effectivetoplanning and action in all and engineering authorities the States should and other agencies connected partsbody of Disaster Management. Localofknowledge be integrated with

Flood disasters are natural so we cannot control floods completely, but with the help of management techniques, preparedness and spreading awareness among the people, we can reduce the impact of flood disaster. So we can say that flood management is more effective than flood control. Thus for its management, the integrated approach is the key tool for effective planning and action in all parts of Disaster Management. Local knowledge should be integrated with

64

Disaster Management

Flood Disaster

65

Tableand 2: Forecasting Accuracy of India with flood protection management are on(1991-1996) the telephone, Fax or give information special messengers upon local factors oflike the S. No. by Year No. depending of Accuracy vulnerability of the area and the availability of the communication facilities etc. Forecasts issued Forecasts Fig. 2 shows the component of a flood warning system. No of forecasts % of Accurate within + 15 cm

Flood Fighting and Disaster ReliefIndian Experiences and Initiatives Source: IDNDR: of forecasting Agriculture) stations July 1999. On receipt of flood forecasts,(Ministry the flood (agencies) disseminate flood warnings to the officials concerned and people of the affected area and Out of 157 forecasting stations, 132 are for a water stage forecast and 25 take are necessary measures like the strengthening of the flood protection for an inflow forecast used for the optimum operation of certainand major mitigation works and 159 the evacuation peoplein tothesafer before they in reservoirs. These stations are of located floodplaces proneetc. states maximum are Bihar overwhelmed the floods. As a pre-monsoon the (Table relief 3): (36) andby minimum in Haryana (1) and 4 in arrangement, Union Territories materials must be stocked in advance at appropriate places and distribution measures are initiated Table to mitigate the miseries. 3: Flood Forecasting Stations of India S. No.

States/ Union Territory

65

with flood protection and management are on the telephone, Fax or give information by special messengers depending upon local factors like the vulnerability of the area and the availability of the communication facilities etc. Fig. 2 shows the component of a flood warning system.

Forecasts

1 1991 5234 4890 93.4 2 1992 3588 3418 MONITORING → FORECASTING → DECISION95.3 3 1993 5226 5066 96.9 4 1994 5472 5159 94.3 Fig. 1995 2: Components of Flood 5 5394 Warning System 5203 96.5 6 1996 4983 4826 96.8

Flood Insurance

Flood Disaster

No of Stations

MONITORING

→ FORECASTING →

DECISION

Fig. 2: Components of Flood Warning System

Flood Fighting and Disaster Relief On receipt of flood forecasts, the flood forecasting stations (agencies) disseminate flood warnings to the officials concerned and people of the affected area and take necessary measures like the strengthening of the flood protection and mitigation works and the evacuation of people to safer places etc. before they are overwhelmed by the floods. As a pre-monsoon arrangement, the relief materials must be stocked in advance at appropriate places and distribution measures are initiated to mitigate the miseries. Flood Insurance

1 Andhra Pradesh 13 It has several advantages as aAssam means for modifying the loss burden,23although it 2 is being provided to cover theBihar ‘Flood Risk’ yet on a limited and selective scale. 3 36 This is mainly intricacy in the matter of fixing a premium and 4 because of theGujarat 10 5 of a payment of Haryana 1 the possibility claims is frequent in acutely flood prone areas. 6 Karnataka 4 insurance The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a pilot scheme for crop 7 Madhya Pradesh 3 in flood affected areas. 8 Maharashtra 7 Of all the non-structural measurers for flood management, the one which is 9 Orissa 11 gaining the 10 attention of the planners and acceptance by the public is the flood Uttar Pradesh 33 forecasting 11 and warning system. flood plain West Other Bengalmeasurers, especially the 14 Union Territory zoning, have to be tackled with more energetically so that a long term solution 1 Delhi to flood problems can be achieved in conjunction with structural2 measures 2 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 2 wherever necessary.

It has several advantages as a means for modifying the loss burden, although it is being provided to cover the ‘Flood Risk’ yet on a limited and selective scale. This is mainly because of the intricacy in the matter of fixing a premium and the possibility of a payment of claims is frequent in acutely flood prone areas. The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a pilot scheme for crop insurance in flood affected areas. Of all the non-structural measurers for flood management, the one which is gaining the attention of the planners and acceptance by the public is the flood forecasting and warning system. Other measurers, especially the flood plain zoning, have to be tackled with more energetically so that a long term solution to flood problems can be achieved in conjunction with structural measures wherever necessary.

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

Hydrological and so hydrometeorological nearly 100 hydrological Flood disasters are natural we cannot control data floodsfrom completely, but with the 600 hydrometeorological stations in these systems are beingamong collected, helpand of management techniques, preparedness andriver spreading awareness analysedwe andcan thenreduce forecasts issued the disaster. benefit ofSoState the people, the are impact of for flood we Governments can say that and general public. floodthe management is more effective than flood control. Thus for its management, The final forecasts arekey thentool communicated the concerned administrative the integrated approach is the for effectivetoplanning and action in all and engineering authorities the States should and other agencies connected partsbody of Disaster Management. Localofknowledge be integrated with

Flood disasters are natural so we cannot control floods completely, but with the help of management techniques, preparedness and spreading awareness among the people, we can reduce the impact of flood disaster. So we can say that flood management is more effective than flood control. Thus for its management, the integrated approach is the key tool for effective planning and action in all parts of Disaster Management. Local knowledge should be integrated with

Total Stations

159

66

Disaster Management

existing scientific knowledge to produce more realistic, locally appropriate and more effective disaster preparedness activities. In India, it has been observed that most parts of the country, especially northern India, are severely affected by flood hazards particularly the IndoGangetic-Brahmaputra plain. Almost all the anthropogenic and commercial activities are badly hampered on a large scale by the flood hazards during the last 4-5 decades subsequently there has been a destabilization of the Indian economy. So, in order to mitigate flood hazards, there is an urgent need first of all to identify and map flood prone areas. Secondly, the new modern techniques should be applied for an advance warning system which is possible now through various satellite and Remote Sensing services. Hence, the flood forecasting and warning systems should be adopted because they are one of the most reliable and cost effective methods and moreover, over the years there is a considerable improvement in the methodology and acquisition of the latest technology. Dams, embankments and reservoirs should be launched involving local people especially the women along the rivers, streams and canals. The women can clean drains and strengthen their embankments and similarly clean up driveways. A system should also be launched in order to remove the deposited debris and silt in all the vulnerable rivers, canals and drains in the presence of expert engineers right before the occurrence of the monsoon season. By adopting all these said measures and flood management works in the country, it would be possible to save the precious lives of human-beings including cattle wealth and considerably reduce the immense flood damage to the country. REFERENCES http://www.iitr.ernet.in/centers/TIFAC/database/floods/eff.htm (Accessed on 25th June, 2007). Kale, V.S. 1998 “Monsoon Floods in India: A Hydro-Geomorphic Perspective”, published by Memoir Geological Society of India, No. 41, 229-256 Singh, J. 2002 “India: Geographical Bases and Dimensions”, Radha Publications, New Delhi, 65-66. Singh, R.B. (ed.) 2000 “Disaster Management”, Rawat Publication, Delhi. Singh, R.B. 2004 “Flood Disaster in India” in Chauhan and Dubey (ed.) Water Resource Management, Shri Natraj Prakashan, Delhi, 12-25.

66

Disaster Management

existing scientific knowledge to produce more realistic, locally appropriate and more effective disaster preparedness activities. In India, it has been observed that most parts of the country, especially northern India, are severely affected by flood hazards particularly the IndoGangetic-Brahmaputra plain. Almost all the anthropogenic and commercial activities are badly hampered on a large scale by the flood hazards during the last 4-5 decades subsequently there has been a destabilization of the Indian economy. So, in order to mitigate flood hazards, there is an urgent need first of all to identify and map flood prone areas. Secondly, the new modern techniques should be applied for an advance warning system which is possible now through various satellite and Remote Sensing services. Hence, the flood forecasting and warning systems should be adopted because they are one of the most reliable and cost effective methods and moreover, over the years there is a considerable improvement in the methodology and acquisition of the latest technology. Dams, embankments and reservoirs should be launched involving local people especially the women along the rivers, streams and canals. The women can clean drains and strengthen their embankments and similarly clean up driveways. A system should also be launched in order to remove the deposited debris and silt in all the vulnerable rivers, canals and drains in the presence of expert engineers right before the occurrence of the monsoon season. By adopting all these said measures and flood management works in the country, it would be possible to save the precious lives of human-beings including cattle wealth and considerably reduce the immense flood damage to the country. REFERENCES http://www.iitr.ernet.in/centers/TIFAC/database/floods/eff.htm (Accessed on 25th June, 2007). Kale, V.S. 1998 “Monsoon Floods in India: A Hydro-Geomorphic Perspective”, published by Memoir Geological Society of India, No. 41, 229-256 Singh, J. 2002 “India: Geographical Bases and Dimensions”, Radha Publications, New Delhi, 65-66. Singh, R.B. (ed.) 2000 “Disaster Management”, Rawat Publication, Delhi. Singh, R.B. 2004 “Flood Disaster in India” in Chauhan and Dubey (ed.) Water Resource Management, Shri Natraj Prakashan, Delhi, 12-25.

66

Disaster Management

existing scientific knowledge to produce more realistic, locally appropriate and more effective disaster preparedness activities. In India, it has been observed that most parts of the country, especially northern India, are severely affected by flood hazards particularly the IndoGangetic-Brahmaputra plain. Almost all the anthropogenic and commercial activities are badly hampered on a large scale by the flood hazards during the last 4-5 decades subsequently there has been a destabilization of the Indian economy. So, in order to mitigate flood hazards, there is an urgent need first of all to identify and map flood prone areas. Secondly, the new modern techniques should be applied for an advance warning system which is possible now through various satellite and Remote Sensing services. Hence, the flood forecasting and warning systems should be adopted because they are one of the most reliable and cost effective methods and moreover, over the years there is a considerable Sheel Kumar improvement in the methodology and acquisition of the latest technology. Dams, Lecturer,should Swamibe Shraddhanand College, embankmentsVisiting and reservoirs launched involving local people especially of streams Delhi, Delhi-110007, the women alongUniversity the rivers, and canals. India The women can clean drains and strengthen their embankments and similarly clean up driveways. A system INTRODUCTION should also be launched in order to remove the deposited debris and silt in all the present vulnerable canals andand drains in the presence of expert At the time,rivers, the challenges opportunities for reducing loss engineers from right beforehazards the occurrence the monsoon season. By adopting all theseis said environmental has neverof been greater. Theoretically, the challenge measures management works inwhich the country, it would possible easily defined;and butflood to eliminate all disasters, cause death andbe injury or to savetothe precious of human-beings includingtocattle wealth and considerably damage property orlives the environment is impossible achieve. Although many the immense flood damage the country. change and uncertainty risksreduce are potentially avoidable, global to environmental about future hazardous events, together with the central role played by human failings in all disasters, makes the total elimination of hazards an unrealistic REFERENCES task.http://www.iitr.ernet.in/centers/TIFAC/database/floods/eff.htm The question then is How safe is enough? As Charlton (1990) on suggests, (Accessed 25th June, this question is a little like asking an athlete: How fast is enough? All he or 2007). she Kale, can answer is: As fast as I can run today and then faster still tomorrow.’ V.S. 1998 “Monsoon Floods in India: A Hydro-Geomorphic Perspective”, published Memoir Geological of India, No.precise 41, 229-256 The by existing databases areSociety inadequate for the determination of spatial Singh, J. 2002 “India: Geographical Bases and Dimensions”, Publications, and temporal patterns of disaster worldwide but available Radha evidence suggestsNew Delhi, 65-66. that the overall losses remain high. Despite increased investments in hazard Singh, measures, R.B. (ed.) 2000 “Disaster Management”, Rawat few Publication, mitigation deaths and material damage shows signs ofDelhi. a sustained Singh, R.B. 2004 “Flood Disaster in India” in Chauhan and Dubey (ed.) Water Resource decline. The continued growth of population and the encroachment of humans Management, Shri Natraj Prakashan, Delhi, 12-25. into hazardous zones plus the rise in exposed wealth resulting from economic growth are the main causes. The greatest absolute financial losses continue to occur in the MDCs whilst Third World countries experience the most severe impacts, in terms of death and relative economic loss. In some cases these impacts are sufficiently severe to jeopardize economic and developmental efforts. Social and political systems are undergoing rapid transitions everywhere and many traditional hazard responses, ranging from indigenous cultural attitudes in the LDCs to national civil defence organizations in the MDCs, are now seen as outdated. In addition, new threats are emerging for the twenty-first century. On one hand, opportunities do exist for disaster reduction. There is currently a widespread awareness of risk in the environment and growing recognitions

6

Earthquake Hazard Management

66

Disaster Management

existing scientific knowledge to produce more realistic, locally appropriate and more effective disaster preparedness activities. In India, it has been observed that most parts of the country, especially northern India, are severely affected by flood hazards particularly the IndoGangetic-Brahmaputra plain. Almost all the anthropogenic and commercial activities are badly hampered on a large scale by the flood hazards during the last 4-5 decades subsequently there has been a destabilization of the Indian economy. So, in order to mitigate flood hazards, there is an urgent need first of all to identify and map flood prone areas. Secondly, the new modern techniques should be applied for an advance warning system which is possible now through various satellite and Remote Sensing services. Hence, the flood forecasting and warning systems should be adopted because they are one of the most reliable and cost effective methods and moreover, over the years there is a considerable Sheel Kumar improvement in the methodology and acquisition of the latest technology. Dams, Lecturer,should Swamibe Shraddhanand College, embankmentsVisiting and reservoirs launched involving local people especially University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India the women along the rivers, streams and canals. The women can clean drains and strengthen their embankments and similarly clean up driveways. A system INTRODUCTION should also be launched in order to remove the deposited debris and silt in all the present vulnerable canals andand drains in the presence of expert At the time,rivers, the challenges opportunities for reducing loss engineers from right beforehazards the occurrence the monsoon season. By adopting all theseis said environmental has neverof been greater. Theoretically, the challenge measures management works inwhich the country, it would possible easily defined;and butflood to eliminate all disasters, cause death andbe injury or to savetothe precious of human-beings includingtocattle wealth and considerably damage property orlives the environment is impossible achieve. Although many the immense flood damage the country. change and uncertainty risksreduce are potentially avoidable, global to environmental about future hazardous events, together with the central role played by human failings in all disasters, makes the total elimination of hazards an unrealistic REFERENCES task.http://www.iitr.ernet.in/centers/TIFAC/database/floods/eff.htm The question then is How safe is enough? As Charlton (1990) on suggests, (Accessed 25th June, this question is a little like asking an athlete: How fast is enough? All he or 2007). she Kale, can answer is:“Monsoon As fast asFloods I caninrun today and then faster Perspective”, still tomorrow.’ V.S. 1998 India: A Hydro-Geomorphic published Memoir Geological of India, No.precise 41, 229-256 The by existing databases areSociety inadequate for the determination of spatial J. 2002 “India:ofGeographical Bases andbut Dimensions”, Publications, and Singh, temporal patterns disaster worldwide available Radha evidence suggestsNew Delhi, 65-66. that the overall losses remain high. Despite increased investments in hazard Singh, measures, R.B. (ed.) 2000 “Disaster Management”, Rawat few Publication, mitigation deaths and material damage shows signs ofDelhi. a sustained Singh, R.B. 2004 “Flood Disaster in India” in Chauhan and Dubey (ed.) Water Resource decline. The continued growth of population and the encroachment of humans Management, Shri Natraj Prakashan, Delhi, 12-25. into hazardous zones plus the rise in exposed wealth resulting from economic growth are the main causes. The greatest absolute financial losses continue to occur in the MDCs whilst Third World countries experience the most severe impacts, in terms of death and relative economic loss. In some cases these impacts are sufficiently severe to jeopardize economic and developmental efforts. Social and political systems are undergoing rapid transitions everywhere and many traditional hazard responses, ranging from indigenous cultural attitudes in the LDCs to national civil defence organizations in the MDCs, are now seen as outdated. In addition, new threats are emerging for the twenty-first century. On one hand, opportunities do exist for disaster reduction. There is currently a widespread awareness of risk in the environment and growing recognitions

6

Earthquake Hazard Management

66

Disaster Management

existing scientific knowledge to produce more realistic, locally appropriate and more effective disaster preparedness activities. In India, it has been observed that most parts of the country, especially northern India, are severely affected by flood hazards particularly the IndoGangetic-Brahmaputra plain. Almost all the anthropogenic and commercial activities are badly hampered on a large scale by the flood hazards during the last 4-5 decades subsequently there has been a destabilization of the Indian economy. So, in order to mitigate flood hazards, there is an urgent need first of all to identify and map flood prone areas. Secondly, the new modern techniques should be applied for an advance warning system which is possible now through various satellite and Remote Sensing services. Hence, the flood forecasting and warning systems should be adopted because they are one of the most reliable and cost effective methods and moreover, over the years there is a considerable Sheel Kumar improvement in the methodology and acquisition of the latest technology. Dams, Lecturer,should Swamibe Shraddhanand College, embankmentsVisiting and reservoirs launched involving local people especially of streams Delhi, Delhi-110007, the women alongUniversity the rivers, and canals. India The women can clean drains and strengthen their embankments and similarly clean up driveways. A system INTRODUCTION should also be launched in order to remove the deposited debris and silt in all the present vulnerable canals andand drains in the presence of expert At the time,rivers, the challenges opportunities for reducing loss engineers from right beforehazards the occurrence the monsoon season. By adopting all theseis said environmental has neverof been greater. Theoretically, the challenge measures management works inwhich the country, it would possible easily defined;and butflood to eliminate all disasters, cause death andbe injury or to savetothe precious of human-beings includingtocattle wealth and considerably damage property orlives the environment is impossible achieve. Although many the immense flood damage the country. change and uncertainty risksreduce are potentially avoidable, global to environmental about future hazardous events, together with the central role played by human failings in all disasters, makes the total elimination of hazards an unrealistic REFERENCES task.http://www.iitr.ernet.in/centers/TIFAC/database/floods/eff.htm The question then is How safe is enough? As Charlton (1990) on suggests, (Accessed 25th June, this question is a little like asking an athlete: How fast is enough? All he or 2007). she Kale, can answer is: As fast as I can run today and then faster still tomorrow.’ V.S. 1998 “Monsoon Floods in India: A Hydro-Geomorphic Perspective”, published Memoir Geological of India, No.precise 41, 229-256 The by existing databases areSociety inadequate for the determination of spatial Singh, J. 2002 “India: Geographical Bases and Dimensions”, Publications, and temporal patterns of disaster worldwide but available Radha evidence suggestsNew Delhi, 65-66. that the overall losses remain high. Despite increased investments in hazard Singh, measures, R.B. (ed.) 2000 “Disaster Management”, Rawat few Publication, mitigation deaths and material damage shows signs ofDelhi. a sustained Singh, R.B. 2004 “Flood Disaster in India” in Chauhan and Dubey (ed.) Water Resource decline. The continued growth of population and the encroachment of humans Management, Shri Natraj Prakashan, Delhi, 12-25. into hazardous zones plus the rise in exposed wealth resulting from economic growth are the main causes. The greatest absolute financial losses continue to occur in the MDCs whilst Third World countries experience the most severe impacts, in terms of death and relative economic loss. In some cases these impacts are sufficiently severe to jeopardize economic and developmental efforts. Social and political systems are undergoing rapid transitions everywhere and many traditional hazard responses, ranging from indigenous cultural attitudes in the LDCs to national civil defence organizations in the MDCs, are now seen as outdated. In addition, new threats are emerging for the twenty-first century. On one hand, opportunities do exist for disaster reduction. There is currently a widespread awareness of risk in the environment and growing recognitions

6

Earthquake Hazard Management

66

6

Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar Visiting Lecturer, Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION At the present time, the challenges and opportunities for reducing loss from environmental hazards has never been greater. Theoretically, the challenge is easily defined; but to eliminate all disasters, which cause death and injury or damage to property or the environment is impossible to achieve. Although many risks are potentially avoidable, global environmental change and uncertainty about future hazardous events, together with the central role played by human failings in all disasters, makes the total elimination of hazards an unrealistic task. The question then is How safe is enough? As Charlton (1990) suggests, this question is a little like asking an athlete: How fast is enough? All he or she can answer is: As fast as I can run today and then faster still tomorrow.’ The existing databases are inadequate for the precise determination of spatial and temporal patterns of disaster worldwide but available evidence suggests that the overall losses remain high. Despite increased investments in hazard mitigation measures, deaths and material damage shows few signs of a sustained decline. The continued growth of population and the encroachment of humans into hazardous zones plus the rise in exposed wealth resulting from economic growth are the main causes. The greatest absolute financial losses continue to occur in the MDCs whilst Third World countries experience the most severe impacts, in terms of death and relative economic loss. In some cases these impacts are sufficiently severe to jeopardize economic and developmental efforts. Social and political systems are undergoing rapid transitions everywhere and many traditional hazard responses, ranging from indigenous cultural attitudes in the LDCs to national civil defence organizations in the MDCs, are now seen as outdated. In addition, new threats are emerging for the twenty-first century. On one hand, opportunities do exist for disaster reduction. There is currently a widespread awareness of risk in the environment and growing recognitions

Disaster Management

existing scientific knowledge to produce more realistic, locally appropriate and more effective disaster preparedness activities. In India, it has been observed that most parts of the country, especially northern India, are severely affected by flood hazards particularly the IndoGangetic-Brahmaputra plain. Almost all the anthropogenic and commercial activities are badly hampered on a large scale by the flood hazards during the last 4-5 decades subsequently there has been a destabilization of the Indian economy. So, in order to mitigate flood hazards, there is an urgent need first of all to identify and map flood prone areas. Secondly, the new modern techniques should be applied for an advance warning system which is possible now through various satellite and Remote Sensing services. Hence, the flood forecasting and warning systems should be adopted because they are one of the most reliable and cost effective methods and moreover, over the years there is a considerable Sheel Kumar improvement in the methodology and acquisition of the latest technology. Dams, Lecturer,should Swamibe Shraddhanand College, embankmentsVisiting and reservoirs launched involving local people especially University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India the women along the rivers, streams and canals. The women can clean drains and strengthen their embankments and similarly clean up driveways. A system INTRODUCTION should also be launched in order to remove the deposited debris and silt in all the present vulnerable canals andand drains in the presence of expert At the time,rivers, the challenges opportunities for reducing loss engineers from right beforehazards the occurrence the monsoon season. By adopting all theseis said environmental has neverof been greater. Theoretically, the challenge measures management works inwhich the country, it would possible easily defined;and butflood to eliminate all disasters, cause death andbe injury or to savetothe precious of human-beings includingtocattle wealth and considerably damage property orlives the environment is impossible achieve. Although many the immense flood damage the country. change and uncertainty risksreduce are potentially avoidable, global to environmental about future hazardous events, together with the central role played by human failings in all disasters, makes the total elimination of hazards an unrealistic REFERENCES task.http://www.iitr.ernet.in/centers/TIFAC/database/floods/eff.htm The question then is How safe is enough? As Charlton (1990) on suggests, (Accessed 25th June, this question is a little like asking an athlete: How fast is enough? All he or 2007). she Kale, can answer is:“Monsoon As fast asFloods I caninrun today and then faster Perspective”, still tomorrow.’ V.S. 1998 India: A Hydro-Geomorphic published Memoir Geological of India, No.precise 41, 229-256 The by existing databases areSociety inadequate for the determination of spatial J. 2002 “India:ofGeographical Bases andbut Dimensions”, Publications, and Singh, temporal patterns disaster worldwide available Radha evidence suggestsNew Delhi, 65-66. that the overall losses remain high. Despite increased investments in hazard Singh, measures, R.B. (ed.) 2000 “Disaster Management”, Rawat few Publication, mitigation deaths and material damage shows signs ofDelhi. a sustained Singh, R.B. 2004 “Flood Disaster in India” in Chauhan and Dubey (ed.) Water Resource decline. The continued growth of population and the encroachment of humans Management, Shri Natraj Prakashan, Delhi, 12-25. into hazardous zones plus the rise in exposed wealth resulting from economic growth are the main causes. The greatest absolute financial losses continue to occur in the MDCs whilst Third World countries experience the most severe impacts, in terms of death and relative economic loss. In some cases these impacts are sufficiently severe to jeopardize economic and developmental efforts. Social and political systems are undergoing rapid transitions everywhere and many traditional hazard responses, ranging from indigenous cultural attitudes in the LDCs to national civil defence organizations in the MDCs, are now seen as outdated. In addition, new threats are emerging for the twenty-first century. On one hand, opportunities do exist for disaster reduction. There is currently a widespread awareness of risk in the environment and growing recognitions

6

Earthquake Hazard Management

6

Earthquake Hazard Management Sheel Kumar Visiting Lecturer, Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION At the present time, the challenges and opportunities for reducing loss from environmental hazards has never been greater. Theoretically, the challenge is easily defined; but to eliminate all disasters, which cause death and injury or damage to property or the environment is impossible to achieve. Although many risks are potentially avoidable, global environmental change and uncertainty about future hazardous events, together with the central role played by human failings in all disasters, makes the total elimination of hazards an unrealistic task. The question then is How safe is enough? As Charlton (1990) suggests, this question is a little like asking an athlete: How fast is enough? All he or she can answer is: As fast as I can run today and then faster still tomorrow.’ The existing databases are inadequate for the precise determination of spatial and temporal patterns of disaster worldwide but available evidence suggests that the overall losses remain high. Despite increased investments in hazard mitigation measures, deaths and material damage shows few signs of a sustained decline. The continued growth of population and the encroachment of humans into hazardous zones plus the rise in exposed wealth resulting from economic growth are the main causes. The greatest absolute financial losses continue to occur in the MDCs whilst Third World countries experience the most severe impacts, in terms of death and relative economic loss. In some cases these impacts are sufficiently severe to jeopardize economic and developmental efforts. Social and political systems are undergoing rapid transitions everywhere and many traditional hazard responses, ranging from indigenous cultural attitudes in the LDCs to national civil defence organizations in the MDCs, are now seen as outdated. In addition, new threats are emerging for the twenty-first century. On one hand, opportunities do exist for disaster reduction. There is currently a widespread awareness of risk in the environment and growing recognitions

68

that the toll exerted by disasters, especially in the LDCs, is unacceptable. It is defeatist not to bring hazard awareness into development planning because continuing disaster losses simply reinforce poverty and vulnerability. Disaster impact in the Third World needs to be reduced to the point where stable investment can take place and the indigenous skills and energy, on which sustainable long term development depends, can be released. It seems likely that, following the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) of 1990-2000, environmental hazards will remain high on the public policy and political agenda for some time to come. Nature of Problem According to Anderson (1991), loss reduction is a less costly alternative than disaster recovery and this strategy is widely adopted in the MDCs. Extending disaster reduction to the LDCs will provide more difficulty, especially when mitigation is required for disasters such as drought, that cover large areas and involve severe environmental degradation. Loss reduction can be achieved either by modifying the hazard events itself or by reducing its human impact. These approaches are not mutually exclusive and they often work best in some combination, which may also include a loss sharing measure, such as insurance. The aim of physical event modification is to reduce the damage potential associated with a particular hazard by exerting some degree of physical control over the process involved. Total control, whereby the dangerous release of energy or materials is either suppressed or diffused at lower intensities into the environment, is impossible given the present state of knowledge. However, certain natural threats can be modified by specially engineered structures, which provide some protection by buffeting individual buildings or limited high-hazard zones, such as part of a river floodplain, against events of special magnitudes. This approach is sometime called ‘hazard-proofing:’ which is an unsuitable term because it implies a total level of security that can hardly ever be offered. A better phrase is hazard resistance. Hazard resistance involves more than engineering science. It is operated through building codes and other regulations, which imply a high degree of community acceptance and support. To this extent hazard resistance lies at the interface between loss reduction measures based on adjusting events to people and those based on adjusting people to events. The crucial difference is that event modification relies to some degree on hazard confrontation involving physical protection whereas human vulnerability modification relies on hazard avoidance involving mainly non-structural responses. Table 1 below indicates that: • Between 1991 and 2000, Asia was the continent the most frequently hit by disasters, registering 43 percent of the total numbers of event recorded in EMDAT. • Middle developing countries accounts 60 percent of the total events.

68

68

Disaster Management • • •

Nature of Problem According to Anderson (1991), loss reduction is a less costly alternative than disaster recovery and this strategy is widely adopted in the MDCs. Extending disaster reduction to the LDCs will provide more difficulty, especially when mitigation is required for disasters such as drought, that cover large areas and involve severe environmental degradation. Loss reduction can be achieved either by modifying the hazard events itself or by reducing its human impact. These approaches are not mutually exclusive and they often work best in some combination, which may also include a loss sharing measure, such as insurance. The aim of physical event modification is to reduce the damage potential associated with a particular hazard by exerting some degree of physical control over the process involved. Total control, whereby the dangerous release of energy or materials is either suppressed or diffused at lower intensities into the environment, is impossible given the present state of knowledge. However, certain natural threats can be modified by specially engineered structures, which provide some protection by buffeting individual buildings or limited high-hazard zones, such as part of a river floodplain, against events of special magnitudes. This approach is sometime called ‘hazard-proofing:’ which is an unsuitable term because it implies a total level of security that can hardly ever be offered. A better phrase is hazard resistance. Hazard resistance involves more than engineering science. It is operated through building codes and other regulations, which imply a high degree of community acceptance and support. To this extent hazard resistance lies at the interface between loss reduction measures based on adjusting events to people and those based on adjusting people to events. The crucial difference is that event modification relies to some degree on hazard confrontation involving physical protection whereas human vulnerability modification relies on hazard avoidance involving mainly non-structural responses. Table 1 below indicates that: • Between 1991 and 2000, Asia was the continent the most frequently hit by disasters, registering 43 percent of the total numbers of event recorded in EMDAT. • Middle developing countries accounts 60 percent of the total events.

Earthquake Hazard Management

69

that the exerted disasters, especially in the LDCs, is unacceptable. It is Table 2 toll below showsbythat: defeatist notnumber to bring hazardreported awareness development planning because Of the total of people killedinto by disaster from 1991-2000, 80 continuing simply reinforce and vulnerability. percent weredisaster in Asialosses while 62 percent were inpoverty low development countries.Disaster impactwas in the the year Third World needs to be reduced to reported the pointkilled, wheredue stable 1991 with the highest number of people investment takethat place and theBangladesh indigenousand skills and some energy, on which mainly to a can cyclone devastated caused 1,39,000 sustainable long term development depends, can be released. It seems likely deaths. that, following thewhich International Decadepeople for Natural DisasterinReduction (IDNDR) Hurricane Mitch, killed 14,600 in Honduras October 1998, of 1990-2000, environmental will which remainkilled high 30,000 on the public policy and and the Venezuelan floods andhazards mudslide, in December political agenda time to come. 1999, account forfor thesome high death tolls in America in 1998 and 1999.

Table 3 below depicts that, the occurrence of flood disaster is a predominant Nature of Problem disaster in the natural disasters but road accidents or train accidents are According higher to Anderson (1991), reduction a less costly alternative comparatively than any otherloss disaster in theis man-made disasters. Thisthan recovery andoccurs this strategy in the MDCs. Extending typedisaster of accident disaster due to is thewidely hi-techadopted of the transport system and disastertransport reductionsystem. to the LDCs will provide more difficulty, especially when the speedy mitigation required for disasters drought, that cover large The above isTable 4 depicts that, thesuch total asnumber of people killed by areas wind and involve severe Loss reduction can be either storm disaster is theenvironmental predominant degradation. disaster in the natural disasters andachieved the flood by modifying the hazard events itself or by reducing its human impact. These disaster comes in on the second position in terms of life loss. The total number approaches not mutually and theyisoften work besthigher in some of people killed are by road accidents exclusive or train accidents comparatively combination, which may also include a loss sharing measure, such as insurance. than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster Thedue aim of hi-tech physicalof event modification damage potential occurs to the the transport system is andtothereduce speedythe transport system. with particular hazard byhi-tech exerting some degree of physical control It is associated well known thata today’s world is of and speedy society; therefore, the persons, process involved. control, whereby the release of energy mostover of the who use Total speedy transportation maydangerous cause some mistakes is either disaster suppressed or diffused at lower intensities into the and or duematerials to these mistakes becomes more vulnerable. environment, is impossible given the present state knowledge. Tables 1 to 6 all, depict the trends of hazards andofloss, and theyHowever, also certain natural threats can be modified by specially engineered structures, which indicate that the type of disaster phenomenon and live loss of is also increasing provide protection buildings limited high-hazard in which thesome economic loss by is buffeting increased individual in the high incomeorcountries due to zones, such as of part a river against events of specialdensity magnitudes. vertical expansion theofcities andfloodplain, also by increasing the population in This approach sometime ‘hazard-proofing:’ is andestructions unsuitable term the specific regions.is One more called cause of these disasters iswhich the mass because it implies total level of security that can hardly be offered. of forests which create athe imbalances in the environment. It is ever a warning for A better phrase is hazard human beings to reduce theresistance. loss of life by observing for the hazard resistance resistance engineering in science. It is operated rules andHazard regulations. Thereinvolves is a vitalmore need than the modification the vulnerability through building codes and other regulations, which imply a high degree of or mitigation from the hazards and disasters. community anda support. this extentmodification hazard resistance lies at the This means acceptance that there is need of To vulnerability by creating interface between loss reduction measures basedhazards on adjusting events to people changes in human attitudes and behaviour towards in order to reduce those basedmay on relate adjusting people to events. The to crucial difference is that loss.and Such changes either to human responses a disaster that has event modification relies to some and degree on hazard confrontation already occurred or to the anticipation warning of a disaster. Some ofinvolving the physical protection whereas humantechnology, vulnerability relies on hazard specific adjustments employ advanced andmodification even structural devices; avoidance involving mainly non-structural responses. but, in contrast to event modification, the approach is rooted in social science Table 1 below indicates rather than engineering science. that: Vulnerability modification covers everything Between preparedness 1991 and 2000, Asia was the continent the most hit by from• community programmes, through forecasting andfrequently warning to percent to of the total numbers of event recorded in EMfinancialdisasters, and legalregistering measures43 designed promote better land use management and the DAT. possible exception of forecasting and warning systems. • Middle developing countries accounts 60 percent of the total events.

68

Disaster Management

that the toll exerted by disasters, especially in the LDCs, is unacceptable. It is defeatist not to bring hazard awareness into development planning because continuing disaster losses simply reinforce poverty and vulnerability. Disaster impact in the Third World needs to be reduced to the point where stable investment can take place and the indigenous skills and energy, on which sustainable long term development depends, can be released. It seems likely that, following the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) of 1990-2000, environmental hazards will remain high on the public policy and political agenda for some time to come.

Disaster Management

• • •

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

69

that the exerted disasters, especially in the LDCs, is unacceptable. It is Table 2 toll below showsbythat: defeatist notnumber to bring hazardreported awareness development planning because Of the total of people killedinto by disaster from 1991-2000, 80 continuing simply reinforce and vulnerability. percent weredisaster in Asialosses while 62 percent were inpoverty low development countries.Disaster impactwas in the the year Third World needs to be reduced to reported the pointkilled, wheredue stable 1991 with the highest number of people investment takethat place and theBangladesh indigenousand skills and some energy, on which mainly to a can cyclone devastated caused 1,39,000 sustainable long term development depends, can be released. It seems likely deaths. that, following thewhich International Decadepeople for Natural DisasterinReduction (IDNDR) Hurricane Mitch, killed 14,600 in Honduras October 1998, of 1990-2000, environmental will which remainkilled high 30,000 on the public policy and and the Venezuelan floods andhazards mudslide, in December political agenda time to come. 1999, account forfor thesome high death tolls in America in 1998 and 1999.

Table 3 below depicts that, the occurrence of flood disaster is a predominant Nature of Problem disaster in the natural disasters but road accidents or train accidents are According higher to Anderson (1991), reduction a less costly alternative comparatively than any otherloss disaster in theis man-made disasters. Thisthan disaster recovery and this strategy is widely adopted in the MDCs. Extending type of accident disaster occurs due to the hi-tech of the transport system and disastertransport reductionsystem. to the LDCs will provide more difficulty, especially when the speedy mitigation required for disasters drought, that cover large The above isTable 4 depicts that, thesuch total asnumber of people killed by areas wind and involve severe Loss reduction can be either storm disaster is theenvironmental predominant degradation. disaster in the natural disasters andachieved the flood by modifying thethe hazard events itselfinorterms by reducing its human impact. These disaster comes in on second position of life loss. The total number approaches not mutually and theyisoften work besthigher in some of people killed are by road accidents exclusive or train accidents comparatively combination, which may also include a loss sharing measure, such as insurance. than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster Thedue aim of hi-tech physicalof event modification damage potential occurs to the the transport system is andtothereduce speedythe transport system. with particular hazard byhi-tech exerting some degree of physical control It is associated well known thata today’s world is of and speedy society; therefore, the persons, process involved. control, whereby the release of energy mostover of the who use Total speedy transportation maydangerous cause some mistakes is either disaster suppressed or diffused at lower intensities into the and or duematerials to these mistakes becomes more vulnerable. environment, impossible theofpresent knowledge. Tables 1 to 6isall, depict thegiven trends hazardsstate andofloss, and theyHowever, also certain natural threats can be modified by specially engineered structures, which indicate that the type of disaster phenomenon and live loss of is also increasing provide some protection by buffeting individual buildings or limited high-hazard in which the economic loss is increased in the high income countries due to zones, such as of part a river against events of specialdensity magnitudes. vertical expansion theofcities andfloodplain, also by increasing the population in This approach sometime ‘hazard-proofing:’ is andestructions unsuitable term the specific regions.is One more called cause of these disasters iswhich the mass because it implies total level of security that can hardly be offered. of forests which create athe imbalances in the environment. It is ever a warning for A better phrase is hazard human beings to reduce theresistance. loss of life by observing for the hazard resistance resistance engineering in science. It is operated rules andHazard regulations. Thereinvolves is a vitalmore need than the modification the vulnerability through building codes and other regulations, which imply a high degree of or mitigation from the hazards and disasters. community acceptance and support. To this extent hazard resistance lies at the This means that there is a need of vulnerability modification by creating interface between loss reduction measures basedhazards on adjusting events to people changes in human attitudes and behaviour towards in order to reduce those basedmay on relate adjusting people to events. The to crucial difference is that loss.and Such changes either to human responses a disaster that has event modification relies to some and degree on hazard confrontation already occurred or to the anticipation warning of a disaster. Some ofinvolving the physical protection whereas humantechnology, vulnerability relies on hazard specific adjustments employ advanced andmodification even structural devices; mainly non-structural responses. but, avoidance in contrastinvolving to event modification, the approach is rooted in social science Table 1 below indicates rather than engineering science. that: Vulnerability modification covers everything • Between 1991 and 2000, Asia was the continent the most hit by from community preparedness programmes, through forecasting andfrequently warning to percent to of the total numbers of event recorded in EMfinancialdisasters, and legalregistering measures43 designed promote better land use management and the DAT. possible exception of forecasting and warning systems. • Middle developing countries accounts 60 percent of the total events.

68 • • •

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

69

Tablethe 2 toll below showsbythat: that exerted disasters, especially in the LDCs, is unacceptable. It is Of the total of people killedinto by disaster from 1991-2000, 80 defeatist notnumber to bring hazardreported awareness development planning because percent weredisaster in Asialosses while 62 percent were inpoverty low development countries.Disaster continuing simply reinforce and vulnerability. 1991 was with the highest number of people impact in the the year Third World needs to be reduced to reported the pointkilled, wheredue stable mainly to a can cyclone devastated caused 1,39,000 investment takethat place and theBangladesh indigenousand skills and some energy, on which deaths. sustainable long term development depends, can be released. It seems likely Hurricane Mitch, killed 14,600 in Honduras October 1998, that, following thewhich International Decadepeople for Natural DisasterinReduction (IDNDR) and1990-2000, the Venezuelan floods andhazards mudslide, in December of environmental will which remainkilled high 30,000 on the public policy and 1999, account forfor thesome high death tolls in America in 1998 and 1999. political agenda time to come.

Table 3 below depicts that, the occurrence of flood disaster is a predominant Nature of Problem disaster in the natural disasters but road accidents or train accidents are According higher to Anderson (1991), reduction a less costly alternative comparatively than any otherloss disaster in theis man-made disasters. Thisthan recovery andoccurs this strategy in the MDCs. Extending typedisaster of accident disaster due to is thewidely hi-techadopted of the transport system and disastertransport reductionsystem. to the LDCs will provide more difficulty, especially when the speedy mitigation required for disasters drought, that cover large The above isTable 4 depicts that, thesuch total asnumber of people killed by areas wind and involve severe Loss reduction can be either storm disaster is theenvironmental predominant degradation. disaster in the natural disasters andachieved the flood by modifying the hazard events itself or by reducing its human impact. These disaster comes in on the second position in terms of life loss. The total number approaches not mutually and theyisoften work besthigher in some of people killed are by road accidents exclusive or train accidents comparatively combination, which may also include a loss sharing measure, such as insurance. than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster Thedue aim of hi-tech physicalof event modification damage potential occurs to the the transport system is andtothereduce speedythe transport system. with particular hazard byhi-tech exerting some degree of physical control It is associated well known thata today’s world is of and speedy society; therefore, the persons, process involved. control, whereby the release of energy mostover of the who use Total speedy transportation maydangerous cause some mistakes is either disaster suppressed or diffused at lower intensities into the and or duematerials to these mistakes becomes more vulnerable. environment, is impossible given the present state knowledge. Tables 1 to 6 all, depict the trends of hazards andofloss, and theyHowever, also certain natural threats can be modified by specially engineered structures, which indicate that the type of disaster phenomenon and live loss of is also increasing provide protection buildings limited high-hazard in which thesome economic loss by is buffeting increased individual in the high incomeorcountries due to zones, such as of part a river against events of specialdensity magnitudes. vertical expansion theofcities andfloodplain, also by increasing the population in This approach sometime ‘hazard-proofing:’ is andestructions unsuitable term the specific regions.is One more called cause of these disasters iswhich the mass because it implies total level of security that can hardly be offered. of forests which create athe imbalances in the environment. It is ever a warning for A better phrase is hazard human beings to reduce theresistance. loss of life by observing for the hazard resistance resistance engineering in science. It is operated rules andHazard regulations. Thereinvolves is a vitalmore need than the modification the vulnerability through building codes and other regulations, which imply a high degree of or mitigation from the hazards and disasters. community anda support. this extentmodification hazard resistance lies at the This means acceptance that there is need of To vulnerability by creating interface between loss reduction measures basedhazards on adjusting events to people changes in human attitudes and behaviour towards in order to reduce those basedmay on relate adjusting people to events. The to crucial difference is that loss.and Such changes either to human responses a disaster that has event modification relies to some and degree on hazard confrontation already occurred or to the anticipation warning of a disaster. Some ofinvolving the physical protection whereas humantechnology, vulnerability relies on hazard specific adjustments employ advanced andmodification even structural devices; avoidance involving mainly non-structural responses. but, in contrast to event modification, the approach is rooted in social science Table 1 below indicates rather than engineering science. that: Vulnerability modification covers everything Between preparedness 1991 and 2000, Asia was the continent the most hit by from• community programmes, through forecasting andfrequently warning to percent to of the total numbers of event recorded in EMfinancialdisasters, and legalregistering measures43 designed promote better land use management and the DAT. possible exception of forecasting and warning systems. • Middle developing countries accounts 60 percent of the total events.

68 • • •

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management • • •

Table 3 below depicts that, the occurrence of flood disaster is a predominant Nature of Problem disaster in the natural disasters but road accidents or train accidents are According higher to Anderson (1991), reduction a less costly alternative comparatively than any otherloss disaster in theis man-made disasters. Thisthan disaster recovery and this strategy is widely adopted in the MDCs. Extending type of accident disaster occurs due to the hi-tech of the transport system and disastertransport reductionsystem. to the LDCs will provide more difficulty, especially when the speedy mitigation required for disasters drought, that cover large The above isTable 4 depicts that, thesuch total asnumber of people killed by areas wind and involve severe Loss reduction can be either storm disaster is theenvironmental predominant degradation. disaster in the natural disasters andachieved the flood by modifying thethe hazard events itselfinorterms by reducing its human impact. These disaster comes in on second position of life loss. The total number approaches not mutually and theyisoften work besthigher in some of people killed are by road accidents exclusive or train accidents comparatively combination, which may also include a loss sharing measure, such as insurance. than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster Thedue aim of hi-tech physicalof event modification damage potential occurs to the the transport system is andtothereduce speedythe transport system. with particular hazard byhi-tech exerting some degree of physical control It is associated well known thata today’s world is of and speedy society; therefore, the persons, process involved. control, whereby the release of energy mostover of the who use Total speedy transportation maydangerous cause some mistakes is either disaster suppressed or diffused at lower intensities into the and or duematerials to these mistakes becomes more vulnerable. environment, impossible theofpresent knowledge. Tables 1 to 6isall, depict thegiven trends hazardsstate andofloss, and theyHowever, also certain natural threats can be modified by specially engineered structures, which indicate that the type of disaster phenomenon and live loss of is also increasing provide some protection by buffeting individual buildings or limited high-hazard in which the economic loss is increased in the high income countries due to zones, such as of part a river against events of specialdensity magnitudes. vertical expansion theofcities andfloodplain, also by increasing the population in This approach sometime ‘hazard-proofing:’ is andestructions unsuitable term the specific regions.is One more called cause of these disasters iswhich the mass because it implies total level of security that can hardly be offered. of forests which create athe imbalances in the environment. It is ever a warning for A better phrase is hazard human beings to reduce theresistance. loss of life by observing for the hazard resistance resistance engineering in science. It is operated rules andHazard regulations. Thereinvolves is a vitalmore need than the modification the vulnerability through building codes and other regulations, which imply a high degree of or mitigation from the hazards and disasters. community acceptance and support. To this extent hazard resistance lies at the This means that there is a need of vulnerability modification by creating interface between loss reduction measures basedhazards on adjusting events to people changes in human attitudes and behaviour towards in order to reduce those basedmay on relate adjusting people to events. The to crucial difference is that loss.and Such changes either to human responses a disaster that has event modification relies to some and degree on hazard confrontation already occurred or to the anticipation warning of a disaster. Some ofinvolving the physical protection whereas humantechnology, vulnerability relies on hazard specific adjustments employ advanced andmodification even structural devices; mainly non-structural responses. but, avoidance in contrastinvolving to event modification, the approach is rooted in social science Table 1 below indicates rather than engineering science. that: Vulnerability modification covers everything • Between 1991 and 2000, Asia was the continent the most hit by from community preparedness programmes, through forecasting andfrequently warning to percent to of the total numbers of event recorded in EMfinancialdisasters, and legalregistering measures43 designed promote better land use management and the DAT. possible exception of forecasting and warning systems. • Middle developing countries accounts 60 percent of the total events.

Table 2 below shows that: Of the total number of people reported killed by disaster from 1991-2000, 80 percent were in Asia while 62 percent were in low development countries. 1991 was the year with the highest number of people reported killed, due mainly to a cyclone that devastated Bangladesh and caused some 1,39,000 deaths. Hurricane Mitch, which killed 14,600 people in Honduras in October 1998, and the Venezuelan floods and mudslide, which killed 30,000 in December 1999, account for the high death tolls in America in 1998 and 1999.

Table 3 below depicts that, the occurrence of flood disaster is a predominant disaster in the natural disasters but road accidents or train accidents are comparatively higher than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster occurs due to the hi-tech of the transport system and the speedy transport system. The above Table 4 depicts that, the total number of people killed by wind storm disaster is the predominant disaster in the natural disasters and the flood disaster comes in on the second position in terms of life loss. The total number of people killed by road accidents or train accidents is comparatively higher than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster occurs due to the hi-tech of the transport system and the speedy transport system. It is well known that today’s world is of hi-tech and speedy society; therefore, most of the persons, who use speedy transportation may cause some mistakes and due to these mistakes disaster becomes more vulnerable. Tables 1 to 6 all, depict the trends of hazards and loss, and they also indicate that the type of disaster phenomenon and live loss of is also increasing in which the economic loss is increased in the high income countries due to vertical expansion of the cities and also by increasing the population density in the specific regions. One more cause of these disasters is the mass destructions of forests which create the imbalances in the environment. It is a warning for human beings to reduce the loss of life by observing for the hazard resistance rules and regulations. There is a vital need the modification in the vulnerability or mitigation from the hazards and disasters. This means that there is a need of vulnerability modification by creating changes in human attitudes and behaviour towards hazards in order to reduce loss. Such changes may relate either to human responses to a disaster that has already occurred or to the anticipation and warning of a disaster. Some of the specific adjustments employ advanced technology, and even structural devices; but, in contrast to event modification, the approach is rooted in social science rather than engineering science. Vulnerability modification covers everything from community preparedness programmes, through forecasting and warning to financial and legal measures designed to promote better land use management and the possible exception of forecasting and warning systems.

69

Tablethe 2 toll below showsbythat: that exerted disasters, especially in the LDCs, is unacceptable. It is Of the total of people killedinto by disaster from 1991-2000, 80 defeatist notnumber to bring hazardreported awareness development planning because percent weredisaster in Asialosses while 62 percent were inpoverty low development countries.Disaster continuing simply reinforce and vulnerability. 1991 was with the highest number of people impact in the the year Third World needs to be reduced to reported the pointkilled, wheredue stable mainly to a can cyclone devastated caused 1,39,000 investment takethat place and theBangladesh indigenousand skills and some energy, on which deaths. sustainable long term development depends, can be released. It seems likely Hurricane Mitch, killed 14,600 in Honduras October 1998, that, following thewhich International Decadepeople for Natural DisasterinReduction (IDNDR) and1990-2000, the Venezuelan floods andhazards mudslide, in December of environmental will which remainkilled high 30,000 on the public policy and 1999, account forfor thesome high death tolls in America in 1998 and 1999. political agenda time to come.

69

Earthquake Hazard Management • • •

69

Table 2 below shows that: Of the total number of people reported killed by disaster from 1991-2000, 80 percent were in Asia while 62 percent were in low development countries. 1991 was the year with the highest number of people reported killed, due mainly to a cyclone that devastated Bangladesh and caused some 1,39,000 deaths. Hurricane Mitch, which killed 14,600 people in Honduras in October 1998, and the Venezuelan floods and mudslide, which killed 30,000 in December 1999, account for the high death tolls in America in 1998 and 1999.

Table 3 below depicts that, the occurrence of flood disaster is a predominant disaster in the natural disasters but road accidents or train accidents are comparatively higher than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster occurs due to the hi-tech of the transport system and the speedy transport system. The above Table 4 depicts that, the total number of people killed by wind storm disaster is the predominant disaster in the natural disasters and the flood disaster comes in on the second position in terms of life loss. The total number of people killed by road accidents or train accidents is comparatively higher than any other disaster in the man-made disasters. This type of accident disaster occurs due to the hi-tech of the transport system and the speedy transport system. It is well known that today’s world is of hi-tech and speedy society; therefore, most of the persons, who use speedy transportation may cause some mistakes and due to these mistakes disaster becomes more vulnerable. Tables 1 to 6 all, depict the trends of hazards and loss, and they also indicate that the type of disaster phenomenon and live loss of is also increasing in which the economic loss is increased in the high income countries due to vertical expansion of the cities and also by increasing the population density in the specific regions. One more cause of these disasters is the mass destructions of forests which create the imbalances in the environment. It is a warning for human beings to reduce the loss of life by observing for the hazard resistance rules and regulations. There is a vital need the modification in the vulnerability or mitigation from the hazards and disasters. This means that there is a need of vulnerability modification by creating changes in human attitudes and behaviour towards hazards in order to reduce loss. Such changes may relate either to human responses to a disaster that has already occurred or to the anticipation and warning of a disaster. Some of the specific adjustments employ advanced technology, and even structural devices; but, in contrast to event modification, the approach is rooted in social science rather than engineering science. Vulnerability modification covers everything from community preparedness programmes, through forecasting and warning to financial and legal measures designed to promote better land use management and the possible exception of forecasting and warning systems.

307

Oceania

20,045 1,32,077 79,333 1,15,966 76,725 83,919 21,834 30,291 22,238 1,70,093 20,045 1,32,077 79,333 1,15,966 76,725 1,70,093 Total

1,160

Europe

2,208

Asia

2,660

America

454 Total

Africa

60

LDCs

1991

269

MDCs

Continent

14

Europe

125

62

Asia

HDCs

210

America

Oceania

52

116

Africa

1991

In the case of earthquakes, hazard resistance begins with geo-technical engineers, who apply the principles of rock and soil mechanics to the safe design of earth supported structures. Other things being equal, buildings on solid rocks are less likely to suffer damage than those built on clays or softer foundations. Smallscale maps of the sub state can be prepared which suggest local variations in building strength and ensure that major buildings are not located over faults or areas of un-consolidated material. Local building codes tend to undergo Continent

83,919

4,65,469 5,799 56,664 68,990 59,063 59,657 58,158 3,480 4,680 1,43,518

LDCs

5,460

26,387

2,60,665 12,563

1,683 4,398

71,015 44,825

2,151 1,800

18,470 15,437

1,631 7,827

17,934 15,870

2,484 1,853

23,758

MDCs

826 1,734

24,841

HDCs

6

2,089

1,63,758 13,414

1,748

4,981

1. Hazard Resistance Design

1992

367

57

215

95

12

51

162

88

54

1992

METHODS TO BE ADOPTED FOR HAZARD REDUCTION

15,952

3,617

34,495 1,417

205 166

19,448 1,429

2,227 398

1,166 921

111 24

3,366 2,340

103 120

1,159

5,98,290 11,056 75,890 71,113 82,274 69,679 74,975 13,362 22,769

78,041

38,078 5,610

1,757 33,948

2,675 7,092

22,944 2,753

3,903 3,484

2,530 2,622

2,932 3,104

2,925 4,606

1,637

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Table 2: Total numbers of people reported killed by disaster during 1990-2000 in various continents.

4,703 752 609 481 422 395 395 406 422

785

2,846 438

165 117

381 290

88 61

250 245

66 62

237 262

52 57

259

143

1,072 149

13 15

111 103

18 15

111 84

17 8

96 92

17 14

106

664

2,035 284

118 78

238 202

65 60

193 173

53 62

171 182

69 46

220

1,057

804 195

142 135

143 84

112 99

55 59

93 97

57 57

81 94

48

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

Total

The potential scales of human intervention with natural hazards can be illustrated with reference to floods. Theoretically, large-scale environmental control can be attempted through either weather modification or watershed treatment. The aim is either to stop flood-producing rains by cloud seeding, or to reduce flood flows by conservation measures such as afforestation or contour cultivation over large areas of the drainage basin. On the other hand, hazard resistance design would involve building structures such as dams to store the floodwater in the upper part of the basin or embankments to contain the flood flows further downstream. At the smallest scale, hazard resistance design can apply to individual buildings through structural adaptations, such as raising the floor level, that make them and their contents less susceptible to flooding. However, there is little evidence that floods can be fully controlled over large drainage basins by any of these adjustments (Smith and Ward, 1998). Hazard resistance occurs when engineered buildings are erected in compliance with local building codes. A building code is intended to ensure that building is located, designed and constructed so that, if it is objected to specified destructive forces of either natural or man made origin, it will present no threats either to its occupants or to the general public. For example, the Uniform Building Code /Norms, which updated annually in the USA and also in India, contain a map of six seismic zones based on ground motions and recorded damage from previous earthquakes. The higher the apparent risk, the more stringent the building regulations, and many buildings can also be retrospectively strengthened to withstand loads more safely. In most countries, public facilities such as dams, bridges and pipelines are likely to be hazard- resistant because professional engineers have designed them. The same is true for large industrial structures such as nuclear power plants and chemical factories. However, design protection can never be totally perfect. Building failure will be greatest in data-poor, hazard-prone environments where many structures – older buildings and small rural houses, will have been constructed without any thought to hazard impact. The two most common natural hazards considered in building codes are earthquakes and windstorms, although the adjustment is also applicable to other hazards such as floods.

7,52,521

71

21,834

307

Oceania

Earthquake Hazard Management

30,291

1,160

Europe

2,208

Asia

2,660

America

454 Total

Africa

60

LDCs

1991

269

MDCs

Disaster Management

Continent

14

Europe

125

62

Asia

HDCs

210

America

Oceania

52

116

Africa

Continent

1991

In the case of earthquakes, hazard resistance begins with geo-technical engineers, who apply the principles of rock and soil mechanics to the safe design of earth supported structures. Other things being equal, buildings on solid rocks are less likely to suffer damage than those built on clays or softer foundations. Smallscale maps of the sub state can be prepared which suggest local variations in building strength and ensure that major buildings are not located over faults or areas of un-consolidated material. Local building codes tend to undergo

Total

4,65,469 5,799 56,664 68,990 59,063 59,657 58,158 3,480 4,680 1,43,518

LDCs

5,460

26,387

2,60,665 12,563

1,683 4,398

71,015 44,825

2,151 1,800

18,470 15,437

1,631 7,827

17,934 15,870

2,484 1,853

23,758

MDCs

826 1,734

24,841

HDCs

6

2,089

1,63,758 13,414

1,748

4,981

1992

367

57

215

95

12

51

162

88

54

15,952

3,617

34,495 1,417

205 166

19,448 1,429

2,227 398

1,166 921

111 24

3,366 2,340

103 120

1,159

5,98,290 11,056 75,890 71,113 82,274 69,679 74,975 13,362 22,769

78,041

38,078 5,610

1,757 33,948

2,675 7,092

22,944 2,753

3,903 3,484

2,530 2,622

2,932 3,104

2,925 4,606

1,637

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Table 2: Total numbers of people reported killed by disaster during 1990-2000 in various continents.

4,703 752 609 481 422 395 395 406 422

785

2,846 438

165 117

381 290

88 61

250 245

66 62

237 262

52 57

259

143

1,072 149

13 15

111 103

18 15

111 84

17 8

96 92

17 14

106

664

2,035 284

118 78

238 202

65 60

193 173

53 62

171 182

69 46

220

1,057

804 195

142 135

143 84

112 99

55 59

93 97

57 57

81 94

48

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992

1. Hazard Resistance Design

7,52,521

71

22,238

Earthquake Hazard Management

METHODS TO BE ADOPTED FOR HAZARD REDUCTION

Table 1: Total numbers of disasters occurred during 1990-2000 in various continents.

7,52,521 20,045 1,32,077 79,333 1,15,966 76,725 21,834 22,238 1,70,093 Total

30,291

83,919

4,65,469 5,799 56,664 68,990 59,063 59,657 3,480 5,460 1,43,518 LDCs

4,680

58,158

26,387

2,60,665 12,563

1,683 4,398

71,015 44,825

2,151 1,800

18,470 15,437

1,631 7,827 2,484

15,870

1,853

MDCs

826

15,952

1,734

24,841

HDCs

23,758

17,934

34,495

3,617 205

1,417 19,448

166 2,227

1,429 1,166

398 111 24 103

3,366 2,340

120 307 Oceania

2,089 1,160 Europe

6

1,159

921

5,98,290 11,056 75,890 71,113 82,274 69,679 13,362 Asia

1,63,758 13,414

22,769

74,975

38,078

78,041 1,757

5,610 2,675

33,948 22,944

7,092 3,903

2,753 2,530

3,484

2,925 4,606

2,622

3,104 1,637

2,208 America

1,748

2,660 Africa

4,981

2,932

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 Continent

Table 2: Total numbers of people reported killed by disaster during 1990-2000 in various continents.

4,703 752 609 481 422 395 406 454 Total

367

422

395

2,846

785 165

438 381

117 88

290 250

61 66

245

52

62

262

57 60 LDCs

57

269 MDCs

215

259

237

143

1,072 149

13 15

111 103

18 15

111 84 92

17 8 17 14

HDCs

95

14

125

Oceania

12

106

96

2,035

664 118

284 238

78 65

202 193

60 53

173

62 69 46

171 182 220

51 62 Europe

162 210 Asia

Table 1: Total numbers of disasters occurred during 1990-2000 in various continents.

7,52,521 20,045 1,32,077 79,333 1,15,966 76,725 21,834 22,238 1,70,093 Total

30,291

83,919

4,65,469 5,799 56,664 68,990 59,063 59,657 3,480 5,460 1,43,518 LDCs

4,680

58,158

26,387

2,60,665 12,563

1,683 4,398

71,015 44,825

2,151 1,800

18,470 15,437

1,631 7,827 2,484

15,870

1,853

MDCs

826

15,952

1,734

24,841

HDCs

23,758

17,934

34,495

3,617 205

1,417 19,448

166 2,227

1,429 1,166

398 111 24 103

3,366 2,340

120 307 Oceania

2,089 1,160 Europe

6

1,159

921

5,98,290 11,056 75,890 71,113 82,274 69,679 13,362 Asia

1,63,758 13,414

22,769

74,975

38,078

78,041 1,757

5,610 2,675

33,948 22,944

7,092 3,903

2,753 2,530

3,484

2,925 4,606

2,622

3,104 1,637

2,208 America

1,748

2,660 Africa

4,981

2,932

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 Continent

Table 2: Total numbers of people reported killed by disaster during 1990-2000 in various continents.

4,703 752 609 481 422 395 406 454 Total

367

422

395

2,846

785 165

438 381

117 88

290 250

61 66

245

52

62

262

57 60 LDCs

57

269 MDCs

215

259

237

143

1,072 149

13 15

111 103

18 15

111 84

17 8

96

17

92

14

106 HDCs

12 14

125

Oceania

95

664

2,035 284

118 78

238 202

65 60

193

69

53

173

62

182

46 62 Europe

51

210 Asia

162

220

171

804

1,057 142

195 143

135 112

84 55

99 93 97 81 94

57 57 48

88 America

54 52

116

Africa 804

1,057 142

195 143

135 112

84 55

99 93 97 81 94 America

88

52

116

Africa

54

57 57 48

59

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991

Disaster Management

The potential scales of human intervention with natural hazards can be illustrated with reference to floods. Theoretically, large-scale environmental control can be attempted through either weather modification or watershed treatment. The aim is either to stop flood-producing rains by cloud seeding, or to reduce flood flows by conservation measures such as afforestation or contour cultivation over large areas of the drainage basin. On the other hand, hazard resistance design would involve building structures such as dams to store the floodwater in the upper part of the basin or embankments to contain the flood flows further downstream. At the smallest scale, hazard resistance design can apply to individual buildings through structural adaptations, such as raising the floor level, that make them and their contents less susceptible to flooding. However, there is little evidence that floods can be fully controlled over large drainage basins by any of these adjustments (Smith and Ward, 1998). Hazard resistance occurs when engineered buildings are erected in compliance with local building codes. A building code is intended to ensure that building is located, designed and constructed so that, if it is objected to specified destructive forces of either natural or man made origin, it will present no threats either to its occupants or to the general public. For example, the Uniform Building Code /Norms, which updated annually in the USA and also in India, contain a map of six seismic zones based on ground motions and recorded damage from previous earthquakes. The higher the apparent risk, the more stringent the building regulations, and many buildings can also be retrospectively strengthened to withstand loads more safely. In most countries, public facilities such as dams, bridges and pipelines are likely to be hazard- resistant because professional engineers have designed them. The same is true for large industrial structures such as nuclear power plants and chemical factories. However, design protection can never be totally perfect. Building failure will be greatest in data-poor, hazard-prone environments where many structures – older buildings and small rural houses, will have been constructed without any thought to hazard impact. The two most common natural hazards considered in building codes are earthquakes and windstorms, although the adjustment is also applicable to other hazards such as floods.

70

Disaster Management

Continent

Table 1: Total numbers of disasters occurred during 1990-2000 in various continents.

59

2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 Continent

1991

Table 1: Total numbers of disasters occurred during 1990-2000 in various continents.

70

70

Disaster Management

Total

70

71

7,52,521 20,045 1,32,077 79,333 1,15,966 21,834 30,291 22,238 1,70,093 Total 7,52,521 21,834 30,291 22,238 1,70,093 Total

307

1,734

Oceania

HDCs

1,160

454 Total

Europe

60

LDCs

Asia

269

MDCs

2,208

125

HDCs

America

14

Oceania

2,660

62

Europe

Africa

210

Asia

1991

116

America

Continent

52

Africa

1991

In the case of earthquakes, hazard resistance begins with geo-technical engineers, who apply the principles of rock and soil mechanics to the safe design of earth supported structures. Other things being equal, buildings on solid rocks are less likely to suffer damage than those built on clays or softer foundations. Smallscale maps of the sub state can be prepared which suggest local variations in building strength and ensure that major buildings are not located over faults or areas of un-consolidated material. Local building codes tend to undergo Continent

20,045

2,60,665

4,65,469 5,799

12,563 71,015

56,664 68,990

44,825 18,470

59,063 59,657

15,437

3,480

58,158

15,870

5,460 LDCs

4,680

15,952 24,841

1,43,518

MDCs

23,758

17,934

3,617

26,387 1,683

205 166

4,398 2,151

2,227 398

1,800 1,631

111 24 103

2,484

120 6

826

2,089

1,63,758 13,414

1,748

4,981

1. Hazard Resistance Design

1992

367

57

95

215

12

51

88

162

54

1992

METHODS TO BE ADOPTED FOR HAZARD REDUCTION

METHODS TO BE ADOPTED FOR HAZARD REDUCTION 1. Hazard Resistance Design In the case of earthquakes, hazard resistance begins with geo-technical engineers, who apply the principles of rock and soil mechanics to the safe design of earth supported structures. Other things being equal, buildings on solid rocks are less likely to suffer damage than those built on clays or softer foundations. Smallscale maps of the sub state can be prepared which suggest local variations in building strength and ensure that major buildings are not located over faults or areas of un-consolidated material. Local building codes tend to undergo

Earthquake Hazard Management

1,853

7,827

5,98,290

34,495 1,417

11,056 75,890

19,448 1,429 1,166

71,113 82,274

2,340 1,159

921

69,679

3,366

13,362 22,769

74,975

78,041 1,757 33,948 22,944 2,753 2,530 2,925 4,606

2,622

38,078 5,610 2,675 7,092 3,903 3,484 3,104 1,637

2,932

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Table 2: Total numbers of people reported killed by disaster during 1990-2000 in various continents.

4,703 752 609 481 422 395 406 422

395

785 165 117 88 61 66 52 57

62

1,072

2,846 438

149 111

381 290

103 111

250 245

84 96

259

237

92

262

106

664

143 13

118 78

15 18

65 60

15 17

53

17 14

8

69 46

62

1,057

2,035 284

142 135

238 202

112 99

193 173

93 97 81

182

94

220

171

804 195 143 84 55 57 57 48

59

2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Table 1: Total numbers of disasters occurred during 1990-2000 in various continents.

Total

The potential scales of human intervention with natural hazards can be illustrated with reference to floods. Theoretically, large-scale environmental control can be attempted through either weather modification or watershed treatment. The aim is either to stop flood-producing rains by cloud seeding, or to reduce flood flows by conservation measures such as afforestation or contour cultivation over large areas of the drainage basin. On the other hand, hazard resistance design would involve building structures such as dams to store the floodwater in the upper part of the basin or embankments to contain the flood flows further downstream. At the smallest scale, hazard resistance design can apply to individual buildings through structural adaptations, such as raising the floor level, that make them and their contents less susceptible to flooding. However, there is little evidence that floods can be fully controlled over large drainage basins by any of these adjustments (Smith and Ward, 1998). Hazard resistance occurs when engineered buildings are erected in compliance with local building codes. A building code is intended to ensure that building is located, designed and constructed so that, if it is objected to specified destructive forces of either natural or man made origin, it will present no threats either to its occupants or to the general public. For example, the Uniform Building Code /Norms, which updated annually in the USA and also in India, contain a map of six seismic zones based on ground motions and recorded damage from previous earthquakes. The higher the apparent risk, the more stringent the building regulations, and many buildings can also be retrospectively strengthened to withstand loads more safely. In most countries, public facilities such as dams, bridges and pipelines are likely to be hazard- resistant because professional engineers have designed them. The same is true for large industrial structures such as nuclear power plants and chemical factories. However, design protection can never be totally perfect. Building failure will be greatest in data-poor, hazard-prone environments where many structures – older buildings and small rural houses, will have been constructed without any thought to hazard impact. The two most common natural hazards considered in building codes are earthquakes and windstorms, although the adjustment is also applicable to other hazards such as floods.

71

The potential scales of human intervention with natural hazards can be illustrated with reference to floods. Theoretically, large-scale environmental control can be attempted through either weather modification or watershed treatment. The aim is either to stop flood-producing rains by cloud seeding, or to reduce flood flows by conservation measures such as afforestation or contour cultivation over large areas of the drainage basin. On the other hand, hazard resistance design would involve building structures such as dams to store the floodwater in the upper part of the basin or embankments to contain the flood flows further downstream. At the smallest scale, hazard resistance design can apply to individual buildings through structural adaptations, such as raising the floor level, that make them and their contents less susceptible to flooding. However, there is little evidence that floods can be fully controlled over large drainage basins by any of these adjustments (Smith and Ward, 1998). Hazard resistance occurs when engineered buildings are erected in compliance with local building codes. A building code is intended to ensure that building is located, designed and constructed so that, if it is objected to specified destructive forces of either natural or man made origin, it will present no threats either to its occupants or to the general public. For example, the Uniform Building Code /Norms, which updated annually in the USA and also in India, contain a map of six seismic zones based on ground motions and recorded damage from previous earthquakes. The higher the apparent risk, the more stringent the building regulations, and many buildings can also be retrospectively strengthened to withstand loads more safely. In most countries, public facilities such as dams, bridges and pipelines are likely to be hazard- resistant because professional engineers have designed them. The same is true for large industrial structures such as nuclear power plants and chemical factories. However, design protection can never be totally perfect. Building failure will be greatest in data-poor, hazard-prone environments where many structures – older buildings and small rural houses, will have been constructed without any thought to hazard impact. The two most common natural hazards considered in building codes are earthquakes and windstorms, although the adjustment is also applicable to other hazards such as floods.

71

1,32,077

HDCs

Earthquake Hazard Management

79,333 1,15,966

307

1,734

Oceania

1,160

454 Total

Europe

60

LDCs

Asia

269

MDCs

2,208

125

HDCs

America

14

Oceania

2,660

62

Europe

Africa

210

Asia

1991

116

America

Disaster Management

Continent

52

Africa

Continent

1991

In the case of earthquakes, hazard resistance begins with geo-technical engineers, who apply the principles of rock and soil mechanics to the safe design of earth supported structures. Other things being equal, buildings on solid rocks are less likely to suffer damage than those built on clays or softer foundations. Smallscale maps of the sub state can be prepared which suggest local variations in building strength and ensure that major buildings are not located over faults or areas of un-consolidated material. Local building codes tend to undergo

70

76,725

2,60,665

4,65,469 5,799

12,563 71,015

56,664 68,990

44,825 18,470

59,063 59,657

15,437

3,480

58,158

15,870

4,680 5,460

LDCs

23,758 15,952 24,841

1,43,518

MDCs

6

826

2,089

1,63,758 13,414

1,748

4,981

1992

367

57

95

215

12

51

88

162

54

1992

METHODS TO BE ADOPTED FOR HAZARD REDUCTION 1. Hazard Resistance Design

17,934

3,617

26,387 1,683

205 166

4,398 2,151

2,227 398

1,800 1,631

111 24 103

2,484

120

1,853

7,827

5,98,290

34,495 1,417

11,056 75,890

19,448 1,429 1,166

71,113 82,274

2,340 1,159

921

69,679

3,366

13,362 22,769

74,975

78,041 1,757 33,948 22,944 2,753 2,530 2,925 4,606

2,622

38,078 5,610 2,675 7,092 3,903 3,484 3,104 1,637

2,932

Total 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Table 2: Total numbers of people reported killed by disaster during 1990-2000 in various continents.

4,703 752 609 481 422 395 406 422

395

785 165 117 88 61 66 52 57

62

1,072

2,846 438

149 111

381 290

103 111

250 245

84 96

259

237

92

262

106

664

143 13

118 78

15 18

65 60

15 17

53

17 14

8

69 46

62

1,057

2,035 284

142 135

238 202

112 99

193 173

93 97 81

182

94

220

171

804 195 143 84 55 57 57 48

59

2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Table 1: Total numbers of disasters occurred during 1990-2000 in various continents.

Total

The potential scales of human intervention with natural hazards can be illustrated with reference to floods. Theoretically, large-scale environmental control can be attempted through either weather modification or watershed treatment. The aim is either to stop flood-producing rains by cloud seeding, or to reduce flood flows by conservation measures such as afforestation or contour cultivation over large areas of the drainage basin. On the other hand, hazard resistance design would involve building structures such as dams to store the floodwater in the upper part of the basin or embankments to contain the flood flows further downstream. At the smallest scale, hazard resistance design can apply to individual buildings through structural adaptations, such as raising the floor level, that make them and their contents less susceptible to flooding. However, there is little evidence that floods can be fully controlled over large drainage basins by any of these adjustments (Smith and Ward, 1998). Hazard resistance occurs when engineered buildings are erected in compliance with local building codes. A building code is intended to ensure that building is located, designed and constructed so that, if it is objected to specified destructive forces of either natural or man made origin, it will present no threats either to its occupants or to the general public. For example, the Uniform Building Code /Norms, which updated annually in the USA and also in India, contain a map of six seismic zones based on ground motions and recorded damage from previous earthquakes. The higher the apparent risk, the more stringent the building regulations, and many buildings can also be retrospectively strengthened to withstand loads more safely. In most countries, public facilities such as dams, bridges and pipelines are likely to be hazard- resistant because professional engineers have designed them. The same is true for large industrial structures such as nuclear power plants and chemical factories. However, design protection can never be totally perfect. Building failure will be greatest in data-poor, hazard-prone environments where many structures – older buildings and small rural houses, will have been constructed without any thought to hazard impact. The two most common natural hazards considered in building codes are earthquakes and windstorms, although the adjustment is also applicable to other hazards such as floods.

Earthquake Hazard Management

83,919

Earthquake Hazard Management

76,725

Disaster Management

83,919

70

71

The potential scales of human intervention with natural hazards can be illustrated with reference to floods. Theoretically, large-scale environmental control can be attempted through either weather modification or watershed treatment. The aim is either to stop flood-producing rains by cloud seeding, or to reduce flood flows by conservation measures such as afforestation or contour cultivation over large areas of the drainage basin. On the other hand, hazard resistance design would involve building structures such as dams to store the floodwater in the upper part of the basin or embankments to contain the flood flows further downstream. At the smallest scale, hazard resistance design can apply to individual buildings through structural adaptations, such as raising the floor level, that make them and their contents less susceptible to flooding. However, there is little evidence that floods can be fully controlled over large drainage basins by any of these adjustments (Smith and Ward, 1998). Hazard resistance occurs when engineered buildings are erected in compliance with local building codes. A building code is intended to ensure that building is located, designed and constructed so that, if it is objected to specified destructive forces of either natural or man made origin, it will present no threats either to its occupants or to the general public. For example, the Uniform Building Code /Norms, which updated annually in the USA and also in India, contain a map of six seismic zones based on ground motions and recorded damage from previous earthquakes. The higher the apparent risk, the more stringent the building regulations, and many buildings can also be retrospectively strengthened to withstand loads more safely. In most countries, public facilities such as dams, bridges and pipelines are likely to be hazard- resistant because professional engineers have designed them. The same is true for large industrial structures such as nuclear power plants and chemical factories. However, design protection can never be totally perfect. Building failure will be greatest in data-poor, hazard-prone environments where many structures – older buildings and small rural houses, will have been constructed without any thought to hazard impact. The two most common natural hazards considered in building codes are earthquakes and windstorms, although the adjustment is also applicable to other hazards such as floods. METHODS TO BE ADOPTED FOR HAZARD REDUCTION 1. Hazard Resistance Design In the case of earthquakes, hazard resistance begins with geo-technical engineers, who apply the principles of rock and soil mechanics to the safe design of earth supported structures. Other things being equal, buildings on solid rocks are less likely to suffer damage than those built on clays or softer foundations. Smallscale maps of the sub state can be prepared which suggest local variations in building strength and ensure that major buildings are not located over faults or areas of un-consolidated material. Local building codes tend to undergo

11 19 26 8 82 6 10 62 2 226 47 31 150 228

454

Landslides/ avalanches Drought / famines Earthquakes Extreme temperature Floods Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption Wind storms Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents Total man made disaster

Total disasters

406

8 9 22 10 80 13 6 67 1 216 34 29 127 190

1994

395

15 15 25 13 86 6 4 59 4 227 38 26 104 168

1995

395

24 9 11 5 69 5 5 62 2 192 33 36 134 203

1996

422

13 18 14 13 77 15 4 67 3 224 32 30 136 198

1997

481

22 34 16 13 90 16 4 73 2 270 42 25 144 211

1998

609

15 30 33 8 112 22 5 85 2 312 35 50 212 297

1999

752

29 46 26 31 153 30 5 99 4 423 48 47 234 329

2000

4703

173 223 211 112 888 123 54 748 25 2557 369 312 1465 2146

Total

1,70,093 22,238 454 367

Total disasters

1992 1,070

2,632 2,571 11 14 2,863 3,936 19 30 835 388 26 24 8 7 5,920 5,367 82 57 85 122 6 82 683 10 5 1,46,966 1,355 62 74 10 0 2 1 1,60,775 14,811 226 220 1,603 1,385 47 24 1,130 321 31 13 6,585 5,721 150 110 9,318 7,427 228 147

1991 781

Drought / famines Landslides/ avalanches Earthquakes Drought / famines Extreme temperature Earthquakes Extreme temperature Floods Floods / scrub fire Forest Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind storms Other natural disaster Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport Transport accidents accidents Total Total man man made made disaster disaster

Type of phenomenon Landslides/ avalanches

8 0 1,242 9 22416 10 6,504 8084 13101 6 4,065 67 31 1 12,723 216 779 34 1,679 29 6,653 127 9,111 190

1994 280

54,000 15 7,966 15 1,730 25 13 7,525 86 29 6 0 43,774 59 0 4 76,521 227 513 38 1,630 26 5,255 104 7,398 168

2454,000 1354,53022 57,87515 54,029 29 9 582 18 3,076 34 7,41230 21,870 46 11 300 14 619 16 3,22533 77126 5 8,040 13 6,602 13 11,1868 34,366 31 69 45 77 32 90 109112 70153 5 4 15 53 16 0 22 0 30 5 3,649 4 5,330 4 24,5525 11,8905 62 67 73 85 99 32 400 2,182 3 2 3 2 2 4 67,781 71,443 1,07,535 1,23,350 192 224 270 312 423 660 955 1,925 729 33 32 42 35 48 1,148 1,277 592 1,330 36 30 25 50 47 1347,136 1365,658144 5,914212 6,668 234 2038,944 1987,890211 8,431297 8,727 329

370 173 2,80,007 189 223 59,249 734 211 9,124 112 97,747 6,307 47888 626 0123 942 54 1,110 2,05,635 748 1 2,718 25 9,857 6,65,,598 2557 1,613 11,406 369 1,112 11,292 312 7,463 1465 64,225 10,188 2146 86,923

1995 2000 1,099 Total 9,550 1,497 1996 1,1291997801 1998 9941999 351

Total

454

Total disasters

367

14 30 24 7 57 8 5 74 1 220 24 13 110 147 422

22 13 14 4 82 2 6 100 4 247 36 25 114 175

1993

406

8 9 22 10 80 13 6 67 1 216 34 29 127 190

1994

395

15 15 25 13 86 6 4 59 4 227 38 26 104 168

1995

395

24 9 11 5 69 5 5 62 2 192 33 36 134 203

1996

422

13 18 14 13 77 15 4 67 3 224 32 30 136 198

1997

481

22 34 16 13 90 16 4 73 2 270 42 25 144 211

1998

609

15 30 33 8 112 22 5 85 2 312 35 50 212 297

1999

752

29 46 26 31 153 30 5 99 4 423 48 47 234 329

2000

4703

173 223 211 112 888 123 54 748 25 2557 369 312 1465 2146

Total

Total

Disaster Management

72 Disaster Management

1,70,093 22,238 454 367

Total disasters

1992 1,070 2,632 2,571 11 14 2,863 3,936 19 30 835 388 26 24 8 7 5,920 5,367 82 57 85 122 6 82 683 10 5 1,46,966 1,355 62 74 10 0 2 1 1,60,775 14,811 226 220 1,603 1,385 47 24 1,130 321 31 13 6,585 5,721 150 110 9,318 7,427 228 147

1991 781

Drought / famines Landslides/ avalanches Earthquakes Drought / famines Extreme temperature Earthquakes Extreme temperature Floods Floods / scrub fire Forest Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind storms Other natural disaster Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport Transport accidents accidents Total Total man man made made disaster disaster

Type of phenomenon Landslides/ avalanches

8 0 1,242 9 22416 10 6,504 8084 13101 6 4,065 67 31 1 12,723 216 779 34 1,679 29 6,653 127 9,111 190

1994 280

54,000 15 7,966 15 1,730 25 13 7,525 86 29 6 0 43,774 59 0 4 76,521 227 513 38 1,630 26 5,255 104 7,398 168

2454,000 1354,53022 57,87515 54,029 29 9 582 18 3,076 34 7,41230 21,870 46 11 300 14 619 16 3,22533 77126 5 8,040 13 6,602 13 11,1868 34,366 31 69 45 77 32 90 109112 70153 5 4 15 53 16 0 22 0 30 5 3,649 4 5,330 4 24,5525 11,8905 62 67 73 85 99 32 400 2,182 3 2 3 2 2 4 67,781 71,443 1,07,535 1,23,350 192 224 270 312 423 660 955 1,925 729 33 32 42 35 48 1,148 1,277 592 1,330 36 30 25 50 47 1347,136 1365,658144 5,914212 6,668 234 2038,944 1987,890211 8,431297 8,727 329

370 173 2,80,007 189 223 59,249 734 211 9,124 112 97,747 6,307 47888 626 0123 942 54 1,110 2,05,635 748 1 2,718 25 9,857 6,65,,598 2557 1,613 11,406 369 1,112 11,292 312 7,463 1465 64,225 10,188 2146 86,923

1995 2000 1,099 Total 9,550 1,497 1996 1,1291997801 1998 9941999 351

30,291 21,834 395 83,919 395 76,72542279,3334811,15,966 422 406 6091,32,077 752 20,045 4703 7,52,521

220 10,113 13 106 14 4 5,930 823 299 6 2,944 100 59 4 20,802 247 1,244 36 1,073 25 7,172 114 9,489 175

1993 1,548

Type of phenomenon 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 Table 3: Total 1991 number of reported disaster, by type of phenomenon and by 1998 year (1991-2000)

Table 4: Total number of reported killed by disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000)

11 19 26 8 82 6 10 62 2 226 47 31 150 228

Landslides/ avalanches Drought / famines Earthquakes Extreme temperature Floods Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption Wind storms Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents Total man made disaster

1992

72

30,291 21,834 395 83,919 395 76,72542279,3334811,15,966 422 406 6091,32,077 752 20,045 4703 7,52,521

220 10,113 13 106 14 4 5,930 823 299 6 2,944 100 59 4 20,802 247 1,244 36 1,073 25 7,172 114 9,489 175

1993 1,548

Type of phenomenon 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 Table 3: Total 1991 number of reported disaster, by type of phenomenon and by 1998 year (1991-2000)

1991

Table 3: Total number of reported disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) Type of phenomenon

Disaster Management

422

22 13 14 4 82 2 6 100 4 247 36 25 114 175

1993

72

367

14 30 24 7 57 8 5 74 1 220 24 13 110 147

1992

Disaster Management

Table 4: Total number of reported killed by disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000)

1991

Table 3: Total number of reported disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000)

Type of phenomenon

72 Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

73

73

54,000 2454,000 1354,53022 57,87515 54,029 15 29 7,966 9 582 18 3,076 34 7,41230 21,870 15 46 1,730 11 300 14 619 16 3,22533 77126 25 13 31 7,525 5 8,040 13 6,602 13 11,1868 34,366 86 29 69 45 77 32 90 109112 70153 6 0 5 4 15 53 16 0 22 0 30 43,774 5 3,649 4 5,330 4 24,5525 11,8905 59 62 67 73 85 99 0 32 400 2,182 3 4 2 3 2 2 4 76,521 67,781 71,443 1,07,535 1,23,350 227 192 224 270 312 423 513 660 955 1,925 729 38 33 32 42 35 48 1,630 1,148 1,277 592 1,330 26 36 30 25 50 47 5,255 1347,136 1365,658144 5,914212 6,668 104 234 7,398 2038,944 1987,890211 8,431297 8,727 168 329

370 173 2,80,007 189 223 59,249 734 211 9,124 112 97,747 6,307 47888 626 123 0 942 54 2,05,635 1,110 748 1 2,718 25 9,857 6,65,,598 2557 1,613 11,406 369 1,112 11,292 312 7,463 1465 64,225 10,188 2146 86,923

1995 2000 1,099 Total 9,550 1,497 1996 1,1291997801 1998 9941999 351

Floods

10

1,130

6,585

9,318

Miscellaneous accidents

Transport accidents

Total man made disaster

7,427

5,721

321

1,385

1,70,093 22,238

1,603

Total disasters

0

1,60,775 14,811

Industrial accidents

Total natural disaster

Other natural disaster

2

1,355

30,291

9,489

7,172

1,073

1,244

20,802

59

2,944

99

3

5,930

106

10,113

0

1,548

1993

21,834

9,111

6,653

1,679

779

12,723

31

4,065

101

84

6,504

416

1,242

0

280

1994

83,919

7,398

5,255

1,630

513

76,521

0

3,774

0

29

7,525

1,730

7,966

54,000

1,497

1995

76,725

8,944

7,136

1,148

660

67,781

32

3,649

4

45

8,040

300

582

54,000

1,129

1996

2,182

24,552

0

109

11,186

3,225

7,412

57,875

994

1998

3

11,890

0

70

34,366

771

21,870

54,029

351

1999

8,431

5,914

592

1,925

8,727

6,668

1,330

729

9,550

2,718

2,05,635

942

626

97,747

9,124

59,249

2,80,007

10,188

7,463

1,112

1,613

86,923

64,225

11,292

11,406

9,857 6,65,,598

1

1,110

0

47

6,307

734

189

370

1,099

2000

79,333 1,15,966 1,32,077 20,045 7,52,521

7,890

5,658

1,277

955

71,443 1,07,535 1,23,350

400

5,330

53

32

6,602

619

3,076

54,530

801

1997

73

1,46,966

122

5,367

388

3,936

2,571

1,070

1992

30,291 422

220 10,113 13 106 14 4 5,930 823 299 6 2,944 100 59 4 20,802 247 1,244 36 1,073 25 7,172 114 9,489 175

1993 1,548

54,000 2454,000 1354,53022 57,87515 54,029 15 29 7,966 9 582 18 3,076 34 7,41230 21,870 15 46 1,730 11 300 14 619 16 3,22533 77126 25 13 31 7,525 5 8,040 13 6,602 13 11,1868 34,366 86 29 69 45 77 32 90 109112 70153 6 0 5 4 15 53 16 0 22 0 30 43,774 5 3,649 4 5,330 4 24,5525 11,8905 59 62 67 73 85 99 0 32 400 2,182 3 4 2 3 2 2 4 76,521 67,781 71,443 1,07,535 1,23,350 227 192 224 270 312 423 513 660 955 1,925 729 38 33 32 42 35 48 1,630 1,148 1,277 592 1,330 26 36 30 25 50 47 5,255 1347,136 1365,658144 5,914212 6,668 104 234 7,398 2038,944 1987,890211 8,431297 8,727 168 329

370 173 2,80,007 189 223 59,249 734 211 9,124 112 97,747 6,307 47888 626 123 0 942 54 2,05,635 1,110 748 1 2,718 25 9,857 6,65,,598 2557 1,613 11,406 369 1,112 11,292 312 7,463 1465 64,225 10,188 2146 86,923

1995 2000 1,099 Total 9,550 1,497 1996 1,1291997801 1998 9941999 351

Floods

1,130 6,585 9,318

Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents Total man made disaster

7,427

5,721

321

1,385

1,70,093 22,238

1,603

Total disasters

0

1,355

2

122

5,367

388

3,936

2,571

1,070

1992

1,60,775 14,811

10

1,46,966

Industrial accidents

Total natural disaster

Other natural disaster

Wind storms

683

5,920

Extreme temperature

Volcanic eruption

835

Earthquakes

85

2,863

Drought / famines

Forest / scrub fire

781 2,632

Landslides/ avalanches

1991

Type of phenomenon

30,291

9,489

7,172

1,073

1,244

20,802

59

2,944

99

3

5,930

106

10,113

0

1,548

1993

21,834

9,111

6,653

1,679

779

12,723

31

4,065

101

84

6,504

416

1,242

0

280

1994

83,919

7,398

5,255

1,630

513

76,521

0

3,774

0

29

7,525

1,730

7,966

54,000

1,497

1995

76,725

8,944

7,136

1,148

660

67,781

32

3,649

4

45

8,040

300

582

54,000

1,129

1996

2,182

24,552

0

109

11,186

3,225

7,412

57,875

994

1998

3

11,890

0

70

34,366

771

21,870

54,029

351

1999

8,431

5,914

592

1,925

8,727

6,668

1,330

729

9,550

2,718

2,05,635

942

626

97,747

9,124

59,249

2,80,007

10,188

7,463

1,112

1,613

86,923

64,225

11,292

11,406

9,857 6,65,,598

1

1,110

0

47

6,307

734

189

370

1,099

2000

79,333 1,15,966 1,32,077 20,045 7,52,521

7,890

5,658

1,277

955

71,443 1,07,535 1,23,350

400

5,330

53

32

6,602

619

3,076

54,530

801

1997

Total

21,834 395 83,919 395 76,725 42279,333481 1,15,966 406 6091,32,077 752 20,045 4703 7,52,521

8 0 1,242 9 22416 10 6,504 8084 13101 6 4,065 67 31 1 12,723 216 779 34 1,679 29 6,653 127 9,111 190

1994 280

73

Wind storms

683

5,920

Extreme temperature

Volcanic eruption

835

Earthquakes

85

2,863

Drought / famines

Forest / scrub fire

781

2,632

Landslides/ avalanches

1991

Type of phenomenon

Earthquake Hazard Management

Table 4: Total number of reported killed by disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000)

1,70,093 22,238 454 367

Total disasters

1992 1,070

2,632 2,571 11 14 2,863 3,936 19 30 835 388 26 24 8 7 5,920 5,367 82 57 85 122 6 82 683 10 5 1,46,966 1,355 62 74 10 0 2 1 1,60,775 14,811 226 220 1,603 1,385 47 24 1,130 321 31 13 6,585 5,721 150 110 9,318 7,427 228 147

1991 781

Drought / famines Landslides/ avalanches Earthquakes Drought / famines Extreme temperature Earthquakes Extreme temperature Floods Floods / scrub fire Forest Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind storms Other natural disaster Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport Transport accidents accidents Total man Total man made made disaster disaster

Type of phenomenon Landslides/ avalanches

Earthquake Hazard Management

Total

21,834 395 83,919 395 76,725 42279,333481 1,15,966 406 6091,32,077 752 20,045 4703 7,52,521

8 0 1,242 9 22416 10 6,504 8084 13101 6 4,065 67 31 1 12,723 216 779 34 1,679 29 6,653 127 9,111 190

1994 280

Total

Disaster Management Type of phenomenon 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 Table 3: Total 1991 number of reported disaster, by type of phenomenon and by 1998 year (1991-2000)

72

30,291 422

220 10,113 13 106 14 4 5,930 823 299 6 2,944 100 59 4 20,802 247 1,244 36 1,073 25 7,172 114 9,489 175

1993 1,548

Total

Table 4: Total number of reported killed by disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000)

Disaster Management

Table 4: Total number of reported killed by disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000)

1,70,093 22,238 454 367

Total disasters

1992 1,070

2,632 2,571 11 14 2,863 3,936 19 30 835 388 26 24 8 7 5,920 5,367 82 57 85 122 6 82 683 10 5 1,46,966 1,355 62 74 10 0 2 1 1,60,775 14,811 226 220 1,603 1,385 47 24 1,130 321 31 13 6,585 5,721 150 110 9,318 7,427 228 147

1991 781

Drought / famines Landslides/ avalanches Earthquakes Drought / famines Extreme temperature Earthquakes Extreme temperature Floods Floods / scrub fire Forest Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind storms Other natural disaster Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport Transport accidents accidents Total man Total man made made disaster disaster

Type of phenomenon Landslides/ avalanches

Type of phenomenon 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 Table 3: Total 1991 number of reported disaster, by type of phenomenon and by 1998 year (1991-2000)

Table 4: Total number of reported killed by disaster, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000)

72 Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

73

73

3

Transport accidents

286300

16

78242

23

2

3

18

78129

0

13563

357

52

23421

1108

535

3029

30431

0

1996

8536

9

1996

0

38368

236

3067

0

45619

23

12

0

26302

7

6

34

3

11

19

50

3

19

27

36

3

18

15

180262 189047 265548 217005

56

2

45

8

180207 189012 265498 216969

0

15209

174

0

149341 129688 184726 180113

3001

731

15515

1122

1995

67210

134

3

20

111

67076

29

13594

7

53

43700

615

593

8450

34

1997

725

3893

38372

15

1999

1

29891

34

19

2150

Total

6065

17023

17

14944

119

39

60

252401

2157

3422

62111 1442521

28

2455

176457 381602

208

2000

3

20

5

12 38

6

15

17

624

35

229

360

344858 223138 256416 2108025

97

3

30

63

344761 223118 256378 2107401

10

26077

8

167

291725 150167

36

1878

24647

214

1998

Total disasters

Transport Total manaccidents made disaster Total man made disaster Total disasters

Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents

3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5 6 35 371.1 1069.4 2222.9 14293.2 1366.3 2897.0 31.7 187.2 209.9 431.5 23080.3 137 23 56 34 50 36 134 97 20 38 624 114909.9 78925.5 47463.6 95668.8 216273.0 46504.5 47570.9 53044.9 80770.0 28654.6 809785.8 286300 78242 180262 189047 265548 217005 67210 344858 223138 256416 2108025

0 29 10 1 17 60 43607.5 47539.2 52857.7 80560.1 28223.1 786705.6 216969 67076 344761 223118 256378 2107401 1325.4 20.5 136.4 3.1 0 2802.3 15 111 63 3 17 360 1344.4 0 19.8 2.3 431.5 17266.4 18 20 30 12 15 229 227.3 11.1 31.1 204.6 0 3011.6

0

1996

8536

9

1996

0

0

38368

236

3067

0

45619

23

12

0

26302

7

6

34

3

11

19

50

3

19

27

36

3

18

15

180262 189047 265548 217005

56

2

45

8

180207 189012 265498 216969

0

15209

174

67210

134

3

20

111

67076

29

13594

7

53

43700

615

593

8450

34

1997

725

3893

38372

15

1999

1

29891

34

19

2150

Total

6065

17023

17

14944

119

39

60

252401

2157

3422

62111 1442521

28

2455

176457 381602

208

2000

3

20

5

12

38

6

15

17

624

35

229

360

344858 223138 256416 2108025

97

3

30

63

344761 223118 256378 2107401

10

26077

8

167

291725 150167

36

1878

24647

214

1998

Total disasters

Transport Total manaccidents made disaster Total man made disaster Total disasters

Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents

Other natural natural disaster Total disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents

Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind Other storms natural disaster

Floods Forest / scrub fire Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption

Earthquakes Extreme temperature Extreme temperature Floods

0 29 10 1 17 60 43607.5 47539.2 52857.7 80560.1 28223.1 786705.6 216969 67076 344761 223118 256378 2107401 1325.4 20.5 136.4 3.1 0 2802.3 15 111 63 3 17 360 1344.4 0 19.8 2.3 431.5 17266.4 18 20 30 12 15 229 227.3 11.1 31.1 204.6 0 3011.6 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5 6 35 371.1 1069.4 2222.9 14293.2 1366.3 2897.0 31.7 187.2 209.9 431.5 23080.3 137 23 56 34 50 36 134 97 20 38 624 114909.9 78925.5 47463.6 95668.8 216273.0 46504.5 47570.9 53044.9 80770.0 28654.6 809785.8 286300 78242 180262 189047 265548 217005 67210 344858 223138 256416 2108025

2 0 0 0 0 114538.8 77856.1 45240.7 81375.6 214906.7 286163 78129 180207 189012 265498 129.9 646.7 86.9 52.2 401.3 78 18 8 19 27 189.3 33.9 1378.0 13662.5 204.6 56 3 45 11 19 51.9 388.8 758.0 578.2 760.4

1391 787 270 731 3029 1996 593 1878 3893 2455 16673.2 17023 1224.7 3628.5 0 2586.8 942.8 0 3214.3 3922.0 1030.0 124.1 0 16 3001 22315.7 1108 29019.1 535 0 615 36 725 28 6065 90684.6 6892.7 29083.4 26045.8 12432.6 31961.6 13712.9 10670.5 272818.9 227529 43700 291725 62111 1442521 2007.4 23421 518.1 149341 1190.0 129688 176.3 184726 152.0 180113 1893.4 18199.8 597.9 150167 505.4 1052.4 26292.8 7 52 0 3067 12 6 53 167 19 39 3422 286.0 0 0.6 464.0 0.8 18.1 8.6 0 0 0 778.1 1193 62414.7 357 174 236 23 7 7 8 34 119 198095.8 2157 14792.6 10510.2 10118.6 27536.8 13748.9 8016.3 15497.6 25819.8 9640.2 28833 13563 15209 38368 45619 26302 13594 26077 29891 14944 0 0 0 0 117.5 0 3.7 1.8 0.3 120.0 252401 243.3

Disaster Management

2 0 0 0 0 114538.8 77856.1 45240.7 81375.6 214906.7 286163 78129 180207 189012 265498 129.9 646.7 86.9 52.2 401.3 78 18 8 19 27 189.3 33.9 1378.0 13662.5 204.6 56 3 45 11 19 51.9 388.8 758.0 578.2 760.4

78242

535

3029

30431

1122

1995

74

Other natural natural disaster Total disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents

286300

1108

731

15515

298

1994

149341 129688 184726 180113

3001

270

12132

80

1993

Table 6: Total amount of disaster estimated damage, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) (in millions of US$ (at the of 2000 Table 5: Total number of people reported affected byrates disasters, by prices) type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) in thousands. Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Landslides/ avalanches 19.4 531.5 845.8 72.3 11.6 0 17.4 0 0 168.4 1666.5 Landslides/ avalanches 89 79 80 298 1122 9 34 214 15 208 2150 Drought / famines 2612.0 3066.4 1315.2 1419.6 6527.5 1320.0 437.6 475.9 7056.5 6305.1 30535.7 Drought / famines 27118 39944 12132 44222.3 15515 150598.6 30431 8536 8450 24647 38372 176457 381602 Earthquakes 2912.0 804.2 2295.5 581.2 5208.8 400.8 32435.3 142.4 239601.2

Total disasters

23

2

3

18

78129

0

13563

357

52

23421

16

787

39944

79

1992

Disaster Management

Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind Other storms natural disaster

1391 787 270 731 3029 1996 593 1878 3893 2455 16673.2 17023 1224.7 3628.5 0 2586.8 942.8 0 3214.3 3922.0 1030.0 124.1 0 16 3001 22315.7 1108 29019.1 535 0 615 36 725 28 6065 90684.6 6892.7 29083.4 26045.8 12432.6 31961.6 13712.9 10670.5 272818.9 227529 43700 291725 62111 1442521 2007.4 23421 518.1 149341 1190.0 129688 176.3 184726 152.0 180113 1893.4 18199.8 597.9 150167 505.4 1052.4 26292.8 7 52 0 3067 12 6 53 167 19 39 3422 286.0 0 0.6 464.0 0.8 18.1 8.6 0 0 0 778.1 1193 62414.7 357 174 236 23 7 7 8 34 119 198095.8 2157 14792.6 10510.2 10118.6 27536.8 13748.9 8016.3 15497.6 25819.8 9640.2 28833 13563 15209 38368 45619 26302 13594 26077 29891 14944 0 0 0 0 117.5 0 3.7 1.8 0.3 120.0 252401 243.3

3

Transport accidents 137

56

Total man made disaster

78

Miscellaneous accidents

286163

Total natural disaster Industrial accidents

2

28833

Wind storms Other natural disaster

7 1193

Volcanic eruption

227529

Forest / scrub fire

Floods

0

1391

Extreme temperature

27118

Earthquakes

89

Landslides/ avalanches Drought / famines

1991

Type of phenomenon

74

Floods Forest / scrub fire Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption

Earthquakes Extreme temperature Extreme temperature Floods

Table 6: Total amount of disaster estimated damage, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) (in millions of US$ (at the of 2000 Table 5: Total number of people reported affected byrates disasters, by prices) type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) in thousands. Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Landslides/ avalanches 19.4 531.5 845.8 72.3 11.6 0 17.4 0 0 168.4 1666.5 Landslides/ avalanches 89 79 80 298 1122 9 34 214 15 208 2150 Drought / famines 2612.0 3066.4 1315.2 1419.6 6527.5 1320.0 437.6 475.9 7056.5 6305.1 30535.7 Drought / famines 27118 39944 12132 44222.3 15515 150598.6 30431 8536 8450 24647 38372 176457 381602 Earthquakes 2912.0 804.2 2295.5 581.2 5208.8 400.8 32435.3 142.4 239601.2

Total disasters

137

56

Miscellaneous accidents

Total man made disaster

78

Industrial accidents

286163

Total natural disaster

Wind storms

2

28833

Volcanic eruption

Other natural disaster

7

1193

Forest / scrub fire

227529

270

12132

298

1994

Disaster Management

Floods

787

39944

80

1993

74

0

1391

79

1992

Table 5: Total number of people reported affected by disasters, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) in thousands.

Disaster Management

Extreme temperature

27118

Earthquakes

89

Landslides/ avalanches

Drought / famines

1991

Type of phenomenon

Table 5: Total number of people reported affected by disasters, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) in thousands.

74 Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

75

75

0 29 10 1 17 60 43607.5 47539.2 52857.7 80560.1 28223.1 786705.6 216969 344761 256378 2107401 1325.4 67076 20.5 136.4 223118 3.1 0 2802.3 15 111 63 3 17 360 1344.4 0 19.8 2.3 431.5 17266.4 18 20 30 12 15 229 227.3 11.1 31.1 204.6 0 3011.6

1666.5

142.4 239601.2

6305.1 30535.7

168.4

2000

464.0

0.8

152.0

18.1

8.6

1893.4 18199.8 0

597.9

3922.0

0

505.4

1030.0

16673.2

0

778.1

1052.4 26292.8

124.1

0

0

0

117.5

0

3.7

1.8

0.3

120.0

243.3

189.3

51.9

371.1

Miscellaneous accidents

Transport accidents

Total man made disaster

1069.4

388.8

33.9

646.7

52.2

578.2

760.4

204.6

401.3

2222.9 14293.2 1366.3

758.0

1378.0 13662.5

86.9

2897.0

227.3

1344.4

1325.4

31.7

11.1

0

20.5

187.2

31.1

19.8

136.4

209.9

204.6

2.3

3.1

431.5

0

431.5

0

23080.3

3011.6

17266.4

2802.3

114909.9 78925.5 47463.6 95668.8 216273.0 46504.5 47570.9 53044.9 80770.0 28654.6 809785.8

129.9

Total disasters

0.6

176.3

3214.3

114538.8 77856.1 45240.7 81375.6 214906.7 43607.5 47539.2 52857.7 80560.1 28223.1 786705.6

0

Industrial accidents

Total natural disaster

Other natural disaster

0

1190.0

0

75

14792.6 62414.7 10510.2 10118.6 27536.8 13748.9 8016.3 15497.6 25819.8 9640.2 198095.8

286.0

Volcanic eruption

518.1

942.8

32435.3

7056.5

0

1999

0 29 10 1 17 60 43607.5 47539.2 52857.7 80560.1 28223.1 786705.6 216969 344761 256378 2107401 1325.4 67076 20.5 136.4 223118 3.1 0 2802.3 15 111 63 3 17 360 1344.4 0 19.8 2.3 431.5 17266.4 18 20 30 12 15 229 227.3 11.1 31.1 204.6 0 3011.6

1419.6

72.3

1994

6527.5

11.6

1995

1320.0

0

1996

1666.5

464.0

176.3

0.8

152.0

942.8

3214.3

18.1

8.6

1893.4 18199.8

0

0

597.9

3922.0

0

505.4

1030.0

16673.2

0

778.1

1052.4 26292.8

124.1

0

0

0

117.5

0

3.7

1.8

0.3

120.0

243.3

189.3 51.9 371.1

Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents Total man made disaster

1069.4

388.8

33.9

646.7

52.2 578.2

760.4

204.6

401.3

2222.9 14293.2 1366.3

758.0

1378.0 13662.5

86.9

2897.0

227.3

1344.4

1325.4

31.7

11.1

0

20.5

187.2

31.1

19.8

136.4

209.9

204.6

2.3

3.1

431.5

0

431.5

0

23080.3

3011.6

17266.4

2802.3

114909.9 78925.5 47463.6 95668.8 216273.0 46504.5 47570.9 53044.9 80770.0 28654.6 809785.8

129.9

Total disasters

0.6

1190.0

2586.8

114538.8 77856.1 45240.7 81375.6 214906.7 43607.5 47539.2 52857.7 80560.1 28223.1 786705.6

0 Industrial accidents

Total natural disaster

Other natural disaster

0

518.1

0

14792.6 62414.7 10510.2 10118.6 27536.8 13748.9 8016.3 15497.6 25819.8 9640.2 198095.8

286.0

Volcanic eruption Wind storms

2007.4

Forest / scrub fire

3628.5

90684.6 6892.7 29083.4 22315.7 29019.1 26045.8 12432.6 31961.6 13712.9 10670.5 272818.9

142.4 239601.2

6305.1 30535.7

168.4

2000

Floods

32435.3

7056.5

0

1999

2912.0

400.8

475.9

0

1998

1224.7

5208.8

437.6

17.4

1997

Earthquakes

2295.5 44222.3 150598.6 581.2

1315.2

845.8

1993

Extreme temperature

804.2

531.5 3066.4

19.4

1992

2612.0

Landslides/ avalanches Drought / famines

1991

Type of phenomenon

Total

3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5 6 35 371.1 1069.4 2222.9 14293.2 1366.3 2897.0 31.7 187.2 209.9 431.5 23080.3 137 23 56 34 50 36 134 97 20 38 624 114909.9 78925.5 47463.6 95668.8 216273.0 46504.5 47570.9 53044.9 80770.0 28654.6 809785.8 286300 78242 180262 189047 265548 217005 67210 344858 223138 256416 2108025

2 0 0 0 0 114538.8 77856.1 45240.7 81375.6 214906.7 286163 78129 189012 265498 129.9 646.7 180207 86.9 52.2 401.3 78 18 8 19 27 189.3 33.9 1378.0 13662.5 204.6 56 3 45 11 19 51.9 388.8 758.0 578.2 760.4

Table 6: Total amount of disaster estimated damage, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) (in millions of US$ (at the rates of 2000 prices)

Total disasters

Transport Total manaccidents made disaster Total disasters man made disaster Total

Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents

Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents

75

Wind storms

2007.4

2586.8

400.8

475.9

0

1998

90684.6 6892.7 29083.4 22315.7 29019.1 26045.8 12432.6 31961.6 13712.9 10670.5 272818.9

Forest / scrub fire

0

5208.8

437.6

17.4

1997

Floods

3628.5

2295.5 44222.3 150598.6 581.2

1320.0

0

1996

2912.0

6527.5

11.6

1995

1224.7

1419.6

72.3

1994

Earthquakes

1315.2

845.8

1993

Extreme temperature

804.2

531.5

3066.4

19.4

1992

2612.0

Landslides/ avalanches

Drought / famines

1991

Type of phenomenon

Earthquake Hazard Management

Total

3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5 6 35 371.1 1069.4 2222.9 14293.2 1366.3 2897.0 31.7 187.2 209.9 431.5 23080.3 137 23 56 34 50 36 134 97 20 38 624 114909.9 78925.5 47463.6 95668.8 216273.0 46504.5 47570.9 53044.9 80770.0 28654.6 809785.8 286300 78242 180262 189047 265548 217005 67210 344858 223138 256416 2108025

2 0 0 0 0 114538.8 77856.1 45240.7 81375.6 214906.7 286163 78129 189012 265498 129.9 646.7 180207 86.9 52.2 401.3 78 18 8 19 27 189.3 33.9 1378.0 13662.5 204.6 56 3 45 11 19 51.9 388.8 758.0 578.2 760.4

Earthquake Hazard Management

Table 6: Total amount of disaster estimated damage, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) (in millions of US$ (at the rates of 2000 prices)

Total disasters

Transport Total manaccidents made disaster Total disasters man made disaster Total

Industrial accidents Miscellaneous accidents Miscellaneous accidents Transport accidents

Other natural disaster Total natural disaster Total natural disaster Industrial accidents

Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind Other storms natural disaster

Floods Forest / scrub fire Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption

1391 787 270 731 3029 1996 593 1878 3893 2455 16673.2 17023 1224.7 3628.5 0 2586.8 942.8 0 3214.3 3922.0 1030.0 124.1 0 16 3001 1108 535 0 615 36 725 28 6065 90684.6 6892.7 29083.4 22315.7 29019.1 26045.8 12432.6 31961.6 13712.9 10670.5 272818.9 227529 43700 291725 62111 1442521 2007.4 23421 518.1 149341 1190.0 129688 176.3 184726 152.0 180113 1893.4 18199.8 597.9 150167 505.4 1052.4 26292.8 7 52 0 3067 12 6 53 167 19 39 3422 286.0 0 0.6 464.0 0.8 18.1 8.6 0 0 0 778.1 1193 62414.7 357 174 236 23 7 7 8 34 119 198095.8 2157 14792.6 10510.2 10118.6 27536.8 13748.9 8016.3 15497.6 25819.8 9640.2 28833 13563 15209 38368 45619 26302 13594 26077 29891 14944 0 0 0 0 117.5 0 3.7 1.8 0.3 120.0 252401 243.3

Disaster Management Earthquakes Extreme temperature Extreme Floods temperature

74

Volcanic eruption Wind storms Wind Other storms natural disaster

1391 787 270 731 3029 1996 593 1878 3893 2455 16673.2 17023 1224.7 3628.5 0 2586.8 942.8 0 3214.3 3922.0 1030.0 124.1 0 16 3001 1108 535 0 615 36 725 28 6065 90684.6 6892.7 29083.4 22315.7 29019.1 26045.8 12432.6 31961.6 13712.9 10670.5 272818.9 227529 43700 291725 62111 1442521 2007.4 23421 518.1 149341 1190.0 129688 176.3 184726 152.0 180113 1893.4 18199.8 597.9 150167 505.4 1052.4 26292.8 7 52 0 3067 12 6 53 167 19 39 3422 286.0 0 0.6 464.0 0.8 18.1 8.6 0 0 0 778.1 1193 62414.7 357 174 236 23 7 7 8 34 119 198095.8 2157 14792.6 10510.2 10118.6 27536.8 13748.9 8016.3 15497.6 25819.8 9640.2 28833 13563 15209 38368 45619 26302 13594 26077 29891 14944 0 0 0 0 117.5 0 3.7 1.8 0.3 120.0 252401 243.3

Table 6: Total amount of disaster estimated damage, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) (in millions of US$ (at the of 2000 Table 5: Total number of people reported affected byrates disasters, by prices) type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) in thousands. Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Landslides/ avalanches 19.4 531.5 845.8 72.3 11.6 0 17.4 0 0 168.4 1666.5 Landslides/ avalanches 89 79 80 298 1122 9 34 214 15 208 2150 Drought / famines 2612.0 3066.4 1315.2 1419.6 6527.5 1320.0 437.6 475.9 7056.5 6305.1 30535.7 Drought / famines 27118 39944 12132 15515 30431 8536 8450 24647 38372 176457 381602 Earthquakes 2912.0 804.2 2295.5 44222.3 150598.6 581.2 5208.8 400.8 32435.3 142.4 239601.2

Disaster Management

Floods Forest / scrub fire Forest / scrub fire Volcanic eruption

Earthquakes Extreme temperature Extreme Floods temperature

Table 6: Total amount of disaster estimated damage, by type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) (in millions of US$ (at the of 2000 Table 5: Total number of people reported affected byrates disasters, by prices) type of phenomenon and by year (1991-2000) in thousands. Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Type of phenomenon 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total Landslides/ avalanches 19.4 531.5 845.8 72.3 11.6 0 17.4 0 0 168.4 1666.5 Landslides/ avalanches 89 79 80 298 1122 9 34 214 15 208 2150 Drought / famines 2612.0 3066.4 1315.2 1419.6 6527.5 1320.0 437.6 475.9 7056.5 6305.1 30535.7 Drought / famines 27118 39944 12132 15515 30431 8536 8450 24647 38372 176457 381602 Earthquakes 2912.0 804.2 2295.5 44222.3 150598.6 581.2 5208.8 400.8 32435.3 142.4 239601.2

74 Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

75

75

76

Disaster Management

continuous improvement and the adaptation and enforcement of such improvements is the primary means of increasing the hazard resistance of structures through time. Today, virtually all-building failure under hazard stress can be explained with existing knowledge. This is not to say that engineered structures will never be damaged, because building codes establish minimum standards and rarely specify the maximum possible loads. Instead, they provide against the intensity of hazard events, which are considered to have a reasonable chance of occurring during the lifetime of the structure. If an event of a greater magnitude than the design standards occurs, then the structure can be expected to fail to some extent. For wind loading codes, common in areas subject to tropical cyclones, design velocities are given for various return periods. Most of the problems arise because of the lack of the strict enforcement of building codes and the quality of on-site construction can rarely be guaranteed. This is a special difficulty in the LDCs, where a lack of technical expertise and other resources commonly produce a failure to meet the design requirements. The problem also exists in the MDCs and it has been suggested that the cost of the 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, estimated at over 20 billion US dollars, might have been halved if all the damaged buildings had been built to the appropriate norms (Valery, 1995). Some buildings may have to withstand events that occur after decades without threat. Rather than construct a new, earthquake-resistant building at high capital cost, owners tend to refurbish the interior many times to keep pace with changing uses. Thus, the structure may have to endure far beyond a theoretical life. It follows that inventories should be available in all hazard-prone areas of the engineering status of the built environment. Hazard resistant design has had rather limited success in the past. One reason has been the priority given to the functional requirement of building during disaster events. Most attention has been paid to public buildings and facilities which are expected to remain operative during emergencies (hospitals, police stations, pipelines etc.) and those which are expected to remain intact in order to house essential items (certain computer centers, warehouses holding emergency supplies). Other public buildings, such as schools, offices and factories, have sometimes been strengthened in the belief that they will shelter large numbers of people seeking refuge. On the other hand, government premises have sometimes been exempted from building code/norms. In comparison, little attention has been given to privately owned residential buildings. The consequences of the selective application of building codes may be demonstrated by tropical cyclone ‘Tracy’, which struck Darwin, northern Australia, in 1974. This event caused structural collapse in only 3 percent of the engineered buildings that had been constructed to wind resistant codes over the previous 20 years. In contrast, some 5,000 out of 9,000 un-engineered houses (50-60 percent) were physically destroyed beyond repair, with the result that three-quarters of the population had to be evacuated (Stark and Walker, 1979). In this rapidly developing area, the construction of new, low-rise housing had

76

Disaster Management

continuous improvement and the adaptation and enforcement of such improvements is the primary means of increasing the hazard resistance of structures through time. Today, virtually all-building failure under hazard stress can be explained with existing knowledge. This is not to say that engineered structures will never be damaged, because building codes establish minimum standards and rarely specify the maximum possible loads. Instead, they provide against the intensity of hazard events, which are considered to have a reasonable chance of occurring during the lifetime of the structure. If an event of a greater magnitude than the design standards occurs, then the structure can be expected to fail to some extent. For wind loading codes, common in areas subject to tropical cyclones, design velocities are given for various return periods. Most of the problems arise because of the lack of the strict enforcement of building codes and the quality of on-site construction can rarely be guaranteed. This is a special difficulty in the LDCs, where a lack of technical expertise and other resources commonly produce a failure to meet the design requirements. The problem also exists in the MDCs and it has been suggested that the cost of the 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, estimated at over 20 billion US dollars, might have been halved if all the damaged buildings had been built to the appropriate norms (Valery, 1995). Some buildings may have to withstand events that occur after decades without threat. Rather than construct a new, earthquake-resistant building at high capital cost, owners tend to refurbish the interior many times to keep pace with changing uses. Thus, the structure may have to endure far beyond a theoretical life. It follows that inventories should be available in all hazard-prone areas of the engineering status of the built environment. Hazard resistant design has had rather limited success in the past. One reason has been the priority given to the functional requirement of building during disaster events. Most attention has been paid to public buildings and facilities which are expected to remain operative during emergencies (hospitals, police stations, pipelines etc.) and those which are expected to remain intact in order to house essential items (certain computer centers, warehouses holding emergency supplies). Other public buildings, such as schools, offices and factories, have sometimes been strengthened in the belief that they will shelter large numbers of people seeking refuge. On the other hand, government premises have sometimes been exempted from building code/norms. In comparison, little attention has been given to privately owned residential buildings. The consequences of the selective application of building codes may be demonstrated by tropical cyclone ‘Tracy’, which struck Darwin, northern Australia, in 1974. This event caused structural collapse in only 3 percent of the engineered buildings that had been constructed to wind resistant codes over the previous 20 years. In contrast, some 5,000 out of 9,000 un-engineered houses (50-60 percent) were physically destroyed beyond repair, with the result that three-quarters of the population had to be evacuated (Stark and Walker, 1979). In this rapidly developing area, the construction of new, low-rise housing had

76

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

77

improvement the adaptation and enforcement of such beencontinuous based on building traditionsand inappropriate for a cyclone prone settlement. the primary means of increasing theAustralia. hazard resistance The improvements Darwin disasterisprompted a radical review of policy in It is now of structures Today, virtually stress accepted that, through typically,time. residential housing all-building accounts forfailure aboutunder half hazard the total explained with existing knowledge. Thisequal is not to say that engineered valuecan of be buildings in the community and therefore, economic importance structures never be damaged, isbecause building as codes establish minimum to the public will buildings previously, now regarded more significant. standards and rarely specify the maximum possible loads. Instead, they provide Experience has also shown that, when cyclone warnings are issued, most public againstclose the intensity hazard which arelocal considered to have reasonable buildings down andofthe vast events, majority of the population seeka shelter chance occurring lifetime ofisthe If an event of a greater in their ownofhomes. Theduring generaltheconclusion thatstructure. greater attention should be the design occurs, then the structure can be expected paidmagnitude to cyclonethan resistant designstandards in the residential sector. to fail to some For owners wind loading codes, to common areas subject to However, privateextent. property are reluctant pay forinstrengthening design hazards velocitiesif are given for various periods. theirtropical homes cyclones, against natural they believe that anyreturn losses will be Most of the problems arise because of the lack of the strict enforcement compensated by insurance or government assistance. In addition, local authorities of codes and the quality of on-site construction can rarely be cost guaranteed. maybuilding resist the introduction of building codes if they feel that the of This is a and special difficulty will in thehamper LDCs, where a lackdevelopment. of technical expertise compliance inspection economic But, as and other resources commonly producedisasters a failurebecomes to meetharder the design requirements. commercial insurance against natural to obtain, and The problem also exists in against the MDCs and itowners has been suggested that the cost of as taxpayers increasingly rebel property who take no anti-hazard the 1994 California, estimated over 20 billion actions, hazardNorthridge resistanceearthquake design is in likely to become more atimportant. Faced US dollars, might have been halved if all the damaged buildings had been with rising costs, insurers and governments are requiring owners to adaptbuilt a to the appropriate norms (Valery, 1995). Some buildings may have to withstand more responsible attitude and are becoming less willing to provide routine events thatforoccur after decades and without threat. buildings. Rather than construct a new, compensation poorly constructed maintained Indeed, if taken earthquake-resistant at high capital design cost, owners refurbish the to its theoretical limit, building proper hazard-resistant could tend maketo structural interior many times to keepdisaster pace with changing Thus, the structure may property insurance and related funds largely uses. irrelevant. have to endure far beyond a theoretical life. It follows that inventories should be available in all hazard-prone areas of the engineering status of the built 2. Retrofitting environment. Another Hazard limitation existsdesign when has hazard-resistant design success is restricted new One resistant had rather limited in thetopast. properties. this,priority retrofitting – the modifyingrequirement an existing building reason Because has beenof the given to act theoffunctional of building to protect from aevents. damaging is anhas important issue. Many individual during itdisaster Mostevent, attention been paid to public buildings and measures can which be taken. the casetoof earthquakes, forduring example, brick chimneys facilities are In expected remain operative emergencies (hospitals, can police be reinforced bracedetc.) ontoand structural elements preventtocollapse into in stations,and pipelines those which are to expected remain intact a living Un-reinforced masonry wallscomputer can be strengthened and tiedholding to orderarea. to house essential items (certain centers, warehouses adequate footings, while closets heavy furniture canasbeschools, strappedoffices to the and emergency supplies). Other and public buildings, such wallsfactories, whenever theysometimes constitute been a danger or containinvulnerable To will protect have strengthened the belief items. that they shelter against measures include making theOnwall tight and fitting flood largefloods, numbers of people seeking refuge. the water other hand, government premises resistant and windows. have doors sometimes been exempted from building code/norms. In comparison, little Retrofit useful in that they areresidential often quicker to install than attention measures has been are given to privately owned buildings. some other responses. other hand, doubtsofhave been codes expressed Thehazard consequences of On the the selective application building may be about the economicbyviability retrofitting. Hundreds of struck Japanese schoolsnorthern and demonstrated tropicalof cyclone ‘Tracy’, which Darwin, hospitals have in been strengthened forcaused seismicstructural resistancecollapse at a cost up to 50-80 of Australia, 1974. This event in ofonly 3 percent percent of that for new buildings. Such resources are unlikely to be put into theover the engineered buildings that had been constructed to wind resistant codes private For propertysome the alternative to 9,000 retrofitting is to let the the sector. previous 20residential years. In contrast, 5,000 out of un-engineered houses occupants older houses remain atdestroyed risk until beyond the building to a that (50-60 ofpercent) were physically repair,deteriorates with the result pointthree-quarters where the owner or population a developerhad seestosome economic(Stark incentives to replace of the be evacuated and Walker, 1979). the structure at a higher standard. In this rapidly developing area, the construction of new, low-rise housing had

76

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

77

improvement the adaptation and enforcement of such beencontinuous based on building traditionsand inappropriate for a cyclone prone settlement. the primary means of increasing theAustralia. hazard resistance The improvements Darwin disasterisprompted a radical review of policy in It is now of structures Today, virtually stress accepted that, through typically,time. residential housing all-building accounts forfailure aboutunder half hazard the total explained with existing knowledge. Thisequal is not to say that engineered valuecan of be buildings in the community and therefore, economic importance structures never be damaged, isbecause building as codes establish minimum to the public will buildings previously, now regarded more significant. standards and rarely specify the maximum possible loads. Instead, they provide Experience has also shown that, when cyclone warnings are issued, most public against the intensity of hazard events, which are considered to have a reasonable buildings close down and the vast majority of the local population seek shelter chance occurring lifetime ofisthe If an event of a greater in their ownofhomes. Theduring generaltheconclusion thatstructure. greater attention should be the design occurs, then the structure can be expected paidmagnitude to cyclonethan resistant designstandards in the residential sector. to fail to some For owners wind loading codes, to common areas subject to However, privateextent. property are reluctant pay forinstrengthening design hazards velocitiesif are given for various periods. theirtropical homes cyclones, against natural they believe that anyreturn losses will be Mostby of insurance the problems arise because of the lack of the strict compensated or government assistance. In addition, localenforcement authorities of codes and the quality of on-site construction can rarely be cost guaranteed. maybuilding resist the introduction of building codes if they feel that the of This is a special difficulty in the LDCs, where a lack of technical expertise compliance and inspection will hamper economic development. But, as and other resources commonly producedisasters a failurebecomes to meetharder the design requirements. commercial insurance against natural to obtain, and The problem also exists in against the MDCs and itowners has been suggested that the cost of as taxpayers increasingly rebel property who take no anti-hazard the 1994 California, estimated over 20 billion actions, hazardNorthridge resistanceearthquake design is in likely to become more atimportant. Faced US might have beenand halved if all the are damaged buildings withdollars, rising costs, insurers governments requiring ownershadto been adaptbuilt a to appropriateattitude norms and (Valery, Some have toroutine withstand moretheresponsible are 1995). becoming lessbuildings willing may to provide events thatforoccur after decades and without threat. buildings. Rather than construct a new, compensation poorly constructed maintained Indeed, if taken earthquake-resistant at high capital design cost, owners refurbish the to its theoretical limit, building proper hazard-resistant could tend maketo structural interior many times to keepdisaster pace with changing Thus, the structure may property insurance and related funds largely uses. irrelevant. have to endure far beyond a theoretical life. It follows that inventories should be available in all hazard-prone areas of the engineering status of the built 2. Retrofitting environment. Another Hazard limitation existsdesign when has hazard-resistant design success is restricted new One resistant had rather limited in thetopast. properties. this,priority retrofitting – the modifyingrequirement an existing building reason Because has beenof the given to act theoffunctional of building to protect from aevents. damaging is anhas important issue. Many individual during itdisaster Mostevent, attention been paid to public buildings and measures can which be taken. the casetoof earthquakes, forduring example, brick chimneys facilities are In expected remain operative emergencies (hospitals, can police be reinforced bracedetc.) ontoand structural elements preventtocollapse into in stations,and pipelines those which are to expected remain intact a living Un-reinforced masonry wallscomputer can be strengthened and tiedholding to orderarea. to house essential items (certain centers, warehouses adequate footings, while closets heavy furniture canasbeschools, strappedoffices to the and emergency supplies). Other and public buildings, such wallsfactories, whenever theysometimes constitute been a danger or containinvulnerable To will protect have strengthened the belief items. that they shelter against measures include making theOnwall tight and fitting flood largefloods, numbers of people seeking refuge. the water other hand, government premises resistant and windows. have doors sometimes been exempted from building code/norms. In comparison, little Retrofit useful in that they areresidential often quicker to install than attention measures has been are given to privately owned buildings. some other responses. other hand, doubtsofhave been codes expressed Thehazard consequences of On the the selective application building may be about the economicbyviability retrofitting. Hundreds of struck Japanese schoolsnorthern and demonstrated tropicalof cyclone ‘Tracy’, which Darwin, hospitals have in been strengthened forcaused seismicstructural resistancecollapse at a cost up to 50-80 of Australia, 1974. This event in ofonly 3 percent percent that for new buildings. Suchbeen resources are unlikely be put into theover the of engineered buildings that had constructed to windtoresistant codes private sector. For residential property the alternative to retrofitting is to let the previous 20 years. In contrast, some 5,000 out of 9,000 un-engineered the houses occupants older houses remain atdestroyed risk until beyond the building to a that (50-60 ofpercent) were physically repair,deteriorates with the result pointthree-quarters where the owner or population a developerhad seestosome economic(Stark incentives to replace of the be evacuated and Walker, 1979). the structure at a higher standard. In this rapidly developing area, the construction of new, low-rise housing had

76

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

77

improvement the adaptation and enforcement of such beencontinuous based on building traditionsand inappropriate for a cyclone prone settlement. the primary means of increasing theAustralia. hazard resistance The improvements Darwin disasterisprompted a radical review of policy in It is now of structures Today, virtually stress accepted that, through typically,time. residential housing all-building accounts forfailure aboutunder half hazard the total explained with existing knowledge. Thisequal is not to say that engineered valuecan of be buildings in the community and therefore, economic importance structures never be damaged, isbecause building as codes establish minimum to the public will buildings previously, now regarded more significant. standards and rarely specify the maximum possible loads. Instead, they provide Experience has also shown that, when cyclone warnings are issued, most public againstclose the intensity hazard which arelocal considered to have reasonable buildings down andofthe vast events, majority of the population seeka shelter chance occurring lifetime ofisthe If an event of a greater in their ownofhomes. Theduring generaltheconclusion thatstructure. greater attention should be the design occurs, then the structure can be expected paidmagnitude to cyclonethan resistant designstandards in the residential sector. to fail to some For owners wind loading codes, to common areas subject to However, privateextent. property are reluctant pay forinstrengthening design hazards velocitiesif are given for various periods. theirtropical homes cyclones, against natural they believe that anyreturn losses will be Most of the problems arise because of the lack of the strict enforcement compensated by insurance or government assistance. In addition, local authorities of codes and the quality of on-site construction can rarely be cost guaranteed. maybuilding resist the introduction of building codes if they feel that the of This is a and special difficulty will in thehamper LDCs, where a lackdevelopment. of technical expertise compliance inspection economic But, as and other resources commonly producedisasters a failurebecomes to meetharder the design requirements. commercial insurance against natural to obtain, and The problem also exists in against the MDCs and itowners has been suggested that the cost of as taxpayers increasingly rebel property who take no anti-hazard the 1994 Northridge California, estimated over 20 billion actions, hazard resistanceearthquake design is in likely to become more atimportant. Faced US dollars, might have been halved if all the damaged buildings had been with rising costs, insurers and governments are requiring owners to adaptbuilt a to the appropriate norms (Valery, 1995). Some buildings may have to withstand more responsible attitude and are becoming less willing to provide routine events thatforoccur after decades and without threat. buildings. Rather than construct a new, compensation poorly constructed maintained Indeed, if taken earthquake-resistant at high capital design cost, owners refurbish the to its theoretical limit, building proper hazard-resistant could tend maketo structural interior many times to keepdisaster pace with changing Thus, the structure may property insurance and related funds largely uses. irrelevant. have to endure far beyond a theoretical life. It follows that inventories should be available in all hazard-prone areas of the engineering status of the built 2. Retrofitting environment. Another Hazard limitation existsdesign when has hazard-resistant design success is restricted new One resistant had rather limited in thetopast. properties. this,priority retrofitting – the modifyingrequirement an existing building reason Because has beenof the given to act theoffunctional of building to protect from aevents. damaging is anhas important issue. Many individual during itdisaster Mostevent, attention been paid to public buildings and measures can which be taken. the casetoof earthquakes, forduring example, brick chimneys facilities are In expected remain operative emergencies (hospitals, can police be reinforced bracedetc.) ontoand structural elements preventtocollapse into in stations,and pipelines those which are to expected remain intact a living Un-reinforced masonry wallscomputer can be strengthened and tiedholding to orderarea. to house essential items (certain centers, warehouses adequate footings, while closets heavy furniture canasbeschools, strappedoffices to the and emergency supplies). Other and public buildings, such wallsfactories, whenever theysometimes constitute been a danger or containinvulnerable To will protect have strengthened the belief items. that they shelter against measures include making theOnwall tight and fitting flood largefloods, numbers of people seeking refuge. the water other hand, government premises resistant and windows. have doors sometimes been exempted from building code/norms. In comparison, little Retrofit measures useful in that they areresidential often quicker to install than attention has been are given to privately owned buildings. some other responses. other hand, doubtsofhave been codes expressed Thehazard consequences of On the the selective application building may be about the economicbyviability retrofitting. Hundreds of struck Japanese schoolsnorthern and demonstrated tropicalof cyclone ‘Tracy’, which Darwin, hospitals have in been strengthened forcaused seismicstructural resistancecollapse at a cost up to 50-80 of Australia, 1974. This event in ofonly 3 percent percent of that for new buildings. Such resources are unlikely to be put into theover the engineered buildings that had been constructed to wind resistant codes private For propertysome the alternative to 9,000 retrofitting is to let the the sector. previous 20residential years. In contrast, 5,000 out of un-engineered houses occupants older houses remain atdestroyed risk until beyond the building to a that (50-60 ofpercent) were physically repair,deteriorates with the result pointthree-quarters where the owner or population a developerhad seestosome economic(Stark incentives to replace of the be evacuated and Walker, 1979). the structure at a higher standard. In this rapidly developing area, the construction of new, low-rise housing had

76

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

been based on building traditions inappropriate for a cyclone prone settlement. The Darwin disaster prompted a radical review of policy in Australia. It is now accepted that, typically, residential housing accounts for about half the total value of buildings in the community and therefore, equal economic importance to the public buildings previously, is now regarded as more significant. Experience has also shown that, when cyclone warnings are issued, most public buildings close down and the vast majority of the local population seek shelter in their own homes. The general conclusion is that greater attention should be paid to cyclone resistant design in the residential sector. However, private property owners are reluctant to pay for strengthening their homes against natural hazards if they believe that any losses will be compensated by insurance or government assistance. In addition, local authorities may resist the introduction of building codes if they feel that the cost of compliance and inspection will hamper economic development. But, as commercial insurance against natural disasters becomes harder to obtain, and as taxpayers increasingly rebel against property owners who take no anti-hazard actions, hazard resistance design is likely to become more important. Faced with rising costs, insurers and governments are requiring owners to adapt a more responsible attitude and are becoming less willing to provide routine compensation for poorly constructed and maintained buildings. Indeed, if taken to its theoretical limit, proper hazard-resistant design could make structural property insurance and related disaster funds largely irrelevant. 2. Retrofitting Another limitation exists when hazard-resistant design is restricted to new properties. Because of this, retrofitting – the act of modifying an existing building to protect it from a damaging event, is an important issue. Many individual measures can be taken. In the case of earthquakes, for example, brick chimneys can be reinforced and braced onto structural elements to prevent collapse into a living area. Un-reinforced masonry walls can be strengthened and tied to adequate footings, while closets and heavy furniture can be strapped to the walls whenever they constitute a danger or contain vulnerable items. To protect against floods, measures include making the wall water tight and fitting flood resistant doors and windows. Retrofit measures are useful in that they are often quicker to install than some other hazard responses. On the other hand, doubts have been expressed about the economic viability of retrofitting. Hundreds of Japanese schools and hospitals have been strengthened for seismic resistance at a cost of up to 50-80 percent of that for new buildings. Such resources are unlikely to be put into the private sector. For residential property the alternative to retrofitting is to let the occupants of older houses remain at risk until the building deteriorates to a point where the owner or a developer sees some economic incentives to replace the structure at a higher standard.

77

improvement the adaptation and enforcement of such beencontinuous based on building traditionsand inappropriate for a cyclone prone settlement. the primary means of increasing theAustralia. hazard resistance The improvements Darwin disasterisprompted a radical review of policy in It is now of structures Today, virtually stress accepted that, through typically,time. residential housing all-building accounts forfailure aboutunder half hazard the total explained with existing knowledge. Thisequal is not to say that engineered valuecan of be buildings in the community and therefore, economic importance structures never be damaged, isbecause building as codes establish minimum to the public will buildings previously, now regarded more significant. standards and rarely specify the maximum possible loads. Instead, they provide Experience has also shown that, when cyclone warnings are issued, most public against the intensity of hazard events, which are considered to have a reasonable buildings close down and the vast majority of the local population seek shelter chance occurring lifetime ofisthe If an event of a greater in their ownofhomes. Theduring generaltheconclusion thatstructure. greater attention should be the design occurs, then the structure can be expected paidmagnitude to cyclonethan resistant designstandards in the residential sector. to fail to some For owners wind loading codes, to common areas subject to However, privateextent. property are reluctant pay forinstrengthening design hazards velocitiesif are given for various periods. theirtropical homes cyclones, against natural they believe that anyreturn losses will be Mostby of insurance the problems arise because of the lack of the strict compensated or government assistance. In addition, localenforcement authorities of codes and the quality of on-site construction can rarely be cost guaranteed. maybuilding resist the introduction of building codes if they feel that the of This is a special difficulty in the LDCs, where a lack of technical expertise compliance and inspection will hamper economic development. But, as and other resources commonly producedisasters a failurebecomes to meetharder the design requirements. commercial insurance against natural to obtain, and The problem also exists in against the MDCs and itowners has been suggested that the cost of as taxpayers increasingly rebel property who take no anti-hazard the 1994 Northridge California, estimated over 20 billion actions, hazard resistanceearthquake design is in likely to become more atimportant. Faced US might have beenand halved if all the are damaged buildings withdollars, rising costs, insurers governments requiring ownershadto been adaptbuilt a to appropriateattitude norms and (Valery, Some have toroutine withstand moretheresponsible are 1995). becoming lessbuildings willing may to provide events thatforoccur after decades and without threat. buildings. Rather than construct a new, compensation poorly constructed maintained Indeed, if taken earthquake-resistant at high capital design cost, owners refurbish the to its theoretical limit, building proper hazard-resistant could tend maketo structural interior many times to keepdisaster pace with changing Thus, the structure may property insurance and related funds largely uses. irrelevant. have to endure far beyond a theoretical life. It follows that inventories should be available in all hazard-prone areas of the engineering status of the built 2. Retrofitting environment. Another Hazard limitation existsdesign when has hazard-resistant design success is restricted new One resistant had rather limited in thetopast. properties. this,priority retrofitting – the modifyingrequirement an existing building reason Because has beenof the given to act theoffunctional of building to protect from aevents. damaging is anhas important issue. Many individual during itdisaster Mostevent, attention been paid to public buildings and measures can which be taken. the casetoof earthquakes, forduring example, brick chimneys facilities are In expected remain operative emergencies (hospitals, can police be reinforced bracedetc.) ontoand structural elements preventtocollapse into in stations,and pipelines those which are to expected remain intact a living Un-reinforced masonry wallscomputer can be strengthened and tiedholding to orderarea. to house essential items (certain centers, warehouses adequate footings, while closets heavy furniture canasbeschools, strappedoffices to the and emergency supplies). Other and public buildings, such wallsfactories, whenever theysometimes constitute been a danger or containinvulnerable To will protect have strengthened the belief items. that they shelter against measures include making theOnwall tight and fitting flood largefloods, numbers of people seeking refuge. the water other hand, government premises resistant and windows. have doors sometimes been exempted from building code/norms. In comparison, little Retrofit measures useful in that they areresidential often quicker to install than attention has been are given to privately owned buildings. some other responses. other hand, doubtsofhave been codes expressed Thehazard consequences of On the the selective application building may be about the economicbyviability retrofitting. Hundreds of struck Japanese schoolsnorthern and demonstrated tropicalof cyclone ‘Tracy’, which Darwin, hospitals have in been strengthened forcaused seismicstructural resistancecollapse at a cost up to 50-80 of Australia, 1974. This event in ofonly 3 percent percent that for new buildings. Suchbeen resources are unlikely be put into theover the of engineered buildings that had constructed to windtoresistant codes private sector. For residential property the alternative to retrofitting is to let the previous 20 years. In contrast, some 5,000 out of 9,000 un-engineered the houses occupants older houses remain atdestroyed risk until beyond the building to a that (50-60 ofpercent) were physically repair,deteriorates with the result pointthree-quarters where the owner or population a developerhad seestosome economic(Stark incentives to replace of the be evacuated and Walker, 1979). the structure at a higher standard. In this rapidly developing area, the construction of new, low-rise housing had

77

Earthquake Hazard Management

77

been based on building traditions inappropriate for a cyclone prone settlement. The Darwin disaster prompted a radical review of policy in Australia. It is now accepted that, typically, residential housing accounts for about half the total value of buildings in the community and therefore, equal economic importance to the public buildings previously, is now regarded as more significant. Experience has also shown that, when cyclone warnings are issued, most public buildings close down and the vast majority of the local population seek shelter in their own homes. The general conclusion is that greater attention should be paid to cyclone resistant design in the residential sector. However, private property owners are reluctant to pay for strengthening their homes against natural hazards if they believe that any losses will be compensated by insurance or government assistance. In addition, local authorities may resist the introduction of building codes if they feel that the cost of compliance and inspection will hamper economic development. But, as commercial insurance against natural disasters becomes harder to obtain, and as taxpayers increasingly rebel against property owners who take no anti-hazard actions, hazard resistance design is likely to become more important. Faced with rising costs, insurers and governments are requiring owners to adapt a more responsible attitude and are becoming less willing to provide routine compensation for poorly constructed and maintained buildings. Indeed, if taken to its theoretical limit, proper hazard-resistant design could make structural property insurance and related disaster funds largely irrelevant. 2. Retrofitting Another limitation exists when hazard-resistant design is restricted to new properties. Because of this, retrofitting – the act of modifying an existing building to protect it from a damaging event, is an important issue. Many individual measures can be taken. In the case of earthquakes, for example, brick chimneys can be reinforced and braced onto structural elements to prevent collapse into a living area. Un-reinforced masonry walls can be strengthened and tied to adequate footings, while closets and heavy furniture can be strapped to the walls whenever they constitute a danger or contain vulnerable items. To protect against floods, measures include making the wall water tight and fitting flood resistant doors and windows. Retrofit measures are useful in that they are often quicker to install than some other hazard responses. On the other hand, doubts have been expressed about the economic viability of retrofitting. Hundreds of Japanese schools and hospitals have been strengthened for seismic resistance at a cost of up to 50-80 percent of that for new buildings. Such resources are unlikely to be put into the private sector. For residential property the alternative to retrofitting is to let the occupants of older houses remain at risk until the building deteriorates to a point where the owner or a developer sees some economic incentives to replace the structure at a higher standard.

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Retrofit laws passed by local authorities require the identification and strengthening (or demolition) of existing hazardous buildings but the social, economical and political issues involved can make the approach difficult to implement. It has been estimated that a retrofit policy in India and Japan would substantially reduce the potential hazard to life, with perhaps a five fold reduction in casualties from earthquakes. However, one disadvantage of the retrofit ordinance adopted in 1981 was that some of the city’s lowest priced housing would be demolished; tenants would have to be relocated while remedial work was carried out and there would be considerable disruption to small business activity. Special provisions also had to be introduced to ensure that some unsafe buildings of historical significance were preserved. An attractive feature of retrofitting is that most of the government’s construction and maintenance costs are borne by the property owner, although little official encouragement has been given. One reason for the relative underemployment of retrofitting is that many government agencies are unable to spend any public funds for the direct improvement of private property. Furthermore, it is difficult to disseminate information about measures, which may not be appropriate for all buildings, in terms that are both understandable to the home owner yet sufficiently technical to insure that the best method will be chosen and correctly installed. In these circumstances, it will be that there is a case for more government commitment to retrofitting. With more technical and financial assistance, hazard-conscious property owners could be helped to help themselves to a far greater extent. 3. Society Attentiveness Disaster attentiveness may be defined as the pre-arranged emergency measures taken to minimize the loss of life and property damage following the onset of a disaster. It involves the detailed planning – and testing – of the prompt and efficient responses to hazard threats. Once a threat has been identified, various groups of people and officials, representing many different interests, become involved in the assembly and transfer of relevant information. Appropriate loss reducing measures, depending on the nature of the hazard, may include the activation of evacuation plans (often in response to an expected warning message), the provision of medical aid and the preparation of emergency food and shelter, together with alerting the media and the public of the impending threat. Long–term programmes have proved successful in reducing deaths from hazards. Within individual countries, the degree of attentiveness usually depends on the arrangements, which have been made for civil defense. For example, in the mission of Emergency preparedness, Canada ensures that the emergency plans of the government of Canada are in place and are ready to protect life and property. In the USA, the federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has the leading responsibility for the coordination and management of all actions

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Retrofit laws passed by local authorities require the identification and strengthening (or demolition) of existing hazardous buildings but the social, economical and political issues involved can make the approach difficult to implement. It has been estimated that a retrofit policy in India and Japan would substantially reduce the potential hazard to life, with perhaps a five fold reduction in casualties from earthquakes. However, one disadvantage of the retrofit ordinance adopted in 1981 was that some of the city’s lowest priced housing would be demolished; tenants would have to be relocated while remedial work was carried out and there would be considerable disruption to small business activity. Special provisions also had to be introduced to ensure that some unsafe buildings of historical significance were preserved. An attractive feature of retrofitting is that most of the government’s construction and maintenance costs are borne by the property owner, although little official encouragement has been given. One reason for the relative underemployment of retrofitting is that many government agencies are unable to spend any public funds for the direct improvement of private property. Furthermore, it is difficult to disseminate information about measures, which may not be appropriate for all buildings, in terms that are both understandable to the home owner yet sufficiently technical to insure that the best method will be chosen and correctly installed. In these circumstances, it will be that there is a case for more government commitment to retrofitting. With more technical and financial assistance, hazard-conscious property owners could be helped to help themselves to a far greater extent. 3. Society Attentiveness Disaster attentiveness may be defined as the pre-arranged emergency measures taken to minimize the loss of life and property damage following the onset of a disaster. It involves the detailed planning – and testing – of the prompt and efficient responses to hazard threats. Once a threat has been identified, various groups of people and officials, representing many different interests, become involved in the assembly and transfer of relevant information. Appropriate loss reducing measures, depending on the nature of the hazard, may include the activation of evacuation plans (often in response to an expected warning message), the provision of medical aid and the preparation of emergency food and shelter, together with alerting the media and the public of the impending threat. Long–term programmes have proved successful in reducing deaths from hazards. Within individual countries, the degree of attentiveness usually depends on the arrangements, which have been made for civil defense. For example, in the mission of Emergency preparedness, Canada ensures that the emergency plans of the government of Canada are in place and are ready to protect life and property. In the USA, the federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has the leading responsibility for the coordination and management of all actions

78

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Earthquake Hazard Management

79

Retrofit laws population passed by from local aauthorities require Such the identification to protect the civilian range of hazards. organizations and strengtheningcalling (or demolition) existing hazardous but official the social, are increasingly for a moreofproactive strategy. Inbuildings Canada the and political issues involved can make the approachinto difficult vieweconomical is that a national risk reduction policy should be integrated-ed the to has been(Emergency estimated that a retrofit policy in India dailyimplement. lives of allIt citizens preparedness Canada, 1998).and Japan would substantially reduce the depends potential on hazard to life, with perhaps a five reduction Effective attentiveness a strong political will and the fold means to casualties from earthquakes. However,areone of the retrofit makeinsuch measures work. These commodities lessdisadvantage likely to be available in ordinance that For someexample, of the city’s lowest priced housing the LDCs but adopted progress inis 1981 takingwas place. in India, cash-for-work wouldand be feeding demolished; tenants have wouldrendered have to all–out be relocated remedial schemes programmes faminewhile unheard of forwork was out and thereemergency would be considerable disruption small business about 20 carried years. The volcanic plan for Rabaul, Papua to New Guinea, activity. Special provisions had toofbeUNDRO introduced to ensure unsafe which was prepared under the also guidance in the 1980s,that wassome largely buildings were responsible forofthehistorical effective significance evacuation and lowpreserved. loss of life when major eruptions attractive featureaway of retrofitting that most of theeffective government’s occurredAn in 1994. Evacuation from hazardis zones is generally in construction maintenance are borne by city the property owner, although saving lives. Theand evacuation map costs prepared for the of Salinas, which is littleon official has been reason for the relative undersituated a low,encouragement narrow peninsula on thegiven. coastOne of Ecuador (UNDRO, 1990) employment of retrofitting that manyis government are unableactive to spend on the western coast of south isAmerica, one of the agencies most seismically any for the improvement of private zones onpublic earth funds and much of direct the city is only a few metres property. above seaFurthermore, level and it is difficult to disseminate information which not be vulnerable to tsunami flooding either from theabout northmeasures, or the south. If a may tsunami appropriate for allthe buildings, in terms are the botharrival understandable to the home is generated locally, evacuation time that before of the first tidal yet sufficiently to insure that thetobest will bearea chosen waveowner is likely to be only technical 20-25 minutes so routes the method higher refuge installed. In circumstances, it will be that there to is areach case for haveand to correctly be well organized andthese understood. For those people unable more–government commitment to retrofitting. With more technical and financial this area the ill, the elderly and small children – several tall seismically resistant assistance, hazard-conscious owners could be helped to help themselves buildings will be used as refugesproperty for vertical migration. to major a far practical greater extent. A problem arises because comprehensive emergency planning is a long–term, costly exercise. It ties up facilities and people that are apparently doing nothing, other than waiting for an event that no one wants and many 3. Society Attentiveness believe will never happen. For example, in urban areas threatened by a severe Disasterimpact, attentiveness as the pre-arranged measures earthquake it maymay notbebedefined unreasonable to plan foremergency the emergency taken to property damage following the onset of sheltering of minimize up to 25 the per loss centofoflife theand community’s population. This requires a disaster. It involves the buildings detailed planning – and testing –ofoffood, the medical prompt and not only the location of usable but also the stockpiling efficient hazard threats. Once aalthough threat has beenmay identified, various supplies and responses sanitation toequipment. Therefore, there be a great groups of people and officials, interests, become official concern immediately after arepresenting disaster, thismany mooddifferent can soon evaporate, in the assembly and transfer of relevant information. Appropriate and involved there is usually little political will to fund and maintain the disaster plans. loss reducing measures, depending on the nature of the hazard, may include In recent years, some developed countries – such as the UK – have disbanded the of evacuation plans (often in response to an expectedonwarning theiractivation formal arrangements for national civil defence in favour of reliance the message), the provision of medical and resources the preparation of for emergency emergency coordination of more routineaid public housed, example,food andfire shelter, together with alerting the media and the public of the impending in the and police department. threat. understanding and cooperation are vital elements in the successful Public programmes proved successful in reducing deathsoffrom operationLong–term of any disaster plan. In have California there is a relatively long history hazards. Within individual countries, the degree of attentiveness usually depends raising earthquake hazard awareness. Turner et. al (1979) found that people on the arrangements, which have been made for civil defense. For example, were poorly prepared to handle the consequences of a damaging event. Most in the mission of little Emergency preparedness, that the emergency residents had done but acquire a workingCanada torch, a ensures battery –operated radio of the government Canada are in place ready to protect life and plans first aid supplies. More ofrecent evidence, basedand on are a survey following and property. In the USA, the federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) publicity about earthquake hazards in the San Francisco Bay area, suggests the leading responsibility the coordination and management all actions that,has when preparedness advice for is disseminated effectively, residentsofcan be

78

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

79

Retrofit laws population passed by from local aauthorities require Such the identification to protect the civilian range of hazards. organizations and strengtheningcalling (or demolition) existing hazardous but official the social, are increasingly for a moreofproactive strategy. Inbuildings Canada the and political issues involved can make the approachinto difficult vieweconomical is that a national risk reduction policy should be integrated-ed the to has been(Emergency estimated that a retrofit policy in India dailyimplement. lives of allIt citizens preparedness Canada, 1998).and Japan would substantially reduce the depends potential on hazard to life, with perhaps a five reduction Effective attentiveness a strong political will and the fold means to casualties from earthquakes. However,areone of the retrofit makeinsuch measures work. These commodities lessdisadvantage likely to be available in ordinance that For someexample, of the city’s lowest priced housing the LDCs but adopted progress inis 1981 takingwas place. in India, cash-for-work wouldand be feeding demolished; tenants have wouldrendered have to all–out be relocated remedial schemes programmes faminewhile unheard of forwork was out and thereemergency would be considerable disruption small business about 20 carried years. The volcanic plan for Rabaul, Papua to New Guinea, activity. Special provisions had toofbeUNDRO introduced to ensure unsafe which was prepared under the also guidance in the 1980s,that wassome largely buildings were responsible forofthehistorical effective significance evacuation and lowpreserved. loss of life when major eruptions attractive featureaway of retrofitting that most of theeffective government’s occurredAn in 1994. Evacuation from hazardis zones is generally in construction maintenance are borne by city the property owner, although saving lives. Theand evacuation map costs prepared for the of Salinas, which is littleon official has been reason for the relative undersituated a low,encouragement narrow peninsula on thegiven. coastOne of Ecuador (UNDRO, 1990) employment of retrofitting that manyis government are unableactive to spend on the western coast of south isAmerica, one of the agencies most seismically any for the improvement of private zones onpublic earth funds and much of direct the city is only a few metres property. above seaFurthermore, level and it is difficult to disseminate information which not be vulnerable to tsunami flooding either from theabout northmeasures, or the south. If a may tsunami appropriate for allthe buildings, in terms are the botharrival understandable to the home is generated locally, evacuation time that before of the first tidal yet sufficiently to insure that thetobest will bearea chosen waveowner is likely to be only technical 20-25 minutes so routes the method higher refuge installed. In circumstances, it will be that there to is areach case for haveand to correctly be well organized andthese understood. For those people unable more–government commitment to retrofitting. With more technical and financial this area the ill, the elderly and small children – several tall seismically resistant assistance, hazard-conscious owners could be helped to help themselves buildings will be used as refugesproperty for vertical migration. to major a far practical greater extent. A problem arises because comprehensive emergency planning is a long–term, costly exercise. It ties up facilities and people that are apparently doing nothing, other than waiting for an event that no one wants and many 3. Society Attentiveness believe will never happen. For example, in urban areas threatened by a severe Disasterimpact, attentiveness as the pre-arranged measures earthquake it maymay notbebedefined unreasonable to plan foremergency the emergency taken to minimize the loss of life and property damage following the onset of sheltering of up to 25 per cent of the community’s population. This requires a disaster. It involves the buildings detailed planning – and testing –ofoffood, the medical prompt and not only the location of usable but also the stockpiling efficient hazard threats. Once aalthough threat has beenmay identified, various supplies and responses sanitation toequipment. Therefore, there be a great groups of people and officials, interests, become official concern immediately after arepresenting disaster, thismany mooddifferent can soon evaporate, in the assembly and transfer of relevant information. Appropriate and involved there is usually little political will to fund and maintain the disaster plans. loss reducing measures, depending on the nature of the hazard, may include In recent years, some developed countries – such as the UK – have disbanded the of evacuation plans (often in response to an expectedonwarning theiractivation formal arrangements for national civil defence in favour of reliance the message), the provision of medical and resources the preparation of for emergency emergency coordination of more routineaid public housed, example,food andfire shelter, together with alerting the media and the public of the impending in the and police department. threat. understanding and cooperation are vital elements in the successful Public programmes proved successful in reducing deathsoffrom operationLong–term of any disaster plan. In have California there is a relatively long history hazards. Within hazard individual countries,Turner the degree attentiveness depends raising earthquake awareness. et. alof(1979) found usually that people on the arrangements, which have been made for civil defense. For example, were poorly prepared to handle the consequences of a damaging event. Most in the mission of little Emergency preparedness, that the emergency residents had done but acquire a workingCanada torch, a ensures battery –operated radio of the government Canada are in place ready to protect life and plans first aid supplies. More ofrecent evidence, basedand on are a survey following and property. In the USA, the federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) publicity about earthquake hazards in the San Francisco Bay area, suggests the leading responsibility the coordination and management all actions that,has when preparedness advice for is disseminated effectively, residentsofcan be

78

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

79

to protect the civilian range of hazards. organizations and Retrofit laws population passed by from local aauthorities require Such the identification are increasingly for a moreofproactive strategy. Inbuildings Canada the strengtheningcalling (or demolition) existing hazardous but official the social, vieweconomical is that a national risk reduction policy should be integrated-ed the to and political issues involved can make the approachinto difficult dailyimplement. lives of allIt citizens preparedness Canada, 1998).and Japan would has been(Emergency estimated that a retrofit policy in India Effective attentiveness a strong political will and the fold means to substantially reduce the depends potential on hazard to life, with perhaps a five reduction makeinsuch measures work. These commodities lessdisadvantage likely to be available in casualties from earthquakes. However,areone of the retrofit the LDCs but adopted progress inis 1981 takingwas place. in India, cash-for-work ordinance that For someexample, of the city’s lowest priced housing schemes programmes faminewhile unheard of forwork wouldand be feeding demolished; tenants have wouldrendered have to all–out be relocated remedial about 20 carried years. The volcanic plan for Rabaul, Papua to New Guinea, was out and thereemergency would be considerable disruption small business which was prepared under the also guidance in the 1980s,that wassome largely activity. Special provisions had toofbeUNDRO introduced to ensure unsafe responsible forofthehistorical effective significance evacuation and lowpreserved. loss of life when major eruptions buildings were occurredAn in 1994. Evacuation from hazardis zones is generally in attractive featureaway of retrofitting that most of theeffective government’s saving lives. Theand evacuation map costs prepared for the of Salinas, which is construction maintenance are borne by city the property owner, although situated a low,encouragement narrow peninsula on thegiven. coastOne of Ecuador (UNDRO, 1990) littleon official has been reason for the relative underon the western coast of south isAmerica, one of the agencies most seismically employment of retrofitting that manyis government are unableactive to spend zones onpublic earth funds and much of direct the city is only a few metres property. above seaFurthermore, level and it any for the improvement of private vulnerable to tsunami flooding either from theabout northmeasures, or the south. If a may tsunami is difficult to disseminate information which not be is generated locally, evacuation time that before of the first tidal appropriate for allthe buildings, in terms are the botharrival understandable to the home waveowner is likely to be only technical 20-25 minutes so routes the method higher refuge yet sufficiently to insure that thetobest will bearea chosen haveand to correctly be well organized andthese understood. For those people unable installed. In circumstances, it will be that there to is areach case for this area the ill, the elderly and small children – several tall seismically resistant more–government commitment to retrofitting. With more technical and financial buildings will be used as refugesproperty for vertical migration. assistance, hazard-conscious owners could be helped to help themselves A problem arises because comprehensive emergency planning to major a far practical greater extent. is a long–term, costly exercise. It ties up facilities and people that are apparently doing nothing, other than waiting for an event that no one wants and many 3. Society Attentiveness believe will never happen. For example, in urban areas threatened by a severe Disasterimpact, attentiveness as the pre-arranged measures earthquake it maymay notbebedefined unreasonable to plan foremergency the emergency taken to property damage following the onset of sheltering of minimize up to 25 the per loss centofoflife theand community’s population. This requires a disaster. It involves the buildings detailed planning – and testing –ofoffood, the medical prompt and not only the location of usable but also the stockpiling efficient hazard threats. Once aalthough threat has beenmay identified, various supplies and responses sanitation toequipment. Therefore, there be a great groups of people and officials, interests, become official concern immediately after arepresenting disaster, thismany mooddifferent can soon evaporate, in the assembly and transfer of relevant information. Appropriate and involved there is usually little political will to fund and maintain the disaster plans. loss reducing measures, depending on the nature of the hazard, may include In recent years, some developed countries – such as the UK – have disbanded the of evacuation plans (often in response to an expectedonwarning theiractivation formal arrangements for national civil defence in favour of reliance the message), the provision of medical and resources the preparation of for emergency emergency coordination of more routineaid public housed, example,food andfire shelter, together with alerting the media and the public of the impending in the and police department. threat. understanding and cooperation are vital elements in the successful Public programmes proved successful in reducing deathsoffrom operationLong–term of any disaster plan. In have California there is a relatively long history hazards. Within individual countries, the degree of attentiveness usually depends raising earthquake hazard awareness. Turner et. al (1979) found that people on the arrangements, which have been made for civil defense. For example, were poorly prepared to handle the consequences of a damaging event. Most in the mission of little Emergency preparedness, that the emergency residents had done but acquire a workingCanada torch, a ensures battery –operated radio of the government Canada are in place ready to protect life and plans first aid supplies. More ofrecent evidence, basedand on are a survey following and property. In the USA, the federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) publicity about earthquake hazards in the San Francisco Bay area, suggests the leading responsibility the coordination and management all actions that,has when preparedness advice for is disseminated effectively, residentsofcan be

78

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

79

to protect the civilian range of hazards. organizations and Retrofit laws population passed by from local aauthorities require Such the identification are increasingly for a moreofproactive strategy. Inbuildings Canada the strengtheningcalling (or demolition) existing hazardous but official the social, vieweconomical is that a national risk reduction policy should be integrated-ed the to and political issues involved can make the approachinto difficult dailyimplement. lives of allIt citizens preparedness Canada, 1998).and Japan would has been(Emergency estimated that a retrofit policy in India Effective attentiveness a strong political will and the fold means to substantially reduce the depends potential on hazard to life, with perhaps a five reduction makeinsuch measures work. These commodities lessdisadvantage likely to be available in casualties from earthquakes. However,areone of the retrofit the LDCs but adopted progress inis 1981 takingwas place. in India, cash-for-work ordinance that For someexample, of the city’s lowest priced housing schemes programmes faminewhile unheard of forwork wouldand be feeding demolished; tenants have wouldrendered have to all–out be relocated remedial about 20 carried years. The volcanic plan for Rabaul, Papua to New Guinea, was out and thereemergency would be considerable disruption small business which was prepared under the also guidance in the 1980s,that wassome largely activity. Special provisions had toofbeUNDRO introduced to ensure unsafe responsible forofthehistorical effective significance evacuation and lowpreserved. loss of life when major eruptions buildings were occurredAn in 1994. Evacuation from hazardis zones is generally in attractive featureaway of retrofitting that most of theeffective government’s saving lives. Theand evacuation map costs prepared for the of Salinas, which is construction maintenance are borne by city the property owner, although situated a low,encouragement narrow peninsula on thegiven. coastOne of Ecuador (UNDRO, 1990) littleon official has been reason for the relative underon the western coast of south isAmerica, one of the agencies most seismically employment of retrofitting that manyis government are unableactive to spend zones onpublic earth funds and much of direct the city is only a few metres property. above seaFurthermore, level and it any for the improvement of private vulnerable to tsunami flooding either from theabout northmeasures, or the south. If a may tsunami is difficult to disseminate information which not be is generated locally, evacuation time that before of the first tidal appropriate for allthe buildings, in terms are the botharrival understandable to the home waveowner is likely to be only technical 20-25 minutes so routes the method higher refuge yet sufficiently to insure that thetobest will bearea chosen haveand to correctly be well organized andthese understood. For those people unable installed. In circumstances, it will be that there to is areach case for this area the ill, the elderly and small children – several tall seismically resistant more–government commitment to retrofitting. With more technical and financial buildings will be used as refugesproperty for vertical migration. assistance, hazard-conscious owners could be helped to help themselves A problem arises because comprehensive emergency planning to major a far practical greater extent. is a long–term, costly exercise. It ties up facilities and people that are apparently doing nothing, other than waiting for an event that no one wants and many 3. Society Attentiveness believe will never happen. For example, in urban areas threatened by a severe Disasterimpact, attentiveness as the pre-arranged measures earthquake it maymay notbebedefined unreasonable to plan foremergency the emergency taken to minimize the loss of life and property damage following the onset of sheltering of up to 25 per cent of the community’s population. This requires a disaster. It involves the buildings detailed planning – and testing –ofoffood, the medical prompt and not only the location of usable but also the stockpiling efficient hazard threats. Once aalthough threat has beenmay identified, various supplies and responses sanitation toequipment. Therefore, there be a great groups of people and officials, interests, become official concern immediately after arepresenting disaster, thismany mooddifferent can soon evaporate, in the assembly and transfer of relevant information. Appropriate and involved there is usually little political will to fund and maintain the disaster plans. loss reducing measures, depending on the nature of the hazard, may include In recent years, some developed countries – such as the UK – have disbanded the of evacuation plans (often in response to an expectedonwarning theiractivation formal arrangements for national civil defence in favour of reliance the message), the provision of medical and resources the preparation of for emergency emergency coordination of more routineaid public housed, example,food andfire shelter, together with alerting the media and the public of the impending in the and police department. threat. understanding and cooperation are vital elements in the successful Public programmes proved successful in reducing deathsoffrom operationLong–term of any disaster plan. In have California there is a relatively long history hazards. Within hazard individual countries,Turner the degree attentiveness depends raising earthquake awareness. et. alof(1979) found usually that people on the arrangements, which have been made for civil defense. For example, were poorly prepared to handle the consequences of a damaging event. Most in the mission of little Emergency preparedness, that the emergency residents had done but acquire a workingCanada torch, a ensures battery –operated radio of the government Canada are in place ready to protect life and plans first aid supplies. More ofrecent evidence, basedand on are a survey following and property. In the USA, the federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) publicity about earthquake hazards in the San Francisco Bay area, suggests the leading responsibility the coordination and management all actions that,has when preparedness advice for is disseminated effectively, residentsofcan be

Earthquake Hazard Management

79

to protect the civilian population from a range of hazards. Such organizations are increasingly calling for a more proactive strategy. In Canada the official view is that a national risk reduction policy should be integrated-ed into the daily lives of all citizens (Emergency preparedness Canada, 1998). Effective attentiveness depends on a strong political will and the means to make such measures work. These commodities are less likely to be available in the LDCs but progress is taking place. For example, in India, cash-for-work schemes and feeding programmes have rendered all–out famine unheard of for about 20 years. The volcanic emergency plan for Rabaul, Papua New Guinea, which was prepared under the guidance of UNDRO in the 1980s, was largely responsible for the effective evacuation and low loss of life when major eruptions occurred in 1994. Evacuation away from hazard zones is generally effective in saving lives. The evacuation map prepared for the city of Salinas, which is situated on a low, narrow peninsula on the coast of Ecuador (UNDRO, 1990) on the western coast of south America, is one of the most seismically active zones on earth and much of the city is only a few metres above sea level and vulnerable to tsunami flooding either from the north or the south. If a tsunami is generated locally, the evacuation time before the arrival of the first tidal wave is likely to be only 20-25 minutes so routes to the higher refuge area have to be well organized and understood. For those people unable to reach this area – the ill, the elderly and small children – several tall seismically resistant buildings will be used as refuges for vertical migration. A major practical problem arises because comprehensive emergency planning is a long–term, costly exercise. It ties up facilities and people that are apparently doing nothing, other than waiting for an event that no one wants and many believe will never happen. For example, in urban areas threatened by a severe earthquake impact, it may not be unreasonable to plan for the emergency sheltering of up to 25 per cent of the community’s population. This requires not only the location of usable buildings but also the stockpiling of food, medical supplies and sanitation equipment. Therefore, although there may be a great official concern immediately after a disaster, this mood can soon evaporate, and there is usually little political will to fund and maintain the disaster plans. In recent years, some developed countries – such as the UK – have disbanded their formal arrangements for national civil defence in favour of reliance on the emergency coordination of more routine public resources housed, for example, in the fire and police department. Public understanding and cooperation are vital elements in the successful operation of any disaster plan. In California there is a relatively long history of raising earthquake hazard awareness. Turner et. al (1979) found that people were poorly prepared to handle the consequences of a damaging event. Most residents had done little but acquire a working torch, a battery –operated radio and first aid supplies. More recent evidence, based on a survey following publicity about earthquake hazards in the San Francisco Bay area, suggests that, when preparedness advice is disseminated effectively, residents can be

Earthquake Hazard Management

79

to protect the civilian population from a range of hazards. Such organizations are increasingly calling for a more proactive strategy. In Canada the official view is that a national risk reduction policy should be integrated-ed into the daily lives of all citizens (Emergency preparedness Canada, 1998). Effective attentiveness depends on a strong political will and the means to make such measures work. These commodities are less likely to be available in the LDCs but progress is taking place. For example, in India, cash-for-work schemes and feeding programmes have rendered all–out famine unheard of for about 20 years. The volcanic emergency plan for Rabaul, Papua New Guinea, which was prepared under the guidance of UNDRO in the 1980s, was largely responsible for the effective evacuation and low loss of life when major eruptions occurred in 1994. Evacuation away from hazard zones is generally effective in saving lives. The evacuation map prepared for the city of Salinas, which is situated on a low, narrow peninsula on the coast of Ecuador (UNDRO, 1990) on the western coast of south America, is one of the most seismically active zones on earth and much of the city is only a few metres above sea level and vulnerable to tsunami flooding either from the north or the south. If a tsunami is generated locally, the evacuation time before the arrival of the first tidal wave is likely to be only 20-25 minutes so routes to the higher refuge area have to be well organized and understood. For those people unable to reach this area – the ill, the elderly and small children – several tall seismically resistant buildings will be used as refuges for vertical migration. A major practical problem arises because comprehensive emergency planning is a long–term, costly exercise. It ties up facilities and people that are apparently doing nothing, other than waiting for an event that no one wants and many believe will never happen. For example, in urban areas threatened by a severe earthquake impact, it may not be unreasonable to plan for the emergency sheltering of up to 25 per cent of the community’s population. This requires not only the location of usable buildings but also the stockpiling of food, medical supplies and sanitation equipment. Therefore, although there may be a great official concern immediately after a disaster, this mood can soon evaporate, and there is usually little political will to fund and maintain the disaster plans. In recent years, some developed countries – such as the UK – have disbanded their formal arrangements for national civil defence in favour of reliance on the emergency coordination of more routine public resources housed, for example, in the fire and police department. Public understanding and cooperation are vital elements in the successful operation of any disaster plan. In California there is a relatively long history of raising earthquake hazard awareness. Turner et. al (1979) found that people were poorly prepared to handle the consequences of a damaging event. Most residents had done little but acquire a working torch, a battery –operated radio and first aid supplies. More recent evidence, based on a survey following publicity about earthquake hazards in the San Francisco Bay area, suggests that, when preparedness advice is disseminated effectively, residents can be

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much better prepared. Most of the people surveyed had stockpiled supplies, whist the proportion of those who took very specific steps, such as strapping water heaters to walls, bolting the house to the foundations and installing flexible piping to gas stoves, were encouragingly high given that many bay area residents live in apartments without individual water heaters or accessible foundations and cook on electric stoves (Militia and Darlington, 1995). Good educational programmes are necessary to ensure that widespread public support is available for hazard mitigation and that disaster experience is transferred from one society to another. Conceived awareness exercises may create panic so it is important that such programmers are suitably found in terms of social feasibility and have an understanding of the probable economical consequences of the mitigation measures recommended to the public. Recent experience suggests that carefully prepared advice needs to be distributed, both widely and often to the public through the media and other channels. All prepared-ness advice should come from an authoritative government agency and should be endorsed by well-known local officials and pubic figures. Each measure should be accompanied with a brief explanation, which justifies the recommended action and details of how it can best be implemented. Although community preparedness may appear a little more than applied common sense, there are many pitfalls, which prevent a less than adequate response. For example, once awareness begins to increase and people actively start to seek information; the responsible agencies may find it difficult to meet the demands for written material or for speakers to attend public meetings. Effective preparedness involves the home as well as public locations, such as schools, hospitals, offices and theatres. Pubic bodies and private sector corporations often have an opportunity to build awareness of environmental hazards into existing health and safety programmers but it is difficult to monitor the status of such initiatives within the home. This is rarely attempted, not least because of the resource implications. Over twenty years ago, Stratton (1979) emphasized the need to learn from past disasters. There was little attentiveness in drawing for the 1974 storm in which 65 lives were lost and most houses were rendered uninhabitable. The absence of local emergency shelters and the high risk of disease in this tropical environment led to the evacuation of 35,000 people and major problems, which have also been found in other disasters, included the breakdown of the normal communication systems, disputes between various emergency and relief organizations over priorities and responsibilities, lack of coordination in the distribution of relief goods and an under availability of trained medical and ambulance personnel. These difficulties can be reduced by pre-designating centralized control of the relief operation. It should also be recognized that basic services such as roads, water supplies or telephones, are unlikely to be fully available and a wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at risk, as this type of team in India is known by

80

Disaster Management

much better prepared. Most of the people surveyed had stockpiled supplies, whist the proportion of those who took very specific steps, such as strapping water heaters to walls, bolting the house to the foundations and installing flexible piping to gas stoves, were encouragingly high given that many bay area residents live in apartments without individual water heaters or accessible foundations and cook on electric stoves (Militia and Darlington, 1995). Good educational programmes are necessary to ensure that widespread public support is available for hazard mitigation and that disaster experience is transferred from one society to another. Conceived awareness exercises may create panic so it is important that such programmers are suitably found in terms of social feasibility and have an understanding of the probable economical consequences of the mitigation measures recommended to the public. Recent experience suggests that carefully prepared advice needs to be distributed, both widely and often to the public through the media and other channels. All prepared-ness advice should come from an authoritative government agency and should be endorsed by well-known local officials and pubic figures. Each measure should be accompanied with a brief explanation, which justifies the recommended action and details of how it can best be implemented. Although community preparedness may appear a little more than applied common sense, there are many pitfalls, which prevent a less than adequate response. For example, once awareness begins to increase and people actively start to seek information; the responsible agencies may find it difficult to meet the demands for written material or for speakers to attend public meetings. Effective preparedness involves the home as well as public locations, such as schools, hospitals, offices and theatres. Pubic bodies and private sector corporations often have an opportunity to build awareness of environmental hazards into existing health and safety programmers but it is difficult to monitor the status of such initiatives within the home. This is rarely attempted, not least because of the resource implications. Over twenty years ago, Stratton (1979) emphasized the need to learn from past disasters. There was little attentiveness in drawing for the 1974 storm in which 65 lives were lost and most houses were rendered uninhabitable. The absence of local emergency shelters and the high risk of disease in this tropical environment led to the evacuation of 35,000 people and major problems, which have also been found in other disasters, included the breakdown of the normal communication systems, disputes between various emergency and relief organizations over priorities and responsibilities, lack of coordination in the distribution of relief goods and an under availability of trained medical and ambulance personnel. These difficulties can be reduced by pre-designating centralized control of the relief operation. It should also be recognized that basic services such as roads, water supplies or telephones, are unlikely to be fully available and a wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at risk, as this type of team in India is known by

80

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

81

much Defence better prepared. Most of thesquads. people During surveyed stockpiled the Civil and Home Gourd’s thehad Civil Defence supplies, and whist the training proportion of those who tookknowledge very specific steps, such self-help as strapping Home Gourd programme, practical of appropriate water heatersasto first walls,aid, bolting theand house to theand foundations and etc. installing flexible techniques-such search rescue fire-fighting are been piping to encouragingly high given that many bay area residents introduced to gas the stoves, defencewere cadets. live in apartments without individual water heaters or accessible foundations and cook on electric stoves (Militia and Darlington, 1995). 4. Worldwide Attentiveness Good educational programmes are necessary to ensure that widespread public One support of the main challenges disaster prevention to implement effective is is available for in hazard mitigation andis that disaster experience attentiveness schemes in thesociety developing nations Conceived through a sensitive understanding transferred from one to another. awareness exercises may of the different socio-cultural settings which prevail and the leading responsibility create panic so it is important that such programmers are suitably found in for this is of taken by feasibility UNDRO in by a of variety of government terms social andGeneva, have ansupported understanding the probable economical agencies and NGOs. Formitigation example,measures in Britain, the Overseas Development consequences of the recommended to the public. Recent Administration (ODA) has maintained a Disaster Unit since 1974, offersboth experience suggests that carefully prepared advice needs to be which distributed, government aid for bothto natural and man-made disasters theother LDC channels. s and for All widely and often the public through the media inand natural disasters in advice the MDCs. Several specialist rescue and prepared-ness should comecountries from an maintain authoritative government agency reliefand groups to UNDRO who can local be provided equipment andEach shouldpledged be endorsed by well-known officials with and pubic figures. transport when disaster strikes. For example, Oxford maintains which an emergency measure should be accompanied with a brief explanation, justifies the storerecommended with cooking action equipment and material for constructing temporary shelters. and details of how it can best be implemented. The success of such arrangements depends may on UNDRO an effective Although community preparedness appear aacting little as more than applied link common between sense, the donors and recipients of aid. UNDRO needs to a there are many pitfalls, which prevent a less maintain than adequate register of available expertise also needs specific information form actively the response. For example, onceand awareness begins to increase and people victim nation about exactly what is required in order avoid mismatched start to seek information; the aid responsible agencies maytofind it difficult to meet donations. Regularfor regional training programmers are held the staff involved the demands written material or for speakers to for attend public meetings. at designated Disaster Preparedness Centres Effective preparedness involves the homeworldwide. as well as public locations, such as Much disaster planning is based military Pubic lines. This stems a view schools, hospitals, offices and on theatres. bodies andfrom private sector that corporations disaster reliefoften is similar to running a battle, and great stress is laid on have an opportunity to build awareness of environmental aspects suchinto as existing communications, logistics and security. are clearly hazards health and safety programmers but itThese is difficult to monitor important requirements but the ‘command control’ model, the status of such initiatives within theand home. This is rarelyrepresented attempted, by notaleast topdown, rigidly because of thecontrolled resource organization, implications. is not always appropriate, especially for the LDCs. External military forces may be seen as enacting foreign policyfrom Over twenty years ago, Stratton (1979) emphasized the need to learn on behalf of distant ‘colonial’ powers, giving the confrontation past disasters. There was little attentiveness in dangers drawing of fora the 1974 storm in withwhich either 65 the lives national or aidhouses agencies striving to beuninhabitable. neutral. Poor The weregovernment lost and most were rendered people are often suspicious of military forces, which may not be absence of local emergency shelters and the high risk of disease completely in this tropical sensitive in operating camps orof dealing women and children. environment led torefugee the evacuation 35,000 with people and major problems, which On other hand, specialized of military assistance – such as havethealso been found in other forms disasters, included the breakdown ofairlifted the normal reliefcommunication supplies – can systems, be of great value. This happened, for emergency example, when disputes between various and in relief Aprilorganizations 1991 the US over Defence Department deployed assetslack positioned in the Indian priorities and responsibilities, of coordination in the Ocean at the time the Gulf relief supplies, repair damaged distribution of of relief goodsWar andtoantransport under availability of trained medical and roadsambulance and provide purified water for cyclone victims in Bangladesh. One of the personnel. These difficulties can be reduced by pre-designating traditional deficiencies support has been that it was short- that centralized control ofofmilitary the relief operation. It should alsoinevitably be recognized livedbasic because it was from ongoing defence duties. It are would be anto be services suchdiverted as roads, water supplies or telephones, unlikely imaginative step if disaster became a more permanent function of fully available and a relief wider work practical knowledge of appropriate self-help western military capability, without trainingand in relief work, the best be techniques-such as firstbut, aid, searchformal and rescue fire-fighting–should role promoted for the armed services is still likely bethis in atype support capacity for is theknown civil by within communities at risk,toas of team in India authority or the NGOs.

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much Defence better prepared. Most of thesquads. people During surveyed stockpiled the Civil and Home Gourd’s thehad Civil Defence supplies, and whist the training proportion of those who tookknowledge very specific steps, such self-help as strapping Home Gourd programme, practical of appropriate water heatersasto first walls,aid, bolting theand house to theand foundations and etc. installing flexible techniques-such search rescue fire-fighting are been piping to encouragingly high given that many bay area residents introduced to gas the stoves, defencewere cadets. live in apartments without individual water heaters or accessible foundations and cook on electric stoves (Militia and Darlington, 1995). 4. Worldwide Attentiveness Good educational programmes are necessary to ensure that widespread public One support of the main challenges disaster prevention to implement effective is is available for in hazard mitigation andis that disaster experience attentiveness schemes in thesociety developing nations Conceived through a sensitive understanding transferred from one to another. awareness exercises may of the different socio-cultural settings which prevail and the leading responsibility create panic so it is important that such programmers are suitably found in for this is of taken by feasibility UNDRO in by a of variety of government terms social andGeneva, have ansupported understanding the probable economical agencies and NGOs. Formitigation example,measures in Britain, the Overseas Development consequences of the recommended to the public. Recent Administration (ODA) has maintained a Disaster Unit since 1974, which offersboth experience suggests that carefully prepared advice needs to be distributed, government aid for both natural and man-made disasters in the LDC s and for All widely and often to the public through the media and other channels. natural disasters in advice the MDCs. Several specialist rescue and prepared-ness should comecountries from an maintain authoritative government agency reliefand groups to UNDRO who can local be provided equipment andEach shouldpledged be endorsed by well-known officials with and pubic figures. transport when disaster strikes. For example, Oxford maintains which an emergency measure should be accompanied with a brief explanation, justifies the storerecommended with cooking action equipment and material shelters. and details of howforit constructing can best be temporary implemented. The success of such arrangements depends may on UNDRO an effective Although community preparedness appear aacting little as more than applied link common between sense, the donors and recipients of aid. UNDRO needs to maintain a there are many pitfalls, which prevent a less than adequate register of available expertise and also needs specific information form the response. For example, once awareness begins to increase and people actively victim nation about exactly what is required in order avoid mismatched start to seek information; the aid responsible agencies maytofind it difficult to meet donations. Regularfor regional training programmers are held the staff involved the demands written material or for speakers to for attend public meetings. at designated Disaster Preparedness Centres Effective preparedness involves the homeworldwide. as well as public locations, such as Much disaster planning is based military Pubic lines. This stems a view schools, hospitals, offices and on theatres. bodies andfrom private sector that corporations disaster reliefoften is similar to running a battle, and great stress is laid on have an opportunity to build awareness of environmental aspects suchinto as existing communications, logistics and security. are clearly hazards health and safety programmers but itThese is difficult to monitor important requirements but the ‘command and control’ model, represented the status of such initiatives within the home. This is rarely attempted, by notaleast topdown, rigidly because of thecontrolled resource organization, implications. is not always appropriate, especially for the LDCs. External military forces may be seen as enacting foreign policyfrom Over twenty years ago, Stratton (1979) emphasized the need to learn on behalf of distant ‘colonial’ powers, giving the confrontation past disasters. There was little attentiveness in dangers drawing of fora the 1974 storm in withwhich either 65 the lives national or aidhouses agencies striving to beuninhabitable. neutral. Poor The weregovernment lost and most were rendered people are often suspicious of military forces, which may not be absence of local emergency shelters and the high risk of disease completely in this tropical sensitive in operating camps orof dealing women and children. environment led torefugee the evacuation 35,000 with people and major problems, which On other hand, specialized of military assistance – such as havethealso been found in other forms disasters, included the breakdown ofairlifted the normal reliefcommunication supplies – can systems, be of great value. This happened, for emergency example, when disputes between various and in relief Aprilorganizations 1991 the US over Defence Department deployed assetslack positioned in the Indian priorities and responsibilities, of coordination in the Ocean at the time the Gulf relief supplies, repair damaged distribution of of relief goodsWar andtoantransport under availability of trained medical and roadsambulance and provide purified water cyclone victims Bangladesh. One of the personnel. Thesefor difficulties can bein reduced by pre-designating traditional deficiencies support has been that it was short- that centralized control ofofmilitary the relief operation. It should alsoinevitably be recognized livedbasic because it was diverted from ongoing defence duties. It would be services such as roads, water supplies or telephones, are unlikelyanto be imaginative step if disaster became a more permanent function of fully available and a relief wider work practical knowledge of appropriate self-help western military capability, without trainingand in relief work, the best be techniques-such as firstbut, aid, searchformal and rescue fire-fighting–should role promoted for the armed services is still likely bethis in atype support capacity for is theknown civil by within communities at risk,toas of team in India authority or the NGOs.

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the Civil and Home Gourd’s thehad Civil Defence supplies, and much Defence better prepared. Most of thesquads. people During surveyed stockpiled Home Gourd programme, practical of appropriate whist the training proportion of those who tookknowledge very specific steps, such self-help as strapping techniques-such search rescue fire-fighting are been water heatersasto first walls,aid, bolting theand house to theand foundations and etc. installing flexible introduced to gas the stoves, defencewere cadets. piping to encouragingly high given that many bay area residents live in apartments without individual water heaters or accessible foundations and cook on electric stoves (Militia and Darlington, 1995). 4. Worldwide Attentiveness Good educational programmes are necessary to ensure that widespread public One support of the main challenges disaster prevention to implement effective is is available for in hazard mitigation andis that disaster experience attentiveness schemes in thesociety developing nations Conceived through a sensitive understanding transferred from one to another. awareness exercises may of the different socio-cultural settings which prevail and the leading responsibility create panic so it is important that such programmers are suitably found in for this is of taken by feasibility UNDRO in by a of variety of government terms social andGeneva, have ansupported understanding the probable economical agencies and NGOs. Formitigation example,measures in Britain, the Overseas Development consequences of the recommended to the public. Recent Administration (ODA) has maintained a Disaster Unit since 1974, offersboth experience suggests that carefully prepared advice needs to be which distributed, government aid for bothto natural and man-made disasters theother LDC channels. s and for All widely and often the public through the media inand natural disasters in advice the MDCs. Several specialist rescue and prepared-ness should comecountries from an maintain authoritative government agency reliefand groups to UNDRO who can local be provided equipment andEach shouldpledged be endorsed by well-known officials with and pubic figures. transport when disaster strikes. For example, Oxford maintains which an emergency measure should be accompanied with a brief explanation, justifies the storerecommended with cooking action equipment and material for constructing temporary shelters. and details of how it can best be implemented. The success of such arrangements depends may on UNDRO an effective Although community preparedness appear aacting little as more than applied link common between sense, the donors and recipients of aid. UNDRO needs to a there are many pitfalls, which prevent a less maintain than adequate register of available expertise also needs specific information form actively the response. For example, onceand awareness begins to increase and people victim nation about exactly what is required in order avoid mismatched start to seek information; the aid responsible agencies maytofind it difficult to meet donations. Regularfor regional training programmers are held the staff involved the demands written material or for speakers to for attend public meetings. at designated Disaster Preparedness Centres Effective preparedness involves the homeworldwide. as well as public locations, such as Much disaster planning is based military Pubic lines. This stems a view schools, hospitals, offices and on theatres. bodies andfrom private sector that corporations disaster reliefoften is similar to running a battle, and great stress is laid on have an opportunity to build awareness of environmental aspects suchinto as existing communications, logistics and security. are clearly hazards health and safety programmers but itThese is difficult to monitor important requirements but the ‘command control’ model, the status of such initiatives within theand home. This is rarelyrepresented attempted, by notaleast topdown, rigidly because of thecontrolled resource organization, implications. is not always appropriate, especially for the LDCs. External military forces may be seen as enacting foreign policyfrom Over twenty years ago, Stratton (1979) emphasized the need to learn on behalf of distant ‘colonial’ powers, giving the confrontation past disasters. There was little attentiveness in dangers drawing of fora the 1974 storm in withwhich either 65 the lives national or aidhouses agencies striving to beuninhabitable. neutral. Poor The weregovernment lost and most were rendered people are often suspicious of military forces, which may not be absence of local emergency shelters and the high risk of disease completely in this tropical sensitive in operating camps orof dealing women and children. environment led torefugee the evacuation 35,000 with people and major problems, which On thealso other hand, specialized of military assistance – such as have been found in other forms disasters, included the breakdown ofairlifted the normal reliefcommunication supplies – can systems, be of great value. This happened, for emergency example, when disputes between various and in relief Aprilorganizations 1991 the US over Defence Department deployed assetslack positioned in the Indian priorities and responsibilities, of coordination in the Ocean at the time the Gulf relief supplies, repair damaged distribution of of relief goodsWar andtoantransport under availability of trained medical and roadsambulance and provide purified water for cyclone victims in Bangladesh. One of the personnel. These difficulties can be reduced by pre-designating traditional deficiencies support has been that it was short- that centralized control ofofmilitary the relief operation. It should alsoinevitably be recognized livedbasic because it was from ongoing defence duties. It are would be anto be services suchdiverted as roads, water supplies or telephones, unlikely imaginative step if disaster became a more permanent function of fully available and a relief wider work practical knowledge of appropriate self-help western military capability, without trainingand in relief work, the best be techniques-such as firstbut, aid, searchformal and rescue fire-fighting–should role promoted for the armed services is still likely bethis in atype support capacity for is theknown civil by within communities at risk,toas of team in India authority or the NGOs.

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the Civil Defence and Home Gourd’s squads. During the Civil Defence and Home Gourd training programme, practical knowledge of appropriate self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting etc. are been introduced to the defence cadets. 4. Worldwide Attentiveness One of the main challenges in disaster prevention is to implement effective attentiveness schemes in the developing nations through a sensitive understanding of the different socio-cultural settings which prevail and the leading responsibility for this is taken by UNDRO in Geneva, supported by a variety of government agencies and NGOs. For example, in Britain, the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) has maintained a Disaster Unit since 1974, which offers government aid for both natural and man-made disasters in the LDC s and for natural disasters in the MDCs. Several countries maintain specialist rescue and relief groups pledged to UNDRO who can be provided with equipment and transport when disaster strikes. For example, Oxford maintains an emergency store with cooking equipment and material for constructing temporary shelters. The success of such arrangements depends on UNDRO acting as an effective link between the donors and recipients of aid. UNDRO needs to maintain a register of available expertise and also needs specific information form the victim nation about exactly what aid is required in order to avoid mismatched donations. Regular regional training programmers are held for the staff involved at designated Disaster Preparedness Centres worldwide. Much disaster planning is based on military lines. This stems from a view that disaster relief is similar to running a battle, and great stress is laid on aspects such as communications, logistics and security. These are clearly important requirements but the ‘command and control’ model, represented by a topdown, rigidly controlled organization, is not always appropriate, especially for the LDCs. External military forces may be seen as enacting foreign policy on behalf of distant ‘colonial’ powers, giving the dangers of a confrontation with either the national government or aid agencies striving to be neutral. Poor people are often suspicious of military forces, which may not be completely sensitive in operating refugee camps or dealing with women and children. On the other hand, specialized forms of military assistance – such as airlifted relief supplies – can be of great value. This happened, for example, when in April 1991 the US Defence Department deployed assets positioned in the Indian Ocean at the time of the Gulf War to transport relief supplies, repair damaged roads and provide purified water for cyclone victims in Bangladesh. One of the traditional deficiencies of military support has been that it was inevitably shortlived because it was diverted from ongoing defence duties. It would be an imaginative step if disaster relief work became a more permanent function of western military capability, but, without formal training in relief work, the best role for the armed services is still likely to be in a support capacity for the civil authority or the NGOs.

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the Civil and Home Gourd’s thehad Civil Defence supplies, and much Defence better prepared. Most of thesquads. people During surveyed stockpiled Home Gourd programme, practical of appropriate whist the training proportion of those who tookknowledge very specific steps, such self-help as strapping techniques-such search rescue fire-fighting are been water heatersasto first walls,aid, bolting theand house to theand foundations and etc. installing flexible introduced to gas the stoves, defencewere cadets. piping to encouragingly high given that many bay area residents live in apartments without individual water heaters or accessible foundations and cook on electric stoves (Militia and Darlington, 1995). 4. Worldwide Attentiveness Good educational programmes are necessary to ensure that widespread public One support of the main challenges disaster prevention to implement effective is is available for in hazard mitigation andis that disaster experience attentiveness schemes in thesociety developing nations Conceived through a sensitive understanding transferred from one to another. awareness exercises may of the different socio-cultural settings which prevail and the leading responsibility create panic so it is important that such programmers are suitably found in for this is of taken by feasibility UNDRO in by a of variety of government terms social andGeneva, have ansupported understanding the probable economical agencies and NGOs. Formitigation example,measures in Britain, the Overseas Development consequences of the recommended to the public. Recent Administration (ODA) has maintained a Disaster Unit since 1974, which offersboth experience suggests that carefully prepared advice needs to be distributed, government aid for both natural and man-made disasters in the LDC s and for All widely and often to the public through the media and other channels. natural disasters in advice the MDCs. Several specialist rescue and prepared-ness should comecountries from an maintain authoritative government agency reliefand groups to UNDRO who can local be provided equipment andEach shouldpledged be endorsed by well-known officials with and pubic figures. transport when disaster strikes. For example, Oxford maintains which an emergency measure should be accompanied with a brief explanation, justifies the storerecommended with cooking action equipment and material shelters. and details of howforit constructing can best be temporary implemented. The success of such arrangements depends may on UNDRO an effective Although community preparedness appear aacting little as more than applied link common between sense, the donors and recipients of aid. UNDRO needs to maintain a there are many pitfalls, which prevent a less than adequate register of available expertise and also needs specific information form the response. For example, once awareness begins to increase and people actively victim nation about exactly what is required in order avoid mismatched start to seek information; the aid responsible agencies maytofind it difficult to meet donations. Regularfor regional training programmers are held the staff involved the demands written material or for speakers to for attend public meetings. at designated Disaster Preparedness Centres Effective preparedness involves the homeworldwide. as well as public locations, such as Much disaster planning is based military Pubic lines. This stems a view schools, hospitals, offices and on theatres. bodies andfrom private sector that corporations disaster reliefoften is similar to running a battle, and great stress is laid on have an opportunity to build awareness of environmental aspects suchinto as existing communications, logistics and security. are clearly hazards health and safety programmers but itThese is difficult to monitor important requirements but the ‘command and control’ model, represented the status of such initiatives within the home. This is rarely attempted, by notaleast topdown, rigidly because of thecontrolled resource organization, implications. is not always appropriate, especially for the LDCs. External military forces may be seen as enacting foreign policyfrom Over twenty years ago, Stratton (1979) emphasized the need to learn on behalf of distant ‘colonial’ powers, giving the confrontation past disasters. There was little attentiveness in dangers drawing of fora the 1974 storm in withwhich either 65 the lives national or aidhouses agencies striving to beuninhabitable. neutral. Poor The weregovernment lost and most were rendered people are often suspicious of military forces, which may not be absence of local emergency shelters and the high risk of disease completely in this tropical sensitive in operating camps orof dealing women and children. environment led torefugee the evacuation 35,000 with people and major problems, which On thealso other hand, specialized of military assistance – such as have been found in other forms disasters, included the breakdown ofairlifted the normal reliefcommunication supplies – can systems, be of great value. This happened, for emergency example, when disputes between various and in relief Aprilorganizations 1991 the US over Defence Department deployed assetslack positioned in the Indian priorities and responsibilities, of coordination in the Ocean at the time the Gulf relief supplies, repair damaged distribution of of relief goodsWar andtoantransport under availability of trained medical and roadsambulance and provide purified water cyclone victims Bangladesh. One of the personnel. Thesefor difficulties can bein reduced by pre-designating traditional deficiencies support has been that it was short- that centralized control ofofmilitary the relief operation. It should alsoinevitably be recognized livedbasic because it was diverted from ongoing defence duties. It would be services such as roads, water supplies or telephones, are unlikelyanto be imaginative step if disaster became a more permanent function of fully available and a relief wider work practical knowledge of appropriate self-help western military capability, without trainingand in relief work, the best be techniques-such as firstbut, aid, searchformal and rescue fire-fighting–should role promoted for the armed services is still likely bethis in atype support capacity for is theknown civil by within communities at risk,toas of team in India authority or the NGOs.

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the Civil Defence and Home Gourd’s squads. During the Civil Defence and Home Gourd training programme, practical knowledge of appropriate self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting etc. are been introduced to the defence cadets. 4. Worldwide Attentiveness One of the main challenges in disaster prevention is to implement effective attentiveness schemes in the developing nations through a sensitive understanding of the different socio-cultural settings which prevail and the leading responsibility for this is taken by UNDRO in Geneva, supported by a variety of government agencies and NGOs. For example, in Britain, the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) has maintained a Disaster Unit since 1974, which offers government aid for both natural and man-made disasters in the LDC s and for natural disasters in the MDCs. Several countries maintain specialist rescue and relief groups pledged to UNDRO who can be provided with equipment and transport when disaster strikes. For example, Oxford maintains an emergency store with cooking equipment and material for constructing temporary shelters. The success of such arrangements depends on UNDRO acting as an effective link between the donors and recipients of aid. UNDRO needs to maintain a register of available expertise and also needs specific information form the victim nation about exactly what aid is required in order to avoid mismatched donations. Regular regional training programmers are held for the staff involved at designated Disaster Preparedness Centres worldwide. Much disaster planning is based on military lines. This stems from a view that disaster relief is similar to running a battle, and great stress is laid on aspects such as communications, logistics and security. These are clearly important requirements but the ‘command and control’ model, represented by a topdown, rigidly controlled organization, is not always appropriate, especially for the LDCs. External military forces may be seen as enacting foreign policy on behalf of distant ‘colonial’ powers, giving the dangers of a confrontation with either the national government or aid agencies striving to be neutral. Poor people are often suspicious of military forces, which may not be completely sensitive in operating refugee camps or dealing with women and children. On the other hand, specialized forms of military assistance – such as airlifted relief supplies – can be of great value. This happened, for example, when in April 1991 the US Defence Department deployed assets positioned in the Indian Ocean at the time of the Gulf War to transport relief supplies, repair damaged roads and provide purified water for cyclone victims in Bangladesh. One of the traditional deficiencies of military support has been that it was inevitably shortlived because it was diverted from ongoing defence duties. It would be an imaginative step if disaster relief work became a more permanent function of western military capability, but, without formal training in relief work, the best role for the armed services is still likely to be in a support capacity for the civil authority or the NGOs.

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Beyond the technical aspects of delivering emergency aid, preparedness programmers should seek to encourage more local awareness of disaster prevention and relief. Local governments have the best access to the information needed to determine their own priorities and to manage their own environment. Workshops, pamphlets, brochures, videos and other materials are important tools to create high levels of knowledge among the threatened population. With a greater commitment to self-help and a greater reliance on local initiatives, preparedness plans could ensure a faster and more efficient reaction to disaster events, especially in the LDCs. 5. Forecasting and Warning Forecasting and warning systems (FWS) have become important due to scientific advances. For example, in weather forecasting, with the associated improvements in communications and information technology such as satellites. Most warnings of a future environmental hazard are based on forecasts but some threats, notably earthquakes and droughts, are insufficiently understood for forecasts to be routinely issued, so reliance on warnings has to be placed on prediction, forecasts and warnings. Predictions are largely based on statistical theory and use the historical record of past events to estimate the future probability of similar events. Because the results are often expressed in terms of average probability, there is no precise indication of when any particular event may occur. Some hazard predictions tend to be relatively long-term. For earthquakes they may extend to several decades ahead and it is not usually possible to specify the location or the magnitude of the event with much precision. Forecasts depend on the detection and evaluation of an individual event as it evolves through a sequence of reasonably well-understood environmental processes. The ease with which such individual events can be monitored is often possible because we can specify the timing, location and likely magnitude of an impending hazard strike. Forecasts are scientific statements and normally do not offer we can advice as to how people should respond. They tend to be short-term. Indeed, contrary to predictions, the limited leading in time for issuing forecasts often restricts the effectiveness of warnings. Warnings are messages, which advise the public at risk about an impending hazard and what steps should be taken to minimize losses. All warnings are based on weather predictions or forecasts but for many agencies, such as those involved with national weather services, very few of the routine forecasts are followed by warnings. Combined forecasting and warning systems (FWSs) are especially useful against the rapid-onset hazards where short-term action, often involving evacuation, can avert disaster. The greatest success has been achieved with atmospheric and hydrologic hazards to the extent that much of the reduced death toll from natural hazards in the MDCs can be attributed to improved

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Beyond the technical aspects of delivering emergency aid, preparedness programmers should seek to encourage more local awareness of disaster prevention and relief. Local governments have the best access to the information needed to determine their own priorities and to manage their own environment. Workshops, pamphlets, brochures, videos and other materials are important tools to create high levels of knowledge among the threatened population. With a greater commitment to self-help and a greater reliance on local initiatives, preparedness plans could ensure a faster and more efficient reaction to disaster events, especially in the LDCs. 5. Forecasting and Warning Forecasting and warning systems (FWS) have become important due to scientific advances. For example, in weather forecasting, with the associated improvements in communications and information technology such as satellites. Most warnings of a future environmental hazard are based on forecasts but some threats, notably earthquakes and droughts, are insufficiently understood for forecasts to be routinely issued, so reliance on warnings has to be placed on prediction, forecasts and warnings. Predictions are largely based on statistical theory and use the historical record of past events to estimate the future probability of similar events. Because the results are often expressed in terms of average probability, there is no precise indication of when any particular event may occur. Some hazard predictions tend to be relatively long-term. For earthquakes they may extend to several decades ahead and it is not usually possible to specify the location or the magnitude of the event with much precision. Forecasts depend on the detection and evaluation of an individual event as it evolves through a sequence of reasonably well-understood environmental processes. The ease with which such individual events can be monitored is often possible because we can specify the timing, location and likely magnitude of an impending hazard strike. Forecasts are scientific statements and normally do not offer we can advice as to how people should respond. They tend to be short-term. Indeed, contrary to predictions, the limited leading in time for issuing forecasts often restricts the effectiveness of warnings. Warnings are messages, which advise the public at risk about an impending hazard and what steps should be taken to minimize losses. All warnings are based on weather predictions or forecasts but for many agencies, such as those involved with national weather services, very few of the routine forecasts are followed by warnings. Combined forecasting and warning systems (FWSs) are especially useful against the rapid-onset hazards where short-term action, often involving evacuation, can avert disaster. The greatest success has been achieved with atmospheric and hydrologic hazards to the extent that much of the reduced death toll from natural hazards in the MDCs can be attributed to improved

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thewarning technical aspects of emergency aid, preparedness hurricaneBeyond and flood procedures. Ondelivering the other hand, some social changes programmers should seek to encourage awareness of disaster – such as the growth of international tourismmore placeslocal increasing numbers of prevention relief. Local governments have the best access to the people at risk onand hurricane-prone beaches, avalanche-prone ski slopes andinformation floodneeded to determine ownsuggested priorities that and the to manage own is environment. prone riverbanks. Drabektheir (1995) tourismtheir industry poorly Workshops, brochures, videos in andterms otherofmaterials are important prepared to meetpamphlets, this challenge, especially emergency evaluationtools to create high levels of knowledge among the threatened population. With a planning. Drought and tectonic hazard remain difficult to forecast, although a greater local initiatives, somegreater successcommitment is possible. to Forself-help example,and based on earlyreliance warningonindicators, the preparedness could ensureand a faster and more efficient to disaster Philippine Instituteplans of Volcanology Seismology advised the reaction government to events, especially in the LDCs. radius of Mt Pantaloon before the volcanic evacuate residents within a 20-mile eruptions of June 1991. Although hundreds of people were killed, over 10,000 homes destroyed and some US$ 260 million-worth of damage occurred, a further 5. Forecasting and Warning 80,000 people were saved together with an estimated 1 million US$ loss in Forecasting and warning systems (FWS) have become important due to scientific USA. advances. For example, in weather forecasting, with the associated improvements in communications and information technology such as satellites. Most warnings Forecasting and warnings tend to consist of a number of sequential and of a future environmental hazard are based on forecasts but some threats, notably interrelated stages. These are: earthquakes and droughts, are insufficiently understood for forecasts to be routinely issued, sothe reliance on warnings hasphase to bewhen placed on prediction, forecasts (1) Threat recognition preliminary planning a decision is taken to and warnings. fund, plan and establish a Forecasting and Warning. To be effective such Predictions largely exposed based onamong statistical theory andat use schemes need toare be widely the community risk the and historical then record with of past events to estimate the future of similar events. Because tested mock disaster exercises before probability a major hazard appears. Ideally, the resultsform are often expressed in terms average probability, in there no precise feedback this experience leads to of design improvements theissystem. indication of when any particular event occur. Some hazard predictions Other revisions should occur as a result of may hindsight reviews. tend to evaluation be relatively long-term. Forsub-steps, earthquakes they may observes extend tofirst several (2) Hazard includes several from trained decades ahead and it is notchange usuallythat possible specify the location detecting an environmental could to cause a threat, through or to the magnitude the of the event estimating nature andwith scalemuch of theprecision. hazard, and finally deciding to issue a Forecasts on the detection The and task evaluation of an individual event as warning to an depend endangered community. of evacuation is a technical it evolves which throughis aentrusted sequencetoofa reasonably operation, specialized well-understood agency such as aenvironmental national processes. Theorease with which events canforbecontinuous monitored is meteorological geological service.such This individual is because of the need often possible we cannetworks specify the timing, andinvestment likely magnitude monitoring by because comprehensive backed up location with heavy in of an impending hazard strike. Forecasts are scientific statements and normally scientific equipment and personnel. The priority at this stage is to improve the do not offer weforecasts can advice as increase to how the people shouldbetween respond. accuracy of the and to lead-time theThey issuetend of theto be short-term. contrary to predictions, theTolimited leading in time for warning andIndeed, the onset of the hazardous event. complete the process, andissuing to forecasts oftenconfidence, restricts the effectiveness of warnings. retain public stand-down messages should be issued when the Warnings are messages, which advise the public at risk about an impending emergency is over. hazard and what stepsoccurs shouldwhen be taken to minimize All warnings (3) Warning dissemination the warning messagelosses. is transmitted form are based on weather oroccupants. forecasts The but for manyisagencies, such as those the forecasters to thepredictions hazard zone message likely to be formula involved with national services, very of the routine forecasts tied and conveyed by a weather third party through an few intermediate medium which are followed by warnings. may involve different communication methods, such as radio or television, forecasting andaswarning systems (FWSs) are especially useful and Combined different personnel, such the police or neighbours. Again, the stage against the rapid-onset hazards short-term action, or often involving contains several components, such aswhere the content of the message the way in evacuation, can avertwhich disaster. The greatest has been achieved with which it is conveyed, are known to affectsuccess the eventual outcome. atmospheric response and hydrologic hazards the loss-reducing extent that much of the (4) Community is the key phase to where actions, suchreduced as death tollprotection from natural hazards inare thetaken, MDCs can be attributed to scale. improved property and evacuation, sometimes on a massive

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thewarning technical aspects of emergency aid, preparedness hurricaneBeyond and flood procedures. Ondelivering the other hand, some social changes programmers should seek to encourage awareness of disaster – such as the growth of international tourismmore placeslocal increasing numbers of prevention relief. Local governments have the best access to the people at risk onand hurricane-prone beaches, avalanche-prone ski slopes andinformation floodneeded to determine ownsuggested priorities that and the to manage own is environment. prone riverbanks. Drabektheir (1995) tourismtheir industry poorly Workshops, brochures, videos in andterms otherofmaterials are important prepared to meetpamphlets, this challenge, especially emergency evaluationtools to create high levels of knowledge among the threatened population. With a planning. Drought and tectonic hazard remain difficult to forecast, although a greater local initiatives, somegreater successcommitment is possible. to Forself-help example,and based on earlyreliance warningonindicators, the preparedness could ensureand a faster and more efficient to disaster Philippine Instituteplans of Volcanology Seismology advised the reaction government to events, especially in the LDCs. radius of Mt Pantaloon before the volcanic evacuate residents within a 20-mile eruptions of June 1991. Although hundreds of people were killed, over 10,000 homes destroyed and some US$ 260 million-worth of damage occurred, a further 5. Forecasting and Warning 80,000 people were saved together with an estimated 1 million US$ loss in Forecasting and warning systems (FWS) have become important due to scientific USA. advances. For example, in weather forecasting, with the associated improvements in communications and information technology such as satellites. Most warnings Forecasting and warnings tend to consist of a number of sequential and of a future environmental hazard are based on forecasts but some threats, notably interrelated stages. These are: earthquakes and droughts, are insufficiently understood for forecasts to be routinely issued, sothe reliance on warnings hasphase to bewhen placed on prediction, forecasts (1) Threat recognition preliminary planning a decision is taken to and warnings. fund, plan and establish a Forecasting and Warning. To be effective such Predictions largely exposed based onamong statistical theory andat use schemes need toare be widely the community risk the and historical then record with of past events to estimate the future of similar events. Because tested mock disaster exercises before probability a major hazard appears. Ideally, the resultsform are often expressed in terms average probability, in there no precise feedback this experience leads to of design improvements theissystem. indication of when any particular event occur. Some hazard predictions Other revisions should occur as a result of may hindsight reviews. tend to evaluation be relatively long-term. Forsub-steps, earthquakes they may observes extend tofirst several (2) Hazard includes several from trained decades ahead and it is notchange usuallythat possible specify the location detecting an environmental could to cause a threat, through or to the magnitude the of the event estimating nature andwith scalemuch of theprecision. hazard, and finally deciding to issue a Forecasts on the detection The and task evaluation of an individual event as warning to an depend endangered community. of evacuation is a technical it evolves which throughis aentrusted sequencetoofa reasonably operation, specialized well-understood agency such as aenvironmental national processes. Theorease with which events canforbecontinuous monitored is meteorological geological service.such This individual is because of the need often possible we cannetworks specify the timing, andinvestment likely magnitude monitoring by because comprehensive backed up location with heavy in of an impending hazard strike. Forecasts are scientific statements and normally scientific equipment and personnel. The priority at this stage is to improve the do not offer weforecasts can advice as increase to how the people shouldbetween respond. accuracy of the and to lead-time theThey issuetend of theto be short-term. contrary to predictions, theTolimited leading in time for warning andIndeed, the onset of the hazardous event. complete the process, andissuing to forecasts oftenconfidence, restricts the effectiveness of warnings. retain public stand-down messages should be issued when the Warnings are messages, which advise the public at risk about an impending emergency is over. hazard and what stepsoccurs shouldwhen be taken to minimize All warnings (3) Warning dissemination the warning messagelosses. is transmitted form are based on weather oroccupants. forecasts The but for manyisagencies, such as those the forecasters to thepredictions hazard zone message likely to be formula involved with national services, very of the routine forecasts tied and conveyed by a weather third party through an few intermediate medium which are followed by warnings. may involve different communication methods, such as radio or television, forecasting andaswarning systems (FWSs) are especially useful and Combined different personnel, such the police or neighbours. Again, the stage against the rapid-onset hazards short-term action, or often involving contains several components, such aswhere the content of the message the way in evacuation, can avertwhich disaster. The greatest has been achieved with which it is conveyed, are known to affectsuccess the eventual outcome. atmospheric response and hydrologic hazards the loss-reducing extent that much of the (4) Community is the key phase to where actions, suchreduced as death tollprotection from natural hazards inare thetaken, MDCs can be attributed to scale. improved property and evacuation, sometimes on a massive

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hurricaneBeyond and flood procedures. Ondelivering the other hand, some social changes thewarning technical aspects of emergency aid, preparedness – such as the growth of international tourismmore placeslocal increasing numbers of programmers should seek to encourage awareness of disaster people at risk onand hurricane-prone beaches, avalanche-prone ski slopes andinformation floodprevention relief. Local governments have the best access to the prone riverbanks. Drabektheir (1995) tourismtheir industry poorly needed to determine ownsuggested priorities that and the to manage own is environment. prepared to meetpamphlets, this challenge, especially emergency evaluationtools Workshops, brochures, videos in andterms otherofmaterials are important planning. Drought and tectonic hazard remain difficult to forecast, although to create high levels of knowledge among the threatened population. With a somegreater successcommitment is possible. to Forself-help example,and based on earlyreliance warningonindicators, the a greater local initiatives, Philippine Instituteplans of Volcanology Seismology advised the reaction government to preparedness could ensureand a faster and more efficient to disaster evacuate residents within a 20-mile events, especially in the LDCs. radius of Mt Pantaloon before the volcanic eruptions of June 1991. Although hundreds of people were killed, over 10,000 homes destroyed and some US$ 260 million-worth of damage occurred, a further 5. Forecasting and Warning 80,000 people were saved together with an estimated 1 million US$ loss in Forecasting and warning systems (FWS) have become important due to scientific USA. advances. For example, in weather forecasting, with the associated improvements in communications and information technology such as satellites. Most warnings Forecasting and warnings tend to consist of a number of sequential and of a future environmental hazard are based on forecasts but some threats, notably interrelated stages. These are: earthquakes and droughts, are insufficiently understood for forecasts to be (1) Threat recognition preliminary planning a decision is taken to routinely issued, sothe reliance on warnings hasphase to bewhen placed on prediction, forecasts fund, plan and establish a Forecasting and Warning. To be effective such and warnings. schemes need toare be widely the community risk the and historical then Predictions largely exposed based onamong statistical theory andat use tested mock disaster exercises before probability a major hazard appears. Ideally, record with of past events to estimate the future of similar events. Because feedback this experience leads to of design improvements theissystem. the resultsform are often expressed in terms average probability, in there no precise Other revisions should occur as a result of may hindsight reviews. indication of when any particular event occur. Some hazard predictions (2) Hazard includes several from trained tend to evaluation be relatively long-term. Forsub-steps, earthquakes they may observes extend tofirst several detecting an environmental could to cause a threat, through or to the decades ahead and it is notchange usuallythat possible specify the location estimating nature andwith scalemuch of theprecision. hazard, and finally deciding to issue a magnitude the of the event warning to an depend endangered community. of evacuation is a technical Forecasts on the detection The and task evaluation of an individual event as operation, specialized well-understood agency such as aenvironmental national it evolves which throughis aentrusted sequencetoofa reasonably meteorological geological service.such This individual is because of the need processes. Theorease with which events canforbecontinuous monitored is monitoring by because comprehensive backed up location with heavy in often possible we cannetworks specify the timing, andinvestment likely magnitude scientific equipment and personnel. The priority at this stage is to improve the of an impending hazard strike. Forecasts are scientific statements and normally accuracy of the and to lead-time theThey issuetend of theto be do not offer weforecasts can advice as increase to how the people shouldbetween respond. warning andIndeed, the onset of the hazardous event. complete the process, andissuing to short-term. contrary to predictions, theTolimited leading in time for retain public stand-down messages should be issued when the forecasts oftenconfidence, restricts the effectiveness of warnings. emergency is over. Warnings are messages, which advise the public at risk about an impending (3) Warning dissemination the warning messagelosses. is transmitted form are hazard and what stepsoccurs shouldwhen be taken to minimize All warnings the forecasters to thepredictions hazard zone message likely to be formula based on weather oroccupants. forecasts The but for manyisagencies, such as those tied and conveyed by a weather third party through an few intermediate medium which are involved with national services, very of the routine forecasts may involve different communication methods, such as radio or television, followed by warnings. and Combined different personnel, such the police or neighbours. Again, the stage forecasting andaswarning systems (FWSs) are especially useful contains several components, such aswhere the content of the message the way in against the rapid-onset hazards short-term action, or often involving which it is conveyed, are known to affectsuccess the eventual outcome. evacuation, can avertwhich disaster. The greatest has been achieved with (4) Community is the key phase to where actions, suchreduced as atmospheric response and hydrologic hazards the loss-reducing extent that much of the property and evacuation, sometimes on a massive death tollprotection from natural hazards inare thetaken, MDCs can be attributed to scale. improved

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Earthquake Hazard Management

83

hurricaneBeyond and flood procedures. Ondelivering the other hand, some social changes thewarning technical aspects of emergency aid, preparedness – such as the growth of international tourismmore placeslocal increasing numbers of programmers should seek to encourage awareness of disaster people at risk onand hurricane-prone beaches, avalanche-prone ski slopes andinformation floodprevention relief. Local governments have the best access to the prone riverbanks. Drabektheir (1995) tourismtheir industry poorly needed to determine ownsuggested priorities that and the to manage own is environment. prepared to meetpamphlets, this challenge, especially emergency evaluationtools Workshops, brochures, videos in andterms otherofmaterials are important planning. Drought and tectonic hazard remain difficult to forecast, although to create high levels of knowledge among the threatened population. With a somegreater successcommitment is possible. to Forself-help example,and based on earlyreliance warningonindicators, the a greater local initiatives, Philippine Instituteplans of Volcanology Seismology advised the reaction government to preparedness could ensureand a faster and more efficient to disaster evacuate residents within a 20-mile events, especially in the LDCs. radius of Mt Pantaloon before the volcanic eruptions of June 1991. Although hundreds of people were killed, over 10,000 homes destroyed and some US$ 260 million-worth of damage occurred, a further 5. Forecasting and Warning 80,000 people were saved together with an estimated 1 million US$ loss in Forecasting and warning systems (FWS) have become important due to scientific USA. advances. For example, in weather forecasting, with the associated improvements in communications and information technology such as satellites. Most warnings Forecasting and warnings tend to consist of a number of sequential and of a future environmental hazard are based on forecasts but some threats, notably interrelated stages. These are: earthquakes and droughts, are insufficiently understood for forecasts to be (1) Threat recognition preliminary planning a decision is taken to routinely issued, sothe reliance on warnings hasphase to bewhen placed on prediction, forecasts fund, plan and establish a Forecasting and Warning. To be effective such and warnings. schemes need toare be widely the community risk the and historical then Predictions largely exposed based onamong statistical theory andat use tested mock disaster exercises before probability a major hazard appears. Ideally, record with of past events to estimate the future of similar events. Because feedback this experience leads to of design improvements theissystem. the resultsform are often expressed in terms average probability, in there no precise Other revisions should occur as a result of may hindsight reviews. indication of when any particular event occur. Some hazard predictions (2) Hazard includes several from trained tend to evaluation be relatively long-term. Forsub-steps, earthquakes they may observes extend tofirst several detecting an environmental could to cause a threat, through or to the decades ahead and it is notchange usuallythat possible specify the location estimating nature andwith scalemuch of theprecision. hazard, and finally deciding to issue a magnitude the of the event warning to an depend endangered community. of evacuation is a technical Forecasts on the detection The and task evaluation of an individual event as operation, specialized well-understood agency such as aenvironmental national it evolves which throughis aentrusted sequencetoofa reasonably meteorological geological service.such This individual is because of the need processes. Theorease with which events canforbecontinuous monitored is monitoring by because comprehensive backed up location with heavy in often possible we cannetworks specify the timing, andinvestment likely magnitude scientific equipment and personnel. The priority at this stage is to improve the of an impending hazard strike. Forecasts are scientific statements and normally accuracy of the and to lead-time theThey issuetend of theto be do not offer weforecasts can advice as increase to how the people shouldbetween respond. warning andIndeed, the onset of the hazardous event. complete the process, andissuing to short-term. contrary to predictions, theTolimited leading in time for retain public stand-down messages should be issued when the forecasts oftenconfidence, restricts the effectiveness of warnings. emergency is over. Warnings are messages, which advise the public at risk about an impending (3) Warning dissemination the warning messagelosses. is transmitted form are hazard and what stepsoccurs shouldwhen be taken to minimize All warnings the forecasters to thepredictions hazard zone message likely to be formula based on weather oroccupants. forecasts The but for manyisagencies, such as those tied and conveyed by a weather third party through an few intermediate medium which are involved with national services, very of the routine forecasts may involve different communication methods, such as radio or television, followed by warnings. and Combined different personnel, such the police or neighbours. Again, the stage forecasting andaswarning systems (FWSs) are especially useful contains several components, such aswhere the content of the message the way in against the rapid-onset hazards short-term action, or often involving which it is conveyed, are known to affectsuccess the eventual outcome. evacuation, can avertwhich disaster. The greatest has been achieved with (4) Community is the key phase to where actions, suchreduced as atmospheric response and hydrologic hazards the loss-reducing extent that much of the property and evacuation, sometimes on a massive death tollprotection from natural hazards inare thetaken, MDCs can be attributed to scale. improved

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hurricane and flood warning procedures. On the other hand, some social changes – such as the growth of international tourism places increasing numbers of people at risk on hurricane-prone beaches, avalanche-prone ski slopes and floodprone riverbanks. Drabek (1995) suggested that the tourism industry is poorly prepared to meet this challenge, especially in terms of emergency evaluation planning. Drought and tectonic hazard remain difficult to forecast, although some success is possible. For example, based on early warning indicators, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology advised the government to evacuate residents within a 20-mile radius of Mt Pantaloon before the volcanic eruptions of June 1991. Although hundreds of people were killed, over 10,000 homes destroyed and some US$ 260 million-worth of damage occurred, a further 80,000 people were saved together with an estimated 1 million US$ loss in USA. Forecasting and warnings tend to consist of a number of sequential and interrelated stages. These are: (1) Threat recognition the preliminary planning phase when a decision is taken to fund, plan and establish a Forecasting and Warning. To be effective such schemes need to be widely exposed among the community at risk and then tested with mock disaster exercises before a major hazard appears. Ideally, feedback form this experience leads to design improvements in the system. Other revisions should occur as a result of hindsight reviews. (2) Hazard evaluation includes several sub-steps, from trained observes first detecting an environmental change that could cause a threat, through to estimating the nature and scale of the hazard, and finally deciding to issue a warning to an endangered community. The task of evacuation is a technical operation, which is entrusted to a specialized agency such as a national meteorological or geological service. This is because of the need for continuous monitoring by comprehensive networks backed up with heavy investment in scientific equipment and personnel. The priority at this stage is to improve the accuracy of the forecasts and to increase the lead-time between the issue of the warning and the onset of the hazardous event. To complete the process, and to retain public confidence, stand-down messages should be issued when the emergency is over. (3) Warning dissemination occurs when the warning message is transmitted form the forecasters to the hazard zone occupants. The message is likely to be formula tied and conveyed by a third party through an intermediate medium which may involve different communication methods, such as radio or television, and different personnel, such as the police or neighbours. Again, the stage contains several components, such as the content of the message or the way in which it is conveyed, which are known to affect the eventual outcome. (4) Community response is the key phase where loss-reducing actions, such as property protection and evacuation, are taken, sometimes on a massive scale.

Earthquake Hazard Management

83

hurricane and flood warning procedures. On the other hand, some social changes – such as the growth of international tourism places increasing numbers of people at risk on hurricane-prone beaches, avalanche-prone ski slopes and floodprone riverbanks. Drabek (1995) suggested that the tourism industry is poorly prepared to meet this challenge, especially in terms of emergency evaluation planning. Drought and tectonic hazard remain difficult to forecast, although some success is possible. For example, based on early warning indicators, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology advised the government to evacuate residents within a 20-mile radius of Mt Pantaloon before the volcanic eruptions of June 1991. Although hundreds of people were killed, over 10,000 homes destroyed and some US$ 260 million-worth of damage occurred, a further 80,000 people were saved together with an estimated 1 million US$ loss in USA. Forecasting and warnings tend to consist of a number of sequential and interrelated stages. These are: (1) Threat recognition the preliminary planning phase when a decision is taken to fund, plan and establish a Forecasting and Warning. To be effective such schemes need to be widely exposed among the community at risk and then tested with mock disaster exercises before a major hazard appears. Ideally, feedback form this experience leads to design improvements in the system. Other revisions should occur as a result of hindsight reviews. (2) Hazard evaluation includes several sub-steps, from trained observes first detecting an environmental change that could cause a threat, through to estimating the nature and scale of the hazard, and finally deciding to issue a warning to an endangered community. The task of evacuation is a technical operation, which is entrusted to a specialized agency such as a national meteorological or geological service. This is because of the need for continuous monitoring by comprehensive networks backed up with heavy investment in scientific equipment and personnel. The priority at this stage is to improve the accuracy of the forecasts and to increase the lead-time between the issue of the warning and the onset of the hazardous event. To complete the process, and to retain public confidence, stand-down messages should be issued when the emergency is over. (3) Warning dissemination occurs when the warning message is transmitted form the forecasters to the hazard zone occupants. The message is likely to be formula tied and conveyed by a third party through an intermediate medium which may involve different communication methods, such as radio or television, and different personnel, such as the police or neighbours. Again, the stage contains several components, such as the content of the message or the way in which it is conveyed, which are known to affect the eventual outcome. (4) Community response is the key phase where loss-reducing actions, such as property protection and evacuation, are taken, sometimes on a massive scale.

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It has been observed that the response may be influenced directly through an input based on the public’s own knowledge of the evolving hazard and various feedback mechanisms can help to improve later editions of the warning. However, the nature of the warning message and a range of factors, which bear on the recipient’s behavior, largely determine the response. The value of a Forecasting and Warning system depends on both the skill of the forecaster and the effective translation of the forecast into a warning. In other works, an understanding of the social setting is as important as the accuracy of the scientific information if the community responses are to achieve optimum loss reduction. Unfortunately, there has been a tendency for forecasting to become divorced form the remainder of the sequence because it relies so heavily on sophisticated equipment and complex modelling techniques. The decision to warn is crucial to the land. In marginal situations; forecasters have to make difficult decisions quickly. Problems of interpretation can occur at the interface between the evolution and dissemination stages where the transition from ‘forecast’ to ‘warning’ takes place. Less attention may be aided by a wish on the part of some agencies to avoid legal liability arising from the consequences of either defective forecasts or poor advice about damage-refusing actions. (5) The efficiency of hazard response is influenced by a number of factors, some procedural and some, which are due to the characteristics of both the message and its recipients. Tiered warnings, incorporating a ‘watch’ phase before the ‘warning’ phase, tend to avoid gross errors involving evaluation, but not all hazards, for example, earthquakes, are suitable for tiered warnings. Pre-planning should ensure that basic procedures are understood, such as the advance identification of the people and organizations to be warned. There should also be some alternative means available to distribute messages in adverse environmental conditions, which may include the loss of electrical power and communication systems. Preparedness programmes should also help hazard zone occupants to recognize the threat and to take suitable defensive actions, although there will always be some gap between what people are advised to do, what they say they will do and what they actually do in a stressful situation. (6) Feedback within the system, involving both an accuracy check on the forecasters and a response check on those being warned, is vital. This is because the onward transmission of the message may be unnecessarily delayed, or even halted, at various points by individual operators seeking confirmation of some aspect. This is most likely to happen with ambiguous messages like the Washington State Department of Emergency Services had before the eruption of Mount Saint Helens. Although released by an authoritative source, this message was not passed on to the community at risk because it lacked a sense of urgency, was not specific about the areas likely to be affected by ash fall and contained no guidance about precautionary actions which people were expected to take. It is now believed that effective warning messages should contain a moderate sense of urgency, estimate the time before impact and the scale of the event, and provide specific instructions for action, including the

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Disaster Management

It has been observed that the response may be influenced directly through an input based on the public’s own knowledge of the evolving hazard and various feedback mechanisms can help to improve later editions of the warning. However, the nature of the warning message and a range of factors, which bear on the recipient’s behavior, largely determine the response. The value of a Forecasting and Warning system depends on both the skill of the forecaster and the effective translation of the forecast into a warning. In other works, an understanding of the social setting is as important as the accuracy of the scientific information if the community responses are to achieve optimum loss reduction. Unfortunately, there has been a tendency for forecasting to become divorced form the remainder of the sequence because it relies so heavily on sophisticated equipment and complex modelling techniques. The decision to warn is crucial to the land. In marginal situations; forecasters have to make difficult decisions quickly. Problems of interpretation can occur at the interface between the evolution and dissemination stages where the transition from ‘forecast’ to ‘warning’ takes place. Less attention may be aided by a wish on the part of some agencies to avoid legal liability arising from the consequences of either defective forecasts or poor advice about damage-refusing actions. (5) The efficiency of hazard response is influenced by a number of factors, some procedural and some, which are due to the characteristics of both the message and its recipients. Tiered warnings, incorporating a ‘watch’ phase before the ‘warning’ phase, tend to avoid gross errors involving evaluation, but not all hazards, for example, earthquakes, are suitable for tiered warnings. Pre-planning should ensure that basic procedures are understood, such as the advance identification of the people and organizations to be warned. There should also be some alternative means available to distribute messages in adverse environmental conditions, which may include the loss of electrical power and communication systems. Preparedness programmes should also help hazard zone occupants to recognize the threat and to take suitable defensive actions, although there will always be some gap between what people are advised to do, what they say they will do and what they actually do in a stressful situation. (6) Feedback within the system, involving both an accuracy check on the forecasters and a response check on those being warned, is vital. This is because the onward transmission of the message may be unnecessarily delayed, or even halted, at various points by individual operators seeking confirmation of some aspect. This is most likely to happen with ambiguous messages like the Washington State Department of Emergency Services had before the eruption of Mount Saint Helens. Although released by an authoritative source, this message was not passed on to the community at risk because it lacked a sense of urgency, was not specific about the areas likely to be affected by ash fall and contained no guidance about precautionary actions which people were expected to take. It is now believed that effective warning messages should contain a moderate sense of urgency, estimate the time before impact and the scale of the event, and provide specific instructions for action, including the

84

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been observed the zone response may be influenced directly through an needIttohas stay clear of the that hazard (Grluntfest, 1987). Advice on present input basedconditions on the public’s own knowledge ofnext the evolving environmental and notice of when the warning hazard update and willvarious be feedback can help to improve later editions of the warning. issued are alsomechanisms helpful. However, the nature of the warning message a range of factors, which (7) Planning for effective warnings should start withand some knowledge of the bear onand thelikely recipient’s behavior, largely response. value of perception behaviour of those beingdetermine warned. Inthe turn, this willThe depend a Forecasting and Warning system depends both the media skill ofacts the as forecaster on the mode of warning. For the general public,onthe news the and source the effective translationabout of the forecast into a warning. In other works, an primary of information hazards and hazard warnings. However, of to thebesocial setting is as warning important as themore accuracy of the thereunderstanding is evidence that, effective, a hazard is much than the scientificof information the community responses are tonumber achieveofoptimum transmission a message if from a warning source to a large people. loss hasthe been a tendency forecasting Bothreduction. the mode Unfortunately, of warning, as there well as content of the for message, needstotobecome be divorcedFor form the remainder of the sequence because it relies so heavily considered. example, it is believed that the best warning messages are on equipment and complex modelling techniques. The decision thosesophisticated that make the content personally relevant to those who are expected to to warn crucial to the land. 1996). In marginal forecasters have to make act on theisinformation (Fisher, In thissituations; context, mass communication decisions quickly. of interpretation occur atdelivered the interface maydifficult not be the best means of Problems hazard dissimilation, andcan warnings between the people evolution and dissemination stages wherewarnings the transition directly by other are seen as more relevant. Although via thefrom ‘warning’ place. attention may be aided by aorwish mass‘forecast’ media aretolikely to betakes believed if Less issued by government officials an on the partorganization, of some agencies to avoid legal liability fromtothe consequences emergency the initial media message is arising more likely alert people offact either forecasts or rather poor advice about damage-refusing actions. to the thatdefective something is wrong than mobilize them to an immediate (5) The efficiency of hazard response is influenced by a number of factors, some response. proceduralofand which are due to the characteristics both the message (8) Confirmation thesome, first warning received by an individual isofalmost always andbefore its recipients. Tiered warnings, incorporating a ‘watch’ phase before sought any action is taken, hence the advantage of tiered warnings. For the ‘warning’ phase, tend gross involving evaluation, butthis not all example, confirmation maytobeavoid sought fromerrors neighbours or the police, and for example, of earthquakes, are message suitable for tiered warnings. Pre-planning meanhazards, that interpretation the warning normally takes place as a should ensure that basic procedures are understood, as the advance group response as opposed to that of an isolated individual. such Not surprisingly, of the people and organizations be warned. There should past identification experience with same hazard increases thetolevel or warning belief and also means available distribute messages in adverse therebeis some some alternative evidence that women are moretolikely than men to interpret a environmental conditions, which may include theare loss electrical power message as valid. Old and infirm people living alone lessoflikely to make an and communication Preparedness should also help hazard effective response to systems. hazard warning, either programmes in terms of protecting property or zone occupants to recognize theisthreat take suitable evacuating the premises, and there a needand fortospecial supportdefensive groups toactions, be there will sections always be some gap between what people are advised to madealthough available to such of the community. Often there is a reluctance do, whatThis they may say they will do and theyfails actually do in a this stressful situation. to evacuate. be because the what message to specify action, or (6) Feedback within the system, involving an accuracy check on theofforecasters because people feel that they can cope, orboth because they fear looting their andhouses. a response check those being natural warned,attachment is vital. This empty There is a on considerable to is thebecause home the onward transmission of the message be unnecessarily delayed, orineven environment and the strength of family tiesmay has been found to be significant various groups points by operators confirmation of some this halted, context.at Family areindividual much more likely seeking to evacuate than singleaspect. This isand most likely with ambiguous messages like the person households, often go totothehappen homes of relatives rather than to disaster Washington State Department of Emergency Services had before the eruption shelters. of Mount Saint Helens. Although released by an authoritative source, this message was not passed on to the community at risk because it lacked a sense 6. Regional Land Use Planning of urgency, was not specific about the areas likely to be affected by ash fall Regionaland Land use planning is a about comprehensive approach, contained no guidance precautionary actionswhich which seeks peopletowere interveneexpected in the process bybelieved hazard-prone land, initially in lowto take. Itwhere is now that effective warningheld messages should intensitycontain uses such as forestry or of agriculture, is converted intobefore higherimpact intensity a moderate sense urgency, estimate the time and the occupation. conversion unit landinstructions values andfortherefore leads to the scaleSuch of the event, andincreases provide specific action, including

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been observed the zone response may be influenced directly through an needIttohas stay clear of the that hazard (Grluntfest, 1987). Advice on present input basedconditions on the public’s own knowledge ofnext the evolving environmental and notice of when the warning hazard update and willvarious be feedback can help to improve later editions of the warning. issued are alsomechanisms helpful. However, the nature of the warning message a range of factors, which (7) Planning for effective warnings should start withand some knowledge of the bear onand thelikely recipient’s behavior, largely response. value of perception behaviour of those beingdetermine warned. Inthe turn, this willThe depend a Forecasting and Warning system depends both the media skill ofacts the as forecaster on the mode of warning. For the general public,onthe news the and source the effective translationabout of the forecast into a warning. In other works, an primary of information hazards and hazard warnings. However, of to thebesocial setting is as warning important as themore accuracy of the thereunderstanding is evidence that, effective, a hazard is much than the scientificof information the community responses are tonumber achieveofoptimum transmission a message if from a warning source to a large people. loss hasthe been a tendency forecasting Bothreduction. the mode Unfortunately, of warning, as there well as content of the for message, needstotobecome be divorcedFor form the remainder of the sequence because it relies so heavily considered. example, it is believed that the best warning messages are on equipment and complex modelling techniques. The decision thosesophisticated that make the content personally relevant to those who are expected to to warn crucial to the land. 1996). In marginal forecasters have to make act on theisinformation (Fisher, In thissituations; context, mass communication decisions quickly. of interpretation occur atdelivered the interface maydifficult not be the best means of Problems hazard dissimilation, andcan warnings between the people evolution and dissemination stages wherewarnings the transition directly by other are seen as more relevant. Although via thefrom ‘warning’ place. attention may be aided by aorwish mass‘forecast’ media aretolikely to betakes believed if Less issued by government officials an on the partorganization, of some agencies to avoid legal liability fromtothe consequences emergency the initial media message is arising more likely alert people offact either forecasts or rather poor advice about damage-refusing actions. to the thatdefective something is wrong than mobilize them to an immediate (5) The efficiency of hazard response is influenced by a number of factors, some response. proceduralofand which are due to the characteristics both the message (8) Confirmation thesome, first warning received by an individual isofalmost always andbefore its recipients. Tiered warnings, incorporating a ‘watch’ phase before sought any action is taken, hence the advantage of tiered warnings. For the ‘warning’ phase, tend gross involving evaluation, butthis not all example, confirmation maytobeavoid sought fromerrors neighbours or the police, and for example, of earthquakes, are message suitable for tiered warnings. Pre-planning meanhazards, that interpretation the warning normally takes place as a should ensure that basic procedures are understood, as the advance group response as opposed to that of an isolated individual. such Not surprisingly, of the people and organizations be warned. There should past identification experience with same hazard increases thetolevel or warning belief and also means available distribute messages in adverse therebeis some some alternative evidence that women are moretolikely than men to interpret a environmental conditions, which may include theare loss electrical power message as valid. Old and infirm people living alone lessoflikely to make an and communication Preparedness should also help hazard effective response to systems. hazard warning, either programmes in terms of protecting property or zone occupants to recognize theisthreat take suitable evacuating the premises, and there a needand fortospecial supportdefensive groups toactions, be there will sections always be some gap between what people are advised to madealthough available to such of the community. Often there is a reluctance do, whatThis they may say they will do and theyfails actually do in a this stressful situation. to evacuate. be because the what message to specify action, or (6) Feedback within the system, involving an accuracy check on theofforecasters because people feel that they can cope, orboth because they fear looting their andhouses. a response check those being natural warned,attachment is vital. This empty There is a on considerable to is thebecause home the onward transmission of the message be unnecessarily delayed, orineven environment and the strength of family tiesmay has been found to be significant various groups points by operators confirmation of some this halted, context.at Family areindividual much more likely seeking to evacuate than singleaspect. This isand most likely with ambiguous messages like the person households, often go totothehappen homes of relatives rather than to disaster Washington State Department of Emergency Services had before the eruption shelters. of Mount Saint Helens. Although released by an authoritative source, this message was not passed on to the community at risk because it lacked a sense 6. Regional Land Use Planning of urgency, was not specific about the areas likely to be affected by ash fall Regionaland Land use planning is a about comprehensive approach, contained no guidance precautionary actionswhich which seeks peopletowere interveneexpected in the process bybelieved hazard-prone land, initially in lowto take. Itwhere is now that effective warningheld messages should intensitycontain uses such as forestry or of agriculture, is converted intobefore higherimpact intensity a moderate sense urgency, estimate the time and the occupation. conversion unit landinstructions values andfortherefore leads to the scaleSuch of the event, andincreases provide specific action, including

84

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Earthquake Hazard Management

85

needIttohas stay clear of the that hazard (Grluntfest, 1987). Advice on present been observed the zone response may be influenced directly through an environmental and notice of when the warning hazard update and willvarious be input basedconditions on the public’s own knowledge ofnext the evolving issued are alsomechanisms helpful. feedback can help to improve later editions of the warning. (7) Planning for effective warnings should start withand some knowledge of the However, the nature of the warning message a range of factors, which perception behaviour of those beingdetermine warned. Inthe turn, this willThe depend bear onand thelikely recipient’s behavior, largely response. value of on the mode of warning. For the general public,onthe news the a Forecasting and Warning system depends both the media skill ofacts the as forecaster primary of information hazards and hazard warnings. However, and source the effective translationabout of the forecast into a warning. In other works, an thereunderstanding is evidence that, effective, a hazard is much than the of to thebesocial setting is as warning important as themore accuracy of the transmission a message if from a warning source to a large people. loss scientificof information the community responses are tonumber achieveofoptimum Bothreduction. the mode Unfortunately, of warning, as there well as content of the for message, needstotobecome be hasthe been a tendency forecasting considered. example, it is believed that the best warning messages are on divorcedFor form the remainder of the sequence because it relies so heavily thosesophisticated that make the content personally relevant to those who are expected to to equipment and complex modelling techniques. The decision act on theisinformation (Fisher, In thissituations; context, mass communication warn crucial to the land. 1996). In marginal forecasters have to make maydifficult not be the best means of Problems hazard dissimilation, andcan warnings decisions quickly. of interpretation occur atdelivered the interface directly by other are seen as more relevant. Although via thefrom between the people evolution and dissemination stages wherewarnings the transition mass‘forecast’ media aretolikely to betakes believed if Less issued by government officials an on ‘warning’ place. attention may be aided by aorwish emergency the initial media message is arising more likely alert people the partorganization, of some agencies to avoid legal liability fromtothe consequences to the thatdefective something is wrong than mobilize them to an immediate offact either forecasts or rather poor advice about damage-refusing actions. response. (5) The efficiency of hazard response is influenced by a number of factors, some (8) Confirmation thesome, first warning received by an individual isofalmost always proceduralofand which are due to the characteristics both the message sought any action is taken, hence the advantage of tiered warnings. For the andbefore its recipients. Tiered warnings, incorporating a ‘watch’ phase before example, confirmation maytobeavoid sought fromerrors neighbours or the police, and ‘warning’ phase, tend gross involving evaluation, butthis not all meanhazards, that interpretation the warning normally takes place as a for example, of earthquakes, are message suitable for tiered warnings. Pre-planning group response as opposed to that of an isolated individual. such Not surprisingly, should ensure that basic procedures are understood, as the advance past identification experience with same hazard increases thetolevel or warning belief and also of the people and organizations be warned. There should therebeis some some alternative evidence that women are moretolikely than men to interpret a means available distribute messages in adverse message as valid. Old and infirm people living alone lessoflikely to make an and environmental conditions, which may include theare loss electrical power effective response to systems. hazard warning, either programmes in terms of protecting property or communication Preparedness should also help hazard evacuating the premises, and there a needand fortospecial supportdefensive groups toactions, be zone occupants to recognize theisthreat take suitable madealthough available to such of the community. Often there is a reluctance there will sections always be some gap between what people are advised to to evacuate. be because the what message to specify action, or do, whatThis they may say they will do and theyfails actually do in a this stressful situation. because people feel that they can cope, orboth because they fear looting their (6) Feedback within the system, involving an accuracy check on theofforecasters empty There is a on considerable to is thebecause home the andhouses. a response check those being natural warned,attachment is vital. This environment and the strength of family tiesmay has been found to be significant onward transmission of the message be unnecessarily delayed, orineven this halted, context.at Family areindividual much more likely seeking to evacuate than singlevarious groups points by operators confirmation of some person households, often go totothehappen homes of relatives rather than to disaster aspect. This isand most likely with ambiguous messages like the shelters. Washington State Department of Emergency Services had before the eruption of Mount Saint Helens. Although released by an authoritative source, this message was not passed on to the community at risk because it lacked a sense 6. Regional Land Use Planning of urgency, was not specific about the areas likely to be affected by ash fall Regionaland Land use planning is a about comprehensive approach, contained no guidance precautionary actionswhich which seeks peopletowere interveneexpected in the process bybelieved hazard-prone land, initially in lowto take. Itwhere is now that effective warningheld messages should intensitycontain uses such as forestry or of agriculture, is converted intobefore higherimpact intensity a moderate sense urgency, estimate the time and the occupation. conversion unit landinstructions values andfortherefore leads to the scaleSuch of the event, andincreases provide specific action, including

84

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Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

need to stay clear of the hazard zone (Grluntfest, 1987). Advice on present environmental conditions and notice of when the next warning update will be issued are also helpful. (7) Planning for effective warnings should start with some knowledge of the perception and likely behaviour of those being warned. In turn, this will depend on the mode of warning. For the general public, the news media acts as the primary source of information about hazards and hazard warnings. However, there is evidence that, to be effective, a hazard warning is much more than the transmission of a message from a warning source to a large number of people. Both the mode of warning, as well as the content of the message, needs to be considered. For example, it is believed that the best warning messages are those that make the content personally relevant to those who are expected to act on the information (Fisher, 1996). In this context, mass communication may not be the best means of hazard dissimilation, and warnings delivered directly by other people are seen as more relevant. Although warnings via the mass media are likely to be believed if issued by government officials or an emergency organization, the initial media message is more likely to alert people to the fact that something is wrong rather than mobilize them to an immediate response. (8) Confirmation of the first warning received by an individual is almost always sought before any action is taken, hence the advantage of tiered warnings. For example, confirmation may be sought from neighbours or the police, and this mean that interpretation of the warning message normally takes place as a group response as opposed to that of an isolated individual. Not surprisingly, past experience with the same hazard increases the level or warning belief and there is some evidence that women are more likely than men to interpret a message as valid. Old and infirm people living alone are less likely to make an effective response to hazard warning, either in terms of protecting property or evacuating the premises, and there is a need for special support groups to be made available to such sections of the community. Often there is a reluctance to evacuate. This may be because the message fails to specify this action, or because people feel that they can cope, or because they fear looting of their empty houses. There is a considerable natural attachment to the home environment and the strength of family ties has been found to be significant in this context. Family groups are much more likely to evacuate than singleperson households, and often go to the homes of relatives rather than to disaster shelters. 6. Regional Land Use Planning Regional Land use planning is a comprehensive approach, which seeks to intervene in the process where by hazard-prone land, initially held in lowintensity uses such as forestry or agriculture, is converted into higher intensity occupation. Such conversion increases unit land values and therefore leads to

85

needIttohas stay clear of the that hazard (Grluntfest, 1987). Advice on present been observed the zone response may be influenced directly through an environmental and notice of when the warning hazard update and willvarious be input basedconditions on the public’s own knowledge ofnext the evolving issued are alsomechanisms helpful. feedback can help to improve later editions of the warning. (7) Planning for effective warnings should start withand some knowledge of the However, the nature of the warning message a range of factors, which perception behaviour of those beingdetermine warned. Inthe turn, this willThe depend bear onand thelikely recipient’s behavior, largely response. value of on the mode of warning. For the general public,onthe news the a Forecasting and Warning system depends both the media skill ofacts the as forecaster primary of information hazards and hazard warnings. However, and source the effective translationabout of the forecast into a warning. In other works, an thereunderstanding is evidence that, effective, a hazard is much than the of to thebesocial setting is as warning important as themore accuracy of the transmission a message if from a warning source to a large people. loss scientificof information the community responses are tonumber achieveofoptimum Bothreduction. the mode Unfortunately, of warning, as there well as content of the for message, needstotobecome be hasthe been a tendency forecasting considered. example, it is believed that the best warning messages are on divorcedFor form the remainder of the sequence because it relies so heavily thosesophisticated that make the content personally relevant to those who are expected to to equipment and complex modelling techniques. The decision act on theisinformation (Fisher, In thissituations; context, mass communication warn crucial to the land. 1996). In marginal forecasters have to make maydifficult not be the best means of Problems hazard dissimilation, andcan warnings decisions quickly. of interpretation occur atdelivered the interface directly by other are seen as more relevant. Although via thefrom between the people evolution and dissemination stages wherewarnings the transition mass‘forecast’ media aretolikely to betakes believed if Less issued by government officials an on ‘warning’ place. attention may be aided by aorwish emergency the initial media message is arising more likely alert people the partorganization, of some agencies to avoid legal liability fromtothe consequences to the thatdefective something is wrong than mobilize them to an immediate offact either forecasts or rather poor advice about damage-refusing actions. response. (5) The efficiency of hazard response is influenced by a number of factors, some (8) Confirmation thesome, first warning received by an individual isofalmost always proceduralofand which are due to the characteristics both the message sought any action is taken, hence the advantage of tiered warnings. For the andbefore its recipients. Tiered warnings, incorporating a ‘watch’ phase before example, confirmation maytobeavoid sought fromerrors neighbours or the police, and ‘warning’ phase, tend gross involving evaluation, butthis not all meanhazards, that interpretation the warning normally takes place as a for example, of earthquakes, are message suitable for tiered warnings. Pre-planning group response as opposed to that of an isolated individual. such Not surprisingly, should ensure that basic procedures are understood, as the advance past identification experience with same hazard increases thetolevel or warning belief and also of the people and organizations be warned. There should therebeis some some alternative evidence that women are moretolikely than men to interpret a means available distribute messages in adverse message as valid. Old and infirm people living alone lessoflikely to make an and environmental conditions, which may include theare loss electrical power effective response to systems. hazard warning, either programmes in terms of protecting property or communication Preparedness should also help hazard evacuating the premises, and there a needand fortospecial supportdefensive groups toactions, be zone occupants to recognize theisthreat take suitable madealthough available to such of the community. Often there is a reluctance there will sections always be some gap between what people are advised to to evacuate. be because the what message to specify action, or do, whatThis they may say they will do and theyfails actually do in a this stressful situation. because people feel that they can cope, orboth because they fear looting their (6) Feedback within the system, involving an accuracy check on theofforecasters empty There is a on considerable to is thebecause home the andhouses. a response check those being natural warned,attachment is vital. This environment and the strength of family tiesmay has been found to be significant onward transmission of the message be unnecessarily delayed, orineven this halted, context.at Family areindividual much more likely seeking to evacuate than singlevarious groups points by operators confirmation of some person households, often go totothehappen homes of relatives rather than to disaster aspect. This isand most likely with ambiguous messages like the shelters. Washington State Department of Emergency Services had before the eruption of Mount Saint Helens. Although released by an authoritative source, this message was not passed on to the community at risk because it lacked a sense 6. Regional Land Use Planning of urgency, was not specific about the areas likely to be affected by ash fall Regionaland Land use planning is a about comprehensive approach, contained no guidance precautionary actionswhich which seeks peopletowere interveneexpected in the process bybelieved hazard-prone land, initially in lowto take. Itwhere is now that effective warningheld messages should intensitycontain uses such as forestry or of agriculture, is converted intobefore higherimpact intensity a moderate sense urgency, estimate the time and the occupation. conversion unit landinstructions values andfortherefore leads to the scaleSuch of the event, andincreases provide specific action, including

85

Earthquake Hazard Management

85

need to stay clear of the hazard zone (Grluntfest, 1987). Advice on present environmental conditions and notice of when the next warning update will be issued are also helpful. (7) Planning for effective warnings should start with some knowledge of the perception and likely behaviour of those being warned. In turn, this will depend on the mode of warning. For the general public, the news media acts as the primary source of information about hazards and hazard warnings. However, there is evidence that, to be effective, a hazard warning is much more than the transmission of a message from a warning source to a large number of people. Both the mode of warning, as well as the content of the message, needs to be considered. For example, it is believed that the best warning messages are those that make the content personally relevant to those who are expected to act on the information (Fisher, 1996). In this context, mass communication may not be the best means of hazard dissimilation, and warnings delivered directly by other people are seen as more relevant. Although warnings via the mass media are likely to be believed if issued by government officials or an emergency organization, the initial media message is more likely to alert people to the fact that something is wrong rather than mobilize them to an immediate response. (8) Confirmation of the first warning received by an individual is almost always sought before any action is taken, hence the advantage of tiered warnings. For example, confirmation may be sought from neighbours or the police, and this mean that interpretation of the warning message normally takes place as a group response as opposed to that of an isolated individual. Not surprisingly, past experience with the same hazard increases the level or warning belief and there is some evidence that women are more likely than men to interpret a message as valid. Old and infirm people living alone are less likely to make an effective response to hazard warning, either in terms of protecting property or evacuating the premises, and there is a need for special support groups to be made available to such sections of the community. Often there is a reluctance to evacuate. This may be because the message fails to specify this action, or because people feel that they can cope, or because they fear looting of their empty houses. There is a considerable natural attachment to the home environment and the strength of family ties has been found to be significant in this context. Family groups are much more likely to evacuate than singleperson households, and often go to the homes of relatives rather than to disaster shelters. 6. Regional Land Use Planning Regional Land use planning is a comprehensive approach, which seeks to intervene in the process where by hazard-prone land, initially held in lowintensity uses such as forestry or agriculture, is converted into higher intensity occupation. Such conversion increases unit land values and therefore leads to

86

Disaster Management

greater economic losses when disaster strikes. The increasing competition for land makes this strategy important. In the MDCs too there has been an accelerating trend towards the invasion of previously avoided hazard-prone areas. In part this has been due to urban growth, but more affluence and leisure time has led to the erection of second homes and recreational facilities in environments such as coasts and mountains, which are intrinsically hazardous. The main purpose of land planning is to guide new residential commercial and industrial development away form identified hazard zones, but this is not always possible. Therefore, this approach has an additional role to play in reducing losses in areas already occupied whilst it can also help to steer new development away from environmentally sensitive areas, such as wetlands, because hazardbased land management normally has to function as a planning device within communities that are already there. It frequently seeks to combine the beneficial use of known hazard-prone areas with a minimum of hazard loss and expenditure. It is undertaken mainly at the local government level and, because it is part of the overall political process, it requires broad community support. Land use planning deploys regulatory tools on a variety of scales; form regional planning through town zoning ordinances down to plot sub-divisions bylaws. Land use measures are most likely to be adopted if they are encouraged by the national government. The approach works most obviously by prohibiting new development in very high-hazard areas but it can also deploy measures, which are less likely to be opposed by local developers. For example, whilst low-density zoning might be imposed in order to limit the potential property losses in an area, the builder concerned might be compensated by the granting of a permit for much higher density development in the nearest area. More than any other method of loss reduction, land use planning depends for its success on the allied use of other hazard mitigation measures, sometimes of a structural nature. It is also true that the wide-ranging implications of this measure sometimes bring it into conflict with other community objectives. This is because, in the process of converting land to higher intensity uses, several powerful local groups with vested interests are involved. These range from the original land-owners, whose motive is often capital gain, to developers and builders, who are also driven by profit. Conflict arises from the fact that, although such land management is undertaken as a public sector policy, it must control private sector ‘rent seeking’ behaviour before it becomes effective. The main practical limitations on regional land use planning are: (1) Lack of knowledge about the location, recurrence interval and hazard potential of events, which might affect small parts of urban areas; (2) The presence of extensive existing development; (3) The relative infrequency of many hazardous events and the difficulty of maintaining society awareness about the need to avoid hazard-prone land; (4) The high costs of hazard mapping, including detailed inventories of existing land use, structures, occupancy levels, etc.; (5) Local resistance to land use controls on political or philosophical grounds (Beatley, 1988); (6) Profit-seeking processes which seek to pass the hazardrelated costs on to others.

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greater economic losses when disaster strikes. The increasing competition for land makes this strategy important. In the MDCs too there has been an accelerating trend towards the invasion of previously avoided hazard-prone areas. In part this has been due to urban growth, but more affluence and leisure time has led to the erection of second homes and recreational facilities in environments such as coasts and mountains, which are intrinsically hazardous. The main purpose of land planning is to guide new residential commercial and industrial development away form identified hazard zones, but this is not always possible. Therefore, this approach has an additional role to play in reducing losses in areas already occupied whilst it can also help to steer new development away from environmentally sensitive areas, such as wetlands, because hazardbased land management normally has to function as a planning device within communities that are already there. It frequently seeks to combine the beneficial use of known hazard-prone areas with a minimum of hazard loss and expenditure. It is undertaken mainly at the local government level and, because it is part of the overall political process, it requires broad community support. Land use planning deploys regulatory tools on a variety of scales; form regional planning through town zoning ordinances down to plot sub-divisions bylaws. Land use measures are most likely to be adopted if they are encouraged by the national government. The approach works most obviously by prohibiting new development in very high-hazard areas but it can also deploy measures, which are less likely to be opposed by local developers. For example, whilst low-density zoning might be imposed in order to limit the potential property losses in an area, the builder concerned might be compensated by the granting of a permit for much higher density development in the nearest area. More than any other method of loss reduction, land use planning depends for its success on the allied use of other hazard mitigation measures, sometimes of a structural nature. It is also true that the wide-ranging implications of this measure sometimes bring it into conflict with other community objectives. This is because, in the process of converting land to higher intensity uses, several powerful local groups with vested interests are involved. These range from the original land-owners, whose motive is often capital gain, to developers and builders, who are also driven by profit. Conflict arises from the fact that, although such land management is undertaken as a public sector policy, it must control private sector ‘rent seeking’ behaviour before it becomes effective. The main practical limitations on regional land use planning are: (1) Lack of knowledge about the location, recurrence interval and hazard potential of events, which might affect small parts of urban areas; (2) The presence of extensive existing development; (3) The relative infrequency of many hazardous events and the difficulty of maintaining society awareness about the need to avoid hazard-prone land; (4) The high costs of hazard mapping, including detailed inventories of existing land use, structures, occupancy levels, etc.; (5) Local resistance to land use controls on political or philosophical grounds (Beatley, 1988); (6) Profit-seeking processes which seek to pass the hazardrelated costs on to others.

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Earthquake Hazard Management

87

greater economic whenis disaster strikes. increasingthat competition Regional land uselosses planning most useful in The communities are still for land and makes this have strategy important.land. In the MDCs too there has been an growing which undeveloped Successful land management accelerating trend towards invasion of of information previously avoided hazard-prone areas. techniques also depend on the the availability with which to identify In part this has been due to urban growth, but moredelimited affluencehazard and leisure particularly hazardous locations. Indeed, the accurate zonestime has led because to the erection of second and on recreational facilities in environments are crucial the entire policyhomes is based the detailed recognition, and such as coasts and mountains, whichdegrees are intrinsically hazardous. the community acceptance, of different of risk, which, in turn, justify The main purpose of landdevelopment planning is controls. to guide new residential commercial the implementation of selective Ideally, variegation in industrial development hazard zones, but is not risk and should be identifiable down away to theform levelidentified of individual properties. For this many always possible. Therefore, approach has additionalisrole to play in reducing hazards, such as cyclones and this earthquakes, suchanprecision unattainable. The losses in areasisalready occupied whilst it can alsocontrolled help to steer new development greatest accuracy achieved with topographically hazards such as away from environmentally sensitive areas, such as wetlands, because hazardfloods, landslides and avalanches. based land management normally has to can function planning device within Micro-zonation, or regional planning, help astoa steer broad policy communities that areinalready there.map It frequently seeks risk to combine beneficial decisions. For example, a regional of the seismic in New the Zealand, usecould of known hazard-prone with apriority minimum of hazard loss and existing expenditure. there, be use to delineateareas national areas for retrofitting It is undertaken mainly atmeasures the localorgovernment level and, because it is part of buildings with anti-seismic for the introduction of anti-seismic the overall political process, it requires broad community building codes for new development. Micro-zonation works at support. the local planning Landit use planning deploys regulatory toolsand on building a varietylots. of scales; scale when deals with individual communities Zoningform regionalareplanning town plot tosub-divisions ordinances used to through implement the zoning regionalordinances plan. Theydown can betoused control bylaws. Land usethe measures areof most likely be adopted if they encouraged development through provision reports ontoaspects such as soils,are geological by the national The approach works mostand obviously by prohibiting conditions, grading government. specifications, drainage requirements landscape plans. new development in very areasarebut it canrequired also deploy measures, Relatively large-scale maps (at high-hazard least 1:10,1000 usually for zoning which are less areas, likely as to shown be opposed local developers. example, whilst in high-risk urban by thebyseismic survey for For Tokyo (Nakano zoningOther mightregulations be imposedcan in then orderbeto used limit for the more potential property and low-density Matsuda, 1944). detailed losses an area, the builder concerned mightforbepermission compensated by the granting analysis as inindividual applications are submitted to develop the permit for much higherFor density development in the nearest area. More landofat athe building plot level. example, subdivision regulations ensure thatthan any other method of loss reduction, use planning depends forwith its success the conditions under which land may be land subdivided are in conformity the on the allied use of other hazard mitigation measures, sometimes of a structural general plan. nature. Itmicro-zonation is also true that the wide-ranging this measure Seismic has been a goal in theimplications mitigation ofofhazards. It it into conflict with other community objectives. Thisdistance is because, maysometimes be used tobring restrict development behind some minimum set-back process of converting land to uses,that several powerful frominanthe active fault-line thus, the special riskhigher zone’sintensity act stipulates a structure groups withacross vestedthe interests These the original shalllocal not be located trace ofareaninvolved. active fault andrange that afrom uniform 50 whose is line oftenis capital gain, to developers and builders, foot land-owners, (15 m) set-back frommotive the fault normally required. If development is who zoning are alsocan driven by profit. Conflict the factdensity, that, although allowed, be used to maintain lowarises levelsfrom of building perhapssuch land management is undertaken as a publicorsector policy, it must private by requiring only large lots to be developed by dedicating areascontrol to opensector becomes effective. space uses,‘rent such seeking’ as parks behaviour or grazing.before Some ituses, such as industrial activity may The main limitations on regional land planning are: (1) Lack be propitiated. Thepractical weak structured buildings should beuse retrofitted. of knowledge about the location, recurrence interval and hazard potential of events, which might affect small parts of urban areas; (2) The presence of Trigger Mechanism Required for Disaster Management extensive existing development; (3) The relative infrequency of many hazardous 1. Evolve an effective signal /ofwarning mechanism events and the difficulty maintaining society awareness about the need to 2. Identify activities andland; their levels avoid hazard-prone (4) The high costs of hazard mapping, including 3. Identify eachland leveluse, of activities. detailed sub-activities inventories ofunder existing structures, occupancy levels, etc.; (5) 4. Specify authoritiestoforland eachuse levelcontrols of activities and sub-activities. Local resistance on political or philosophical grounds 5. Determine the response time for eachprocesses activity. which seek to pass the hazard(Beatley, 1988); (6) Profit-seeking related costs on to others.

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Earthquake Hazard Management

87

greater economic whenis disaster strikes. increasingthat competition Regional land uselosses planning most useful in The communities are still for land and makes this have strategy important.land. In the MDCs too there has been an growing which undeveloped Successful land management accelerating trend towards invasion of of information previously avoided hazard-prone areas. techniques also depend on the the availability with which to identify In part this has been due to urban growth, but moredelimited affluencehazard and leisure particularly hazardous locations. Indeed, the accurate zonestime has led because to the erection of second and on recreational facilities in environments are crucial the entire policyhomes is based the detailed recognition, and such as coasts and mountains, whichdegrees are intrinsically hazardous. the community acceptance, of different of risk, which, in turn, justify The main purpose of landdevelopment planning is controls. to guide new residential commercial the implementation of selective Ideally, variegation in industrial development hazard zones, but is not risk and should be identifiable down away to theform levelidentified of individual properties. For this many always possible. Therefore, approach has additionalisrole to play in reducing hazards, such as cyclones and this earthquakes, suchanprecision unattainable. The losses in areasisalready occupied whilst it can alsocontrolled help to steer new development greatest accuracy achieved with topographically hazards such as away from environmentally sensitive areas, such as wetlands, because hazardfloods, landslides and avalanches. based land management normally has to can function planning device within Micro-zonation, or regional planning, help astoa steer broad policy communities that areinalready there.map It frequently seeks risk to combine beneficial decisions. For example, a regional of the seismic in New the Zealand, usecould of known hazard-prone with apriority minimum of hazard loss and existing expenditure. there, be use to delineateareas national areas for retrofitting It is undertaken mainly atmeasures the localorgovernment level and, because it is part of buildings with anti-seismic for the introduction of anti-seismic the overall political process, it requires broad community building codes for new development. Micro-zonation works at support. the local planning Landit use planning deploys regulatory toolsand on building a varietylots. of scales; scale when deals with individual communities Zoningform regionalareplanning town plot tosub-divisions ordinances used to through implement the zoning regionalordinances plan. Theydown can betoused control bylaws. Land usethe measures areof most likely be adopted if they encouraged development through provision reports ontoaspects such as soils,are geological by the national The approach works mostand obviously by prohibiting conditions, grading government. specifications, drainage requirements landscape plans. new development in very areasarebut it canrequired also deploy measures, Relatively large-scale maps (at high-hazard least 1:10,1000 usually for zoning which are less areas, likely as to shown be opposed local developers. example, whilst in high-risk urban by thebyseismic survey for For Tokyo (Nakano zoningOther mightregulations be imposedcan in then orderbeto used limit for the more potential property and low-density Matsuda, 1944). detailed losses an area, the builder concerned mightforbepermission compensated by the granting analysis as inindividual applications are submitted to develop the permit for much higherFor density development in the nearest area. More landofat athe building plot level. example, subdivision regulations ensure thatthan any other method of loss reduction, use planning depends forwith its success the conditions under which land may be land subdivided are in conformity the on the allied use of other hazard mitigation measures, sometimes of a structural general plan. nature. Itmicro-zonation is also true that the wide-ranging this measure Seismic has been a goal in theimplications mitigation ofofhazards. It it into conflict with other community objectives. Thisdistance is because, maysometimes be used tobring restrict development behind some minimum set-back process of converting land to uses,that several powerful frominanthe active fault-line thus, the special riskhigher zone’sintensity act stipulates a structure groups withacross vestedthe interests These the original shalllocal not be located trace ofareaninvolved. active fault andrange that afrom uniform 50 whose is line oftenis capital gain, to developers and builders, foot land-owners, (15 m) set-back frommotive the fault normally required. If development is who zoning are alsocan driven by profit. Conflict the factdensity, that, although allowed, be used to maintain lowarises levelsfrom of building perhapssuch land management is undertaken as a publicorsector policy, it must private by requiring only large lots to be developed by dedicating areascontrol to opensector becomes effective. space uses,‘rent such seeking’ as parks behaviour or grazing.before Some ituses, such as industrial activity may The main limitations on regional land planning are: (1) Lack be propitiated. Thepractical weak structured buildings should beuse retrofitted. of knowledge about the location, recurrence interval and hazard potential of events, which might affect small parts of urban areas; (2) The presence of Trigger Mechanism Required for Disaster Management extensive existing development; (3) The relative infrequency of many hazardous 1. Evolve an effective signal /ofwarning mechanism events and the difficulty maintaining society awareness about the need to 2. Identify activities and their levels avoid hazard-prone land; (4) The high costs of hazard mapping, including 3. Identify eachland leveluse, of activities. detailed sub-activities inventories ofunder existing structures, occupancy levels, etc.; (5) 4. Specify authoritiestoforland eachuse levelcontrols of activities and sub-activities. Local resistance on political or philosophical grounds 5. Determine the response time for eachprocesses activity. which seek to pass the hazard(Beatley, 1988); (6) Profit-seeking related costs on to others.

86

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Earthquake Hazard Management

87

Regionaleconomic land uselosses planning most useful in The communities are still for greater whenis disaster strikes. increasingthat competition growing which undeveloped Successful land management land and makes this have strategy important.land. In the MDCs too there has been an techniques also depend on the the availability with which to identify accelerating trend towards invasion of of information previously avoided hazard-prone areas. particularly hazardous locations. Indeed, the accurate zonestime In part this has been due to urban growth, but moredelimited affluencehazard and leisure are crucial the entire policyhomes is based the detailed recognition, and has led because to the erection of second and on recreational facilities in environments the community acceptance, of different of risk, which, in turn, justify such as coasts and mountains, whichdegrees are intrinsically hazardous. the implementation of selective Ideally, variegation in The main purpose of landdevelopment planning is controls. to guide new residential commercial risk and should be identifiable down away to theform levelidentified of individual properties. For this many industrial development hazard zones, but is not hazards, such as cyclones and this earthquakes, suchanprecision unattainable. The always possible. Therefore, approach has additionalisrole to play in reducing greatest accuracy achieved with topographically hazards such as losses in areasisalready occupied whilst it can alsocontrolled help to steer new development floods, landslides and avalanches. away from environmentally sensitive areas, such as wetlands, because hazardMicro-zonation, or regional planning, help astoa steer broad policy based land management normally has to can function planning device within decisions. For example, a regional of the seismic in New the Zealand, communities that areinalready there.map It frequently seeks risk to combine beneficial there, be use to delineateareas national areas for retrofitting usecould of known hazard-prone with apriority minimum of hazard loss and existing expenditure. buildings with anti-seismic for the introduction of anti-seismic It is undertaken mainly atmeasures the localorgovernment level and, because it is part of building codes for new development. Micro-zonation works at support. the local planning the overall political process, it requires broad community scale when deals with individual communities Zoningform Landit use planning deploys regulatory toolsand on building a varietylots. of scales; ordinances used to through implement the zoning regionalordinances plan. Theydown can betoused control regionalareplanning town plot tosub-divisions development through provision reports ontoaspects such as soils,are geological bylaws. Land usethe measures areof most likely be adopted if they encouraged conditions, grading government. specifications, drainage requirements landscape plans. by the national The approach works mostand obviously by prohibiting Relatively large-scale maps (at high-hazard least 1:10,1000 usually for zoning new development in very areasarebut it canrequired also deploy measures, in high-risk urban by thebyseismic survey for For Tokyo (Nakano which are less areas, likely as to shown be opposed local developers. example, whilst and low-density Matsuda, 1944). detailed zoningOther mightregulations be imposedcan in then orderbeto used limit for the more potential property analysis as inindividual applications are submitted to develop the losses an area, the builder concerned mightforbepermission compensated by the granting landofat athe building plot level. example, subdivision regulations ensure thatthan permit for much higherFor density development in the nearest area. More the conditions under which land may be land subdivided are in conformity the any other method of loss reduction, use planning depends forwith its success general plan. on the allied use of other hazard mitigation measures, sometimes of a structural Seismic has been a goal in theimplications mitigation ofofhazards. It nature. Itmicro-zonation is also true that the wide-ranging this measure maysometimes be used tobring restrict development behind some minimum set-back it into conflict with other community objectives. Thisdistance is because, frominanthe active fault-line thus, the special riskhigher zone’sintensity act stipulates a structure process of converting land to uses,that several powerful shalllocal not be located trace ofareaninvolved. active fault andrange that afrom uniform 50 groups withacross vestedthe interests These the original foot land-owners, (15 m) set-back frommotive the fault normally required. If development is whose is line oftenis capital gain, to developers and builders, allowed, be used to maintain lowarises levelsfrom of building perhapssuch who zoning are alsocan driven by profit. Conflict the factdensity, that, although by requiring only large lots to be developed by dedicating areascontrol to openland management is undertaken as a publicorsector policy, it must private space uses,‘rent such seeking’ as parks behaviour or grazing.before Some ituses, such as industrial activity may sector becomes effective. be propitiated. Thepractical weak structured buildings should beuse retrofitted. The main limitations on regional land planning are: (1) Lack of knowledge about the location, recurrence interval and hazard potential of events, which might affect small parts of urban areas; (2) The presence of Trigger Mechanism Required for Disaster Management extensive existing development; (3) The relative infrequency of many hazardous 1. Evolve an effective signal /ofwarning mechanism events and the difficulty maintaining society awareness about the need to 2. Identify activities andland; their levels avoid hazard-prone (4) The high costs of hazard mapping, including 3. Identify eachland leveluse, of activities. detailed sub-activities inventories ofunder existing structures, occupancy levels, etc.; (5) 4. Specify authoritiestoforland eachuse levelcontrols of activities and sub-activities. Local resistance on political or philosophical grounds 5. Determine the response time for eachprocesses activity. which seek to pass the hazard(Beatley, 1988); (6) Profit-seeking related costs on to others.

86

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

Regional land use planning is most useful in communities that are still growing and which have undeveloped land. Successful land management techniques also depend on the availability of information with which to identify particularly hazardous locations. Indeed, the accurate delimited hazard zones are crucial because the entire policy is based on the detailed recognition, and the community acceptance, of different degrees of risk, which, in turn, justify the implementation of selective development controls. Ideally, variegation in risk should be identifiable down to the level of individual properties. For many hazards, such as cyclones and earthquakes, such precision is unattainable. The greatest accuracy is achieved with topographically controlled hazards such as floods, landslides and avalanches. Micro-zonation, or regional planning, can help to steer broad policy decisions. For example, in a regional map of the seismic risk in New Zealand, there, could be use to delineate national priority areas for retrofitting existing buildings with anti-seismic measures or for the introduction of anti-seismic building codes for new development. Micro-zonation works at the local planning scale when it deals with individual communities and building lots. Zoning ordinances are used to implement the regional plan. They can be used to control development through the provision of reports on aspects such as soils, geological conditions, grading specifications, drainage requirements and landscape plans. Relatively large-scale maps (at least 1:10,1000 are usually required for zoning in high-risk urban areas, as shown by the seismic survey for Tokyo (Nakano and Matsuda, 1944). Other regulations can then be used for more detailed analysis as individual applications are submitted for permission to develop the land at the building plot level. For example, subdivision regulations ensure that the conditions under which land may be subdivided are in conformity with the general plan. Seismic micro-zonation has been a goal in the mitigation of hazards. It may be used to restrict development behind some minimum set-back distance from an active fault-line thus, the special risk zone’s act stipulates that a structure shall not be located across the trace of an active fault and that a uniform 50 foot (15 m) set-back from the fault line is normally required. If development is allowed, zoning can be used to maintain low levels of building density, perhaps by requiring only large lots to be developed or by dedicating areas to openspace uses, such as parks or grazing. Some uses, such as industrial activity may be propitiated. The weak structured buildings should be retrofitted. Trigger Mechanism Required for Disaster Management 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

87

Regionaleconomic land uselosses planning most useful in The communities are still for greater whenis disaster strikes. increasingthat competition growing which undeveloped Successful land management land and makes this have strategy important.land. In the MDCs too there has been an techniques also depend on the the availability with which to identify accelerating trend towards invasion of of information previously avoided hazard-prone areas. particularly hazardous locations. Indeed, the accurate zonestime In part this has been due to urban growth, but moredelimited affluencehazard and leisure are crucial the entire policyhomes is based the detailed recognition, and has led because to the erection of second and on recreational facilities in environments the community acceptance, of different of risk, which, in turn, justify such as coasts and mountains, whichdegrees are intrinsically hazardous. the implementation of selective Ideally, variegation in The main purpose of landdevelopment planning is controls. to guide new residential commercial risk and should be identifiable down away to theform levelidentified of individual properties. For this many industrial development hazard zones, but is not hazards, such as cyclones and this earthquakes, suchanprecision unattainable. The always possible. Therefore, approach has additionalisrole to play in reducing greatest accuracy achieved with topographically hazards such as losses in areasisalready occupied whilst it can alsocontrolled help to steer new development floods, landslides and avalanches. away from environmentally sensitive areas, such as wetlands, because hazardMicro-zonation, or regional planning, help astoa steer broad policy based land management normally has to can function planning device within decisions. For example, a regional of the seismic in New the Zealand, communities that areinalready there.map It frequently seeks risk to combine beneficial there, be use to delineateareas national areas for retrofitting usecould of known hazard-prone with apriority minimum of hazard loss and existing expenditure. buildings with anti-seismic for the introduction of anti-seismic It is undertaken mainly atmeasures the localorgovernment level and, because it is part of building codes for new development. Micro-zonation works at support. the local planning the overall political process, it requires broad community scale when deals with individual communities Zoningform Landit use planning deploys regulatory toolsand on building a varietylots. of scales; ordinances used to through implement the zoning regionalordinances plan. Theydown can betoused control regionalareplanning town plot tosub-divisions development through provision reports ontoaspects such as soils,are geological bylaws. Land usethe measures areof most likely be adopted if they encouraged conditions, grading government. specifications, drainage requirements landscape plans. by the national The approach works mostand obviously by prohibiting Relatively large-scale maps (at high-hazard least 1:10,1000 usually for zoning new development in very areasarebut it canrequired also deploy measures, in high-risk urban by thebyseismic survey for For Tokyo (Nakano which are less areas, likely as to shown be opposed local developers. example, whilst and low-density Matsuda, 1944). detailed zoningOther mightregulations be imposedcan in then orderbeto used limit for the more potential property analysis as inindividual applications are submitted to develop the losses an area, the builder concerned mightforbepermission compensated by the granting landofat athe building plot level. example, subdivision regulations ensure thatthan permit for much higherFor density development in the nearest area. More the conditions under which land may be land subdivided are in conformity the any other method of loss reduction, use planning depends forwith its success general plan. on the allied use of other hazard mitigation measures, sometimes of a structural Seismic has been a goal in theimplications mitigation ofofhazards. It nature. Itmicro-zonation is also true that the wide-ranging this measure maysometimes be used tobring restrict development behind some minimum set-back it into conflict with other community objectives. Thisdistance is because, frominanthe active fault-line thus, the special riskhigher zone’sintensity act stipulates a structure process of converting land to uses,that several powerful shalllocal not be located trace ofareaninvolved. active fault andrange that afrom uniform 50 groups withacross vestedthe interests These the original foot land-owners, (15 m) set-back frommotive the fault normally required. If development is whose is line oftenis capital gain, to developers and builders, allowed, be used to maintain lowarises levelsfrom of building perhapssuch who zoning are alsocan driven by profit. Conflict the factdensity, that, although by requiring only large lots to be developed by dedicating areascontrol to openland management is undertaken as a publicorsector policy, it must private space uses,‘rent such seeking’ as parks behaviour or grazing.before Some ituses, such as industrial activity may sector becomes effective. be propitiated. Thepractical weak structured buildings should beuse retrofitted. The main limitations on regional land planning are: (1) Lack of knowledge about the location, recurrence interval and hazard potential of events, which might affect small parts of urban areas; (2) The presence of Trigger Mechanism Required for Disaster Management extensive existing development; (3) The relative infrequency of many hazardous 1. Evolve an effective signal /ofwarning mechanism events and the difficulty maintaining society awareness about the need to 2. Identify activities and their levels avoid hazard-prone land; (4) The high costs of hazard mapping, including 3. Identify eachland leveluse, of activities. detailed sub-activities inventories ofunder existing structures, occupancy levels, etc.; (5) 4. Specify authoritiestoforland eachuse levelcontrols of activities and sub-activities. Local resistance on political or philosophical grounds 5. Determine the response time for eachprocesses activity. which seek to pass the hazard(Beatley, 1988); (6) Profit-seeking related costs on to others.

87

Evolve an effective signal / warning mechanism Identify activities and their levels Identify sub-activities under each level of activities. Specify authorities for each level of activities and sub-activities. Determine the response time for each activity.

Earthquake Hazard Management

87

Regional land use planning is most useful in communities that are still growing and which have undeveloped land. Successful land management techniques also depend on the availability of information with which to identify particularly hazardous locations. Indeed, the accurate delimited hazard zones are crucial because the entire policy is based on the detailed recognition, and the community acceptance, of different degrees of risk, which, in turn, justify the implementation of selective development controls. Ideally, variegation in risk should be identifiable down to the level of individual properties. For many hazards, such as cyclones and earthquakes, such precision is unattainable. The greatest accuracy is achieved with topographically controlled hazards such as floods, landslides and avalanches. Micro-zonation, or regional planning, can help to steer broad policy decisions. For example, in a regional map of the seismic risk in New Zealand, there, could be use to delineate national priority areas for retrofitting existing buildings with anti-seismic measures or for the introduction of anti-seismic building codes for new development. Micro-zonation works at the local planning scale when it deals with individual communities and building lots. Zoning ordinances are used to implement the regional plan. They can be used to control development through the provision of reports on aspects such as soils, geological conditions, grading specifications, drainage requirements and landscape plans. Relatively large-scale maps (at least 1:10,1000 are usually required for zoning in high-risk urban areas, as shown by the seismic survey for Tokyo (Nakano and Matsuda, 1944). Other regulations can then be used for more detailed analysis as individual applications are submitted for permission to develop the land at the building plot level. For example, subdivision regulations ensure that the conditions under which land may be subdivided are in conformity with the general plan. Seismic micro-zonation has been a goal in the mitigation of hazards. It may be used to restrict development behind some minimum set-back distance from an active fault-line thus, the special risk zone’s act stipulates that a structure shall not be located across the trace of an active fault and that a uniform 50 foot (15 m) set-back from the fault line is normally required. If development is allowed, zoning can be used to maintain low levels of building density, perhaps by requiring only large lots to be developed or by dedicating areas to openspace uses, such as parks or grazing. Some uses, such as industrial activity may be propitiated. The weak structured buildings should be retrofitted. Trigger Mechanism Required for Disaster Management 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Evolve an effective signal / warning mechanism Identify activities and their levels Identify sub-activities under each level of activities. Specify authorities for each level of activities and sub-activities. Determine the response time for each activity.

88

Disaster Management

6. Workout individual plans of each specified authority to achieve the activation as per the response time. 7. Have quick response times for each specified authority. 8. Have alternative plans and contingency measures. 9. Provide appropriate administrative and financial delegation to make the response mechanism functionally viable. 10. Undergo preparedness drills. Prevention, Management and Preparedness Strategy • •

Development of culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated approach to disaster reduction. Prepare and maintain in a state of readiness, preparedness and response plans at International Level  National Level  State Level  District Level  Tehsil / Taluka Level  Block Level  Village Level  Local Level  Individual Villager

· ·

Adoption of a policy of self-reliance in vulnerable area. Education and Training in disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness for enhancement of capabilities at every level. International Level (Inter-national Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and Seminars etc.)  National Level (National Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and Seminars etc.)  State Level (University, Research Level Education)  District Level (University, Post Graduation Level Education)

88

Disaster Management

6. Workout individual plans of each specified authority to achieve the activation as per the response time. 7. Have quick response times for each specified authority. 8. Have alternative plans and contingency measures. 9. Provide appropriate administrative and financial delegation to make the response mechanism functionally viable. 10. Undergo preparedness drills. Prevention, Management and Preparedness Strategy • •

· ·

Development of culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated approach to disaster reduction. Prepare and maintain in a state of readiness, preparedness and response plans at International Level  National Level  State Level  District Level  Tehsil / Taluka Level  Block Level  Village Level  Local Level  Individual Villager

Adoption of a policy of self-reliance in vulnerable area. Education and Training in disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness for enhancement of capabilities at every level. International Level (Inter-national Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and Seminars etc.)  National Level (National Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and Seminars etc.)  State Level (University, Research Level Education)  District Level (University, Post Graduation Level Education)

88

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

89

6. Workout individual plans of each  specified authority to achieve the activation as per /the response time. Tehsil Taluka Level (University, Graduation Level Education) 7. Have quick response times for each  specified authority. 8. Have alternative plans (Inter-College and contingency measures. Block Level Level Education) 9. Provide appropriate administrative and financial delegation to make the  response mechanism viable. Level) Village functionally Level (High-School 10. Undergo preparedness drills.  Local Level (Primary School Level)  Prevention, Management and Preparedness Strategy Individual Villager (Individual Student) • Development of culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated to disaster It is approach well known that thereduction. community participation can play a vital role in • Prepare and maintain statetraining of readiness, preparedness and response each and every stage becauseinifathe programmes and rescue trainings,plans first-aid at training, search and rescue demonstration programmes are orientated in each and every level, than it isInternational sure that theLevel vulnerability can be reduced. The rescue training should be compulsory at school, college, and university Level should participate in such level. Each government servant andNational public servant  kind of training as search and rescue, first aid training at least three times in a Levelas well as teachers, professors year which will be compulsory to allState students  and all government and private labourers. For this training, programmes the District Level above channel can be followed:  Tehsil / Talukacentres Level of excellence in order to • Identification and strengthening of existing  mitigation capabilities. improve disaster prevention, reduction and • Emergency Support System shouldBlock be veryLevel effective in which communication,  media, donation, search and rescue public health, sanitation, power, transport, Village Level information and planning, operations, food, public works and engineering, relief supply , drinking water, shelter and medicines should come in the combined package in which all theLocal teamsLevel should work together towards the natural hazards and disaster mitigation  Individual Villager CONCLUSION · Adoption of a policy of self-reliance in vulnerable area. Once the high-risk areas have been identified, a number of options can be · Education and Training in disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness considered. The public acquisition of hazard-prone land is the most direct for enhancement of capabilities at every level. measure available to local government and is one of the most effective longInternational Level (Inter-national Training Program, Workshops, Conferences term strategies. Once acquired, the land can be managed to protect public safety and Seminars etc.) or to meet other community objectives, such as open space or low-density  recreational facilities but land acquisition is expensive and local authorities rarely National Level (National Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and have the resources for outright purchase. Seminars etc.) Another means is for an agency to acquire land through purchase and then  to control its development in the public interest by selling he land under certain State Level (University, Research Level Education) conditions or leasing it for low-intensity use. If public lands are available close  to a hazard zone, and if occupants are willing to relocate, it may be possible District Level (University, Post Graduation Level Education) for privately owned hazardous areas to be exchanged for safer land. Any

88

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

89

6. Workout individual plans of each  specified authority to achieve the activation as per /the response time. Tehsil Taluka Level (University, Graduation Level Education) 7. Have quick response times for each  specified authority. 8. Have alternative plans (Inter-College and contingency measures. Block Level Level Education) 9. Provide appropriate administrative and financial delegation to make the  response mechanism viable. Level) Village functionally Level (High-School 10. Undergo preparedness drills.  Local Level (Primary School Level)  Prevention, Management and Preparedness Strategy Individual Villager (Individual Student) • Development of culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated to disaster It is approach well known that thereduction. community participation can play a vital role in • Prepare and maintain in statetraining of readiness, preparedness and response each and every stage because ifathe programmes and rescue trainings,plans at first-aid training, search and rescue demonstration programmes are orientated in each and every level, than it isInternational sure that theLevel vulnerability can be reduced. The rescue training should be compulsory at school, college, and university Level should participate in such level. Each government servant andNational public servant kind of training as search and rescue, first aid training at least three times in a Levelas well as teachers, professors year which will be compulsory to allState students  and all government and private labourers. For this training, programmes the District Level above channel can be followed:  Tehsil / Talukacentres Level of excellence in order to • Identification and strengthening of existing  mitigation capabilities. improve disaster prevention, reduction and • Emergency Support System shouldBlock be veryLevel effective in which communication,  public health, sanitation, power, transport, media, donation, search and rescue Village Level information and planning, operations, food, public works and engineering,  relief supply , drinking water, shelter and medicines should come in the combined package in which all theLocal teamsLevel should work together towards the natural hazards and disaster mitigation  Individual Villager CONCLUSION · Adoption of a policy of self-reliance in vulnerable area. Once the high-risk areas have been identified, a number of options can be · Education and Training in disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness considered. The public acquisition of hazard-prone land is the most direct for enhancement of capabilities at every level. measure available to local government and is one of the most effective longInternational Level (Inter-national Training Program, Workshops, Conferences term strategies. Once acquired, the land can be managed to protect public safety and Seminars etc.) or to meet other community objectives, such as open space or low-density  recreational facilities but land acquisition is expensive and local authorities rarely National Level (National Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and have the resources for outright purchase. Seminars etc.) Another means is for an agency to acquire land through purchase and then  to control its development in the public interest by selling he land under certain State Level (University, Research Level Education) conditions or leasing it for low-intensity use. If public lands are available close  to a hazard zone, and if occupants are willing to relocate, it may be possible District Level (University, Post Graduation Level Education) for privately owned hazardous areas to be exchanged for safer land. Any

88

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

89

 specified authority to achieve the activation 6. Workout individual plans of each Tehsil Taluka Level (University, Graduation Level Education) as per /the response time.  specified authority. 7. Have quick response times for each Block Level Level Education) 8. Have alternative plans (Inter-College and contingency measures.  9. Provide appropriate administrative and financial delegation to make the Village functionally Level (High-School response mechanism viable. Level) 10. Undergo preparedness drills.  Local Level (Primary School Level)  Prevention, Management and Preparedness Strategy Individual Villager (Individual Student) • Development of culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated to disaster It is approach well known that thereduction. community participation can play a vital role in • Prepare and maintain statetraining of readiness, preparedness and response each and every stage becauseinifathe programmes and rescue trainings,plans first-aid at training, search and rescue demonstration programmes are orientated in each and every level, than it isInternational sure that theLevel vulnerability can be reduced. The rescue training should be compulsory at school, college, and university Level should participate in such level. Each government servant andNational public servant  kind of training as search and rescue, first aid training at least three times in a Levelas well as teachers, professors year which will be compulsory to allState students  and all government and private labourers. For this training, programmes the District Level above channel can be followed:  Tehsil / Talukacentres Level of excellence in order to • Identification and strengthening of existing  mitigation capabilities. improve disaster prevention, reduction and • Emergency Support System shouldBlock be veryLevel effective in which communication,  media, donation, search and rescue public health, sanitation, power, transport, Village Level information and planning, operations, food, public works and engineering, relief supply , drinking water, shelter and medicines should come in the combined package in which all theLocal teamsLevel should work together towards the natural hazards and disaster mitigation  Individual Villager CONCLUSION · Adoption of a policy of self-reliance in vulnerable area. Once the high-risk areas have been identified, a number of options can be · Education and Training in disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness considered. The public acquisition of hazard-prone land is the most direct for enhancement of capabilities at every level. measure available to local government and is one of the most effective longInternational Level (Inter-national Training Program, Workshops, Conferences term strategies. Once acquired, the land can be managed to protect public safety and Seminars etc.) or to meet other community objectives, such as open space or low-density  recreational facilities but land acquisition is expensive and local authorities rarely National Level (National Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and have the resources for outright purchase. Seminars etc.) Another means is for an agency to acquire land through purchase and then  to control its development in the public interest by selling he land under certain State Level (University, Research Level Education) conditions or leasing it for low-intensity use. If public lands are available close  to a hazard zone, and if occupants are willing to relocate, it may be possible District Level (University, Post Graduation Level Education) for privately owned hazardous areas to be exchanged for safer land. Any

88

Disaster Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management  Tehsil / Taluka Level (University, Graduation Level Education)  Block Level (Inter-College Level Education)  Village Level (High-School Level)  Local Level (Primary School Level)  Individual Villager (Individual Student)

It is well known that the community participation can play a vital role in each and every stage because if the training programmes and rescue trainings, first-aid training, search and rescue demonstration programmes are orientated in each and every level, than it is sure that the vulnerability can be reduced. The rescue training should be compulsory at school, college, and university level. Each government servant and public servant should participate in such kind of training as search and rescue, first aid training at least three times in a year which will be compulsory to all students as well as teachers, professors and all government and private labourers. For this training, programmes the above channel can be followed: • •

Identification and strengthening of existing centres of excellence in order to improve disaster prevention, reduction and mitigation capabilities. Emergency Support System should be very effective in which communication, public health, sanitation, power, transport, media, donation, search and rescue operations, food, public works and engineering, information and planning, relief supply , drinking water, shelter and medicines should come in the combined package in which all the teams should work together towards the natural hazards and disaster mitigation

CONCLUSION Once the high-risk areas have been identified, a number of options can be considered. The public acquisition of hazard-prone land is the most direct measure available to local government and is one of the most effective longterm strategies. Once acquired, the land can be managed to protect public safety or to meet other community objectives, such as open space or low-density recreational facilities but land acquisition is expensive and local authorities rarely have the resources for outright purchase. Another means is for an agency to acquire land through purchase and then to control its development in the public interest by selling he land under certain conditions or leasing it for low-intensity use. If public lands are available close to a hazard zone, and if occupants are willing to relocate, it may be possible for privately owned hazardous areas to be exchanged for safer land. Any

89

 specified authority to achieve the activation 6. Workout individual plans of each Tehsil Taluka Level (University, Graduation Level Education) as per /the response time.  specified authority. 7. Have quick response times for each Block Level Level Education) 8. Have alternative plans (Inter-College and contingency measures.  9. Provide appropriate administrative and financial delegation to make the Village functionally Level (High-School response mechanism viable. Level) 10. Undergo preparedness drills.  Local Level (Primary School Level)  Prevention, Management and Preparedness Strategy Individual Villager (Individual Student) • Development of culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated to disaster It is approach well known that thereduction. community participation can play a vital role in • Prepare and maintain in statetraining of readiness, preparedness and response each and every stage because ifathe programmes and rescue trainings,plans at first-aid training, search and rescue demonstration programmes are orientated in each and every level, than it isInternational sure that theLevel vulnerability can be reduced. The rescue training should be compulsory at school, college, and university Level should participate in such level. Each government servant andNational public servant kind of training as search and rescue, first aid training at least three times in a Levelas well as teachers, professors year which will be compulsory to allState students  and all government and private labourers. For this training, programmes the District Level above channel can be followed:  Tehsil / Talukacentres Level of excellence in order to • Identification and strengthening of existing  mitigation capabilities. improve disaster prevention, reduction and • Emergency Support System shouldBlock be veryLevel effective in which communication,  public health, sanitation, power, transport, media, donation, search and rescue Village Level information and planning, operations, food, public works and engineering,  relief supply , drinking water, shelter and medicines should come in the combined package in which all theLocal teamsLevel should work together towards the natural hazards and disaster mitigation  Individual Villager CONCLUSION · Adoption of a policy of self-reliance in vulnerable area. Once the high-risk areas have been identified, a number of options can be · Education and Training in disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness considered. The public acquisition of hazard-prone land is the most direct for enhancement of capabilities at every level. measure available to local government and is one of the most effective longInternational Level (Inter-national Training Program, Workshops, Conferences term strategies. Once acquired, the land can be managed to protect public safety and Seminars etc.) or to meet other community objectives, such as open space or low-density  recreational facilities but land acquisition is expensive and local authorities rarely National Level (National Training Program, Workshops, Conferences and have the resources for outright purchase. Seminars etc.) Another means is for an agency to acquire land through purchase and then  to control its development in the public interest by selling he land under certain State Level (University, Research Level Education) conditions or leasing it for low-intensity use. If public lands are available close  to a hazard zone, and if occupants are willing to relocate, it may be possible District Level (University, Post Graduation Level Education) for privately owned hazardous areas to be exchanged for safer land. Any

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89

 Tehsil / Taluka Level (University, Graduation Level Education)  Block Level (Inter-College Level Education)  Village Level (High-School Level)  Local Level (Primary School Level)  Individual Villager (Individual Student) It is well known that the community participation can play a vital role in each and every stage because if the training programmes and rescue trainings, first-aid training, search and rescue demonstration programmes are orientated in each and every level, than it is sure that the vulnerability can be reduced. The rescue training should be compulsory at school, college, and university level. Each government servant and public servant should participate in such kind of training as search and rescue, first aid training at least three times in a year which will be compulsory to all students as well as teachers, professors and all government and private labourers. For this training, programmes the above channel can be followed: • •

Identification and strengthening of existing centres of excellence in order to improve disaster prevention, reduction and mitigation capabilities. Emergency Support System should be very effective in which communication, public health, sanitation, power, transport, media, donation, search and rescue operations, food, public works and engineering, information and planning, relief supply , drinking water, shelter and medicines should come in the combined package in which all the teams should work together towards the natural hazards and disaster mitigation

CONCLUSION Once the high-risk areas have been identified, a number of options can be considered. The public acquisition of hazard-prone land is the most direct measure available to local government and is one of the most effective longterm strategies. Once acquired, the land can be managed to protect public safety or to meet other community objectives, such as open space or low-density recreational facilities but land acquisition is expensive and local authorities rarely have the resources for outright purchase. Another means is for an agency to acquire land through purchase and then to control its development in the public interest by selling he land under certain conditions or leasing it for low-intensity use. If public lands are available close to a hazard zone, and if occupants are willing to relocate, it may be possible for privately owned hazardous areas to be exchanged for safer land. Any

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relocation which involves moving structures and occupants form a hazard area is much more difficult and expensive than the acquisition of vacant land; also, it is often highly controversial within the community. For example, it may well be opposed by advocates of economic development if it is seen to destroy any potential the land might have to promote growth or generate local tax revenues. In some cases public land acquisition could involve the purchase and demolition of buildings, which are of historical or architectural importance and thus generate opposition from pressure groups. Hazard-prone land often appears very desirable. Many landslide areas and floodplain sites have outstanding scenic views and can command high market prices if there is a low awareness of the hazard threat. Under the ancient legal doctrine of caveat emptor (‘let the buyer beware’), there is usually no obligation for the owner of such land to disclose the risk to an intending purchaser. However, there is a growing demand that the vendor should have a statutory duty to make a prior disclosure of geological and other environmental hazard in real estate transactions so that the potential buyer can make a more informed choice (Binder, 1998). Such legal impediments to building construction are unpopular with local commercial interests, such as land developers, builders and estate agents. Under pressure from these groups, local authorities may refuse to adopt land use regulations in the belief that they will lose economic initiatives to more lenient communities nearby. For these reasons, any regulations adopted must be seen to be reasonable and capable of defence in a court of law. Public education and other voluntary methods can sometimes be more useful than legislation in discouraging development in hazardous areas. Some of the oldest methods rely on public information to divert development away form such zones. For example, warning signs that are readily visible help to alert both potential developers and purchasers of the hazard. Since any effective hazard-reduction strategy depends on the understanding and cooperation of the community, public information programmes are essential aids to awareness. These programmes may operate through a wide variety of dissemination means, including conference, workshops, press releases and the publication of hazard zone maps. Financial measures can also be important in discouraging development in hazardous areas, largely because of the great significance of the profit motive in promoting land use conversion. Unlike land acquisition and zoning, which directly control development, the use of financial incentives and disincentives affect development indirectly by altering the relative advantage, which people may see in building in a hazard zone. For example, the appropriate local government body may elect to locate any investment in public facilities, such as roads, water mains and sewers, only in those areas deemed hazard-free and zoned for development. Any national government programme that provides grants, loans, tax credits, insurance or other types of financial assistance has a large potential effect on both public and private development. Tax credits may be used as an incentive

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relocation which involves moving structures and occupants form a hazard area is much more difficult and expensive than the acquisition of vacant land; also, it is often highly controversial within the community. For example, it may well be opposed by advocates of economic development if it is seen to destroy any potential the land might have to promote growth or generate local tax revenues. In some cases public land acquisition could involve the purchase and demolition of buildings, which are of historical or architectural importance and thus generate opposition from pressure groups. Hazard-prone land often appears very desirable. Many landslide areas and floodplain sites have outstanding scenic views and can command high market prices if there is a low awareness of the hazard threat. Under the ancient legal doctrine of caveat emptor (‘let the buyer beware’), there is usually no obligation for the owner of such land to disclose the risk to an intending purchaser. However, there is a growing demand that the vendor should have a statutory duty to make a prior disclosure of geological and other environmental hazard in real estate transactions so that the potential buyer can make a more informed choice (Binder, 1998). Such legal impediments to building construction are unpopular with local commercial interests, such as land developers, builders and estate agents. Under pressure from these groups, local authorities may refuse to adopt land use regulations in the belief that they will lose economic initiatives to more lenient communities nearby. For these reasons, any regulations adopted must be seen to be reasonable and capable of defence in a court of law. Public education and other voluntary methods can sometimes be more useful than legislation in discouraging development in hazardous areas. Some of the oldest methods rely on public information to divert development away form such zones. For example, warning signs that are readily visible help to alert both potential developers and purchasers of the hazard. Since any effective hazard-reduction strategy depends on the understanding and cooperation of the community, public information programmes are essential aids to awareness. These programmes may operate through a wide variety of dissemination means, including conference, workshops, press releases and the publication of hazard zone maps. Financial measures can also be important in discouraging development in hazardous areas, largely because of the great significance of the profit motive in promoting land use conversion. Unlike land acquisition and zoning, which directly control development, the use of financial incentives and disincentives affect development indirectly by altering the relative advantage, which people may see in building in a hazard zone. For example, the appropriate local government body may elect to locate any investment in public facilities, such as roads, water mains and sewers, only in those areas deemed hazard-free and zoned for development. Any national government programme that provides grants, loans, tax credits, insurance or other types of financial assistance has a large potential effect on both public and private development. Tax credits may be used as an incentive

90

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Earthquake Hazard Management

91

relocation which owner’s involvestax moving structures occupants form to reduce a property liability as long and as hazard-prone landa ishazard either area much moreordifficult and expensive than density. the acquisition land; left is undeveloped developed at a very low Rather of lessvacant popular arealso, it is oftendisincentives highly controversial within community. Foruse example, it mayinwell the financial which act as athe deterrent to land conversion be opposed by example, advocatesthe of economic development if itprovisions is seen to into destroy hazard areas. For US Congress introduced the any land might to promote growth or generate local taxfloodrevenues. floodpotential disasterthe protection act have of 1973 to withhold federal benefits from In some cases public couldininvolve the purchase demolition prone communities that land did acquisition not take part the national flood and insurance of buildings, which are of historical and thus generate programmes. Other distinctions include or thearchitectural denial of a importance loan by a private source opposition from pressure groups. of government lending agencies, and the fact that, under some legal system, Hazard-prone land often for appears desirable. landslide civil liability may be recognized death,very bodily injury, Many property damageareas and and sites have outstanding scenic and of canbuildings commandon high market otherfloodplain losses, which might ensue from theviews erection land, prices ifasthere is a low awareness of the hazard threat. Under the ancient legal designated hazardous. doctrinedifficulties of caveat can emptor (‘let the by buyer beware’), there is usuallycontrol no obligation These be reduced pre-designating centralized of for theoperation. owner ofIt such land the risk an services intendingsuch purchaser. the relief should alsoto bedisclose recognized that to basic as However, there is or a growing demand that the to vendor have aand statutory roads, water supplies telephones, are unlikely fully should be available a duty to make a prior disclosure of geological other environmental hazard wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help and techniques-such as first aid, in real so that the potential buyer can make a more informed search and estate rescuetransactions and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at impediments to building risk,choice as this(Binder, type of 1998). team inSuch Indialegal is known by the Civil Defenceconstruction and Home are unpopular local commercial interests, such as land pre-preparedness developers, builders Guards squads. with Overall there is a vital need of local awareness, and estate agents. Under pressure from these groups, may refuse of society, an adaptation to the hazard resistant designs,local use authorities of the retrofitting to adoptwherever land use recommended, regulations in the belief that willand loserisk economic initiatives techniques preparing the they hazard zones maps, to more communities nearby. Forthethese reasons, any regulations adopted proper land lenient use planning and diffusing information among the locals must be to be Management. reasonable andFocus capable in a court of law. regarding theseen Disaster is of on defence the Disaster Management Public and methods can sometimes more useful programmes andeducation preparing theother task voluntary force or group to rescue the lives.beSelf-help than legislation areas. Some be of the techniques-such as in firstdiscouraging aid, searchdevelopment and rescue in andhazardous fire-fighting–should oldest atmethods relyand on college public level, information to should divert be development awayinform promoted the school and they a part of study zones. and For itexample, warning signs that are inreadily visibleand help eachsuch discipline, should be an essential subject all classes for toallalert both atpotential andline purchasers of the hazard.than Sincecure” any or effective students various developers levels. In one “Prevention is better to hazard-reduction depends on the understanding and cooperation of the avoid/ reduces the lifestrategy loss from the hazards. community, public information programmes are essential aids to awareness. These programmes may operate through a wide variety of dissemination means, REFERENCES including workshops, releases and the publication of and hazard Anderson, M.B.conference, (1991), Which cost more:press prevention or recovery? In Kremier, A. zone maps. M. (eds), Managing Natural Disaster and The Environment, Munasinghe, Financial measures can also be important discouraging development in Washington, DC: environmental department, World in Bank, 17-27. hazardous areas, largely Emergency because ofPreparedness, the great significance of thethe profit motive Bayulke, N. (1984), Earthquake Rescue and Relief: Turkish experience, Proceedings the seminar on Earthquake Geneva: United in promoting land useofconversion. Unlike land Preparedness, acquisition and zoning, which Nations, directly 98-116. control development, the use of financial incentives and disincentives Berke,P. R.(1995), Natural indirectly Hazard Reduction and Sustainable A Global affect development by altering the relativeDevelopment advantage, :which people Assessment, Journal of Planning Literature 370-382. may see in building in a hazard zone. For example, the appropriate local Binder, D. (1998), The duty to disclose geologic hazards in real estate transactions. government body may elect to locate any investment in public facilities, such Chapman Law Review, 13-56. as roads, water mains and sewers, only in those areas deemed hazard-free and Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White, G.F. (1993), The Environment Hazard, 2nd edition, zoned for and development. New York London: Guildford Press; 1st edition, 1978. Any national government programme that provides tax credits, Charlton, R.M. (1990), How Safe is Safe Enough? Selected Papersgrants, Group loans, Public Affairs, insurance or other types of financial assistance has a large potential effect on London: Shell International Petroleum. both public and private development. Tax credits may be used as an incentive

90

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Earthquake Hazard Management

91

relocation which owner’s involvestax moving structures occupants form to reduce a property liability as long and as hazard-prone landa ishazard either area much moreordifficult and expensive than density. the acquisition land; left is undeveloped developed at a very low Rather of lessvacant popular arealso, it is oftendisincentives highly controversial within community. Foruse example, it mayinwell the financial which act as athe deterrent to land conversion be opposed by example, advocatesthe of economic development if itprovisions is seen to into destroy hazard areas. For US Congress introduced the any land might to promote growth or generate local taxfloodrevenues. floodpotential disasterthe protection act have of 1973 to withhold federal benefits from In some cases public couldininvolve the purchase demolition prone communities that land did acquisition not take part the national flood and insurance of buildings, which are of historical and thus generate programmes. Other distinctions include or thearchitectural denial of a importance loan by a private source opposition from pressure groups. of government lending agencies, and the fact that, under some legal system, Hazard-prone land often for appears desirable. landslide civil liability may be recognized death,very bodily injury, Many property damageareas and and sites have outstanding scenic and of canbuildings commandon high market otherfloodplain losses, which might ensue from theviews erection land, prices ifasthere is a low awareness of the hazard threat. Under the ancient legal designated hazardous. doctrinedifficulties of caveat can emptor (‘let the by buyer beware’), there is usuallycontrol no obligation These be reduced pre-designating centralized of for theoperation. owner ofIt such land the risk an services intendingsuch purchaser. the relief should alsoto bedisclose recognized that to basic as However, there is or a growing demand that the to vendor have aand statutory roads, water supplies telephones, are unlikely fully should be available a duty to make a prior disclosure of geological other environmental hazard wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help and techniques-such as first aid, in real so that the potential buyer can make a more informed search and estate rescuetransactions and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at impediments to building risk,choice as this(Binder, type of 1998). team inSuch Indialegal is known by the Civil Defenceconstruction and Home are unpopular local commercial interests, such as land pre-preparedness developers, builders Guards squads. with Overall there is a vital need of local awareness, and estate agents. Under pressure from these groups, may refuse of society, an adaptation to the hazard resistant designs,local use authorities of the retrofitting to adoptwherever land use recommended, regulations in the belief that willand loserisk economic initiatives techniques preparing the they hazard zones maps, to more communities nearby. Forthethese reasons, any regulations adopted proper land lenient use planning and diffusing information among the locals must be to be Management. reasonable andFocus capable in a court of law. regarding theseen Disaster is of on defence the Disaster Management Public and methods can sometimes more useful programmes andeducation preparing theother task voluntary force or group to rescue the lives.beSelf-help than legislation areas. Some be of the techniques-such as in firstdiscouraging aid, searchdevelopment and rescue in andhazardous fire-fighting–should oldest atmethods relyand on college public level, information to should divert be development awayinform promoted the school and they a part of study zones. and For itexample, warning signs that are inreadily visibleand help eachsuch discipline, should be an essential subject all classes for toallalert both atpotential andline purchasers of the hazard.than Sincecure” any or effective students various developers levels. In one “Prevention is better to hazard-reduction depends on the understanding and cooperation of the avoid/ reduces the lifestrategy loss from the hazards. community, public information programmes are essential aids to awareness. These programmes may operate through a wide variety of dissemination means, REFERENCES including workshops, releases and the publication of and hazard Anderson, M.B.conference, (1991), Which cost more:press prevention or recovery? In Kremier, A. zone maps. Munasinghe, M. (eds), Managing Natural Disaster and The Environment, Financial measures can also be important discouraging development in Washington, DC: environmental department, World in Bank, 17-27. hazardous areas, largely Emergency because ofPreparedness, the great significance of thethe profit motive Bayulke, N. (1984), Earthquake Rescue and Relief: Turkish experience, Proceedings the seminar on Earthquake Geneva: United in promoting land useofconversion. Unlike land Preparedness, acquisition and zoning, which Nations, directly 98-116. control development, the use of financial incentives and disincentives Berke,P. R.(1995), Natural indirectly Hazard Reduction and Sustainable A Global affect development by altering the relativeDevelopment advantage, :which people Assessment, of Planning Literature may see inJournal building in a hazard zone.370-382. For example, the appropriate local Binder, D. (1998), The duty to disclose geologic hazards in real estate transactions. government body may elect to locate any investment in public facilities, such Chapman Law Review, 13-56. as roads, water mains and sewers, only in those areas deemed hazard-free and Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White, G.F. (1993), The Environment Hazard, 2nd edition, zoned for and development. New York London: Guildford Press; 1st edition, 1978. Any national government programme that provides tax credits, Charlton, R.M. (1990), How Safe is Safe Enough? Selected Papersgrants, Group loans, Public Affairs, insurance or other types of financial assistance has a large potential effect on London: Shell International Petroleum. both public and private development. Tax credits may be used as an incentive

90

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Earthquake Hazard Management

91

to reduce a property liability as long and as hazard-prone landa ishazard either area relocation which owner’s involvestax moving structures occupants form left is undeveloped developed at a very low Rather of lessvacant popular arealso, much moreordifficult and expensive than density. the acquisition land; the financial which act as athe deterrent to land conversion it is oftendisincentives highly controversial within community. Foruse example, it mayinwell hazard areas. For US Congress introduced the any be opposed by example, advocatesthe of economic development if itprovisions is seen to into destroy floodpotential disasterthe protection act have of 1973 to withhold federal benefits from land might to promote growth or generate local taxfloodrevenues. prone communities that land did acquisition not take part the national flood and insurance In some cases public couldininvolve the purchase demolition programmes. Other distinctions include or thearchitectural denial of a importance loan by a private source of buildings, which are of historical and thus generate of government lending agencies, and the fact that, under some legal system, opposition from pressure groups. civil liability may be recognized death,very bodily injury, Many property damageareas and and Hazard-prone land often for appears desirable. landslide otherfloodplain losses, which might ensue from theviews erection land, sites have outstanding scenic and of canbuildings commandon high market designated hazardous. prices ifasthere is a low awareness of the hazard threat. Under the ancient legal These difficulties be reduced pre-designating centralized of doctrine of caveat can emptor (‘let the by buyer beware’), there is usuallycontrol no obligation the relief should alsoto bedisclose recognized that to basic as for theoperation. owner ofIt such land the risk an services intendingsuch purchaser. roads, water supplies telephones, are unlikely fully should be available a However, there is or a growing demand that the to vendor have aand statutory wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help and techniques-such as first aid, duty to make a prior disclosure of geological other environmental hazard search and estate rescuetransactions and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at in real so that the potential buyer can make a more informed risk,choice as this(Binder, type of 1998). team inSuch Indialegal is known by the Civil Defenceconstruction and Home are impediments to building Guards squads. with Overall there is a vital need of local awareness, unpopular local commercial interests, such as land pre-preparedness developers, builders of society, an adaptation to the hazard resistant designs,local use authorities of the retrofitting and estate agents. Under pressure from these groups, may refuse techniques preparing the they hazard zones maps, to adoptwherever land use recommended, regulations in the belief that willand loserisk economic initiatives proper land lenient use planning and diffusing information among the locals to more communities nearby. Forthethese reasons, any regulations adopted regarding theseen Disaster is of on defence the Disaster Management must be to be Management. reasonable andFocus capable in a court of law. programmes andeducation preparing theother task voluntary force or group to rescue the lives.beSelf-help Public and methods can sometimes more useful techniques-such as in firstdiscouraging aid, searchdevelopment and rescue in andhazardous fire-fighting–should than legislation areas. Some be of the promoted the school and they a part of study oldest atmethods relyand on college public level, information to should divert be development awayinform eachsuch discipline, should be an essential subject all classes for toallalert zones. and For itexample, warning signs that are inreadily visibleand help students various developers levels. In one “Prevention is better to both atpotential andline purchasers of the hazard.than Sincecure” any or effective avoid/ reduces the lifestrategy loss from the hazards. hazard-reduction depends on the understanding and cooperation of the community, public information programmes are essential aids to awareness. These programmes may operate through a wide variety of dissemination means, REFERENCES including workshops, releases and the publication of and hazard Anderson, M.B.conference, (1991), Which cost more:press prevention or recovery? In Kremier, A. zone maps. M. (eds), Managing Natural Disaster and The Environment, Munasinghe, Financial measures can also be important discouraging development in Washington, DC: environmental department, World in Bank, 17-27. hazardous areas, largely Emergency because ofPreparedness, the great significance of thethe profit motive Bayulke, N. (1984), Earthquake Rescue and Relief: Turkish experience, Proceedings the seminar on Earthquake Geneva: United in promoting land useofconversion. Unlike land Preparedness, acquisition and zoning, which Nations, directly 98-116. control development, the use of financial incentives and disincentives Berke,P. R.(1995), Natural indirectly Hazard Reduction and Sustainable A Global affect development by altering the relativeDevelopment advantage, :which people Assessment, Journal of Planning Literature 370-382. may see in building in a hazard zone. For example, the appropriate local Binder, D. (1998), The duty to disclose geologic hazards in real estate transactions. government body may elect to locate any investment in public facilities, such Chapman Law Review, 13-56. as roads, water mains and sewers, only in those areas deemed hazard-free and Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White, G.F. (1993), The Environment Hazard, 2nd edition, zoned for and development. New York London: Guildford Press; 1st edition, 1978. Any national government programme that provides tax credits, Charlton, R.M. (1990), How Safe is Safe Enough? Selected Papersgrants, Group loans, Public Affairs, insurance or other types of financial assistance has a large potential effect on London: Shell International Petroleum. both public and private development. Tax credits may be used as an incentive

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Earthquake Hazard Management

Earthquake Hazard Management

to reduce a property owner’s tax liability as long as hazard-prone land is either left undeveloped or developed at a very low density. Rather less popular are the financial disincentives which act as a deterrent to land use conversion in hazard areas. For example, the US Congress introduced provisions into the flood disaster protection act of 1973 to withhold federal benefits from floodprone communities that did not take part in the national flood insurance programmes. Other distinctions include the denial of a loan by a private source of government lending agencies, and the fact that, under some legal system, civil liability may be recognized for death, bodily injury, property damage and other losses, which might ensue from the erection of buildings on land, designated as hazardous. These difficulties can be reduced by pre-designating centralized control of the relief operation. It should also be recognized that basic services such as roads, water supplies or telephones, are unlikely to fully be available and a wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at risk, as this type of team in India is known by the Civil Defence and Home Guards squads. Overall there is a vital need of local awareness, pre-preparedness of society, an adaptation to the hazard resistant designs, use of the retrofitting techniques wherever recommended, preparing the hazard and risk zones maps, proper land use planning and diffusing the information among the locals regarding the Disaster Management. Focus is on the Disaster Management programmes and preparing the task force or group to rescue the lives. Self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting–should be promoted at the school and college level, and they should be a part of study in each discipline, and it should be an essential subject in all classes and for all students at various levels. In one line “Prevention is better than cure” or to avoid/ reduces the life loss from the hazards. REFERENCES Anderson, M.B. (1991), Which cost more: prevention or recovery? In Kremier, A. and Munasinghe, M. (eds), Managing Natural Disaster and The Environment, Washington, DC: environmental department, World Bank, 17-27. Bayulke, N. (1984), Earthquake Emergency Preparedness, Rescue and Relief: the Turkish experience, Proceedings of the seminar on Earthquake Preparedness, Geneva: United Nations, 98-116. Berke,P. R.(1995), Natural Hazard Reduction and Sustainable Development : A Global Assessment, Journal of Planning Literature 370-382. Binder, D. (1998), The duty to disclose geologic hazards in real estate transactions. Chapman Law Review, 13-56. Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White, G.F. (1993), The Environment Hazard, 2nd edition, New York and London: Guildford Press; 1st edition, 1978. Charlton, R.M. (1990), How Safe is Safe Enough? Selected Papers Group Public Affairs, London: Shell International Petroleum.

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to reduce a property liability as long and as hazard-prone landa ishazard either area relocation which owner’s involvestax moving structures occupants form left is undeveloped developed at a very low Rather of lessvacant popular arealso, much moreordifficult and expensive than density. the acquisition land; the financial which act as athe deterrent to land conversion it is oftendisincentives highly controversial within community. Foruse example, it mayinwell hazard areas. For US Congress introduced the any be opposed by example, advocatesthe of economic development if itprovisions is seen to into destroy floodpotential disasterthe protection act have of 1973 to withhold federal benefits from land might to promote growth or generate local taxfloodrevenues. prone communities that land did acquisition not take part the national flood and insurance In some cases public couldininvolve the purchase demolition programmes. Other distinctions include or thearchitectural denial of a importance loan by a private source of buildings, which are of historical and thus generate of government lending agencies, and the fact that, under some legal system, opposition from pressure groups. civil liability may be recognized death,very bodily injury, Many property damageareas and and Hazard-prone land often for appears desirable. landslide otherfloodplain losses, which might ensue from theviews erection land, sites have outstanding scenic and of canbuildings commandon high market designated hazardous. prices ifasthere is a low awareness of the hazard threat. Under the ancient legal These difficulties be reduced pre-designating centralized of doctrine of caveat can emptor (‘let the by buyer beware’), there is usuallycontrol no obligation the relief should alsoto bedisclose recognized that to basic as for theoperation. owner ofIt such land the risk an services intendingsuch purchaser. roads, water supplies telephones, are unlikely fully should be available a However, there is or a growing demand that the to vendor have aand statutory wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help and techniques-such as first aid, duty to make a prior disclosure of geological other environmental hazard search and estate rescuetransactions and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at in real so that the potential buyer can make a more informed risk,choice as this(Binder, type of 1998). team inSuch Indialegal is known by the Civil Defenceconstruction and Home are impediments to building Guards squads. with Overall there is a vital need of local awareness, unpopular local commercial interests, such as land pre-preparedness developers, builders of society, an adaptation to the hazard resistant designs,local use authorities of the retrofitting and estate agents. Under pressure from these groups, may refuse techniques preparing the they hazard zones maps, to adoptwherever land use recommended, regulations in the belief that willand loserisk economic initiatives proper land lenient use planning and diffusing information among the locals to more communities nearby. Forthethese reasons, any regulations adopted regarding theseen Disaster is of on defence the Disaster Management must be to be Management. reasonable andFocus capable in a court of law. programmes andeducation preparing theother task voluntary force or group to rescue the lives.beSelf-help Public and methods can sometimes more useful techniques-such as in firstdiscouraging aid, searchdevelopment and rescue in andhazardous fire-fighting–should than legislation areas. Some be of the promoted the school and they a part of study oldest atmethods relyand on college public level, information to should divert be development awayinform eachsuch discipline, should be an essential subject all classes for toallalert zones. and For itexample, warning signs that are inreadily visibleand help students various developers levels. In one “Prevention is better to both atpotential andline purchasers of the hazard.than Sincecure” any or effective avoid/ reduces the lifestrategy loss from the hazards. hazard-reduction depends on the understanding and cooperation of the community, public information programmes are essential aids to awareness. These programmes may operate through a wide variety of dissemination means, REFERENCES including workshops, releases and the publication of and hazard Anderson, M.B.conference, (1991), Which cost more:press prevention or recovery? In Kremier, A. zone maps. Munasinghe, M. (eds), Managing Natural Disaster and The Environment, Financial measures can also be important discouraging development in Washington, DC: environmental department, World in Bank, 17-27. hazardous areas, largely Emergency because ofPreparedness, the great significance of thethe profit motive Bayulke, N. (1984), Earthquake Rescue and Relief: Turkish experience, Proceedings the seminar on Earthquake Geneva: United in promoting land useofconversion. Unlike land Preparedness, acquisition and zoning, which Nations, directly 98-116. control development, the use of financial incentives and disincentives Berke,P. R.(1995), Natural indirectly Hazard Reduction and Sustainable A Global affect development by altering the relativeDevelopment advantage, :which people Assessment, of Planning Literature may see inJournal building in a hazard zone.370-382. For example, the appropriate local Binder, D. (1998), The duty to disclose geologic hazards in real estate transactions. government body may elect to locate any investment in public facilities, such Chapman Law Review, 13-56. as roads, water mains and sewers, only in those areas deemed hazard-free and Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White, G.F. (1993), The Environment Hazard, 2nd edition, zoned for and development. New York London: Guildford Press; 1st edition, 1978. Any national government programme that provides tax credits, Charlton, R.M. (1990), How Safe is Safe Enough? Selected Papersgrants, Group loans, Public Affairs, insurance or other types of financial assistance has a large potential effect on London: Shell International Petroleum. both public and private development. Tax credits may be used as an incentive

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to reduce a property owner’s tax liability as long as hazard-prone land is either left undeveloped or developed at a very low density. Rather less popular are the financial disincentives which act as a deterrent to land use conversion in hazard areas. For example, the US Congress introduced provisions into the flood disaster protection act of 1973 to withhold federal benefits from floodprone communities that did not take part in the national flood insurance programmes. Other distinctions include the denial of a loan by a private source of government lending agencies, and the fact that, under some legal system, civil liability may be recognized for death, bodily injury, property damage and other losses, which might ensue from the erection of buildings on land, designated as hazardous. These difficulties can be reduced by pre-designating centralized control of the relief operation. It should also be recognized that basic services such as roads, water supplies or telephones, are unlikely to fully be available and a wider practical knowledge of appropriate self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting–should be promoted within communities at risk, as this type of team in India is known by the Civil Defence and Home Guards squads. Overall there is a vital need of local awareness, pre-preparedness of society, an adaptation to the hazard resistant designs, use of the retrofitting techniques wherever recommended, preparing the hazard and risk zones maps, proper land use planning and diffusing the information among the locals regarding the Disaster Management. Focus is on the Disaster Management programmes and preparing the task force or group to rescue the lives. Self-help techniques-such as first aid, search and rescue and fire-fighting–should be promoted at the school and college level, and they should be a part of study in each discipline, and it should be an essential subject in all classes and for all students at various levels. In one line “Prevention is better than cure” or to avoid/ reduces the life loss from the hazards. REFERENCES Anderson, M.B. (1991), Which cost more: prevention or recovery? In Kremier, A. and Munasinghe, M. (eds), Managing Natural Disaster and The Environment, Washington, DC: environmental department, World Bank, 17-27. Bayulke, N. (1984), Earthquake Emergency Preparedness, Rescue and Relief: the Turkish experience, Proceedings of the seminar on Earthquake Preparedness, Geneva: United Nations, 98-116. Berke,P. R.(1995), Natural Hazard Reduction and Sustainable Development : A Global Assessment, Journal of Planning Literature 370-382. Binder, D. (1998), The duty to disclose geologic hazards in real estate transactions. Chapman Law Review, 13-56. Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White, G.F. (1993), The Environment Hazard, 2nd edition, New York and London: Guildford Press; 1st edition, 1978. Charlton, R.M. (1990), How Safe is Safe Enough? Selected Papers Group Public Affairs, London: Shell International Petroleum.

92

Disaster Management

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Disaster Management

Drabek, T.E. (1995), Disaster Responses Within The Tourist Industry. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17-23. Fisher, H.W. (1996), What emergency management officials should know to enhance mitigation and effective disaster response. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management , 209-217. Gruntfest, E. (1987), Warning dissemination and response with short lead times. In Handmer, J.W. (eds.), Flood Hazard Management, Norwich: Geo Books, 192-202. Key, D. (eds.), (1995) Structures to Withstand Disaster. London: Instruction of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford. Mileti, D.S., Darlington, J.D., Passerini, E., (1995), Towards an Integration of Natural Hazards and Sustainability. Environmental Professionals 117-126. Mileti, D.S, et al. (1999), Disaster by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in The United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Nakano, T. and Matsuda, I., (1984), Earthquake Damage, Damage Prediction and Counter Measures in Tokyo, Japan. Ekistics, 415-420. Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), (1994), Annual Report Financial Year 1993. Washington, DC: Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency For International Development. Quarantelli, E.L. (ed.), (1998), What is Disaster? London and New York, Routledge. Smith, K. and Ward, R. (1998), Floods: Physical Processes and Human Impact. Chichester and New York: John Wiley. Stark, K.P. and Walker, G.R., (1979), Engineering for natural hazards with particular reference to tropical cyclones. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 198-203. Stretton, A.B. (1979), Ten lessons from Darwin Disaster. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 503-507. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., Paz, D.H. and Young, B.S.(1979), Earthquake Threat: The Human Response in Southern California, Los Angeles , CA: Institute For Social Science Research, University of California. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., and Paz, D.H. (1986), Waiting for Disaster. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press. Valery, N. (1995), Earthquake engineering: A Survey. The Economist, 22 April. Warrick, R.A., Anderson, J., Downing, T., Lyons, J., Ressolar, J., Warrick, M. and Warrick, T., (1981), Four Communities Under Ash. Monograph No. 34. Boulder, CO, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. World Disaster Report, (2001), Environment Monitoring Data, CRED, University of Louvain, Belgium. 164- 184.

Drabek, T.E. (1995), Disaster Responses Within The Tourist Industry. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17-23. Fisher, H.W. (1996), What emergency management officials should know to enhance mitigation and effective disaster response. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management , 209-217. Gruntfest, E. (1987), Warning dissemination and response with short lead times. In Handmer, J.W. (eds.), Flood Hazard Management, Norwich: Geo Books, 192-202. Key, D. (eds.), (1995) Structures to Withstand Disaster. London: Instruction of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford. Mileti, D.S., Darlington, J.D., Passerini, E., (1995), Towards an Integration of Natural Hazards and Sustainability. Environmental Professionals 117-126. Mileti, D.S, et al. (1999), Disaster by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in The United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Nakano, T. and Matsuda, I., (1984), Earthquake Damage, Damage Prediction and Counter Measures in Tokyo, Japan. Ekistics, 415-420. Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), (1994), Annual Report Financial Year 1993. Washington, DC: Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency For International Development. Quarantelli, E.L. (ed.), (1998), What is Disaster? London and New York, Routledge. Smith, K. and Ward, R. (1998), Floods: Physical Processes and Human Impact. Chichester and New York: John Wiley. Stark, K.P. and Walker, G.R., (1979), Engineering for natural hazards with particular reference to tropical cyclones. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 198-203. Stretton, A.B. (1979), Ten lessons from Darwin Disaster. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 503-507. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., Paz, D.H. and Young, B.S.(1979), Earthquake Threat: The Human Response in Southern California, Los Angeles , CA: Institute For Social Science Research, University of California. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., and Paz, D.H. (1986), Waiting for Disaster. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press. Valery, N. (1995), Earthquake engineering: A Survey. The Economist, 22 April. Warrick, R.A., Anderson, J., Downing, T., Lyons, J., Ressolar, J., Warrick, M. and Warrick, T., (1981), Four Communities Under Ash. Monograph No. 34. Boulder, CO, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. World Disaster Report, (2001), Environment Monitoring Data, CRED, University of Louvain, Belgium. 164- 184.

92

92

Disaster Management

Drabek, T.E. (1995), Disaster Responses Within The Tourist Industry. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17-23. Fisher, H.W. (1996), What emergency management officials should know to enhance mitigation and effective disaster response. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management , 209-217. Gruntfest, E. (1987), Warning dissemination and response with short lead times. In Handmer, J.W. (eds.), Flood Hazard Management, Norwich: Geo Books, 192-202. Key, D. (eds.), (1995) Structures to Withstand Disaster. London: Instruction of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford. Mileti, D.S., Darlington, J.D., Passerini, E., (1995), Towards an Integration of Natural Hazards and Sustainability. Environmental Professionals 117-126. Mileti, D.S, et al. (1999), Disaster by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in The United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Nakano, T. and Matsuda, I., (1984), Earthquake Damage, Damage Prediction and Counter Measures in Tokyo, Japan. Ekistics, 415-420. Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), (1994), Annual Report Financial Year 1993. Washington, DC: Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency For International Development. Quarantelli, E.L. (ed.), (1998), What is Disaster? London and New York, Routledge. Smith, K. and Ward, R. (1998), Floods: Physical Processes and Human Impact. Chichester and New York: John Wiley. Stark, K.P. and Walker, G.R., (1979), Engineering for natural hazards with particular reference to tropical cyclones. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 198-203. Stretton, A.B. (1979), Ten lessons from Darwin Disaster. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 503-507. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., Paz, D.H. and Young, B.S.(1979), Earthquake Threat: The Human Response in Southern California, Los Angeles , CA: Institute For Social Science Research, University of California. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., and Paz, D.H. (1986), Waiting for Disaster. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press. Valery, N. (1995), Earthquake engineering: A Survey. The Economist, 22 April. Warrick, R.A., Anderson, J., Downing, T., Lyons, J., Ressolar, J., Warrick, M. and Warrick, T., (1981), Four Communities Under Ash. Monograph No. 34. Boulder, CO, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. World Disaster Report, (2001), Environment Monitoring Data, CRED, University of Louvain, Belgium. 164- 184.

SECTION II

MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Disaster Management

Drabek, T.E. (1995), Disaster Responses Within The Tourist Industry. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17-23. Fisher, H.W. (1996), What emergency management officials should know to enhance mitigation and effective disaster response. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management , 209-217. Gruntfest, E. (1987), Warning dissemination and response with short lead times. In Handmer, J.W. (eds.), Flood Hazard Management, Norwich: Geo Books, 192-202. Key, D. (eds.), (1995) Structures to Withstand Disaster. London: Instruction of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford. Mileti, D.S., Darlington, J.D., Passerini, E., (1995), Towards an Integration of Natural Hazards and Sustainability. Environmental Professionals 117-126. Mileti, D.S, et al. (1999), Disaster by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in The United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Nakano, T. and Matsuda, I., (1984), Earthquake Damage, Damage Prediction and Counter Measures in Tokyo, Japan. Ekistics, 415-420. Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), (1994), Annual Report Financial Year 1993. Washington, DC: Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency For International Development. Quarantelli, E.L. (ed.), (1998), What is Disaster? London and New York, Routledge. Smith, K. and Ward, R. (1998), Floods: Physical Processes and Human Impact. Chichester and New York: John Wiley. Stark, K.P. and Walker, G.R., (1979), Engineering for natural hazards with particular reference to tropical cyclones. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 198-203. Stretton, A.B. (1979), Ten lessons from Darwin Disaster. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 503-507. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., Paz, D.H. and Young, B.S.(1979), Earthquake Threat: The Human Response in Southern California, Los Angeles , CA: Institute For Social Science Research, University of California. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., and Paz, D.H. (1986), Waiting for Disaster. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press. Valery, N. (1995), Earthquake engineering: A Survey. The Economist, 22 April. Warrick, R.A., Anderson, J., Downing, T., Lyons, J., Ressolar, J., Warrick, M. and Warrick, T., (1981), Four Communities Under Ash. Monograph No. 34. Boulder, CO, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. World Disaster Report, (2001), Environment Monitoring Data, CRED, University of Louvain, Belgium. 164- 184.

SECTION II

MAN-MADE DISASTERS

92

Disaster Management

Drabek, T.E. (1995), Disaster Responses Within The Tourist Industry. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17-23. Fisher, H.W. (1996), What emergency management officials should know to enhance mitigation and effective disaster response. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management , 209-217. Gruntfest, E. (1987), Warning dissemination and response with short lead times. In Handmer, J.W. (eds.), Flood Hazard Management, Norwich: Geo Books, 192-202. Key, D. (eds.), (1995) Structures to Withstand Disaster. London: Instruction of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford. Mileti, D.S., Darlington, J.D., Passerini, E., (1995), Towards an Integration of Natural Hazards and Sustainability. Environmental Professionals 117-126. Mileti, D.S, et al. (1999), Disaster by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in The United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Nakano, T. and Matsuda, I., (1984), Earthquake Damage, Damage Prediction and Counter Measures in Tokyo, Japan. Ekistics, 415-420. Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), (1994), Annual Report Financial Year 1993. Washington, DC: Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency For International Development. Quarantelli, E.L. (ed.), (1998), What is Disaster? London and New York, Routledge. Smith, K. and Ward, R. (1998), Floods: Physical Processes and Human Impact. Chichester and New York: John Wiley. Stark, K.P. and Walker, G.R., (1979), Engineering for natural hazards with particular reference to tropical cyclones. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 198-203. Stretton, A.B. (1979), Ten lessons from Darwin Disaster. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 503-507. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., Paz, D.H. and Young, B.S.(1979), Earthquake Threat: The Human Response in Southern California, Los Angeles , CA: Institute For Social Science Research, University of California. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., and Paz, D.H. (1986), Waiting for Disaster. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press. Valery, N. (1995), Earthquake engineering: A Survey. The Economist, 22 April. Warrick, R.A., Anderson, J., Downing, T., Lyons, J., Ressolar, J., Warrick, M. and Warrick, T., (1981), Four Communities Under Ash. Monograph No. 34. Boulder, CO, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. World Disaster Report, (2001), Environment Monitoring Data, CRED, University of Louvain, Belgium. 164- 184.

SECTION II

MAN-MADE DISASTERS

92

SECTION II

MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Disaster Management

Drabek, T.E. (1995), Disaster Responses Within The Tourist Industry. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17-23. Fisher, H.W. (1996), What emergency management officials should know to enhance mitigation and effective disaster response. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management , 209-217. Gruntfest, E. (1987), Warning dissemination and response with short lead times. In Handmer, J.W. (eds.), Flood Hazard Management, Norwich: Geo Books, 192-202. Key, D. (eds.), (1995) Structures to Withstand Disaster. London: Instruction of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford. Mileti, D.S., Darlington, J.D., Passerini, E., (1995), Towards an Integration of Natural Hazards and Sustainability. Environmental Professionals 117-126. Mileti, D.S, et al. (1999), Disaster by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in The United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Nakano, T. and Matsuda, I., (1984), Earthquake Damage, Damage Prediction and Counter Measures in Tokyo, Japan. Ekistics, 415-420. Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), (1994), Annual Report Financial Year 1993. Washington, DC: Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency For International Development. Quarantelli, E.L. (ed.), (1998), What is Disaster? London and New York, Routledge. Smith, K. and Ward, R. (1998), Floods: Physical Processes and Human Impact. Chichester and New York: John Wiley. Stark, K.P. and Walker, G.R., (1979), Engineering for natural hazards with particular reference to tropical cyclones. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 198-203. Stretton, A.B. (1979), Ten lessons from Darwin Disaster. In Heathcote, R.C. and Thom, B.G. (eds.) Natural Hazards in Australia, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science, 503-507. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., Paz, D.H. and Young, B.S.(1979), Earthquake Threat: The Human Response in Southern California, Los Angeles , CA: Institute For Social Science Research, University of California. Turner, R.H., Nigg, J.M., and Paz, D.H. (1986), Waiting for Disaster. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press. Valery, N. (1995), Earthquake engineering: A Survey. The Economist, 22 April. Warrick, R.A., Anderson, J., Downing, T., Lyons, J., Ressolar, J., Warrick, M. and Warrick, T., (1981), Four Communities Under Ash. Monograph No. 34. Boulder, CO, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. World Disaster Report, (2001), Environment Monitoring Data, CRED, University of Louvain, Belgium. 164- 184.

SECTION II

MAN-MADE DISASTERS

SECTION II

MAN-MADE DISASTERS

7

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION Transport plays a significant role in the overall development of a nation’s economy. However, this sector also accounts for a substantial and growing proportion of air pollution in cities. In addition, the transport sector contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and is a major consumer of petroleum fuels. These are all symptoms of the environmental crisis which is already upon us. It is not something to be vaguely concerned about as some distant future possibility but a contemporary reality. It is not a lament over the disappearing idyllic or pristine beauty, but a direct cry for survival. Greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries are increasing most rapidly in the transportation sector. Even people with low incomes are meeting their need for mobility, and projected income growth over the next two decades suggests that many more will acquire personal modes of transportation. That this will affect the earth’s climate is a great concern. Human activities generate three broad sources of air pollution: stationary or point, mobile, and indoor. In developing countries especially in the rural area, indoor air pollution from using open fires for cooking and heating may be a serious problem. Industries, power plants etc. are the cause of stationary air pollution, but in urban areas – both in developing and developed countries, it is predominantly the mobile or vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe. Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased mortality and morbidity and is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, nausea, irritation of eyes, various

7

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION Transport plays a significant role in the overall development of a nation’s economy. However, this sector also accounts for a substantial and growing proportion of air pollution in cities. In addition, the transport sector contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and is a major consumer of petroleum fuels. These are all symptoms of the environmental crisis which is already upon us. It is not something to be vaguely concerned about as some distant future possibility but a contemporary reality. It is not a lament over the disappearing idyllic or pristine beauty, but a direct cry for survival. Greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries are increasing most rapidly in the transportation sector. Even people with low incomes are meeting their need for mobility, and projected income growth over the next two decades suggests that many more will acquire personal modes of transportation. That this will affect the earth’s climate is a great concern. Human activities generate three broad sources of air pollution: stationary or point, mobile, and indoor. In developing countries especially in the rural area, indoor air pollution from using open fires for cooking and heating may be a serious problem. Industries, power plants etc. are the cause of stationary air pollution, but in urban areas – both in developing and developed countries, it is predominantly the mobile or vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe. Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased mortality and morbidity and is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, nausea, irritation of eyes, various

7

7

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Transport plays a significant role in the overall development of a nation’s economy. However, this sector also accounts for a substantial and growing proportion of air pollution in cities. In addition, the transport sector contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and is a major consumer of petroleum fuels. These are all symptoms of the environmental crisis which is already upon us. It is not something to be vaguely concerned about as some distant future possibility but a contemporary reality. It is not a lament over the disappearing idyllic or pristine beauty, but a direct cry for survival. Greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries are increasing most rapidly in the transportation sector. Even people with low incomes are meeting their need for mobility, and projected income growth over the next two decades suggests that many more will acquire personal modes of transportation. That this will affect the earth’s climate is a great concern. Human activities generate three broad sources of air pollution: stationary or point, mobile, and indoor. In developing countries especially in the rural area, indoor air pollution from using open fires for cooking and heating may be a serious problem. Industries, power plants etc. are the cause of stationary air pollution, but in urban areas – both in developing and developed countries, it is predominantly the mobile or vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe. Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased mortality and morbidity and is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, nausea, irritation of eyes, various

Transport plays a significant role in the overall development of a nation’s economy. However, this sector also accounts for a substantial and growing proportion of air pollution in cities. In addition, the transport sector contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and is a major consumer of petroleum fuels. These are all symptoms of the environmental crisis which is already upon us. It is not something to be vaguely concerned about as some distant future possibility but a contemporary reality. It is not a lament over the disappearing idyllic or pristine beauty, but a direct cry for survival. Greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries are increasing most rapidly in the transportation sector. Even people with low incomes are meeting their need for mobility, and projected income growth over the next two decades suggests that many more will acquire personal modes of transportation. That this will affect the earth’s climate is a great concern. Human activities generate three broad sources of air pollution: stationary or point, mobile, and indoor. In developing countries especially in the rural area, indoor air pollution from using open fires for cooking and heating may be a serious problem. Industries, power plants etc. are the cause of stationary air pollution, but in urban areas – both in developing and developed countries, it is predominantly the mobile or vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe. Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased mortality and morbidity and is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, nausea, irritation of eyes, various

7

7

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics: A Case Study of Delhi

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

R.B. Singh and Swarnima Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Transport plays a significant role in the overall development of a nation’s economy. However, this sector also accounts for a substantial and growing proportion of air pollution in cities. In addition, the transport sector contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and is a major consumer of petroleum fuels. These are all symptoms of the environmental crisis which is already upon us. It is not something to be vaguely concerned about as some distant future possibility but a contemporary reality. It is not a lament over the disappearing idyllic or pristine beauty, but a direct cry for survival. Greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries are increasing most rapidly in the transportation sector. Even people with low incomes are meeting their need for mobility, and projected income growth over the next two decades suggests that many more will acquire personal modes of transportation. That this will affect the earth’s climate is a great concern. Human activities generate three broad sources of air pollution: stationary or point, mobile, and indoor. In developing countries especially in the rural area, indoor air pollution from using open fires for cooking and heating may be a serious problem. Industries, power plants etc. are the cause of stationary air pollution, but in urban areas – both in developing and developed countries, it is predominantly the mobile or vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe. Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased mortality and morbidity and is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, nausea, irritation of eyes, various

Transport plays a significant role in the overall development of a nation’s economy. However, this sector also accounts for a substantial and growing proportion of air pollution in cities. In addition, the transport sector contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and is a major consumer of petroleum fuels. These are all symptoms of the environmental crisis which is already upon us. It is not something to be vaguely concerned about as some distant future possibility but a contemporary reality. It is not a lament over the disappearing idyllic or pristine beauty, but a direct cry for survival. Greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries are increasing most rapidly in the transportation sector. Even people with low incomes are meeting their need for mobility, and projected income growth over the next two decades suggests that many more will acquire personal modes of transportation. That this will affect the earth’s climate is a great concern. Human activities generate three broad sources of air pollution: stationary or point, mobile, and indoor. In developing countries especially in the rural area, indoor air pollution from using open fires for cooking and heating may be a serious problem. Industries, power plants etc. are the cause of stationary air pollution, but in urban areas – both in developing and developed countries, it is predominantly the mobile or vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe. Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased mortality and morbidity and is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, nausea, irritation of eyes, various

96

Disaster Management

bronchial problems and visibility. The pollution from vehicles is due to discharges like CO2, unburned HC, Pb compounds, NOx, soot, suspended particulate matter (SPM) and aldehydes, among others, mainly from the exhaust pipes. According to the World Health Organisation’s recent study report in Delhi one out of every 10 school children suffers from asthma and that is worsening due to vehicular pollution. Similarly, two of the three most important health related problems in Bangkok are caused by air pollution. 4 to 8 per cent of deaths that occur annually in the world are related to air pollution and of its constituents, the WHO has identified SPM as the most sinister in terms of its effect on health. This is a concern that has been reflected in the Agenda 21 as well. Without adequate means of transport and transport routes, there can be no development of industry or trade. All types of transport—automobiles cars, buses, trucks, etc., carts drown by bullocks, camel and horse, and railway run on the land, while steam or motor launches, country boats and shipping vessels run on water and aeroplanes fly in the air—are the prevalent means of transport in the country. Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates (National Commission of Urbanisation 1999). The Transport Sector and Agenda 21 The concerns related to the impact of the transport sector on environment and energy highlighted earlier is reflected in Agenda 21 as well. The overall objective outlined in the paper is to reduce the local and global emissions from all modes of the transport sector. Agenda 21 have identified the following key issues in the transport sector: • Promoting integrated transport policies that consider alternative approaches to meet commercial and private mobility needs. • Integrating land-use and urban and rural transport planning, taking into account the need to protect ecosystems. • Improving efficiency of transportation and related sectors. • Accelerating phasing-out of the use of leaded gasoline. • Promoting voluntary guidelines for environmentally-friendly transport and action for reducing vehicle emissions. • Fostering partnerships at the national level for strengthening transport infrastructure and developing innovative mass transport schemes. The Global Context The WHO made a subjective assessment of the vehicular emission data of the world and clarified that with the rapidly increasing population of developing countries in Southeast Asia and the continuing growth of vehicle usage, air

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bronchial problems and visibility. The pollution from vehicles is due to discharges like CO2, unburned HC, Pb compounds, NOx, soot, suspended particulate matter (SPM) and aldehydes, among others, mainly from the exhaust pipes. According to the World Health Organisation’s recent study report in Delhi one out of every 10 school children suffers from asthma and that is worsening due to vehicular pollution. Similarly, two of the three most important health related problems in Bangkok are caused by air pollution. 4 to 8 per cent of deaths that occur annually in the world are related to air pollution and of its constituents, the WHO has identified SPM as the most sinister in terms of its effect on health. This is a concern that has been reflected in the Agenda 21 as well. Without adequate means of transport and transport routes, there can be no development of industry or trade. All types of transport—automobiles cars, buses, trucks, etc., carts drown by bullocks, camel and horse, and railway run on the land, while steam or motor launches, country boats and shipping vessels run on water and aeroplanes fly in the air—are the prevalent means of transport in the country. Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates (National Commission of Urbanisation 1999). The Transport Sector and Agenda 21 The concerns related to the impact of the transport sector on environment and energy highlighted earlier is reflected in Agenda 21 as well. The overall objective outlined in the paper is to reduce the local and global emissions from all modes of the transport sector. Agenda 21 have identified the following key issues in the transport sector: • Promoting integrated transport policies that consider alternative approaches to meet commercial and private mobility needs. • Integrating land-use and urban and rural transport planning, taking into account the need to protect ecosystems. • Improving efficiency of transportation and related sectors. • Accelerating phasing-out of the use of leaded gasoline. • Promoting voluntary guidelines for environmentally-friendly transport and action for reducing vehicle emissions. • Fostering partnerships at the national level for strengthening transport infrastructure and developing innovative mass transport schemes. The Global Context The WHO made a subjective assessment of the vehicular emission data of the world and clarified that with the rapidly increasing population of developing countries in Southeast Asia and the continuing growth of vehicle usage, air

96

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Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

97

bronchial problems and visibility. The pollution vehicles due to traffic discharges pollution at certain sections of the urban centres, from especially nearis heavy like CO , unburned HC, Pb compounds, NOx, soot, suspended particulate matter or highly congested road, reaches very high levels. The air quality assessment 2 (SPM) and mainlyisfrom the exhaust pipes. city is showing that aldehydes, among 20among mega others, cities, Delhi the top most polluting to the gas World Health Organisation’s recent studyno.report because According it’s green house figure is highest in the given Table 1. in Delhi one out of every 10 school children suffers from asthma and that is worsening Table Overview pollution. of Air Quality in 20 Mega basedmost on subjective due to1: vehicular Similarly, two ofcities the three important health assessment of monitoring data and emission inventories related problems in Bangkok are caused by air pollution. 4 to 8 per cent of City deaths thatSO SPM in thePb O3and of its occur annually world areCO related to NO air2 pollution 2 constituents, the WHO has identified SPM as the most sinister in terms of its Bangkok 4 2 3 4 4 4 effect on health. Beijing 2 2 4 1 4 3 This is a concern that has been reflected in the Agenda 21 as well. Without Mumbai 4 2 4 4 4 1 adequate means of transport and transport routes, there can be no development Buenos Aires 1 3 4 1 1 1 of industry or trade. All types of transport—automobiles cars, buses, trucks, Cairo 1 2 2 3 1 1 etc., carts drown by bullocks, camel and horse, and railway run on the land, Calcutta 4 2 4 1 4 1 while steam or motor launches, country boats and shipping vessels run on water Delhi 4 2 4 4 4 1 and aeroplanes fly in the air—are the prevalent means of transport in the country. Jakarta 4 2 3 3 4 3 Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines Karachi 4 2 2 1 1 1 emanating from the existing land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted London 4 4 4 transport management solutions, give rise to 3the traffic 4congestion 4problem of Los Angeles 3 1 3 3 2 large urban 4conglomerates (National Commission of Urbanisation 1999).

Manila 4 2 3 1 1 1 Mexico City 2 2 3 2 3 2 The Transport Sector3and Agenda Moscow 1 4 21 3 3 1 NewThe Yorkconcerns 4 related to1 the impact4 of the transport 3 1 3 sector on environment and Rio-De Janeiro 3 3 is reflected 4 in Agenda 4 21 as well. 1 The overall 1 objective energy highlighted earlier Sao outlined Paolo in the 1 paper is 3to reduce the 4 local and 3 global emissions 3 2 all modes from Seoul 2 4 4 4 issues in of the transport sector.2Agenda 214 have identified the following key Shanghai 3 2 1 1 1 1 the transport sector: Tokyo 4 integrated 4 transport1policies that 4 consider4alternative 2approaches • Promoting

to meet commercial and private mobility needs. Integrating land-use and urban and rural transport planning, taking into account the need to protect ecosystems. Study • Area Improving efficiency of transportation and related sectors. • capital Accelerating of the use ofcity leaded gasoline. Delhi, of Indiaphasing-out and the third largest in India, lies at an altitude of • Promoting voluntary guidelines for environmentally-friendly between 700 and 1,000 feet (213 and 305 meters) and covers an area transport of 1,485 and action for reducing vehicle emissions. square kilometers It lies between 28°53’N latitude and 76°20’E longitude. • Fostering partnerships at the national level for strengthening transport Situated on the Yamuna River (a tributary of the Ganges River) Delhi is bordered infrastructure and developing innovative mass transport schemes. on the east by the state of Uttar Pradesh and on the north, west, and south by

Source: WHO (1992)

•

Haryana.Delhi is an international metropolis with recreational facilities, and a history goes Context back to antiquity. Administratively, the entire area of NCT of Thethat Global Delhi has been subdivided among three local bodies namely: The WHO made a subjective assessment of the vehicular emission data of the 1. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) world and clarified that with the rapidly increasing population of developing 2. Delhi Cantonment Board (Delhi Cantt.) countries in Southeast Asia and the continuing growth of vehicle usage, air 3. Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), DMC (U)

96

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Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

97

bronchial problems and visibility. The pollution vehicles due to traffic discharges pollution at certain sections of the urban centres, from especially nearis heavy like CO , unburned HC, Pb compounds, NOx, soot, suspended particulate matter or highly congested road, reaches very high levels. The air quality assessment 2 (SPM) and mainlyisfrom the exhaust pipes. city is showing that aldehydes, among 20among mega others, cities, Delhi the top most polluting to the gas World Health Organisation’s recent studyno.report because According it’s green house figure is highest in the given Table 1. in Delhi one out of every 10 school children suffers from asthma and that is worsening Table Overview pollution. of Air Quality in 20 Mega basedmost on subjective due to1: vehicular Similarly, two ofcities the three important health assessment of monitoring data and emission inventories related problems in Bangkok are caused by air pollution. 4 to 8 per cent of City deaths thatSO SPM in thePb O3and of its occur annually world areCO related to NO air2 pollution 2 constituents, the WHO has identified SPM as the most sinister in terms of its Bangkok 4 2 3 4 4 4 effect on health. Beijing 2 2 4 1 4 3 This is a concern that has been reflected in the Agenda 21 as well. Without Mumbai 4 2 4 4 4 1 adequate means of transport and transport routes, there can be no development Buenos Aires 1 3 4 1 1 1 of industry or trade. All types of transport—automobiles cars, buses, trucks, Cairo 1 2 2 3 1 1 etc., carts drown by bullocks, camel and horse, and railway run on the land, Calcutta 4 2 4 1 4 1 while steam or motor launches, country boats and shipping vessels run on water Delhi 4 2 4 4 4 1 and aeroplanes fly in the air—are the prevalent means of transport in the country. Jakarta 4 2 3 3 4 3 Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines Karachi 4 2 1 1 emanating from the existing land 2use pattern1 and then reinforced by accepted London 4 4 4 3 4 4 transport management solutions, give rise to the traffic congestion problem of Los Angeles 3 1 3 3 2 large urban 4conglomerates (National Commission of Urbanisation 1999).

Manila 4 2 3 1 1 1 Mexico City 2 2 3 2 3 2 The Transport Sector3and Agenda Moscow 1 4 21 3 3 1 NewThe Yorkconcerns 4 related to1 the impact4 of the transport 3 1 3 sector on environment and Rio-De Janeiro 3 3 is reflected 4 in Agenda 4 21 as well. 1 The overall 1 objective energy highlighted earlier Sao outlined Paolo in the 1 paper is 3to reduce the 4 local and 3 global emissions 3 2 all modes from Seoul 2 4 4 4 issues in of the transport sector.2Agenda 214 have identified the following key Shanghai 1 1 1 1 the transport3 sector: 2 Tokyo 4 4 1 4 4 2 • Promoting integrated transport policies that consider alternative approaches

to meet commercial and private mobility needs. Integrating land-use and urban and rural transport planning, taking into account the need to protect ecosystems. Study • Area Improving efficiency of transportation and related sectors. • Accelerating of the use ofcity leaded gasoline. Delhi, capital of Indiaphasing-out and the third largest in India, lies at an altitude of • Promoting voluntary guidelines for environmentally-friendly between 700 and 1,000 feet (213 and 305 meters) and covers an area transport of 1,485 and action for reducing vehicle emissions. square kilometers It lies between 28°53’N latitude and 76°20’E longitude. • Fostering partnerships at the national level for strengthening transport Situated on the Yamuna River (a tributary of the Ganges River) Delhi is bordered infrastructure and developing innovative mass transport schemes. on the east by the state of Uttar Pradesh and on the north, west, and south by

Source: WHO (1992)

•

Haryana.Delhi is an international metropolis with recreational facilities, and a history goes Context back to antiquity. Administratively, the entire area of NCT of Thethat Global Delhi has been subdivided among three local bodies namely: The WHO made a subjective assessment of the vehicular emission data of the 1. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) world and clarified that with the rapidly increasing population of developing 2. Delhi Cantonment Board (Delhi Cantt.) countries in Southeast Asia and the continuing growth of vehicle usage, air 3. Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), DMC (U)

96

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Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

97

pollution at certain sections of the urban centres, from especially nearis heavy bronchial problems and visibility. The pollution vehicles due to traffic discharges or highly congested road, reaches very high levels. The air quality assessment , unburned HC, Pb compounds, NOx, soot, suspended particulate matter like CO 2 is showing that aldehydes, among 20among mega others, cities, Delhi the top most polluting (SPM) and mainlyisfrom the exhaust pipes. city because According it’s green house figure is highest in the given Table 1. in Delhi to the gas World Health Organisation’s recent studyno.report one out of every 10 school children suffers from asthma and that is worsening Table Overview pollution. of Air Quality in 20 Mega basedmost on subjective due to1: vehicular Similarly, two ofcities the three important health assessment of monitoring data and emission inventories related problems in Bangkok are caused by air pollution. 4 to 8 per cent of City deaths thatSO SPM in thePb O3and of its occur annually world areCO related to NO air2 pollution 2 constituents, the WHO has identified SPM as the most sinister in terms of its Bangkok 4 2 3 4 4 4 effect on health. Beijing 2 2 4 1 4 3 This is a concern that has been reflected in the Agenda 21 as well. Without Mumbai 4 2 4 4 4 1 adequate means of transport and transport routes, there can be no development Buenos Aires 1 3 4 1 1 1 of industry or trade. All types of transport—automobiles cars, buses, trucks, Cairo 1 2 2 3 1 1 etc., carts drown by bullocks, camel and horse, and railway run on the land, Calcutta 4 2 4 1 4 1 while steam or motor launches, country boats and shipping vessels run on water Delhi 4 2 4 4 4 1 and aeroplanes fly in the air—are the prevalent means of transport in the country. Jakarta 4 2 3 3 4 3 Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines Karachi 4 2 2 1 1 1 emanating from the existing land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted London 4 4 4 transport management solutions, give rise to 3the traffic 4congestion 4problem of Los Angeles 3 1 3 3 2 large urban 4conglomerates (National Commission of Urbanisation 1999).

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

pollution at certain sections of the urban centres, especially near heavy traffic or highly congested road, reaches very high levels. The air quality assessment is showing that among 20 mega cities, Delhi is the top most polluting city because it’s green house gas figure is highest in the given Table no. 1. Table 1: Overview of Air Quality in 20 Mega cities based on subjective assessment of monitoring data and emission inventories City

SO2

SPM

Pb

CO

NO2

O3

4 2 4 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1 4 3 1 2 3 4

2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 2 2 4

3 4 4 4 2 4 4 3 2 4 1 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1

4 1 4 1 3 1 4 3 1 3 3 1 2 3 3 4 3 4 1 4

4 4 4 1 1 4 4 4 1 4 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 4 1 4

4 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 4 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 4 1 2

Manila 4 2 3 1 1 1 Mexico City 2 2 3 2 3 2 The Transport Sector3and Agenda Moscow 1 4 21 3 3 1 NewThe Yorkconcerns 4 related to1 the impact4 of the transport 3 1 3 sector on environment and Rio-De Janeiro 3 3 is reflected 4 in Agenda 4 21 as well. 1 The overall 1 objective energy highlighted earlier Sao outlined Paolo in the 1 paper is 3to reduce the 4 local and 3 global emissions 3 2 all modes from Seoul 2 4 4 4 issues in of the transport sector.2Agenda 214 have identified the following key Shanghai 3 2 1 1 1 1 the transport sector: Tokyo 4 integrated 4 transport1policies that 4 consider 4alternative 2approaches • Promoting

Bangkok Beijing Mumbai Buenos Aires Cairo Calcutta Delhi Jakarta Karachi London Los Angeles Manila Mexico City Moscow New York Rio-De Janeiro Sao Paolo Seoul Shanghai Tokyo

Source: WHO (1992)

Source: WHO (1992)

to meet commercial and private mobility needs. Integrating land-use and urban and rural transport planning, taking into account the need to protect ecosystems. Study • Area Improving efficiency of transportation and related sectors. • capital Accelerating of the use ofcity leaded gasoline. Delhi, of Indiaphasing-out and the third largest in India, lies at an altitude of • Promoting voluntary guidelines for environmentally-friendly between 700 and 1,000 feet (213 and 305 meters) and covers an area transport of 1,485 and action for reducing vehicle emissions. square kilometers It lies between 28°53’N latitude and 76°20’E longitude. • Fostering partnerships at the national level for strengthening transport Situated on the Yamuna River (a tributary of the Ganges River) Delhi is bordered infrastructure and developing innovative mass transport schemes. on the east by the state of Uttar Pradesh and on the north, west, and south by •

Haryana.Delhi is an international metropolis with recreational facilities, and a history goes Context back to antiquity. Administratively, the entire area of NCT of Thethat Global Delhi has been subdivided among three local bodies namely: The WHO made a subjective assessment of the vehicular emission data of the 1. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) world and clarified that with the rapidly increasing population of developing 2. Delhi Cantonment Board (Delhi Cantt.) countries in Southeast Asia and the continuing growth of vehicle usage, air 3. Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), DMC (U)

96

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Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Study Area Delhi, capital of India and the third largest city in India, lies at an altitude of between 700 and 1,000 feet (213 and 305 meters) and covers an area of 1,485 square kilometers It lies between 28°53’N latitude and 76°20’E longitude. Situated on the Yamuna River (a tributary of the Ganges River) Delhi is bordered on the east by the state of Uttar Pradesh and on the north, west, and south by Haryana.Delhi is an international metropolis with recreational facilities, and a history that goes back to antiquity. Administratively, the entire area of NCT of Delhi has been subdivided among three local bodies namely: 1. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) 2. Delhi Cantonment Board (Delhi Cantt.) 3. Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), DMC (U)

97

pollution at certain sections of the urban centres, from especially nearis heavy bronchial problems and visibility. The pollution vehicles due to traffic discharges or highly congested road, reaches very high levels. The air quality assessment , unburned HC, Pb compounds, NOx, soot, suspended particulate matter like CO 2 is showing that aldehydes, among 20among mega others, cities, Delhi the top most polluting (SPM) and mainlyisfrom the exhaust pipes. city because According it’s green house figure is highest in the given Table 1. in Delhi to the gas World Health Organisation’s recent studyno.report one out of every 10 school children suffers from asthma and that is worsening Table Overview pollution. of Air Quality in 20 Mega basedmost on subjective due to1: vehicular Similarly, two ofcities the three important health assessment of monitoring data and emission inventories related problems in Bangkok are caused by air pollution. 4 to 8 per cent of City deaths thatSO SPM in thePb O3and of its occur annually world areCO related to NO air2 pollution 2 constituents, the WHO has identified SPM as the most sinister in terms of its Bangkok 4 2 3 4 4 4 effect on health. Beijing 2 2 4 1 4 3 This is a concern that has been reflected in the Agenda 21 as well. Without Mumbai 4 2 4 4 4 1 adequate means of transport and transport routes, there can be no development Buenos Aires 1 3 4 1 1 1 of industry or trade. All types of transport—automobiles cars, buses, trucks, Cairo 1 2 2 3 1 1 etc., carts drown by bullocks, camel and horse, and railway run on the land, Calcutta 4 2 4 1 4 1 while steam or motor launches, country boats and shipping vessels run on water Delhi 4 2 4 4 4 1 and aeroplanes fly in the air—are the prevalent means of transport in the country. Jakarta 4 2 3 3 4 3 Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines Karachi 4 2 1 1 emanating from the existing land 2use pattern1 and then reinforced by accepted London 4 4 4 3 4 4 transport management solutions, give rise to the traffic congestion problem of Los Angeles 3 1 3 3 2 large urban 4conglomerates (National Commission of Urbanisation 1999).

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Table 1: Overview of Air Quality in 20 Mega cities based on subjective assessment of monitoring data and emission inventories City

SO2

SPM

Pb

CO

NO2

O3

4 2 4 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1 4 3 1 2 3 4

2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 2 2 4

3 4 4 4 2 4 4 3 2 4 1 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1

4 1 4 1 3 1 4 3 1 3 3 1 2 3 3 4 3 4 1 4

4 4 4 1 1 4 4 4 1 4 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 4 1 4

4 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 4 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 4 1 2

Manila 4 2 3 1 1 1 Mexico City 2 2 3 2 3 2 The Transport Sector3and Agenda Moscow 1 4 21 3 3 1 NewThe Yorkconcerns 4 related to1 the impact4 of the transport 3 1 3 sector on environment and Rio-De Janeiro 3 3 is reflected 4 in Agenda 4 21 as well. 1 The overall 1 objective energy highlighted earlier Sao outlined Paolo in the 1 paper is 3to reduce the 4 local and 3 global emissions 3 2 all modes from Seoul 2 4 4 4 issues in of the transport sector.2Agenda 214 have identified the following key Shanghai 1 1 1 1 the transport3 sector: 2 Tokyo 4 4 1 4 4 • Promoting integrated transport policies that consider alternative 2approaches Source: WHO (1992)

Source: WHO (1992)

to meet commercial and private mobility needs. Integrating land-use and urban and rural transport planning, taking into account the need to protect ecosystems. Study • Area Improving efficiency of transportation and related sectors. • Accelerating of the use ofcity leaded gasoline. Delhi, capital of Indiaphasing-out and the third largest in India, lies at an altitude of • Promoting voluntary guidelines for environmentally-friendly between 700 and 1,000 feet (213 and 305 meters) and covers an area transport of 1,485 and action for reducing vehicle emissions. square kilometers It lies between 28°53’N latitude and 76°20’E longitude. • Fostering partnerships at the national level for strengthening transport Situated on the Yamuna River (a tributary of the Ganges River) Delhi is bordered infrastructure and developing innovative mass transport schemes. on the east by the state of Uttar Pradesh and on the north, west, and south by Haryana.Delhi is an international metropolis with recreational facilities, and a history goes Context back to antiquity. Administratively, the entire area of NCT of Thethat Global Delhi has been subdivided among three local bodies namely: The WHO made a subjective assessment of the vehicular emission data of the 1. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) world and clarified that with the rapidly increasing population of developing 2. Delhi Cantonment Board (Delhi Cantt.) countries in Southeast Asia and the continuing growth of vehicle usage, air 3. Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), DMC (U)

97

pollution at certain sections of the urban centres, especially near heavy traffic or highly congested road, reaches very high levels. The air quality assessment is showing that among 20 mega cities, Delhi is the top most polluting city because it’s green house gas figure is highest in the given Table no. 1.

Bangkok Beijing Mumbai Buenos Aires Cairo Calcutta Delhi Jakarta Karachi London Los Angeles Manila Mexico City Moscow New York Rio-De Janeiro Sao Paolo Seoul Shanghai Tokyo

•

97

Study Area Delhi, capital of India and the third largest city in India, lies at an altitude of between 700 and 1,000 feet (213 and 305 meters) and covers an area of 1,485 square kilometers It lies between 28°53’N latitude and 76°20’E longitude. Situated on the Yamuna River (a tributary of the Ganges River) Delhi is bordered on the east by the state of Uttar Pradesh and on the north, west, and south by Haryana.Delhi is an international metropolis with recreational facilities, and a history that goes back to antiquity. Administratively, the entire area of NCT of Delhi has been subdivided among three local bodies namely: 1. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) 2. Delhi Cantonment Board (Delhi Cantt.) 3. Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), DMC (U)

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Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

99

NDMC has been further divided into 12 zones. So, there are 14 zones in Delhi for administrative purposes. Beside this there are 59 Census towns for Census ¯ 2001. Thus the urban component for N.C.T. of Delhi for Census ¯ 2001 was comprised of 62 towns i.e. 3 statutory towns and 59 census towns (including 35 villages). There is a fast declining trend in number of villages under the impact of urbanization. Till the 1991 Census, there were only two Tahsils viz. Delhi and Mehrauli in the unidistrict Union Territory of Delhi. As against this, for the Census ¯ 2001 there are 9 Districts and 27 Tahsils. However only sixteen Tahsils in Delhi have rural areas for census purpose. Delhi, which was so far (since 1913, when its population of 0.25 million) having a status of a single large district / union territory, has today crossed it. It comprises, to date, the following nine administrative districts: 1) North District, 2) North-West District, 3) North-East District, 4) South District, 5) South-West District, 6) East District, 7) West District, 8) Central District, 9) New Delhi District.

been further into and 12 zones. So, there are 14 zones differentNDMC income has level groups likedivided HIG, MIG LIG. Random Sampling was in for administrative Beside there are 59ageCensus towns doneDelhi in which great care waspurposes. taken that peoplethis from various groups, sex for ¯ 2001. Thus thefairly urbanexpress component N.C.T. of Delhi for Census ¯ and Census educational levels could their for perception. 2001 was comprised of 62 towns i.e. 3 statutory towns and 59 census towns (including 35 villages). There is a fast declining trend in number of villages b) Secondary Data Sources under the impact of urbanization. Till the 1991 Census, there were only two ThisTahsils study isviz. primarily based on the secondary sourcesUnion of dataTerritory collected, is As Delhi and Mehrauli in the unidistrict of that Delhi. the data for this, the Increasing numbers of vehicles, is increasing the level of against for the Census ¯ 2001 there are which 9 Districts and 27 Tahsils. However air pollution, transport with only sixteenSafety Tahsilsmeasures in Delhi and havechanging rural areastechnology for census of purpose. Delhi, which changing use patterns due to transport have been collected from the of was soland far (since 1913, when its population of 0.25 million) having a status following sources Center of Pollution Board (Delhi), of to a single large as: district / union territory,Control has today crossed it. ItMinistry comprises, Surface Transport ,Center of the Environment and Science, Tata Energy and date, the following nine administrative districts: Research1)Institute, IT survey of incomeDistrict, house holds 1999 , World North District, 2) North-West 3) North-East District,Health 4) South Organization on India and states, Economic Delhi, 8) 2001District, 5)report South-West District, 6) East District, Survey 7) WestofDistrict, Central 2002,Delhi SheetDelhi 2001.District. District,Fact 9) New

DELHI: A Fact Sheet

Methodology DELHI: A Fact Sheet

• • •

Thus• all Delhi the data thatofwas primarily collected is one the oldest living cities inand the then worldprocessed by means of different softwares and had undergone various analysis, was all presented in • Geographical location led to its rapid growth the •formAmong of maps and diagrams. Thecity numerical datacurrent has been presented the fastest growing mega of India. The population of Delhi cartographically by the help of M.S. Excel. The map data like Choropleth is about 13.38 million (2001 census) and is estimated to rise to 22.42and million Chorochromatic by 2021. Maps made in ARC VIEW 3.2, while line graph and bar diagram were prepared Microsoft Excel. • Commercial andinadministrative hub For the creation of the map data, many were To begin all the source maps were first • steps Highest perinvolved. capita income in the with, country georeferenced onmotorized ERDAS Imagine 8.7 and were geometrically corrected. • Highest vehicle ownership (at least one in each family) Then all images were opened in ARC VIEW 3.2 for digitization. Some maps as • Among the most polluted capitals of the world (status improving) example road maps were digitized at AUTOCAD 2006 also. • Vehicular growth four times higher than population growth • Road length growth parallel to population growth

• • • • • •

Delhi is one of the oldest living cities in the world Geographical location led to its rapid growth Among the fastest growing mega city of India. The current population of Delhi is about 13.38 million (2001 census) and is estimated to rise to 22.42 million by 2021. Commercial and administrative hub Highest per capita income in the country Highest motorized vehicle ownership (at least one in each family) Among the most polluted capitals of the world (status improving) Vehicular growth four times higher than population growth Road length growth parallel to population growth

Objectives of the Study • •

To asses the impacts of transport development on air pollution. To analyse the temporal aspect of transport development in Delhi.

Database and Methodology Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. a) Primary Data Sources A multi choice and close ended questionnaire was prepared for interviewing a random sample of 100 people comprised of truck drivers, business class, educationalists, housewives, corporates, Government officials, Doctors, and

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Scope and Limitations of the Study of the The Objectives main limitation of Study this study is that one cannot directly collect increasing or decreasing levels of atmospheric gases due to theonincreasing motorization • To asses the impacts of transport development air pollution. while is the not temporal a scientist. • somebody To analyse aspect of transport development in Delhi. • Lack of transparency and cooperation with students in the transport ministry and various institutions. Database and Methodology • Not many references were found regarding the geographical aspect of the study Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. in context to the space and time. • Temporal data concerning the transport Changes in Delhi was not easily available. Delhi Gazetteer was available only for the year 1972 and not before a) Primary Data Sources then. A multi choice andwas close ended questionnaire was prepared forfor interviewing • No compiled data found for the different climatic variables a recent a random sample of 100 people comprised of truck drivers, business class, time period. educationalists, housewives, corporates, Government officials, Doctors, and

98

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Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

99

NDMC has been further divided into 12 zones. So, there are 14 zones in Delhi for administrative purposes. Beside this there are 59 Census towns for Census ¯ 2001. Thus the urban component for N.C.T. of Delhi for Census ¯ 2001 was comprised of 62 towns i.e. 3 statutory towns and 59 census towns (including 35 villages). There is a fast declining trend in number of villages under the impact of urbanization. Till the 1991 Census, there were only two Tahsils viz. Delhi and Mehrauli in the unidistrict Union Territory of Delhi. As against this, for the Census ¯ 2001 there are 9 Districts and 27 Tahsils. However only sixteen Tahsils in Delhi have rural areas for census purpose. Delhi, which was so far (since 1913, when its population of 0.25 million) having a status of a single large district / union territory, has today crossed it. It comprises, to date, the following nine administrative districts: 1) North District, 2) North-West District, 3) North-East District, 4) South District, 5) South-West District, 6) East District, 7) West District, 8) Central District, 9) New Delhi District.

been further into and 12 zones. So, there are 14 zones differentNDMC income has level groups likedivided HIG, MIG LIG. Random Sampling was in for administrative Beside there are 59ageCensus towns doneDelhi in which great care waspurposes. taken that peoplethis from various groups, sex for ¯ 2001. Thus thefairly urbanexpress component N.C.T. of Delhi for Census ¯ and Census educational levels could their for perception. 2001 was comprised of 62 towns i.e. 3 statutory towns and 59 census towns (including 35 villages). There is a fast declining trend in number of villages b) Secondary Data Sources under the impact of urbanization. Till the 1991 Census, there were only two ThisTahsils study isviz. primarily based on the secondary sourcesUnion of dataTerritory collected, is As Delhi and Mehrauli in the unidistrict of that Delhi. the data for the Increasing numbers of vehicles, which is increasing the level of against this, for the Census ¯ 2001 there are 9 Districts and 27 Tahsils. However air pollution, transport with only sixteenSafety Tahsilsmeasures in Delhi and havechanging rural areastechnology for census of purpose. Delhi, which changing use patterns due to transport have been collected from the of was soland far (since 1913, when its population of 0.25 million) having a status following sources Center of Pollution Board (Delhi), of to a single large as: district / union territory,Control has today crossed it. ItMinistry comprises, Surface ,Center the Environment and Science, Tata Energy and date,Transport the following nineofadministrative districts: Research1)Institute, IT survey of incomeDistrict, house holds 1999 , World North District, 2) North-West 3) North-East District,Health 4) South Organization report on India and states, Economic Survey of Delhi, 8) 2001District, 5) South-West District, 6) East District, 7) West District, Central 2002,Delhi SheetDelhi 2001.District. District,Fact 9) New

DELHI: A Fact Sheet

Methodology DELHI: A Fact Sheet

• • •

Thus• all Delhi the data thatofwas primarily collected is one the oldest living cities inand the then worldprocessed by means of different softwares and had undergone various analysis, was all presented in • Geographical location led to its rapid growth the •formAmong of maps and diagrams. Thecity numerical datacurrent has been presented the fastest growing mega of India. The population of Delhi cartographically by the help of M.S. Excel. The map data like Choropleth is about 13.38 million (2001 census) and is estimated to rise to 22.42and million Chorochromatic by 2021. Maps made in ARC VIEW 3.2, while line graph and bar diagram were prepared Microsoft Excel. • Commercial andinadministrative hub For the creation of the map data, many were To begin all the source maps were first • steps Highest perinvolved. capita income in the with, country georeferenced onmotorized ERDAS Imagine 8.7 and were geometrically corrected. • Highest vehicle ownership (at least one in each family) Then all images werethe opened in ARCcapitals VIEW of 3.2thefor digitization. Some maps as • Among most polluted world (status improving) example road maps were four digitized AUTOCAD 2006 also. • Vehicular growth timesathigher than population growth • Road length growth parallel to population growth

• • • • • •

Delhi is one of the oldest living cities in the world Geographical location led to its rapid growth Among the fastest growing mega city of India. The current population of Delhi is about 13.38 million (2001 census) and is estimated to rise to 22.42 million by 2021. Commercial and administrative hub Highest per capita income in the country Highest motorized vehicle ownership (at least one in each family) Among the most polluted capitals of the world (status improving) Vehicular growth four times higher than population growth Road length growth parallel to population growth

Objectives of the Study • •

To asses the impacts of transport development on air pollution. To analyse the temporal aspect of transport development in Delhi.

Database and Methodology Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. a) Primary Data Sources A multi choice and close ended questionnaire was prepared for interviewing a random sample of 100 people comprised of truck drivers, business class, educationalists, housewives, corporates, Government officials, Doctors, and

Scope and Limitations of the Study of the The Objectives main limitation of Study this study is that one cannot directly collect increasing or decreasing levels of atmospheric gases due to theonincreasing motorization • To asses the impacts of transport development air pollution. while is the not temporal a scientist. • somebody To analyse aspect of transport development in Delhi. • Lack of transparency and cooperation with students in the transport ministry and various institutions. Database and Methodology • Not many references were found regarding the geographical aspect of the study Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. in context to the space and time. • Temporal data concerning the transport Changes in Delhi was not easily available. Delhi Gazetteer was available only for the year 1972 and not before a) Primary Data Sources then. A multi choice andwas close ended questionnaire was prepared forfor interviewing • No compiled data found for the different climatic variables a recent a random sample of 100 people comprised of truck drivers, business class, time period. educationalists, housewives, corporates, Government officials, Doctors, and

98

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

99

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

99

differentNDMC income has level groups likedivided HIG, MIG LIG. Random Sampling was in been further into and 12 zones. So, there are 14 zones doneDelhi in which great care waspurposes. taken that peoplethis from various groups, sex for for administrative Beside there are 59ageCensus towns and Census educational levels could their for perception. ¯ 2001. Thus thefairly urbanexpress component N.C.T. of Delhi for Census ¯ 2001 was comprised of 62 towns i.e. 3 statutory towns and 59 census towns (including 35 villages). There is a fast declining trend in number of villages b) Secondary Data Sources under the impact of urbanization. Till the 1991 Census, there were only two ThisTahsils study isviz. primarily based on the secondary sourcesUnion of dataTerritory collected, is As Delhi and Mehrauli in the unidistrict of that Delhi. the data for this, the Increasing numbers of vehicles, is increasing the level of against for the Census ¯ 2001 there are which 9 Districts and 27 Tahsils. However air pollution, transport with only sixteenSafety Tahsilsmeasures in Delhi and havechanging rural areastechnology for census of purpose. Delhi, which changing use patterns due to transport have been collected from the of was soland far (since 1913, when its population of 0.25 million) having a status following sources Center of Pollution Board (Delhi), of to a single large as: district / union territory,Control has today crossed it. ItMinistry comprises, Surface Transport ,Center of the Environment and Science, Tata Energy and date, the following nine administrative districts: Research1)Institute, IT survey of incomeDistrict, house holds 1999 , World North District, 2) North-West 3) North-East District,Health 4) South Organization on India and states, Economic Delhi, 8) 2001District, 5)report South-West District, 6) East District, Survey 7) WestofDistrict, Central 2002,Delhi SheetDelhi 2001.District. District,Fact 9) New

different income level groups like HIG, MIG and LIG. Random Sampling was done in which great care was taken that people from various age groups, sex and educational levels could fairly express their perception.

Methodology DELHI: A Fact Sheet

Methodology

Thus• all Delhi the data thatofwas primarily collected is one the oldest living cities inand the then worldprocessed by means of different softwares and had undergone various analysis, was all presented in • Geographical location led to its rapid growth the •formAmong of maps and diagrams. Thecity numerical datacurrent has been presented the fastest growing mega of India. The population of Delhi cartographically by the help of M.S. Excel. The map data like Choropleth is about 13.38 million (2001 census) and is estimated to rise to 22.42and million Chorochromatic by 2021. Maps made in ARC VIEW 3.2, while line graph and bar diagram were prepared Microsoft Excel. • Commercial andinadministrative hub For the creation of the map data, many were To begin all the source maps were first • steps Highest perinvolved. capita income in the with, country georeferenced onmotorized ERDAS Imagine 8.7 and were geometrically corrected. • Highest vehicle ownership (at least one in each family) Then all images were opened in ARC VIEW 3.2 for digitization. Some maps as • Among the most polluted capitals of the world (status improving) example road maps were digitized at AUTOCAD 2006 also. • Vehicular growth four times higher than population growth • Road length growth parallel to population growth

Thus all the data that was primarily collected and then processed by means of different softwares and had undergone various analysis, was all presented in the form of maps and diagrams. The numerical data has been presented cartographically by the help of M.S. Excel. The map data like Choropleth and Chorochromatic Maps made in ARC VIEW 3.2, while line graph and bar diagram were prepared in Microsoft Excel. For the creation of the map data, many steps were involved. To begin with, all the source maps were first georeferenced on ERDAS Imagine 8.7 and were geometrically corrected. Then all images were opened in ARC VIEW 3.2 for digitization. Some maps as example road maps were digitized at AUTOCAD 2006 also.

Scope and Limitations of the Study of the The Objectives main limitation of Study this study is that one cannot directly collect increasing or decreasing levels of atmospheric gases due to theonincreasing motorization • To asses the impacts of transport development air pollution. while is the not temporal a scientist. • somebody To analyse aspect of transport development in Delhi. • Lack of transparency and cooperation with students in the transport ministry and various institutions. Database and Methodology • Not many references were found regarding the geographical aspect of the study in context to the space and time. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. • Temporal data concerning the transport Changes in Delhi was not easily available. Delhi Gazetteer was available only for the year 1972 and not before a) Primary Data Sources then. A multi choice andwas close ended questionnaire was prepared forfor interviewing • No compiled data found for the different climatic variables a recent a random sample of 100 people comprised of truck drivers, business class, time period. educationalists, housewives, corporates, Government officials, Doctors, and

Scope and Limitations of the Study

98

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

b) Secondary Data Sources This study is primarily based on the secondary sources of data collected, that is the data for the Increasing numbers of vehicles, which is increasing the level of air pollution, Safety measures and changing technology of transport with changing land use patterns due to transport have been collected from the following sources as: Center of Pollution Control Board (Delhi), Ministry of Surface Transport ,Center of the Environment and Science, Tata Energy and Research Institute, IT survey of income house holds 1999 , World Health Organization report on India and states, Economic Survey of Delhi, 20012002,Delhi Fact Sheet 2001.

The main limitation of this study is that one cannot directly collect increasing or decreasing levels of atmospheric gases due to the increasing motorization while somebody is not a scientist. • Lack of transparency and cooperation with students in the transport ministry and various institutions. • Not many references were found regarding the geographical aspect of the study in context to the space and time. • Temporal data concerning the transport Changes in Delhi was not easily available. Delhi Gazetteer was available only for the year 1972 and not before then. • No compiled data was found for the different climatic variables for a recent time period.

99

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

99

differentNDMC income has level groups likedivided HIG, MIG LIG. Random Sampling was in been further into and 12 zones. So, there are 14 zones doneDelhi in which great care waspurposes. taken that peoplethis from various groups, sex for for administrative Beside there are 59ageCensus towns and Census educational levels could their for perception. ¯ 2001. Thus thefairly urbanexpress component N.C.T. of Delhi for Census ¯ 2001 was comprised of 62 towns i.e. 3 statutory towns and 59 census towns (including 35 villages). There is a fast declining trend in number of villages b) Secondary Data Sources under the impact of urbanization. Till the 1991 Census, there were only two ThisTahsils study isviz. primarily based on the secondary sourcesUnion of dataTerritory collected, is As Delhi and Mehrauli in the unidistrict of that Delhi. the data for the Increasing numbers of vehicles, which is increasing the level of against this, for the Census ¯ 2001 there are 9 Districts and 27 Tahsils. However air pollution, transport with only sixteenSafety Tahsilsmeasures in Delhi and havechanging rural areastechnology for census of purpose. Delhi, which changing use patterns due to transport have been collected from the of was soland far (since 1913, when its population of 0.25 million) having a status following sources Center of Pollution Board (Delhi), of to a single large as: district / union territory,Control has today crossed it. ItMinistry comprises, Surface ,Center the Environment and Science, Tata Energy and date,Transport the following nineofadministrative districts: Research1)Institute, IT survey of incomeDistrict, house holds 1999 , World North District, 2) North-West 3) North-East District,Health 4) South Organization report on India and states, Economic Survey of Delhi, 8) 2001District, 5) South-West District, 6) East District, 7) West District, Central 2002,Delhi SheetDelhi 2001.District. District,Fact 9) New

different income level groups like HIG, MIG and LIG. Random Sampling was done in which great care was taken that people from various age groups, sex and educational levels could fairly express their perception.

Methodology DELHI: A Fact Sheet

Methodology

Thus• all Delhi the data thatofwas primarily collected is one the oldest living cities inand the then worldprocessed by means of different softwares and had undergone various analysis, was all presented in • Geographical location led to its rapid growth the •formAmong of maps and diagrams. Thecity numerical datacurrent has been presented the fastest growing mega of India. The population of Delhi cartographically by the help of M.S. Excel. The map data like Choropleth is about 13.38 million (2001 census) and is estimated to rise to 22.42and million Chorochromatic by 2021. Maps made in ARC VIEW 3.2, while line graph and bar diagram were prepared Microsoft Excel. • Commercial andinadministrative hub For the creation of the map data, many were To begin all the source maps were first • steps Highest perinvolved. capita income in the with, country georeferenced onmotorized ERDAS Imagine 8.7 and were geometrically corrected. • Highest vehicle ownership (at least one in each family) Then all images werethe opened in ARCcapitals VIEW of 3.2thefor digitization. Some maps as • Among most polluted world (status improving) example road maps were four digitized AUTOCAD 2006 also. • Vehicular growth timesathigher than population growth • Road length growth parallel to population growth

Thus all the data that was primarily collected and then processed by means of different softwares and had undergone various analysis, was all presented in the form of maps and diagrams. The numerical data has been presented cartographically by the help of M.S. Excel. The map data like Choropleth and Chorochromatic Maps made in ARC VIEW 3.2, while line graph and bar diagram were prepared in Microsoft Excel. For the creation of the map data, many steps were involved. To begin with, all the source maps were first georeferenced on ERDAS Imagine 8.7 and were geometrically corrected. Then all images were opened in ARC VIEW 3.2 for digitization. Some maps as example road maps were digitized at AUTOCAD 2006 also.

Scope and Limitations of the Study of the The Objectives main limitation of Study this study is that one cannot directly collect increasing or decreasing levels of atmospheric gases due to theonincreasing motorization • To asses the impacts of transport development air pollution. while is the not temporal a scientist. • somebody To analyse aspect of transport development in Delhi. • Lack of transparency and cooperation with students in the transport ministry and various institutions. Database and Methodology • Not many references were found regarding the geographical aspect of the study in context to the space and time. Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. • Temporal data concerning the transport Changes in Delhi was not easily available. Delhi Gazetteer was available only for the year 1972 and not before a) Primary Data Sources then. A multi choice andwas close ended questionnaire was prepared forfor interviewing • No compiled data found for the different climatic variables a recent a random sample of 100 people comprised of truck drivers, business class, time period. educationalists, housewives, corporates, Government officials, Doctors, and

Scope and Limitations of the Study

b) Secondary Data Sources This study is primarily based on the secondary sources of data collected, that is the data for the Increasing numbers of vehicles, which is increasing the level of air pollution, Safety measures and changing technology of transport with changing land use patterns due to transport have been collected from the following sources as: Center of Pollution Control Board (Delhi), Ministry of Surface Transport ,Center of the Environment and Science, Tata Energy and Research Institute, IT survey of income house holds 1999 , World Health Organization report on India and states, Economic Survey of Delhi, 20012002,Delhi Fact Sheet 2001.

The main limitation of this study is that one cannot directly collect increasing or decreasing levels of atmospheric gases due to the increasing motorization while somebody is not a scientist. • Lack of transparency and cooperation with students in the transport ministry and various institutions. • Not many references were found regarding the geographical aspect of the study in context to the space and time. • Temporal data concerning the transport Changes in Delhi was not easily available. Delhi Gazetteer was available only for the year 1972 and not before then. • No compiled data was found for the different climatic variables for a recent time period.

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Disaster Management

Land: Use Changes Sustainable urban development is the most important concern for Delhi’s current environmental crisis at the threshold of the 21st Century. The population of Delhi is estimated to rise to 22.42 million persons by 2021. The cheapest means of passenger transport in Delhi are the buses provided by the Delhi Transport Corporation (D.T.C.) and the Delhi Metro which is under construction. The significance of the environment was routinely mentioned in heavy words in the Master Plans of Delhi-MPD-1962, MPD-2001 and MPD-2021. However, in Delhi, land environment is under stress due to the increasing pressure of population. Urban Population, industry and commerce are widespread and natural vegetation destruction is all over the Delhi Ridge resulting in the shrinkage of the ‘Green Lung’ of Delhi. Likewise Delhi’s urban area has grown from 200.52 km² in 1951 to more than 658.34 km² in 2001. The urban density has grown from 1,812 in 1921 to 19,473 persons per sq. km in 2001. The traffic conditions in Delhi, in all its dimensions, represent the transport system in the city. Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates. The given fig no. 1, is showing the comparative complexity of Delhi’s land use pattern, means the changing face of agricultural land into flyovers can be clearly found in our given map given map.

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101

Land: Use In Delhi, theChanges land environment is under stress due to the pressures of rapid urbanization. Population growth and in-migrated poor people, industrial growth, Sustainable urban development is the most important concern for Delhi’s current inefficient and inadequate traffic corridors, poor environmental infrastructure, environmental crisis at the threshold of the 21st Century. The population of etc. are the main factors that have deteriorated the quality of the city’s resources Delhi is estimated to rise to 22.42 million persons by 2021. The cheapest means in the land. of passenger transport in Delhi are the buses provided by the Delhi Transport Delhi’s urban area has grown from 182 km2 in the 1970s to more than 750 Corporation (D.T.C.) and the Delhi Metro which is under construction. The km2 in 2001. This urban sprawl is mainly developing at the expense of significance of the environment was routinely mentioned in heavy words in the productive agricultural land. Most areas under coarse and loamy soils with good Master Plans of Delhi-MPD-1962, MPD-2001 and MPD-2021. However, in to moderate moisture retention capacity have been converted to urban use, Delhi, land environment is under stress due to the increasing pressure of leaving less fertile land for agriculture e.g. Rohini, Shahdra, and Pritam Pura population. Urban Population, industry and commerce are widespread and natural etc. vegetation destruction is all over the Delhi Ridge resulting in the shrinkage of Delhi is the most polluted city due to hyper urbanization processes. The the ‘Green Lung’ of Delhi. neo liberalization economic forces further accentuated the process in the last Likewise Delhi’s urban area has grown from 200.52 km² in 1951 to more decade. Delicensing the automobile sector has influenced the urban environment than 658.34 km² in 2001. The urban density has grown from 1,812 in 1921 to to a large extent. Rapid population and vehicular growth in recent years has 19,473 persons per sq. km in 2001. The traffic conditions in Delhi, in all its directly contributed to the rising pollution levels of Delhi. Physical factors like dimensions, represent the transport system in the city. Transportation assumes the presence of elongated low hills in the north south direction, temperature greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing inversions in the winter months, westerly winds and dust blasting from the land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, adjoining Rajasthan desert further accentuate the prevailing pollution levels. give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates. The Institutional mechanisms related to legislative execution, effective transport given fig no. 1, is showing the comparative complexity of Delhi’s land use planning, outdated vehicular technologies coupled with weak community pattern, means the changing face of agricultural land into flyovers can be clearly response and participation in addressing environmental issues have further found in our given map given map. increased the pollution problem in Delhi. There are many factors associated with urban growth pressures. The major cause anticipated for this rise is the high in-migration rate due to better employment opportunities in Delhi in comparison with neighboring states. The number of registered vehicles has also increased nine fold since 1970-71. This rise in registered vehicles is primarily due to the increase in personalized vehicles, which, in turn, has resulted in high pollution loads and large-scale congestion in Delhi. Temporal Analysis of Transport

Fig. 1: Comparative Land Use Pattern, (1986 and 2001) Source: Delhi Development Authority

100

Disaster Management

Land: Use Changes Sustainable urban development is the most important concern for Delhi’s current environmental crisis at the threshold of the 21st Century. The population of Delhi is estimated to rise to 22.42 million persons by 2021. The cheapest means of passenger transport in Delhi are the buses provided by the Delhi Transport Corporation (D.T.C.) and the Delhi Metro which is under construction. The significance of the environment was routinely mentioned in heavy words in the Master Plans of Delhi-MPD-1962, MPD-2001 and MPD-2021. However, in Delhi, land environment is under stress due to the increasing pressure of population. Urban Population, industry and commerce are widespread and natural vegetation destruction is all over the Delhi Ridge resulting in the shrinkage of the ‘Green Lung’ of Delhi. Likewise Delhi’s urban area has grown from 200.52 km² in 1951 to more than 658.34 km² in 2001. The urban density has grown from 1,812 in 1921 to 19,473 persons per sq. km in 2001. The traffic conditions in Delhi, in all its dimensions, represent the transport system in the city. Transportation assumes greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates. The given fig no. 1, is showing the comparative complexity of Delhi’s land use pattern, means the changing face of agricultural land into flyovers can be clearly found in our given map given map.

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent. This statement clearly defines the status of disastrous vehicular population growth in the city, which is a root cause of all environmental problems. The vehicular growth rate is more than the population growth rate leading to hyper vehicularisation in the city and causing various health problems. The road growth is 2 per cent per annum and the total number of registered motor vehicles in 2004 was 3.4 million (more than the total of other metropolitan cities). Two-wheelers form a two-third share of the total motorized vehicles. As it is clearly visible that out of 100 per cent total registered vehicles, 64 per cent is occupied by two wheelers, and the other 36 per cent includes cars, taxis, autorickshows etc. (Fig. 2). Fig. 1: Comparative Land Use Pattern, (1986 and 2001) Source: Delhi Development Authority

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Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

101

Land: Use In Delhi, theChanges land environment is under stress due to the pressures of rapid urbanization. Population growth and in-migrated poor people, industrial growth, Sustainable urban development is the most important concern for Delhi’s current inefficient and inadequate traffic corridors, poor environmental infrastructure, environmental crisis at the threshold of the 21st Century. The population of etc. are the main factors that have deteriorated the quality of the city’s resources Delhi is estimated to rise to 22.42 million persons by 2021. The cheapest means in the land. of passenger transport in Delhi are the buses provided by the Delhi Transport Delhi’s urban area has grown from 182 km2 in the 1970s to more than 750 Corporation (D.T.C.) and the Delhi Metro which is under construction. The km2 in 2001. This urban sprawl is mainly developing at the expense of significance of the environment was routinely mentioned in heavy words in the productive agricultural land. Most areas under coarse and loamy soils with good Master Plans of Delhi-MPD-1962, MPD-2001 and MPD-2021. However, in to moderate moisture retention capacity have been converted to urban use, Delhi, land environment is under stress due to the increasing pressure of leaving less fertile land for agriculture e.g. Rohini, Shahdra, and Pritam Pura population. Urban Population, industry and commerce are widespread and natural etc. vegetation destruction is all over the Delhi Ridge resulting in the shrinkage of Delhi is the most polluted city due to hyper urbanization processes. The the ‘Green Lung’ of Delhi. neo liberalization economic forces further accentuated the process in the last Likewise Delhi’s urban area has grown from 200.52 km² in 1951 to more decade. Delicensing the automobile sector has influenced the urban environment than 658.34 km² in 2001. The urban density has grown from 1,812 in 1921 to to a large extent. Rapid population and vehicular growth in recent years has 19,473 persons per sq. km in 2001. The traffic conditions in Delhi, in all its directly contributed to the rising pollution levels of Delhi. Physical factors like dimensions, represent the transport system in the city. Transportation assumes the presence of elongated low hills in the north south direction, temperature greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing inversions in the winter months, westerly winds and dust blasting from the land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, adjoining Rajasthan desert further accentuate the prevailing pollution levels. give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates. The Institutional mechanisms related to legislative execution, effective transport given fig no. 1, is showing the comparative complexity of Delhi’s land use planning, outdated vehicular technologies coupled with weak community pattern, means the changing face of agricultural land into flyovers can be clearly response and participation in addressing environmental issues have further found in our given map given map. increased the pollution problem in Delhi. There are many factors associated with urban growth pressures. The major cause anticipated for this rise is the high in-migration rate due to better employment opportunities in Delhi in comparison with neighboring states. The number of registered vehicles has also increased nine fold since 1970-71. This rise in registered vehicles is primarily due to the increase in personalized vehicles, which, in turn, has resulted in high pollution loads and large-scale congestion in Delhi. Temporal Analysis of Transport

Fig. 1: Comparative Land Use Pattern, (1986 and 2001) Source: Delhi Development Authority

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent. This statement clearly defines the status of disastrous vehicular population growth in the city, which is a root cause of all environmental problems. The vehicular growth rate is more than the population growth rate leading to hyper vehicularisation in the city and causing various health problems. The road growth is 2 per cent per annum and the total number of registered motor vehicles in 2004 was 3.4 million (more than the total of other metropolitan cities). Two-wheelers form a two-third share of the total motorized vehicles. As it is clearly visible that out of 100 per cent total registered vehicles, 64 per cent is occupied by two wheelers, and the other 36 per cent includes cars, taxis, autorickshows etc. (Fig. 2). Fig. 1: Comparative Land Use Pattern, (1986 and 2001) Source: Delhi Development Authority

100

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101

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

101

In Delhi, theChanges land environment is under stress due to the pressures of rapid Land: Use urbanization. Population growth and in-migrated poor people, industrial growth, Sustainable urban development is the most important concern for Delhi’s current inefficient and inadequate traffic corridors, poor environmental infrastructure, environmental crisis at the threshold of the 21st Century. The population of etc. are the main factors that have deteriorated the quality of the city’s resources Delhi is estimated to rise to 22.42 million persons by 2021. The cheapest means in the land. of passenger transport in Delhi are the buses provided by the Delhi Transport Delhi’s urban area has grown from 182 km2 in the 1970s to more than 750 Corporation (D.T.C.) and the Delhi Metro which is under construction. The km2 in 2001. This urban sprawl is mainly developing at the expense of significance of the environment was routinely mentioned in heavy words in the productive agricultural land. Most areas under coarse and loamy soils with good Master Plans of Delhi-MPD-1962, MPD-2001 and MPD-2021. However, in to moderate moisture retention capacity have been converted to urban use, Delhi, land environment is under stress due to the increasing pressure of leaving less fertile land for agriculture e.g. Rohini, Shahdra, and Pritam Pura population. Urban Population, industry and commerce are widespread and natural etc. vegetation destruction is all over the Delhi Ridge resulting in the shrinkage of Delhi is the most polluted city due to hyper urbanization processes. The the ‘Green Lung’ of Delhi. neo liberalization economic forces further accentuated the process in the last Likewise Delhi’s urban area has grown from 200.52 km² in 1951 to more decade. Delicensing the automobile sector has influenced the urban environment than 658.34 km² in 2001. The urban density has grown from 1,812 in 1921 to to a large extent. Rapid population and vehicular growth in recent years has 19,473 persons per sq. km in 2001. The traffic conditions in Delhi, in all its directly contributed to the rising pollution levels of Delhi. Physical factors like dimensions, represent the transport system in the city. Transportation assumes the presence of elongated low hills in the north south direction, temperature greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing inversions in the winter months, westerly winds and dust blasting from the land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, adjoining Rajasthan desert further accentuate the prevailing pollution levels. give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates. The Institutional mechanisms related to legislative execution, effective transport given fig no. 1, is showing the comparative complexity of Delhi’s land use planning, outdated vehicular technologies coupled with weak community pattern, means the changing face of agricultural land into flyovers can be clearly response and participation in addressing environmental issues have further found in our given map given map. increased the pollution problem in Delhi. There are many factors associated with urban growth pressures. The major cause anticipated for this rise is the high in-migration rate due to better employment opportunities in Delhi in comparison with neighboring states. The number of registered vehicles has also increased nine fold since 1970-71. This rise in registered vehicles is primarily due to the increase in personalized vehicles, which, in turn, has resulted in high pollution loads and large-scale congestion in Delhi.

In Delhi, the land environment is under stress due to the pressures of rapid urbanization. Population growth and in-migrated poor people, industrial growth, inefficient and inadequate traffic corridors, poor environmental infrastructure, etc. are the main factors that have deteriorated the quality of the city’s resources in the land. Delhi’s urban area has grown from 182 km2 in the 1970s to more than 750 2 km in 2001. This urban sprawl is mainly developing at the expense of productive agricultural land. Most areas under coarse and loamy soils with good to moderate moisture retention capacity have been converted to urban use, leaving less fertile land for agriculture e.g. Rohini, Shahdra, and Pritam Pura etc. Delhi is the most polluted city due to hyper urbanization processes. The neo liberalization economic forces further accentuated the process in the last decade. Delicensing the automobile sector has influenced the urban environment to a large extent. Rapid population and vehicular growth in recent years has directly contributed to the rising pollution levels of Delhi. Physical factors like the presence of elongated low hills in the north south direction, temperature inversions in the winter months, westerly winds and dust blasting from the adjoining Rajasthan desert further accentuate the prevailing pollution levels. Institutional mechanisms related to legislative execution, effective transport planning, outdated vehicular technologies coupled with weak community response and participation in addressing environmental issues have further increased the pollution problem in Delhi. There are many factors associated with urban growth pressures. The major cause anticipated for this rise is the high in-migration rate due to better employment opportunities in Delhi in comparison with neighboring states. The number of registered vehicles has also increased nine fold since 1970-71. This rise in registered vehicles is primarily due to the increase in personalized vehicles, which, in turn, has resulted in high pollution loads and large-scale congestion in Delhi.

Temporal Analysis of Transport

Temporal Analysis of Transport

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent. This statement clearly defines the status of disastrous vehicular population growth in the city, which is a root cause of all environmental problems. The vehicular growth rate is more than the population growth rate leading to hyper vehicularisation in the city and causing various health problems. The road growth is 2 per cent per annum and the total number of registered motor vehicles in 2004 was 3.4 million (more than the total of other metropolitan cities). Two-wheelers form a two-third share of the total motorized vehicles. As it is clearly visible that out of 100 per cent total registered vehicles, 64 per cent is occupied by two wheelers, and the other 36 per cent includes cars, taxis, autorickshows etc. (Fig. 2).

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent. This statement clearly defines the status of disastrous vehicular population growth in the city, which is a root cause of all environmental problems. The vehicular growth rate is more than the population growth rate leading to hyper vehicularisation in the city and causing various health problems. The road growth is 2 per cent per annum and the total number of registered motor vehicles in 2004 was 3.4 million (more than the total of other metropolitan cities). Two-wheelers form a two-third share of the total motorized vehicles. As it is clearly visible that out of 100 per cent total registered vehicles, 64 per cent is occupied by two wheelers, and the other 36 per cent includes cars, taxis, autorickshows etc. (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1: Comparative Land Use Pattern, (1986 and 2001) Source: Delhi Development Authority

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101

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

101

In Delhi, theChanges land environment is under stress due to the pressures of rapid Land: Use urbanization. Population growth and in-migrated poor people, industrial growth, Sustainable urban development is the most important concern for Delhi’s current inefficient and inadequate traffic corridors, poor environmental infrastructure, environmental crisis at the threshold of the 21st Century. The population of etc. are the main factors that have deteriorated the quality of the city’s resources Delhi is estimated to rise to 22.42 million persons by 2021. The cheapest means in the land. of passenger transport in Delhi are the buses provided by the Delhi Transport Delhi’s urban area has grown from 182 km2 in the 1970s to more than 750 Corporation (D.T.C.) and the Delhi Metro which is under construction. The km2 in 2001. This urban sprawl is mainly developing at the expense of significance of the environment was routinely mentioned in heavy words in the productive agricultural land. Most areas under coarse and loamy soils with good Master Plans of Delhi-MPD-1962, MPD-2001 and MPD-2021. However, in to moderate moisture retention capacity have been converted to urban use, Delhi, land environment is under stress due to the increasing pressure of leaving less fertile land for agriculture e.g. Rohini, Shahdra, and Pritam Pura population. Urban Population, industry and commerce are widespread and natural etc. vegetation destruction is all over the Delhi Ridge resulting in the shrinkage of Delhi is the most polluted city due to hyper urbanization processes. The the ‘Green Lung’ of Delhi. neo liberalization economic forces further accentuated the process in the last Likewise Delhi’s urban area has grown from 200.52 km² in 1951 to more decade. Delicensing the automobile sector has influenced the urban environment than 658.34 km² in 2001. The urban density has grown from 1,812 in 1921 to to a large extent. Rapid population and vehicular growth in recent years has 19,473 persons per sq. km in 2001. The traffic conditions in Delhi, in all its directly contributed to the rising pollution levels of Delhi. Physical factors like dimensions, represent the transport system in the city. Transportation assumes the presence of elongated low hills in the north south direction, temperature greater significance in the urban context. Desire lines emanating from the existing inversions in the winter months, westerly winds and dust blasting from the land use pattern and then reinforced by accepted transport management solutions, adjoining Rajasthan desert further accentuate the prevailing pollution levels. give rise to the traffic congestion problem of large urban conglomerates. The Institutional mechanisms related to legislative execution, effective transport given fig no. 1, is showing the comparative complexity of Delhi’s land use planning, outdated vehicular technologies coupled with weak community pattern, means the changing face of agricultural land into flyovers can be clearly response and participation in addressing environmental issues have further found in our given map given map. increased the pollution problem in Delhi. There are many factors associated with urban growth pressures. The major cause anticipated for this rise is the high in-migration rate due to better employment opportunities in Delhi in comparison with neighboring states. The number of registered vehicles has also increased nine fold since 1970-71. This rise in registered vehicles is primarily due to the increase in personalized vehicles, which, in turn, has resulted in high pollution loads and large-scale congestion in Delhi.

In Delhi, the land environment is under stress due to the pressures of rapid urbanization. Population growth and in-migrated poor people, industrial growth, inefficient and inadequate traffic corridors, poor environmental infrastructure, etc. are the main factors that have deteriorated the quality of the city’s resources in the land. Delhi’s urban area has grown from 182 km2 in the 1970s to more than 750 2 km in 2001. This urban sprawl is mainly developing at the expense of productive agricultural land. Most areas under coarse and loamy soils with good to moderate moisture retention capacity have been converted to urban use, leaving less fertile land for agriculture e.g. Rohini, Shahdra, and Pritam Pura etc. Delhi is the most polluted city due to hyper urbanization processes. The neo liberalization economic forces further accentuated the process in the last decade. Delicensing the automobile sector has influenced the urban environment to a large extent. Rapid population and vehicular growth in recent years has directly contributed to the rising pollution levels of Delhi. Physical factors like the presence of elongated low hills in the north south direction, temperature inversions in the winter months, westerly winds and dust blasting from the adjoining Rajasthan desert further accentuate the prevailing pollution levels. Institutional mechanisms related to legislative execution, effective transport planning, outdated vehicular technologies coupled with weak community response and participation in addressing environmental issues have further increased the pollution problem in Delhi. There are many factors associated with urban growth pressures. The major cause anticipated for this rise is the high in-migration rate due to better employment opportunities in Delhi in comparison with neighboring states. The number of registered vehicles has also increased nine fold since 1970-71. This rise in registered vehicles is primarily due to the increase in personalized vehicles, which, in turn, has resulted in high pollution loads and large-scale congestion in Delhi.

Temporal Analysis of Transport

Temporal Analysis of Transport

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent. This statement clearly defines the status of disastrous vehicular population growth in the city, which is a root cause of all environmental problems. The vehicular growth rate is more than the population growth rate leading to hyper vehicularisation in the city and causing various health problems. The road growth is 2 per cent per annum and the total number of registered motor vehicles in 2004 was 3.4 million (more than the total of other metropolitan cities). Two-wheelers form a two-third share of the total motorized vehicles. As it is clearly visible that out of 100 per cent total registered vehicles, 64 per cent is occupied by two wheelers, and the other 36 per cent includes cars, taxis, autorickshows etc. (Fig. 2).

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent. This statement clearly defines the status of disastrous vehicular population growth in the city, which is a root cause of all environmental problems. The vehicular growth rate is more than the population growth rate leading to hyper vehicularisation in the city and causing various health problems. The road growth is 2 per cent per annum and the total number of registered motor vehicles in 2004 was 3.4 million (more than the total of other metropolitan cities). Two-wheelers form a two-third share of the total motorized vehicles. As it is clearly visible that out of 100 per cent total registered vehicles, 64 per cent is occupied by two wheelers, and the other 36 per cent includes cars, taxis, autorickshows etc. (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1: Comparative Land Use Pattern, (1986 and 2001) Source: Delhi Development Authority

102

102

Disaster Management R EGIS T ER ED V EH IC U L A R P OP U L A T ION

1% 1% 3%

Disaster Management

Year

R EGIS T ER ED V EH IC U L A R P OP U L A T ION

Population (million)

No. of 1% 1% vehicles 3% (million)

1971 1981 1991 2001

Four Wheelrs

Two Wheelrs

Auto

Taxi

Bus

Good Vehicles

4.07 6.22 9.42 64% 13.78

0.18 0.52 1.81 3.46

Four Wheelrs

Fig. 2: Registered Vehicular Populations in Delhi in 2001 Source: Ministry of Surface Transport 2005

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent and a road growth at 2 per cent. The domestic auto industry is predicting car sales to increase by 10 percent per year. With an extensive network of roads and increasing income, there is every reason to expect vehicle sales and use will continue on a sharp, upward trajectory.

103

Table: 2 Vehicular Growth in Delhi (1971-2001)

5% 26%

64%

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Source: GNCTD, 2002 Taxi

Road Density length 5% 26% Vehicles/ (Km) Km 8380 14316 21556 28508

Density Vehicles/ 000 Person

21.48 36.39 84.08 121.26

Two Wheelrs

Auto

Bus

Good Vehicles

44.27 83.76 191.44 250.82

Fig. 2: Registered Vehicular Populations in Delhi in 2001 Factors Contributing to Vehicular Growth Source: Ministry of Surface Transport 2005

Personal vehicles in Delhi have risen in number largely because of inadequate Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate factors of 7 perin cent annum as against public transport. However; the role of other this per increase cannot be a population growth underestimated (Fig. 4).rate of 4.5 per cent and a road growth at 2 per cent. The domestic auto industry is predicting car sales to increase by 10 percent per year. With an extensive network of roads and increasing income, there is every reason to expect vehicle sales and use will continue on a sharp, upward trajectory. Increasing Pollution Load

15 10 5 0 1971

1981

YEAR

PO PULATIO N(millions)

1991

10 5

1971

R EGIS T ER ED V EH IC U L A R P OP U L A T ION

Two Wheelrs

Auto

Taxi

Bus

Good Vehicles

Disaster Management

Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate of 7 per cent per annum as against a population growth rate of 4.5 per cent and a road growth at 2 per cent. The domestic auto industry is predicting car sales to increase by 10 percent per year. With an extensive network of roads and increasing income, there is every reason to expect vehicle sales and use will continue on a sharp, upward trajectory.

2001

No. of VEHICLES(millions)

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

103

Table: 2 Vehicular Growth in Delhi (1971-2001) Year

R EGIS T ER ED V EH IC U L A R P OP U L A T ION

Population (million)

No. of 1% 1% vehicles 3% (million)

4.07 6.22 9.42 64% 13.78

0.18 0.52 1.81 3.46

Four Wheelrs

Fig. 2: Registered Vehicular Populations in Delhi in 2001 Source: Ministry of Surface Transport 2005

1991

of vehicles and road length. The vehicular density per kilometer on Delhi’s road has been increased from 21.48 in 1971to 121.26 in 2001. That the vehicle affordability is also increasing, means that there is at least one Fig. 4: Driving Forces of Vehicular Increase. Source: Primary vehicle per person in Delhi. In the past Survey 30 years, Delhi’s population has more than tripled and the number of vehicles has increased almost fifteen fold. By These are discussed in the following 5) by the primary 2001, factors Delhi had about 3.46 million motor(Fig vehicles — help 251 of fora every 1,000 survey. Delhi is an example of how that desire can now be met with relatively inhabitants, a rate far higher than most cities with similar incomes. Most of low these incomes. vehicles are small, inexpensive motorcycles and scooters, rather than • Road infrastructure: The growth in the number of vehicles has been maximum automobiles. in the decades, 60-70s and 80-90s. This period also witnessed large scale infrastructure developmental activities in the city. The Delhi Development

1971 1981 1991 2001

Four Wheelrs

YEAR

Fig. 3: Population and Vehicular Growth Over years Source: GNCTD, 2002 Govermental Increasing Inadequate PTS & Policies (bank Population Vehicular Loans etc) The following table no. 2,pressure is showing the immenseaffordability increase in the no.

5% 26%

64%

1981

PO PULATIO N(millions)

102

Disaster Management

1% 1%

Vehicular Growth

0

No. of VEHICLES(millions)

The following table no. 2, is showing the immense increase in the no. of vehicles and road length. The vehicular density per kilometer on Delhi’s road has been increased from 21.48 in 1971to 121.26 in 2001. That the vehicle affordability is also increasing, means that there is at least one vehicle per person in Delhi. In the past 30 years, Delhi’s population has more than tripled and the number of vehicles has increased almost fifteen fold. By 2001, Delhi had about 3.46 million motor vehicles — 251 for every 1,000 inhabitants, a rate far higher than most cities with similar incomes. Most of these vehicles are small, inexpensive motorcycles and scooters, rather than automobiles.

3%

15

2001

Fig. 3: Population and Vehicular Growth Over years Source: GNCTD, 2002

102

PO PU LA TIO N A N D V E HIC U LA R G R O W TH

Growth in Millions

Growth in Millions

PO PU LA TIO N A N D V E HIC U LA R G R O W TH

Source: GNCTD, 2002 Taxi

Road Density length 5% 26% Vehicles/ (Km) Km 8380 14316 21556 28508

Density Vehicles/ 000 Person

21.48 36.39 84.08 121.26

Two Wheelrs

Auto

Bus

Good Vehicles

44.27 83.76 191.44 250.82

Fig. 2: Registered Vehicular Populations in Delhi in 2001 Factors Contributing to Vehicular Growth Source: Ministry of Surface Transport 2005

Personal vehicles in Delhi have risen in number largely because of inadequate Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate factors of 7 perin cent annum as against public transport. However; the role of other this per increase cannot be a population growth underestimated (Fig. 4).rate of 4.5 per cent and a road growth at 2 per cent. The domestic auto industry is predicting car sales to increase by 10 percent per year. With an extensive network of roads and increasing income, there is every reason to expect vehicle sales and use will continue on a sharp, upward trajectory. Increasing Pollution Load

15

PO PU LA TIO N A N D V E HIC U LA R G R O W TH

Growth in Millions

Growth in Millions

PO PU LA TIO N A N D V E HIC U LA R G R O W TH

10 5 0 1971

1981

PO PULATIO N(millions)

YEAR

1991

2001

No. of VEHICLES(millions)

Fig. 3: Population and Vehicular Growth Over years Source: GNCTD, 2002

The following table no. 2, is showing the immense increase in the no. of vehicles and road length. The vehicular density per kilometer on Delhi’s road has been increased from 21.48 in 1971to 121.26 in 2001. That the vehicle affordability is also increasing, means that there is at least one vehicle per person in Delhi. In the past 30 years, Delhi’s population has more than tripled and the number of vehicles has increased almost fifteen fold. By 2001, Delhi had about 3.46 million motor vehicles — 251 for every 1,000 inhabitants, a rate far higher than most cities with similar incomes. Most of these vehicles are small, inexpensive motorcycles and scooters, rather than automobiles.

15 10 5

Vehicular Growth

0 1971

1981

PO PULATIO N(millions)

YEAR

1991

2001

No. of VEHICLES(millions)

Fig. 3: Population and Vehicular Growth Over years Source: GNCTD, 2002 Govermental Increasing Inadequate PTS & Policies (bank Population Vehicular Loans etc) The following table no. 2,pressure is showing the immenseaffordability increase in the no.

of vehicles and road length. The vehicular density per kilometer on Delhi’s road has been increased from 21.48 in 1971to 121.26 in 2001. That the vehicle affordability is also increasing, means that there is at least one Fig. 4: Driving Forces of Vehicular Increase. Source: Primary vehicle per person in Delhi. In the past Survey 30 years, Delhi’s population has more than tripled and the number of vehicles has increased almost fifteen fold. By These are discussed in the following 5) by the primary 2001, factors Delhi had about 3.46 million motor(Fig vehicles — help 251 of fora every 1,000 survey. Delhi is an example of how that desire can now be met with relatively inhabitants, a rate far higher than most cities with similar incomes. Most of low these incomes. vehicles are small, inexpensive motorcycles and scooters, rather than • Road infrastructure: The growth in the number of vehicles has been maximum automobiles. in the decades, 60-70s and 80-90s. This period also witnessed large scale infrastructure developmental activities in the city. The Delhi Development

102

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

103

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Table: 2 Vehicular Growth in Delhi (1971-2001) Year

Table: 2 Vehicular Growth in Delhi (1971-2001)

R EGIS T ER ED V EH IC U L A R P OP U L A T ION

Population (million)

No. of 1% 1% vehicles 3% (million)

1971 1981 1991 2001

4.07 6.22 9.42 64% 13.78

0.18 0.52 1.81 3.46

Four Wheelrs

Source: GNCTD, 2002 Taxi

Road Density length 5% 26% Vehicles/ (Km) Km 8380 14316 21556 28508

Density Vehicles/ 000 Person

Year

Population (million)

No. of vehicles (million)

Road length (Km)

Density Vehicles/ Km

44.27 83.76 191.44 250.82

1971 1981 1991 2001

4.07 6.22 9.42 13.78

0.18 0.52 1.81 3.46

8380 14316 21556 28508

21.48 36.39 84.08 121.26

21.48 36.39 84.08 121.26

Two Wheelrs

Auto

Bus

Good Vehicles

103

Density Vehicles/ 000 Person 44.27 83.76 191.44 250.82

Source: GNCTD, 2002

Fig. 2: Registered Vehicular Populations in Delhi in 2001 Factors Contributing to Vehicular Growth

Factors Contributing to Vehicular Growth

Personal vehicles in Delhi have risen in number largely because of inadequate Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate factors of 7 perin cent annum as against public transport. However; the role of other this per increase cannot be a population growth underestimated (Fig. 4).rate of 4.5 per cent and a road growth at 2 per cent. The domestic auto industry is predicting car sales to increase by 10 percent per year. With an extensive network of roads and increasing income, there is every reason to expect vehicle sales and use will continue on a sharp, upward trajectory. Increasing

Personal vehicles in Delhi have risen in number largely because of inadequate public transport. However; the role of other factors in this increase cannot be underestimated (Fig. 4).

Source: Ministry of Surface Transport 2005

Increasing Pollution Load

Pollution Load

Growth in Millions

PO PU LA TIO N A N D V E HIC U LA R G R O W TH 15 10 5

Vehicular Growth

0 1971

1981

Vehicular Growth

YEAR

PO PULATIO N(millions)

1991

2001

No. of VEHICLES(millions)

Fig. 3: Population and Vehicular Growth Over years Source: GNCTD, 2002 Govermental Increasing Inadequate PTS & Policies (bank Population Vehicular Loans etc) The following table no. 2,pressure is showing the immenseaffordability increase in the no.

of vehicles and road length. The vehicular density per kilometer on Delhi’s road has been increased from 21.48 in 1971to 121.26 in 2001. That the vehicle affordability is also increasing, means that there is at least one Fig. 4: Driving Forces of Vehicular Increase. Source: Primary vehicle per person in Delhi. In the past Survey 30 years, Delhi’s population has more than tripled and the number of vehicles has increased almost fifteen fold. By These are discussed in the following 5) by the primary 2001, factors Delhi had about 3.46 million motor(Fig vehicles — help 251 of fora every 1,000 survey. Delhi is an example of how that desire can now be met with relatively inhabitants, a rate far higher than most cities with similar incomes. Most of low these incomes. vehicles are small, inexpensive motorcycles and scooters, rather than • Road infrastructure: The growth in the number of vehicles has been maximum automobiles. in the decades, 60-70s and 80-90s. This period also witnessed large scale infrastructure developmental activities in the city. The Delhi Development

102

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Govermental Policies (bank Loans etc)

These factors are discussed in the following (Fig 5) by the help of a primary survey. Delhi is an example of how that desire can now be met with relatively low incomes. • Road infrastructure: The growth in the number of vehicles has been maximum in the decades, 60-70s and 80-90s. This period also witnessed large scale infrastructure developmental activities in the city. The Delhi Development

103

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

No. of 1% 1% vehicles 3% (million)

1971 1981 1991 2001

4.07 6.22 9.42 64% 13.78

0.18 0.52 1.81 3.46

Four Wheelrs

Source: GNCTD, 2002 Taxi

Road Density length 5% 26% Vehicles/ (Km) Km 8380 14316 21556 28508

Density Vehicles/ 000 Person

Year

Population (million)

No. of vehicles (million)

Road length (Km)

Density Vehicles/ Km

44.27 83.76 191.44 250.82

1971 1981 1991 2001

4.07 6.22 9.42 13.78

0.18 0.52 1.81 3.46

8380 14316 21556 28508

21.48 36.39 84.08 121.26

21.48 36.39 84.08 121.26

Two Wheelrs

Auto

Bus

Good Vehicles

103

Table: 2 Vehicular Growth in Delhi (1971-2001)

R EGIS T ER ED V EH IC U L A R P OP U L A T ION

Population (million)

Inadequate PTS & Vehicular affordability

Fig. 4: Driving Forces of Vehicular Increase. Source: Primary Survey

Table: 2 Vehicular Growth in Delhi (1971-2001) Year

Increasing Population pressure

Density Vehicles/ 000 Person 44.27 83.76 191.44 250.82

Source: GNCTD, 2002

Fig. 2: Registered Vehicular Populations in Delhi in 2001 Factors Contributing to Vehicular Growth

Factors Contributing to Vehicular Growth

Personal vehicles in Delhi have risen in number largely because of inadequate Delhi registers a vehicle growth rate factors of 7 perin cent annum as against public transport. However; the role of other this per increase cannot be a population growth underestimated (Fig. 4).rate of 4.5 per cent and a road growth at 2 per cent. The domestic auto industry is predicting car sales to increase by 10 percent per year. With an extensive network of roads and increasing income, there is every reason to expect vehicle sales and use will continue on a sharp, upward trajectory. Increasing

Personal vehicles in Delhi have risen in number largely because of inadequate public transport. However; the role of other factors in this increase cannot be underestimated (Fig. 4).

Source: Ministry of Surface Transport 2005

Increasing Pollution Load

Pollution Load

Growth in Millions

PO PU LA TIO N A N D V E HIC U LA R G R O W TH 15 10 5

Vehicular Growth

0 1971

1981

PO PULATIO N(millions)

YEAR

Vehicular Growth 1991

2001

No. of VEHICLES(millions)

Fig. 3: Population and Vehicular Growth Over years Source: GNCTD, 2002 Govermental Increasing Inadequate PTS & Policies (bank Population Vehicular Loans etc) The following table no. 2,pressure is showing the immenseaffordability increase in the no.

of vehicles and road length. The vehicular density per kilometer on Delhi’s road has been increased from 21.48 in 1971to 121.26 in 2001. That the vehicle affordability is also increasing, means that there is at least one Fig. 4: Driving Forces of Vehicular Increase. Source: Primary vehicle per person in Delhi. In the past Survey 30 years, Delhi’s population has more than tripled and the number of vehicles has increased almost fifteen fold. By These are discussed in the following 5) by the primary 2001, factors Delhi had about 3.46 million motor(Fig vehicles — help 251 of fora every 1,000 survey. Delhi is an example of how that desire can now be met with relatively inhabitants, a rate far higher than most cities with similar incomes. Most of low these incomes. vehicles are small, inexpensive motorcycles and scooters, rather than • Road infrastructure: The growth in the number of vehicles has been maximum automobiles. in the decades, 60-70s and 80-90s. This period also witnessed large scale infrastructure developmental activities in the city. The Delhi Development

Govermental Policies (bank Loans etc)

Increasing Population pressure

Inadequate PTS & Vehicular affordability

Fig. 4: Driving Forces of Vehicular Increase. Source: Primary Survey

These factors are discussed in the following (Fig 5) by the help of a primary survey. Delhi is an example of how that desire can now be met with relatively low incomes. • Road infrastructure: The growth in the number of vehicles has been maximum in the decades, 60-70s and 80-90s. This period also witnessed large scale infrastructure developmental activities in the city. The Delhi Development

104

•

104

Disaster Management Authority (DDA) came into existence in the 1960’s and the hosting of ASIAD ’82 required construction of road infrastructure facilities (Ministry of surface Transport 2001). Inadequate public transport: As discussed, the rising mobility pattern was not correspondingly supported by an efficient public transport system; almost 33 per cent of people have this perception (Fig. 5). The result of this was clearly seen in the increase in personal vehicles.

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

105

T RIP came P U RP into OSES IN DEL HI Authority (DDA) existence in the 1960’s and the hosting of ASIAD ’82 required construction of road infrastructure facilities (Ministry of surface Social, Gurudwaras,or Personal Business Transport 2001). Medical Services Inadequate public 7% transport: 14% As discussed, the rising mobility pattern was not Other School 4%an efficient correspondingly supported by public transport system; almost 33 7% per cent of people have this perception (Fig. 5). The result of this was clearly College 5% vehicles. seen in the increase in personal

•

50%

13%

shopping

Work/ Job R E A S O N S O F V HIC U LA R G R O W TH

R E A S O N S O F V HIC U LA R G R O W TH

Other

Inadequate Public transport

Inadequate Public transport

7%

7%

13% 33%

Fig. 13% 6: Trip Purposes in Delhi V ehicular Affordibility Sources: 33% Primary Survey

V ehicular Affordibility More Income

20% 27%

27% SHARE OF TRAN SPORT IN DELHI (1957-2005)

Developmental Need Population Increase

Trip Purpose

Traffic Patterns Unlike most Indian cities, the mode of traffic in Delhi is predominantantly motorized vehicles. The road space is shared by at least seven different types of vehicles, each with different static and dynamic characteristics (Fig. 7). The

•

Developmental Need Cycle

60

Population Bus Increase

Car

Fig. 5: Reasons of Vehicular Growth in Delhi Source: Primary SurveyScooter/motorcycle

40 30

Three-wheeledscooter

taxis Other houses several government/ 20 incentives: Delhi being the National capital, Taxi non- government/ semi- government/ private organizations, which provide 10 Rail automobile dealers have vehicle allowance to their employees. More recently, 0 launched schemes offering attractive vehicle loans facilities. Other vehicles This has attracted 1957 1969 1981 1993 2005 many customers who would have otherwise refrained from the purchase of Walking vehicles. Fuel prices are also cheaper in Delhi. Therefore, the usage of vehicles YEAR becomes considerably affordable.

Fig. 7: Modal Split Scenario in Delhi Sources: Indian Institute of Technology, 2005

Trip Purpose

Work accounts for the largest percentage of transit trips. 50 per cent of all passengers surveyed were on their way to or from work. Transit also enables people to pursue educational opportunities; 12 per cent of all users surveyed were on their way to or from college or other types of school as explained through (Fig. 6).

104

•

% SHARE

Other incentives: Delhi being the National capital, houses several government/ non- government/ semi- government/ private organizations, which provide vehicle allowance to their employees. More recently, automobile dealers have launched schemes offering attractive vehicle loans facilities. This has attracted many customers who would have otherwise refrained from the purchase of vehicles. Fuel prices are also cheaper in Delhi. Therefore, the usage of vehicles becomes considerably affordable.

70

50

Fig. 5: Reasons of Vehicular Growth in Delhi Source: Primary Survey

•

More Income

20%

analysis thatforcycle the total traffic Workshowed accounts the traffic largest contributes percentage 13–34% of transitoftrips. 50 per cent on of all roads. A study by the Indian Institute of Technology of classified volume also counted passengers surveyed were on their way to or from work. Transit enables at 13people different locations in Delhi opportunities; in 2003–04, showed that the share of surveyed non to pursue educational 12 per cent of all users motorized modes of transport ranged between 8 per cent and 46 per cent, of were on their way to or from college or other types of school as explained motorized wheelers between 22 per cent and 55 per cent, and of cars throughtwo (Fig. 6). between 15 per cent and 45 per cent. In 1975 the vehicular population in Delhi and Mumbai was about the same; today Delhi has three times more vehicles Traffic Patterns than Mumbai. (CPCB 2004). With such heavy traffic densities on the roads of Unlike most imperative Indian cities, the mode high of traffic in Delhi is predominantantly Delhi it becomes to determine pollution spots along city roads. motorized vehicles. space is shared by at least seven different types (CPCB Vehicular ReportThe pageroad 1, 2004). of vehicles, each with different static and dynamic characteristics (Fig. 7). The

104

Disaster Management Authority (DDA) came into existence in the 1960’s and the hosting of ASIAD ’82 required construction of road infrastructure facilities (Ministry of surface Transport 2001). Inadequate public transport: As discussed, the rising mobility pattern was not correspondingly supported by an efficient public transport system; almost 33 per cent of people have this perception (Fig. 5). The result of this was clearly seen in the increase in personal vehicles.

•

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

105

T RIP came P U RP into OSES IN DEL HI Authority (DDA) existence in the 1960’s and the hosting of ASIAD ’82 required construction of road infrastructure facilities (Ministry of surface Social, Gurudwaras,or Personal Business Transport 2001). Medical Services Inadequate public 7% transport: 14% As discussed, the rising mobility pattern was not Other School 4%an efficient correspondingly supported by public transport system; almost 33 7% per cent of people have this perception (Fig. 5). The result of this was clearly College 5% vehicles. seen in the increase in personal 50%

13%

shopping

Work/ Job R E A S O N S O F V HIC U LA R G R O W TH

R E A S O N S O F V HIC U LA R G R O W TH

Other

Inadequate Public transport

Inadequate Public transport

7%

7%

13% 33%

Fig. 13% 6: Trip Purposes in Delhi V ehicular Affordibility Sources: 33% Primary Survey

V ehicular Affordibility More Income

20% 27%

20%

27% SHARE OF TRAN SPORT IN DELHI (1957-2005)

Developmental Need Population Increase

Trip Purpose Work accounts for the largest percentage of transit trips. 50 per cent of all passengers surveyed were on their way to or from work. Transit also enables people to pursue educational opportunities; 12 per cent of all users surveyed were on their way to or from college or other types of school as explained through (Fig. 6). Traffic Patterns Unlike most Indian cities, the mode of traffic in Delhi is predominantantly motorized vehicles. The road space is shared by at least seven different types of vehicles, each with different static and dynamic characteristics (Fig. 7). The

•

% SHARE

Other incentives: Delhi being the National capital, houses several government/ non- government/ semi- government/ private organizations, which provide vehicle allowance to their employees. More recently, automobile dealers have launched schemes offering attractive vehicle loans facilities. This has attracted many customers who would have otherwise refrained from the purchase of vehicles. Fuel prices are also cheaper in Delhi. Therefore, the usage of vehicles becomes considerably affordable.

70

Developmental Need Cycle

60

Population Bus Increase

50

Fig. 5: Reasons of Vehicular Growth in Delhi Source: Primary Survey

•

More Income

Car

Fig. 5: Reasons of Vehicular Growth in Delhi Source: Primary SurveyScooter/motorcycle

40 30

Three-wheeledscooter

taxis Other houses several government/ 20 incentives: Delhi being the National capital, Taxi non- government/ semi- government/ private organizations, which provide 10 Rail automobile dealers have vehicle allowance to their employees. More recently, 0 launched schemes offering attractive vehicle loans facilities. Other vehicles This has attracted 1957 1969who1981 many customers would1993 have 2005 otherwise refrained from the purchase of Walking vehicles. Fuel prices are also cheaper in Delhi. Therefore, the usage of vehicles YEAR becomes considerably affordable.

Fig. 7: Modal Split Scenario in Delhi Sources: Indian Institute of Technology, 2005

Trip Purpose

analysis thatforcycle the total traffic Workshowed accounts the traffic largest contributes percentage 13–34% of transitoftrips. 50 per cent on of all roads. A study by the Indian Institute of Technology of classified volume also counted passengers surveyed were on their way to or from work. Transit enables at 13people different locations in Delhi opportunities; in 2003–04, showed that the share of surveyed non to pursue educational 12 per cent of all users motorized modes transport rangedcollege between 8 per types cent and 46 per as cent, of were on their ofway to or from or other of school explained motorized two wheelers between 22 per cent and 55 per cent, and of cars through (Fig. 6). between 15 per cent and 45 per cent. In 1975 the vehicular population in Delhi and Mumbai was about the same; today Delhi has three times more vehicles Traffic Patterns than Mumbai. (CPCB 2004). With such heavy traffic densities on the roads of Unlike most imperative Indian cities, the mode high of traffic in Delhi is predominantantly Delhi it becomes to determine pollution spots along city roads. motorized vehicles. space is shared by at least seven different types (CPCB Vehicular ReportThe pageroad 1, 2004). of vehicles, each with different static and dynamic characteristics (Fig. 7). The

104

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

105

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

T RIP came P U RP into OSES IN DEL HI Authority (DDA) existence in the 1960’s and the hosting of ASIAD ’82 required construction of road infrastructure facilities (Ministry of surface Social, Gurudwaras,or Personal Business Transport 2001). Medical Services Inadequate public 7% transport: 14% As discussed, the rising mobility pattern was not Other School 4%an efficient correspondingly supported by public transport system; almost 33 7% per cent of people have this perception (Fig. 5). The result of this was clearly College 5% vehicles. seen in the increase in personal

•

50%

13%

105

T RIP P U RP OSES IN DEL HI Social, Gurudwaras,or Personal Business Medical Services

7% 14%

Other School

4% 7%

College

5% 50%

shopping

shopping

13%

Work/ Job

Work/ Job

R E A S O N S O F V HIC U LA R G R O W TH

Other

Other

Inadequate Public transport 7%

Fig. 13% 6: Trip Purposes in Delhi V ehicular Affordibility Sources: 33% Primary Survey

Fig. 6: Trip Purposes in Delhi Sources: Primary Survey

More Income

20%

27% SHARE OF TRAN SPORT IN DELHI (1957-2005)

Developmental Need Cycle

70

Cycle

60

Population Bus Increase

60

Bus

50

Car

40

Scooter/motorcycle

30

Three-wheeledscooter taxis Taxi

Car

Fig. 5: Reasons of Vehicular Growth in Delhi Source: Primary SurveyScooter/motorcycle

40 30

Three-wheeledscooter

taxis Other houses several government/ 20 incentives: Delhi being the National capital, Taxi non- government/ semi- government/ private organizations, which provide 10 Rail automobile dealers have vehicle allowance to their employees. More recently, 0 launched schemes offering attractive vehicle loans facilities. Other vehicles This has attracted 1957 1969 1981 1993 2005 many customers who would have otherwise refrained from the purchase of Walking vehicles. Fuel prices are also cheaper in Delhi. Therefore, the usage of vehicles YEAR becomes considerably affordable.

% SHARE

% SHARE

50

•

SHARE OF TRAN SPORT IN DELHI (1957-2005)

70

20 10

•

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

13%

1981

1993

2005 Walking

Fig. 7: Modal Split Scenario in Delhi Sources: Indian Institute of Technology, 2005

analysis showed that cycle traffic contributes 13–34% of the total traffic on roads. A study by the Indian Institute of Technology of classified volume counted at 13 different locations in Delhi in 2003–04, showed that the share of non motorized modes of transport ranged between 8 per cent and 46 per cent, of motorized two wheelers between 22 per cent and 55 per cent, and of cars between 15 per cent and 45 per cent. In 1975 the vehicular population in Delhi and Mumbai was about the same; today Delhi has three times more vehicles than Mumbai. (CPCB 2004). With such heavy traffic densities on the roads of Delhi it becomes imperative to determine high pollution spots along city roads. (CPCB Vehicular Report page 1, 2004).

105

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

T RIP came P U RP into OSES IN DEL HI Authority (DDA) existence in the 1960’s and the hosting of ASIAD ’82 required construction of road infrastructure facilities (Ministry of surface Social, Gurudwaras,or Personal Business Transport 2001). Medical Services Inadequate public 7% transport: 14% As discussed, the rising mobility pattern was not Other School 4%an efficient correspondingly supported by public transport system; almost 33 7% per cent of people have this perception (Fig. 5). The result of this was clearly College 5% vehicles. seen in the increase in personal 50%

1969

YEAR

Trip Purpose

104

Other vehicles 1957

Fig. 7: Modal Split Scenario in Delhi Sources: Indian Institute of Technology, 2005

analysis thatforcycle the total traffic Workshowed accounts the traffic largest contributes percentage 13–34% of transitoftrips. 50 per cent on of all roads. A study by the Indian Institute of Technology of classified volume also counted passengers surveyed were on their way to or from work. Transit enables at 13people different locations in Delhi opportunities; in 2003–04, showed that the share of surveyed non to pursue educational 12 per cent of all users motorized modes of transport ranged between 8 per cent and 46 per cent, of were on their way to or from college or other types of school as explained motorized wheelers between 22 per cent and 55 per cent, and of cars throughtwo (Fig. 6). between 15 per cent and 45 per cent. In 1975 the vehicular population in Delhi and Mumbai was about the same; today Delhi has three times more vehicles Traffic Patterns than Mumbai. (CPCB 2004). With such heavy traffic densities on the roads of Unlike most imperative Indian cities, the mode high of traffic in Delhi is predominantantly Delhi it becomes to determine pollution spots along city roads. motorized vehicles. space is shared by at least seven different types (CPCB Vehicular ReportThe pageroad 1, 2004). of vehicles, each with different static and dynamic characteristics (Fig. 7). The

Rail

0

105

T RIP P U RP OSES IN DEL HI Social, Gurudwaras,or Personal Business Medical Services

7% 14%

Other School

4% 7%

College

5% 50%

shopping

shopping

13%

Work/ Job

Work/ Job

R E A S O N S O F V HIC U LA R G R O W TH

Other

Other

Inadequate Public transport 7%

Fig. 13% 6: Trip Purposes in Delhi V ehicular Affordibility Sources: 33% Primary Survey 20%

Fig. 6: Trip Purposes in Delhi Sources: Primary Survey

More Income

27% SHARE OF TRAN SPORT IN DELHI (1957-2005)

70

70

Cycle

60

Population Bus Increase

60

Bus

50

Car

40

Scooter/motorcycle

30

Three-wheeledscooter taxis Taxi

Car

Fig. 5: Reasons of Vehicular Growth in Delhi Source: Primary SurveyScooter/motorcycle

40 30

Three-wheeledscooter

taxis Other houses several government/ 20 incentives: Delhi being the National capital, Taxi non- government/ semi- government/ private organizations, which provide 10 Rail automobile dealers have vehicle allowance to their employees. More recently, 0 launched schemes offering attractive vehicle loans facilities. Other vehicles This has attracted 1957 1969who1981 many customers would1993 have 2005 otherwise refrained from the purchase of Walking vehicles. Fuel prices are also cheaper in Delhi. Therefore, the usage of vehicles YEAR becomes considerably affordable.

Fig. 7: Modal Split Scenario in Delhi Sources: Indian Institute of Technology, 2005

Trip Purpose

analysis thatforcycle the total traffic Workshowed accounts the traffic largest contributes percentage 13–34% of transitoftrips. 50 per cent on of all roads. A study by the Indian Institute of Technology of classified volume also counted passengers surveyed were on their way to or from work. Transit enables at 13people different locations in Delhi opportunities; in 2003–04, showed that the share of surveyed non to pursue educational 12 per cent of all users motorized modes transport rangedcollege between 8 per types cent and 46 per as cent, of were on their ofway to or from or other of school explained motorized two wheelers between 22 per cent and 55 per cent, and of cars through (Fig. 6). between 15 per cent and 45 per cent. In 1975 the vehicular population in Delhi and Mumbai was about the same; today Delhi has three times more vehicles Traffic Patterns than Mumbai. (CPCB 2004). With such heavy traffic densities on the roads of Unlike most imperative Indian cities, the mode high of traffic in Delhi is predominantantly Delhi it becomes to determine pollution spots along city roads. motorized vehicles. space is shared by at least seven different types (CPCB Vehicular ReportThe pageroad 1, 2004). of vehicles, each with different static and dynamic characteristics (Fig. 7). The

% SHARE

% SHARE

50

•

SHARE OF TRAN SPORT IN DELHI (1957-2005)

Developmental Need Cycle

20 10

Rail

0

Other vehicles 1957

1969

1981 YEAR

1993

2005 Walking

Fig. 7: Modal Split Scenario in Delhi Sources: Indian Institute of Technology, 2005

analysis showed that cycle traffic contributes 13–34% of the total traffic on roads. A study by the Indian Institute of Technology of classified volume counted at 13 different locations in Delhi in 2003–04, showed that the share of non motorized modes of transport ranged between 8 per cent and 46 per cent, of motorized two wheelers between 22 per cent and 55 per cent, and of cars between 15 per cent and 45 per cent. In 1975 the vehicular population in Delhi and Mumbai was about the same; today Delhi has three times more vehicles than Mumbai. (CPCB 2004). With such heavy traffic densities on the roads of Delhi it becomes imperative to determine high pollution spots along city roads. (CPCB Vehicular Report page 1, 2004).

106

106

Disaster Management

Need for MRTS

Temporal Status of Air Pollution The rapid urbanization together with the increasing demand for urban transport, the continuous growth of vehicle usage, energy and population density in the urban areas, are contributing to the levels of urban air pollution, especially near heavy traffic or highly congested roads, and the very high levels reached are generally much higher than the safe standards recommended in Delhi, causing various natural problems as for example: Acid rain, greenhouse gas effects, climatic change in the city. That is why the temporal study of air pollution is very important. The vehicles propelled by two-stroke engines illustrate the public policy challenge: Such engines resemble those of highly inefficient lawn mowers, regularly producing oily clouds of smoke. Also, these vehicles account for 70 per cent of the total vehicle population and 67 per cent of the total air pollution load (approximately 3,000 metric tonnes per day) in Delhi. (CPCB 2004). Delhi is amongst the fastest growing cities of the world. Sustained concentration of population in old areas along with continued expansion of the city in the periphery has produced high intensity and low intensity polluted areas. The poor and old city residents concentrated in high density areas, perhaps experience higher exposures to air pollutants due to the very slow moving vehicular traffic and the presence of unregulated vehicular traffic like Phat Phat Sewa, Tampoo etc. (IIT Delhi, 2001). There is a major shift in the sectoral contribution of pollution, (table 3). Initially the major threat was industry because of the high growth for basic sustenance. Industrial development has been haphazard and unplanned but this scenario has been changed because of many reasons and now transport is playing a disastrous role. The rising incomes and urbanization are largely responsible for the rapid increase in the vehicular population in Delhi. This pattern of

106

Source 1980-81 1990-91 As cities grow in1970-71 size, the number of vehicular trips on the road 2000-01 system goes up. This necessitates a pragmatic policy shift to discourage private modes and Industrial 56 40 29 20 encourage public transport once the level of traffic along any travel corridor in Vehicular 23 20,000 persons 42 per hour. Today 63 the traffic on 72 one direction exceeds the roads of Delhi is a heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars, and rickshaws Domestic 21 This has resulted 18 8 so that jostling with each other. in a chaotic8situation so much dueSource: to suffocation, diseases, road accidents etc.Institute the average National health Environment Engineering Research 2002 number of persons killed per day has increased to 7 and of those injured to 18. The position is expected deteriorate further inemissions the yearsbeing to come. To rectify this situation development hastoresulted in vehicular increasingly responsible the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory for the deteriorating air quality in Delhi. of Delhi, in equal partnership have set up a company named Delhi, Metro The ambient air quality is a dynamic and complex environmental Rail Corporation Ltd. under the Companies Actand of 1956 constructed 65.11 phenomenon exhibiting variations with time space.which CPCBhashas established Kms of Metro Rail tracks in Delhi till 2006 to decrease the population load a National ambient air quality monitoring (NAAQM). During 1998 monitoring in to decrease thewas pollution load and of Delhi’s environment. at allbuses the and NAAQM stations continued the pollutants monitored are

suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen besides meteorological like Pollution wind speed and direction, temperature and relative Temporal parameters Status of Air humidity. In Delhi city, special parameters like Respiratory Suspended Particulate The(RSPM), rapid urbanization together with the increasing urban transport, Matter polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, demand ammoniaforand hydrogen the continuous growth of vehicle usage, energy and population density in the sulphide were monitored. (CPCB, Parivesh News Letter, Dec. 1998,). Pollutant urban areas, are contributing to the levels of urban air pollution, especially levels are often several times higher than the ambient standards set by thenear heavy traffic or highlyBoard congested roads, andfrom the 1995 very high levels reached are Central Pollution Control .For example, – 1999, particulate generally much higher than the safe standards recommended in Delhi, matter and carbon monoxide standards were violated over 85 percent of causing the natural as forbecame example: Acid rain, greenhouse time,various and only sulfurproblems dioxide levels compliant during this periodgas Fig.effects, 8. climatic change in the city. That is why the temporal study of air pollution is very important. The vehicles propelled by two-stroke engines illustrate the public policy challenge: Such engines resemble those of highly inefficient lawn mowers, T REN DS IN SO2, N O2 AN D SP M IN DEL H I(1987-2002) regularly producing oily clouds of smoke. Also, these vehicles account for 70 700 per cent of the total vehicle population and 67 per cent of the total air pollution 600 load (approximately 3,000 metric tonnes per day) in Delhi. (CPCB 2004). 500 Delhi is amongst the fastest growing cities of the world. Sustained 400 concentration of population in old areas along with continued expansion of the 300 city in the periphery has produced high intensity and low intensity polluted 200 areas. The poor and old city residents concentrated in high density areas, perhaps 100 experience higher exposures to air pollutants due to the very slow moving 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1993 1994of 1995 1996 1997 1998vehicular 1999 2000 2001 2002 like Phat vehicular traffic and 1991 the1992 presence unregulated traffic Year Phat Sewa, Tampoo etc. (IIT Delhi, 2001). There is SO2mg/m3 a major shift in theSPMsectoral contribution of pollution, (table 3). Nox St.SPM Initially the major threat was industry because of the high growth for basic sustenance. Industrial development hasSPM beeninhaphazard and unplanned but this Fig. 8: Trends in SO2, NO2 and Delhi (1987-2002) Source: Central Pollution Control and WHO 2004 scenario has been changed because of Board many reasons andReport, now transport is playing Note: The dark line 200 provides WHO standard for SPM. The a disastrous role.through The rising incomesthe andsafe urbanization are largely responsible concentrations of increase NOx and in SOthe multipliedpopulation by 5 to make 200 and as theof 2 are for the rapid vehicular in Delhi. This160 pattern safe standards respectively.

106

Need for MRTS

The rapid urbanization together with the increasing demand for urban transport, the continuous growth of vehicle usage, energy and population density in the urban areas, are contributing to the levels of urban air pollution, especially near heavy traffic or highly congested roads, and the very high levels reached are generally much higher than the safe standards recommended in Delhi, causing various natural problems as for example: Acid rain, greenhouse gas effects, climatic change in the city. That is why the temporal study of air pollution is very important. The vehicles propelled by two-stroke engines illustrate the public policy challenge: Such engines resemble those of highly inefficient lawn mowers, regularly producing oily clouds of smoke. Also, these vehicles account for 70 per cent of the total vehicle population and 67 per cent of the total air pollution load (approximately 3,000 metric tonnes per day) in Delhi. (CPCB 2004). Delhi is amongst the fastest growing cities of the world. Sustained concentration of population in old areas along with continued expansion of the city in the periphery has produced high intensity and low intensity polluted areas. The poor and old city residents concentrated in high density areas, perhaps experience higher exposures to air pollutants due to the very slow moving vehicular traffic and the presence of unregulated vehicular traffic like Phat Phat Sewa, Tampoo etc. (IIT Delhi, 2001). There is a major shift in the sectoral contribution of pollution, (table 3). Initially the major threat was industry because of the high growth for basic sustenance. Industrial development has been haphazard and unplanned but this scenario has been changed because of many reasons and now transport is playing a disastrous role. The rising incomes and urbanization are largely responsible for the rapid increase in the vehicular population in Delhi. This pattern of

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

107

3: Sources of air pollution in Delhi (in percent) Need forTable MRTS Source 1980-81 1990-91 As cities grow in1970-71 size, the number of vehicular trips on the road 2000-01 system goes up. This necessitates56a pragmatic policy private modes and Industrial 40 shift to discourage 29 20 encourage public transport once the level of traffic along any travel corridor in Vehicular 23 20,000 persons 42 per hour. Today 63 the traffic on 72 one direction exceeds the roads of Delhi is a heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars, and rickshaws Domestic 21 This has resulted 18 8 so that jostling with each other. in a chaotic8situation so much dueSource: to suffocation, diseases, road accidents etc.Institute the average National health Environment Engineering Research 2002 number of persons killed per day has increased to 7 and of those injured to 18. The position is expected deteriorate further inemissions the yearsbeing to come. To rectify this situation development hastoresulted in vehicular increasingly responsible the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory for the deteriorating air quality in Delhi. of Delhi, in equal partnership have set up a company named Delhi, Metro The ambient air quality is a dynamic and complex environmental Rail Corporation Ltd. under the Companies Actand of 1956 constructed 65.11 phenomenon exhibiting variations with time space.which CPCBhashas established Kms of Metro Rail tracks in Delhi till 2006 to decrease the population load a National ambient air quality monitoring (NAAQM). During 1998 monitoring in to decrease thewas pollution load and of Delhi’s environment. at allbuses the and NAAQM stations continued the pollutants monitored are

suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen besides meteorological like Pollution wind speed and direction, temperature and relative Temporal parameters Status of Air humidity. In Delhi city, special parameters like Respiratory Suspended Particulate The(RSPM), rapid urbanization together with the increasing urban transport, Matter polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, demand ammoniaforand hydrogen the continuous growth of vehicle usage, energy and population density in the sulphide were monitored. (CPCB, Parivesh News Letter, Dec. 1998,). Pollutant urban areas, are contributing to the levels of urban air pollution, especially levels are often several times higher than the ambient standards set by thenear heavy traffic or highlyBoard congested roads, andfrom the 1995 very high levels reached are Central Pollution Control .For example, – 1999, particulate generally much higher than the safe standards recommended in Delhi, matter and carbon monoxide standards were violated over 85 percent of causing the various natural problems as for example: Acid rain, greenhouse gas time, and only sulfur dioxide levels became compliant during this period Fig.effects, 8. climatic change in the city. That is why the temporal study of air pollution is very important. The vehicles propelled by two-stroke engines illustrate the public policy challenge: Such engines resemble those of highly inefficient lawn mowers, T REN DS IN SO2, N O2 AN D SP M IN DEL H I(1987-2002) regularly producing oily clouds of smoke. Also, these vehicles account for 70 700 per cent of the total vehicle population and 67 per cent of the total air pollution 600 load (approximately 3,000 metric tonnes per day) in Delhi. (CPCB 2004). 500 Delhi is amongst the fastest growing cities of the world. Sustained 400 concentration of population in old areas along with continued expansion of the 300 city in the periphery has produced high intensity and low intensity polluted 200 areas. The poor and old city residents concentrated in high density areas, perhaps 100 experience higher exposures to air pollutants due to the very slow moving 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1993 1994of 1995 1996 1997 1998vehicular 1999 2000 2001 2002 like Phat vehicular traffic and 1991 the1992 presence unregulated traffic Year Phat Sewa, Tampoo etc. (IIT Delhi, 2001). There is SO2mg/m3 a major shift in theSPMsectoral contribution of pollution, (table 3). Nox St.SPM Initially the major threat was industry because of the high growth for basic sustenance. Industrial development hasSPM beeninhaphazard and unplanned but this Fig. 8: Trends in SO2, NO2 and Delhi (1987-2002) Source: Central Pollution Control and WHO 2004 scenario has been changed because of Board many reasons andReport, now transport is playing Note: The dark line 200 provides WHO standard for SPM. The a disastrous role.through The rising incomesthe andsafe urbanization are largely responsible concentrations of NOx and SO are multiplied by 5 to make 200 and 160 as theof 2 for the rapid increase in the vehicular population in Delhi. This pattern Concentration in Micro gram/m3

Temporal Status of Air Pollution

107

3: Sources of air pollution in Delhi (in percent) Need forTable MRTS

Disaster Management

As cities grow in size, the number of vehicular trips on the road system goes up. This necessitates a pragmatic policy shift to discourage private modes and encourage public transport once the level of traffic along any travel corridor in one direction exceeds 20,000 persons per hour. Today the traffic on the roads of Delhi is a heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars, and rickshaws jostling with each other. This has resulted in a chaotic situation so much so that due to suffocation, health diseases, road accidents etc. the average number of persons killed per day has increased to 7 and of those injured to 18. The position is expected to deteriorate further in the years to come. To rectify this situation the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, in equal partnership have set up a company named Delhi, Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. under the Companies Act of 1956 which has constructed 65.11 Kms of Metro Rail tracks in Delhi till 2006 to decrease the population load in buses and to decrease the pollution load of Delhi’s environment.

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Concentration in Micro gram/m3

As cities grow in size, the number of vehicular trips on the road system goes up. This necessitates a pragmatic policy shift to discourage private modes and encourage public transport once the level of traffic along any travel corridor in one direction exceeds 20,000 persons per hour. Today the traffic on the roads of Delhi is a heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars, and rickshaws jostling with each other. This has resulted in a chaotic situation so much so that due to suffocation, health diseases, road accidents etc. the average number of persons killed per day has increased to 7 and of those injured to 18. The position is expected to deteriorate further in the years to come. To rectify this situation the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, in equal partnership have set up a company named Delhi, Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. under the Companies Act of 1956 which has constructed 65.11 Kms of Metro Rail tracks in Delhi till 2006 to decrease the population load in buses and to decrease the pollution load of Delhi’s environment.

Disaster Management

safe standards respectively.

106

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

107

3: Sources of air pollution in Delhi (in percent) Need forTable MRTS

Table 3: Sources of air pollution in Delhi (in percent)

Concentration in Micro gram/m3

suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen besides meteorological like Pollution wind speed and direction, temperature and relative Temporal parameters Status of Air humidity. In Delhi city, special parameters like Respiratory Suspended Particulate The(RSPM), rapid urbanization together with the increasing urban transport, Matter polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, demand ammoniaforand hydrogen the continuous growth of vehicle usage, energy and population density in the sulphide were monitored. (CPCB, Parivesh News Letter, Dec. 1998,). Pollutant urban areas, are contributing to the levels of urban air pollution, especially levels are often several times higher than the ambient standards set by thenear heavy traffic or highlyBoard congested roads, andfrom the 1995 very high levels reached are Central Pollution Control .For example, – 1999, particulate generally much higher than the safe standards recommended in Delhi, matter and carbon monoxide standards were violated over 85 percent of causing the natural as forbecame example: Acid rain, greenhouse time,various and only sulfurproblems dioxide levels compliant during this periodgas Fig.effects, 8. climatic change in the city. That is why the temporal study of air pollution is very important. The vehicles propelled by two-stroke engines illustrate the public policy challenge: Such engines resemble those of highly inefficient lawn mowers, T REN DS IN SO2, N O2 AN D SP M IN DEL H I(1987-2002) regularly producing oily clouds of smoke. Also, these vehicles account for 70 700 per cent of the total vehicle population and 67 per cent of the total air pollution 600 load (approximately 3,000 metric tonnes per day) in Delhi. (CPCB 2004). 500 Delhi is amongst the fastest growing cities of the world. Sustained 400 concentration of population in old areas along with continued expansion of the 300 city in the periphery has produced high intensity and low intensity polluted 200 areas. The poor and old city residents concentrated in high density areas, perhaps 100 experience higher exposures to air pollutants due to the very slow moving 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1993 1994of 1995 1996 1997 1998vehicular 1999 2000 2001 2002 like Phat vehicular traffic and 1991 the1992 presence unregulated traffic Year Phat Sewa, Tampoo etc. (IIT Delhi, 2001). There is SO2mg/m3 a major shift in theSPMsectoral contribution of pollution, (table 3). Nox St.SPM Initially the major threat was industry because of the high growth for basic sustenance. Industrial development hasSPM beeninhaphazard and unplanned but this Fig. 8: Trends in SO2, NO2 and Delhi (1987-2002) Source: Central Pollution Control and WHO 2004 scenario has been changed because of Board many reasons andReport, now transport is playing Note: The dark line 200 provides WHO standard for SPM. The a disastrous role.through The rising incomesthe andsafe urbanization are largely responsible concentrations of increase NOx and in SOthe multipliedpopulation by 5 to make 200 and as theof 2 are for the rapid vehicular in Delhi. This160 pattern safe standards respectively.

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Source

1970-71

1980-81

1990-91

2000-01

Industrial

56

40

29

20

Vehicular

23

42

63

72

Domestic

21

18

8

8

Source: National Environment Engineering Research Institute 2002

development has resulted in vehicular emissions being increasingly responsible for the deteriorating air quality in Delhi. The ambient air quality is a dynamic and complex environmental phenomenon exhibiting variations with time and space. CPCB has established a National ambient air quality monitoring (NAAQM). During 1998 monitoring at all the NAAQM stations was continued and the pollutants monitored are suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen besides meteorological parameters like wind speed and direction, temperature and relative humidity. In Delhi city, special parameters like Respiratory Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide were monitored. (CPCB, Parivesh News Letter, Dec. 1998,). Pollutant levels are often several times higher than the ambient standards set by the Central Pollution Control Board .For example, from 1995 – 1999, particulate matter and carbon monoxide standards were violated over 85 percent of the time, and only sulfur dioxide levels became compliant during this period Fig. 8.

T REN DS IN SO2, N O2 AN D SP M IN DEL H I(1987-2002) 700

Concentration in Micro gram/m3

Source 1980-81 1990-91 As cities grow in1970-71 size, the number of vehicular trips on the road 2000-01 system goes up. This necessitates a pragmatic policy shift to discourage private modes and Industrial 56 40 29 20 encourage public transport once the level of traffic along any travel corridor in Vehicular 23 20,000 persons 42 per hour. Today 63 the traffic on 72 one direction exceeds the roads of Delhi is a heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars, and rickshaws Domestic 21 This has resulted 18 8 so that jostling with each other. in a chaotic8situation so much dueSource: to suffocation, diseases, road accidents etc.Institute the average National health Environment Engineering Research 2002 number of persons killed per day has increased to 7 and of those injured to 18. The position is expected deteriorate further inemissions the yearsbeing to come. To rectify this situation development hastoresulted in vehicular increasingly responsible the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory for the deteriorating air quality in Delhi. of Delhi, in equal partnership have set up a company named Delhi, Metro The ambient air quality is a dynamic and complex environmental Rail Corporation Ltd. under the Companies Actand of 1956 constructed 65.11 phenomenon exhibiting variations with time space.which CPCBhashas established Kms of Metro Rail tracks in Delhi till 2006 to decrease the population load a National ambient air quality monitoring (NAAQM). During 1998 monitoring in to decrease thewas pollution load and of Delhi’s environment. at allbuses the and NAAQM stations continued the pollutants monitored are

106

600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year SO2mg/m3

107

Concentration in Micro gram/m3

suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen besides meteorological like Pollution wind speed and direction, temperature and relative Temporal parameters Status of Air humidity. In Delhi city, special parameters like Respiratory Suspended Particulate The(RSPM), rapid urbanization together with the increasing urban transport, Matter polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, demand ammoniaforand hydrogen the continuous growth of vehicle usage, energy and population density in the sulphide were monitored. (CPCB, Parivesh News Letter, Dec. 1998,). Pollutant urban areas, are contributing to the levels of urban air pollution, especially levels are often several times higher than the ambient standards set by thenear heavy traffic or highlyBoard congested roads, andfrom the 1995 very high levels reached are Central Pollution Control .For example, – 1999, particulate generally much higher than the safe standards recommended in Delhi, matter and carbon monoxide standards were violated over 85 percent of causing the various natural problems as for example: Acid rain, greenhouse gas time, and only sulfur dioxide levels became compliant during this period Fig.effects, 8. climatic change in the city. That is why the temporal study of air pollution is very important. The vehicles propelled by two-stroke engines illustrate the public policy challenge: Such engines resemble those of highly inefficient lawn mowers, T REN DS IN SO2, N O2 AN D SP M IN DEL H I(1987-2002) regularly producing oily clouds of smoke. Also, these vehicles account for 70 700 per cent of the total vehicle population and 67 per cent of the total air pollution 600 load (approximately 3,000 metric tonnes per day) in Delhi. (CPCB 2004). 500 Delhi is amongst the fastest growing cities of the world. Sustained 400 concentration of population in old areas along with continued expansion of the 300 city in the periphery has produced high intensity and low intensity polluted 200 areas. The poor and old city residents concentrated in high density areas, perhaps 100 experience higher exposures to air pollutants due to the very slow moving 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1993 1994of 1995 1996 1997 1998vehicular 1999 2000 2001 2002 like Phat vehicular traffic and 1991 the1992 presence unregulated traffic Year Phat Sewa, Tampoo etc. (IIT Delhi, 2001). There is SO2mg/m3 a major shift in theSPMsectoral contribution of pollution, (table 3). Nox St.SPM Initially the major threat was industry because of the high growth for basic sustenance. Industrial development hasSPM beeninhaphazard and unplanned but this Fig. 8: Trends in SO2, NO2 and Delhi (1987-2002) Source: Central Pollution Control and WHO 2004 scenario has been changed because of Board many reasons andReport, now transport is playing Note: The dark line 200 provides WHO standard for SPM. The a disastrous role.through The rising incomesthe andsafe urbanization are largely responsible concentrations of NOx and SO are multiplied by 5 to make 200 and 160 as theof 2 for the rapid increase in the vehicular population in Delhi. This pattern

Nox

St.SPM

107

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics Table 3: Sources of air pollution in Delhi (in percent) Source

1970-71

1980-81

1990-91

2000-01

Industrial

56

40

29

20

Vehicular

23

42

63

72

Domestic

21

18

8

8

Source: National Environment Engineering Research Institute 2002

development has resulted in vehicular emissions being increasingly responsible for the deteriorating air quality in Delhi. The ambient air quality is a dynamic and complex environmental phenomenon exhibiting variations with time and space. CPCB has established a National ambient air quality monitoring (NAAQM). During 1998 monitoring at all the NAAQM stations was continued and the pollutants monitored are suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen besides meteorological parameters like wind speed and direction, temperature and relative humidity. In Delhi city, special parameters like Respiratory Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide were monitored. (CPCB, Parivesh News Letter, Dec. 1998,). Pollutant levels are often several times higher than the ambient standards set by the Central Pollution Control Board .For example, from 1995 – 1999, particulate matter and carbon monoxide standards were violated over 85 percent of the time, and only sulfur dioxide levels became compliant during this period Fig. 8.

T REN DS IN SO2, N O2 AN D SP M IN DEL H I(1987-2002) 700

Concentration in Micro gram/m3

Source 1980-81 1990-91 As cities grow in1970-71 size, the number of vehicular trips on the road 2000-01 system goes up. This necessitates56a pragmatic policy private modes and Industrial 40 shift to discourage 29 20 encourage public transport once the level of traffic along any travel corridor in Vehicular 23 20,000 persons 42 per hour. Today 63 the traffic on 72 one direction exceeds the roads of Delhi is a heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars, and rickshaws Domestic 21 This has resulted 18 8 so that jostling with each other. in a chaotic8situation so much dueSource: to suffocation, diseases, road accidents etc.Institute the average National health Environment Engineering Research 2002 number of persons killed per day has increased to 7 and of those injured to 18. The position is expected deteriorate further inemissions the yearsbeing to come. To rectify this situation development hastoresulted in vehicular increasingly responsible the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory for the deteriorating air quality in Delhi. of Delhi, in equal partnership have set up a company named Delhi, Metro The ambient air quality is a dynamic and complex environmental Rail Corporation Ltd. under the Companies Actand of 1956 constructed 65.11 phenomenon exhibiting variations with time space.which CPCBhashas established Kms of Metro Rail tracks in Delhi till 2006 to decrease the population load a National ambient air quality monitoring (NAAQM). During 1998 monitoring in to decrease thewas pollution load and of Delhi’s environment. at allbuses the and NAAQM stations continued the pollutants monitored are

SPM

Fig. 8: Trends in SO2, NO2 and SPM in Delhi (1987-2002) Source: Central Pollution Control Board and WHO Report, 2004 Note: The dark line through 200 provides the safe WHO standard for SPM. The concentrations of NOx and SO2 are multiplied by 5 to make 200 and 160 as the safe standards respectively.

3: Sources of air pollution in Delhi (in percent) Need forTable MRTS

safe standards respectively.

107

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year SO2mg/m3

SPM

Nox

St.SPM

Fig. 8: Trends in SO2, NO2 and SPM in Delhi (1987-2002) Source: Central Pollution Control Board and WHO Report, 2004 Note: The dark line through 200 provides the safe WHO standard for SPM. The concentrations of NOx and SO2 are multiplied by 5 to make 200 and 160 as the safe standards respectively.

108

108

Disaster Management

The annual average concentration of SPM, SO2 and NOx in Delhi are provided (Fig. 9). It may be of interest to mention that the average levels of air pollutants like NOx and SO2 in residential as well as industrial areas in Delhi have remained within the safe limits of 50mg/m³ and 40/m³, respectively during 1987–2002 as per WHO standards. However the concentration of SPM stays above the safe mark of 200mg/m³ and shows a more or less rising trend through the decade and only after 2001 a fall in its concentration is observed. This fall can be attributed to the introduction of CNG partly replacing Diesel and Petrol from commercial use. A IR POLLUTA NT A T S ELEC TED S TA TION IN DELHI IN M A R . 2 0 0 2

500 400 300 200 100 0 DELHI

ITO

Nizamuddin

AVERAGE

Siri fort

Shahdra

Janakpuri

Ashok vihar

SO2

Shahazada bagh

Stations

Nox

SPM

Fig. 9: Air Pollutants at selected Stations in Delhi (March 2, 2002) Source: Central Pollution Control Board and WHO Report, 2004 compiled by M.N. Murty & S.C Gulati Institute of Economic Growth

The Central Pollution Control Board has taken Data on six monthly average pollutant’s levels for seven functioning monitoring stations from October 2001 to March 2002 (Central Pollution Control Board). The 7 functioning monitoring stations comprise five residential areas viz. Ashok Vihar, Indraprastha (ITO), Nizamuddin, Siri Fort and Janakpuri; and two industrial areas viz. Shahdara and Shahzada-Bagh. All the seven functioning monitoring stations are put in the ascending order of SPM levels and the line graph for the three air pollutants viz. SPM, SO2 and NOx are presented in the table below (Fig 9). As noted earlier the concentration levels of NOx and SO2 are found to be within the safe limits excepting for the NOx level (68) in Indraprastha (ITO). However, the SPM levels in all of the seven monitoring stations in Delhi are much higher than the safe level allowed (200mg/m3). Interestingly a broad find shows that the lowest average level of SPM is found in Indraprastha (228) compared with the maximum average of around 543 in the industrial area of Shahzada Bagh. In all theother five monitoring stations we find the yearly average SPM level ranges between 311 in Nizamuddin to 388 in Ashok vihar due to vehicular concentration. In cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Nagpur, the annual average of SPM is at least three times higher than WHO standards and in Delhi, Kolkata and

108

The annual average concentration of SPM, SO2 and NOx in Delhi are provided (Fig. 9). It may be of interest to mention that the average levels of air pollutants like NOx and SO2 in residential as well as industrial areas in Delhi have remained within the safe limits of 50mg/m³ and 40/m³, respectively during 1987–2002 as per WHO standards. However the concentration of SPM stays above the safe mark of 200mg/m³ and shows a more or less rising trend through the decade and only after 2001 a fall in its concentration is observed. This fall can be attributed to the introduction of CNG partly replacing Diesel and Petrol from commercial use. A IR POLLUTA NT A T S ELEC TED S TA TION IN DELHI IN M A R . 2 0 0 2

500 400 300 200 100 0 DELHI

ITO

AVERAGE

Nizamuddin

Siri fort

Shahdra

Janakpuri

Ashok vihar

SO2

Nox

Shahazada bagh

Stations

SPM

Fig. 9: Air Pollutants at selected Stations in Delhi (March 2, 2002) Source: Central Pollution Control Board and WHO Report, 2004 compiled by M.N. Murty & S.C Gulati Institute of Economic Growth

The Central Pollution Control Board has taken Data on six monthly average pollutant’s levels for seven functioning monitoring stations from October 2001 to March 2002 (Central Pollution Control Board). The 7 functioning monitoring stations comprise five residential areas viz. Ashok Vihar, Indraprastha (ITO), Nizamuddin, Siri Fort and Janakpuri; and two industrial areas viz. Shahdara and Shahzada-Bagh. All the seven functioning monitoring stations are put in the ascending order of SPM levels and the line graph for the three air pollutants viz. SPM, SO2 and NOx are presented in the table below (Fig 9). As noted earlier the concentration levels of NOx and SO2 are found to be within the safe limits excepting for the NOx level (68) in Indraprastha (ITO). However, the SPM levels in all of the seven monitoring stations in Delhi are much higher than the safe level allowed (200mg/m3). Interestingly a broad find shows that the lowest average level of SPM is found in Indraprastha (228) compared with the maximum average of around 543 in the industrial area of Shahzada Bagh. In all theother five monitoring stations we find the yearly average SPM level ranges between 311 in Nizamuddin to 388 in Ashok vihar due to vehicular concentration. In cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Nagpur, the annual average of SPM is at least three times higher than WHO standards and in Delhi, Kolkata and

300

than the safe level allowed (200mg/m3). Interestingly a broad find shows that the lowest average level of SPM is found in Indraprastha Linking Development, Air Quality and Climate Change: (228) compared with theConversion maximum average CNG in Delhiof around 543 in the industrial area of Shahzada Bagh. In all theother five monitoring stations we find the yearly average SPM level The number of vehicles in Delhi in 1994-95 was 2.43 million, which was higher ranges between 311 in Nizamuddin to 388 in Ashok vihar due to vehicular than the number of vehicles in Calcutta (0.56 million), Mumbai (0.67 million) concentration. and Bangalore (0.80 million) put together. Even the ratio of persons to vehicles In cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Nagpur, the annual average of SPM in Delhi is the highest with 1 person per vehicle as compared with 15, 18, 6 is at least three times higher than WHO standards and in Delhi, Kolkata and

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

109

annualaverage averageSPM concentration SPM, Kanpur, The the annual values are of over five SO times the NOx standard in Delhi limit. are 2 and However, provided the (Fig. annual 9).average It may be concentration of interest to of mention SOx andthat NOx theare average generally levels lowof air in terms pollutants of WHO like specified NOx and limits. SO2 in residential as well as industrial areas in Delhi have remained within thefactors safe limits of 50mg/m³ 40/m³, respectively during Following are the main causing vehicularand pollution: 1987–2002 as are per inWHO standards. releasing Howevermore the concentration of burning SPM stays 1. Many vehicles poor condition, particulates and aboveinefficiently. the safe mark of 200mg/m³ showssuch a more or less rising trend through fuel Certain types of and engines, as two-stroke engines, are the decade and afternew 2001 a fall for in its concentration is observed. particularly bad,only though options improving their efficiency mayThis be fall can be attributed to the introduction CNG partly replacing Diesel and Petrol available soon. Two-stroke engines areofinefficient compared with four-stroke from commercial use. engines and emit hydrocarbons and smoke at a much higher rate. 2. Lower quality fuel is used, leading to the emissions of a far greater quantity of pollutants. A IR POLLUTA NT A T S ELEC TED S TA TION IN DELHI IN M A R . 2 0 0 2 3. Motor600vehicles are concentrated in a few large cities. 4. There500is a lack of public transport and travel demand management. 400 5. Bad road conditions and poor infrastructure. Concentration in mg/m3

Concentration in mg/m3

600

109

Indian200 large point sources (LPS) contribute CO2 and SO2 emissions to a 100 large extent (above 65 per cent) and CH4, N2O and NOX emissions to some 0 extent (around 10 per cent).These LPS are well distributed across the country. DELHI ITO Nizamuddin Siri fort Shahdra Janakpuri Ashok vihar Shahazada However there are some regions of very few LPS (like the western desert and AVERAGE bagh Stations the hilly areas of the north, northeast and coastal west) and some regions of SO2 Nox SPM high LPS concentration (Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor in Delhi). Moreover due to the growing population, increasing urbanization Fig. 9: Air Pollutants at selected Stations in and Delhihigher (Marchconsumption 2, 2002) levels, Source: these LPS emissions are growing much faster than the average.by Central Pollution Control Board and WHO Report,national 2004 compiled M.N. Murty & S.C Gulati of Economic In general urbanization increases energyInstitute use and therefore Growth emissions. LPS develop near large consumption centers (towns and cities) and in turn facilitate LPS emissions their expansion. ThePollution regionalControl distributions 2 and The Central Board for has CO taken DataSO on2 six monthly average correspond to the vehicular growth pattern of India. Coal is the mainstay of the2001 pollutant’s levels for seven functioning monitoring stations from October 63 per Indian energy 2002 system contributing almost 75 per cent The of total CO2 and monitoring to March (Central Pollution Control Board). 7 functioning emissions.five residential areas viz. Ashok Vihar, Indraprastha (ITO), cent stations of SO2 comprise The LPS analysis indicates that presently a strongareas nexusviz. between Nizamuddin, Siri Fort and Janakpuri; andthere two is industrial Shahdara localand air Shahzada-Bagh. quality and GHG emissions. There are mitigation opportunities All the seven functioning monitoring stations arelike put in fuel the switching, carbon free technology penetration etc, that address both these ascending order of SPM levels and the line graph for the three air pollutants concerns simultaneously. However there mayinalso separate are presented the be table below policy (Fig 9).options As noted viz. SPM, SO2 and NOx for addressing both these concerns individually that would therefore decline the safe earlier the concentration levels of NOx and SO2 are found to be within theselimits emissions in future. CNG in Delhi represents the first the excepting for theThe NOx levelexperience (68) in Indraprastha (ITO). However, scenario. SPM levels in all of the seven monitoring stations in Delhi are much higher

108

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

annualaverage averageSPM concentration SPM, Kanpur, The the annual values are of over five SO times the NOx standard in Delhi limit. are 2 and However, provided the (Fig. annual 9).average It may be concentration of interest to of mention SOx andthat NOx theare average generally levels lowof air in terms pollutants of WHO like specified NOx and limits. SO2 in residential as well as industrial areas in Delhi have remained within thefactors safe limits of 50mg/m³ 40/m³, respectively during Following are the main causing vehicularand pollution: 1987–2002 as are per inWHO standards. releasing Howevermore the concentration of burning SPM stays 1. Many vehicles poor condition, particulates and aboveinefficiently. the safe mark of 200mg/m³ showssuch a more or less rising trend through fuel Certain types of and engines, as two-stroke engines, are the decade and afternew 2001 a fall for in its concentration is observed. particularly bad,only though options improving their efficiency mayThis be fall can be attributed to the introduction CNG partly replacing Diesel and Petrol available soon. Two-stroke engines areofinefficient compared with four-stroke from commercial use. engines and emit hydrocarbons and smoke at a much higher rate. 2. Lower quality fuel is used, leading to the emissions of a far greater quantity of pollutants. A IR POLLUTA NT A T S ELEC TED S TA TION IN DELHI IN M A R . 2 0 0 2 3. Motor600vehicles are concentrated in a few large cities. 4. There500is a lack of public transport and travel demand management. 400 5. Bad road conditions and poor infrastructure. Concentration in mg/m3

Concentration in mg/m3

600

Disaster Management

300

Indian200 large point sources (LPS) contribute CO2 and SO2 emissions to a 100 large extent (above 65 per cent) and CH4, N2O and NOX emissions to some 0 extent (around 10 per cent).These LPS are well distributed across the country. DELHI ITO Nizamuddin Siri fort Shahdra Janakpuri Ashok vihar Shahazada However there are some regions of very few LPS (like the western desert and AVERAGE bagh Stations the hilly areas of the north, northeast and coastal west) and some regions of SO2 Nox SPM high LPS concentration (Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor in Delhi). Moreover due to the growing population, increasing urbanization Fig. 9: Air Pollutants at selected Stations in and Delhihigher (Marchconsumption 2, 2002) levels, Source: these LPS emissions are Control growingBoard muchand faster than the national average.by Central Pollution WHO Report, 2004 compiled M.N. Murty & S.C Gulati of Economic In general urbanization increases energyInstitute use and therefore Growth emissions. LPS develop near large consumption centers (towns and cities) and in turn facilitate LPS emissions their expansion. ThePollution regionalControl distributions 2 and The Central Board for has CO taken DataSO on2 six monthly average correspond to the vehicular growth pattern of India. Coal is the mainstay of the2001 pollutant’s levels for seven functioning monitoring stations from October 63 per Indian energy 2002 system contributing almost 75 per cent The of total CO2 and monitoring to March (Central Pollution Control Board). 7 functioning emissions.five residential areas viz. Ashok Vihar, Indraprastha (ITO), cent stations of SO2 comprise The LPS analysis indicates that presently a strongareas nexusviz. between Nizamuddin, Siri Fort and Janakpuri; andthere two is industrial Shahdara localand air Shahzada-Bagh. quality and GHG emissions. There are mitigation opportunities All the seven functioning monitoring stations arelike put in fuel the switching, carbon technology penetration etc, that these ascending orderfree of SPM levels and the line graph for address the threeboth air pollutants concerns simultaneously. However there mayinalso separate are presented the be table below policy (Fig 9).options As noted viz. SPM, SO2 and NOx for addressing both these concerns individually that would therefore decline the safe earlier the concentration levels of NOx and SO2 are found to be within theselimits emissions in future. CNG in Delhi represents the first the excepting for theThe NOx levelexperience (68) in Indraprastha (ITO). However, scenario. SPM levels in all of the seven monitoring stations in Delhi are much higher

than the safe level allowed (200mg/m3). Interestingly a broad find shows that the lowest average level of SPM is found in Indraprastha Linking Development, Air Quality and Climate Change: (228) compared with the maximum average of around 543 in the industrial area of Shahzada Bagh. CNG Conversion in Delhi In all theother five monitoring stations we find the yearly average SPM level The number of vehicles in Delhi in 1994-95 was 2.43 million, which was higher ranges between 311 in Nizamuddin to 388 in Ashok vihar due to vehicular than the number of vehicles in Calcutta (0.56 million), Mumbai (0.67 million) concentration. and Bangalore (0.80 million) put together. Even the ratio of persons to vehicles In cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Nagpur, the annual average of SPM in Delhi is the highest with 1 person per vehicle as compared with 15, 18, 6 is at least three times higher than WHO standards and in Delhi, Kolkata and

108

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

109

Concentration in mg/m3

Kanpur, The the annual values are of over five SO times the NOx standard limit. are annualaverage averageSPM concentration SPM, in Delhi 2 and However, the (Fig. annual concentration of mention SOx andthat NOx generally lowof air provided 9).average It may be of interest to theare average levels in terms of WHO pollutants like specified NOx and limits. SO2 in residential as well as industrial areas in Delhi Following are the main causing vehicularand pollution: have remained within thefactors safe limits of 50mg/m³ 40/m³, respectively during 1. Many vehicles poor condition, particulates and 1987–2002 as are per inWHO standards. releasing Howevermore the concentration of burning SPM stays fuel Certain types of and engines, as two-stroke engines, are aboveinefficiently. the safe mark of 200mg/m³ showssuch a more or less rising trend through particularly bad,only though options improving their efficiency mayThis be fall the decade and afternew 2001 a fall for in its concentration is observed. available soon. Two-stroke engines areofinefficient compared with four-stroke can be attributed to the introduction CNG partly replacing Diesel and Petrol engines and emit hydrocarbons and smoke at a much higher rate. from commercial use. 2. Lower quality fuel is used, leading to the emissions of a far greater quantity of pollutants. A IR POLLUTA NT A T S ELEC TED S TA TION IN DELHI IN M A R . 2 0 0 2 3. Motor600vehicles are concentrated in a few large cities. 4. There500is a lack of public transport and travel demand management. 400 5. Bad road conditions and poor infrastructure.

than the safe level allowed (200mg/m3). Interestingly a broad find shows that the lowest average level of SPM is found in Indraprastha Linking Development, Air Quality and Climate Change: (228) compared with theConversion maximum average CNG in Delhiof around 543 in the industrial area of Shahzada Bagh. In all theother five monitoring stations we find the yearly average SPM level The number of vehicles in Delhi in 1994-95 was 2.43 million, which was higher ranges between 311 in Nizamuddin to 388 in Ashok vihar due to vehicular than the number of vehicles in Calcutta (0.56 million), Mumbai (0.67 million) concentration. and Bangalore (0.80 million) put together. Even the ratio of persons to vehicles In cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Nagpur, the annual average of SPM in Delhi is the highest with 1 person per vehicle as compared with 15, 18, 6 is at least three times higher than WHO standards and in Delhi, Kolkata and

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

109

Kanpur, The the annual values are of over five SO times the NOx standard limit. are annualaverage averageSPM concentration SPM, in Delhi 2 and However, the (Fig. annual concentration of mention SOx andthat NOx generally lowof air provided 9).average It may be of interest to theare average levels in terms of WHO pollutants like specified NOx and limits. SO2 in residential as well as industrial areas in Delhi Following are the main causing vehicularand pollution: have remained within thefactors safe limits of 50mg/m³ 40/m³, respectively during 1. Many vehicles poor condition, particulates and 1987–2002 as are per inWHO standards. releasing Howevermore the concentration of burning SPM stays fuel Certain types of and engines, as two-stroke engines, are aboveinefficiently. the safe mark of 200mg/m³ showssuch a more or less rising trend through particularly bad,only though options improving their efficiency mayThis be fall the decade and afternew 2001 a fall for in its concentration is observed. available soon. Two-stroke engines areofinefficient compared with four-stroke can be attributed to the introduction CNG partly replacing Diesel and Petrol engines and emit hydrocarbons and smoke at a much higher rate. from commercial use. 2. Lower quality fuel is used, leading to the emissions of a far greater quantity of pollutants. A IR POLLUTA NT A T S ELEC TED S TA TION IN DELHI IN M A R . 2 0 0 2 3. Motor600vehicles are concentrated in a few large cities. 4. There500is a lack of public transport and travel demand management. 400 5. Bad road conditions and poor infrastructure. Concentration in mg/m3

109

Kanpur, the annual average SPM values are over five times the standard limit. However, the annual average concentration of SOx and NOx are generally low in terms of WHO specified limits. Following are the main factors causing vehicular pollution: 1. Many vehicles are in poor condition, releasing more particulates and burning fuel inefficiently. Certain types of engines, such as two-stroke engines, are particularly bad, though new options for improving their efficiency may be available soon. Two-stroke engines are inefficient compared with four-stroke engines and emit hydrocarbons and smoke at a much higher rate. 2. Lower quality fuel is used, leading to the emissions of a far greater quantity of pollutants. 3. Motor vehicles are concentrated in a few large cities. 4. There is a lack of public transport and travel demand management. 5. Bad road conditions and poor infrastructure.

300

Indian200 large point sources (LPS) contribute CO2 and SO2 emissions to a 100 large extent (above 65 per cent) and CH4, N2O and NOX emissions to some 0 extent (around 10 per cent).These LPS are well distributed across the country. DELHI ITO Nizamuddin Siri fort Shahdra Janakpuri Ashok vihar Shahazada However there are some regions of very few LPS (like the western desert and AVERAGE bagh Stations the hilly areas of the north, northeast and coastal west) and some regions of SO2 Nox SPM high LPS concentration (Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor in Delhi). Moreover due to the growing population, increasing urbanization Fig. 9: Air Pollutants at selected Stations in and Delhihigher (Marchconsumption 2, 2002) levels, Source: these LPS emissions are growing much faster than the average.by Central Pollution Control Board and WHO Report,national 2004 compiled M.N. Murty & S.C Gulati of Economic In general urbanization increases energyInstitute use and therefore Growth emissions. LPS develop near large consumption centers (towns and cities) and in turn facilitate LPS emissions their expansion. ThePollution regionalControl distributions 2 and The Central Board for has CO taken DataSO on2 six monthly average correspond to the vehicular growth pattern of India. Coal is the mainstay of the2001 pollutant’s levels for seven functioning monitoring stations from October 63 per Indian energy 2002 system contributing almost 75 per cent The of total CO2 and monitoring to March (Central Pollution Control Board). 7 functioning emissions.five residential areas viz. Ashok Vihar, Indraprastha (ITO), cent stations of SO2 comprise The LPS analysis indicates that presently a strongareas nexusviz. between Nizamuddin, Siri Fort and Janakpuri; andthere two is industrial Shahdara localand air Shahzada-Bagh. quality and GHG emissions. There are mitigation opportunities All the seven functioning monitoring stations arelike put in fuel the switching, carbon free technology penetration etc, that address both these ascending order of SPM levels and the line graph for the three air pollutants concerns simultaneously. However there mayinalso separate are presented the be table below policy (Fig 9).options As noted viz. SPM, SO2 and NOx for addressing both these concerns individually that would therefore decline the safe earlier the concentration levels of NOx and SO2 are found to be within theselimits emissions in future. CNG in Delhi represents the first the excepting for theThe NOx levelexperience (68) in Indraprastha (ITO). However, scenario. SPM levels in all of the seven monitoring stations in Delhi are much higher

108

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

Indian large point sources (LPS) contribute CO2 and SO2 emissions to a large extent (above 65 per cent) and CH4, N2O and NOX emissions to some extent (around 10 per cent).These LPS are well distributed across the country. However there are some regions of very few LPS (like the western desert and the hilly areas of the north, northeast and coastal west) and some regions of high LPS concentration (Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor in Delhi). Moreover due to the growing population, increasing urbanization and higher consumption levels, these LPS emissions are growing much faster than the national average. In general urbanization increases energy use and therefore emissions. LPS develop near large consumption centers (towns and cities) and in turn facilitate their expansion. The regional distributions for CO2 and SO2 LPS emissions correspond to the vehicular growth pattern of India. Coal is the mainstay of the Indian energy system contributing almost 75 per cent of total CO2 and 63 per cent of SO2 emissions. The LPS analysis indicates that presently there is a strong nexus between local air quality and GHG emissions. There are mitigation opportunities like fuel switching, carbon free technology penetration etc, that address both these concerns simultaneously. However there may also be separate policy options for addressing both these concerns individually that would therefore decline these emissions in future. The CNG experience in Delhi represents the first scenario. Linking Development, Air Quality and Climate Change: CNG Conversion in Delhi The number of vehicles in Delhi in 1994-95 was 2.43 million, which was higher than the number of vehicles in Calcutta (0.56 million), Mumbai (0.67 million) and Bangalore (0.80 million) put together. Even the ratio of persons to vehicles in Delhi is the highest with 1 person per vehicle as compared with 15, 18, 6

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

109

Kanpur, the annual average SPM values are over five times the standard limit. However, the annual average concentration of SOx and NOx are generally low in terms of WHO specified limits. Following are the main factors causing vehicular pollution: 1. Many vehicles are in poor condition, releasing more particulates and burning fuel inefficiently. Certain types of engines, such as two-stroke engines, are particularly bad, though new options for improving their efficiency may be available soon. Two-stroke engines are inefficient compared with four-stroke engines and emit hydrocarbons and smoke at a much higher rate. 2. Lower quality fuel is used, leading to the emissions of a far greater quantity of pollutants. 3. Motor vehicles are concentrated in a few large cities. 4. There is a lack of public transport and travel demand management. 5. Bad road conditions and poor infrastructure.

300

Indian200 large point sources (LPS) contribute CO2 and SO2 emissions to a 100 large extent (above 65 per cent) and CH4, N2O and NOX emissions to some 0 extent (around 10 per cent).These LPS are well distributed across the country. DELHI ITO Nizamuddin Siri fort Shahdra Janakpuri Ashok vihar Shahazada However there are some regions of very few LPS (like the western desert and AVERAGE bagh Stations the hilly areas of the north, northeast and coastal west) and some regions of SO2 Nox SPM high LPS concentration (Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor in Delhi). Moreover due to the growing population, increasing urbanization Fig. 9: Air Pollutants at selected Stations in and Delhihigher (Marchconsumption 2, 2002) levels, Source: these LPS emissions are Control growingBoard muchand faster than the national average.by Central Pollution WHO Report, 2004 compiled M.N. Murty & S.C Gulati of Economic In general urbanization increases energyInstitute use and therefore Growth emissions. LPS develop near large consumption centers (towns and cities) and in turn facilitate LPS emissions their expansion. ThePollution regionalControl distributions 2 and The Central Board for has CO taken DataSO on2 six monthly average correspond to the vehicular growth pattern of India. Coal is the mainstay of the2001 pollutant’s levels for seven functioning monitoring stations from October 63 per Indian energy 2002 system contributing almost 75 per cent The of total CO2 and monitoring to March (Central Pollution Control Board). 7 functioning emissions.five residential areas viz. Ashok Vihar, Indraprastha (ITO), cent stations of SO2 comprise The LPS analysis indicates that presently a strongareas nexusviz. between Nizamuddin, Siri Fort and Janakpuri; andthere two is industrial Shahdara localand air Shahzada-Bagh. quality and GHG emissions. There are mitigation opportunities All the seven functioning monitoring stations arelike put in fuel the switching, carbon technology penetration etc, that these ascending orderfree of SPM levels and the line graph for address the threeboth air pollutants concerns simultaneously. However there mayinalso separate are presented the be table below policy (Fig 9).options As noted viz. SPM, SO2 and NOx for addressing both these concerns individually that would therefore decline the safe earlier the concentration levels of NOx and SO2 are found to be within theselimits emissions in future. CNG in Delhi represents the first the excepting for theThe NOx levelexperience (68) in Indraprastha (ITO). However, scenario. SPM levels in all of the seven monitoring stations in Delhi are much higher

than the safe level allowed (200mg/m3). Interestingly a broad find shows that the lowest average level of SPM is found in Indraprastha Linking Development, Air Quality and Climate Change: (228) compared with the maximum average of around 543 in the industrial area of Shahzada Bagh. CNG Conversion in Delhi In all theother five monitoring stations we find the yearly average SPM level The number of vehicles in Delhi in 1994-95 was 2.43 million, which was higher ranges between 311 in Nizamuddin to 388 in Ashok vihar due to vehicular than the number of vehicles in Calcutta (0.56 million), Mumbai (0.67 million) concentration. and Bangalore (0.80 million) put together. Even the ratio of persons to vehicles In cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Nagpur, the annual average of SPM in Delhi is the highest with 1 person per vehicle as compared with 15, 18, 6 is at least three times higher than WHO standards and in Delhi, Kolkata and

Indian large point sources (LPS) contribute CO2 and SO2 emissions to a large extent (above 65 per cent) and CH4, N2O and NOX emissions to some extent (around 10 per cent).These LPS are well distributed across the country. However there are some regions of very few LPS (like the western desert and the hilly areas of the north, northeast and coastal west) and some regions of high LPS concentration (Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor in Delhi). Moreover due to the growing population, increasing urbanization and higher consumption levels, these LPS emissions are growing much faster than the national average. In general urbanization increases energy use and therefore emissions. LPS develop near large consumption centers (towns and cities) and in turn facilitate their expansion. The regional distributions for CO2 and SO2 LPS emissions correspond to the vehicular growth pattern of India. Coal is the mainstay of the Indian energy system contributing almost 75 per cent of total CO2 and 63 per cent of SO2 emissions. The LPS analysis indicates that presently there is a strong nexus between local air quality and GHG emissions. There are mitigation opportunities like fuel switching, carbon free technology penetration etc, that address both these concerns simultaneously. However there may also be separate policy options for addressing both these concerns individually that would therefore decline these emissions in future. The CNG experience in Delhi represents the first scenario. Linking Development, Air Quality and Climate Change: CNG Conversion in Delhi The number of vehicles in Delhi in 1994-95 was 2.43 million, which was higher than the number of vehicles in Calcutta (0.56 million), Mumbai (0.67 million) and Bangalore (0.80 million) put together. Even the ratio of persons to vehicles in Delhi is the highest with 1 person per vehicle as compared with 15, 18, 6

110

110

Disaster Management

and 10 persons per vehicle respectively for Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and all India. The characteristic feature of the transport system is the pre-dominance of private vehicles, which comprise about 90 per cent of the total vehicles in Delhi, but cater to around 40 per cent of the total traffic load. One of the most significant measures that have been taken in Delhi is the introduction of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as the fuel for all public transport. The significance lies in the fact that it was carried out following active interventions by the Supreme Court of India. Institutional failures also led to delays and problems in implementation. Along with CNG conversion for all public transport vehicles and the phased introduction of the metro rail system in Delhi, cleaner diesel is also being supplied in the city in the last three years. The sulfur content in the diesel oil supplied to the metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata) has been decreased during the year 2000 from 1 per cent sulfur by weight to 0.25 per cent by the Indian refineries as per the Indian government directives. The sulfur content has been further reduced to 0.05 per cent by weight in Delhi by late 2001. In spite of this, there are significant developments and environmental benefits from the experience. The following section presents the entire transition process, beginning with the orders given by the Supreme Court that led to the adoption of CNG, to the implementation process, especially the institutional failures which drew insights from the experience. Judicial intervention in the air pollution problem in Delhi started after a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was filed by an environment activist lawyer in the Supreme Court in1996. The PIL, namely M.C. MEHTA versus Union of India and others, called for measures to improve the air quality in Delhi. After several hearings, the Court passed orders in 1998 that gave a time frame for implementing measures to control vehicular pollution in the National Capital Region of Delhi. With the implementation of various pollution control measures and the introduction of CNG, the pollution level of Delhi goes on decreasing. As the above graph (Fig. 10) shows the major fall in the level of disastrous lead from

T REN DS OF DIF F EREN T P OL L U T AN T S IN DEL HI 500

300

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

200 100 0 1994

and 10 persons per vehicle(2000), respectively Kolkata, and all 400mg/m³(1994) to 100mg/m³ ‘due tofortheMumbai, shift towards nonChennai lead petrol India. The characteristic of the transport system is the pre-dominance moving vehicles in Delhi. Thefeature particulate lead concentrations appear to be getting of private vehicles, comprise about 90 per cent of the vehicles in under control which iswhich attributable to the delegating of petrol andtotal restrictions levels in overall cases because of less industrialization. Due but cater to around 40 per cent of the total traffic load. One of thetomost and Delhi, less SO 2 highsignificant population measures pressure and industrial and commercial the high of thatlarge have been taken in Delhi isactivities, the introduction economic proficiency of Delhi has nowasmanifested itselfallas public the roottransport. cause of The Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) the fuel for serious environmental significance lies in problems. the fact that it was carried out following active interventions Consequently, workofcarried will add failures to our also knowledge the and by the SupremetheCourt India. out Institutional led to on delays sustainable urban environmental Along development in Delhi. In fact,forthe problems in implementation. with CNG conversion allcontainment public transport of vehicular pollution requires an integrated with the following vehicles and the phased introduction of the approach, metro rail system in Delhi, cleaner components: diesel is also being supplied in the city in the last three years. The sulfur content 1. in Improvement public transport system. the diesel oilofsupplied to the metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai 2. and Optimisation of traffic and improvement in traffic management (e.g.,cent area Kolkata) has been decreased during the year 2000 from 1 per sulfur control system, timers intersections, no traffic zones, bytraffic weight to 0.25 per cent by at the Indian refineries as per the green Indiancorridors, government removal of encroachment on roads, regulation the digging of roads). directives. The sulfur content has been furtherofreduced to 0.05 per cent by 3. weight Comprehensive forsignificant on road vehicles. in Delhi byinspection late 2001.and In certification spite of this, system there are developments 4. and Phasing out of grossly polluting units. environmental benefits from the experience. The following section presents 5. theFuel quality improvement benzenewith andthe aromatics petrol, entire transition process,(e.g., beginning orders in given by reduction the Supreme ofsulphur in to diesel). Court that led the adoption of CNG, to the implementation process, especially 6. theTightening of emission institutional failures norms which(e.g., drewEURO-IV). insights from the experience. Judicial 7. intervention Improvement in vehicle technology (e.g.,inrestriction on manufacturing in the air pollution problem Delhi started after a Public of Interest 2-stroke (PIL) engines, emission on-board activist diagnostic system). Litigation was filed bywarranty, an environment lawyer in the Supreme 8. Court Checking fuel adulteration, and in1996. The PIL, namely M.C. MEHTA versus Union of India and others, 9. called Checking evaporative emissions storageintanks and fuelseveral distribution for measures to improve thefrom air quality Delhi. After hearings, thesystems. Court passed orders in 1998 that gave a time frame for implementing measures to control vehicular pollution in the National Capital Region of Delhi. With the implementation of various pollution control measures and the CONCLUSION introduction of CNG, the pollution level of Delhi goes on decreasing. As the Traffic problems have become an issue of grave concern in most metropolitan above graph (Fig. 10) shows the major fall in the level of disastrous lead from cities around the world. Environmental degradation is perhaps a dramatic symbol of the development process in the country, which dislocates lives and destroys the environment for the sake of dubious gain. Delhi faces the same challenges T REN DS OF DIF F EREN T P OL L U T AN T S IN DEL HI as other mega cities of the developing world: how to balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal transport. The widespread availability of 500 low cost motorized two wheelers has created a new reality.The capital city 400 Delhi which includes New and Old Delhi and its surrounding metropolitan 300 area-has suffered for decades from declining air quality. In the early 1990s, 200 despite a plethora of environmental laws and numerous government-initiated 100 policies to combat pollution, India’s capital gained the dubious distinction of 0 being the fourth most polluted city in the world.

1996

1998

2000

2001

1994

1996

Y e ar

SO2 (mg/m3 )

NO2 (mg/m3 )

Pb (ng/m3)

CO (ug/m3 )

REFERENCES

2000

2001

and 10 persons per vehicle respectively for Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and all India. The characteristic feature of the transport system is the pre-dominance of private vehicles, which comprise about 90 per cent of the total vehicles in Delhi, but cater to around 40 per cent of the total traffic load. One of the most significant measures that have been taken in Delhi is the introduction of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as the fuel for all public transport. The significance lies in the fact that it was carried out following active interventions by the Supreme Court of India. Institutional failures also led to delays and problems in implementation. Along with CNG conversion for all public transport vehicles and the phased introduction of the metro rail system in Delhi, cleaner diesel is also being supplied in the city in the last three years. The sulfur content in the diesel oil supplied to the metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata) has been decreased during the year 2000 from 1 per cent sulfur by weight to 0.25 per cent by the Indian refineries as per the Indian government directives. The sulfur content has been further reduced to 0.05 per cent by weight in Delhi by late 2001. In spite of this, there are significant developments and environmental benefits from the experience. The following section presents the entire transition process, beginning with the orders given by the Supreme Court that led to the adoption of CNG, to the implementation process, especially the institutional failures which drew insights from the experience. Judicial intervention in the air pollution problem in Delhi started after a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was filed by an environment activist lawyer in the Supreme Court in1996. The PIL, namely M.C. MEHTA versus Union of India and others, called for measures to improve the air quality in Delhi. After several hearings, the Court passed orders in 1998 that gave a time frame for implementing measures to control vehicular pollution in the National Capital Region of Delhi. With the implementation of various pollution control measures and the introduction of CNG, the pollution level of Delhi goes on decreasing. As the above graph (Fig. 10) shows the major fall in the level of disastrous lead from

T REN DS OF DIF F EREN T P OL L U T AN T S IN DEL HI 500 400

NO2 (mg/m3 )

Pb (ng/m3)

CO (ug/m3 )

Source: Delhi Statistical Hand Books, 1990_2002. (Engines of the Devil, page 10)

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

111

and 10 persons per vehicle(2000), respectively Kolkata, and all 400mg/m³(1994) to 100mg/m³ ‘due tofortheMumbai, shift towards nonChennai lead petrol India. The characteristic of the transport system is the pre-dominance moving vehicles in Delhi. Thefeature particulate lead concentrations appear to be getting of private vehicles, comprise about 90 per cent of the vehicles in under control which iswhich attributable to the delegating of petrol andtotal restrictions levels in overall cases because of less industrialization. Due but cater to around 40 per cent of the total traffic load. One of thetomost and Delhi, less SO 2 highsignificant population measures pressure and industrial and commercial the high of thatlarge have been taken in Delhi isactivities, the introduction economic proficiency of Delhi has nowasmanifested itselfallas public the roottransport. cause of The Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) the fuel for serious environmental significance lies in problems. the fact that it was carried out following active interventions Consequently, workofcarried will add failures to our also knowledge the and by the SupremetheCourt India. out Institutional led to on delays sustainable urban environmental Along development in Delhi. In fact,forthe problems in implementation. with CNG conversion allcontainment public transport of vehicular pollution requires an integrated with the following vehicles and the phased introduction of the approach, metro rail system in Delhi, cleaner components: diesel is also being supplied in the city in the last three years. The sulfur content 1. in Improvement public transport system. the diesel oilofsupplied to the metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai 2. and Optimisation of traffic and improvement in traffic management (e.g.,cent area Kolkata) has been decreased during the year 2000 from 1 per sulfur control system, timers intersections, no traffic zones, bytraffic weight to 0.25 per cent by at the Indian refineries as per the green Indiancorridors, government removal of encroachment on roads, regulation the digging of roads). directives. The sulfur content has been furtherofreduced to 0.05 per cent by 3. weight Comprehensive forsignificant on road vehicles. in Delhi byinspection late 2001.and In certification spite of this, system there are developments 4. and Phasing out of grossly polluting units. environmental benefits from the experience. The following section presents 5. theFuel quality improvement benzenewith andthe aromatics petrol, entire transition process,(e.g., beginning orders in given by reduction the Supreme ofsulphur in to diesel). Court that led the adoption of CNG, to the implementation process, especially 6. theTightening of emission institutional failures norms which(e.g., drewEURO-IV). insights from the experience. Judicial 7. intervention Improvement in vehicle technology (e.g.,inrestriction on manufacturing in the air pollution problem Delhi started after a Public of Interest 2-stroke (PIL) engines, emission on-board activist diagnostic system). Litigation was filed bywarranty, an environment lawyer in the Supreme 8. Court Checking fuel adulteration, and in1996. The PIL, namely M.C. MEHTA versus Union of India and others, 9. called Checking evaporative emissions storageintanks and fuelseveral distribution for measures to improve thefrom air quality Delhi. After hearings, thesystems. Court passed orders in 1998 that gave a time frame for implementing measures to control vehicular pollution in the National Capital Region of Delhi. With the implementation of various pollution control measures and the CONCLUSION introduction of CNG, the pollution level of Delhi goes on decreasing. As the Traffic problems have become an issue of grave concern in most metropolitan above graph (Fig. 10) shows the major fall in the level of disastrous lead from cities around the world. Environmental degradation is perhaps a dramatic symbol of the development process in the country, which dislocates lives and destroys the environment for the sake of dubious gain. Delhi faces the same challenges T REN DS OF DIF F EREN T P OL L U T AN T S IN DEL HI as other mega cities of the developing world: how to balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal transport. The widespread availability of 500 low cost motorized two wheelers has created a new reality.The capital city 400 Delhi which includes New and Old Delhi and its surrounding metropolitan 300 area-has suffered for decades from declining air quality. In the early 1990s, 200 despite a plethora of environmental laws and numerous government-initiated 100 policies to combat pollution, India’s capital gained the dubious distinction of 0 being the fourth most polluted city in the world. m g/m 3

300

SO2 (mg/m3 )

Asian Journal, (AITD. 2000): “Technology change: slow and unsteady”. Fig. 10: Trends of Different Pollutants in Delhi between 1994 - 2001. Central Pollution Control Board, (2000): Transport fuel quality of Delhi for year 2005.

110

Disaster Management

m g/m 3

1998

Y e ar

Fig. 10: Trends of Different Pollutants in Delhi between 1994 - 2001. Source: Delhi Statistical Hand Books, 1990_2002. (Engines of the Devil, page 10)

110

111

m g/m 3

m g/m 3

400

Disaster Management

200 100 0 1994

1996

1998

2000

2001

1994

Y e ar

SO2 (mg/m3 )

NO2 (mg/m3 )

1996

1998

2000

2001

Y e ar

Pb (ng/m3)

CO (ug/m3 )

Fig. 10: Trends of Different Pollutants in Delhi between 1994 - 2001. Source: Delhi Statistical Hand Books, 1990_2002. (Engines of the Devil, page 10)

REFERENCES

SO2 (mg/m3 )

NO2 (mg/m3 )

Pb (ng/m3)

CO (ug/m3 )

Asian Journal, (AITD. 2000): “Technology change: slow and unsteady”. Fig. 10: Trends of Different Pollutants in Delhi between 1994 - 2001. Central Pollution Control Board, (2000): Transport fuel quality of Delhi for year 2005.

Source: Delhi Statistical Hand Books, 1990_2002. (Engines of the Devil, page 10)

110

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

111

m g/m 3

400mg/m³(1994) to 100mg/m³ ‘due tofortheMumbai, shift towards nonChennai lead petrol and 10 persons per vehicle(2000), respectively Kolkata, and all moving vehicles in Delhi. Thefeature particulate lead concentrations appear to be getting of India. The characteristic of the transport system is the pre-dominance under control which iswhich attributable to the delegating of petrol andtotal restrictions private vehicles, comprise about 90 per cent of the vehicles in and Delhi, less SO levels in overall cases because of less industrialization. Due but cater to around 40 per cent of the total traffic load. One of thetomost 2 highsignificant population measures pressure and industrial and commercial the high of thatlarge have been taken in Delhi isactivities, the introduction economic proficiency of Delhi has nowasmanifested itselfallas public the roottransport. cause of The Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) the fuel for serious environmental significance lies in problems. the fact that it was carried out following active interventions Consequently, workofcarried will add failures to our also knowledge the and by the SupremetheCourt India. out Institutional led to on delays sustainable urban environmental Along development in Delhi. In fact,forthe problems in implementation. with CNG conversion allcontainment public transport of vehicular pollution requires an integrated with the following vehicles and the phased introduction of the approach, metro rail system in Delhi, cleaner components: diesel is also being supplied in the city in the last three years. The sulfur content 1. in Improvement public transport system. the diesel oilofsupplied to the metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai 2. and Optimisation of traffic and improvement in traffic management (e.g.,cent area Kolkata) has been decreased during the year 2000 from 1 per sulfur control system, timers intersections, no traffic zones, bytraffic weight to 0.25 per cent by at the Indian refineries as per the green Indiancorridors, government removal of encroachment on roads, regulation the digging of roads). directives. The sulfur content has been furtherofreduced to 0.05 per cent by 3. weight Comprehensive forsignificant on road vehicles. in Delhi byinspection late 2001.and In certification spite of this, system there are developments 4. and Phasing out of grossly polluting units. environmental benefits from the experience. The following section presents 5. theFuel quality improvement benzenewith andthe aromatics petrol, entire transition process,(e.g., beginning orders in given by reduction the Supreme ofsulphur in to diesel). Court that led the adoption of CNG, to the implementation process, especially 6. theTightening of emission institutional failures norms which(e.g., drewEURO-IV). insights from the experience. Judicial 7. intervention Improvement in vehicle technology (e.g.,inrestriction on manufacturing in the air pollution problem Delhi started after a Public of Interest 2-stroke (PIL) engines, emission on-board activist diagnostic system). Litigation was filed bywarranty, an environment lawyer in the Supreme 8. Court Checking fuel adulteration, and in1996. The PIL, namely M.C. MEHTA versus Union of India and others, 9. called Checking evaporative emissions storageintanks and fuelseveral distribution for measures to improve thefrom air quality Delhi. After hearings, thesystems. Court passed orders in 1998 that gave a time frame for implementing measures to control vehicular pollution in the National Capital Region of Delhi. With the implementation of various pollution control measures and the CONCLUSION introduction of CNG, the pollution level of Delhi goes on decreasing. As the Traffic problems have become an issue of grave concern in most metropolitan above graph (Fig. 10) shows the major fall in the level of disastrous lead from cities around the world. Environmental degradation is perhaps a dramatic symbol of the development process in the country, which dislocates lives and destroys the environment for the sake of dubious gain. Delhi faces the same challenges T REN DS OF DIF F EREN T P OL L U T AN T S IN DEL HI as other mega cities of the developing world: how to balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal transport. The widespread availability of 500 low cost motorized two wheelers has created a new reality.The capital city 400 Delhi which includes New and Old Delhi and its surrounding metropolitan 300 area-has suffered for decades from declining air quality. In the early 1990s, 200 despite a plethora of environmental laws and numerous government-initiated 100 policies to combat pollution, India’s capital gained the dubious distinction of 0 being the fourth most polluted city in the world. 1994

1996

1998

2000

2001

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

111

400mg/m³(1994) to 100mg/m³ (2000), ‘due to the shift towards non lead petrol moving vehicles in Delhi. The particulate lead concentrations appear to be getting under control which is attributable to the delegating of petrol and restrictions and less SO2 levels in overall cases because of less industrialization. Due to high population pressure and large industrial and commercial activities, the high economic proficiency of Delhi has now manifested itself as the root cause of serious environmental problems. Consequently, the work carried out will add to our knowledge on the sustainable urban environmental development in Delhi. In fact, the containment of vehicular pollution requires an integrated approach, with the following components: 1. Improvement of public transport system. 2. Optimisation of traffic and improvement in traffic management (e.g., area traffic control system, timers at intersections, no traffic zones, green corridors, removal of encroachment on roads, regulation of the digging of roads). 3. Comprehensive inspection and certification system for on road vehicles. 4. Phasing out of grossly polluting units. 5. Fuel quality improvement (e.g., benzene and aromatics in petrol, reduction ofsulphur in diesel). 6. Tightening of emission norms (e.g., EURO-IV). 7. Improvement in vehicle technology (e.g., restriction on manufacturing of 2-stroke engines, emission warranty, on-board diagnostic system). 8. Checking fuel adulteration, and 9. Checking evaporative emissions from storage tanks and fuel distribution systems. CONCLUSION Traffic problems have become an issue of grave concern in most metropolitan cities around the world. Environmental degradation is perhaps a dramatic symbol of the development process in the country, which dislocates lives and destroys the environment for the sake of dubious gain. Delhi faces the same challenges as other mega cities of the developing world: how to balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal transport. The widespread availability of low cost motorized two wheelers has created a new reality.The capital city Delhi which includes New and Old Delhi and its surrounding metropolitan area-has suffered for decades from declining air quality. In the early 1990s, despite a plethora of environmental laws and numerous government-initiated policies to combat pollution, India’s capital gained the dubious distinction of being the fourth most polluted city in the world.

Y e ar

REFERENCES

SO2 (mg/m3 )

NO2 (mg/m3 )

Pb (ng/m3)

REFERENCES

CO (ug/m3 )

Asian Journal, (AITD. 2000): “Technology change: slow and unsteady”. Fig. 10: Trends of Different Pollutants in Delhi between 1994 - 2001. Central Pollution Control Board, (2000): Transport fuel quality of Delhi for year 2005.

Source: Delhi Statistical Hand Books, 1990_2002. (Engines of the Devil, page 10)

110

Disaster Management

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

111

m g/m 3

400mg/m³(1994) to 100mg/m³ ‘due tofortheMumbai, shift towards nonChennai lead petrol and 10 persons per vehicle(2000), respectively Kolkata, and all moving vehicles in Delhi. Thefeature particulate lead concentrations appear to be getting of India. The characteristic of the transport system is the pre-dominance under control which iswhich attributable to the delegating of petrol andtotal restrictions private vehicles, comprise about 90 per cent of the vehicles in and Delhi, less SO levels in overall cases because of less industrialization. Due but cater to around 40 per cent of the total traffic load. One of thetomost 2 highsignificant population measures pressure and industrial and commercial the high of thatlarge have been taken in Delhi isactivities, the introduction economic proficiency of Delhi has nowasmanifested itselfallas public the roottransport. cause of The Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) the fuel for serious environmental significance lies in problems. the fact that it was carried out following active interventions Consequently, workofcarried will add failures to our also knowledge the and by the SupremetheCourt India. out Institutional led to on delays sustainable urban environmental Along development in Delhi. In fact,forthe problems in implementation. with CNG conversion allcontainment public transport of vehicular pollution requires an integrated with the following vehicles and the phased introduction of the approach, metro rail system in Delhi, cleaner components: diesel is also being supplied in the city in the last three years. The sulfur content 1. in Improvement public transport system. the diesel oilofsupplied to the metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai 2. and Optimisation of traffic and improvement in traffic management (e.g.,cent area Kolkata) has been decreased during the year 2000 from 1 per sulfur control system, timers intersections, no traffic zones, bytraffic weight to 0.25 per cent by at the Indian refineries as per the green Indiancorridors, government removal of encroachment on roads, regulation the digging of roads). directives. The sulfur content has been furtherofreduced to 0.05 per cent by 3. weight Comprehensive forsignificant on road vehicles. in Delhi byinspection late 2001.and In certification spite of this, system there are developments 4. and Phasing out of grossly polluting units. environmental benefits from the experience. The following section presents 5. theFuel quality improvement benzenewith andthe aromatics petrol, entire transition process,(e.g., beginning orders in given by reduction the Supreme ofsulphur in to diesel). Court that led the adoption of CNG, to the implementation process, especially 6. theTightening of emission institutional failures norms which(e.g., drewEURO-IV). insights from the experience. Judicial 7. intervention Improvement in vehicle technology (e.g.,inrestriction on manufacturing in the air pollution problem Delhi started after a Public of Interest 2-stroke (PIL) engines, emission on-board activist diagnostic system). Litigation was filed bywarranty, an environment lawyer in the Supreme 8. Court Checking fuel adulteration, and in1996. The PIL, namely M.C. MEHTA versus Union of India and others, 9. called Checking evaporative emissions storageintanks and fuelseveral distribution for measures to improve thefrom air quality Delhi. After hearings, thesystems. Court passed orders in 1998 that gave a time frame for implementing measures to control vehicular pollution in the National Capital Region of Delhi. With the implementation of various pollution control measures and the CONCLUSION introduction of CNG, the pollution level of Delhi goes on decreasing. As the Traffic problems have become an issue of grave concern in most metropolitan above graph (Fig. 10) shows the major fall in the level of disastrous lead from cities around the world. Environmental degradation is perhaps a dramatic symbol of the development process in the country, which dislocates lives and destroys the environment for the sake of dubious gain. Delhi faces the same challenges T REN DS OF DIF F EREN T P OL L U T AN T S IN DEL HI as other mega cities of the developing world: how to balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal transport. The widespread availability of 500 low cost motorized two wheelers has created a new reality.The capital city 400 Delhi which includes New and Old Delhi and its surrounding metropolitan 300 area-has suffered for decades from declining air quality. In the early 1990s, 200 despite a plethora of environmental laws and numerous government-initiated 100 policies to combat pollution, India’s capital gained the dubious distinction of 0 being the fourth most polluted city in the world. 1994

1996

1998

2000

Asian Journal, (AITD. 2000): “Technology change: slow and unsteady”. Central Pollution Control Board, (2000): Transport fuel quality of Delhi for year 2005.

2001

Temporal Transport Hazard Dynamics

111

400mg/m³(1994) to 100mg/m³ (2000), ‘due to the shift towards non lead petrol moving vehicles in Delhi. The particulate lead concentrations appear to be getting under control which is attributable to the delegating of petrol and restrictions and less SO2 levels in overall cases because of less industrialization. Due to high population pressure and large industrial and commercial activities, the high economic proficiency of Delhi has now manifested itself as the root cause of serious environmental problems. Consequently, the work carried out will add to our knowledge on the sustainable urban environmental development in Delhi. In fact, the containment of vehicular pollution requires an integrated approach, with the following components: 1. Improvement of public transport system. 2. Optimisation of traffic and improvement in traffic management (e.g., area traffic control system, timers at intersections, no traffic zones, green corridors, removal of encroachment on roads, regulation of the digging of roads). 3. Comprehensive inspection and certification system for on road vehicles. 4. Phasing out of grossly polluting units. 5. Fuel quality improvement (e.g., benzene and aromatics in petrol, reduction ofsulphur in diesel). 6. Tightening of emission norms (e.g., EURO-IV). 7. Improvement in vehicle technology (e.g., restriction on manufacturing of 2-stroke engines, emission warranty, on-board diagnostic system). 8. Checking fuel adulteration, and 9. Checking evaporative emissions from storage tanks and fuel distribution systems. CONCLUSION Traffic problems have become an issue of grave concern in most metropolitan cities around the world. Environmental degradation is perhaps a dramatic symbol of the development process in the country, which dislocates lives and destroys the environment for the sake of dubious gain. Delhi faces the same challenges as other mega cities of the developing world: how to balance limited resources with the strong desire for personal transport. The widespread availability of low cost motorized two wheelers has created a new reality.The capital city Delhi which includes New and Old Delhi and its surrounding metropolitan area-has suffered for decades from declining air quality. In the early 1990s, despite a plethora of environmental laws and numerous government-initiated policies to combat pollution, India’s capital gained the dubious distinction of being the fourth most polluted city in the world.

Y e ar

REFERENCES

SO2 (mg/m3 )

NO2 (mg/m3 )

Pb (ng/m3)

CO (ug/m3 )

Asian Journal, (AITD. 2000): “Technology change: slow and unsteady”. Fig. 10: Trends of Different Pollutants in Delhi between 1994 - 2001. Central Pollution Control Board, (2000): Transport fuel quality of Delhi for year 2005.

Source: Delhi Statistical Hand Books, 1990_2002. (Engines of the Devil, page 10)

REFERENCES Asian Journal, (AITD. 2000): “Technology change: slow and unsteady”. Central Pollution Control Board, (2000): Transport fuel quality of Delhi for year 2005.

112

Disaster Management

Central Pollution Control Board, (2004): New Delhi, Ministry of Environment & Forests. 222 pp. Central Pollution Control Board. (2000),: “Air Quality Status and Trends in India”, National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Central Pollution Control Board (1999),: “Parivesh: Newsletter,” 6(1), June, CPCB, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Delhi Master Plan, (2021): Gearing up for citizens ‘participation’, New Delhi. Government of India (1997): White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi. IIT-Sajha Manch, (2001): Household Survey in DDA Colonies for Infrastructure Norms. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Institute of Transportation Studies, (Nov. 2002)”Engine trouble: More Motors for More people.”

112

Disaster Management

Central Pollution Control Board, (2004): New Delhi, Ministry of Environment & Forests. 222 pp. Central Pollution Control Board. (2000),: “Air Quality Status and Trends in India”, National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Central Pollution Control Board (1999),: “Parivesh: Newsletter,” 6(1), June, CPCB, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Delhi Master Plan, (2021): Gearing up for citizens ‘participation’, New Delhi. Government of India (1997): White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi. IIT-Sajha Manch, (2001): Household Survey in DDA Colonies for Infrastructure Norms. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Institute of Transportation Studies, (Nov. 2002)”Engine trouble: More Motors for More people.”

8

Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster

1 Bharat Jhamnani and 2S.K. Singh Lecturer Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 2 Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 1

INTRODUCTION As a consequence of disasters and emergencies, significant quantities of solid waste is often generated from sources other than the normal daily generation of Municipal and Industrial waste. This “new” waste derives itself from both the damaged built environment and housing/industrial facilities, as well as from the subsequent relief and rehabilitation efforts. Considering the often large quantities of such solid waste produced, early action within the relief and rehabilitation programming is required in order to manage and handle this waste in both an economically and environmentally sound manner. In the absence of such intervention, serious risks may result from the rapidly accumulating solid waste, including: 1. The danger to public health from open dump sites resulting in the unpleasantness from odour and the visual impact as well which are both assisting in the spread of diseases through human contact with the decomposing waste, 2. The increase in the vermin population at the site of waste dumping is often close to residential areas, 3. Groundwater contamination due to the dumping of waste near water courses (rivers, streams and lakes) from the leaching waste, which in turn can contaminate the drinking water. 4. Uncontrolled dumping of waste leading to the obstruction of reconstruction works and daily traffic routes for the public.

112

Disaster Management

Central Pollution Control Board, (2004): New Delhi, Ministry of Environment & Forests. 222 pp. Central Pollution Control Board. (2000),: “Air Quality Status and Trends in India”, National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Central Pollution Control Board (1999),: “Parivesh: Newsletter,” 6(1), June, CPCB, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Delhi Master Plan, (2021): Gearing up for citizens ‘participation’, New Delhi. Government of India (1997): White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi. IIT-Sajha Manch, (2001): Household Survey in DDA Colonies for Infrastructure Norms. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Institute of Transportation Studies, (Nov. 2002)”Engine trouble: More Motors for More people.”

112

Disaster Management

Central Pollution Control Board, (2004): New Delhi, Ministry of Environment & Forests. 222 pp. Central Pollution Control Board. (2000),: “Air Quality Status and Trends in India”, National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Central Pollution Control Board (1999),: “Parivesh: Newsletter,” 6(1), June, CPCB, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Delhi Master Plan, (2021): Gearing up for citizens ‘participation’, New Delhi. Government of India (1997): White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi. IIT-Sajha Manch, (2001): Household Survey in DDA Colonies for Infrastructure Norms. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Institute of Transportation Studies, (Nov. 2002)”Engine trouble: More Motors for More people.”

8

Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster

1 Bharat Jhamnani and 2S.K. Singh Lecturer Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 2 Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 1

INTRODUCTION As a consequence of disasters and emergencies, significant quantities of solid waste is often generated from sources other than the normal daily generation of Municipal and Industrial waste. This “new” waste derives itself from both the damaged built environment and housing/industrial facilities, as well as from the subsequent relief and rehabilitation efforts. Considering the often large quantities of such solid waste produced, early action within the relief and rehabilitation programming is required in order to manage and handle this waste in both an economically and environmentally sound manner. In the absence of such intervention, serious risks may result from the rapidly accumulating solid waste, including: 1. The danger to public health from open dump sites resulting in the unpleasantness from odour and the visual impact as well which are both assisting in the spread of diseases through human contact with the decomposing waste, 2. The increase in the vermin population at the site of waste dumping is often close to residential areas, 3. Groundwater contamination due to the dumping of waste near water courses (rivers, streams and lakes) from the leaching waste, which in turn can contaminate the drinking water. 4. Uncontrolled dumping of waste leading to the obstruction of reconstruction works and daily traffic routes for the public.

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Central Pollution Control Board, (2004): New Delhi, Ministry of Environment & Forests. 222 pp. Central Pollution Control Board. (2000),: “Air Quality Status and Trends in India”, National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Central Pollution Control Board (1999),: “Parivesh: Newsletter,” 6(1), June, CPCB, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Delhi Master Plan, (2021): Gearing up for citizens ‘participation’, New Delhi. Government of India (1997): White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi. IIT-Sajha Manch, (2001): Household Survey in DDA Colonies for Infrastructure Norms. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Institute of Transportation Studies, (Nov. 2002)”Engine trouble: More Motors for More people.”

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Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster

Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster

1 Bharat Jhamnani and 2S.K. Singh Lecturer Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 2 Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042

1 Bharat Jhamnani and 2S.K. Singh Lecturer Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 2 Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042

1

1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

As a consequence of disasters and emergencies, significant quantities of solid waste is often generated from sources other than the normal daily generation of Municipal and Industrial waste. This “new” waste derives itself from both the damaged built environment and housing/industrial facilities, as well as from the subsequent relief and rehabilitation efforts. Considering the often large quantities of such solid waste produced, early action within the relief and rehabilitation programming is required in order to manage and handle this waste in both an economically and environmentally sound manner. In the absence of such intervention, serious risks may result from the rapidly accumulating solid waste, including: 1. The danger to public health from open dump sites resulting in the unpleasantness from odour and the visual impact as well which are both assisting in the spread of diseases through human contact with the decomposing waste, 2. The increase in the vermin population at the site of waste dumping is often close to residential areas, 3. Groundwater contamination due to the dumping of waste near water courses (rivers, streams and lakes) from the leaching waste, which in turn can contaminate the drinking water. 4. Uncontrolled dumping of waste leading to the obstruction of reconstruction works and daily traffic routes for the public.

As a consequence of disasters and emergencies, significant quantities of solid waste is often generated from sources other than the normal daily generation of Municipal and Industrial waste. This “new” waste derives itself from both the damaged built environment and housing/industrial facilities, as well as from the subsequent relief and rehabilitation efforts. Considering the often large quantities of such solid waste produced, early action within the relief and rehabilitation programming is required in order to manage and handle this waste in both an economically and environmentally sound manner. In the absence of such intervention, serious risks may result from the rapidly accumulating solid waste, including: 1. The danger to public health from open dump sites resulting in the unpleasantness from odour and the visual impact as well which are both assisting in the spread of diseases through human contact with the decomposing waste, 2. The increase in the vermin population at the site of waste dumping is often close to residential areas, 3. Groundwater contamination due to the dumping of waste near water courses (rivers, streams and lakes) from the leaching waste, which in turn can contaminate the drinking water. 4. Uncontrolled dumping of waste leading to the obstruction of reconstruction works and daily traffic routes for the public.

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Disaster Management

Central Pollution Control Board, (2004): New Delhi, Ministry of Environment & Forests. 222 pp. Central Pollution Control Board. (2000),: “Air Quality Status and Trends in India”, National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Central Pollution Control Board (1999),: “Parivesh: Newsletter,” 6(1), June, CPCB, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Delhi. Delhi Master Plan, (2021): Gearing up for citizens ‘participation’, New Delhi. Government of India (1997): White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi. IIT-Sajha Manch, (2001): Household Survey in DDA Colonies for Infrastructure Norms. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Institute of Transportation Studies, (Nov. 2002)”Engine trouble: More Motors for More people.”

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Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster

Solid Waste Management: Post-Disaster

1 Bharat Jhamnani and 2S.K. Singh Lecturer Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 2 Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042

1 Bharat Jhamnani and 2S.K. Singh Lecturer Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042 2 Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi-110042

1

1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

As a consequence of disasters and emergencies, significant quantities of solid waste is often generated from sources other than the normal daily generation of Municipal and Industrial waste. This “new” waste derives itself from both the damaged built environment and housing/industrial facilities, as well as from the subsequent relief and rehabilitation efforts. Considering the often large quantities of such solid waste produced, early action within the relief and rehabilitation programming is required in order to manage and handle this waste in both an economically and environmentally sound manner. In the absence of such intervention, serious risks may result from the rapidly accumulating solid waste, including: 1. The danger to public health from open dump sites resulting in the unpleasantness from odour and the visual impact as well which are both assisting in the spread of diseases through human contact with the decomposing waste, 2. The increase in the vermin population at the site of waste dumping is often close to residential areas, 3. Groundwater contamination due to the dumping of waste near water courses (rivers, streams and lakes) from the leaching waste, which in turn can contaminate the drinking water. 4. Uncontrolled dumping of waste leading to the obstruction of reconstruction works and daily traffic routes for the public.

As a consequence of disasters and emergencies, significant quantities of solid waste is often generated from sources other than the normal daily generation of Municipal and Industrial waste. This “new” waste derives itself from both the damaged built environment and housing/industrial facilities, as well as from the subsequent relief and rehabilitation efforts. Considering the often large quantities of such solid waste produced, early action within the relief and rehabilitation programming is required in order to manage and handle this waste in both an economically and environmentally sound manner. In the absence of such intervention, serious risks may result from the rapidly accumulating solid waste, including: 1. The danger to public health from open dump sites resulting in the unpleasantness from odour and the visual impact as well which are both assisting in the spread of diseases through human contact with the decomposing waste, 2. The increase in the vermin population at the site of waste dumping is often close to residential areas, 3. Groundwater contamination due to the dumping of waste near water courses (rivers, streams and lakes) from the leaching waste, which in turn can contaminate the drinking water. 4. Uncontrolled dumping of waste leading to the obstruction of reconstruction works and daily traffic routes for the public.

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The term disaster may be defined as meaning an event which overwhelms a local capacity, necessitating a request to a national or international level for external assistance.” (Disaster Databases, 2001). It includes both “natural” disasters, i.e. earthquakes and hurricanes, as well as “man-made” disasters, such as conflicts. The term ‘waste’, includes solid waste, which mainly comprises municipal and household waste as well as demolition waste from the demolition of damaged buildings. KEY ISSUES The key issues arising from the management of solid waste following disasters are: 1. The collapse of Municipal solid waste utilities, including the probable lack of collection services and the uncontrolled tipping of wastes. This would result in a rapid build up of waste piles in the streets and outside the urban areas resulting in vermin growth and the spread of diseases. The potential is there for there an impact on environmental health issues and is serious in residential areas. 2. Additionally, the waste management equipment viz. collection vehicles and waste containers, are often damaged or looted during or after a disaster, especially in the case of post-conflict situations. 3. The loss of senior and experienced waste management professionals, either through death or departure from the area as a refugee. 4. The uncontrolled tipping of health-care waste from hospitals and clinics, resulting in serious hygiene risks to the local population and secondary infection to patients. 5. Building rubble from damaged buildings piled in urban areas, impeding the movement and affecting rehabilitation / reconstructive activities. Piles of rubble attract further waste tipping and this becomes a “waste dump”. 6. Hazardous waste from damaged and redundant industrial plants may pose serious health risks through uncontrolled containment and handling. 7. Proliferation of scattered waste piles and dump sites leading to health risks (vermin and personal contact to waste) with the risk of contaminating groundwater 8. In more common scenarios, waste is often addressed in an ad hoc fashion, and more along the lines of supplying equipment and funds for clean-up works, rather than a focus on capacity building and institutional strengthening. Without these skills in training and management support, the provided equipment can be under-utilized and quickly become damaged due to its improper use and low maintenance. Generation Under normal conditions, solid waste is generated from the following main sources. This generation is typically stable with the quantities and composition

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The term disaster may be defined as meaning an event which overwhelms a local capacity, necessitating a request to a national or international level for external assistance.” (Disaster Databases, 2001). It includes both “natural” disasters, i.e. earthquakes and hurricanes, as well as “man-made” disasters, such as conflicts. The term ‘waste’, includes solid waste, which mainly comprises municipal and household waste as well as demolition waste from the demolition of damaged buildings. KEY ISSUES The key issues arising from the management of solid waste following disasters are: 1. The collapse of Municipal solid waste utilities, including the probable lack of collection services and the uncontrolled tipping of wastes. This would result in a rapid build up of waste piles in the streets and outside the urban areas resulting in vermin growth and the spread of diseases. The potential is there for there an impact on environmental health issues and is serious in residential areas. 2. Additionally, the waste management equipment viz. collection vehicles and waste containers, are often damaged or looted during or after a disaster, especially in the case of post-conflict situations. 3. The loss of senior and experienced waste management professionals, either through death or departure from the area as a refugee. 4. The uncontrolled tipping of health-care waste from hospitals and clinics, resulting in serious hygiene risks to the local population and secondary infection to patients. 5. Building rubble from damaged buildings piled in urban areas, impeding the movement and affecting rehabilitation / reconstructive activities. Piles of rubble attract further waste tipping and this becomes a “waste dump”. 6. Hazardous waste from damaged and redundant industrial plants may pose serious health risks through uncontrolled containment and handling. 7. Proliferation of scattered waste piles and dump sites leading to health risks (vermin and personal contact to waste) with the risk of contaminating groundwater 8. In more common scenarios, waste is often addressed in an ad hoc fashion, and more along the lines of supplying equipment and funds for clean-up works, rather than a focus on capacity building and institutional strengthening. Without these skills in training and management support, the provided equipment can be under-utilized and quickly become damaged due to its improper use and low maintenance. Generation Under normal conditions, solid waste is generated from the following main sources. This generation is typically stable with the quantities and composition

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Solid Waste Management

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The term be defined as an(iii) event which overwhelms of the waste beingdisaster known may (i) Households, (ii)meaning Industries Construction and a local sites capacity, necessitating request and to ahealthcare national orwastes. international level Demolition (iv) Hospitals witha clinical Following a for external (Disaster Databases, 2001). It ofincludes bothwastes, “natural” disaster, thereassistance.” can be a marked variance in the generation these solid disasters, i.e. earthquakes and hurricanes, well as “man-made” disasters, which in turn affects the collection and disposalasactivities. The following changessuch as waste conflicts. Theare term ‘waste’, includes solid waste, which mainly comprises in the stream typically seen in post-disasters: municipal and household waste from the creates demolition • Households: The supply ofwaste aid inas thewell formasofdemolition food, clothing and shelter of increase damagedinbuildings. an waste, some of it often new to the environment. For example plastic bottles and packaging from the aid can create demonstrable problems KEY for theISSUES waste collection. • Industries: Industrial disasters canmanagement lead to the temporary closure of factories The key issues arising from the of solid waste following disasters and plants which can result in uncontrolled spillages of wastes from the are: facilities, mainly of due to the lack of waste personnel at the site. Such waste from 1. The collapse Municipal solid utilities, including the probable lack of industrial plants can be and thus potentially harmful to theresult collection services andhazardous the uncontrolled tipping of wastes. This would surrounding environment, well piles as water courses. in a rapid build up of as waste in the streets and outside the urban areas resulting in vermin growth and the spread of of diseases. Thebuildings potential and is there • Demolition: The demolition and site clearance damaged for there an impact on environmental health This issuesdebris and iscan serious in residential infrastructure leads to large quantities of debris. potentially be areas.into gravel and used in the reconstruction works. However, typically, recycled 2. Additionally, thethe waste management equipment collection they are mixed with municipal waste and dumpedviz. at the landfill vehicles or local and waste containers, are often damaged or looted during or after a disaster, dumpsite, taking up valuable void space from other non-recyclable waste. especially in the case of post-conflict situations. • Hospitals: The breakdown of the collection and disposal systems which 3. The loss of senior experienced management professionals, either hospitals can face, causeand severe problemswaste with their clinical waste (including through death or departure from the area as a refugee. body parts, medicines and needles / sharps). The handling of these requires 4. The uncontrolled tipping ofsuch health-care from hospitalsdesigned and clinics, temporary alternative solutions, as small,waste mobile incinerators resulting in serious hygiene risks to the local population and secondary infection especially for this purpose. to patients. • It can be appreciated that the generation of wastes can in many circumstances 5. Building rubble from damaged buildings piled in urban areas, impeding the overwhelm the established waste management system from before the disaster, movement and affecting rehabilitation / reconstructive activities. Piles of rubble thus attract new measures will often have be taken in the post-disaster further waste tipping andtothis becomes a “waste dump”.phase.

6. Hazardous waste from damaged and redundant industrial plants may pose serious health risks through uncontrolled containment and handling. Collection 7. Proliferation of scattered waste piles and dump sites leading to health risks The collection of waste from the urban areas, can have been affected often by (vermin and personal contact to waste) with the risk of contaminating groundthe disaster due to the damage to the collection equipment. The quantity of water waste generated often exceeds the collection capacity. Quite often there is a 8. In more common scenarios, waste is often addressed in an ad hoc fashion, and lack of personnel and even a lack of salaries for the workers. If no equipment more along the lines of supplying equipment and funds for clean-up works, or labour or funds are available to collect waste, then allowing the collected rather than a focus on capacity building and institutional strengthening. Without waste to be burnt on street corners may be the safest approach in the immediate these skills in training and management support, the provided equipment can short term. However, this will require supervision in order to ensure safety. be under-utilized and quickly become damaged due to its improper use and Once some degree of normality has returned and the waste management low maintenance. operations have been restored, an ad hoc waste collection system can be implemented. Targeting the restoration of some form of collection service in Generation districts of high population density is expected to have the highest potential benefit to Where solid mechanical of collection are lacking, Underpublic normalhealth. conditions, waste means is generated from the followingthemain handcart pick up of waste to local transfer points (e.g. a large heap, bins or sources. This generation is typically stable with the quantities and composition

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The term be defined as an(iii) event which overwhelms of the waste beingdisaster known may (i) Households, (ii)meaning Industries Construction and a local sites capacity, necessitating request and to ahealthcare national orwastes. international level Demolition (iv) Hospitals witha clinical Following a for external (Disaster Databases, 2001). It ofincludes bothwastes, “natural” disaster, thereassistance.” can be a marked variance in the generation these solid disasters, i.e. earthquakes and hurricanes, well as “man-made” disasters, which in turn affects the collection and disposalasactivities. The following changessuch as waste conflicts. Theare term ‘waste’, includes solid waste, which mainly comprises in the stream typically seen in post-disasters: municipal and household waste from the creates demolition • Households: The supply ofwaste aid inas thewell formasofdemolition food, clothing and shelter of increase damagedinbuildings. an waste, some of it often new to the environment. For example plastic bottles and packaging from the aid can create demonstrable problems KEY for theISSUES waste collection. • Industries: Industrial disasters canmanagement lead to the temporary closure of factories The key issues arising from the of solid waste following disasters and plants which can result in uncontrolled spillages of wastes from the are: facilities, mainly due to the lack of personnel at the site. Such waste from 1. The collapse of Municipal solid waste utilities, including the probable lack of industrial plants can be and thus potentially harmful to theresult collection services andhazardous the uncontrolled tipping of wastes. This would surrounding environment, well piles as water courses. in a rapid build up of as waste in the streets and outside the urban areas resulting The in vermin growthand andsite theclearance spread of of diseases. Thebuildings potential and is there • Demolition: demolition damaged for there an impact on environmental health issues and is serious in residential infrastructure leads to large quantities of debris. This debris can potentially be areas.into gravel and used in the reconstruction works. However, typically, recycled 2. Additionally, thethe waste management equipment collection they are mixed with municipal waste and dumpedviz. at the landfill vehicles or local and waste taking containers, are often or other lootednon-recyclable during or after a disaster, dumpsite, up valuable voiddamaged space from waste. especially in the case of post-conflict situations. • Hospitals: The breakdown of the collection and disposal systems which 3. The loss of senior experienced management professionals, either hospitals can face, causeand severe problemswaste with their clinical waste (including through death or departure from the area as a refugee. body parts, medicines and needles / sharps). The handling of these requires 4. The uncontrolled tipping ofsuch health-care from hospitalsdesigned and clinics, temporary alternative solutions, as small,waste mobile incinerators resulting in serious hygiene risks to the local population and secondary infection especially for this purpose. to patients. • It can be appreciated that the generation of wastes can in many circumstances 5. Building rubble from damaged buildings piled in urban areas, impeding the overwhelm the established waste management system from before the disaster, movement and affecting rehabilitation / reconstructive activities. Piles of rubble thus attract new measures will often have be taken in the post-disaster further waste tipping andtothis becomes a “waste dump”.phase. 6. Hazardous waste from damaged and redundant industrial plants may pose serious health risks through uncontrolled containment and handling. Collection 7. Proliferation of scattered waste piles and dump sites leading to health risks The collection of waste from the urban areas, can have been affected often by (vermin and personal contact to waste) with the risk of contaminating groundthe disaster due to the damage to the collection equipment. The quantity of water waste generated often exceeds the collection capacity. Quite often there is a 8. In more common scenarios, waste is often addressed in an ad hoc fashion, and lack of personnel and even a lack of salaries for the workers. If no equipment more along the lines of supplying equipment and funds for clean-up works, or labour or funds are available to collect waste, then allowing the collected rather than a focus on capacity building and institutional strengthening. Without waste to be burnt on street corners may be the safest approach in the immediate these skills in training and management support, the provided equipment can short term. However, this will require supervision in order to ensure safety. be under-utilized and quickly become damaged due to its improper use and Once some degree of normality has returned and the waste management low maintenance. operations have been restored, an ad hoc waste collection system can be implemented. Targeting the restoration of some form of collection service in Generation districts of high population density is expected to have the highest potential benefit to Where solid mechanical of collection are lacking, Underpublic normalhealth. conditions, waste means is generated from the followingthemain handcart pick up of waste to local transfer points (e.g. a large heap, bins or sources. This generation is typically stable with the quantities and composition

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115

of the waste beingdisaster known may (i) Households, (ii)meaning Industries Construction and The term be defined as an(iii) event which overwhelms Demolition (iv) Hospitals witha clinical Following a for a local sites capacity, necessitating request and to ahealthcare national orwastes. international level disaster, thereassistance.” can be a marked variance in the generation these solid external (Disaster Databases, 2001). It ofincludes bothwastes, “natural” which in turn affects the collection and disposalasactivities. The following changessuch disasters, i.e. earthquakes and hurricanes, well as “man-made” disasters, in the stream typically seen in post-disasters: as waste conflicts. Theare term ‘waste’, includes solid waste, which mainly comprises municipal and household waste from the creates demolition • Households: The supply ofwaste aid inas thewell formasofdemolition food, clothing and shelter of increase damagedinbuildings. an waste, some of it often new to the environment. For example plastic bottles and packaging from the aid can create demonstrable problems KEY for theISSUES waste collection. • Industries: Industrial disasters canmanagement lead to the temporary closure of factories The key issues arising from the of solid waste following disasters and plants which can result in uncontrolled spillages of wastes from the are: facilities, mainly of due to the lack of waste personnel at the site. Such waste from 1. The collapse Municipal solid utilities, including the probable lack of industrial plants can be and thus potentially harmful to theresult collection services andhazardous the uncontrolled tipping of wastes. This would surrounding environment, well piles as water courses. in a rapid build up of as waste in the streets and outside the urban areas resulting in vermin growth and the spread of of diseases. Thebuildings potential and is there • Demolition: The demolition and site clearance damaged for there an impact on environmental health This issuesdebris and iscan serious in residential infrastructure leads to large quantities of debris. potentially be areas.into gravel and used in the reconstruction works. However, typically, recycled 2. Additionally, thethe waste management equipment collection they are mixed with municipal waste and dumpedviz. at the landfill vehicles or local and waste containers, are often damaged or looted during or after a disaster, dumpsite, taking up valuable void space from other non-recyclable waste. especially in the case of post-conflict situations. • Hospitals: The breakdown of the collection and disposal systems which 3. The loss of senior experienced management professionals, either hospitals can face, causeand severe problemswaste with their clinical waste (including through death or departure from the area as a refugee. body parts, medicines and needles / sharps). The handling of these requires 4. The uncontrolled tipping ofsuch health-care from hospitalsdesigned and clinics, temporary alternative solutions, as small,waste mobile incinerators resulting in serious hygiene risks to the local population and secondary infection especially for this purpose. to patients. • It can be appreciated that the generation of wastes can in many circumstances 5. Building rubble from damaged buildings piled in urban areas, impeding the overwhelm the established waste management system from before the disaster, movement and affecting rehabilitation / reconstructive activities. Piles of rubble thus attract new measures will often have be taken in the post-disaster further waste tipping andtothis becomes a “waste dump”.phase.

6. Hazardous waste from damaged and redundant industrial plants may pose serious health risks through uncontrolled containment and handling. Collection 7. Proliferation of scattered waste piles and dump sites leading to health risks The collection of waste from the urban areas, can have been affected often by (vermin and personal contact to waste) with the risk of contaminating groundthe disaster due to the damage to the collection equipment. The quantity of water waste generated often exceeds the collection capacity. Quite often there is a 8. In more common scenarios, waste is often addressed in an ad hoc fashion, and lack of personnel and even a lack of salaries for the workers. If no equipment more along the lines of supplying equipment and funds for clean-up works, or labour or funds are available to collect waste, then allowing the collected rather than a focus on capacity building and institutional strengthening. Without waste to be burnt on street corners may be the safest approach in the immediate these skills in training and management support, the provided equipment can short term. However, this will require supervision in order to ensure safety. be under-utilized and quickly become damaged due to its improper use and Once some degree of normality has returned and the waste management low maintenance. operations have been restored, an ad hoc waste collection system can be implemented. Targeting the restoration of some form of collection service in Generation districts of high population density is expected to have the highest potential benefit to Where solid mechanical of collection are lacking, Underpublic normalhealth. conditions, waste means is generated from the followingthemain handcart pick up of waste to local transfer points (e.g. a large heap, bins or sources. This generation is typically stable with the quantities and composition

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Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste Management

of the waste being known (i) Households, (ii) Industries (iii) Construction and Demolition sites (iv) Hospitals with clinical and healthcare wastes. Following a disaster, there can be a marked variance in the generation of these solid wastes, which in turn affects the collection and disposal activities. The following changes in the waste stream are typically seen in post-disasters: • Households: The supply of aid in the form of food, clothing and shelter creates an increase in waste, some of it often new to the environment. For example plastic bottles and packaging from the aid can create demonstrable problems for the waste collection. • Industries: Industrial disasters can lead to the temporary closure of factories and plants which can result in uncontrolled spillages of wastes from the facilities, mainly due to the lack of personnel at the site. Such waste from industrial plants can be hazardous and thus potentially harmful to the surrounding environment, as well as water courses. • Demolition: The demolition and site clearance of damaged buildings and infrastructure leads to large quantities of debris. This debris can potentially be recycled into gravel and used in the reconstruction works. However, typically, they are mixed with the municipal waste and dumped at the landfill or local dumpsite, taking up valuable void space from other non-recyclable waste. • Hospitals: The breakdown of the collection and disposal systems which hospitals can face, cause severe problems with their clinical waste (including body parts, medicines and needles / sharps). The handling of these requires temporary alternative solutions, such as small, mobile incinerators designed especially for this purpose. • It can be appreciated that the generation of wastes can in many circumstances overwhelm the established waste management system from before the disaster, thus new measures will often have to be taken in the post-disaster phase. Collection The collection of waste from the urban areas, can have been affected often by the disaster due to the damage to the collection equipment. The quantity of waste generated often exceeds the collection capacity. Quite often there is a lack of personnel and even a lack of salaries for the workers. If no equipment or labour or funds are available to collect waste, then allowing the collected waste to be burnt on street corners may be the safest approach in the immediate short term. However, this will require supervision in order to ensure safety. Once some degree of normality has returned and the waste management operations have been restored, an ad hoc waste collection system can be implemented. Targeting the restoration of some form of collection service in districts of high population density is expected to have the highest potential benefit to public health. Where mechanical means of collection are lacking, the handcart pick up of waste to local transfer points (e.g. a large heap, bins or

115

of the waste beingdisaster known may (i) Households, (ii)meaning Industries Construction and The term be defined as an(iii) event which overwhelms Demolition (iv) Hospitals witha clinical Following a for a local sites capacity, necessitating request and to ahealthcare national orwastes. international level disaster, thereassistance.” can be a marked variance in the generation these solid external (Disaster Databases, 2001). It ofincludes bothwastes, “natural” which in turn affects the collection and disposalasactivities. The following changessuch disasters, i.e. earthquakes and hurricanes, well as “man-made” disasters, in the stream typically seen in post-disasters: as waste conflicts. Theare term ‘waste’, includes solid waste, which mainly comprises municipal and household waste from the creates demolition • Households: The supply ofwaste aid inas thewell formasofdemolition food, clothing and shelter of increase damagedinbuildings. an waste, some of it often new to the environment. For example plastic bottles and packaging from the aid can create demonstrable problems KEY for theISSUES waste collection. • Industries: Industrial disasters canmanagement lead to the temporary closure of factories The key issues arising from the of solid waste following disasters and plants which can result in uncontrolled spillages of wastes from the are: facilities, mainly due to the lack of personnel at the site. Such waste from 1. The collapse of Municipal solid waste utilities, including the probable lack of industrial plants can be and thus potentially harmful to theresult collection services andhazardous the uncontrolled tipping of wastes. This would surrounding environment, well piles as water courses. in a rapid build up of as waste in the streets and outside the urban areas resulting The in vermin growthand andsite theclearance spread of of diseases. Thebuildings potential and is there • Demolition: demolition damaged for there an impact on environmental health issues and is serious in residential infrastructure leads to large quantities of debris. This debris can potentially be areas.into gravel and used in the reconstruction works. However, typically, recycled 2. Additionally, thethe waste management equipment collection they are mixed with municipal waste and dumpedviz. at the landfill vehicles or local and waste taking containers, are often or other lootednon-recyclable during or after a disaster, dumpsite, up valuable voiddamaged space from waste. especially in the case of post-conflict situations. • Hospitals: The breakdown of the collection and disposal systems which 3. The loss of senior experienced management professionals, either hospitals can face, causeand severe problemswaste with their clinical waste (including through death or departure from the area as a refugee. body parts, medicines and needles / sharps). The handling of these requires 4. The uncontrolled tipping ofsuch health-care from hospitalsdesigned and clinics, temporary alternative solutions, as small,waste mobile incinerators resulting in serious hygiene risks to the local population and secondary infection especially for this purpose. to patients. • It can be appreciated that the generation of wastes can in many circumstances 5. Building rubble from damaged buildings piled in urban areas, impeding the overwhelm the established waste management system from before the disaster, movement and affecting rehabilitation / reconstructive activities. Piles of rubble thus attract new measures will often have be taken in the post-disaster further waste tipping andtothis becomes a “waste dump”.phase. 6. Hazardous waste from damaged and redundant industrial plants may pose serious health risks through uncontrolled containment and handling. Collection 7. Proliferation of scattered waste piles and dump sites leading to health risks The collection of waste from the urban areas, can have been affected often by (vermin and personal contact to waste) with the risk of contaminating groundthe disaster due to the damage to the collection equipment. The quantity of water waste generated often exceeds the collection capacity. Quite often there is a 8. In more common scenarios, waste is often addressed in an ad hoc fashion, and lack of personnel and even a lack of salaries for the workers. If no equipment more along the lines of supplying equipment and funds for clean-up works, or labour or funds are available to collect waste, then allowing the collected rather than a focus on capacity building and institutional strengthening. Without waste to be burnt on street corners may be the safest approach in the immediate these skills in training and management support, the provided equipment can short term. However, this will require supervision in order to ensure safety. be under-utilized and quickly become damaged due to its improper use and Once some degree of normality has returned and the waste management low maintenance. operations have been restored, an ad hoc waste collection system can be implemented. Targeting the restoration of some form of collection service in Generation districts of high population density is expected to have the highest potential benefit to Where solid mechanical of collection are lacking, Underpublic normalhealth. conditions, waste means is generated from the followingthemain handcart pick up of waste to local transfer points (e.g. a large heap, bins or sources. This generation is typically stable with the quantities and composition

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of the waste being known (i) Households, (ii) Industries (iii) Construction and Demolition sites (iv) Hospitals with clinical and healthcare wastes. Following a disaster, there can be a marked variance in the generation of these solid wastes, which in turn affects the collection and disposal activities. The following changes in the waste stream are typically seen in post-disasters: • Households: The supply of aid in the form of food, clothing and shelter creates an increase in waste, some of it often new to the environment. For example plastic bottles and packaging from the aid can create demonstrable problems for the waste collection. • Industries: Industrial disasters can lead to the temporary closure of factories and plants which can result in uncontrolled spillages of wastes from the facilities, mainly due to the lack of personnel at the site. Such waste from industrial plants can be hazardous and thus potentially harmful to the surrounding environment, as well as water courses. • Demolition: The demolition and site clearance of damaged buildings and infrastructure leads to large quantities of debris. This debris can potentially be recycled into gravel and used in the reconstruction works. However, typically, they are mixed with the municipal waste and dumped at the landfill or local dumpsite, taking up valuable void space from other non-recyclable waste. • Hospitals: The breakdown of the collection and disposal systems which hospitals can face, cause severe problems with their clinical waste (including body parts, medicines and needles / sharps). The handling of these requires temporary alternative solutions, such as small, mobile incinerators designed especially for this purpose. • It can be appreciated that the generation of wastes can in many circumstances overwhelm the established waste management system from before the disaster, thus new measures will often have to be taken in the post-disaster phase. Collection The collection of waste from the urban areas, can have been affected often by the disaster due to the damage to the collection equipment. The quantity of waste generated often exceeds the collection capacity. Quite often there is a lack of personnel and even a lack of salaries for the workers. If no equipment or labour or funds are available to collect waste, then allowing the collected waste to be burnt on street corners may be the safest approach in the immediate short term. However, this will require supervision in order to ensure safety. Once some degree of normality has returned and the waste management operations have been restored, an ad hoc waste collection system can be implemented. Targeting the restoration of some form of collection service in districts of high population density is expected to have the highest potential benefit to public health. Where mechanical means of collection are lacking, the handcart pick up of waste to local transfer points (e.g. a large heap, bins or

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skips) is usually the Assessments easiest to start, if money or food is available as payment. Environmental Impact (EIA) Larger quantities may be carried by animal carts and tractor-trailer methods but A basic and rapid EIA can be performed for comparison of proposed disposal they require money to be available to hire the vehicles. Local scavengers can sites, taking into account the following aspects (a)Geology / Hydrology, (b)Water be mobilised into co-operatives to offer a paid collection for household waste quality, (c)Air quality and noise, (d)Flora and fauna, (e)Visual impacts, (f)Sociocollection. If funds and resources are available for mechanized waste collection, economic and cultural impacts. Based on the findings of the EIA, a decision on for the prevailing density of the waste, a skip based collection system would be the best options for a disposal site can be made and the appropriate mitigation more appropriate to introduce than the use of waste collection vehicles. The measures can be incorporated into the design of the disposal site. A key element latter are expensive to maintain and would provide little or no improvement in is the soil condition of the area proposed for a disposal site, which in turn vehicle payloads. In the post-disaster phase, disposal sites are in high demand affects the flow of leachate. Considering the chemical composition of leachates, and this space needs to be allocated for non-recyclables with the majority of there is a need to control this since it can be detrimental to the ground water, recyclables being diverted to recycling depots. This can, however, prove difficult and thus the drinking water. due to the collection of large amounts of debris in the streets blocking movement. In addition, such sites often tempt the residents to dispose of their household Appropriate Technology waste, thus increasing the health hazards and mixing the potentially recyclable The demolition technology,waste equipment and systems forasthe restorationand of demolition waste with household waste.used As for construction management in post-disaster are to agency be appropriate for be waste is systems concerned, it will oftenreconstruction be the contractor who would the area. For example, or brought into be therouted area totoreplace responsible for the equipment haulage ofprocured the waste, which can a specific or update the depot wastefor collection andinto disposal vehicles, be applicable to use recycling processing recycled gravel should and aggregate for future the maintenance and service facilities. It is not appropriate to procure high-tech in construction work. In the case of clinical waste from hospitals, multi bin waste disposal trucksmay withbedigital drive systems in athecountry sorting systems implemented whereby variouswhere typesthe of repair waste are or sourcing of colour spare parts is limited. In addition, systems andinmachinery placed in coded bins, which are thentheeither burnt the hospital usedincinerator should be orrelatively and robustwaste. in order to ensure effectiveness. disposedsimple of as hazardous The use of handcarts and horse drawn carts can often be more efficient than new waste disposal vehicles. Disposal

In the absence of a dedicated and approved landfill for the waste, the use of temporary open dumpsites located out of the city may be the only option initially. Once the collection system is established, open dumps may be converted into controlled dump sites using a variety of low-tech approaches. This involves improving the gate control of vehicles entering the site, strict direction of vehicles on where to discharge loads, a small tipping area, flatten or covering up of the areas of the site not in use, elimination of fires and allowing licenced groups of scavengers to collect specific materials and to police their takings from others. Later on, simple methods such as draining away surface water, erecting a gate and gatehouse at the entrance and widening the access road on busy sites to allow vehicles to pass in both directions, may further improve the managed status of a disposal site. The disposal of hazardous waste, i.e. from hospitals or industries, should be in special cells within the dump site or landfill. Where possible, these must be controlled with a clay lining and cover daily to reduce the risks of leachate and unsupervised human contact. With regards to demolition waste, specific recycling depots can be established for the storage and subsequent processing with crushers and screening plants. Such recycling is relatively simple and can produce a recycled gravel useful for road construction and low strength concrete.

Training In the absence of a dedicated and approved landfill for the waste, the use of temporary openand dumpsites locatedsupport out of the city may in be order the only Necessary training management is required to option ensure initially. the Once the collection system is established, open dumps may be optimal utilization of the machinery and systems introduced. With converted a lack of into controlled dumpthe sites using a variety low-tech approaches. This involves training and support, implemented systemsofmay not operate fully, thus leading improving the gate control of vehicles entering the site, strict direction of vehicles to a lack of the benefit from the donations. on where to discharge loads, a small tipping area, flatten or covering up of the areas of Waste the site Management not in use, elimination of fires and allowing licenced groups of Emergency Plan scavengers to collect specific materials and to police their takings from others. An emergency waste methods management can be away prepared for those which Later on, simple such plan as draining surface water,areas erecting a gate are vulnerable to future natural disasters, i.e. urban cities on seismic faults and gatehouse at the entrance and widening the access road on busy and sites to hurricane cities. Suchinanboth emergency plan willfurther include a resource and allow prone vehicles to pass directions, may improve the managed management plan in case of a disaster, with identification of land areas for the or status of a disposal site. The disposal of hazardous waste, i.e. from hospitals handling and disposal material generated. industries, should of be waste in special cellswhich withinhas thebeen dump site or landfill. Where possible, these must be controlled with a clay lining and cover daily to reduce the risks of leachate andAND unsupervised human contact. With regards to demolition CAPACITY BUILDING INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING waste, specific recycling depots can be established for the storage and subsequent The processing efficient management of aand waste disposal system is crucial for is therelatively restoration with crushers screening plants. Such recycling simple and and rehabilitation of the system, and relies fully on the skills and experience of can produce a recycled gravel useful for road construction and low strength the personnel responsible. concrete.

skips) is usually the easiest to start, if money or food is available as payment. Larger quantities may be carried by animal carts and tractor-trailer methods but they require money to be available to hire the vehicles. Local scavengers can be mobilised into co-operatives to offer a paid collection for household waste collection. If funds and resources are available for mechanized waste collection, for the prevailing density of the waste, a skip based collection system would be more appropriate to introduce than the use of waste collection vehicles. The latter are expensive to maintain and would provide little or no improvement in vehicle payloads. In the post-disaster phase, disposal sites are in high demand and this space needs to be allocated for non-recyclables with the majority of recyclables being diverted to recycling depots. This can, however, prove difficult due to the collection of large amounts of debris in the streets blocking movement. In addition, such sites often tempt the residents to dispose of their household waste, thus increasing the health hazards and mixing the potentially recyclable demolition waste with household waste. As for as construction and demolition waste is concerned, it will often be the contractor agency who would be responsible for the haulage of the waste, which can be routed to a specific recycling depot for processing into recycled gravel and aggregate for future use in construction work. In the case of clinical waste from hospitals, multi bin sorting systems may be implemented whereby the various types of waste are placed in colour coded bins, which are then either burnt in the hospital incinerator or disposed of as hazardous waste.

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skips) is usually the Assessments easiest to start, if money or food is available as payment. Environmental Impact (EIA) Larger quantities may be carried by animal carts and tractor-trailer methods but A basic and rapid EIA can be performed for comparison of proposed disposal they require money to be available to hire the vehicles. Local scavengers can sites, taking into account the following aspects (a)Geology / Hydrology, (b)Water be mobilised into co-operatives to offer a paid collection for household waste quality, (c)Air quality and noise, (d)Flora and fauna, (e)Visual impacts, (f)Sociocollection. If funds and resources are available for mechanized waste collection, economic and cultural impacts. Based on the findings of the EIA, a decision on for the prevailing density of the waste, a skip based collection system would be the best options for a disposal site can be made and the appropriate mitigation more appropriate to introduce than the use of waste collection vehicles. The measures can be incorporated into the design of the disposal site. A key element latter are expensive to maintain and would provide little or no improvement in is the soil condition of the area proposed for a disposal site, which in turn vehicle payloads. In the post-disaster phase, disposal sites are in high demand affects the flow of leachate. Considering the chemical composition of leachates, and this space needs to be allocated for non-recyclables with the majority of there is a need to control this since it can be detrimental to the ground water, recyclables being diverted to recycling depots. This can, however, prove difficult and thus the drinking water. due to the collection of large amounts of debris in the streets blocking movement. In addition, such sites often tempt the residents to dispose of their household Appropriate Technology waste, thus increasing the health hazards and mixing the potentially recyclable The demolition technology,waste equipment and systems forasthe restorationand of demolition waste with household waste.used As for construction management in post-disaster are to agency be appropriate for be waste is systems concerned, it will oftenreconstruction be the contractor who would the area. For example, or brought into be therouted area totoreplace responsible for the equipment haulage ofprocured the waste, which can a specific or update the depot wastefor collection andinto disposal vehicles, be applicable to use recycling processing recycled gravel should and aggregate for future the maintenance andwork. serviceInfacilities. not appropriate to procure high-tech in construction the case Itofis clinical waste from hospitals, multi bin waste disposal trucksmay withbedigital drive systems in athecountry sorting systems implemented whereby variouswhere typesthe of repair waste are or sourcing of spare parts is limited. In addition, the systems and machinery placed in colour coded bins, which are then either burnt in the hospital usedincinerator should be orrelatively and robustwaste. in order to ensure effectiveness. disposedsimple of as hazardous The use of handcarts and horse drawn carts can often be more efficient than new waste disposal vehicles. Disposal

In the absence of a dedicated and approved landfill for the waste, the use of temporary open dumpsites located out of the city may be the only option initially. Once the collection system is established, open dumps may be converted into controlled dump sites using a variety of low-tech approaches. This involves improving the gate control of vehicles entering the site, strict direction of vehicles on where to discharge loads, a small tipping area, flatten or covering up of the areas of the site not in use, elimination of fires and allowing licenced groups of scavengers to collect specific materials and to police their takings from others. Later on, simple methods such as draining away surface water, erecting a gate and gatehouse at the entrance and widening the access road on busy sites to allow vehicles to pass in both directions, may further improve the managed status of a disposal site. The disposal of hazardous waste, i.e. from hospitals or industries, should be in special cells within the dump site or landfill. Where possible, these must be controlled with a clay lining and cover daily to reduce the risks of leachate and unsupervised human contact. With regards to demolition waste, specific recycling depots can be established for the storage and subsequent processing with crushers and screening plants. Such recycling is relatively simple and can produce a recycled gravel useful for road construction and low strength concrete.

Training In the absence of a dedicated and approved landfill for the waste, the use of temporary openand dumpsites locatedsupport out of the city may in be order the only Necessary training management is required to option ensure initially. the Once the collection system is established, open dumps may be optimal utilization of the machinery and systems introduced. With converted a lack of into controlled dumpthe sites using a variety low-tech approaches. This involves training and support, implemented systemsofmay not operate fully, thus leading improving the gate control of vehicles entering the site, strict direction of vehicles to a lack of the benefit from the donations. on where to discharge loads, a small tipping area, flatten or covering up of the areas of Waste the site Management not in use, elimination of fires and allowing licenced groups of Emergency Plan scavengers to collect specific materials and to police their takings from others. An emergency waste methods management can be away prepared for those which Later on, simple such plan as draining surface water,areas erecting a gate are vulnerable to future natural disasters, i.e. urban cities on seismic faults and and gatehouse at the entrance and widening the access road on busy sites to hurricane cities. Suchinanboth emergency plan willfurther include a resource and allow prone vehicles to pass directions, may improve the managed management plan in case of a disaster, with identification of land areas for the or status of a disposal site. The disposal of hazardous waste, i.e. from hospitals handling and disposal of waste material which has been generated. industries, should be in special cells within the dump site or landfill. Where possible, these must be controlled with a clay lining and cover daily to reduce the risks of leachate andAND unsupervised human contact. With regards to demolition CAPACITY BUILDING INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING waste, specific recycling depots can be established for the storage and subsequent The processing efficient management of aand waste disposal system is crucial for is therelatively restoration with crushers screening plants. Such recycling simple and and rehabilitation of the system, and relies fully on the skills and experience of can produce a recycled gravel useful for road construction and low strength the personnel responsible. concrete.

skips) is usually the easiest to start, if money or food is available as payment. Larger quantities may be carried by animal carts and tractor-trailer methods but they require money to be available to hire the vehicles. Local scavengers can be mobilised into co-operatives to offer a paid collection for household waste collection. If funds and resources are available for mechanized waste collection, for the prevailing density of the waste, a skip based collection system would be more appropriate to introduce than the use of waste collection vehicles. The latter are expensive to maintain and would provide little or no improvement in vehicle payloads. In the post-disaster phase, disposal sites are in high demand and this space needs to be allocated for non-recyclables with the majority of recyclables being diverted to recycling depots. This can, however, prove difficult due to the collection of large amounts of debris in the streets blocking movement. In addition, such sites often tempt the residents to dispose of their household waste, thus increasing the health hazards and mixing the potentially recyclable demolition waste with household waste. As for as construction and demolition waste is concerned, it will often be the contractor agency who would be responsible for the haulage of the waste, which can be routed to a specific recycling depot for processing into recycled gravel and aggregate for future use in construction work. In the case of clinical waste from hospitals, multi bin sorting systems may be implemented whereby the various types of waste are placed in colour coded bins, which are then either burnt in the hospital incinerator or disposed of as hazardous waste.

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Environmental Impact (EIA) skips) is usually the Assessments easiest to start, if money or food is available as payment. Larger quantities may be carried by animal carts and tractor-trailer methods but A basic and rapid EIA can be performed for comparison of proposed disposal they require money to be available to hire the vehicles. Local scavengers can sites, taking into account the following aspects (a)Geology / Hydrology, (b)Water be mobilised into co-operatives to offer a paid collection for household waste quality, (c)Air quality and noise, (d)Flora and fauna, (e)Visual impacts, (f)Sociocollection. If funds and resources are available for mechanized waste collection, economic and cultural impacts. Based on the findings of the EIA, a decision on for the prevailing density of the waste, a skip based collection system would be the best options for a disposal site can be made and the appropriate mitigation more appropriate to introduce than the use of waste collection vehicles. The measures can be incorporated into the design of the disposal site. A key element latter are expensive to maintain and would provide little or no improvement in is the soil condition of the area proposed for a disposal site, which in turn vehicle payloads. In the post-disaster phase, disposal sites are in high demand affects the flow of leachate. Considering the chemical composition of leachates, and this space needs to be allocated for non-recyclables with the majority of there is a need to control this since it can be detrimental to the ground water, recyclables being diverted to recycling depots. This can, however, prove difficult and thus the drinking water. due to the collection of large amounts of debris in the streets blocking movement. In addition, such sites often tempt the residents to dispose of their household Appropriate Technology waste, thus increasing the health hazards and mixing the potentially recyclable The demolition technology,waste equipment and systems forasthe restorationand of demolition waste with household waste.used As for construction management in post-disaster are to agency be appropriate for be waste is systems concerned, it will oftenreconstruction be the contractor who would the area. For example, or brought into be therouted area totoreplace responsible for the equipment haulage ofprocured the waste, which can a specific or update the depot wastefor collection andinto disposal vehicles, be applicable to use recycling processing recycled gravel should and aggregate for future the maintenance and service facilities. It is not appropriate to procure high-tech in construction work. In the case of clinical waste from hospitals, multi bin waste disposal trucksmay withbedigital drive systems in athecountry sorting systems implemented whereby variouswhere typesthe of repair waste are or sourcing of colour spare parts is limited. In addition, systems andinmachinery placed in coded bins, which are thentheeither burnt the hospital usedincinerator should be orrelatively and robustwaste. in order to ensure effectiveness. disposedsimple of as hazardous The use of handcarts and horse drawn carts can often be more efficient than new waste disposal vehicles. Disposal

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)

Training In the absence of a dedicated and approved landfill for the waste, the use of temporary openand dumpsites locatedsupport out of the city may in be order the only Necessary training management is required to option ensure initially. the Once the collection system is established, open dumps may be optimal utilization of the machinery and systems introduced. With converted a lack of into controlled dumpthe sites using a variety low-tech approaches. This involves training and support, implemented systemsofmay not operate fully, thus leading improving the gate control of vehicles entering the site, strict direction of vehicles to a lack of the benefit from the donations. on where to discharge loads, a small tipping area, flatten or covering up of the areas of Waste the site Management not in use, elimination of fires and allowing licenced groups of Emergency Plan scavengers to collect specific materials and to police their takings from others. An emergency waste methods management can be away prepared for those which Later on, simple such plan as draining surface water,areas erecting a gate are vulnerable to future natural disasters, i.e. urban cities on seismic faults and gatehouse at the entrance and widening the access road on busy and sites to hurricane cities. Suchinanboth emergency plan willfurther include a resource and allow prone vehicles to pass directions, may improve the managed management plan in case of a disaster, with identification of land areas for the or status of a disposal site. The disposal of hazardous waste, i.e. from hospitals handling and disposal material generated. industries, should of be waste in special cellswhich withinhas thebeen dump site or landfill. Where possible, these must be controlled with a clay lining and cover daily to reduce the risks of leachate andAND unsupervised human contact. With regards to demolition CAPACITY BUILDING INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING waste, specific recycling depots can be established for the storage and subsequent The processing efficient management of aand waste disposal system is crucial for is therelatively restoration with crushers screening plants. Such recycling simple and and rehabilitation of the system, and relies fully on the skills and experience of can produce a recycled gravel useful for road construction and low strength the personnel responsible. concrete.

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A basic and rapid EIA can be performed for comparison of proposed disposal sites, taking into account the following aspects (a)Geology / Hydrology, (b)Water quality, (c)Air quality and noise, (d)Flora and fauna, (e)Visual impacts, (f)Socioeconomic and cultural impacts. Based on the findings of the EIA, a decision on the best options for a disposal site can be made and the appropriate mitigation measures can be incorporated into the design of the disposal site. A key element is the soil condition of the area proposed for a disposal site, which in turn affects the flow of leachate. Considering the chemical composition of leachates, there is a need to control this since it can be detrimental to the ground water, and thus the drinking water. Appropriate Technology The technology, equipment and systems used for the restoration of waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction are to be appropriate for the area. For example, equipment procured or brought into the area to replace or update the waste collection and disposal vehicles, should be applicable to the maintenance and service facilities. It is not appropriate to procure high-tech waste disposal trucks with digital drive systems in a country where the repair or sourcing of spare parts is limited. In addition, the systems and machinery used should be relatively simple and robust in order to ensure effectiveness. The use of handcarts and horse drawn carts can often be more efficient than new waste disposal vehicles.

Necessary training and management support is required in order to ensure the optimal utilization of the machinery and systems introduced. With a lack of training and support, the implemented systems may not operate fully, thus leading to a lack of the benefit from the donations. Emergency Waste Management Plan An emergency waste management plan can be prepared for those areas which are vulnerable to future natural disasters, i.e. urban cities on seismic faults and hurricane prone cities. Such an emergency plan will include a resource and management plan in case of a disaster, with identification of land areas for the handling and disposal of waste material which has been generated. CAPACITY BUILDING AND INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING The efficient management of a waste disposal system is crucial for the restoration and rehabilitation of the system, and relies fully on the skills and experience of the personnel responsible.

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Environmental Impact (EIA) skips) is usually the Assessments easiest to start, if money or food is available as payment. Larger quantities may be carried by animal carts and tractor-trailer methods but A basic and rapid EIA can be performed for comparison of proposed disposal they require money to be available to hire the vehicles. Local scavengers can sites, taking into account the following aspects (a)Geology / Hydrology, (b)Water be mobilised into co-operatives to offer a paid collection for household waste quality, (c)Air quality and noise, (d)Flora and fauna, (e)Visual impacts, (f)Sociocollection. If funds and resources are available for mechanized waste collection, economic and cultural impacts. Based on the findings of the EIA, a decision on for the prevailing density of the waste, a skip based collection system would be the best options for a disposal site can be made and the appropriate mitigation more appropriate to introduce than the use of waste collection vehicles. The measures can be incorporated into the design of the disposal site. A key element latter are expensive to maintain and would provide little or no improvement in is the soil condition of the area proposed for a disposal site, which in turn vehicle payloads. In the post-disaster phase, disposal sites are in high demand affects the flow of leachate. Considering the chemical composition of leachates, and this space needs to be allocated for non-recyclables with the majority of there is a need to control this since it can be detrimental to the ground water, recyclables being diverted to recycling depots. This can, however, prove difficult and thus the drinking water. due to the collection of large amounts of debris in the streets blocking movement. In addition, such sites often tempt the residents to dispose of their household Appropriate Technology waste, thus increasing the health hazards and mixing the potentially recyclable The demolition technology,waste equipment and systems forasthe restorationand of demolition waste with household waste.used As for construction management in post-disaster are to agency be appropriate for be waste is systems concerned, it will oftenreconstruction be the contractor who would the area. For example, or brought into be therouted area totoreplace responsible for the equipment haulage ofprocured the waste, which can a specific or update the depot wastefor collection andinto disposal vehicles, be applicable to use recycling processing recycled gravel should and aggregate for future the maintenance andwork. serviceInfacilities. not appropriate to procure high-tech in construction the case Itofis clinical waste from hospitals, multi bin waste disposal trucksmay withbedigital drive systems in athecountry sorting systems implemented whereby variouswhere typesthe of repair waste are or sourcing of spare parts is limited. In addition, the systems and machinery placed in colour coded bins, which are then either burnt in the hospital usedincinerator should be orrelatively and robustwaste. in order to ensure effectiveness. disposedsimple of as hazardous The use of handcarts and horse drawn carts can often be more efficient than new waste disposal vehicles. Disposal

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)

Training In the absence of a dedicated and approved landfill for the waste, the use of temporary openand dumpsites locatedsupport out of the city may in be order the only Necessary training management is required to option ensure initially. the Once the collection system is established, open dumps may be optimal utilization of the machinery and systems introduced. With converted a lack of into controlled dumpthe sites using a variety low-tech approaches. This involves training and support, implemented systemsofmay not operate fully, thus leading improving the gate control of vehicles entering the site, strict direction of vehicles to a lack of the benefit from the donations. on where to discharge loads, a small tipping area, flatten or covering up of the areas of Waste the site Management not in use, elimination of fires and allowing licenced groups of Emergency Plan scavengers to collect specific materials and to police their takings from others. An emergency waste methods management can be away prepared for those which Later on, simple such plan as draining surface water,areas erecting a gate are vulnerable to future natural disasters, i.e. urban cities on seismic faults and and gatehouse at the entrance and widening the access road on busy sites to hurricane cities. Suchinanboth emergency plan willfurther include a resource and allow prone vehicles to pass directions, may improve the managed management plan in case of a disaster, with identification of land areas for the or status of a disposal site. The disposal of hazardous waste, i.e. from hospitals handling and disposal of waste material which has been generated. industries, should be in special cells within the dump site or landfill. Where possible, these must be controlled with a clay lining and cover daily to reduce the risks of leachate andAND unsupervised human contact. With regards to demolition CAPACITY BUILDING INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING waste, specific recycling depots can be established for the storage and subsequent The processing efficient management of aand waste disposal system is crucial for is therelatively restoration with crushers screening plants. Such recycling simple and and rehabilitation of the system, and relies fully on the skills and experience of can produce a recycled gravel useful for road construction and low strength the personnel responsible. concrete.

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A basic and rapid EIA can be performed for comparison of proposed disposal sites, taking into account the following aspects (a)Geology / Hydrology, (b)Water quality, (c)Air quality and noise, (d)Flora and fauna, (e)Visual impacts, (f)Socioeconomic and cultural impacts. Based on the findings of the EIA, a decision on the best options for a disposal site can be made and the appropriate mitigation measures can be incorporated into the design of the disposal site. A key element is the soil condition of the area proposed for a disposal site, which in turn affects the flow of leachate. Considering the chemical composition of leachates, there is a need to control this since it can be detrimental to the ground water, and thus the drinking water. Appropriate Technology The technology, equipment and systems used for the restoration of waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction are to be appropriate for the area. For example, equipment procured or brought into the area to replace or update the waste collection and disposal vehicles, should be applicable to the maintenance and service facilities. It is not appropriate to procure high-tech waste disposal trucks with digital drive systems in a country where the repair or sourcing of spare parts is limited. In addition, the systems and machinery used should be relatively simple and robust in order to ensure effectiveness. The use of handcarts and horse drawn carts can often be more efficient than new waste disposal vehicles.

Necessary training and management support is required in order to ensure the optimal utilization of the machinery and systems introduced. With a lack of training and support, the implemented systems may not operate fully, thus leading to a lack of the benefit from the donations. Emergency Waste Management Plan An emergency waste management plan can be prepared for those areas which are vulnerable to future natural disasters, i.e. urban cities on seismic faults and hurricane prone cities. Such an emergency plan will include a resource and management plan in case of a disaster, with identification of land areas for the handling and disposal of waste material which has been generated. CAPACITY BUILDING AND INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING The efficient management of a waste disposal system is crucial for the restoration and rehabilitation of the system, and relies fully on the skills and experience of the personnel responsible.

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Institutional Strengthening

The governmental departments and/or offices charged with the responsibility for national waste management and environmental policies, must be integrated into the formulation of the strategy for solid waste management. Through this co-operation, opportunities to strengthen the institution’s knowledge and competencies in managing solid waste can be realized and a strategy can be formulated which seeks to support the national long term waste management and environmental policies. An important first step is to gain a strategic overview of the waste streams, quantities and composition, in order to then be able to formulate waste plans for the area. This will often require technical assistance from experienced practitioners and consultants.

The governmental departments and/or offices charged with the responsibility for national waste management and environmental policies, must be integrated into the formulation of the strategy for solid waste management. Through this co-operation, opportunities to strengthen the institution’s knowledge and competencies in managing solid waste can be realized and a strategy can be formulated which seeks to support the national long term waste management and environmental policies. An important first step is to gain a strategic overview of the waste streams, quantities and composition, in order to then be able to formulate waste plans for the area. This will often require technical assistance from experienced practitioners and consultants.

Capacity Building and Employment Generation An important aspect of any intervention following natural disasters or conflicts is that of capacity building and employment generation. The removal, handling, treatment and disposal of solid waste provides good opportunities for training local personnel in waste management, including recycling and reuse methodologies, emergency waste handling and the remediation of dumpsites. In addition, the capacity in the waste management consultancy sector should also be addressed in order to assist in the long term development of the environmental field in the area. CONCLUSION This paper has highlighted some of the key issues concerning the restoration of waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction. A balanced intervention focussing on appropriate technology and machinery is required with support in training and institutional strengthening, in order to ensure success. In addition, an early recognition of the importance of tackling waste management in the relief and rehabilitation phase is crucial, otherwise the accumulating waste poses increasing risks to public health and the subsequent clean-up costs progressively escalate. For disaster vulnerable geographic areas, an emergency waste management plan can be prepared, including training and resource allocation. REFERENCES Baycan, F (2004) “Emergency planning for disaster waste: International Conference on Post Disaster Reconstruction: Planning for Reconstruction, Coventry University, 2223 April 2004. Baycan, F and Petersen, M. (2002) “Disaster Waste Management”, ISWA 2002 Annual Congress, Istanbul. Disasters Database (2001). http://www.cred.be/emdat/disdat2.htm. Lauritzen, E.K. (1996), “Disaster Waste Management”, in: ISWA Yearbook 1996/1997.

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9

Preliminary Assessment of Impact Capacity Building and Employment Generation of Tsunami on the Nutrient and An important aspect of any intervention following natural disasters or conflicts is that of capacity building and employment generation. The removal, handling, Sediment Dynamics in the treatment and disposal of solid waste provides good opportunities for training local personnel in waste management, including recycling and reuse Pichavaram methodologies, emergencyMangrove waste handling and theEcosystem, remediation of dumpsites. In addition, the capacity in the waste management consultancy sector should also be addressed in order to assist India in the long term development of the environmental field in the area.1, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan2 and M. Bala Krishna Prasad1* A.L. Ramanathan 1 Associate Professor, School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110 067, India CONCLUSION 2 *Special Centre for Integrated Studies, School of Life Sciences, This paperUniversity has highlighted some ofHyderabad the key issues of Hyderabad, - 500concerning 046, India the restoration of

waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction. A balanced intervention focussing on appropriate technology and machinery is required with INTRODUCTION supportforests in training anddeveloped institutional in order to ensure Mangrove are best on strengthening, tropical shorelines where there issuccess. an In addition, an early recognition thean importance tacklingofwaste extensive suitable intertidal zone, of with abundantofsupply fine management grained in the and reliefare andmost rehabilitation is crucial, the or accumulating waste sediment, luxuriant phase in areas with a otherwise high rainfall an abundant poses increasing risks to public health and the subsequent clean-up fresh water supply. Mangroves thrive on river discharge and cover up to 75%costs progressively escalate. ForMangroves disaster vulnerable geographic areas, especially an emergency of coastlines (Pernetta, 1993). in the developing countries, waste management plan can be prepared, including training and resource in the south Asian region, are under threat from over-exploitation, destruction allocation. and environmental degradation (Ong et al., 1995; Tomlinson, 1995). Human communities in these developing countries use mangroves for wood and tannin REFERENCES products on a sustainable level (Tomlinson, 1995). In addition, mangrove forests (2004) zone “Emergency planning for disaster waste: also Baycan, act as aF buffer between the open ocean and theInternational land. This Conference not only on Disasterfrom Reconstruction: Planning for Reconstruction, University, protects Post the shores erosion and siltation (Furukawa andCoventry Wolanski 1996), 22April 2004. but also 23 provide habitat for many commercially important biological resources. F and Petersen, M. mangrove (2002) “Disaster Management”, ISWA 2002 Annual The Baycan, biogeochemistry of the forestWaste is not only influenced by the Congress, Istanbul. anthropogenic factors but also by the natural forces. The nutrient biogeochemical Disasters Database (2001). http://www.cred.be/emdat/disdat2.htm. processes in mangroves are primarily driven by both internal and external factors, Lauritzen, E.K. (1996), “Disaster Waste Management”, in: ISWA Yearbook 1996/1997. such as creek hydrology, topography, tidal exchange, nutrient loading, microbial

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Institutional Strengthening

Institutional Strengthening

The governmental departments and/or offices charged with the responsibility for national waste management and environmental policies, must be integrated into the formulation of the strategy for solid waste management. Through this co-operation, opportunities to strengthen the institution’s knowledge and competencies in managing solid waste can be realized and a strategy can be formulated which seeks to support the national long term waste management and environmental policies. An important first step is to gain a strategic overview of the waste streams, quantities and composition, in order to then be able to formulate waste plans for the area. This will often require technical assistance from experienced practitioners and consultants.

The governmental departments and/or offices charged with the responsibility for national waste management and environmental policies, must be integrated into the formulation of the strategy for solid waste management. Through this co-operation, opportunities to strengthen the institution’s knowledge and competencies in managing solid waste can be realized and a strategy can be formulated which seeks to support the national long term waste management and environmental policies. An important first step is to gain a strategic overview of the waste streams, quantities and composition, in order to then be able to formulate waste plans for the area. This will often require technical assistance from experienced practitioners and consultants.

Capacity Building and Employment Generation An important aspect of any intervention following natural disasters or conflicts is that of capacity building and employment generation. The removal, handling, treatment and disposal of solid waste provides good opportunities for training local personnel in waste management, including recycling and reuse methodologies, emergency waste handling and the remediation of dumpsites. In addition, the capacity in the waste management consultancy sector should also be addressed in order to assist in the long term development of the environmental field in the area. CONCLUSION This paper has highlighted some of the key issues concerning the restoration of waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction. A balanced intervention focussing on appropriate technology and machinery is required with support in training and institutional strengthening, in order to ensure success. In addition, an early recognition of the importance of tackling waste management in the relief and rehabilitation phase is crucial, otherwise the accumulating waste poses increasing risks to public health and the subsequent clean-up costs progressively escalate. For disaster vulnerable geographic areas, an emergency waste management plan can be prepared, including training and resource allocation. REFERENCES Baycan, F (2004) “Emergency planning for disaster waste: International Conference on Post Disaster Reconstruction: Planning for Reconstruction, Coventry University, 2223 April 2004. Baycan, F and Petersen, M. (2002) “Disaster Waste Management”, ISWA 2002 Annual Congress, Istanbul. Disasters Database (2001). http://www.cred.be/emdat/disdat2.htm. Lauritzen, E.K. (1996), “Disaster Waste Management”, in: ISWA Yearbook 1996/1997.

9

Preliminary Assessment of Impact Capacity Building and Employment Generation of Tsunami on the Nutrient and An important aspect of any intervention following natural disasters or conflicts is that of capacity building and employment generation. The removal, handling, Sediment Dynamics in the treatment and disposal of solid waste provides good opportunities for training local personnel in waste management, including recycling and reuse Pichavaram methodologies, emergencyMangrove waste handling and theEcosystem, remediation of dumpsites. In addition, the capacity in the waste management consultancy sector should also be addressed in order to assist India in the long term development of the environmental field in the area.1, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan2 and M. Bala Krishna Prasad1* A.L. Ramanathan 1 Associate Professor, School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110 067, India CONCLUSION 2 *Special Centre for Integrated Studies, School of Life Sciences, This paperUniversity has highlighted some ofHyderabad the key issues of Hyderabad, - 500concerning 046, India the restoration of

waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction. A balanced intervention focussing on appropriate technology and machinery is required with INTRODUCTION supportforests in training anddeveloped institutional in order to ensure Mangrove are best on strengthening, tropical shorelines where there issuccess. an In addition, an early recognition of the importance of tackling waste extensive suitable intertidal zone, with an abundant supply of fine management grained in the and reliefare andmost rehabilitation is crucial, the or accumulating waste sediment, luxuriant phase in areas with a otherwise high rainfall an abundant poses increasing risks to public health and the subsequent clean-up fresh water supply. Mangroves thrive on river discharge and cover up to 75%costs progressively escalate. ForMangroves disaster vulnerable geographic areas, especially an emergency of coastlines (Pernetta, 1993). in the developing countries, waste management plan can be prepared, including training and resource in the south Asian region, are under threat from over-exploitation, destruction allocation. and environmental degradation (Ong et al., 1995; Tomlinson, 1995). Human communities in these developing countries use mangroves for wood and tannin REFERENCES products on a sustainable level (Tomlinson, 1995). In addition, mangrove forests (2004) zone “Emergency planning for disaster waste: also Baycan, act as aF buffer between the open ocean and theInternational land. This Conference not only on Disasterfrom Reconstruction: Planning for Reconstruction, University, protects Post the shores erosion and siltation (Furukawa andCoventry Wolanski 1996), 22April 2004. but also 23 provide habitat for many commercially important biological resources. F and Petersen, M. mangrove (2002) “Disaster Management”, ISWA 2002 Annual The Baycan, biogeochemistry of the forestWaste is not only influenced by the Congress, Istanbul. anthropogenic factors but also by the natural forces. The nutrient biogeochemical Disasters Database (2001). http://www.cred.be/emdat/disdat2.htm. processes in mangroves are primarily driven by both internal and external factors, Lauritzen, E.K. (1996), “Disaster Waste Management”, in: ISWA Yearbook 1996/1997. such as creek hydrology, topography, tidal exchange, nutrient loading, microbial

118

Disaster Management

Institutional Strengthening The governmental departments and/or offices charged with the responsibility for national waste management and environmental policies, must be integrated into the formulation of the strategy for solid waste management. Through this co-operation, opportunities to strengthen the institution’s knowledge and competencies in managing solid waste can be realized and a strategy can be formulated which seeks to support the national long term waste management and environmental policies. An important first step is to gain a strategic overview of the waste streams, quantities and composition, in order to then be able to formulate waste plans for the area. This will often require technical assistance from experienced practitioners and consultants.

9

Preliminary Assessment of Impact Capacity Building and Employment Generation of Tsunami on the Nutrient and An important aspect of any intervention following natural disasters or conflicts is that of capacity building and employment generation. The removal, handling, Sediment Dynamics in the treatment and disposal of solid waste provides good opportunities for training local personnel in waste management, including recycling and reuse Pichavaram methodologies, emergencyMangrove waste handling and theEcosystem, remediation of dumpsites. In addition, the capacity in the waste management consultancy sector should also be addressed in order to assist India in the long term development of the environmental field in the area.1, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan2 and M. Bala Krishna Prasad1* A.L. Ramanathan 1 Associate Professor, School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110 067, India CONCLUSION 2 *Special Centre for Integrated Studies, School of Life Sciences, This paperUniversity has highlighted some ofHyderabad the key issues of Hyderabad, - 500concerning 046, India the restoration of

waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction. A balanced intervention focussing on appropriate technology and machinery is required with INTRODUCTION supportforests in training anddeveloped institutional in order to ensure Mangrove are best on strengthening, tropical shorelines where there issuccess. an In addition, an early recognition thean importance tacklingofwaste extensive suitable intertidal zone, of with abundantofsupply fine management grained in the and reliefare andmost rehabilitation is crucial, the or accumulating waste sediment, luxuriant phase in areas with a otherwise high rainfall an abundant poses increasing risks to public health and the subsequent clean-up fresh water supply. Mangroves thrive on river discharge and cover up to 75%costs progressively escalate. ForMangroves disaster vulnerable geographic areas, especially an emergency of coastlines (Pernetta, 1993). in the developing countries, waste management plan can be prepared, including training and resource in the south Asian region, are under threat from over-exploitation, destruction allocation. and environmental degradation (Ong et al., 1995; Tomlinson, 1995). Human communities in these developing countries use mangroves for wood and tannin REFERENCES products on a sustainable level (Tomlinson, 1995). In addition, mangrove forests (2004) zone “Emergency planning for disaster waste: also Baycan, act as aF buffer between the open ocean and theInternational land. This Conference not only on Disasterfrom Reconstruction: Planning for Reconstruction, University, protects Post the shores erosion and siltation (Furukawa andCoventry Wolanski 1996), 22April 2004. but also 23 provide habitat for many commercially important biological resources. F and Petersen, M. mangrove (2002) “Disaster Management”, ISWA 2002 Annual The Baycan, biogeochemistry of the forestWaste is not only influenced by the Congress, Istanbul. anthropogenic factors but also by the natural forces. The nutrient biogeochemical Disasters Database (2001). http://www.cred.be/emdat/disdat2.htm. processes in mangroves are primarily driven by both internal and external factors, Lauritzen, E.K. (1996), “Disaster Waste Management”, in: ISWA Yearbook 1996/1997. such as creek hydrology, topography, tidal exchange, nutrient loading, microbial

118

9

Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan1, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan2 and M. Bala Krishna Prasad1* 1 Associate Professor, School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110 067, India 2 *Special Centre for Integrated Studies, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad - 500 046, India

INTRODUCTION Mangrove forests are best developed on tropical shorelines where there is an extensive suitable intertidal zone, with an abundant supply of fine grained sediment, and are most luxuriant in areas with a high rainfall or an abundant fresh water supply. Mangroves thrive on river discharge and cover up to 75% of coastlines (Pernetta, 1993). Mangroves in the developing countries, especially in the south Asian region, are under threat from over-exploitation, destruction and environmental degradation (Ong et al., 1995; Tomlinson, 1995). Human communities in these developing countries use mangroves for wood and tannin products on a sustainable level (Tomlinson, 1995). In addition, mangrove forests also act as a buffer zone between the open ocean and the land. This not only protects the shores from erosion and siltation (Furukawa and Wolanski 1996), but also provide habitat for many commercially important biological resources. The biogeochemistry of the mangrove forest is not only influenced by the anthropogenic factors but also by the natural forces. The nutrient biogeochemical processes in mangroves are primarily driven by both internal and external factors, such as creek hydrology, topography, tidal exchange, nutrient loading, microbial

Disaster Management

Institutional Strengthening The governmental departments and/or offices charged with the responsibility for national waste management and environmental policies, must be integrated into the formulation of the strategy for solid waste management. Through this co-operation, opportunities to strengthen the institution’s knowledge and competencies in managing solid waste can be realized and a strategy can be formulated which seeks to support the national long term waste management and environmental policies. An important first step is to gain a strategic overview of the waste streams, quantities and composition, in order to then be able to formulate waste plans for the area. This will often require technical assistance from experienced practitioners and consultants.

9

Preliminary Assessment of Impact Capacity Building and Employment Generation of Tsunami on the Nutrient and An important aspect of any intervention following natural disasters or conflicts is that of capacity building and employment generation. The removal, handling, Sediment Dynamics in the treatment and disposal of solid waste provides good opportunities for training local personnel in waste management, including recycling and reuse Pichavaram methodologies, emergencyMangrove waste handling and theEcosystem, remediation of dumpsites. In addition, the capacity in the waste management consultancy sector should also be addressed in order to assist India in the long term development of the environmental field in the area.1, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan2 and M. Bala Krishna Prasad1* A.L. Ramanathan 1 Associate Professor, School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110 067, India CONCLUSION 2 *Special Centre for Integrated Studies, School of Life Sciences, This paperUniversity has highlighted some ofHyderabad the key issues of Hyderabad, - 500concerning 046, India the restoration of

waste management systems in post-disaster reconstruction. A balanced intervention focussing on appropriate technology and machinery is required with INTRODUCTION supportforests in training anddeveloped institutional in order to ensure Mangrove are best on strengthening, tropical shorelines where there issuccess. an In addition, an early recognition of the importance of tackling waste extensive suitable intertidal zone, with an abundant supply of fine management grained in the and reliefare andmost rehabilitation is crucial, the or accumulating waste sediment, luxuriant phase in areas with a otherwise high rainfall an abundant poses increasing risks to public health and the subsequent clean-up fresh water supply. Mangroves thrive on river discharge and cover up to 75%costs progressively escalate. ForMangroves disaster vulnerable geographic areas, especially an emergency of coastlines (Pernetta, 1993). in the developing countries, waste management plan can be prepared, including training and resource in the south Asian region, are under threat from over-exploitation, destruction allocation. and environmental degradation (Ong et al., 1995; Tomlinson, 1995). Human communities in these developing countries use mangroves for wood and tannin REFERENCES products on a sustainable level (Tomlinson, 1995). In addition, mangrove forests (2004) zone “Emergency planning for disaster waste: also Baycan, act as aF buffer between the open ocean and theInternational land. This Conference not only on Disasterfrom Reconstruction: Planning for Reconstruction, University, protects Post the shores erosion and siltation (Furukawa andCoventry Wolanski 1996), 22April 2004. but also 23 provide habitat for many commercially important biological resources. F and Petersen, M. mangrove (2002) “Disaster Management”, ISWA 2002 Annual The Baycan, biogeochemistry of the forestWaste is not only influenced by the Congress, Istanbul. anthropogenic factors but also by the natural forces. The nutrient biogeochemical Disasters Database (2001). http://www.cred.be/emdat/disdat2.htm. processes in mangroves are primarily driven by both internal and external factors, Lauritzen, E.K. (1996), “Disaster Waste Management”, in: ISWA Yearbook 1996/1997. such as creek hydrology, topography, tidal exchange, nutrient loading, microbial

9

Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami on the Nutrient and Sediment Dynamics in the Pichavaram Mangrove Ecosystem, India A.L. Ramanathan1, Rajesh Kumar Ranjan2 and M. Bala Krishna Prasad1* 1 Associate Professor, School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110 067, India 2 *Special Centre for Integrated Studies, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad - 500 046, India

INTRODUCTION Mangrove forests are best developed on tropical shorelines where there is an extensive suitable intertidal zone, with an abundant supply of fine grained sediment, and are most luxuriant in areas with a high rainfall or an abundant fresh water supply. Mangroves thrive on river discharge and cover up to 75% of coastlines (Pernetta, 1993). Mangroves in the developing countries, especially in the south Asian region, are under threat from over-exploitation, destruction and environmental degradation (Ong et al., 1995; Tomlinson, 1995). Human communities in these developing countries use mangroves for wood and tannin products on a sustainable level (Tomlinson, 1995). In addition, mangrove forests also act as a buffer zone between the open ocean and the land. This not only protects the shores from erosion and siltation (Furukawa and Wolanski 1996), but also provide habitat for many commercially important biological resources. The biogeochemistry of the mangrove forest is not only influenced by the anthropogenic factors but also by the natural forces. The nutrient biogeochemical processes in mangroves are primarily driven by both internal and external factors, such as creek hydrology, topography, tidal exchange, nutrient loading, microbial

120

Disaster Management

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Disaster Management Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami

121

transformation, biological interactions etc (Dittmar and Lara, 2001). Any disturbances in the creek hydrological structure will result in a variability in nutrient levels across the ecosystem. On the 26th December 2004, the Sumatra – Andaman earthquake in the Indian Ocean resulted in a tsunami along the coastlines of the nations sharing the Indian Ocean. India was one of the most damaged countries. The waves along the southeast coast of India were raised to > 20 – 25 m height with a speed of > 356 kmph and encroached around 3 – 5 km of the terrestrial land for quite some time. This has caused huge damage not only to human life and property but also to the imbalance of the natural system’s stability. However, the Pichavaram mangrove forest lying along the southeast coastline of India had reduced the speed and encroachment of the giant Tsunami waves at the Bay of Bengal, thus several hundreds of the Irula tribal population were saved from this natural calamity (Swaminathan, 2005), but the structure and function of the mangrove forest has changed by the destructive nature of the ocean waves. It is hypothesized that the reductive sedimentary environment of the mangrove has been altered by the Tsunami waves and this fact has a profound influence on the biogeochemical cycles. In an integrated assessment of the Tsunami impact on the Pichavaram mangroves, we have observed relatively significant changes in the water and sediment characteristics. Here, we present some results on the impact of the Tsunami on the biogeochemical characteristics of the water and sediments of the Pichavaram mangrove coastal forest of the south east coast of India.

transformation, biological interactions etc (Dittmar and Lara, 2001). Any disturbances in the creek hydrological structure will result in a variability in nutrient levels across the ecosystem. On the 26th December 2004, the Sumatra – Andaman earthquake in the Indian Ocean resulted in a tsunami along the coastlines of the nations sharing the Indian Ocean. India was one of the most damaged countries. The waves along the southeast coast of India were raised to > 20 – 25 m height with a speed of > 356 kmph and encroached around 3 – 5 km of the terrestrial land for quite some time. This has caused huge damage not only to human life and property but also to the imbalance of the natural system’s stability. However, the Pichavaram mangrove forest lying along the southeast coastline of India had reduced the speed and encroachment of the giant Tsunami waves at the Bay of Bengal, thus several hundreds of the Irula tribal population were saved from this natural calamity (Swaminathan, 2005), but the structure and function of the mangrove forest has changed by the destructive nature of the ocean waves. It is hypothesized that the reductive sedimentary environment of the mangrove has been altered by the Tsunami waves and this fact has a profound influence on the biogeochemical cycles. In an integrated assessment of the Tsunami impact on the Pichavaram mangroves, we have observed relatively significant changes in the water and sediment characteristics. Here, we present some results on the impact of the Tsunami on the biogeochemical characteristics of the water and sediments of the Pichavaram mangrove coastal forest of the south east coast of India.

Materials and Methods

Materials and Methods

Study Area

Study Area

The Pichavaram mangroves (Lat 11° 25’ N and Long 79° 47’ E) cover an area of 1100 ha; the area is traversed by a large number of channels and creeks connecting two major rivers, the Coleroon in the south and the Vellar in the north (Figure 1). The climate is sub humid and the ratio between precipitation and evapotranspiration (P/Etp) ranges from 0.5 to 0.75 (Selvam, 2003) with a maximum precipitation during the northeast monsoons (October-December). The Pichavaram mangrove forest is separated from the Bay of Bengal by a narrow sand bar during summer and is periodically flooded by the incoming tidal waters. Sampling and Analysis Water and sediment samples from the Pichavaram mangrove environment were collected before - (July 2004) and after the Tsunami (January 2005). The locations of the sampling stations were recorded using a Geographic Position System (GPS). The samples were collected from the same locations for comparison. The water sampling locations were chosen to present different parts of the mangrove.

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Disaster Management

The Pichavaram mangroves (Lat 11° 25’ N and Long 79° 47’ E) cover an area of 1100 ha; thelocations area is traversed by a large number of channels and creeks Figure 1: Sampling and the research site of the Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, coast in of the India. connecting two major rivers, southeast the Coleroon south and the Vellar in the north (Figure 1). The climate is sub humid and the ratio between precipitation The sediment samples were collected locations 2003) in order and evapotranspiration (P/Etp) ranges from from the 0.5 selected to 0.75 (Selvam, with a to see any variability in their parameters (Fig. 1). The samples were thoroughly The maximum precipitation during the northeast monsoons (October-December). homogenized bymangrove using corning quarteringfrom techniques. portionbyofa the Pichavaram forestand is separated the Bay One of Bengal narrow sample was used for grain size analysis and the rest was used for nutrient sand bar during summer and is periodically flooded by the incoming tidal waters. analysis. Size separation for the sample was carried out following the standard sieving and Analysis and Sampling sedimentation methods. The samples were dry sieved on an electrically controlled electromagnetic sieve shaker FRISCH ANALYSETTE-3. The sampleswere Water and sediment samples from the Pichavaram mangrove environment werecollected also analysed C, N 2004) and S and by aafter Beckman TOC Analyzer, total The beforefor - (July the Tsunami (January for 2005). nitrogen on a of Perkin – Elmer 2400 CHNS/O Series IIusing analyzer. locations the sampling stations were recorded a Geographic Position System (GPS). The samples were collected from the same locations for comparison. The water sampling locations were chosen to present different parts of the mangrove.

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Disaster Management Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami

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transformation, biological interactions etc (Dittmar and Lara, 2001). Any disturbances in the creek hydrological structure will result in a variability in nutrient levels across the ecosystem. On the 26th December 2004, the Sumatra – Andaman earthquake in the Indian Ocean resulted in a tsunami along the coastlines of the nations sharing the Indian Ocean. India was one of the most damaged countries. The waves along the southeast coast of India were raised to > 20 – 25 m height with a speed of > 356 kmph and encroached around 3 – 5 km of the terrestrial land for quite some time. This has caused huge damage not only to human life and property but also to the imbalance of the natural system’s stability. However, the Pichavaram mangrove forest lying along the southeast coastline of India had reduced the speed and encroachment of the giant Tsunami waves at the Bay of Bengal, thus several hundreds of the Irula tribal population were saved from this natural calamity (Swaminathan, 2005), but the structure and function of the mangrove forest has changed by the destructive nature of the ocean waves. It is hypothesized that the reductive sedimentary environment of the mangrove has been altered by the Tsunami waves and this fact has a profound influence on the biogeochemical cycles. In an integrated assessment of the Tsunami impact on the Pichavaram mangroves, we have observed relatively significant changes in the water and sediment characteristics. Here, we present some results on the impact of the Tsunami on the biogeochemical characteristics of the water and sediments of the Pichavaram mangrove coastal forest of the south east coast of India.

transformation, biological interactions etc (Dittmar and Lara, 2001). Any disturbances in the creek hydrological structure will result in a variability in nutrient levels across the ecosystem. On the 26th December 2004, the Sumatra – Andaman earthquake in the Indian Ocean resulted in a tsunami along the coastlines of the nations sharing the Indian Ocean. India was one of the most damaged countries. The waves along the southeast coast of India were raised to > 20 – 25 m height with a speed of > 356 kmph and encroached around 3 – 5 km of the terrestrial land for quite some time. This has caused huge damage not only to human life and property but also to the imbalance of the natural system’s stability. However, the Pichavaram mangrove forest lying along the southeast coastline of India had reduced the speed and encroachment of the giant Tsunami waves at the Bay of Bengal, thus several hundreds of the Irula tribal population were saved from this natural calamity (Swaminathan, 2005), but the structure and function of the mangrove forest has changed by the destructive nature of the ocean waves. It is hypothesized that the reductive sedimentary environment of the mangrove has been altered by the Tsunami waves and this fact has a profound influence on the biogeochemical cycles. In an integrated assessment of the Tsunami impact on the Pichavaram mangroves, we have observed relatively significant changes in the water and sediment characteristics. Here, we present some results on the impact of the Tsunami on the biogeochemical characteristics of the water and sediments of the Pichavaram mangrove coastal forest of the south east coast of India.

Materials and Methods

Materials and Methods

Study Area

Study Area

The Pichavaram mangroves (Lat 11° 25’ N and Long 79° 47’ E) cover an area of 1100 ha; the area is traversed by a large number of channels and creeks connecting two major rivers, the Coleroon in the south and the Vellar in the north (Figure 1). The climate is sub humid and the ratio between precipitation and evapotranspiration (P/Etp) ranges from 0.5 to 0.75 (Selvam, 2003) with a maximum precipitation during the northeast monsoons (October-December). The Pichavaram mangrove forest is separated from the Bay of Bengal by a narrow sand bar during summer and is periodically flooded by the incoming tidal waters. Sampling and Analysis Water and sediment samples from the Pichavaram mangrove environment were collected before - (July 2004) and after the Tsunami (January 2005). The locations of the sampling stations were recorded using a Geographic Position System (GPS). The samples were collected from the same locations for comparison. The water sampling locations were chosen to present different parts of the mangrove.

The Pichavaram mangroves (Lat 11° 25’ N and Long 79° 47’ E) cover an area of 1100 ha; thelocations area is traversed by a large number of channels and creeks Figure 1: Sampling and the research site of the Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, southeast coast of India. connecting two major rivers, the Coleroon in the south and the Vellar in the north (Figure 1). The climate is sub humid and the ratio between precipitation The sediment samples were collected locations 2003) in order and evapotranspiration (P/Etp) ranges from from the 0.5 selected to 0.75 (Selvam, with a to see any variability in their parameters (Fig. 1). The samples were thoroughly maximum precipitation during the northeast monsoons (October-December). The homogenized bymangrove using corning quarteringfrom techniques. portionbyofa the Pichavaram forestand is separated the Bay One of Bengal narrow sample used for grain and sizeisanalysis and flooded the restbywas for nutrient sandwas bar during summer periodically the used incoming tidal waters. analysis. Size separation for the sample was carried out following the standard sieving and Analysis and Sampling sedimentation methods. The samples were dry sieved on an electrically controlled electromagnetic sieve shaker FRISCH ANALYSETTE-3. The sampleswere Water and sediment samples from the Pichavaram mangrove environment werecollected also analysed for C, N and S by a Beckman TOC Analyzer, total The before - (July 2004) and after the Tsunami (January for 2005). nitrogen on a of Perkin – Elmer 2400 CHNS/O Series IIusing analyzer. locations the sampling stations were recorded a Geographic Position System (GPS). The samples were collected from the same locations for comparison. The water sampling locations were chosen to present different parts of the mangrove.

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Disaster Management Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami

121

Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami

121

transformation, biological interactions etc (Dittmar and Lara, 2001). Any disturbances in the creek hydrological structure will result in a variability in nutrient levels across the ecosystem. On the 26th December 2004, the Sumatra – Andaman earthquake in the Indian Ocean resulted in a tsunami along the coastlines of the nations sharing the Indian Ocean. India was one of the most damaged countries. The waves along the southeast coast of India were raised to > 20 – 25 m height with a speed of > 356 kmph and encroached around 3 – 5 km of the terrestrial land for quite some time. This has caused huge damage not only to human life and property but also to the imbalance of the natural system’s stability. However, the Pichavaram mangrove forest lying along the southeast coastline of India had reduced the speed and encroachment of the giant Tsunami waves at the Bay of Bengal, thus several hundreds of the Irula tribal population were saved from this natural calamity (Swaminathan, 2005), but the structure and function of the mangrove forest has changed by the destructive nature of the ocean waves. It is hypothesized that the reductive sedimentary environment of the mangrove has been altered by the Tsunami waves and this fact has a profound influence on the biogeochemical cycles. In an integrated assessment of the Tsunami impact on the Pichavaram mangroves, we have observed relatively significant changes in the water and sediment characteristics. Here, we present some results on the impact of the Tsunami on the biogeochemical characteristics of the water and sediments of the Pichavaram mangrove coastal forest of the south east coast of India. Materials and Methods Study Area The Pichavaram mangroves (Lat 11° 25’ N and Long 79° 47’ E) cover an area of 1100 ha; thelocations area is traversed by a large number of channels and creeks Figure 1: Sampling and the research site of the Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, coast in of the India. connecting two major rivers, southeast the Coleroon south and the Vellar in the north (Figure 1). The climate is sub humid and the ratio between precipitation The sediment samples were collected locations 2003) in order and evapotranspiration (P/Etp) ranges from from the 0.5 selected to 0.75 (Selvam, with a to see any variability in their parameters (Fig. 1). The samples were thoroughly The maximum precipitation during the northeast monsoons (October-December). homogenized bymangrove using corning quarteringfrom techniques. portionbyofa the Pichavaram forestand is separated the Bay One of Bengal narrow sample was used for grain size analysis and the rest was used for nutrient sand bar during summer and is periodically flooded by the incoming tidal waters. analysis. Size separation for the sample was carried out following the standard sieving and Analysis and Sampling sedimentation methods. The samples were dry sieved on an electrically controlled electromagnetic sieve shaker FRISCH ANALYSETTE-3. The sampleswere Water and sediment samples from the Pichavaram mangrove environment werecollected also analysed C, N 2004) and S and by aafter Beckman TOC Analyzer, total The beforefor - (July the Tsunami (January for 2005). nitrogen on a of Perkin – Elmer 2400 CHNS/O Series IIusing analyzer. locations the sampling stations were recorded a Geographic Position System (GPS). The samples were collected from the same locations for comparison. The water sampling locations were chosen to present different parts of the mangrove.

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Figure 1: Sampling locations and the research site of the Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, southeast coast of India.

The sediment samples were collected from the selected locations in order to see any variability in their parameters (Fig. 1). The samples were thoroughly homogenized by using corning and quartering techniques. One portion of the sample was used for grain size analysis and the rest was used for nutrient analysis. Size separation for the sample was carried out following the standard sieving and sedimentation methods. The samples were dry sieved on an electrically controlled electromagnetic sieve shaker FRISCH ANALYSETTE-3. The samples were also analysed for C, N and S by a Beckman TOC Analyzer, for total nitrogen on a Perkin – Elmer 2400 CHNS/O Series II analyzer.

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transformation, biological interactions etc (Dittmar and Lara, 2001). Any disturbances in the creek hydrological structure will result in a variability in nutrient levels across the ecosystem. On the 26th December 2004, the Sumatra – Andaman earthquake in the Indian Ocean resulted in a tsunami along the coastlines of the nations sharing the Indian Ocean. India was one of the most damaged countries. The waves along the southeast coast of India were raised to > 20 – 25 m height with a speed of > 356 kmph and encroached around 3 – 5 km of the terrestrial land for quite some time. This has caused huge damage not only to human life and property but also to the imbalance of the natural system’s stability. However, the Pichavaram mangrove forest lying along the southeast coastline of India had reduced the speed and encroachment of the giant Tsunami waves at the Bay of Bengal, thus several hundreds of the Irula tribal population were saved from this natural calamity (Swaminathan, 2005), but the structure and function of the mangrove forest has changed by the destructive nature of the ocean waves. It is hypothesized that the reductive sedimentary environment of the mangrove has been altered by the Tsunami waves and this fact has a profound influence on the biogeochemical cycles. In an integrated assessment of the Tsunami impact on the Pichavaram mangroves, we have observed relatively significant changes in the water and sediment characteristics. Here, we present some results on the impact of the Tsunami on the biogeochemical characteristics of the water and sediments of the Pichavaram mangrove coastal forest of the south east coast of India. Materials and Methods Study Area The Pichavaram mangroves (Lat 11° 25’ N and Long 79° 47’ E) cover an area of 1100 ha; thelocations area is traversed by a large number of channels and creeks Figure 1: Sampling and the research site of the Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, southeast coast of India. connecting two major rivers, the Coleroon in the south and the Vellar in the north (Figure 1). The climate is sub humid and the ratio between precipitation The sediment samples were collected locations 2003) in order and evapotranspiration (P/Etp) ranges from from the 0.5 selected to 0.75 (Selvam, with a to see any variability in their parameters (Fig. 1). The samples were thoroughly maximum precipitation during the northeast monsoons (October-December). The homogenized bymangrove using corning quarteringfrom techniques. portionbyofa the Pichavaram forestand is separated the Bay One of Bengal narrow sample used for grain and sizeisanalysis and flooded the restbywas for nutrient sandwas bar during summer periodically the used incoming tidal waters. analysis. Size separation for the sample was carried out following the standard sieving and Analysis and Sampling sedimentation methods. The samples were dry sieved on an electrically controlled electromagnetic sieve shaker FRISCH ANALYSETTE-3. The sampleswere Water and sediment samples from the Pichavaram mangrove environment werecollected also analysed for C, N and S by a Beckman TOC Analyzer, total The before - (July 2004) and after the Tsunami (January for 2005). nitrogen on a of Perkin – Elmer 2400 CHNS/O Series IIusing analyzer. locations the sampling stations were recorded a Geographic Position System (GPS). The samples were collected from the same locations for comparison. The water sampling locations were chosen to present different parts of the mangrove.

Figure 1: Sampling locations and the research site of the Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, southeast coast of India.

The sediment samples were collected from the selected locations in order to see any variability in their parameters (Fig. 1). The samples were thoroughly homogenized by using corning and quartering techniques. One portion of the sample was used for grain size analysis and the rest was used for nutrient analysis. Size separation for the sample was carried out following the standard sieving and sedimentation methods. The samples were dry sieved on an electrically controlled electromagnetic sieve shaker FRISCH ANALYSETTE-3. The samples were also analysed for C, N and S by a Beckman TOC Analyzer, for total nitrogen on a Perkin – Elmer 2400 CHNS/O Series II analyzer.

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Tsunami Impact on Nutrient Dynamics

Tsunami Impact on Nutrient Dynamics

Figure 1 explains the variations in the water chemistry parameters of the Pichavaram mangrove waters before and after the Tsunami. The mangrove water is alkaline in nature in both conditions, without much systematic spatial variation irrespective of different conditions and seasons (Mook and Koene 1975). Pretsunami mangrove water was more highly alkaline than post-tsunami and this is because of the mixing of sea water with mangrove water and by the productivity process i.e. photosynthesis because the CO2 utilization, shifts the equilibrium towards highly alkaline. Then the retreating Tsunami waves mixed with the fresh water which later remained stored in the mangrove interior creeks for a considerable period of time besides disturbing the aquatic photosynthesis, resulting in a low alkalinity in post-tsunami water. A higher level of salinity was observed in the post-tsunami waters (avg. 27.89, SD 1.39) than in the pre-tsunami waters (avg. 21.83, SD 2.81). Salinity is known to control the availability of nutrients for the biological productivity in the coastal waters (Prasad et al. 2006). The chloride and sulphate ions are the dominant ions and control the salinity in the mangrove water (Ramanathan et al. 1999). Since the Pichavaram Mangrove forest is lagoonal in type, the residence time of the water is high and the stored Tsunami water which is rich in chloride and sulphate got subsequently released and these ions found their way into the creeks, thus the salinity of the mangrove water increased by 0.78%. The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were increased significantly after Tsunami by 42% (avg. 7.79, SD 0.96;). The significant rise in DO after the Tsunami was due to the displacement of bottom water by the surface waters and the more rapid mixing, enabled more atmospheric oxygen to dissolve into the water (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). Bicarbonate is showing conservative behaviour in the mangrove waters (Fig. 2). The wide variations at certain places are due to external loading i.e. terrestrial input and internal loading, i.e. mineralization of organic matter. Site × event differences (ANOVA) explain not much variance (27%), thus, it is showing conservative behaviour. Carbon is the nutrient which has been used by both biological and geological processes and behaves as both sink and source (Kalpan and Newbold, 2000). Carbon dynamics in coastal waters is regulated by the atmospheric conditions i.e. dissolution of CO2 in the water (Borges et al. 2003). Further, the weathering process also controls the carbon dynamics in the water column (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). The observed carbon and nitrogen levels are lower in the Pichavaram sediments compared with other mangroves (Boto, 1992). The C/N ratio is also low (pre-Tsunami 3.98; post-monsoon 3.12), suggesting that liable organic matter is dominant. Since the freshwater discharge from adjoining rivers is declining in recent years (Subramanian, 2004) the nutrient levels are higher. This shows that the river contribution is less and the

75 Figure 1 explains the variations in the water chemistry parameters of the Pichavaram mangrove waters before and after the Tsunami. The mangrove water is alkaline in nature in both conditions, without much systematic spatial variation 50 irrespective of different conditions and seasons (Mook and Koene 1975). Pretsunami mangrove water was more highly alkaline than post-tsunami and this is because of the mixing of sea water with mangrove water and by the productivity 25 process i.e. photosynthesis because the CO2 utilization, shifts the equilibrium towards highly alkaline. Then the retreating Tsunami waves mixed with the fresh water which later remained stored in the mangrove interior creeks for a considerable period of time besides disturbing the aquatic photosynthesis, 0 resulting 1 2in 3a low 4 5 alkalinity 6 7 8 9in10post-tsunami 11 12 13 14 15water. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 A higher level of salinity was observed in the post-tsunami waters (avg. 8.8 27.89, SD 1.39) than in the pre-tsunami waters (avg. 21.83, SD 2.81). Salinity is 8.4 known to control the availability of nutrients for the biological productivity in the coastal waters (Prasad et al. 2006). The chloride and sulphate ions are the dominant ions and control the salinity in the mangrove water (Ramanathan 8.0 et al. 1999). Since the Pichavaram Mangrove forest is lagoonal in type, the residence time of the water is high and the stored Tsunami water which is rich 7.6 in chloride and sulphate got subsequently released and these ions found their way into the creeks, thus the salinity of the mangrove water increased by 0.78%. 7.2 The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were increased significantly after Tsunami by 42% (avg. 7.79, SD 0.96;). The significant rise in DO after the Tsunami 6.8 due to the displacement of bottom water by the surface waters and the was more rapid mixing, enabled more atmospheric oxygen to dissolve into the water 6.4 (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). 1 2 3 4 is 5 showing 6 7 8 conservative 9 10 11 12 13 behaviour 14 15 16 17in18the 19 mangrove 20 21 22 23waters 24 25 (Fig. Bicarbonate 2).40The wide variations at certain places are due to external loading i.e. terrestrial input and internal loading, i.e. mineralization of organic matter. Site × event differences (ANOVA) explain not much variance (27%), thus, it is showing conservative behaviour. Carbon is the nutrient which has been used by both 30 biological and geological processes and behaves as both sink and source (Kalpan and Newbold, 2000). Carbon dynamics in coastal waters is regulated by the atmospheric conditions i.e. dissolution of CO2 in the water (Borges et al. 2003). 20 Further, the weathering process also controls the carbon dynamics in the water column (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). The observed carbon and nitrogen levels are lower in the Pichavaram sediments compared with other mangroves 10 (Boto, 1992). The C/N ratio is also low (pre-Tsunami 3.98; post-monsoon 3.12), suggesting that liable organic matter is dominant. Since the freshwater discharge from adjoining rivers is declining in recent years (Subramanian, 2004) the 0 nutrient levels are higher. This shows that the river contribution is less and the

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Tsunami Impact on Nutrient Dynamics

Tsunami Impact on Nutrient Dynamics

Figure 1 explains the variations in the water chemistry parameters of the Pichavaram mangrove waters before and after the Tsunami. The mangrove water is alkaline in nature in both conditions, without much systematic spatial variation irrespective of different conditions and seasons (Mook and Koene 1975). Pretsunami mangrove water was more highly alkaline than post-tsunami and this is because of the mixing of sea water with mangrove water and by the productivity process i.e. photosynthesis because the CO2 utilization, shifts the equilibrium towards highly alkaline. Then the retreating Tsunami waves mixed with the fresh water which later remained stored in the mangrove interior creeks for a considerable period of time besides disturbing the aquatic photosynthesis, resulting in a low alkalinity in post-tsunami water. A higher level of salinity was observed in the post-tsunami waters (avg. 27.89, SD 1.39) than in the pre-tsunami waters (avg. 21.83, SD 2.81). Salinity is known to control the availability of nutrients for the biological productivity in the coastal waters (Prasad et al. 2006). The chloride and sulphate ions are the dominant ions and control the salinity in the mangrove water (Ramanathan et al. 1999). Since the Pichavaram Mangrove forest is lagoonal in type, the residence time of the water is high and the stored Tsunami water which is rich in chloride and sulphate got subsequently released and these ions found their way into the creeks, thus the salinity of the mangrove water increased by 0.78%. The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were increased significantly after Tsunami by 42% (avg. 7.79, SD 0.96;). The significant rise in DO after the Tsunami was due to the displacement of bottom water by the surface waters and the more rapid mixing, enabled more atmospheric oxygen to dissolve into the water (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). Bicarbonate is showing conservative behaviour in the mangrove waters (Fig. 2). The wide variations at certain places are due to external loading i.e. terrestrial input and internal loading, i.e. mineralization of organic matter. Site × event differences (ANOVA) explain not much variance (27%), thus, it is showing conservative behaviour. Carbon is the nutrient which has been used by both biological and geological processes and behaves as both sink and source (Kalpan and Newbold, 2000). Carbon dynamics in coastal waters is regulated by the atmospheric conditions i.e. dissolution of CO2 in the water (Borges et al. 2003). Further, the weathering process also controls the carbon dynamics in the water column (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). The observed carbon and nitrogen levels are lower in the Pichavaram sediments compared with other mangroves (Boto, 1992). The C/N ratio is also low (pre-Tsunami 3.98; post-monsoon 3.12), suggesting that liable organic matter is dominant. Since the freshwater discharge from adjoining rivers is declining in recent years (Subramanian, 2004) the nutrient levels are higher. This shows that the river contribution is less and the

75 Figure 1 explains the variations in the water chemistry parameters of the Pichavaram mangrove waters before and after the Tsunami. The mangrove water is alkaline in nature in both conditions, without much systematic spatial variation 50 irrespective of different conditions and seasons (Mook and Koene 1975). Pretsunami mangrove water was more highly alkaline than post-tsunami and this is because of the mixing of sea water with mangrove water and by the productivity 25 process i.e. photosynthesis because the CO2 utilization, shifts the equilibrium towards highly alkaline. Then the retreating Tsunami waves mixed with the fresh water which later remained stored in the mangrove interior creeks for a considerable period of time besides disturbing the aquatic photosynthesis, 0 resulting 1 2in 3a low 4 5 alkalinity 6 7 8 9in10post-tsunami 11 12 13 14 15water. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 A higher level of salinity was observed in the post-tsunami waters (avg. 8.8 27.89, SD 1.39) than in the pre-tsunami waters (avg. 21.83, SD 2.81). Salinity is 8.4 known to control the availability of nutrients for the biological productivity in the coastal waters (Prasad et al. 2006). The chloride and sulphate ions are the dominant ions and control the salinity in the mangrove water (Ramanathan 8.0 et al. 1999). Since the Pichavaram Mangrove forest is lagoonal in type, the residence time of the water is high and the stored Tsunami water which is rich 7.6 in chloride and sulphate got subsequently released and these ions found their way into the creeks, thus the salinity of the mangrove water increased by 0.78%. 7.2 The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were increased significantly after Tsunami by 42% (avg. 7.79, SD 0.96;). The significant rise in DO after the Tsunami 6.8 due to the displacement of bottom water by the surface waters and the was more rapid mixing, enabled more atmospheric oxygen to dissolve into the water 6.4 (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). 1 2 3 4 is 5 showing 6 7 8 conservative 9 10 11 12 13 behaviour 14 15 16 17in18the 19 mangrove 20 21 22 23waters 24 25 (Fig. Bicarbonate 2).40The wide variations at certain places are due to external loading i.e. terrestrial input and internal loading, i.e. mineralization of organic matter. Site × event differences (ANOVA) explain not much variance (27%), thus, it is showing conservative behaviour. Carbon is the nutrient which has been used by both 30 biological and geological processes and behaves as both sink and source (Kalpan and Newbold, 2000). Carbon dynamics in coastal waters is regulated by the atmospheric conditions i.e. dissolution of CO2 in the water (Borges et al. 2003). 20 Further, the weathering process also controls the carbon dynamics in the water column (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). The observed carbon and nitrogen levels are lower in the Pichavaram sediments compared with other mangroves 10 (Boto, 1992). The C/N ratio is also low (pre-Tsunami 3.98; post-monsoon 3.12), suggesting that liable organic matter is dominant. Since the freshwater discharge from adjoining rivers is declining in recent years (Subramanian, 2004) the 0 nutrient levels are higher. This shows that the river contribution is less and the

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75 Figure 1 explains the variations in the water chemistry parameters of the Pichavaram mangrove waters before and after the Tsunami. The mangrove water is alkaline in nature in both conditions, without much systematic spatial variation 50 irrespective of different conditions and seasons (Mook and Koene 1975). Pretsunami mangrove water was more highly alkaline than post-tsunami and this is because of the mixing of sea water with mangrove water and by the productivity 25 process i.e. photosynthesis because the CO2 utilization, shifts the equilibrium towards highly alkaline. Then the retreating Tsunami waves mixed with the fresh water which later remained stored in the mangrove interior creeks for a considerable period of time besides disturbing the aquatic photosynthesis, 0 resulting 1 2in 3a low 4 5 alkalinity 6 7 8 9in10post-tsunami 11 12 13 14 15water. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 A higher level of salinity was observed in the post-tsunami waters (avg. 8.8 27.89, SD 1.39) than in the pre-tsunami waters (avg. 21.83, SD 2.81). Salinity is 8.4 known to control the availability of nutrients for the biological productivity in the coastal waters (Prasad et al. 2006). The chloride and sulphate ions are the dominant ions and control the salinity in the mangrove water (Ramanathan 8.0 et al. 1999). Since the Pichavaram Mangrove forest is lagoonal in type, the residence time of the water is high and the stored Tsunami water which is rich 7.6 in chloride and sulphate got subsequently released and these ions found their way into the creeks, thus the salinity of the mangrove water increased by 0.78%. 7.2 The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were increased significantly after Tsunami by 42% (avg. 7.79, SD 0.96;). The significant rise in DO after the Tsunami 6.8 due to the displacement of bottom water by the surface waters and the was more rapid mixing, enabled more atmospheric oxygen to dissolve into the water 6.4 (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). 1 2 3 4 is 5 showing 6 7 8 conservative 9 10 11 12 13 behaviour 14 15 16 17in18the 19 mangrove 20 21 22 23waters 24 25 (Fig. Bicarbonate 2).40The wide variations at certain places are due to external loading i.e. terrestrial input and internal loading, i.e. mineralization of organic matter. Site × event differences (ANOVA) explain not much variance (27%), thus, it is showing conservative behaviour. Carbon is the nutrient which has been used by both 30 biological and geological processes and behaves as both sink and source (Kalpan and Newbold, 2000). Carbon dynamics in coastal waters is regulated by the atmospheric conditions i.e. dissolution of CO2 in the water (Borges et al. 2003). 20 Further, the weathering process also controls the carbon dynamics in the water column (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). The observed carbon and nitrogen levels are lower in the Pichavaram sediments compared with other mangroves 10 (Boto, 1992). The C/N ratio is also low (pre-Tsunami 3.98; post-monsoon 3.12), suggesting that liable organic matter is dominant. Since the freshwater discharge from adjoining rivers is declining in recent years (Subramanian, 2004) the 0 nutrient levels are higher. This shows that the river contribution is less and the

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75 Figure 1 explains the variations in the water chemistry parameters of the Pichavaram mangrove waters before and after the Tsunami. The mangrove water is alkaline in nature in both conditions, without much systematic spatial variation 50 irrespective of different conditions and seasons (Mook and Koene 1975). Pretsunami mangrove water was more highly alkaline than post-tsunami and this is because of the mixing of sea water with mangrove water and by the productivity 25 process i.e. photosynthesis because the CO2 utilization, shifts the equilibrium towards highly alkaline. Then the retreating Tsunami waves mixed with the fresh water which later remained stored in the mangrove interior creeks for a considerable period of time besides disturbing the aquatic photosynthesis, 0 resulting 1 2in 3a low 4 5 alkalinity 6 7 8 9in10post-tsunami 11 12 13 14 15water. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 A higher level of salinity was observed in the post-tsunami waters (avg. 8.8 27.89, SD 1.39) than in the pre-tsunami waters (avg. 21.83, SD 2.81). Salinity is 8.4 known to control the availability of nutrients for the biological productivity in the coastal waters (Prasad et al. 2006). The chloride and sulphate ions are the dominant ions and control the salinity in the mangrove water (Ramanathan 8.0 et al. 1999). Since the Pichavaram Mangrove forest is lagoonal in type, the residence time of the water is high and the stored Tsunami water which is rich 7.6 in chloride and sulphate got subsequently released and these ions found their way into the creeks, thus the salinity of the mangrove water increased by 0.78%. 7.2 The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were increased significantly after Tsunami by 42% (avg. 7.79, SD 0.96;). The significant rise in DO after the Tsunami 6.8 due to the displacement of bottom water by the surface waters and the was more rapid mixing, enabled more atmospheric oxygen to dissolve into the water 6.4 (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). 1 2 3 4 is 5 showing 6 7 8 conservative 9 10 11 12 13 behaviour 14 15 16 17in18the 19 mangrove 20 21 22 23waters 24 25 (Fig. Bicarbonate 2).40The wide variations at certain places are due to external loading i.e. terrestrial input and internal loading, i.e. mineralization of organic matter. Site × event differences (ANOVA) explain not much variance (27%), thus, it is showing conservative behaviour. Carbon is the nutrient which has been used by both 30 biological and geological processes and behaves as both sink and source (Kalpan and Newbold, 2000). Carbon dynamics in coastal waters is regulated by the atmospheric conditions i.e. dissolution of CO2 in the water (Borges et al. 2003). 20 Further, the weathering process also controls the carbon dynamics in the water column (Prasad and Ramanathan, 2005). The observed carbon and nitrogen levels are lower in the Pichavaram sediments compared with other mangroves 10 (Boto, 1992). The C/N ratio is also low (pre-Tsunami 3.98; post-monsoon 3.12), suggesting that liable organic matter is dominant. Since the freshwater discharge from adjoining rivers is declining in recent years (Subramanian, 2004) the 0 nutrient levels are higher. This shows that the river contribution is less and the

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 3

2

200 150

1

2 3 4

50

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Pre-tsunami

0

Pre-tsunami Post-tsunami 1

0 5 6

0 Figure 2: variability in physical and nutrient parameters of the Post-tsunami 1 2 3 waters 4 5 6before 7 8 and 9 10 after 11 12 2004 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Pichavaram mangrove tsunami. 1

2

3

100

0

DOP (µ mol/l)

Post-tsunami

DOP (µ mol/l)

3

2

Pre-tsunami

250 1

DOP (µ mol/l)

300

NO3 (µ mol/l)

DOP (µ mol/l)

350

2

1

2 3 4

5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Figure 2: variability in physical and nutrient parameters of the Pichavaram mangrove waters before and after 2004 tsunami. 1

0

Pre-tsunami Post-tsunami

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Disaster Management

enhanced nutrients were derived from adjacent agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds. Salinity also seems to control the bicarbonate dynamics in mangrove water. In post-Tsunami waters HCO3 was increased by 11.32% from 5638 ƒ  mol/L. HCO3 has a significant positive correlation with salinity (r2 = 0.54, P < 0.05) in the post-Tsunami waters than with the pre-Tsunami water. The higher HCO3 may be derived from the marine input through the fluxing of the ocean water towards the terrestrial end and at a high energy situation, the vertical mixing of the water column contributes a considerable amount of stored inorganic carbon as dissolved HCO3 into the creek water. This inorganic carbon is fixed by the biological systems and is effectively transported into the trophic chain. Dittmer et al. (2006) reported that mangroves supply 2.2 × 1012 mol C year-1 to the continental shelf, which is an approximately accounting for > 10% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) which is globally transported from the continents to the oceans. In turn, this increased HCO3 in the mangrove water will have a considerable influence on the global carbon cycle. Nitrate in pre-Tsunami waters ranged from 148 to 234 µ mol/L (avg. 209 µ mol/L) and increased to 28% in the post-Tsunami waters (220-302 µ mol/L, avg. 255 µ mol/L). NH4 concentrations in pre-Tsunami waters ranged from 6.11 to 10.56 µ mol/L (avg. 7.82, SD. 1.25) and post-Tsunami waters 12.78 to 36.67 µ mol/L (avg. 26.17, SD 7.11). Both the N species showed a significant site × event difference (ANOVA), with a variance of 69.5%. Generally, freshwater advection seems to be the major source of nitrate in the monsoon period. The Tsunami water mixed with the Vellar and Coleroon estuary through the channel ways carries a considerable amount of the nitrate into the Pichavaram Mangrove Forest. In general, high salinity accelerates the microbial nitrification (Dham et al. 2002) and lowers the ammonia concentration in the mangrove waters. Ammonia levels in the mangrove water column are influenced by the tidal wetting, plant uptake and seasonal changes in microbial decomposition, temperature and rainfall (Boto, 1982, 1984; Boto et al., 1985). The high levels of ammonia were due to higher fluxes of NH4+ derived from the benthic organic matter decomposing in sediments, which got re-suspended due to the disturbance of the sediment structure by the scooping effect of the Tsunami waves. High rates of sulphate reduction were observed in the Pichavaram (21-319 m mol S m-2 d-1) to depths of up to 1 m (Alongi et al., 2005) which implies that the high rates of ammonium regeneration cause a possible lateral flux via a groundwater discharge. Further, higher nutrient runoff from adjacent agricultural and aquaculture fields, domestic settlements and industrial units (Subramanian 2004) are likely sources which could accelerate the N species levels in the Pichavaram waters after a Tsunami. Nitrate shows a significant positive correlation with salinity occurring in the post-Tsunami (r2 = 0.72; P < 0.05) than in the pre-Tsunami (r2 = 0.47; P < 0.05). NH4+ also having the positive relationship with salinity in the pre-Tsunami (r2 = 0.43; P < 0.05) and post-Tsunami (r2 = 0.59; P < 0.05). This explains that salinity has quenching

126

Disaster Management

enhanced nutrients were derived from adjacent agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds. Salinity also seems to control the bicarbonate dynamics in mangrove water. In post-Tsunami waters HCO3 was increased by 11.32% from 5638 ƒ  mol/L. HCO3 has a significant positive correlation with salinity (r2 = 0.54, P < 0.05) in the post-Tsunami waters than with the pre-Tsunami water. The higher HCO3 may be derived from the marine input through the fluxing of the ocean water towards the terrestrial end and at a high energy situation, the vertical mixing of the water column contributes a considerable amount of stored inorganic carbon as dissolved HCO3 into the creek water. This inorganic carbon is fixed by the biological systems and is effectively transported into the trophic chain. Dittmer et al. (2006) reported that mangroves supply 2.2 × 1012 mol C year-1 to the continental shelf, which is an approximately accounting for > 10% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) which is globally transported from the continents to the oceans. In turn, this increased HCO3 in the mangrove water will have a considerable influence on the global carbon cycle. Nitrate in pre-Tsunami waters ranged from 148 to 234 µ mol/L (avg. 209 µ mol/L) and increased to 28% in the post-Tsunami waters (220-302 µ mol/L, avg. 255 µ mol/L). NH4 concentrations in pre-Tsunami waters ranged from 6.11 to 10.56 µ mol/L (avg. 7.82, SD. 1.25) and post-Tsunami waters 12.78 to 36.67 µ mol/L (avg. 26.17, SD 7.11). Both the N species showed a significant site × event difference (ANOVA), with a variance of 69.5%. Generally, freshwater advection seems to be the major source of nitrate in the monsoon period. The Tsunami water mixed with the Vellar and Coleroon estuary through the channel ways carries a considerable amount of the nitrate into the Pichavaram Mangrove Forest. In general, high salinity accelerates the microbial nitrification (Dham et al. 2002) and lowers the ammonia concentration in the mangrove waters. Ammonia levels in the mangrove water column are influenced by the tidal wetting, plant uptake and seasonal changes in microbial decomposition, temperature and rainfall (Boto, 1982, 1984; Boto et al., 1985). The high levels of ammonia were due to higher fluxes of NH4+ derived from the benthic organic matter decomposing in sediments, which got re-suspended due to the disturbance of the sediment structure by the scooping effect of the Tsunami waves. High rates of sulphate reduction were observed in the Pichavaram (21-319 m mol S m-2 d-1) to depths of up to 1 m (Alongi et al., 2005) which implies that the high rates of ammonium regeneration cause a possible lateral flux via a groundwater discharge. Further, higher nutrient runoff from adjacent agricultural and aquaculture fields, domestic settlements and industrial units (Subramanian 2004) are likely sources which could accelerate the N species levels in the Pichavaram waters after a Tsunami. Nitrate shows a significant positive correlation with salinity occurring in the post-Tsunami (r2 = 0.72; P < 0.05) than in the pre-Tsunami (r2 = 0.47; P < 0.05). NH4+ also having the positive relationship with salinity in the pre-Tsunami (r2 = 0.43; P < 0.05) and post-Tsunami (r2 = 0.59; P < 0.05). This explains that salinity has quenching

126

Disaster Management Preliminary Assessment of Impact of Tsunami

127

enhanced nutrients from adjacent fieldsproductivity. and aquaculture effects on nitrate and were makesderived it non-available foragricultural the biological ponds. Prasad et al (2006) reported that the balance between biotic and abiotic uptake Salinity also seems control the the nitrate in mangrove dynamics in water. and release of nutrients andtooxidation of bicarbonate NH4+ drivesdynamics In post-Tsunami waters HCO3 was increased by 11.32% from 5638 ƒ  mol/L. the Pichavaram waters. 3a significant pre-Tsunami correlation water with ranged salinity from 46 (r2 to = 83 0.54, µ mol/L P < 0.05) HCO3 has (PO Phosphate 4 ) in thepositive - ranged (avg.in63; theSD post-Tsunami 10) and slightly watersincreased than with in the the pre-Tsunami post-Tsunami. water. The PO43 The higher HCO3 be µderived the site fluxing of the ocean water frommay 51-90 mol/L from (avg. the 66; marine SD. 11)input with through significant × event differences 3- shows towards explaining the terrestrial and of at avariance. high energy the PO vertical mixing of (ANOVA) theend32% It situation, shows that 4 conservative like bicarbonate. Generally,amount phosphate levelsinorganic recede with the waterbehavior column contributes a considerable of stored carbon into the creek water. This inorganic carbon is fixed by the increasing salinityHCO in other mangrove systems (Sarala Devi et al., 1983; Thong as dissolved 3 biological systems is effectively into thethe trophic chain. Dittmer et al., 1993; Lara and and Dittmar 1999). Intransported the rainy season availability of 12 -1 3uponreported the sediment quality andsupply quantity al. C 1992). year It to is the al. (2006) that mangroves 2.2(Alongi × 10 etmol PO4 etdepends already continental reportedshelf, that which a substantial is an approximately amount of Paccounting in sediment forcarried > 10%from of dissolved the catchment organicthrough carbon (DOC) to the Vellar which is andglobally Coleroon transported to the Pichavaram from the continents mangrove to the 3- dynamics. (Ramanathan in et al. the 1993). mangrove In Pichavaram water will soils, have a influences oceans.theInPO turn, this increased HCO 4 3 the clay considerable percentage influence is modest on (25%) the global (Ramanathan carbon cycle. 1997), hence most PO43- is in a dissolved stateinand readily available for biological productivity. So no(avg. Nitrate pre-Tsunami waters ranged from 148 to 234 µ mol/L 3in both pre- µ significant were found salinity and PO4 waters 209 µ correlations mol/L) and increased to between 28% in the post-Tsunami (220-302 = 0.52, 0.05) and concentrations waters in pre-Tsunami (r2 = 0.54, waters P < 0.05) ranged Tsunami (r2avg. mol/L, 255 Pµ K pre-tsunami andmgl1 with an average of 378 mgl-1 in post-tsunami indicating the influence of the Na>K>Ca>Mg in post-tsunami. Na dominates the cations. Among the major -1 with an average of to 110.24 of mglthe ranges offrom mglis-1 supportive ions tsunami. the manySulphate fold increase Na 16.9 and Cl long residence -1 -1 -1 with an average in pre-tsunami and from 38.13aquifers mgl to.There 507.5 mgl time51.66 spentmgl by the tsunami waters in these is no significant -1 in the posttsunami. of 164 mgl variation in the dissolved heavy metals in the aquifers subsequent to the tsunami implying leaching is very less from the polluted sources from soils after tsunami due Cations to short stay of inundated water in the surface region . The SI of carbonate mineral in the samples for different periods, indicates to 280.19with mgl-1Calcite , with an of 83.78(A) mgl.-1 in from 11.34 mgl-1saturated that Na theyranges are saturated to near (C)average and Aragonite -1 -1 -1 to 1837with mglMagnesite with an average of 495 mgl and from to 69.7 mglsaturated Theypre-tsunami are under saturated near (M). Dolomite (D) in -1 -1 to 340 mgl super with an average of post-tsunami. Ca ranges 28.99 mgl shows under saturation in the from Pre-Tsunami samples but it shows saturation -1 in pre-tsunami and from 40.75 mgl-1 to 311.99 mgl-1 with an 104.81 mgl during August. This may be due to increase of Mg concentration in the -1 in post-tsunami. Magnesium concentration was ranging average periods. of 134.39 subsequent It mgl can be related that Ca is weakly correlated with other -1 -1 -1 in pre-tsunami 72.16 an average of from 29.41the mglsystem 7.98 mgl ions from in January, whichtomay be mgl due towith the removal of Ca by the -1 -1 to 304.8 salts. mgl The with SI an average of 110.33 mgl-1 than in postand fromof16.8 mgl carbonate it still higher in August precipitation calcium -1 D -1 with an average of to 48.56 mgl tsunami. Potassium ranges from 1.61mgl in March, because of the dissolution of the salts which precipitated during -1 to 426 mgl-1 with an average of in pre-tsunami and into fromthe 4 mgl 25.49 mgl-1 adding March, thereby Magnesium system. -1 136 Theremgl are in twopost-tsunami. possibilities for the decrease of SIc in the system during January. Either one is due to the influence of the rainfall in Nov-Dec, which is the 2nd (retreating) Heavy Metals monsoon period in these regions of India one is due to the long residence time of the-1 in filtered water after the tsunami into this -1 with an average of 0.37 mgl-1 in the to 0.72 mglregion Iron It ranges from 0.12inmgl system. was observed nearby Palayar that Sea water and the soil

310

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

month of March and from 0.03 mgl-1 to 0.58 mgl-1 with an average of 0.39 mgl-1 in the month of August. Manganese ranges from 0.05 to 1.52 with an average of 0.52 in the month of March and from 0.009 mgl-1 to 1.86 mgl-1 with an average of 0.42 mgl-1 in the month of August. Aluminium ranges from 0.03 mgl-1 to 0.08 mgl-1 with an average of 0.055 mgl-1 in the month of March and from 0.04 mgl-1 to 0.08 mgl-1 with an average of 0.056 mgl-1 in the month of August. Discussion The pH in these ground waters has slightly decreased after the tsunami whereas EC shoots up considerably reflecting the impact of the tsunami waters exists even after 3-8 months after the tsunami . Cl with an average of 1146 mgl-1 in post-tsunami shows an increased several folds indicating the long residence time of the tsunami water in the shallow aquifers .Bicarbonate with an average of 378 mgl-1 in post-tsunami reflecting the influence of sea water. Sulphate is generally derived from oxidative weathering of sulphide bearing minerals like Marcasite (which is abundant in these regions), but the sudden shoot of these ions that to above 500 mgl-1 is a clear indication of the role played by tsunami waters. Dominance of anions in the study area is as follows; Cl>HCO3>SO4 in both pre-tsunami and post-tsunami. Though the order of preference is maintained the value of Cl shows a higher value in Post tsunami only .The order of the abundance of cations is as follows Ca>Na>Mg>K in pre-tsunami and Na>K>Ca>Mg in post-tsunami. Na dominates the cations. Among the major ions the many fold increase of Na and Cl is supportive of the long residence time spent by the tsunami waters in these aquifers .There is no significant variation in the dissolved heavy metals in the aquifers subsequent to the tsunami implying leaching is very less from the polluted sources from soils after tsunami due to short stay of inundated water in the surface region . The SI of carbonate mineral in the samples for different periods, indicates that they are saturated to near saturated with Calcite (C) and Aragonite (A) . They are under saturated to near saturated with Magnesite (M). Dolomite (D) shows under saturation in the Pre-Tsunami samples but it shows super saturation during August. This may be due to increase of Mg concentration in the subsequent periods. It can be related that Ca is weakly correlated with other ions in January, which may be due to the removal of Ca from the system by the precipitation of calcium carbonate salts. The SID it still higher in August than in March, because of the dissolution of the salts which precipitated during March, thereby adding Magnesium into the system. There are two possibilities for the decrease of SIc in the system during January. Either one is due to the influence of the rainfall in Nov-Dec, which is the 2nd (retreating) monsoon period in these regions of India one is due to the long residence time of the in filtered water after the tsunami into this system. It was observed in nearby Palayar region that Sea water and the soil

311

-1 to 0.58 curves month of 2005. MarchAn andinterpretation from 0.03 mgl April of Resistivity mgl-1 with was made an average by curve of matching 0.39 -1 in the month August. graphs Manganese ranges from 1969) 0.05 toand 1.52master with curves an mgl techniques usingofstandard (Rijkswaterstaat, -1 with of average of 0.52 the month1966) of March and from 0.009 mgl-1 to 1.86 (Ornella andinMooney, for determining the thickness and mgl Resistivity month of August. Aluminium ranges from 0.03 by an average of 0.42 layers. mgl-1 inInthe corresponding order to assess the impact of saline water brought -1 with 0.08 mglin an average mgl-1 in variations the month of of shallow March and mgl-1theto Tsunami shallow waters, of the0.055 geoelectrical ground -1 -1 -1 to 0.08 mgl with an average of 0.056 mgl in the month of fromwater 0.04 was mgl also considered. August.

Results and Discussion Discussion Groundwater is generally alkaline in nature with pH ranging from 7. to 8.8 The with pH inanthese ground waters slightly decreased tsunami average of 7.58 in has pre-tsunami conditionafter and the from 7.1 to whereas 8.1 with an EC shoots reflecting the impact the tsunami waters exists averageup of considerably 7.44 in post-tsunami conditions. ECofranges from 261 µs/cm to 2897 evenµs/cm after 3-8 after of the1284 tsunami with an average of 1146 mgl-1 in to withmonths an average µs/cm. Cl in pre-tsunami and from 294.83µs/cm post-tsunami shows increasedof several foldsinindicating the .long residence 6743µs/cm with an average 2127µs/cm post-tsunami time of the tsunami water in the shallow aquifers .Bicarbonate with an average of 378 mgl-1 in post-tsunami reflecting the influence of sea water. Sulphate is Anions generally derived from oxidative weathering of sulphide bearing minerals like -1 to 744 Chloride concentration in in analyzed samples but varies 26.7 mgl Marcasite (which is abundant these regions), the between sudden shoot of these -1 -1 -1 an 500 average mglindication in pre-tsunami and played from 177.25 mgl-1 to a clear of the role by tsunami ions mgl that towith above mgl ofis242 -1 -1 average of 1146 indicating the long 3217 mgl withofananions waters. Dominance in the study mgl area isinaspost-tsunami follows; Cl>HCO 3>SO4 in time the tsunamiThough water the in order the shallow aquifers.. Bicarbonate bothresidence pre-tsunami andof post-tsunami. of preference is maintained -1 to 549 mgl-1 concentration in analyzed between only 44.18.The mglorder the value of Cl shows a highersamples value invaries Post tsunami of the -1 with an average of 237 in pre-tsunami and from in 24.39 mgl-1 to 1043 abundance of cations is mgl as follows Ca>Na>Mg>K pre-tsunami andmgl1 with an average of 378 mgl-1 in post-tsunami indicating the influence of the Na>K>Ca>Mg in post-tsunami. Na dominates the cations. Among the major -1 with an average of to 110.24 of mglthe ranges offrom mglis-1 supportive ions tsunami. the manySulphate fold increase Na 16.9 and Cl long residence -1 -1 -1 with an average in pre-tsunami and from 38.13aquifers mgl to.There 507.5 mgl time51.66 spentmgl by the tsunami waters in these is no significant -1 in the posttsunami. of 164 variation in mgl the dissolved heavy metals in the aquifers subsequent to the tsunami implying leaching is very less from the polluted sources from soils after tsunami due Cations to short stay of inundated water in the surface region . The SI of carbonate mineral in the samples for different periods, indicates to 280.19with mgl-1Calcite , with an of 83.78(A) mgl.-1 in from 11.34 mgl-1saturated that Na theyranges are saturated to near (C)average and Aragonite -1 -1 -1 to 1837with mglMagnesite with an average of 495 mgl and from to 69.7 mglsaturated Theypre-tsunami are under saturated near (M). Dolomite (D) in -1 to 340 mgl-1 super with an average of post-tsunami. Ca ranges 28.99 mgl shows under saturation in the from Pre-Tsunami samples but it shows saturation -1 -1 -1 with an in pre-tsunami 40.75of mgl to 311.99 mglin 104.81 mgl This during August. may be dueandto from increase Mg concentration the -1 in post-tsunami. Magnesium concentration was ranging average of 134.39 mgl subsequent periods. It can be related that Ca is weakly correlated with other -1 -1 -1 in pre-tsunami 72.16 an average of from 29.41the mglsystem 7.98 mgl ions from in January, whichtomay be mgl due towith the removal of Ca by the -1 -1 to 304.8 salts. mgl The with SI an average of 110.33 mgl-1 than in postand fromof16.8 mgl carbonate it still higher in August precipitation calcium -1 D -1 with an average of to 48.56 mgl tsunami. Potassium ranges from 1.61mgl in March, because of the dissolution of the salts which precipitated during -1 to 426 mgl-1 with an average of in pre-tsunami and into fromthe 4 mgl 25.49 mgl-1 adding March, thereby Magnesium system. -1 136 Theremgl are in twopost-tsunami. possibilities for the decrease of SIc in the system during January. Either one is due to the influence of the rainfall in Nov-Dec, which is the 2nd (retreating) Heavy Metals monsoon period in these regions of India one is due to the long residence time of the-1 in filtered water after the tsunami into this -1 with an average of 0.37 mgl-1 in the to 0.72 mglregion Iron It ranges from 0.12inmgl system. was observed nearby Palayar that Sea water and the soil

311

The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

311

month of March and from 0.03 mgl-1 to 0.58 mgl-1 with an average of 0.39 mgl-1 in the month of August. Manganese ranges from 0.05 to 1.52 with an average of 0.52 in the month of March and from 0.009 mgl-1 to 1.86 mgl-1 with an average of 0.42 mgl-1 in the month of August. Aluminium ranges from 0.03 mgl-1 to 0.08 mgl-1 with an average of 0.055 mgl-1 in the month of March and from 0.04 mgl-1 to 0.08 mgl-1 with an average of 0.056 mgl-1 in the month of August. Discussion The pH in these ground waters has slightly decreased after the tsunami whereas EC shoots up considerably reflecting the impact of the tsunami waters exists even after 3-8 months after the tsunami . Cl with an average of 1146 mgl-1 in post-tsunami shows an increased several folds indicating the long residence time of the tsunami water in the shallow aquifers .Bicarbonate with an average of 378 mgl-1 in post-tsunami reflecting the influence of sea water. Sulphate is generally derived from oxidative weathering of sulphide bearing minerals like Marcasite (which is abundant in these regions), but the sudden shoot of these ions that to above 500 mgl-1 is a clear indication of the role played by tsunami waters. Dominance of anions in the study area is as follows; Cl>HCO3>SO4 in both pre-tsunami and post-tsunami. Though the order of preference is maintained the value of Cl shows a higher value in Post tsunami only .The order of the abundance of cations is as follows Ca>Na>Mg>K in pre-tsunami and Na>K>Ca>Mg in post-tsunami. Na dominates the cations. Among the major ions the many fold increase of Na and Cl is supportive of the long residence time spent by the tsunami waters in these aquifers .There is no significant variation in the dissolved heavy metals in the aquifers subsequent to the tsunami implying leaching is very less from the polluted sources from soils after tsunami due to short stay of inundated water in the surface region . The SI of carbonate mineral in the samples for different periods, indicates that they are saturated to near saturated with Calcite (C) and Aragonite (A) . They are under saturated to near saturated with Magnesite (M). Dolomite (D) shows under saturation in the Pre-Tsunami samples but it shows super saturation during August. This may be due to increase of Mg concentration in the subsequent periods. It can be related that Ca is weakly correlated with other ions in January, which may be due to the removal of Ca from the system by the precipitation of calcium carbonate salts. The SID it still higher in August than in March, because of the dissolution of the salts which precipitated during March, thereby adding Magnesium into the system. There are two possibilities for the decrease of SIc in the system during January. Either one is due to the influence of the rainfall in Nov-Dec, which is the 2nd (retreating) monsoon period in these regions of India one is due to the long residence time of the in filtered water after the tsunami into this system. It was observed in nearby Palayar region that Sea water and the soil

312

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Disaster Management

leachate show similar SI to that of August. Hence it can be inferred that this is due to the impact of the tsunami and not due to the impact of rainfall. The correlation between the chief cation and anion were carried out. They indicate, during the pre-tsunami condition good correlation exist between Na and HCO3: Ca and Cl. Mg has good correlation with all ions. Ca, SO4 does not have correlation with any ions. During January Na develops positive correlation with Cl, Mg, K. Good positive correlation exist between Mg and HCO3. Ca, SO4 are not correlated with other ions present in the system. (Fig 2) During March good correlation exists between major cations Ca and Mg. Cl shows good correlation with Na, SO4 with K, Ca, Mg and Cl. HCO3 has good correlation between Na, Mg, Ca and Cl: Na, SO4 and Cl. All the ions are well represented in the correlation matrix .PCA was done by using the Varimax rotation. Factor analysis indicate that three prominent factors were extracted for pre-tsunami and January (post tsunami) and two for August and March. The first component of factor loading in pre-tsunami was represented by HCO3, Mg, and Na indicating the process of weathering. (Table 3) Table 3. Factor Analysis Pre tsunami Rotated Component Matrix Component 1 CA CL

-0.02296 0.322935

2

3

0.977714 0.027943 CA 0.901526 0.228426 CL

January Rotated Component Matrix Component 1 -0.09739 0.668303

2

3

-0.07045 0.988923 -0.53246 0.301784

HCO3

0.827494

0.021259 -0.38373 HCO3 0.808534

0.210437 0.053315

K

0.451853

0.433031 0.715307 K

0.870648

0.373946 0.090374

MG

0.835657

0.21423 0.094052 MG

0.850372

0.004605 -0.21653

NA

0.937286

0.087285 0.056505 NA

0.823831

-0.18824

-0.30932

SO4

-0.22595

0.042662 0.907438 SO4

0.16127

0.89453

-0.02993

March Rotated Component Matrix Component 1 CA

2

0.959419

August Rotated Component Matrix Component 1

2

-0.07041 CA

0.277719

0.581323

CL

0.798294

0.585684 CL

0.93371

0.295971

HCO3

0.273209

-0.78413 HCO3 0.388945

0.778966

K

0.957054

0.041418 K

-0.2519

0.789173

MG

0.855787

0.176425 MG

0.286464

0.860392

NA

0.467734

0.721523 NA

0.969854

0.157613

SO4

0.909856

-0.02012 SO4

0.860122

0.074688

312

Pre tsunami Rotated Component Matrix Component 1

2

3

January Rotated Component Matrix Component 1

2

3

CA CL

-0.02296 0.322935

0.977714 0.027943 CA 0.901526 0.228426 CL

-0.09739 0.668303

-0.07045 0.988923 -0.53246 0.301784

HCO3

0.827494

0.021259 -0.38373 HCO3 0.808534

0.210437 0.053315

K

0.451853

0.433031 0.715307 K

0.870648

0.373946 0.090374

MG

0.835657

0.21423 0.094052 MG

0.850372

0.004605 -0.21653

NA

0.937286

0.087285 0.056505 NA

0.823831

-0.18824

-0.30932

SO4

-0.22595

0.042662 0.907438 SO4

0.16127

0.89453

-0.02993

March Rotated Component Matrix Component 1 CA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.959419

Kuliyar 1.24 2 1.25 5 1.28   A M.G.R Thittu 16 2 Table 240 3. Factor 30 Analysis 96   K Kavarapattu 8 2 10.5 1 2.23 ∞ K January Perunthotum 2.2Pre tsunami 1 1.8 5 1.44 ∞ K Matrix Rotated Matrix Palayar Rotated 1.6 Component 1 0.5 7 2.25 Component   H Killar 2.52Component 2 1.43 5 23 Component   H Kulaiyar 1.333 4 27 1   2 H 3 1 28 22 T.S pettai 5.82 1 2.84 2 3.56   H CA 0.027943 CA -0.09739 -0.07045 Thoduvai-0.02296 180 0.977714 3 36 5 35 9 Q0.988923 CLPumpuhar 0.322935 0.228426 CL 0.668303 -0.53246 75 0.901526 2 37.5 8 2.625 3 Q0.301784 HCO3 0.827494 0.021259 -0.38373 HCO3 0.808534 0.210437 0.053315

K

2

August Rotated Component Matrix Component 1

2

-0.07041 CA

0.277719

0.581323

0.93371

0.295971

CL

0.798294

0.585684 CL

HCO3

0.273209

-0.78413 HCO3 0.388945

0.778966

K

0.957054

0.041418 K

0.789173

-0.2519

MG

0.855787

0.176425 MG

0.286464

0.860392

NA

0.467734

0.721523 NA

0.969854

0.157613

SO4

0.909856

-0.02012 SO4

0.860122

0.074688

0.451853

0.433031 0.715307 K

0.870648

0.373946 0.090374

The resistivity curve of post the tsunami indicates that the maximum curve 0.835657 0.21423 0.094052 MG 0.850372 0.004605 -0.21653 value range is from 82.97 Ùm to 9.3 Ùm. The average curve has values between NA to 5.2 0.937286 0.056505 NA notably 0.823831 -0.30932 2.1 Ùm Ùm. The0.087285 minimum curve, has lesser -0.18824 value of the preSO4 -0.22595 0.042662 0.907438 SO4 0.16127 0.89453 -0.02993 Tsunami data ranging from 0.25 Ùm to 0.41 Ùm considering the specific depth as layer for the maximum curve represent a Q type curve, and the August by A type minimum represenst an March H type curve and the average is represented Component Matrix Rotated Component Matrix curve. (TableRotated 5) Component Component The average curve of pre-tsunami represents a Q type curve, and after the 2 1 the aquifers, the curve 2 event, due to the1 subsequent percolation of waters into type has changed. The minimum curve of post tsunami in deeper aquifer has CA 0.959419 -0.07041 CA 0.277719 0.581323 ña values higher than shallow once, i.e more saline water at 5m depth than 3m CL 0.798294 0.585684 CL 0.93371 0.295971 at certain locations. This may be due to the movement of neighboring saline HCO3 0.273209 -0.78413 HCO3 0.388945 watered down gradients or fast downward migration of saline water 0.778966 in that K location. 0.957054 0.041418 K -0.2519 0.789173 specific MG 0.176425 MG 0.286464 0.860392 From our0.855787 study we have inferred these processes might have been controlling NA 0.467734 0.157613 the hydro geochemical changes 0.721523 of groundNA water 0.969854 after the tsunami. After the tsunami water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells SO4 sea 0.909856 -0.02012 SO4 0.860122 0.074688 and got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05. MG

312

Table 3. Factor Analysis

313

leachate show similar SI to that of August. Hence it can be inferred that this is Geophysical Studies due to the impact of the tsunami and not due to the impact of rainfall. The resistivity curves of Pre-Tsunami indicate maximum values of decreasing The correlation between the chief cation and anion were carried out. They depths ranging from 89.84 Ùm to 45.62 Ùm with an average of 25.62Ùm to indicate, during the pre-tsunami condition good correlation exist between Na 17.5 Ùm. Since the regions fall in coastal tracts minimum values observed are and HCO3: Ca and Cl. Mg has good correlation with all ions. Ca, SO4 does not also lesser, ranging from 0.41 Ùm to 0.52 Ùm. In a maximum curve, a higher have correlation with any ions. During January Na develops positive correlation value is noted at 3m and the lowest at 15m, and similar case is also reported in with Cl, Mg, K. Good positive correlation exist between Mg and HCO . Ca, an average curve. An average curve almost behaves in a trend similar to 3a SO4 are not correlated with other ions present in the system. (Fig 2) During maximum curve. In general, highest values and lowest values are noted in 3m March good correlation exists between major cations Ca and Mg. Cl shows depth (Table 4). good correlation with Na, SO4 with K, Ca, Mg and Cl. HCO3 has good correlation between Mg, Casurvey and Cl: Na, –SO Table 4: Na, Resistivity values Pre-Tsunami 4 and Cl. All the ions are well represented in the correlation matrix .PCA was done by using the Varimax S.No Location I Layer II Layer III Layer Curve type rotation. Factor analysis indicate that three ResistiThickResistiThick- prominent Resisti- factors Thick- were extracted for pre-tsunami and tsunami) vity January ness (postvity nessand two vity for August ness and March. The first component by HCO3, (Ωm)of factor (m) loading (Ωm) in pre-tsunami (m) (Ωm) was represented (m) Mg, and Na indicating the process of weathering. (Table 3)

Disaster Management

leachate show similar SI to that of August. Hence it can be inferred that this is due to the impact of the tsunami and not due to the impact of rainfall. The correlation between the chief cation and anion were carried out. They indicate, during the pre-tsunami condition good correlation exist between Na and HCO3: Ca and Cl. Mg has good correlation with all ions. Ca, SO4 does not have correlation with any ions. During January Na develops positive correlation with Cl, Mg, K. Good positive correlation exist between Mg and HCO3. Ca, SO4 are not correlated with other ions present in the system. (Fig 2) During March good correlation exists between major cations Ca and Mg. Cl shows good correlation with Na, SO4 with K, Ca, Mg and Cl. HCO3 has good correlation between Na, Mg, Ca and Cl: Na, SO4 and Cl. All the ions are well represented in the correlation matrix .PCA was done by using the Varimax rotation. Factor analysis indicate that three prominent factors were extracted for pre-tsunami and January (post tsunami) and two for August and March. The first component of factor loading in pre-tsunami was represented by HCO3, Mg, and Na indicating the process of weathering. (Table 3)

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

313

leachate show similar SI to that of August. Hence it can be inferred that this is Geophysical Studies due to the impact of the tsunami and not due to the impact of rainfall. The resistivity curves of Pre-Tsunami indicate maximum values of decreasing The correlation between the chief cation and anion were carried out. They depths ranging from 89.84 Ùm to 45.62 Ùm with an average of 25.62Ùm to indicate, during the pre-tsunami condition good correlation exist between Na 17.5 Ùm. Since the regions fall in coastal tracts minimum values observed are and HCO3: Ca and Cl. Mg has good correlation with all ions. Ca, SO4 does not also lesser, ranging from 0.41 Ùm to 0.52 Ùm. In a maximum curve, a higher have correlation with any ions. During January Na develops positive correlation value is noted at 3m and the lowest at 15m, and similar case is also reported in with Cl, Mg, K. Good positive correlation exist between Mg and HCO . Ca, an average curve. An average curve almost behaves in a trend similar to 3a SO4 are not correlated with other ions present in the system. (Fig 2) During maximum curve. In general, highest values and lowest values are noted in 3m March good correlation exists between major cations Ca and Mg. Cl shows depth (Table 4). good correlation with Na, SO4 with K, Ca, Mg and Cl. HCO3 has good correlation between Mg, Casurvey and Cl: Na, –SO Table 4: Na, Resistivity values Pre-Tsunami 4 and Cl. All the ions are well represented in the correlation matrix .PCA was done by using the Varimax S.No Location I Layer II Layer III Layer Curve type rotation. Factor analysis indicate that three ResistiThickResistiThick- prominent Resisti- factors Thick- were extracted for pre-tsunami and tsunami) vity January ness (postvity nessand two vity for August ness and March. The first component by HCO3, (Ωm)of factor (m) loading (Ωm) in pre-tsunami (m) (Ωm) was represented (m) Mg, and Na indicating the process of weathering. (Table 3) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Kuliyar 1.24 2 1.25 5 1.28   A M.G.R Thittu 16 2 Table 240 3. Factor 30 Analysis 96   K Kavarapattu 8 2 10.5 1 2.23 ∞ K January Perunthotum 2.2Pre tsunami 1 1.8 5 1.44 ∞ K Matrix Rotated Matrix Palayar Rotated 1.6 Component 1 0.5 7 2.25 Component   H Component Component Killar 2.52 2 1.43 5 23   H Kulaiyar 1.333 4 27 1   2 H 3 1 28 22 T.S pettai 5.82 1 2.84 2 3.56   H CA 0.027943 CA -0.09739 -0.07045 Thoduvai-0.02296 180 0.977714 3 36 5 35 9 Q0.988923 CLPumpuhar 0.322935 0.228426 CL 0.668303 -0.53246 75 0.901526 2 37.5 8 2.625 3 Q0.301784 HCO3 0.827494 0.021259 -0.38373 HCO3 0.808534 0.210437 0.053315

K

0.451853

0.433031 0.715307 K

0.870648

0.373946 0.090374

The resistivity curve of post the tsunami indicates that the maximum curve 0.835657 0.21423 0.094052 MG 0.850372 0.004605 -0.21653 value range is from 82.97 Ùm to 9.3 Ùm. The average curve has values between NA 0.937286 0.087285 0.056505 NA 0.823831 -0.30932 2.1 Ùm to 5.2 Ùm. The minimum curve, has notably lesser -0.18824 value of the preSO4 -0.22595 0.042662 0.907438 SO4 0.16127 0.89453 -0.02993 Tsunami data ranging from 0.25 Ùm to 0.41 Ùm considering the specific depth as layer for the maximum curve represent a Q type curve, and the August by A type minimum represenst an March H type curve and the average is represented Component Matrix Rotated Component Matrix curve. (TableRotated 5) Component Component The average curve of pre-tsunami represents a Q type curve, and after the 2 1 the aquifers, the curve 2 event, due to the1 subsequent percolation of waters into type has changed. The minimum curve of post tsunami in deeper aquifer has CA 0.959419 -0.07041 CA 0.277719 0.581323 ña values higher than shallow once, i.e more saline water at 5m depth than 3m CL 0.798294 0.585684 CL 0.93371 0.295971 at certain locations. This may be due to the movement of neighboring saline HCO3 0.273209 -0.78413 HCO3 0.388945 watered down gradients or fast downward migration of saline water 0.778966 in that K location. 0.957054 0.041418 K -0.2519 0.789173 specific MG 0.176425 MG 0.286464 0.860392 From our0.855787 study we have inferred these processes might have been controlling NA 0.467734 0.721523 NA 0.969854 0.157613 the hydro geochemical changes of ground water after the tsunami. After the tsunami water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells SO4 sea 0.909856 -0.02012 SO4 0.860122 0.074688 and got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05. MG

312

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

313

Geophysical Studies leachate show similar SI to that of August. Hence it can be inferred that this is due to the impact of the tsunami and not due to the impact of rainfall. The resistivity curves of Pre-Tsunami indicate maximum values of decreasing The correlation between the chief cation and anion were carried out. They depths ranging from 89.84 Ùm to 45.62 Ùm with an average of 25.62Ùm to indicate, during the pre-tsunami condition good correlation exist between Na 17.5 Ùm. Since the regions fall in coastal tracts minimum values observed are and HCO3: Ca and Cl. Mg has good correlation with all ions. Ca, SO4 does not also lesser, ranging from 0.41 Ùm to 0.52 Ùm. In a maximum curve, a higher have correlation with any ions. During January Na develops positive correlation value is noted at 3m and the lowest at 15m, and similar case is also reported in with Cl, Mg, K. Good positive correlation exist between Mg and HCO . Ca, an average curve. An average curve almost behaves in a trend similar to 3a SO4 are not correlated with other ions present in the system. (Fig 2) During maximum curve. In general, highest values and lowest values are noted in 3m March good correlation exists between major cations Ca and Mg. Cl shows depth (Table 4). good correlation with Na, SO4 with K, Ca, Mg and Cl. HCO3 has good correlation between Mg, Casurvey and Cl: Na, –SO Table 4: Na, Resistivity values Pre-Tsunami 4 and Cl. All the ions are well represented in the correlation matrix .PCA was done by using the Varimax S.No Location I Layer II Layer III Layer Curve type rotation. Factor analysis indicate that three ResistiThickResistiThick- prominent Resisti- factors Thick- were extracted for pre-tsunami and tsunami) vity January ness (postvity nessand two vity for August ness and March. The first component by HCO3, (Ωm)of factor (m) loading (Ωm) in pre-tsunami (m) (Ωm) was represented (m) Mg, and Na indicating the process of weathering. (Table 3) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

313

Geophysical Studies The resistivity curves of Pre-Tsunami indicate maximum values of decreasing depths ranging from 89.84 Ùm to 45.62 Ùm with an average of 25.62Ùm to 17.5 Ùm. Since the regions fall in coastal tracts minimum values observed are also lesser, ranging from 0.41 Ùm to 0.52 Ùm. In a maximum curve, a higher value is noted at 3m and the lowest at 15m, and similar case is also reported in an average curve. An average curve almost behaves in a trend similar to a maximum curve. In general, highest values and lowest values are noted in 3m depth (Table 4). Table 4: Resistivity survey values – Pre-Tsunami S.No Location

I Layer Resisti- Thickvity ness (Ωm) (m)

The resistivity curve of post the tsunami indicates that the maximum curve value range is from 82.97 Ùm to 9.3 Ùm. The average curve has values between 2.1 Ùm to 5.2 Ùm. The minimum curve, has notably lesser value of the preTsunami data ranging from 0.25 Ùm to 0.41 Ùm considering the specific depth as layer for the maximum curve represent a Q type curve, and the minimum represenst an H type curve and the average is represented by A type curve. (Table 5) The average curve of pre-tsunami represents a Q type curve, and after the event, due to the subsequent percolation of waters into the aquifers, the curve type has changed. The minimum curve of post tsunami in deeper aquifer has ña values higher than shallow once, i.e more saline water at 5m depth than 3m at certain locations. This may be due to the movement of neighboring saline watered down gradients or fast downward migration of saline water in that specific location. From our study we have inferred these processes might have been controlling the hydro geochemical changes of ground water after the tsunami. After the tsunami sea water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells and got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05.

0.433031 0.715307 K

0.870648

0.373946 0.090374

312

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

313

Geophysical Studies leachate show similar SI to that of August. Hence it can be inferred that this is due to the impact of the tsunami and not due to the impact of rainfall. The resistivity curves of Pre-Tsunami indicate maximum values of decreasing The correlation between the chief cation and anion were carried out. They depths ranging from 89.84 Ùm to 45.62 Ùm with an average of 25.62Ùm to indicate, during the pre-tsunami condition good correlation exist between Na 17.5 Ùm. Since the regions fall in coastal tracts minimum values observed are and HCO3: Ca and Cl. Mg has good correlation with all ions. Ca, SO4 does not also lesser, ranging from 0.41 Ùm to 0.52 Ùm. In a maximum curve, a higher have correlation with any ions. During January Na develops positive correlation value is noted at 3m and the lowest at 15m, and similar case is also reported in with Cl, Mg, K. Good positive correlation exist between Mg and HCO . Ca, an average curve. An average curve almost behaves in a trend similar to 3a SO4 are not correlated with other ions present in the system. (Fig 2) During maximum curve. In general, highest values and lowest values are noted in 3m March good correlation exists between major cations Ca and Mg. Cl shows depth (Table 4). good correlation with Na, SO4 with K, Ca, Mg and Cl. HCO3 has good correlation between Mg, Casurvey and Cl: Na, –SO Table 4: Na, Resistivity values Pre-Tsunami 4 and Cl. All the ions are well represented in the correlation matrix .PCA was done by using the Varimax S.No Location I Layer II Layer III Layer Curve type rotation. Factor analysis indicate that three ResistiThickResistiThick- prominent Resisti- factors Thick- were extracted for pre-tsunami and tsunami) vity January ness (postvity nessand two vity for August ness and March. The first component by HCO3, (Ωm)of factor (m) loading (Ωm) in pre-tsunami (m) (Ωm) was represented (m) Mg, and Na indicating the process of weathering. (Table 3)

1.25 240 10.5 1.8 0.5 1.43 1.33 2.84 36 37.5

5 30 1 5 7 5 4 2 5 8

1.28 96 2.23 1.44 2.25 23 27 3.56 35 2.625

    ∞ ∞         9 3

Curve type

K

0.451853

2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 2

III Layer ResistiThickvity ness (Ωm) (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The resistivity curve of post the tsunami indicates that the maximum curve 0.835657 0.21423 0.094052 MG 0.850372 0.004605 -0.21653 value range is from 82.97 Ùm to 9.3 Ùm. The average curve has values between NA to 5.2 0.937286 0.056505 NA notably 0.823831 -0.30932 2.1 Ùm Ùm. The0.087285 minimum curve, has lesser -0.18824 value of the preSO4 -0.22595 0.042662 0.907438 SO4 0.16127 0.89453 -0.02993 Tsunami data ranging from 0.25 Ùm to 0.41 Ùm considering the specific depth as layer for the maximum curve represent a Q type curve, and the August by A type minimum represenst an March H type curve and the average is represented Component Matrix Rotated Component Matrix curve. (TableRotated 5) Component Component The average curve of pre-tsunami represents a Q type curve, and after the 2 1 the aquifers, the curve 2 event, due to the1 subsequent percolation of waters into type has changed. The minimum curve of post tsunami in deeper aquifer has CA 0.959419 -0.07041 CA 0.277719 0.581323 ña values higher than shallow once, i.e more saline water at 5m depth than 3m CL 0.798294 0.585684 CL 0.93371 0.295971 at certain locations. This may be due to the movement of neighboring saline HCO3 0.273209 -0.78413 HCO3 0.388945 0.778966 watered down gradients or fast downward migration of saline water in that K location. 0.957054 0.041418 K -0.2519 0.789173 specific MG 0.855787 0.176425 MG 0.286464 0.860392 From our study we have inferred these processes might have been controlling NA 0.467734 0.157613 the hydro geochemical changes 0.721523 of groundNA water 0.969854 after the tsunami. After the tsunami water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells SO4 sea 0.909856 -0.02012 SO4 0.860122 0.074688 and got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05.

Kuliyar 1.24 M.G.R Thittu 16 Kavarapattu 8 Perunthotum 2.2 Palayar 1.6 Killar 2.52 Kulaiyar 28 T.S pettai 5.82 Thoduvai 180 Pumpuhar 75

II Layer Resisti- Thickvity ness (Ωm) (m)

Kuliyar 1.24 2 1.25 5 1.28   A M.G.R Thittu 16 2 Table 240 3. Factor 30 Analysis 96   K Kavarapattu 8 2 10.5 1 2.23 ∞ K January Perunthotum 2.2Pre tsunami 1 1.8 5 1.44 ∞ K Matrix Rotated Matrix Palayar Rotated 1.6 Component 1 0.5 7 2.25 Component   H Killar 2.52Component 2 1.43 5 23 Component   H Kulaiyar 28 2 1.33 4 27   2 H 3 1 2 3 1 T.S pettai 5.82 1 2.84 2 3.56   H CA 0.027943 CA -0.09739 -0.07045 Thoduvai-0.02296 180 0.977714 3 36 5 35 9 Q0.988923 CLPumpuhar 0.322935 0.228426 CL 0.668303 -0.53246 75 0.901526 2 37.5 8 2.625 3 Q0.301784 HCO3 0.827494 0.021259 -0.38373 HCO3 0.808534 0.210437 0.053315

MG

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

A K K K H H H H Q Q

The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

313

Geophysical Studies The resistivity curves of Pre-Tsunami indicate maximum values of decreasing depths ranging from 89.84 Ùm to 45.62 Ùm with an average of 25.62Ùm to 17.5 Ùm. Since the regions fall in coastal tracts minimum values observed are also lesser, ranging from 0.41 Ùm to 0.52 Ùm. In a maximum curve, a higher value is noted at 3m and the lowest at 15m, and similar case is also reported in an average curve. An average curve almost behaves in a trend similar to a maximum curve. In general, highest values and lowest values are noted in 3m depth (Table 4). Table 4: Resistivity survey values – Pre-Tsunami S.No Location

I Layer Resisti- Thickvity ness (Ωm) (m)

K

The resistivity curve of post the tsunami indicates that the maximum curve value range is from 82.97 Ùm to 9.3 Ùm. The average curve has values between 2.1 Ùm to 5.2 Ùm. The minimum curve, has notably lesser value of the preTsunami data ranging from 0.25 Ùm to 0.41 Ùm considering the specific depth as layer for the maximum curve represent a Q type curve, and the minimum represenst an H type curve and the average is represented by A type curve. (Table 5) The average curve of pre-tsunami represents a Q type curve, and after the event, due to the subsequent percolation of waters into the aquifers, the curve type has changed. The minimum curve of post tsunami in deeper aquifer has ña values higher than shallow once, i.e more saline water at 5m depth than 3m at certain locations. This may be due to the movement of neighboring saline watered down gradients or fast downward migration of saline water in that specific location. From our study we have inferred these processes might have been controlling the hydro geochemical changes of ground water after the tsunami. After the tsunami sea water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells and got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05.

0.451853

0.433031 0.715307 K

0.870648

0.373946 0.090374

1.25 240 10.5 1.8 0.5 1.43 1.33 2.84 36 37.5

5 30 1 5 7 5 4 2 5 8

1.28 96 2.23 1.44 2.25 23 27 3.56 35 2.625

    ∞ ∞         9 3

Curve type

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The resistivity curve of post the tsunami indicates that the maximum curve 0.835657 0.21423 0.094052 MG 0.850372 0.004605 -0.21653 value range is from 82.97 Ùm to 9.3 Ùm. The average curve has values between NA 0.937286 0.087285 0.056505 NA 0.823831 -0.30932 2.1 Ùm to 5.2 Ùm. The minimum curve, has notably lesser -0.18824 value of the preSO4 -0.22595 0.042662 0.907438 SO4 0.16127 0.89453 -0.02993 Tsunami data ranging from 0.25 Ùm to 0.41 Ùm considering the specific depth as layer for the maximum curve represent a Q type curve, and the August by A type minimum represenst an March H type curve and the average is represented Component Matrix Rotated Component Matrix curve. (TableRotated 5) Component Component The average curve of pre-tsunami represents a Q type curve, and after the 2 1 the aquifers, the curve 2 event, due to the1 subsequent percolation of waters into type has changed. The minimum curve of post tsunami in deeper aquifer has CA 0.959419 -0.07041 CA 0.277719 0.581323 ña values higher than shallow once, i.e more saline water at 5m depth than 3m CL 0.798294 0.585684 CL 0.93371 0.295971 at certain locations. This may be due to the movement of neighboring saline HCO3 0.273209 -0.78413 HCO3 0.388945 0.778966 watered down gradients or fast downward migration of saline water in that K location. 0.957054 0.041418 K -0.2519 0.789173 specific MG 0.176425 MG 0.286464 0.860392 From our0.855787 study we have inferred these processes might have been controlling NA 0.467734 0.721523 NA 0.969854 0.157613 the hydro geochemical changes of ground water after the tsunami. After the tsunami water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells SO4 sea 0.909856 -0.02012 SO4 0.860122 0.074688 and got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05.

2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 2

III Layer ResistiThickvity ness (Ωm) (m)

Kuliyar 1.24 2 1.25 5 1.28   A M.G.R Thittu 16 2 Table 240 3. Factor 30 Analysis 96   K Kavarapattu 8 2 10.5 1 2.23 ∞ K January Perunthotum 2.2Pre tsunami 1 1.8 5 1.44 ∞ K Matrix Rotated Matrix Palayar Rotated 1.6 Component 1 0.5 7 2.25 Component   H Killar 2.52Component 2 1.43 5 23 Component   H Kulaiyar 28 2 1.33 4 27   2 H 3 1 2 3 1 T.S pettai 5.82 1 2.84 2 3.56   H CA 0.027943 CA -0.09739 -0.07045 Thoduvai-0.02296 180 0.977714 3 36 5 35 9 Q0.988923 CLPumpuhar 0.322935 0.228426 CL 0.668303 -0.53246 75 0.901526 2 37.5 8 2.625 3 Q0.301784 HCO3 0.827494 0.021259 -0.38373 HCO3 0.808534 0.210437 0.053315

MG

Kuliyar 1.24 M.G.R Thittu 16 Kavarapattu 8 Perunthotum 2.2 Palayar 1.6 Killar 2.52 Kulaiyar 28 T.S pettai 5.82 Thoduvai 180 Pumpuhar 75

II Layer Resisti- Thickvity ness (Ωm) (m)

A K K K H H H H Q Q

314

314

Disaster Management Table 5: Resistivity survey values – Post-Tsunami

S.No Location

1st Layer Resistivity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Kulaiyar 5 Thirumul 2 laivasal Killai 5 T.S.Pettai 10 Puthuk 2 kuppam Portonova 1 M.G.R Thittu 5 Poombugar 1 Kottayamedu 5 Palaiyar 5 Kilperu 1 mpalam Perunthotam 1

2nd Layer

3rd Layer

Curve type

Thickness

Resistivity

Thickness

Resistivity

Thickness

0.8 1.34

25 4

1.8 2.1

8 8

50 23

A A

3 1.15 1.2

35 18 26

120 5.2 2.4

8 8 8

360 12.8 48

A A A

4.6 1.9 2.78 2.6 7.5 20.4

2.5 9.5 6 55 35 3

12.3 5 4.89 6.5 5 10.2

9.8 8 8 8 8 8

25.3 2.3 2.86 3.75 15 1.53

A K K K H Q

1.8

16

1.4

8

0.244

Q

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

315

Table 5: Resistivity survey values – Post-Tsunami K.G. Villholth (Lead Researcher), P.H. Amerasinghe, P. Jeyakumar, C.R. Panabokke, O. Woolley, M.D. Weerasinghe, N.Amalraj, S.Prathepaan, N.Bürgi, D.M.D.S. S.No Location 1st Layer 2nd Layer 3rd Layer Curve type Lionelrathne, N.G. Indrajith, S.R.K. Pathirana 2005”Tsunami Impacts on Shallow Groundwater and Associated Water Supply the East ResistiCoast of SriThickLanka- A postResisti- ThickResisti-on Thicktsunami well recovery initiative assessment salinity vitysupport ness vityand anness vityof groundwater ness in three areas of Batticaloa and Ampara Districts 1 Kulaiyar 5 (1966). 0.8 Master 25 tables1.8 8 for vertical 50 A Orellana, E., Mooney, H.M and curves electrical 2 Thirumul 2 structures, 1.34 Interception, 4 2.1 8 23 A sounding over layered Madrid, Spain. laivasal Pradip Kumar Pal (2005) Impact of Earthquake on Geohazard Management, Everyman’s 3 Killai 3 35 120 8 360 A Science, vol. XL No.5 4: 259-264. 4 T.S.Pettai 10 1.15 18 5.2 12.8prospecting, A RijkswaterstaatThe Netherlands (1975) Standard graphs for8 Resistivity 5 Puthuk 2 1.2 26 2.4 8 48 A published by European Association of Exploration Geophysicists. kuppam The Drinking Water Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Including the Role of 6 Portonova 1 4.6 2.5 12.3 9.8 25.3 A Household Water Treatment © World Health Organization 2005 7 M.G.R Thittu 5 1.9 9.5 5 8 2.3 K Tsunami Bull. II, Survey of India, www.surveyofindia.gov.in/tsunami.htm. 8 Poombugar 1 2.78 6 4.89 8 2.86 K WHO9 (2004). Health action earthquake Kottayamedu 5 in crisis: 2.6 Southeast 55 Asia6.5 8 and tsunami 3.75 updateK27 Dec Geneva: World Health 10 2004. Palaiyar 5 7.5 Organization 35 5 8 15 H WHO (2005a). Three months after Ocean health 11 Kilperu 1 20.4 the Indian 3 10.2 earthquake-tsunami: 8 1.53 Q consequences mpalamand WHO’s response. 12

Perunthotam 1

1.8

16

1.4

8

0.244

Q

Later high temperatures in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates (due to evaporation of infiltered stagnated water by impermeable i.e clay layers) near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end by sparse rain. After the precipitation and dissolution salt leached out from surface to the shallow groundwater zones thus enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater.

Later high temperatures in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates (due to evaporation of infiltered stagnated water by impermeable i.e clay layers) near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end by sparse rain. After the precipitation and dissolution salt leached out from surface to the shallow groundwater zones thus enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater.

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

ADB, Japan Bank for International Cooperation and WB, 2005. Sri Lanka – 2005 PostTsunami Recovery.Program. Preliminary Damage and Needs Assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Jan. 10-28, 2005. http://www.adb.org/Tsunami/sri-lanka-assessment.asp APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 19th edition. APHA, Washington DC, USASS. Chidambaram, S., AL. Ramanathan, K. Srinivasamoorthy, and P. Anandhan( 2002) WATCLAST – A Computer Program for Hydrogeochemical Studies, Recent trends in Hydrogeochemistry (case studies from surface and subsurface waters of selected countries), Published by Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 203-207. Garrels, RM., and CL. Christ (1965)Solutions minerals and equilibria: New York, Harper and Row, p. 450. htpp://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/3months/report/en/print.html Impact of the 26th December 2004 Tsunami on Groundwater Systems and Groundwater Based Water Supplies in Malaysia Report prepared by: Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia Tingkat 19-22, Bangunan Tabung Haji Jalan Tun Razak 50658 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA : www.jmg.gov.my International Water Management Institute, ISBN 92-9090-622-7, http:/www.iwmi.org

ADB, Japan Bank for International Cooperation and WB, 2005. Sri Lanka – 2005 PostTsunami Recovery.Program. Preliminary Damage and Needs Assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Jan. 10-28, 2005. http://www.adb.org/Tsunami/sri-lanka-assessment.asp APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 19th edition. APHA, Washington DC, USASS. Chidambaram, S., AL. Ramanathan, K. Srinivasamoorthy, and P. Anandhan( 2002) WATCLAST – A Computer Program for Hydrogeochemical Studies, Recent trends in Hydrogeochemistry (case studies from surface and subsurface waters of selected countries), Published by Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 203-207. Garrels, RM., and CL. Christ (1965)Solutions minerals and equilibria: New York, Harper and Row, p. 450. htpp://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/3months/report/en/print.html Impact of the 26th December 2004 Tsunami on Groundwater Systems and Groundwater Based Water Supplies in Malaysia Report prepared by: Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia Tingkat 19-22, Bangunan Tabung Haji Jalan Tun Razak 50658 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA : www.jmg.gov.my International Water Management Institute, ISBN 92-9090-622-7, http:/www.iwmi.org

314

314

Disaster Management Table 5: Resistivity survey values – Post-Tsunami

S.No Location

1st Layer Resistivity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Kulaiyar 5 Thirumul 2 laivasal Killai 5 T.S.Pettai 10 Puthuk 2 kuppam Portonova 1 M.G.R Thittu 5 Poombugar 1 Kottayamedu 5 Palaiyar 5 Kilperu 1 mpalam Perunthotam 1

2nd Layer

3rd Layer

Curve type

Thickness

Resistivity

Thickness

Resistivity

Thickness

0.8 1.34

25 4

1.8 2.1

8 8

50 23

A A

3 1.15 1.2

35 18 26

120 5.2 2.4

8 8 8

360 12.8 48

A A A

4.6 1.9 2.78 2.6 7.5 20.4

2.5 9.5 6 55 35 3

12.3 5 4.89 6.5 5 10.2

9.8 8 8 8 8 8

25.3 2.3 2.86 3.75 15 1.53

A K K K H Q

1.8

16

1.4

8

0.244

Q

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

315

Table 5: Resistivity survey values – Post-Tsunami K.G. Villholth (Lead Researcher), P.H. Amerasinghe, P. Jeyakumar, C.R. Panabokke, O. Woolley, M.D. Weerasinghe, N.Amalraj, S.Prathepaan, D.M.D.S. S.No Location 1st Layer 2nd Layer 3rd N.Bürgi, Layer Curve type Lionelrathne, N.G. Indrajith, S.R.K. Pathirana 2005”Tsunami Impacts on Shallow Groundwater and Associated Water Supply the East ResistiCoast of SriThickLanka- A postResisti- ThickResisti-on Thicktsunami well recovery initiative assessment salinity vitysupport ness vityand anness vityof groundwater ness in three areas of Batticaloa and Ampara Districts 1 Kulaiyar 5 (1966). 0.8 Master 25 tables1.8 8 for vertical 50 A Orellana, E., Mooney, H.M and curves electrical 2 Thirumul 2 1.34 4 2.1 8 23 A sounding over layered structures, Interception, Madrid, Spain. laivasal Pradip Kumar Pal (2005) Impact of Earthquake on Geohazard Management, Everyman’s 3 Killai 3 35 120 8 360 A Science, vol. XL No.5 4: 259-264. 4 T.S.Pettai 10 1.15 18 5.2 12.8prospecting, A RijkswaterstaatThe Netherlands (1975) Standard graphs for8 Resistivity 5 Puthuk 2 1.2 26 2.4 8 48 A published by European Association of Exploration Geophysicists. kuppam The Drinking Water Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Including the Role of 6 Portonova 1 4.6 2.5 12.3 9.8 25.3 A Household Water Treatment © World Health Organization 2005 7 M.G.R Thittu 5 1.9 9.5 5 8 2.3 K Tsunami Bull. II, Survey of India, www.surveyofindia.gov.in/tsunami.htm. 8 Poombugar 1 2.78 6 4.89 8 2.86 K WHO9 (2004). Health action earthquake Kottayamedu 5 in crisis: 2.6 Southeast 55 Asia6.5 8 and tsunami 3.75 updateK27 Dec Geneva: World Health 10 2004. Palaiyar 5 7.5 Organization 35 5 8 15 H WHO (2005a). Three months after Ocean health 11 Kilperu 1 20.4 the Indian 3 10.2 earthquake-tsunami: 8 1.53 Q consequences mpalamand WHO’s response. 12

Perunthotam 1

1.8

16

1.4

8

0.244

Q

Later high temperatures in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates (due to evaporation of infiltered stagnated water by impermeable i.e clay layers) near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end by sparse rain. After the precipitation and dissolution salt leached out from surface to the shallow groundwater zones thus enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater.

Later high temperatures in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates (due to evaporation of infiltered stagnated water by impermeable i.e clay layers) near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end by sparse rain. After the precipitation and dissolution salt leached out from surface to the shallow groundwater zones thus enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater.

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

ADB, Japan Bank for International Cooperation and WB, 2005. Sri Lanka – 2005 PostTsunami Recovery.Program. Preliminary Damage and Needs Assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Jan. 10-28, 2005. http://www.adb.org/Tsunami/sri-lanka-assessment.asp APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 19th edition. APHA, Washington DC, USASS. Chidambaram, S., AL. Ramanathan, K. Srinivasamoorthy, and P. Anandhan( 2002) WATCLAST – A Computer Program for Hydrogeochemical Studies, Recent trends in Hydrogeochemistry (case studies from surface and subsurface waters of selected countries), Published by Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 203-207. Garrels, RM., and CL. Christ (1965)Solutions minerals and equilibria: New York, Harper and Row, p. 450. htpp://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/3months/report/en/print.html Impact of the 26th December 2004 Tsunami on Groundwater Systems and Groundwater Based Water Supplies in Malaysia Report prepared by: Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia Tingkat 19-22, Bangunan Tabung Haji Jalan Tun Razak 50658 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA : www.jmg.gov.my International Water Management Institute, ISBN 92-9090-622-7, http:/www.iwmi.org

ADB, Japan Bank for International Cooperation and WB, 2005. Sri Lanka – 2005 PostTsunami Recovery.Program. Preliminary Damage and Needs Assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Jan. 10-28, 2005. http://www.adb.org/Tsunami/sri-lanka-assessment.asp APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 19th edition. APHA, Washington DC, USASS. Chidambaram, S., AL. Ramanathan, K. Srinivasamoorthy, and P. Anandhan( 2002) WATCLAST – A Computer Program for Hydrogeochemical Studies, Recent trends in Hydrogeochemistry (case studies from surface and subsurface waters of selected countries), Published by Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 203-207. Garrels, RM., and CL. Christ (1965)Solutions minerals and equilibria: New York, Harper and Row, p. 450. htpp://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/3months/report/en/print.html Impact of the 26th December 2004 Tsunami on Groundwater Systems and Groundwater Based Water Supplies in Malaysia Report prepared by: Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia Tingkat 19-22, Bangunan Tabung Haji Jalan Tun Razak 50658 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA : www.jmg.gov.my International Water Management Institute, ISBN 92-9090-622-7, http:/www.iwmi.org

314

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

315

Table 5: Resistivity survey values – Post-Tsunami K.G. Villholth (Lead Researcher), P.H. Amerasinghe, P. Jeyakumar, C.R. Panabokke, O. Woolley, M.D. Weerasinghe, N.Amalraj, S.Prathepaan, N.Bürgi, D.M.D.S. S.No Location 1st Layer 2nd Layer 3rd Layer Curve type Lionelrathne, N.G. Indrajith, S.R.K. Pathirana 2005”Tsunami Impacts on Shallow Groundwater and Associated Water Supply the East ResistiCoast of SriThickLanka- A postResisti- ThickResisti-on Thicktsunami well recovery initiative assessment salinity vitysupport ness vityand anness vityof groundwater ness in three areas of Batticaloa and Ampara Districts 1 Kulaiyar 5 (1966). 0.8 Master 25 tables1.8 8 for vertical 50 A Orellana, E., Mooney, H.M and curves electrical 2 Thirumul 2 structures, 1.34 Interception, 4 2.1 8 23 A sounding over layered Madrid, Spain. laivasal Pradip Kumar Pal (2005) Impact of Earthquake on Geohazard Management, Everyman’s 3 Killai 3 35 120 8 360 A Science, vol. XL No.5 4: 259-264. 4 T.S.Pettai 10 1.15 18 5.2 12.8prospecting, A RijkswaterstaatThe Netherlands (1975) Standard graphs for8 Resistivity 5 Puthuk 2 1.2 26 2.4 8 48 A published by European Association of Exploration Geophysicists. kuppam The Drinking Water Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Including the Role of 6 Portonova 1 4.6 2.5 12.3 9.8 25.3 A Household Water Treatment © World Health Organization 2005 7 M.G.R Thittu 5 1.9 9.5 5 8 2.3 K Tsunami Bull. II, Survey of India, www.surveyofindia.gov.in/tsunami.htm. 8 Poombugar 1 2.78 6 4.89 8 2.86 K WHO9 (2004). Health action earthquake Kottayamedu 5 in crisis: 2.6 Southeast 55 Asia6.5 8 and tsunami 3.75 updateK27 Dec Geneva: World Health 10 2004. Palaiyar 5 7.5 Organization 35 5 8 15 H WHO (2005a). Three months after Ocean health 11 Kilperu 1 20.4 the Indian 3 10.2 earthquake-tsunami: 8 1.53 Q consequences mpalamand WHO’s response. 12

Perunthotam 1

1.8

16

1.4

8

0.244

The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

315

K.G. Villholth (Lead Researcher), P.H. Amerasinghe, P. Jeyakumar, C.R. Panabokke, O. Woolley, M.D. Weerasinghe, N.Amalraj, S.Prathepaan, N.Bürgi, D.M.D.S. Lionelrathne, N.G. Indrajith, S.R.K. Pathirana 2005”Tsunami Impacts on Shallow Groundwater and Associated Water Supply on the East Coast of Sri Lanka- A posttsunami well recovery support initiative and an assessment of groundwater salinity in three areas of Batticaloa and Ampara Districts Orellana, E., Mooney, H.M (1966). Master tables and curves for vertical electrical sounding over layered structures, Interception, Madrid, Spain. Pradip Kumar Pal (2005) Impact of Earthquake on Geohazard Management, Everyman’s Science, vol. XL No. 4: 259-264. Rijkswaterstaat- The Netherlands (1975) Standard graphs for Resistivity prospecting, published by European Association of Exploration Geophysicists. The Drinking Water Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Including the Role of Household Water Treatment © World Health Organization 2005 Tsunami Bull. II, Survey of India, www.surveyofindia.gov.in/tsunami.htm. WHO (2004). Health action in crisis: Southeast Asia earthquake and tsunami update 27 Dec 2004. Geneva: World Health Organization WHO (2005a). Three months after the Indian Ocean earthquake-tsunami: health consequences and WHO’s response.

Q

Later high temperatures in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates (due to evaporation of infiltered stagnated water by impermeable i.e clay layers) near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end by sparse rain. After the precipitation and dissolution salt leached out from surface to the shallow groundwater zones thus enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater. REFERENCES ADB, Japan Bank for International Cooperation and WB, 2005. Sri Lanka – 2005 PostTsunami Recovery.Program. Preliminary Damage and Needs Assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Jan. 10-28, 2005. http://www.adb.org/Tsunami/sri-lanka-assessment.asp APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 19th edition. APHA, Washington DC, USASS. Chidambaram, S., AL. Ramanathan, K. Srinivasamoorthy, and P. Anandhan( 2002) WATCLAST – A Computer Program for Hydrogeochemical Studies, Recent trends in Hydrogeochemistry (case studies from surface and subsurface waters of selected countries), Published by Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 203-207. Garrels, RM., and CL. Christ (1965)Solutions minerals and equilibria: New York, Harper and Row, p. 450. htpp://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/3months/report/en/print.html Impact of the 26th December 2004 Tsunami on Groundwater Systems and Groundwater Based Water Supplies in Malaysia Report prepared by: Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia Tingkat 19-22, Bangunan Tabung Haji Jalan Tun Razak 50658 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA : www.jmg.gov.my International Water Management Institute, ISBN 92-9090-622-7, http:/www.iwmi.org

314

Disaster Management The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

315

Table 5: Resistivity survey values – Post-Tsunami K.G. Villholth (Lead Researcher), P.H. Amerasinghe, P. Jeyakumar, C.R. Panabokke, O. Woolley, M.D. Weerasinghe, N.Amalraj, S.Prathepaan, D.M.D.S. S.No Location 1st Layer 2nd Layer 3rd N.Bürgi, Layer Curve type Lionelrathne, N.G. Indrajith, S.R.K. Pathirana 2005”Tsunami Impacts on Shallow Groundwater and Associated Water Supply the East ResistiCoast of SriThickLanka- A postResisti- ThickResisti-on Thicktsunami well recovery initiative assessment salinity vitysupport ness vityand anness vityof groundwater ness in three areas of Batticaloa and Ampara Districts 1 Kulaiyar 5 (1966). 0.8 Master 25 tables1.8 8 for vertical 50 A Orellana, E., Mooney, H.M and curves electrical 2 Thirumul 2 1.34 4 2.1 8 23 A sounding over layered structures, Interception, Madrid, Spain. laivasal Pradip Kumar Pal (2005) Impact of Earthquake on Geohazard Management, Everyman’s 3 Killai 3 35 120 8 360 A Science, vol. XL No.5 4: 259-264. 4 T.S.Pettai 10 1.15 18 5.2 12.8prospecting, A RijkswaterstaatThe Netherlands (1975) Standard graphs for8 Resistivity 5 Puthuk 2 1.2 26 2.4 8 48 A published by European Association of Exploration Geophysicists. kuppam The Drinking Water Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Including the Role of 6 Portonova 1 4.6 2.5 12.3 9.8 25.3 A Household Water Treatment © World Health Organization 2005 7 M.G.R Thittu 5 1.9 9.5 5 8 2.3 K Tsunami Bull. II, Survey of India, www.surveyofindia.gov.in/tsunami.htm. 8 Poombugar 1 2.78 6 4.89 8 2.86 K WHO9 (2004). Health action earthquake Kottayamedu 5 in crisis: 2.6 Southeast 55 Asia6.5 8 and tsunami 3.75 updateK27 Dec Geneva: World Health 10 2004. Palaiyar 5 7.5 Organization 35 5 8 15 H WHO (2005a). Three months after Ocean health 11 Kilperu 1 20.4 the Indian 3 10.2 earthquake-tsunami: 8 1.53 Q consequences mpalamand WHO’s response. 12

Perunthotam 1

1.8

16

1.4

8

0.244

Q

Later high temperatures in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates (due to evaporation of infiltered stagnated water by impermeable i.e clay layers) near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end by sparse rain. After the precipitation and dissolution salt leached out from surface to the shallow groundwater zones thus enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater. REFERENCES ADB, Japan Bank for International Cooperation and WB, 2005. Sri Lanka – 2005 PostTsunami Recovery.Program. Preliminary Damage and Needs Assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Jan. 10-28, 2005. http://www.adb.org/Tsunami/sri-lanka-assessment.asp APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 19th edition. APHA, Washington DC, USASS. Chidambaram, S., AL. Ramanathan, K. Srinivasamoorthy, and P. Anandhan( 2002) WATCLAST – A Computer Program for Hydrogeochemical Studies, Recent trends in Hydrogeochemistry (case studies from surface and subsurface waters of selected countries), Published by Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 203-207. Garrels, RM., and CL. Christ (1965)Solutions minerals and equilibria: New York, Harper and Row, p. 450. htpp://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/3months/report/en/print.html Impact of the 26th December 2004 Tsunami on Groundwater Systems and Groundwater Based Water Supplies in Malaysia Report prepared by: Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia Tingkat 19-22, Bangunan Tabung Haji Jalan Tun Razak 50658 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA : www.jmg.gov.my International Water Management Institute, ISBN 92-9090-622-7, http:/www.iwmi.org

The Impact of Tsunami on the Groundwater Quality

315

K.G. Villholth (Lead Researcher), P.H. Amerasinghe, P. Jeyakumar, C.R. Panabokke, O. Woolley, M.D. Weerasinghe, N.Amalraj, S.Prathepaan, N.Bürgi, D.M.D.S. Lionelrathne, N.G. Indrajith, S.R.K. Pathirana 2005”Tsunami Impacts on Shallow Groundwater and Associated Water Supply on the East Coast of Sri Lanka- A posttsunami well recovery support initiative and an assessment of groundwater salinity in three areas of Batticaloa and Ampara Districts Orellana, E., Mooney, H.M (1966). Master tables and curves for vertical electrical sounding over layered structures, Interception, Madrid, Spain. Pradip Kumar Pal (2005) Impact of Earthquake on Geohazard Management, Everyman’s Science, vol. XL No. 4: 259-264. Rijkswaterstaat- The Netherlands (1975) Standard graphs for Resistivity prospecting, published by European Association of Exploration Geophysicists. The Drinking Water Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Including the Role of Household Water Treatment © World Health Organization 2005 Tsunami Bull. II, Survey of India, www.surveyofindia.gov.in/tsunami.htm. WHO (2004). Health action in crisis: Southeast Asia earthquake and tsunami update 27 Dec 2004. Geneva: World Health Organization WHO (2005a). Three months after the Indian Ocean earthquake-tsunami: health consequences and WHO’s response.

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

317

22

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri Director, Delhi College of Advance Studies, GGSIP University, New Delhi E-mail : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION Business is an economic institution organized and operated to provide goods and services to the society under the incentive of private gains. Many firms are providing goods and services to the society. The achievement of a sustainable tourism product requires the incorporation of tourism disaster planning and disaster response strategies into community and business frameworks. Despite the fact that disasters and their impacts are becoming frequent headlines in relation to tourism, few tourism businesses and tourism destinations are prepared to handle a disaster’s immediate- and longer-term impacts (Cassedy, 1991). In reality, tourism disaster planning seldom appears to be well conducted at the community level, and also to be rarely, if ever, carried out by individual tourism businesses (Cassedy, 1991). Little has been done by the tourism industry to understand how a disaster evolves once started, the typologies and anatomy of different disasters, how tourism is affected by and responds to disasters, and current disaster management strategies (Santana, 1999). Research is required to address these questions especially given that, with the exception of the airline sector, much of the tourism industry has belatedly begun to realise that disaster management should be a core aspect of its overall business structure (Beirman, 2002). Tourism is a service provided by the business firms. Tourism is the primary source of income for local communities at many tourist destinations. In countries like Thailand where tourism is the largest industry, it generates the highest proportion of foreign earnings. Most tourist destinations are located in coastal, mountain and forest areas and are thus often exposed to natural disasters that can have serious long-term impacts on local communities by threatening the

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

317

22

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies P.V. Khatri Director, Delhi College of Advance Studies, GGSIP University, New Delhi E-mail : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION Business is an economic institution organized and operated to provide goods and services to the society under the incentive of private gains. Many firms are providing goods and services to the society. The achievement of a sustainable tourism product requires the incorporation of tourism disaster planning and disaster response strategies into community and business frameworks. Despite the fact that disasters and their impacts are becoming frequent headlines in relation to tourism, few tourism businesses and tourism destinations are prepared to handle a disaster’s immediate- and longer-term impacts (Cassedy, 1991). In reality, tourism disaster planning seldom appears to be well conducted at the community level, and also to be rarely, if ever, carried out by individual tourism businesses (Cassedy, 1991). Little has been done by the tourism industry to understand how a disaster evolves once started, the typologies and anatomy of different disasters, how tourism is affected by and responds to disasters, and current disaster management strategies (Santana, 1999). Research is required to address these questions especially given that, with the exception of the airline sector, much of the tourism industry has belatedly begun to realise that disaster management should be a core aspect of its overall business structure (Beirman, 2002). Tourism is a service provided by the business firms. Tourism is the primary source of income for local communities at many tourist destinations. In countries like Thailand where tourism is the largest industry, it generates the highest proportion of foreign earnings. Most tourist destinations are located in coastal, mountain and forest areas and are thus often exposed to natural disasters that can have serious long-term impacts on local communities by threatening the

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

317

22

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

317

22

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

P.V. Khatri Director, Delhi College of Advance Studies, GGSIP University, New Delhi E-mail : [email protected]

P.V. Khatri Director, Delhi College of Advance Studies, GGSIP University, New Delhi E-mail : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Business is an economic institution organized and operated to provide goods and services to the society under the incentive of private gains. Many firms are providing goods and services to the society. The achievement of a sustainable tourism product requires the incorporation of tourism disaster planning and disaster response strategies into community and business frameworks. Despite the fact that disasters and their impacts are becoming frequent headlines in relation to tourism, few tourism businesses and tourism destinations are prepared to handle a disaster’s immediate- and longer-term impacts (Cassedy, 1991). In reality, tourism disaster planning seldom appears to be well conducted at the community level, and also to be rarely, if ever, carried out by individual tourism businesses (Cassedy, 1991). Little has been done by the tourism industry to understand how a disaster evolves once started, the typologies and anatomy of different disasters, how tourism is affected by and responds to disasters, and current disaster management strategies (Santana, 1999). Research is required to address these questions especially given that, with the exception of the airline sector, much of the tourism industry has belatedly begun to realise that disaster management should be a core aspect of its overall business structure (Beirman, 2002). Tourism is a service provided by the business firms. Tourism is the primary source of income for local communities at many tourist destinations. In countries like Thailand where tourism is the largest industry, it generates the highest proportion of foreign earnings. Most tourist destinations are located in coastal, mountain and forest areas and are thus often exposed to natural disasters that can have serious long-term impacts on local communities by threatening the

Business is an economic institution organized and operated to provide goods and services to the society under the incentive of private gains. Many firms are providing goods and services to the society. The achievement of a sustainable tourism product requires the incorporation of tourism disaster planning and disaster response strategies into community and business frameworks. Despite the fact that disasters and their impacts are becoming frequent headlines in relation to tourism, few tourism businesses and tourism destinations are prepared to handle a disaster’s immediate- and longer-term impacts (Cassedy, 1991). In reality, tourism disaster planning seldom appears to be well conducted at the community level, and also to be rarely, if ever, carried out by individual tourism businesses (Cassedy, 1991). Little has been done by the tourism industry to understand how a disaster evolves once started, the typologies and anatomy of different disasters, how tourism is affected by and responds to disasters, and current disaster management strategies (Santana, 1999). Research is required to address these questions especially given that, with the exception of the airline sector, much of the tourism industry has belatedly begun to realise that disaster management should be a core aspect of its overall business structure (Beirman, 2002). Tourism is a service provided by the business firms. Tourism is the primary source of income for local communities at many tourist destinations. In countries like Thailand where tourism is the largest industry, it generates the highest proportion of foreign earnings. Most tourist destinations are located in coastal, mountain and forest areas and are thus often exposed to natural disasters that can have serious long-term impacts on local communities by threatening the

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

317

22

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

317

22

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

P.V. Khatri Director, Delhi College of Advance Studies, GGSIP University, New Delhi E-mail : [email protected]

P.V. Khatri Director, Delhi College of Advance Studies, GGSIP University, New Delhi E-mail : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Business is an economic institution organized and operated to provide goods and services to the society under the incentive of private gains. Many firms are providing goods and services to the society. The achievement of a sustainable tourism product requires the incorporation of tourism disaster planning and disaster response strategies into community and business frameworks. Despite the fact that disasters and their impacts are becoming frequent headlines in relation to tourism, few tourism businesses and tourism destinations are prepared to handle a disaster’s immediate- and longer-term impacts (Cassedy, 1991). In reality, tourism disaster planning seldom appears to be well conducted at the community level, and also to be rarely, if ever, carried out by individual tourism businesses (Cassedy, 1991). Little has been done by the tourism industry to understand how a disaster evolves once started, the typologies and anatomy of different disasters, how tourism is affected by and responds to disasters, and current disaster management strategies (Santana, 1999). Research is required to address these questions especially given that, with the exception of the airline sector, much of the tourism industry has belatedly begun to realise that disaster management should be a core aspect of its overall business structure (Beirman, 2002). Tourism is a service provided by the business firms. Tourism is the primary source of income for local communities at many tourist destinations. In countries like Thailand where tourism is the largest industry, it generates the highest proportion of foreign earnings. Most tourist destinations are located in coastal, mountain and forest areas and are thus often exposed to natural disasters that can have serious long-term impacts on local communities by threatening the

Business is an economic institution organized and operated to provide goods and services to the society under the incentive of private gains. Many firms are providing goods and services to the society. The achievement of a sustainable tourism product requires the incorporation of tourism disaster planning and disaster response strategies into community and business frameworks. Despite the fact that disasters and their impacts are becoming frequent headlines in relation to tourism, few tourism businesses and tourism destinations are prepared to handle a disaster’s immediate- and longer-term impacts (Cassedy, 1991). In reality, tourism disaster planning seldom appears to be well conducted at the community level, and also to be rarely, if ever, carried out by individual tourism businesses (Cassedy, 1991). Little has been done by the tourism industry to understand how a disaster evolves once started, the typologies and anatomy of different disasters, how tourism is affected by and responds to disasters, and current disaster management strategies (Santana, 1999). Research is required to address these questions especially given that, with the exception of the airline sector, much of the tourism industry has belatedly begun to realise that disaster management should be a core aspect of its overall business structure (Beirman, 2002). Tourism is a service provided by the business firms. Tourism is the primary source of income for local communities at many tourist destinations. In countries like Thailand where tourism is the largest industry, it generates the highest proportion of foreign earnings. Most tourist destinations are located in coastal, mountain and forest areas and are thus often exposed to natural disasters that can have serious long-term impacts on local communities by threatening the

318

Disaster Management

destination’s image, its tourism resources and its source of livelihood. Disasters at tourist destinations can also affect an entire country’s tourism trends, leading to heavy economic losses. When planning for disasters at tourist destinations, the question is not if, but when they will occur. It is difficult to predict the frequency of natural disasters: they could occur once in a lifetime, once every few years or seasonally. If tourism is a community’s primary source of income, then coping with potential disasters is pivotal to the community. To sustain tourism development and community livelihood, it is necessary to plan for the prevention, preparedness and mitigation of disasters at the destination. To develop sustainable tourism destinations and increase a community’s physical, economic and social wellbeing, ideas have evolved through sustainable tourism developmental approaches to consider not only tourists, but more importantly the physical, cultural, social and economic sustainability of host communities and tourism resources. Similarly, disasters are no longer seen as extreme events created by natural forces but as unresolved problems of development. Disaster Management practices have evolved from largely top-down relief and response to inter-sectoral risk management approaches. Some commonalities in current approaches to tourism planning and disaster management are: 1) they are more people-centered, 2) planning has become more inter-sectoral and 3) holistic development is their expected outcome. Despite common elements in their approaches and obvious benefits, Disaster Management has not been consciously integrated into tourism planning and development. The global call for sustainable development, and especially the sustainability of the world’s largest industry, demands their integration. However, there are institutional, capacity-building and management issues that need to be resolved before successful integration will be possible.

318 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

319

The Importance of Tourism Industry in the Global Economy

destination’s image, tourism resources its sourcenearly of livelihood. Disasters accounting for one in its every 12 jobs and and transporting 700 million at tourist travellers destinations affect entire country’s to tourism leading international percan year.also This last an figure is expected doubletrends, by 2020. to heavy economic International tourismlosses. arrivals in developing countries have grown by an When disasters at tourist todestinations, the question is not if, average of 9.5%planning per year for since 1990, compared 4.6% worldwide. The industry butimportant when they will occur. toIt developing is difficult country to predict the frequency of natural makes contributions economies, representing disasters: they source could occur once in a lifetime, once few these years countries or seasonally. the second largest of foreign exchange after oil,every although If tourism a community’s primary income, then coping potential currently haveis only a minority sharesource of theof international tourismwith market disasters is 30%). pivotalThe to aftershocks the community. sustain tourism development (approximately of theToevents of September 11th in the and industry are impacting through of tourists globe. In particular, community livelihood, it isa decline necessary to plan across for thetheprevention, preparedness destinations dependent on the American market e.g. Caribbean islands, and mitigation of disasters at the destination. To some develop sustainable tourism and destinations where destinations are predominantly e.g.social Indonesia. and increase a community’sMuslim physical,populations economic and wellbeing, Where tourism generates more than 40% tourism of GDP developmental – small, low and middle to ideas have evolved through sustainable approaches income islandnot nations the Caribbean Pacific – the impact of cultural, September consider only in tourists, but moreand importantly physical, social has economic confirmedsustainability some developing exposure to their dependency 11th and of host countries’ communities and tourism resources. Similarly, on tourism. to diversify and integrate their economies protect disasters Strategies are no longer seen as extreme events created by naturaltoforces but as livelihoods fromproblems the adverse caused to tourismManagement by political and naturalhave unresolved of shocks development. Disaster practices even more risk disasters werefrom already called for priorrelief to September 11th and evolved largely top-down and response to are inter-sectoral imperative now. approaches. management Some commonalities in current approaches to tourism planning and disaster management are: Why are we thinking about the value of tourism enterprise interventions 1) they are more people-centered, to poverty reduction? 2) planning has become more inter-sectoral and The 3) present debate puts forward arguments and against tourism’s holistic development is their expectedfor outcome. Despite commonpotential elements in for pro-poor compared to otherbenefits, sectors: Disaster Management has not been their growth approaches and obvious 1. Its advantages its size, labour intensity,planning potentialand for development. cross-sector linkages, consciouslyareintegrated into tourism The global and potential in countries and marginal areas with few other competitiveofexports. call for sustainable development, and especially the sustainability the world’s Tourism is consumed at the point of production, the customer to the largest industry, demands their integration.and However, there comes are institutional, product – i.e. destination, potential linkages to formal informal capacity-building andproviding management issues that need to be and resolved before sector activities,integration often benefiting women working in petty trading (crafts, food). successful will be possible. Tourism depends on natural capital – e.g. wildlife, land, and culture – that are assets that aredestinations owned by theallpoor, who are gaining increasing over a Tourism overorthe globe face theancertainty ofcontrol experiencing land where decentralisation and devolution of tenure are occurring. disaster at some time. Despite this, few destinations have properly developed 2. Its disadvantages are thatplans the industry largelycope driven by foreign private sectorOne Disaster Management to helpisthem with such eventualities. interestsfor andthis theiseconomic benefits are of notsystematic maximisedresearch due to acarried high level reason the limited amount out of in the foreignThis ownership. is an addressed industry that from highDisaster level of Management leakages field. problemIt was by suffers drawing ona the (imports) and few linkages imposes substantial non-economic costsdisaster on literature, combined with and a more specific examination of tourism the poor, inPresented terms of displacement, lost access resources, of andeffective culturalplanning and strategies. here are prerequisites andtoingredients social disruption. large-scale companies have a comparative towards producing The a framework forforeign analyzing and developing tourism Disaster advantage when it comes to market access. Small entrepreneurs are often Management strategies. excluded from international marketing because of cost and inadequate institutional support. The Importance of Tourism Industry in the Global Economy

Prior to September 11th 2001, travel and tourism was the world’s largest, $3.6 trillion, industry, generating 11% of global GDP, employing 200 million people,

th 2001,astravel wasgrowth the world’s ThosetoinSeptember favour of 11 tourism a tooland fortourism pro-poor point largest, out that$3.6 Prior 11%arise of global GDP, employing 200sectors. million For people, manytrillion, of its industry, negative generating characteristics in development of other

Tourism destinations all over the globe face the certainty of experiencing a disaster at some time. Despite this, few destinations have properly developed Disaster Management plans to help them cope with such eventualities. One reason for this is the limited amount of systematic research carried out in the field. This problem was addressed by drawing on the Disaster Management literature, combined with a more specific examination of tourism disaster strategies. Presented here are prerequisites and ingredients of effective planning towards producing a framework for analyzing and developing tourism Disaster Management strategies.

318

Disaster Management

destination’s image, its tourism resources and its source of livelihood. Disasters at tourist destinations can also affect an entire country’s tourism trends, leading to heavy economic losses. When planning for disasters at tourist destinations, the question is not if, but when they will occur. It is difficult to predict the frequency of natural disasters: they could occur once in a lifetime, once every few years or seasonally. If tourism is a community’s primary source of income, then coping with potential disasters is pivotal to the community. To sustain tourism development and community livelihood, it is necessary to plan for the prevention, preparedness and mitigation of disasters at the destination. To develop sustainable tourism destinations and increase a community’s physical, economic and social wellbeing, ideas have evolved through sustainable tourism developmental approaches to consider not only tourists, but more importantly the physical, cultural, social and economic sustainability of host communities and tourism resources. Similarly, disasters are no longer seen as extreme events created by natural forces but as unresolved problems of development. Disaster Management practices have evolved from largely top-down relief and response to inter-sectoral risk management approaches. Some commonalities in current approaches to tourism planning and disaster management are: 1) they are more people-centered, 2) planning has become more inter-sectoral and 3) holistic development is their expected outcome. Despite common elements in their approaches and obvious benefits, Disaster Management has not been consciously integrated into tourism planning and development. The global call for sustainable development, and especially the sustainability of the world’s largest industry, demands their integration. However, there are institutional, capacity-building and management issues that need to be resolved before successful integration will be possible.

318 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

319

The Importance of Tourism Industry in the Global Economy

destination’s image, tourism resources its sourcenearly of livelihood. Disasters accounting for one in its every 12 jobs and and transporting 700 million at tourist travellers destinations affect entire country’s to tourism leading international percan year.also This last an figure is expected doubletrends, by 2020. to heavy economic International tourismlosses. arrivals in developing countries have grown by an When disasters at tourist todestinations, the question is not if, average of 9.5%planning per year for since 1990, compared 4.6% worldwide. The industry butimportant when they will occur. toIt developing is difficult country to predict the frequency of natural makes contributions economies, representing disasters: they source could occur once in a lifetime, once few these years countries or seasonally. the second largest of foreign exchange after oil,every although If tourism a community’s primary income, then coping potential currently haveis only a minority sharesource of theof international tourismwith market disasters is 30%). pivotalThe to aftershocks the community. sustain tourism development (approximately of theToevents of September 11th in the and industry are impacting through of tourists globe. In particular, community livelihood, it isa decline necessary to plan across for thetheprevention, preparedness destinations dependent on the American market e.g. Caribbean islands, and mitigation of disasters at the destination. To some develop sustainable tourism and destinations where destinations are predominantly e.g.social Indonesia. and increase a community’sMuslim physical,populations economic and wellbeing, Where tourism generates more than 40% tourism of GDP developmental – small, low and middle to ideas have evolved through sustainable approaches income islandnot nations the Caribbean Pacific – the impact of cultural, September consider only in tourists, but moreand importantly physical, social has economic confirmedsustainability some developing exposure to their dependency 11th and of host countries’ communities and tourism resources. Similarly, on tourism. to diversify and integrate their economies protect disasters Strategies are no longer seen as extreme events created by naturaltoforces but as livelihoods fromproblems the adverse caused to tourismManagement by political and naturalhave unresolved of shocks development. Disaster practices even more risk disasters werefrom already called for priorrelief to September 11th and evolved largely top-down and response to are inter-sectoral imperative now. approaches. management Some commonalities in current approaches to tourism planning and disaster management are: Why are we thinking about the value of tourism enterprise interventions 1) they are more people-centered, to poverty reduction? 2) planning has become more inter-sectoral and The 3) present debate puts forward arguments and against tourism’s holistic development is their expectedfor outcome. Despite commonpotential elements in for pro-poor compared to otherbenefits, sectors: Disaster Management has not been their growth approaches and obvious 1. Its advantages its size, labour intensity,planning potentialand for development. cross-sector linkages, consciouslyareintegrated into tourism The global and potential in countries and marginal areas with few other competitive exports. call for sustainable development, and especially the sustainability of the world’s Tourism is consumed at the point of production, the customer to the largest industry, demands their integration.and However, there comes are institutional, product – i.e. destination, providing potential linkages to formal and informal capacity-building and management issues that need to be resolved before sector activities,integration often benefiting women working in petty trading (crafts, food). successful will be possible. Tourism depends on natural capital – e.g. wildlife, land, and culture – that are assets that aredestinations owned by theallpoor, who are gaining increasing over a Tourism overorthe globe face theancertainty ofcontrol experiencing land where and devolution of tenure are have occurring. disaster at decentralisation some time. Despite this, few destinations properly developed 2. Its disadvantages are thatplans the industry largelycope driven by foreign private sectorOne Disaster Management to helpisthem with such eventualities. interests and the economic benefits are not maximised due to a high level reason for this is the limited amount of systematic research carried out of in the foreignThis ownership. is an addressed industry that from highDisaster level of Management leakages field. problemIt was by suffers drawing ona the (imports) and few linkages imposes substantial non-economic costsdisaster on literature, combined with and a more specific examination of tourism the poor, inPresented terms of displacement, lost access resources, of andeffective culturalplanning and strategies. here are prerequisites andtoingredients social disruption. large-scale companies have a comparative towards producing The a framework forforeign analyzing and developing tourism Disaster advantage when it comes to market access. Small entrepreneurs are often Management strategies. excluded from international marketing because of cost and inadequate institutional support. The Importance of Tourism Industry in the Global Economy

Prior to September 11th 2001, travel and tourism was the world’s largest, $3.6 trillion, industry, generating 11% of global GDP, employing 200 million people,

th 2001,astravel wasgrowth the world’s ThosetoinSeptember favour of 11 tourism a tooland fortourism pro-poor point largest, out that$3.6 Prior 11%arise of global GDP, employing 200sectors. million For people, manytrillion, of its industry, negative generating characteristics in development of other

Tourism destinations all over the globe face the certainty of experiencing a disaster at some time. Despite this, few destinations have properly developed Disaster Management plans to help them cope with such eventualities. One reason for this is the limited amount of systematic research carried out in the field. This problem was addressed by drawing on the Disaster Management literature, combined with a more specific examination of tourism disaster strategies. Presented here are prerequisites and ingredients of effective planning towards producing a framework for analyzing and developing tourism Disaster Management strategies.

318 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

319

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

319

accounting for one in its every 12 jobs and and transporting 700 million destination’s image, tourism resources its sourcenearly of livelihood. Disasters international percan year.also This last an figure is expected doubletrends, by 2020. at tourist travellers destinations affect entire country’s to tourism leading International tourismlosses. arrivals in developing countries have grown by an to heavy economic average of 9.5%planning per year for since 1990, compared 4.6% worldwide. The industry When disasters at tourist todestinations, the question is not if, makes contributions economies, representing butimportant when they will occur. toIt developing is difficult country to predict the frequency of natural the second largest of foreign exchange after oil,every although disasters: they source could occur once in a lifetime, once few these years countries or seasonally. currently haveis only a minority sharesource of theof international tourismwith market If tourism a community’s primary income, then coping potential (approximately of theToevents of September 11th in the and disasters is 30%). pivotalThe to aftershocks the community. sustain tourism development industry are impacting through of tourists globe. In particular, community livelihood, it isa decline necessary to plan across for thetheprevention, preparedness destinations dependent on the American market e.g. Caribbean islands, and mitigation of disasters at the destination. To some develop sustainable tourism and destinations where destinations are predominantly e.g.social Indonesia. and increase a community’sMuslim physical,populations economic and wellbeing, Where tourism generates more than 40% tourism of GDP developmental – small, low and middle to ideas have evolved through sustainable approaches income islandnot nations the Caribbean Pacific – the impact of cultural, September consider only in tourists, but moreand importantly physical, social has economic confirmedsustainability some developing exposure to their dependency 11th and of host countries’ communities and tourism resources. Similarly, on tourism. to diversify and integrate their economies protect disasters Strategies are no longer seen as extreme events created by naturaltoforces but as livelihoods fromproblems the adverse caused to tourismManagement by political and naturalhave unresolved of shocks development. Disaster practices even more risk disasters werefrom already called for priorrelief to September 11th and evolved largely top-down and response to are inter-sectoral imperative now. approaches. management Some commonalities in current approaches to tourism planning and disaster management are: Why are we thinking about the value of tourism enterprise interventions 1) they are more people-centered, to poverty reduction? 2) planning has become more inter-sectoral and The 3) present debate puts forward arguments and against tourism’s holistic development is their expectedfor outcome. Despite commonpotential elements in for pro-poor compared to otherbenefits, sectors: Disaster Management has not been their growth approaches and obvious 1. Its advantages its size, labour intensity,planning potentialand for development. cross-sector linkages, consciouslyareintegrated into tourism The global and potential in countries and marginal areas with few other competitiveofexports. call for sustainable development, and especially the sustainability the world’s Tourism is consumed at the point of production, the customer to the largest industry, demands their integration.and However, there comes are institutional, product – i.e. destination, potential linkages to formal informal capacity-building andproviding management issues that need to be and resolved before sector activities,integration often benefiting women working in petty trading (crafts, food). successful will be possible. Tourism depends on natural capital – e.g. wildlife, land, and culture – that are assets that aredestinations owned by theallpoor, who are gaining increasing over a Tourism overorthe globe face theancertainty ofcontrol experiencing land where decentralisation and devolution of tenure are occurring. disaster at some time. Despite this, few destinations have properly developed 2. Its disadvantages are thatplans the industry largelycope driven by foreign private sectorOne Disaster Management to helpisthem with such eventualities. interestsfor andthis theiseconomic benefits are of notsystematic maximisedresearch due to acarried high level reason the limited amount out of in the foreignThis ownership. is an addressed industry that from highDisaster level of Management leakages field. problemIt was by suffers drawing ona the (imports) and few linkages imposes substantial non-economic costsdisaster on literature, combined with and a more specific examination of tourism the poor, inPresented terms of displacement, lost access resources, of andeffective culturalplanning and strategies. here are prerequisites andtoingredients social disruption. large-scale companies have a comparative towards producing The a framework forforeign analyzing and developing tourism Disaster advantage when it comes to market access. Small entrepreneurs are often Management strategies. excluded from international marketing because of cost and inadequate institutional support. The Importance of Tourism Industry in the Global Economy

accounting for one in every 12 jobs and transporting nearly 700 million international travellers per year. This last figure is expected to double by 2020. International tourism arrivals in developing countries have grown by an average of 9.5% per year since 1990, compared to 4.6% worldwide. The industry makes important contributions to developing country economies, representing the second largest source of foreign exchange after oil, although these countries currently have only a minority share of the international tourism market (approximately 30%). The aftershocks of the events of September 11th in the industry are impacting through a decline of tourists across the globe. In particular, destinations dependent on the American market e.g. some Caribbean islands, and where destinations are predominantly Muslim populations e.g. Indonesia. Where tourism generates more than 40% of GDP – small, low and middle income island nations in the Caribbean and Pacific – the impact of September 11th has confirmed some developing countries’ exposure to their dependency on tourism. Strategies to diversify and integrate their economies to protect livelihoods from the adverse shocks caused to tourism by political and natural disasters were already called for prior to September 11th and are even more imperative now.

th 2001,astravel wasgrowth the world’s ThosetoinSeptember favour of 11 tourism a tooland fortourism pro-poor point largest, out that$3.6 Prior 11%arise of global GDP, employing 200sectors. million For people, manytrillion, of its industry, negative generating characteristics in development of other

Those in favour of tourism as a tool for pro-poor growth point out that many of its negative characteristics arise in development of other sectors. For

318 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

319

Why are we thinking about the value of tourism enterprise interventions to poverty reduction? The present debate puts forward arguments for and against tourism’s potential for pro-poor growth compared to other sectors: 1. Its advantages are its size, labour intensity, potential for cross-sector linkages, and potential in countries and marginal areas with few other competitive exports. Tourism is consumed at the point of production, and the customer comes to the product – i.e. destination, providing potential linkages to formal and informal sector activities, often benefiting women working in petty trading (crafts, food). Tourism depends on natural capital – e.g. wildlife, land, and culture – that are assets that are owned by the poor, or who are gaining an increasing control over land where decentralisation and devolution of tenure are occurring. 2. Its disadvantages are that the industry is largely driven by foreign private sector interests and the economic benefits are not maximised due to a high level of foreign ownership. It is an industry that suffers from a high level of leakages (imports) and few linkages and imposes substantial non-economic costs on the poor, in terms of displacement, lost access to resources, and cultural and social disruption. The large-scale foreign companies have a comparative advantage when it comes to market access. Small entrepreneurs are often excluded from international marketing because of cost and inadequate institutional support.

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

319

accounting for one in its every 12 jobs and and transporting 700 million destination’s image, tourism resources its sourcenearly of livelihood. Disasters international percan year.also This last an figure is expected doubletrends, by 2020. at tourist travellers destinations affect entire country’s to tourism leading International tourismlosses. arrivals in developing countries have grown by an to heavy economic average of 9.5%planning per year for since 1990, compared 4.6% worldwide. The industry When disasters at tourist todestinations, the question is not if, makes contributions economies, representing butimportant when they will occur. toIt developing is difficult country to predict the frequency of natural the second largest of foreign exchange after oil,every although disasters: they source could occur once in a lifetime, once few these years countries or seasonally. currently haveis only a minority sharesource of theof international tourismwith market If tourism a community’s primary income, then coping potential (approximately of theToevents of September 11th in the and disasters is 30%). pivotalThe to aftershocks the community. sustain tourism development industry are impacting through of tourists globe. In particular, community livelihood, it isa decline necessary to plan across for thetheprevention, preparedness destinations dependent on the American market e.g. Caribbean islands, and mitigation of disasters at the destination. To some develop sustainable tourism and destinations where destinations are predominantly e.g.social Indonesia. and increase a community’sMuslim physical,populations economic and wellbeing, Where tourism generates more than 40% tourism of GDP developmental – small, low and middle to ideas have evolved through sustainable approaches income islandnot nations the Caribbean Pacific – the impact of cultural, September consider only in tourists, but moreand importantly physical, social has economic confirmedsustainability some developing exposure to their dependency 11th and of host countries’ communities and tourism resources. Similarly, on tourism. to diversify and integrate their economies protect disasters Strategies are no longer seen as extreme events created by naturaltoforces but as livelihoods fromproblems the adverse caused to tourismManagement by political and naturalhave unresolved of shocks development. Disaster practices even more risk disasters werefrom already called for priorrelief to September 11th and evolved largely top-down and response to are inter-sectoral imperative now. approaches. management Some commonalities in current approaches to tourism planning and disaster management are: Why are we thinking about the value of tourism enterprise interventions 1) they are more people-centered, to poverty reduction? 2) planning has become more inter-sectoral and The 3) present debate puts forward arguments and against tourism’s holistic development is their expectedfor outcome. Despite commonpotential elements in for pro-poor compared to otherbenefits, sectors: Disaster Management has not been their growth approaches and obvious 1. Its advantages its size, labour intensity,planning potentialand for development. cross-sector linkages, consciouslyareintegrated into tourism The global and potential in countries and marginal areas with few other competitive exports. call for sustainable development, and especially the sustainability of the world’s Tourism is consumed at the point of production, the customer to the largest industry, demands their integration.and However, there comes are institutional, product – i.e. destination, providing potential linkages to formal and informal capacity-building and management issues that need to be resolved before sector activities,integration often benefiting women working in petty trading (crafts, food). successful will be possible. Tourism depends on natural capital – e.g. wildlife, land, and culture – that are assets that aredestinations owned by theallpoor, who are gaining increasing over a Tourism overorthe globe face theancertainty ofcontrol experiencing land where and devolution of tenure are have occurring. disaster at decentralisation some time. Despite this, few destinations properly developed 2. Its disadvantages are thatplans the industry largelycope driven by foreign private sectorOne Disaster Management to helpisthem with such eventualities. interests and the economic benefits are not maximised due to a high level reason for this is the limited amount of systematic research carried out of in the foreignThis ownership. is an addressed industry that from highDisaster level of Management leakages field. problemIt was by suffers drawing ona the (imports) and few linkages imposes substantial non-economic costsdisaster on literature, combined with and a more specific examination of tourism the poor, inPresented terms of displacement, lost access resources, of andeffective culturalplanning and strategies. here are prerequisites andtoingredients social disruption. large-scale companies have a comparative towards producing The a framework forforeign analyzing and developing tourism Disaster advantage when it comes to market access. Small entrepreneurs are often Management strategies. excluded from international marketing because of cost and inadequate institutional support. The Importance of Tourism Industry in the Global Economy

accounting for one in every 12 jobs and transporting nearly 700 million international travellers per year. This last figure is expected to double by 2020. International tourism arrivals in developing countries have grown by an average of 9.5% per year since 1990, compared to 4.6% worldwide. The industry makes important contributions to developing country economies, representing the second largest source of foreign exchange after oil, although these countries currently have only a minority share of the international tourism market (approximately 30%). The aftershocks of the events of September 11th in the industry are impacting through a decline of tourists across the globe. In particular, destinations dependent on the American market e.g. some Caribbean islands, and where destinations are predominantly Muslim populations e.g. Indonesia. Where tourism generates more than 40% of GDP – small, low and middle income island nations in the Caribbean and Pacific – the impact of September 11th has confirmed some developing countries’ exposure to their dependency on tourism. Strategies to diversify and integrate their economies to protect livelihoods from the adverse shocks caused to tourism by political and natural disasters were already called for prior to September 11th and are even more imperative now.

th 2001,astravel wasgrowth the world’s ThosetoinSeptember favour of 11 tourism a tooland fortourism pro-poor point largest, out that$3.6 Prior 11%arise of global GDP, employing 200sectors. million For people, manytrillion, of its industry, negative generating characteristics in development of other

Those in favour of tourism as a tool for pro-poor growth point out that many of its negative characteristics arise in development of other sectors. For

Why are we thinking about the value of tourism enterprise interventions to poverty reduction? The present debate puts forward arguments for and against tourism’s potential for pro-poor growth compared to other sectors: 1. Its advantages are its size, labour intensity, potential for cross-sector linkages, and potential in countries and marginal areas with few other competitive exports. Tourism is consumed at the point of production, and the customer comes to the product – i.e. destination, providing potential linkages to formal and informal sector activities, often benefiting women working in petty trading (crafts, food). Tourism depends on natural capital – e.g. wildlife, land, and culture – that are assets that are owned by the poor, or who are gaining an increasing control over land where decentralisation and devolution of tenure are occurring. 2. Its disadvantages are that the industry is largely driven by foreign private sector interests and the economic benefits are not maximised due to a high level of foreign ownership. It is an industry that suffers from a high level of leakages (imports) and few linkages and imposes substantial non-economic costs on the poor, in terms of displacement, lost access to resources, and cultural and social disruption. The large-scale foreign companies have a comparative advantage when it comes to market access. Small entrepreneurs are often excluded from international marketing because of cost and inadequate institutional support.

320

320 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

Disaster Management

example, the level of leakages may be no higher than in other sectors, and ownership of resources and infrastructure is often difficult to disentangle, as there is often confusion between management companies for hotels, and actual local ownership. Similar confusion can occur for franchise arrangements – e.g. airlines, car rental and restaurants. These hotly debated factors largely depend on the type of tourism product under analysis. International Tourism Receipts 1995-2006 Year

World

Developing Countries

World Share (Percentage)

1995

105 320

28 994

27.5

2001

117 847

33 751

28.6

2005

433 935

129 757

29.9

2006

435 981

132 251

30.3

Source: World Tourism Organisation 2006.

Economic Impact The economic impact of tourism has been measured in terms of direct, indirect and induced effects using the quantitative tools of cost-benefit analysis, social cost-benefit analysis and the multiplier effect. 1. Direct effects arise out of currency inflows from foreign visitor expenditure in a host country, and outflows coming from expenditure abroad by residents. These are recorded by banks and businesses and can be measured. This will often include a tourism tax that is paid to either the local or national authorities, but not always reinvested in the local economy. This also includes those incomes that are directly affected by tourism and associated services. 2. Indirect effects arise as the direct expenditure is spent in other sectors of the economy. This is both what the tourist spends in other sectors while on holiday or business, and what those who are employed directly in tourism services, or associated services (transport, crafts) spend in other sectors. 3. Induced effects come from investment opportunities stimulated by tourism – e.g. land purchase for development, or industry linked to tourism e.g. sheepskin products in New Zealand and Australia. However, it is wrong to assume that there is a perfect correlation between the income generating effects of tourism and the creation of jobs. Aggregate figures can hide a variety of structural characteristics of tourism employment: the ratio of full to part-time employment; manual to skilled workers; female to male employees; ex-patriot to ethnic minority or indigenous workers. Disaster management plan for tourism sector in USA as an example: The Ministry of Tourism is in the process of developing a comprehensive disaster

320

example, strategy the level be According no higher to than in other sectors, and management foroftheleakages tourism may sector. Minister of Tourism of Transport, resources and disentangle, as and ownership International Noelinfrastructure Lynch, this is often being difficult done in tocollaboration is often Emergency confusion between management companies for hotels,Disaster and actual withthere the Central Relief Organisation and the Caribbean ownership. Similar confusion occur for franchise – e.g. and local Emergency Response Agency. His can comments came at the arrangements Inter-American airlines, rental andFacilities restaurants. These(ITRS) hotly Workshop debated factors depend Tourism and car Recreational Security at thelargely Amaryllis on Resort the typeyesterday of tourismmorning product hosted under analysis. Beach by the Inter-American Committee Against Terrorism (CICTE). He stated that in addition to developing an overall International Tourismthe Receipts framework for addressing various hazards, Ministry1995-2006 has been collaborating withYear the private sector and law enforcement community with regard to World Developing World Share Countries and the execution (Percentage) consequence management in the context of terrorism of a series of training initiatives targeting both public and private sector security 1995 105 320 28 994 27.5 officials. 2001 the context117 847 751 28.6manmade Within of multi-hazard disaster33 management, however, 2005 433 935 129 757 29.9 such as disasters such as terrorism and bio-terrorism and health related threats 2006 must also be 435borne 981 in mind by the 132 251 industry and 30.3measures epidemics tourism put in place to address such, to ensure the sustainability of the industry, Minister Source: World Tourism Organisation 2006. Lynch said. He maintained that the Government is committed to the creation and implementation of a sustainable tourism development programme that fosters Economic Impact a safe and secure environment for visitors and the host populations alike. Additionally, he said that the has been also established The economic impact of Ministry tourism has measured ina Tourism terms of Emergency direct, indirect Management Committee (TEMC) and a Tourism Emergency Operations Centre and induced effects using the quantitative tools of cost-benefit analysis, social (TEOC). The TEMC he said, plans and co-ordinates the tourism sectors response cost-benefit analysis and the multiplier effect. during emergencies, while the latter will mirror the operations of the National Emergency Operations and out willofbe a command centre which persons will in 1. Direct effects arise currency inflows fromfrom foreign visitor expenditure jointly co-ordinate the management disasters in expenditure the tourism abroad context.by residents. a host country, and outflowsofcoming from He also revealed that the Ministry has collaborated with the Royal Barbados These are recorded by banks and businesses and can be measured. This will Police Force and stakeholders in the industry to address the area of safety and often include a tourism tax that is paid to either the local or national authorities, security but codes of practice for all tourism establishments, and he said initial not always reinvested in the local economy. This also includes those incomes draft standards in the process beingand developed. that are are directly affected by of tourism associatedSpeaking services.to the ITRS workshop, he said that it provides the insight needed to ensure there are no 2. Indirect effects arise as the direct expenditure is spent inthat other sectors of the hiccups with respect to security during the Cricket World Cup (CWC) matches. economy. This is both what the tourist spends in other sectors while on holiday Throughorthe workshop, said, security personnel will be equipped to services, handle or business, and he what those who are employed directly in tourism security associated challenges services with renewed confidence and efficiency. However, he said (transport, crafts) spend in other sectors. that 3. the Induced course iseffects not just about security for CWC, but security for the region. come from investment opportunities stimulated by tourism – As such,e.g. he land said purchase that the Government of Barbados is linked committed to thee.g. decision for development, or industry to tourism sheepskin to implement the CARICOM visa, to ensure the highest level of security. products in New Zealand and Australia. Those initially objected to the visa let me say for the record, the visa was implemented not only protect the locals theseis countries to seriously However, it is to wrong to assume thatofthere a perfect but correlation between protect those visiting us as well coming from developed countries. In addition, the income generating effects of tourism and the creation of jobs. Aggregate he said that can in the case of Barbados there have been no significant increases in figures hide a variety of structural characteristics of tourism employment: cancellations because of the implementation of the visa and he said even if a to the ratio of full to part-time employment; manual to skilled workers; female loss male is recorded, it would be more than worth it, for the people of the region to employees; ex-patriot to ethnic minority or indigenous workers. remain safe. Disaster management plan for tourism sector in USA as an example: The Ministry of Tourism is in the process of developing a comprehensive disaster

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example, the level of leakages may be no higher than in other sectors, and ownership of resources and infrastructure is often difficult to disentangle, as there is often confusion between management companies for hotels, and actual local ownership. Similar confusion can occur for franchise arrangements – e.g. airlines, car rental and restaurants. These hotly debated factors largely depend on the type of tourism product under analysis. International Tourism Receipts 1995-2006 Year

World

Developing Countries

World Share (Percentage)

1995

105 320

28 994

27.5

2001

117 847

33 751

28.6

2005

433 935

129 757

29.9

2006

435 981

132 251

30.3

Source: World Tourism Organisation 2006.

Economic Impact The economic impact of tourism has been measured in terms of direct, indirect and induced effects using the quantitative tools of cost-benefit analysis, social cost-benefit analysis and the multiplier effect. 1. Direct effects arise out of currency inflows from foreign visitor expenditure in a host country, and outflows coming from expenditure abroad by residents. These are recorded by banks and businesses and can be measured. This will often include a tourism tax that is paid to either the local or national authorities, but not always reinvested in the local economy. This also includes those incomes that are directly affected by tourism and associated services. 2. Indirect effects arise as the direct expenditure is spent in other sectors of the economy. This is both what the tourist spends in other sectors while on holiday or business, and what those who are employed directly in tourism services, or associated services (transport, crafts) spend in other sectors. 3. Induced effects come from investment opportunities stimulated by tourism – e.g. land purchase for development, or industry linked to tourism e.g. sheepskin products in New Zealand and Australia. However, it is wrong to assume that there is a perfect correlation between the income generating effects of tourism and the creation of jobs. Aggregate figures can hide a variety of structural characteristics of tourism employment: the ratio of full to part-time employment; manual to skilled workers; female to male employees; ex-patriot to ethnic minority or indigenous workers. Disaster management plan for tourism sector in USA as an example: The Ministry of Tourism is in the process of developing a comprehensive disaster

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321

example, strategy the level be According no higher to than in other sectors, and management foroftheleakages tourism may sector. Minister of Tourism of Transport, resources and disentangle, as and ownership International Noelinfrastructure Lynch, this is often being difficult done in tocollaboration is often Emergency confusion between management companies for hotels,Disaster and actual withthere the Central Relief Organisation and the Caribbean ownership. Similar confusion occur for franchise – e.g. and local Emergency Response Agency. His can comments came at the arrangements Inter-American airlines, rental andFacilities restaurants. These(ITRS) hotly Workshop debated factors depend Tourism and car Recreational Security at thelargely Amaryllis on Resort the typeyesterday of tourismmorning product hosted under analysis. Beach by the Inter-American Committee Against Terrorism (CICTE). He stated that in addition to developing an overall International Tourismthe Receipts framework for addressing various hazards, Ministry1995-2006 has been collaborating withYear the private sector and law enforcement community with regard to World Developing World Share Countries and the execution (Percentage) consequence management in the context of terrorism of a series of training initiatives targeting both public and private sector security 1995 105 320 28 994 27.5 officials. 2001 the context117 847 751 28.6manmade Within of multi-hazard disaster33 management, however, 2005 433 935 129 757 29.9 such as disasters such as terrorism and bio-terrorism and health related threats 2006 must also be 435borne 981 in mind by the 132 251 industry and 30.3measures epidemics tourism put in place to address such, to ensure the sustainability of the industry, Minister Source: World Tourism Organisation 2006. Lynch said. He maintained that the Government is committed to the creation and implementation of a sustainable tourism development programme that fosters Economic Impact a safe and secure environment for visitors and the host populations alike. Additionally, he saidimpact that the has been also established The economic of Ministry tourism has measured ina Tourism terms of Emergency direct, indirect Management Committee (TEMC) and a Tourism Emergency Operations Centre and induced effects using the quantitative tools of cost-benefit analysis, social (TEOC). The TEMC he said, plans and co-ordinates the tourism sectors response cost-benefit analysis and the multiplier effect. during emergencies, while the latter will mirror the operations of the National Emergency Operations and out willofbe a command centre which persons will in 1. Direct effects arise currency inflows fromfrom foreign visitor expenditure jointly co-ordinate the management of disasters in the tourism context. a host country, and outflows coming from expenditure abroad by residents. He also revealed that thebyMinistry has businesses collaborated with Barbados These are recorded banks and and canthe be Royal measured. This will Police Force and stakeholders in the industry to address the area of safety and often include a tourism tax that is paid to either the local or national authorities, security but codes of practice for all tourism establishments, and he said initial not always reinvested in the local economy. This also includes those incomes draft standards in the process beingand developed. that are are directly affected by of tourism associatedSpeaking services.to the ITRS workshop, he said that it provides the insight needed to ensure there are no 2. Indirect effects arise as the direct expenditure is spent inthat other sectors of the hiccups with respect to security during the Cricket World Cup (CWC) matches. economy. This is both what the tourist spends in other sectors while on holiday Throughorthe workshop, said, security personnel will be equipped to services, handle or business, and he what those who are employed directly in tourism security associated challenges services with renewed confidence and efficiency. However, he said (transport, crafts) spend in other sectors. that 3. the Induced course iseffects not just about security for CWC, but security for thebyregion. come from investment opportunities stimulated tourism – As such,e.g. he land said purchase that the Government of Barbados is committed to thee.g. decision for development, or industry linked to tourism sheepskin to implement the inCARICOM visa,and toAustralia. ensure the highest level of security. products New Zealand Those initially objected to the visa let me say for the record, the visa was implemented not only protect the locals theseis countries to seriously However, it is to wrong to assume thatofthere a perfect but correlation between protect those visiting us as well coming from developed countries. In addition, the income generating effects of tourism and the creation of jobs. Aggregate he said that can in the case of Barbados there have been no significant increases in figures hide a variety of structural characteristics of tourism employment: cancellations because of the implementation of the visa and he said even if a to the ratio of full to part-time employment; manual to skilled workers; female loss male is recorded, it would be more than worth it, for the people of the region to employees; ex-patriot to ethnic minority or indigenous workers. remain safe. Disaster management plan for tourism sector in USA as an example: The Ministry of Tourism is in the process of developing a comprehensive disaster

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management foroftheleakages tourism may sector. Minister of Tourism example, strategy the level be According no higher to than in other sectors, and and ownership International Noelinfrastructure Lynch, this is often being difficult done in tocollaboration of Transport, resources and disentangle, as withthere the Central Relief Organisation and the Caribbean is often Emergency confusion between management companies for hotels,Disaster and actual and local Emergency Response Agency. His can comments came at the arrangements Inter-American ownership. Similar confusion occur for franchise – e.g. Tourism and car Recreational Security at thelargely Amaryllis airlines, rental andFacilities restaurants. These(ITRS) hotly Workshop debated factors depend Beach by the Inter-American Committee on Resort the typeyesterday of tourismmorning product hosted under analysis. Against Terrorism (CICTE). He stated that in addition to developing an overall International Tourismthe Receipts framework for addressing various hazards, Ministry1995-2006 has been collaborating withYear the private sector and law enforcement community with regard to World Developing World Share Countries and the execution (Percentage) consequence management in the context of terrorism of a series of training initiatives targeting both public and private sector security 1995 105 320 28 994 27.5 officials. 2001 the context117 847 751 28.6manmade Within of multi-hazard disaster33 management, however, 2005 433 935 129 757 29.9 such as disasters such as terrorism and bio-terrorism and health related threats 2006 must also be 435borne 981 in mind by the 132 251 industry and 30.3measures epidemics tourism put in place to address such, to ensure the sustainability of the industry, Minister Source: World Tourism Organisation 2006. Lynch said. He maintained that the Government is committed to the creation and implementation of a sustainable tourism development programme that fosters Economic Impact a safe and secure environment for visitors and the host populations alike. Additionally, he said that the has been also established The economic impact of Ministry tourism has measured ina Tourism terms of Emergency direct, indirect Management Committee (TEMC) and a Tourism Emergency Operations Centre and induced effects using the quantitative tools of cost-benefit analysis, social (TEOC). The TEMC he said, plans and co-ordinates the tourism sectors response cost-benefit analysis and the multiplier effect. during emergencies, while the latter will mirror the operations of the National Emergency Operations and out willofbe a command centre which persons will in 1. Direct effects arise currency inflows fromfrom foreign visitor expenditure jointly co-ordinate the management disasters in expenditure the tourism abroad context.by residents. a host country, and outflowsofcoming from He also revealed that the Ministry has collaborated with the Royal Barbados These are recorded by banks and businesses and can be measured. This will Police Force and stakeholders in the industry to address the area of safety and often include a tourism tax that is paid to either the local or national authorities, security but codes of practice for all tourism establishments, and he said initial not always reinvested in the local economy. This also includes those incomes draft standards in the process beingand developed. that are are directly affected by of tourism associatedSpeaking services.to the ITRS workshop, he said that it provides the insight needed to ensure there are no 2. Indirect effects arise as the direct expenditure is spent inthat other sectors of the hiccups with respect to security during the Cricket World Cup (CWC) matches. economy. This is both what the tourist spends in other sectors while on holiday Throughorthe workshop, said, security personnel will be equipped to services, handle or business, and he what those who are employed directly in tourism security associated challenges services with renewed confidence and efficiency. However, he said (transport, crafts) spend in other sectors. that 3. the Induced course iseffects not just about security for CWC, but security for the region. come from investment opportunities stimulated by tourism – As such,e.g. he land said purchase that the Government of Barbados is linked committed to thee.g. decision for development, or industry to tourism sheepskin to implement the CARICOM visa, to ensure the highest level of security. products in New Zealand and Australia. Those initially objected to the visa let me say for the record, the visa was implemented not only protect the locals theseis countries to seriously However, it is to wrong to assume thatofthere a perfect but correlation between protect those visiting us as well coming from developed countries. In addition, the income generating effects of tourism and the creation of jobs. Aggregate he said that can in the case of Barbados there have been no significant increases in figures hide a variety of structural characteristics of tourism employment: cancellations because of the implementation of the visa and he said even if a to the ratio of full to part-time employment; manual to skilled workers; female loss male is recorded, it would be more than worth it, for the people of the region to employees; ex-patriot to ethnic minority or indigenous workers. remain safe. Disaster management plan for tourism sector in USA as an example:

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

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management strategy for the tourism sector. According to Minister of Tourism and International Transport, Noel Lynch, this is being done in collaboration with the Central Emergency Relief Organisation and the Caribbean Disaster and Emergency Response Agency. His comments came at the Inter-American Tourism and Recreational Facilities Security (ITRS) Workshop at the Amaryllis Beach Resort yesterday morning hosted by the Inter-American Committee Against Terrorism (CICTE). He stated that in addition to developing an overall framework for addressing various hazards, the Ministry has been collaborating with the private sector and law enforcement community with regard to consequence management in the context of terrorism and the execution of a series of training initiatives targeting both public and private sector security officials. Within the context of multi-hazard disaster management, however, manmade disasters such as terrorism and bio-terrorism and health related threats such as epidemics must also be borne in mind by the tourism industry and measures put in place to address such, to ensure the sustainability of the industry, Minister Lynch said. He maintained that the Government is committed to the creation and implementation of a sustainable tourism development programme that fosters a safe and secure environment for visitors and the host populations alike. Additionally, he said that the Ministry has also established a Tourism Emergency Management Committee (TEMC) and a Tourism Emergency Operations Centre (TEOC). The TEMC he said, plans and co-ordinates the tourism sectors response during emergencies, while the latter will mirror the operations of the National Emergency Operations and will be a command centre from which persons will jointly co-ordinate the management of disasters in the tourism context. He also revealed that the Ministry has collaborated with the Royal Barbados Police Force and stakeholders in the industry to address the area of safety and security codes of practice for all tourism establishments, and he said initial draft standards are in the process of being developed. Speaking to the ITRS workshop, he said that it provides the insight needed to ensure that there are no hiccups with respect to security during the Cricket World Cup (CWC) matches. Through the workshop, he said, security personnel will be equipped to handle security challenges with renewed confidence and efficiency. However, he said that the course is not just about security for CWC, but security for the region. As such, he said that the Government of Barbados is committed to the decision to implement the CARICOM visa, to ensure the highest level of security. Those initially objected to the visa let me say for the record, the visa was implemented not only to protect the locals of these countries but to seriously protect those visiting us as well coming from developed countries. In addition, he said that in the case of Barbados there have been no significant increases in cancellations because of the implementation of the visa and he said even if a loss is recorded, it would be more than worth it, for the people of the region to remain safe.

The Ministry of Tourism is in the process of developing a comprehensive disaster

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management foroftheleakages tourism may sector. Minister of Tourism example, strategy the level be According no higher to than in other sectors, and and ownership International Noelinfrastructure Lynch, this is often being difficult done in tocollaboration of Transport, resources and disentangle, as withthere the Central Relief Organisation and the Caribbean is often Emergency confusion between management companies for hotels,Disaster and actual and local Emergency Response Agency. His can comments came at the arrangements Inter-American ownership. Similar confusion occur for franchise – e.g. Tourism and car Recreational Security at thelargely Amaryllis airlines, rental andFacilities restaurants. These(ITRS) hotly Workshop debated factors depend Beach by the Inter-American Committee on Resort the typeyesterday of tourismmorning product hosted under analysis. Against Terrorism (CICTE). He stated that in addition to developing an overall International Tourismthe Receipts framework for addressing various hazards, Ministry1995-2006 has been collaborating withYear the private sector and law enforcement community with regard to World Developing World Share Countries and the execution (Percentage) consequence management in the context of terrorism of a series of training initiatives targeting both public and private sector security 1995 105 320 28 994 27.5 officials. 2001 the context117 847 751 28.6manmade Within of multi-hazard disaster33 management, however, 2005 433 935 129 757 29.9 such as disasters such as terrorism and bio-terrorism and health related threats 2006 must also be 435borne 981 in mind by the 132 251 industry and 30.3measures epidemics tourism put in place to address such, to ensure the sustainability of the industry, Minister Source: World Tourism Organisation 2006. Lynch said. He maintained that the Government is committed to the creation and implementation of a sustainable tourism development programme that fosters Economic Impact a safe and secure environment for visitors and the host populations alike. Additionally, he saidimpact that the has been also established The economic of Ministry tourism has measured ina Tourism terms of Emergency direct, indirect Management Committee (TEMC) and a Tourism Emergency Operations Centre and induced effects using the quantitative tools of cost-benefit analysis, social (TEOC). The TEMC he said, plans and co-ordinates the tourism sectors response cost-benefit analysis and the multiplier effect. during emergencies, while the latter will mirror the operations of the National Emergency Operations and out willofbe a command centre which persons will in 1. Direct effects arise currency inflows fromfrom foreign visitor expenditure jointly co-ordinate the management of disasters in the tourism context. a host country, and outflows coming from expenditure abroad by residents. He also revealed that thebyMinistry has businesses collaborated with Barbados These are recorded banks and and canthe be Royal measured. This will Police Force and stakeholders in the industry to address the area of safety and often include a tourism tax that is paid to either the local or national authorities, security but codes of practice for all tourism establishments, and he said initial not always reinvested in the local economy. This also includes those incomes draft standards in the process beingand developed. that are are directly affected by of tourism associatedSpeaking services.to the ITRS workshop, he said that it provides the insight needed to ensure there are no 2. Indirect effects arise as the direct expenditure is spent inthat other sectors of the hiccups with respect to security during the Cricket World Cup (CWC) matches. economy. This is both what the tourist spends in other sectors while on holiday Throughorthe workshop, said, security personnel will be equipped to services, handle or business, and he what those who are employed directly in tourism security associated challenges services with renewed confidence and efficiency. However, he said (transport, crafts) spend in other sectors. that 3. the Induced course iseffects not just about security for CWC, but security for thebyregion. come from investment opportunities stimulated tourism – As such,e.g. he land said purchase that the Government of Barbados is committed to thee.g. decision for development, or industry linked to tourism sheepskin to implement the inCARICOM visa,and toAustralia. ensure the highest level of security. products New Zealand Those initially objected to the visa let me say for the record, the visa was implemented not only protect the locals theseis countries to seriously However, it is to wrong to assume thatofthere a perfect but correlation between protect those visiting us as well coming from developed countries. In addition, the income generating effects of tourism and the creation of jobs. Aggregate he said that can in the case of Barbados there have been no significant increases in figures hide a variety of structural characteristics of tourism employment: cancellations because of the implementation of the visa and he said even if a to the ratio of full to part-time employment; manual to skilled workers; female loss male is recorded, it would be more than worth it, for the people of the region to employees; ex-patriot to ethnic minority or indigenous workers. remain safe. Disaster management plan for tourism sector in USA as an example: The Ministry of Tourism is in the process of developing a comprehensive disaster

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

321

management strategy for the tourism sector. According to Minister of Tourism and International Transport, Noel Lynch, this is being done in collaboration with the Central Emergency Relief Organisation and the Caribbean Disaster and Emergency Response Agency. His comments came at the Inter-American Tourism and Recreational Facilities Security (ITRS) Workshop at the Amaryllis Beach Resort yesterday morning hosted by the Inter-American Committee Against Terrorism (CICTE). He stated that in addition to developing an overall framework for addressing various hazards, the Ministry has been collaborating with the private sector and law enforcement community with regard to consequence management in the context of terrorism and the execution of a series of training initiatives targeting both public and private sector security officials. Within the context of multi-hazard disaster management, however, manmade disasters such as terrorism and bio-terrorism and health related threats such as epidemics must also be borne in mind by the tourism industry and measures put in place to address such, to ensure the sustainability of the industry, Minister Lynch said. He maintained that the Government is committed to the creation and implementation of a sustainable tourism development programme that fosters a safe and secure environment for visitors and the host populations alike. Additionally, he said that the Ministry has also established a Tourism Emergency Management Committee (TEMC) and a Tourism Emergency Operations Centre (TEOC). The TEMC he said, plans and co-ordinates the tourism sectors response during emergencies, while the latter will mirror the operations of the National Emergency Operations and will be a command centre from which persons will jointly co-ordinate the management of disasters in the tourism context. He also revealed that the Ministry has collaborated with the Royal Barbados Police Force and stakeholders in the industry to address the area of safety and security codes of practice for all tourism establishments, and he said initial draft standards are in the process of being developed. Speaking to the ITRS workshop, he said that it provides the insight needed to ensure that there are no hiccups with respect to security during the Cricket World Cup (CWC) matches. Through the workshop, he said, security personnel will be equipped to handle security challenges with renewed confidence and efficiency. However, he said that the course is not just about security for CWC, but security for the region. As such, he said that the Government of Barbados is committed to the decision to implement the CARICOM visa, to ensure the highest level of security. Those initially objected to the visa let me say for the record, the visa was implemented not only to protect the locals of these countries but to seriously protect those visiting us as well coming from developed countries. In addition, he said that in the case of Barbados there have been no significant increases in cancellations because of the implementation of the visa and he said even if a loss is recorded, it would be more than worth it, for the people of the region to remain safe.

322

Disaster Management

Tourism and Disaster Management, Lakshadweep as an Example Surrounded by vast ocean islands of Lakshadweep are open to storms and cyclones. Natural Calamities like earthquake, flood, and drought have not occurred in Lakshadweep so far. One of the earliest natural calamities recorded was the great storm that struck the islands in April 1847. It commenced in Kalpeni about 8 pm. on 15th April, passed on to Andrott and finally reached Kiltan after devastating these two islands. All the houses in Kalpeni were damaged or washed away. Out of the population of 1682, 246 were drowned or washed away in Kalpeni. In 1891 a violent storm burst upon Kavaratti Island causing considerable damage to coconut trees. The storm caused damage in Agatti and Amindivi group of Islands also. Kalpeni Island was hit by a severe cyclone on 1st December 1922. The waves washed completely over the narrow northern end and the sea poured across the island into the lagoon. There was no loss of life. The cyclone was felt in other islands also. Another major storm that struck the islands occurred in 1941. In 1963 and 1965 also major calamity occurred causing considerable loss of properties in Andrott, Kalpeni, Agatti and Kiltan. There was no loss of life. The last cyclone occurred in 1977 in Kalpeni and Andrott without causing any loss of life. A large number of coconut trees were uprooted and some houses were also damaged. There is no international organisation/society/agency engaged in the field of natural disaster prevention and reduction in Lakshadweep. The revenue Department of Lakshadweep Administration is designated as the nodal department for the whole Union Territory. Early warning system: Cyclone warning to Lakshadweep is provided from the Area Cyclone Warning Centres at Chennai and Trivandrum. A monitoring Cell functions in the Collectorate at Head Quarter Island Kavaratti, which immediately transmits such messages to all islands. The TV network also plays vital role. Communication net work of BSNL, Naval detachment, Interstate Police Wireless, Lakshadweep Police Wireless, IR Battalion Wireless, NIC, etc. will be fully utilized for warning and for communication. All the Development Departments are associated under the Disaster Management Plan (including Public Works Department and Electricity Department, consisting of respective engineers, Port, Shipping & Transport Department, Telecommunication-BSNL, Panchayats etc.) The Administration is also exploring the possibility of setting up a Bharatiya Search and Rescue Team for the Union Territory consisting of Lakshadweep Police, India Reserve Battalion, Lakshadweep Fire Force, Marine Police Force (after its operational commencement). Medical Department, Tourism and Sports Department (for experts such as Divers etc.), Port, Shipping & Transport Department etc. On setting up of BHEEMA, necessary training will be imparted through various Institutes under Govt. of India/States, in the absence of such Institutions in Lakshadweep. There are no Training Institutions, Professionals and Health Professionals (other than CHS doctors MBBS doctors), Engineers/Planners and

322

Disaster Management

Tourism and Disaster Management, Lakshadweep as an Example Surrounded by vast ocean islands of Lakshadweep are open to storms and cyclones. Natural Calamities like earthquake, flood, and drought have not occurred in Lakshadweep so far. One of the earliest natural calamities recorded was the great storm that struck the islands in April 1847. It commenced in Kalpeni about 8 pm. on 15th April, passed on to Andrott and finally reached Kiltan after devastating these two islands. All the houses in Kalpeni were damaged or washed away. Out of the population of 1682, 246 were drowned or washed away in Kalpeni. In 1891 a violent storm burst upon Kavaratti Island causing considerable damage to coconut trees. The storm caused damage in Agatti and Amindivi group of Islands also. Kalpeni Island was hit by a severe cyclone on 1st December 1922. The waves washed completely over the narrow northern end and the sea poured across the island into the lagoon. There was no loss of life. The cyclone was felt in other islands also. Another major storm that struck the islands occurred in 1941. In 1963 and 1965 also major calamity occurred causing considerable loss of properties in Andrott, Kalpeni, Agatti and Kiltan. There was no loss of life. The last cyclone occurred in 1977 in Kalpeni and Andrott without causing any loss of life. A large number of coconut trees were uprooted and some houses were also damaged. There is no international organisation/society/agency engaged in the field of natural disaster prevention and reduction in Lakshadweep. The revenue Department of Lakshadweep Administration is designated as the nodal department for the whole Union Territory. Early warning system: Cyclone warning to Lakshadweep is provided from the Area Cyclone Warning Centres at Chennai and Trivandrum. A monitoring Cell functions in the Collectorate at Head Quarter Island Kavaratti, which immediately transmits such messages to all islands. The TV network also plays vital role. Communication net work of BSNL, Naval detachment, Interstate Police Wireless, Lakshadweep Police Wireless, IR Battalion Wireless, NIC, etc. will be fully utilized for warning and for communication. All the Development Departments are associated under the Disaster Management Plan (including Public Works Department and Electricity Department, consisting of respective engineers, Port, Shipping & Transport Department, Telecommunication-BSNL, Panchayats etc.) The Administration is also exploring the possibility of setting up a Bharatiya Search and Rescue Team for the Union Territory consisting of Lakshadweep Police, India Reserve Battalion, Lakshadweep Fire Force, Marine Police Force (after its operational commencement). Medical Department, Tourism and Sports Department (for experts such as Divers etc.), Port, Shipping & Transport Department etc. On setting up of BHEEMA, necessary training will be imparted through various Institutes under Govt. of India/States, in the absence of such Institutions in Lakshadweep. There are no Training Institutions, Professionals and Health Professionals (other than CHS doctors MBBS doctors), Engineers/Planners and

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TourismAgricultural and DisasterUniversities Management, as an Example Architects, etc.Lakshadweep in this Union Territory. Youth Organisations of minor nature only are available, and they are associated with Surrounded by vast ocean islands of Lakshadweep are open to storms and this. Educational Institutions up to +2 level only are available, and students, cyclones. Natural Calamities like earthquake, flood, and drought have not and NCC/NSS/Scouts/Guides in these institutions are also associated. The occurred in Lakshadweep so far. One of the earliest natural calamities recorded Educational Institutions affiliated with CBSE viz Navodaya Vidyalaya and one was the great storm that struck the islands in April 1847. It commenced in Senior Secondary School followsth CBSE Syllabus and the rest of schools in all Kalpeni about 8 pm. on 15 April, passed on to Andrott and finally reached the islands follow syllabus of Kerala Secondary Education/Senior Secondary Kiltan after devastating these two islands. All the houses in Kalpeni were Education. It is understood that CBSE has already initiated action to include damaged or washed away. Out of the population of 1682, 246 were drowned or basic disaster related material in text books. washed away in Kalpeni. In 1891 a violent storm burst upon Kavaratti Island The Administration has two all weather ships with a passenger capacity of causing considerable damage to coconut trees. The storm caused damage in about 1080 passengers. Apart from this there are three small fair weather ships Agatti and Amindivi group of Islands also. Kalpeni Island was hit by a severe and two inter island ferry vessels and mechanized boats. Besides there is a cyclone on 1st December 1922. The waves washed completely over the narrow helicopter with 10 passengers capacity which mainly used as an ambulance. northern end and the sea poured across the island into the lagoon. There was All these can be used for rescue work. Apart from the above vessels, assistance no loss of life. The cyclone was felt in other islands also. Another major storm of Naval ships can be requisitioned. that struck the islands occurred in 1941. In 1963 and 1965 also major calamity The Administration has constructed godowns for stocking essential occurred causing considerable loss of properties in Andrott, Kalpeni, Agatti commodities like rice, sugar kerosene oil etc. These are being supplied through and Kiltan. There was no loss of life. The last cyclone occurred in 1977 in the local cooperative Supply & Marketing Societies. Buffer stock of essential Kalpeni and Andrott without causing any loss of life. A large number of coconut commodities is stored in all the islands before the onset of monsoon (15th May) trees were uprooted and some houses were also damaged. to last up to the end of monsoon(15th September). There is no international organisation/society/agency engaged in the field Once an industry is oriented to tourists, service and hospitality, in that of natural disaster prevention and reduction in Lakshadweep. The revenue tourism must have prerequisites of effective tourism Disaster Management Department of Lakshadweep Administration is designated as the nodal planning in place which include: department for the whole Union Territory. Coordinated Team Approach: Given the range of private and public sector Early warning system: Cyclone warning to Lakshadweep is provided from organizations directly and indirectly involved in the delivery of services to the Area Cyclone Warning Centres at Chennai and Trivandrum. A monitoring tourists, the development and implementation of a tourism disaster strategy Cell functions in the Collectorate at Head Quarter Island Kavaratti, which requires a coordinated approach, with a designated management team established immediately transmits such messages to all islands. The TV network also plays to ensure that this happens. The team needs to work in conjunction with other vital role. Communication net work of BSNL, Naval detachment, Interstate Police public sector planning agencies and emergency service providers to ensure that Wireless, Lakshadweep Police Wireless, IR Battalion Wireless, NIC, etc. will the tourism industry’s action plan dovetails with those of other parties. be fully utilized for warning and for communication. Consultation: To achieve maximum cohesion, both within the tourism sector All the Development Departments are associated under the Disaster and between it and the community, disaster planning should be based on a Management Plan (including Public Works Department and Electricity consultative process that is integrated with other areas of strategic planning Department, consisting of respective engineers, Port, Shipping & Transport (e.g., tourism marketing strategies, urban planning and broader regional economic Department, Telecommunication-BSNL, Panchayats etc.) The Administration is plans). Apart from the bearing other plans might have on the exposure of the also exploring the possibility of setting up a Bharatiya Search and Rescue Team tourism sector to risk, and the measures that might be implemented in the for the Union Territory consisting of Lakshadweep Police, India Reserve response to a disaster, the individuals directly involved change over time and Battalion, Lakshadweep Fire Force, Marine Police Force (after its operational this effects the “chemistry” of the coordination process. commencement). Medical Department, Tourism and Sports Department (for Commitment: No matter how thoroughly and skillfully disaster management experts such as Divers etc.), Port, Shipping & Transport Department etc. On plans may be developed, and regardless of the level of consultation in the setting up of BHEEMA, necessary training will be imparted through various process, it will be of limited value if the parties involved are not committed to Institutes under Govt. of India/States, in the absence of such Institutions in it and all individuals who take action are not aware of it. As highlighted below, Lakshadweep. There are no Training Institutions, Professionals and Health the plan must therefore contain clearly articulated protocols regarding the Professionals (other than CHS doctors MBBS doctors), Engineers/Planners and activation of the strategy, and communication and education programmes, aimed

322 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

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TourismAgricultural and DisasterUniversities Management, as an Example Architects, etc.Lakshadweep in this Union Territory. Youth Organisations of minor nature only are available, and they are associated with Surrounded by vast ocean islands of Lakshadweep are open to storms and this. Educational Institutions up to +2 level only are available, and students, cyclones. Natural Calamities like earthquake, flood, and drought have not and NCC/NSS/Scouts/Guides in these institutions are also associated. The occurred in Lakshadweep so far. One of the earliest natural calamities recorded Educational Institutions affiliated with CBSE viz Navodaya Vidyalaya and one was the great storm that struck the islands in April 1847. It commenced in Senior Secondary School followsth CBSE Syllabus and the rest of schools in all Kalpeni about 8 pm. on 15 April, passed on to Andrott and finally reached the islands follow syllabus of Kerala Secondary Education/Senior Secondary Kiltan after devastating these two islands. All the houses in Kalpeni were Education. It is understood that CBSE has already initiated action to include damaged or washed away. Out of the population of 1682, 246 were drowned or basic disaster related material in text books. washed away in Kalpeni. In 1891 a violent storm burst upon Kavaratti Island The Administration has two all weather ships with a passenger capacity of causing considerable damage to coconut trees. The storm caused damage in about 1080 passengers. Apart from this there are three small fair weather ships Agatti and Amindivi group of Islands also. Kalpeni Island was hit by a severe and two inter island ferry vessels and mechanized boats. Besides there is a cyclone on 1st December 1922. The waves washed completely over the narrow helicopter with 10 passengers capacity which mainly used as an ambulance. northern end and the sea poured across the island into the lagoon. There was All these can be used for rescue work. Apart from the above vessels, assistance no loss of life. The cyclone was felt in other islands also. Another major storm of Naval ships can be requisitioned. that struck the islands occurred in 1941. In 1963 and 1965 also major calamity The Administration has constructed godowns for stocking essential occurred causing considerable loss of properties in Andrott, Kalpeni, Agatti commodities like rice, sugar kerosene oil etc. These are being supplied through and Kiltan. There was no loss of life. The last cyclone occurred in 1977 in the local cooperative Supply & Marketing Societies. Buffer stock of essential Kalpeni and Andrott without causing any loss of life. A large number of coconut commodities is stored in all the islands before the onset of monsoon (15th May) trees were uprooted and some houses were also damaged. to last up to the end of monsoon(15th September). There is no international organisation/society/agency engaged in the field Once an industry is oriented to tourists, service and hospitality, in that of natural disaster prevention and reduction in Lakshadweep. The revenue tourism must have prerequisites of effective tourism Disaster Management Department of Lakshadweep Administration is designated as the nodal planning in place which include: department for the whole Union Territory. Coordinated Team Approach: Given the range of private and public sector Early warning system: Cyclone warning to Lakshadweep is provided from organizations directly and indirectly involved in the delivery of services to the Area Cyclone Warning Centres at Chennai and Trivandrum. A monitoring tourists, the development and implementation of a tourism disaster strategy Cell functions in the Collectorate at Head Quarter Island Kavaratti, which requires a coordinated approach, with a designated management team established immediately transmits such messages to all islands. The TV network also plays to ensure that this happens. The team needs to work in conjunction with other vital role. Communication net work of BSNL, Naval detachment, Interstate Police public sector planning agencies and emergency service providers to ensure that Wireless, Lakshadweep Police Wireless, IR Battalion Wireless, NIC, etc. will the tourism industry’s action plan dovetails with those of other parties. be fully utilized for warning and for communication. Consultation: To achieve maximum cohesion, both within the tourism sector All the Development Departments are associated under the Disaster and between it and the community, disaster planning should be based on a Management Plan (including Public Works Department and Electricity consultative process that is integrated with other areas of strategic planning Department, consisting of respective engineers, Port, Shipping & Transport (e.g., tourism marketing strategies, urban planning and broader regional economic Department, Telecommunication-BSNL, Panchayats etc.) The Administration is plans). Apart from the bearing other plans might have on the exposure of the also exploring the possibility of setting up a Bharatiya Search and Rescue Team tourism sector to risk, and the measures that might be implemented in the for the Union Territory consisting of Lakshadweep Police, India Reserve response to a disaster, the individuals directly involved change over time and Battalion, Lakshadweep Fire Force, Marine Police Force (after its operational this effects the “chemistry” of the coordination process. commencement). Medical Department, Tourism and Sports Department (for Commitment: No matter how thoroughly and skillfully disaster management experts such as Divers etc.), Port, Shipping & Transport Department etc. On plans may be developed, and regardless of the level of consultation in the setting up of BHEEMA, necessary training will be imparted through various process, it will be of limited value if the parties involved are not committed to Institutes under Govt. of India/States, in the absence of such Institutions in it and all individuals who take action are not aware of it. As highlighted below, Lakshadweep. There are no Training Institutions, Professionals and Health the plan must therefore contain clearly articulated protocols regarding the Professionals (other than CHS doctors MBBS doctors), Engineers/Planners and activation of the strategy, and communication and education programmes, aimed

322 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

323

Architects, etc.Lakshadweep in this Union Territory. Youth TourismAgricultural and DisasterUniversities Management, as an Example Organisations of minor nature only are available, and they are associated with Surrounded by vast ocean islands of Lakshadweep are open to storms and this. Educational Institutions up to +2 level only are available, and students, cyclones. Natural Calamities like earthquake, flood, and drought have not and NCC/NSS/Scouts/Guides in these institutions are also associated. The occurred in Lakshadweep so far. One of the earliest natural calamities recorded Educational Institutions affiliated with CBSE viz Navodaya Vidyalaya and one was the great storm that struck the islands in April 1847. It commenced in Senior Secondary School followsth CBSE Syllabus and the rest of schools in all Kalpeni about 8 pm. on 15 April, passed on to Andrott and finally reached the islands follow syllabus of Kerala Secondary Education/Senior Secondary Kiltan after devastating these two islands. All the houses in Kalpeni were Education. It is understood that CBSE has already initiated action to include damaged or washed away. Out of the population of 1682, 246 were drowned or basic disaster related material in text books. washed away in Kalpeni. In 1891 a violent storm burst upon Kavaratti Island The Administration has two all weather ships with a passenger capacity of causing considerable damage to coconut trees. The storm caused damage in about 1080 passengers. Apart from this there are three small fair weather ships Agatti and Amindivi group of Islands also. Kalpeni Island was hit by a severe and two inter island ferry vessels and mechanized boats. Besides there is a cyclone on 1st December 1922. The waves washed completely over the narrow helicopter with 10 passengers capacity which mainly used as an ambulance. northern end and the sea poured across the island into the lagoon. There was All these can be used for rescue work. Apart from the above vessels, assistance no loss of life. The cyclone was felt in other islands also. Another major storm of Naval ships can be requisitioned. that struck the islands occurred in 1941. In 1963 and 1965 also major calamity The Administration has constructed godowns for stocking essential occurred causing considerable loss of properties in Andrott, Kalpeni, Agatti commodities like rice, sugar kerosene oil etc. These are being supplied through and Kiltan. There was no loss of life. The last cyclone occurred in 1977 in the local cooperative Supply & Marketing Societies. Buffer stock of essential Kalpeni and Andrott without causing any loss of life. A large number of coconut commodities is stored in all the islands before the onset of monsoon (15th May) trees were uprooted and some houses were also damaged. to last up to the end of monsoon(15th September). There is no international organisation/society/agency engaged in the field Once an industry is oriented to tourists, service and hospitality, in that of natural disaster prevention and reduction in Lakshadweep. The revenue tourism must have prerequisites of effective tourism Disaster Management Department of Lakshadweep Administration is designated as the nodal planning in place which include: department for the whole Union Territory. Coordinated Team Approach: Given the range of private and public sector Early warning system: Cyclone warning to Lakshadweep is provided from organizations directly and indirectly involved in the delivery of services to the Area Cyclone Warning Centres at Chennai and Trivandrum. A monitoring tourists, the development and implementation of a tourism disaster strategy Cell functions in the Collectorate at Head Quarter Island Kavaratti, which requires a coordinated approach, with a designated management team established immediately transmits such messages to all islands. The TV network also plays to ensure that this happens. The team needs to work in conjunction with other vital role. Communication net work of BSNL, Naval detachment, Interstate Police public sector planning agencies and emergency service providers to ensure that Wireless, Lakshadweep Police Wireless, IR Battalion Wireless, NIC, etc. will the tourism industry’s action plan dovetails with those of other parties. be fully utilized for warning and for communication. Consultation: To achieve maximum cohesion, both within the tourism sector All the Development Departments are associated under the Disaster and between it and the community, disaster planning should be based on a Management Plan (including Public Works Department and Electricity consultative process that is integrated with other areas of strategic planning Department, consisting of respective engineers, Port, Shipping & Transport (e.g., tourism marketing strategies, urban planning and broader regional economic Department, Telecommunication-BSNL, Panchayats etc.) The Administration is plans). Apart from the bearing other plans might have on the exposure of the also exploring the possibility of setting up a Bharatiya Search and Rescue Team tourism sector to risk, and the measures that might be implemented in the for the Union Territory consisting of Lakshadweep Police, India Reserve response to a disaster, the individuals directly involved change over time and Battalion, Lakshadweep Fire Force, Marine Police Force (after its operational this effects the “chemistry” of the coordination process. commencement). Medical Department, Tourism and Sports Department (for Commitment: No matter how thoroughly and skillfully disaster management experts such as Divers etc.), Port, Shipping & Transport Department etc. On plans may be developed, and regardless of the level of consultation in the setting up of BHEEMA, necessary training will be imparted through various process, it will be of limited value if the parties involved are not committed to Institutes under Govt. of India/States, in the absence of such Institutions in it and all individuals who take action are not aware of it. As highlighted below, Lakshadweep. There are no Training Institutions, Professionals and Health the plan must therefore contain clearly articulated protocols regarding the Professionals (other than CHS doctors MBBS doctors), Engineers/Planners and activation of the strategy, and communication and education programmes, aimed

322 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

323

Architects, etc.Lakshadweep in this Union Territory. Youth TourismAgricultural and DisasterUniversities Management, as an Example Organisations of minor nature only are available, and they are associated with Surrounded by vast ocean islands of Lakshadweep are open to storms and this. Educational Institutions up to +2 level only are available, and students, cyclones. Natural Calamities like earthquake, flood, and drought have not and NCC/NSS/Scouts/Guides in these institutions are also associated. The occurred in Lakshadweep so far. One of the earliest natural calamities recorded Educational Institutions affiliated with CBSE viz Navodaya Vidyalaya and one was the great storm that struck the islands in April 1847. It commenced in Senior Secondary School followsth CBSE Syllabus and the rest of schools in all Kalpeni about 8 pm. on 15 April, passed on to Andrott and finally reached the islands follow syllabus of Kerala Secondary Education/Senior Secondary Kiltan after devastating these two islands. All the houses in Kalpeni were Education. It is understood that CBSE has already initiated action to include damaged or washed away. Out of the population of 1682, 246 were drowned or basic disaster related material in text books. washed away in Kalpeni. In 1891 a violent storm burst upon Kavaratti Island The Administration has two all weather ships with a passenger capacity of causing considerable damage to coconut trees. The storm caused damage in about 1080 passengers. Apart from this there are three small fair weather ships Agatti and Amindivi group of Islands also. Kalpeni Island was hit by a severe and two inter island ferry vessels and mechanized boats. Besides there is a cyclone on 1st December 1922. The waves washed completely over the narrow helicopter with 10 passengers capacity which mainly used as an ambulance. northern end and the sea poured across the island into the lagoon. There was All these can be used for rescue work. Apart from the above vessels, assistance no loss of life. The cyclone was felt in other islands also. Another major storm of Naval ships can be requisitioned. that struck the islands occurred in 1941. In 1963 and 1965 also major calamity The Administration has constructed godowns for stocking essential occurred causing considerable loss of properties in Andrott, Kalpeni, Agatti commodities like rice, sugar kerosene oil etc. These are being supplied through and Kiltan. There was no loss of life. The last cyclone occurred in 1977 in the local cooperative Supply & Marketing Societies. Buffer stock of essential Kalpeni and Andrott without causing any loss of life. A large number of coconut commodities is stored in all the islands before the onset of monsoon (15th May) trees were uprooted and some houses were also damaged. to last up to the end of monsoon(15th September). There is no international organisation/society/agency engaged in the field Once an industry is oriented to tourists, service and hospitality, in that of natural disaster prevention and reduction in Lakshadweep. The revenue tourism must have prerequisites of effective tourism Disaster Management Department of Lakshadweep Administration is designated as the nodal planning in place which include: department for the whole Union Territory. Coordinated Team Approach: Given the range of private and public sector Early warning system: Cyclone warning to Lakshadweep is provided from organizations directly and indirectly involved in the delivery of services to the Area Cyclone Warning Centres at Chennai and Trivandrum. A monitoring tourists, the development and implementation of a tourism disaster strategy Cell functions in the Collectorate at Head Quarter Island Kavaratti, which requires a coordinated approach, with a designated management team established immediately transmits such messages to all islands. The TV network also plays to ensure that this happens. The team needs to work in conjunction with other vital role. Communication net work of BSNL, Naval detachment, Interstate Police public sector planning agencies and emergency service providers to ensure that Wireless, Lakshadweep Police Wireless, IR Battalion Wireless, NIC, etc. will the tourism industry’s action plan dovetails with those of other parties. be fully utilized for warning and for communication. Consultation: To achieve maximum cohesion, both within the tourism sector All the Development Departments are associated under the Disaster and between it and the community, disaster planning should be based on a Management Plan (including Public Works Department and Electricity consultative process that is integrated with other areas of strategic planning Department, consisting of respective engineers, Port, Shipping & Transport (e.g., tourism marketing strategies, urban planning and broader regional economic Department, Telecommunication-BSNL, Panchayats etc.) The Administration is plans). Apart from the bearing other plans might have on the exposure of the also exploring the possibility of setting up a Bharatiya Search and Rescue Team tourism sector to risk, and the measures that might be implemented in the for the Union Territory consisting of Lakshadweep Police, India Reserve response to a disaster, the individuals directly involved change over time and Battalion, Lakshadweep Fire Force, Marine Police Force (after its operational this effects the “chemistry” of the coordination process. commencement). Medical Department, Tourism and Sports Department (for Commitment: No matter how thoroughly and skillfully disaster management experts such as Divers etc.), Port, Shipping & Transport Department etc. On plans may be developed, and regardless of the level of consultation in the setting up of BHEEMA, necessary training will be imparted through various process, it will be of limited value if the parties involved are not committed to Institutes under Govt. of India/States, in the absence of such Institutions in it and all individuals who take action are not aware of it. As highlighted below, Lakshadweep. There are no Training Institutions, Professionals and Health the plan must therefore contain clearly articulated protocols regarding the Professionals (other than CHS doctors MBBS doctors), Engineers/Planners and activation of the strategy, and communication and education programmes, aimed

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

323

Architects, Agricultural Universities etc. in this Union Territory. Youth Organisations of minor nature only are available, and they are associated with this. Educational Institutions up to +2 level only are available, and students, and NCC/NSS/Scouts/Guides in these institutions are also associated. The Educational Institutions affiliated with CBSE viz Navodaya Vidyalaya and one Senior Secondary School follows CBSE Syllabus and the rest of schools in all the islands follow syllabus of Kerala Secondary Education/Senior Secondary Education. It is understood that CBSE has already initiated action to include basic disaster related material in text books. The Administration has two all weather ships with a passenger capacity of about 1080 passengers. Apart from this there are three small fair weather ships and two inter island ferry vessels and mechanized boats. Besides there is a helicopter with 10 passengers capacity which mainly used as an ambulance. All these can be used for rescue work. Apart from the above vessels, assistance of Naval ships can be requisitioned. The Administration has constructed godowns for stocking essential commodities like rice, sugar kerosene oil etc. These are being supplied through the local cooperative Supply & Marketing Societies. Buffer stock of essential commodities is stored in all the islands before the onset of monsoon (15th May) to last up to the end of monsoon(15th September). Once an industry is oriented to tourists, service and hospitality, in that tourism must have prerequisites of effective tourism Disaster Management planning in place which include: Coordinated Team Approach: Given the range of private and public sector organizations directly and indirectly involved in the delivery of services to tourists, the development and implementation of a tourism disaster strategy requires a coordinated approach, with a designated management team established to ensure that this happens. The team needs to work in conjunction with other public sector planning agencies and emergency service providers to ensure that the tourism industry’s action plan dovetails with those of other parties. Consultation: To achieve maximum cohesion, both within the tourism sector and between it and the community, disaster planning should be based on a consultative process that is integrated with other areas of strategic planning (e.g., tourism marketing strategies, urban planning and broader regional economic plans). Apart from the bearing other plans might have on the exposure of the tourism sector to risk, and the measures that might be implemented in the response to a disaster, the individuals directly involved change over time and this effects the “chemistry” of the coordination process. Commitment: No matter how thoroughly and skillfully disaster management plans may be developed, and regardless of the level of consultation in the process, it will be of limited value if the parties involved are not committed to it and all individuals who take action are not aware of it. As highlighted below, the plan must therefore contain clearly articulated protocols regarding the activation of the strategy, and communication and education programmes, aimed

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

323

Architects, Agricultural Universities etc. in this Union Territory. Youth Organisations of minor nature only are available, and they are associated with this. Educational Institutions up to +2 level only are available, and students, and NCC/NSS/Scouts/Guides in these institutions are also associated. The Educational Institutions affiliated with CBSE viz Navodaya Vidyalaya and one Senior Secondary School follows CBSE Syllabus and the rest of schools in all the islands follow syllabus of Kerala Secondary Education/Senior Secondary Education. It is understood that CBSE has already initiated action to include basic disaster related material in text books. The Administration has two all weather ships with a passenger capacity of about 1080 passengers. Apart from this there are three small fair weather ships and two inter island ferry vessels and mechanized boats. Besides there is a helicopter with 10 passengers capacity which mainly used as an ambulance. All these can be used for rescue work. Apart from the above vessels, assistance of Naval ships can be requisitioned. The Administration has constructed godowns for stocking essential commodities like rice, sugar kerosene oil etc. These are being supplied through the local cooperative Supply & Marketing Societies. Buffer stock of essential commodities is stored in all the islands before the onset of monsoon (15th May) to last up to the end of monsoon(15th September). Once an industry is oriented to tourists, service and hospitality, in that tourism must have prerequisites of effective tourism Disaster Management planning in place which include: Coordinated Team Approach: Given the range of private and public sector organizations directly and indirectly involved in the delivery of services to tourists, the development and implementation of a tourism disaster strategy requires a coordinated approach, with a designated management team established to ensure that this happens. The team needs to work in conjunction with other public sector planning agencies and emergency service providers to ensure that the tourism industry’s action plan dovetails with those of other parties. Consultation: To achieve maximum cohesion, both within the tourism sector and between it and the community, disaster planning should be based on a consultative process that is integrated with other areas of strategic planning (e.g., tourism marketing strategies, urban planning and broader regional economic plans). Apart from the bearing other plans might have on the exposure of the tourism sector to risk, and the measures that might be implemented in the response to a disaster, the individuals directly involved change over time and this effects the “chemistry” of the coordination process. Commitment: No matter how thoroughly and skillfully disaster management plans may be developed, and regardless of the level of consultation in the process, it will be of limited value if the parties involved are not committed to it and all individuals who take action are not aware of it. As highlighted below, the plan must therefore contain clearly articulated protocols regarding the activation of the strategy, and communication and education programmes, aimed

324

Disaster Management

at ensuring that everyone understands what is expected of them. Ingredients of the tourism Disaster Management planning process and its outcomes should include: Risk Assessment: An assessment of potential disaster situations and their relative occurrence probability is an essential first step. This should involve an historical analysis of natural disasters in the region, along with a scanning of the current and emerging environment and alternative scenarios. Prioritization: A cascaded strategic priority profile (CSPP) needs to be prepared, with a ranking of tasks and activities to be undertaken in response to high risk events identified in the previous step. This also involves the prioritization of actions and the articulation of these across organizations so that a coordinated response can be developed. It must be recognized that tourists are vulnerable in unfamiliar surroundings and their safety must be prioritized. Protocols: A clearly enunciated set of protocols to ensure that the activities of emergency agencies, tourism authorities and operators are properly coordinated, needs to be established and accepted by all parties. Community Capabilities Audit: An assessment of community capacity to cope with specific disasters needs to be carried out so that the appropriate level of emergency relief from external sources can be determined. This should involve an inventory of the relevant physical, financial and organizational resources of the community. Disaster Management Command Centre: A properly resourced Disaster Management command centre, as the focal point for the Disaster Management team’s operations, is essential. The location and procedures for setting up this facility must be specified in the plan. Media and Monitoring Activities: A media communication strategy, with an early establishment of a centralized source, is necessary to ensure that misleading and contradictory information is not disseminated, and to support response coordination. The media often plays a central role in tourism disaster situations, both in terms of providing important information to tourists during the emergency and in the recovery stage when other sectors of the industry and the consuming public need to be informed about the restoration of services. Systems for monitoring disaster impact, and providing reliable information on safety and the status of tourism services, are therefore needed. Warning Systems: Once a disaster strategy is in place, the conditions necessary to activate it must be specified, along with the types of hazard for which it is designed. Systems for communicating warnings are also important. Flexibility: Certain elements of disaster strategies are applicable to all types of emergencies. However, the exposure of some destinations to certain disasters is greater than others and these must be identified so that responses to specific impacts and requirements of high-risk events can be planned. Some flexibility is also important, as the sequence of necessary actions may vary between different types of emergency. Flexibility is also required because it may be necessary for some organizations to perform functions they do not normally carry out.

324

Disaster Management

at ensuring that everyone understands what is expected of them. Ingredients of the tourism Disaster Management planning process and its outcomes should include: Risk Assessment: An assessment of potential disaster situations and their relative occurrence probability is an essential first step. This should involve an historical analysis of natural disasters in the region, along with a scanning of the current and emerging environment and alternative scenarios. Prioritization: A cascaded strategic priority profile (CSPP) needs to be prepared, with a ranking of tasks and activities to be undertaken in response to high risk events identified in the previous step. This also involves the prioritization of actions and the articulation of these across organizations so that a coordinated response can be developed. It must be recognized that tourists are vulnerable in unfamiliar surroundings and their safety must be prioritized. Protocols: A clearly enunciated set of protocols to ensure that the activities of emergency agencies, tourism authorities and operators are properly coordinated, needs to be established and accepted by all parties. Community Capabilities Audit: An assessment of community capacity to cope with specific disasters needs to be carried out so that the appropriate level of emergency relief from external sources can be determined. This should involve an inventory of the relevant physical, financial and organizational resources of the community. Disaster Management Command Centre: A properly resourced Disaster Management command centre, as the focal point for the Disaster Management team’s operations, is essential. The location and procedures for setting up this facility must be specified in the plan. Media and Monitoring Activities: A media communication strategy, with an early establishment of a centralized source, is necessary to ensure that misleading and contradictory information is not disseminated, and to support response coordination. The media often plays a central role in tourism disaster situations, both in terms of providing important information to tourists during the emergency and in the recovery stage when other sectors of the industry and the consuming public need to be informed about the restoration of services. Systems for monitoring disaster impact, and providing reliable information on safety and the status of tourism services, are therefore needed. Warning Systems: Once a disaster strategy is in place, the conditions necessary to activate it must be specified, along with the types of hazard for which it is designed. Systems for communicating warnings are also important. Flexibility: Certain elements of disaster strategies are applicable to all types of emergencies. However, the exposure of some destinations to certain disasters is greater than others and these must be identified so that responses to specific impacts and requirements of high-risk events can be planned. Some flexibility is also important, as the sequence of necessary actions may vary between different types of emergency. Flexibility is also required because it may be necessary for some organizations to perform functions they do not normally carry out.

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at ensuring that everyoneand understands whateffectiveness is expected of disaster them. Ingredients Involvement, Education Review: The response of tourism Disaster planning process and its to outcomes should and the recovery plans will beManagement limited unless those who are required implement theminclude: are directly involved in their development. Organizations and communities Risk Assessment: of potential disaster situations and their need to be informed about An the assessment strategy, which should be periodically reviewed relative occurrence an essential first step. strategies This should involve an in light of reactions to probability it and new isdevelopments. Disaster therefore analysis of updated natural disasters in the alongnew withinformation a scanning of needhistorical to be continuously and refined to region, ensure that current andchanges emergingareenvironment and alternative scenarios. and the organizational taken into account. In particular, post-disaster Prioritization: cascaded strategic priority profile needs to be debriefings are importantA so that lessons can be learned from (CSPP) experience. prepared, with evacuate a rankingbefore of tasks to there be undertaken in response to When tourists or and afteractivities a disaster, are both behavioral high risk identified in thedocumented previous step. This also involves the similarities and events dissimilarities to patterns for residential populations. prioritization actions andprevailing the articulation of thesefor across For example, threatofdenial is the initial response both organizations populations. so that asources coordinated can behowever, developed. It must be often recognized that the tourists Warning differresponse significantly, with tourists reporting are of vulnerable in unfamiliar their safetyand must be prioritized. receipt threat information fromsurroundings lodging staff,and other tourists employees of Protocols: A clearly enunciated of protocols to ensure that thethreat activities nearby businesses and frequently thesesetsources neutralize emerging of emergency tourism authorities and operators are properly perceptions resultingagencies, in delay and argument. coordinated, be established and accepted by allvarious parties.sources of Many touristsneeds take to refuge in public shelters and report Community Capabilities Audit: An assessment of community capacity to dissatisfaction. Most frequently noted were: cope with specific disasters needs to be carried out so that the appropriate level 1) feared shelter was unsafe, of emergency with relieffacility from external sourcestoilets), can be determined. This should involve 2) inadequacies (e.g., blocked an inventory of the relevant physical, financial and organizational resources of 3) excessive crowding, the community. 4) staff-related social factors (e.g., poor management), Management Command Centre: A properly resourced Disaster 5) foodDisaster inadequacies, command as the children), focal point for the Disaster Management 6) Management peer-related social factorscentre, (e.g., unruly operations, not is essential. 7) team’s threat information available,The and location and procedures for setting up this must be(e.g., specified the Conversely, plan. 8) facility shelter location hard toin find). many described their satisfaction and Monitoring media communication strategy, with withMedia their shelter experience inActivities: terms thatAparalleled these same themes. an early establishment of a centralized source, is necessary to ensure that misleading and contradictory information is not to support There is a substantial gap in the expectations of disseminated, customers andand managers response coordination. The mediaFor often plays aconsider central role tourism disaster regarding emergency preparedness. example, this inquestionnaire terms relations of providing important information to tourists during item:situations, “Despite both someinpublic efforts, I suspect that managers of most the emergency in the recovery stage when other sectors of the industry and business firms haveand little or no commitment to disaster evacuation planning.” consuming public need to be informed the of restoration of services. Mostthemanagers disagreed (63 percent) whereas about one-half the tourists and Systems for monitoring business travellers agreed. disaster impact, and providing reliable information on safety and the status preparedness of tourism services, needed. Inadequate disaster resultsare in therefore higher levels of employee Warning Systems: a disaster is in place, conditions dissatisfaction. Acute tensionsOnce between work andstrategy family priorities werethe described necessaryofto the activate it must be interviewed. specified, along with the types of hazard by one-third 406 employees Three-fourths, however, said for it ismanagers designed.should Systems formore communicating warnings are alsotensions important. that which business give consideration to potential Certaininelements of disasterplans. strategies are applicable to alltotypes between Flexibility: work and family their evacuation Of special importance emergencies. However, the exposure of somethedestinations certain disasters thirtyofpercent was that they were not paid during evacuationtotime. Failure is greater than others identified so that to responses to specific to provide leadership on and thesethese and must otherbeissues contributed judgments of impacts andwhich requirements high-risk events can be planned. Some flexibility is dissatisfaction lingered of long after recovery. also important, as the sequence of necessary actions may vary between different types of emergency. Flexibility is also required because it may be necessary for some organizations to perform functions they do not normally carry out.

324 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

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at ensuring that everyoneand understands whateffectiveness is expected of disaster them. Ingredients Involvement, Education Review: The response of tourism Disaster planning process and its to outcomes should and the recovery plans will beManagement limited unless those who are required implement theminclude: are directly involved in their development. Organizations and communities Risk Assessment: of potential disaster situations and their need to be informed about An the assessment strategy, which should be periodically reviewed relative occurrence an essential first step. strategies This should involve an in light of reactions to probability it and new isdevelopments. Disaster therefore analysis of updated natural disasters in the alongnew withinformation a scanning of needhistorical to be continuously and refined to region, ensure that current andchanges emergingareenvironment and alternative scenarios. and the organizational taken into account. In particular, post-disaster Prioritization: cascaded strategic priority profile needs to be debriefings are importantA so that lessons can be learned from (CSPP) experience. prepared, with evacuate a rankingbefore of tasks to there be undertaken in response to When tourists or and afteractivities a disaster, are both behavioral high risk identified in thedocumented previous step. This also involves the similarities and events dissimilarities to patterns for residential populations. prioritization actions andprevailing the articulation of thesefor across For example, threatofdenial is the initial response both organizations populations. so that asources coordinated can behowever, developed. It must be often recognized that the tourists Warning differresponse significantly, with tourists reporting are of vulnerable in unfamiliar their safetyand must be prioritized. receipt threat information fromsurroundings lodging staff,and other tourists employees of Protocols: A clearly enunciated of protocols to ensure that thethreat activities nearby businesses and frequently thesesetsources neutralize emerging of emergency tourism authorities and operators are properly perceptions resultingagencies, in delay and argument. coordinated, be established and accepted by allvarious parties.sources of Many touristsneeds take to refuge in public shelters and report Community Capabilities Audit: An assessment of community capacity to dissatisfaction. Most frequently noted were: cope with specific disasters needs to be carried out so that the appropriate level 1) feared shelter was unsafe, of emergency with relieffacility from external sourcestoilets), can be determined. This should involve 2) inadequacies (e.g., blocked an inventory of the relevant physical, financial and organizational resources of 3) excessive crowding, the community. 4) staff-related social factors (e.g., poor management), Management Command Centre: A properly resourced Disaster 5) foodDisaster inadequacies, command as the children), focal point for the Disaster Management 6) Management peer-related social factorscentre, (e.g., unruly operations, not is essential. 7) team’s threat information available,The and location and procedures for setting up this must be(e.g., specified the Conversely, plan. 8) facility shelter location hard toin find). many described their satisfaction and Monitoring media communication strategy, with withMedia their shelter experience inActivities: terms thatAparalleled these same themes. an early establishment of a centralized source, is necessary to ensure that misleading and contradictory information is not to support There is a substantial gap in the expectations of disseminated, customers andand managers response coordination. The mediaFor often plays aconsider central role tourism disaster regarding emergency preparedness. example, this inquestionnaire terms relations of providing important information to tourists during item:situations, “Despite both someinpublic efforts, I suspect that managers of most the emergency in the recovery stage when other sectors of the industry and business firms haveand little or no commitment to disaster evacuation planning.” consuming public need to be informed the of restoration of services. Mostthemanagers disagreed (63 percent) whereas about one-half the tourists and Systems for monitoring business travellers agreed. disaster impact, and providing reliable information on safety and the status preparedness of tourism services, needed. Inadequate disaster resultsare in therefore higher levels of employee Warning Systems: a disaster is in place, conditions dissatisfaction. Acute tensionsOnce between work andstrategy family priorities werethe described necessaryofto the activate it must be interviewed. specified, along with the types of hazard by one-third 406 employees Three-fourths, however, said for it ismanagers designed.should Systems formore communicating warnings are alsotensions important. that which business give consideration to potential Certaininelements of disasterplans. strategies are applicable to alltotypes between Flexibility: work and family their evacuation Of special importance emergencies. However, the exposure of somethedestinations certain disasters thirtyofpercent was that they were not paid during evacuationtotime. Failure is greater than others identified so that to responses to specific to provide leadership on and thesethese and must otherbeissues contributed judgments of impacts andwhich requirements high-risk events can be planned. Some flexibility is dissatisfaction lingered of long after recovery. also important, as the sequence of necessary actions may vary between different types of emergency. Flexibility is also required because it may be necessary for some organizations to perform functions they do not normally carry out.

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Involvement, Education Review: The response of at ensuring that everyoneand understands whateffectiveness is expected of disaster them. Ingredients and the recovery plans will beManagement limited unless those who are required implement tourism Disaster planning process and its to outcomes should theminclude: are directly involved in their development. Organizations and communities need to be informed about An the assessment strategy, which should be periodically reviewed Risk Assessment: of potential disaster situations and their in light of reactions to probability it and new isdevelopments. Disaster therefore relative occurrence an essential first step. strategies This should involve an needhistorical to be continuously and refined to region, ensure that analysis of updated natural disasters in the alongnew withinformation a scanning of and the organizational taken into account. In particular, post-disaster current andchanges emergingareenvironment and alternative scenarios. debriefings are importantA so that lessons can be learned from (CSPP) experience. Prioritization: cascaded strategic priority profile needs to be When tourists or and afteractivities a disaster, are both behavioral prepared, with evacuate a rankingbefore of tasks to there be undertaken in response to similarities and events dissimilarities to patterns for residential populations. high risk identified in thedocumented previous step. This also involves the For example, threatofdenial is the initial response both organizations populations. so prioritization actions andprevailing the articulation of thesefor across Warning differresponse significantly, with tourists reporting that asources coordinated can behowever, developed. It must be often recognized that the tourists receipt threat information fromsurroundings lodging staff,and other tourists employees of are of vulnerable in unfamiliar their safetyand must be prioritized. nearby businesses and frequently thesesetsources neutralize emerging Protocols: A clearly enunciated of protocols to ensure that thethreat activities perceptions resultingagencies, in delay and argument. of emergency tourism authorities and operators are properly Many touristsneeds take to refuge in public shelters and report coordinated, be established and accepted by allvarious parties.sources of dissatisfaction. Most frequently noted were: Community Capabilities Audit: An assessment of community capacity to 1) cope fearedwith shelter was unsafe, specific disasters needs to be carried out so that the appropriate level 2) of inadequacies (e.g., blocked emergency with relieffacility from external sourcestoilets), can be determined. This should involve 3) an excessive crowding, inventory of the relevant physical, financial and organizational resources of 4) the staff-related social factors (e.g., poor management), community. 5) foodDisaster inadequacies, Management Command Centre: A properly resourced Disaster 6) Management peer-related social factorscentre, (e.g., unruly command as the children), focal point for the Disaster Management 7) team’s threat information available,The and location and procedures for setting up this operations, not is essential. 8) facility shelter location hard toin find). many described their satisfaction must be(e.g., specified the Conversely, plan. withMedia their shelter experience inActivities: terms thatAparalleled these same themes. and Monitoring media communication strategy, with an early establishment of a centralized source, is necessary to ensure that There is a substantial gap in the expectations of disseminated, customers andand managers misleading and contradictory information is not to support regarding emergency preparedness. example, this inquestionnaire response coordination. The mediaFor often plays aconsider central role tourism disaster item:situations, “Despite both someinpublic efforts, I suspect that managers of most terms relations of providing important information to tourists during business firms haveand little or no commitment to disaster evacuation planning.” the emergency in the recovery stage when other sectors of the industry and Mostthemanagers disagreed (63 percent) whereas about one-half the tourists and consuming public need to be informed the of restoration of services. business travellers agreed. disaster impact, and providing reliable information on Systems for monitoring Inadequate disaster resultsare in therefore higher levels of employee safety and the status preparedness of tourism services, needed. dissatisfaction. Acute tensionsOnce between work andstrategy family priorities werethe described Warning Systems: a disaster is in place, conditions by one-third 406 employees Three-fourths, however, said for necessaryofto the activate it must be interviewed. specified, along with the types of hazard that which business give consideration to potential it ismanagers designed.should Systems formore communicating warnings are alsotensions important. between Flexibility: work and family their evacuation Of special importance Certaininelements of disasterplans. strategies are applicable to alltotypes thirtyofpercent was that they were not paid during evacuationtotime. Failure emergencies. However, the exposure of somethedestinations certain disasters to provide leadership on and thesethese and must otherbeissues contributed judgments of is greater than others identified so that to responses to specific dissatisfaction lingered of long after recovery. impacts andwhich requirements high-risk events can be planned. Some flexibility is also important, as the sequence of necessary actions may vary between different types of emergency. Flexibility is also required because it may be necessary for some organizations to perform functions they do not normally carry out.

324 Disaster Management Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

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Involvement, Education Review: The response of at ensuring that everyoneand understands whateffectiveness is expected of disaster them. Ingredients and the recovery plans will beManagement limited unless those who are required implement tourism Disaster planning process and its to outcomes should theminclude: are directly involved in their development. Organizations and communities need to be informed about An the assessment strategy, which should be periodically reviewed Risk Assessment: of potential disaster situations and their in light of reactions to probability it and new isdevelopments. Disaster therefore relative occurrence an essential first step. strategies This should involve an needhistorical to be continuously and refined to region, ensure that analysis of updated natural disasters in the alongnew withinformation a scanning of and the organizational taken into account. In particular, post-disaster current andchanges emergingareenvironment and alternative scenarios. debriefings are importantA so that lessons can be learned from (CSPP) experience. Prioritization: cascaded strategic priority profile needs to be When tourists or and afteractivities a disaster, are both behavioral prepared, with evacuate a rankingbefore of tasks to there be undertaken in response to similarities and events dissimilarities to patterns for residential populations. high risk identified in thedocumented previous step. This also involves the For example, threatofdenial is the initial response both organizations populations. so prioritization actions andprevailing the articulation of thesefor across Warning differresponse significantly, with tourists reporting that asources coordinated can behowever, developed. It must be often recognized that the tourists receipt threat information fromsurroundings lodging staff,and other tourists employees of are of vulnerable in unfamiliar their safetyand must be prioritized. nearby businesses and frequently thesesetsources neutralize emerging Protocols: A clearly enunciated of protocols to ensure that thethreat activities perceptions resultingagencies, in delay and argument. of emergency tourism authorities and operators are properly Many touristsneeds take to refuge in public shelters and report coordinated, be established and accepted by allvarious parties.sources of dissatisfaction. Most frequently noted were: Community Capabilities Audit: An assessment of community capacity to 1) cope fearedwith shelter was unsafe, specific disasters needs to be carried out so that the appropriate level 2) of inadequacies (e.g., blocked emergency with relieffacility from external sourcestoilets), can be determined. This should involve 3) an excessive crowding, inventory of the relevant physical, financial and organizational resources of 4) the staff-related social factors (e.g., poor management), community. 5) foodDisaster inadequacies, Management Command Centre: A properly resourced Disaster 6) Management peer-related social factorscentre, (e.g., unruly command as the children), focal point for the Disaster Management 7) team’s threat information available,The and location and procedures for setting up this operations, not is essential. 8) facility shelter location hard toin find). many described their satisfaction must be(e.g., specified the Conversely, plan. withMedia their shelter experience inActivities: terms thatAparalleled these same themes. and Monitoring media communication strategy, with an early establishment of a centralized source, is necessary to ensure that There is a substantial gap in the expectations of disseminated, customers andand managers misleading and contradictory information is not to support regarding emergency preparedness. example, this inquestionnaire response coordination. The mediaFor often plays aconsider central role tourism disaster item:situations, “Despite both someinpublic efforts, I suspect that managers of most terms relations of providing important information to tourists during business firms haveand little or no commitment to disaster evacuation planning.” the emergency in the recovery stage when other sectors of the industry and Mostthemanagers disagreed (63 percent) whereas about one-half the tourists and consuming public need to be informed the of restoration of services. business travellers agreed. disaster impact, and providing reliable information on Systems for monitoring Inadequate disaster resultsare in therefore higher levels of employee safety and the status preparedness of tourism services, needed. dissatisfaction. Acute tensionsOnce between work andstrategy family priorities werethe described Warning Systems: a disaster is in place, conditions by one-third 406 employees Three-fourths, however, said for necessaryofto the activate it must be interviewed. specified, along with the types of hazard that which business give consideration to potential it ismanagers designed.should Systems formore communicating warnings are alsotensions important. between Flexibility: work and family their evacuation Of special importance Certaininelements of disasterplans. strategies are applicable to alltotypes thirtyofpercent was that they were not paid during evacuationtotime. Failure emergencies. However, the exposure of somethedestinations certain disasters to provide leadership on and thesethese and must otherbeissues contributed judgments of is greater than others identified so that to responses to specific dissatisfaction lingered of long after recovery. impacts andwhich requirements high-risk events can be planned. Some flexibility is also important, as the sequence of necessary actions may vary between different types of emergency. Flexibility is also required because it may be necessary for some organizations to perform functions they do not normally carry out.

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

325

Involvement, Education and Review: The effectiveness of disaster response and recovery plans will be limited unless those who are required to implement them are directly involved in their development. Organizations and communities need to be informed about the strategy, which should be periodically reviewed in light of reactions to it and new developments. Disaster strategies therefore need to be continuously updated and refined to ensure that new information and organizational changes are taken into account. In particular, post-disaster debriefings are important so that lessons can be learned from experience. When tourists evacuate before or after a disaster, there are both behavioral similarities and dissimilarities to patterns documented for residential populations. For example, threat denial is the prevailing initial response for both populations. Warning sources differ significantly, however, with tourists often reporting the receipt of threat information from lodging staff, other tourists and employees of nearby businesses and frequently these sources neutralize emerging threat perceptions resulting in delay and argument. Many tourists take refuge in public shelters and report various sources of dissatisfaction. Most frequently noted were: 1) feared shelter was unsafe, 2) inadequacies with facility (e.g., blocked toilets), 3) excessive crowding, 4) staff-related social factors (e.g., poor management), 5) food inadequacies, 6) peer-related social factors (e.g., unruly children), 7) threat information not available, and 8) shelter location (e.g., hard to find). Conversely, many described their satisfaction with their shelter experience in terms that paralleled these same themes. There is a substantial gap in the expectations of customers and managers regarding emergency preparedness. For example, consider this questionnaire item: “Despite some public relations efforts, I suspect that managers of most business firms have little or no commitment to disaster evacuation planning.” Most managers disagreed (63 percent) whereas one-half of the tourists and business travellers agreed. Inadequate disaster preparedness results in higher levels of employee dissatisfaction. Acute tensions between work and family priorities were described by one-third of the 406 employees interviewed. Three-fourths, however, said that business managers should give more consideration to potential tensions between work and family in their evacuation plans. Of special importance to thirty percent was that they were not paid during the evacuation time. Failure to provide leadership on these and other issues contributed to judgments of dissatisfaction which lingered long after recovery.

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

325

Involvement, Education and Review: The effectiveness of disaster response and recovery plans will be limited unless those who are required to implement them are directly involved in their development. Organizations and communities need to be informed about the strategy, which should be periodically reviewed in light of reactions to it and new developments. Disaster strategies therefore need to be continuously updated and refined to ensure that new information and organizational changes are taken into account. In particular, post-disaster debriefings are important so that lessons can be learned from experience. When tourists evacuate before or after a disaster, there are both behavioral similarities and dissimilarities to patterns documented for residential populations. For example, threat denial is the prevailing initial response for both populations. Warning sources differ significantly, however, with tourists often reporting the receipt of threat information from lodging staff, other tourists and employees of nearby businesses and frequently these sources neutralize emerging threat perceptions resulting in delay and argument. Many tourists take refuge in public shelters and report various sources of dissatisfaction. Most frequently noted were: 1) feared shelter was unsafe, 2) inadequacies with facility (e.g., blocked toilets), 3) excessive crowding, 4) staff-related social factors (e.g., poor management), 5) food inadequacies, 6) peer-related social factors (e.g., unruly children), 7) threat information not available, and 8) shelter location (e.g., hard to find). Conversely, many described their satisfaction with their shelter experience in terms that paralleled these same themes. There is a substantial gap in the expectations of customers and managers regarding emergency preparedness. For example, consider this questionnaire item: “Despite some public relations efforts, I suspect that managers of most business firms have little or no commitment to disaster evacuation planning.” Most managers disagreed (63 percent) whereas one-half of the tourists and business travellers agreed. Inadequate disaster preparedness results in higher levels of employee dissatisfaction. Acute tensions between work and family priorities were described by one-third of the 406 employees interviewed. Three-fourths, however, said that business managers should give more consideration to potential tensions between work and family in their evacuation plans. Of special importance to thirty percent was that they were not paid during the evacuation time. Failure to provide leadership on these and other issues contributed to judgments of dissatisfaction which lingered long after recovery.

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Disaster Management

Recommendations Customer Perspectives. Tourist business managers should: 1) be proactive with warnings, 2) keep customers informed with updates, 3) have a disaster plan, 4) have a hazard brochure and disaster evacuation plans in the room, 5) be available so that guests know who’s in charge, 6) train staff, 7) be prepared to help guests find emergency shelter, 8) recognize that tourists are not familiar with either the area or the threat, and 9) be prepared to provide food and other emergency supplies. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Employee Perspectives. Tourist business managers should: communicate better, close sooner, provide employee assistance when needed, do more preparedness, have more staff to implement protective actions, establish return procedures, and provide pay for employee time-off during disaster-induced evacuations.

CONCLUSION The catastrophic vulnerability represented by the tourism industry requires a significant new investment in disaster preparedness and training. It should be available within existing university-based management curricula and through specialized seminars for those already in the workforce. The scope of tourism Industry in India very high and the local community can play an important role in managing any disasters by tourism activities and through sustainable approach we can make a healthy environment. REFERENCES Boo, E. 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. I. WWF, Washington DC., USA. Butler, R. W. (1991) Tourism, environment, and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18: 201-209. Butynski, T. M. & Kalina, J. (1998) Gorilla tourism: A critical look. In: Conservation of Biological Resources, E.J. Milner-Gulland & R. Mace, eds. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 280-300. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism around the World and Guidelines for its Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Drabek, T E 1994 Disaster Evacuation and the Tourist Industry, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E 1996 Disaster Evacuation Behavior: Tourists and Other Transients, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder.

326

Disaster Management

Recommendations Customer Perspectives. Tourist business managers should: 1) be proactive with warnings, 2) keep customers informed with updates, 3) have a disaster plan, 4) have a hazard brochure and disaster evacuation plans in the room, 5) be available so that guests know who’s in charge, 6) train staff, 7) be prepared to help guests find emergency shelter, 8) recognize that tourists are not familiar with either the area or the threat, and 9) be prepared to provide food and other emergency supplies. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Employee Perspectives. Tourist business managers should: communicate better, close sooner, provide employee assistance when needed, do more preparedness, have more staff to implement protective actions, establish return procedures, and provide pay for employee time-off during disaster-induced evacuations.

CONCLUSION The catastrophic vulnerability represented by the tourism industry requires a significant new investment in disaster preparedness and training. It should be available within existing university-based management curricula and through specialized seminars for those already in the workforce. The scope of tourism Industry in India very high and the local community can play an important role in managing any disasters by tourism activities and through sustainable approach we can make a healthy environment. REFERENCES Boo, E. 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. I. WWF, Washington DC., USA. Butler, R. W. (1991) Tourism, environment, and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18: 201-209. Butynski, T. M. & Kalina, J. (1998) Gorilla tourism: A critical look. In: Conservation of Biological Resources, E.J. Milner-Gulland & R. Mace, eds. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 280-300. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism around the World and Guidelines for its Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Drabek, T E 1994 Disaster Evacuation and the Tourist Industry, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E 1996 Disaster Evacuation Behavior: Tourists and Other Transients, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder.

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Drabek, T E 1999 Disaster-Induced Employee Evacuation, Institute of Behavioral Science, Recommendations University of Colorado Boulder. Customer business managers should:and Application for Drabek, T E andPerspectives. Gee, C Y 2000Tourist Emergency Management Principles 1) be proactive withand warnings, Tourism, Hospitality Travel Management. Emmitsburg, Maryland: FEMA’s 2) keep customers Emergency Institute. informed with updates, 3) D.have a disaster plan, Duffus, (1993) Tsitika to Baram: The myth of sustainability. Conservation Biology 7: 440-442. 4) have a hazard brochure and disaster evacuation plans in the room, Ellenberg, Beier, B.so & that Scholz, M. (1997) Ökotourismus: Reisen zwischen Ökonomie 5) beL.,available guests know who’s in charge, und 6) Ökologie. train staff,Heidelberg (Spektrum). Evans, S. (2000). Ecotourism in tropical rainforests: an environmental management option 7) be prepared to help guests find emergency shelter, for threatened resources? In: X. Font and J. Tribe (eds.), Forest tourism and 8) recognize that tourists are not familiar with either the area or the threat, and recreation: Case studies in environmental management. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: 9) beInternational. prepared to provide food and other emergency supplies. CAB Litchfield, C. (2001). Responsible tourism with great apes in Uganda. In: S. F. McCool Employee Tourist business managers should: and R. N. MoiseyPerspectives. (eds.), Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability. Wallingford, Oxon, 1) communicate better, UK: CAB International. McNeilage A. (1996) 2) close sooner,Ecotourism and mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes. In: Taylor, V. J. Dunstone, N. (eds.)when The Exploitation 3) provide & employee assistance needed, of Mammal Populations, S. 334-344. London, Chapman & Hall. 4) do more preparedness, Moulton, M. P.more & Sanderson, J. (1996) Wildlife Issues in a Changing World. St Lucie 5) have staff to implement protective actions, Press, Delray Beach, Florida, USA. 6) establish return procedures, and Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996) Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of 7) provide pay for employee time-off during disaster-induced evacuations. Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Procedures. IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Sandbrook, C. & Sempke, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla CONCLUSION beringei beringei tracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433. Sholley, C. R. (1991) Conserving gorillas in the midst guerillas. Annual Conference The catastrophic vulnerability represented byofthe tourism industry requires a Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, pp. 30-37. significant new investment in disaster preparedness and training. It should be Stewart, K. J. (1992) Gorilla tourism: Problems of control. Gorilla Conservation News available within existing university-based management curricula and through 6: 15-16. specialized seminars those already in Zaire. the workforce. The scopeNews of tourism Stewart, K. J. (1993) Gorillafortourism: A reply to Gorilla Conservation 7: Industry in India very high and the local community can play an important 12-13. roleJ.in& managing disasters by tourism activities and through sustainable Wallis, Lee, D. R.any (1999) Primate conservation: the prevention of disease approach weInternational can make Journal a healthy environment. transmission. of Primatology 20, 803-826. Weber, W. (1993) Primate conservation and ecotourism in Africa. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (ed. REFERENCES C. S. Potter, J. I. Cohen & D. Janczewski), S. 129-150. AAAS Press, Washington Boo, 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. I. WWF, Washington DC., D. C.,E.USA. Wilkie, D.USA. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas Butler, R. W. (1991) in the Congo Basin?Tourism, Oryx 33:environment, (4): 332-338.and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18: 201-209. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) The potential role of safari hunting as a source Butynski, M.protected & Kalina,areas J. (1998) A critical look.339-345. In: Conservation of of revenueT.for in theGorilla Congotourism: Basin. Oryx 33: (4): Biological Resources, E.J. Milner-Gulland & R. Mace, eds. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 280-300. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism around the World and Guidelines for its Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Drabek, T E 1994 Disaster Evacuation and the Tourist Industry, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E 1996 Disaster Evacuation Behavior: Tourists and Other Transients, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder.

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Drabek, T E 1999 Disaster-Induced Employee Evacuation, Institute of Behavioral Science, Recommendations University of Colorado Boulder. Customer business managers should:and Application for Drabek, T E andPerspectives. Gee, C Y 2000Tourist Emergency Management Principles 1) be proactive withand warnings, Tourism, Hospitality Travel Management. Emmitsburg, Maryland: FEMA’s 2) keep customers Emergency Institute. informed with updates, 3) D.have a disaster plan, Duffus, (1993) Tsitika to Baram: The myth of sustainability. Conservation Biology 7: 440-442. 4) have a hazard brochure and disaster evacuation plans in the room, Ellenberg, Beier, B.so & that Scholz, M. (1997) Ökotourismus: Reisen zwischen Ökonomie 5) beL.,available guests know who’s in charge, und 6) Ökologie. train staff,Heidelberg (Spektrum). Evans, S. (2000). Ecotourism in tropical rainforests: an environmental management option 7) be prepared to help guests find emergency shelter, for threatened resources? In: X. Font and J. Tribe (eds.), Forest tourism and 8) recognize that tourists are not familiar with either the area or the threat, and recreation: Case studies in environmental management. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: 9) beInternational. prepared to provide food and other emergency supplies. CAB Litchfield, C. (2001). Responsible tourism with great apes in Uganda. In: S. F. McCool Employee Tourist business managers should: and R. N. MoiseyPerspectives. (eds.), Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability. Wallingford, Oxon, 1) communicate better, UK: CAB International. McNeilage A. (1996) 2) close sooner,Ecotourism and mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes. In: Taylor, V. J. & Dunstone, N. (eds.)when The Exploitation 3) provide employee assistance needed, of Mammal Populations, S. 334-344. London, Chapman & Hall. 4) do more preparedness, Moulton, M. P.more & Sanderson, J. (1996) Wildlife Issues in a Changing World. St Lucie 5) have staff to implement protective actions, Press, Delray Beach, Florida, USA. 6) establish return procedures, and Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996) Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of 7) provide pay for employee time-off during disaster-induced evacuations. Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Procedures. IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Sandbrook, C. & Sempke, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla CONCLUSION beringei beringei tracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433. Sholley, C. R. (1991) Conserving gorillas in the midst guerillas. Annual Conference The catastrophic vulnerability represented byofthe tourism industry requires a Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, pp. 30-37. significant new investment in disaster preparedness and training. It should be Stewart, K. J. (1992) Gorilla tourism: Problems of control. Gorilla Conservation News available within existing university-based management curricula and through 6: 15-16. specialized seminars those already in Zaire. the workforce. The scopeNews of tourism Stewart, K. J. (1993) Gorillafortourism: A reply to Gorilla Conservation 7: Industry in India very high and the local community can play an important 12-13. roleJ.in& managing disasters by tourism activities and through sustainable Wallis, Lee, D. R.any (1999) Primate conservation: the prevention of disease approach weInternational can make Journal a healthy environment. transmission. of Primatology 20, 803-826. Weber, W. (1993) Primate conservation and ecotourism in Africa. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (ed. REFERENCES C. S. Potter, J. I. Cohen & D. Janczewski), S. 129-150. AAAS Press, Washington Boo, 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. I. WWF, Washington DC., D. C.,E.USA. USA. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas Butler, R. W. (1991) in the Congo Basin?Tourism, Oryx 33:environment, (4): 332-338.and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18: 201-209. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) The potential role of safari hunting as a source Butynski, M.protected & Kalina,areas J. (1998) A critical look.339-345. In: Conservation of of revenueT.for in theGorilla Congotourism: Basin. Oryx 33: (4): Biological Resources, E.J. Milner-Gulland & R. Mace, eds. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 280-300. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism around the World and Guidelines for its Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Drabek, T E 1994 Disaster Evacuation and the Tourist Industry, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E 1996 Disaster Evacuation Behavior: Tourists and Other Transients, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder.

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Drabek, T E 1999 Disaster-Induced Employee Evacuation, Institute of Behavioral Science, Recommendations University of Colorado Boulder. Customer business managers should:and Application for Drabek, T E andPerspectives. Gee, C Y 2000Tourist Emergency Management Principles 1) be proactive withand warnings, Tourism, Hospitality Travel Management. Emmitsburg, Maryland: FEMA’s 2) keep customers Emergency Institute. informed with updates, 3) D.have a disaster plan, Duffus, (1993) Tsitika to Baram: The myth of sustainability. Conservation Biology 7: 440-442. 4) have a hazard brochure and disaster evacuation plans in the room, Ellenberg, Beier, B.so & that Scholz, M. (1997) Ökotourismus: Reisen zwischen Ökonomie 5) beL.,available guests know who’s in charge, und 6) Ökologie. train staff,Heidelberg (Spektrum). Evans, S. (2000). Ecotourism in tropical rainforests: an environmental management option 7) be prepared to help guests find emergency shelter, for threatened resources? In: X. Font and J. Tribe (eds.), Forest tourism and 8) recognize that tourists are not familiar with either the area or the threat, and recreation: Case studies in environmental management. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: 9) beInternational. prepared to provide food and other emergency supplies. CAB Litchfield, C. (2001). Responsible tourism with great apes in Uganda. In: S. F. McCool Employee Tourist business managers should: and R. N. MoiseyPerspectives. (eds.), Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability. Wallingford, Oxon, 1) communicate better, UK: CAB International. McNeilage A. (1996) 2) close sooner,Ecotourism and mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes. In: Taylor, V. J. Dunstone, N. (eds.)when The Exploitation 3) provide & employee assistance needed, of Mammal Populations, S. 334-344. London, Chapman & Hall. 4) do more preparedness, Moulton, M. P.more & Sanderson, J. (1996) Wildlife Issues in a Changing World. St Lucie 5) have staff to implement protective actions, Press, Delray Beach, Florida, USA. 6) establish return procedures, and Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996) Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of 7) provide pay for employee time-off during disaster-induced evacuations. Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Procedures. IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Sandbrook, C. & Sempke, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla CONCLUSION beringei beringei tracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433. Sholley, C. R. (1991) Conserving gorillas in the midst guerillas. Annual Conference The catastrophic vulnerability represented byofthe tourism industry requires a Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, pp. 30-37. significant new investment in disaster preparedness and training. It should be Stewart, K. J. (1992) Gorilla tourism: Problems of control. Gorilla Conservation News available within existing university-based management curricula and through 6: 15-16. specialized seminars those already in Zaire. the workforce. The scopeNews of tourism Stewart, K. J. (1993) Gorillafortourism: A reply to Gorilla Conservation 7: Industry in India very high and the local community can play an important 12-13. roleJ.in& managing disasters by tourism activities and through sustainable Wallis, Lee, D. R.any (1999) Primate conservation: the prevention of disease approach weInternational can make Journal a healthy environment. transmission. of Primatology 20, 803-826. Weber, W. (1993) Primate conservation and ecotourism in Africa. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (ed. REFERENCES C. S. Potter, J. I. Cohen & D. Janczewski), S. 129-150. AAAS Press, Washington Boo, 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. I. WWF, Washington DC., D. C.,E.USA. Wilkie, D.USA. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas Butler, R. W. (1991) in the Congo Basin?Tourism, Oryx 33:environment, (4): 332-338.and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18: 201-209. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) The potential role of safari hunting as a source Butynski, M.protected & Kalina,areas J. (1998) A critical look.339-345. In: Conservation of of revenueT.for in theGorilla Congotourism: Basin. Oryx 33: (4): Biological Resources, E.J. Milner-Gulland & R. Mace, eds. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 280-300. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism around the World and Guidelines for its Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Drabek, T E 1994 Disaster Evacuation and the Tourist Industry, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E 1996 Disaster Evacuation Behavior: Tourists and Other Transients, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder.

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Drabek, T E 1999 Disaster-Induced Employee Evacuation, Institute of Behavioral Science, Recommendations University of Colorado Boulder. Customer business managers should:and Application for Drabek, T E andPerspectives. Gee, C Y 2000Tourist Emergency Management Principles 1) be proactive withand warnings, Tourism, Hospitality Travel Management. Emmitsburg, Maryland: FEMA’s 2) keep customers Emergency Institute. informed with updates, 3) D.have a disaster plan, Duffus, (1993) Tsitika to Baram: The myth of sustainability. Conservation Biology 7: 440-442. 4) have a hazard brochure and disaster evacuation plans in the room, Ellenberg, Beier, B.so & that Scholz, M. (1997) Ökotourismus: Reisen zwischen Ökonomie 5) beL.,available guests know who’s in charge, und 6) Ökologie. train staff,Heidelberg (Spektrum). Evans, S. (2000). Ecotourism in tropical rainforests: an environmental management option 7) be prepared to help guests find emergency shelter, for threatened resources? In: X. Font and J. Tribe (eds.), Forest tourism and 8) recognize that tourists are not familiar with either the area or the threat, and recreation: Case studies in environmental management. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: 9) beInternational. prepared to provide food and other emergency supplies. CAB Litchfield, C. (2001). Responsible tourism with great apes in Uganda. In: S. F. McCool Employee Tourist business managers should: and R. N. MoiseyPerspectives. (eds.), Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability. Wallingford, Oxon, 1) communicate better, UK: CAB International. McNeilage A. (1996) 2) close sooner,Ecotourism and mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes. In: Taylor, V. J. & Dunstone, N. (eds.)when The Exploitation 3) provide employee assistance needed, of Mammal Populations, S. 334-344. London, Chapman & Hall. 4) do more preparedness, Moulton, M. P.more & Sanderson, J. (1996) Wildlife Issues in a Changing World. St Lucie 5) have staff to implement protective actions, Press, Delray Beach, Florida, USA. 6) establish return procedures, and Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996) Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of 7) provide pay for employee time-off during disaster-induced evacuations. Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Procedures. IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Sandbrook, C. & Sempke, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla CONCLUSION beringei beringei tracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433. Sholley, C. R. (1991) Conserving gorillas in the midst guerillas. Annual Conference The catastrophic vulnerability represented byofthe tourism industry requires a Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, pp. 30-37. significant new investment in disaster preparedness and training. It should be Stewart, K. J. (1992) Gorilla tourism: Problems of control. Gorilla Conservation News available within existing university-based management curricula and through 6: 15-16. specialized seminars those already in Zaire. the workforce. The scopeNews of tourism Stewart, K. J. (1993) Gorillafortourism: A reply to Gorilla Conservation 7: Industry in India very high and the local community can play an important 12-13. roleJ.in& managing disasters by tourism activities and through sustainable Wallis, Lee, D. R.any (1999) Primate conservation: the prevention of disease approach weInternational can make Journal a healthy environment. transmission. of Primatology 20, 803-826. Weber, W. (1993) Primate conservation and ecotourism in Africa. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (ed. REFERENCES C. S. Potter, J. I. Cohen & D. Janczewski), S. 129-150. AAAS Press, Washington Boo, 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. I. WWF, Washington DC., D. C.,E.USA. USA. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas Butler, R. W. (1991) in the Congo Basin?Tourism, Oryx 33:environment, (4): 332-338.and sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 18: 201-209. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) The potential role of safari hunting as a source Butynski, M.protected & Kalina,areas J. (1998) A critical look.339-345. In: Conservation of of revenueT.for in theGorilla Congotourism: Basin. Oryx 33: (4): Biological Resources, E.J. Milner-Gulland & R. Mace, eds. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 280-300. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism around the World and Guidelines for its Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Drabek, T E 1994 Disaster Evacuation and the Tourist Industry, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E 1996 Disaster Evacuation Behavior: Tourists and Other Transients, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder.

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Drabek, T E 1999 Disaster-Induced Employee Evacuation, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E and Gee, C Y 2000 Emergency Management Principles and Application for Tourism, Hospitality and Travel Management. Emmitsburg, Maryland: FEMA’s Emergency Institute. Duffus, D. (1993) Tsitika to Baram: The myth of sustainability. Conservation Biology 7: 440-442. Ellenberg, L., Beier, B. & Scholz, M. (1997) Ökotourismus: Reisen zwischen Ökonomie und Ökologie. Heidelberg (Spektrum). Evans, S. (2000). Ecotourism in tropical rainforests: an environmental management option for threatened resources? In: X. Font and J. Tribe (eds.), Forest tourism and recreation: Case studies in environmental management. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB International. Litchfield, C. (2001). Responsible tourism with great apes in Uganda. In: S. F. McCool and R. N. Moisey (eds.), Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB International. McNeilage A. (1996) Ecotourism and mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes. In: Taylor, V. J. & Dunstone, N. (eds.) The Exploitation of Mammal Populations, S. 334-344. London, Chapman & Hall. Moulton, M. P. & Sanderson, J. (1996) Wildlife Issues in a Changing World. St Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida, USA. Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996) Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Procedures. IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Sandbrook, C. & Sempke, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei tracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433. Sholley, C. R. (1991) Conserving gorillas in the midst of guerillas. Annual Conference Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, pp. 30-37. Stewart, K. J. (1992) Gorilla tourism: Problems of control. Gorilla Conservation News 6: 15-16. Stewart, K. J. (1993) Gorilla tourism: A reply to Zaire. Gorilla Conservation News 7: 12-13. Wallis, J. & Lee, D. R. (1999) Primate conservation: the prevention of disease transmission. International Journal of Primatology 20, 803-826. Weber, W. (1993) Primate conservation and ecotourism in Africa. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (ed. C. S. Potter, J. I. Cohen & D. Janczewski), S. 129-150. AAAS Press, Washington D. C., USA. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas in the Congo Basin? Oryx 33: (4): 332-338. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) The potential role of safari hunting as a source of revenue for protected areas in the Congo Basin. Oryx 33: (4): 339-345.

Role of Tourism Business Firms in Disaster Management Strategies

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Drabek, T E 1999 Disaster-Induced Employee Evacuation, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder. Drabek, T E and Gee, C Y 2000 Emergency Management Principles and Application for Tourism, Hospitality and Travel Management. Emmitsburg, Maryland: FEMA’s Emergency Institute. Duffus, D. (1993) Tsitika to Baram: The myth of sustainability. Conservation Biology 7: 440-442. Ellenberg, L., Beier, B. & Scholz, M. (1997) Ökotourismus: Reisen zwischen Ökonomie und Ökologie. Heidelberg (Spektrum). Evans, S. (2000). Ecotourism in tropical rainforests: an environmental management option for threatened resources? In: X. Font and J. Tribe (eds.), Forest tourism and recreation: Case studies in environmental management. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB International. Litchfield, C. (2001). Responsible tourism with great apes in Uganda. In: S. F. McCool and R. N. Moisey (eds.), Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB International. McNeilage A. (1996) Ecotourism and mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes. In: Taylor, V. J. & Dunstone, N. (eds.) The Exploitation of Mammal Populations, S. 334-344. London, Chapman & Hall. Moulton, M. P. & Sanderson, J. (1996) Wildlife Issues in a Changing World. St Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida, USA. Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996) Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Procedures. IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Sandbrook, C. & Sempke, S. (2006) The rules and the reality of mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei tracking: how close do tourists get? Oryx 40, 428-433. Sholley, C. R. (1991) Conserving gorillas in the midst of guerillas. Annual Conference Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, pp. 30-37. Stewart, K. J. (1992) Gorilla tourism: Problems of control. Gorilla Conservation News 6: 15-16. Stewart, K. J. (1993) Gorilla tourism: A reply to Zaire. Gorilla Conservation News 7: 12-13. Wallis, J. & Lee, D. R. (1999) Primate conservation: the prevention of disease transmission. International Journal of Primatology 20, 803-826. Weber, W. (1993) Primate conservation and ecotourism in Africa. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (ed. C. S. Potter, J. I. Cohen & D. Janczewski), S. 129-150. AAAS Press, Washington D. C., USA. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas in the Congo Basin? Oryx 33: (4): 332-338. Wilkie, D. S. & Carpenter, J. F. (1999) The potential role of safari hunting as a source of revenue for protected areas in the Congo Basin. Oryx 33: (4): 339-345.

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Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G1 and S. Chidambaram2 1 School of Environmental Sciences, JNU 2 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION Tsunami is a wave of high energy, which is generated by an earthquake or landslide in the sea. The Tsunami wavelengths and their periods depend on the generating mechanism and the magnitude of the source event. The period of the tsunami waves may range from 5 to 90 minutes. The length of the wave crests of a tsunami can be more than thousand km and the waves may be from a few kilometers to more than a hundred kilometers apart as they travel across the ocean. The speed of tsunami waves increases with the depth of the sea and may exceed 800 km/hr. The areas within 1.6 km of the shoreline and about 15 m above the sea level face the greatest risk during a tsunami. Seawater can intrude over land filling wells and ponds, and percolate into the subsurface. Conditions can get worse if seawater penetrates the aquifer. It may take years or decades for the seasonal rainfall to wash the soil/aquifer/rocks clean, or much longer. In some cases, a river channel can provide a passage for a tsunami bore to rush through, allowing it to flood tremendous tracts of land far inside from the shoreline. This paper examines the adverse consequences of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the groundwater resources of the Indian coast and proposes a remediation framework for similar emergency situations. The specific interest within the objective of this study has been also to carry out an assessment of hydrogeological characteristics and risk to coastal aquifers in the districts of Tamilnadu in southeastern India. The 26-12-2004 Tsunami On December 26, 2004, an earthquake of 9.3 magnitudes on the Richter scale

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Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones Senthil Kumar G1 and S. Chidambaram2 1 School of Environmental Sciences, JNU 2 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION Tsunami is a wave of high energy, which is generated by an earthquake or landslide in the sea. The Tsunami wavelengths and their periods depend on the generating mechanism and the magnitude of the source event. The period of the tsunami waves may range from 5 to 90 minutes. The length of the wave crests of a tsunami can be more than thousand km and the waves may be from a few kilometers to more than a hundred kilometers apart as they travel across the ocean. The speed of tsunami waves increases with the depth of the sea and may exceed 800 km/hr. The areas within 1.6 km of the shoreline and about 15 m above the sea level face the greatest risk during a tsunami. Seawater can intrude over land filling wells and ponds, and percolate into the subsurface. Conditions can get worse if seawater penetrates the aquifer. It may take years or decades for the seasonal rainfall to wash the soil/aquifer/rocks clean, or much longer. In some cases, a river channel can provide a passage for a tsunami bore to rush through, allowing it to flood tremendous tracts of land far inside from the shoreline. This paper examines the adverse consequences of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the groundwater resources of the Indian coast and proposes a remediation framework for similar emergency situations. The specific interest within the objective of this study has been also to carry out an assessment of hydrogeological characteristics and risk to coastal aquifers in the districts of Tamilnadu in southeastern India. The 26-12-2004 Tsunami On December 26, 2004, an earthquake of 9.3 magnitudes on the Richter scale

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

329

23

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

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23

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Senthil Kumar G1 and S. Chidambaram2 1 School of Environmental Sciences, JNU 2 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Tamilnadu

Senthil Kumar G1 and S. Chidambaram2 1 School of Environmental Sciences, JNU 2 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Tsunami is a wave of high energy, which is generated by an earthquake or landslide in the sea. The Tsunami wavelengths and their periods depend on the generating mechanism and the magnitude of the source event. The period of the tsunami waves may range from 5 to 90 minutes. The length of the wave crests of a tsunami can be more than thousand km and the waves may be from a few kilometers to more than a hundred kilometers apart as they travel across the ocean. The speed of tsunami waves increases with the depth of the sea and may exceed 800 km/hr. The areas within 1.6 km of the shoreline and about 15 m above the sea level face the greatest risk during a tsunami. Seawater can intrude over land filling wells and ponds, and percolate into the subsurface. Conditions can get worse if seawater penetrates the aquifer. It may take years or decades for the seasonal rainfall to wash the soil/aquifer/rocks clean, or much longer. In some cases, a river channel can provide a passage for a tsunami bore to rush through, allowing it to flood tremendous tracts of land far inside from the shoreline. This paper examines the adverse consequences of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the groundwater resources of the Indian coast and proposes a remediation framework for similar emergency situations. The specific interest within the objective of this study has been also to carry out an assessment of hydrogeological characteristics and risk to coastal aquifers in the districts of Tamilnadu in southeastern India.

Tsunami is a wave of high energy, which is generated by an earthquake or landslide in the sea. The Tsunami wavelengths and their periods depend on the generating mechanism and the magnitude of the source event. The period of the tsunami waves may range from 5 to 90 minutes. The length of the wave crests of a tsunami can be more than thousand km and the waves may be from a few kilometers to more than a hundred kilometers apart as they travel across the ocean. The speed of tsunami waves increases with the depth of the sea and may exceed 800 km/hr. The areas within 1.6 km of the shoreline and about 15 m above the sea level face the greatest risk during a tsunami. Seawater can intrude over land filling wells and ponds, and percolate into the subsurface. Conditions can get worse if seawater penetrates the aquifer. It may take years or decades for the seasonal rainfall to wash the soil/aquifer/rocks clean, or much longer. In some cases, a river channel can provide a passage for a tsunami bore to rush through, allowing it to flood tremendous tracts of land far inside from the shoreline. This paper examines the adverse consequences of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the groundwater resources of the Indian coast and proposes a remediation framework for similar emergency situations. The specific interest within the objective of this study has been also to carry out an assessment of hydrogeological characteristics and risk to coastal aquifers in the districts of Tamilnadu in southeastern India.

The 26-12-2004 Tsunami

The 26-12-2004 Tsunami

On December 26, 2004, an earthquake of 9.3 magnitudes on the Richter scale

On December 26, 2004, an earthquake of 9.3 magnitudes on the Richter scale

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

329

23

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

329

23

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Senthil Kumar G1 and S. Chidambaram2 1 School of Environmental Sciences, JNU 2 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Tamilnadu

Senthil Kumar G1 and S. Chidambaram2 1 School of Environmental Sciences, JNU 2 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Tsunami is a wave of high energy, which is generated by an earthquake or landslide in the sea. The Tsunami wavelengths and their periods depend on the generating mechanism and the magnitude of the source event. The period of the tsunami waves may range from 5 to 90 minutes. The length of the wave crests of a tsunami can be more than thousand km and the waves may be from a few kilometers to more than a hundred kilometers apart as they travel across the ocean. The speed of tsunami waves increases with the depth of the sea and may exceed 800 km/hr. The areas within 1.6 km of the shoreline and about 15 m above the sea level face the greatest risk during a tsunami. Seawater can intrude over land filling wells and ponds, and percolate into the subsurface. Conditions can get worse if seawater penetrates the aquifer. It may take years or decades for the seasonal rainfall to wash the soil/aquifer/rocks clean, or much longer. In some cases, a river channel can provide a passage for a tsunami bore to rush through, allowing it to flood tremendous tracts of land far inside from the shoreline. This paper examines the adverse consequences of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the groundwater resources of the Indian coast and proposes a remediation framework for similar emergency situations. The specific interest within the objective of this study has been also to carry out an assessment of hydrogeological characteristics and risk to coastal aquifers in the districts of Tamilnadu in southeastern India.

Tsunami is a wave of high energy, which is generated by an earthquake or landslide in the sea. The Tsunami wavelengths and their periods depend on the generating mechanism and the magnitude of the source event. The period of the tsunami waves may range from 5 to 90 minutes. The length of the wave crests of a tsunami can be more than thousand km and the waves may be from a few kilometers to more than a hundred kilometers apart as they travel across the ocean. The speed of tsunami waves increases with the depth of the sea and may exceed 800 km/hr. The areas within 1.6 km of the shoreline and about 15 m above the sea level face the greatest risk during a tsunami. Seawater can intrude over land filling wells and ponds, and percolate into the subsurface. Conditions can get worse if seawater penetrates the aquifer. It may take years or decades for the seasonal rainfall to wash the soil/aquifer/rocks clean, or much longer. In some cases, a river channel can provide a passage for a tsunami bore to rush through, allowing it to flood tremendous tracts of land far inside from the shoreline. This paper examines the adverse consequences of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the groundwater resources of the Indian coast and proposes a remediation framework for similar emergency situations. The specific interest within the objective of this study has been also to carry out an assessment of hydrogeological characteristics and risk to coastal aquifers in the districts of Tamilnadu in southeastern India.

The 26-12-2004 Tsunami

The 26-12-2004 Tsunami

On December 26, 2004, an earthquake of 9.3 magnitudes on the Richter scale

On December 26, 2004, an earthquake of 9.3 magnitudes on the Richter scale

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struck the active subduction corridor along the eastern margin of the Indian lithosphere off the coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. It took the tsunami waves about 2 hours to reach the Indian coast. The wave reached Andaman, on the east coast of Sri Lanka and Tamilnadu and up to Orissa, further north along the east coast. On reaching shallow waters along the coastline, the energy of the deep sea waves is transformed into very forceful tidal waves of great height (10–30 m) causing vast devastation. Wave arrival times obtained from coastal tide gage and satellite altimetry records for the Indian Ocean are used to delineate the source region for the December 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami. Findings define a curved, 250-km wide, 1000-km long tsunami source region centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone, which closely matches the seismic source estimated from broadband geophysical data. Imbedded in this general region are ‘‘hot spots’’ associated with the southern fast-slip and northern slow-slip domains which served as distinct source areas for the destructive waves that inundated the coast of the Indian Ocean. Citation. (Fine, I. V., A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson ,2005). The Sumatra-Andaman Island mega thrust earthquake of 00:59 UTC 26 December 2004 was first estimated as Mw = 9.0 and later upgraded to Mw = 9.3 based on the analysis of the normal modes of the Earth (Stein and Okal, 2005). This was the second largest earthquake ever recorded. Tsunami waves generated by the earthquake were responsible for over 250,000 dead and missing, and left millions homeless and displaced in areas bordering the Indian Ocean. Tsunami records from a number of tide guages in the Indian Ocean [Merrifield et al., 2005] are of sufficiently high quality and resolution for accurate estimation of tsunami arrival times. The tsunami was also recorded by the Jason1 and Topex/Poseidon satellites [Gower, 2005; Smith et al., 2005]. Data from the Eastern and Central Indian Ocean, which is close to the source area, is critical for examination of the event and its regional impact. In this study, we use inverse wave-tracing to delineate the generation region for the Sumatra Tsunami. Results are based on Tsunami arrival times from tide gage and satellite altimetry records and on wave propagation speeds derived using high resolution 1-min (1.85 km) bathymetric data.

struck the active subduction corridor along the eastern margin‘‘Mercator’’ of the Indian ‘‘Mercator’’, anchored near the coast of Phuket (Thailand) (T. Siffer, lithosphere off the of coast Sumatra in Indonesia. It took the tsunami waves depth gage recording 26 ofDecember 2004 Tsunami, available at http:// about 2 hours to reach were the Indian coast. Thestudy wave(Figure reached1).Andaman, on the www.knmi.nl/seismologie/) all used in this east coast of Sri Lanka and Tamilnadu and up to Orissa, further north along the east coast. On reaching shallow waters along the coastline, the energy of the deep sea waves is transformed into very forceful tidal waves of great height (10–30 m) causing vast devastation. Wave arrival times obtained from coastal tide gage and satellite altimetry records for the Indian Ocean are used to delineate the source region for the December 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami. Findings define a curved, 250-km wide, 1000-km long tsunami source region centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone, which closely matches the seismic source estimated from broadband geophysical data. Imbedded in this general region are ‘‘hot spots’’ associated with the southern fast-slip and northern slow-slip domains which served as distinct source areas for the destructive waves that inundated the coast of the Indian Ocean. Citation. (Fine, I. V., A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson ,2005). The Sumatra-Andaman Island mega thrust earthquake of 00:59 UTC 26 December 2004 was first estimated as Mw = 9.0 and later upgraded to Mw = 9.3 based on the analysis of the normal modes of the Earth (Stein and Okal, 2005). This was the second largest earthquake ever recorded. Tsunami waves generated by the earthquake were responsible for over 250,000 dead and missing, Fig. 1: Snapshot of the Tsunami approximately 2 hours after and left millions homeless and displaced in areas bordering the Indian Ocean. the earthquake occurred. Tsunami records from a number of tide guages in the Indian Ocean [Merrifield et al., 2005] are of sufficiently high quality and resolution for accurate Altimetry of the Sumatra tsunami majorby tsunami estimation measurements of tsunami arrival times. The tsunami was(the alsofirst recorded the Jasonrecorded by orbiting satellites) were obtained from the Jason-1 and 1 and Topex/Poseidon satellites [Gower, 2005; Smith et al., 2005]. Topex/ Data from Poseidon satellites [Smith et al., 2005]Ocean, as theywhich transited the Indian the Eastern and Central Indian is close to theOcean sourceabout area, is 150 critical km apart approximately two hours after the quake. As indicated by Figure for examination of the event and its regional impact. In this study, we 1, the crossed the spreading front ofthethegeneration Tsunami waves the usetracks inverse wave-tracing to delineate region twice: for thein Sumatra northTsunami. in the Bay of Bengal and in the south about 1200 km southward from Sri Results are based on Tsunami arrival times from tide gage and satellite Lanka. In addition augmenting the overall data coverage, satellite data altimetry recordstoand on wave propagation speeds derived the using high resolution yield1-min snapshots of the spatial structure of the Tsunami waves for the open Indian (1.85 km) bathymetric data. Ocean, for which there are no sea level recorders.

Observation

Observation Inverse Wave-Tracing Digital Tsunami records generated by the University of Hawai’i Sea Level Following 1973; Satake, 1993], we used inverse wave-tracing Center [Abe, database (http://ilikai. soest.hawaii.edu/uhslc/iotd) for five(wavetide gage retracing) to determine the source regions for the leading edge of the (4-min), tsunami. and stations (Colombo, Hanimaadhoo (2-min sampling), Male, Gan For Figure 1. Location of tide gagesthe in the Central andCentre, East Indian Ocean.Bureau The of Diego Garcia (6-min) and from National Tidal Australian Curve and straight lines show the tracks of the Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 Meteorology for the Cocos Islands (1-min). Tsunami wave plots and supporting satellites that passed Indian on Ocean two hours after (Vishakhapatnam, the December information for over threethe stations the about east coast of India 26, 2004 earthquake. The red star marks the earthquake epicenter; the shaded Chennai, and Tuticorin) are from a National Institute of Oceanography report gray(available area bordered by a dashed line specifies the aftershock region. The graytime at http://www.nio.org/jsp/tsunami.jsp). Besides that wave height linesseries are calculated by hourly of Tsunami travelsounder) time. At on eachthesite, data collected by isochrones the ‘‘fishfinder’’ (depth yacht

Digital Tsunami records generated by the University of Hawai’i Sea Level Center database (http://ilikai. soest.hawaii.edu/uhslc/iotd) for five tide gage stations (Colombo, Hanimaadhoo (2-min sampling), Male, Gan (4-min), and Diego Garcia (6-min) and from the National Tidal Centre, Australian Bureau of Meteorology for the Cocos Islands (1-min). Tsunami wave plots and supporting information for three stations on the east coast of India (Vishakhapatnam, Chennai, and Tuticorin) are from a National Institute of Oceanography report (available at http://www.nio.org/jsp/tsunami.jsp). Besides that wave height time series data collected by the ‘‘fishfinder’’ (depth sounder) on the yacht

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struck the active subduction corridor along the eastern margin of the Indian lithosphere off the coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. It took the tsunami waves about 2 hours to reach the Indian coast. The wave reached Andaman, on the east coast of Sri Lanka and Tamilnadu and up to Orissa, further north along the east coast. On reaching shallow waters along the coastline, the energy of the deep sea waves is transformed into very forceful tidal waves of great height (10–30 m) causing vast devastation. Wave arrival times obtained from coastal tide gage and satellite altimetry records for the Indian Ocean are used to delineate the source region for the December 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami. Findings define a curved, 250-km wide, 1000-km long tsunami source region centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone, which closely matches the seismic source estimated from broadband geophysical data. Imbedded in this general region are ‘‘hot spots’’ associated with the southern fast-slip and northern slow-slip domains which served as distinct source areas for the destructive waves that inundated the coast of the Indian Ocean. Citation. (Fine, I. V., A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson ,2005). The Sumatra-Andaman Island mega thrust earthquake of 00:59 UTC 26 December 2004 was first estimated as Mw = 9.0 and later upgraded to Mw = 9.3 based on the analysis of the normal modes of the Earth (Stein and Okal, 2005). This was the second largest earthquake ever recorded. Tsunami waves generated by the earthquake were responsible for over 250,000 dead and missing, and left millions homeless and displaced in areas bordering the Indian Ocean. Tsunami records from a number of tide guages in the Indian Ocean [Merrifield et al., 2005] are of sufficiently high quality and resolution for accurate estimation of tsunami arrival times. The tsunami was also recorded by the Jason1 and Topex/Poseidon satellites [Gower, 2005; Smith et al., 2005]. Data from the Eastern and Central Indian Ocean, which is close to the source area, is critical for examination of the event and its regional impact. In this study, we use inverse wave-tracing to delineate the generation region for the Sumatra Tsunami. Results are based on Tsunami arrival times from tide gage and satellite altimetry records and on wave propagation speeds derived using high resolution 1-min (1.85 km) bathymetric data.

struck the active subduction corridor along the eastern margin‘‘Mercator’’ of the Indian ‘‘Mercator’’, anchored near the coast of Phuket (Thailand) (T. Siffer, lithosphere off the of coast Sumatra in Indonesia. It took the tsunami waves depth gage recording 26 ofDecember 2004 Tsunami, available at http:// about 2 hours to reach were the Indian coast. Thestudy wave(Figure reached1).Andaman, on the www.knmi.nl/seismologie/) all used in this east coast of Sri Lanka and Tamilnadu and up to Orissa, further north along the east coast. On reaching shallow waters along the coastline, the energy of the deep sea waves is transformed into very forceful tidal waves of great height (10–30 m) causing vast devastation. Wave arrival times obtained from coastal tide gage and satellite altimetry records for the Indian Ocean are used to delineate the source region for the December 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami. Findings define a curved, 250-km wide, 1000-km long tsunami source region centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone, which closely matches the seismic source estimated from broadband geophysical data. Imbedded in this general region are ‘‘hot spots’’ associated with the southern fast-slip and northern slow-slip domains which served as distinct source areas for the destructive waves that inundated the coast of the Indian Ocean. Citation. (Fine, I. V., A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson ,2005). The Sumatra-Andaman Island mega thrust earthquake of 00:59 UTC 26 December 2004 was first estimated as Mw = 9.0 and later upgraded to Mw = 9.3 based on the analysis of the normal modes of the Earth (Stein and Okal, 2005). This was the second largest earthquake ever recorded. Tsunami waves generated by the earthquake were responsible for over 250,000 dead and missing, Fig. 1: Snapshot of the Tsunami approximately 2 hours after and left millions homeless and displaced in areas bordering the Indian Ocean. the earthquake occurred. Tsunami records from a number of tide guages in the Indian Ocean [Merrifield et al., 2005] are of sufficiently high quality and resolution for accurate Altimetry of the Sumatra tsunami majorby tsunami estimation measurements of tsunami arrival times. The tsunami was(the alsofirst recorded the Jasonrecorded by orbiting satellites) were obtained from the Jason-1 and Topex/ 1 and Topex/Poseidon satellites [Gower, 2005; Smith et al., 2005]. Data from Poseidon satellites [Smith et al., 2005]Ocean, as theywhich transited the Indian the Eastern and Central Indian is close to theOcean sourceabout area, is 150 critical km apart approximately two hours after the quake. As indicated by Figure for examination of the event and its regional impact. In this study, we 1, the crossed the spreading front ofthethegeneration Tsunami waves the usetracks inverse wave-tracing to delineate region twice: for thein Sumatra northTsunami. in the Bay of Bengal and in the south about 1200 km southward from Sri Results are based on Tsunami arrival times from tide gage and satellite Lanka. In addition to augmenting the overall data coverage, the satellite data altimetry records and on wave propagation speeds derived using high resolution yield1-min snapshots the bathymetric spatial structure (1.85ofkm) data.of the Tsunami waves for the open Indian Ocean, for which there are no sea level recorders.

Observation

Observation Inverse Wave-Tracing Digital Tsunami records generated by the University of Hawai’i Sea Level Following 1973; Satake, 1993], we used inverse wave-tracing Center [Abe, database (http://ilikai. soest.hawaii.edu/uhslc/iotd) for five(wavetide gage retracing) to determine the source regions for the leading edge of the (4-min), tsunami. and stations (Colombo, Hanimaadhoo (2-min sampling), Male, Gan For Figure 1. Location of tide gagesthe in the Central andCentre, East Indian Ocean.Bureau The of Diego Garcia (6-min) and from National Tidal Australian Curve and straight lines show the tracks of the Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 Meteorology for the Cocos Islands (1-min). Tsunami wave plots and supporting satellites that passed Indian on Ocean two hours after (Vishakhapatnam, the December information for over threethe stations the about east coast of India 26, 2004 earthquake. The redare star marks the earthquake the shaded Chennai, and Tuticorin) from a National Instituteepicenter; of Oceanography report gray(available area bordered by a dashed line specifies the aftershock region. The graytime at http://www.nio.org/jsp/tsunami.jsp). Besides that wave height linesseries are calculated by hourly of Tsunami travelsounder) time. At on eachthesite, data collected by isochrones the ‘‘fishfinder’’ (depth yacht

Digital Tsunami records generated by the University of Hawai’i Sea Level Center database (http://ilikai. soest.hawaii.edu/uhslc/iotd) for five tide gage stations (Colombo, Hanimaadhoo (2-min sampling), Male, Gan (4-min), and Diego Garcia (6-min) and from the National Tidal Centre, Australian Bureau of Meteorology for the Cocos Islands (1-min). Tsunami wave plots and supporting information for three stations on the east coast of India (Vishakhapatnam, Chennai, and Tuticorin) are from a National Institute of Oceanography report (available at http://www.nio.org/jsp/tsunami.jsp). Besides that wave height time series data collected by the ‘‘fishfinder’’ (depth sounder) on the yacht

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‘‘Mercator’’, anchored near the coast of Phuket (Thailand) (T. Siffer, struck the active subduction corridor along the eastern margin‘‘Mercator’’ of the Indian depth gage recording 26 ofDecember 2004 Tsunami, available at http:// lithosphere off the of coast Sumatra in Indonesia. It took the tsunami waves www.knmi.nl/seismologie/) all used in this about 2 hours to reach were the Indian coast. Thestudy wave(Figure reached1).Andaman, on the east coast of Sri Lanka and Tamilnadu and up to Orissa, further north along the east coast. On reaching shallow waters along the coastline, the energy of the deep sea waves is transformed into very forceful tidal waves of great height (10–30 m) causing vast devastation. Wave arrival times obtained from coastal tide gage and satellite altimetry records for the Indian Ocean are used to delineate the source region for the December 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami. Findings define a curved, 250-km wide, 1000-km long tsunami source region centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone, which closely matches the seismic source estimated from broadband geophysical data. Imbedded in this general region are ‘‘hot spots’’ associated with the southern fast-slip and northern slow-slip domains which served as distinct source areas for the destructive waves that inundated the coast of the Indian Ocean. Citation. (Fine, I. V., A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson ,2005). The Sumatra-Andaman Island mega thrust earthquake of 00:59 UTC 26 December 2004 was first estimated as Mw = 9.0 and later upgraded to Mw = 9.3 based on the analysis of the normal modes of the Earth (Stein and Okal, 2005). This was the second largest earthquake ever recorded. Tsunami waves generated by the earthquake were responsible for over 250,000 dead and missing, Fig. 1: Snapshot of the Tsunami approximately 2 hours after and left millions homeless and displaced in areas bordering the Indian Ocean. the earthquake occurred. Tsunami records from a number of tide guages in the Indian Ocean [Merrifield et al., 2005] are of sufficiently high quality and resolution for accurate Altimetry of the Sumatra tsunami majorby tsunami estimation measurements of tsunami arrival times. The tsunami was(the alsofirst recorded the Jasonrecorded by orbiting satellites) were obtained from the Jason-1 and 1 and Topex/Poseidon satellites [Gower, 2005; Smith et al., 2005]. Topex/ Data from Poseidon satellites [Smith et al., 2005]Ocean, as theywhich transited the Indian the Eastern and Central Indian is close to theOcean sourceabout area, is 150 critical km apart approximately two hours after the quake. As indicated by Figure for examination of the event and its regional impact. In this study, we 1, the crossed the spreading front ofthethegeneration Tsunami waves the usetracks inverse wave-tracing to delineate region twice: for thein Sumatra northTsunami. in the Bay of Bengal and in the south about 1200 km southward from Sri Results are based on Tsunami arrival times from tide gage and satellite Lanka. In addition augmenting the overall data coverage, satellite data altimetry recordstoand on wave propagation speeds derived the using high resolution yield1-min snapshots of the spatial structure of the Tsunami waves for the open Indian (1.85 km) bathymetric data. Ocean, for which there are no sea level recorders. Observation Inverse Wave-Tracing Digital Tsunami records generated by the University of Hawai’i Sea Level Following 1973; Satake, 1993], we used inverse wave-tracing Center [Abe, database (http://ilikai. soest.hawaii.edu/uhslc/iotd) for five(wavetide gage retracing) to determine the source regions for the leading edge of the (4-min), tsunami. and stations (Colombo, Hanimaadhoo (2-min sampling), Male, Gan For Figure 1. Location of tide gagesthe in the Central andCentre, East Indian Ocean.Bureau The of Diego Garcia (6-min) and from National Tidal Australian Curve and straight lines show the tracks of the Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 Meteorology for the Cocos Islands (1-min). Tsunami wave plots and supporting satellites that passed Indian on Ocean two hours after (Vishakhapatnam, the December information for over threethe stations the about east coast of India 26, 2004 earthquake. The red star marks the earthquake epicenter; the shaded Chennai, and Tuticorin) are from a National Institute of Oceanography report gray(available area bordered by a dashed line specifies the aftershock region. The graytime at http://www.nio.org/jsp/tsunami.jsp). Besides that wave height linesseries are calculated by hourly of Tsunami travelsounder) time. At on eachthesite, data collected by isochrones the ‘‘fishfinder’’ (depth yacht

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Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

‘‘Mercator’’, anchored near the coast of Phuket (Thailand) (T. Siffer, ‘‘Mercator’’ depth gage recording of 26 December 2004 Tsunami, available at http:// www.knmi.nl/seismologie/) were all used in this study (Figure 1).

Fig. 1: Snapshot of the Tsunami approximately 2 hours after the earthquake occurred.

Altimetry measurements of the Sumatra tsunami (the first major tsunami recorded by orbiting satellites) were obtained from the Jason-1 and Topex/ Poseidon satellites [Smith et al., 2005] as they transited the Indian Ocean about 150 km apart approximately two hours after the quake. As indicated by Figure 1, the tracks crossed the spreading front of the Tsunami waves twice: in the north in the Bay of Bengal and in the south about 1200 km southward from Sri Lanka. In addition to augmenting the overall data coverage, the satellite data yield snapshots of the spatial structure of the Tsunami waves for the open Indian Ocean, for which there are no sea level recorders. Inverse Wave-Tracing Following [Abe, 1973; Satake, 1993], we used inverse wave-tracing (waveretracing) to determine the source regions for the leading edge of the tsunami. For Figure 1. Location of tide gages in the Central and East Indian Ocean. The Curve and straight lines show the tracks of the Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites that passed over the Indian Ocean about two hours after the December 26, 2004 earthquake. The red star marks the earthquake epicenter; the shaded gray area bordered by a dashed line specifies the aftershock region. The gray lines are calculated by hourly isochrones of Tsunami travel time. At each site,

331

‘‘Mercator’’, anchored near the coast of Phuket (Thailand) (T. Siffer, struck the active subduction corridor along the eastern margin‘‘Mercator’’ of the Indian depth gage recording 26 ofDecember 2004 Tsunami, available at http:// lithosphere off the of coast Sumatra in Indonesia. It took the tsunami waves www.knmi.nl/seismologie/) all used in this about 2 hours to reach were the Indian coast. Thestudy wave(Figure reached1).Andaman, on the east coast of Sri Lanka and Tamilnadu and up to Orissa, further north along the east coast. On reaching shallow waters along the coastline, the energy of the deep sea waves is transformed into very forceful tidal waves of great height (10–30 m) causing vast devastation. Wave arrival times obtained from coastal tide gage and satellite altimetry records for the Indian Ocean are used to delineate the source region for the December 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami. Findings define a curved, 250-km wide, 1000-km long tsunami source region centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone, which closely matches the seismic source estimated from broadband geophysical data. Imbedded in this general region are ‘‘hot spots’’ associated with the southern fast-slip and northern slow-slip domains which served as distinct source areas for the destructive waves that inundated the coast of the Indian Ocean. Citation. (Fine, I. V., A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson ,2005). The Sumatra-Andaman Island mega thrust earthquake of 00:59 UTC 26 December 2004 was first estimated as Mw = 9.0 and later upgraded to Mw = 9.3 based on the analysis of the normal modes of the Earth (Stein and Okal, 2005). This was the second largest earthquake ever recorded. Tsunami waves generated by the earthquake were responsible for over 250,000 dead and missing, Fig. 1: Snapshot of the Tsunami approximately 2 hours after and left millions homeless and displaced in areas bordering the Indian Ocean. the earthquake occurred. Tsunami records from a number of tide guages in the Indian Ocean [Merrifield et al., 2005] are of sufficiently high quality and resolution for accurate Altimetry of the Sumatra tsunami majorby tsunami estimation measurements of tsunami arrival times. The tsunami was(the alsofirst recorded the Jasonrecorded by orbiting satellites) were obtained from the Jason-1 and Topex/ 1 and Topex/Poseidon satellites [Gower, 2005; Smith et al., 2005]. Data from Poseidon satellites [Smith et al., 2005]Ocean, as theywhich transited the Indian the Eastern and Central Indian is close to theOcean sourceabout area, is 150 critical km apart approximately two hours after the quake. As indicated by Figure for examination of the event and its regional impact. In this study, we 1, the crossed the spreading front ofthethegeneration Tsunami waves the usetracks inverse wave-tracing to delineate region twice: for thein Sumatra northTsunami. in the Bay of Bengal and in the south about 1200 km southward from Sri Results are based on Tsunami arrival times from tide gage and satellite Lanka. In addition to augmenting the overall data coverage, the satellite data altimetry records and on wave propagation speeds derived using high resolution yield1-min snapshots the bathymetric spatial structure (1.85ofkm) data.of the Tsunami waves for the open Indian Ocean, for which there are no sea level recorders. Observation Inverse Wave-Tracing Digital Tsunami records generated by the University of Hawai’i Sea Level Following 1973; Satake, 1993], we used inverse wave-tracing Center [Abe, database (http://ilikai. soest.hawaii.edu/uhslc/iotd) for five(wavetide gage retracing) to determine the source regions for the leading edge of the (4-min), tsunami. and stations (Colombo, Hanimaadhoo (2-min sampling), Male, Gan For Figure 1. Location of tide gagesthe in the Central andCentre, East Indian Ocean.Bureau The of Diego Garcia (6-min) and from National Tidal Australian Curve and straight lines show the tracks of the Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 Meteorology for the Cocos Islands (1-min). Tsunami wave plots and supporting satellites that passed Indian on Ocean two hours after (Vishakhapatnam, the December information for over threethe stations the about east coast of India 26, 2004 earthquake. The redare star marks the earthquake the shaded Chennai, and Tuticorin) from a National Instituteepicenter; of Oceanography report gray(available area bordered by a dashed line specifies the aftershock region. The graytime at http://www.nio.org/jsp/tsunami.jsp). Besides that wave height linesseries are calculated by hourly of Tsunami travelsounder) time. At on eachthesite, data collected by isochrones the ‘‘fishfinder’’ (depth yacht

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‘‘Mercator’’, anchored near the coast of Phuket (Thailand) (T. Siffer, ‘‘Mercator’’ depth gage recording of 26 December 2004 Tsunami, available at http:// www.knmi.nl/seismologie/) were all used in this study (Figure 1).

Fig. 1: Snapshot of the Tsunami approximately 2 hours after the earthquake occurred.

Altimetry measurements of the Sumatra tsunami (the first major tsunami recorded by orbiting satellites) were obtained from the Jason-1 and Topex/ Poseidon satellites [Smith et al., 2005] as they transited the Indian Ocean about 150 km apart approximately two hours after the quake. As indicated by Figure 1, the tracks crossed the spreading front of the Tsunami waves twice: in the north in the Bay of Bengal and in the south about 1200 km southward from Sri Lanka. In addition to augmenting the overall data coverage, the satellite data yield snapshots of the spatial structure of the Tsunami waves for the open Indian Ocean, for which there are no sea level recorders. Inverse Wave-Tracing Following [Abe, 1973; Satake, 1993], we used inverse wave-tracing (waveretracing) to determine the source regions for the leading edge of the tsunami. For Figure 1. Location of tide gages in the Central and East Indian Ocean. The Curve and straight lines show the tracks of the Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites that passed over the Indian Ocean about two hours after the December 26, 2004 earthquake. The red star marks the earthquake epicenter; the shaded gray area bordered by a dashed line specifies the aftershock region. The gray lines are calculated by hourly isochrones of Tsunami travel time. At each site,

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1 hrs. 55 min 02.54° 1 hr 39 min

“Estimated from tsumani time series plots.

02.38 Thailand 10.

07.75°N; 98.28°E

2 hrs. 27 min 03.26° 2 hr 21 min 03.20 Australia 9.

12.13°N; 96.88°E

3 hrs. 55 min 04.54° 3 hr 46 min 04.45 UK 8.

07.30°N; 72.38°E

3 hrs. 33 min 04.32° 3 hr 19 min 04.18 Maldives 7.

00.68°N; 73.17°E

3 hrs. 25 min 04.24° 3 hr 15 min 04.14 Maldives 6.

04.18°N; 73.52°E

3 hrs. 40 min 04.49° 3 hr 32 min 04.31 Maldives 5.

06.77°N; 73.18°E

2 hrs. 59 min 03.58° 2 hr 50 min 03.49 06.93°N; 79.83°E Sri Lanka 4.

3 hrs. 42 min 04.41° 3 hr 28 min 04.27 India 3.

08.75°N; 78.20°E

03.44° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 2.

13.10°N; 80.32°E

03.50° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 1.

17.65°N; 83.29°E

Arrival UTC Travel Time Arrival, UTC Country No.

Coordinates

First ArrivalFirst Crest

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1 hrs. 55 min 02.54° 1 hr 39 min

“Estimated from tsumani time series plots.

02.38 Thailand 10.

07.75°N; 98.28°E

2 hrs. 27 min 03.26° 2 hr 21 min 03.20 Australia 9.

12.13°N; 96.88°E

3 hrs. 55 min 04.54° 3 hr 46 min 04.45 UK 8.

07.30°N; 72.38°E

3 hrs. 33 min 04.32° 3 hr 19 min 04.18 Maldives 7.

00.68°N; 73.17°E

3 hrs. 25 min 04.24° 3 hr 15 min 04.14 Maldives 6.

04.18°N; 73.52°E

3 hrs. 40 min 04.49° 3 hr 32 min 04.31 Maldives 5.

06.77°N; 73.18°E

2 hrs. 59 min 03.58° 2 hr 50 min 03.49 Sri Lanka 4.

06.93°N; 79.83°E

3 hrs. 42 min 04.41° 3 hr 28 min 04.27 India 3.

08.75°N; 78.20°E

2 hrs. 45 min 03.44° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 2.

13.10°N; 80.32°E

2 hrs. 51 min 03.50° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 1.

17.65°N; 83.29°E

Travel Time Arrival, UTC Coordinates Country No.

First ArrivalFirst Crest

Arrival UTC

Travel Time

we estimated the observed propagation time from the beginning of the earthquake to the arrival at the recording site (Table 1). The source delineation is limited by the accuracy of the estimated arrival times, by the bathymetry data used in the numerical simulations (1-min GEBCO topographic data [British oceanographic Data Centre, 2003]), and by non-linear and dispersive effects. As shown in Figure 2a, the aftershock region following the December 26, 2004 Sumatra Earthquake extends from 2_ N to 15_ N along the Indo-Andaman plate boundary. Although there have been several major thrust earthquakes in this region in the past, the Mw = 9.3 earthquake of December 2004 has no historical precedent [Bilham et al., 2005]. The distribution of aftershocks indicates that the primary rupture accompanying the main shock took roughly 10 min to propagate 1300 km northward from the epicenter near 3.3_ N, corresponding to an average northward propagation speed of _2 km_s_1 [Stein and Okal, 2005]. The stations used in our first-wave arrival time analysis fall into four groups (Table 1): ‘‘northwestern’’ (stations 1–2); ‘‘western’’ (3–8); ‘‘southern’’ (9); and ‘‘eastern’’ (10). The first waves to arrive at gages in the western group followed similar wave paths. As a consequence, computed inverse wave front contours closely parallel one another, thereby defining approximately the same western boundary for the source region. Spatial separations are within the errors of our simulations (inaccuracies in the estimated arrival times are about 4–6 min). For all six sites, intersection points for the leading wave-front curves are co-located above the Sumatra Trench Table 1. Tsunami Properties Estimated From Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean No. Station Country Coordinates. Wave-retracing based on the tide gage station in the Cocos Islands (9) locates the southern boundary of the source, with the Tsunami wave front coincident with the southern edge of the aftershock region .The northwestern stations Vishakhapatnam (1) and Chennai (2), on the east coast of India, help define the long-axis extent of the Tsunami source. Following corrections for delays due to the finite rupture speed of 2 km_s_1 and nonlinear effects on wave propagation speed for the shallow- water region off the eastern coast of India, wave retracing confirms that the northernmost end of the source region extended to at least 10–11_N, consistent with recent estimates based on analysis of the earthquake-induced eigen oscillations [Stein and Okal, 2005], Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements [Vigny et al., 2005], and hydro acoustic data an original image of the seismic rupture of the Sumatra Mw = 9.0 using PMCC from seismic and hydro acoustic small array (Guilbert et al 2005). The first recorded waves at stations 1–9 were crests (positive waves) due to a rapid uplift on the western side of the source area. In contrast, the first waves recorded on the coasts of Thailand and Indonesia were troughs (negative waves), indicating an abrupt subsidence on the eastern side of the source region. Because of the relatively poor resolution of gages in Thailand and Indonesia, the only reliable estimate for the arrival times in this region is from the sounder on the yacht ‘‘Mercator.’’ According to this record, the calculated inverse-wave Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean.

we estimated the observed propagation time from the beginning of the earthquake to the arrival at the recording site (Table 1). The source delineation is limited by the accuracy of the estimated arrival times, by the bathymetry data used in the numerical simulations (1-min GEBCO topographic data [British oceanographic Data Centre, 2003]), and by non-linear and dispersive effects. As shown in Figure 2a, the aftershock region following the December 26, 2004 Sumatra Earthquake extends from 2_ N to 15_ N along the Indo-Andaman plate boundary. Although there have been several major thrust earthquakes in this region in the past, the Mw = 9.3 earthquake of December 2004 has no historical precedent [Bilham et al., 2005]. The distribution of aftershocks indicates that the primary rupture accompanying the main shock took roughly 10 min to propagate 1300 km northward from the epicenter near 3.3_ N, corresponding to an average northward propagation speed of _2 km_s_1 [Stein and Okal, 2005]. The stations used in our first-wave arrival time analysis fall into four groups (Table 1): ‘‘northwestern’’ (stations 1–2); ‘‘western’’ (3–8); ‘‘southern’’ (9); and ‘‘eastern’’ (10). The first waves to arrive at gages in the western group followed similar wave paths. As a consequence, computed inverse wave front contours closely parallel one another, thereby defining approximately the same western boundary for the source region. Spatial separations are within the errors of our simulations (inaccuracies in the estimated arrival times are about 4–6 min). For all six sites, intersection points for the leading wave-front curves are co-located above the Sumatra Trench Table 1. Tsunami Properties Estimated From Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean No. Station Country Coordinates. Wave-retracing based on the tide gage station in the Cocos Islands (9) locates the southern boundary of the source, with the Tsunami wave front coincident with the southern edge of the aftershock region .The northwestern stations Vishakhapatnam (1) and Chennai (2), on the east coast of India, help define the long-axis extent of the Tsunami source. Following corrections for delays due to the finite rupture speed of 2 km_s_1 and nonlinear effects on wave propagation speed for the shallow- water region off the eastern coast of India, wave retracing confirms that the northernmost end of the source region extended to at least 10–11_N, consistent with recent estimates based on analysis of the earthquake-induced eigen oscillations [Stein and Okal, 2005], Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements [Vigny et al., 2005], and hydro acoustic data an original image of the seismic rupture of the Sumatra Mw = 9.0 using PMCC from seismic and hydro acoustic small array (Guilbert et al 2005). The first recorded waves at stations 1–9 were crests (positive waves) due to a rapid uplift on the western side of the source area. In contrast, the first waves recorded on the coasts of Thailand and Indonesia were troughs (negative waves), indicating an abrupt subsidence on the eastern side of the source region. Because of the relatively poor resolution of gages in Thailand and Indonesia, the only reliable estimate for the arrival times in this region is from the sounder on the yacht ‘‘Mercator.’’ According to this record, the calculated inverse-wave

2 hrs. 45 min

332

Disaster Management

2 hrs. 51 min

332

Travel Time

we estimated the observed propagation time from the beginning of the earthquake to the arrival at the recording site (Table 1). The source delineation is limited by the accuracy of the estimated arrival times, by the bathymetry data used in the numerical simulations (1-min GEBCO topographic data [British oceanographic Data Centre, 2003]), and by non-linear and dispersive effects. As shown in Figure 2a, the aftershock region following the December 26, 2004 Sumatra Earthquake extends from 2_ N to 15_ N along the Indo-Andaman plate boundary. Although there have been several major thrust earthquakes in this region in the past, the Mw = 9.3 earthquake of December 2004 has no historical precedent [Bilham et al., 2005]. The distribution of aftershocks indicates that the primary rupture accompanying the main shock took roughly 10 min to propagate 1300 km northward from the epicenter near 3.3_ N, corresponding to an average northward propagation speed of _2 km_s_1 [Stein and Okal, 2005]. The stations used in our first-wave arrival time analysis fall into four groups (Table 1): ‘‘northwestern’’ (stations 1–2); ‘‘western’’ (3–8); ‘‘southern’’ (9); and ‘‘eastern’’ (10). The first waves to arrive at gages in the western group followed similar wave paths. As a consequence, computed inverse wave front contours closely parallel one another, thereby defining approximately the same western boundary for the source region. Spatial separations are within the errors of our simulations (inaccuracies in the estimated arrival times are about 4–6 min). For all six sites, intersection points for the leading wave-front curves are co-located above the Sumatra Trench Table 1. Tsunami Properties Estimated From Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean No. Station Country Coordinates. Wave-retracing based on the tide gage station in the Cocos Islands (9) locates the southern boundary of the source, with the Tsunami wave front coincident with the southern edge of the aftershock region .The northwestern stations Vishakhapatnam (1) and Chennai (2), on the east coast of India, help define the long-axis extent of the Tsunami source. Following corrections for delays due to the finite rupture speed of 2 km_s_1 and nonlinear effects on wave propagation speed for the shallow- water region off the eastern coast of India, wave retracing confirms that the northernmost end of the source region extended to at least 10–11_N, consistent with recent estimates based on analysis of the earthquake-induced eigen oscillations [Stein and Okal, 2005], Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements [Vigny et al., 2005], and hydro acoustic data an original image of the seismic rupture of the Sumatra Mw = 9.0 using PMCC from seismic and hydro acoustic small array (Guilbert et al 2005). The first recorded waves at stations 1–9 were crests (positive waves) due to a rapid uplift on the western side of the source area. In contrast, the first waves recorded on the coasts of Thailand and Indonesia were troughs (negative waves), indicating an abrupt subsidence on the eastern side of the source region. Because of the relatively poor resolution of gages in Thailand and Indonesia, the only reliable estimate for the arrival times in this region is from the sounder on the yacht ‘‘Mercator.’’ According to this record, the calculated inverse-wave Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean.

we estimated the observed propagation time from the beginning of the earthquake to the arrival at the recording site (Table 1). The source delineation is limited by the accuracy of the estimated arrival times, by the bathymetry data used in the numerical simulations (1-min GEBCO topographic data [British oceanographic Data Centre, 2003]), and by non-linear and dispersive effects. As shown in Figure 2a, the aftershock region following the December 26, 2004 Sumatra Earthquake extends from 2_ N to 15_ N along the Indo-Andaman plate boundary. Although there have been several major thrust earthquakes in this region in the past, the Mw = 9.3 earthquake of December 2004 has no historical precedent [Bilham et al., 2005]. The distribution of aftershocks indicates that the primary rupture accompanying the main shock took roughly 10 min to propagate 1300 km northward from the epicenter near 3.3_ N, corresponding to an average northward propagation speed of _2 km_s_1 [Stein and Okal, 2005]. The stations used in our first-wave arrival time analysis fall into four groups (Table 1): ‘‘northwestern’’ (stations 1–2); ‘‘western’’ (3–8); ‘‘southern’’ (9); and ‘‘eastern’’ (10). The first waves to arrive at gages in the western group followed similar wave paths. As a consequence, computed inverse wave front contours closely parallel one another, thereby defining approximately the same western boundary for the source region. Spatial separations are within the errors of our simulations (inaccuracies in the estimated arrival times are about 4–6 min). For all six sites, intersection points for the leading wave-front curves are co-located above the Sumatra Trench Table 1. Tsunami Properties Estimated From Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean No. Station Country Coordinates. Wave-retracing based on the tide gage station in the Cocos Islands (9) locates the southern boundary of the source, with the Tsunami wave front coincident with the southern edge of the aftershock region .The northwestern stations Vishakhapatnam (1) and Chennai (2), on the east coast of India, help define the long-axis extent of the Tsunami source. Following corrections for delays due to the finite rupture speed of 2 km_s_1 and nonlinear effects on wave propagation speed for the shallow- water region off the eastern coast of India, wave retracing confirms that the northernmost end of the source region extended to at least 10–11_N, consistent with recent estimates based on analysis of the earthquake-induced eigen oscillations [Stein and Okal, 2005], Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements [Vigny et al., 2005], and hydro acoustic data an original image of the seismic rupture of the Sumatra Mw = 9.0 using PMCC from seismic and hydro acoustic small array (Guilbert et al 2005). The first recorded waves at stations 1–9 were crests (positive waves) due to a rapid uplift on the western side of the source area. In contrast, the first waves recorded on the coasts of Thailand and Indonesia were troughs (negative waves), indicating an abrupt subsidence on the eastern side of the source region. Because of the relatively poor resolution of gages in Thailand and Indonesia, the only reliable estimate for the arrival times in this region is from the sounder on the yacht ‘‘Mercator.’’ According to this record, the calculated inverse-wave

333

1 hrs. 55 min 02.54° 1 hr 39 min “Estimated from tsumani time series plots.

1 hrs. 55 min 02.54° 1 hr 39 min “Estimated from tsumani time series plots.

02.38 Thailand 10.

07.75°N; 98.28°E

2 hrs. 27 min 03.26° 2 hr 21 min 03.20 Australia 9.

12.13°N; 96.88°E

3 hrs. 55 min 04.54° 3 hr 46 min 04.45 UK 8.

07.30°N; 72.38°E

3 hrs. 33 min 04.32° 3 hr 19 min 04.18 Maldives 7.

00.68°N; 73.17°E

3 hrs. 25 min 04.24° 3 hr 15 min 04.14 Maldives 6.

04.18°N; 73.52°E

3 hrs. 40 min 04.49° 3 hr 32 min 04.31 Maldives 5.

06.77°N; 73.18°E

2 hrs. 59 min 03.58° 2 hr 50 min 03.49 Sri Lanka 4.

06.93°N; 79.83°E

3 hrs. 42 min 04.41° 3 hr 28 min 04.27 India 3.

08.75°N; 78.20°E

2 hrs. 45 min 03.44° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 2.

13.10°N; 80.32°E

2 hrs. 51 min 03.50° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 1.

17.65°N; 83.29°E

333

02.38 Thailand 10.

07.75°N; 98.28°E

2 hrs. 27 min 03.26° 2 hr 21 min 03.20 Australia 9.

12.13°N; 96.88°E

3 hrs. 55 min 04.54° 3 hr 46 min 04.45 UK 8.

07.30°N; 72.38°E

3 hrs. 33 min 04.32° 3 hr 19 min 04.18 Maldives 7.

00.68°N; 73.17°E

3 hrs. 25 min 04.24° 3 hr 15 min 04.14 Maldives 6.

04.18°N; 73.52°E

3 hrs. 40 min 04.49° 3 hr 32 min 04.31 Maldives 5.

06.77°N; 73.18°E

2 hrs. 59 min 03.58° 2 hr 50 min 03.49 06.93°N; 79.83°E Sri Lanka 4.

3 hrs. 42 min 04.41° 3 hr 28 min 04.27 India 3.

08.75°N; 78.20°E

2 hrs. 45 min 03.44° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 2.

13.10°N; 80.32°E

2 hrs. 51 min 03.50° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 1.

17.65°N; 83.29°E

Travel Time Arrival UTC Travel Time Arrival, UTC Coordinates Travel Time Arrival UTC Travel Time Arrival, UTC Coordinates

“Estimated from tsumani time series plots.

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Country

1 hrs. 55 min 02.54° 1 hr 39 min 02.38 Thailand 10.

07.75°N; 98.28°E

2 hrs. 27 min 03.26° 2 hr 21 min 03.20 Australia 9.

12.13°N; 96.88°E

3 hrs. 55 min 04.54° 3 hr 46 min 04.45 UK 8.

07.30°N; 72.38°E

3 hrs. 33 min 04.32° 3 hr 19 min 04.18 Maldives 7.

00.68°N; 73.17°E

3 hrs. 25 min 04.24° 3 hr 15 min 04.14 Maldives 6.

04.18°N; 73.52°E

3 hrs. 40 min 04.49° 3 hr 32 min 04.31 Maldives 5.

06.77°N; 73.18°E

2 hrs. 59 min 03.58° 2 hr 50 min 03.49 Sri Lanka 4.

06.93°N; 79.83°E

3 hrs. 42 min 04.41° 3 hr 28 min 04.27 India 3.

08.75°N; 78.20°E

2 hrs. 45 min 03.44° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 2.

13.10°N; 80.32°E

2 hrs. 51 min 03.50° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 1.

17.65°N; 83.29°E

Travel Time Arrival UTC Travel Time Arrival, UTC Coordinates Country No.

First ArrivalFirst Crest

Country

333

we estimated the observed propagation time from the beginning of the earthquake to the arrival at the recording site (Table 1). The source delineation is limited by the accuracy of the estimated arrival times, by the bathymetry data used in the numerical simulations (1-min GEBCO topographic data [British oceanographic Data Centre, 2003]), and by non-linear and dispersive effects. As shown in Figure 2a, the aftershock region following the December 26, 2004 Sumatra Earthquake extends from 2_ N to 15_ N along the Indo-Andaman plate boundary. Although there have been several major thrust earthquakes in this region in the past, the Mw = 9.3 earthquake of December 2004 has no historical precedent [Bilham et al., 2005]. The distribution of aftershocks indicates that the primary rupture accompanying the main shock took roughly 10 min to propagate 1300 km northward from the epicenter near 3.3_ N, corresponding to an average northward propagation speed of _2 km_s_1 [Stein and Okal, 2005]. The stations used in our first-wave arrival time analysis fall into four groups (Table 1): ‘‘northwestern’’ (stations 1–2); ‘‘western’’ (3–8); ‘‘southern’’ (9); and ‘‘eastern’’ (10). The first waves to arrive at gages in the western group followed similar wave paths. As a consequence, computed inverse wave front contours closely parallel one another, thereby defining approximately the same western boundary for the source region. Spatial separations are within the errors of our simulations (inaccuracies in the estimated arrival times are about 4–6 min). For all six sites, intersection points for the leading wave-front curves are co-located above the Sumatra Trench Table 1. Tsunami Properties Estimated From Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean No. Station Country Coordinates. Wave-retracing based on the tide gage station in the Cocos Islands (9) locates the southern boundary of the source, with the Tsunami wave front coincident with the southern edge of the aftershock region .The northwestern stations Vishakhapatnam (1) and Chennai (2), on the east coast of India, help define the long-axis extent of the Tsunami source. Following corrections for delays due to the finite rupture speed of 2 km_s_1 and nonlinear effects on wave propagation speed for the shallow- water region off the eastern coast of India, wave retracing confirms that the northernmost end of the source region extended to at least 10–11_N, consistent with recent estimates based on analysis of the earthquake-induced eigen oscillations [Stein and Okal, 2005], Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements [Vigny et al., 2005], and hydro acoustic data an original image of the seismic rupture of the Sumatra Mw = 9.0 using PMCC from seismic and hydro acoustic small array (Guilbert et al 2005). The first recorded waves at stations 1–9 were crests (positive waves) due to a rapid uplift on the western side of the source area. In contrast, the first waves recorded on the coasts of Thailand and Indonesia were troughs (negative waves), indicating an abrupt subsidence on the eastern side of the source region. Because of the relatively poor resolution of gages in Thailand and Indonesia, the only reliable estimate for the arrival times in this region is from the sounder on the yacht ‘‘Mercator.’’ According to this record, the calculated inverse-wave Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean.

No.

“Estimated from tsumani time series plots.

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

First ArrivalFirst Crest

1 hrs. 55 min 02.54° 1 hr 39 min 02.38 Thailand 10.

07.75°N; 98.28°E

2 hrs. 27 min 03.26° 2 hr 21 min 03.20 Australia 9.

12.13°N; 96.88°E

3 hrs. 55 min 04.54° 3 hr 46 min 04.45 UK 8.

07.30°N; 72.38°E

3 hrs. 33 min 04.32° 3 hr 19 min 04.18 Maldives 7.

00.68°N; 73.17°E

3 hrs. 25 min 04.24° 3 hr 15 min 04.14 Maldives 6.

04.18°N; 73.52°E

3 hrs. 40 min 04.49° 3 hr 32 min 04.31 Maldives 5.

06.77°N; 73.18°E

2 hrs. 59 min 03.58° 2 hr 50 min 03.49 06.93°N; 79.83°E Sri Lanka 4.

3 hrs. 42 min 04.41° 3 hr 28 min 04.27 India 3.

08.75°N; 78.20°E

2 hrs. 45 min 03.44° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 2.

13.10°N; 80.32°E

2 hrs. 51 min 03.50° 2 hr 36 min 03.35 India 1.

17.65°N; 83.29°E

Travel Time Arrival UTC Travel Time Arrival, UTC Coordinates Country No.

Disaster Management

No.

332

First ArrivalFirst Crest

Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean.

we estimated the observed propagation time from the beginning of the earthquake to the arrival at the recording site (Table 1). The source delineation is limited by the accuracy of the estimated arrival times, by the bathymetry data used in the numerical simulations (1-min GEBCO topographic data [British oceanographic Data Centre, 2003]), and by non-linear and dispersive effects. As shown in Figure 2a, the aftershock region following the December 26, 2004 Sumatra Earthquake extends from 2_ N to 15_ N along the Indo-Andaman plate boundary. Although there have been several major thrust earthquakes in this region in the past, the Mw = 9.3 earthquake of December 2004 has no historical precedent [Bilham et al., 2005]. The distribution of aftershocks indicates that the primary rupture accompanying the main shock took roughly 10 min to propagate 1300 km northward from the epicenter near 3.3_ N, corresponding to an average northward propagation speed of _2 km_s_1 [Stein and Okal, 2005]. The stations used in our first-wave arrival time analysis fall into four groups (Table 1): ‘‘northwestern’’ (stations 1–2); ‘‘western’’ (3–8); ‘‘southern’’ (9); and ‘‘eastern’’ (10). The first waves to arrive at gages in the western group followed similar wave paths. As a consequence, computed inverse wave front contours closely parallel one another, thereby defining approximately the same western boundary for the source region. Spatial separations are within the errors of our simulations (inaccuracies in the estimated arrival times are about 4–6 min). For all six sites, intersection points for the leading wave-front curves are co-located above the Sumatra Trench Table 1. Tsunami Properties Estimated From Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean No. Station Country Coordinates. Wave-retracing based on the tide gage station in the Cocos Islands (9) locates the southern boundary of the source, with the Tsunami wave front coincident with the southern edge of the aftershock region .The northwestern stations Vishakhapatnam (1) and Chennai (2), on the east coast of India, help define the long-axis extent of the Tsunami source. Following corrections for delays due to the finite rupture speed of 2 km_s_1 and nonlinear effects on wave propagation speed for the shallow- water region off the eastern coast of India, wave retracing confirms that the northernmost end of the source region extended to at least 10–11_N, consistent with recent estimates based on analysis of the earthquake-induced eigen oscillations [Stein and Okal, 2005], Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements [Vigny et al., 2005], and hydro acoustic data an original image of the seismic rupture of the Sumatra Mw = 9.0 using PMCC from seismic and hydro acoustic small array (Guilbert et al 2005). The first recorded waves at stations 1–9 were crests (positive waves) due to a rapid uplift on the western side of the source area. In contrast, the first waves recorded on the coasts of Thailand and Indonesia were troughs (negative waves), indicating an abrupt subsidence on the eastern side of the source region. Because of the relatively poor resolution of gages in Thailand and Indonesia, the only reliable estimate for the arrival times in this region is from the sounder on the yacht ‘‘Mercator.’’ According to this record, the calculated inverse-wave

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

First ArrivalFirst Crest

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean.

Disaster Management

Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from Coastal Tide Gage Records in the Indian Ocean.

332

333

334

Disaster Management

334

Disaster Management

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

335

03:09 19.59°S; 91.70°E 2 hr 03 min 18.81°S; 80.00°E First crest

03:02

03:01 02.80°S; 83.34°E 1 hr 55 min 03.01°S; 84.68°E First crest

02:54

03:00 04.56°S; 82.70°E 1 hr 55 min 02:54 04.91°S; 84.00°E First arrival

Arrival, UTC Coordinates

Arrival, UTC

Travel Time

Coordinates

Topex/Poseidon Jason-1

Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon Satellite Tracks.

Wave Parameters

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

335

2 hrs. 10 min 03:09 19.59°S; 91.70°E 2 hr 03 min 18.81°S; 80.00°E First crest

03:02

2 hrs. 02 min 03:01 02.80°S; 83.34°E 1 hr 55 min 03.01°S; 84.68°E First crest

02:54

2 hrs. 01 min 03:00 04.56°S; 82.70°E 1 hr 55 min 02:54 04.91°S; 84.00°E First arrival

Arrival, UTC Arrival, UTC Coordinates Wave Parameters

Jason-1

Travel Time

Coordinates

Topex/Poseidon

Travel Time

front (10) for the leading tsunami wave coincides with the border of the aftershock zone extending northward from the Island of Sumatra. As with the tide gage records for stations 1to 9, the leading wave measured by satellite was a 50 cm high wave crest (corrected for more persistent oceanic features such as eddies using altimeter data from the tracks before and after the event [data from Smith et al., 2005]. Using the times and positions for the leading edge of the first ‘‘south’’ wave (Sa) along the satellite tracks (Table 2), inverse wave tracing yields contours which generally coincide with one another and with contours calculated from tide gage data. These results position the southwestern border of the source region close to the main shock epicenter. Locating the northern boundary of the source region proved more problematic. The leading edge of the advancing Tsunami cannot be precisely pinpointed along the northern sections of the satellite tracks because the lead wave struck the coast a few minutes before the satellites passed over (Figure 1). Consequently, we have had to turn to the arrival times for the first wave crest (Table 2), which identifies the source region for the maximum tsunami waves. The ‘‘northern’’ peak in the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon records had a height of _40 cm. According to Figure 2b, the inverse Tsunami travel time lines for the northern peak (Np) pass through the northern part of the rupture zone between 9_ to 13_N. The eastern part of this particular zone cannot be the source for this peak because it was a subsidence region, and we can exclude the Andaman Islands because tsunamis are not Figure 3. (a) Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 altimetry profiles for the Indian Ocean. Empty circles indicate positions of the leading south wave (Sa), first south peak (Sp), and first north peak (Np). Elevations have been corrected for background oceanic features. (b) Contours of the earthquake surface displacements (in meters) for the vertical component of motion [from Ji, 2005] along with the calculated inverse traveltime contours for the peak waves from the satellite tracks. The solid blue and red lines were derived using peak waves on the southern (Sp) portion of the altimetry profiles; the dashed lines are the corresponding inverse first arrival contours for Sa. The thick black solid line denotes the plate boundary and the dashed box the principal earthquake zone. peak wave must have been located to the south of the Andaman Islands, between 9.0_ to 10.2_N, about 600–700 km north of the earthquake epicenter (3.3_N). We note that, if the leading edge of the satellite-detected Tsunami was actually that of the leading wave immediately after reflection from the Myanmar coast, the northern source region would need to be extended even further to the north. Wave-retracing based on the southern satellite altimetry peak (Sp) yields inverse contours that pass through the southern part of the aftershock area from NW to SE The resulting inverse propagation contours derived from the two satellite tracks are mutually consistent. They fall close to the plate boundary and agree well with the source of the principal tsunami defined by Bilham et al. [2005]. Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon Satellite Tracks.

front (10) for the leading tsunami wave coincides with the border of the aftershock zone extending northward from the Island of Sumatra. As with the tide gage records for stations 1to 9, the leading wave measured by satellite was a 50 cm high wave crest (corrected for more persistent oceanic features such as eddies using altimeter data from the tracks before and after the event [data from Smith et al., 2005]. Using the times and positions for the leading edge of the first ‘‘south’’ wave (Sa) along the satellite tracks (Table 2), inverse wave tracing yields contours which generally coincide with one another and with contours calculated from tide gage data. These results position the southwestern border of the source region close to the main shock epicenter. Locating the northern boundary of the source region proved more problematic. The leading edge of the advancing Tsunami cannot be precisely pinpointed along the northern sections of the satellite tracks because the lead wave struck the coast a few minutes before the satellites passed over (Figure 1). Consequently, we have had to turn to the arrival times for the first wave crest (Table 2), which identifies the source region for the maximum tsunami waves. The ‘‘northern’’ peak in the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon records had a height of _40 cm. According to Figure 2b, the inverse Tsunami travel time lines for the northern peak (Np) pass through the northern part of the rupture zone between 9_ to 13_N. The eastern part of this particular zone cannot be the source for this peak because it was a subsidence region, and we can exclude the Andaman Islands because tsunamis are not Figure 3. (a) Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 altimetry profiles for the Indian Ocean. Empty circles indicate positions of the leading south wave (Sa), first south peak (Sp), and first north peak (Np). Elevations have been corrected for background oceanic features. (b) Contours of the earthquake surface displacements (in meters) for the vertical component of motion [from Ji, 2005] along with the calculated inverse traveltime contours for the peak waves from the satellite tracks. The solid blue and red lines were derived using peak waves on the southern (Sp) portion of the altimetry profiles; the dashed lines are the corresponding inverse first arrival contours for Sa. The thick black solid line denotes the plate boundary and the dashed box the principal earthquake zone. peak wave must have been located to the south of the Andaman Islands, between 9.0_ to 10.2_N, about 600–700 km north of the earthquake epicenter (3.3_N). We note that, if the leading edge of the satellite-detected Tsunami was actually that of the leading wave immediately after reflection from the Myanmar coast, the northern source region would need to be extended even further to the north. Wave-retracing based on the southern satellite altimetry peak (Sp) yields inverse contours that pass through the southern part of the aftershock area from NW to SE The resulting inverse propagation contours derived from the two satellite tracks are mutually consistent. They fall close to the plate boundary and agree well with the source of the principal tsunami defined by Bilham et al. [2005].

Disaster Management

2 hrs. 10 min

334

Disaster Management

2 hrs. 02 min

334

2 hrs. 01 min

front (10) for the leading tsunami wave coincides with the border of the aftershock zone extending northward from the Island of Sumatra. As with the tide gage records for stations 1to 9, the leading wave measured by satellite was a 50 cm high wave crest (corrected for more persistent oceanic features such as eddies using altimeter data from the tracks before and after the event [data from Smith et al., 2005]. Using the times and positions for the leading edge of the first ‘‘south’’ wave (Sa) along the satellite tracks (Table 2), inverse wave tracing yields contours which generally coincide with one another and with contours calculated from tide gage data. These results position the southwestern border of the source region close to the main shock epicenter. Locating the northern boundary of the source region proved more problematic. The leading edge of the advancing Tsunami cannot be precisely pinpointed along the northern sections of the satellite tracks because the lead wave struck the coast a few minutes before the satellites passed over (Figure 1). Consequently, we have had to turn to the arrival times for the first wave crest (Table 2), which identifies the source region for the maximum tsunami waves. The ‘‘northern’’ peak in the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon records had a height of _40 cm. According to Figure 2b, the inverse Tsunami travel time lines for the northern peak (Np) pass through the northern part of the rupture zone between 9_ to 13_N. The eastern part of this particular zone cannot be the source for this peak because it was a subsidence region, and we can exclude the Andaman Islands because tsunamis are not Figure 3. (a) Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 altimetry profiles for the Indian Ocean. Empty circles indicate positions of the leading south wave (Sa), first south peak (Sp), and first north peak (Np). Elevations have been corrected for background oceanic features. (b) Contours of the earthquake surface displacements (in meters) for the vertical component of motion [from Ji, 2005] along with the calculated inverse traveltime contours for the peak waves from the satellite tracks. The solid blue and red lines were derived using peak waves on the southern (Sp) portion of the altimetry profiles; the dashed lines are the corresponding inverse first arrival contours for Sa. The thick black solid line denotes the plate boundary and the dashed box the principal earthquake zone. peak wave must have been located to the south of the Andaman Islands, between 9.0_ to 10.2_N, about 600–700 km north of the earthquake epicenter (3.3_N). We note that, if the leading edge of the satellite-detected Tsunami was actually that of the leading wave immediately after reflection from the Myanmar coast, the northern source region would need to be extended even further to the north. Wave-retracing based on the southern satellite altimetry peak (Sp) yields inverse contours that pass through the southern part of the aftershock area from NW to SE The resulting inverse propagation contours derived from the two satellite tracks are mutually consistent. They fall close to the plate boundary and agree well with the source of the principal tsunami defined by Bilham et al. [2005]. Travel Time

front (10) for the leading tsunami wave coincides with the border of the aftershock zone extending northward from the Island of Sumatra. As with the tide gage records for stations 1to 9, the leading wave measured by satellite was a 50 cm high wave crest (corrected for more persistent oceanic features such as eddies using altimeter data from the tracks before and after the event [data from Smith et al., 2005]. Using the times and positions for the leading edge of the first ‘‘south’’ wave (Sa) along the satellite tracks (Table 2), inverse wave tracing yields contours which generally coincide with one another and with contours calculated from tide gage data. These results position the southwestern border of the source region close to the main shock epicenter. Locating the northern boundary of the source region proved more problematic. The leading edge of the advancing Tsunami cannot be precisely pinpointed along the northern sections of the satellite tracks because the lead wave struck the coast a few minutes before the satellites passed over (Figure 1). Consequently, we have had to turn to the arrival times for the first wave crest (Table 2), which identifies the source region for the maximum tsunami waves. The ‘‘northern’’ peak in the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon records had a height of _40 cm. According to Figure 2b, the inverse Tsunami travel time lines for the northern peak (Np) pass through the northern part of the rupture zone between 9_ to 13_N. The eastern part of this particular zone cannot be the source for this peak because it was a subsidence region, and we can exclude the Andaman Islands because tsunamis are not Figure 3. (a) Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 altimetry profiles for the Indian Ocean. Empty circles indicate positions of the leading south wave (Sa), first south peak (Sp), and first north peak (Np). Elevations have been corrected for background oceanic features. (b) Contours of the earthquake surface displacements (in meters) for the vertical component of motion [from Ji, 2005] along with the calculated inverse traveltime contours for the peak waves from the satellite tracks. The solid blue and red lines were derived using peak waves on the southern (Sp) portion of the altimetry profiles; the dashed lines are the corresponding inverse first arrival contours for Sa. The thick black solid line denotes the plate boundary and the dashed box the principal earthquake zone. peak wave must have been located to the south of the Andaman Islands, between 9.0_ to 10.2_N, about 600–700 km north of the earthquake epicenter (3.3_N). We note that, if the leading edge of the satellite-detected Tsunami was actually that of the leading wave immediately after reflection from the Myanmar coast, the northern source region would need to be extended even further to the north. Wave-retracing based on the southern satellite altimetry peak (Sp) yields inverse contours that pass through the southern part of the aftershock area from NW to SE The resulting inverse propagation contours derived from the two satellite tracks are mutually consistent. They fall close to the plate boundary and agree well with the source of the principal tsunami defined by Bilham et al. [2005].

335

2 hrs. 10 min 03:09 19.59°S; 91.70°E 2 hr 03 min 18.81°S; 80.00°E First crest 2 hrs. 10 min 03:09 19.59°S; 91.70°E 2 hr 03 min 18.81°S; 80.00°E First crest

03:02

2 hrs. 02 min 03:01 02.80°S; 83.34°E 1 hr 55 min 03.01°S; 84.68°E First crest

02:54

2 hrs. 01 min 03:00 04.56°S; 82.70°E 1 hr 55 min 02:54 04.91°S; 84.00°E First arrival

Travel Time Arrival, UTC Arrival, UTC

Travel Time

Coordinates

Topex/Poseidon

335

03:02

2 hrs. 02 min 03:01 02.80°S; 83.34°E 1 hr 55 min 03.01°S; 84.68°E First crest

02:54

2 hrs. 01 min 03:00 04.56°S; 82.70°E 1 hr 55 min 02:54 04.91°S; 84.00°E First arrival

Arrival, UTC Wave Parameters

Coordinates

Arrival, UTC

Travel Time

Coordinates

Topex/Poseidon

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

2 hrs. 10 min 03:09 19.59°S; 91.70°E 2 hr 03 min 18.81°S; 80.00°E First crest

03:02

2 hrs. 02 min 03:01 02.80°S; 83.34°E 1 hr 55 min 03.01°S; 84.68°E First crest

02:54

2 hrs. 01 min 03:00 04.56°S; 82.70°E 1 hr 55 min 02:54 04.91°S; 84.00°E First arrival

Arrival, UTC Arrival, UTC Coordinates Wave Parameters

Jason-1

Travel Time

Coordinates

Topex/Poseidon

Travel Time

front (10) for the leading tsunami wave coincides with the border of the aftershock zone extending northward from the Island of Sumatra. As with the tide gage records for stations 1to 9, the leading wave measured by satellite was a 50 cm high wave crest (corrected for more persistent oceanic features such as eddies using altimeter data from the tracks before and after the event [data from Smith et al., 2005]. Using the times and positions for the leading edge of the first ‘‘south’’ wave (Sa) along the satellite tracks (Table 2), inverse wave tracing yields contours which generally coincide with one another and with contours calculated from tide gage data. These results position the southwestern border of the source region close to the main shock epicenter. Locating the northern boundary of the source region proved more problematic. The leading edge of the advancing Tsunami cannot be precisely pinpointed along the northern sections of the satellite tracks because the lead wave struck the coast a few minutes before the satellites passed over (Figure 1). Consequently, we have had to turn to the arrival times for the first wave crest (Table 2), which identifies the source region for the maximum tsunami waves. The ‘‘northern’’ peak in the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon records had a height of _40 cm. According to Figure 2b, the inverse Tsunami travel time lines for the northern peak (Np) pass through the northern part of the rupture zone between 9_ to 13_N. The eastern part of this particular zone cannot be the source for this peak because it was a subsidence region, and we can exclude the Andaman Islands because tsunamis are not Figure 3. (a) Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 altimetry profiles for the Indian Ocean. Empty circles indicate positions of the leading south wave (Sa), first south peak (Sp), and first north peak (Np). Elevations have been corrected for background oceanic features. (b) Contours of the earthquake surface displacements (in meters) for the vertical component of motion [from Ji, 2005] along with the calculated inverse traveltime contours for the peak waves from the satellite tracks. The solid blue and red lines were derived using peak waves on the southern (Sp) portion of the altimetry profiles; the dashed lines are the corresponding inverse first arrival contours for Sa. The thick black solid line denotes the plate boundary and the dashed box the principal earthquake zone. peak wave must have been located to the south of the Andaman Islands, between 9.0_ to 10.2_N, about 600–700 km north of the earthquake epicenter (3.3_N). We note that, if the leading edge of the satellite-detected Tsunami was actually that of the leading wave immediately after reflection from the Myanmar coast, the northern source region would need to be extended even further to the north. Wave-retracing based on the southern satellite altimetry peak (Sp) yields inverse contours that pass through the southern part of the aftershock area from NW to SE The resulting inverse propagation contours derived from the two satellite tracks are mutually consistent. They fall close to the plate boundary and agree well with the source of the principal tsunami defined by Bilham et al. [2005]. Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon Satellite Tracks.

Jason-1

335

Coordinates

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Travel Time

2 hrs. 10 min 03:09 19.59°S; 91.70°E 2 hr 03 min 18.81°S; 80.00°E First crest

03:02

2 hrs. 02 min 03:01 02.80°S; 83.34°E 1 hr 55 min 03.01°S; 84.68°E First crest

02:54

2 hrs. 01 min 03:00 04.56°S; 82.70°E 1 hr 55 min 02:54 04.91°S; 84.00°E First arrival

Arrival, UTC Wave Parameters

Coordinates

Arrival, UTC

Travel Time

Coordinates

Topex/Poseidon

Disaster Management

Jason-1

334

Jason-1

Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon Satellite Tracks.

Travel Time

front (10) for the leading tsunami wave coincides with the border of the aftershock zone extending northward from the Island of Sumatra. As with the tide gage records for stations 1to 9, the leading wave measured by satellite was a 50 cm high wave crest (corrected for more persistent oceanic features such as eddies using altimeter data from the tracks before and after the event [data from Smith et al., 2005]. Using the times and positions for the leading edge of the first ‘‘south’’ wave (Sa) along the satellite tracks (Table 2), inverse wave tracing yields contours which generally coincide with one another and with contours calculated from tide gage data. These results position the southwestern border of the source region close to the main shock epicenter. Locating the northern boundary of the source region proved more problematic. The leading edge of the advancing Tsunami cannot be precisely pinpointed along the northern sections of the satellite tracks because the lead wave struck the coast a few minutes before the satellites passed over (Figure 1). Consequently, we have had to turn to the arrival times for the first wave crest (Table 2), which identifies the source region for the maximum tsunami waves. The ‘‘northern’’ peak in the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon records had a height of _40 cm. According to Figure 2b, the inverse Tsunami travel time lines for the northern peak (Np) pass through the northern part of the rupture zone between 9_ to 13_N. The eastern part of this particular zone cannot be the source for this peak because it was a subsidence region, and we can exclude the Andaman Islands because tsunamis are not Figure 3. (a) Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1 altimetry profiles for the Indian Ocean. Empty circles indicate positions of the leading south wave (Sa), first south peak (Sp), and first north peak (Np). Elevations have been corrected for background oceanic features. (b) Contours of the earthquake surface displacements (in meters) for the vertical component of motion [from Ji, 2005] along with the calculated inverse traveltime contours for the peak waves from the satellite tracks. The solid blue and red lines were derived using peak waves on the southern (Sp) portion of the altimetry profiles; the dashed lines are the corresponding inverse first arrival contours for Sa. The thick black solid line denotes the plate boundary and the dashed box the principal earthquake zone. peak wave must have been located to the south of the Andaman Islands, between 9.0_ to 10.2_N, about 600–700 km north of the earthquake epicenter (3.3_N). We note that, if the leading edge of the satellite-detected Tsunami was actually that of the leading wave immediately after reflection from the Myanmar coast, the northern source region would need to be extended even further to the north. Wave-retracing based on the southern satellite altimetry peak (Sp) yields inverse contours that pass through the southern part of the aftershock area from NW to SE The resulting inverse propagation contours derived from the two satellite tracks are mutually consistent. They fall close to the plate boundary and agree well with the source of the principal tsunami defined by Bilham et al. [2005].

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Wave Parameters

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon Satellite Tracks.

Disaster Management

Table 1: Tsumani Properties Estimated from the Jason-1 and Topex/Poseidon Satellite Tracks.

334

335

336

Disaster Management

Indian Scenario Palanivelu et al (2006) has studied the ground water quality assessment in the Tsunami-affected coastal areas of Chennai, located in the 250 Km north of the study area. They have studied the TDS values and observed that at a few locations away from the sea there showed an increase of TDS from May to September 2005. The increase may be due to insufficient rainfall in Chennai during this period till September, which in turn shows that the southern part of the coastal Chennai is highly contaminated compared to the northern part. TDS levels observed after Tsunami were within the range as observed during September 2004. Thus their study reveals that the recorded TDS values over time indicate that there is no major impact of the Tsunami on water quality. They concluded that the groundwater quality has deteriorated due with lack of sufficient rainfall leading to sea-water intrusion that is reflected in high TDS and chloride content of the samples. Muralideran et al (2005) has studied the imprint of 26 December 2004 Sumatra earthquake in the aquifers of the Hyderabad granite pluton. They explained that the earthquake had induced hydrological changes caused by changes in hydrostatic pressure due to earthquake-induced changes in crustal volumetric strain. The effects before and after the Sumatra earthquake were clearly registered in hydrographs of wells located over Hyderabad granite pluton. They presented the micro-level impressions registered in hydrograph of a deep bore-well located in the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) campus, Hyderabad, supported with records of other bore wells located more than ~100 km away from the NGRI well site. The signature of Tsunami on water level was well registered by a quiescent prelude followed by turbulence. The quiet period between08:44:40 and 09:19:20 is the first of its kind in the hydrograph record so far gathered. It coincides with recession of sea observed prior to the Tsunami. Perturbations observed between 09:19:20 and 10:00:40 h coincide with the hit time of tsunami on the east coast. According to the tidal records of Survey of India and its notification, the Tsunami that hit at Visakapatinam by 09:10:00 h was considered for analysis as it is near Hyderabad compared with other tidal stations. The disturbance observed on the hydrograph lags nearly by 10 min with the hit time of the Tsunami. They observed rise in water level from 25 December 2004 to 2 January 2005, and a decline beyond 2 January during non monsoon period, collectively indicates the effect of the Sumatra main earthquake and aftershocks. The rise in water level was about 90 mm. In order to confirm their observation, continuous water-level data of forty wells in the Mehaboobnagar district was observed. Andhra Pradesh was also collected data from the State Groundwater Department and analyzed it. Similar a rises in water levels during the that period were also observed by them, in only four out of forty bore-wells near the coast. We have also identified that the Tsunami inundated region ranges in these regions from 0.5 to 1 Km from the coast in Tamilnadu (Fig 2).From our detailed

336

Disaster Management

Indian Scenario Palanivelu et al (2006) has studied the ground water quality assessment in the Tsunami-affected coastal areas of Chennai, located in the 250 Km north of the study area. They have studied the TDS values and observed that at a few locations away from the sea there showed an increase of TDS from May to September 2005. The increase may be due to insufficient rainfall in Chennai during this period till September, which in turn shows that the southern part of the coastal Chennai is highly contaminated compared to the northern part. TDS levels observed after Tsunami were within the range as observed during September 2004. Thus their study reveals that the recorded TDS values over time indicate that there is no major impact of the Tsunami on water quality. They concluded that the groundwater quality has deteriorated due with lack of sufficient rainfall leading to sea-water intrusion that is reflected in high TDS and chloride content of the samples. Muralideran et al (2005) has studied the imprint of 26 December 2004 Sumatra earthquake in the aquifers of the Hyderabad granite pluton. They explained that the earthquake had induced hydrological changes caused by changes in hydrostatic pressure due to earthquake-induced changes in crustal volumetric strain. The effects before and after the Sumatra earthquake were clearly registered in hydrographs of wells located over Hyderabad granite pluton. They presented the micro-level impressions registered in hydrograph of a deep bore-well located in the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) campus, Hyderabad, supported with records of other bore wells located more than ~100 km away from the NGRI well site. The signature of Tsunami on water level was well registered by a quiescent prelude followed by turbulence. The quiet period between08:44:40 and 09:19:20 is the first of its kind in the hydrograph record so far gathered. It coincides with recession of sea observed prior to the Tsunami. Perturbations observed between 09:19:20 and 10:00:40 h coincide with the hit time of tsunami on the east coast. According to the tidal records of Survey of India and its notification, the Tsunami that hit at Visakapatinam by 09:10:00 h was considered for analysis as it is near Hyderabad compared with other tidal stations. The disturbance observed on the hydrograph lags nearly by 10 min with the hit time of the Tsunami. They observed rise in water level from 25 December 2004 to 2 January 2005, and a decline beyond 2 January during non monsoon period, collectively indicates the effect of the Sumatra main earthquake and aftershocks. The rise in water level was about 90 mm. In order to confirm their observation, continuous water-level data of forty wells in the Mehaboobnagar district was observed. Andhra Pradesh was also collected data from the State Groundwater Department and analyzed it. Similar a rises in water levels during the that period were also observed by them, in only four out of forty bore-wells near the coast. We have also identified that the Tsunami inundated region ranges in these regions from 0.5 to 1 Km from the coast in Tamilnadu (Fig 2).From our detailed

336

Disaster Management

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

337

Indian Scenario Palanivelu et al (2006) has studied the ground water quality assessment in the Tsunami-affected coastal areas of Chennai, located in the 250 Km north of the study area. They have studied the TDS values and observed that at a few locations away from the sea there showed an increase of TDS from May to September 2005. The increase may be due to insufficient rainfall in Chennai during this period till September, which in turn shows that the southern part of the coastal Chennai is highly contaminated compared to the northern part. TDS levels observed after Tsunami were within the range as observed during September 2004. Thus their study reveals that the recorded TDS values over time indicate that there is no major impact of the Tsunami on water quality. They concluded that the groundwater quality has deteriorated due with lack of sufficient rainfall leading to sea-water intrusion that is reflected in high TDS and chloride content of the samples. Muralideran et al (2005) has studied the imprint of 26 December 2004 Sumatra earthquake in Inundation the aquifers of the Hyderabad granite pluton. They Fig 2. caused by Tsunami explained that the earthquake had induced hydrological changes caused by changes in hydrostatic pressure due to earthquake-induced changes in crustal studyvolumetric we have inferred the processes responsible for the changes in water quantitywere strain. The effects before and after Sumatra earthquake and clearly quality registered after the Tsunami in the shallow ground waters of this region which in hydrographs of wells located over Hyderabad granite pluton. haveThey been presented controllingthe themicro-level hydrochemical changesregistered of ground in water after tsunami. impressions hydrograph of a deep Our bore-well study futher elaborate the process as being responsible for(NGRI) the present located in theof National Geophysical Research Institute campus, day Hyderabad, ground water quality used for drinking water .After the Tsunami sea than water~100 supported with records of other bore wells located more entered water table the open or tube wells and theon entrapped km the away from the through NGRI well site. wells The signature of Tsunami water level water got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during 05,quiet was well registered by a quiescent prelude followed by turbulence.Jan The laterperiod high temperature in the summer months might have resulted in the formation between08:44:40 and 09:19:20 is the first of its kind in the hydrograph of salt precipitates near the surface or in with pore recession spaces andofsubsequent dilution record so far gathered. It coincides sea observed prior in to the the end of March 05 by sparse rain. between After precipitation and 10:00:40 dissolution, salt Tsunami. Perturbations observed 09:19:20 and h coincide leached the of surface to on thethe shallow groundwater zones enhancing the of without the from hit time tsunami east coast. According to the tidal records EC Survey and TDS of the groundwater of August 05. Thus the impact of direct of India and its notification, the Tsunami that hit at Visakapatinam by infiltration or hdirect of Tsunami waters these waterscompared in coastalwith 09:10:00 was mixing considered for analysis ason it is nearground Hyderabad areasother of Tamilnadu has relatively lesser effect than the subsequent precipitation tidal stations. The disturbance observed on the hydrograph lags nearly and by dissolution of salts formed by the theTsunami. entrappedThey sea observed water which happened 10 min with the hit time of rise in water level afterfrom the Tsunami event. 25 December 2004 to 2 January 2005, and a decline beyond 2 January Wave based on the initial Tsunamiindicates arrival times thethe general duringre-tracing non monsoon period, collectively the defines effect of Sumatra source region for the 2004 Sumatra tsunami as a curved, 250-km wide, roughly main earthquake and aftershocks. The rise in water level was about 90 mm. In 1000-km earthquake segment centeredwater-level over the Sunda order long to confirm their rupture observation, continuous data ofSubduction forty wells in Zone. The next step was to identify locations of more localized, the Mehaboobnagar district was observed. Andhra Pradesh was imbedded also collected source responsible the major Department wave destruction in the Indian Ocean. dataareas from the State for Groundwater and analyzed it. Similar a rises The in re-traced wave fronts from the peak-wave satellite track position Sp water levels during the that period were also observed by them, in(Table only four 2) and the bore-wells peak-wave near arrival out from of forty thecontours coast. estimated from the western (3–8) group ofWe tidehave gages intersect at approximately 4.5 0inundated N, 94 0 Eregion , identifying thisthese also identified that the Tsunami ranges in as the likely generation region for the destructive Tsunami waves. regions from 0.5 to 1 Km from the coast in Tamilnadu (Fig 2).From our detailed

336

Disaster Management

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

337

Indian Scenario Palanivelu et al (2006) has studied the ground water quality assessment in the Tsunami-affected coastal areas of Chennai, located in the 250 Km north of the study area. They have studied the TDS values and observed that at a few locations away from the sea there showed an increase of TDS from May to September 2005. The increase may be due to insufficient rainfall in Chennai during this period till September, which in turn shows that the southern part of the coastal Chennai is highly contaminated compared to the northern part. TDS levels observed after Tsunami were within the range as observed during September 2004. Thus their study reveals that the recorded TDS values over time indicate that there is no major impact of the Tsunami on water quality. They concluded that the groundwater quality has deteriorated due with lack of sufficient rainfall leading to sea-water intrusion that is reflected in high TDS and chloride content of the samples. Muralideran et al (2005) has studied the imprint of 26 December 2004 Sumatra earthquake in Inundation the aquifers of the Hyderabad granite pluton. They Fig 2. caused by Tsunami explained that the earthquake had induced hydrological changes caused by changes in hydrostatic pressure due to earthquake-induced changes in crustal studyvolumetric we have inferred the processes responsible for the changes in water quantitywere strain. The effects before and after Sumatra earthquake and clearly quality registered after the Tsunami in the shallow ground waters of this region which in hydrographs of wells located over Hyderabad granite pluton. haveThey been presented controllingthe themicro-level hydrochemical changes of ground water after tsunami. impressions registered in hydrograph of a deep Our bore-well study futher elaborate the process as being responsible for(NGRI) the present located in theof National Geophysical Research Institute campus, day Hyderabad, ground water quality used for drinking water .After the Tsunami sea water supported with records of other bore wells located more than ~100 entered water table the open or tube wells and theon entrapped km the away from the through NGRI well site. wells The signature of Tsunami water level water got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during 05,quiet was well registered by a quiescent prelude followed by turbulence.Jan The laterperiod high temperature in the summer months might have resulted in the formation between08:44:40 and 09:19:20 is the first of its kind in the hydrograph of salt precipitates near the surface or in with pore recession spaces andofsubsequent dilution record so far gathered. It coincides sea observed prior in to the the end of March 05 by sparse rain. After precipitation and dissolution, salt Tsunami. Perturbations observed between 09:19:20 and 10:00:40 h coincide leached the of surface to on thethe shallow groundwater zones enhancing the of without the from hit time tsunami east coast. According to the tidal records EC Survey and TDS of the groundwater of August 05. Thus the impact of direct of India and its notification, the Tsunami that hit at Visakapatinam by infiltration or hdirect of Tsunami waters these waterscompared in coastalwith 09:10:00 was mixing considered for analysis ason it is nearground Hyderabad areasother of Tamilnadu has relatively lesser effect than the subsequent precipitation tidal stations. The disturbance observed on the hydrograph lags nearly and by dissolution of salts formed by the theTsunami. entrappedThey sea observed water which happened 10 min with the hit time of rise in water level afterfrom the Tsunami event. 25 December 2004 to 2 January 2005, and a decline beyond 2 January Wave based on the initial Tsunamiindicates arrival times thethe general duringre-tracing non monsoon period, collectively the defines effect of Sumatra source region for the and 2004aftershocks. Sumatra tsunami as in a curved, 250-km main earthquake The rise water level waswide, aboutroughly 90 mm. In 1000-km earthquake segment centeredwater-level over the Sunda order long to confirm their rupture observation, continuous data ofSubduction forty wells in Zone. The next step was to identify locations of more localized, the Mehaboobnagar district was observed. Andhra Pradesh was imbedded also collected source responsible the major Department wave destruction in the Indian Ocean. dataareas from the State for Groundwater and analyzed it. Similar a rises The in re-traced wave fronts from the peak-wave satellite track position Sp water levels during the that period were also observed by them, in(Table only four 2) and the bore-wells peak-wave near arrival out from of forty thecontours coast. estimated from the western (3–8) group ofWe tidehave gages intersect at approximately 4.5 0inundated N, 94 0 Eregion , identifying thisthese also identified that the Tsunami ranges in as the likelyfrom generation for the the coast destructive Tsunami(Fig waves. regions 0.5 to 1region Km from in Tamilnadu 2).From our detailed

336

Disaster Management

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

337

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

337

Indian Scenario Palanivelu et al (2006) has studied the ground water quality assessment in the Tsunami-affected coastal areas of Chennai, located in the 250 Km north of the study area. They have studied the TDS values and observed that at a few locations away from the sea there showed an increase of TDS from May to September 2005. The increase may be due to insufficient rainfall in Chennai during this period till September, which in turn shows that the southern part of the coastal Chennai is highly contaminated compared to the northern part. TDS levels observed after Tsunami were within the range as observed during September 2004. Thus their study reveals that the recorded TDS values over time indicate that there is no major impact of the Tsunami on water quality. They concluded that the groundwater quality has deteriorated due with lack of sufficient rainfall leading to sea-water intrusion that is reflected in high TDS and chloride content of the samples. Muralideran et al (2005) has studied the imprint of 26 December 2004 Sumatra earthquake in Inundation the aquifers of the Hyderabad granite pluton. They Fig 2. caused by Tsunami explained that the earthquake had induced hydrological changes caused by changes in hydrostatic pressure due to earthquake-induced changes in crustal studyvolumetric we have inferred the processes responsible for the changes in water quantitywere strain. The effects before and after Sumatra earthquake and clearly quality registered after the Tsunami in the shallow ground waters of this region which in hydrographs of wells located over Hyderabad granite pluton. haveThey been presented controllingthe themicro-level hydrochemical changesregistered of ground in water after tsunami. impressions hydrograph of a deep Our bore-well study futher elaborate the process as being responsible for(NGRI) the present located in theof National Geophysical Research Institute campus, day Hyderabad, ground water quality used for drinking water .After the Tsunami sea than water~100 supported with records of other bore wells located more entered water table the open or tube wells and theon entrapped km the away from the through NGRI well site. wells The signature of Tsunami water level water got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during 05,quiet was well registered by a quiescent prelude followed by turbulence.Jan The laterperiod high temperature in the summer months might have resulted in the formation between08:44:40 and 09:19:20 is the first of its kind in the hydrograph of salt precipitates near the surface or in with pore recession spaces andofsubsequent dilution record so far gathered. It coincides sea observed prior in to the the end of March 05 by sparse rain. between After precipitation and 10:00:40 dissolution, salt Tsunami. Perturbations observed 09:19:20 and h coincide leached the of surface to on thethe shallow groundwater zones enhancing the of without the from hit time tsunami east coast. According to the tidal records EC Survey and TDS of the groundwater of August 05. Thus the impact of direct of India and its notification, the Tsunami that hit at Visakapatinam by infiltration or hdirect of Tsunami waters these waterscompared in coastalwith 09:10:00 was mixing considered for analysis ason it is nearground Hyderabad areasother of Tamilnadu has relatively lesser effect than the subsequent precipitation tidal stations. The disturbance observed on the hydrograph lags nearly and by dissolution of salts formed by the theTsunami. entrappedThey sea observed water which happened 10 min with the hit time of rise in water level afterfrom the Tsunami event. 25 December 2004 to 2 January 2005, and a decline beyond 2 January Wave based on the initial Tsunamiindicates arrival times thethe general duringre-tracing non monsoon period, collectively the defines effect of Sumatra source region for the 2004 Sumatra tsunami as a curved, 250-km wide, roughly main earthquake and aftershocks. The rise in water level was about 90 mm. In 1000-km earthquake segment centeredwater-level over the Sunda order long to confirm their rupture observation, continuous data ofSubduction forty wells in Zone. The next step was to identify locations of more localized, the Mehaboobnagar district was observed. Andhra Pradesh was imbedded also collected source responsible the major Department wave destruction in the Indian Ocean. dataareas from the State for Groundwater and analyzed it. Similar a rises The in re-traced wave fronts from the peak-wave satellite track position Sp water levels during the that period were also observed by them, in(Table only four 2) and the bore-wells peak-wave near arrival out from of forty thecontours coast. estimated from the western (3–8) group ofWe tidehave gages intersect at approximately 4.5 0inundated N, 94 0 Eregion , identifying thisthese also identified that the Tsunami ranges in as the likely generation region for the destructive Tsunami waves. regions from 0.5 to 1 Km from the coast in Tamilnadu (Fig 2).From our detailed

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Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

337

Fig 2. Inundation caused by Tsunami

study we have inferred the processes responsible for changes in water quantity and quality after the Tsunami in the shallow ground waters of this region which have been controlling the hydrochemical changes of ground water after tsunami. Our study futher elaborate of the process as being responsible for the present day ground water quality used for drinking water .After the Tsunami sea water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells and the entrapped water got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05, later high temperature in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end of March 05 by sparse rain. After precipitation and dissolution, salt leached out from the surface to the shallow groundwater zones enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater of August 05. Thus the impact of direct infiltration or direct mixing of Tsunami waters on these ground waters in coastal areas of Tamilnadu has relatively lesser effect than the subsequent precipitation and dissolution of salts formed by the entrapped sea water which happened after the Tsunami event. Wave re-tracing based on the initial Tsunami arrival times defines the general source region for the 2004 Sumatra tsunami as a curved, 250-km wide, roughly 1000-km long earthquake rupture segment centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone. The next step was to identify locations of more localized, imbedded source areas responsible for the major wave destruction in the Indian Ocean. The re-traced wave fronts from the peak-wave satellite track position Sp (Table 2) and from the peak-wave arrival contours estimated from the western (3–8) group of tide gages intersect at approximately 4.5 0 N, 94 0 E , identifying this as the likely generation region for the destructive Tsunami waves.

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

337

Indian Scenario Palanivelu et al (2006) has studied the ground water quality assessment in the Tsunami-affected coastal areas of Chennai, located in the 250 Km north of the study area. They have studied the TDS values and observed that at a few locations away from the sea there showed an increase of TDS from May to September 2005. The increase may be due to insufficient rainfall in Chennai during this period till September, which in turn shows that the southern part of the coastal Chennai is highly contaminated compared to the northern part. TDS levels observed after Tsunami were within the range as observed during September 2004. Thus their study reveals that the recorded TDS values over time indicate that there is no major impact of the Tsunami on water quality. They concluded that the groundwater quality has deteriorated due with lack of sufficient rainfall leading to sea-water intrusion that is reflected in high TDS and chloride content of the samples. Muralideran et al (2005) has studied the imprint of 26 December 2004 Sumatra earthquake in Inundation the aquifers of the Hyderabad granite pluton. They Fig 2. caused by Tsunami explained that the earthquake had induced hydrological changes caused by changes in hydrostatic pressure due to earthquake-induced changes in crustal studyvolumetric we have inferred the processes responsible for the changes in water quantitywere strain. The effects before and after Sumatra earthquake and clearly quality registered after the Tsunami in the shallow ground waters of this region which in hydrographs of wells located over Hyderabad granite pluton. haveThey been presented controllingthe themicro-level hydrochemical changes of ground water after tsunami. impressions registered in hydrograph of a deep Our bore-well study futher elaborate the process as being responsible for(NGRI) the present located in theof National Geophysical Research Institute campus, day Hyderabad, ground water quality used for drinking water .After the Tsunami sea water supported with records of other bore wells located more than ~100 entered water table the open or tube wells and theon entrapped km the away from the through NGRI well site. wells The signature of Tsunami water level water got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during 05,quiet was well registered by a quiescent prelude followed by turbulence.Jan The laterperiod high temperature in the summer months might have resulted in the formation between08:44:40 and 09:19:20 is the first of its kind in the hydrograph of salt precipitates near the surface or in with pore recession spaces andofsubsequent dilution record so far gathered. It coincides sea observed prior in to the the end of March 05 by sparse rain. After precipitation and dissolution, salt Tsunami. Perturbations observed between 09:19:20 and 10:00:40 h coincide leached the of surface to on thethe shallow groundwater zones enhancing the of without the from hit time tsunami east coast. According to the tidal records EC Survey and TDS of the groundwater of August 05. Thus the impact of direct of India and its notification, the Tsunami that hit at Visakapatinam by infiltration or hdirect of Tsunami waters these waterscompared in coastalwith 09:10:00 was mixing considered for analysis ason it is nearground Hyderabad areasother of Tamilnadu has relatively lesser effect than the subsequent precipitation tidal stations. The disturbance observed on the hydrograph lags nearly and by dissolution of salts formed by the theTsunami. entrappedThey sea observed water which happened 10 min with the hit time of rise in water level afterfrom the Tsunami event. 25 December 2004 to 2 January 2005, and a decline beyond 2 January Wave based on the initial Tsunamiindicates arrival times thethe general duringre-tracing non monsoon period, collectively the defines effect of Sumatra source region for the and 2004aftershocks. Sumatra tsunami as in a curved, 250-km main earthquake The rise water level waswide, aboutroughly 90 mm. In 1000-km earthquake segment centeredwater-level over the Sunda order long to confirm their rupture observation, continuous data ofSubduction forty wells in Zone. The next step was to identify locations of more localized, the Mehaboobnagar district was observed. Andhra Pradesh was imbedded also collected source responsible the major Department wave destruction in the Indian Ocean. dataareas from the State for Groundwater and analyzed it. Similar a rises The in re-traced wave fronts from the peak-wave satellite track position Sp water levels during the that period were also observed by them, in(Table only four 2) and the bore-wells peak-wave near arrival out from of forty thecontours coast. estimated from the western (3–8) group ofWe tidehave gages intersect at approximately 4.5 0inundated N, 94 0 Eregion , identifying thisthese also identified that the Tsunami ranges in as the likelyfrom generation for the the coast destructive Tsunami(Fig waves. regions 0.5 to 1region Km from in Tamilnadu 2).From our detailed

Fig 2. Inundation caused by Tsunami

study we have inferred the processes responsible for changes in water quantity and quality after the Tsunami in the shallow ground waters of this region which have been controlling the hydrochemical changes of ground water after tsunami. Our study futher elaborate of the process as being responsible for the present day ground water quality used for drinking water .After the Tsunami sea water entered the water table through the open wells or tube wells and the entrapped water got infiltered into the water table of the coastal alluvium during Jan 05, later high temperature in the summer months might have resulted in the formation of salt precipitates near the surface or in pore spaces and subsequent dilution in the end of March 05 by sparse rain. After precipitation and dissolution, salt leached out from the surface to the shallow groundwater zones enhancing the EC and TDS of the groundwater of August 05. Thus the impact of direct infiltration or direct mixing of Tsunami waters on these ground waters in coastal areas of Tamilnadu has relatively lesser effect than the subsequent precipitation and dissolution of salts formed by the entrapped sea water which happened after the Tsunami event. Wave re-tracing based on the initial Tsunami arrival times defines the general source region for the 2004 Sumatra tsunami as a curved, 250-km wide, roughly 1000-km long earthquake rupture segment centered over the Sunda Subduction Zone. The next step was to identify locations of more localized, imbedded source areas responsible for the major wave destruction in the Indian Ocean. The re-traced wave fronts from the peak-wave satellite track position Sp (Table 2) and from the peak-wave arrival contours estimated from the western (3–8) group of tide gages intersect at approximately 4.5 0 N, 94 0 E , identifying this as the likely generation region for the destructive Tsunami waves.

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Disaster Management

In summary, the tide gage (Table 1) and satellite (Table 2) data reveal two well-defined zones that include most of the crossings (the most probable source areas) of the inverse wave-propagation fronts for wave crests: (1) a ‘‘southern source’’ located west of North Sumatra (2.5_– 5.3_N), close to the main epicenter; and (2) a ‘‘northern source’’ immediately to the south of the Andaman Islands (9.0_–10.2_N). This ‘‘dual source’’ concept is supported by estimates of the surface deformation measured in this region by GPS [Vigny et al., 2005] and by independent conclusions provided by analyses of hydro acoustic and low-frequency seismic information from two small research arrays in Diego Garcia and Thailand (Guilbert et al., 2005). The southern source region is coincident with the ‘‘fast slip’’ area estimated from body waves [Stein and Okal, 2005; Ji, 2005]. According to our computations, this zone is responsible for the generation of the major tsunami waves that struck Sri Lanka, the Maldives and the coasts of East and South Africa. The ‘‘peak’’ source had a spatial extent of about 350 km. When findings for the leading waves are included, the entire southern source is estimated to be 600–650 km long, in agreement with seismological estimates [Stein and Okal, 2005; Bilham et al., 2005; Ji, 2005]. The northern Tsunami source region coincides with the area of slow slip [Stein and Okal, 2005]. This weaker source region was responsible for the somewhat smaller first waves that reached the coasts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, and eastern India. When both segments are combined, the Tsunami source region derived from the first-wave arrival times is more than 1000 km long. It was because of this large spatial extent that low frequency wave components were so prevalent in the Tsunami waves recorded throughout the world ocean. Managing the impact of Tsunami The nations of the region and several international organizations are working together to develop an effective tsunami early warning system that will reach the entire regional community, particularly the most vulnerable groups. What is known about past and future coastal change can be applied to define a reference line showing where the shoreline is anticipated to be, for example, by 2050. Detailed aerial photographs could be prepared reach by reach for all of the region’s shoreline, showing conditions as they were before and after the tsunami. A reference line could be drawn on such photographs showing the mean high water mark anticipated by the 2050 median projection for a sea level rise of 30cm made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This reference line should be modified by other tectonic and coastal data affecting anticipated coastal change in specific areas. Where information is available, data on the anticipated effect of historical trends in erosion and accretion to 2050 and the inland extent of flooding in past storms should also be integrated into estimates of the future position of shorelines. A recommended construction setback line should be established by each government a set distance and/or elevation inland of the reference line. The

338

Disaster Management

In summary, the tide gage (Table 1) and satellite (Table 2) data reveal two well-defined zones that include most of the crossings (the most probable source areas) of the inverse wave-propagation fronts for wave crests: (1) a ‘‘southern source’’ located west of North Sumatra (2.5_– 5.3_N), close to the main epicenter; and (2) a ‘‘northern source’’ immediately to the south of the Andaman Islands (9.0_–10.2_N). This ‘‘dual source’’ concept is supported by estimates of the surface deformation measured in this region by GPS [Vigny et al., 2005] and by independent conclusions provided by analyses of hydro acoustic and low-frequency seismic information from two small research arrays in Diego Garcia and Thailand (Guilbert et al., 2005). The southern source region is coincident with the ‘‘fast slip’’ area estimated from body waves [Stein and Okal, 2005; Ji, 2005]. According to our computations, this zone is responsible for the generation of the major tsunami waves that struck Sri Lanka, the Maldives and the coasts of East and South Africa. The ‘‘peak’’ source had a spatial extent of about 350 km. When findings for the leading waves are included, the entire southern source is estimated to be 600–650 km long, in agreement with seismological estimates [Stein and Okal, 2005; Bilham et al., 2005; Ji, 2005]. The northern Tsunami source region coincides with the area of slow slip [Stein and Okal, 2005]. This weaker source region was responsible for the somewhat smaller first waves that reached the coasts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, and eastern India. When both segments are combined, the Tsunami source region derived from the first-wave arrival times is more than 1000 km long. It was because of this large spatial extent that low frequency wave components were so prevalent in the Tsunami waves recorded throughout the world ocean. Managing the impact of Tsunami The nations of the region and several international organizations are working together to develop an effective tsunami early warning system that will reach the entire regional community, particularly the most vulnerable groups. What is known about past and future coastal change can be applied to define a reference line showing where the shoreline is anticipated to be, for example, by 2050. Detailed aerial photographs could be prepared reach by reach for all of the region’s shoreline, showing conditions as they were before and after the tsunami. A reference line could be drawn on such photographs showing the mean high water mark anticipated by the 2050 median projection for a sea level rise of 30cm made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This reference line should be modified by other tectonic and coastal data affecting anticipated coastal change in specific areas. Where information is available, data on the anticipated effect of historical trends in erosion and accretion to 2050 and the inland extent of flooding in past storms should also be integrated into estimates of the future position of shorelines. A recommended construction setback line should be established by each government a set distance and/or elevation inland of the reference line. The

338

Disaster Management

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

339

In summary, the tideline gage (Table and satellite data reveal area seaward of the setback should be 1) designated as a (Table strictly 2) enforced “no- two well-defined thatthat include of theare crossings (the most source build” zone. It is zones essential suchmost setbacks incorporated into probable the existing areas) system of the inverse fronts for waveand crests: (1) a ‘‘southern regulatory and are wave-propagation applied equitably to the wealthy the poor. source’’ located west ofwith North Sumatra (2.5_– relief, 5.3_N),practical close todisaster the main On low-lying shorelines little topographical epicenter;plans and (2) a ‘‘northern source’’ to the speedy south ofevacuation the Andaman preparedness should be developed andimmediately tested that feature Islandsto(9.0_–10.2_N). ThisThe ‘‘dual source’’ supported by estimates of people protected shelters. width of theconcept no-buildis zone determined by the surface in this region by GPS than [Vigny al., 2005] the of setback shoulddeformation be greater measured in as-yet-undeveloped shores in etalready and byareas. independent conclusions provided by analyseson-site of hydro acoustic urbanized Designate setback lines with permanent markers and and low-frequency information from measure. two smallExceptions research arrays in Diego should enforce themseismic uniformly as a regulatory for building Garciaseaward and Thailand (Guilbert al., 2005). The only southern region structures of the setback lineetshould be granted wheresource required to is coincident with the ‘‘fast activities slip’’ areaasestimated from body waves support such water-dependent fishing and navigation (not [Stein tourist and Okal,or2005; Ji, 2005]. According to our computations, zone is responsible facilities permanent settlements). Where such exceptions arethis granted, structures for be the temporary generation or of the tsunami waves thatby struck Sri Lanka,structural the Maldives should builtmajor to withstand flooding strengthened and the of East South a spatial members andcoasts elevated first and floors thatAfrica. permit The flood‘‘peak’’ waterssource to flowhad through extent ofAttention about 350should km. When findings leading are included, unimpeded. be given to for thethe impact of waves such structures on the entirecoastal southern source estimatedactions to be 600–650 adjacent areas, and ismitigation taken. km long, in agreement with seismological estimates [Stein and Okal, 2005; Bilham et al., 2005; Ji, 2005]. The northern Tsunami source region coincides with the area of slow slip REFERENCES [Stein andTsunami Okal, 2005]. This weaker regionPhys. wasEarth responsible for the Abe, K. (1973), and mechanism of greatsource earthquakes, Planet. Inter., somewhat smaller first waves that reached the coasts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, 7, 143– 153. and R., eastern When combined, thePartial Tsunami region Bilham, E. R.India. Engdahl, N. both Feldl,segments and S. P. are Satyabala (2005), andsource complete derivedoffrom the first-wavePlate arrival times 1847 is more thanSeismol. 1000 km rupture the Indo-Andaman boundary, – 2004, Res.long. Lett., Itin was press. because of this large spatial extent that low frequency wave components were British Data Centre waves (2003), recorded GEBCO Digital Atlas,the Natl.Environ. Res. so Oceanographic prevalent in the Tsunami throughout world ocean. Counc., Swindon, U. K. Gower, J. (2005), Jason-1 detects the December 26 2004 tsunami, Eos Trans. AGU, Managing the impact of Tsunami 86(4), 37– 38. Guilbert et al., 2005 The nations of the region and several international organizations are working Ji, C. (2005), Magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the west coast of northern Sumatra: together to develop an effective tsunami early warning system that will reach Preliminary rupture model, report, U.S. Geol. Surv., Denver, Colo. (Available at the entire regional community, particularly the most vulnerable groups. What is http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/ neic_slav_ff.html) known about past and future coastal change can be applied to Ocean definetsunami, a reference Merrifield, M. A., et al. (2005), Tide gage observations of the Indian line showing where the shoreline is anticipated to be, for example, by 2050. December 26, 2004, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09603, doi:10.1029/2005GL022610. Detailed aerial photographs could be prepared reach by reach for all of the Satake, K. (1993), Depth distribution of coseismic slip along the Nankai Trough, Japan, from joint inversion of geodetic and tsunami data, J. Geophys. Res., 98(B3), 4553– region’s shoreline, showing conditions as they were before and after the tsunami. 4565. A reference line could be drawn on such photographs showing the mean high Smith, W., mark R. Scharroo, V. Titov, D. Arcas, and B. Arbic (2005),for Satellite water anticipated by the 2050 median projection a sea altimeters level rise of measure Tsunami, Oceanography, 18(2), 10– 12. 30cm made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This Stein, S., and E. A. Okal (2005), Speed and size of the Sumatra earthquake, Nature, reference line should be modified by other tectonic and coastal data affecting 434, 581–582. anticipated coastal change in specific areas. Where information is available, Vigny, C., et al. (2005), Monitoring of the December 26th megathrust earthquake in SE data by on GPS, the anticipated effect of historical trends in erosion andAssembly, accretion to Asia paper presented at European Geosciences Union General 2050 and the inland extent of flooding in past storms should also be integrated Vienna. of the future of shorelines. I. V. into Fine,estimates A. B. Rabinovich, and R.position E. Thomson, (2005) Department of Fisheries and A recommended construction setback line should established by each Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences, 9860 West Saanich Road,be Sidney, BC, Canada, V8L 4B2. government a set distance and/or elevation inland of the reference line. The

338

Disaster Management

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

339

In summary, the tideline gage (Table and satellite data reveal area seaward of the setback should be 1) designated as a (Table strictly 2) enforced “no- two well-defined thatthat include of theare crossings (the most source build” zone. It is zones essential suchmost setbacks incorporated into probable the existing areas) system of the inverse fronts for waveand crests: (1) a ‘‘southern regulatory and are wave-propagation applied equitably to the wealthy the poor. source’’ located west ofwith North Sumatra (2.5_– relief, 5.3_N),practical close todisaster the main On low-lying shorelines little topographical epicenter;plans and (2) a ‘‘northern source’’ to the speedy south ofevacuation the Andaman preparedness should be developed andimmediately tested that feature Islandsto(9.0_–10.2_N). ThisThe ‘‘dual source’’ supported by estimates of people protected shelters. width of theconcept no-buildis zone determined by the surface in this region by GPS than [Vigny al., 2005] the of setback shoulddeformation be greater measured in as-yet-undeveloped shores in etalready and byareas. independent conclusions provided by analyseson-site of hydro acoustic urbanized Designate setback lines with permanent markers and and low-frequency information from measure. two smallExceptions research arrays in Diego should enforce themseismic uniformly as a regulatory for building Garciaseaward and Thailand (Guilbert al., 2005). The only southern region structures of the setback lineetshould be granted wheresource required to is coincident with the ‘‘fast activities slip’’ areaasestimated from body waves support such water-dependent fishing and navigation (not [Stein tourist and Okal,or2005; Ji, 2005]. According to our computations, zone is responsible facilities permanent settlements). Where such exceptions arethis granted, structures for be the temporary generation or of the tsunami waves thatby struck Sri Lanka,structural the Maldives should builtmajor to withstand flooding strengthened and the of East South a spatial members andcoasts elevated first and floors thatAfrica. permit The flood‘‘peak’’ waterssource to flowhad through extent ofAttention about 350should km. When findings leading are included, unimpeded. be given to for thethe impact of waves such structures on the entirecoastal southern source estimatedactions to be 600–650 adjacent areas, and ismitigation taken. km long, in agreement with seismological estimates [Stein and Okal, 2005; Bilham et al., 2005; Ji, 2005]. The northern Tsunami source region coincides with the area of slow slip REFERENCES [Stein andTsunami Okal, 2005]. This weaker regionPhys. wasEarth responsible for the Abe, K. (1973), and mechanism of greatsource earthquakes, Planet. Inter., somewhat 7, 143– 153.smaller first waves that reached the coasts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, and R., eastern When combined, thePartial Tsunami region Bilham, E. R.India. Engdahl, N. both Feldl,segments and S. P. are Satyabala (2005), andsource complete derivedoffrom the first-wavePlate arrival times 1847 is more thanSeismol. 1000 km rupture the Indo-Andaman boundary, – 2004, Res.long. Lett., Itin was press. because of this large spatial extent that low frequency wave components were British Data Centre waves (2003), recorded GEBCO Digital Atlas,the Natl.Environ. Res. so Oceanographic prevalent in the Tsunami throughout world ocean. Counc., Swindon, U. K. Gower, J. (2005), Jason-1 detects the December 26 2004 tsunami, Eos Trans. AGU, Managing the impact of Tsunami 86(4), 37– 38. Guilbert et al., 2005 The nations of the region and several international organizations are working Ji, C. (2005), Magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the west coast of northern Sumatra: together to develop an effective tsunami early warning system that will reach Preliminary rupture model, report, U.S. Geol. Surv., Denver, Colo. (Available at the entire regional community, particularly the most vulnerable groups. What is http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/ neic_slav_ff.html) known about past and future coastal change can be applied to Ocean definetsunami, a reference Merrifield, M. A., et al. (2005), Tide gage observations of the Indian line showing where the shoreline is anticipated to be, for example, by 2050. December 26, 2004, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09603, doi:10.1029/2005GL022610. Detailed aerial photographs be prepared reach by reach for all of the Satake, K. (1993), Depth distributioncould of coseismic slip along the Nankai Trough, Japan, from jointshoreline, inversion showing of geodetic and tsunami J. Geophys. region’s conditions as data, they were beforeRes., and 98(B3), after the4553– tsunami. 4565. A reference line could be drawn on such photographs showing the mean high Smith, W., mark R. Scharroo, V. Titov, D. Arcas, and B. Arbic (2005),for Satellite water anticipated by the 2050 median projection a sea altimeters level rise of measure Tsunami, Oceanography, 18(2), 10– 12. 30cm made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This Stein, S., and E. A. Okal (2005), Speed and size of the Sumatra earthquake, Nature, reference line should be modified by other tectonic and coastal data affecting 434, 581–582. anticipated coastal change in specific areas. Where information is available, Vigny, C., et al. (2005), Monitoring of the December 26th megathrust earthquake in SE data by on GPS, the anticipated effect of historical trends in erosion andAssembly, accretion to Asia paper presented at European Geosciences Union General 2050 and the inland extent of flooding in past storms should also be integrated Vienna. of the future of shorelines. I. V. into Fine,estimates A. B. Rabinovich, and R.position E. Thomson, (2005) Department of Fisheries and A recommended construction setback line should established by each Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences, 9860 West Saanich Road,be Sidney, BC, Canada, V8L 4B2. government a set distance and/or elevation inland of the reference line. The

338

Disaster Management

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

339

area seaward of the setback should be 1) designated as a (Table strictly 2) enforced “no- two In summary, the tideline gage (Table and satellite data reveal build” zone. It is zones essential suchmost setbacks incorporated into probable the existing well-defined thatthat include of theare crossings (the most source regulatory and are wave-propagation applied equitably to the wealthy the poor. areas) system of the inverse fronts for waveand crests: (1) a ‘‘southern On low-lying shorelines little topographical source’’ located west ofwith North Sumatra (2.5_– relief, 5.3_N),practical close todisaster the main preparedness should be developed andimmediately tested that feature epicenter;plans and (2) a ‘‘northern source’’ to the speedy south ofevacuation the Andaman of people protected shelters. width of theconcept no-buildis zone determined by Islandsto(9.0_–10.2_N). ThisThe ‘‘dual source’’ supported by estimates the of setback shoulddeformation be greater measured in as-yet-undeveloped shores in etalready the surface in this region by GPS than [Vigny al., 2005] urbanized Designate setback lines with permanent markers and and and byareas. independent conclusions provided by analyseson-site of hydro acoustic should enforce themseismic uniformly as a regulatory for building low-frequency information from measure. two smallExceptions research arrays in Diego structures of the setback lineetshould be granted wheresource required to is Garciaseaward and Thailand (Guilbert al., 2005). The only southern region support such water-dependent fishing and navigation (not [Stein tourist and coincident with the ‘‘fast activities slip’’ areaasestimated from body waves facilities permanent settlements). Where such exceptions arethis granted, structures Okal,or2005; Ji, 2005]. According to our computations, zone is responsible should builtmajor to withstand flooding strengthened for be the temporary generation or of the tsunami waves thatby struck Sri Lanka,structural the Maldives members andcoasts elevated first and floors thatAfrica. permit The flood‘‘peak’’ waterssource to flowhad through and the of East South a spatial unimpeded. be given to for thethe impact of waves such structures on the extent ofAttention about 350should km. When findings leading are included, adjacent areas, and ismitigation taken. km long, in agreement with entirecoastal southern source estimatedactions to be 600–650 seismological estimates [Stein and Okal, 2005; Bilham et al., 2005; Ji, 2005]. The northern Tsunami source region coincides with the area of slow slip REFERENCES [Stein andTsunami Okal, 2005]. This weaker regionPhys. wasEarth responsible for the Abe, K. (1973), and mechanism of greatsource earthquakes, Planet. Inter., somewhat smaller first waves that reached the coasts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, 7, 143– 153. and R., eastern When combined, thePartial Tsunami region Bilham, E. R.India. Engdahl, N. both Feldl,segments and S. P. are Satyabala (2005), andsource complete derivedoffrom the first-wavePlate arrival times 1847 is more thanSeismol. 1000 km rupture the Indo-Andaman boundary, – 2004, Res.long. Lett., Itin was press. because of this large spatial extent that low frequency wave components were British Data Centre waves (2003), recorded GEBCO Digital Atlas,the Natl.Environ. Res. so Oceanographic prevalent in the Tsunami throughout world ocean. Counc., Swindon, U. K. Gower, J. (2005), Jason-1 detects the December 26 2004 tsunami, Eos Trans. AGU, Managing the impact of Tsunami 86(4), 37– 38. Guilbert et al., 2005 The nations of the region and several international organizations are working Ji, C. (2005), Magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the west coast of northern Sumatra: together to develop an effective tsunami early warning system that will reach Preliminary rupture model, report, U.S. Geol. Surv., Denver, Colo. (Available at the entire regional community, particularly the most vulnerable groups. What is http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/ neic_slav_ff.html) known about past and future coastal change can be applied to Ocean definetsunami, a reference Merrifield, M. A., et al. (2005), Tide gage observations of the Indian line showing where the shoreline is anticipated to be, for example, by 2050. December 26, 2004, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09603, doi:10.1029/2005GL022610. Detailed aerial photographs could be prepared reach by reach for all of the Satake, K. (1993), Depth distribution of coseismic slip along the Nankai Trough, Japan, from joint inversion of geodetic and tsunami data, J. Geophys. Res., 98(B3), 4553– region’s shoreline, showing conditions as they were before and after the tsunami. 4565. A reference line could be drawn on such photographs showing the mean high Smith, W., mark R. Scharroo, V. Titov, D. Arcas, and B. Arbic (2005),for Satellite water anticipated by the 2050 median projection a sea altimeters level rise of measure Tsunami, Oceanography, 18(2), 10– 12. 30cm made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This Stein, S., and E. A. Okal (2005), Speed and size of the Sumatra earthquake, Nature, reference line should be modified by other tectonic and coastal data affecting 434, 581–582. anticipated coastal change in specific areas. Where information is available, Vigny, C., et al. (2005), Monitoring of the December 26th megathrust earthquake in SE data by on GPS, the anticipated effect of historical trends in erosion andAssembly, accretion to Asia paper presented at European Geosciences Union General 2050 and the inland extent of flooding in past storms should also be integrated Vienna. of the future of shorelines. I. V. into Fine,estimates A. B. Rabinovich, and R.position E. Thomson, (2005) Department of Fisheries and A recommended construction setback line should established by each Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences, 9860 West Saanich Road,be Sidney, BC, Canada, V8L 4B2. government a set distance and/or elevation inland of the reference line. The

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Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

Impact of Tsunami on Coastal Zones

area seaward of the setback line should be designated as a strictly enforced “nobuild” zone. It is essential that such setbacks are incorporated into the existing regulatory system and are applied equitably to the wealthy and the poor. On low-lying shorelines with little topographical relief, practical disaster preparedness plans should be developed and tested that feature speedy evacuation of people to protected shelters. The width of the no-build zone determined by the setback should be greater in as-yet-undeveloped shores than in already urbanized areas. Designate setback lines with permanent on-site markers and should enforce them uniformly as a regulatory measure. Exceptions for building structures seaward of the setback line should be granted only where required to support such water-dependent activities as fishing and navigation (not tourist facilities or permanent settlements). Where such exceptions are granted, structures should be temporary or built to withstand flooding by strengthened structural members and elevated first floors that permit flood waters to flow through unimpeded. Attention should be given to the impact of such structures on adjacent coastal areas, and mitigation actions taken. REFERENCES Abe, K. (1973), Tsunami and mechanism of great earthquakes, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 7, 143– 153. Bilham, R., E. R. Engdahl, N. Feldl, and S. P. Satyabala (2005), Partial and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman Plate boundary, 1847 – 2004, Seismol. Res. Lett., in press. British Oceanographic Data Centre (2003), GEBCO Digital Atlas, Natl.Environ. Res. Counc., Swindon, U. K. Gower, J. (2005), Jason-1 detects the December 26 2004 tsunami, Eos Trans. AGU, 86(4), 37– 38. Guilbert et al., 2005 Ji, C. (2005), Magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the west coast of northern Sumatra: Preliminary rupture model, report, U.S. Geol. Surv., Denver, Colo. (Available at http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/ neic_slav_ff.html) Merrifield, M. A., et al. (2005), Tide gage observations of the Indian Ocean tsunami, December 26, 2004, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09603, doi:10.1029/2005GL022610. Satake, K. (1993), Depth distribution of coseismic slip along the Nankai Trough, Japan, from joint inversion of geodetic and tsunami data, J. Geophys. Res., 98(B3), 4553– 4565. Smith, W., R. Scharroo, V. Titov, D. Arcas, and B. Arbic (2005), Satellite altimeters measure Tsunami, Oceanography, 18(2), 10– 12. Stein, S., and E. A. Okal (2005), Speed and size of the Sumatra earthquake, Nature, 434, 581–582. Vigny, C., et al. (2005), Monitoring of the December 26th megathrust earthquake in SE Asia by GPS, paper presented at European Geosciences Union General Assembly, Vienna. I. V. Fine, A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson, (2005) Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences, 9860 West Saanich Road, Sidney, BC, Canada, V8L 4B2.

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area seaward of the setback should be 1) designated as a (Table strictly 2) enforced “no- two In summary, the tideline gage (Table and satellite data reveal build” zone. It is zones essential suchmost setbacks incorporated into probable the existing well-defined thatthat include of theare crossings (the most source regulatory and are wave-propagation applied equitably to the wealthy the poor. areas) system of the inverse fronts for waveand crests: (1) a ‘‘southern On low-lying shorelines little topographical source’’ located west ofwith North Sumatra (2.5_– relief, 5.3_N),practical close todisaster the main preparedness should be developed andimmediately tested that feature epicenter;plans and (2) a ‘‘northern source’’ to the speedy south ofevacuation the Andaman of people protected shelters. width of theconcept no-buildis zone determined by Islandsto(9.0_–10.2_N). ThisThe ‘‘dual source’’ supported by estimates the of setback shoulddeformation be greater measured in as-yet-undeveloped shores in etalready the surface in this region by GPS than [Vigny al., 2005] urbanized Designate setback lines with permanent markers and and and byareas. independent conclusions provided by analyseson-site of hydro acoustic should enforce themseismic uniformly as a regulatory for building low-frequency information from measure. two smallExceptions research arrays in Diego structures of the setback lineetshould be granted wheresource required to is Garciaseaward and Thailand (Guilbert al., 2005). The only southern region support such water-dependent fishing and navigation (not [Stein tourist and coincident with the ‘‘fast activities slip’’ areaasestimated from body waves facilities permanent settlements). Where such exceptions arethis granted, structures Okal,or2005; Ji, 2005]. According to our computations, zone is responsible should builtmajor to withstand flooding strengthened for be the temporary generation or of the tsunami waves thatby struck Sri Lanka,structural the Maldives members andcoasts elevated first and floors thatAfrica. permit The flood‘‘peak’’ waterssource to flowhad through and the of East South a spatial unimpeded. be given to for thethe impact of waves such structures on the extent ofAttention about 350should km. When findings leading are included, adjacent areas, and ismitigation taken. km long, in agreement with entirecoastal southern source estimatedactions to be 600–650 seismological estimates [Stein and Okal, 2005; Bilham et al., 2005; Ji, 2005]. The northern Tsunami source region coincides with the area of slow slip REFERENCES [Stein andTsunami Okal, 2005]. This weaker regionPhys. wasEarth responsible for the Abe, K. (1973), and mechanism of greatsource earthquakes, Planet. Inter., somewhat 7, 143– 153.smaller first waves that reached the coasts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, and R., eastern When combined, thePartial Tsunami region Bilham, E. R.India. Engdahl, N. both Feldl,segments and S. P. are Satyabala (2005), andsource complete derivedoffrom the first-wavePlate arrival times 1847 is more thanSeismol. 1000 km rupture the Indo-Andaman boundary, – 2004, Res.long. Lett., Itin was press. because of this large spatial extent that low frequency wave components were British Data Centre waves (2003), recorded GEBCO Digital Atlas,the Natl.Environ. Res. so Oceanographic prevalent in the Tsunami throughout world ocean. Counc., Swindon, U. K. Gower, J. (2005), Jason-1 detects the December 26 2004 tsunami, Eos Trans. AGU, Managing the impact of Tsunami 86(4), 37– 38. Guilbert et al., 2005 The nations of the region and several international organizations are working Ji, C. (2005), Magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the west coast of northern Sumatra: together to develop an effective tsunami early warning system that will reach Preliminary rupture model, report, U.S. Geol. Surv., Denver, Colo. (Available at the entire regional community, particularly the most vulnerable groups. What is http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/ neic_slav_ff.html) known about past and future coastal change can be applied to Ocean definetsunami, a reference Merrifield, M. A., et al. (2005), Tide gage observations of the Indian line showing where the shoreline is anticipated to be, for example, by 2050. December 26, 2004, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09603, doi:10.1029/2005GL022610. Detailed aerial photographs be prepared reach by reach for all of the Satake, K. (1993), Depth distributioncould of coseismic slip along the Nankai Trough, Japan, from jointshoreline, inversion showing of geodetic and tsunami J. Geophys. region’s conditions as data, they were beforeRes., and 98(B3), after the4553– tsunami. 4565. A reference line could be drawn on such photographs showing the mean high Smith, W., mark R. Scharroo, V. Titov, D. Arcas, and B. Arbic (2005),for Satellite water anticipated by the 2050 median projection a sea altimeters level rise of measure Tsunami, Oceanography, 18(2), 10– 12. 30cm made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This Stein, S., and E. A. Okal (2005), Speed and size of the Sumatra earthquake, Nature, reference line should be modified by other tectonic and coastal data affecting 434, 581–582. anticipated coastal change in specific areas. Where information is available, Vigny, C., et al. (2005), Monitoring of the December 26th megathrust earthquake in SE data by on GPS, the anticipated effect of historical trends in erosion andAssembly, accretion to Asia paper presented at European Geosciences Union General 2050 and the inland extent of flooding in past storms should also be integrated Vienna. of the future of shorelines. I. V. into Fine,estimates A. B. Rabinovich, and R.position E. Thomson, (2005) Department of Fisheries and A recommended construction setback line should established by each Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences, 9860 West Saanich Road,be Sidney, BC, Canada, V8L 4B2. government a set distance and/or elevation inland of the reference line. The

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339

area seaward of the setback line should be designated as a strictly enforced “nobuild” zone. It is essential that such setbacks are incorporated into the existing regulatory system and are applied equitably to the wealthy and the poor. On low-lying shorelines with little topographical relief, practical disaster preparedness plans should be developed and tested that feature speedy evacuation of people to protected shelters. The width of the no-build zone determined by the setback should be greater in as-yet-undeveloped shores than in already urbanized areas. Designate setback lines with permanent on-site markers and should enforce them uniformly as a regulatory measure. Exceptions for building structures seaward of the setback line should be granted only where required to support such water-dependent activities as fishing and navigation (not tourist facilities or permanent settlements). Where such exceptions are granted, structures should be temporary or built to withstand flooding by strengthened structural members and elevated first floors that permit flood waters to flow through unimpeded. Attention should be given to the impact of such structures on adjacent coastal areas, and mitigation actions taken. REFERENCES Abe, K. (1973), Tsunami and mechanism of great earthquakes, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 7, 143– 153. Bilham, R., E. R. Engdahl, N. Feldl, and S. P. Satyabala (2005), Partial and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman Plate boundary, 1847 – 2004, Seismol. Res. Lett., in press. British Oceanographic Data Centre (2003), GEBCO Digital Atlas, Natl.Environ. Res. Counc., Swindon, U. K. Gower, J. (2005), Jason-1 detects the December 26 2004 tsunami, Eos Trans. AGU, 86(4), 37– 38. Guilbert et al., 2005 Ji, C. (2005), Magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the west coast of northern Sumatra: Preliminary rupture model, report, U.S. Geol. Surv., Denver, Colo. (Available at http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/ neic_slav_ff.html) Merrifield, M. A., et al. (2005), Tide gage observations of the Indian Ocean tsunami, December 26, 2004, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09603, doi:10.1029/2005GL022610. Satake, K. (1993), Depth distribution of coseismic slip along the Nankai Trough, Japan, from joint inversion of geodetic and tsunami data, J. Geophys. Res., 98(B3), 4553– 4565. Smith, W., R. Scharroo, V. Titov, D. Arcas, and B. Arbic (2005), Satellite altimeters measure Tsunami, Oceanography, 18(2), 10– 12. Stein, S., and E. A. Okal (2005), Speed and size of the Sumatra earthquake, Nature, 434, 581–582. Vigny, C., et al. (2005), Monitoring of the December 26th megathrust earthquake in SE Asia by GPS, paper presented at European Geosciences Union General Assembly, Vienna. I. V. Fine, A. B. Rabinovich, and R. E. Thomson, (2005) Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences, 9860 West Saanich Road, Sidney, BC, Canada, V8L 4B2.

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Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, Unviersity of Delhi, Delhi E-mail : swatithakur.du!gmail.com

INTRODUCTION “The earth is mankind’s ultimate haven, our blessed terra firma. When it trembles and gives way beneath our feet, it’s as though one of God’s cheques has bounced”Gilbert Adair. In the pre-science era, disaster was looked upon as punishment or “Acts of the divine”. With the advent of the 19 th century, more scientific explanations of the cause of the disasters came up. With the understanding of the climatic system, its recent variability and its rapid pace of change, these changes have posed a threat to the entire society locally and globally. The potential impacts on the natural system have been evident with disasters having shown their ability to strike anywhere and at any time. Therefore, living with disasters becomes inevitable. It is also almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters. The priorities have hence shifted from the debate of causal relation and explanation of events and occurrences to preparedness, planning and the risk assessment of a potential threat. Hence, recognizing the challenges of dealing with disaster and adaptation become a prime concern to highlight these challenges within this paper. An attempt has been made to: i) Enlist qualitatively the challenges to Disaster Management in India ii) Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Effective Disaster Management. Conceptual Framework ‘Disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities’. — Quarentelly, 1985

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

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Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India Swati Thakur Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, Unviersity of Delhi, Delhi E-mail : swatithakur.du!gmail.com

INTRODUCTION “The earth is mankind’s ultimate haven, our blessed terra firma. When it trembles and gives way beneath our feet, it’s as though one of God’s cheques has bounced”Gilbert Adair. In the pre-science era, disaster was looked upon as punishment or “Acts of the divine”. With the advent of the 19 th century, more scientific explanations of the cause of the disasters came up. With the understanding of the climatic system, its recent variability and its rapid pace of change, these changes have posed a threat to the entire society locally and globally. The potential impacts on the natural system have been evident with disasters having shown their ability to strike anywhere and at any time. Therefore, living with disasters becomes inevitable. It is also almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters. The priorities have hence shifted from the debate of causal relation and explanation of events and occurrences to preparedness, planning and the risk assessment of a potential threat. Hence, recognizing the challenges of dealing with disaster and adaptation become a prime concern to highlight these challenges within this paper. An attempt has been made to: i) Enlist qualitatively the challenges to Disaster Management in India ii) Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Effective Disaster Management. Conceptual Framework ‘Disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities’. — Quarentelly, 1985

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

341

24

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

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24

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Swati Thakur Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, Unviersity of Delhi, Delhi E-mail : swatithakur.du!gmail.com

Swati Thakur Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, Unviersity of Delhi, Delhi E-mail : swatithakur.du!gmail.com

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

“The earth is mankind’s ultimate haven, our blessed terra firma. When it trembles and gives way beneath our feet, it’s as though one of God’s cheques has bounced”Gilbert Adair. In the pre-science era, disaster was looked upon as punishment or “Acts of the divine”. With the advent of the 19 th century, more scientific explanations of the cause of the disasters came up. With the understanding of the climatic system, its recent variability and its rapid pace of change, these changes have posed a threat to the entire society locally and globally. The potential impacts on the natural system have been evident with disasters having shown their ability to strike anywhere and at any time. Therefore, living with disasters becomes inevitable. It is also almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters. The priorities have hence shifted from the debate of causal relation and explanation of events and occurrences to preparedness, planning and the risk assessment of a potential threat. Hence, recognizing the challenges of dealing with disaster and adaptation become a prime concern to highlight these challenges within this paper. An attempt has been made to: i) Enlist qualitatively the challenges to Disaster Management in India ii) Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Effective Disaster Management.

“The earth is mankind’s ultimate haven, our blessed terra firma. When it trembles and gives way beneath our feet, it’s as though one of God’s cheques has bounced”Gilbert Adair. In the pre-science era, disaster was looked upon as punishment or “Acts of the divine”. With the advent of the 19 th century, more scientific explanations of the cause of the disasters came up. With the understanding of the climatic system, its recent variability and its rapid pace of change, these changes have posed a threat to the entire society locally and globally. The potential impacts on the natural system have been evident with disasters having shown their ability to strike anywhere and at any time. Therefore, living with disasters becomes inevitable. It is also almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters. The priorities have hence shifted from the debate of causal relation and explanation of events and occurrences to preparedness, planning and the risk assessment of a potential threat. Hence, recognizing the challenges of dealing with disaster and adaptation become a prime concern to highlight these challenges within this paper. An attempt has been made to: i) Enlist qualitatively the challenges to Disaster Management in India ii) Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Effective Disaster Management.

Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Framework

‘Disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities’. — Quarentelly, 1985

‘Disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities’. — Quarentelly, 1985

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

341

24

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

341

24

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Swati Thakur Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, Unviersity of Delhi, Delhi E-mail : swatithakur.du!gmail.com

Swati Thakur Senior Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, Unviersity of Delhi, Delhi E-mail : swatithakur.du!gmail.com

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

“The earth is mankind’s ultimate haven, our blessed terra firma. When it trembles and gives way beneath our feet, it’s as though one of God’s cheques has bounced”Gilbert Adair. In the pre-science era, disaster was looked upon as punishment or “Acts of the divine”. With the advent of the 19 th century, more scientific explanations of the cause of the disasters came up. With the understanding of the climatic system, its recent variability and its rapid pace of change, these changes have posed a threat to the entire society locally and globally. The potential impacts on the natural system have been evident with disasters having shown their ability to strike anywhere and at any time. Therefore, living with disasters becomes inevitable. It is also almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters. The priorities have hence shifted from the debate of causal relation and explanation of events and occurrences to preparedness, planning and the risk assessment of a potential threat. Hence, recognizing the challenges of dealing with disaster and adaptation become a prime concern to highlight these challenges within this paper. An attempt has been made to: i) Enlist qualitatively the challenges to Disaster Management in India ii) Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Effective Disaster Management.

“The earth is mankind’s ultimate haven, our blessed terra firma. When it trembles and gives way beneath our feet, it’s as though one of God’s cheques has bounced”Gilbert Adair. In the pre-science era, disaster was looked upon as punishment or “Acts of the divine”. With the advent of the 19 th century, more scientific explanations of the cause of the disasters came up. With the understanding of the climatic system, its recent variability and its rapid pace of change, these changes have posed a threat to the entire society locally and globally. The potential impacts on the natural system have been evident with disasters having shown their ability to strike anywhere and at any time. Therefore, living with disasters becomes inevitable. It is also almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters. The priorities have hence shifted from the debate of causal relation and explanation of events and occurrences to preparedness, planning and the risk assessment of a potential threat. Hence, recognizing the challenges of dealing with disaster and adaptation become a prime concern to highlight these challenges within this paper. An attempt has been made to: i) Enlist qualitatively the challenges to Disaster Management in India ii) Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Effective Disaster Management.

Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Framework

‘Disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities’. — Quarentelly, 1985

‘Disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities’. — Quarentelly, 1985

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Disaster Management

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Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

343

By definition, there cannot be a perfect ideal system that prevents damage, because then it would not be a disaster. It has to suffocate our ability to recover. Only then can it be called a ‘disaster’. Disasters are not totally discrete events. Their possibility of occurrence, in time, place and severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by technological and scientific advances. It has been established that there is a definite pattern in their occurrence and hence we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we cannot reduce the extent of damage itself. This demands the study of Disaster Management in a methodical and orderly way. Recognizing the challenges which need proper attention and their inclusion at different stages of a Disaster Management cycle are imperative in this paper.

By definition, there cannot be a perfect ideal system that prevents damage, because then it would not be a disaster. It has to suffocate our ability to recover. Only then can it be called a ‘disaster’. Disasters are not totally discrete events. Their possibility of occurrence, in time, place and severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by technological and scientific advances. It has been established that there is a definite pattern in their occurrence and hence we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we cannot reduce the extent of damage itself. This demands the study of Disaster Management in a methodical and orderly way. Recognizing the challenges which need proper attention and their inclusion at different stages of a Disaster Management cycle are imperative in this paper.

Stages in Disaster Management

Stages in Disaster Management

There are five important phases of disaster management: disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, disaster preparedness, emergency management, and disaster recovery (Fig.1.1.). Of these, disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase. Pre-disaster planning is the process of preparing in advance, to meet a future disaster. Disaster prevention is the action taken to eliminate or avoid harmful natural phenomena and their effects. Disaster Management is the action that deals with reducing human suffering and property loss. Disaster preparedness encompasses those actions, which are taken to limit the impact of natural phenomena by structuring response and establishing a mechanism for effecting a quick and orderly reaction. Emergency management covers responding to disasters by various organizations, providing many services that need to be mobilized at a moment’s notice, and functioning for an indeterminate period in a coordinated manner under stressful and difficult circumstances. People may be demobilized after the emergency has abated. The ability of an agency, or a group of agencies, to manage emergencies, rather than just react to crises, is critically dependent on the availability and flow of real time and archived information from monitoring systems, thematic databases, and decision support systems that are linked through national networks. Disaster recovery is the last phase of Disaster Management and is concerned with providing relief after the disaster has struck. It deals with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild. India’s Disaster Proneness The Indian subcontinent is characterized by unique geodynamics, typical monsoon behaviour, flood prone river basins co-existing with semi arid and arid regions and long coastlines and is amongst the world’s most disaster-prone areas. Fifty four per cent of the Indian land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes, Eight per cent is vulnerable to cyclones and more than Five per cent is vulnerable

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Disaster Management

There are five important phases of disaster management: disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, preparedness, emergency Fig.disaster 1.1 : Disaster Management Cyclemanagement, and disaster recovery (Fig.1.1.). Of these, disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase. Pre-disaster planning is to floods. Over 40 million Hectares are prone to Floods. Nearly 3 lakh sq. km the process of preparing in advance, to meet a future disaster. Disaster prevention are at risk of Cyclones. Between 1990 and 2000 an average of about 3,400 is the action taken to eliminate or avoid harmful natural phenomena and their people lost their lives annually. About 3 crore people are affected by Disasters effects. Disaster Management is the action that deals with reducing human every year. suffering and property loss. Disaster preparedness encompasses those actions, With such estimations, can we lay back and pronounce that we are safe? which are taken to limit the impact of natural phenomena by structuring response No. Losses from disasters have increased dramatically over the past few decades. and establishing a mechanism for effecting a quick and orderly reaction. The loss of population and property is always on the rise. This is because of Emergency management covers responding to disasters by various organizations, changes in the pattern of hazard occurrence and from increased vulnerability of providing many services that need to be mobilized at a moment’s notice, and a growing population. On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, functioning for an indeterminate period in a coordinated manner under stressful India can be divided into 5 Zones according to its disaster proneness to natural and difficult circumstances. People may be demobilized after the emergency disasters; has abated. The ability of an agency, or a group of agencies, to manage emergencies, rather than just react to crises, is critically dependent on the i) Northern mountain region including foothills: this region is prone to strong availability and flow of real time and archived information from monitoring Snow Storms leading to Landslides and strong cold waves and is also an systems, thematic databases, and decision support systems that are linked through Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean Volcanic activity. national networks. Disaster recovery is the last phase of Disaster Management ii) Indo-genetic plains; heavy rains during the monsoon make these plains and is concerned with providing relief after the disaster has struck. It deals vulnerable to Floods. with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal iii) Deccan plateau; a Drought prone area. conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild. iv) The western desert; a Drought prone area. v) Coastal areas; they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones, Tidal waves and India’s Disaster Proneness Tsunamis The Indian subcontinent is characterized by unique geodynamics, typical monsoon behaviour, floodManagement prone river Programme basins co-existing with semi arid and India’s Strands in Disaster arid regions and long coastlines and is amongst the world’s most disaster-prone Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought a paradigm areas. Fifty four per cent of the Indian land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes, shift in the approach to Disaster Management. The new approach proceeds Eight per cent is vulnerable to cyclones and more than Five per cent is vulnerable from the conviction that for a sustained development, disaster mitigation is to

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343

By definition, there cannot be a perfect ideal system that prevents damage, because then it would not be a disaster. It has to suffocate our ability to recover. Only then can it be called a ‘disaster’. Disasters are not totally discrete events. Their possibility of occurrence, in time, place and severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by technological and scientific advances. It has been established that there is a definite pattern in their occurrence and hence we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we cannot reduce the extent of damage itself. This demands the study of Disaster Management in a methodical and orderly way. Recognizing the challenges which need proper attention and their inclusion at different stages of a Disaster Management cycle are imperative in this paper.

By definition, there cannot be a perfect ideal system that prevents damage, because then it would not be a disaster. It has to suffocate our ability to recover. Only then can it be called a ‘disaster’. Disasters are not totally discrete events. Their possibility of occurrence, in time, place and severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by technological and scientific advances. It has been established that there is a definite pattern in their occurrence and hence we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we cannot reduce the extent of damage itself. This demands the study of Disaster Management in a methodical and orderly way. Recognizing the challenges which need proper attention and their inclusion at different stages of a Disaster Management cycle are imperative in this paper.

Stages in Disaster Management

Stages in Disaster Management

There are five important phases of disaster management: disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, disaster preparedness, emergency management, and disaster recovery (Fig.1.1.). Of these, disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase. Pre-disaster planning is the process of preparing in advance, to meet a future disaster. Disaster prevention is the action taken to eliminate or avoid harmful natural phenomena and their effects. Disaster Management is the action that deals with reducing human suffering and property loss. Disaster preparedness encompasses those actions, which are taken to limit the impact of natural phenomena by structuring response and establishing a mechanism for effecting a quick and orderly reaction. Emergency management covers responding to disasters by various organizations, providing many services that need to be mobilized at a moment’s notice, and functioning for an indeterminate period in a coordinated manner under stressful and difficult circumstances. People may be demobilized after the emergency has abated. The ability of an agency, or a group of agencies, to manage emergencies, rather than just react to crises, is critically dependent on the availability and flow of real time and archived information from monitoring systems, thematic databases, and decision support systems that are linked through national networks. Disaster recovery is the last phase of Disaster Management and is concerned with providing relief after the disaster has struck. It deals with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild. India’s Disaster Proneness The Indian subcontinent is characterized by unique geodynamics, typical monsoon behaviour, flood prone river basins co-existing with semi arid and arid regions and long coastlines and is amongst the world’s most disaster-prone areas. Fifty four per cent of the Indian land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes, Eight per cent is vulnerable to cyclones and more than Five per cent is vulnerable

There are five important phases of disaster management: disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, preparedness, emergency Fig.disaster 1.1 : Disaster Management Cyclemanagement, and disaster recovery (Fig.1.1.). Of these, disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase. Pre-disaster planning is to floods. Over 40 million Hectares are prone to Floods. Nearly 3 lakh sq. km the process of preparing in advance, to meet a future disaster. Disaster prevention are at risk of Cyclones. Between 1990 and 2000 an average of about 3,400 is the action taken to eliminate or avoid harmful natural phenomena and their people lost their lives annually. About 3 crore people are affected by Disasters effects. Disaster Management is the action that deals with reducing human every year. suffering and property loss. Disaster preparedness encompasses those actions, With such estimations, can we lay back and pronounce that we are safe? which are taken to limit the impact of natural phenomena by structuring response No. Losses from disasters have increased dramatically over the past few decades. and establishing a mechanism for effecting a quick and orderly reaction. The loss of population and property is always on the rise. This is because of Emergency management covers responding to disasters by various organizations, changes in the pattern of hazard occurrence and from increased vulnerability of providing many services that need to be mobilized at a moment’s notice, and a growing population. On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, functioning for an indeterminate period in a coordinated manner under stressful India can be divided into 5 Zones according to its disaster proneness to natural and difficult circumstances. People may be demobilized after the emergency disasters; has abated. The ability of an agency, or a group of agencies, to manage emergencies, rather than just react to crises, is critically dependent on the i) Northern mountain region including foothills: this region is prone to strong availability and flow of real time and archived information from monitoring Snow Storms leading to Landslides and strong cold waves and is also an systems, thematic databases, and decision support systems that are linked through Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean Volcanic activity. national networks. Disaster recovery is the last phase of Disaster Management ii) Indo-genetic plains; heavy rains during the monsoon make these plains and is concerned with providing relief after the disaster has struck. It deals vulnerable to Floods. with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal iii) Deccan plateau; a Drought prone area. conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild. iv) The western desert; a Drought prone area. v) Coastal areas; they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones, Tidal waves and India’s Disaster Proneness Tsunamis The Indian subcontinent is characterized by unique geodynamics, typical monsoon behaviour, floodManagement prone river Programme basins co-existing with semi arid and India’s Strands in Disaster arid regions and long coastlines and is amongst the world’s most disaster-prone Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought a paradigm areas. Fifty four per cent of the Indian land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes, shift in the approach to Disaster Management. The new approach proceeds Eight per cent is vulnerable to cyclones and more than Five per cent is vulnerable from the conviction that for a sustained development, disaster mitigation is to

342

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

343

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

343

By definition, there cannot be a perfect ideal system that prevents damage, because then it would not be a disaster. It has to suffocate our ability to recover. Only then can it be called a ‘disaster’. Disasters are not totally discrete events. Their possibility of occurrence, in time, place and severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by technological and scientific advances. It has been established that there is a definite pattern in their occurrence and hence we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we cannot reduce the extent of damage itself. This demands the study of Disaster Management in a methodical and orderly way. Recognizing the challenges which need proper attention and their inclusion at different stages of a Disaster Management cycle are imperative in this paper. Stages in Disaster Management There are five important phases of disaster management: disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, preparedness, emergency Fig.disaster 1.1 : Disaster Management Cyclemanagement, and disaster recovery (Fig.1.1.). Of these, disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase. Pre-disaster planning is to floods. Over 40 million Hectares are prone to Floods. Nearly 3 lakh sq. km the process of preparing in advance, to meet a future disaster. Disaster prevention are at risk of Cyclones. Between 1990 and 2000 an average of about 3,400 is the action taken to eliminate or avoid harmful natural phenomena and their people lost their lives annually. About 3 crore people are affected by Disasters effects. Disaster Management is the action that deals with reducing human every year. suffering and property loss. Disaster preparedness encompasses those actions, With such estimations, can we lay back and pronounce that we are safe? which are taken to limit the impact of natural phenomena by structuring response No. Losses from disasters have increased dramatically over the past few decades. and establishing a mechanism for effecting a quick and orderly reaction. The loss of population and property is always on the rise. This is because of Emergency management covers responding to disasters by various organizations, changes in the pattern of hazard occurrence and from increased vulnerability of providing many services that need to be mobilized at a moment’s notice, and a growing population. On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, functioning for an indeterminate period in a coordinated manner under stressful India can be divided into 5 Zones according to its disaster proneness to natural and difficult circumstances. People may be demobilized after the emergency disasters; has abated. The ability of an agency, or a group of agencies, to manage emergencies, rather than just react to crises, is critically dependent on the i) Northern mountain region including foothills: this region is prone to strong availability and flow of real time and archived information from monitoring Snow Storms leading to Landslides and strong cold waves and is also an systems, thematic databases, and decision support systems that are linked through Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean Volcanic activity. national networks. Disaster recovery is the last phase of Disaster Management ii) Indo-genetic plains; heavy rains during the monsoon make these plains and is concerned with providing relief after the disaster has struck. It deals vulnerable to Floods. with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal iii) Deccan plateau; a Drought prone area. conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild. iv) The western desert; a Drought prone area. v) Coastal areas; they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones, Tidal waves and India’s Disaster Proneness Tsunamis The Indian subcontinent is characterized by unique geodynamics, typical monsoon behaviour, floodManagement prone river Programme basins co-existing with semi arid and India’s Strands in Disaster arid regions and long coastlines and is amongst the world’s most disaster-prone Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought a paradigm areas. Fifty four per cent of the Indian land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes, shift in the approach to Disaster Management. The new approach proceeds Eight per cent is vulnerable to cyclones and more than Five per cent is vulnerable from the conviction that for a sustained development, disaster mitigation is to

342

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Fig. 1.1 : Disaster Management Cycle

to floods. Over 40 million Hectares are prone to Floods. Nearly 3 lakh sq. km are at risk of Cyclones. Between 1990 and 2000 an average of about 3,400 people lost their lives annually. About 3 crore people are affected by Disasters every year. With such estimations, can we lay back and pronounce that we are safe? No. Losses from disasters have increased dramatically over the past few decades. The loss of population and property is always on the rise. This is because of changes in the pattern of hazard occurrence and from increased vulnerability of a growing population. On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, India can be divided into 5 Zones according to its disaster proneness to natural disasters; i) ii) iii) iv) v)

Northern mountain region including foothills: this region is prone to strong Snow Storms leading to Landslides and strong cold waves and is also an Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean Volcanic activity. Indo-genetic plains; heavy rains during the monsoon make these plains vulnerable to Floods. Deccan plateau; a Drought prone area. The western desert; a Drought prone area. Coastal areas; they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones, Tidal waves and Tsunamis

India’s Strands in Disaster Management Programme Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought a paradigm shift in the approach to Disaster Management. The new approach proceeds from the conviction that for a sustained development, disaster mitigation is to

343

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

343

By definition, there cannot be a perfect ideal system that prevents damage, because then it would not be a disaster. It has to suffocate our ability to recover. Only then can it be called a ‘disaster’. Disasters are not totally discrete events. Their possibility of occurrence, in time, place and severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by technological and scientific advances. It has been established that there is a definite pattern in their occurrence and hence we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we cannot reduce the extent of damage itself. This demands the study of Disaster Management in a methodical and orderly way. Recognizing the challenges which need proper attention and their inclusion at different stages of a Disaster Management cycle are imperative in this paper. Stages in Disaster Management There are five important phases of disaster management: disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, preparedness, emergency Fig.disaster 1.1 : Disaster Management Cyclemanagement, and disaster recovery (Fig.1.1.). Of these, disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase. Pre-disaster planning is to floods. Over 40 million Hectares are prone to Floods. Nearly 3 lakh sq. km the process of preparing in advance, to meet a future disaster. Disaster prevention are at risk of Cyclones. Between 1990 and 2000 an average of about 3,400 is the action taken to eliminate or avoid harmful natural phenomena and their people lost their lives annually. About 3 crore people are affected by Disasters effects. Disaster Management is the action that deals with reducing human every year. suffering and property loss. Disaster preparedness encompasses those actions, With such estimations, can we lay back and pronounce that we are safe? which are taken to limit the impact of natural phenomena by structuring response No. Losses from disasters have increased dramatically over the past few decades. and establishing a mechanism for effecting a quick and orderly reaction. The loss of population and property is always on the rise. This is because of Emergency management covers responding to disasters by various organizations, changes in the pattern of hazard occurrence and from increased vulnerability of providing many services that need to be mobilized at a moment’s notice, and a growing population. On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, functioning for an indeterminate period in a coordinated manner under stressful India can be divided into 5 Zones according to its disaster proneness to natural and difficult circumstances. People may be demobilized after the emergency disasters; has abated. The ability of an agency, or a group of agencies, to manage emergencies, rather than just react to crises, is critically dependent on the i) Northern mountain region including foothills: this region is prone to strong availability and flow of real time and archived information from monitoring Snow Storms leading to Landslides and strong cold waves and is also an systems, thematic databases, and decision support systems that are linked through Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean Volcanic activity. national networks. Disaster recovery is the last phase of Disaster Management ii) Indo-genetic plains; heavy rains during the monsoon make these plains and is concerned with providing relief after the disaster has struck. It deals vulnerable to Floods. with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal iii) Deccan plateau; a Drought prone area. conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild. iv) The western desert; a Drought prone area. v) Coastal areas; they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones, Tidal waves and India’s Disaster Proneness Tsunamis The Indian subcontinent is characterized by unique geodynamics, typical monsoon behaviour, floodManagement prone river Programme basins co-existing with semi arid and India’s Strands in Disaster arid regions and long coastlines and is amongst the world’s most disaster-prone Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought a paradigm areas. Fifty four per cent of the Indian land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes, shift in the approach to Disaster Management. The new approach proceeds Eight per cent is vulnerable to cyclones and more than Five per cent is vulnerable from the conviction that for a sustained development, disaster mitigation is to

Fig. 1.1 : Disaster Management Cycle

to floods. Over 40 million Hectares are prone to Floods. Nearly 3 lakh sq. km are at risk of Cyclones. Between 1990 and 2000 an average of about 3,400 people lost their lives annually. About 3 crore people are affected by Disasters every year. With such estimations, can we lay back and pronounce that we are safe? No. Losses from disasters have increased dramatically over the past few decades. The loss of population and property is always on the rise. This is because of changes in the pattern of hazard occurrence and from increased vulnerability of a growing population. On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, India can be divided into 5 Zones according to its disaster proneness to natural disasters; i) ii) iii) iv) v)

Northern mountain region including foothills: this region is prone to strong Snow Storms leading to Landslides and strong cold waves and is also an Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean Volcanic activity. Indo-genetic plains; heavy rains during the monsoon make these plains vulnerable to Floods. Deccan plateau; a Drought prone area. The western desert; a Drought prone area. Coastal areas; they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones, Tidal waves and Tsunamis

India’s Strands in Disaster Management Programme Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought a paradigm shift in the approach to Disaster Management. The new approach proceeds from the conviction that for a sustained development, disaster mitigation is to

344

Disaster Management

be built into a developmental process and investment in management is much more cost effective than the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. Disaster Management now occupies an important place in the country’s policy framework covering institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention strategies, early warning systems, disaster mitigation, preparedness in response in developing human resources. These elements, along with environmental protection and sustainable development, are closely related. The roadmap hence prepared also involves agencies at the National, State and District levels. Hence, emphasise on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than disaster response in achieving the goal sustained development. The Government of India has adopted management and prevention as essential components of their developmental strategy. The tenth “Five year Plan” documents a detailed chapter on disaster management. Core groups and committees for earthquakes, cyclones and floods have already been created. A Disaster Risk Management Programme has been taken up with the assistance from UNDP, USAID and the European Union in 169 most hazard prone districts in 17 states including all of the 8 North Eastern States. The implementation of the project commenced in October, 2002 and is expected to be concluded before Dcember, 2007. The Programme components include awareness generation and public education, preparedness, planning and capacity building, developing appropriate policies, institutional, administrative, legal and techno-legal regimes at all administrative levels. Disaster management plans have been prepared for about 3,500 villages, 250 gram panchayats, 60 blocks and 15 districts. Elected representatives of over 8000 Panchayati Raj Institutions have already been trained, besides imparting training to Members of voluntary organizations. Over 20,000 Government functionaries have been trained in disaster mitigation and preparedness at different levels. The thrust of the programmed is to build up capabilities of the community since the community is invariably the first to respond. Large scale awareness generation bringing out specific dos and don’ts is crucial to disaster mitigation. A steering committee for a mass media campaign was created for this purpose. The committee is still in process of developing profiles for inaction. The various prevention and mitigation measures outlined were aimed at building up the capabilities of the community, voluntary organizations and Government functionaries at all levels, but the major task yet unresolved is the vulnerability reduction. The initiatives should be as such that prevention and mitigation is a part of day to day life. There is a need of firm conviction that a disaster like the Orison cyclone, the Buhj earthquake and the Tsunami would not be allowed to reoccur in the country at the cost of the number of human lives, livestock and loss of property and means of livelihood which occurred.

344

Disaster Management

be built into a developmental process and investment in management is much more cost effective than the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. Disaster Management now occupies an important place in the country’s policy framework covering institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention strategies, early warning systems, disaster mitigation, preparedness in response in developing human resources. These elements, along with environmental protection and sustainable development, are closely related. The roadmap hence prepared also involves agencies at the National, State and District levels. Hence, emphasise on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than disaster response in achieving the goal sustained development. The Government of India has adopted management and prevention as essential components of their developmental strategy. The tenth “Five year Plan” documents a detailed chapter on disaster management. Core groups and committees for earthquakes, cyclones and floods have already been created. A Disaster Risk Management Programme has been taken up with the assistance from UNDP, USAID and the European Union in 169 most hazard prone districts in 17 states including all of the 8 North Eastern States. The implementation of the project commenced in October, 2002 and is expected to be concluded before Dcember, 2007. The Programme components include awareness generation and public education, preparedness, planning and capacity building, developing appropriate policies, institutional, administrative, legal and techno-legal regimes at all administrative levels. Disaster management plans have been prepared for about 3,500 villages, 250 gram panchayats, 60 blocks and 15 districts. Elected representatives of over 8000 Panchayati Raj Institutions have already been trained, besides imparting training to Members of voluntary organizations. Over 20,000 Government functionaries have been trained in disaster mitigation and preparedness at different levels. The thrust of the programmed is to build up capabilities of the community since the community is invariably the first to respond. Large scale awareness generation bringing out specific dos and don’ts is crucial to disaster mitigation. A steering committee for a mass media campaign was created for this purpose. The committee is still in process of developing profiles for inaction. The various prevention and mitigation measures outlined were aimed at building up the capabilities of the community, voluntary organizations and Government functionaries at all levels, but the major task yet unresolved is the vulnerability reduction. The initiatives should be as such that prevention and mitigation is a part of day to day life. There is a need of firm conviction that a disaster like the Orison cyclone, the Buhj earthquake and the Tsunami would not be allowed to reoccur in the country at the cost of the number of human lives, livestock and loss of property and means of livelihood which occurred.

344

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

345

be built to into a developmental process and investment in management is much Challenges Disaster Management more cost effective than the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. The extent of the disasters has evidently already brought to light the overall Disaster Management now occupies an important place in the country’s lack of awareness and low level of national preparedness. It is imperative to policy framework covering institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention build a system to make our communities safer and educate the communities as strategies, early warning systems, disaster mitigation, preparedness in response such to live with disaster. The challenges which are posed before the community in developing human resources. These elements, along with environmental and government are listed as follows: protection and sustainable development, are closely related. The roadmap hence prepared also involves agencies at the National, State and District levels. Hence, i Identification of Potential Disaster and emphasis on DRR emphasise on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than ii Valuing on- time approach in all aspect of the Disaster Management Cycle disaster response in achieving the goal sustained development. iii Use of new and improved technology for monitoring, assessing, forecasting The Government of India has adopted management and prevention as and communication of information. essential components of their developmental strategy. The tenth “Five year Plan” iv New initiatives in regional cooperation and information sharing documents a detailed chapter on disaster management. Core groups and v Increased community preparedness and preventive measures committees for earthquakes, cyclones and floods have already been created. A vi More effective and sustained measures in underlying the cause of a disaster. Disaster Risk Management Programme has been taken up with the assistance from UNDP, USAID and the European Union in 169 most hazard prone districts Identification PotentialallDisaster Emphasis on Disaster Risk in 17 statesofincluding of the 8and North Eastern States. The implementation of Reduction (DDR) the project commenced in October, 2002 and is expected to be concluded before Dcember, Programme components include generation Climate change2007. is a The global problem and India also feels awareness the heat. Nearly 700 and public education, preparedness, planning and capacity building, developing million rural people in India directly depend on climate sensitive sectors, e.g. appropriate policies, institutional, administrative, legal techno-legal regimes agriculture, forest and fisheries and natural resources, e.g.and water, biodiversity, at all administrative levels. mangroves, coastal zones and grassland for their sustenance and livelihood. Disaster management beenof prepared for might aboutcome 3,500under villages, Under the changing climate, theplans foodhave security the country 250 gram panchayats, 60 blocks and 15 districts. Elected representatives threat. Moreover the capacity of dry-land farmers, forest and coastal communities of overClimate 8000 change Panchayati Raj toInstitutions have been trained, besides is low. is likely impact on all of already the natural systems as well imparting training to Members of voluntary organizations. Over 20,000 as on health. Furthermore, human activities contribute through deforestation Government functionaries have been trained in disaster mitigation and land degradation and climate change not only results in a huge loss of the and preparedness at different The thrust of programmed to is disaster to build up environment but also increaseslevels. the vulnerability of the the environment capabilities of the community since the community is invariably the first and alters the resilience of the natural environment by reducing its ability to to respond. recover effectively from damage. DDR through initiatives such as cross-sect scale generation bringing outknowledge specific dos and don’ts is oral risk Large analysis, siteawareness risk analysis, regulatory authority, management, to training disaster mitigation. A building steering committee for a mass media campaign and crucial therefore and capacity is a necessity. was created for this purpose. The committee is still in process of developing profiles for inaction. Valuing The on-time Approach in all Aspects of a measures Disaster Management various prevention and mitigation outlined were Cycle aimed at building up the capabilities of the community, voluntary organizations The experiences from the disasters in India teach a lesson of time management and Government functionaries at allaspects levels,ofbutDisaster the major task yet unresolved is the in Disaster Management. The two Management which pose vulnerability reduction. The initiatives should be as such thatapproach prevention challenges of a more professional equipped and readily responsive are: and mitigation is a part of day to day life. There is a need of firm conviction that a disaster like Disaster the Orison cyclone, the Buhj earthquake and the Tsunami • Pre-Disaster Phase/ Preparedness: “Forewarned is Forearmed” would not be allowed to reoccur in the country at the cost of the number of • Post Disaster: “Managing disaster after disaster” human lives, livestock and loss of property and means of livelihood which occurred. The Construction of early warning systems, getting them to work satisfactorily and sustaining them at appropriate levels of operational efficiency

344

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

345

be built to into a developmental process and investment in management is much Challenges Disaster Management more cost effective than the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. The extent of the disasters has evidently already brought to light the overall Disaster Management now occupies an important place in the country’s lack of awareness and low level of national preparedness. It is imperative to policy framework covering institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention build a system to make our communities safer and educate the communities as strategies, early warning systems, disaster mitigation, preparedness in response such to live with disaster. The challenges which are posed before the community in developing human resources. These elements, along with environmental and government are listed as follows: protection and sustainable development, are closely related. The roadmap hence prepared also involves agencies at the National, State and District levels. Hence, i Identification of Potential Disaster and emphasis on DRR emphasise on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than ii Valuing on- time approach in all aspect of the Disaster Management Cycle disaster response in achieving the goal sustained development. iii Use of new and improved technology for monitoring, assessing, forecasting The Government of India has adopted management and prevention as and communication of information. essential components of their developmental strategy. The tenth “Five year Plan” iv New initiatives in regional cooperation and information sharing documents a detailed chapter on disaster management. Core groups and v Increased community preparedness and preventive measures committees for earthquakes, cyclones and floods have already been created. A vi More effective and sustained measures in underlying the cause of a disaster. Disaster Risk Management Programme has been taken up with the assistance from UNDP, USAID and the European Union in 169 most hazard prone districts Identification PotentialallDisaster Emphasis on Disaster Risk in 17 statesofincluding of the 8and North Eastern States. The implementation of Reduction (DDR) the project commenced in October, 2002 and is expected to be concluded before Dcember, Programme components include generation Climate change2007. is a The global problem and India also feels awareness the heat. Nearly 700 and public capacity building, developing million ruraleducation, people in preparedness, India directly planning depend onand climate sensitive sectors, e.g. appropriate policies, institutional, administrative, legal and techno-legal regimes agriculture, forest and fisheries and natural resources, e.g. water, biodiversity, at all administrative levels. mangroves, coastal zones and grassland for their sustenance and livelihood. Disaster management beenof prepared for might aboutcome 3,500under villages, Under the changing climate, theplans foodhave security the country 250 gram panchayats, 60 blocks and 15 districts. Elected representatives threat. Moreover the capacity of dry-land farmers, forest and coastal communities of overClimate 8000 change Panchayati Raj toInstitutions have been trained, besides is low. is likely impact on all of already the natural systems as well imparting training to Members of voluntary organizations. Over 20,000 as on health. Furthermore, human activities contribute through deforestation Government functionaries have been trained in disaster mitigation and land degradation and climate change not only results in a huge loss of the and preparedness at different The thrust of programmed to is disaster to build up environment but also increaseslevels. the vulnerability of the the environment capabilities of the community since the community is invariably the first and alters the resilience of the natural environment by reducing its ability to to respond. recover effectively from damage. DDR through initiatives such as cross-sect scale generation bringing outknowledge specific dos and don’ts is oral risk Large analysis, siteawareness risk analysis, regulatory authority, management, crucial to disaster mitigation. A steering committee for a mass media campaign and therefore training and capacity building is a necessity. was created for this purpose. The committee is still in process of developing profiles for inaction. Valuing The on-time Approach in all Aspects of a measures Disaster Management various prevention and mitigation outlined were Cycle aimed at building up the capabilities of the community, voluntary organizations The experiences from the disasters in India teach a lesson of time management and Government functionaries at allaspects levels,ofbutDisaster the major task yet unresolved is the in Disaster Management. The two Management which pose vulnerability reduction. The initiatives should be as such that prevention challenges of a more professional equipped and readily responsive approach are: and mitigation is a part of day to day life. There is a need of firm conviction that a disaster like Disaster the Orison cyclone, the Buhj earthquake and the Tsunami • Pre-Disaster Phase/ Preparedness: “Forewarned is Forearmed” would not be allowed to reoccur in the country at the cost of the number of • Post Disaster: “Managing disaster after disaster” human lives, livestock and loss of property and means of livelihood which occurred. The Construction of early warning systems, getting them to work satisfactorily and sustaining them at appropriate levels of operational efficiency

344

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

345

Challenges Disaster Management be built to into a developmental process and investment in management is much more cost effective than the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. The extent of the disasters has evidently already brought to light the overall Disaster Management now occupies an important place in the country’s lack of awareness and low level of national preparedness. It is imperative to policy framework covering institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention build a system to make our communities safer and educate the communities as strategies, early warning systems, disaster mitigation, preparedness in response such to live with disaster. The challenges which are posed before the community in developing human resources. These elements, along with environmental and government are listed as follows: protection and sustainable development, are closely related. The roadmap hence prepared also involves agencies at the National, State and District levels. Hence, i Identification of Potential Disaster and emphasis on DRR emphasise on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than ii Valuing on- time approach in all aspect of the Disaster Management Cycle disaster response in achieving the goal sustained development. iii Use of new and improved technology for monitoring, assessing, forecasting The Government of India has adopted management and prevention as and communication of information. essential components of their developmental strategy. The tenth “Five year Plan” iv New initiatives in regional cooperation and information sharing documents a detailed chapter on disaster management. Core groups and v Increased community preparedness and preventive measures committees for earthquakes, cyclones and floods have already been created. A vi More effective and sustained measures in underlying the cause of a disaster. Disaster Risk Management Programme has been taken up with the assistance from UNDP, USAID and the European Union in 169 most hazard prone districts Identification PotentialallDisaster Emphasis on Disaster Risk in 17 statesofincluding of the 8and North Eastern States. The implementation of Reduction (DDR) the project commenced in October, 2002 and is expected to be concluded before Dcember, Programme components include generation Climate change2007. is a The global problem and India also feels awareness the heat. Nearly 700 and public education, preparedness, planning and capacity building, developing million rural people in India directly depend on climate sensitive sectors, e.g. appropriate policies, institutional, administrative, legal techno-legal regimes agriculture, forest and fisheries and natural resources, e.g.and water, biodiversity, at all administrative levels. mangroves, coastal zones and grassland for their sustenance and livelihood. Disaster management beenof prepared for might aboutcome 3,500under villages, Under the changing climate, theplans foodhave security the country 250 gram panchayats, 60 blocks and 15 districts. Elected representatives threat. Moreover the capacity of dry-land farmers, forest and coastal communities of overClimate 8000 change Panchayati Raj toInstitutions have been trained, besides is low. is likely impact on all of already the natural systems as well imparting training to Members of voluntary organizations. Over 20,000 as on health. Furthermore, human activities contribute through deforestation Government functionaries have been trained in disaster mitigation and land degradation and climate change not only results in a huge loss of the and preparedness at different The thrust of programmed to is disaster to build up environment but also increaseslevels. the vulnerability of the the environment capabilities of the community since the community is invariably the first and alters the resilience of the natural environment by reducing its ability to to respond. recover effectively from damage. DDR through initiatives such as cross-sect scale generation bringing outknowledge specific dos and don’ts is oral risk Large analysis, siteawareness risk analysis, regulatory authority, management, to training disaster mitigation. A building steering committee for a mass media campaign and crucial therefore and capacity is a necessity. was created for this purpose. The committee is still in process of developing profiles for inaction. Valuing The on-time Approach in alland Aspects of a measures Disaster Management various prevention mitigation outlined were Cycle aimed at building up the capabilities of the community, voluntary organizations The experiences from the disasters in India teach a lesson of time management and Government functionaries at allaspects levels,ofbutDisaster the major task yet unresolved is the in Disaster Management. The two Management which pose vulnerability reduction. The initiatives should be as such thatapproach prevention challenges of a more professional equipped and readily responsive are: and mitigation is a part of day to day life. There is a need of firm conviction that a disaster like Disaster the Orison cyclone, the Buhj earthquake and the Tsunami • Pre-Disaster Phase/ Preparedness: “Forewarned is Forearmed” would not be allowed to reoccur in the country at the cost of the number of • Post Disaster: “Managing disaster after disaster” human lives, livestock and loss of property and means of livelihood which occurred. The Construction of early warning systems, getting them to work satisfactorily and sustaining them at appropriate levels of operational efficiency

344

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

345

Challenges Disaster Management be built to into a developmental process and investment in management is much more cost effective than the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. The extent of the disasters has evidently already brought to light the overall Disaster Management now occupies an important place in the country’s lack of awareness and low level of national preparedness. It is imperative to policy framework covering institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention build a system to make our communities safer and educate the communities as strategies, early warning systems, disaster mitigation, preparedness in response such to live with disaster. The challenges which are posed before the community in developing human resources. These elements, along with environmental and government are listed as follows: protection and sustainable development, are closely related. The roadmap hence prepared also involves agencies at the National, State and District levels. Hence, i Identification of Potential Disaster and emphasis on DRR emphasise on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than ii Valuing on- time approach in all aspect of the Disaster Management Cycle disaster response in achieving the goal sustained development. iii Use of new and improved technology for monitoring, assessing, forecasting The Government of India has adopted management and prevention as and communication of information. essential components of their developmental strategy. The tenth “Five year Plan” iv New initiatives in regional cooperation and information sharing documents a detailed chapter on disaster management. Core groups and v Increased community preparedness and preventive measures committees for earthquakes, cyclones and floods have already been created. A vi More effective and sustained measures in underlying the cause of a disaster. Disaster Risk Management Programme has been taken up with the assistance from UNDP, USAID and the European Union in 169 most hazard prone districts Identification PotentialallDisaster Emphasis on Disaster Risk in 17 statesofincluding of the 8and North Eastern States. The implementation of Reduction (DDR) the project commenced in October, 2002 and is expected to be concluded before Dcember, Programme components include generation Climate change2007. is a The global problem and India also feels awareness the heat. Nearly 700 and public capacity building, developing million ruraleducation, people in preparedness, India directly planning depend onand climate sensitive sectors, e.g. appropriate policies, institutional, administrative, legal and techno-legal regimes agriculture, forest and fisheries and natural resources, e.g. water, biodiversity, at all administrative levels. mangroves, coastal zones and grassland for their sustenance and livelihood. Disaster management beenof prepared for might aboutcome 3,500under villages, Under the changing climate, theplans foodhave security the country 250 gram panchayats, 60 blocks and 15 districts. Elected representatives threat. Moreover the capacity of dry-land farmers, forest and coastal communities of overClimate 8000 change Panchayati Raj toInstitutions have been trained, besides is low. is likely impact on all of already the natural systems as well imparting training to Members of voluntary organizations. Over 20,000 as on health. Furthermore, human activities contribute through deforestation Government functionaries have been trained in disaster mitigation and land degradation and climate change not only results in a huge loss of the and preparedness at different The thrust of programmed to is disaster to build up environment but also increaseslevels. the vulnerability of the the environment capabilities of the community since the community is invariably the first and alters the resilience of the natural environment by reducing its ability to to respond. recover effectively from damage. DDR through initiatives such as cross-sect scale generation bringing outknowledge specific dos and don’ts is oral risk Large analysis, siteawareness risk analysis, regulatory authority, management, crucial to disaster mitigation. A steering committee for a mass media campaign and therefore training and capacity building is a necessity. was created for this purpose. The committee is still in process of developing profiles for inaction. Valuing The on-time Approach in alland Aspects of a measures Disaster Management various prevention mitigation outlined were Cycle aimed at building up the capabilities of the community, voluntary organizations The experiences from the disasters in India teach a lesson of time management and Government functionaries at allaspects levels,ofbutDisaster the major task yet unresolved is the in Disaster Management. The two Management which pose vulnerability reduction. The initiatives should be as such that prevention challenges of a more professional equipped and readily responsive approach are: and mitigation is a part of day to day life. There is a need of firm conviction that a disaster like Disaster the Orison cyclone, the Buhj earthquake and the Tsunami • Pre-Disaster Phase/ Preparedness: “Forewarned is Forearmed” would not be “Managing allowed to disaster reoccur after in the country at the cost of the number of • Post Disaster: disaster” human lives, livestock and loss of property and means of livelihood which occurred. The Construction of early warning systems, getting them to work satisfactorily and sustaining them at appropriate levels of operational efficiency

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Challenges to Disaster Management The extent of the disasters has evidently already brought to light the overall lack of awareness and low level of national preparedness. It is imperative to build a system to make our communities safer and educate the communities as such to live with disaster. The challenges which are posed before the community and government are listed as follows: i Identification of Potential Disaster and emphasis on DRR ii Valuing on- time approach in all aspect of the Disaster Management Cycle iii Use of new and improved technology for monitoring, assessing, forecasting and communication of information. iv New initiatives in regional cooperation and information sharing v Increased community preparedness and preventive measures vi More effective and sustained measures in underlying the cause of a disaster. Identification of Potential Disaster and Emphasis on Disaster Risk Reduction (DDR) Climate change is a global problem and India also feels the heat. Nearly 700 million rural people in India directly depend on climate sensitive sectors, e.g. agriculture, forest and fisheries and natural resources, e.g. water, biodiversity, mangroves, coastal zones and grassland for their sustenance and livelihood. Under the changing climate, the food security of the country might come under threat. Moreover the capacity of dry-land farmers, forest and coastal communities is low. Climate change is likely to impact on all of the natural systems as well as on health. Furthermore, human activities contribute through deforestation and land degradation and climate change not only results in a huge loss of the environment but also increases the vulnerability of the environment to disaster and alters the resilience of the natural environment by reducing its ability to recover effectively from damage. DDR through initiatives such as cross-sect oral risk analysis, site risk analysis, regulatory authority, knowledge management, and therefore training and capacity building is a necessity. Valuing on-time Approach in all Aspects of a Disaster Management Cycle The experiences from the disasters in India teach a lesson of time management in Disaster Management. The two aspects of Disaster Management which pose challenges of a more professional equipped and readily responsive approach are: • Pre-Disaster Phase/ Disaster Preparedness: “Forewarned is Forearmed” • Post Disaster: “Managing disaster after disaster” The Construction of early warning systems, getting them to work satisfactorily and sustaining them at appropriate levels of operational efficiency

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

345

Challenges to Disaster Management The extent of the disasters has evidently already brought to light the overall lack of awareness and low level of national preparedness. It is imperative to build a system to make our communities safer and educate the communities as such to live with disaster. The challenges which are posed before the community and government are listed as follows: i Identification of Potential Disaster and emphasis on DRR ii Valuing on- time approach in all aspect of the Disaster Management Cycle iii Use of new and improved technology for monitoring, assessing, forecasting and communication of information. iv New initiatives in regional cooperation and information sharing v Increased community preparedness and preventive measures vi More effective and sustained measures in underlying the cause of a disaster. Identification of Potential Disaster and Emphasis on Disaster Risk Reduction (DDR) Climate change is a global problem and India also feels the heat. Nearly 700 million rural people in India directly depend on climate sensitive sectors, e.g. agriculture, forest and fisheries and natural resources, e.g. water, biodiversity, mangroves, coastal zones and grassland for their sustenance and livelihood. Under the changing climate, the food security of the country might come under threat. Moreover the capacity of dry-land farmers, forest and coastal communities is low. Climate change is likely to impact on all of the natural systems as well as on health. Furthermore, human activities contribute through deforestation and land degradation and climate change not only results in a huge loss of the environment but also increases the vulnerability of the environment to disaster and alters the resilience of the natural environment by reducing its ability to recover effectively from damage. DDR through initiatives such as cross-sect oral risk analysis, site risk analysis, regulatory authority, knowledge management, and therefore training and capacity building is a necessity. Valuing on-time Approach in all Aspects of a Disaster Management Cycle The experiences from the disasters in India teach a lesson of time management in Disaster Management. The two aspects of Disaster Management which pose challenges of a more professional equipped and readily responsive approach are: • Pre-Disaster Phase/ Disaster Preparedness: “Forewarned is Forearmed” • Post Disaster: “Managing disaster after disaster” The Construction of early warning systems, getting them to work satisfactorily and sustaining them at appropriate levels of operational efficiency

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and effectiveness are challenges to management. Even when scientific monitoring and predictive capabilities exist, to make warning systems functional efforts need to be sustained. Design requires effective integration of expertise from scientific and technical disciplines (e.g. geography, meteorology, geology), behavioural, sociological and other scientific disciplines. Mapping exposure to people and the proper identification of the need to warn people is inevitable. Components such as, Risk knowledge (Probability of natural events, exposure of people and property, vulnerable communities), Technical Monitoring and Detection ( Remote Sensing, data collection and transmission), Forecasting capabilities (modelling), Warning (Message Design, communication technology, message dissemination) and response (public knowledge) are to kept in consideration for an early warning system. Rapid professional response to disasters is the prime challenge during the disaster phase. The lack of professionally trained rescue teams, specialized dog squads to look for live bodies and the lack of centralized resource inventory for emergency response leads to chaos. Specialist search and rescue units to be requisitioned to the site of an incident should be the priority. Regional response centres should be set up in different parts of the country having well equipped resources for being able to response to any hazard/calamity. Equally important are the well equipped bedded mobile hospitals with all medical and emergency equipment to extend assistance to the hospitals nearby. The air lift facilities should be developed on an independent basis to provide facilities to specialist rescue teams. Use of New and Improved Technology for Monitoring, Assessing, Forecasting and Communication of Information Natural disasters are inevitable and it is almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters, but it is possible to minimize the potential risk by preparing and implementing developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters and to help in post disaster reduction. Disaster response and recovery efforts require timely interaction and coordination of public services to save lives and property. Access to information is crucial for the effective management of disasters. All those who are concerned with managing disasters necessarily have the need to access timely and accurate information. Normally, a considerable amount of money is spent on just finding the relevant information. This happens because the information is stored redundantly in several places and in several formats. Today, Information Technology (IT) is used in this field for increasing the efficiency and effectiveness in coping with a disaster. The prime concern during a disaster is the availability of the spatial information and the dissemination of this information to all concerned. Maps and spatial information are important components of the overall information in case of any disaster event (floods, earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, wildfire, famine, and so forth). Hence mapping

346

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and effectiveness are challenges to management. Even when scientific monitoring and predictive capabilities exist, to make warning systems functional efforts need to be sustained. Design requires effective integration of expertise from scientific and technical disciplines (e.g. geography, meteorology, geology), behavioural, sociological and other scientific disciplines. Mapping exposure to people and the proper identification of the need to warn people is inevitable. Components such as, Risk knowledge (Probability of natural events, exposure of people and property, vulnerable communities), Technical Monitoring and Detection ( Remote Sensing, data collection and transmission), Forecasting capabilities (modelling), Warning (Message Design, communication technology, message dissemination) and response (public knowledge) are to kept in consideration for an early warning system. Rapid professional response to disasters is the prime challenge during the disaster phase. The lack of professionally trained rescue teams, specialized dog squads to look for live bodies and the lack of centralized resource inventory for emergency response leads to chaos. Specialist search and rescue units to be requisitioned to the site of an incident should be the priority. Regional response centres should be set up in different parts of the country having well equipped resources for being able to response to any hazard/calamity. Equally important are the well equipped bedded mobile hospitals with all medical and emergency equipment to extend assistance to the hospitals nearby. The air lift facilities should be developed on an independent basis to provide facilities to specialist rescue teams. Use of New and Improved Technology for Monitoring, Assessing, Forecasting and Communication of Information Natural disasters are inevitable and it is almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters, but it is possible to minimize the potential risk by preparing and implementing developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters and to help in post disaster reduction. Disaster response and recovery efforts require timely interaction and coordination of public services to save lives and property. Access to information is crucial for the effective management of disasters. All those who are concerned with managing disasters necessarily have the need to access timely and accurate information. Normally, a considerable amount of money is spent on just finding the relevant information. This happens because the information is stored redundantly in several places and in several formats. Today, Information Technology (IT) is used in this field for increasing the efficiency and effectiveness in coping with a disaster. The prime concern during a disaster is the availability of the spatial information and the dissemination of this information to all concerned. Maps and spatial information are important components of the overall information in case of any disaster event (floods, earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, wildfire, famine, and so forth). Hence mapping

346

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

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effectiveness areacquisition challenges becomes to management. scientific monitoring and and spatial information vital forEven any when Disaster Management and predictive capabilities exist, to make warning systems functional efforts effort. need has to be sustained. requires effective integration GIS emerged as aDesign very important methodological tool offorexpertise effectivefrom scientific and technical meteorology, geology), planning, communication, anddisciplines training in(e.g. the geography, various stages of the Disaster behavioural, sociological and the other scientific disciplines. Mappingassessing exposure to Management cycle. GIS can fulfill data requirement for monitoring, andthe theneeds proper identification of the need warn peopleavailability is inevitable. and people mitigating of Disaster Management. Withtothe increased Components knowledgehave (Probability of natural of high resolutionsuch data,as, theRisk opportunities widened for a more events, detailedexposure and people of and property, vulnerable Technical manner. Monitoring rapidofanalysis natural hazards in a fast,communities), easy and cost-effective The and Detection data see collection Forecasting ability of GIS (to Remote visualizeSensing, information, patternsand andtransmission), relationships that are capabilities (modelling), (Message and Design, communicationtool technology, otherwise apparent, makesWarning it a powerful methodological for message GIS dissemination) andmanagers response (public assess knowledge) are to kept in management. allows disaster to quickly and visually display consideration early warning system. critical informationforbyanlocation. The key advancement in GIS technology is Rapid Revisualization professional response to disastersThe is the prime challenge during the Reprocessing, and Geodatabase. geodatabase view contains disaster phase. The lackgeographic of professionally trained the datasets that represent information in rescue genericteams, termsspecialized of models dog squads toraster, look topology, for live bodies and etc. the lack of centralized resource inventory as: features, networks, The geovisualization is the set of for emergency leadsthe to chaos. search and on rescue units to be intelligent mapping response which shows featuresSpecialist and its relationship the earth’s requisitioned to the site view of anisincident should function be the priority. surface. The geoprocessing the analytical which Regional derives a response new centres should be set up in different parts of the country having well equipped dataset for conceptual analysis. resourcesGIS forcan being able to to plan response to any hazard/calamity. Equally important Internet be used for, respond to and recover from emergency are the providing well equipped bedded with all medical situations, personnel themobile most hospitals accurate information whenand it’semergency most equipment to In extend to theGIS hospitals The management air lift facilities needed-constantly. other assistance words, Internet gives thenearby. emergency should bethe developed an independent basis to facilities to about specialist professionals ability toonassemble large amounts of provide public information teams. and analyze and use the information in an efficient and theirrescue community, intelligent manner. The GIS data organization format displays graphic data in a format which is easy to understand. The system’s database may show boundaries, Use of New and Improved Technology for Monitoring, Assessing, topography, road network, utility and supply lines and other features vital to Forecasting and Communication of Information disaster planning. Linked with an extensive database that provides capabilities Natural disasters areand inevitable it is almost impossible to fully recoup the for real-time command control,and Internet GIS transforms disaster response by the disasters, but it is possible to minimize the potential risk into damage regular caused emergency management exercise. by preparing and implementing to provide resilience The pre-disaster preparedness developmental activities like plans risk identification, risk to such disasters andand to warning help in post disaster reduction. Disaster assessment, awareness are aimed at those actions, which response are taken and recovery efforts ofrequire timely interaction by andstructuring coordination of public to limit the impact a natural phenomenon response, and services for to save lives and property. Access to information is crucial for the establishing a mechanism for ensuring a quick and orderly reaction. This effective can management disasters.through All those areGIS concerned with managing disasters be organized veryof efficiently thewho use of on the Internet, for example necessarily have the access information. Normally, by making available the need risk to maps, as timely well asand theaccurate “dos and don’ts” on the a considerable of moneyout is spent just “what-if” finding thescenario relevantanalyses. information. Internet. It can alsoamount allow carrying some on basic This happens because the information is stored redundantly places An Internet GIS based emergency management network can helpininseveral ensuring and in several formats. effective public safety. As city, state and national governments deploy Internet Today, Information (IT) is for useda in this field for integrated increasing the based GIS technology, thereTechnology will be a demand comprehensive, efficiency and effectiveness in coping with a disaster. The prime concern during approach to managing the entire range of spatial, as well as non-spatial data disaster is the of the spatialresponsibilities information and dissemination useda in carrying outavailability various governmental andtheservices. Data of this information to all concerned. Mapsnational and spatial are important exchange at local, regional, city, state and levelsinformation can be a continuous of theresulting overall in information in case ofand anycontrol disaster event (floods, and components cohesive process, better management of resources. earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, wildfire, famine, and so forth). mapping During the disaster, real time monitoring and evacuation/rescue needsHence immediate

346

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effectiveness areacquisition challenges becomes to management. scientific monitoring and and spatial information vital forEven any when Disaster Management and predictive capabilities exist, to make warning systems functional efforts effort. need has to be sustained. requires effective integration GIS emerged as aDesign very important methodological tool offorexpertise effectivefrom scientific and technical meteorology, geology), planning, communication, anddisciplines training in(e.g. the geography, various stages of the Disaster behavioural, sociological and the other scientific disciplines. Mappingassessing exposure to Management cycle. GIS can fulfill data requirement for monitoring, andthe theneeds proper identification of the need warn peopleavailability is inevitable. and people mitigating of Disaster Management. Withtothe increased Components knowledgehave (Probability of natural of high resolutionsuch data,as, theRisk opportunities widened for a more events, detailedexposure and people of and property, vulnerable Technical manner. Monitoring rapidofanalysis natural hazards in a fast,communities), easy and cost-effective The and Detection data see collection Forecasting ability of GIS (to Remote visualizeSensing, information, patternsand andtransmission), relationships that are capabilities (modelling), (Message and Design, communicationtool technology, otherwise apparent, makesWarning it a powerful methodological for message GIS dissemination) andmanagers response (public assess knowledge) are to kept in management. allows disaster to quickly and visually display consideration early warning system. critical informationforbyanlocation. The key advancement in GIS technology is Rapid Revisualization professional response to disastersThe is the prime challenge during the Reprocessing, and Geodatabase. geodatabase view contains disaster phase. The lackgeographic of professionally trained the datasets that represent information in rescue genericteams, termsspecialized of models dog squads toraster, look topology, for live bodies and etc. the lack of centralized resource inventory as: features, networks, The geovisualization is the set of for emergency leadsthe to chaos. search and on rescue units to be intelligent mapping response which shows featuresSpecialist and its relationship the earth’s requisitioned to the site view of anisincident should function be the priority. surface. The geoprocessing the analytical which Regional derives a response new centres should be set up in different parts of the country having well equipped dataset for conceptual analysis. resourcesGIS forcan being able to to plan response to any hazard/calamity. Equally important Internet be used for, respond to and recover from emergency are the providing well equipped bedded with all medical situations, personnel themobile most hospitals accurate information whenand it’semergency most equipment to In extend to theGIS hospitals The management air lift facilities needed-constantly. other assistance words, Internet gives thenearby. emergency should bethe developed an independent basis to facilities to about specialist professionals ability toonassemble large amounts of provide public information teams. and analyze and use the information in an efficient and theirrescue community, intelligent manner. The GIS data organization format displays graphic data in a format which is easy to understand. The system’s database may show boundaries, Use of New and Improved Technology for Monitoring, Assessing, topography, road network, utility and supply lines and other features vital to Forecasting and Communication of Information disaster planning. Linked with an extensive database that provides capabilities Natural disasters areand inevitable it is almost impossible to fully recoup the for real-time command control,and Internet GIS transforms disaster response by the disasters, but it is possible to minimize the potential risk into damage regular caused emergency management exercise. by preparing and implementing to provide resilience The pre-disaster preparedness developmental activities like plans risk identification, risk to such disasters andand to warning help in post disaster reduction. Disaster assessment, awareness are aimed at those actions, which response are taken and recovery efforts ofrequire timely interaction by andstructuring coordination of public to limit the impact a natural phenomenon response, and services for to save lives and property. Access to information is crucial for the effective establishing a mechanism for ensuring a quick and orderly reaction. This can management disasters.through All those areGIS concerned with managing disasters be organized veryof efficiently thewho use of on the Internet, for example necessarily have the access information. Normally, by making available the need risk to maps, as timely well asand theaccurate “dos and don’ts” on the a considerable of moneyout is spent just “what-if” finding thescenario relevantanalyses. information. Internet. It can alsoamount allow carrying some on basic This happens because the information is stored redundantly places An Internet GIS based emergency management network can helpininseveral ensuring and inpublic several formats. effective safety. As city, state and national governments deploy Internet Today, Information (IT) is for useda in this field for integrated increasing the based GIS technology, thereTechnology will be a demand comprehensive, efficiency and effectiveness in coping with a disaster. The prime concern during approach to managing the entire range of spatial, as well as non-spatial data a disaster is the availability of the spatial information and the dissemination used in carrying out various governmental responsibilities and services. Data of this information to all concerned. Mapsnational and spatial are important exchange at local, regional, city, state and levelsinformation can be a continuous of theresulting overall in information in case ofand anycontrol disaster event (floods, and components cohesive process, better management of resources. earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, wildfire, famine, and so forth). mapping During the disaster, real time monitoring and evacuation/rescue needsHence immediate

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and and spatial information vital forEven any when Disaster Management effectiveness areacquisition challenges becomes to management. scientific monitoring effort. and predictive capabilities exist, to make warning systems functional efforts GIS emerged as aDesign very important methodological tool offorexpertise effectivefrom need has to be sustained. requires effective integration planning, communication, anddisciplines training in(e.g. the geography, various stages of the Disaster scientific and technical meteorology, geology), Management cycle. GIS can fulfill data requirement for monitoring, behavioural, sociological and the other scientific disciplines. Mappingassessing exposure to and people mitigating of Disaster Management. Withtothe increased andthe theneeds proper identification of the need warn peopleavailability is inevitable. of high resolutionsuch data,as, theRisk opportunities widened for a more events, detailedexposure and Components knowledgehave (Probability of natural rapidofanalysis natural hazards in a fast,communities), easy and cost-effective The and people of and property, vulnerable Technical manner. Monitoring ability of GIS (to Remote visualizeSensing, information, patternsand andtransmission), relationships that are Detection data see collection Forecasting otherwise apparent, makesWarning it a powerful methodological for capabilities (modelling), (Message and Design, communicationtool technology, management. allows disaster to quickly and visually display message GIS dissemination) andmanagers response (public assess knowledge) are to kept in critical informationforbyanlocation. The key advancement in GIS technology is consideration early warning system. Reprocessing, and Geodatabase. geodatabase view contains Rapid Revisualization professional response to disastersThe is the prime challenge during the the datasets that represent information in rescue genericteams, termsspecialized of models dog disaster phase. The lackgeographic of professionally trained as: features, networks, The geovisualization is the set of squads toraster, look topology, for live bodies and etc. the lack of centralized resource inventory intelligent mapping response which shows featuresSpecialist and its relationship the earth’s for emergency leadsthe to chaos. search and on rescue units to be surface. The geoprocessing the analytical which Regional derives a response new requisitioned to the site view of anisincident should function be the priority. dataset for conceptual analysis. centres should be set up in different parts of the country having well equipped Internet be used for, respond to and recover from emergency resourcesGIS forcan being able to to plan response to any hazard/calamity. Equally important situations, personnel themobile most hospitals accurate information whenand it’semergency most are the providing well equipped bedded with all medical needed-constantly. other assistance words, Internet gives thenearby. emergency equipment to In extend to theGIS hospitals The management air lift facilities professionals ability toonassemble large amounts of provide public information should bethe developed an independent basis to facilities to about specialist theirrescue community, teams. and analyze and use the information in an efficient and intelligent manner. The GIS data organization format displays graphic data in a format which is easy to understand. The system’s database may show boundaries, Use of New and Improved Technology for Monitoring, Assessing, topography, road network, utility and supply lines and other features vital to Forecasting and Communication of Information disaster planning. Linked with an extensive database that provides capabilities Natural disasters areand inevitable it is almost impossible to fully recoup the for real-time command control,and Internet GIS transforms disaster response by the disasters, but it is possible to minimize the potential risk into damage regular caused emergency management exercise. by preparing and implementing to provide resilience The pre-disaster preparedness developmental activities like plans risk identification, risk to such disasters andand to warning help in post disaster reduction. Disaster assessment, awareness are aimed at those actions, which response are taken and recovery efforts ofrequire timely interaction by andstructuring coordination of public to limit the impact a natural phenomenon response, and services for to save lives and property. Access to information is crucial for the establishing a mechanism for ensuring a quick and orderly reaction. This effective can management disasters.through All those areGIS concerned with managing disasters be organized veryof efficiently thewho use of on the Internet, for example necessarily have the access information. Normally, by making available the need risk to maps, as timely well asand theaccurate “dos and don’ts” on the a considerable of moneyout is spent just “what-if” finding thescenario relevantanalyses. information. Internet. It can alsoamount allow carrying some on basic This happens because the information is stored redundantly places An Internet GIS based emergency management network can helpininseveral ensuring and in several formats. effective public safety. As city, state and national governments deploy Internet Today, Information (IT) is for useda in this field for integrated increasing the based GIS technology, thereTechnology will be a demand comprehensive, efficiency and effectiveness in coping with a disaster. The prime concern during approach to managing the entire range of spatial, as well as non-spatial data disaster is the of the spatialresponsibilities information and dissemination useda in carrying outavailability various governmental andtheservices. Data of this information to all concerned. Mapsnational and spatial are important exchange at local, regional, city, state and levelsinformation can be a continuous of theresulting overall in information in case ofand anycontrol disaster event (floods, and components cohesive process, better management of resources. earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, wildfire, famine, and so forth). mapping During the disaster, real time monitoring and evacuation/rescue needsHence immediate

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and and spatial information vital forEven any when Disaster Management effectiveness areacquisition challenges becomes to management. scientific monitoring effort. and predictive capabilities exist, to make warning systems functional efforts GIS emerged as aDesign very important methodological tool offorexpertise effectivefrom need has to be sustained. requires effective integration planning, communication, anddisciplines training in(e.g. the geography, various stages of the Disaster scientific and technical meteorology, geology), Management cycle. GIS can fulfill data requirement for monitoring, behavioural, sociological and the other scientific disciplines. Mappingassessing exposure to and people mitigating of Disaster Management. Withtothe increased andthe theneeds proper identification of the need warn peopleavailability is inevitable. of high resolutionsuch data,as, theRisk opportunities widened for a more events, detailedexposure and Components knowledgehave (Probability of natural rapidofanalysis natural hazards in a fast,communities), easy and cost-effective The and people of and property, vulnerable Technical manner. Monitoring ability of GIS (to Remote visualizeSensing, information, patternsand andtransmission), relationships that are Detection data see collection Forecasting otherwise apparent, makesWarning it a powerful methodological for capabilities (modelling), (Message and Design, communicationtool technology, management. allows disaster to quickly and visually display message GIS dissemination) andmanagers response (public assess knowledge) are to kept in critical informationforbyanlocation. The key advancement in GIS technology is consideration early warning system. Reprocessing, and Geodatabase. geodatabase view contains Rapid Revisualization professional response to disastersThe is the prime challenge during the the datasets that represent information in rescue genericteams, termsspecialized of models dog disaster phase. The lackgeographic of professionally trained as: features, networks, The geovisualization is the set of squads toraster, look topology, for live bodies and etc. the lack of centralized resource inventory intelligent mapping response which shows featuresSpecialist and its relationship the earth’s for emergency leadsthe to chaos. search and on rescue units to be surface. The geoprocessing the analytical which Regional derives a response new requisitioned to the site view of anisincident should function be the priority. dataset for conceptual analysis. centres should be set up in different parts of the country having well equipped Internet be used for, respond to and recover from emergency resourcesGIS forcan being able to to plan response to any hazard/calamity. Equally important situations, personnel themobile most hospitals accurate information whenand it’semergency most are the providing well equipped bedded with all medical needed-constantly. other assistance words, Internet gives thenearby. emergency equipment to In extend to theGIS hospitals The management air lift facilities professionals ability toonassemble large amounts of provide public information should bethe developed an independent basis to facilities to about specialist theirrescue community, teams. and analyze and use the information in an efficient and intelligent manner. The GIS data organization format displays graphic data in a format which is easy to understand. The system’s database may show boundaries, Use of New and Improved Technology for Monitoring, Assessing, topography, road network, utility and supply lines and other features vital to Forecasting and Communication of Information disaster planning. Linked with an extensive database that provides capabilities Natural disasters areand inevitable it is almost impossible to fully recoup the for real-time command control,and Internet GIS transforms disaster response by the disasters, but it is possible to minimize the potential risk into damage regular caused emergency management exercise. by preparing and implementing to provide resilience The pre-disaster preparedness developmental activities like plans risk identification, risk to such disasters andand to warning help in post disaster reduction. Disaster assessment, awareness are aimed at those actions, which response are taken and recovery efforts ofrequire timely interaction by andstructuring coordination of public to limit the impact a natural phenomenon response, and services for to save lives and property. Access to information is crucial for the effective establishing a mechanism for ensuring a quick and orderly reaction. This can management disasters.through All those areGIS concerned with managing disasters be organized veryof efficiently thewho use of on the Internet, for example necessarily have the access information. Normally, by making available the need risk to maps, as timely well asand theaccurate “dos and don’ts” on the a considerable of moneyout is spent just “what-if” finding thescenario relevantanalyses. information. Internet. It can alsoamount allow carrying some on basic This happens because the information is stored redundantly places An Internet GIS based emergency management network can helpininseveral ensuring and inpublic several formats. effective safety. As city, state and national governments deploy Internet Today, Information (IT) is for useda in this field for integrated increasing the based GIS technology, thereTechnology will be a demand comprehensive, efficiency and effectiveness in coping with a disaster. The prime concern during approach to managing the entire range of spatial, as well as non-spatial data a disaster is the availability of the spatial information and the dissemination used in carrying out various governmental responsibilities and services. Data of this information to all concerned. Mapsnational and spatial are important exchange at local, regional, city, state and levelsinformation can be a continuous of theresulting overall in information in case ofand anycontrol disaster event (floods, and components cohesive process, better management of resources. earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, wildfire, famine, and so forth). mapping During the disaster, real time monitoring and evacuation/rescue needsHence immediate

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and spatial information acquisition becomes vital for any Disaster Management effort. GIS has emerged as a very important methodological tool for effective planning, communication, and training in the various stages of the Disaster Management cycle. GIS can fulfill the data requirement for monitoring, assessing and mitigating the needs of Disaster Management. With the increased availability of high resolution data, the opportunities have widened for a more detailed and rapid analysis of natural hazards in a fast, easy and cost-effective manner. The ability of GIS to visualize information, see patterns and relationships that are otherwise apparent, makes it a powerful and methodological tool for management. GIS allows disaster managers to quickly assess and visually display critical information by location. The key advancement in GIS technology is Reprocessing, Revisualization and Geodatabase. The geodatabase view contains the datasets that represent geographic information in generic terms of models as: features, raster, topology, networks, etc. The geovisualization is the set of intelligent mapping which shows the features and its relationship on the earth’s surface. The geoprocessing view is the analytical function which derives a new dataset for conceptual analysis. Internet GIS can be used to plan for, respond to and recover from emergency situations, providing personnel the most accurate information when it’s most needed-constantly. In other words, Internet GIS gives the emergency management professionals the ability to assemble large amounts of public information about their community, and analyze and use the information in an efficient and intelligent manner. The GIS data organization format displays graphic data in a format which is easy to understand. The system’s database may show boundaries, topography, road network, utility and supply lines and other features vital to disaster planning. Linked with an extensive database that provides capabilities for real-time command and control, Internet GIS transforms disaster response into regular emergency management exercise. The pre-disaster preparedness activities like risk identification, risk assessment, awareness and warning are aimed at those actions, which are taken to limit the impact of a natural phenomenon by structuring response, and for establishing a mechanism for ensuring a quick and orderly reaction. This can be organized very efficiently through the use of GIS on the Internet, for example by making available the risk maps, as well as the “dos and don’ts” on the Internet. It can also allow carrying out some basic “what-if” scenario analyses. An Internet GIS based emergency management network can help in ensuring effective public safety. As city, state and national governments deploy Internet based GIS technology, there will be a demand for a comprehensive, integrated approach to managing the entire range of spatial, as well as non-spatial data used in carrying out various governmental responsibilities and services. Data exchange at local, regional, city, state and national levels can be a continuous and cohesive process, resulting in better management and control of resources. During the disaster, real time monitoring and evacuation/rescue needs immediate

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

347

and spatial information acquisition becomes vital for any Disaster Management effort. GIS has emerged as a very important methodological tool for effective planning, communication, and training in the various stages of the Disaster Management cycle. GIS can fulfill the data requirement for monitoring, assessing and mitigating the needs of Disaster Management. With the increased availability of high resolution data, the opportunities have widened for a more detailed and rapid analysis of natural hazards in a fast, easy and cost-effective manner. The ability of GIS to visualize information, see patterns and relationships that are otherwise apparent, makes it a powerful and methodological tool for management. GIS allows disaster managers to quickly assess and visually display critical information by location. The key advancement in GIS technology is Reprocessing, Revisualization and Geodatabase. The geodatabase view contains the datasets that represent geographic information in generic terms of models as: features, raster, topology, networks, etc. The geovisualization is the set of intelligent mapping which shows the features and its relationship on the earth’s surface. The geoprocessing view is the analytical function which derives a new dataset for conceptual analysis. Internet GIS can be used to plan for, respond to and recover from emergency situations, providing personnel the most accurate information when it’s most needed-constantly. In other words, Internet GIS gives the emergency management professionals the ability to assemble large amounts of public information about their community, and analyze and use the information in an efficient and intelligent manner. The GIS data organization format displays graphic data in a format which is easy to understand. The system’s database may show boundaries, topography, road network, utility and supply lines and other features vital to disaster planning. Linked with an extensive database that provides capabilities for real-time command and control, Internet GIS transforms disaster response into regular emergency management exercise. The pre-disaster preparedness activities like risk identification, risk assessment, awareness and warning are aimed at those actions, which are taken to limit the impact of a natural phenomenon by structuring response, and for establishing a mechanism for ensuring a quick and orderly reaction. This can be organized very efficiently through the use of GIS on the Internet, for example by making available the risk maps, as well as the “dos and don’ts” on the Internet. It can also allow carrying out some basic “what-if” scenario analyses. An Internet GIS based emergency management network can help in ensuring effective public safety. As city, state and national governments deploy Internet based GIS technology, there will be a demand for a comprehensive, integrated approach to managing the entire range of spatial, as well as non-spatial data used in carrying out various governmental responsibilities and services. Data exchange at local, regional, city, state and national levels can be a continuous and cohesive process, resulting in better management and control of resources. During the disaster, real time monitoring and evacuation/rescue needs immediate

348

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Disaster Management

attention. The latest information can be made available through the Internet giving a detailed picture of the event tracking, forecast of the affected region, the evacuation plan, and the position / movement of various agencies like military and NGO’s. The post-disaster activities like relief, relocation, recovery, damage assessment, repair and reconstruction dealing with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild can be effectively coordinated by using Internetbased GIS as a very powerful tool. This includes making the latest information available regarding the spatial coordinates of the affected people and sources of providing relief and rescue, the regional extent of the calamity, and the geopositioning of the “lifelines” like water supply and a transportation network etc. With the help of Internet GIS, the latest information on routes, affected areas, the demographics of the affected areas can all be posted on the web for the use of all agencies who can coordinate their efforts in a more effective manner.

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

349

latest information can be made available through the Internet Roleattention. of ICT The in Disaster Management giving a detailed picture of the event tracking, forecast of the affected region, Communication is the gateway in case of any major Disaster Management at the evacuation plan, and the position / movement of various agencies like military any level of concern, because the traditional bottleneck network system brakes and NGO’s. down. The revolution in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) The post-disaster activities like relief, relocation, recovery, damage has opened up an array of new methods and tools including the mobile phone assessment, repair and reconstruction dealing with providing food and shelter for alert giving warnings. The major constraints are to match the levels and to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and type of technologies used in exposed communities and to match their sociotechnical assistance to rebuild can be effectively coordinated by using Interneteconomic character. based GIS as a very powerful tool. This includes making the latest information The World Wide Web is an effective tool for communication in the present available regarding the spatial coordinates of the affected people and sources scenario. It provides a platform for people across the world to exchange ideas, of providing relief and rescue, the regional extent of the calamity, and the knowledge and technology. It brings together people with common interests geopositioning of the “lifelines” like water supply and a transportation network irrespective of their geographical location and the distance separating them. etc. With the help of Internet GIS, the latest information on routes, affected areas, the demographics of the affected areas can all be posted on the web for Forms in Disaster the of useICT of used all agencies who Management can coordinate their efforts in a more effective manner. • GIS modelling.

New Initiatives in Regional Cooperation and Information Sharing

• •

Initiatives for knowledge sharing and a platform for such exchange is important. To minimize the loss of life, the objective at most of the geographically shared regions needs regional cooperation for the timely exchange of data and information. Hazard inventory, monitoring and warning systems are the areas of emphasis.

Initiatives for knowledge sharing and a platform for such exchange is important. Areas Application of ICT To of minimize the loss of life, the objective at most of the geographically shared regions needs regional cooperation for of thea plan timely exchange of data and • Raising the degree of awareness (preparation to reduce vulnerabilities) information. Hazard inventory, monitoring and warning systems are the areas • How best to manage these risk and disaster (response, rescue and mitigation) of emphasis. 1. Tele communication tool for coordination (e.g. between centre/decision

Increased Community Preparedness and Preventive Measures While disasters strike a wide region of the nation, the impact is always felt at the community level, although it may hit one or several communities at once. Being at the forefront, the communities need to have the capacity to respond to the threats themselves. It is for this reason that communities should be involved in managing the risks that may threaten their wellbeing. To be effective, the community based Disaster Management approach promotes a bottom up approach working in harmony with the top - down approach, to address the challenge and difficulties. Local communities must be supported in analyzing their hazardous conditions, their vulnerabilities and their capacities as they see themselves. The CBDM should forefront opportunities for the local community to evaluate their own situation based on their own experience. Under this approach communities should be proactive in not only the decision making process but also in the implementation process. Transparency of activities and the dissemination of knowledge and information encourage people’s participation in activities. As “what is accepted by the community is more important than what is necessity”.

348

making organizations to implementing relief agencies working on the ground.Community Preparedness and Preventive Measures Increased 2. Community radio/ community telecentre While disasters strike a wide region of the nation, the impact is always felt at 3. Website as resource centre. the community level, although it may hit one or several communities at once. 4. Real time images to assess latest situation and relief measures. Being at the forefront, the communities need to have the capacity to respond to the threats themselves. It is for this reason that communities should be involved In its role as an effective tool for communication, it can be invaluable for in managing the risks that may threaten their wellbeing. To be effective, the disaster management. The usage will only increase as the Web reaches out to community based Disaster Management approach promotes a bottom up approach every corner of the world and more and more people come online. All the working in harmony with the top - down approach, to address the challenge countries are recognizing the importance of developing an information and difficulties. Local communities must be supported in analyzing their infrastructure capable of sustaining state of the art technology for use at the hazardous conditions, their vulnerabilities and their capacities as they see time of disasters. Furthermore, there is a move towards the globalization of themselves. The CBDM should forefront opportunities for the local community disaster networks to provide speedy assistance to every disaster victim, to evaluate their own situation based on their own experience. Under this irrespective of the national boundary and geographical location. This approach communities should be proactive in not only the decision making globalization will have far-reaching impacts, and hopefully, the catastrophic process but also in the implementation process. Transparency of activities and events will become less disastrous with the increasing use of WWW and the dissemination of knowledge and information encourage people’s participation networks. It is already being used for effective information management in in activities. As “what is accepted by the community is more important than various other areas, and it has started being used for managing disasters as what is necessity”. well. But the use of GIS on the Internet, which could have powerful implications for disaster management, is yet to be fully explored. Integration of GIS and the

348

Disaster Management

attention. The latest information can be made available through the Internet giving a detailed picture of the event tracking, forecast of the affected region, the evacuation plan, and the position / movement of various agencies like military and NGO’s. The post-disaster activities like relief, relocation, recovery, damage assessment, repair and reconstruction dealing with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild can be effectively coordinated by using Internetbased GIS as a very powerful tool. This includes making the latest information available regarding the spatial coordinates of the affected people and sources of providing relief and rescue, the regional extent of the calamity, and the geopositioning of the “lifelines” like water supply and a transportation network etc. With the help of Internet GIS, the latest information on routes, affected areas, the demographics of the affected areas can all be posted on the web for the use of all agencies who can coordinate their efforts in a more effective manner.

Internet/website/ - Data sharing, warehousing, knowledge hub Communication - Mobile, Satellite Networks to transferSharing Data. New Initiatives systems in Regional Cooperation and Information

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

349

latest information can be made available through the Internet Roleattention. of ICT The in Disaster Management giving a detailed picture of the event tracking, forecast of the affected region, Communication is the gateway in case of any major Disaster Management at the evacuation plan, and the position / movement of various agencies like military any level of concern, because the traditional bottleneck network system brakes and NGO’s. down. The revolution in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) The post-disaster activities like relief, relocation, recovery, damage has opened up an array of new methods and tools including the mobile phone assessment, repair and reconstruction dealing with providing food and shelter for alert giving warnings. The major constraints are to match the levels and to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and type of technologies used in exposed communities and to match their sociotechnical assistance to rebuild can be effectively coordinated by using Interneteconomic character. based GIS as a very powerful tool. This includes making the latest information The World Wide Web is an effective tool for communication in the present available regarding the spatial coordinates of the affected people and sources scenario. It provides a platform for people across the world to exchange ideas, of providing relief and rescue, the regional extent of the calamity, and the knowledge and technology. It brings together people with common interests geopositioning of the “lifelines” like water supply and a transportation network irrespective of their geographical location and the distance separating them. etc. With the help of Internet GIS, the latest information on routes, affected areas, the demographics of the affected areas can all be posted on the web for Forms in Disaster the of useICT of used all agencies who Management can coordinate their efforts in a more effective manner. • GIS modelling.

New Initiatives in Regional Cooperation and Information Sharing

• •

Initiatives for knowledge sharing and a platform for such exchange is important. To minimize the loss of life, the objective at most of the geographically shared regions needs regional cooperation for the timely exchange of data and information. Hazard inventory, monitoring and warning systems are the areas of emphasis.

Initiatives for knowledge sharing and a platform for such exchange is important. Areas Application of ICT To of minimize the loss of life, the objective at most of the geographically shared regions the needs regional cooperation for of thea plan timely exchange of data and • Raising degree of awareness (preparation to reduce vulnerabilities) information. Hazard inventory, monitoring and warning systems are the areas • How best to manage these risk and disaster (response, rescue and mitigation) of emphasis. 1. Tele communication tool for coordination (e.g. between centre/decision

Increased Community Preparedness and Preventive Measures While disasters strike a wide region of the nation, the impact is always felt at the community level, although it may hit one or several communities at once. Being at the forefront, the communities need to have the capacity to respond to the threats themselves. It is for this reason that communities should be involved in managing the risks that may threaten their wellbeing. To be effective, the community based Disaster Management approach promotes a bottom up approach working in harmony with the top - down approach, to address the challenge and difficulties. Local communities must be supported in analyzing their hazardous conditions, their vulnerabilities and their capacities as they see themselves. The CBDM should forefront opportunities for the local community to evaluate their own situation based on their own experience. Under this approach communities should be proactive in not only the decision making process but also in the implementation process. Transparency of activities and the dissemination of knowledge and information encourage people’s participation in activities. As “what is accepted by the community is more important than what is necessity”.

Internet/website/ - Data sharing, warehousing, knowledge hub Communication - Mobile, Satellite Networks to transferSharing Data. New Initiatives systems in Regional Cooperation and Information

making organizations to implementing relief agencies working on the ground.Community Preparedness and Preventive Measures Increased 2. Community radio/ community telecentre While disasters strike a wide region of the nation, the impact is always felt at 3. Website as resource centre. the community level, although it may hit one or several communities at once. 4. Real time images to assess latest situation and relief measures. Being at the forefront, the communities need to have the capacity to respond to the threats themselves. It is for this reason that communities should be involved In its role as an effective tool for communication, it can be invaluable for in managing the risks that may threaten their wellbeing. To be effective, the disaster management. The usage will only increase as the Web reaches out to community based Disaster Management approach promotes a bottom up approach every corner of the world and more and more people come online. All the working in harmony with the top - down approach, to address the challenge countries are recognizing the importance of developing an information and difficulties. Local communities must be supported in analyzing their infrastructure capable of sustaining state of the art technology for use at the hazardous conditions, their vulnerabilities and their capacities as they see time of disasters. Furthermore, there is a move towards the globalization of themselves. The CBDM should forefront opportunities for the local community disaster networks to provide speedy assistance to every disaster victim, to evaluate their own situation based on their own experience. Under this irrespective of the national boundary and geographical location. This approach communities should be proactive in not only the decision making globalization will have far-reaching impacts, and hopefully, the catastrophic process but also in the implementation process. Transparency of activities and events will become less disastrous with the increasing use of WWW and the dissemination of knowledge and information encourage people’s participation networks. It is already being used for effective information management in in activities. As “what is accepted by the community is more important than various other areas, and it has started being used for managing disasters as what is necessity”. well. But the use of GIS on the Internet, which could have powerful implications for disaster management, is yet to be fully explored. Integration of GIS and the

348

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

349

Roleattention. of ICT The in Disaster Management latest information can be made available through the Internet giving a detailed picture of the event tracking, forecast of the affected region, Communication is the gateway in case of any major Disaster Management at the evacuation plan, and the position / movement of various agencies like military any level of concern, because the traditional bottleneck network system brakes and NGO’s. down. The revolution in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) The post-disaster activities like relief, relocation, recovery, damage has opened up an array of new methods and tools including the mobile phone assessment, repair and reconstruction dealing with providing food and shelter for alert giving warnings. The major constraints are to match the levels and to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and type of technologies used in exposed communities and to match their sociotechnical assistance to rebuild can be effectively coordinated by using Interneteconomic character. based GIS as a very powerful tool. This includes making the latest information The World Wide Web is an effective tool for communication in the present available regarding the spatial coordinates of the affected people and sources scenario. It provides a platform for people across the world to exchange ideas, of providing relief and rescue, the regional extent of the calamity, and the knowledge and technology. It brings together people with common interests geopositioning of the “lifelines” like water supply and a transportation network irrespective of their geographical location and the distance separating them. etc. With the help of Internet GIS, the latest information on routes, affected areas, the demographics of the affected areas can all be posted on the web for Forms in Disaster the of useICT of used all agencies who Management can coordinate their efforts in a more effective manner. • GIS modelling. • •

Internet/website/ - Data sharing, warehousing, knowledge hub Communication - Mobile, Satellite Networks to transferSharing Data. New Initiatives systems in Regional Cooperation and Information

Initiatives for knowledge sharing and a platform for such exchange is important. Areas Application of ICT To of minimize the loss of life, the objective at most of the geographically shared regions needs regional cooperation for of thea plan timely exchange of data and • Raising the degree of awareness (preparation to reduce vulnerabilities) information. Hazard inventory, monitoring and warning systems are the areas • How best to manage these risk and disaster (response, rescue and mitigation) of emphasis. 1. Tele communication tool for coordination (e.g. between centre/decision

making organizations to implementing relief agencies working on the ground.Community Preparedness and Preventive Measures Increased 2. Community radio/ community telecentre While disasters strike a wide region of the nation, the impact is always felt at 3. Website as resource centre. the community level, although it may hit one or several communities at once. 4. Real time images to assess latest situation and relief measures. Being at the forefront, the communities need to have the capacity to respond to the threats themselves. It is for this reason that communities should be involved In its role as an effective tool for communication, it can be invaluable for in managing the risks that may threaten their wellbeing. To be effective, the disaster management. The usage will only increase as the Web reaches out to community based Disaster Management approach promotes a bottom up approach every corner of the world and more and more people come online. All the working in harmony with the top - down approach, to address the challenge countries are recognizing the importance of developing an information and difficulties. Local communities must be supported in analyzing their infrastructure capable of sustaining state of the art technology for use at the hazardous conditions, their vulnerabilities and their capacities as they see time of disasters. Furthermore, there is a move towards the globalization of themselves. The CBDM should forefront opportunities for the local community disaster networks to provide speedy assistance to every disaster victim, to evaluate their own situation based on their own experience. Under this irrespective of the national boundary and geographical location. This approach communities should be proactive in not only the decision making globalization will have far-reaching impacts, and hopefully, the catastrophic process but also in the implementation process. Transparency of activities and events will become less disastrous with the increasing use of WWW and the dissemination of knowledge and information encourage people’s participation networks. It is already being used for effective information management in in activities. As “what is accepted by the community is more important than various other areas, and it has started being used for managing disasters as what is necessity”. well. But the use of GIS on the Internet, which could have powerful implications for disaster management, is yet to be fully explored. Integration of GIS and the

348

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Internet/website/ - Data sharing, warehousing, knowledge hub Communication - Mobile, Satellite Networks to transferSharing Data. New Initiatives systems in Regional Cooperation and Information

Initiatives for knowledge sharing and a platform for such exchange is important. Areas Application of ICT To of minimize the loss of life, the objective at most of the geographically shared regions the needs regional cooperation for of thea plan timely exchange of data and • Raising degree of awareness (preparation to reduce vulnerabilities) information. Hazard inventory, monitoring and warning systems are the areas • How best to manage these risk and disaster (response, rescue and mitigation) of emphasis. 1. Tele communication tool for coordination (e.g. between centre/decision

making organizations to implementing relief agencies working on the ground.Community Preparedness and Preventive Measures Increased 2. Community radio/ community telecentre While disasters strike a wide region of the nation, the impact is always felt at 3. Website as resource centre. the community level, although it may hit one or several communities at once. 4. Real time images to assess latest situation and relief measures. Being at the forefront, the communities need to have the capacity to respond to the threats themselves. It is for this reason that communities should be involved In its role as an effective tool for communication, it can be invaluable for in managing the risks that may threaten their wellbeing. To be effective, the disaster management. The usage will only increase as the Web reaches out to community based Disaster Management approach promotes a bottom up approach every corner of the world and more and more people come online. All the working in harmony with the top - down approach, to address the challenge countries are recognizing the importance of developing an information and difficulties. Local communities must be supported in analyzing their infrastructure capable of sustaining state of the art technology for use at the hazardous conditions, their vulnerabilities and their capacities as they see time of disasters. Furthermore, there is a move towards the globalization of themselves. The CBDM should forefront opportunities for the local community disaster networks to provide speedy assistance to every disaster victim, to evaluate their own situation based on their own experience. Under this irrespective of the national boundary and geographical location. This approach communities should be proactive in not only the decision making globalization will have far-reaching impacts, and hopefully, the catastrophic process but also in the implementation process. Transparency of activities and events will become less disastrous with the increasing use of WWW and the dissemination of knowledge and information encourage people’s participation networks. It is already being used for effective information management in in activities. As “what is accepted by the community is more important than various other areas, and it has started being used for managing disasters as what is necessity”. well. But the use of GIS on the Internet, which could have powerful implications for disaster management, is yet to be fully explored. Integration of GIS and the

349

Role of ICT in Disaster Management Communication is the gateway in case of any major Disaster Management at any level of concern, because the traditional bottleneck network system brakes down. The revolution in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has opened up an array of new methods and tools including the mobile phone for alert giving warnings. The major constraints are to match the levels and type of technologies used in exposed communities and to match their socioeconomic character. The World Wide Web is an effective tool for communication in the present scenario. It provides a platform for people across the world to exchange ideas, knowledge and technology. It brings together people with common interests irrespective of their geographical location and the distance separating them. Forms of ICT used in Disaster Management • • •

GIS modelling. Internet/website/ - Data sharing, warehousing, knowledge hub Communication systems - Mobile, Satellite Networks to transfer Data.

Areas of Application of ICT • •

Raising the degree of awareness (preparation of a plan to reduce vulnerabilities) How best to manage these risk and disaster (response, rescue and mitigation) 1. Tele communication tool for coordination (e.g. between centre/decision making organizations to implementing relief agencies working on the ground. 2. Community radio/ community telecentre 3. Website as resource centre. 4. Real time images to assess latest situation and relief measures.

In its role as an effective tool for communication, it can be invaluable for disaster management. The usage will only increase as the Web reaches out to every corner of the world and more and more people come online. All the countries are recognizing the importance of developing an information infrastructure capable of sustaining state of the art technology for use at the time of disasters. Furthermore, there is a move towards the globalization of disaster networks to provide speedy assistance to every disaster victim, irrespective of the national boundary and geographical location. This globalization will have far-reaching impacts, and hopefully, the catastrophic events will become less disastrous with the increasing use of WWW and networks. It is already being used for effective information management in various other areas, and it has started being used for managing disasters as well. But the use of GIS on the Internet, which could have powerful implications for disaster management, is yet to be fully explored. Integration of GIS and the

349

Roleattention. of ICT The in Disaster Management latest information can be made available through the Internet giving a detailed picture of the event tracking, forecast of the affected region, Communication is the gateway in case of any major Disaster Management at the evacuation plan, and the position / movement of various agencies like military any level of concern, because the traditional bottleneck network system brakes and NGO’s. down. The revolution in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) The post-disaster activities like relief, relocation, recovery, damage has opened up an array of new methods and tools including the mobile phone assessment, repair and reconstruction dealing with providing food and shelter for alert giving warnings. The major constraints are to match the levels and to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and providing financial and type of technologies used in exposed communities and to match their sociotechnical assistance to rebuild can be effectively coordinated by using Interneteconomic character. based GIS as a very powerful tool. This includes making the latest information The World Wide Web is an effective tool for communication in the present available regarding the spatial coordinates of the affected people and sources scenario. It provides a platform for people across the world to exchange ideas, of providing relief and rescue, the regional extent of the calamity, and the knowledge and technology. It brings together people with common interests geopositioning of the “lifelines” like water supply and a transportation network irrespective of their geographical location and the distance separating them. etc. With the help of Internet GIS, the latest information on routes, affected areas, the demographics of the affected areas can all be posted on the web for Forms in Disaster the of useICT of used all agencies who Management can coordinate their efforts in a more effective manner. • GIS modelling. • •

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

349

Role of ICT in Disaster Management Communication is the gateway in case of any major Disaster Management at any level of concern, because the traditional bottleneck network system brakes down. The revolution in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has opened up an array of new methods and tools including the mobile phone for alert giving warnings. The major constraints are to match the levels and type of technologies used in exposed communities and to match their socioeconomic character. The World Wide Web is an effective tool for communication in the present scenario. It provides a platform for people across the world to exchange ideas, knowledge and technology. It brings together people with common interests irrespective of their geographical location and the distance separating them. Forms of ICT used in Disaster Management • • •

GIS modelling. Internet/website/ - Data sharing, warehousing, knowledge hub Communication systems - Mobile, Satellite Networks to transfer Data.

Areas of Application of ICT • •

Raising the degree of awareness (preparation of a plan to reduce vulnerabilities) How best to manage these risk and disaster (response, rescue and mitigation) 1. Tele communication tool for coordination (e.g. between centre/decision making organizations to implementing relief agencies working on the ground. 2. Community radio/ community telecentre 3. Website as resource centre. 4. Real time images to assess latest situation and relief measures.

In its role as an effective tool for communication, it can be invaluable for disaster management. The usage will only increase as the Web reaches out to every corner of the world and more and more people come online. All the countries are recognizing the importance of developing an information infrastructure capable of sustaining state of the art technology for use at the time of disasters. Furthermore, there is a move towards the globalization of disaster networks to provide speedy assistance to every disaster victim, irrespective of the national boundary and geographical location. This globalization will have far-reaching impacts, and hopefully, the catastrophic events will become less disastrous with the increasing use of WWW and networks. It is already being used for effective information management in various other areas, and it has started being used for managing disasters as well. But the use of GIS on the Internet, which could have powerful implications for disaster management, is yet to be fully explored. Integration of GIS and the

350

Disaster Management

WWW will lead to an enormous increase in the usage and accessibility of spatial data. In today’s context, the usage of GIS is normally restricted to a community of trained experts. Making GIS applications available through the World Wide Web could make this technology accessible for many more people. For the large group of GIS inexperienced users on the Net, the handling of a Web GIS needs to be much simpler to use than existing stand-alone GIS. With technology becoming more user-friendly and cost-effective in India, the Internet can now be used for the management of disasters in India as well. For example, it can be used effectively in the event of any disaster for providing the first hand information about the extent of damage, the areas affected and to direct the rescue and relief operations. Taking the case of a hypothetical earthquake event, the first information that would be needed, is the location of the epicenter and the extent of the worst affected areas. The Internet GIS, through its applications, would enable the emergency managers to have a map of the affected area along with other statistics such as the number of houses, the population, using which an estimation of the causalities and damage can also be done. The information stored online becomes widely accessible to the concerned agencies and people, and the various control rooms can be established having interconnections through a wide area network. This Internet based GIS, system can also help in accessing, the various map layers such as the transportation network- the network of rails and roads, the communication network and the status of infrastructure- physical as well as social. The information on the various road links, which get cut off due to any catastrophic event, can be updated on the net so that a clear picture of the available links can be provided, and the relief operations can be directed accordingly. Also, the information about the nearest hospital and other emergency services such as fire stations can be provided. The worst affected areas can be marked and all those regions where relief has already been provided can be shown on the maps. This enables the relief agencies to regulate their activities effectively. Apart from the applications during the disaster and post disaster, an Internet based GIS system can serve as a vital media for providing information related to disaster and during the pre-disaster phase, to provide preparedness measures. Overall, the use of Internet GIS has tremendous scope in the Indian context, considering the vulnerability of the country to disasters of various types, the extensive use of spatial data in Disaster Management, and the growing popularity of the Internet. It has great potential, and has been put to good use in the other developed and developing countries as well. At the same time, the use of Internet GIS in the Indian circumstances also poses some challenges, which need to be overcome in the coming years. • The existing dependency of Internet access on normal communication network, which may not work during disasters • Sophisticated analysis and modelling not possible • Higher bandwidth requirement • Mobile internet still not popular in India

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Disaster Management

WWW will lead to an enormous increase in the usage and accessibility of spatial data. In today’s context, the usage of GIS is normally restricted to a community of trained experts. Making GIS applications available through the World Wide Web could make this technology accessible for many more people. For the large group of GIS inexperienced users on the Net, the handling of a Web GIS needs to be much simpler to use than existing stand-alone GIS. With technology becoming more user-friendly and cost-effective in India, the Internet can now be used for the management of disasters in India as well. For example, it can be used effectively in the event of any disaster for providing the first hand information about the extent of damage, the areas affected and to direct the rescue and relief operations. Taking the case of a hypothetical earthquake event, the first information that would be needed, is the location of the epicenter and the extent of the worst affected areas. The Internet GIS, through its applications, would enable the emergency managers to have a map of the affected area along with other statistics such as the number of houses, the population, using which an estimation of the causalities and damage can also be done. The information stored online becomes widely accessible to the concerned agencies and people, and the various control rooms can be established having interconnections through a wide area network. This Internet based GIS, system can also help in accessing, the various map layers such as the transportation network- the network of rails and roads, the communication network and the status of infrastructure- physical as well as social. The information on the various road links, which get cut off due to any catastrophic event, can be updated on the net so that a clear picture of the available links can be provided, and the relief operations can be directed accordingly. Also, the information about the nearest hospital and other emergency services such as fire stations can be provided. The worst affected areas can be marked and all those regions where relief has already been provided can be shown on the maps. This enables the relief agencies to regulate their activities effectively. Apart from the applications during the disaster and post disaster, an Internet based GIS system can serve as a vital media for providing information related to disaster and during the pre-disaster phase, to provide preparedness measures. Overall, the use of Internet GIS has tremendous scope in the Indian context, considering the vulnerability of the country to disasters of various types, the extensive use of spatial data in Disaster Management, and the growing popularity of the Internet. It has great potential, and has been put to good use in the other developed and developing countries as well. At the same time, the use of Internet GIS in the Indian circumstances also poses some challenges, which need to be overcome in the coming years. • The existing dependency of Internet access on normal communication network, which may not work during disasters • Sophisticated analysis and modelling not possible • Higher bandwidth requirement • Mobile internet still not popular in India

350

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

351

WWW will lead to an enormous increase in the usage and accessibility of CONCLUSION data.conclusions In today’scan context, the usage is normally restricted The spatial following be drawn withinoftheGIS framework of this paper: to a community of trained experts. Making GIS applications available through the World Wide Web could technology accessible for many more people. • Disaster Management hasmake to bethis pro-active and multi disciplinary in approach For the largeofgroup of GIS inexperienced users Net, theofhandling • Recognition the emerging challenges such as on the the framework disasterof a Web GIS needs to be much simpler to use than existing stand-alone GIS. prevention, mitigation and preparedness which should be initiated at Central With technology becoming more user-friendly and cost-effective India, and State government, levels the community, civil society organizationinand the Internet can now be used for the management of disasters in India as media involvement are needed in order to achieve the goals together for awell. For example, safer India. it can be used effectively in the event of any disaster for providing the first hand information the extent ofindamage, the areas affected and to • The vulnerability reduction about is an important task the scenario of hybrid natural direct the rescue and relief operations. Taking the case of a hypothetical hazards and multiple man made hazards. earthquake event, the first information that wouldare beindispensable needed, is the for location • Information and communication technologies the of the epicenter and the extent of the worst affected areas. The Internet GIS, through preparing, planning and successful implementation of Disaster Management its applications, would enable the emergency managers to have a map of the Initiatives. affected GIS areacan along with other statistics such as and the managing number of • Internet be very much used for coordinating thehouses, spatial the population, using which an estimation of the causalities and damage can also data display and analysis needed for the various agencies involved in the various be done. The information stored online becomes widely accessible to the stages of the disaster management cycle. concerned agencies the various rooms cancapabilities be established • More emphasis has toand be people, given onand building humancontrol and institutional having interconnections through a wide area network. This Internet based GIS, to strengthen coordination and linkages. system can also help in accessing, the various map layers such as the • Need for sharing data and information for rapid response. transportation network- the network of rails and roads, the communication network and the status of infrastructure- physical as well as social. The REFERENCES information on the various road links, which get cut off due to any catastrophic http://www.adpc.net/IRC06/Newsletter/2005/1-3/01.pdf. event, can be updated on the net so that a clear picture of the available links http://www.unisdr.org/eng/mdgs-drr/national-reports/India-report.pdf. can be provided, and the relief operations can be directed accordingly. Also, http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun102007/1474a.pdf. the information about the nearest hospital and other emergency services such http://www.ncdm-india.org/ as fire stations can be provided. The worst affected areas can be marked and http://www.southasiadisasters.net all N. those where relief hasGIS already been natural provided can management”, be shown on the Raheja, et.al.regions “Role of Internet-based in effective disaster maps. This enables the relief agencies to regulate their activities effectively. GIS Development. Jenson, E. eds. Disaster Management Ethics, Interworks, London. Apart from(1997). the applications during the disaster and post disaster, an Internet based GIS system can serve as a vital media for providing information related to disaster and during the pre-disaster phase, to provide preparedness measures. Overall, the use of Internet GIS has tremendous scope in the Indian context, considering the vulnerability of the country to disasters of various types, the extensive use of spatial data in Disaster Management, and the growing popularity of the Internet. It has great potential, and has been put to good use in the other developed and developing countries as well. At the same time, the use of Internet GIS in the Indian circumstances also poses some challenges, which need to be overcome in the coming years. • The existing dependency of Internet access on normal communication network, which may not work during disasters • Sophisticated analysis and modelling not possible • Higher bandwidth requirement • Mobile internet still not popular in India

350

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

351

WWW will lead to an enormous increase in the usage and accessibility of CONCLUSION data.conclusions In today’scan context, the usage is normally restricted The spatial following be drawn withinoftheGIS framework of this paper: to a community of trained experts. Making GIS applications available through the World Wide Web could technology accessible for many more people. • Disaster Management hasmake to bethis pro-active and multi disciplinary in approach For the large group of GIS inexperienced users on the Net, the handling • Recognition of the emerging challenges such as the framework of disasterof a Web GIS needs to be and much simpler to which use than existing stand-alone GIS. prevention, mitigation preparedness should be initiated at Central With technology becoming more user-friendly and cost-effective India, and State government, levels the community, civil society organizationinand the Internet can now be used for the management of disasters in India as media involvement are needed in order to achieve the goals together for awell. For example, safer India. it can be used effectively in the event of any disaster for providing the first hand information the extent ofindamage, the areas affected and to • The vulnerability reduction about is an important task the scenario of hybrid natural direct the rescue and relief operations. Taking the case of a hypothetical hazards and multiple man made hazards. earthquake event, the first information that wouldare beindispensable needed, is the for location • Information and communication technologies the of the epicenter and theand extent of the worst affected areas. The Internet GIS, through preparing, planning successful implementation of Disaster Management its applications, would enable the emergency managers to have a map of the Initiatives. affected area along with other statistics such as the number of houses, • Internet GIS can be very much used for coordinating and managing the spatial the population, using whichneeded an estimation of theagencies causalities and damage can also data display and analysis for the various involved in the various be done. The information stored online becomes widely accessible to the stages of the disaster management cycle. concerned agencies and people, and the various control rooms can be established • More emphasis has to be given on building human and institutional capabilities having interconnections through a wide area network. This Internet based GIS, to strengthen coordination and linkages. system alsodata help accessing,forthe various map layers such as the • Need forcan sharing andininformation rapid response. transportation network- the network of rails and roads, the communication network and the status of infrastructure- physical as well as social. The REFERENCES information on the various road links, which get cut off due to any catastrophic http://www.adpc.net/IRC06/Newsletter/2005/1-3/01.pdf. event, can be updated on the net so that a clear picture of the available links http://www.unisdr.org/eng/mdgs-drr/national-reports/India-report.pdf. can be provided, and the relief operations can be directed accordingly. Also, http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun102007/1474a.pdf. the information about the nearest hospital and other emergency services such http://www.ncdm-india.org/ as fire stations can be provided. The worst affected areas can be marked and http://www.southasiadisasters.net all N. those where relief hasGIS already been natural provided can management”, be shown on the Raheja, et.al.regions “Role of Internet-based in effective disaster maps. This enables the relief agencies to regulate their activities effectively. GIS Development. Jenson, E. eds. Disaster Management Ethics, Interworks, London. Apart from(1997). the applications during the disaster and post disaster, an Internet based GIS system can serve as a vital media for providing information related to disaster and during the pre-disaster phase, to provide preparedness measures. Overall, the use of Internet GIS has tremendous scope in the Indian context, considering the vulnerability of the country to disasters of various types, the extensive use of spatial data in Disaster Management, and the growing popularity of the Internet. It has great potential, and has been put to good use in the other developed and developing countries as well. At the same time, the use of Internet GIS in the Indian circumstances also poses some challenges, which need to be overcome in the coming years. • The existing dependency of Internet access on normal communication network, which may not work during disasters • Sophisticated analysis and modelling not possible • Higher bandwidth requirement • Mobile internet still not popular in India

350

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

351

CONCLUSION WWW will lead to an enormous increase in the usage and accessibility of data.conclusions In today’scan context, the usage is normally restricted The spatial following be drawn withinoftheGIS framework of this paper: to a community of trained experts. Making GIS applications available through the World Wide Web could technology accessible for many more people. • Disaster Management hasmake to bethis pro-active and multi disciplinary in approach For the largeofgroup of GIS inexperienced users Net, theofhandling • Recognition the emerging challenges such as on the the framework disasterof a Web GIS needs to be much simpler to use than existing stand-alone GIS. prevention, mitigation and preparedness which should be initiated at Central With technology becoming more user-friendly and cost-effective India, and State government, levels the community, civil society organizationinand the Internet can now be used for the management of disasters in India as media involvement are needed in order to achieve the goals together for awell. For example, safer India. it can be used effectively in the event of any disaster for providing the first hand information the extent ofindamage, the areas affected and to • The vulnerability reduction about is an important task the scenario of hybrid natural direct the rescue and relief operations. Taking the case of a hypothetical hazards and multiple man made hazards. earthquake event, the first information that wouldare beindispensable needed, is the for location • Information and communication technologies the of the epicenter and the extent of the worst affected areas. The Internet GIS, through preparing, planning and successful implementation of Disaster Management its applications, would enable the emergency managers to have a map of the Initiatives. affected GIS areacan along with other statistics such as and the managing number of • Internet be very much used for coordinating thehouses, spatial the population, using which an estimation of the causalities and damage can also data display and analysis needed for the various agencies involved in the various be done. The information stored online becomes widely accessible to the stages of the disaster management cycle. concerned agencies the various rooms cancapabilities be established • More emphasis has toand be people, given onand building humancontrol and institutional having interconnections through a wide area network. This Internet based GIS, to strengthen coordination and linkages. system can also help in accessing, the various map layers such as the • Need for sharing data and information for rapid response. transportation network- the network of rails and roads, the communication network and the status of infrastructure- physical as well as social. The REFERENCES information on the various road links, which get cut off due to any catastrophic http://www.adpc.net/IRC06/Newsletter/2005/1-3/01.pdf. event, can be updated on the net so that a clear picture of the available links http://www.unisdr.org/eng/mdgs-drr/national-reports/India-report.pdf. can be provided, and the relief operations can be directed accordingly. Also, http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun102007/1474a.pdf. the information about the nearest hospital and other emergency services such http://www.ncdm-india.org/ as fire stations can be provided. The worst affected areas can be marked and http://www.southasiadisasters.net all N. those where relief hasGIS already been natural provided can management”, be shown on the Raheja, et.al.regions “Role of Internet-based in effective disaster maps. This enables the relief agencies to regulate their activities effectively. GIS Development. Jenson, E. eds. Disaster Management Ethics, Interworks, London. Apart from(1997). the applications during the disaster and post disaster, an Internet based GIS system can serve as a vital media for providing information related to disaster and during the pre-disaster phase, to provide preparedness measures. Overall, the use of Internet GIS has tremendous scope in the Indian context, considering the vulnerability of the country to disasters of various types, the extensive use of spatial data in Disaster Management, and the growing popularity of the Internet. It has great potential, and has been put to good use in the other developed and developing countries as well. At the same time, the use of Internet GIS in the Indian circumstances also poses some challenges, which need to be overcome in the coming years. • The existing dependency of Internet access on normal communication network, which may not work during disasters • Sophisticated analysis and modelling not possible • Higher bandwidth requirement • Mobile internet still not popular in India

350

Disaster Management Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India CONCLUSION

The following conclusions can be drawn within the framework of this paper: • •

• • • • •

Disaster Management has to be pro-active and multi disciplinary in approach Recognition of the emerging challenges such as the framework of disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness which should be initiated at Central and State government, levels the community, civil society organization and media involvement are needed in order to achieve the goals together for a safer India. The vulnerability reduction is an important task in the scenario of hybrid natural hazards and multiple man made hazards. Information and communication technologies are indispensable for the preparing, planning and successful implementation of Disaster Management Initiatives. Internet GIS can be very much used for coordinating and managing the spatial data display and analysis needed for the various agencies involved in the various stages of the disaster management cycle. More emphasis has to be given on building human and institutional capabilities to strengthen coordination and linkages. Need for sharing data and information for rapid response.

REFERENCES http://www.adpc.net/IRC06/Newsletter/2005/1-3/01.pdf. http://www.unisdr.org/eng/mdgs-drr/national-reports/India-report.pdf. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun102007/1474a.pdf. http://www.ncdm-india.org/ http://www.southasiadisasters.net Raheja, N. et.al. “Role of Internet-based GIS in effective natural disaster management”, GIS Development. Jenson, E. eds. (1997). Disaster Management Ethics, Interworks, London.

351

CONCLUSION WWW will lead to an enormous increase in the usage and accessibility of data.conclusions In today’scan context, the usage is normally restricted The spatial following be drawn withinoftheGIS framework of this paper: to a community of trained experts. Making GIS applications available through the World Wide Web could technology accessible for many more people. • Disaster Management hasmake to bethis pro-active and multi disciplinary in approach For the large group of GIS inexperienced users on the Net, the handling • Recognition of the emerging challenges such as the framework of disasterof a Web GIS needs to be and much simpler to which use than existing stand-alone GIS. prevention, mitigation preparedness should be initiated at Central With technology becoming more user-friendly and cost-effective India, and State government, levels the community, civil society organizationinand the Internet can now be used for the management of disasters in India as media involvement are needed in order to achieve the goals together for awell. For example, safer India. it can be used effectively in the event of any disaster for providing the first hand information the extent ofindamage, the areas affected and to • The vulnerability reduction about is an important task the scenario of hybrid natural direct the rescue and relief operations. Taking the case of a hypothetical hazards and multiple man made hazards. earthquake event, the first information that wouldare beindispensable needed, is the for location • Information and communication technologies the of the epicenter and theand extent of the worst affected areas. The Internet GIS, through preparing, planning successful implementation of Disaster Management its applications, would enable the emergency managers to have a map of the Initiatives. affected area along with other statistics such as the number of houses, • Internet GIS can be very much used for coordinating and managing the spatial the population, using whichneeded an estimation of theagencies causalities and damage can also data display and analysis for the various involved in the various be done. The information stored online becomes widely accessible to the stages of the disaster management cycle. concerned agencies and people, and the various control rooms can be established • More emphasis has to be given on building human and institutional capabilities having interconnections through a wide area network. This Internet based GIS, to strengthen coordination and linkages. system alsodata help accessing,forthe various map layers such as the • Need forcan sharing andininformation rapid response. transportation network- the network of rails and roads, the communication network and the status of infrastructure- physical as well as social. The REFERENCES information on the various road links, which get cut off due to any catastrophic http://www.adpc.net/IRC06/Newsletter/2005/1-3/01.pdf. event, can be updated on the net so that a clear picture of the available links http://www.unisdr.org/eng/mdgs-drr/national-reports/India-report.pdf. can be provided, and the relief operations can be directed accordingly. Also, http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun102007/1474a.pdf. the information about the nearest hospital and other emergency services such http://www.ncdm-india.org/ as fire stations can be provided. The worst affected areas can be marked and http://www.southasiadisasters.net all N. those where relief hasGIS already been natural provided can management”, be shown on the Raheja, et.al.regions “Role of Internet-based in effective disaster maps. This enables the relief agencies to regulate their activities effectively. GIS Development. Jenson, E. eds. Disaster Management Ethics, Interworks, London. Apart from(1997). the applications during the disaster and post disaster, an Internet based GIS system can serve as a vital media for providing information related to disaster and during the pre-disaster phase, to provide preparedness measures. Overall, the use of Internet GIS has tremendous scope in the Indian context, considering the vulnerability of the country to disasters of various types, the extensive use of spatial data in Disaster Management, and the growing popularity of the Internet. It has great potential, and has been put to good use in the other developed and developing countries as well. At the same time, the use of Internet GIS in the Indian circumstances also poses some challenges, which need to be overcome in the coming years. • The existing dependency of Internet access on normal communication network, which may not work during disasters • Sophisticated analysis and modelling not possible • Higher bandwidth requirement • Mobile internet still not popular in India

351

Challenges and Opportunities to Disaster Management in India

351

CONCLUSION The following conclusions can be drawn within the framework of this paper: • •

• • • • •

Disaster Management has to be pro-active and multi disciplinary in approach Recognition of the emerging challenges such as the framework of disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness which should be initiated at Central and State government, levels the community, civil society organization and media involvement are needed in order to achieve the goals together for a safer India. The vulnerability reduction is an important task in the scenario of hybrid natural hazards and multiple man made hazards. Information and communication technologies are indispensable for the preparing, planning and successful implementation of Disaster Management Initiatives. Internet GIS can be very much used for coordinating and managing the spatial data display and analysis needed for the various agencies involved in the various stages of the disaster management cycle. More emphasis has to be given on building human and institutional capabilities to strengthen coordination and linkages. Need for sharing data and information for rapid response.

REFERENCES http://www.adpc.net/IRC06/Newsletter/2005/1-3/01.pdf. http://www.unisdr.org/eng/mdgs-drr/national-reports/India-report.pdf. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun102007/1474a.pdf. http://www.ncdm-india.org/ http://www.southasiadisasters.net Raheja, N. et.al. “Role of Internet-based GIS in effective natural disaster management”, GIS Development. Jenson, E. eds. (1997). Disaster Management Ethics, Interworks, London.

Disaster Management

Disaster Management The speed and enormity of sudden disasters has forced man to react in a speedy way to come to the rescue of the people involved. Following factors are necessary to accomplish this: The exact location of the disaster site and the type of disaster, as these determine the sort of aid required. This book will provide a broad range of critical and practical ideas and intensive information with the latest data regarding Disaster Management at local, regional, national and international levels. The importance of Warning Systems, Remote Sensing, GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographical Information System) cannot be overemphasised as with highly trained people understanding and using these equipment, several thousands of lives will be saved in the future. Jagbir Singh is Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India. For the last 12 years, he has been engaged with issues concerning the environment, disasters, hazards and the application of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS at local, regional, national and international levels. He has authored Tourism Geography; Tsunami Disaster & Its Management; Environment and Development: Challenges & Opportunities, and Society, Sustainability and Environment (ed). Presently, he is engaged in research on Ecology and Environmental Threats to the Great Barrier Reef—Australia.

Disaster Management

Future Challenges and Opportunities

Future Challenges and Opportunities

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